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AUTHOR: AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, 1st BARON TITLE: ...ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS; A RECORD OF PLACE: EW YORK DA TE : 1897 ■m ■*^#sSf' Restrictions fn Use: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT niHLIOG RAPHIC MrCRG FORM TARCFT Master Negative # Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record D595.79 Avl ~r^- Av,..l.-:2-y. •lohn I.uMoc!;, Int Inn,.,, 1834-1C>-13. ... ^r.Lr, h-,c2, in.J wa-ipn; ^ rocor,] of obsor- '-^ nr. un ih^ hoMt,, ^f the nocinl hyrronortern ' Jiyrronoptera ... .ev. ed. T'ov, Yor!:, Arplelon, 1G97. :i oTi[i:n C3P,- -1 hl D,cAL L/snAi i r 1S 94 . TECHNICAL MICI^OFORM DATA FILM SIZE:_Li6j/3:lryv^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: I A ^1ia:> IB II B DATE Fi:..MED:_alj(JojL. INITIALS__C^__ FILMED BY: RESEARCFi PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGe'cT REDUCTION RATIO:_i,'_JC. c Association for information and image IManagement 1100 Wayne Avenue. Suite 1100 Silver Spring. 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Sc, F. R. S., F. S. A., etc.. Professor of Geology at University College, London. $1.50. WHAT IS ELECTRICITY ? By John Trowbridge, S. D., Runiford Pro- fessor and Lecturer on the Applications of Science to the Useful Arts, Har- vard University. Illustrated. $l..'i0. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF MUSIC. By C. Hubert U. Parry. D. C.L., M. A., etc. $1.75. New York: D. ATFLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. Plate i Fig, I. Lasius niger ^. 2. " flavus " 3. Formica fusca " 4. Myrmica ruginodis ^. 5. Polyergus rufescens ** 6. Formica sangulnea ** THE INTERNATIOXAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS, A RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS ox THK HABITS OF THE SOCIAL HYMENOPTEKA. BY Silt JOHN LUBBOCK, Bakt, M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L, LL.D., jn:i'isi:n i:ihth>\. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1807. I PREFACE. I'nis volume contains the record of various experimenta made with ants, bees, and wasps during the past ten years. Other occupations and many interruptions, politic.ll and professional, have prevented me from making them so full and complete as I had hoped. My parliamentary duties, in particular, have absorbed most of my time just at the season of year when these insects can be most profitably studied. I have, there- fore, whenever it seemed necessary, carefully recorded the month during which the observations were made ; for the instincts and behaviour of ants, bees, and wasps are by no means the same throughout the year. My object has been not so much to describe tlie usual habits of these insects as to test their mental conditioii and powers of sense. VI Pkeface. PREFACE. Tii Although the observationg of Huber, Forel, McCook, and others are no doubt perfectly trustworthy, there are a number of scattered stories about ants which are quite un worthy of credence ; and there is also a large class in which, although the facts may be correctly recorded, the inferences drawn from them are very quesstionable. I have endeavoured, therefore, by actual experiments which any one may, and I hope others will, repeat and verify, to throw some light on these interesting questions. The principal point in which my mode of experi- menting has differed from that of previous observers has been that I have carefully marked and watched particular insects ; and secondly, that I have had nests under observation for long periods. No one before had ever kept an ants' nest for more than a few months. I have one now in my room which has been under constant observation ever since 1874, i.e. for mon^ than peven years.' » I may add that these ants are st'll (Marcli 1882) alive and well. The queens at least are now eight years old, if not more. I had intended to make my observations principally on bees ; but I soon found that ants were more con- venient for most experimental purposes, and I think they have also more power and flexibility of mind. They are certainly fiir calmer, and less excitable. I do not attempt to give anything like a full lifo- history of ants, but I have reproduced the substance of two Royal Institution lectures, which may serve as an introduction to the subject. INIany of the facts there recorded will doubtless be familiar to most of my readers, bat without the knowledge of them the ex- periraentE described in the subsequent chapters would scarcely be intelligible. I have given a few plates illustrating some of the species to which reference has been most frequently made ; pHecting Lithography (as I was anxious that the figures should be coloured), and having all the species of ants drawn to one scale, although I was thus obliged in some measure to sacrifice the sharpness of outline, and the more minute details. I am indebted tj Mr, 1 Vlll PKEFACE. Bates, Dr. Gunther, Mr. KiKUY,aiid Mr. Watekuouse, for their kind assistance in the preparation of the plates. As regards bees and wasps, I liave confined myself for want of space to the simple record of my own observations. I am fully conscious that experiments conducted as mine have been leave much to be desired, and are scarcely fair upon the ants. In their native haunts and under natural conditions, more especially in warmer climates, they may well be expected not only to manifest a more vivid life, but to develop higher powers. I think, however, that my volume will at least show the great interest of the subject, and the uumeroug problems which still remain to be solved. High Elms, Down, Kent: Ootoler 18, 1881 CONTENTS. CriAPTJOU I JNTRODUCnON. rosition of ants in the Animal Kinrjdom — Ants divided into tlirce families — Number of species — Mode of observation — Nests — Mode of marking ants— Stac:es in life of ants — Es^g:, larva, pupa, imago — Length of life — Structure of ants — Head, tliorax, abdomen, antenna), eyes, ocelli, mouth parts, legs, wings, sting — Origin of the sting— Character of ants — Wars among ants — Modes of fighting— Queen ants— Workers — ^DifTerent classes of workers — Tiie honey ant — Soldiers — Origin of the soldiers — Division of labour — Habitations of ants — Communities of ants — Food — Encmi* s— Character — Industry — Games — Cleanliness . . . . CHAPTER II. FOmrATlON A.YD MATNTENAXCE OP NESTS. Foundation of new nests— Doubts on the subject — Views of Hubrr, r.lanchard, Forel, St. Fargeau, Ebrard -Experiments with queens- Foundation of a nest of Mi/nnica by two tjueens— Adoption of queens— Fertility of workers— Eggs laid by fertile workers always produce males — Queens seldom j)n)duced in captivity — Origin of ditference between queens and workers — Longevity of ants — Arrangement of chambers in a nest Division of labour The honey ant PAOI 30 iipif- •"^ ft>'.i*t^r'5^ . CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. ON THE RhLATION OF AXTS TO PLANTS. Flowers and insects— Ants not so important in relation to flowers as bees, but not without influence — Ants seldom promote cross-fertilisation, and hence injurious to llowers — Modes by which they are excluded — Uelt — Kerner — Aquatic plants — Moats — Dijfsacus — Slippery surfaces — Gentian, snowdrop, cyclamen — Concealment of honey — Antirrhinum, Linaria, Campanula, Jianunculus, Laniium, Primula, Geraniuin, &c.— Protection of honey by thicket* of spines or hairs — Protection by viscid secretions — Silene^ Stnecio, Linnaa, Polygonum, kc. — Alilky juice — Lactuca^ Nectaries on leaves — Leaf-cutting ants— Ants as tree guards — Importance of ants in destroying other insects — Har- vesting ants— Solomon — The Mischna — Meer Hassan Ali — 6y kes — Moggridge — Agricultural ants — Lincecum— McCook PAOl 50 CHAPTER IV. RELATIONS TO OTHER ANIMALS. Hunting ants— The Driver ants — Ecitons— Insects mimicking ants — Enemies of ants — Parisites — Mites— /^//^rrt— Domestic animals of ants — Aphides — Eggs of A/thidcg kcjit tlirough the winter by ants — Blind beetles— Pets -Progress among ants — KelatiOnsof ants to one another- Stinnmma — SolannjJtis — Slave-making ants — Formica sanguiniui — Polyci'ijug — Expeditions of Pobjcrgus — Pobjcrgux fed by tie slaves — Strongylognathus — Degradation of Strougylig nathun — Aver- ^a^r«— Explanation of the present state of St rangy lognnthut and AnirgateA — Progress among ants — I'hases of life — Hunting, pastoral, and agricultural sjiecies 63 CHAPTER V. BEHAVIOUR TO RELATIONS. Mr. G rote on * Moral i«^y as a necessity of society' — IJehaviour of ants to one another — Statement* of previous writers: CONTENTS. Latreille, St. Fargcau, Forel — DifTerenceof character among ants — Experiments — Isolated combats — Neglect of com- panions if in trouble — Experiments with insensible ants — Drowned ants — Buried ants — Contrast of behaviour to friends and strangers — Instances of kindness — A crippled ant — A dead queen — Pehaviour to chloroformed friends — IJehaviour to intoxicated friends SI PAQB 93 CHAPTER VI. RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS. Number of nnts in a community — They all recognise one another — All others are enemies — Recognition after separation — Strange ants never toler.TAcd in a nest — Experiments— Be- haviour to one another after a separation of more than a year — Recognition unmistakable — How are they recognised ? — Some naturalists have suggested by scent, some by a pass- word — Experiments with intoxicated ants — With pupns removed from the nest and subsequently returned— Separa- tion of a nest into two halves, and recognition as friends by the ants in each half of young bred in the other half— Pupje tended by ants from a dilTerent nest treated as friends in the nest from which they were taken, and as strangers if put into the nest of their nurses — Recognition neither per- sonal nor by means of a pass- word . • . . Ill CHAPTER VII. POWER (>F COMMUNICATION 8tat«mon^s of previous writers : Kirby and Spence, Hubcr, Knuiklin, Dugardin, Forel — Habit of bringing friends to food— Except ional cases— Experiments to determine whettie! ants are brought or directed to stores of food — Scent— Night — Ex|>erim(>nta with dilferent quantities of food — Anti which returned empty-handed and brouglit friends to assist . . >5S xu CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. THE SENSES OF ANTS. FAQI SlOHT: — Difficulty of understandins: how insects sec — Number of eyes — Two theories — Views of Miillcr, Grenacher, Lowne, Claparcde — Appreciation of colour — Sensitiveness to violet— Perception of ultra-violet rays. IIearixg : — An- tennae regarded by many entomologists as organs of hearing — Opinions as to whether ants, bees, and was[)S hear — General opinion that bees and wasps can hear — Huber and Forel doubt in the case of ants — E.xpcriments with ants — Forel's observations — Colonel Long — Mr. Tait — Structure of anterior tibia. The Sense of Smell . . .188 CHAPTER IX. G EN Eli A L INTELLIGENCE Statements of previous writers — Economy of labour — Experi- ments as to ingenuity in overcoming obstacles and econo- mising labour — Experiments with bridges, embankments, and moats — Earthworks — Ingenuity in building nests — Difficulty in finding their way — Experiments with movable objects — Sense of direction — Experiments with rotating disks — Experiments with rotating table — Inliucnce of light 2-^6 CHAPTER X. BEES. Difficulty experienced by bees in finding their way — Communi- cation between bees — l>ecs do not by any means always summon one another when they have discovered a store of food— IJees in strange liives — Infatuation of bees — Want of affection — Behaviour to queen— Sentinels — Tlie sense of hearing — The sense of colour— Experiments with coloured papers — Power of distinguishing colours — Preference for blue— Influence of bees on the colours of flowers — lilue flowers — Paucity of blue flowers — Blue flowers of compara- tively recent origin 274 CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER XI. WASPS. )>Acia Oommunication among wasps- Like bees, they by no means invariably bring companions when they have discovered a store of foml — Courage of wnsps— Po/vctra f/allica- A tame wasp— Power of distinguishing colours— Wasps less guided by colour than bees— Industry of wasps — A day's work Directness of flight of wasps . , .311 AiM'KNDICE.S 328 "f r *^_ \:-iiJBii.,.tA'.**'o LIST OF n.LUSTRATIONS PLATE I. Fig. 1. Lasiva iiifjrr ^- , «, 2. ,, Jf//. Fij;. 6. /{/'ckifi a I hi nog. „ 6. Aphis. „ 7. PUityartJirug Hoffman- seggii. „ CUirigcr foreoJaiits ■ajftWiTX w.a---..i--:a -MifetrtiiiMaiBifahteSfatWjitiim^ LIST OF THE PKINCIPAL BOOKS AND MEMOIES REFEIillED TO. iNDRfi, E. nATBS, Tl W. r.KLT, T. . llEKT, P^UL Hlanciiakd, E. IJOISSIEB DE SAUV nOCHNKR, L. liUCKLKY, S. I{. BURMEISTER, H. Curtis, J Darwin, C. Delpino, F. Dewitz, K. dcjardin, f. Edwards, H. Elditt, h. L. KSIERT, C. Desc. des Fourmis d'Europc. Rev.et Mag. de Zool., 1874. The Naturalist on the Amazons. . The Naturalist in Nicaragua. . • Les animaux voicnt-ils les momes rayons lumineux que nous? ' Arch, de Physiol, 18GD. . Metamorphoses of Insects. Trans, by Duncan. AtJKs, I'Abb'i. L'origine du Miel. Journ. de Physique, vol. i. . Mind in Animals. . On Myrmica'molefaciens. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, ISGO. . Manual of Entomolo,o:y. On the Genus Myrmica. Trans. Linn. Soc., 1854. . Origin of Species. . Sui rapporti delle Formiche colle Tettigometre. . Ueber Rau und Entwickelungdes Stachels der Ameisen. Zoits. f. Wiss. Zoologie, vol. xxviii. . Obs. sur les Aboilles. Ann. des Sci. Nat., 1862. . Notes on the Honey-making Ants. Proc California Acad., 1873. Die Araeisen-Colonien a. deren Mitbewohner Saggio di un ordinamento naturale dei Mir micidei. .j'-'-f.^ - ■■- i':/sm^'-\'. ■Mfflaaw-.-v XVlll LIST OF BOOKS AND MKMOIRS. Emeuy, C. FOREL, A. GELIEU, J. DB iJoLLD, Rev. W. Gkahkk, Vitus Gredler, V. . GUI MM Uagens. Ilcrr voN llKiii:, O. . llLDER, P. Hlxley, T. H. Kku.neu, Dr. A. KlRHY AND SpENCE Landuis, Dr. H. Langstrotii, L. L. . Latreile, p. . Lespes, C. Lixcecum, Gideon . Long, Col. C. G. Lubbock, Sir J. f» Ldsd, M Lc Formichc ipogci. Ann Mus. Civ. di St Nat. di Geneva. Fouriuis de la Suisse. Le Conservatciir dcs Abcilles. Accouut of En<2:lish Ants. Die Tynipanuleu-Sinncsapparjitc der Or- thopteren. Der zoologischo Garten. Die Myrmecophilen. Stettin. Ent. Ztits., 1845. Ueber Aiueiscujjiiste. Uerlin. Ent. Zc-its., 18C5. Ueber Ameisen rait pfcmischten Colonien. r.eilin. Ent. Zcits., 18«;7. Die Hausameiijen Madeiras. Ziirich. Nat. Ges., 1852. Natural History of Ants. On the llci>rodiictiun of Aphis. Trans. Linn. Soc, xxii. 18i>y. Flowers and their Unbidden G uests. Trans. by O-^le. Introd. to Entomology. Tliierstimmen ; also Zeits. fiir Wiss. Zool. 1807. Treatise on the Honey r>ee. Hist. Nat. des Fourmis. Sur les Moeurs de Loint'chusa parad«.)xa. Ann. des Sci. Nat., 18(;3. On the Agricultural Ant of Texas. Linn. Journal, 1801. Central Africa. Or. the Anatomy of Ants. Trans. Linn. Soc., 1879. Ova and Pseudova of Lisects. Phil. Trans., 1858. Obs. on Ants, Boos, and Wasps. Parts 1-0, Linn. Journ., 1874-81. On Some Points in the Anatomy of Ants Micros. Soc, 1877. Lettres sur les Habitudes dequelques Fourmii du IJresil. Ann. des Sci. Nat., xxiii. 1831. «i;^'. ■- ■,'>'-V. LIST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS. XIX MXliKEL, F. Mayu, Dr. G. L. »» • Mei.neut, F. Meyer, J MOller, p. W.J OllMEROD, E. L. Ua.mp.ekt, M. . Robert, E. Roger, J. MuC^ooK, n. C. Note on Adoption of a Queen Ant. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1879. M . On the Nat. His. of the Agricultural Ant of Texas. „ The Honey Ant of Texas. Beit, zur Kenntniss der unter Ameisen leben- den Insecten. Germars Zeit. Ent., 1841. Euroj.. Formiciden. Leben und Wirken der einh. Ameisen. Bidrag til de Danske Myrers Naturhisturie. Kiobenh.;ven, Dansk. vid. Selsk., 1861. Ueber conconlose Ameisen puppen. Stettin Ent. Zeit., 1854. Beiiriige zur Naturgeschichte der Gattung Claviger. Germar's Mag. de Zool., 1818. Natural History of AVasps. Mceurs des Fourmis. Observations sur les Moeurs des Fourmis. Ann. des Sci. Nat, 1842. Beit, zur Kennt. der Ameisenfauna der Mittelnieerliinder. Berlin. Ent. Zeit., 1857. St. Fargeau, Lepeletier. Hist. Nat. dcs Hymenopt6res. Saunders, Edward Brit. Heterogyna and Foss. Hymenoptera. Trans. Ent. Soc, 1880. Savage, T. S. , On the Habits of Driver Ants. Trans. Ent. Soc, 1847. SCTIENK, Professor . Beschr. Nassau. Araeisenartcn. Stettin. Ent. Zeit , 185S. Siebold, C. T. von. Ueber das Stimm. und Gchororgan der Or- tlioptcren. Weissmann's Arch., 1844. Cat. of Brit. Foss. Hymenoptera. Essay on British Forraicidae. Trans. Ent. Soc, N.S. vol. iii. p. 98. Account of Pheidole providens. Trans. Ent. Soc, 183fi. Sur une nouv. Esj^ece de Fourmi du Mexique, Bull, de I'Acad. de Sci. de Bruxelles, 1838. , Modem Classification of Insects. Obs. on Typhloponc. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1841. Smith, F. ti SVKES, Col, Wesmael, C. West WOOD, J. O. . ■„■'■.■ "--v-t" - :-~-j.' . ^l,l^^.»-^«J^a>a^S.! ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. -♦o*- CHAPTER INTRODUCTION. The Antliropoid apes no doubt approach nearer to man in bodily structure tlian do any other animals; but when we consider the habits of Ants, their social organi.sation, their large communities, and elaborate habitations; their roadways, their possession of domestic animals, and even, in some cases, of slaves, it must be admitted that thev have a fair claim to rank next to man in the scale of intelligence. They present, more- over, not only a most interesting but also a very ex- tensive field of study. They are divided into three families: the Formicidir, Poneridie, and ^Myrmicidoe, comprismg many genera and a large number of species. In this country we have rather more than thirty kinds ; but ants become more numerous iu species, as well ad individuals, in warmer countries, and more than a 2 NUMBER OF SPECIES. thousand specie's are known. Even this hirfrc number is certainly far short of those actually in existence.' I have kept in captivity about half of r)ur British species of ants, as well as a considerable nuniber of foreign forms, and for the last few years have generally had from thirty to forty communities under observation. After trying various plans, T found the most con- venient method was to keep them in nests consisting of two plates of common window glass, about ten inches square, and at a distance apart of from -^^ to J of an inch (in fact just sufficiently deep to allow the ants freedom of motion), with slips of wood round the edges, the intermediate space being tilled uj) with fine earth. If the interval between the glass plates was too great, the ants were partly hidden by the earth, but when the distance between the phites of glass was properly regulated with reference to the size of the ants, they were open to close obser- vation, and had no opportunity of concealing them- selves. Ants, however, very much dislike light in their nests, probably because it makes them think themselves insecure, and I always thenifore kept the nests covered over, except when under actual ' I have had some doubt whetlier I sliould append descriptions of the British species. On the whole, however, I liave not thou<,dit it necessary to do so. They are well given in various entomoloixical works: for instance, in Smith's (\italofjiie of Jiritlnh Fonmrial nijmcnoj)tcra ; Saunders' S,/pojms of JiritUh Ilrtcrogtina ; and in Mayr*s JJie Enrojjiiischcn. Formiciden, all of which are cheap and easily procurable. I have, however, given figures of the princii»al species with whicli I have worked. K..»Mfci&iaiWSi8d. .a^i-t^ft.- MODE OF OBSERVATION. observation. I found it convenient to have one side of the nest formed by a loose slip of wood, and at one corner I left a small door. These glass nests I either kept in shallow boxes with loose glass covers resting on baize, which admitted enough air, and yet was im- pervious to the ants ; or on stands surrounded either by water, or by fur, with the hairs pointing downwards. Some of the nests I arranged on stands, as shown in Fig. 1. E I) £ c± £ cf o E cf D n £ c± IJ E C Cl D' B' M 2^C A B 3 fig. 1. A A is an upright post fixed on a base B B. is a S(piare platform of wchmI round which runs a ditch of water. Above are six nests, D, each lying on a platform E, which could be turned for facility of observation, as shown in the dotted lines IV and E'. Thus the ants had a considerable ranire, as they could wander as far as the water ditch. The object of having the platform C C larger tliau the supports of the nesta . ..!irA^.j»»>iaMaf ■it^^'j^jtfimaUia 4 ARTIFICIAL NEST was that if the ants fell, as often bapi)eno(l, tliey were within the water boundary, and were able to return home. This plan answered fairly well, and saved spaee, but it did not quite fulfil my hopes, as the ants were so pugnacious, that I was obliged to be very careful which nests were placed on the same stand. Of course it was impossible to force the ants into these glass nests. On the other hand, when once the right way is known it is easy to induce them to go in. When I wished to start a new nest I dug one up, and brought home the ants, earth, vVic, all together. I then put them over one of my artificial nests, on one of the platf(>rms surrounded by a moat of water. Gra- dually the outer earth dried u]), while that Ix^tween the two plates of glass, being protected from evai»o- ration, retained its moisture. Under these circum- stances the ants found it more suitable to their requirements, and gradually deserted the drier mould outside, which I removed by degrees. In the earth between the plates of glass the ants tunnelled out passages, chambers, e^c. (fig. 2), varying in form ac- cording to the circumstances and species. Even between the plates of glass the earth gradu- ally dried up, and I had to supply artificial rain from time to time. Occasionally also I gave them an alto- gether new nest. They seem, however, to get attached to their old homes, and I have one comnumity which has inhabited the sanie glass case ever since 1874. It is hardly necessary to say that the individual DIFFERENCES FN HABITS. ants belonging to the communities placed on the stands just described, knew their own nests perfectly ^ell. These nests gave me special facilities for observing the internal economy of ant life. Another main diffe- rence between my observations and those of previous naturalists has consisted in the careful record of the actions of individual ants. The most convenient mode of marking them was, I found, either with a small dab of paint on the back, or, in the case of bees or wasps, by snipping off a fragment at the extremity of the wing. This, I need hardly say, from the structure of the wing, gave the insect no pain ; in fact, as it is only necessary to remove a minute portion, not sufficient to make any difference in their flight, they seemed scarcely to notice it. I never found any difficulty in painting bees or wasps ; if they are given a little honey they become so intent that they quietly allow the paint to be applied. Of course too much must not be put on, and care must be taken not to touch the wings or cover up the spiracles. Ants require somewhat more delicate treatment, but with a little practice they could also be marked without any real difficulty. No two species of Ants are identical in habits ; and, on various accounts, their mode of life is far from easy to unravel. In the first place, most of their time is passed underground : all the education of the ymmg, for instance, is carried on in the dark. Again, ants are essentially gregarious ; it is in some cases difficult to STAGES IN THE LIFE OF ANTS-EGGS. LARVA— rUTA. keep a few alive by themselves in enptivity, and at ai,y rate their habits under such circuin .stances are entirely altered. If, on the other hand, a whole community is kei)t, then the greater number introduces a fresli element of difficulty and c()mj)lexity. Moreover, within the same sj^ecies, the individuals seem to differ in character, and even the same individual will behave very ditTerently under different circumstances. Al- though, then, ants have attracted the attention of many of the older naturalists,— Gould, De Geer, Keaumur, Swammerdam, Latreille, Leuwenhoeck, Huber,— and have recently been the object of interesting obser- vations by Frederick Smith. Belt, Moggridge, Bates, Mayr, Emery, Forel, McCook, and others, they still present one of the most promising fields for observation and experiment. The life of an ant falls into four well-marked periods— those of the egg, of the hirva or grub, of the pupa or chrysalis, and of the perfect insect or imago. The eggs are white or yellowish, and somewhat elon- gated. They are said to hatch about fifteen days aftor being laid. Those observed by me have taken a month or six weeks. Ihe larva3 of ants (PI. V. fig. 3), like those of bees and wasps, are small, white, legless grubs somewhat conical in form, being narrow towards the head. They are carefully tended and fed, being carried about from chamber to chamber by the workers, probably in order to secure the most suitable amount of warmth and moisture. I have observed, also, that they are very often assorted according to age. It is sometimes very curious in my nests to see them arranged in groups according to size, so that they remind one of a school divided into five or six classes. As regards the length of life of the larvae, Forel supposed' that those of Tapinoma matured the quickest, and were full-grown in about six or seven weeks. Some of Myrinica r^tr/inodif^, however, ob- served by me, turned into pupa3 in less than a month. In other cases the period is much longer. In certain species, Lasius Jlavus, for instance, some of the larvae live through the winter. When full grown they turn into pupae (PI. V. fig. 4), sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a silken cocoon, constituting the so-called 'ant-eggs.' We do not yet understand why some larvae spin cocoons, while others remain naked. As a general rule, the species which have not a sting, spin a cocoon, while those which have, are naked. Latreille was the first to observe that in one species (F. fusca) the pupae somc^times spin a cocoon, and sometimes remain nakt d. The reason for this difference is still quite unknown. After remaining some days in this state they emerge as perfect insects. In many cases, however, they would perish in the attempt, if they were not assisted ; and it is very pretty tc gee the older ants helping them to extricate them- • Li'g Fiturmis t?f In Sttiiisr, p 420. '■^-tXft'. ■ ^■rtH.r.-.A ■-■iJ-.W.Jji?- » i4>.t]b*i ^lithsSiiSji 8 PUrA— IMAGO. selves, carefully unfolding their legs and smoothing out the wings, with truly feminine tenderness and delicacy. Our countryman Gould was the first to observe, and the fact has since been fully confirmed by Forel, that the piip?e are unable to emerge from the cocoons without the assistance of the workers. The ants generally remain from three to four weeks in this condition. In the case of ants, rtS with other insects which pass through similar metamor|)hoses, such as bees, wasps, moths, butterflies, flies, and beetles, &c., the larval stage is the period of growth. During the chrysalis stage, though immense changes take place, and the organs of the perfect insect are more or less rapidly developed, no food is taken, and there is no addition to the size or weight. The imago or perfect insect again takes food, but does not grow. The ant, like all the insects above named, is as large when it emerges from the pupa as it ever will be; excepting, indeed, that the abdomen of the females somcitimes increases in size from the de- velopment of the eggs. We have hitherto very little information as to the length of life in ants in the imago, or perfect, state. So far, indeed, as the preparatory stages are concenied, there is little difficulty in approximately ascertaining the faets ; namely, that while in summer they take only a few weeks; in some species, as our small yellow meadow ants, the autumn larvae remain with compara- LEN'GTH OF LIFE. 9 lively little change throughout the winter. It is much more difficult to ascertain the lengtli of life of the [)erfect insect, on account of their gregarious habits, and the difficulty of recognising individual ants. I have found, however, as we shall presently see, that their life is much longer than has been generally su])posed. It is generally stated in entomological works that the males of ants die almost immediately. No doubt this is generally the case. At the same time, some males of Myrmica rmjlnodls, which I isoLited with their mates in August 187(), lived until the following spring; one of them till May 17. It has also been the general opinion that the females lived about a year. Christ ' indeed thou^rht they might last three or even ftnir seasons, but this was merely a suggestion, and Forel expressed the general opinion when he said, ' Je suis i>ersuade qu'en automne 11 ne n^ste presque i)lus que les ouvrieres ecloses pendant le courant de Pete.' The average life of a queen is also, he thinks, not more than twelve months. I have found, however, that the life of the queens and workers is much longer than had been su^v posed. I shall give further details in a subsequent chapter, but I may just mention here that I kept a (pieen of Fttrmien fttsnf from December ls74 till August 18S8, when she must have been nearlv fifteen years old, and of c<»urse may have been more. !Slie ' Xatui'ifeHcliicliti tier Inst kf en. JiiiiSiSSISt'^^iaaBiiV 10 STRUCTl RE OF ANTS. attained, tlicrcforc, l)y far tlio irreatcst age of any insect on record. 1 have also some workers which I have liad since IST."). The Imdv uf an ant consists of three parts: the head, tliorax, and ahd«Mnen. The liead hears the ])rincipal organs of sense, and contains the hrain, as the anterior portion of tlie luM-vons system may fairly be called. The thorax, snpi)orting the legs and, when they are present, the wings, contains the j)rincipal nuiscles of locomotion. The abdomen contains the stomach and intestines, the organs of reproduction, the sting. Are. Returning to the head : the antenna* consist of a short spherical l)asal piece, a long shaft, known as the scape, and a Hagellum of from six to seventeen (gen- erallv, however, from ten to thirteen) sh<»rt segments, the apical ones sometimes forming a sort of clnh. The nund)er of segments is generally diilercnt in the males and females. The eves are of two kinds. Lari^e comp, in the workers about ♦»( i( I. AVhere the workers vary in size ' Ilavinj; roforonce to the facts stated on page 37, this is a result of great physiological interest. THE HEAD. 11 they differ also in the number of facets. Thus, again following the same authority, the large workers of Camponotas lifjniperdws have 500, the smaller ones only 450 ; while in the Harvesting ant (^Atta barbara) the contrast is even greater, the large specimens having 230, the small ones only from 80 to 90. The ordinary workers have in Folyergus rufescens about 400; in La.sius faUfjinosus, 200; in Taplnoma erra- ticmn, 100; in Pla correlate the existence of a second knot amonor the ^Nlvrmicidje with their power of stinging, which is wanting in tlie For- micidne. Though the principal mobility of the abdomen is given in the former, as in the latter, bv the joint between the metathorax and \\\v knot, still the second segment of the peduncle must increase the flexibilitv, which would seem to be a special advantage to those species which have a sting. It must indeed be admitted that (Kcoiibvlla' has a stiuij, and vet only one knot ; but this, of com*se, does not altogether negative my suggestion, which, however, I only throw out for considerati(>n ' Proc. Linn. -S<»r., vol. v p. 101, JWHfey-fr'WJii.feiaiisWBwiBl^ii 14 THK STIXCt. The knot is provided with a pair of spiracles, which are situated, as Forel states, in the front of the segment, and not behind, as sujiposed by Latreille. In most entomok)gical works it is stated that the Myrmieidae have a sting, and that, on the contrary, the Formieidse do not possess one. The hitter family, indeed, possess a rudimentary structure representing the sting, but it seems merely to serve as a support for the poison duct. Dr. Dcwitz, who has recently pub- iisln'*!' :iu intt»restiug memoir on the subject, denies t'l.it fhe htiug in Formicida2 is a reduced organ, and iili'rs it rather as in an undeveloped condition. Tip- aiurgtors of our existing Ants, in his opinion, liad a large poison apparatus, with a chitinous support. like that now present in Formica, from which the formidable weapons of the bees, wasps, and ]Myrmicid;e liave been gradually developed. I confess that I am rather disposed, on the contrary, to regard the con- dition of the or<^in in Formica as a case of retroirres- sion contingent upon disuse.* I find it difficult to suppose that organs — so complex, inul yet so sinnlar — as the stings of ants, bees, and wasps, should have been developed independently. Any opinion expressed by .AT. Dcwitz on such a subject is, of course, entitled to much weight ; never- theless there are some general considerations which seem to me conclusive against his view. If the sling ' Zdf.f. iriss. Zoo/., vol. xxviii, p. r)27. - This; view has .subsequently lueii inl(>i)tod by Dr. nevir, J( ua Zeit. IS'JO. JrJftS-^i^ALawi**^'.,^ Visit *"< -ri-A^..,*. ' v■■^ ORIGIN OF THE STING. 15 of Formica represents a hitherto undeveloped organ, tlu'n the original ant was stingless, and the p'-esent Ftings of ants have an origin independent of that belonging to the other aculeate Ifymenoptera, sucli as bees and wasps. These organs, however, are so complex, and at the same time so similarly constituted, that they must surely have a common origin. Whether the present sting is derived from a leaf-cutting instru- ment, such as that from which the sawfly takes its name, I will at present express no opinion. Dr. Dewitz him- self regards the rudimentary traces of wings in the larvie of ants as the remnants of once highly-developed organs ; why, then, should he adopt the opposite view with reference to the rudimentary sting ? On the whole, I must regard the ancestral ant as having pos- sessed a sting, and consider that the rudimentary con- dition of that of Formica is due to atrophy, perhaps through disuse. On the other hand, it is certainly, at first sight, diffi- cult to understand why ants, having once acquired a sting, should allow it to fall into desuetude. There are, however, some considerations which may throw a certain light on the subject. The poison glands are much larger in Formica than in ]\ryrmica. Moreover, some species have the power of ejecting their poison to a consider- al)le distance. In Switzerland, after disturbing a nest of Formica rufa, or some nearly allied species, I have found that a hand held as much as 1 8 inches above the ants was covered with acid. l>ut even when the poison 16 THE POISON OF ANTS. MODES OF FIGHTING. 17 is not thus fired at the enemv from a ilistaiice, there are two cases in which the aciilcus might be allowed to fall into disuse. F'irstly, those species which figlit with their mandibles might find it on the whole most convenient to eject the poison (as they do) into the wounds thus created. Secondly, if the poison itself is so intensified in virulence as to act through the skin, a piercing instrument would be of comparatively small advantage. I was amused one day by watching some specimens of the little CvemaMo(jaHier sordUlida and the much larger Formica cinerea. The former were feeding on some drops of honey, which the Formicas were anxious to shiure, but the moment one api)roached, the little Cremastogasters sim[>ly threatened them with the tip of their ainlomen, and the Formicas immediately beat a hasty retreat. In this case the comparatively large Formica could certainly have had nothing to fear from physical violence on the part of th*^ little Cremastogaster. Mere ccmtact with the poison, however, appeared to cause them considerable pain, and generally the threat alone was sufficient to cause a retreat. However this may be, in their modes of fighting, different species of ants have their several peculiarities. Some also are much less military than others. Myr- mechia Latreillil, for instance, never attack, and scarcely even defend themselves. Their skin is very hard, and they roll themselves into a ball, not defend- ing themselves even if their nest is invaded ; to [pre- vent which they make the entrances small, and often station at each a worker, who uses her head to stop the way. The smell of this species is also, perhaps, a protection. Tetramorium cai.^pitum has the habit of feigning death. This species, however, does not roll itself up, but merely applies its legs and antennaa closely to the body. Formica rvfa, the common Horse ant, attacks in serried masses, seldom sending out detachments, while single ants scarcely ever make individual attacks. They rarely pursue a flying foe, but give no quarter, killing as many enemies as i:>ossible, and never hesi- tating, with this object, to sacrifice themselves for the common good. Formica sanguinea, on the contrary, at least in their slave-making expeditions, attempt rather to teiTify thim to kill. Indeed, when invading a nest, they do not attack the flying inhabitants unless these are attempting to carry off pupa?, in which case the F. savguineas force them to abandon the pupae. When fighting, they attemi)t to crush their enemies with their mandibles. Foi'mica exsecta is a delicate, but very active s})ecies. They also advance in serried masses, but in close quarters they bite right and left, d;mcing about to avoid being bitten themselves. When fiohtinpf with larger S})ecies they spring on to their backs, and then seize them by the neck or by an antenna. They also have the instinct of acting together, three ^ ■ t »;.st, like a beehive, consists of three kinds of individuals; workers, or imperfect females (which constitute I be THE HONEY ANT. 19 great majority), males, and perfect females. There are, however, often several queens in an ants' nest ; while, as we all know, there is never more than one queen mother in a hive. The queens of ants are pro- vided with wings, but after a single flight they tear them off, and do not again quit the nest. In ad- dition to the ordinary workers there is in some species a second, or rather a third, form of female. In almost any ants' nest we may see that the workers differ more or less in size. The amount of difference, however, depends upon the species. In Lasius niger, the small brown garden ant, the workers are, for instance, much more uniform than in the little yellow meadow ant, or in xitta barbara (PI. II. figs. 1 and 2), where some of them are much more than twice as larjre as others. But in certain ants there are differences still more re- markal)le. Thus, in a Mexican species, Myrmecocystas,^ besides the common workers, which have the form of ordinary neuter ants, there are certain others in which the abdomen is swollen into an immense sub-diapha- nous si)here. These individuals are very inactive, and principally as living honey-jars. I have described in a subsequent page a species of Camjjonotus (PL IV. fig. 1) from Australia, which presents us with the same remarkal)le phenomenon. In the genus Fheidole (PI. II. figs. 3 and 4), very common in southern Europe, there are also two distinct forms without any interme- diate gradations ; one with heads of the usual propor- * Wesmae], Bull. Acad. Hoy. BruxelUs, vol. v. p. 771. J(-. .■■n.»-.i<€., vol. L IMMUNITIES OF ANTS. 25 ants thus associated together must have been enor- mous. Even in single nests Forel estimates the numbers at from five thousand to half a million. Ants also make for themselves roads. These are tot merely worn by the continued passage of the ants, as was supposed by Christ, but are actually prepared by the ants, rather however by the removal of ob>t3cles, than by any actual construction, which wou.ij. indeed not be necessary, the weights to be carried being so small. In some cases these roadways are arched over with earth, so as to form covered ways. In others, the ants excavate regular subterranean tunnels, sometimes of considerable length. The Rev. Hamlet Clark even assures us that he observed one in South America, which passed under the river Parahyba at a place where it was as broad as the Thames at London Bridge. I confess, however, that I have my doubts as to this case, for I do not understand how the continuity of the tunnel was ascertained. The food of ants consists of insects, great numbers of which they destroy ; of hone-y, honeydew, and fruit : indeed, scarcely any animal or sweet substance comes amiss to them. Some species, such, for instance, as the small brown garden ant {Laslus nujer, PI. I. fig. 1), ascend bushes in search of aphides. The ant then taps the aphis gently with her antennae, and the aphis emits a drop of sweet fluid, which the ant drinks. Some- times the ants even build covered ways up to and over the aphides, wliich, moreover, they protect from the •- L^.iia6,-M^assrL:,S:6^ 2G FOOD— ENEMIES. attacks of other insects. Our Enirlish ants do not store up provision for the winter; indeed, their food is not of a nature which would admit of this. I hnvp indeed observed that the small brown ant sometinn'S carries seeds of the violet into its nest, but for what purpose is not clear. Some of the southern ants, however, lay up stores of grain (see Chapter III.). Ants have many enemies. They themselves, and still more their young, are a favourite food of many animals. They are attacked also by numerous para- sites. K a nest of the brown ants is disturbed at any time during the summer, some small flies may probiibly be seen hovering over the nest, and every now and then making a dash at some particular ant. These flies belong to the genus Phora, and to a species hitherto unnamed, which ^Ir. Verrall has been good enough to describe for me {see Appendix). They lay their eggs on the ants, inside which the larva3 live. Other species of the genus are in the same way parasitic on bees. Ants are also sometimes attacked by mites. On one occasion I observed that one of my ants had a mite attached to the underside of its head. The mite, which maintained itself for more than three months in the same position, was almost as large as the head. The ant could not remove it herself. Being a queen, she did not come out of the nest, so that I could not do it for her, and none of her own companions thought of performing this kind office. In character the different species of ants differ very <«^/MS«u.' wuiiiiuu. ' iiMJViuvuiKiNiun w n ■ nw iv whjh Mi)«HBHVB7mtf wmwvbvfl CII A RACTER-INDUSTKY. 27 much from one another. F, fusca (PI. I. fig. 3), the one which is ])re-eminently the ' slave ' ant, is, a? might be expected, extremely timid ; while the nearly allied F, cinerea has, on the contrary, a considerable amount of individual audacity. F. rufa (PI. II. fig. 5\ the horse ant, is, according to ]\I. P'orel, especially chiu-acterised by the want of individual initiative, and always moves in troops ; he also regards the gcmis Formica as the most brilliant; though others excel it in other respects, as, for instance, in the sharpness of their senses. F, jjnttensis worries its slain enemies ; F. sanrjuinea (PL I. fig. 6) never does so. The slave-making ant (P, rufescens, PL I fig. 5) is, perhaps, the bravest of all. If a single indi- vidual finds herself surrounded by enemies, she never attempts to fly, as any other ant would, but transfixes her oi)ponents one after another, springing right and left with great agility, till at length she succumbs, overpowered by numbers. M, scahrhiodts is cowardly and thievish ; during wars among the laiger species they haunt the battle-fields and devour the dead. Tetramorinm is said to be very greedy ; Myrmecina very })hlegmatic. In industry ants are not surpassed even bv bees and wasps. They work all day, and in warm weather, if need be, even at night too. I once watched an ant from six in the moiuing, and she worked without intermission till a quarter to ten at night. I had put her to a saucer containing larva^, and in this time she 28 GAMRa carried off no less than a hundred and eighty-seven to the nest. I had another ant, which I employed in my experiments, under continuous observation several days. When I started for liondon in the morning, and again when I went to bed at night, I used to put her in a small bottle, but the moment she was let out she began to work again. On one occasion I was away fiom home for a week. On my return I took her out of the bottle, placing her on a little heap of larva3 about three feet from the nest. Under these circum- stances I certainly did not expect her to return. How- ever, though she had thus l)een six days in confine- ment, the brave little creature immediately picked up a larva, carried it off to the nest, and after hidf an hour's rest returned for another. Our countryman Gould noticed' certain 'amuse- ments ' or * sportive exercises,' which he had observed among ants. Huber also mentions^ scenes which he had witnessed on the surface of ant hills, and which, he says, 'I dare not qualify with the title gymnastic, although they bear a close resemblance to scenes of that kind.' The ants raised themselves on their hind legs, caressed one another with their antenna?, engaged in mock combats, and almost seemed to be playing hide and seek. P'orel entirely confirms Huber's state- ments, though he was at first incredulous. He says : ^ — An Account of English Ants, p. 103. ' Nat Hist, of Ants, p. 197. • Lac. cit.y p. 867. CLEANLINESS. 29 ' Malgre Texactitude avec laquelle il decrit ce fait, j'avais peine a y croire avant de I'avoir vu moi-meme, mais une fourmiliere pratensis m'en donna I'exemi.le a plu^ieurs reprises lorsque je I'approchai avec precaution. Des 5 (/.e. workers) se saisissaient par les pattes ou par les mandibules, se roulaient par terre, puis se retachaicnt, s'entrainaient les unes les autres dans les trous de leur dome pour en ressortir aussitot apres, etc. Tout cela sans aucun acharnement, sans venin ; il et^iit evident que c'etait purement amical. Le moindre souffle de ma part mettait aussitot fin a ces jeux. J'avoue que ce fait pent paraitre imaginaire a qui ne la pas vu, quand on pense que I'attrait des sexes ne pent en etre cause.' Bates, also, in the case of Eciion lefjiouis, observed behaviour which looked to him ' like simple indulgence in idle amusement, the conclusion,' he says, ' that the ants were engaged merely in play wis irresistible.' * Lastly, I may observe that ants are very cleanly animals, and assist one another in this respect. I have often seen them licking one another. Those, moreover, which I painted for facility of recognition were gradu- ally cleaned bj their friends. ' Lor. rit., VI)] ii. p. 362. CHAPTER 11. ON THE FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF NESTS, A^D ON THE DIVISION OF LABOUR. It is remarkable that notwithstanding the researches of so many excellent observers, and though ants' nests swarm in every field and every wood, we did not know how their nests commence. Three principal modes have been suggested. After the marriage-flight the young queen may either— 1. Join her own or some other old nest ; 2. Associate herself with a certain number of workers, and with their assisUmce commence a new nest ; or 3. Found a new nest by herself. The question can of course only be settled by ob- servation, and the experiments made to determine it had hitherto been indecisive. Blanchard, indeed, in his work on the * ^Ntutamor- phoses of Insects' (I quote from Dr. Duncan's transla- ti(»n, p. 205 j, says: — ' Iluber observed a solitary female go down into a small under-ground hole, take otf her own wings, and become, as it were, a worker ; then she constructed a small nest, laid a few eggs, and brought ORIGIN OF AN ANTS' NEST. 31 Up the larva3 by acting as mother and nurse at the same time.' This, however, is not a correct version of what Huber says. His words are : — ' I enclosed several females in a vessel full of light humid earth, with which they constructed lodges, where they resided, some singly, others in common. They laid their eggs and took great care of them ; and notwithstanding the inconvenience of not being able to vary the temperature of their habi- tation, they reared some, which became larvae of a tolcraljle size, but which soon perished from the effect of my own negligence.' * It will be observed that it was the eggs, not the larvae, which, according to Huber, these isolated females reared. It is true that he attributes the early and uni- form death of the larvte to his own nefjliijence, but the fact remains that in none of his observations did aa isolated female hr'nm her offsininof to maturitv. Other entomologists, especially Forel and Ebrard, have repeated the same observations with similar results; and as yet in no single case had an isolated female been known to bring her young to maturity. Forel even thought himself justified in concluding, from his ob- servations and from those of Ebrard, that such a fact could not occur. Lepeletier de St. Fargeau ^ was of opinion that ants* TiL'sf s originate in the second mode indicated above, and ' Xttffral Jlhtory of Anta, Ilubor, p. 121. • }ii»t. Xat. da Ins. llymcno^ttires, vol. i. p. 143. 32 RELUCTANCE TO ADOPT A NEW QUEKN. It is, indeed, far from improbable that this may occur. No clear case has, however, yet been observed. M. de St. Fargeau himself observes * that * les particularites qui accompagnent la formation premiere d'une fonr- miliere sont encore incertaines et meriteraient d'etre observees avec soin.' Under these circumstances I made the following experiments : — la. I took an old, fertile, queen from a nest of Lasius Jlavus, and put her to another nest of the same species. The workers became very excited and attacked her. b, I repeated the experiment, with the same result. c. Do. do. In this case the nest to which the queen was transferred was without a queen; still they would not receive her. d and e. Do. do. do. I conclude, then, that, at any rate in the case of L, flavits, the workers will not adopt an old queen from another nest. The following observation shows that, at any rate in some cases, isolated queen ants are capable of giving origin to a new community. On August 14, 187G, I isolated two pairs of ^fyV' mica ruginodis which I found flying in my garden. I placed them with damp earth, food, and water, and they continued perfectly healthy through the winter. ' Hut. Xdt. dt'S Ins. Jlt/minojdcri's, vol. i. p. 144 ORIGIN OF A NEST OF MYRMICA. S3 In April one of the males died, and the second in the middle of May. The first eggs were laid between Apiil 12 and 23. They began to hatch the first week in June, and the first larva turned into a chrysalis on the 27th; a second on the 30th; a third on July 1, when there were also seven larvoe and two esQS, On the 8th there was another egg. On July 8 a fourth larva had turned into a pupa. On July 111 found there were six eggs, and on the 14th about ten. On the 15th one of the pupa3 began to turn brown, and the eggs were about 15 in number. On the 16th a second pupa began to turn brown. On the 2 1st a fifth larva had turned into a pupa, and there were about 20 eggs. On July 22 the first worker emerged, and a sixth larva had changed. On the 25th I observed the young worker carrying the larvae about when I looked into the nest ; a second worker was coming out. On July 28 a third worker emerged, and a fourth on Aug 5. The eggs appeared to be less numerous, and some had probably been devoured. This ex{)eriment shows that the queens of Myrmica ruginodls have the instinct of bringing up larvoe and the power of founding communities. The workers remained about six weeks in the egg, a month in the state of larva*, and twenty-five to twenty-seven days as pupa*. Since, however, cases are on record in which com- munities are known to have existed for many years, it seems clear that fresh queens must be sometimes adopted. I have indeed recorded several experimenti 34 ADOPTION OF A QUEKN. FERTILE WORKERS. 35 in which fertile queens introduced into queenless nesta were ruthlessly attacked, and subsequent experiments have always had the same result. :Mr. .Tenner Fust, liowever, suggested to me to introduce the queen into the nest, as is done with bees, in a wiie cao-e, and leave her there for two or three days, so tliat the workers might, as it were, get accustomed to her. Accordingly I procured a queen oi F,ftisca and put her with some honey in a queenless nest, enclosed in a wire cage so that the ants could not get at her. After three davs I let her out, but she was at once attacked. rerha[)s I ought to have waited a few days longer. On the con- trary, Mr. McCook reports a case of the adoption of a fertile queen of Cremastoff aster lineolata by i\ colony of the same species:* — 'The queen,' he says, 'was taken April IG, and on May 14 following was introduced to workers of a nest taken the same day. The queen was alone within an artificial glass formicary, and several workers were introduced. One of these soon found the queen, exhibited much excitement but no hostility, and immediately ran to her sister workers, all of whom were presently clustered upon the queen. As other workers were gradually introduced they joined their comrades, until the body of the queen (who is much larger than the workers) was nearly covered with them. They appeared to be holding on by their man- dibles to the delicate hairs uprm the female's body, and ' Proc. Acad Natural Scictu'tn of Phihidelphia, \d>l\^. • Note on Iho Adoption of an Ant-Queen,' by Mr McCook, p. 139 continually moved their antennae caressingly. This sort of attention continued until the queen, escorted bji workers, disappeared in one of the galleries. She was entirely adopted, and tliereafter was often seen moving freely, or attended by guards, about the nest, at times engaged in attending the larviB and pupae which had been introduced with the workers of the strange colony. The workers were fresh from their own natural home, and the queen had been in an artificial home for a month.' In no case, however, when I have put a queen into one of my nests has she been accepted. Possibly the reason for the difference may be that the ants on which I experimented had been long living in a republic ; for, I iim informed, that if bees have been long without a queen it is impossible to induce them to accept another. Moreover, I have found that when I put a queen with a few ants from a stranije nest thev did not attack her, and by adding others gradually, I succeeded in securing the throne for her. It is generally stated that among ants the queens only lay eggs. This, however, is not correct. Denny ' and Lespes - have shown that the workers also are capable of produeing eggs ; but the latter as- serted that these eggs never come to maturity. Forel, however, has proved ^ that this is not the case, but • Anyt. and Maf/. Xat. TTistt., 2ud ser., vol. L « Ann. dt8 Sc-i. Nat., 18(i:i. • Fourmis dt la Suisse, p. 329. )> ajj^^'^tf-grSaa^^-Jirf J 36 EGGS LAID BY FERTILE WORKl-RS ALWAYS PRODUCE MALES. 3V that in some cases, at any rate, the eggs do produce young. Dewitz even maintains > that the workers habitually hiy eggs, and exi)huns the difference which on this view exists between the workers of ants and those of bees, on the ground ;hat (as he supposes) the majority of ants die in the autumn, so that the enns laid by the queens alone would not be sufficient to stock the nest in the spring ; while among bees the majority survive the winter, and consequently the eggs laid by the queen are sufficient to maintain the num- bers of the community. In reply to this argument, it may be observed that among wasps the workers all perish in the autumn, while, on the contrary, among ants I have proved that, at least as regards many species, this is not the case. Moreover, although eggs are frequently laid by workers, this is not so often the case as Dewitz appears to suppose. Forel apj)ears to have only observed it in one or two cases. In my nests the instances were more numerous ; and, indeed, 1 should say that in most nests there were a few fertile workers. Among bees and wasps also the workers are occa- sionally fertile ; but, so far as our observations go, it is a curious fact that their eggs never produce females, either queers or workers, but always males. The four or five specimens bred by Forel from the eggs of workers were, moreover, all males. It became therefore an interesting question whether ' /itfit. .. niss. Zovl., vol. zxviii. p. 636. the same is the case among ants; and my nests have supplied me with some facts bearing on the question. Most of my nests contained queens ; and in these it would be impossible, or at least very difficult, to dis- tinguish and follow the comparatively few eggs laid by the workers. Some of my nests, however, con- tained no queen ; and in them therefore all the eggs must have been laid by workers. One of these was a nest of Formica ciJierea, which I brought back from Castellamare in November 1875. At that time it contained no efjofs or larvoe. In 1876 a few eggs were laid, of which fifteen came to maturity, and were, I believe, all males. In 1877 there were fourteen pupop, of which twelve came to maturity, and were all males. Again, in a nest of Lasius nlrjer, kept in captivity since July 1875, there were in 1876 about 100 young ; and these were, as far as I could ascertain, all males. At any rate there were about 100 males, and I could not find a single young female. In 1877 there were again some pupjc ; but owing to an accident none of them came to maturity. In 1878 fifteen came to maturity ; and fourteen were males. The other I could not find after it h^ft the pupa skin ; but I have no doubt, from the appearance of the pupa, that it was also a male. Another nest of Lasius ni(jer, taken in November 1875, brought in 1878 only one young ant to maturity ; and this was a male. . jgagi.fT.>— japj)eared ; the other three I secured, and on examination they all proved to be males. The nest ef Lasius n>rotluce(l ; and in not a single queenless nest has a worker laid eggs which li:ue produced a female, either a (jueen or a worker. Perhaps I ounrht to add that workers are abmidantly produced in those of my nests ^hieh i)Ossess a queen. \Miile great numbers of workers and males have 40 QUEENS SELDOM PRODUCED IN CAPTIVITY. come to maturity in my nests, with one exception not a single queen has been produced. This was in a nest of FovTYiica fusca, in which five queens came to maturity. The nest (which, I need liardly say, possessed a queen) had been under observa- tion since April 1879, and the eggs therefore must have been laid in captivity. The nest had been richly supplied with animal food, which may possibly account for the fact. It is known that bees, by diflference of food, c^e., possess the j^ower of obtaining at will from the same eggs either queens or ordinary workers. ]Mr. Dewitz,' however, is of opinion that among antf*, on the con- trary, the queens and workers are produced from different kinds of eggs. He remarks that it is very difficult to understand how the instinct, if it is to be called instinct, which would enable the workinjr ants to make this difference can have arisen. This is no doubt true ; but it seems to me quite as difficult to understand how the queens, which must have originally laid only queen eggs and male eggs, can have come to produce another class. Moreover, however great the difficulty may be to understand how the ants can have learnt to produce queens and workers from one kind of egg, the same difficulty exists almost to the same extent in bees, which, as Mr. Dewitz admits, do possess the power. Moreover, it seems to me very unlikely that the result is produced in one way in the case of > Zeit.fur wiss. Zool. 1878, p. 101 ORIGIN OF QUEENS. 41 bees, and in another in that of ants. It is also a strong iirgument that in none of my nests, though thousands of workers and males have been produced, have I ever observed a queen to be so until this year. On the whole, then, though I differ from so excellent a naturalist with much hesitation, I cannot but think that ants, like bees, possess the power of developing a given egg into either a queen or a worker. I have already mentioned that the previous views as to the duration of life of ants turn out to be quite erroneous. It was the general opinion that they lived for a single year. Two of my (jucen ants lived, the one nearly fourteen, the other nearly fifteen years, viz. from December 187-1 to July 1887 and August 1888 respectively. During the whole time they enjoyed perfect health, and every year have laid eggs pro- ducing workers, a fact which suggests physiological conclusions of i^n-eat interest. I have, moreover, little doubt that some of the workers now in this nest were among those originally captured, the mortality after the first few weeks havincr been but small. This, however, I cannot prove. A nest of F. sangumea, which M. Forel kindly forwarded to me on September 12, 1875 (but which contained no queen), gradually diminished in numbers, until in February 1879 it was reduc(^d to two F. san- guineas and one slave. The latter died in P^bruary 1880. One of the two mistresses died between May 10 and May 16, 1880, and the other only survived her 5 42 LONGEVITY OF ANTS. AKRANCiEMEiNT OF A NEiST. 43 a few clays, dying between the 16th and 20th. These two ants, therefore, must have been five years old at least. It is certainly curious that they should, after living so long, have died within ten days of one another. There was nothing, as far as I could see, in the state of the nest or the weather to account for this, and they were well supplied with food ; yet I hardly ventiure to suggest that the survivor pined away for the loss of her companion. Some workers of F, clnerea lived in one of my nests from Novemlier 1875 to July 1881. In a nest of F.fusca, which I brought in on June 6, 1875, and in one of Lasiits niger brought in on July 25, 1875, there were no queens; and, as already mentioned, no workers have been produced. Those now living (December 1881) are therefore the original ones, and they nuist be more than six years old. The duration of life in ants is therefore much greater than has been hitherto supposed. Though I lose many ants from accidents, especially in summer, in winter there are very few deaths. I have given the following figure (fig. 2), which represents a typical nest belonging to Lasius niger ^ because it is a good instance of the mode in which my ants excavated chambers and galleries for 1 hem- selves, and seems to show some ideas of stmtegy. The nest is, as usual, between two plates of glass, the outer border is a framework of wood, and the shaded part Fig. 2. <'rounrl p]nn of a typira! nost of Lirsms- virjer, toc\ucv(]. a, narrow doorway; />, hall ; (\ v«'stibul(': .'/. main clianilur : r. iniicr sanctum : f,f,f,f, narrow entrance passages to ^ianctum ; y, g, spe- cial pillars &tiaj:.-''iw#gf .»''' J ...j^.g.jv.. _■■'*..'. i ^•■f.jtf'ajJfcr'j^t.a .ajrti»^.> 44 AJIRANGEMENT OF CHAMBERS. DIVISION OF LABOUR. 46 represents garden mould, which the ants have them- selves excavated, as shown in the figure. For the small doorway (a), indeed, I am myself responsible. I generally made the doorways of my nests narrow, so as to check evaporation and keep the nests from becoming too dry. It will he observed, however, that behind the hall (6) the entrance contracts, and is still further protected by a pillar of earth, which leaves on either side a narrow passage which a single ant could easily guard, or which might be quickly blocked up. Behind this is an irregular vestibule (c), contracted again behind into a narrow passage, which is followed by another, this latter opening into the main chamber (cZ). In this chamber several pillars of earth are left, almost as if to support the roof. Behind the main chamber is an inner sanctum divided into three cham- bers, and to which access is obtained through narrow entrances (/,/,/,/> Most of the pillars in the main chamber are irregular in outline, but two of them (S^v.^^) were regular ovals, and round each, for a distance about as long as the body of an ant, the glass had been most carefully cleaned. This was so marked, and the edge of the cleaned portion was so distinct, that it is impossible not to suppose that the ants must have had some object in this proceeding, though I am unable to suggest any explanation of it. 1 have already mentioned [aiite, p. 23), that there IS evidence of some division of labour among ants. Where, indeed, there are different kinds of workers. this is self-evident, but even in species where the workers are all of one type, something of the same kind appears to occur. In the autumn of 1875 I noticed an ant belonging to one of my nests of F. fusca out feeding alone. The next day the same ant was again out by herself, and for some weeks no other ant, so far as I observed, came out to the food. I did not, however, watch her with suffi- cient regularity. In the winter of 1876, therefore, I kept two nests under close observation, having arranged with my daughters and their governess, Miss Wendland (most conscientious observers), that one of us should look at them once an hour during the day. One of the nests contained about 200 individuals of F, fusca, the other was a nest of P. rufescens with the usual slaves, about 400 in number. The mistresses themselves never came out for food, leaving all this to the slaves. We began watching on November 1, but did not keep an hourly register till the 20th, after which date the results are given in the following tables {see Appendix). Table No. 1 relates to the nest of F. fusca, and the ants are denoted by numbers. The hours at which we omitted to record an observation are left blank ; when no ant was at the honey, the square is marked with an 0. An ant, marked in my register as No. 3, was at the time when we began observing acting as feeder to the community. The only cases in which other ants came to the honey wore at 2 P.M. on November 22, when another ant came ■>>, .»'Jirf'i3rt,',^tft- .r' r .^ uSiA^lifwl^A'A 46 DIVISION OF L.AJ30UR. out, whom we registered as No. 4, another on the 28th, registered as No. 5. Other ants carae out occasionally, but not one came to rhe honey (except the above men- tioned) from November 28 till January 3, when another (whom we registered as No. 6) began feeding. After this a friend visited the honey once on the 4th, once on the 11th, and again on the loth, when she was registered as No. 7. Table No. 2 is constructed in the same way, but refers to the nest of Polyergus, The feeders in this case were, at the beginning of the experiment, regis- tered as Nos. 5, 6, and 7. On November 22 a friend, registered as No. 8, came to the honey, and again on December 11 ; but with these two exceptions the whole of the supplies were carried in by Nos. 5 and 6, with a little help from No. 7. Thinking now it might be alleged that possibly these were merely unusually activeor greedy individuals, I imprisoned No. 6 when she came out to feed on the 5th. As will be seen from the table, no other ant had been out to the honey for some days ; and it could therefore hardly be accidental that on that very evening another ant i^then registered as No. 9) came out for food. This ant, as will be seen from the tabh', then took the place of No. 6, and (No. 5 being imprisoned on January 11) took in all the supplies, again with a little help from No. 7. So matters continued till the 17th, when I imprisoned No. 9, and then again, i.e. on the 19th, another aut (No. 10) came out for the food, aa&ifci^.jJteaaW< THE HONEY ANT. 47 aided, on and after the 22nd, by another. No. 11. This seems to me very curious. From November 1 to January 5, with two or three casual exceptions, the whole of the supplies were carried in by three ants, one of whom, however, did comparatively little. The other two were imprisoned, and then, but not till then, a fresh ant appears on the scene. She carried in the food for a week ; and then, she being imprisoned, two others undertook the task. On the other hand, in Nest 1, where the first foragers were not imprisoned, they continued during the whole time to carry in the necessary supplies. The facts therefore certainly seem to indicate that certain ants are told off as foragers, and that during winter, when little food is required, two or three are sufficient to provide it. I have, indeed, no reason to suppose that in our English ants any particular individuals are specially adapted to serve as receptacles of food. M. Wesmael, however, has described * a remarkable genus {Myrmeco- cystiis mexicanus), brought by jNI. de Normann from Mexico, in which certain individuals in each nest serve as animated honey-pots. To them the foragers bring their supplies, and their whole duty seemstobe to receive the honey, retain it, and redistribute it when required. Their abdomen becomes enormouslv distended, the in- tc^rsegmental membranes being so much extended that * Bull, de VAcad des Sci. de Bnu^ellcs^ vol. v. p. 771. 48 THE HONEY ANT. the chitinous segments which alone are visible exter- nally in ordinary ants seem like small brown transverse bars. The account of these most curious insects given by MM. de Normann and Wesmael has been fully con- firmed by subsequent observers ; as, for instance, by Lucas,^ Saunders,^ Edwards,' Blake,* Loew,'^ and McCook.6 On one very important point, however, M. Wesmael was in error ; he states that the abdomen of these ab normal individuals ' ne contient aucun organe ; ou plutot, il n'est lui-meme qu'un vaste sac stomacal.' Blake even asserts that ' the intestine of the insect is not continued beyond the thorax,' which must surely be a misprint ; and also that there is no connexion between the stomach and the intestine ! These statements, however, are entirely erroneous ; and, as INI. Forel has shown, the abdomen does really contain the usual organs, which, however, are very easily overlooked by the side of the gigantic crop. I have therefore been much interested in receiving: a second species of ant, which has been sent me by Mr. Waller, in which a similar habit has been evolvgd and a similar modification has been produced. The two species, however, are very distinct, belonging to totally * Ann. Soo. Ent. de France, v. p. 111. * Canadian Entomolof/ist, vol. vii. p. 1^. * P/'oc. California Academy, 1873. * Ihid., 1874. ' American Nat., viii. 1874. * The Honey AnU. HONEY ANTS. 49 different genera ; and the former is a native of Mexico, while the one now described comes from Adelaide in Australia. The two species, therefore, cannot be de- scended one from the other ; and the conclusion seems inevitable that the modification has originated inde- pendently in the two species. It is interesting that, although these specimens apparently never leave the nest, and have little use therefore for legs, mandibles, &c., the modifications which they have undergone seem almost confined to the abdominal portion of the digestive organs. The head and thorax, antennae, jawf^, legs, ifcc. differ but little fioDc those of ordinary ants. CHAPTER III. ON THE RELATION OF ANTS TO PLANTS. It i? now generally admitted that the form and colour, the scent and honey of flowers, are mainly due to the unconscious agency of insects, and especially of bees Ants have not exercised so great an influence over the vegetable kingdom, nevertheless they have by no means been without effect. The great object of the beauty, scent, and honey of flowers, is to secure cross fertilisation ; but for this purpose winged insects are almost necessary, because they fly readily from one plant to another, and gener- ally confine themselves for a certain time to the same species. Creeping insects, on the other hand, naturally W'juld pass from one flower to another on the same plant ; and as Mr. Darwin has shown, it is desirable Ihat the pollen should be brought from a different plant altogether. Moreover, when ants quit a plant, they naturally creep up another close by, without any regard to species. Hence, even to small flowers, such as many crucifers, composites, saxifrages, &c., which, as far as size is concerned, might well be fertilised by ants, the visits of flying insects are much more advan- k^-4« EXCLUSION OF ANTS FROM FLOWERS. 51 tageous. Moreover, if larger flowers were visited by ants, not only would they deprive the flowers of their honey without fulfilling any useful function in return, but they would probably prevent the really useful visits of bees. If you touch an ant with a needle or a bristle, she is almost siure to seize it in her jaws ; and if bees, when visiting any particular plant, were liable to have the delicate tip of their proboscis seized en by the horny jaws of an ant, we may be sure that such a species of plant would soon cease to be visited. On the other hand, we know how fond ants are of honey, and how zealously and unremittingly they search for food. How is it then that they do not anticipate the bees, and secure the honey for themselves? This is guarded against in several ways. Belt appears to have been the first naturalist to call attention to this interesting subject. * !Many flowers,' he says,* ' have contrivances for pre- venting useless insects from obtaining access to the nectaries. • ••*.•• ' Great attention has of late years been paid by naturalists to the wonderful contrivances amongst flowers to secure cross fertilisation, but the struc- ture of many cannot, I believe, be understood, unless we take into consideration not only the beautiful adap- tations for securing the services of the proper insect or ' I'he Naturalist in Nicaragua. By Thos. Belt. F.G S,, pp. 13] and 133. 52 ISOLATION BY WATER. bird, but also the contrivances for preventing insects that would not be useful from obtaining access to the nectar. Thus the immense length of the Angrcvcum sesquipedale of Madagascar might, perhaps, have been more easily explained by ]\Ir. Wallace, if this impor- tant purpose had been taken into account.' Kerner has since published a very interesting work,' especially devoted to the subject, which has been translated into English by Dr. Ogle. In aquatic plants, of course, the access of ants is precluded by the isolation in water. Nay, even many land plants have secured to themselves the same advan- tage, the leaves forming a cup round the stem. Some species have such a leaf-cup at each joint, in others there is only a single basin, formed by the rosette of radical leaves. In these receptacles rain and dew not only collect, but are retained for a considerable time. In our own country Dipsacus sylvestris (the common teazle) is the best marked instance of this mode of protection, though it is possible that these cups serve another purpose, and form, as suggested by Francis Darwin, traps in which insects are caught, and in which they are dissolved by the contained fluid, so as to serve as food for the plant. However this may be, the basins are generally found to contain water, even if no rain has fallen for some days, and must, therefore, serve to prevent the access of ants. The next mode of protection is by means of slippery * Kernel ; Floyvcrg and their Unhidden Guests. SLIPPERY SURFACES. 53 Burfaces. In this case, also, the leaves often foim a collar round the stem, with curved surfaces over which ants cannot climb. ' I have assured myself,' says Kerner, * not only by observation, but by experiment, that wingless insects, and notably ants, find it impos- sible to mount upwards over such leaves as these. The little creatures run up the stem, and may even not unfrequently traverse the under surface of the leaves, if not too smooth ; but the reflexed and slip- pery margin is more than the best climbers among them can get over, and if they attempt it they invari- ably fall to the ground. There is no necessity for the lamina of the leaf to be very broad ; even narrow leaves, as, for instance, those of Gentiana firma, are enough for the purpose, supposing, of course, that the margin is bent backwards in the way described.' Of this mode of protection the cyclamen and snow- drop offer familiar examples. In vain do ants attempt to obtain access to such flowers, the curved surfaces baffle them ; when they come to the edge they inevit- al)ly drop oft' to the gi'ound again. In fact, these pendulous flowers protect the honey as eff'ectually from the access of ants, as the hanging nests of the weaver and other birds protect their eggs and young from the attacks of reptiles. lu a third series of plants tiie access of creeping insects is imj)edcd or altogether prevented by certain parts of the flower being crowded together so as to leave either a very narrow passage or none at all. Thufl I.-"- ^-. .^' ■,./,•--- - ■^■-^-■.■. .■■■■ •■r,.'^ ■■■«■■;-•■■». •■■■.j-JJiiA;.^-- 54 CLOSED FLOWERS. the Antirrhinum^ or Suapdragon, is completely closed, and only a somewhat powerful insect can force its way in. The flower is in fact a strong box, of which the Humble-bee only has the key. The Linariasare another case of this kind. The Campanulas, again, are open flowers, but the stamens are swollen at the base, and in close contact with one another, so that they form the lid of a hollow box in which the honey is secreted. In some species the same object is effec- ted by the stamens being crowded together, as in some of the white ranunculuses of the Alps. In other case.-, the flower forms a narrow tube, still further protected by the presence of hairs, sometimes scattered, sometimes, as in the white dead nettle, forming a row. In others, as in some species of Narcissus, Primula, Pedicularis, &c., the tube itself is so narrow that even an ant could not force its way down. In others, again, as in some of the Gentians, the opening of the tube is protected by the swollen head of the pistil. In others, as in clover, lotus, and many other Leguminoace, the ovary and the stamens, which cling round the ovary in a closely-fitting tube, fill up almost the whole space between the petals, leaving only a very narrow tube. Lastly, in some, as in Geranium rohertianuWj Linum catkarticum, &c., the main tube itself is divided by ridges into several secondary ones. k«''jaa'^ PROTECTION BY TniCKETS OF HAIRS. 55 In still more numerous species the access of ants and other creeping insects is prevented by the presence of spines or hairs, which constitute a veritable chevaux de ftnse. Often these hairs are placed on the flowers themselves, as in some verbenas and gentians. Some- times the whole plant is more or less hairy, and it will be observed that the hairs of plants have a great tendency to point downwards, which of course con- stitutes them a more efficacious barrier. In another class of cases access to the flowers is prevented by viscid secretions. Everyone who has any acquaintance with botany knows how many species bear the specific name of ' Viscosa ' or ' Glutinosa.' We have, for instance, Bartsia viscosa, Rohinia viscosa, Linum viscosum, Euphrasia viscosa^ Silenc viscosa, Dianthus viscidus, Senecio viscosus, Holosteum gki- tinosum, &c. Even those who have never opened a botanical work must have noticed how many plants are more or less sticky. Why is this ? What do the plants gain by this peculiarity? The answer probably is, at any rate in most cases, that creeping insects are thus kept from the flowers. The viscid substance is found most frequently and abundantly on *^ e peduncles im- mediately below the blossoms, or even on the blossoms themselves. In Epimedium alpinum, for instance, the leaves and lower parts of the stem are smooth, while the peduncles are covered with glandular, viscid hairs. The number of small insects which are limed and perish on such plants is very considerable. Kenier 66 VISCIDITY OF PLANTS. counted sixty-four small insects on one inflorescence of Lychnis viscosa. In other species the flower is viscid ; as, for instance, in the gooseberry, Linncea horealisy Plumbago Europcea, &c. Polygonum amphibium is a very interesting case. The small rosy flowers are richly supplied with honey ; but from the structure of the flower, it would not be fertilised by creeping insects. As its name indicates, this plant grows sometimes on land, some- times in water. Those individuals, however, which grow on dry land are covered by innumerable glan- dular viscid hairs, which constitute an efi'ectual pro- tection. On the other hand, tlie individuals which grow in water are protected by their situation. To them the glandular hairs would be useless, and in fact on such specimens they are not developed. In most of the cases hitherto mentioned the viscid substance is secreted by glandular hairs, but in others it is discharged by the ordinary cells of the surflice. Kemer is even of opinion that the milky juice of certain plants— for instance, of some species of Lactuca (lettuce) — answers the same purpose. He placed several kinds of ants on these plants, and was suq)rised to find that their sharp claws cut through the delicate epidermis; while through the minute clefts thus made the milky juice quickly exuded, by which the ants were soon glued down. Kemer is even disposed to suggest that the nectaries which occur on certain leaves are a means of protection against the unwel- ANTS PROTECTING TKEES. 67 come, because unprofitable, visits of creeping insects, by diverting them from the flowers. Thus, then, though ants have not influenced the present condition of the vegetable kingdom to the same extent as bees, they have also had a very con- siderable effect upon it in various ways. Our European ants do not strip plants of their leaves. In the tropics, on the contrary, some species do much damage in this manner. Bates considers ' that the leaves are used ' to thatch the domes which cover the entrances to their subterra- nean dwellings, thereby protecting them from the rains.' Belt, on the other hand, maintains that they are torn up into minute fragments, so as to form a flocculent mass, which serves as a bed for mushrooms ; the aiits are, in fact, he says, 'mushroom growers and eaters/' Some trees are protected by one species of ants from others. A species of Acacia, described by Belt, bears hollow thorns, while each leaflet produces honey in a crater-formed gland at the base, as well as a small, sweet, pear-shaped body at the tip. In consequence, it is inhabited by myriads of a small ant, which nests in the hollow thorns, and thus finds meat, drink, and lodging all provided for it. These ants are continuall}^ roaming over the plant: and constitute a most efficient bodj'- guard, not only driving off* the leaf-cutting ants, but, in Belt's opinion, rendering the leaves less liable to be ' /.«><•. cU., V. i p. 26. ' Loe. cit., \). 79. This view has since been confirmed by Scbimpcr, Hot. Mitt, aus den Tropen. Nr. 6. 6 isf iTi m -n4vw 58 ANTS AS TREE-GUARDS. IN.SECTIVOROUS ANTS. .59 eaten by herbivorous mammalia. Delpino mentiona that 01^ one occasion he was gathering a flower of Clero^ dendruin fragrans, when he was himself ' suddenly attacked by a whole army of small ants.' * Moseley has also called attention^ to the relations which have grown up between ants and two ' curious epiphytes, Myrmecodia armata and Ilydnophytum fm^micarum. Both plants are associated in their growth with certain species of ants. As soon as the young plants develop a stem, the ants gnaw at the base of this, and the irritation produced causes the stem to swell; the ants continuing to irritate and excavate the swelling, it assumes a globular form, and may become even larger than a man's head. ' The globular mass contains within a labyrinth of chambers and passages, which are occupied by the ants as'their nest. The walls of these chambers and the whole mass of the inflated stem retain their vitality and thrive, continuing to increase in size with growth. From the surface of the rounded mass are given ofi* small twigs, bearing the leaves and flowers. ' It appears that this curious gall-like tumour on the stem has become a normal condition of the j)lants, which cannot thrive without the ants. In Myrmpcodia armata the globular mass is covered with spine-like excrescences. The trees I referred to at Amboina had these curious spine-ccvered masses perched in every * Scientific Lectures, p. ?3. • Nates by a Aaturalist on tJie ' Chullenger^ p. 389. fork, and with them also smooth surfaced masses of a species of HydiiophytumJ* There are, of course, many cases in which the action of ants is very beneficial to plants. They kill off* a great/ number of small caterpillars and other insects. Forel found in one large nest that more than twenty- eight dead insects were brought in per minute ; which would give during the period of greatest energy more than 100,000 insects dc^stroyed in a day by the inhabitants of one nest alone. Our English hunting ants generally forage alone. In warmer countries, however, they hunt in packs, or even armies. As already mentioned, none of our northern ants store up grain, and hence there has been much dis- cussion as to the well-known passage of Solomon. I have indeed observed that the small brown ants, Lasius niger, sometimes carry seeds of the violet into their nests, but for what purpose is not clear. It is, however, now a well-established fact that more than one species of southern ants do collect seeds of various kinds. The fact, of course, has long been known in those regions. Indeed, the quantity of grain thus stored up is some- times so considerable, that in the * Mischna,' rules are laid down with reference to it ; and various com- mentators, including the celebrated Maimonides, have discussed at length the question whether such grain belonged to the owner of the land, or might be taken 60 haii\t:sting ants. by gleaners — giving the latter the benefit of the doubt. They do not appear to have considered the rights of the ants. Hope ^ has called attention to the fact that Meer Hassan Ali, in his ' History of the Mussulmans,' expressly mentions it. ' More industrious little crea- tures,' he says, ' cannot exist than the small red ants, which are so abundant in India. I have watched them at their labours for hours, without tiring. They are so small, that from eight to twelve in number labour with great difficulty to convey a grain of wheat or barley, yet these are not more than half the size of a grain of English wheat. I have known them to carry one of these grains to their nest, at a distance from 600 to 1,000 yards. They travel in two distinct lines over rough or smooth ground, as it may happen, even up and down steps, at one regular pace. The returning unladen ants invariably salute the burthened ones, who are making their way to the general storehouse ; but it is done so promptly, that the line is neither broken nor their progress impeded by the salutation.' Sykes, in his account of an Indian ant, Pheidole providens,'^ appears to have been the first of modern scientific authors to confirm the statements of Solomon. He states that the above-named species collects large stores of grass seeds, on which it subsists from February ' Traruf. Ent. Sue. -840, p. 213. -• Ibid. 183G, p. 99. Dr. Lincecum has also made a similar obaervation. AGRICULTURAL ANTS. Gl to October. On one occasion he even observed the ants bringing up their stores of grain to dry them after the closing thunderstorms of the monsoon ; an observation which has been since confirmed by other naturalists. It is now known that harvesting ants occur in the warmer part of Europe, where their habits have been observed with care, especially by Moggridge and Lespes. It does not yet seem quite clear in what manner the ants prevent the grains from germinating. Moggridge found that if the ants were prevented from entering the granaries, the seeds began to sprout, and that this was also the ci^a.j.-.'Si;»jiia 64 HUNTING ANTS. their dwellings, towns, and their vicinity in a state of comparative cleanliness. The dread of them is upon every living thing ' Their entrance into a house is soon known by the simultaneous and universal movement of rats, mice, lizards, Blapsidae, Blattidte, and of the numerous vermin that infest our dwellings. Not being agreed, they cannot dwell together, which modifies in a good measure the severity of the Drivers' habits, and renders their visits sometimes (though very seldom in my view) desirable ' They move over the house with a good degree of order, unless disturbed, occasionally spreading abroad, ransacking one point after another, till, either having found something desirable, they collect upon it, when they may be destroyed en masse by hot water ' When they are fairly in, we give up the house, and try to await with patience their pleasure, thankful, indeed, if permitted to remain within the narrow limits of our beds or chairs.* These ants will soon destroy even the largest animal if it is confined. In one case Savage saw them kill near his house a snake four feet long. Indeed, it is said that they have been known to destroy the great python, when gorged with food and powerless. The natives even believe that the python, after crushing its victim, does not venture to swallow it, until it has made a search, and is satisfied that there are no Drivers in the -icinity! It is very remarkable that these hunting ECITONS. 65 ants are blind. They emerge, however, principally by night, and like some of the blind hunting ants of Brazil (Eciton vastator and E. erratica\ well described by Bates,* prefer to move under covered galleries, which they construct rapidly as they advance. ' The column of foragers pushes forward step by step, under the protection of these covered passages, through the thickets, and on reaching a rotting log, or other promising hunting ground, pour into the crevices in search of booty.' The marauding troops of Ecitons may, in some cases, be described as armies. * Wherever they move,' says Bates,2 < ^^q whole animal world is set in commo- tion, and every creature tries to get out of their way. But it is especially the various tribes of wingless insects that have cause for fear, such as heavy-bodied spiders, ants of other species, maggots, caterpillars, larvse of cockroaches, and so forth, all of which live under fallen leaves or in decaying wood. The Ecitons do not mount very high on trees, and therefore the nestlings of birds are not much incommoded by them. The mode of operation of these armies, which I ascertained, only after lonf^-continued observation, is as follows: The main column, from four to six deep, moves forward in a given direction, clearing the ground of all animal matter dead or alive, and throwing off, here and there, a thinner column to forage for a short time on the > The Xaturnligt on the River Amazon, vol. ii. p. 364. » Ibid., p. 358. 66 INSECTS MIMICKING ANTS. fianks of the main army, and re-enter it again aftei their task is accomplished. If some very rich place be encountered anywhere near the line of march— for example, a mass of rotten wood abounding in insect larvae, a delay takes place, and a very strong force of ants is concentrated upon it.' Belt, also, has given ' an excellent account of these Ecitons. He observed that spiders were peculiarly intelligent in escaping them, making off several yards in advance ; and not like cockroaches and other stupider insects, taking shelter in the first hiding-place, where they were almost sui'e to be detected. The only chance of safety was either to run right away or to stand still. He once saw a Harvestman {Pkalanfjimn) standing in the midst of an army of ants with the greatest circumspection and coolness, lifting its long legs one after the other. Sometimes as many as five out of the eight would be in the air at once, but it always found three or four spots free from ants, on which it could safely place its feet. On another occasion. Belt observed a green leaf-like locust, which remained per- fectly still, allowing the ants to run over it. This they did, but seem to have been quite deceived by its appearance and immobility, apparently taking it for a leaf. In other cases, insects mimic ants, and thus escape attack or are able to stalk their prey. Belt mentions a spider which in its form, colour, and movements 80 * The Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 17. ■j^Sjit ENEMIES OF ANTS. 67 much resembled an ant, that he was himself for some time deceived. Nor are ants without their enemies. We all know how fond birds are of their larvae and pupre. They have also numerous parasites. I have already alluded to the mites which are often found in ants' nests. These are of several kinds ; one of them, not uncommon in the nests of Lasius fiavus, turned out to be a new species, and has been described for me by Mr. Michael {see Appendix). Certain species of Diptera, belonging to the family Phoridae, are also parasitic on ants. As already men- tioned, I forwarded specimens to ]\Ir. Verrall, who finds that some of them are a new species of the genus Phora, and that among them is also the type of a new genus, which he proposes to call Platyphora, doing me the honour of naming the species after me. I subjoin his description in the appendix. But the social and friendly relations which exist between ants and other animals are of a more complex and much more interesting character. It has long been known that ants derive a very important part of their sustenance from the sweet juice excreted by aphides. These insects, in fact, as has been over and over again observed, are the cows of the ants; in the words of Linnaeus, 'Aphis formicarum vacca.' A good account of the rela- tions existing between ants and aphides was given 68 DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF ANTS. more than a hundred years ago by the Abbe Boisier de Sauvages.* Nor are the aphides the only insects which serve as cows to the ants. V'arious species of Coccidae, C:ercopis, Centrotus, Membracis, &c., are utilised in the same manner. H. Edwards 2 and M'Cook ^ have observed ants licking the larva of a butterfly, Lycama pseudar- giolus. The different species of ants utilise different species of aphis. The common brown garden ant (Lasius niger) devotes itself principally to aphides which frequent twigs and leaves; Lasius brunneus, to the aphides which hve on the bark of trees; while the little yellow ant {Lasius flavus) keeps flocks and herds of the root-feeding aphides. In fact, to this difference of habit the difference of colour is perhaps due. The Baltic amber contains among the remains of many other insects a species of ant intermediate between our small brown garden ants and the little yellow meadow ants. This is possibly the stock from which these and other allied species are descended. One is tempted to suggest that the brown species which live so much in the open air, and climb up trees and bushes, have retained and even deepened their dark colour; while others, such as Lasius flaviiSy • Ohsen-ations siir Vorigine dn miel, par I'AbW Boisier <1« Bauvages, Jowr. de Pkysiqve, vol. i. p. 1 87. ' Canadian EntomchtgUt, Jannarv 1878. • Tktf Mound' making AnU of the Alhghcniei, p. 289. APHIDES. 69 the yellow meadow ant, which lives almost entirely below ground, has become much paler. The ants may be said almost literally to milk the aphides; for, as Darwin and others have shown, the aphides generally retiiin the secretion until the ants are ready to receive it. The ants stroke and caress the aphides with their antennae^ and the aphides then emit the sweet secretion. As the honey of the aphides is more or less sticky, it is probably an advantage to the aphis that it should be removed. Nor is this the only service which ants render to them. They protect them from the attacks of enemies ; and not unfrequently even build cowsheds of earth over them. The yellow ants collect the root- feeding species in their nests, and tend them as carefully as their own young. But this is not all. The ants not only guard the mature aphides, w^iich are useful ; but also the eggs of the aphides, which of course, until they come to maturity, are quite useless. These eggs were first observed by our countryman Gould, whose excellent little work on ants * has hardly received the attention it deserves. In this case, however, he fell into error. He states that 'the queen ant' [he is speaking of Lasius flavus'] 'lays three diflferent sorts of eggs, the slave, female, and neutral. The two first are deposited in the spring, the last in. July and part of August; or, if the summer be extremely favoui'able, * An Account of English Aiita, bv the Rev. W. Gould, 1747 p. 36. gJ"- >itf^i.,W(jf. . 70 EGGS OF APHIDES KEPT TIIKOUGH perhaps a little sooner. The female eggs are covered with a thin black membrane, are oblong, and about the sixteenth or seventeenth part of an inch in length. The male eggs are of a more brown complexion, and usually laid in March.' These dark egg3 are not those of ants, but of aphides. The error is very pardonable, because the ants treat these eggs exactly as if they were their own, guarding and tending them with the utmost care. I first met with them in February 1876, and was much astonished, not being at that time aware of Huber's observations. I found, as Huber had done before me, that the ants took great care of these brown bodies, carrying them off to the lower chambers with the utmost haste when the nest was disturbed. I brought some home with me and put them near one of my own nests, when the ants carried them inside. That year I was unable to carry my observations further. In 1877 I again procured some of the same eggs, and offered them to my ants, who carried them into the nest, and in the course of March I had the satisftiction of seeing them hatch into young aphides. M. Huber, however, did not think that these were ordinary eggs. On the contrary, he agreed with Bonnet, ' that the insect, in a state nearly perfect, quits the body of its mother in that covering which shelters it from tlie cold in winter, and that it is not, as other germs are, in the egg surrounded by food by means of which it is de- veloped and supported. It is nothing more than an THE WINTER BY ANTS. 7) asylum of which the aphides born at another season have no need ; it is on this account some are produced naked, others enveloped in a covering. The mothers are not, then, truly oviparous, since their young are almost as perfect as they ever will be, in the asylum in which Nature has placed them at their birth.' ^ This is, I think, a mistake. I do not propose here to describe the anatomy of the aphis ; but I may observe that I have examined the female, and find these eggs to arise in the manner described by Huxley ,2 and which I have also myself observed in other aphides and in allied genera.^ Moreover, I have opened the eggs themselves, and have also examined sections, and have satisfied myself that they are really eggs containing ordinary yelk. So far from the young insect being ' nearly perfect,' and merely enveloped in a protective membrane, no limbs or internal organs are present. In fact, the young aphis does not develop in them until shortly before they are hatched."* When my eggs hatched I naturally thought that the aphides belonged to one of the species usually found on the roots of plants in the nests of Las ins Jfavus. To my surprise, however, the young creatures ' T/te Natural lllsiflnj of AnU, by M. P. Huber, 1820, p. 24G. '■* Linnean Trauitaction», 1858. ' Philosophical Tranmriions, 1850. * I do not enter here into the technical question of the difference between ova and pscudova. I believe these to be true ova, but the point is that thej- are not a mere envelope containing a young aphis, but eggs in the ordinary sense, the contents of which consist of yelk, and ill which the young aphis is gradually developed 72 EGGS OF APHIDES KEPT THROUGH THE WINTER BY ANTS. 7S made the best of their way out of the nest, and, indeed, were sometimes brought out by the ants themselves. In vain 1 tried them with roots of grass &c. ; they wandered uneasily about, and eventually died. More- over, they did not in any way resemble the subterranean species. In 1878 1 again attempted to rear these young aphides ; but though I hatched a great many eggs, I did not succeed. In 1879, however, I was more fortunate. The eggs commenced to hatch the first week in March. Near one of my nests of Lasius flavus, in which I had placed some of the eggs in question, was a glass containing living specimens of several species of plant commonly found on or around ants' nests. To this some of the young aphides were brought by the ants. Shortly afterwards I observed on a plant of daisy, in the axils of the leaves, some small aphides, very much resembling those from my nest, though we had not actually traced them continuously. They seemed thriving, and remained stationary on the daisy. Moreover, whether they had sprung from the black eggs or not, the ants evidently valued them, for they built up a wall of earth round and over them. So things remained throughout the summer ; but on the 9th October I found that the aphides had laid some eggs exactly resembling those found in the ants* nests; and on examining daisy-plants from outside, I found on many of them similar aphides, and more or less of the same eggs. I confess these observations surprised me very much- The statements of Huber, though confirmed by Schmarda, have not, indeed, attracted so much notice as many of the other interesting facts which they have recorded ; because if aphides are kept by ants in their nests, it seems only natural that their eggs should also occur. The above case, however, is much more remarkable. Here are aphides, not living in the ants' nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of plants. The eggs are laid early in October on the food-plant of the insect. They are of no direct use to the ants, yet they are not left where they are laid, exposed to the severity of the weather and to innumerable dangers, but brought into their nests by the ants, and tended by them with the utmost care through the long winter months until the following March, when the young ones are brought out and again placed on the young shoots of the daisy. This seems to me a most remarkable case of prudence. Our ants may not perhaps lay up food for the winter ; but they do more, for they keep during six months the eggs which will enable them to procure food during the following summer, a case of prudence unexampled in the animal kingdom. The nests of our common yellow ant (Lasius flavus) contain in abundance four or five species of aphis, more than one of which appears to be as yet undescribed. In addition, however, to the insects belonging to this family, there are a large number of others which live habitually in ants' nests, so that we may truly say that our English ants possess a much greater variety of 7 ■BM 74 OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMAU3 domestic animals than we do ourselves. Markel aatis- fied himself that large nests of Formica rufa might contain at least a thousand of such guests ; * and I believe that the aphides in a large nest of Lasius jiavus would often be even more numerous. Andre' gives a list of no less than 584 species of insects, which are habitually found in association with ants, and of which 542 are beetles. The association of some of these insects with ants may be purely accidental and without significance. In some of them no doubt the bond of union is merely the selection of simihir places of abode ; in some few others the ants are victimized by pamsites of which they cannot rid themselves. There are, for instance, the parasitic mites, and the small black fly, belonging to the genus Phora, which lays her eggs on ants, and which I have already mentioned. Then there are some insects, such as the caterpillar of that beautiful beetle, the rosechafer, which find a congenial place of residence among the collection of bits of stick, &c., with which certain species of ants make their nests. Another class of ant guests are those which reside actually in the galleries and chambers of, and with, the ants, but which the latter never touch. Of these the commonest in England are a species allied to Podura, for which I have proposed the name Beckia (PI. V, * Beit, zur KenntnUs der unter Ameisen Jehenden Tntfkten Miirkel, Ger mar's Zeit.f. Ent. 1841, p. 210 2 Rec. ct Mag. dc Zool. 1874, p. 205. KEPT BY ANTS. 75 fig. 5). It is an active bustling little being, and I have kept hundreds, I may say thousands, in my nests. They run about in and out among the ants, keep- ing their antennae in a perpetual state of vibration. Another very common species is a sort of white wood- louse (PI. V. fig. 7), which enjoys the rather long name of Platyarthrus Hofmanseggii, Andre only mentions Platyarthrus as living with Formica rvfa, Myrmica scabrinodis, and Leptothorax acervorum, I have found it also with Lasius nilger^ L. jiavus^ and F, fusca. It runs about, and is evidently at home, among the ants. Both Platyarthrus and Beckia, from living constantly in the dark, have become blind ; I say ' have become,' because their ancestors no doubt had eye3. In neither of these cases have I ever seen an ant take the slightest notice of either of these insects. One might almost imagine they had the cap of invisibility. It is certain that the ants intentionally (if I may so say) sanction the residence of these insects in their nests. An unauthorised interloper would be at once killed. I have, therefore, ventured to suggest that these insects may, perhaps, act as scavengers. In other cases the association is more close, and the ants take the greatest care of their guests. It appears that many of these insects produce a secretion which serves as food for the ants. This is certainly the case, for instance, with the curious blind beetle, Claviger (PI. V fig. 8), (so called from its club- 76 MYR^IECOPHILOUS BEETLES shaped antennae), which is quite blind,^ and appears to be absolutely dependent upon the ants, as iNIiiller first pointed out. It even seems to have k)st the power of feeding itself; at any rate it is habitually fed by the ants, who supply it with nourishment as they do one another. Miiller saw the ants caressing the beetles with their antenna?. The Clavigcrs have certain tufts of hairs at the base of the elytra, and Miiller, whose observations have since been confirmed by subsequent entomologists, saw the ants take their tufts of hairs into their mouths and lick them, as well as the whole upper surface of the body, with apparently the greatest enjoyment. Grimm ^ hag made a similar observation with reference to D'lnarda dentata, another of these myrmecophilous beetles. He several times observed the ants licking the tuft of hairs at the end of the abdomen. Lespes ' has con- firmed this. On one occasion he saw an ant feed a Lomechusa. Several of the former were sucking a morsel of sugar. The beetle approached one of them, and tapped her several times on the head with her antennae. The ant then opened her mandibles, and fed the Lomechusa as she would have done one of her own species. The Lomechusa crept on the sugar, but did not appear able to feed herself. As might naturally be expected the myrmecophilous insects are not found indiscriminately in the nests of » Gcr mar's Mag. de Zcol. 1818, p. 69. « Stettin, Ent. Ziit. 1845, p. 123 • Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1856, p. 51 e aa: <&' jka . PETS. 77 ants, but while some associate with several species, many are confined to a few or even to one. V. Hagens is of opinion ^ that in some of these beetles which frequent the nests of two or more species of ant, varieties have been produced. Thus he ha3 observed that the specimens of Thiasophila angidata in nests of Formica cowjerens are darker than those found with F. exsecta, Iletcerius sesqicicornis found with Lasius n'ujer and Tajjinoma ein'aticuiii are smaller than those which occur in the nests of larger ants ; and the form of Diuarda deidata, which is met with in nests of F. saiigninea^ has rather wider wing- cases than the normal type. I would by no means intend to imply that the relations between ants and the other insects which live with them are exhausted by the above suggestions. On the contrary, various other reasons maybe imagined which may render the presence of these insects useful or agreeable to the ants. For instance, they may emit an odour which is pleasant to the ants. Again, ]Mr. Francis Galton has, I think, rendered it very probable that some of our domestic animals were kept as pets before they were made of any use. Unlikely as this may appear in some cases, for instance in the pig, we know as a fact that pigs are often kept by savages as pets. I would not put it forward as a suggestion which can be supported by any solid reasoning, but it • Berlin. Ent. Zdt 1865, p. 108. 78 RELATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT seems not altogether impossible that some of these tame insects may be kept as pets. It is from this point of view a very interesting fiict that, according to Forel, in the cases of Chennium and Batmsus there is rarely more than one beetle in each nest.* I now come to the relations existing between the different species of ants. It is hardly necessary to say that, as a general rule, each species lives by itself. There are, however, some in- teresting exceptions. The little Stenamma Westwoodii (PI. III. fig. 3) is found exclusively in the nests of the much larger F. rufa and the allied F.pratensis. We do not know what the relations between the two species are. The Stenammas, however, follow the Formicas when they change their nest, running about among them and between their legs, tapping them inquisitively with their antennae, and even sometimes climbing on to their backs, as if for a ride, while the large ants seem to take little notice of them. They almost seem to be the dogs, or perhaps the cats, of the ants. Another small species, Solenopsis fugax (PI. III. fig. 4), which makes its chambers and galleries in the walls of the nests of larger species, is the bitter enemy of its hosts. The latter cannot get at them, because they are too large to enter the galleries. The little Solenopsis^ there- fore, are quite safe, and, as it appears, make incursions into the nurseries of tne larger ant, and carry off the ' Firurmis de la Suisse, p. 426. SPECIES OF ANTS. 79 larvje as food. It is as if we had small dwarfs, about eighteen inches to two feet long, harbouring in the walls of our houses, and every now and then carrying off some of our children into their horrid dens. Most ants, indeed, will carry off the larvae and pupae of others if they get a chance ; and this explains, or at any rate throws some light upon, that must remarkable phenomenon, the existence of slavery among ants. If you place a number of larvae and pupae in front of a nest of the Horse ant {F. rvfa), for instance, they are soon carried off; and those which are not immediately required for food remain alive for some time, and are even fed by their captors. Both the Horse ant {Formica rufa, PI. II. fig. 5) and the slave ant {F. fasca, PI. I. fig. 3) are abun- dant species, and it must not unfrequently occur that the former, being pressed for food, attack the latter and carry off some of their larvae and pupae. Under these circumstances it no doubt occasionally happens that the pupae come to maturity in the nests of the Horse ant, and it is said that nests are some- times, though rarely, found in which, with the legiti- mate owners, there are a few F. fuscas. With the Horse ant this is, however, a very rare and exceptional phenomenon ; but with an allied species, F. sanfjiiinea (PI. I. fig. 6), a species which exists in some of our southern counties and throughout Europe, it has be- come an established habit. The F, sanguineas make periodical expeditions, attack neighbouring nests, and tuiitslii&i* 80 sla\t:-making aiits. carry off the pupsc. When the latter come to maturity they find themselves in a nest consisting pailly of F, aanguineas, partly of their own species, the results of previous expeditions. They adapt themselves to cir- cumstances, assist in the ordinary household duties, and, having no young of their own species, feed and tend those of the F, aancfuineas. But though the F, sanguinecw are thus aided by their slaves, or as they should ratlier perhaps be called, their auxiliaries, they have not themselves lost the instinct of ^vorkin»^ It seems not improbable that there is some division of functions between the two species, but we have as yet no distinct knowledge on this point ; and at any rate the F, aanguineas can 'do' for themselves, and carry on a nest, if necessary, without slaves. The species usually enslaved by F, somguinea are Formica fusca and F. rufiharhis, which indeed are so similar that they are perhaps varieties rather than species. Sometimes both occur in the same n»^st. Andre says that they also make slaves of Formica gagates} Schenk asserts* the same of Lasius allenus, and F. Smith of Z. Jlavus, but Forel denies these statements.' Another species, Polyergus rufescenf^, is much more dependent on its slaves, being, indeed, almost entirely so. Bi'v. et Mag. de Ziwl. 1874, p. 164. * Cat. of Brit. Fos.'(. Ilymeti.^ p. 7 • Faumiis de la Same, p. 3G3. ■'SlitSilitiftiiSs^^M^fe^ FOKMICA— POLl-ERGUS. 81 For the knowledge of the existence of slavery among ajits we are indebted to Huber,' and I cannot resist quoting the passage in which he records his discovery:— 'On June 17, 1804,' he says, 'while walk- ing in the environs of Geneva, between four and five in the evening, I observed close at my feet, traversing the road, a legion of Rufescent ants. ' They moved in a body with considerable rapidity and occupied a space of from eight to ten inches in length, by three or four in breadth. In a few minutes they quitted the road, passed a thick hedge, and entered a pasture ground, where I followed them. They wound along the grass without straggling, and their column remained uubroken, notwithstanding the ob- stacles they had to sunnount. At length they ap- proaclied a n^st, inhabited by dark ash-coloured ants, the dome of which rose above the grass, at a distance of twenty feet from the hedge. Some of its inhabitants were guarding the entrance ; but, on the discovery of an approaching army, darted forth upon the advanced guard. The alarm spread at the same moment in the interior, and their companions came forth in numbers from their underground residence. The Rufescent ants, the bulk of whose army lay only at the distance of two paces, quickened their march to arrive at the foot of the ant-hill ; the whole battalion, in an instant, fell upon and overthrew the ash-coloured ants, who, after a short but obstinate conflict, retired to the bottom of ■ Tli£ Saiural History of Ants, by M. P. Huber, p. 249. S2 EXPEDITIONS OF POLYERGUS. their nest. The Kufeseent ants now ascended the hillock, collected in crowds on the summit, and took possession of the principal avenues, leaving some of their companions to work an opening in the side of tLe ant-hill with their teeth. Success crowned their enter- prise, and by the newly-made breach the remainder of the army entered. Their sojourn war. however, of short duration, for in three or four minutes they returned by the same apertm-es wliich gave them entrance, each bearing off in its mouth a larva or a pupa.' The expeditions generally start in the afternoon, and are from 100 to 2,000 strong. Polyergus rufescens present a striking lesson of the degrading tendency of slavery, for these ants have become entirely dependent on their slaves. Even their bodily structure has undergone a change: the mandibles have lost their teeth, and have become mere nippers, deadly weapons indeed, but useless except in war. They have lost the greater part of their instincts : their art, that is, the power of building; their domestic habits, for they show no care for their own young, all this being done by the slaves ; their industry— they take no part in providing the daily supj)lies ; if the colony changes the situation of its nest, the masters are all carried by the slaves on their backs to the new one ; nay, they have even lost the habit of feedin«r. Huber placed thirty of them with some larvic and pup;e and a supply of honey in a box. ' At first,' he says, S^iirtt^«SfflbiaK'triii^diBag^4-4i*.;>iiwN-i*fcJ»W^ ■J r-. - .t POLYERGUS FED BY THE SLAVES. 83 they appeared to pay some little attention to the larvae ; they carried them here and there, but presently replaced them. More than one-half of the Amazons died of hunger in less than two days. They had not even traced out a dwelling, and the few ants still in existence were languid and without strength. I com- miserated their condition, and gave them one of their black companions. This individual, unassisted, estab- lished order, formed a chamber in the earth, gathered together the larvae, extricated several young ants that were ready to quit the condition of pup«, and preserved the life of the remaining Amazons.' This observation has been fully confirmed by other naturalists. However small the prison, however large the quantity of food, these stupid creatures will starve in the midst of plenty rather than feed themselves. M. Forel was kind enough to send me a nest of Polyergus, and I kept it under observation for more than four years. My specimens of Polyergus certainly never fed themselves, and when the community changed its nest, which they did several times, the mistresses were carried from the one to the other by the slaves. I was even able to observe one of their marauding ex- peditions, in which, however, the slaves took a part. I do not doubt that, as Huber tells us, specimens of Polyergus if kept by themselves in a box would soon die of starvation, even if suj)plied with food. I have, however, kept isolated specimens for three months by giving them a slave for an hour or two a day to clean fig*a»*J>^.5Mi3l>aahJg^^ 84 STRONGYLOGNATHUS. and feed them : under these circumstances they re- mained in perfect health, while, but for the slaves, they would have perished in two or three days. Ex- cepting the slave-making ants, and some of the Myr- mecophilous beetles above described, I know no case in nature of an animal having lost the instinct of feeding. In P. rufescens, the so-called workers, though thus helpless and idle, are numerous, energetic, and in some respects even brilliant. In another slave- making ant, Stroiigylognathus, the workers are much less numerous, and so weak that it is an un- solved problem how they contrive to make slaves. In the genus Strongylognathus there are two species, S. huberi and S. testaceus, S. huberi, which was discovered by Forel, very much resembles Polyergus rufescens in habits. They have sabre-like mandibles, like those of Polyergus, and their mode of fighting is similar, but they are much weaker insects ; they make slaves of Tetramorium ccespiticm, which they carry off as pupae. In attacking the Tetramot-iums they seize them by the head with their jaws, just in the same way as Polyergus, but have not strength enough to pierce them as the latter do. Nevertheless, the Tetra- moriums seem much afraid of them. The other species, StrongylogiiatJtiis testaceus, is even weaker than S, huberi, and their mode of life is still in many respects an enigma* They also keep the workers of Tetramonum in, so to say, a state o/ l» i WifiW a . - «.r ■■> ^ .r DEGRADATION OF STRONGYLOGNATHUS. 85 slavery, but how they procure the slaves is still a mystery. They fight in the same manner as Polyergus ; but yet Schenk, Von Hagens, and Forel all agree that they are no match for the Tetramioriums, a courageous species, and one which lives in large communities. On one occasion Forel brought a nest of Tetramorium and put it down very near one of Strongylogna" thus testaceus with Tetramomum slaves. A battle at once commenced between the two communities. The Strongylognathus rushed boldly to the fight, but, though their side won the day, this was mainly due to the slaves. The Strongijlognathus themselves were almost all killed ; and though the energy of their attack seemed at first to disconcert their opponents, Forel assures us that they did not succeed in killing even a single Tetramorium, In fact, as Forel graphically observes, Strongylognathus is ' une triste caricature ' of Polyergus, and it seems almost impossible that by themselves they could successfully attack a nest of Tetramorium, Moreover, in Strongylognathus, the workers are comparatively few. Nevertheless, they are always found with the Tetramoriums, and in these mixed nests there are no males or females of Tetra- morium, but only those of Strongylognathus, Again, the whole work of the nest is done by the slaves, though Strongylognathus has not, like Polyergus, entirely lost the power of feeding itself. But if the economy of Strongylognathus is an enigma, that of Anergates is still more mysterious. 86 ANERGATES. The genus Anergates was discovered by Schenk,* who found a small community consisting of males, females and workers, which he naturally supposed to belong to one species. Mayr, however, pointed out • that the workers were in fact workers of Tetramorium- ccespitum ; and it would appear that while in Strongy- lognathus the workers are comparatively few, Aner- gates differs from all other ants in having no workers at all. The males and females live with TetramoHum ccespifum, and are in several respects very peculiar, — for instance, the male is wingless. One might consider it rather a case of parasitism than of slavery, but the difficulty is that in these mixed nests there are no males, females, or young of Tetramorium. As to this all ob- servers are agreed. It seems quite clear that Aner- gates <;annot prociu-e its slaves, if such they are, by marauding expeditions like those of Polyergus ; in the first place, because the Anergates are too few, and secondly, because they are too weak. The whole ques- tion is rendered still more difficult by the fact that neither Von Hagens' nor Forel ever found either larvae or pupae of Tetramorium in the mixed nests. The com- munity consisted of males and females of Anergates^ accompanied and tended by workers of Tetramorium ca'sjpitiim. The Anergates are absolutely dependent * 'Die Nassauischen Ameiscn-Species,' Stettin Ent. Zeit. 1853, p. 186. ' EtiTO]). Fomiicif/o', p. 50. • VerA. des Natur. Vercines der Prcuss. lihcinlande irnd Wctt* fkalcnt 1867, p. 63. See also V. Hageng. Bcrl. Ent.Zeit, 1807, p. 102. HABITS OF ANERGATES. 87 iil)on their slaves, and cannot even feed themcelves. The whole problem is, therefore, most puzzHng and interesting.' As regards Strongylognaihus, Von Hagens made two suggestions, the first being that this insect is really a monstrous form of Tetramorium, This, however, cannot at any rate be the case with Anergates. On the whole, then, he inclines to think that perhaps the nests cont^iining Strongylognathus or Anergates are only parts of a community, and that the young of the Tetramoriams are in another nest of the same com- munity. This would account for the absence of the young of the Tetramoriums, but would not remove all the difficulties. It is in other respects not consistent with what we know of the habits of ants, and on the whole I agree with Forel in thinking the suggestion untenable. The difficulty of accounting for the numbers of Tetramoriums, coupled with the absence of young, was indeed almost insuperable as long as the workers were supposed to live only for one year. My observa- tions, however, which show that even in captivity a nest may continue for five years, place the question in a different position, and give us, I think, a clue. On the whole, I would venture to suggest that the male and female Anergates make their way into a nest • On the contrary, in Tomorpmthtis .wbUet-is, a Finland species which lives in the nests of Lej,tof/wrax 7nvscorum and L. acnrorum, the workers only are known. The male, like that of Aneraahs i» uingloa*. ' "fcT rf >-»»ijje -ftJt ».j'i'.rfa.'ut her on the strip of paper. She took an hour to recover. The same two marked ants as in the previous observation were at work. One passed thirty times, the IOC EXPEEIMENTS WITH DROWNED ANTS. other twenty-eight times, besides which five others passed by ; but not one took the sh'ghtest notice. I immersed three ants for eight hours, and then put them on the strip of paper. They began to recover in three-quarters of an hour, but were not quite them- selves till half an hour afterwards. During the> first three-quarters of an hour two marked ants passed, earh four times ; and two others also went by. During the following half-hour the two marked ants passed sixteen times, and three others ; but none of them took any notice. I immersed another ant for forty minutes, and put her on the strip of paper. She recovered in twenty minutes, during which time the marked ones, which were the same as in the preceding case, went by four- teen times without taking any notice. I immersed two ants for ten hours, and then placed them on the strip of paper. The same two marked ants passed respectively eighteen and twenty-six times, and one other passed by also without taking any notice. After this I left off watching. I immersed two ants for four hours, and then put them on the strip of paper. They began to recover in an hour, during which two marked ants, not the same as in the preceding case, passed respectively twenty-eight and ten times, and two others went by ; but none of them took any notice 1 immersed an ant for an hour, and then put her on the same strip of paper as in the previous cases. A marked ■j.*tA EXPERIMENTS WITH DROWNED ANTS. 101 ant passed her twelve times ; three others also went by but took no notice of her ; but, on the other hand, a fourth picked her up and carried her off into the nest. Again, I immersed an ant for an hour, and put her on the strip of paper. The marked ant passed twice, after which she did not return. Soon after, another ant came by and, picking up the immersed one, carried her off to the nest. I do not bring forward these cases as proof or even as evidence that ants are less tender to friends in distress than previous observers have stated to be the case ; but they certainly show that tenderness is not invariably the rule ; and, especially when taken in connexion with the following cases, they are interesting illustrations of the individual differences existing between ants — that there are Priests and Levites, and good Samaritans among them, as among men. As evidence both of their intelligence and of their affection for their friends, it has been said by various observers tliat when ants have been accidentally buried they have been very soon dug out and rescued by their companions. Without for one moment doubting the iacts as stated, we must remember the habit which ants have of burrowing in lo(^se fre^h soil, and especially their practice of digging out fresh galleries when their nests are disturbed. It seemed to me, however, that it would not be difficult to test whether the excavations made by ants under the circumstances were the result of this general 102 EXPERIMENTS WITH BURIED ANTS. EXPERIMENTS WITH BURIED ANTS. 103 habit, or really due to a desire to extricate their friends. With this view I tried the following experiments : — (1) On August 20 I placed some honey near a nest of Lasius niger on a glass surrounded with water, and so arranged that in reaching it the ants passed over another glass covered with a layer of sifted earth, about one-third of an inch in thickness. I then put some ants to the honey, and by degrees a considerable num- ber collected round it. Then at 1.30 p.m. I buried an ant from the same nest under the earth, and left her there till 5 p.m., when I uncovered her. She was none the worse, but during the whole time not one of her friends had taken the least notice of her. (2) I arranged (September 1) some honey again in the same way. At 5 p.m. about fifty ants were at the honey, and a considerable number passing to and fro. I then buried an ant as before, taking of course one from the same nest. At 7 p.m. the number of ants at the honey had nearly doubled. At 10 p.m. they were still more numerous, and had carried off about two- thirds of the honey. At 7 a.m. the next morning the honey was all gone, two or three were still wanderino- about, but no notice had been taken of the prisoner, whom I then let out. In this case I allowed the honey to be finished, because I thought it might perhaps be alleged that the excitement produced by such a treasure distracted their attention, or even (on the principle of doing the greatest good to the greatest number) that they were intelligently wise in securing a treasure of food before they rescued their comrade, who, though in confinement, was neither in pain nor danger. So far as the above ants, however, are concerned, this cannot, I think, be urged. (3) On the 8th September I repeated the experi- ment, burying some ants at 4 p.m. Up to 6.3 no attempt had been made to release them. I let them out and buried some more. The next morning, at 7 a.m., the honey was all gone, some ants were still wandering about, but no notice had been taken of the captives, whom I then liberated. (4) I then (August 21) made exactly the same experiment with Myrmica ruginodisy as representing the other great family of ants. In order to test the affection of ants belonging to the same nest for one another I tried the following experiments. I took six ants from a nest of F, fusca, imprisoned them in a small bottle, one end of which was covered with a layer of muslin. I then put the muslin close to the door of the nest. The muslin was of open texture, the meshes, however, being sufficiently small to prevent the ants from escaping. They could not only, however, see one another, but communicate freely with their antennae. We now watched to see whether the prisoners would be tended or fed by their friends. We could not, however, observe that the least notice was taken of them. The experiment, nevertheless, was less conclusive than fiil! riaSHtf^ -Tim artf Ja&j:j*^a.tAfaaAr.f t\t 'orijjih^ut^^ ^^^^ '*. ■ - 'ji ijii' Z-t '<^iJl* 104 CONTRAST OF BEHAVIOUR TO FRIENDS AND STRANGERS. 105 could be wished, because they might have been fed at night, or at some time when we were not looking. It struck me, therefore, that it would be interesting to treat some strangers also in the same manner. On September 2, therefore, I put two ants from one of my nests of F, fusca into a bottle, the end of which was tied up with muslin as described, and laid it down close to the nest. In a second bottle I put two ants from another nest of the same species. The ants which were at liberty took no notice of the bottle con- taining their imprisoned friends. The strangers in the other bottle, on the contrary, excited them considerably. The whole day one, two, or more ants stood sentry, as it were, over the bottle. In the evening no less than twelve were collected round it, a larger number than usually came out of the nest at any one time. The whole of the next two days, in the same way, there were more or less ants round the bottle containing the strangers ; while, as far as we could see, no notice whatever was taken of the friends. On the 9th the ants had eaten through the muslin, and effected an entrance. We did not chance to be on the spot at the moment ; but as I found two ants lying dead, one in the bottle and one just outside, I think there can be no doubt that the strangers were put to death. The friends throughout were quite neglected. September 21.— I then repeated the experiment, putting three ants from another nest in a bottle as before. The same scene was repeated. The irienda were neglected. On the other hand, some of the ants were always watching over the bottle containing the strangers, and biting at the muslin which protected them. The next morning at (5 a.m. I found five ants thus occupied. One had caught hold of the leg of one of the strangers, whicli had unwarily been allowed to protrude through the meshes of the muslin. They worked and watched, though not, as far as I could see, with any system, till 7.30 in the evening, when they effected an entrance, and immediately attacked the strangers. September 24. — I repeated the same experiment with the same nest. Again the ants came and sat over the bottle containing the strangers, while no notice was taken of the friends. The next morning again, when I got up, I found five ants round the bottle containing the strangers, none near the friends. As in the former case, one of the ants had seized a stranger by the leg, and was trying to drag her through the muslin. All day the ants clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly, though not systematically, at the muslin. The same thing happened all the following day. These observations seemed to me sufficiently to test the behaviour of the ants belonging to this nest under these circumstances. I thought it desirable, however, to try also other communities. I selected, therefore, two other nests. One was a community of Polyergus rufescens with numerous slaves. Close to where the 9 •^llAft ajil 106 INSTANCES OF KINDNESS TO FRIENDS. ants of this nest came to feed, I placed as before two small bottles, closed in the same way — one containing two slave ants from the nest, the ocner two strangers. These ants, however, behaved quite unlike the pre- ceding, for they took no notice of either bottle, and showed no sign either of affection or hatred. One is almost tempted to surmise that the warlike spirit of these ants was broken by slavery. The other nest which I tried, also a community of Formica fusca, behaved exactly like the first. They took no notice of the bottle containing the friends, but clustered round and eventually forced their way into that containing the strangers. It seems, therefore, that in these curious insects hatred is a stronger passion than aftection. Some of those who have done me the honour of noticing my papers have assumed that I disputed altogether the kindly feelings which have been attri- buted to ants. I should, however, be very sorry to treat my favourities so unfj\irly. So far as I can observe, ants of the same nest never quarrel. I have never seen the slightest evidence of ill-temper in any of my nests : all is harmony. Nor are instances of active assistance at all rare. Indeed, I have myself witnessed various cases showing care and tenderness on their part. In one of my nests of Formica fusca was an ant which had come into the world without antenna?. Never having previously met with such a case, I watched her with great interest ; but she never ap- A CRIPPLED ANT. lor peared to leave the nest. At length one day I found her wandering about in an aimless sort of manner, and apparently not knowing her way at all. After a while she fell in with some specimens of Logins flavus^ who directly attacked her. I at once set myself to separate them; but whether owing to the wounds she had received from her enemies, or to my rough, though well- meant handling, or to both, she was evidently much wounded, and lay helplessly on the ground. After some time another Formica fusca from her nest came by. She examined the poor sufferer carefully, then picked her up carefully and carried her away into the nest. It would have been difficult for any one who witnessed this scene to have denied to this ant the possession of humane feelings. Again, in one of my nests of Formica fusca on January 23 last (1881), I perceived a poor ant lying on her back and quite unable to move. The legs were in cramped attitudes, and the two antennae rolled up in spirals. She was, of course, altogether unable to feed herself. After this I kept my eye on her. Several times I tried uncovering the part of the nest where she was. The other ants soon carried her into the shaded part. On March 4 the ants were all out of the nest, probably for fresh air, and had collected together in a comer of the box ; they had not, however, forgotten her, but had carried her with them. I took off the glass lid of the box, and after a while they returned as usual to the nest, taking her in again. Or March 5 108 A DEAD QUEEN. she was still alive, but on the ] 5th, notwithstanding all their care, she was dead ! At the present time I have two other ants perfectly crippled in a similar manner, and quite unable to move, which have lived in two different nests, belonging also to F,fusca, the one for five the other for four months. In May 1879 I gave a lecture on Ants at the Royal Institution, and was anxious to exhibit a nest of Lasius flavua with the queen. While preparing the nest, on May 9, we accidentally crushed the queen. The ants, however, did not desert her, or drag her out as they do dead workers, but, on the contrary, carried her with them into the new nest, and subse- quently into a larger one with which I supplied them, congregating round her, just as if she had been alive, for morelhan six weeks, when we lost sight of her. In order to ascertain whether ants knew their fellows by any sign or pass word, as has been suggested in the case of bees, I was anxious to see if they could re- cognise them when in a state of insensibility. I tried therefore the following experiments with some specimens of Lasius fiav us. September 10, at 6 p.m., a number of these ants were out feeding on some honey, placed on one of my tables, and surrounded by a moat of water. I chloroformed four of them and also four from a nest in my park, at some distance from the place where the first had been orioi- oally procured, painted them, and put them close to the honey. Up to 8.20 the ants had taken no notice of BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS. 109 their insensible fellow creatures. At 9.20 I found that four friends were still lying as before, while the four strangers had been removed. Two of them I found had been thrown over the edge of the board on which the honey was placed. The other two I could not see. Again, on September 14, at 8.40, I put in the same way four friends marked white, and four strangers marked red, close to where my L. jlavus were out feeding on honey placed on a slip of glass over water. For some hours they took no notice of them. At length one took a friend, and after carrying her about some time dropped her, at 12.40, into the water. Some time after another took up a stranger and carried her into the nest at 2.35. A second stranger was similarly carried into the nest at 2.55, a third at 3.45, while the fourth was thrown over the edge of the board at 4.20. Shortly after this two of the strangers weie brought out of the nest again and thrown into the water. A second friend was thrown away, like the first, at 4.58, the third at 5.17, and the fourth at 5.4G. I could not ascertain what happened to the last stranger, but have little doubt that she was brought out of the nest and thrown awa}^ like the rest. On the following day at 6.45 I tried the same ex- periment again, only reversing the colors by which they were distinguished. At 7 one of the strangers was carried off and dropped over the edge of the glass into the water, and at 8 a second. At 8.45 a friend was taken up and, after being carried about some time, was thrown into 110 BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS. the moat. At 9.45 a friend was picked up and carried into the nest, but brought out again and thrown awaj about 3 in the afternoon. The other four remained where they were placed until 8 P.M., and though the other ants often came up and examineil them, they did not carry them off. September 29. — Again placed nine chloroformed ants, five friends and four strangers, close to where a number were feeding. There was a continual stream of ants to the honey, ten or fifteen being generally there at once. Astra„gerwaspickedupatl0.20{-V':T!:^';r,;: 10.32 A friend A stranger » 15 55 55 » 55 55 55 55 10.22 11.22 11.35 11.41 5» n j> 10.35 11.42 11.50 11.45 Shortly after the others were picked up and carried away to the edge of the board, where they were dropped, but none were taken into the nest. October 2. — Again at 10 a.m. placed ten chloro- fonned ants, five friends and five strangers, close to where some were feeding. They were picked up and carried off as before in the following order : — At 1 1. 5 a stranger was picked up and dropped at 1 1 .15 11.12 a friend „ „ 11.50 11.25 a stranger „ „ ]i.3fi 12. 7 .. .. . 12.45 55 12.10 a friend 5> 5* 99 99 12.16 BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS. Ill At 1.10 a stranger was picked up and dropped at 2. 6 1.42 a friend „ 9, 1.46 1 .0 J ,, 99 99 1.00 2.6 „ „ „ 3.10 Only one of them, and that one a stranger, was carried into the nest at 12.45, but brought out again at 1.10. October 6. — At 9 a.m. again tried the same experi- ment with four strangers and five friends. At 9.25 a friend was picked up and dropped at 9.31 9.35 a stranger „ „ 9.45 9.45 a friend „ „ 9.52 10. 8 a stranger „ „ 10.17 10.17 a friend „ „ 10.20 10.22 a stranger „ „ 10.25 10.28 „ „ „ 10.40 10.25 a friend „ „ 10.31 None of them were carried into the nest. These experiments seem to prove that under such circumstances ants, at least those belonging to this species, do not carry off their friends (when thus rendered insensible) into a place of safety. I think, however, that in this experiment the ants being to all intents and purposes dead, we could not expect that any difference would be made between friends and strangers. I therefore repeated the same experiment, only, instead of chloroforming the ants, I intoxicated them. This experiment is more difficult, 112 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. as it is not in all cases easy to hit off the requisite degree of intoxication. The numbers therefore of friends and strangers are not quite the same, because in some cases the ants recovered too quickly and had to be removed. In such cases I have latterly replaced the ant so removed by another, so as to keep the number of friends and strangers about equal. The sober ants seemed somewhat puzzled at finding their intoxicated fellow creatures in such a disgraceful con- tion, took them up, and carried them about for a time in a somewhat aimless manner. November 20. — I experimented with six friends and six strangers, beginning at 11. At 1 1 .30 a friend was carried to the nest. 1 1 .50 a stranger was dropped into the water. 12.30 12.31 a friend 1.10 a stranger 1.18 1.27 1.30 a friend (partly recovered) was taken to the nest. 2.30 a friend was taken up and carried about till 2,55\ she was then taken to the nest, but at the door the bearer met two other ants, which seized the intoxicated one, carried her off, and eventually dropped her into the water. At 3.35 a friend was carried to the nest. Out of these twelve, five strangers and two friends ?> 55 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 113 99 99 <> 55 55 55 99 99 99 were dropped into the water ; none of the strangers, but three friends were taken to the nest. None of the friends were brought out of the nest again. November 22. — Experimented in the same way on four friends and four strangers, beginning at 12 o'clock. At 12.16 a stranger was taken and dropped into the water. 12.21 12.23 12.40 I then put four more strangers treated as before. At 3.10 a stranger was taken and dropped into the water. 3.30 3.35 3.44 a friend (partly recovered) was taken back to the nest. 4.10 a stranger was taken and dropped into the water. 4.13 a friend (partly recovered) was taken back to the nest. In this case eight strangers were dropped into the water, and none were taken to the nest ; two friends, on the contrary, were taken to the nest, and none were dropped into the water. December \. — Experimented with five friends and five strangers, beginning at 2.15. At 2.30 a stranger was dropped into the water. 3. 2 99 55 99 55 55 55 99 99 » httak^fffj^Nl f*r 'TJ 9> 5.24 »5 114 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. At 3.20 a friend was taken into the nest. 3.35 a stranger was taken into the nest, but after- wards brought out again and thrown into the water. 4. 5 I put out four more friends and as many strangers. 4.45 a stranger was dropped into the water. 5.10 „ taken into the nest, but afterwards brought out and thrown into the water, taken into the nest, but afterwards brought out and thrown into the water. 5,^0 a friend was thrown into the water. 6. 4. a stranger „ „ 6. 8 a friend was taken into the nest. 6.20 6.23 6.30 a stranger was dropped into the water. 6.50 a friend „ „ ^^ 8. 5 a friend was taken into the nest. In this case two friends were thrown into the water and seven taken into the nest ; while six strangers were thrown into the water and four were taken into the nest ; all of these, however, were afterwards brought out again and thrown away. December 8. — Experimented with six friends and sii strangers, beginning at 11.30 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 115 55 5> » 5> At 11.30 a friend was carried to nest. ' 11.47 n n 11.50 55 55 11.52 55 55 11.56 a friend was dropped into water. 11.58 a stranger „ „ 11.58 jj 55 55 12 a Strang er was carried to nest. 12. 2 53 55 • 55 12. 3 53 55 55 I then put four more of each, and as a friend or a stranger was carried off, replaced her by another. At 12.45 a friend to the water. 12.58 a stranger to the water. 1 a friend to the nest. 1 55 55 1 55 55 1.58 55 55 • 1.59 55 55 2.30 a stranger to the water. , 2.30 55 55 2.35 a stranger to the nest. 2.42 a stranger to the water. 2.48 55 55 2.51 55 W 2.52 55 n 2.55 a friend to the nest. 2-55 a stranger to the water. 2.55 55 55 116 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. At 3. 2 a friend to the water. 3. 6 a stranger to the water. 3.12 a friend to the water. 3.15 „ „ 3.16 a friend to the nest. 3.22 a stranger to the water o.2d „ „ 3.25 a friend to the nest, 3.35 a stranger to the water 3.50 a friend to the nest. 3.50 „ „ All these ants appeared quite insensible. Altogether sixteen friends were taken to the nest and fivethrown into the water, while of the strangers only three were taken to the nest, and fifteen were thrown into the water. Moreover, as in the preceding observation, even the three strangers which were at first taken to the nest were soon brought out again and thrown away ; while this was not the case with any of the friends as far as we could ascertain, though we searched diligently for them also. In this case also all the intoxicated ants were motionless and apparently insensible. January 15. — Repeated the same experiment, beginning at 12.20. Up to 7 p.m. not one of the intoxi- cated ants had been moved. At 8.20 we found a stranger in the water, at 9.30 another, and at the following morning a third. The others were untouched. January 17. — Repeated the same experiment, beginning at 1 1.30, BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 117 At 12 a friend was carried to the nest. 12.20 a stranger was dropped into the water. 12.34 a friend was carried to the nest. 12.40 a stranger was dropped into the water, 12.45 a friend was carried to the nest, 1 a stranger „ „ 1 ,, „ water (Stopped observing till 2.) 2.30 a stranger was dropped into the water. 2.30 a stranger was carried to the nest. >5 9) 9) » ?9 water. 5> 4.10 4.30 a friend 6.20 a stranger 6.35 „ Thus, then, the general results were that the ants removed forty-one friends and fifty-two strangers. Of the friends, thirty-two were carried into the nest and nine were thrown into the water. Of the strangers, on the contrary, forty-three were thrown into the water ; only nine were taken into the nest, and seven of these were shortly afterwards brought out again and thrown away. Indeed,! fully believe that the other two were treated in the same manner, though we could not satisfy ourselves of the fact. But it wa« only by very close observation that the seven were detected, and the other two may well have escaped notice. It seems clear, therefore, that even in a condition of insensibility these ants were recognised by theii friends. 118 BEHAVIOUK TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. Tabular View. — Experiments on Ants under Chloroform and Intoxicated. Chloroformed Ants. Friends Strangehh Sept. 10 To Nest To Water Unre- moved To Nest To Water Cure- movet] • • • • • • 4 • • ■ 4 ... 14 • • • 4 • • " 2 and brouglit out again 2 15 1 and broug^ht out again 1 ' • • • • • 9 29 • • • 5 • • • • • • 4 Oct. 2 • • • 5 • • • 1 and brought out again 4 • • • 6 • • • 5 • • • • • • 4 • • • 1 20 4 3 20 2 Intoxicated . \NT8. Nov. 20 3 2 • • • « • • 5 1 22 2 • • • 2 • • » 8 • • • In these cases some of the Ants had partly recovered ; in the following they were quite insensible. Dec. 1 7 none brought out again 2 • • • 3 all these brouglit out 8 16 none brought out again 5 ai^rain 3 all these brought out Jan. 15 • • • 4 again • • • 17 4 • • ■ • • • 3 none brought out again one brought out again 27 4 2 G • •• 15 • • • 3 1 6 ... 30 1 CHAPTER VI. RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS. It has been already shown that with ants, as with bees, while the utmost harmony reigns between those belonging to the same community, all others are enemies. I have already given ample proof that a strange ant is never tolerated in a community. This of course implies that all the bees or ants of a community have the power of recognising one another, a most surprising fact, when we consider the shortness of their life and their immense numbers. It is calculated that in a single hive there may be as many as 50,000 bees, and in the case of ants the numbers are still greater. In the large communities of Formica jmUeiisis it is probable that there may be as many as from 400,000 to 500,000 ants, and in other cases even these large numbers are exceeded. If, however, a stranger is put among the ants of anotlier nest, she is at once attacked. On this point I have satisfied myself, as will be seen in the following pages, that the statements of Huber and others are perfectly correct. If, for instance, I introduced a stranger into one of my nests, say of Formica fusca oi >•«'".. a.CJji'-'ifl&.iHaS-JS'^-'^t.j- ^■rt-BJ%i 120 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS. Lasius niger, she was at once attacked. One ant would seize her by an antenna, another by a leg, and she was either dragged out of the nest or killed. Moreover, we have not only to deal with the fact that ants know all their comrades, but that they recog- nise them even after a lengthened separation. Huber mentions that some ants which he had kept in captivity having accidentally escaped, * met and recognised their former companions, fell to mutual caxesses with their antennae, took them up by their mandibles, and led them to their own nests ; they came presently in a crowd to seek the fugitives under and about the artificial ant-hill, and even ventured to reach the bell-glass, where they effected a complete desertion by carrying away successively all the ants they found there. In a few days the ruche was depopulated. These ants had remained four months without any communication.' * This interesting state- ment has been very naturally copied by succeeding WTiters. See, for instance, Kiri)y and Spence's ' In- troduction to Entomology,* vol. ii. p. 6G, and Newport, * Trans, of the Entomological Society of I^ondon,' vol. ii. p. 239. Forel, indeed, regards the movements observed by Huber as having indicated fear and surprise rather than affection ; though he is quite disposed to believe, from his own observations, that ants would recognise one another after a separation of several mouths. » Huber, p. 172. RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS. 121 The observation recorded by Huber was made casually, and he did not take any steps to test it by subsequent experiments. The fact, however, is of so much importance that I determined to make further observations on the subject. In the first place, I may repeat that I have satisfied myself by many experiments, that ants from one community introduced into another, — always be it understood of the same ftpecies, — are attacked, and either driven out or killed. It follows, therefore, that as within the nest the most complete harmony prevails — indeed, I have never seen a quarrel between sister ants — they must by some means recognise one another. When we consider their immense numbers t.his is sufficiently surprising ; but that they should recognise one another, as stated by Huber, after a separation of months, is still more astonishing. I determined therefore to repeat and extend his observations. Accordingly, on August 20, 1875, I divided a colony of Myrmica ruginodis, so that one half were in one nest, A, and the other half in another, B, and were kept entirely apart. On October 3, I put into nest B a stranger and an old companion from nest A. They were marked with a si)ot of colour. One of them immediately flew at the stranger ; of the friend they took no notice. October 18. — At 10 a.m. I put in a stranger and a 10 122 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS friend from nest A. In the evening the former was killed, the latter was quite at home. October 19. — I put one in a small bottle with a friend from nest A. They did not show any enmity. I then put in a stranger ; and one of them immediately began to fight with her. October 24. — I again put into the nest a stranger and a friend. The former was attacked, but not the latter. The following day I found the former almost dead, while the friend was all right. October 31. — I again put a stranger and a friend into the nest. The former was at once attacked ; in this case the friend also was, for a moment, seized by the leg, but at once released again. On the following morning the stranger was dead, the friend was all right. November 7. — Again I put in a stranger and a friend. The former was soon attacked and eventually driven out ; of the latter they did not seem to me to take any particular notice. I could see no signs of welcome, no gathering round a returned friend ; but, on the other hand, she was not attacked. Again, I separated one of my colonies of Formica fusca into two halves on August 4, 1875, and kept them entirely apart. From time to time I put speci- mens from the one half back into the other. The de- tails of this experiment will be found in the Appendix. At first the friends were always amicably received, but after some month.s' separation they were occasionally AFTER SEPARATION FOR NEARLY TWO YEARS. 123 attacked, as if some of the ants, perhaps the young ones, did not recognise them. Still they were never killed, or driven out of the nest, so that evidently when a mistake was made, it was soon recognised. No one who saw the different manner in which these ants and strangers were treated, could have the slightest doubt that the former were recognised as friends and the latter as enemies. The last three were put back on May 14, 1877, that is to say, after a separation of a year and nine months, and yet they were amicably re- ceived, and evidently recognised as friends ! These observations were all made on Formica fusca , and it is of course possible that other species would beha^^e in a different manner. Indeed, in this respect Lasins flavus offers a sur- prising contrast to F, fusca, I was anxious to see whether the colonies of this species, which are very numerous round my house, were in friendly relations with one another. With this view, I kept a nest of L, flavus for a day or two without food, and then gave them some honey, to which they soon found their way in numbers. I then put in the midst of them an ant of the same species from a neighbouring nest; the others did not attack, but, on the contrary, cleaned her — thouirh, from the attention she excited and the numerous communications which took place between her and them, I am satisfied that they knew she was not one of themselves. After a few minutes she accom- panied some of the returning ants to the nest. Thej 124 TREATMENT OF STRANG ERa did not drag nor apparently guide her ; but she went with the rest freely. This I repeated several times with the same result. I then took four ants, two from a nest about 500 yards from the first in one direction, the other from an equal distance in another. In all cases the result was the same. I then got a few from a colony about half a mile off. These also were most amicably received, and in every case the stranger went of her own accord to the nest. One of the strangers was, indeed, dragged about half way to the entrance of the nest, but was then left free and miirht have run awav if she had liked. She, however, after wandering about for half a minute, voluntarily entered the nest. In one or two cases the stranger ran as quickly and straight to the nest as if she had been there over and over again. This, I suppose, can only have been by scent ; and cer- tainly no hounds in full cry coidd have pursued their game more directly or with less hesitation. In other cases, however, they were much longer before they went in. To satisfy myself that these facts were not owing to the nest having been taken from that of colonies or allies, I subsequently procured some ants of the same species from a nest in Hertfordshire ; and they also behaved in a similar manner. In one or two cases they seemed to be attacked, though so feebly that I could not feel sure about it; but in no case were the ants killed. The following fact surprised me still more. I put an ant (Aug. 13) at 9 a.m. on a spot where a number o< TREATMENT OF STRANGERS. 125 Lasiits Jlavits (belonging to one of my nests of domesti- cated ants) had been feeding some hours previously, though none were there, or, indeed, out at all, at the moment. The entrance to the nest was about eight inches off ; but she walked straight to it and into the nest. A second wandered about for four or five minutes, and then went in ; a third, on the contrary, took a wrong direction, and, at any rate for three-quarters of an hour, did not find the entrance. At that time, liowever, I did not ascertain what became of the specimens thus introduced into a strange community. I thought it would be worth while to determine this, so I subsequently (1881) took six ants from one of my nests of L, fiavus, marked them, and introduced them into another nest of the same species. As in the preceding cases they entered quite readily ; but though they were not at first attacked, they were evidently recognised as strangers. The others ex- amined them carefully, and at length they were all driven out of the nest. Their greater readiness to enter a strange nest may perhaps be accounted for by the fact that, as a subterranean species their instinct always is to conceal tliemselves underground, whereas, F, fusca, a hunting species, does not do so except to enter its own nest. How do these ants and bees recognise their com- panions? The difficulty of believing that in such populous communities every individual knows every other by sight, has led some entomologists to suppose 126 MODE OF RECOGNITION. that each nest had a sign or password. This was, foi instance, the opinion of Gelieu, who believed that in each hive the bees had some common sign or password. As evidence of this, he mentions * that one of his hives had been for some days robbed by the bees from another : * et je desesperais de conserver cet essaim, lorsqu'un jour, sur le soir, je le vis fort inquiet, fort agite, comme s'il eut perdu sa reine. Les abeilles couraient en tout sens sur le devant et le tablier de la ruche, se flairant, se tAtant mutuellement, comme si elles eussent voulu se dire quelque chose. C'etait pour changer leur signe de reconnaissance, qu'elles changerent en effet pendant la nuit. Toutes les pillardes qui revinrent le lendemain, furent arretees et tuees. Plu- sieurs echapperent aux gardes vigilantes qui defendaient Tentree avertirent sans doute les autres du danger qu'elles avaient couru, et que Ton ne pouvait plus piller impunement. Aucune de celles qui voulurent recommencer leur depredation ne penetra dans la ruche, dont elles avaient fait leur proie, et qui prospera merveilleusement.' Dujardin doubts the explanation given by Gelieu. He thinks that *.he nest which was robbed was at that time queenless, and that the sudden change in the behaviour of the bees was due to their having acquired a queen. Burmeister, on the contrary, in his excellent * Manual of Entomology,' says that ' the power of com* * Le Comervateur ties AbtHlles, p. 143. SUPPOSED USE OF PASS SIGNS. 127 muoicating to their comrades what they purpose is peculiar to insects. Much has been talked of the so-called signs of recognition in bees, which is said to consist in recognising their comrades of the same hive by means of peculiar signs. This sign serves to pre- vent any strange bee from entering into the same hive without being immediately detected and killed. It, however, sometimes happens that several hives have the same signs, when their several members rob each other with impunity. In these cases the bees whose hive suffers most alter their signs, and then can im- mediately detect their enemy.' * Others, again, have supposed ants recognise one another by smell. Mr. McCook states that ants more or less soaked in water are no longer recognised by their friends, but, on the contrary, are attacked. Describing the following observation, he says : ^ — 'I was accidentally set upon the track of an interesting discovery. An ant fell into a box containing water placed at the foot of a tree. She remained in the liquid several moments and crept out. Immediately she was seized in a hostile manner, first by one, then another, then by a third : the two an- tenn* and one leg were thus held. A fourth ant assaulted the middle thorax and petiole. The poor lit lie bather was thus dragged helplessly to and fro for a long time, and was evidently ordained to death. » Burmcister's EntonioUffy^ p. 502. * Mound- making Ants of the Allcghanics, p. 280. 128 SUPPOSED RECOGNITION BY SCENT. Presently I took up the struggling heap. Two of the assailants kept their hold; one finally dropped, the other I could not tear loose, and so put the pair back upon the tree, leaving the doomed immersionist to her hard fate.' After recording one or two other similar observa- tions, he adds:'— 'The conclusion, therefore, seems warranted that the peculiar odour or condition by which the ants recognise each other was temporarily destroyed by the bath, and the individuals thus " tainted " were held to be intruders, alien and enemy. This con- clusion is certainly unfavourable to the theory that any thing like an intelligent social sentiment exists among the ants. The recognition of their fellows is reduced to a mere matter of physical sensation or " smell." ' This conclusion does not, I confess, seem to me to be conclusively established. We can hardly suppose that each ant has a pecu- liar odour, and it seems almost equally difficult, con- sidering the immense number of ants' nests, to supix)se that each community has a separate and peculiar smell. Moreover, in a previous chaj^ter I have recorded some experiments made with intoxicated ants. It will be remembered that my ants are allowed to range over a table surrounded by a moat of water. Now, as already mentioned, out of forty-one intoxicated friends, thirty- two were carried into the nest and nine were thrown into the water; while out of fifty-two intoxicated ^ Mound'inaUng Ants of the AllegJianies, p. 281. SUPPOSED USE OF A PASSWORD. 129 strangers two were taken into the nest and fifty were thrown into the water. I think it most probable that even these two were subsequently brought out and treated like the rest. It is clear, therefore, that in these species, and I believe in most, if not all others, the ants of a com- munity all recognise one another. The whole question is full of difficulty. It occurred to me, however, that experiments with pupa3 might throw some light on the subject. Although all the communities are deadly enemies, still if larvae or pupae from one nest are trans- ferred to another, they are tended with apparently as much care as if they really belonged to the nest. In ant-warfare, though sex is no protection, the young are spared, at least when they belong to the same species. Moreover, though the habits of ants are greatly changed if they are taken away from their nest and kept with only a few friends, still, under such circumstances, they will carefully tend any young who may be confidecf to them. Now if the recognition were individual — if the ants knew any one of their comrades, as we know our friends, not only from strangers, but from one another — then young ants taken from the nest as pupae and restored after they had come to maturity would not be recognised as friends. On the other hand, if the recognition were effected by means of some signal or password, then the pupae which were intrusted to ants from another nest would have the password, if any, of that nest ; and not of their own. Hence in this case ,.-> »frt.--t jAAcw:>-*^3«s J 130 EXPERIMENTS WITH PUPiE. ihey would be amicably received in the nest from which their nurses had been taken, but not in their own. In the first place, therefore, I put, on September 2, 1877, some pupae from one of my nests of Formica fusca with a couple of ants from the same nest. On the 27th I put two ants, which in the meantime had emerged from one of these pupye, back into their own nest at 8.30 a.m., marking them with paint as usual. At 9 they seemed quite at home ; at 9.30, ditto ; at 10, ditto; and they were nearly cleaned. After that I could not distinguish them. On the 29th another ant came out of the pupa- state ; and on October 1 at 7.45 I put her back into the nest. She seemed quite at home, and the others Boon began to clean her. We watched her from time to time, and she was not attacked ; but, the colour being removed, we could not recognise her after 9.30. On July 14 last year (1878) I put into a small glass some pupge from another nest of Formica fusca with two friends. On August 11 I put four of the young anta which had emerged from these pup?e into the nest. After the interval of an hour, I looked for them in vain. The door of the nest was closed with cotton-wool ; so that they could not have come out ; and if any were being attacked, I think we must have seen it. I believe, therefore, that in the meantime they had been cleaned. Still, as we did not actually watch them, I EXPERIMENTS WITH PUP^. 131 was not satisfied. I put in, therefore, two more at 6 P.M. At 5.30 they were all right; at 5.45, ditto, one being almost cleaned. At 6 one was all right ; the other was no longer recognizable, having been quite cleaned. At 6.30 also one was quite at home ; the other could not be distinguished. At 7 both had been completely cleaned The following day I marked another, and put her in at 6 a.m. At 6.15 she was all right among the others, and also at 6.30, 7, 7.30, 8, and 9.30, after which I could no longer distinguish her. Again, on the following day I put in another at 6.45 A.M. At 7 she was quite at home, and also at 7.15, 7.30, 8, and to 9.30, after which I did not watch her. To test the mode in which the ants of this nest would behiive to a stranger, I then, though feeling no doubt as to the result, introduced one. The difference was very striking. The stranger was a powerful ant; still she was evidently uncomfortable, started away from every ant she met, and ran nervously about, trying to get out of the nest. She was, however, soon attacked. Again, on October 1 some pupae of Lasius niger were placed in a glass with five ants from the same nest. On December 8 I took three of the ants which had emerged from these pupae, and at midday put them ba!. Forel. For in- stance, on one occasion an army of Amazon ants {Polyergus rufescens) was making an expedition to attack a nest of F, rufiharhis. They were not, how- ever, quite acquainted with the locality. At length it was discovered : — ' Aussitot,' he observes, ' un nouveau signal fut donne, et toutes les amazones s'elanc^rent dans cette direction.' On another occasion he says : — ' Je mis un gros tas de T. cccspitum d'une variete de grande taille a un decimetre d'un des nids d'une colonic de Pheidole pallidula. En un clin d'ceil Talarme fut repandue, et des centaines de Pheidole se jef^rent au-devant de I'ennemi.' The species of Camponot us, v>hen alarmed, 'nou FOREL. 159 eeulement se frappent vivement et a coups repetes les uns les autres, mais en meme temps ils frappent le sol deux ou trois fois de suite avec leur abdomen, et repetent cet acte a de courts intervalles, ce qui pro- duit un bruit tres marque qu'on entend ^urtout bien lorsque le nid est dans un tronc d'aTbre.' ^ It would even seem, according to M. Forel, that some species understand the signs of others. Thus F, sanguinea, he says,^ is able to seize « I'instant oij les pratensis se communiquent le signal de la deroute, et elles savent s'apprendre cette decouverte les unes aux autres avec une rapidite incroyable. Au moment meme ou Ton voit les pratensis se jeter les unes contre les autres en se frappant de quelques coups rapides, puis cesser toute resistance et s'enfuir en masse, on voit aussi les sanguinea se jeter tout-a-coup au milieu d'elles sans la plus petite retenue, mordant a droite et a gauche comme des Polyergus, et arrachant des cocons de toutes les pratensis qui en portent.' M. Forel is of opinion (p. 364) that the different species differ much in their power of communicating with one another. Thus, though Polyergus rufescens is rather smaller than F, sanguinea, it is generally victorious, because the ants of this species understand one another more quickly than those of F. sanguinea. These statements are extremely interesting, and certainly appear to iinply considerable intelligence. If, however, his inferences are correct, and the social ' Loc. cit. p. 355. * Loc. cit. p. 359. 160 CONDITIONS OF THE PROBLEM Hymenoptera are really so highly gifted, it ought not to be necessary for us to rely on accidental observa- tions ; we ought to be able to test them by approprialij experiments. Those which I have made with reference to bees will be described in a subsequent chapter. Every one knows that if an ant or a bee in the course of her rambles has found a supply of food, a number of others will soon make their way to the store. This, however, does not necessarily imply any power of de- scribing localities. A very simple sign would suffice, and very little intelligence is implied, if the other ants merely accompany their friend to the treasure which she has discovered. On the other hand, if the ant or bee can describe the locality, and send her friends to the food, the case is very ditferent. This point, therefore, seemed to me very important ; and I have made a number of observations bearing on it. The following may be taken as a type of what hap- pens under such circumstances. On June 12, 1874, I put a Lasius niger, belonging to a nest which I had kept two or three days without food, to some honey. She fed as usual, and then was returning to the nest, when she met some friends, whom she proceeded to feed. When she had thus distributed her stores, she returned alone to the honey, none of tlie rest coming with her. When she had a second time laid in a stock of food, she again in the same way fed seveial ants on her way towards the nest ; but this time five of those BOME SPECIES MORE COMMUNICATIVE THAN OTHERS. 1 61 BO fed returned with her to the honey. In due course these five would no doubt have brought others, and so the number at the honey would have increased. Some species, however, act much more in association than others — Lasius 7iiger, for instance, much more than Formica fusca. In March 1877 I was staying at Arcachon. It was a beautiful and very warm spring day, and numerous specimens of Formica fusca (PL I, fig. 3) were coursing about on the flagstones in front of our hotel. At about 10.45 a.m. I put a raisin down before one of them. She immediately began licking it, and continued till 11.2 a.m., when she went off almost straight to her nest, the entrance to which was about twelve feet away. In a few minutes she came out again, and reached the fruit, after a few wander- in jrs, at about 11.18 A.M. She fed till 11.30 a.m., when she returned once more to the nest. At 1 1 .45 another ant accidentally found the fruit. I imprisoned her. At 11.50 the first returned, and fed till 11.5G, when she went off to the nest. On the way she met and talked with three ants, none of whom, however, came to the fruit. At 12.7 she returned, again alone, to the fruit. On the following day I repeated the same experi- ment. The first ant went backwards and foi-wards between the raisin and the nest for several hours, but only six others found their way to it. st'jiifei.ufcj:, >j - ztj ft\Jijiei E^^^^ES^^^S^^^*1p5ff?W^,g*'SS5*^^^*^Wf'' 162 EXPERIMENT WITH FORMICA FUSCi The details of this observation will be found in the Appendix. Again, on July 11, 187^, I put out some pupje in a «aucer, and at 5,55 p.m. they were found by a F. fusca, who a? usual carried one off to the nest. At 6 P.M. she returned and took another. Again 6. 1 6. 3 6. 4 6. 5 6. 6 6. 7 G. 8 6. 9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.23 6.25 6.27 6.29 6.30 n n »> n n n n 9* » 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 5) J? 99 99 99 »9 99 99 9» » 99 99 9» » » 99 n 99 ^,^^^Sm* EXPERIMENTS WITH MYRMICA AND LASIl/S. 163 At 6.31 P.M. she returned and took another. Again 6.33 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.40 6.41 6.45 6.47 6.49 6.50 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.55 6.56 6.57 7. 7. 1 7. 2 7. 6 99 99 59 9J 99 99 99 99 99 99 9> 55 55 59 59 99 95 95 95 55 95 95 55 99 95 55 95 99 59 59 99 95 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 95 95 After these 45 visits, she came no more till 8 P.M. ; but when I returned at 10 P.M. I found all the pupae gone. During the time she was watched, however, she brought no other ant to assist. I also made similar experiments with Myrmica ruglnodia and Lasius niger, imprisoning (as before) all ants that came, except the marked ones, and with 164 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST ft M^ !!l'lll IB, similar results. The details will be found in the Appendix, but need not be given in full here. I then tried the following experiment: — In figure 3, A is the ants' nest, o the door of the nest. M is the section of a pole on which the p. g whole apparatus is supported, n is a board 2 feet long; c, D, E, and F are slips of glass connected with the board B by narrow strips of paper G, ii, i. k is a movable strip of paper, IJ inch long, connecting the glass F with the strip H ; and L is another movable strip of paper, as nearly as possible similar, connecting H and I. On each of the slips of glass c and F I put several hundred larvae of L, flavus. The object of the larvae on c was to ascertain whether, under such circuni- * stances, other ants would find the larvae acci- Ji dentally ; and I may say at once that none * did so. I then put an ant (a), whom I had imprisoned overnight, to the larva? on F. She took one, and, knowing her way, went straight home over the bridge K and down the strip n. Now it is obvious that by always causing the miuked ant (a) to cross the bridge K on a particular piece of paper, and if at other times the papers K and L were reversed, I should be able to ascertain whether other ants who came to the larva) had had the direction and position explained to them ; oi whether, having only '^ ^ S O POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 163 been informed by a of the existence of the larvae, they found their way to them by tracking a's footsteps. If the. former, they would in any case pass over the bridge K by whichever strip of paper it was constituted. On the other hand, if they found the larvae by tracking, then as the piece of paper by which A passed was transferred to L, it would mislead them and carry them away from the larvae to I. In every case, then, I trans- posed the two papers forming the little bridges as soon as the ant A had crossed over K and L. I put her (November 7, 1875) to the larvae on F at 6.15 A.M. After examining them carefully, she re- turned to the nest at 6.34. No other ants were out ; but she at once reappeared with four friends and reached the larvae at 6.38. None of her friends, how- ever, crossed the bridge ; they went on to D, wandered about, and returned home. A returned to the larvae at 6.47, this time with one friend, who also went on to D and returned without finding the larvae. 7. 0. Ant A to larvae. 7. 8 7.17 7.25 7.32 7.39 5> ?? 5» ?! >5 An ant at 7.1i" [went over I L to I. 7.27 with a friend, who at 7.21 (with two friends, I one of whom at the other at 7.35 with a friend who went on to D, and \ '^•'^^ (then at l^t«» a^nw-^ t **« -wMOU^^ -^A>K —■ *—"'"^r^--[M-" ■ SiSiiaAaaSStl*SltlfWaei^AATIS>,ii^;:ha:mlv'K^-- • .i'ajtj yiiagM»j*I.^..B»a«A»raii 166 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST POWERS OF COMxMUNICATION. 167 7.46 Ant A to larvae. An ant at 7.42 went over ■ L to I. flS ^.SS j> 99 7.47 ] 8. 3 55 55 7.48 1 8. 8 55 55 7.54 1 8.19 99 M 7.57 1 8.24 55 » 9.10 found the UL larvne. | 8.39 » » 9.30 wrent over L H to I. ■ 8.50 9.12 9.22 9.40 9.47 9.55 10.35 At 10.35 I imprisoned her till 12.30, when I put he> again to the larvae. 12.48 back to larvae. 12.55 „ An ant at 12.58 went over L to i. 1. „ „ 1. 1 1.15 „ „ 1.10 1.20 „ „ 1.13 55 55 55 55 J5 55 After this she did not come any more. During the time she made, therefore, 25 visits to the larvae; 21 other ants came a distance of nearly 4 feet from the nest and up to the point of junction witliin 2 inches of the larvae ; but only one passed over the little bridge to the larvae, while 15 went over the bridge L to I. On repeating this experiment with another marked ant, she herself made 40 journeys, during which 19 other ants found their way to the point of junction. Only 2 went over the little bridge to the larvae, 8 went over L to I, and the remainder on to D. In another similar experiment the marked ant made 10' journeys; and during the same time 13 other ants came to the point of junction. Of these 13, 6 went on to D, 7 crossed over L to i, and not one found the larvae. Thus altogether, out of 92 ants, 30 went on to D, 51 crossed over in tlie wrong direction to l, and only 11 found their way to the larvae. From January 2 to January 24 (1875) I made a series of similar observations; and during this time 56 ants came in all. Of these, 20 went straight on to D, 26 across- the paper to I, and only 10 to the larvae. This, I think, gives strong reason to conclude that, under such circumstances, ants track one another by scent. I then slightly altered the armnge- ment of the papers as shown in tlie accompanying diagram (fig. 4). A, as before, is the nest, o being the door. B is the board ; /t is a glass on which are placed the larvic ; m is a similar glass, but empty j n a strip of paper: to the end of n arc pinned l^o Fig. 4. A B (:) - - - — ■ ■ n V n ■^^d^ii^l 168 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 189 other strips / and g, in such a manner that thej can be freely turned round, so that each can be turned at will either to h or m. Under ordinary circumstances the paper/, as in the figure, was turned to the larvae ; but whenever any ant, excepting the marked one, came, I turned the papers, so that / led to m and g to h. The result was striking, and I give the observation in full in the Appendix. In all, 17 ants came, every one of whom took the wrong turn and went to m. Although the observations above recorded seem to Fig. 5. me almost conclusive, still I varied the experiments once more (see fig. 5), making the connexion between the board B and the glass containing the larvae by three separate but similar strips of paper, d, e, and /, as shown in the figure. Whenever, however, a strange ant came, 1 took up the strip/ and rubbed my finger over it two or three times so as to remove any scent, and then re- placed it. As soon as the stranger had reached the paper e, I took up the strip d, and placed it so as to connect e with the empty glass m. Thus I escaped the necessity of changing the paper/, and yet had a scented bridge between e and m. The details, as before, are given in the Appendix. In this experiment the bridge over which the marked ant passed to the larvae was left in its place, the scent, however, being removed or obscured by the CD. friction of my finger ; on the other hand, the bridge {d) had retained the scent, but was so placed as to lead away from the larvae ; and it will be seen that, under these circumstances, out of 41 ants which found their waj towards the larvae as far as e, 14 only passed over the bridge /to the larvae, while 27 went over the bridge d to the empty glass m. Taking these observations as a whole, 150 ants came to the point c, of which 21 only went on to the larvae, while 95 went away to the empty glass. These experiments, therefore, seem to show that when an ant has discovered a store of food and others flock to it, they are guided in some cases by sight, while in others they track one another by scent. I then varied the experiment as follows : — I put an ant (L, niger) to some larvae as usual, and when she knew her way, I allowed her to go home on her own legs ; but as soon as she emerged from the nest, if she had any friends with her, I took her up on a bit of paper and carried her to the larvae. Under these circumstances very few ants indeed found their way to them. Thus, on June 23, 1876, at 5.30, an ant which had been previously under observation was put to some larvae. She took one and returned as usual to the nest. At 5.34 she L-anie out with no less than 10 friends, and was then transferred to the larvae. The others wandered about a little, but by degrees returned to the nest, not one of them finding their way to the larvae. The first ant picked up a larva, returned, and again came out 13 -at; 170 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST of the nest at 5.39 with 8 friends, when exactlj^ the same thing happened. She again came out with companions at the undermentioned times : — Hour. Number of Friends. Hour. Number of Friends 5.44 4 6.44 5.47 4 6.46 3 5.49 6.49 2 5.52 G.5(j — 5.54 5 6.59 — 5.57 2 7. 2 2 5.59 2 7. 4 — 6. 1 5 7. 6 3 6. 4 1 7. 8 3 6. 7 7.10 5 6.11 3 7.13 — 6.14 4 7.17 3 6.17 6 7.19 7 6.20 7.21 5 6.23 5 7.24 — 6.25 6 7.26 3 6.29 8 7.29 1 6.32 2 7.31 2 6.35 — 7.35 — 6.42 4 Thus during these two hours more than 120 ants came out of the nest in company with the one under observation. She knew her way perfectly ; and it is POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 171 clear that if she had been left alone, all, or at least most of, these ants would have accompanied her to the store of larvse. Three of them were accidentally allowed to do so ; but of the remainder, only 5 found their way to the larvae ; all the others, after wandering about a while, returned hopelessly to the nest. One of the ants which I employed in my experi- ments was under observation several days. I was, however, away from home most of the day, and when I left in the morning and went to bed at night I put her in a bottle ; but the moment she was let out she began to work again. On one occasion I was away for a week, and on my return I let her out of the bottle, placing her on a little heap of larvae about 3 feet from the nest. Under these circumstances I certainly did not expect her to return. However, though she had thus been six days in confinement, the brave little creature immediately picked up a larva, carried it off to the nest, and, after half an hour's rest, returned for another. I conclude, then, that when large numbers of ants come to food they follow one another, being also to a certa,in extent guided by scent. The fact, therefore, does not imply any considerable power of intercom- munication. There are, moreover, some other circum- stances which seem to show that their powers in this respect are but limited. For instance, I have already mentioned that if a colony of Poli/ergus changes the situation of its nest, the mistresses are all carried to the new one by the slaves. Again, if a number of F, ^S^iMkSSmSMiSM. 172 EVIDENCE OF COMMUMICATION. EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION. 173 fusca are put in a box, and in one corner a dark plac« of retreat is provided for them with some earth, one soon finds her way to it. She then comes out again, and going up to one of the others, takes her by the jaws. The second ant then rolls herself into a heap, and is carried off to the place of shelter. They then both repeat the same manoeuvre with other ants, and so on until all their companions are collected together. Now it seems to me difficult to imagine that so slow a course would be adopted if they possessed any considerable power of descri2)tive communication. On the other hand, there can, I think, be no doubt tha^ they do possess some power of the kind. This seems to me clearly shown by the following observations. In order, if possible, to determine whether the ants in question were brought to the larvae, or whether they came casually, I tried (1875) the following experiments: I took three tapes, each about 2 feet 6 inches long, and arranged them parallel to one another and about 6 inches apart. One end of each I attached to one of my nests (X. niger\ and at the other end I placed a small glass. In the glass at the end of one tape I placed a considerable number (300 to 600) of larvae. In the second I put two or three larvtx only ; in the third none at all. The object of the last was to see whether many ants would come to the glasses under such cir- cumstances by mere accident ; and I may at once say that but few did so. I then took two ants and placed one of them to the glass with many larvae, the other to that with two or three. Each of them took a larva and carried it to the nest, returning for another, and so on. After each journey I put another larva in the glass with only two or three larvae, to replace that which had been removed. Now, if other ants came under the above circumstances as a mere matter of accident, or accompanying one another by chance, or if they simply saw the larvae which were brought and consequently concluded that they might themselves also find larvae in the same place, then the numbers going to the two glasses ought to be approximately equal. In each case the number of journeys made by the ants would be nearly the same ; consequently, if it was a matter of scent, the two glasses would be in the same ^wsition. It would be impossible for an ant, seeing another in the act of bringing a larva, to judge for itself whether there were few or many larvae left behind. On the other hand, if the friends were brought, then it would be curious to see whether more were brought to the glass with many larvae, than to that which only contained two or three. I should also mention that, excepting, of course, the marked speci- mens, every ant which came to the larvae was im- prisoned until the end of the experiment. I give the detiiils in the Appendix. The results of the above experiments are shown at Q glance in the following Table : — ■^aj ^itiM.ji8a.-ij- -i^. -J- 174 EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION. Tabular View of Experiments on Power of Communicatio>k Glass with many larrsB Glass with one or two larra Obser- vations Time No. of No. of Time No. of No. of occupied journeys friends occupied journeys friends hours hours 1 1 7 11 2 1 6 3 2 13 8 4 — — 3 24 5 6 3 38 22 1 10 3 « ^ 32 19 7 1 5 16 8 u 11 21 3 23 2 9 -— u 7 3 10 1 15 13 2' 21 1 11 2 32 21) 1 11 1 12 5 26 10 13 — 5 19 1 14 — 3 20 4 15 n 41 3 2 5 16 1 lu 16 2i 10 2 17 H 53 2 45- 40 10 18 — — 2 20 1 19 1 11 12 20 — — 1 6 21 n 20 15 H 74 27 22 — H 25 4 23 H 71 7 24 2 35 4 25 2 34 3 26 n 35 21 2 18 27 2 37 9 n 15 28 1^ 9 10 2 14 29 2 37 5 n 25 3 30 H 9 10 2 14 31 2 37 5 n 25 3 32 2 24 7 1 7 33 H 43 17 H 26 1 34 1 27 28 1 18 12 35 1 14 2 1 15 9 52 678 304 59^ 545 104 It must be admitted that this mode of observing ';--^«j^-v^*-< "y> A(wi^ "-^ -fv^iT^ Jt4' "'^ji^y« *ej ■'Vrti EVIDENCE OF COMxMUNICAXION. 175 is calculated to increase the number of friends brought by the ants to the glass with only 2 or 3 larvae, for several reasons, but especially because in many cases an ant which had for some time had access to a glass with many larvae was suddenly deprived of it, and it might well be that some time elapsed before the change was discovered. Some stray ants would, no doubt, in any case have found the larvae ; and we may probably allow for about 25 under this head. Again, some would, no doubt, casually accompany their friends ; if we allow 25 also in this respect, we must deduct 50 from each side, and we shall have 254 against 54. Nevertheless, even without any allowances, the results seem to me very definite. Some of the individual cases, especially perhaps experiments 9, 10, 20, 21, and 22 (see Appendix), are very striking ; and, taken as a whole, during 52 hours, the ants which had access to a glass containing numerous larvae brought 304 friends ; while during 59 hours those which were visiting a glass with only 2 or 3 larvae brought only 104 to their assistance. One case of apparent communication struck me very much. I had had an ant (L. niger) under obser- vation one day, during which she was occupied in carrying off larvae to her nest. At night I imprisoned her in a small bottle ; in the morning I let her out at 6.15, when she immediately resumed her occupation. Having to go to London, I imprisoned her again at 9 o'clock. When I returned at 4.40, I put her again 176 EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION. .to the larvae. She examined them carefully, but went home without taking one. At this time no other ants were out of the nest. In less than a minute she came out again with 8 friends, and the little troop made straight for the heap of larva?. When they had gone two-thirds of the way, I again imprisoned the marked ants ; the others hesitated a few moments, and then, with curious quickness, returned home. At 5.15 1 put her again to the larva?. She again went home without a larva, but, after only a few seconds' stay in the nest, came out with no less than 13 friends. They all went towards the larvae ; but when they got about two-thirds of the way, although the marked ant had on the previous day passed over the ground about 150 times, and though she had just gone straight from the larvae to the nest, she seemed to have forgotten her way and wandered; and after she had wandered about for half an hour, I put her to the larvae. Now in this case the 21 ants must have been brought out by my marked one ; for they came exactly with her, and there were no other ants out. Moreover, it would seem that they must have been told, because (which is very curious in itself) she did not in either case bring a larva, and consequently it cannot have been the mere sight of a larva which induced them to follow her. I repeated an experiment similar to thia more than once. For instance, one rather cold day, when but few diits were out, I selected a specimen of Atta teataceo EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA. 177 'pilosay belonging to a nest which I had brought back witli me from Algeria. She was out hunting about six feet from home, and I placed before her a large dead bluebottle fly, which she at once began to drag to the nest. I then pinned the fly to a piece of cork, in a small box, so that no ant could see the fly until she had climbed up the side of the box. The ant struggled, of course in vain, to move the fly. She pulled first in one direction and then in another, but, finding her efforts fruitless, she at length started off back to the nest empty-handed. At this time there were no ants coming out of the nest. Probably there were some few others out hunting, but for at least a quarter of an hour no ant had left the nest. ]My ant entered the nest, but did not remain there ; in less than a minute she emerged accompanied by 7 friends. I never saw so many come out of that nest together before. In her excitement the first ant soon distanced her companions, who took the matter with much more sang-froid, and had all the appearance of having come out reluctantly, or as if they had been asleep and were only half awake. The first ant ran on ahead, gonig straight to the fly. The others followed slowly and with many meahderings ; so slowly, indeed, that for twenty minutes the first ant was alone at the fly, trying in every way to move it. Finding this still impossible, she again returned to the nest, not chancmg to meet any of her friends by the way. Again she emerged in less than a minute with 8 friends, and i78 EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA. hurried on to the flj. They were even less energetic than the first party ; and when they found they had lost sight of their guide, they one and all returned to the nest. In the meantime several of the first detach- ment had found the fly, and one of them succeeded in detaching a leg, with which she returned in triumph to the nest, coming out again directly with 4 or 5 companions. These latter, with one exception, soon gave up the chase and returned to the nest. I do not think so much of this last case, because as the ant carried in a substantial piece of booty in the shape of the fly's leg, it is not surprising that her friends should some of them accompany her on her return ; but surely the other two cases indicate a distinct power of communication. Lest, however, it should be supposed that the resul* was accidental, I determined to try it again. Accord- ingly on the following day I put a Mother large dead fly before an ant belonging to the same nest, pinning it to a piece of cork as before. After trying in vain for ten minutes to move the fly, my ant started off home. At that time I could only see two other ants of that species outside the nest. Yet in a few seconds, con- siderably less than a minute, she emerged with no less than 12 friends. As in the previous case, she ran on ahead, and they followed very slowly and by no means directly, taking, in fact, nearly half an hour to reach the fly. The first ant, after vainly labourinfr for about a quailer of an hour io move the fly, started oflf '-TW^*wi,V "■'■'^n. Fr^gi^a. •" •> 1"-- EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA. 17D again to the nest. Meeting one of her friends on the way she conversed with her a little, then continued towards the nest, but, after going about a foot, changed her mind, and returned with her friend to the fly. After some minutes, during which two or three other ants came up, one of them detached a leg, which she carried off to the nest, coming out again almost immedi- ately with six friends, one of whom, curiously enough, seemed to lead the way, tracing it, I presume, by scent. I then removed the pin, and they carried off the fly in triumph. Again, on June 15, 1878, another ant belonging to the same nest had found a dead spider, about the same distance from the nest. I pinned down the spider as before. The ant did all in her power to move it ; but after trying for twelve minutes, she went ofif to the nest. Although for a quarter of an hour no other ant had left the nest, yet in a few seconds she came out again with 10 companions. As in the preceding case, they followed very leisurely. She ran on ahead and worked at the spider for ten minutes ; when, as none of her friends had arrived to her assistance, though they were wan- dering about, evidently in search of something, she started back home again. In three quarters of a minute after entering the nest she reappeared, this time with 15 friends, who came on somewhat more rapidly than the preceaing batch, though still but Flowly. By degrees, however, they all came up, and after most persevering efforts carried off the spider .- ^.-auaaaS-ij 180 EXPERIMENT WITH PHEIDOLE. piecemeal. On July 7, I tried the same experiment with a soldier of Pheidole megacephala. She pulled at the fly for no less than fifty minutes, after which she went to the nest and brought five friends exactly as the Atta had done. In the same way, one afternoon at 6.20 I presented a slave of Polyergus with a dead fly pinned down. The result was quite different. My ant pulled at the fly for twenty-five minutes, when, as in the previous cases, she returned to the nest. There she remained four or five minutes, and then came out again alone, returned to the fly, and again tried to carry it off. After working fruitlessly for between twenty and twenty- five minutes, she again went back to the nest, staying there four or five minutes, and then returning by her- self to the fly once more. I then went away for an hour, but on my return found her still tugging at the fly by herself. One hour later again I looked, with the same result. Shortly afterwards another ant wandering about found the fly, but obviously, as it seemed to me, by accident. At 3 o'clock on a subsequent day I again put a dead fly pinned on to a bit of cork before a Foi-mica fusca, which was out hunting. She tried in vain to carry it off, ran round and round, tugged in every direction, and at length at ten minutes to four she returned to the nest : very soon after she reappeared preceded by one and followed by two friends ; these, however, failed to dis- cover the fly, and after wandering about a little returned EXPERIMENT WITH FORMICA. 181 to the nest. She then set again to work alone, and in about forty minutes succeeded in cutting off the head of the fly, which she at once carried into the nest. In a little while she came out again, this time accompanied by five friends, all of whom found their w^ay to the fly ; one of these, having cut off the abdomen of the fly, took it into the nest, leaving three of her companions to bring in the remainder of their prey. These experiments certainly seem to indicate the possession by ants of something approaching to lan- guage. It is impossible to doubt that the friends were brought out by the first ant; and as she returned empty-handed to the nest, the others cannot have been induced to follow her merely by observing her proceed- ings. In face of such facts as these, it is impossible not to ask ourselves how far are ants mere exquisite automatons ; how far are they conscious beings ? When we see an ant-hill, tenanted by thousands of industrious inhabitants, excavating chambers, forming tunnels, making roads, guarding their home, gathering food, feeding the young, tending their domestic animals, — each one fulfilling its duties industriously, and without confusion, — it is difficult altogether to deny to them the gift of reason ; and the preceding observa- tions tend to confirm the opinion that their mental powers differ from those of men, not so much in kind tts in degree. CHAPTER VIII. ON THE SENSES OF ANTS. The Sense of Vision. It is, I think, geDerally assumed not only that the world really exists as we see it, but that it appears to other animals pretty much as it does to us. A little con- sideration, however, is sufficient to show that this is very far from being certain, or even probable. In the case of insects, moreover, the mode of vision is still an enigma. They have, at least many of them have, a large compound eye on each side ; and ocelli, generally three in number, situated on the summit of the head. The compound eyes consist of a number of facets, each situated at the summit of a tube, to the base of which runs a fibre of the optic nerve. The structure of the ocellus and that of the com- pound eye are essentially different, and it does not seem possible that either the ocellus should be derived from the compound eye, or the compound eye from the ocel- lus. On the contrary, both seem to point back to e. less developed ancestral type. Stiirting from such an origin, an increase of the separate elements and an im- provement of the lens would lead to the ocellus, whilo TWO KINDS OF EYES. 183 an increase of the number of eyes would bring us to the compound eye. On the other hand, it must be admitted that there are reasons for considering the different kinds of eyes to be of perfectly distinct origin. The eye of Limulus, according to Grenacher, is formed on a plan quite unlike that of other Crustacea. Again, the develop- ment of the eye in Muscat to judge from Weismanu's observations, is very dissimiliar from that of other insects. The varied position of the eye in different groups, as, for instance, in Pecten, Spondylus, Euphausia, Onckidlum, &c., point to the same con- clusion. It seems clear that the image produced by the ocelli must be altogether different from the picture given by the compound eyes ; and we may therefore reasonably conclude that the two organs have distinct functions. It used formerly to be supposed that the compound eyes were intended for distant, the ocelli for near vision. Claparede, however, has maintained the opposite theory, w^iile Mr. Lowne regards the ocelli as incapable of producing ' anything worthy the name of an image,' and suspects that their function ' is the perception of the intensity in the direction of light, rather than vision.' The ocelli, or simple eyes, probably see in the same manner as ours do. That is to say, the lens throws an image on the back of the eye, which we call the retina. In that case they would see everything really reversed. 184 HOW INSECTS SEE. as we do ; though long practice has given us the right impression. The simple eye of insects thus resembles ours in this respect. As regards the mode of vision of the compound eyes, there are two distinct theories. According to one— the mosaic theory of Muller— each facet takes in only a small portion of the field ; while according to the other, each facet acts as a separate eye. This latter view has been maintained by many high authorities, but it is dithcult to understand how so many images could be combined into one picture. Some insects have more than 20,000 facets on each side of their head. No ants, indeed, have so many, but in some— as, for instance, in the males of Formica pratensis — there are not less than 1,000. The theory, moreover, presents some great anatomical difficulties. Thus, in certain cases there is no lens, and conse- quently there can be no image ; in some it would seem that the image would be formed completely behind the eye, while in others again it would be in front of the receptive surface. Another difficulty is that any true projection of an image would in certain species be pre- cluded by the presence of impenetrable pigment, which only leaves a minute central passage for the light-rays. Again, it is urged that even the sharpest image would be useless, from the absence of a suitably receptive surface; since the structure of the receptive surface corresponding to each facet seems to preclude it from receiving more than a single impression. THE MOSAIC THEORY. 185 The prevailing opinion of entomologists now is that each facet receives the impression of one pencil of rays ; so that, in fact, the image formed in a compound eye is a sort of mosaic. On the other hand, this theory itself presents great difficulties. Those ants which have very few facets must have an extremely imperfect vision. Again, while the image produced on the retina of the ocellus must of course be reversed as in our own eyes ; in the compound eyes, on the contrary, the vision would' on this theory, be direct. That the same animal should see some things directly, and others reversed ; and yet obtain definite conceptions of the outer world, would certainly be very remarkable. In fact, these, so far fortunate, insects realise the epigram of Plato — Thou lookest on the stars, my love Ah, would that I could be Yon starry skies, with thousand eyes That 1 might look on thee ! But if the male of F. pratensis sees 1,000 queens at once, when only one is really present, this would seem to be a bewildering privilege, and the prevailing opinion among entomologists is, as already mentioned, that each facet only tj 585 „ 575 55 575 „ 497 497 „ 455 55 55 55 55 J5 orange, yellow. green. blue. violet. 445 „ 397 The result of his examination of my glasses and solutions was as follows : — The light-yellow glass cut off the high end down to wave-length 442. The dark -yellow glass cut off the high end down to wave-length 493. The green glass cut off the high end down to wave- length 465, and also the red to 616. The red glass cut off the high end down to wave- length 582. The violet glass cut off the orange and yellow from wave-length 684 to 583, and a band between wave-lengths 543 and 516. The purple glass cut off the high end down to wave-length 528. The solution of chromate of potash cut off the high end to 507. The saffron cut off the high end to about 473. The blue fluid cut off the low end to 516. The red fluid cut off the high end to 596. K-aKrs^r^p*wt,0 t»4ir i » ' m flU iS' 188 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. I then (July 15, 1876) laid the strips of glass on one of my nests of Formica fusca, containing about 170 ants. These ants, as I knew by many pre nous observations, seek darkness, at least when in the nest, and would collect in the darkest part. I then, after counting the ants under each strip, moved the glasses, at intervals of about half an hour, so that each should by turns cover the same portion of the nest. The results were as follows — the numbers indicating the approximate numbers of ants under each glass (there were sometimes a few not under any of the strips of glass) : — EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. 189 1. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. 50 40 80 2. Violet. Green. Yellow. Red. 20 40 100 3. Ked. Violet. Green. Yellow 60 50 50 4. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green. 50 70 1 40 5. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. 30 30 100 6. Violet. Green. Yellow, Red. 14 5 140 7. Red. Violet. Green. Yellow 50 40 70 8. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green. 40 50 1 70 fe 9. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. 60 35 €5 10. Violet. Green. Yellow. Red. 1 50 40 70 11. Red. Violet. Green. Yellow 50 2 50 60 12. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green. 35 55 70 Adding these numbers together, there were, in the twelve observations, under the red 890, under the green 544, under the yellow 495, and under the violet only 5. The difference between the red and the green is very striking, and would doubtless have been more so, but for the fact that when the colours were trans- I>osed the ants which had collected under the red sometimes remained quiet, as, for instance, in cases 7 and 8. Again, the difference between the green and yellow would have been still more marked but for the fact that the yellow always occupied the position last held by the red, while, on the other hand, the ^rreen had some advantage in coming next the violet. In considering the difiference between the yellow and green, we must remember also that the green was decidedly more opaque than the yellow. The case of the violet glass is more marked and more interesting. To our eyes the violet was as opaque as the red, more so than the green, and much more so than the yellow. Yet, as the numbers show, the ants 1 190 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. had scarcely any tendency to congregate under it. There were nearly as many under the same area of fhe uncovered portion of the nest as under that shaded b^ the violet glass. Lasiua flavus also showed a marked avoidance of the violet glass. I then experimented in the same way with a nest of Formica fitsca, in which there were some pupae, which were generally collected in a single heap. I used glasses coloured dark yellow, dark green, light yellow, light green, red, violet, and dark purple. The coloiu-s were always in the preceding order, but, as before, their place over the nest was changed after every observation. To our eyes the purple was almost black, the violet and dark green very dark and quite opaque ; the pupae could be dimly seen through the red, rather more clearly through the dark yellow and light green, while the light yellow were almost transparent. There were about 50 pupae, and the light was the ordinary diffused daylight of summer. These observations showed a marked preference for the greens and yellows. The pnpne were 6^ times under dark green, 3 under dark yellow, 3^ under red, and once each under light yellow and light green, the violet and purple being altogether neglected. I now tried the same ants under the same colours, but in the sun ; and placed a shallow dish containing Bome 10 per cent, solution of alum sometimes over EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. 191 ^he yellow, sometimes over the red. I also put foui thicknesses of violet glass, so that it looked almost black. Under these circumstances, the pupae were placed under the red 7 times, dark yellow 5, once they were half under each, but never under the violet, purple, light yellow, dark or light green. The following day I placed over the same nest, in the sun, dark green glass, dark red, and dark yellow. In nine observations the pupae were carried three times under the red and nine times under the yellow. I then tried a similar series of experiments with Lasiua niger, using a nest in which were about 40 pupae, which were generally collected in a single heap all together. As before, the glasses were moved in regular order after each experiment ; and I arranged them so that the violet followed the red. As far, therefore, as position was concerned, this gave violet rather the best place. The glasses used were dark violet, dark red, dark green, and yellow, the yellow being distinctly the most transparent to our eyes. Experiment Experiment 1. Pupae under yellow. 8. Papae under ■ green. 2. 9. red. 3. 10. yellow. 4. 11. red. 5. 12. yellow. 6. 1.3. n 7. green. 14. red. 192 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. Kxperiment Experiment 15. Pupae under ' green. 24. Pupa} under red. 16. 99 25. >5 yellow. 17. yellow. 26. 5J red. 18. n 27. >J w 19. red. 28. )> » 20. »j 29. J> »> 21. yellow. 30. J) yellow. 22. n 31. » red. 23. 99 32. J> green. I now put two extra thicknesses of glass over the red and green. 33. Pupae under red. 34. „ yellow. 35. „ red. 36. „ yellow. 37. Pupae under red. 38. „ „ 39. „ yellow. 40. „ red. The result is very striking, and in accordance with the observations on Formica fasca. In 40 experi- ments the pupae were carried under the yellow 19 times, under the red 16 times, and under the green 5 times only, while the violet was quite neglected. After the first twenty observations, however, I removed it. I then tried a nest of Jremastogaster scutellaris with violet glass, purple glass, and red, yellow, and green solutions, formed respectively with fuchsine, bichromate of potash, and chloride of copper. The purple looked almost black, the violet very dark ; the ■:^^^SmM^Si,- EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. 193 red and green, on the contrary, very transparent, and the yellow even more so. The yellow was not darker than a tincture of saffron. The latter indeed, to mv eye, scarcely seemed to render the insects under them at all less apparent ; while under the violet and purple I could not trace them at all. I altered the relative positions as before. The nest contained about 50 larvae and pupae. I made thirteen trials, and in every case the larvae and pupae were brought under the yellow or the gieen — never once under any of the other colours. Again, over a nest of Formica fitsca containing about 20 pupae I placed violet glass, purple glass, a weak solution of fuchsine (carmine), the same of chloride of copper (green), and of bichromate of potash (yellow, not darker than saffron). I made eleven trials, and again, in every case the pupae were brought under the yellow or the green. I then tried a nest of Lasius Jlavus with the purple glass, violet glass, very weak bichromate of potash, and chloride of copper as before. With this species, again, the results were the same as in the previous cases. In all these experiments, therefore, the violet and purple light affected the ants much more strongly than the yellow and green. It is curious that the coloured glasses a2:)pear to act on the ants (speaking roughly) as they would, or, 194 DISLIKE OF VIOLET. EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED SOLUTIONS. 195 I should rather say, inversely as they would, on a photographic plate. It might even be alleged that the avoidance of the violet glass by the ants was due to their preferring rays transmitted by the other glasses. From the habits of these insects such an explanation would be very improbable. If, however, the preference for the other coloured glasses to the violet was due to the trans- mission and not to the absoq^tion of rays — that is to say, if the ants went under the green rather than the violet because the green transmitted rays which were agreeable to the ants, and which the violet glass, on the contrary, stopped — then, if the violet was placed over the other colours, they would become as distasteful to the ants as the violet itself. On the contrary, how- ever, whether the violet glass was placed over the others or not, the ants equally readily took shelter under them. Obviously, therefore, the ants avoid the violet glass because they dislike the rays which it transmits. But though the ants so markedly avoided the violet glass, still, as might be expected, the violet glass cer- tainly had some effect, because if it were put over the nest alone, the ants preferred being under it to being under the plain glass only. I then compared the violet glass with a solution ofammoDio-sulphate of copper, which is very similar in colour, though perhaps a little more violet, and arrancred the depth of the fluid so as to make it as nearly as f)Ci- rible of the same depth of colour as the glass. ▲pprox. number of Aiits Exp. 1. under the Gla-ss ... Exp. 2. Exp. 3. Exp. 4. 2 Exp. 5. Exp. 6. 2 Solution... 40 80 100 80 50 70 Exp. 7. Glass ... E.tp. 8. 2 Exp. 9. 3 Exp. 10. • « • Total 9 Solution... 60 40 90 100 • • • 710 In another experiment with Lasius niger I used the dark yellow glass, dark violet glass, and a violet solution of 5 per cent, ammonio-sulphate of copper, diluted so as to be, to my eye, of exactly the same tint as the violet glass ; in 8 observations the pupas were three times under the violet solution, and 5 times under the yellow glass. I then removed the yellow glass, and in 10 more observations the pupae were always brought under the solution. It is interesting that the glass and the solution should affect the ants so differently, because to my eye the two were almost identical in colour. The glass, however, was more transparent than the solu- tion. To see whether there would be the same difference between red glass and red solution as between violet glass and violet solution, I then (Aug. 21) put over a nest of Formica fasca a red glass and a solution of carmine, as nearly as I could make it of the same tint. In 10 experiments, however, the ants were, generally speaking, some under the solution and some under the glass, in, moreover, as nearly as possible equal numbers. August 20. — Over a nest of Formica fusca con- agfc3t.iSilgtv - 196 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED SOLUTIONS. taining 20 pupge, I placed a saturated solution of bichromate of potash, a deep solution of carmine, which let through scarcely any but the red rays, and a white porcelain plate. Obs. 1. Under the bichr. of potash were pupae, carmine 18, porcelain 2 2. If II 6 14 3. t» *f 6 3 1) 4. *• tt 6 18 6. *t tt 6 4 ]() 6. »» tt 19 1 7. tt M 20 8 •» f» 4 15 1 9. w >* 2 4 14 10. (I tf M 4 1<3 11 ft ff *t 3 »f 17 Total 18 81 124 I then put over another nest of Formica fusca four layers of red glass (which, when examined with the spectroscope, let through red light only), four layers of green glass (which, examined in the same way, transmitted nothing but a very little green), and a porcelain plate. Under these circumstances the ants showed no marked preference, but appeared to feel equally protected, whether they were under the red glass, the green glass, or the porcelain. Thus, though it appears from other experiments that ants are affected by red light, still the quantity that passes through dark red glass does not seem greatly to disturb them. I tested this again by placing over a nest containing a queen and about 10 pupa2 a piece of EXPERIMENTS ON A QUEEN ANT. 197 opaque porcelain, one of violet, and one of red glass, al of the same size. The result is shown below. Oba. 1. Queen went under red glass « jpnpne were taken qj under ^ i under red glass " ( porcelain 2. tt porcelain i> 7 i» 3. M red glass II 7 *. 4. f» II 6 fl 2 f» 6. f* ff 6 fl 2 »• 6. f* If 3 fl 7 f» 7. »» If 10 »» ♦f 8. »f If 4 fl 6 w 9. >f >> 1 I* H 10. ft porcelain If 10 ff 11. »» red glass 10 ff >f 12. »f porcelain 4 ff 6 H 13. »» red glass 7 *i 3 f» 14. »» porcelain 4 n 6 If 15. f» red glass 4 If 6 ff 16. fl porcelain If 10 fl 17. II red glass 10 ff II 18. ff »» 8 i» 2 ff 19. II porcelain 7 ff 3 ff 20. »l *f I ff 9 f» Total 90 88 Obviously, therefore, the ants showed no marked preference for the porcelain. On one, but only on one occasion (Obs. 9), most of the pupae were carried under the violet glass, but generally it was quite neglected. I now tried a similar experiment with porcelain and yellow glass. ObB. 1 . Qu(?en went under porcelain J, jpu pas were taken 2J under 1 under yellow. I porcelain S. % II ♦» 2 8 ff 8 2 »» If 198 EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECTRUM. LIMITS OF VISION. 109 Obf. 4. 6. «. 7 8. 9. 10 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Queen went under yellow glass 5 | P^P^^jere taken ^ f under •^ ' under yellow Iporcelaii M M porcelain >f n yellow glass porcelain •» porcelain 3 yellow glass 8 6 5 8 3 yellow glass 10 porcelain yellow glass 10 7 10 porcelain 1 98 n H $ n •t ♦♦ ft f* ft H 8 8 6 7 10 6 2 7 10 3 9 10 92 M t» >t m f» t» »• f» ft H tt tt •• >* The porcelain and yellow glass seemed, therefore, to affect the ants almost equally, I then put two ants on a paper bridge, the ends supported by pins, the bases of which were in water. The ants wandered backwards and forwards, endea- vouring to escape. I then placed the bridge in the dark and threw the spectrum on it, so that succes- sively the red, yellow, green, blue, and violet fell on the bridge. The ants, however, walked backwards and forwards without (perhaps from excitement) taking any notice of the colour. I then allowed some ants (Lasius niger) tc find some larvae, to which they obtained access over a narrow paper bridge. When they had got used to it, I arranged so that it passed through a dark box, and threw on it the principal colours of the spectrmn, namely, red, yellow, green, blue, and violet, as well as the ultra-red and ultra-violet; but the ants took no notice. It is obvious that these facts suggest a number of interesting inferences. I must, however, repeat the observations and make others ; but we may at least, I think, conclude from the preceding that: — (1) ants have the power of distinguishing colours ; (2) that they are very sensitive to violet ; and it would also seem (3) that their sensations of colour must be very different from those produced upon us. But I was anxious to go beyond this, and to attempt to determine how far their limits of vision are the same as ours. We all know that if a ray of white light is passed throiigli a prism, it is broken up into a beautiful band of colours — the spectrum. To our eyes this spectrum is bounded by red at the one end and violet at the other, the edge being sharply marked at the red end, but less abruptly at the violet. But a ray of light contains, besides the rays visible to our eyes, others whifli are called, though not with absolute correctness, heat-rays and chemical rays. These, so far from falling within the limits of our vision, extend fsr beyond it, the heat- rays at the red, the chemical r.iys at the violet end. I have tried various experiments with spectra derived from sunlight; but, owing to the rotation of t^r'^^ 200 THE ULTRA-RED AND ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS. the earth, they were not thoroughly satisfactory. Mr, Spottiswoode was also good enough to enable me to make some experiments with electric light, which were not very conclusive ; more recently I have made some additional and much more complete experiments, through the kindness of Prof. Dewar, Prof. Tyndall, and the Board of Managers of the Eoyal Institution, to whom I beg to offer my cordial thanks. Of coiu-se, the space occupied by the visible sjx^c trum is well marked ofif by the different colours. Beyond the visible spectrum, however, we have no such convenient landmarks, and it is not enough to describe it by inches, because so much depends on the prisms used. If, however, paper steeped in thalline is placed in the ultra-violet portion of the spectrum, it gives, with rays of a certain wave-length, a distinctly visible green colour, which therefore constitutes a green band, and gives us a definite, though rough, standard of measurement. In the above experiments with coloured spectra, the ants carried the pupae out of the portion of the nest on which coloured light was thrown and deposited them against the wall of the nest; or, if I arranged a nest of Formica fusca so that it was entirely in the light, they carried them to one side or into one comer. It seemed to me, therefore, that it would be interesting 60 to arrange matters, that on quitting the spectrum, after passing through a dark space, the ants should encounter not a solid obstacle, but a barrier of light. With this ii EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. 201 object, I prepared some nests 12 inches long by 6 inches wide; and Mr. Cottrell kindly arranged for me at the Royal Institution on the 29th of June, by means of the electric light, two spectra, which were thrown by two glass prisms on to a table at an angle of about 45". Kach occupied about 6 inches square, and there was a space of about 2 inches between them-that is, between the red end of the one and the violet of the other Experiment I.-In one of the spectra I placed a nest of Formica fusca, 12 inches by 6, containing about 1 50 pupfe, and arranged it so that one end was distinctly beyond the limit of the violet visible to us, and all but to the edge of the green given by thalline paper, and the other just beyond the visible red. The pup.-B at first were almost all in or beyond the violet, but were carried into the dark space between the two spectra, the bright thalhne band being avoided, but some pupc being deposited in the red. Experiment 2. — I thon tnVrl n,„ „ . ^ - ^ "'en tried the same expennient with a nest of Lasius nhjer, in which there were many larvae as well as pup.-e. They were all at the commence- ment at the blue end of the nearer spectrum. The larvae were left by themselves in the violet, while pupa? were ranged from the end of the green to that of the red inclusive Experiment 3.-Arranged a nest of L. niger as before ; at the commencement the pu,«, and larvaj were much scattered, being, however, less numerous in the violet and ultiu-violet mys. Those in the ultm-violet 15 202 EXPEKIMENTS WITH FXECTRIC LIGHT. rays were moved first, and were deposited, the larvse in the violet, and the pupae in the red. Experiment 4. — Made the same experiment with another nest of L, niger. At the commencement the larvae and pupae were in the violet and ultra-violet portion, extending to double the distance from the visible end to the thalline band. The ants soon began bringing the pupae to the red. Over part of the red I placed a piece of money. The pupae were cleared from the ultra-violet first. That the pupae were not put in the red for the sake of the red light was evident, because the space under the coin was even more crowded than the rest. The pupae were heaped up in the dark as fiir as the thalline band of the other spec- trum. I then brought the second spectrum nearer to the first. The pupae which thus came to be in the thalline band were gradually moved into the dark. Experiment 5. — Tried the same with another nest of L. 7d(jer. The pupae were at first in the violet and ultra-violet about double as far as the thalline line, while most of the larvae were in the green. The farthest part was cleared first ; and they were ugain brought principally into the yellow, red, and dark. Again, 1 scattered them pretty equally, some being in the ultra-violet portion, as far as double the distance c»f the thalline from tlie violet ; most, however, being in the violet and blue. The ants began by removing the pupae which were EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. 203 in and near the thalline band, and carried them into the yellow or red. Experiment 6. — Repeated the same experiment. 15<'gun it at 11.15. Placed some pupae in the red, some in the yellow, and a few scattered over the second spectrum ; there were none in the nearer one. They were all carried away from the red past the violet, and put down in the dark portion, or in the red and yellow, of the nearer spectrum. These experiments surprised me much at the time, as I had expected all the pupae to be carried into the space between the two spectra ; but it afterwards occurred to me that the ultra-violet rays probably extended further than I had supposed, so that even the part which lay beyond the thalline band contained enough rays to appear light to the ants. Hence perhaps they selected the red and yellow as a lesser evil. ExpeHment 7.— I altered, therefore, the arrange- ment. Prof. Dewar kindly prepared for me a con- densed pure spectrum (showing the metallic lines) with a Siemens' machine, using glass lenses and a mirror to give a perjjendicular incidence when thrown on the nest. I arranged the pupae again in the ultra-violet as far as the edge of the fluorescent light shown with thalline paper. The pupae were all again removed, and most of them placed just beyond the red, but none in the red or yellow. Experiment 8. — Arranged the light as before, and placed the pupa? in the ultra-violet rays. In half an 204 EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. hour they were all cleared away and carried into the dark space beyond the red. We then turned the nest round so that the part occupied l^y the pupoe again came to be in the violet and ultra-violet. The li^ht chanced to be so arranged that along one side of the nest was a line of shadow ; and into this the pupne were carried, all those in the ultra-violet being moved. AVe then shifted the nest a little, so that the violet and ultra-violet fell on some of the pupge. These were then all carried into the dark, the ones in the ultra-violet being moved lirst. In these experiments with the vertical incidence there was less ditfused light, and the pupie were in no case carried into the red or yellow. Experiment 9. — I arranged the light and the ants as before, placing the pup^e in the ultra-violet, some being distinctly beyond the bright thalline band. The ants at once began to remove them. At first many were deposited in the violet, some, however, being at once carried into the dark beyond the red. When all had been removed from the ultra-violet, they directed their attention to those in the violet, some being carried, as before, into the dark, some into the red and yellow. Again, when those in the violet had all been removed, they began on the pupie in the red and yellow, and carried them also into the dark. This took nearly half an hour. As I had arranged the pupae so that it might be said that they were awkwardly placed, we then turned the nest round, leaving the pupae otherwise as they had been arranged by the ants ; but the result of I I ANTS NOT SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-RED RAYS. 205 moving the nest was to bring some of them into the violet, though most were in the ultra-violet. They were, as before, all carried into the dark space beyond the red in about half an hour. W^e then turned the glass round again, this time arranging the end about the length of the spectrum beyond the end of the violet visible to our eyes. They began clearing the thalline band, carrying some into the violet, but the majority away further from the spectrum. In a quarter of an hour the thalline band had been quite cleared ; ;uid in half an hour a band beyond, and equal to the thalline band, those in the violet being left untouched. After the pupa? in the ultra-violet portion had all been moved, those in tlie violet were also carried away and deposited about twice as far from the edge of the violet as the further echre of the bright thalline band. Experiment 10. — Experimented again with the same arrangement as before, using another nest of Liuius niger and placing the pupa? in the violet and a little beyond. The ants at once began removing them into the dark, tunnelling into the heap, and then can'v- ing away those in the ultra-violet first, althoucrh thev were further off. In half an hour they had all been moved out of the violet and ultra-violet, about half being placed in the dark, and half having been pro- visionally deposited in the red and yellow. Experiment 11.— Same arrangement as before. The pupae being placed all along one side of the nest. 20G ANTS NOT SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-RED RAYS, from the edge of the red to a distance beyond the violel as great as the whole length of the spectrum. I began at 4.15. By degrees they were all cleared away from the spectrum, except those in the violet, where indeed, and immediately outside of which, the others were placed. At 5, however, they began to carry them back into the red. At 5.45 the blue and violet were nearly cleared, the pupoe being placed in the red and yellow. At 6.15 they had all been brought from the violet and ultra- violet into the red and yellow. I then shook up the pupa> so that they were arranged all along one side of the nest, and extended about an inch beyond the red. This excited the ants very much, and in less than ten minutes all those in *}ie spectrum, and for about 6 inches beyond the violet, w^re moved, but at first they were put down anywhere, so tliat they were scattered all over the nest. This, however, lasted for a very short time, and they were all carrieil into the dark beyond the red, or into the extreme end at some distance beyond the violet. At 7 the edge of the heap of pupae followed the line of the red at one end, comirg about J inch within it, which was not owing to want of room, as one side of the nest was almost unoccupied ; at the other end they were all carried 3 inches beyond the end of the violet. It would seem, then, as the result of these ex})eri- ments, that the limits of vision of ants at the red end of the spectrum are approximately the same as ours, that they are not sensitive to the ultra-red BUT VERY SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS. 207 rays ; but, on the other hand, that they are very sen- sitive to the ultra-violet rays, which our eyes cannot perceive. I then arranged the same ants in a wooden frame consisting of a base and two side walls, between which in the middle was a perpendicular sliding door. The pupae had been arranged by the ants in the centre of the nest, so that some were on each side of the door. We then threw, by means of a strong induction-coil, a magnesium-spark on the nest from one side, and the light from a sodium-flame in a Bunsen burner on the other, the light being in each case stopped by the sliding door, which was pressed close down on the nest. In this way the first half was illuminated by the one light, the second by the other, the apparatus being so arranged that the lights were equal to our eyes— that, however, given by the magnesium, consisting mainly of blue, violet, and ultra-violet rays, that of the sodium being very yellow and poor in chemical rays. In a quarter of an hour the pupa3 were all carried into the yellow. The sodium light being the hotter of the two, to eliminate the action of heat I introduced a water-cell between the ants and the sodium-flame, and made the two sides as nearly as possible equally light to my eye. The pupae, however, were again carried into the sodium side. I re[ieated the same experiment as before, getting the magnesium-spark and the sodium-flame to the same degree of intensity, as nearly as my eye could judge, 208 EXPEKIMENTS WITH MAGNESIUM SPAIiK and interposing a water-screen between the sodium- Haine and the ants. The temperature was tested by the thermometer, and I could distinguish no difference between the two sides. Still the ants preferred the sodium side. This I repeated twice. I then removed the magnesium-spark somewhat, so that the illumina- tion on that side was very much fainter than on the other; still the pupae were carried into the sodium- light. I then turned the nest round so as to bring them back into the magnesium. They were again carried to the sodium side. Once more I repeated the same experiment. The light on the magnesium side was so faint that I could scarcely see the pupae, those on the sodium side being quite plain. The thermometer showed no difference between the two sides. The \m\r,ii were carried into the sodium-light. 1 then turned the nest round twice ; but the pupue were each time carried out of the magnesium-light. These experiments seemed strongly to indicate, if not to prove, that ants were really sensitive to tlie ultra-violet rays. Now to these rays sulphate of quinine and bisulphide of carbon are extremely opaque, though perfectly transparent in the case of visible rays, and therefore to our eyes entirely colourless and trans- paient. If, therefore, the ants were really afft^cted by the ultra-violet rays, then a cell containing a layer of sulphate of quinine or bisulphide of carbon wouLl tend to darken the underlying space to their eyes, though to ours it would not do so. AND SODIUM FLAME. 209 It will be remembered that if an opaque substance is placed over a part of a glass nest, other things being equal, the ants always congregate under it ; and that if substances of different opacity are placed on different parts of a nest, they collect under that which seems to them most opatjue. Over one of my nests of Formica fusca, therefore, I placed two pieces of dark- violet glass 4 inches by 2 inches ; and over one of them I placed a cell containing a layer of bisulphide of carbon, an inch thick, slightly coloured with iodine. In all these experi- ments, when I moved the liquids or glasses, I gave the advantage, if any, to the one under which experi- ence showed that the ants were least likely to congre- gate. The ants all collected under the glass over which was the bisulphide of carbon. I then thought that though no doubt the iodine rendered the bisulphide more completely impervious to the ultra-violet rays, I would try the effect of it when pure and perfectly colourless. I therefore tried the same experiment with pure bisulphide, moving the two glasses from time to time in such a manner that the ants had to pass the first violet glass in order to reach that over which was the bisulphide. At 8.30 the ants were all under the glafs over which was the bisulphide of carbon : I then changed the position. 8.45 9 9.1.5 99 » »5 )> 9y »» » 210 EXPERIMENTS WITH Although the bisulphide of carbon is so perfectly transparent, I then thought I would try it without the violet glass. I therefore covered part of the nest with violet glass, a part with a layer of bisulphide of carbon, moving them from time to time as before, and the ants in every case went under the bisulphide. I then reduced the thickness of the layer of bisul- phide to -^^ of an inch, but still they preferred the bisulphide. Then thinking that possibly the one shelter being a plate of glass and the other a liquid miglit make a difference, I tried two similar bottles, one contain- ing water and the other bisulphide of carbon ; but in every case the ants went' undt-r the bisulphide of carbon. On the other hand, when I used coloured solu- tions so deep in tint that the ants were only just visible through them, the ants went under the colom-ed liquids. October 10.- -I uncovered the nest at 7 a.m., giving the ants an option between the bisulphide of carbon and various coloured solutions, taking for violet am- monio-sulphate of copper ; for red, a solution of carmine so deep in tint that the ants could only just be seen through it ; for green, a solution of chlorate of copper ; and for yellow, safifron. They were each separately tried with the bisulphide, and in every case the ants preferred the coloured solution. I now took successively red, yellow, and green glass ; but in every case the ants preferred the glass to the bisulphide. Although, therefore, it would seem BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 211 from the previous experiments that the bisulphide darkened the nests to the ants more than violet glass, it would appear to do so less than red, green, or yellow. I now made some experiments in order, if possible, to determine whether the reason why the ants avoided the violet glass was because they disliked the colour violet, or whether it was because the violet glass trans- mitted more of the ultra-violet rays. For this purpose I placed a layer of the bisulphide of carbon over a piece of violet glass. By this arrange- ment I got the violet without the ultra-violet rays ; and I then contrasted this combination with otlier coloured media. First, I took a solution of bichromate of potash (bright orange), and placed it on a part of the nest, side by side with the violet glass and bisulphide of carbon. I should add that the bichromate of potash also cuts off the ultra-violet rays. In all the following observations I changed the position after each observation. At 1.30 r.M. the ants were under the bichromate. 3 „ „ half under the bichromate and half under the violet glass and bisulphide. 8 A.M. 8.30 bisulphide. 9 „ „ half under each. 9.30 „ „ some under each, but most 55 5) „ imder the bichromate. „ under the violet glass and J5 212 EXl^EIilMENTS WITH BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 213 945 10 5» W 99 J) under the violet gluhs and bisulphide, half under each. 99 »5 In this case, therefore, tliough without the layer of bisulphide the violet glass would always have been avoided, the result of placing the bisulphide over the violet glass was that the ants did not care much whether they were under the violet glass or under the bichromate of potash. I then took the same solution of carmine which T nad already used. 10. The ants were under the carmine. 10.15 most under the carmine, but some under the violet. under the carmine. most under the carmine, but some under the violet. 10.30 10.45 11. 99 » 99 99 Here, then, again the bisulphide made a distinct difference, though not so much so as with the bichro- mate of potash. I then took the solution of chlorate of copper already used. 1 About half the ants were under each. 1.30. The greater number were under the violet glass and bisulphide. n 2. The greater number were under the violet glass and bisulphide. 2.30 99 jj j> 3. Almost all were under the glass and bisulphide. The addition of the bisulphide thus caused the violet gkss to be distinctly preferred to the chlorate of copper. I then took a solution of sulphate of nickel, almost exactly the same tint as, or a shade paler than^ the chlorate of copper. At 3.45 the ants were under the violet glass and bisulphide. » » »> >» >5 >? 4. 5. Octohei^ 18. 7 A.M. 99 » ?> 8. About half of the ants were under each. Here the effect was even more marked. I then took some saffron 1 inch in thickness and of a deep-yellow colour. 1 2.45 The ants were about half under each. 1. Most of the ants were under the violet glass and bisulphide. 1.15 99 « 9' 2. Most of the ants were under the saffron. Here, again9 "we have the same result. I then tried the different-coloured glasses, all of which, as I had previously found, are unmistakably preferred to the violet. It remained to be seen what ■(■\ igA'iagfc-gf ' &iii.'ja5atasrf«ft.-^ .■■ 214 EXPERIMENTS WITH effect placing the bisulphide of carbon on the violet would have. First, I placed side by side, as usual, a piece of green glass and the violet glass covered with bisulphide of carbon : — 1st exp. Half of the ants wore under each. 2nd „ They were under the violet glass and bisulphide. 4th exp. Most of them were under the violet glass and bisulphide. ^tb » » „ „ Next, I tried pale-yellow glass. 1st obs. The ants were almost all under the violet glass and bisulphide. 2nd „ About three-quarters were „ „ 3rd „ They were all „ „ 4th „ About half were under each. I then took the dark-yellow glass. 1st obs. About half the ants were under the yellow glass and half under the vielet glass and bisuli)hide. 2nd „ Most of them were under the violet glass and bisulphide. 3rcl 4th 59 J5 95 J? 59 5th „ About half under each. yellow glass. violet glass and bisul]>hide. .■sM^SMiaSi^^^.- BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 215 I now took deep-red glass. 1st obs. The ants were under the red glass. 2nd 3rd „ 2nd „ Half of the ants were under each. Most of the ants were under violet glass and bisulphide. 4th „ Half were under each. It seemed evident, therefore, that while if violet glass alone was placed side by side with red, yellow, or green, the ants greatly preferred any of the latter, on the other hand, if a layer of bisulphide of carbon, which to our eyes is perfectly transparent, was placed over the violet glass, they then went as readily, or even more readily, under it than under other colours. In order to be sure that it was not the mere presence of a fluid, or the two layers of glass, to which this was due, I thought it would be well to try a similar series of experiments, using, however, a layer of similar thickness (1 inch) of water coloured light blue by ammonio-sulphate of copper. I therefore took again the piece of violet glass, over which I placed a flat-sided bottle, about 1 inch thick, containing a light-blue solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper; and, in contrast with it, I used the same coloured glasses as before. The difference, however, was very marked, the ants always preferring the red, green, and yellow to the violet. These experiments seem to demonstrate that in the previous series the ants were really influenced by 216 EXPERIMENTS WITH some difference due to the bisulphide of carbon, wliich affected their eyes, though not ours. I then thought it would be interesting to use, instead of the bisulphide, a solution of sulphate of quinine (^ dr. to 4 ounces), which differs from it in many points, but agrees in cutting off the ultni-violet rays. I used, as before, a layer about an inch thick, which I placed over violet glass, and then placed by its side the same coloured glasses as before. First, I took the red glass. Obs. 1. About half the ants were under each. „ 2. Most of them were under the red glass. „ 3. About half under each ; rather more under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine than under the red glass. >» 4. n >» » I now took the dark-yellow glass instead of the red. Obs. 1. Most of the ants were under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. 2. All 3. 4. o. 5^ 5) 11 J9 5J yellow glass. 55 $9 C). All the ants were imder the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. 7. About half under each. 8. Rather more under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine than under the yellow glass. BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 217 I then took the light- yellow glass instead of the dark. Obs. ]. The ants were all under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. „ 2. Rather more than half under tne yellow glass. „ 3. Almost all under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. 55 '*• All „ „ 55 55 55 I then took the green glass instead of the yellow. Obs. 1. They were under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. 9 ^' J5 W 55 3. About half under each. 4. About three-quarters under the green glass. „ 5. Almost all under the violet glass and sulphate of quinine. Thus, then, while if the ants have to choose between the violet and other coloured glasses, they will always prefer one of the latter, the effect of putting over the violet glass a layer either of sul- phate of quinine or bisulphide of carbon, both of which are quite transparent, but both of which cut off the ultra-violet rays, is to make the violet glass seem to the ants as good a shelter as any of the other glasses. This seems to me strong evidence that the ultra-violet rays are visible to the ants. I then tried similar experiments with a saturated solution of chrome alum and chromium chloride. These 10 218 CHROME ALUM AND CHROMIUM CHLORIDE. are dark greenish blue, very opaque to the visible light-rays, but tnmsparent to the ultra-violet. I used a layer ^ inch thick, which was still so dark that I could not see the ants through it; and for comparison, a solution 1 inch thick of bisulphide of carbon, moving them after each observation as before. Exp. 1. The ants were under the bisulphide of carbon. 9 " -• W 99 5, Exp. 3. Most of the ants were under tlie bisulpliide of carbon. 4. All but three 55 99 ,, 5. All I now took chromium chloride instead of alum. Exp. 1. Most were under the bisulphide of carbon. 55 2. All 55 55 55 55 „ 3. Almost all „ „ „ 4. About three - fourtlis were under the chromium chloride. „ 5. All were under the chromium chloride, „ 6. About two-thirds „ ^^ „ 7. About one-half under each. „ 8. All under the bisulj^hide of carbon. „ 9. About three-fourths under the bisulplude of carbon, „ 10. About half „ " " 55 55 „ 11. All under the chrome alum. w 12. „ bisulphide of carbon. ANTS SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS. 219 This result is very striking. It appears to show that though to our eyes the bisulphide of carbon is absolutely transparent, while the chrome alum and chromium chlo- ride are very dark, to the ants, on the contrary, the former appears to intercept more light than a layer of the latter, which to our eyes appears dark green. The only experiments hitherto made with the view of determining the limits of vision of animals have been some by Prof. Paul Bert ^ on a small fresh-water crustacean belonging to the genus Daphnia, from which he concludes that they perceive all the colours known to us, being, however, specially sensitive to the yellow and green, and that their limits of vision are the same as ours. Nay, he even goes further than this, and feels justified in concluding from the experience of two widely divergent species — ]Man and Daphnia —that the limits of vision would be the same in all cases. His words are — A. * Tons les animaux voient les rayons spectraux que nous voyons.' B. 'lis ne voient aucun de ceux que nous ne voyons pas.' C. ' Dans I'etendue de la region visible, les differ- ences entre les pouvoirs eclairants des differents rayons eolories sont les memes pour eux et pour nous.' He adds, that 'puisque les limites de visibilites semblent etre les memes pour les animaux etpour nous, * Archie, de P/ii/nol. 1869, p. 547. 220 THE SENSE OF COLOUR. ne trouvons-nous pas la une raison de plus pour Bupposer que le role des milieux de I'ceil est tout-a-fait secondaire, et que la visibilite tient a rimpressionnabilite de I'appareil nerveux lui-meme ? ' Such a generalisation would seem to rest on but a slight foundation ; and I may add that I have made some experiments myself on Daphnias which do not agree with those of M. Bert. On the contrary, I believe that the eyes of Daphnias are in this respect constituted like those of ants. These experiments seem to me very interesting. They appear to prove that ants perceive the ultra-violet rays. Now, as every ray of homogeneous light which we can perceive at all appears to us as a distinct colour, it becomes probable that these ultra-violet rays must make themselves apparent to the ants as a distinct and separate colour (of which we can form no idea), but as unlike the rest as red is from yellow, or green from violet. The question also arises whether white light to these insects would differ from our white light in containing this additional colour. At any rate, as few of the colours in nature are pure, but almost all arise from the combination of rays of different wave- lengths, and as in such cases the visible resultant would be composed not only of the rays which we see, but of these and the ultra-violet, it would appear that the colours of objects and the general aspect of nature • British Assoc. J?ejjort 1881, and Linntran &)c. Journ. 1882 ifea»iiai»aiiafi8iiii*'iiaiii'.aaea.« THE SENSE OF HEARING. 221 must present to them a very different appearance from what it does to us. The Sense of Hearing, Many eminent observers have regarded the antennae of insects as auditory organs, and have brought forward strong evidence in favour of their view. I have myself made experiments on grasshoppers, which convinced me that their antenna} serve as organs cf hearing. So far, however, as Ants, Bees, and Wasps are con- cerned, the evidence is very conflicting. The power of hearing has indeed generally been attributed to them. Thus St. Fargeau, in his ' Hist. Nat. des Hymenopteres,' * thinks there can be no doubt on the subject. Bevan expresses, no doubt, the general opinion with reference to Bees, when he says that '' there is good evidence that Bees have a quick sense of hearing.' ^ As regards Wasps, Ormerod, who studied them so lovingly, came to the same conclusion.^ On the other hand, both Huber * and Forel * state that ants are quite deaf. As I have already men- tioned in the ' Linnaean Journal' (vols. xii. and xiii.), I have never succeeded in satisfying myself that my ants, bees, or wasps heard any of the sounds with » Vol. i. p. 113. ' The ITo?>c7/ Bee, p. 264. ■ Nat. Hist, of Wasps, p 72. * Nat. Hist, of Ants. * Four mis de la Suisse, p. 121. 223 THE SENSE OF HEARING. which 1 tried them. I have over and over again tested them with the loudest and shrillest noises I could make, using a penny pipe, a dog-whistle, a violin, as well as the most piercing and startling sounds I could produce with my own voice, but all without effect. At the same time, I carefully avoided inferring from this that they are really deaf, though it certainly seems that their range of hearing is very different from ours. In order, if possible, to throw some light upon this interesting question, I made a variety of loud noises, including those produced by a complete set of tuning-forks, as near as possible to the ants mentioned in the preceding pages, while they were on their journeys to and fro between the nests and the larvae. In these cases the ants were moving steadily and in a most business-like manner, and any start or alteration of pace would have been at once apparent. I was never able, however, to perceive that they took the slightest notice of any of these sounds. Thinking, however, that they might perhaps be too much absorbed by the idea of the larvie to take any notice of my interruptions, I took one or two ants at random and put them on a strip of paper, the two ends of which were supported by pins with their bases in water. The ants imprisoned under these circumstances wandered slowly backwards and forwards along the paper. As they did so, I tested them in the same manner as before, but was unable to perceive that they APPARENT DEAFNESS OF ANTS. 223 took the slightest notice of any sound which I was able to produce. I then took a large female of F. ligniperda, and tethered her on a board to a pin by a delicate silk thread about 6 inches in length. After wandering about for a while, she stood still, and I then tried her in the same way ; but, like the other ants, she took no notice whatever of the sounds. It is of course possible, if not probable, that ants, even if deaf to sounds which we hear, may hear others to which we are deaf. Having failed, therefore, in hearing them or making them hear me, I endeavoured to ascertain whether they could hear one another. To ascertain then if possible whether ants have the power of summoning one another by sound, I tried the following experiments. I put out (Sept. 1874) on the board where one of my nests of -Lasiiis flavus was usually fed, six small pillars of wood about an inch and a half high, and on one of them I put some honey. A number of ants wej^e wandering about on the board itself in search of food, and the nest itself was immediately above, and about 12 inches from, the board. I then put three ants to the honey, and when each had sufficiently fed I iniprisoned her and put another; thus always keeping three ants at the honey, but not allowing them to go home. If then they could summon their friends by sound, there ought soon to be many ants at the honey. The resulta were as follow : 224 ATTEMPTS TO ASCEKTAIN September 8.— Began at 11 a.m. Up to 3 o'clock only seven ants found their way to the honey, while about as many ran up the other pillars. The arrival of these seven, therefore, was not more than would naturally result from the numbers running about close by. At 3 we allowed the ants then on the honey to return home. The result was that from 3.6, when the first went home, to 3.30, eleven came; from 3.30 to 4, no less than forty-three. Thus in four hours only seven came, while it was obvious that many would have wished to come, if they had known about the honey, because in the next three quarters of an hour, when they were informed of it, fifty-four came. On September 10 I tried the same again, keep- ing as before three ants always on the honey, but not allowing any to go home. From 12 to 5.30, only eight came. Those on the honey were then allowed to take the news home. From 5.30 to 6, four came ; from 6 to 6.30, four ; from 6.30 to 7, eight ; from 7.30 to 8, no less than fifty-one. On September 23 we did the same again, begin- ning at 11.15. Up to 3.45 nine came. The ants on the honey were then allowed to go home. From 4 to 4.30 nine came ; from 4.30 to 6, fifteen ; from 5 to 5.30 nineteen ; from 5.30 to 6, thirty-eight. Thus in three and a half hours only nine came ; in two, when the ants were permitted to return, eighty-one. Again, on September 30 I tried the same arrange- ment, again beginning at 11. Up to 3.30 seven ants WHETHER ANTS CALL ONE ANOTHER. 225 came. We then allowed the ants which had fed to go home. From 3.30 to 4.30 twenty-eight came. From 4.30 to 5, fifty-one came. Thus in four hours and a half only seven came ; while when the ants were allowed to return no less than seventy-nine came in an hour and a half. It seems obvious therefore that in these cases no communication was transmitted by sound. Again, Professor T^Tidall was good enough to arrange for me one of his sensitive flames ; but I could not perceive that it responded in any way to my ants. The experiment was not, however, very satisfactory, as I was not able to try the flame with a very active nest. Professor Bell most kindly set up for me an extremely sensitive microphone : it was attached to the underside of one of my nests ; and though we could distinctly hear the ants walking about, we could not distinguish any other sound. It is, however, far from improbable that ants may produce sounds entirely beyond our range of hearing. Indeed, it is not impossible that insects may possess senses, or sensations, of which we can no more form an idea than we should have been able to conceive red or green if the human race had been blind. The human ear is sensitive to vibrations reaching at the outside to 38,000 in a second. The sensation of red is produced when 470 millions of millions of vibrations enter the eye in a similar time ; but between these two numbers, vibrations produce on us only the sensation of heat ; 226 EXPERIMENTS WITH SENSITIVE FLAME. we have no special organs of sense adapted to them. There is, however, no reason in the nature of things why this should be the case with other animals ; and the problematical organs possessed by many of the lower forms may have relation to sensations which we do not perceive. If any apparatus could be devised by which the number of vibrations produced by any given cause could be lowered so as to be brought within the range of our ears, it is probable that the result would be most interesting. Moreover, there are not wanting observations which certainly seem to indicate that ants possess some sense of hearing. I am, for instance, indebted to Mr. Francis Galton for the following quotation from Colonel Long's recent work on Central Africa.* ' I observed,' lie says, ' the manner of catching them ' (the ants, for food), ' as here pictured' (he gives a figure). 'Seated round an ant- hole were two very pretty maidens, who with sticks beat upon an inverted gourd, "bourmah," in cadenced time to a not unmusical song, that seduced from its hole the unwary ant, who, approaching the orifice, was quickly seized.' The species of ant is not mentioned. Moreover, there are in the antennae certain remark- able structures, which may very probably be auditory organs. These curious organs (Fig. 6) were first noticetl»' » Central Africa, by Col. C. C. Long. p. 274. ANTS PROBABLY HEAR HIGH NOTES. 227 BO far as I am aware, by Dr. J. Braxton Hicks in his ex- cellent paper on the 'Antennae of Insects,' published in the 22nd volume of the 'Linuaean Transactions;' and, again, by Dr. Forel in his ' Fourmis de la Suisse.' They certainly deserve more attention than they have yet received. The cork-shaped organs (P'igs. 6 and 7, e e) occur in allied species; but these stethoscope-like organs have not, so far as I am aware, been yet observed in other insects. They consist of an outer sac (Figs. 6 and 7, s), of a long tube {t\ and a posterior chamber {w\ to which is given a nerve (?i). ForeP also describes these curious organs. He appears to consider that the number varies consider- Fig. 6. ^^ Terminal portion of antcnn:c of My r mica riiginodu ^ x 76. ably, namely, from 5 to 12. My own impression is that this difference is only apparent, and that in reality the numbers in each species vary little. Though ' Travs.of Linnrran Sii i WiiiiWiJft"Wi"^ *' IN THE ANTENNAE OF ANTS. 229 ing of the tube in the short segments would make little difference in its mode of action. Kirby and Spence were, I believe, the first to notice that an insect allied to the ants {Mutilla EuropcBo) has the power of making a sibilant, chirping sound, but they did not ascertain how this was effected. Goureau > subsequently called at- tention to the same fact, and attributed it to fric- tion of the base of the third segment of the abdo- men against the second. Westwood,^ on the other hand, thought the sound was produced « by the action of the large collar against the front of the mesothorax.' Darwin, in his ' Descent of Man,' adopts the same view. * I find,* he says,^ ' that these surfaces {Le. the over- lapping portions of the second and third abdominal segments) are marked with very fine concentric ridges, but so is the projecting thoracic collar, on which the head articulates ; and this collar, when scratched with the point of a needle, emits the proper sound.' Landois, after referring to this opinion, expresses himself strongly in opposition to it. The true organ of sound is, he maintains,^ a triangular field on the upper surface of the fourth abdominal ring, which is finely ribbed, and which, when rubbed, emits a stridulating sound. It certainly would appear, from Landois' observations, that this structure does produce sound, whether or not ' Ann. de la Sac. Ent. de France, 1837. 2 Modern Cl(JSftificationft of Tn»ect8y vol ii. " Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 366. * Thierstimmen, p. 132. 230 STRIDULATINO APPARATUS we consider that the friction of the collar against the mesothorax may also assist in doing so. Under these circumstances, Landois asked himself "whether other genera allied to Mutilla might not possess a similar organ, and also have the power of pro- ducing sound. He first examined the genus Ponera, which, in the structure of its abdomen, nearly resem- bles Mutilla, and here also he found a fully developed stridulating apparatus. He then turned to the true ants, and here also he found a similar rasp-like organ in the same situation. It is indeed true that ants produce no sounds which are audible by us; still, when we find that certain allied insects do produce sounds appieciable to us by rubbing the abdominal segments one over the other ; and when we find, in some ants, a nearly similar structure, it certainly seems not unreasonable to conclude that these latter also do produce sounds, even though we cannot hear them. Landois describes Fig. 8. Attachment of abdominal segments of Lasiiu flavus ^ x *25, the structure in the workers of Lasius fuliginoaiis as having 20 ribs in a breadth of 0*13 of a millimetre. ■ *'*''«•* *■ f,*" ON ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS. 231 but he gives no figure. In Fig. 8 I have represented the junction of the second and third abdominal seg- ments in Lasius Jlavus, x 225, as shown in a longi- tudinal and vertical section. There are about ten well-marked ribs (r), occupying a length of approxi- mately -j^-J^ of an inch. Similar ridges also occur between the following segments. In connection with the sense of hearing I may mention another very interesting structure. In the year 1844, Von Siebold described ' a remarkable organ which he had discovered in the tibia3 of the front legs of Gryllus^ and which he considered to serve for the pur- pose of hearing. These organs have also been studied by Biinneister, Brunner, Ilensen, Leydig, and others, and have recently been the subject of a nionogra])h by Dr. V. Graber," who commences his memoir bv observ- iiig that they are organs of an entirely uni(pie character, Fig. 9. Tibia of Lantis Jiavus 5 x 75. and that nothing corresponding to them occurs in any other insects, or indeed in any other Arthropods. ' See also Sharp, Trm}s. Ent. Soc.^ 181>3. ' Uebir das Sfimm. und Ochoroiyan dcr Orfhopfcrcn, Wiegmami's Art.f. Natur., 1844. ' Die Timipanahn Sinncsappanik dcr Orlhopfcraiy von Dr. Vitus Graber, 1875. 232 REMARKABLE STRUCTURE IN I have therefore been very much interested by dis* covering (1875) in ants a structure which seems in some remarkable points to resemble that of the Orthoptera. As will be seen from a glance at Dr. Graber's memoir, and the plates which accompany it, the large trachea of the leg in the Orthof)tera is con- siderably swollen in the tibia, and sends off, shortly after entering the tibia, a branch which, after running for some time parallel to the principal trunk, joins it again. See, for instance, in his monograph, plate ii., fig. 43 ; plate vi., fig. 69 ; plate vii., fig. 77 ; &c. Now, I have observed that in many other insects the tracheae of the tibia are dilated, and in several I have been able to detect a recurrent branch. The same is also the case in some mites. I will, however, reserve what I have to say on this subject, with reference to other insects, for another occasion, and will at present confine myself to the ants. If we examine the tibia, say of Lasius Jlavus, Fig. 9, we shall see that the trachea presents a remarkable arrangement, which at once reminds us of that which occurs in Gryllus and other Orthoptera. In the femur it has a diameter of about 3Q^QQ of an inch ; as soon, however, as it enters the tibia, it swells to a diameter of about g-L- of an inch, then contracts again to -^^ and then again, at the apical extremity of the tibia, once more expands to y^. Moreover, as in Gryllus, so also in Forriiica^ a small branch rises from the upper sac, runs almost ''XraWWWSWn'StfMBJ THE TIJUA OF ANTS. 23.*^ s( might dcwn the tibia, and falls again into the main trachea just above the lower sac. The remarkable sacs (Fig. 9, s s) at the two ex- tremities of the trachea in the tibia mny also be well seen in other transparent species, such, for instance, as Myrmica ruginodis and Pheidole mecjacephala. At the place where the upper tracheal sac con- tracts (Fig. 9), there is, moreover, a conical striated org-an {x\ which is situated at the back of the leg, just J't the apical end of the upper tracheal sac. The liroad base lies against the external wall of the leg, and the fibres converge inwards. In some cases I thought [ could perceive indications of bright rods, but I was never able to make them out very clearly. This also reminds us of a curious structure which is found in the tibiae of Locustida^, between the trachea, the nerve, and the outer wall, and which is well shown in some of Dr. Graber's figures. On the whole, then, though the subject is still involved in doubt, I am disposed to think that ants perceive sounds which we cannot hear The Serine of Smell, I have also made a num! er of experiments on the power of smell possessed by ants. I dipi^ed camel's-hair brushes into peppermint-water, essence of cloves, la ven- der- wa'er, and (»ther strong scents, and suspended them - .• •d'iii: aiSMWihiSliiaiMi 234 TTIE SENSE OF SMEIX. about i of an inch above the strips of paper along which the ants were passing, in the experiments above recorded. Under these circumstances, while some of the ants passed on without taking any notice, others stopped when they came close to the pencil, and, evidently perceiving the smell, turned back. Soon, however, they returned and passed the scented pencil. After doing this two or three times, they generally took no further notice of the scent. This experiment left no doubt on my mind ; still, to make the matter even more clear, I experi- mented with ants placed on an isolated strip of paper. Over the paper, and at such a distance as almost, but not quite, to touch any ant which passed under it, I again suspended a camel's-hair brush, dipped in assa- foetida, lavender-water, peppermint-water, essence of cloves, and other scents. In this experiment the results were very marked ; and no one who watched the behaviour of the ants under these circumstances could have the slightest doubt as to their power of smell. I then took a large fc.'male of F, Wjniperda and tethered her on a board by a thread as before. When she was quite quiet I tried her with the tuning-forks; but they did not disturb her in the least. I tlien ap- proached the feather of a pen very quietly, so as almost to touch first one and then the otlier of the antennnp, which, however, did not move. I then dipi)rearing on the intelligence of ants : ' — * Passant un jour pres d'un arbre presque isole, je fus surpris d'entendre, par un temps calme,des feuilles qui touibaient comuie de la pluie. Ce qui augmenta mon etonnement, c'estque les feuilles detachees avaient leur oouleur naturelle, et que I'arbre seinblait jouir de toute sa vigueur. Je m'approchai pour trouver ['expli- cation de ce phenomene, et je vis qu'a peu pr^s sur chaque petiole etait postee une fourrni qui travaillait de toute sa force ; le petiole etait bientot coupe et la feuille tombait par terre. Une autre scene se passait au pied de Tarbre: la terre etait convert e de fourmis occupees a decouper les feu.lles a mesure qu'elles tom- baieat, et les morceaux etaient sur le champ transportes dans le nid. En moins d'une heure le grand ceuvre ' A.'in, d€» Set. Mat. 1831, p. 1 iL*. RCONOMV OF LABOUR. 23? s'Mf»oftn3i>1it sous mes yeux, et I'arbre resta onlic^roment depouille.' Hates ' gives ;m aj^parently similar, but really very nilTerent account. 'The Saiiba ants,' he says, ' mount the tree in multitudes, the individuals being all worker-minors. Each one places itself on the surface of a leaf, and cuts with its sharp scissor-like jaws a nearly semicircular incision on the upper side ; it then takes the edge between its jaws, and by a sharj:) jerk detaches the piece. Sometimes they let the leaf drop to the ground, where a little heapaccunuilates, until carried off by another relay of workers ; but, generally, each marches off with the piece it has operated upon.' Dr. Kerner recounts- the following story communi- cated to him by Dr. Gredler of Botzen : — ' One of his colleagues at Innsbriick, says that gentleman, had for months been in the habit of sprink- ling pounded sugar on the sill of his window, for a train of ants, which passed in constant procession from the garden to the window. One day, he took it into his head to put the pounded sugar into a vessel, which he fastened with a string to the transom of the window; and, in order that his long-petted insects might have information of the supply suspended above, a number of the same set of ants were placed with the sugar in the vessel. These busy creatures forthwith ' Naturalist on the Amazons, voL i. p. 20. » t'loirn's and tht-ir Inhultlvn (iucttif. Dr. A. Kerner. Traua. b| ft'. Offle, 1S78, p. 21. 238 STATEMENT RY §eized on tl»e particles of sugar, and soon discovering the only way open to them, viz. up the string, over the transom and down the ^yind()^v-f^ame, rejoined their fellows on the sill, whence they could resume the old route down the steep wall into the garden. Before long the route over the new track from the sill to the sugar, by the window-frame, transom, and string was completely established ; and so passed a day or two without anything new. Then one morning it was noticed that the ants were stopping at their old place, that is, the window-sill, and getting sugar there. Not a single individual any longer traversed the path that led thence to the sugar above. This was not because the store above had been exhausted ; but because some dozen little fellows were working away vigorously and incessantly up aloft in the vessel, dragging the sugar crumbs to its edge, and throwing them down to their comrades below on the sill, a sill which with their limited range of vision they could not possibly see ! ' Leuckart also made a similar experiment. Round a ^ree which was frequented by ants, he spread a band soaked in tobacco water. The ants above the band after awhile let themselves drop to the ground, but the ascending ants were long baffled. At length he saw them coming back, each with a pellet of earth in its mouth, and thus they constructed a road for them- fudves, over which they streamed up the tree. PREVIOUS OBSERVERS. 239 Dr. liiichner records the following instance on the nuthority of a friend (M. Theuerkauf ) : — ' A maple tree slanding on the ground of the manufacturer, Vollbaum, of Klbing (no»v of Dantzic) swarmed with a[)hides and ants. In order to check the mischief, the proprietor smeared about a foot width of the ground round the tree with tar. The first ants who wanted to cross naturally stuck fast. But what did the next? They turned back to the tree and carried down aphides, which they stuck down on the tjir one after another until they had made a bridge, over which they could cross the tar-ring without danger. The above-named merchant, Vollbaum, is the guarantor of this story, which I received from his own mouth on the very spot whereat it occurred.'* In this case I confess I have my doubts as to the interpretation of the fact. Is it not possible that as the ants descended the tree, carrying the aphides, the latter naturally stuck to the tar, and would certainly be left there. In the same way I have seen hundreds of bits of earth deposited on the honey with which I fed my ants. On one occasion licit observed '^ a community of leaf-cutting ants (^(Ecodoma\ which was in the process of moving from one nest to another. ' Between the old burrows and the new one was a steep slope. In- p*ead of descending this with their burdens, they cast • }find in Animals, by Prof. Lndwit:^ Bucliner, p, 120. ' \titurelt, p. 70. ft.'jsifeiaflsarii.al *£ *-.*.ii^V.'fc *,■"* ,- 'i' J^ r 240 EXPERIMENTS AS TO TOWEKS. Fig. 10. them down on the top of the slope, whence they rolled to the bottom, where another relay of lahourerd picked them up and carried them to the new burrow. It was amusing to watch the ants hunying out with bundles of food, dropping them over the slope, anti rushing back immediately for more.' With reference to these interesting statements, I tried the following experiment : — October 15 (see Fig. 10).— At a distance of 10 inches from the door of a nest of Lasius iiiger I fixed an upright ash wand 3 feet 6 inches high (a), and from the top of it I suspended a second, rather shorter wand (6). To the lower end of this d second wand, which hung just over the ^ entrance to the nest (c), I fastened a flat glass cell {d) in which I placed a number of larva\ and to them I put three or four specimens of L. nirjer. The drop from the glass cell to the upper part of the frame was only \ an inch; still, though the ants reached over and showed a great anxiety to take this short cut home, they none of them faced the leap, but all went round by the sticks, a distance of nearly 7 feet. At 6 p.m. there were over 550 larvae in the glass cell, and I reduced its distance from the upper surface of the nest to about J of an inch, so that the ants could even touch the glass with their antennae, but could not reach up nor step down. Still, though the drop was so suiall, they all went round. At 1 1 p.m. the OF ECONOxMISlNG LABOUR 241 greater number of the larv.-e had been carried off; so I put a fresh lot in the cell. The ants were busily at work. At ^ k.M. I visited them again. They were still carrying off the larvji?, and all going round. At 6 A.M. the larva3 were all removed. I put a fresh lot, and up to 9 a.m. they went on as before. The following day (October 17) I took two longer sticks, each 6 feet 6 inches in length, and arranged them in a similar manner, only horizontally instead of vertically. I also placed fine earth under the glass supi)orting the larvae. At 8 o'clock I placed an ant on the larvae; she took one, and I then coaxed her home along the sticks. She deposited her larva and im- mediately came out again, not, however, going along the stick, but under the larvae, vainly reaching up and endeavouring to reach the glass. At 8.30 I put hei on the larvae again, and as she evidently did not know her way home, but kept stretching herself down and trying to reach the earth under the glass cell, I again coaxed her home alonij the sticks. At 9.3 she came out again, and again went under the larvae and wandered about there. At 10 I put her on the larvae and agnin helped her home. At 10.15 she came out again, and this time went to the stick, but still wanted some guidance. At 10.45 she again reached the frame, but immediately cam.e out again, and I once more coaxed her round. After wandering about some time with a larva in her mouth, she dropped down at 11.14. After depositing her larva, she came out directly and weni 242 WANT OF INGENUITY IN' ASSISTINO under the larvre. I again coaxed lier round, anti this time also she dropped off the glass with lier larva. At 12.30 she came out again, and fur the last time I helped her round. After this she found her way by herself. At 12.20 another (No. 2) found her way round and returned at 12.37. For the next hour theii times were as follows : — No. 1. 12.40 12.54 1. 1 1. 7 1.12 1.10 1.2G 1.32 1.38 1.45 1.52 No. 2. 12.47 12.54 1. 1. 8 1.14 1.21 1.28 1.34 1.41 1.47 1.54 Thus they both made 9 visits in an hour. Aa regards actual pace, I found they both did about 6 leet ONE ANOTHER (WER CHASMS. 243 in a minute. Soon after these began, other ants came with them. It was a beautiful day, and all my anis were unusually active. At 1 P.M. I counted 10 on the sticks at once, by 1.30 over 30, and at 5 in the after- noon over 60. They went on working very hard, and forming a continuous stream till I went to bed at 1 1 ; and at 4 in the morning I found them still at work ; but though they were very anxious and, especially at first, tried very hard to save themselves the trouble of going round, they did not think of jumping down, nor did they throw the larvae over the edge. Moreover, as I had placed some sifted mould under the glass, a minute's labour would have been sufficient to heap up one or two particles, and thus make a little mound which would have enabled them to get up and down without going round. A mound ^ inch high would have been sufficient; but it did not occur to them to form one. The following morning (October 18) I put out some larvae again at 6 A.M. Some of the ants soon came ; and the same scene continued till 11.30 A.M., when I left off observing. Again, on October 22, I placed a few larvae in a glass, which I kept continually replenished, which was suspended ^ of an inch above the surface of the frame containing their nest, but only connected with it by tapes five feet. long. I then, at 6.30, put a L, niger to the larvae ; she took one and tried hard to reach down, but could not do so, and would not jump ; so I 244 WANT OF INGENUITY IN coaxed Ler round \hv tapes. She went into \]\e nost. jleposited her larva, and immediately came out again. I put her back on the larvae at 7.15 ; she took one, and again tried hard, but ineffectually, to reach down. 1 therefore again coaxed her round. She went into the nest, deposited her larva, and came out a^ain directly as before. I put her back on the larvae at 7.35, when the same thing happened again. She got back to the nest at 7.40, and immediately came out again. This lime she found her way round the string, with some help from me, and reached the larvae at 7.50. I helped her home for the last time. The next journey she found her way without assistance, and reached the larvae at 8.2G. After this she returned as foHows, viz. : — At 8.50 9. 9.10 9.17 9.28 I now made the length of the journey round (1 Uipes 10 feet. This puzzled her a little at first. She returned as follows ; — le 9.41 9.55 10. 8 10.16 10.20 1 0..35 10.44 10.54 11. 1 1.1 4 wll ha friend CONSTRUCTING BRIDGES. 245 1 now increased the length to 16 feet, and watched her while she made thirty journeys backwards and forwards. She also brought during the time seven friends with her. It surprised me very much that she preferred to go so far round rather than to face so short a drop. In illustration of the same curious foct, I several times put specimens of L. niger on slips of glass raised only one-third of an inch from the surfiice cf the nest. They remained sometimes three or four hours running a]x)ut on the glass, and at last seemed to drop off accidentally. Myrmica ru()iuodh< has the same feeling. One morning, for instance, I placed one in an isohited positi(^>n, but so that she could escape by dropping one- third of an inch. Nevertheless at the same hour on the following morning she was still in captivity, having remained out twenty-four hours rather than let herself down this little distance. Again I filled a saucer (woodcut. Fig. 11, s) with water and put in it a block of wood (w), on the top of which 1 fastened a projecting wooden rod (h), on the end of which 1 placed a shallow glass cell (a) containing several hundred larvae. From this cell I allowed a slip of i>aper (^p) to hang down to within ^^ of an inch of the upper surface of theii. The ants, however, did iiol like being I Inis exposed ; they (luM-efore brought earth fioin some little distance, and l)nilt np a regular wall along the o[>en side, ])loeking up tii<' space between liie tq>per and lower plates of glass, and leaving only one or two small o[»enings for tlicniselves. This struck 18 tj"ifj:.-ujifj 250 INGENUIIY IN IJUILDING NKSTS. me as very ingenious. The same expedient was, m(»re- over, repeated under similar circumstances by llie »]i»'% belonging to my nest of Polyerfjus, The facility or difficulty with which ants find their way, while it partly falls within the section of the subject dealing with their organs of sense, is also closely connected with the question of their general intelligence. Partly, then, in order to test how far they are guided by sight, partly to test their intelligence, 1 made various observations and experiments, the ac- companying woodcuts being reduced copies of tracings of some of the routes followed by the auts during the course of the observations. I may here note that the diagrams Figs. 12-17 are careful reductions of large tracings made during the experiments. Though not absolutely correct in every minute detail of contour, they are exact for all practical purposes. As the auts i)ursued their way, pencil-mark- iuf^s in certain instances, and coloured lines in others, were made so as to follow consecutively the paths pursued. Experbnent 1. — February. On a table comnmni- catirig with one of ujy nests (see l''ig. 12)1 phiccd in»right a common I'vliudrical le:id prii»il [ inch in diann'ter and 7 inches long, fastmed wi(h sealing-wax to a penny piece. Close to the base of the pencil (a) I brought the end of a p:iper bridge (u) leading to the tiest,aud then placed a shallow glass with larv;e ut C, DIFFICULTY IN FINDING WAY. 25\ 4 inches tVom the base of the pencil. I then put an ant to the larvje ; when she had become acquainted wit h the road, she went very straight, as is shown in the woodcut ^Fig. 12). In one case^ at the point E, she dto[>ped her larva and returned for another. VVln'ii Koutes followt'd in experiment No. 1, as detailed above. A, posiiioM of pencil, li, paper bridijre. c and u.Lrlit^s with l;irv:o. C. point wlu'ie larva t. she returned on the next joiuney and was on the glass, I moved it 3 inches, to D, so that the end of the glass was 6 inches from the base of the pencil. If slie were nuu-h guided by sight, then she would have had litth* 2.VJ DIITICULTY IN or no difficulty in finding licr way back. Her pathway, however (No. 5), which is traced on the paper, shows that she was completely abroad ; and, after all, she got huck to the uest by a different route. Fi^. IH. Koules follownl in exf)«»n(iMTit No. 2, us mentioned in tcxi IJ, paper briil<^e leading' to nest. C. fjlass tniy with larv;u, i>» its fiist position ; and D in it- position wtu-n sliiftcd, 1, 2, IJ, 4, thin white lines indicjiting the coniparativf-ly straight routes. 5, thitk «Nliite line, and r», dotted line showini^' tortuous paihs when glass had •von alter*^! in p<^si^ion. Thr arrows indicate directions travelhrd FINDING TUEIR WAY. 253 i 1 then varied the experiment as subjoined, and as shown in the woodcut (Fig. 13), Experl'inent 2. — I connected the table with tl e nest by a j)aper Inidge, the end of which is showD. at 15 (Fig. 13), and which came down about an inch from the jK)le supporting the nest (see Fig. 1). This poU; rose 18 inches above the table. I then put the glass tray (c) with larv;i3 as before, 12 inches from the bas(^ of the pole, and put an ant to the larvne. When she had learnt her way I traced four of her routes, as shown in the thin lines 1, 2, 3, 4. I then on lior next journey (5, thick white line), when she was on the tray (c), moved it three inches to D, as shown in the figure, and agjtin traced her route. The contrast is very striking between th(; relatively straight thin w)^it<' lines 1, 2, 3, 4 of the four journeys when familiar with the road; wlu^reas in the broad white line No. 5 the zigzag twistings show how uAUeh difficulty the ant experienced in finding her way. When she re- turned I again moved tlie tray as before, and the dotted sinuous white line (6) shows the course she followed. Experiment 3. — I then again v«,ried the experi- ment as follows: — I placed the larv;e in a small china cup on the top of the pencil, which thus formed a column 7 A inches high. Tlu* cross line close to the arrows ( l^'ig. 1 4 ) is as before, the base f>f tl;e paper bridge leading to the tn'st. C shows the ])ositinn of the penny on which the pencil was suj)ported. 'J'he dotted white lines 1, 2, 3,4 show the routes of a marked ant on four }i&i'.^r^' 'J 1^ ""..*:»■' 2')4 SIGHT LITTLE USED successive journeys from (he nest to the base of the pencil. I then moved the pencil 6 inches to D, and the two following routes are marked 5 and 6. In one of them, 5 (thick white line), the ant found a stray Fig. U Uoutcs followed in exfji-niuont No. 3, as ilescriUod in loxt The line at tlie six arrows represents a paper bridge f^oinij to nest c, china cup on top of pencil, d, pencil moved. E, place where a «tray larva was found. 1, 2, 3, 4, dotted lines show the nearly direct journeys. 5, thick white line (crossing c in l.lack) of rout«i leturninp^ to nest, tlie ant havin^j pit-ked tip a stray larva at R. 6, very circuitous thin white line of track from nest to |>cncil d. IN FINDING TIIEin WAY 2 oft .arva at E, with wliich she returned to the nest, without finding the pencil at all. On the following journey, shown in the fine white zigzag line (6), she found the pencil at last, but, as will be seen, only after many meanderings. Fig. 15 Diagram of complex path traversed in cxiK-rimcnt 4. A, lirst position of jx'ncil. n, second position of pencil. 1.1?, St raiphl lines of two tracks of the ol)servc(l ants. 3, windint,^ narrow white line, showin.ij course pursued hy the same ant l>cfore arriving Ml i; when the iK)sition of the pencil was unchauijcd. K.citeriineni 4.— T then repeated the observation 2r)r) SIGHT LITTLE USED on three other ants (see Figs. l.)-17) with the sanit- result: the second was 7 minutes before she found the pencil, and at last seemed to do so accidentally : the third actually wandered abo'it for no less than liilf an hour (FiiT. 15), returning up the paper bridge several times. ()th<»r experimenrs somewhat similar to the pre. Fig. If,. Di.'i^^ram representing three tracks of an ant in another oxj.enniet.r A, the first position of j)encil and the food, towards which and from tlie base-line of nest 1 and 2 lead by nearly direct hroadi.-li wMtc lines to a. When the latter was removed to n the ant, in it a effort to reach this, pursued the narrow white win«ling line ending in 3 -► ceding, the results of which are shown in the fitrnrea 16 and 1 7, seem to prove that this species of ant, at anj IN FINDING THEIR WAY. 2:u rate, guides itself but little by sight. This, which I had not at all anticipated, seems to follow from the fact that after the pencil and tray of larvae had been removed but a short distance to the right or left, the Ficr. 17. AnotlHT tracing showintra similar ex[>('riinent, 1, 2, 3, thodinct hroad lines towanls a; aniM}>li(;ated track Kiade when re.scrvoir of larv:c was removed to B. ants on their journey to the shifted object travelled vf ry often backwards and forwards and around the spot where the coveted object first stood. Then they would retrace their steps towards the nest, wander hither and '•''^"■i^sSSMHi^as^*-- ■^ l.v.^^•s:^»sJ^.^^p^'^^S!K»#)*'^fft^*^J^«''5^ i'iai&tigi*' 258 nirORTANCE OF SCENT. thither from side to side between the nest and the point A, and only after very repeated efforts around the original site of the larvaj reach, as it were accidenudly, the object desired at u. Another evidence of this consists in the fact that if when ants (L. nirjer) were carrying off larvae placed in a cup on a piece of board, I turned the board round so that the side which had been turned towards the nest was away from it, and vice versa, the ants always returned over the same track on the board, and, in consequence, directly away from home. If I moved the board to the other side of my nrtificial nest, the result was the same. Evidently they followed the road, not the direction. In order furtlier to test how far ants are guided by sight and how much by scent, I tried the following ex- perimentwith Lasiusnitjer. Some fo«^f.s/,r ( 1^'ig. 2;>), to some food. Fig. 23. I c <^ L' a I When they had got quite accustomed to the way, I wntched when an ant was on \\w bridge and then turned it round, so that the end b was at r, and c at b. In most cases the ant immediately turned round also; but even if she went on to b or c, as the ease may b?, ,\% EXPERIMENTS. 261 Boon as she came to the end of the bridge she turned round. 1 tlieu modified the arraugeuu'ut, placing between the nest and the food three similar pieces of wood. Then when the ant was on the middle piece, I trans- |H>sed the other two. To my surprise this did not at all disconcert them. I then tried the arrangement shown in Fig. 24. Fig. 24. a is a paper bridge leading to the nest ; 6 is a board a!»out 22 inches long by 13 broad, on which is a disk of white paper fastened at the centre by a pin cZ ; e is some food. When the ants had come to know their way 8o that they passed straight over the pai)er disk on their way from a to <^, 1 moved the disk round with an ant on it, so that / cjime to g and g to/. As before, the ants turned round with the paper. As it mi'dit be i)ossible that the ants turned round on account of the changed relative position of external objects, 1 next substituted a circular bo.K 12 inches in diameter, open ut the top, and 2f»2 EXPERIMENTS WITH 7 inches high (in fad, a 1 1 at -box) for the flat paj^-r, cutting two small holes at / and rj^ so that the ants passing from the nest to the food went through the box entering at/ and coming out at //. The box was lixed Fig. 25. D L... at d, so that it might turn easily. 1 then, whin tlpy had got to know their way, turned the box round as soon as an ant had entered it, but in every case th«j Fig 20. :0 L. ant turned round too, thus retaining her direction. 1 then varied the experiment as shown in Figs. 25 and 2G. I replaced the white disk of paper, but i)ut the f(K)d e at the middle of the board. When the ant had ROTATING DISKS. 2r>3 tjot used to this arrangement I waited till one was on the disk f Fig. 2.3) and then gently drew it to the other side of p, as shown in Fig. 26. In this case, however, the ant did not turn round, but went on to r/, when she seemed a good deal sur[)rised at finding where she was. In continuation of the preceding ex])erinu'nts I constructed a circular table 18 inclies in diameter. It consisted, as shown in Figs. 27 and 28, of three concentric pieces— a central F G, an intermediate D K, II I, and an outer piece w C, K L, each of these Fig. 'I'i M // c 11 D C "IT c mi three pieces being capable of separate rotation. Tlda arrangement was kindly devised for me by j\Ir. Francis Galton. I then connected the table with a nest of Las'ias niijiir by a paper bridge A, and also made a paper path acrc»ss the table, as shown in Fig. 28, divided into five pieces corresponding to the divisions of the table. This I did because I found that tlui ants wandered less if they were provided with a paper road than if they walked actually on the wood itself. I then }»lac<'d a oup containing larvajon the table at ]}, and put an ant on .■jit'-^-»-VUa»».s* . o . --■rf;..atV<8>Wiaifel«h^^t.>iaig.^aiafca« irA EXPERIMENTS WlTir the larvi-c. She at once picked one up, and, with some little guidance from me, carried it oiY to the nest, returning at once for another, bringing some frienda with her to help. When she knew her way, I gradually moved the cup across the table along the paju r j»ath Fig. 2S. to Af, placing it on a cohnini live inches high. Aftri a while the ants came to know (lie way cpiite well, and passed straight along the |)a(]» from the nest to the la r Vie at M. Having thus established a service o\ ants. 1 tried tlie following e.\])rrirnents : — 1. 1 removed the i)iece of i)aper G 1. This dis- ROTATING TABLE. 2G5 turbed them ; but they very soon re-established the chain. 2. I turned round the central piece of the table o F, so that the paper G F was reversed, G being where F had been, and vice versa. This did not seem to diconcert the ants at all. They went straight over the paper as before, without a moment's hesitation. 3. When some ants were between I and D, I rotated the outer circle of the table halfway round, which of course carried the cup containing the larvae from L to b. The ants took no notice of this, but went straight to L. 4. When some ants were between i and D, I rotated the table several times, bringing it finally to its original position. This disturbed them a good deal ; but eventually they all continued their com-se to L. 5. When some ants were between i and D, I half rotated the two centre parts of the table, the result of which, of course, was that the ant was moving to- wards, instead of away from, the nest. In every case the ants turned round too, so as duly to reach L. So also those which were on their way back from the larva3 to the nest turned in the same manner. 6. When the ants were between i and D, I half rotated the whole table. Again the ants turned round too, thougli of course in this case, when they reached the place where L had been, the cup with the larvse was behind them at B. The two latter experiments, though quite in accord- ance with thoFe previously made, puzzled me a good 19 ■ J J -tKT...- ■■ jviAi^ ii&iut ■jTn'jSX.aM 266 EXPERIMENTS WITH deal. Experiment 3, as well as some of those recorded previously, seemed to show that ants were little guided in such cases by the position of surrounding objects. However, I was anxious to test this. 7. Accordingly I took a round box and placed it upside down on the table, having cut two niches, one at each side, where it lay on the paper path, so as to afford a passage for the ants, as in the experiments recorded in my previous paper ; but on this occasion I left the lid on, cutting, however, a hole through which I could watch the result. In this case, therefore, the surrounding objects, i.e. the walls of the box, turned round with the table. Then, as before, when the ants were between i and D, I turned the table half round. The results were as follo«vs: — Ants wliich Ants wljich turiicHl did not turn Experiment 1 ■ • ■ 1 2 2 • • • 1 1 3 • • • I 1 4 • • • 4 2 5 ... 1 fi • • • 1 7 • • • 8 8 • • • 1 1 • a • 1 10 • ■ • 2 2 11 • • • 1 1 12 • • • 3 11 19 In this case, then, only 11 ants turned; and as i of them were together, it is possible that 3 simply A ROTATING BOX. 267 followed the first. Moreover, the ants which turned did so with much more hesitation and less'immediately, 8. For comparison, I then again tried the same experiment, but without the box. The results were as follows : — Ants wliich Ants which turned did not turn Observation 1 3 2 ... 3 3 ... 3 1? 4 ... 3 5 ... 4 6 ... 4 20 1 Under these circumstances, therefore, all the ants but one certainly turned, and her movements were undecided. From these last two experiments it is obvious that the presence of the box greatly affected the result, and yet the previous results made it difficult to suppose that the ants noticed any objects so distant as the walls of the rooms, or even as I was myself. The result surprised me considerably ; but I think the explanation is given by the following experiments. I again put some larva3 in a cup, which I placed in the centre of the table ; and I let out an ant which I had imprisoned after the previous experiments, placing her in the cup ; she carried off a larva to the nest and soon returned. When she was again in the cup I half rotated the table : when she came out she seemed a 268 EFFECT OF LIGHT. little surprised ; but after walking once round the cnp, started off along the paper bridge straight home. When she returned to the cup I again half rotated the tiible. This time she went back quite straight Wh-Bn she had come again, I once more half rotated the titble ; she returned quite straight. Again the same happened. A second ant then came : I half rotated the table as before. She went wrong for about an inch and a half, but then turned round and went straight home. I was working by the light of two candles which were on the side of the table towards the nest. The next time the two ants came 1 half rotated the table as before, and moved the candles to the far side. This time the ants were deceived, and followed the paper bridge to the end of the table furthest from the nest. This I repeated a second time, with the same result. I then turned the table as before without altering the lights, and the ants (four of them) went back all right. I then again turned the table, altering the lights, and the ant went wrong. I then altered the lights without rotating the table , the first ant went wrong ; the second right ; the third wrong; the fourth wrong; the fifth hesitated some seconds, and then went wrong; the sixth right; the seventh went all but to the edge the wrong way, but, after various wanderings, at last went right. When, therefore, the direction of the light was changed, but everything else left as before, out of seven ants, five were decei\ed and went in the wrong direction. After an interval of a work, on Alarch 2.5, I arrangi^o ifcaa&sagasiii,-''.. EFFECT OF LIGHT. 269 the nest and the rotating table as before, and let out three ants which I had imprisoned on the 19th, and which knew their way. I put them on the larvae at M as before. The paper pathway had been left untouched. The ants examined the larvae and then went straight home along the paper path ; but, to my surprise, only one of them carried off a larva. Nevertheless they had evidently taken the news to the nest, for the ants at once began coming to the cup in considerable num- bers and carrying ofif the larva?. I do not altogether understand this proceeding, and unluckily had not marked the first three ants ; so that I cannot tell whether they brought or sent their friends. It seems possible that they felt unequal to the exertion of carrying a burthen to the nest until they had had some food. When the ants were fairly at work I turned the table 90 degrees. In this case eight ants which were on their way to the larvie continued their march alonj? the paper, while two turned back ; but none left the paper and went across the table straight for the larva'. I then stopped the experiment for a while, so that the excitement might subside ; as when the ants become too numerous it is not so easy to watch them. When all was quiet I put the cup with the larvae on the middle of the table, and covered the greater part of the table with the box as before. In a short time some ants again came to the larvae, and then, just as they were leaving the cup on their way home, I turned the table, as before, half round. Under these circumstances, however, instead of 2'JO RELUCTANCE OF ANTS turning as in the previous experiment, ten ants, one after another, continued their course, thus coining out of the box at the end furthest from the nest. When ten ants successively had, under these circumstances, gone wrong, to make the experiment complete, I tried it again, everything being the same, except that there was no box. Under these circumstances five ants, one after the other, turned directly the table was rotated. From these experiments, therefore, it seems clear tha^ in determining their course the ants are greatly influenced by the direction of the light. March 27. — I let out two ants imprisoned on the 25th, and placed them on the larvtT, which I put on a column 7 inches high, covered with blue paper, and communicating with the nest by the paper path (a. Fig. 29) arranged as usual, but supported on pins. At first I arranged it as shown below, placing the larvae at M, on a table 18 inches in diameter, so that the ants, on arriving at the larvcT, made nearly a semi- circle round the edge of the tal)le. I then gradually moved the larvte to m' and afterwards to m''. The ants, however, obviously knew that they were going unnecessarily round. They ran along the paper bridge in a very undecided manner, continually turning round and often coming down the Fij?. 29. TO GO OUT OF THEIR WAY. 271 pins ; while in returning to the nest they persistently came down the side of the pillar nearest to the nest, though I repeatedly attempted to guide them the other way. Even when placed on the paper bridge between M and m', they were very dissatisfied. In £act, it was obvious that they knew they were being sent a long way round, and were attempting to make a shorter cut. I then again placed the larva) on the column at M, and when the ants were once more going to and f.o regularly along the paper patli, I altered the ])Osition of the column and larvoe to m', placing the edge of the pillar, which the ants had been accustomed to ascend, towards the paper bridge, connecting it with the original bridge by a side- bridge a, M being an inch from the original bridge. Under these circumstances three ants ran on to M ; tlu-n two found their way over the bridge a to m'. Of the next ten ants, five went to M and five over a to m'. The next ten all went over the paper bridge a to m'. I then put the pillar and the larvje on the other side of the original paper path at m", connected with the main path by a short bridge a', taking for a' a new piece of paper, so that scent would be no guide. I left the little bndge a in its place. The ants went aa follows : — Fig. 30. f t» >5 1 J» » 5» »J 55 55 1 55 1 55 To M 12 3 It seems clear, therefore, that though the ants did not trust so much to their eyes as a man would have done under similar circumstances, yet that they were to some extent guided by sight. I then removed all the paper pathways and put the Fig. 31. pillar to M. Of the first two ants which came to the table, the first found the pillar in five minutes, the second, after wandering about for a quarter of an hour, gave the search up in despair, and went home. I then moved the pillar to m', and watched the next ant that came on to the table ; she found it in a minute or two. I then moved it to m''. Two ants came together. One found the pillar in 7 minutes ; the other took no less than 25, although, as already mentioned, the table was only 18 inches in diameter. Obviously, therefore, though it seems clear that they are helped by sight, still these last observations support those previously re- corded, and show that in finding their way they do not derive by any means so much assistance from their eyes as we should under corresponding circumstances JFfeiat«-;W'*-'..aa'aiaw!»'a METHOD OF OBSEKVATION. 275 CIIAPTEK X. BEES. I ORIGINALLY intended to make my experiment prin- cipally with bees, but soon found that ants were on the whole more suitable for my puq:)ose. In the first place, ants are much less excitable, they are less liable to accidents, and from the absence of wings are more easy to keep under continuous obser- vation. Still, I have made a certain number of observations with bees, some of which may be worth here recording. As already mentioned, the cuiTent statements with reference to the language of social insects depend much on the fact that when one of them, either by accident or in the course of its rambles, has discovered a stock of food, in a very short time many others arrive to pr<3fit by the discovery. This, however, does not necessarily imply any j^ower of describing localities. If the bees or ants merely follow their more fortunate comrade, the matter is comparatively simple; if, on the con- trary, others are sent, the case becomes very difftirent. In order to test this I proposed to keep honey in a given place for some time, in order to satisfy myself that it would not readily be found by the bees ; and then, after bringing a bee to the honey, to watch whether it brought others, or sent them -the latter of course implying a much higher order of intelligence and power of communication. I therefore placed some honey in a glass, close to an open window in my sitting-room, and watched it for sixty hours of sunshine, during which no bees came to it. I then, at 10 a.m. on a beautiful morning in June, went to my hives, and took a bee which was just starting out, brought it in my hand up to my room (a distance of somewhat less than 200 yards), and gave it some honey, which it sucked with evident enjoyment. After a few minutes it flew quietly away, but did not return ; nor did any other bee make its appearance. The following morning I repeated the same experi- ment. At 7.15 I brought up a bee, which sipped the honey with readiness, and after doing so for about four minutes flew away with no appearance of alarm or annoyance. It did not, however, return ; nor did any other bee come to my honey. On several other occasions I repeated the same experi- ments with a like result. Altogether I tried it more than twenty times. Indeed, I rarely found bees to return to honey if brought any considerable distance at once. By taking them, however, some twenty yards each time they came to the honey, I at length trained them to come to my room. On the whole, however, I found it more con- J^-^tfWtM^jjJaA^vf ^'--^'-nA^AtJ-. »,r.i ' iA"fli.i 276 BEES DO NOT INVARIA13LY venient to procure one of Marriott's observatory hives, both on account of its construction, and also because I could have it in my room, and thus keep the bees more immediately under my own eye. My room is square, with three windows, two on the south-west side, where the hive was placed, and one on the south-east. Besides the ordinary entrance from the outside, the hive had a small postern door opening into the room ; this door was provided with an alighting-board, and closed by a plug ; as a general rule the bees did not notice it much unless the passage was very full of them. I then placed some honey on a table close to the hive, and from time to time fed certain bees on it. Those which had been fed soon got accustomed to come for the honey ; but partly on account of my frequent absence from home, and partly from their difficulty in finding their way about, and their tendency to lose themselves, I could never keep any marked bee under observation for more than a few days. Out of a number of similar observations I will here mention a few and give them in detail in the Appendix, as throwing some light on the power of communicating facts possessed by the bees; they will also illustrate the daily occupations of a working bee. Experiment 1.— Thus, on August 24, 1874, I opened the postern door leading into my room at 6.45 a.m., and watched till 1 p.m. three bees, which had been trained to come to honey at a particular spot. They did not, however, know their way very well, and consequently i'V&«Mtiii»<.«>iii!i.-»llhi''..'j;VJl.tJftjaifc«i BRING FRIENDS TO SHARE TREASURES. 277 lost a good deal of time. One made 23 journeys bsickwards and forwards between the hive and the honey, the second 13, and the third only 7. The following day I watched the first of these bees from 7.23 to 12.54, during which time she made 19 journeys. Scarcely any other bees came, but I did no^. record the exact number. Experirtient 2. — I watched another bee from 6.55 A.M. till 7.15 P.M., during which time she made 59 visits to the honey, and only one other bee came to it. Experiment 3. — Another from 7 a.m. till 3 p.m. ; she made 40 journeys, and only two other bees came. She returned the two following mornings, and was watched for three hours each day, during which time no other bee came. Experiment 4. — Another morning I watched a dif- ferent bee from 9.19 a.m. to 2 p.m. : she made 21 jour- neys, and no other bee came. Then, thinking that perhaps this result might be due to the quantity of honey being too small, I used a wide-mouthed jar, containing more than one pound of honey. Experiment 5. — I watched two bees from 1.44 till 4.30, during which time they made 24 jom'neys, but only one other bee came. Experiment 6. — Besides the honey in the jar I gpread some out over two plates, so as to increase the surface. I watched a bee from 12.15 till 6.15 P.M. She * . :■ -y >ard of a neighbouring hive. They all went in ; but before evening ten had returned home. May 13. — Again put twelve marked bees on the alighting-board of another nest ; eleven went in. The following day I found that seven had returned home ; the other five I could not see. May 17. — Took a bee, and, after feeding her and marking her white, put her to a hive next but one to her own at 4.18. She went in. 4.22. Came out and went in again. 4.29. Came out. I fed her and sent her back. 4.35. Came out. Took a little flight and came back. 4.45. Went in, but returned. 4.52. Went in. 4.53. Came out, 4.5G. 4.57. „ 4.58. 5. I. Came out, took another little flight, and returned. I fed her again. 5.25. Went in again. 5.28. Came out again. 5.29. „ 5.36. „ 5.40. „ 6.46. Shut her and the others in with a piece of note- paper. 6.36. One of the bees forced her way through. I o^iened the door; and several, including thn ?> ?» IN A STRANGE HIVE. 233 white one, came out directly. Till 6.50 this bee kei)t on going in and out every minute or two ; hardly any bees were flying, only a few stand- ing at the doors of most of the hives. At 7.20 she was still at the hive door. May 20. — Between 6 and 7 r.M. I marked a bee and transferred her to another hive. May 21. — Watched from 7.30 to 8.9 in the morning without seeing her. At half-past six in the evening went down again, directly saw and fed her. She was then in her new hive ; but a few minutes after I ob- served her on the lighting-stage of her old hive; so I again fed her, and when she left my hand she returned to the new hive. May 22. — 8 o'clock. She was back in her old hive. J/av/ 23.— About 12.30 she was again in the new hive. Though bees which have stung and lost their sting always perish, they do not die immediately ; and in the meantime they show little sign of suffering from the terrible injury. On August 25 a bee which had come several times to my honey was stiirtled, flew to one of the windows, and had evidently lost her way. While I was putting her back she stung me, and lost her sting in doing so. I put her in through the postern, and for twenty minutes she remained on the landing- stage ; she then went into the hive, and after an hour returned to the honey and fed quietly, notwithstimding ^jti'jjiWti^sJa 284 LABOUR OF BEES NOT INCESSANT. RECKLESSNESS OF BEES. 28.^ the terrible injury she had received. After this, how- ever, I did not see her any more. Like many other insects, bees are much affected by light. One evening, having to go down to the cellar, I lit a small covered lamp. A bee which was out came to it, and, flying round and round like a moth, followed me the whole of the way there. I often found that if bees which were brought to honey did not return at once, still they would do so a day or two afterwards. For instance, on July 11, 1874, a hot thundery day, and when the bees were much out of humour, I brought twelve bees to some honey : only one came back, and that one only once ; but on the following day several of them returned. My bees sometimes ceased work at times when I could not account for their doing so. October 19 was a beautiful, sunshiny, warm day. All the morning the bees were fully active. At 11.25 I brought one to the honeycomb, and she returned at the usual intervals for a couple of hours ; but after that she came no more, nor were there any other bees at work. Yet the weather was lovely, and the hive is so placed as to catch the afternoon sun. I have made a few observations to ascertain, if possible, whether the bees generally go to the same part of the hive. Thus,-- October 5. — I took a bee out of the hive, fed her, and marked her. She went back to the same part. October 9. — At 7.15 I took out two bees, fed and marked them. They returned ; but I could not see them in the same part of the hive. One, however, I found not far off. At 9.3.0 brought out four bees, fed and marked them. One returned to the same part of the hive. I lost sight of the others. Since their extreme eagerness for honey may be attributed rather to their anxiety for the commonweal than to their desire for jiersoiial gratification, it cannot fairly be imputed as greediness ; still the following scene, described by Dr. Langstroth, and one which most of us have witnessed, it: incompatible surely with much intelliijence. ' No one can understand the extent of their infatuation Tiutil he has seen a con- fectioner's shop assailed by myriads of hungry bees. I have seen thousands strained out from the syrup in which they had perished ; thousands more alighting even upon the boiling sweets ; the floor covered and windows darkened with bees, some crawling, others flying, and others still so completely besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor fly — not one in ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and yet the air filled with new hosts of thoughtless comers.'^ If, however, bees are to be credited with any moral feelings at all, I fear the experience of all bee-keepers shows that they have no conscientious scruples about robbing their weaker brethren. ' If the bees of a strong Btot^k,' says Langstroth, ' once get a taste of forbidden • Jliic- and Ilomy-Bcc, Langstroth, p. 277. t*}^ -..«;{«■» *S-h.. .^■f4efir^hite'J'«>a ^iil^^^^^Bii^&#iiiffeiiifei£ 286 WANT OF AFFECTION. DEVOTION TO QUEEN. 287 sweets, they will seldom stop until they have tested the strength of every hive.' And again, * Some bee- keepers question whether a bee that once learns to steal ever returns to honest courses.' Siebold has men- tioned similar facts in the case of certain wasps {Polistes). Far, indeed, from having been able to discover any evidence of affection among them, they appear to be thoroughly callous and utterly indifferent to one another. As already mentioned, it was necessary for me occasionally to kill a bee ; but I never found that the others took the slightest notice. Thus on October 111 crushed a bee close to one which was feeding — in fact, so close that their wings touched ; yet the sur- vivor took no notice whatever of the death of her sister, but w^ent on feeding with every appearance of composure and enjoyment, just as if nothing had hap- pened. When the pressure was removed, she remained by the side of the corpse without the slightest appear- ance of apprehension, sorrow, or recognition. She evi- dently did not feel the slightest emotion at her sister's death, nor did she show any alarm lest the same fate should befall her also. In a second case exactly the same occurred. Again, I have seveml times, while a bee has been feeding, held a second bee by the leg close to her ; the prisoner, of course, struggled to escape, and buzzed as loudly as she could ; yet the bee which was feeding took no notice whatever. So far, therefore, from being at all affectionate, I doubt whether bees are in the least fond of one another ( Their devotion to their queen is generally quoted as an admirable tmit ; yet it is of the most limited character. For instance, I was anxious to change one of my black queens for a Ligurian ; and accord- ingly on October 26 ]Mr. Hunter was good enough to brincT me a Ligurian queen. We removed the old queen, and we placed her with some workers in a box containing some comb. I was obliged to leave home on the following day ,• but when I returned on the 30th I found that all the bees had deserted the poor queen, who seemed weak, helpless, and miserable On the 31st the bees were coming to some honey at one of my windows, and I placed this poor queen close to them. In alighting, several of them even touched her ; yet not one of her subjects took the slightest notice of her. The same queen, when afterwards placed in the hive, im- mediately attracted a number of bees. As regards the affection of bees for one another, it is no doubt true that when they have got any honey on them, they are always licked clean by the rest; but I am satisfied that this is for the sake of the honey rather than of the bee. On September 27, for instance, I tried with two bees : one had been drowned, the other was smeared with honey. The latter was doon licked clean ; of the former they took no notice whatever. I have, moreover, repeatedly placed dead bees bv honey on which live ones were feeding, but the Litter never took the slightest notice of the coi-pses. Dead bees are indeed usually carried out of the f-jltato?^ii8Jij.v ■; . '-.tSfei :.i.j"a!> I". .' i.TiA'-l'- i'i* - *5ja*w tf r^r i.vj(>>«jMf> fu^fr -/• vitrP «t*V^ 'f'tlV. "^ f J*ifci"V«^ if« wi « a i , Fgr A^wvjT j*''v^6iHiw«wgtf*p"»w«(r 288 SENSE OF SMELL. SENTINELS. 28i> hive , but if one is placed on the alighting-stage, the others seem to take no notice of it, though it is in general soon pushed off accidentally by their move- ments. I have even seen the bees sucking the juices of a dead pupa. As regards the senses of bees, it seems clear that they possess a keen power of smell. On October 5 I put a few drops of eau de Cologne in the entrance of one of my hives, and immediately a number of bees (about fifteen) came out to see what was the matter. Rose-water also had the same effect ; and, as will be mentioned i)resently, in this manner I called the bees out several times; but after a few days they took hardly any notice of the scent. These observations were made partly with the view of ascertaining whether the same bees act as sentinels. With this object, on October 5 I called out the bees by placing some eau de Cologne in the entrance, and Uxarked the first three bees that came out. At 5 p.m. T called them out again; about twenty came, including the three marked ones. I marked three more. October 6.- Called them out again. Out of the first twelve, five were marked ones. I marked three more. October 7.— Called them out at 7.30 a.m. as before. Out of the first nine, seven were marked ones. At 5.30 P.M. called them out again. Out of six, five were marked ones. October 8.— Called them out at 7.15. Six came out, all marked ones. October 9. — Called them out at 6.40. Out of the first ten, eight were marked ones. Called them out at 11.30 a.m. Out of six, three %'ere marked. I marked the other three. Called them out at 1.30 p.m. Out of ten, six were marked. Called them out at 4.30. Out of ten, seven were marked. October 10. — Called them out at 6.5 a.m. Out of btK, five were marked. Shortly afterwards I did the same again, when out of eleven, seven were marked ones. 5.30 P.M. Called them out again. Out of seven, five were marked. October l\. — 6.30 a.m. Called them out again. Out of nine, seven were marked. 5 p.m. Called them out again. Out of seven, five were marked. After this day they took hardly any notice of the scents. Thus in these nine experiments, out of the ninety- seven bees which came out first, no less than seventy- one were marked ones, though out of the whole number of bees in the hive there were only twelve marked for this purpose, and, indeed, even fewer in the earlier ex- periments. I ought, perhaps, to add that I generally fed the bees when I called them out. 290 SENSE OF lIEARmO. The Sense of Hearing, August 29. — The result of my expeiiinenfs on the hearing of bees h.is surprised me very much. It is generally considered that to a ceitain extent the emotions of bees are expressed by the sounds they make,' which seems to imply that they possess the power of hearing. I do not by any means intend to deny that this is the case. Nevertheless I never found them tiike any notice of any noise which I made, even when it was close to them. I tried one of my bees with a violin. I made all the noise I could, but to my surprise she took no notice. I could not even see a twitch of the antennie. The next day I tried the same with another bee, but could not see the slightest sign that she was conscious of the noise. On August 311 repeated the same experiment with another bee with the same result. On September 12 and 13 I tried several bees with a dog-whistle and a shrill pipe ; but they took no notice whatever, nor did a set of tuning- forks which I tried on a subsequent day have any more effect. These tuning-forks extended over three octaves, beginnino^ with a below the ledger line. I also tried with my voice, shouting, Sic, close to the head of a bee ; but, in spite of my utmost efforts, the bees took no notice. I repeated these experiments at night when the bees were quiet ; but no noise that I could make seemed to disturb them in the least. - See, for instance, Landois, Ziits.f. tvitnt. Zool. 1807, ji. 184 COLOUR SENSE. 291 In this respect the results of my observations on bees entirely agreed with those on ants, and I will here, therefore, only refer to what has been said in a preceding chapter. The Colour Sense of Bees, The consideration of the causes which have led to the structure and colouring of flowers is one of the most fascinating parts of natural history. Most botanists are now agreed that insects, and especially bees, have l)layed a very important part in the development of flowers. While in many plants, almost invariably with inconspicuous blossoms, the pollen is carried from flower to flower by the wind, in the case of almost all large and brightly coloured flowers this is effected by the agency of insects. In such flowers the colours, scent, and honey serve to attract insects, while the size and form are arranged in such a manner that the insects fertilise them with pollen brought from another plant. There could, therefore, be little doubt that bees possess a sense of colour. Nevertheless I thought it would be desirable to i:)rove this if possible by actual experiment, which had not yet been done. Accordingly on July 12 I brought a bee to some honey which I placed on blue j)ap<'r, and about 3 feet off I placed a similar quantity of honey on orange paper. After she had returned twice I transposed the papers; but she returned to the honey on the blue 292 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED P.IPER. 293 paper. After she Lad made three more visits, always to the blue paper, I transposed them again, and she again followed the colour, though the honey was left in the same place. The following day I was not able to watch her; but on the 14th at — 7.29 A.M. she returned to the honey on the blue paper 7.31 left. 7.44 „ „ 7.41 „ 7.56 „ „ I then again transposed the papers. At 8.5 she returned to the old place, and was just going to alight ; but observing the change of colours, without a moment's hesitation darted off to the blue. No one who saw her at that moment could have entertained the slightest doubt about her perceiving the difference between the two colours. At 8.9 she went. 8.13 she returned to the blue; 8.16 went. 8.20 „ „ 8.23 .8.26 „ „ 8.30 5J J> Transposed the colours again. At 8.35 she returned to the blue, and at 8.39 went. 8.44 8.50 J? Transposed the colours again. 8.57 she returned again to the blue ; 9. 4 9.12 >» » 8.47 99 8.53 99 9. » 9. 7 99 9.15 t> 9.19 she rctin-ned again to the blue; 9.22 went. 9.25 >» •» 9.27 99 9.30 »^ J5 9..34 ?» 9.40 • 99 >» 9.44 99 9.50 » >5 9.55 99 Tr; mspos( hI the colours again. 10. 2 she ret urned again to the blue ; 10. 6 99 10.10 » 5» 10.14 5J 10.20 j> >» 10.25 99 10.30 >5 »> 10.34 99 10.40 » » 10.44 99 10.48 » 5> 10.51 99 11.12 » >9 11.14 99 11.21 5» and flew about, I] aving been disturbed. 11.26 59 59 11.28 went. 11.36 >9 j» 11.40 «• 12. 5 came and Hew about, but did not settle till — 12.17 she returned again to the blue ; 12.17 went. 12.21 came and flew about. Though it was a beautiful afternoon, she did not return any more that day. On October 2 I placed some honey on slips of glass resting on black, white, yellow, orange, green, blue, and red paper. A bee which was placed on the orange returned twenty times to that slip of glass, only once or twice visiting the others, though I moved the posi- tion and also the honey. The next morning again two >-..iw..j 2. 1. 1» 2.25 « 2.40. w »*< This time she lost her way in the room. This time she got stuck in the honey, and had to clean herself. I now put red paper instead of the green, and put the green paper with a similar quantity of honey on it a fcot off. 2.51 to the honey on green paper. I then gently moved the green paper, with the bee on it, back to the old spot. When the bee had gone, I put yellow paper where the green had been, and put the green again a foot off. 3. to tlie honey on the yellow paj^er. I disturbed the bee, and she at once flew to the honey on the green paper ; when she had gone, I put orange paper in the old place, and put the green paper about a foot off. 3.10 to the honey on the green pap or x * . '-f- Xtt .'■'^ttniPt'tfi. 296 EVIDENT POWER OF I again gently moved the paper, with the bee on it, to the usual place ; and when the bee had gone, put white paper in the old place, and put the green a foot off. She returned at 3.20 to the honey on the green paper. I again gently moved the green paper, with the bee on it, to the old place ; and when she had gone, re- placed it by blue paper, putting the green a foot off. 19 3.30 to the honey on the green paper. I again repeated the same thing, putting yellow in- stead of blue. M 3.40 to the green paper. I now re- versed the position of the yellow and green papers ; but 3.51 to the green. After this 4. 6 4.15 4.28, when she left off for the day, nor were there any bees still working in the garden. The same afternoon a wasp, which I was observing, remained at work till 6.29 r.M. 99 W ff n DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 297 Aiujitst 20. — About noon I brought five bees to iome honey at my window. They all soon returned, and numerous friends came with them. One of them I put to some honey on blue paper. She returned as follows, viz. : — At 12.36 12.42 12.53 1.28 1.3S 1.49 2. 2 2.11 2.24 At 2.30 2.38 3. 2 3.10 3.22 3.50 4. 4 4.14 4.23 when I left off watching and shut her out. The longer intervals are due to her having got some honey every now and then on her wings and legs, when she lost a little time in cleaning herself. August 21. — I opened my window at 6 A.M No bee came till at 7.33 the one above-mentioned came to the honey on blue paper. I also placed some honey on orange paper about two feet off. At 7.42 she returned to the honey on blue paper, and again 7.55 she returned to the honey on blue paper. 8. 3 8.14 9> » >5 21 298 EVIDENT POWER OF »9 99 J> 99 99 99 99 99 At 8.25 She returned to the honey on blue paper. 8.33 8.44 8.54 9. 5 I then transposed the papers, but not the honey. At 9.16 she came back to the honey on blue paper, I then transposed the papers again. At 9.29 she came back to the honey on blue paper. 1 then transposed them again. At y.39 ,9 „ yy „ At 9.53 she came back to the honey on blue paper. I now put green paper instead of orange, and transposed the places. At 10.0 she came back to the honey on green paper. I transposed them again. At 10.8 she came back to the honey on blue paper. I transposed them again. At 10.21 she came back to the honey on green paper. I now put red paper instead of green, and transposed the places. At 10.30 she came back to the honey on blue paper I transposed them again. At 10.42 10.53 11. 4 11.16 I now put white paper instead of red, and trans posed the places. »» 55 55 55 99 99 99 95 99 99 99 55 55 55 55 95 DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 299 55 55 95 99 99 55 W 95 55 59 55 55 At 1 1.28 she came back to the honey on blue paper I transposed them again. At 11.41 11.56 12. 8 At 12.17 she came back to the honey on blue paper. I now put green pjiper again instead of white, and transposed the places. At 12.27 she came back to the honey on blue paper. I transposed them again. At 12.40 12.50 1. 1.13 At 1.25 she came back to the honey on blue l)aper, and then to the green. ' I transposed them 55 55 55 55 99 99 95 55 99 99 59 95 95 55 55 55 agam. At 1.40 she came back to the honey on blue paper. 1 transposed them again. At 1 .47 she came back to the honey on gi'een paper. „ 1.57 she came back to the honey on blue paper, and then to the green. At 2. 6 she came back to the honey on blue paper. 9 17 95 -'^ ' 99 99 55 99 The following day I accustomed this bee to green paper. She made 63 visits (beginning at 7.47 and ending at 6.44), of which 50 were to honey on green paper. The following day, August 23, she began work, — i» ifh* l\ . *i/i 1 "tiS,P^ ' irto- ■ A'afeJ^'it^^J'g-.-rf'rfcy'. 300 EVIDENT POWER OF DISTINGULSHING COLOURS. 301 At 7.12 returning to honey on green paper. I theB put some on yellow paper about a foot off. At 7.19 she turned to the honey on green pap<^r. I transposed the colours. At 7.25 she turned to the honey on green paper. I replaced the yellow paper by orange and transposed the places. At 7.36 she turned to the honey on green paper. I transposed the colours so that the orange might be on the spot to which the bee was most accustomed. At 7.44 she turned to the honey on green paper. I now put white instead of orange. At 7.55 she turned to the honey on green paper. Transposed the papers. At 8.1 she turned to the honey on green paper, I now put blue paper instead of white. At 8.12 she turned to the honey on blue paper; but it will be remembered that she had been previously accustomed to come to the blue. I now put red instead of blue. At 8.23 she turned to the honey on green paper. 8.25 8.47 I then ceased observing and removed the honey. Thus the bee which was accustomed to green, returned to that colour when it was removed about a foot, and replaced by yellow, orange, white, and red ; but, on the other hand, when it was replaced by blm;, she went to the blue. 1 kept this bee under obser- 99 » 5) J5 » » »» » 1' vation till the 28th, but not with reference to colours. August 24. — At 7.45 I put another bee to honey on green paper, to which she kept on returning till 9.44. The next day (August 25) she came at 7.38, and I 1-et her come to the green paper till 9. The follow- ing morning she returued at 6 A.M., coming back as follows, viz. : — At 6.10 6.18 6.25 6.35 6.45 6.54 7. 3 7.13 I now put orange in place of green, and put the gn-eu a foot off. At 7.24 she returned to the green. I replaced the paper with the bee on it ; and when she had gone I put light blue in place of the green, and again moved the green a foot off. At 7.36 she returned to the blue. I again replaced the paper with the bee on it ; and when she had gone I put yellow in place of the green, and again moved the green a foot off. At 7.44 she returned to the green. I then did 302 M. BONNIER'S VIEWS. exactly the same, only putting vermilion in place of the green. At 7.55 she returned to the green. I then did ex- actly the same, only putting white in place of green. At 8. 3 " »> 55 9J These observations clearly show that bees possess the power of distinguishing colours. It remained to determine, if possible, whether they have any preference for one colour over another. M. Bonnier in a recent memoir^ denies this. He does not question the power of insects to distinguish colours, which he admits that the preceding observa- tions clearly prove, but he maintains that they would not be in any way attracted or guided by the colours of flowers. This he has attempted to demonstrate by experiment. With this view he proceeded as follows : —He took four cubes, 22 centim. by 12 (i.e. about 9 inches by 3^), and coloured red, green, yellow, and white, placing them 6 feet apart in a line parallel to and about 60 feet distant from the hives. He then placed on each an equal quantity of honey, and from minute to minute counted the number of bees on each cube. He found that the number of bees on each was approx- imately equal, and that the honey was removed from each in about twenty minutes. In the experiment he records the bees began to arrive directly the honey was arranged, and in ten minutes there were nearly a hundred bees on each cube. I presume, therefore, that Zes Nectaircs. M. BONNIER'S EXPERIMENT. 303 i the bees were previously accustomed to come to the spot in question, expecting to find honey. I do not think, however, that any conclusive result could be expected from this experiment. In the first place, after the first five minutes there were about thirtv bees on each cube, and in less than ten minutes nearly a hundred, and the colour therefore must have been almost covered up. The presence of so many bees would also attract their companions. Moreover, as the honey was all removed in less than twenty minutes, the bees were evidently working against time. They were like the passengers in an express train, turned hurriedly into a refreshment-room ; and we cannot expect that they would be much influenced by the colouring of the tiiblecloth. In fact, the experiment was too hurried, and the test not delicate enough. Then, again, he omitted blue, which I hope to show is the bee's favourite colour, and his cubes were all coloured. It is true that one was green ; but any one may satisfy himself that a piece of green paper on grass is almost as conspicuous as any other colour. To make this experiment complete, ]M. Bonnier should have placed beside the honey on the coloured cubes a similar supply, without any accompaniment of colour to render it conspicuous. I could not, therefore, regard these experiments as ac all conclusive. The following seem to me a more fair test : - I took slips of glass of the size generally used for 304 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST slides for the microscope, viz. 3 inches by 1, and pasted on them slips of paper coloured respectively blue, green, orange, red, white, and yellow. I then put them on a lawn, in a row, about a foot apart, and on each put a second slip of glass with a drop of honey. I also put with them a slip of plain glass with a similar drop of honey. I had previously trained a marked bee to come to the place for honey. My plan then was, when the bee returned and had sipped about for a quarter of a minute, to remove the honey, when she flew to another slip. This then I took away, when she went to a third ; and so on. In this way — as bees generally suck for three or four minutes — I induced her to visit all the drops successively before returning to the nest. When she had gone to the nest I transposed all the upper glasses with the honey, and also moved the coloured glasses. Thus, as the drop of honey was changed each time, and also the position of the coloured glasses, neither of these could influence the selection by the bee. In recording the results 7 marked down successively the order in which the bee went to the different coloured glasses. For instance, in the first journey from the nest, as recorded below, the bee lit first on the blue, which accordingly I marked 1 ; when disturbed from the blue, she flew about a little and then lit on the white ; when the white was removed, she settled on the green ; and so on successively on the orange, yellow, plain, and red. I repeated the experiment a hundred Limes, using two different hives — one in Kent and FwUdik*. . i>REFERENCE FOR PARTICULAR COLOURS. 305 one in Middlesex — and spreading the observations over some time, so as to experiment with different bees, and under varied circumstances. Adding the numbers together, it of course follows that the greater the preference shown for each colour the lower will be the number standing against it. The following table gives the first day's observa- tions in extenso : — Journcj'S! Blue Green Plain Glass Orange Red White Yellow 1 2 3 4 5 (> T 1 8 9 10 11 1 5 1 9 1 1 2 3 5 1 4 6 7 7 6 rr 1 3 4 r. 7 i 5 4 6 6 2 <; 2 4 5 2 7 1 5 5 () 5 3 7 G 3 7 2 2 3 1 5 4 5 5 3 2 3 5 3 2 3 3 7 6 1 2 4 1 20 30 05 r>i 55 35 37 In the next series of experiments the bees had been trained for three weeks to come to a particular spot on a large lawn, by placing from time to time honey on a piece of plain glass. This naturally gave the plain glass an advantage ; nevertheless, as will be seen, the blue still retained its pre-eminence. It seems hardly necessary to give the observations in detail. The following table shows the general result : — 306 EXPERIMENTS SHOWtNO Series No. of Kxi>. Blue Green Orange Plain Red Wliite Y.-ll(.w Ist 2nfl, Mfiy.30 ... 3r(l, July 2 ... 4th. „ 4 . '>th, „ 5 ... «th, „ «... 7th, ,. 20 ... 8th, „ 23 ... 9tli, „ 25 ... 11 15 16 15 10 2 11 10 10 26 38 44 43 36 2 33 31 22 39 57 76 61 47 8 39 46 54 51 69 82 64 39 9 50 48 38 65 72 73 80 40 10 47 52 52 55 53 6r> 40 14 49 37 33 35 58 53 50 36 6 41 35 35 37 70 67 56 42 7 49 31 46 100 275 427 440 491 413 34 i> ■ 405 The precautions taken seem to me to have placed the colours on an equal footing ; while the number of experiments appears sufficient to give a fair avemge. It will be observed also that the different series agree well among themselves. The difference between the numbers is certainly striking. Adding together 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, we get 28 as the total number given by each journey; 100 journeys therefore give, as the table shows, a total of 2,800, which divided by 7 would of course, if no preference were shown, give 400 for each colour. The numbers given, however, are— for the blue only 275, for the white 349, yellow 405, red 413, green 427, orange 440, and plain glass as many as 491. Another mode of testing the result is to tiike the per-centage in which the bees went respectively to each colour first, second, third, and so on. It will be observed, for instance, that out of a hundred rounds the bees took blue as one of the first three in 74 casee, PREFERENCE FOR BLUE. 307 and one of the last four only in 26 cases ; while, on the contrary, they selected the plain as one of the first three only in 25 cases, and one of the last four in 75 rases. Blue Green Orange Plain Red White Yellow First 31 10 11 5 14 19 9 SiTond 18 11 13 7 10 21 20 Third 25 12 8 13 16 13 13 Fourth 8 23 15 11 11 12 20 Fifth 11 13 15 19 17 16 10 Sixth 3 15 22 21 18 12 9 Seventh ... 4 16 16 24 14 7 19 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 I may add that I was by no means prepared for this result. JNliiller, in his remarkable volume on Alpine Flowers, states that bees are much more attracted by yellow than by white.' In the same work he gives the following table : — Flowers ill evny JUU vi-it> ol iusocLs there were Butterflies Bies Flio:^ anfl Gnats OtJier iii.s('< ts 3 yi'llovvlsh-whitc species 2:'. yellow „ 16 16(1 7 1 lue „ 12-8 47 51-4 64 9 51-3 27-5 35 1 26-6 15 4 28- 1 9-2 10-7 20 5 7-2 8-2 1-9 This table does not indeed show any absolute pre- ference for one colour rather than another. In the f'rst place, the number of species compared is very different in the case of the different colours; and in • Alpenhlumcn,^. 487. 308 PAUCITY OF BLUE FL0A\T:RS. the second place, the results may of course be due to the taste, quantity, or accessibility of the honey (all of which we know exercise a great influence), rather than by the colour of the flower. Still the table rather seemed to indicate that bees preferred red, white, and yellow, to blue. I may very likely be asked, if blue is the favourite colour of bees, and if bees have had so much to do with the origin of flowers, how is it that there are so few blue ones ? I believe the explanation to be that all blue flowers have descended from ancestors in which the flowers were green ; or, to si)eak more precisely, in which the leaves immediately surround- ing the stamens and pistil were green ; and that they have passed through stages of white or yellow, and gene- rally red, before becoming l)lue. That all flowers were originally green and inconspicuous, as those of so many plants are still, has, I think, been shown by recent researches, especially those of Darwin, Miiller, and Hildebrand. But what are the considerations which seem to justify us in concluding that blue flowers were formerly yellow or white ? Let us consider some of the orders in which blue flowers occur with others of difl*erent colours. For instance, in the Kanunculaceae,' those with simple open flowers, such as the buttercups and Thalic- * I take mogt of the following facts from Miiller 's admirable work on Alpine Flowers. PROBABLE REASON. 309 trums, are generally yellow or white. The blue delphiniums and aconites &re highly specialised, abnormal forms, and doubtless, therefore, of more recent origin. Among the Caryophyllaceae the red and purplish Bpecies are amongst those with highly specialised flowers, such as Dianthua and Saponaria, while the simple open flowers, which more nearly represent the ancestral type, such as Stellaria^ Cerastiiim, &c,, are yellow and white. Take, again, the Primulaceoe. The open-floweied, honey less species, such as Lysimachia and Tr^lentalis^ are generally white or yellow ; while red, puq^le, and blue occur principally in the highly specialised species with tubular flowers. The genus Anagallis here, how- ever, certainly forms an exception. Among the violets we find some yellow, some blue species, and Miiller considers that the yellow is the original colour. Viola biflora, a small, comparatively little specialised fly-flower, is yellow ; while the large, long-spiu-red F. calcarata, specially adapted to humble- bees, is blue. In V. tricolor, again, the smaller varieties are whitish-yellow ; the larger and more highly developed, blue. Myosotis versicolor we know is first yellow and then blue ; and, according to Miiller, one variety of V. tricolor alpestris is yellow when it first opens, and gradually becomes more and more blue. In this case the individual flower repeats the phases which in past times the ancestors have passed through. The only other family I will mention is that of the 310 LATK OKKllN OF UMIK FLOWKKfl (iLutiiins. lien ', :ilso, vvliilo the well-known deep bluo Bpfcii'H have Ion*; tubular llowers, sju't'lally adapted to bees and buttcrllies, the yellow Gentlana lutea kin a niinple o\hmi llower with exposed hon<'y. JSliilleraiid Ilildebraud' havealsojiointed out that the bhu' tlowers, whieh,aeeording to this vit;w, are deseended from white or yeHow aneest^M's, passiui^ in many eases throut,di aretl sta^e, fVecpuMitly vary, as if the eolours had not liad time to tix themselves, and by atavism assume tlieir oriijfinal colour. Thus Aqii iltyla vul(jarL% Ajuya Genevensis, PoUnjala valijiaris, I\ comosay Salvia jmi- tenuis^ M(/itsotis alpestrlsy and many other bhie flowi'rs, tire often ndtlish or white; Viola calcantta is normally blue, but oeeasit»nally yellow. On the other hand, tlowers whieh are ni»rinally white or yellow, rarely, I might almost say never, vary to blue. Moreover, thoui,'h it is true that there are eomparatively ft«w blue tlowers, still, if we consider onlv those in whieh the honey is eon- cealed, and whieh are, as we know, specially suited to and freipiented by bees and buttertlies, we tind a larger proportion. Thus, of 150 tlowers with concealed honey observed by Miiller in the Swiss Alps,- (iS were white or veUow, 52 more or less red, and oO blue or violet. However this may be, it seems to me that the prtTt'ding experiments show ctuiclusively that l>ees do prefer one colour to another, and that blue is distinctly their favourite. • l>it> rufbtn d<*r h'lhthtH, \\ 2d. • Alp^nblumtfn^ p. 4US. CHAPTER XI. WASPS. I HAVE also made a few experiments with wasps. So far as their behaviour, when they have discovered a store of food, is concerned, what has been said with reference to bees would apply in the main to wasps also. I will give some of the details in the Appendix, and here only refer very briefly to some of the experiments. Experiment 1. — Watched a wasp, which I had accus- tomed to come to my room for honey, from 9.36 a.m. to 6.25 P.M. She made forty-five visits to the honey, but did not bring a single comrade. Experiment 2. — The following day this wasp began working — at least, came to my room for the first time at 6.55 A.M., and went on passing backwards and forwards most industriously till 6.17 p.m. She made thirty-eight journeys, and did not bring a single friend. Experiment 3. — Another wasp was watched from 6.16 a.m. till 6 p.m. She made fifty-one journeys, and during the day five other wasps came to the honey. 1 do not think she brought them. Experim,ent 4. — Another wasp was watched from 10 A.M. to 5.15 P.M.; she made twenty-eight journeys, »-jfei»Bi> »ai5hjijkt»- •^' X.'^ ".•? -~ ■ ■-i.jt ^i>~i 312 rOWER OF COMMUNICATION. and brought no friend. This wasp returned the next morning at 6 A.M. ExpeHment 5. — A wasp was watched from 11.56 A.M. to 5.36 P.M. She made twenty-three journeys, without bringing a friend Experiment 6. — Another wasp between 6.40 a.m. and 5,55 p.m. made sixty journeys, without bringing a friend. Experiment 7.— Another wasp between 7.25 A.M. and 6.43 p.m. made no less than ninety-four visits to the honey, but did not bring a single friend. Experiment 8. — I watched a wasp on September 19. She passed regularly backwards and forwards between the nest and the honey, but during the whvle day only one other wasp came of herself to the honey ; this wasp returned on the 20th, but not one other. The 21st was a hot day, and there were many wasps about the house ; my honey was regularly visited by the two marked wasps, but during the whole day only five others came to it. September 22. — Again only one strange wasp came, up to one o'clock. September 27. — Only one strange wasp came October 2 and 3. — These days were cold; a few marked bees and wasps came to my honey, but no strangers. October 4. — Two strangers. October 6. — Only one stranger. Ol these days the honey was watched almost with- K'^t*.m A -*J' * >■ m «Ai»^irt?aft^. ij * j't * 1 POWER 01^ nEARING. 313 out intermission the whole day, and was more or less regularly visited by the marked bees and wasps. My experiments, then, in opposition to the state- ments of Iluber and Dnjardin, serve to show that wasps and bees do not in all cases convey to one another in- formation as to food which they may have discovered, though I do not doubt that they often do so. Of course, when one wasp has discovered and is visiting a supply of syrup, others are apt to come too ; but I believe that in many instances they merely follow one another. If they communicated the fact, considerable numbers would at once make their appearance ; but I have not often found this to be the case. The frequent and regular visits which my wasps paid to the honey put out for them, prove that it was very much to their taste ; yet few others made their appearance. These and other observations of the same tendency seem to show that, even if wasps have the power of in- forming one another when they discover a store of good food, at any rate they do not habitually do so. On the whole, wasps seem to me more clever in finding their way than bees. I tried wasps with the glass mentioned on p. 278, but they had no difficulty in finding their way out. ISIy wasps, though courageous, were always on the alert, and easily startled. It was, for instance, more difficult to paint them than the bees ; nevertheless, though I tried them with a set of tuning-forks covering 22 314 COUIiAGE OF WASPS. three octaves, with a shrill whistle, a /)ipe, a violin, and my own voice, making in each case the loudest and shrillest sounds in my power, I could see no symptoms in any case that they were conscious of the noise. The following fact struck me as rather remarkable. One of my wasps smeared her wings with syrup, so that she could not fly. When this happened to a bee, it was only necessary to carry her to the alighting-board, when she was soon cleaned by her comrades. But I did not know where this wasp's nest was, and therefore could not pursue a similar course with her. At first, then, I was afraid that she was doomed. I thought, however, that I would wash her, fully expecting, indeed, to terrify her so much that she would not return again. I there- fore caught her, put her in a bottle half full of water, and shook her up well till the honey was washed ofi['. I then transferred her to another bottle, and })ut her in the sun to dry. When she appeared to have recover«*d I let her out: she at once flew to her nest, and I never expected to see her again. To my surprise, in thiiteen minutes she returned as if nothing had hi\\)- pened, and continued her visits to the honey all the afternoon. This experiment interested me so much that I re peated it with another marked wasp, this time, how- ever, keeping the wasp in the water till she was quite motionless and insensible. When taken out of the water she soon recovered; I fed her ; she went quietly away to her nest as usual, and returned after the usual TAME WASP. 315 absence. The next morning this wasp was the first U\ visit the honey. I was not able to watch any of the above-mentioned wasps for more than a few days, but I kept a specimen of Polistes gallica for no less than nine months. I took her, with her nest, in the Pyrenees, early in ISIay. The nest consisted of about twenty cells, the majority of which contained an egg ; but as yet no grubs had been hatched out, and, of course, my wasp was as yet alone in the world. I had no difficulty in inducing her to feed on my hand ; but at first she was shy and nervous. She kept her sting in constant readiness ; and once or twice in the train, when the railway officials came for tickets, and I was compelled to hm-ry her back into her bottle, 8he stung me slightly — I think, however, entirely from fright. Gradually she became quite used to me, and when I took her on my hand apparently expected to be fed. She even allowed me to stroke her without any appear- ance of fear, and for some months I never saw her sting. When the cold weather came on she fell into a drowsy state, and I began to hope she would hibernate and survive the winter. I kept her in a dark place, but watched her carefully, and fed her if ever she seemed at all restless. She came out occasionally, and seemed as well as UHual till near the end of February, when one day I 31G POWER OF DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. observed she had nearly lost the use of her antennae, though the rest of the body was as usual. 8he would take no food. Next day I tried again to feed her ; but the head seemed dead, though she could still move lier legs, wings, and abdomen. The following day I offered her food for the last time ; but both head and thorax were dead or paralysed ; she could but move her tail, a last token, as I could almost fancy, of gratitude and affection. As far as I could judge, her death was quite painless; and she now occupies a place in the British Museum. Power of distingmsldng Colours. As regards colours, I satisfied myself that wasps are capable of distinguishing colour, though they do not seem so much guided by it as bees are. July 25. — At 7 a.m. I marked a common worker wasp {Vespa vulf/aria), and placed her to some honey on a piece of green paper 7 inches by 4 J. She worked with great industry. After she had got well used to the green paper I moved it 18 inches off, putting some other honey on blue paper where the green had pre- viously been. She returned to the blue. I then replaced the green paper for an hour, during which she visited it several times, after which I moved it 18 inches, as before, and put brick-red paper in its place. She returntMl to the brick-red paper. But although this experiment indicates that this wasp was '.ess strongly afifected by EXrERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PAPERS. 317 colours than the bees which I had previously observed, still r satisfied myself that she was not colour-blind, I moved the green paper slightly and put the honey, which, as before, was on a slip of plain glass, about four feet off. She came back and lit on the green paper, but finding no honey, rose again, and hawked about in search of it. After 90 seconds I put the green paper under the honey, and in 15 seconds she found it. I then, while she was absent at the nest, moved both the honey and the paper about a foot from their previous positions, and placed them about a foot apart. She returned as usual, hovered over the paper, lit on it, rose again, flew about for a few seconds, lit again on the paper, and again rose. After 2 minutes had elapsed 1 slipped the paper under the honey, when she almost immediately (within 5 seconds) lit on it. It seems obvious, therefore, that she could see green. I then tried her with red. I placed the honey on brick-red paper, and left her for an hour, from 5 P.M. to 6, to get accustomed to it. During this time she con- tinued her usual visits. I then put the honey and the coloured paper about a foot a[)art ; she returned first to the paper and then to the honey. I then transposed the honey and the paper. This seemed to puzzle her. She returned to the paper, but did not settle. After she had hawked about for 100 seconds I put the honey on the red paper, when slie settled on it at once. I (hen put the paper and the honey again 18 inches aj)art. As before, she returned first to the paper, but l*S>. ^^^.s. j^lS.*' ^„*^s ^'^wJ^>M;M^J^^wS■^^i■ifc^ ^Bttiifttf'jsAtwr-arfi'aiatttfja 318 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PATERS. almost immediately went to the honey. In a similar manner I satisfied myself that she could see yellow. Again, on August 18 1 experimented on two wasps, one of which had been coming more or less regu- larlj to some honey on yellow paper for four days, the other for twelve — coming, that is to say, for several days, the whole day long, and on all the others, with two or three exceptions, for at least three hours in the day. Both, therefore, had got well used to the yellow paper. I then put blue paper where the yellow had been, and put the yellow paper with some honey on it about a foot off. Both the wasps returned to the honey on the blue paper. I then moved both the papers about a foot, but so that the blue was somewhat nearer the original position. Both again returned to the blue. I then transposed the colours, and they both returned to the yellow. Very similar results were given by the wasp watched on September 11. After she had made twenty visits to honey on blue paper, I put it on yellow paper, and moved the blue 12 inches off. She came back to the yellow. I then put vermilion instead of yellow ; she came back to the vermilion. I transposed the colours ; she came back to the vermilion. I put white instead of vermilion; she came to the blue. „ green „ white ; she came to the blue. n orange „ green ; she came to the blue. I transposed the colours ; she returned to the orange. EXPERIMENTS WITU COLOURED PAPERS. 319 I put white instead of orange ; she came to the white. » >9 5> green 9) white ; she came to the blue. purple 5J green ; she came to the purple. orange j> purple ; she came to the orange. 5> green „ orange; she came to the green. I transposed the colours ; she came to the blue. w 9» » „ green. So far, therefore, she certainly showed no special predilection for the blue. I then left her the rest of the day to visit the honey on blue paper exclusively. She made fifty-eight visits to it. The following morning I opened my window at 6.15, when she im- mediately made her appearance. I let her make ten more visits to the honey on blue paper, moving it about a foot or so backwards and forwards on the table. I then put orange paper instead of the blue, and put the blue about a foot ofif. She returned to the orange. I put yellow instead of orange ; she came to the yellow. 5> >» 5> vermilion yellow ; she came to the vermilion, she came to the white, white ; she came to the green. I transposed the colours ; she came to the blue. white green J5 5» » 320 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOUKED PAPERS. I now put vermilion instead of green, and moved both of them a foot, but so that the vermihon waa nearest the window, though touching the blue ; she came to the vermilion. Again, September 11, I marked a wasp. She re- turned to the honey over and over again with her usual assiduity. The following morning I put the honey on green paper; she came backwards and forwards all day. On the 13th I opened my window at G.8, and she came in immediately. During an hour she made ten journeys. On her leaving the honey for the eleventh time, I plaeed some honey on vermilion paper where the green had been, and put the honey and the green paper about a foot oft". She came at 7.25 to the vermilion. I then put orange instead of vermilion. 7.34 „ orange. I then put blue instead of orange. 7.40 „ blue. I then put white in- stead of blue. 7.47 „ white. I then put yellow in- stead of white. 7.55 „ yellow and then to the green. I transposed the colours. 8. 2 „ green. I then moved both colours about a foot, but so that the yellow was a little nearer to the old place. She returned at 8.9 to the yellow. w 99 » » 99 PERCEPTION OF COLOUR. 321 I then removed the yellow paper and honey, and placed the honey which had been on the green paj^)er about a foot from it on the table. At 8.15 she returned and lit on the green paper, but immediately flew off to the honey. I then trans- posed the honey and the paper. At 8.24 she returned and again lit on the paper, but immediately flew off to the honey. Thus, therefore, though it is clear that wasps can distinguish colours, they appear, as might be expected from other considerations, to be less guided by them than is the case with bees. I have been much struck by the industry of wasps. Tliey commence work early in the morning, and do not leave off till dusk. I have several times watched a wasp the whole day, and from morning to evening, if not disturbed, they worked without any interval for rest or refreshment. 15eing anxious to compare bees and wasps in this respect, on August 0, 1882, I accustomed a wasj) and three bees to come to some honey put out for them on two tables, one allotted to the wasp, the other to the bees. The last bee came at 7.15 p.m. The wasp con- tinued working regularly till 7. 47, coming at intervals of between six and seven minutes. Next morning, when I went into my study a few minutes after 4 a.m., I found the was]) already at the honey. The first bee came at 5.45, the second at 0. Tl)e wasp occui)ie(l about a minute, or even less, in Bui»plying herself with a load of honey, and made during 322 CONCLUSION. the day, as shown in the Appendix (p. 423), no less than 116 visits to the honey, or 2S2 journeys between my room and her nest, during which she carried off rather more than sixty-four grains of honey. It would, however, perhaps be unfair to the bees to regard this as indicating that they are less industrious than wasps. The deficiency may be due to their being more susceptible to cold. I may add that I then left home for a few days. I covered over the honey, leaving only a small entrance for the wasp. When I returned, on the 12th, I found her still at work, and by herself. It was evident that she had continued her labours, but without bringing any friends to assist her. Every one has heard of a * bee-line.' It would be no less correct to talk of a wasp-line. On August 6 I marked a wasp, the nest of which was round the corner of the house, so that her direct way home was not out of the window by which she entered, but in the opposite direction, across the room to a window which was closed. I watched her for some hours, during which time she constantly went to the closed window, and lost much time in buzzing about at it. August 7, I was not able to watch her. August 8 and 9, I watched her from 0.25 A.M., when she made her first visit. She still constantly went to the closed window. August 10 and 11, I was away from home. August 12, she made her first visit at 7.40, and still went to the closed window. August 13, her first visit was at 6.15 ; she went to the closed window and remained buzzing about there till T, when I caught her and put her out at the open one by which she always entered. August 15 and 16, she continued CONCLUSION. 323 to visit the honey, but still, always, even after ten days' experience, continued to go to the closed window, which was in the direct line home ; though, on finding it closed, she returned and went round through the open window by which she entered. - 'ti k'taJ4tA.^jiitSAi 324 DIVISION OF LABOUR. i e S o* '^ 91 .1 •5 ^ • i5 5^ K '^J M oc O KH ^ ^ o i u. ^ !2; 'I 8 P-4 2 Pm f*^ 1 <1 ^ -« •S ^ n^a ^ • s 1— 1 « pa Hi n 1 ^ ^ o O O OO OOCJO o O) • CO • • : o ;o o o © o _, • •© o 00 _ . 00 M CO : o :j^ ooOj_^j_^ooo : t« o o oooooo occ.ooooo o «o o o K^ ioooo co.ojooo Joo >o o o U3 oooooo. oooco oooooo •• o : • o : o o o o _^ o o o o o o o o o oo CO o i '^ . .CO CO -oo : o o o o o^ o o o o o o *» ■0-3 olljoo O OO O O OO o o o joooo ^^ . 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' Pi 1-3 CS < 00000'^0'~"^00000000 "OOOOOO y yy. ^4 OOOOOOOOOOO'^'^OOOO •OOOOO'^ yy o ooooooo ooo'^ooooo^'ooooo 55 5?; ^; :*r, o» ooooooo ooo^oooooooooooo y y, oc OOOOOO'^OO'^OOOO O'^ 00*^00000 y^ y. y, y. »* -- -H ^H -^ ooooo'^oo^oo'^o'^ooooooooo : ^ 5?5 J2; ^ o se «o oo •oooo'^ooooo -o • 'oo * • • '• '' 25 1 »^ e» jc •* »o -^ t- » c; c -< -M « -f »t^ -^c t- X) Ci -^ — 1 (M r- -t» '-^ — — — -•" — —•-'^!M(MC'|«©« 5t4 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDa 3.sa APPENDIX B. TuE following are the details referred to on p. 122:-- On August 4, 1875, 1 separated one of my colonies of Formica fusca into two halves, and kept them entirely apart. On March 15 following I put in a stranger and one of the old companions from the other half of the nest at 7 A.M., and watched them longer than those previously experimented on. The stranger was very soon attacked ; the friend seemed quite at home. June 4, 1876. — 8 a.m. Put into the nest a stranger and an old friend. The stranger was at once attacked, and dragged about by one of her antennae. 9 a.m. The stranger was being attacked; the friend, though not attacked, kept rather away from the other ants. 10.30 a.m. The stranger was attacked, not the friend. 12.30 P.M. ditto, 1 P.M. ditto, 1.30 p.m. ditto, 2 p.m ditto, 2.30 P.M. ditto, 4 P.M. ditto, 4.30 P.M. ditto. 5 P.M The stranger was dragged out of the nest. June 5. — Put in a stranger and a friend at 9.30. At 10 the stranger was being attacked, not the friend. 10 A.M. ditto, 10.30 A.M. ditto. At 11 A.M. 1 put in another stranger and another old friend, when nearly the same thing was repeated. At. 11.30 A.M. the stranger was being dragged about by her antennfc; the friend w^as not attacked. 12 A.M. The stranger was by herself in a corner of the nest. The friend was almost cleaned from the paint by which she was marked. I then put in another friend. At 2 P.M. the stranger was being dragged about by an antenna, RLLe.: x-M^M 334 EECOGNITION OF FRIENDS the friend was being cleaned. 2.30 r.M. ditto, 3 ditto. At 3.30 P.M. the friend was almost clean : the stranger was being dragged about. 6 P.M. ditto. JunelO. — Repeated the same observation at 10 a.m., but transposed the colours by which they were distin- guished, so that there might be no question whether perhaps the difference of treatment was due to the difference of colouring. At 1 1 a.m. the friend was all right, the stranger was being dragged about by an antenna. 11.30 A.M. the friend all right, the stranger being dragged about by one leg. 12 A.M. ditto, 12.30 P.M. the friend all right, the stranger being dragged about by an antenna. 1 P.M. ditto, 2 P.M. ditto, 3 P.M. ditto. July 3. — Put in a friend and a stranger at 11 a.m. At 11.30 A.M. the stranger was being dragged about, the friend was being cleaned. 12 a.m. ditto. 12.30 A.M. both were now being attacked. 1 P.M. ditto. This seems to show that some at least of the ants have forgotten their old friends. Perhaps, however, these were young ants. July 16.— Put in two friends at 7.45 A.M. At 8 a.m. each was being dragged about by an antenna. 8.30 a.m. one was being dragged about by both antennae, the other by both antennc-eand one leg. 10 a.m. both were still attacked, but it is curious that at the same time others were cleaning off the paint. 12.30 P.M. both still attacked. July 17.— Put in a friend at 8.15 A.M. At 8.30 a.m. they were cleaning her. At 9 a.m. sh« was almost clean. 9.30 a.m. she seemed quite at home, and had only one spot of paint on her. 10.20 A.M. ditto. July 20. — Put in a friend and stranger at 9 A.M. At 9.30 A.M. the friend seemed all right ; the stranger was in a corner by herself. At 10 A.M. the friend was being cleaned ; the stranger had come out of her comer and was being fiercely attacked. At 1 1 A.M. the friend A.FTER LONG SEPARATION. 335 seemed quite at home and was almost cleaned ; the stranger was being dragged about, but was almost cleaned. At 12 A.M. the same thing was going on, and also at 12.30 P.M. At 1.30 P.M. the stranger was still being pulled aliout ; but what struck me as remarkable, the friend also had hold of one of the ants by an antenna. At 2 P.M. the friend was by herself, the stranger was being attacked. At 4 P.M. the friend again had hold of an ant by an antenna ; the stranger was being pulled about. At 5 P.M. the friend seemed quite at home in the nest, the stranger was dragged out of the nest. The following morning I was still able to dis- tinguish the friend ; she seemed quite at home. August 5. — Put in a stranger and a friend at 8 A.M. At 8.30 A.M. both were attacked. 9 a.m. ditto, 9.30 A.M. ditto, 10 A.M. ditto, 11 A.M. ditto, 12.,30 a.m. ditto. Auf/itfit 6. — Kepeated the experiment at 2 a.m. Both ants hid themselves in comers. At 3.30 a.m. tlie stranger was being attacked ; the friend was in a corner by herself. At 4.30 A.M. both were attacked. 5.30 A.M. ditto. August 7.— Put in a stranger and a friend at 8.30 A.M. A.t 8.45 A.M. both were being attacked. 9.30 a.m. ditto, 10 a.m. ditto. August 8. — Put in a friend at 7 a.m. At 8 a.m. she seemed quite at home with the others. At 9 A.M. they had almost cleaned her. At 9.30 A.M. she seemed quite at home with the others. At 10 A.M. ditto. August 12. — Put in a friend and a stranger at 7 P.M. Both were immediately attacked. 7.15 a.m. they were being dragged about. 7.45 A.M. ditto, 8 ditto, 8.15 A.M. ditto. August 13. — Put in a friend at 6.30 a.m. At 7.50 A.M. two attacked her. At 8 A.M. she was being attacked by one ant, but another was cleaning her. 8.15 A.M. ditto. 8.45 a.m. Two were attacking her, one dragging at her by an antenna. 9 a.m. ditto, 9.30 '■"■^■Sf-- '*>■ if r .-.as^jAiM^ •-. ■*■ ^''::tjitit^ 336 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER LONG SEPARATION. 337 A.M. ditto, 10 A.M. ditto, 10.30 a.m. ditto. Others had almost entirely cleaned off the paint. At 5 P.M. put a friend and a stranger into the othei half of the nest. At 5.15 A.M. the friend seemed quite at home, and had been nearly cleaned ; the stranger was being attacked. 5.30 A.M. ditto, 8.15 A.M. ditto. 7.15 A.M. Two of the ants were dragging the stranger out of the nest; the friend had been quite cleaned. August 14. — At 8.15 A.M. I put an ant from each half of the nest into the other. At 8.30 a.m. one was alone in the corner, the other was being attacked. At 9 a.m. both were being attacked. 9.30 a.m. ditto, 10.30 A.M. ditto ; 1 1.30 a.m. ditto, both, however, being almost cleaned. August 19. — At 8 a.m. I put into each nest one from the other. The one was received amicably and cleaned, so that after a while I lost sight of her. It was clear that she was received in a friendly manner, because no fighting was going on. At 1 1 a.m. I put into the same nest another friend: at 11.30 a.m. she was all right, and, being cleaned at 12 A.M., I could no longer distinguish her. The ant put into the other nest was not so well received. At 9.30 a.m., 11.30 a.m., and 12.30 a.m. she was being dragged about, but she was also being cleaned, and after 12. .30 a.m. I lost sight of her. As the paint- had been entirely removed, but no ant was being attacked, I have no doubt she was at length recognised as a friend. August 21. — At 10.15 a.m. I again put into each nest an ant from the other. One was at once clenned, and I could not find her. I should, however, certainly have seen her if she had been attacked. The other was at first attacked bv one of the ants ; but this soon ceased, and they began to clean her. By 11.30 A.M. she was quite at her ease among the other /I ants, and almost clean. After 12 a.m. I could not see her any more. At 1.40 P.M. 1 again put into each nest an ant from the other, accompanied, however, in both cases by a stranger. The contrast was most marked, and no one who saw it could have doubted that the friends and strangers were respectively recognised as such, or that they themselves were fully aware of their posi- tion. In the first nest the friend at once joined the other ants, who began to clean her. The stranger ran about in evident alarm, was pursued by the others, and took refuge in a corner. At 2 p.m. the friend was with the other ants, the stranger alone in a comer. At 2.25 p.m. the friend was almost cleaned, and after 2.30 P.M. we could no longer distinguish her : the stranger was still alone. At 3.40 P.M. she came out of her hiding-place and was attacked ; after a while she escaped from the nest. At 5.30 P.M. she met one of the ants, and a battle at once began. I separated the combatants and put the stranger back near her own nest, which she at once entered, and where she was soon cleaned by her own friends. I will now describe the adventures of the other couple. The friend immediately joined the other ants ; the stranger was hunted about and soon seized. At 2 P.M. the friend was all right, the stranger being dragged about. At 2.30 P.M. ditto. The stranger was soon afterwards dragged out of the nest. The friend, whom I watched at intervals till 6.30 p.m., continued on the best terms with the others ; it was quite clear, there- fore, that they did not regard her as a stranger. She herself was not afraid of, and did not avoid them. Still for some time she apparently wished to return to the ants with whom she had recently lived. She came out of the nest, and tried to find her way home. I put her back again, however, and by the even- ing she seemed to have accustomed herself to the •a> .-Jt-l, ..■u, --.fA^J^^i^iy iu^ft ." ■ Mi.-WLl- "^^^ 338 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER LONG SEPARATION. 33J) change. I then opened the door of the nest soon aftet 5 P.M. ; but she showed no wish to leave her newly re- joined friends. September 1.— At 11 a.m. I again put into each half of the nest an ant from the otlier and a stranger. In the one nest the friend joined the other ants, and seemed quite at home; the stranger, on the contrary, en- deavoured to conceal herself, and at length, at 4 in th»* afternoon, escaped from the nest. In the other division the friend also appeared quite at home. The stranger, on the contrary, endeavoured to escape, but in the course of the afternoon was attacked and killed. October 1 5. — At 8 a.m. I repeated the sa^ne expen- nient. In the first nest, up to 10 a.m., neither ant was attacked ; and it is curious that the stranger was licked, and, indeed, almost cleaned. Soon afterwards, however, the ants began to attack her, and at three p.m. she was expelled, the friend, on the contrary, being quite at home. Still the following day, at noon, I found her out of the nest (all the rest being within). This almost looks as if, though safe, she did not feel hai)py ; and I accordingly put her back to her old home, which she at once entered. In the other division the friend was soon nearly cleaned, and the stranger partly so. The friend seemed quite at home. At 12.30 the stranger was being dragged about by three ants ; but after this I lost sight of her. Novembet^ 10.— At 11.30 put into one of the divi- sions a friend and a stranger. At 12 the friend was all right, the stranger was being dragged about by an antenna. P>om this time till 7 p.m. the stranger was continually being dragged about or held a prisoner, while the friend was quite at home. November 11.— At 10.15 I put into the other division a friend and a stranger. At 11 the friend was quite at home, and the colour with which I had marked her had been almost cleaned off. The stranger, on the contrary, was being dragged about by two of the ants. After this, however, I could not find her. She had, no doubt, escaped from the nest. November 12. — The following day, therefore, at 11.30, I again put a friend and a stranger into this division of the nest. The friend seemed quite at home. One of the ants at once seized the stranger by an antenna and began dragging her about. I will give this observation in detail out of my note-book. At 11. 4o. The friend is quite at home with the rest ; the stranger is being dragged about. At 12. The friend is all right. Three ants now have hold of the stranger by her legs and an antenna. At 12.15, 12.30, 12.45, and at 1 the stranger was thus held a prisoner. At 1.30 one now took hold of the friend, but soon seemed to find out her mistake, and left go again. At 1.45. The friend is all right. The stranger is being attacked. The friend also has been almost cleaned, while on the stranger the colour has been scarcely touched. At 2.15. Two ants are licking the friend, while another pair are holding the stranger by her legs. At 2.30. The friend is now almost clean ; so that I could only just perceive any colour. The stranger, on the contrary, is almost as much coloured as ever. She is now near the door, and, I think, would have come out, but two ants met and seized her. At 3. Two ants are attacking the stranger. The friend was no longer distinguishable from the rest. At 3.30, 3.40, and 5 the stranger was still held a jirisoner. At 6.0. The stranger now escaped from the nest, tnd I put her back among her own friends. Deceihber 11. — At 10 a.m. I again put in a friend 340 BECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER A and a stranger. The friend was not attacked, and con- soited peaceably with the rest. I found her again all right on the following morning. The stranger, on the contrary, was soon attacked and expelled. December 22. — Repeated the same experiment. The stranger was attacked and driven out of the nest. The friend was received quite amicably. December 26. — Ditto. The friend was received as usual. I lost sight of the stranger, who probably escaped. December 31. — Ditto. The stranger, after being dragged about some time in the nest, made her escape. But even outside, having met with an ant accidentally, she was viciously attacked. January 15, 1877. — Ditto. January 16. — I put in two friends; but thinking the preceding experiments sufficient, I did not on this occasion add a stranger. Neither of the friends was attacked. January 19. — Put in two friends at 11 a.m. Neither was attacked, and the following morning thej were all right amongst the rest. January 22. — Put in three friends with the same result. January 24. — Put in two friends with the same result. January 26. — Put in three friends with the same result. February 11. — I put in two friends from the other division at 10 a.m. I looked at 10.15, 10.30, 11, 11.30, 12, 2, 4, and 6 p.m. They were on every occa- sion quite at home amongst the others. February 12, — Put in three from the other division at 12. They were quite at home. I looked at them at 12.30, 1, 2, 4, and 6. Only for a minute or two at first one appeared to be threatened. Febrvxiry 13. — Put in one friend from the other division. The ant was put in at 9.15 a.m., and visited SEPARATION OF MORE THAN A YEAR. 341 at 9.30, 10, 11, 12, and 1. She was evidently quite at home. February 15. — Ditto. The ant was put in at 10.15 A.M., and visited at 10.30, 11, 12, 1, 2, 3, and 4. She was not attacked. February 19. — Ditto, The ant was put in at 10 A.M., and visited at 10.15, 10.30, 11, 12, 1, and 2. She was not atbicked. March 11. — Ditto. Ditto at 9.30 a.m., visited at 10.30, 12.30, 2.30, and 5.30. She was not attacked. March 12. — Ditto, Ditto at 10 a.m., visited at 12, 2, and 4. She was not attacked. March 18. — Put in two friends at 1 p.m., visited at 2 and 4. She was not attacked, April 21. — Put in one friend at 9.30 a.m. At 10 she was all right, also at 12 and 4 P.M. She was not attacked. April 22. — Put in two friends at 8.30 a.m. Visited them at 9 and 10, when they were almost cleaned. After that I could not find them ; but I looked at 2, 4, and 6, and must have seen if they were being attacked. April 23.— Put in two friends at 12.32. Visited them at 1,2, 3, 4, and 6 p.m. They were not attacked. May 13. — Put in two friends and a stranger at 7.45. At 9 the two friends were with the rest. The stranger was in a corner by herself. 11 ditto, 12 ditto. At 1 the friends were all right ; the stranger was being attacked. 2, the friends al) right ; the stranger had been dragged out of the nest. The next moniing 1 looked again ; the two friends were all right. May 14. — Put in the remaining three friends at 10. Visited them at 11, 12, 1, 2, 4, and 6. They were not attacked, and seemed quite at home. This completed the experiment, which had lasted from August 4, 1875, till May 14, 1877, when the last ones were restored to their friends. In no case was a friend attacked. • -;-!>-*i/ ai.-; •t.'—aJ >jf^-- Jufaaai 342 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER A The difference of behaviour to friends and strangerg was therefore most marked. The friends were gradually licked clean, and except for a few moments, and that probably by mistake, never attacked. The strangers, on the contrary, were not cleaned, were at once seized, were dragged about for hours with only a few minutes' interval, by one, two, or three assailants. Though the above experiment seemed to me con- clusive, I thought it would be well to repeat it with another nest. I therefore separated a nest of Formica fusca into two i)ortions on October 20, 1876. On February 25, 1877, at 8 A.M. I put an ant from the smaller lot back among her old companions. At 8.30 she was quite comfortably established among them. At 9 ditto, at 12 ditto, and at 4 ditto. June 8.— I put two specimens from the smaller lot back as before among their old friends. At 1 they were all right and among the others. At 2 ditto. After this I could not distinguish them amongst the rest; but they were certainly not attacked. Jitne 9.— Put in two more at the same hour. Uj) to 3 in the afternoon they were neither of them attacked. On the contrary, two strangers from different nests, which I introduced at the same time, were both very 6oon attacked. July 14.— I put in two more of the friends at 10.15. In a few minutes they joined the others, and seemed quite at home. At 11 they were among the others At 12 ditto, and at 1 ditto. July 21.— At 10.15 I put in two more of the old friends. At 10.30 I looked ; neither was being attacked. At 11 ditto, 12 ditto, 2 ditto, 4 ditto, and 6 ditto. October 7,— At 9.30 I put in two, and watched them carefully till 1. They joined the other ants and SEPARATION OF MORE THAN A YEAR. 343 were not attacked. I also put in a stranger from another nest. Her behaviour was quite different. She kept away from the rest, running off at once in evident fear, and kept wandering about, seeking to escape. At 10.30 she got out; I put her back, but she soon escaped again. I then put in another stranger. She was almost immediately attacked. In the meantime the old friends were gradually cleaned. At 1.30 they could scarcely be distinguished; they seemed quite at home, while the stranger was being dragged nbout. After 2 I could no longer distinguish them. They were, however, certainly not attacked. The stranger, on the contrary, was killed and brought out of the nest. This case, therefore, entirely confirmed the pre- ceding, in which strangers were always attacked; friends were in mo t cases amicably received, even after more than a year of separation. But while the strangers were invariably attacked and expelled, the friends were not always recognised, at least at first. It seemed as if some of the ants had forgotten them, or perhaps the young ones did not recognise them. Even, however, when the friends were at first attacked, the aggressors soon seemed to discover their mistake, and friends were never ultimately driven out of the nest. This recogni- tion of old friends after a separation of more than a year seems to me very remarkaljle. The details are, I fenr, tedious, but I have thought them worth giving, because a mere general statement, without particulars, would not give ^o clear an idea of the result. 344 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. APPENDIX C. The followinof are the details of the observation re- Curded on p. 161 : — At 9.45 I put an ant (Nl) to a raisin. At 9.50 she went to the nest. 9.55 I put another (N2) to the raisin. 10.0 she went to the nest. 10. Nl came back. 10.2 she went to the nest. 10. 7 Nl came back. 10.9 she went to the nest. 10.11 N2 came back. 10.13 she went to the nest. 10.12 Nl came back. 10.14 she went to the nest. 10.13 put another (N 3) to the raisin. 10.18 she went to the nest. 10.16 Nl came back. 10.17 she went to the nest. 10.22 N2 came back. 10.24 she went to the nest. (I here oveqjainted N2, and she returned no more.) At 10.24 Nl came back. 10.26 she went to the nest. 10.30 Nl came back. 10.32 she went to the nest. 10.33 N3 came back. 10.35 she went to the nest. P'A- >«l^^»tB■al POWER OF COIVIMUNICATION. 345 At 10.35 Nl came back. (She met with an acci- dent. At first she seemed a good deal hurt, but gradually recovered.) At 10.40 N3 came back. 10.46 she went to the nest. 10.46 a stranger came ; I bottled her. 10.47 10.52 Nl came back. 10.54 she went to the nest. 10.57 N3 came back. 1 1 .2 she went to the nest. 11. 8 N3 came back. 11.13 she went to the nest. 11.10 a stranger came; I removed her to « little distance. At 11.11 a stranger came ; marked her N4. 11.16 N3 came. At 11.18 went. 11.23 N4 11.25 95 11.24N3 11.26 »5 11.27 N4 11.29 55 11.31 N3 11.34 ?j 11.32 N4 11.35 55 11.40 N3 11.42 15 11.40 N4 11.45 N3 11.47 55 55 „ a stranger came. 11.48 Nl came. 11.49 55 11.49 N4 11.50 55 11.51 Nl 11.53 55 11.53 N3 11.56 55 11.54 N4 11.56 15 12. N3 12. 2 55 „ N4 „ Nl 12. 5 N4 12. 7 55 12. 6 N3 12. 8 •5 12.13 N3 12.15 9« 24 346 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. At 12.14 N4 came. 12.15 went. 12.17 a stran 12.37 12.40 12.49 99 99 99 Thus during these thi-ee hours only six strangers cjiine. The raisin must have seemed almost inexhaust- ible, and the watched ants in passing and repassing went close to many of their friends ; they took no notice of them, however, and did not bring any out of the nest to co-operate with them in securing the food though their regular visits showed how much they appreciated it. Again (on July 1^), an ant belonging to one of my nests of Formica f us ca "was out hunting. At 8.8 I put a spoonful of honey before her. She fed till 8.24, when she returned to the nest. Several others were running about. She returned as follows : — 9.10 to the honey, but was disturbed, ran away, and returned at 10.40. At 10.53 went back to the nest ; 11.30 „ 11.40 „ „ 12.5 but was disturbed ; she ran away again , but 1.30 At 1.44 to the nest; 99 99 W M 2. 3. 7 3.34 4.15 5> 99 99 » 2.15 »> 3.17 >» 3.45 » 4.23 n POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 347 Returned at 4.52 5.56 6.25 7.13 7.45 8.22 9.18 10.10 At 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 5. 3 went back to the nest. 6.10 „ 6.45 99 7.18 99 8. „ 8.32 99 99 9.30 99 10.20 „ 99 During the whole day she brought no friend, and only one other ant found the honey, evidently an inde- pendent discovery. . I 348 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. APPENDIX D. The following are the details referred to on page 164:— September 24, 1875. — I put out two sets of larvae ; and to one of them I phiced two specimens of Myrmica iruginodis, which I will call 1 and 2. They returned as follows, carrying off a larva on each journey : — No. 1. 10.23 10.28 10.34 10.40 10.50 No. 2. 10.26 10.32 10.37 10.41 bringing a friend. 10.55 11. 6 11.16 11.40 11.45 12. 12.11 11.44 11.46 an ant came alone. 11.56 12. 6 bringing a friend. POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 349 No. 1. No. 2. 12.15 12.16 • 12.17 an ant came alone. 12.22 12.22 „ 12.29 12.34 12.36 12.40 12.45 an ant found the second 12.47 set of larvae. 12.58 two ants found the 12.59 second set of larvae. 1. 5 1. 6 1. 7 an ant found the second 1.16 set of larvie. 1.20 1.21 1.26 1.35 1.42 1.47 1.54 1.55 with 2 friends. 1.59 2. 2 2. 3 an ant found the 2. 4 larva). 2. 9 with a friend. 2.10 2.16 2.18 2.24 2.25 2.25 another ant found the 2.34 second set of larva*- 3/>0 POWER OF COMMUNlC^Tloa. No. 1. No. 2. 2.36 2.41 2.44 2.45 2.50 2.51 2.55 3. 3. 1 3. 6 3.10 3.10 3.17 3.18 • 3.22 3.27 3.28 3.36 3.40 3.47 3.48 3.53 3.55 3.59 4. 4. 7 4. 8 4.14 4.16 4.20 4.27 4.31 4.35 4.39 with a friend. 4.42 4.42 4.47 4.53 4.53 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 351 No. 1. 5. 5 5.17 5.25 5.32 5.40 5.46 5,55 6. 5 6.11 6.20 No. 2. 4.58 '5. 3 5. 9 5.17 6. 8 6.16 They came no more up to 7.30, wlien we left oflf watcliincr. The followinij moriiiiiij at Q.5 I found No. 1 wandering about, and evidently on the lool<-out. I put her to some larvie ; and shortly afterwards No. 2 also found them. Their visits were as follows: — 6.10 6.21 6.36 6.42 6.44 6.52 7. 1 7. 1 7. 8 7.n 7.12 7.22 7.29 7.35 7.30 another ant found the larvae. 7.40 — -; /v ■» ....;. • 352 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. No. 1. No. 2 7.49 7.54 8. 5 8.13 8.25 8.31 8.39 8.44 8.48 Thus, during this period these two ants carried off respectively 62 and ()7 hirvue ; 10 strangers found the larvae, half of them only coming to the set visited by the ants under observation. This seems to show that most of them, at any rate, found the larva? for them- selves. I will now pass to Lasius nirjer. September 27, 1875. — At 3.55 p.m. I put an ant of this species to some liu'vae. She returned as follows :— 4. 3 4.11 4.21 4.25 4.28 4.31 4.37 4.40 4.44 4.48 4.52 4.56 5. 5. 5 5.10 5.14 5.18 5.23 5.29 5.40 5.43 5.46 5.50 5.54 5.59 when she met with an accident. During this time no other ant came to the larvae. On October 1, 1875, at G.15 a.m., I put three apeci- POWER OF COMMUNICATION 353 mens of Lasius niger to some larvae. One did not return ; the other tw^o behaved as follows : — No. I returned to the larvae at 6.52 No. 2 at Other ants came at 7.12 7.22 7.32 7.42 7.50 8. 8. 1 8. 6 with a friend. 8. 6 8. 9 8.10 8.17 7.30 7.42 7.54 8.25 8.32 8.36 8.39 8.44 8.26 8.38 8.41 7.14 to lot 2. 7.45 to lot 3. 8.19 to lot 1 8.23 „ 8.37 >j 8.45 Here I left off watching for half an hour. >» 9.22 9.29 9.35 9.28 9.35 JHIi [JHIlr n ^ ■**- — ' -^■'lLf"-^mriiry^^^^Bft. ■ POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 351 No. I returned to the larvae at 2.33 2.37 2.40 2.44 2.47 2.50 2.54 2.57 3. 3. 6 3. 9 with a friend. .3.12 3.14 3.16 3.20 3.23 3.26 3.30 3.33 3 35 3.37 3.39 ,3.41 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.54 4. No. 2 at Other ants came at 2.39 2.43 2.49 3. 4 with a triend. 3.16 ,3.21 3.26 3.30 3..33 3.35 3.38 3.45 3.48 '"^0^r 35R POWER OF COMMUNICATION. POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 3.09 No. I retnrned fo the larvce at 4. 3 4. 7 4.12 4.15 4.20 4.2f) 4.29 4.31 4.M 4..3() 4.39 4.42 4.4o 4.49 4.56 4.59 5. 2 5. 7 No. 2 at Other mts camo at 4. 4 4..32 4.40 The first ant retumed at 5.10 0.13 5.15 5.18 5.21 5.25 5.28 6.31 4.43 4.44 4.49 4.55 4.58 5. 2 5. 6 with two friends, after which she came no more. The first ant returned at 5.,35 5.38 5.41 5.45 0.51 5.54 6. 6. 4 6. 7 6.14 6.17 6.20 6.28 6.31 6.48 6.54 7. 7. 3 7. 6 7.11 7.U 7.18 7.21 7.24 7.26 7.28 7.31 7.34 7.38 7.41 7.44 7.47 7.51 7.55 7.59 8. 2 8. 5 8.12 8.15 8.18 8.20 8.24 8.28 8..32 8.35 8.38 8.42 8.44 another 8-45 [ant came. 9.44 We continued to watch till 10.15, but she came no more. She had, however, in the day carried off to the nest no less than 187 larvae. She brought 5 friends with her ; less than 20 other ants came to the larvae. October 3. — I put a Lcisius niger to some larvae. She retumed as follows, viz : — 5.33 to lot 2. 1.42 1.48 1.52 2. 2. 4 2. 8 2.12 with a stranger, 2.15 fe'«g*;>v*'-j'^' 10.27 » 10.44 99 11. 6 W 11.16 >J 11.38 W 12. W 12.36 W 12.56 » 1.21 » 1.44 » 2.10 W 2.21 J> 2.29 W 2.50 »> 3. 5 99 At 12.45 another ant came, [whom I imprisoned. 2.51 After this she did not come back any more up to 8 P.M. April 25 was a beautiful day. At 9 A.M. I put some syrup in the same way on five inverted flower-pots, and at 9.10 put an ant to one of the deposits of synip. At 9.34 another ant came to the same syrup. This one I will call No 2. At 9.40 No. 1 returned. 10.45 No. 2 11. 7 No. 1 12.31 No. 2 J5 )5 55 At 11 one came to the same honey; this one I will call No. 3. but did not come back anymore and at 12.47 went POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 363 1.15 No. 3 returned, and at 1.25 went. 1.22 No. 2 „ „ 1.48 1.54 No. 3 „ „ 2. 3 2.18 No. 2 „ „ 2.30 2.35 No. 3 „ „ 2.36 2.56 No. 2 „ ., 3. 1 3.24 No. 2 returned. 4.19 No. 2 „ After which 1 went on watching till 7, but none of these three returned. During the day 7 ants came to this honey, and 27 to the other four deposits. Here, therefore, it is evident that the three watched ants did not communicate, at any rate, any exact information to their friends. June 27, 1875. — I placed four inverted glasses (tumblers) on the grass, and on the top of each placed a little honey. I then, at 8 o'clock, put two ants, be- longing to F. nigra, to the honey on one of the glasses. At 8.25 No. 1 came back, and at 8.45 she returned to the nest, but did not come to the honey any more. At 9.5 No. 2 came out and wandered about ; I put her to the honey again ; she fed and at 9.22 returned to the nest. At 9.28 10.42 10.58 11.21 12.45 1.40 she returned to thej^ .. (went back to the honey, and at J ' 1 nest. 55 51 99 5> 55 55 >5 55 55 55 10.50 11.10 11.39 12.59 55 55 55 55 I continued to watch till 7 P.M., but neither of them leturned any more. August 7, 1875. — I put out four small deposits of honey (which I continually renewed) on slips of glass placed on square pieces of wood, and put an ant {L, niger) to one of them at 9.20. She fed and went away. 364 POWEK OF COMMUNICATION. At 9.35 she returned, and fed till 9.43 10.14 „ ,, 10.17 10.25 „ „ 10.27 10.37 „ „ 10.40 This time a friend came with her. At 10.47 she returned, and fed till 10.53 11. ?> 99 11.14 11.35 » 99 11.40 11.52 5> 99 11.55 12.13 95 99 12.1G 1. 5> 99 1. 5 1.15 95 99 1.18 1.26 55 99 1.29 1.45 55 99 1.48 1.58 55 95 2. 1 2. 9 99 59 2.14 2.20 55 99 2.21 She was di»- [turbed. 2.25 99 55 2.30 2.37 5J 95 2.40 3. 2 55 55 3. 8 3.16 95 55 3.20 3.39 99 95 3.41 3.58 99 99 4. 2 4.13 99 99 4.20 4.29 99 55 4.36 At this time there was a shower of rain, so I removed the honey for half an hour. At 5. 2 she returned, and fed till 5.10 5.20 5> 5.25 5.33 99 5.37 5.42 5.45 5.50 5.52 5.58 6. 6 6.15 6.18 6.21 6.23 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 365 At 6.25 she returned, and fed till 6.27 6.32 6.35 6.40 6.44 6.49 6.53 7.15 7.20 7.25 7.27 7.30 7.33 7.36 7.37 During the whole of this time only three other antu came to the honey. On January 3, 1875, I placed some larvae in three small porcelain saucers in a box 7 inches square attached to one of my frame-nests of Lasius flaviis (PL I. Fig. 2). The saucers were in a row 6 inches from the en- trance to the frame, and \^ inch apart from one another. At 1.10 an ant came to the larvae in the cup which I will call No. 1, took a larva, and returned to the nest. 1 .24 she returned and took another. 1.4 J „ „ 2.10 she went to the further saucer, No. 3. 1 t4jok her up and put her to No. 1. She took a larva and returned. 2.24 she returned to cup No. 3. As there were only two larvae in this cup, I left her alone. She took one and returned. 2.31 she returned to cup No. 3 and took the last larva. 2.40 she came back to cup No. 3 and searched diligently, went away and wandered about for two minutes, then returned for another look, and at length at 2.50 went to cup No. 1 and took a larva. 3. came to cup 1 and took a larva. 3. 7 » 366 POWER OF COMMUNICATION 3.15 3.18 3.30 3.43 5.53 4. 3 4.15 4.22 4.38 5. 5.19 5.50 6.20 came to cup 1 and took a larva, first, however, going and examining cup 3 again. came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 and took a larva. came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 aiiJ took a larva. came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 and took a larva. came to cup 3, but did not climb up it, then went to cup 2 and took a larva, which she either dropped or handed over to another ant ; for without returning to the nest, at 3.55 she returned to the empty cup, and then to cup 2, where she took the last larva, so that two cups are now empty. she came to cup 3, then to cup 2, and lastly to cup 1, when she took a larva. came to cup 1 and took a larva. 5> ?» 9> ?5 came to cup 3, then to cup 2, and lastly to cup 1, when she took a larva, came to cup 1 and took a larva. 2, and then to cup 1 and took a larva. 1 and took the last larva. 99 99 I now put about 80 larvae into cup 3. It is remarkable that during all this time she never came straight to the cups, but took a roundabout and apparently irresolute course. At 7.4 she came to cup 1 and then to cup 3, and then home. There were at least a dozen ants exploring in the box ; but she did not send any of them to the larvse. At 7.30 she returned to cup 3 and took a larva. POWLR OF COMMUNICATION. 367 ji 5> 9' J5 55 55 55 I now left off watching for an hour. On my return at 8.30 she was just carrying ofif a larva. 8.40 she came back to cup 3 and took a larva. 8.55 she came to cup l,then to cup 3 and took a larva. 9.12 „ „ 9.30 „ 3 9.52 99 55 10.14 „ 1 10.26 she went and examined cup 2, then to cup 3 and took a larva. At 10.45 she came to cup 3, and I went to bed. At 7 o'clock the next morning the larvae were all removed. In watching this ant I was much struck by the difficulty she seemed to experience in finding her way. She wandered about at times most irresolutely, and, instead of coming straight across from the door of the frame to the cups, kept along the side of the box; so that in coming to cup 3 she went twice as far as she need have done. Again, it is remarkable that she should have kept on visiting the empty cups time after time. I watched for this ant carefully on the following day ; but she did not come out at all. During the time she was under observation, from 1 till 10.45, though there were always ants roaming about, few climbed up the walls of the cup. Five found their way into the (empty) cup 1, and one only to cu]) 3. It is clear, therefore, that the ant under observation did not comnmni(!ate her discovery of larvae to her friends. The following d'ly I watched again, having, at 7 A.M., put. larvc-e into one of the porcelain cups arranged as before. No ants found them for several hours. At 11.37 one came and took a larva. 11.50 she returned and took a larva. 55 55 55 55 11.59 12. 9 12.16 55 '5 J> 55 55 59 368 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. At 12.21 she returned and took a larva. „ 12.26 J) 12.32 55 12.37 » 12.41 5> 12.45 >» 12.50 » 12.57 >» 1. 5 » 1.11 J» 1.21 » 1.35 J> 1.40 >» 1.44 9? 1.52 5? 1.56 59 2. 2 55 2.10 95 2.17 55 2.24 55 2.30 55 2.36 55 2.43 55 2.48 55 2.54 5« 2.59 55 3. 3 55 3.10 55 3.14 55 3.19 55 3.34 55 3.39 55 3.47 >5 3.56 55 4. 7 55 4.13 ft 4.20 55 5> » 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 W » 55 W 55 55 55 55 » 55 55 55 55 55 W 55 55 55 5> 95 99 55 55 55 99 55 5> 5> » 55 55 99 »9 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 CO-OPERATION. 369 At 4.28 she returned and took a lar/a. ^.t/«/ 55 59 4.44 55 99 4.50 55 99 4.55 55 99 5. 1 55 99 5. 7 55 99 5.17 55 99 5.23 55 99 5.28 95 99 5.40 55 99 5.45 55 99 5.59 55 99 6. 9 55 99 6.13 95 99 G.:^5 55 99 6.40 55 99 6.46 59 99 6.51 55 99 6.58 7. 2 55 99 95 59 7. 8 55 99 7.12 55 99 7.16 7.21 95 99 55 99 7.26 59 99 7.39 95 99 7.44 55 99 7.53 55 99 7.57 55 99 8. 3 55 99 8. 8 55 99 8.13 99 99 8.20 99 99 8.26 55 99 8.31 99 99 95 8.38 55 99 370 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. At 8.45 she returned and took a larva. jj U.UV7 » 99 „ 8.55 w 99 „ 9. 2 n 99 „ 9.11 99 •9 „ 9.19 » 99 „ 9.25 99 99 „ 9.33 5> 99 „ 9.40 » 99 „ 9.46 JJ 99 „ 9.52 » 99 „ 10.32 5> 99 „ 10..39 »> 99 „ 10.49 99 99 „ 10.54 99 99 „ 11. 1 99 99 At this time I wen^ to bed. There were still about twenty-five larvae in the cup, which had all been removed when I looked at 6.15 the next morning During the whole time she was under observation, only two other ants found their way to the cup, though there were some wandering about in the box all day. Towards evening, however, they went into the nest, and for some hours my ant was the only one out. It will be observed that she returned at shorter intervals than the previous ones. This was partly because she had a shorter distance to go, and partly because she was not bewildered by three cups, like the preceding. I had placed a bit of wood to facilitate her ascent into the cup. This she made use of, but instead of going the shortest way to the cup, she followed the side of the box, partly, perhaps, because the floor was covered with a plate of porcelain. This, however, would not account for the fiict that at first she invariably went beyond the cup, and even past the second cup ; gradually, however, this circuit became smaller and smaller; but to the afii»iA.-iS8ajaMhfaiaiairi8j»-M»l«,ija! .^iL-iit:*. aTfeaA^tHJAa'^'' !i>jf.J. .a j EXPERIMENTS ON CO-X)PERaTION. 371 last she went round the outside of cup 1, instead of going straight to the spot where I had placed the bit of wood. On January 9 again I watched her under simi lar circumstances. From 9.35 to 1.40 she made 55 journeys to and fro, carrying off' a larva each time ; but during this period only one other ant found the larvjie. In the afternoon of the same day I watched the ant which had been under observation on the 3rd Jan. From 3.27 to 9.30 she made forty-two visits, during which time only four other ants came to the larvae. On January 10 I watched the same ant as on the 4th. Between 11 a.m. and 10 r.M. she made no less than ninety-two visits ; and during the whole time only one strange ant came to the larvae. On January 18 1 put out some more larvae in the small porcelain cups. Between 8 and 9 both these ants found them, and kept on coming all day up to 7 P.M., when I left off" observing. There were a good many ants wandering about in the box; but up to 4 o'clock only four came to the larva?. Two of them I impri- soned as usual ; but two (which came at 4.30 and 4.36) I marked. These went on working quietly with the first two till I left off" observing at 7 p.m. ; and during this latter time only three other ants found the larvae. On January 31 I watched another specimen. At 9.14 I put her into a small cup containing a number of larvae. She worked continuously till half-past seven in the evening, when I left off watching. During that time she had made more than ninety journeys, carrying each time a larva to the nest. Durintj the whole time not a single other ant came to the larvae. Again, on February 7, I watched two ants in the same manner. At 7 a.m. I put some larvae in the small china cups. Up to 8 no ants had come to them. Soon after 8 I put two marked ants, neither of them being the same as these whose movements are above recorded. ?^t'..Ja.Me4^aagafc!ifc-i 372 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. 373 They were then watched until a quarter to eight in the evening, during which time one of them had made twenty-six journeys, carrying off' a larva each time ; the other forty- two. During this period of about eleven hours, two other ant s had come to the cup at which these were working, and the same number to one of the other cups. None of these ants, therefore, though they had found a large number of larvae, more than they could carry in a whole day, summoned any other to their assistance. Again, P'ebruary 7, 1 875, I put some larvae in three porcelain cups in the feeding-box of a frame containing a nest of L^Jsius flavus, about six inches from the entrance of the frame, and put, at 8 and 8.29 A.M. respectively two ants to the larvae in the left-hand cup. They 11.15 99 »9 11.20 9» 99 11.29 n 99 *• At 11.37 — returned again and took another. At 12.2 another ant came to the larvae in the left- band cup. I imprisoned her. At 1 2. 3 — returned again and took another 12.15 12.30 12.37 — 12.41 12.50 12.58 1. U — 1. 7 1.12 — ' 1.16 1.28 1.32 — 1.35 1.44 1.50 — 1.55 2. 6 2. 9 — 2.17 2.29 2.39 — 2.42 2.49 2.49 3. — 3. 3 At 3.10 another ant came to the left-hand cup. I imprisoned her. At 3.14 returned again and took another. 3.15 — 3.24 ?' 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 95 55 55 55 55 59 55 99 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 59 59 9^ 99 ■ '*lh B»X/* TmfHutm I 374 EXPE.R1MENTS ON CO-OPERATTOfJ. At 3.31 3.36 — returned again and took another. 3.34 5> 99 99 At 4.10 another ant came to the middle cup. 1 imprisoned her. — returned again and took another. 5.50 At 4.45 6. 2 6. 2 6.17 6.26 6.46 6.52 7. 4 — 7. 7 7.13 7.18 7.48 7.48 5> 9? 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 J? After this they were not watched any more. It will be observed that the second ant made many more visits than the first — namely, forty-two in about eleven hours, as against twenty-six in eleven hours and a half. During this time two ants came to the larvae in the cup they were visiting, and three to the other two cups. The following case is still more striking. On July 11, 1875, at 11 A.M.,I imt a. Lasiusflavus to some ipuyse of the same species, but from a different nest. She made eighty-six journeys, each time carrying off a pupa with the following intervals. Commencing — At 11. 11.5 she returned. 11. 9 returned again. 11.16 again. 11.20 11.24 J 1.26 9> J» » At 11.29 agam. 11.49 11.55 12. 12. 5 12.16 1 2.30 51 >? >» EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. S7fi At 12.40 again 12.44 » 12.50 59 1. 1 55 1.10 55 1.19 55 1.27 55 1.33 55 1.43 55 1.49 55 1.52 55 1.56 55 2. 2 55 2.10 55 2.17 55 2.25 55 2.29 55 2.32 55 2.35 55 2.37 55 2.40 55 2.43 55 2.47 55 2.53 55 2.56 55 2.59 55 3. 2 55 3. 7 55 3.10 55 3.13 55 3.16 5* 3.20 55 3.25 55 3.33 55 3.35 55 3.38 «9 At 3.40 again. 3.47 55 3.53 59 3.57 55 4. 55 4. 3 55 4. 5 99 4. 8 55 4.12 55 4.15 59 4.18 5* 4.20 5* 4.23 9* 4.26 55 4.30 59 4.33 5^ 4.40 59 4.43 55 4.45 59 4.49 59 4.53 55 4.55 99 4.58 99 5. 3 95 5. 7 99 5.12 59 5.19 99 5.22 99 5.25 99 5.28 99 5.32 99 5.35 99 5.39 99 5.50 99 7. 5 99 7.12 99 374 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATIOV. At 3.31 — returned again and took another, 3.34 3.36 — 9» At 4.10 another ant came to the middle cup. 1 iLMprisoned her. — returned again and took another. 5.50 At 4.45 6. 2 6. 2 6.17 6.26 6.46 6.52 7. 4 — 7. 7 7.13 7.18 7.48 7.48 99 >t 99 99 99 99 99 99 After this they were not watched any more. It will be observed that the second ant made many more visits than the first— namely, forty-two in about eleven hours, as against twenty-six in eleven hours and a half. During this time two ants came to the larvne m the cup they were visiting, and three to the other two cups. The following case is still more striking. On July 11, 1875, at 11 A.M., I imt a Lasiu8jlavu8 to some Y'n\y5 12.50 55 1. 1 55 1.10 55 1.19 55 1.27 55 1.33 55 1.43 55 1.49 55 1.52 55 1.56 55 *> •> Jit M 55 2.10 55 2.17 55 2.25 55 2.29 55 2.32 55 2.35 55 2.37 55 2.40 55 2.43 95 2.47 55 2.53 55 2.56 55 2.59 55 3. 2 55 3. 7 55 3.10 91 3.13 99 3.16 5< 3.20 95 3.25 55 3.33 95 3.35 55 3.38 »> 3.40 J iga] 3.47 55 3.53 99 3.57 99 4. 99 4. 3 99 4. 5 55 4. 8 55 4.12 55 4.15 95 4.18 5» 4.20 5« 4.23 5« 4.26 55 4.30 95 4.33 5^ 4.40 55 4.43 95 4.45 55 4.49 95 4.53 55 4.55 95 4.58 55 5. 3 95 5. 7 55 5.12 19 5.19 5* 5.22 59 5.25 55 5.28 59 5.32 59 5.35 55 5.39 55 5.50 9» 7. 5 55 7.12 99 x-'^-sniuniit-~jev 376 EXPERLMENTS ON After which she did not come again till 8, when wo U'ft off watching. During the whole of this time she did not bring a single ant to help her. Surely it would have been in many respects desirable to do so. It will be seen that some of the pupae remained lying about and exposed to many dangers from 11 a.m. till 7 I'.M. ; and when she left off working at that time, there were still a number of the pupre unsecured; and yet, though she had taken so much pains herself, she did not bring or send others to assist her in her efforts or to complete her work. I have given the above cases at length, though I fear they may appear tedious and prolix, because they Murprised me much. No doubt it more frequently happens that if an ant or a bee discovers a store of focxl, others soon find their way to it, and I have been anxious to ascertain in what manner this is effected. Some have regarded the fact as a proof of the power of communication ; others, on the contrary, have denied that it indicated any such power. Ants, they said, being social animals, naturally accompany one another ; moreover, seeing a companion coming home time after time with a larva, they would naturally conclude that they also would find larvae in the same spot. It seemed to me that it would be very interesting to determine whether the ants in question were brought to the larvae, or whether they came casually. I thought therefore that the following experi- ment might throw some light on the question, viz. : to place several small quantities of honey in similar situations, then to bring an ant to one of them, and subsequently to register the number of ants visiting each of the parcels of honey, of course imprisoning for the time every ant which found her way to the honey except the first. If, then, many more came to the honey which had been shown to the first ant than to the other parcels, this would be in favour of their POWFK OF COMMUNICATION. 377 possessing the power of communicating facts to one another, though it might be said they came by scent. Accordingly, on July 13, 1874, at 3 P.M., I took a piece of cork about 8 inches long and 4 inches wide, and stuck into it seventeen pins, on three of which I put pieces of card with a little honey. Up to 5.15 no ant had been up any of these pins. I then put an ant {Lasius niger) to the honey on one of the bits of card. She seemed to enjoy it, and fed for about five minutes, after which she went away. At 5.30 she returned, but went up six pins which had no honey on them. I then put her on to the card. In the mean time twelve other ants went up wrong pins and two up to the honey ; these I imprisor»ed for the afternoon. ' At 5.46 my first ant went away. From that time to 6 o'clock seven ants came, but the first did not return. One of the seven went up a wrong pin, but seemed suq^rised, came down, and immediately went up to the right one. The other six went straight up the right pin to the honey. Up to 7 o'clock twelve more ants went up pins— eight right, and four wrong. At 7 two more went wrong. Then my first ant returned, bringing three friends with her ; and they all went straight to the honey. At 7.11 she went home : on her way to the nest she met and accosted two ants, both of which then came straight to the right pin and up it to the honey. Up to 7.20 seven more ants came and climbed up pins — six right, and one wrong. At 7.22 my first ant came back with five friends ; at 7.30 she went away again, returning at 7.45 with no less than twenty companions. During this experiment I imprisoned every ant that found her way up to the honey. Thus, while there were seven- teen pins, and conse^quently sixteen chances to one, yet between 5.45 and 7.45 twenty-seven ants came, net counting those which were brought by the original ant ; and out of these twenty-seven, nineteen went straiglit up the right pin. Again, on the 15th July, at 2.30, I 2G 37« EXPERIMENTS ON POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 379 put out the same piece of cork with ten pins, each with a piece of card and one with honey. At 4.40 I put an ant to the honey ; she fed comfortably, and went away at 4.44. At 4.45 she returned, and at 5. 5 went away again. 5.40 .. „ 5.55 At 7.58 one ant came to the right pin. 5? 5> 6.13 j9 55 55 c».t»t^ ,9 and again at 6.25 and 6.59. There were a good many other ants about, which, up to this time, went up the pins indiscriminately. At 7.15 an ant came and went up the right pin, and another at 7.18. At 7.26 the first ant came back with a friend, and both went up the right pin. At 7.28 another came straight to the honey. At 7.30 one went up a wrong pm. „ 7.31 one came to the right pin. „ 7.36 99 „ with the first ant. „ 7.39 99 99 „ 7.40 99 99 5, 7.41 99 99 „ 7.43 19 99 „ 7.45 99 99 ,5 7.46 99 55 5J 99 wrong pin. 55 99 99 „ 7.47 two 55 55 „ 7.48 one 55 right pin. „ the first ant came back. „ 7.49 another ant came to the right pin. „ 7.50 55 99 wrong „ „ 7.51 55 55 right „ „ three ants wrong „ „ 7.52 one ant right „ 99 7.5o „ wrong „ 55 55 55 "gl^t „ „ 7.57 9, „ wrong „ 55 7.59 95 55 wrong „ 55 55 55 19 55 55 95 95 55 95 55 55 55 55 55 99 59 Thus after 7 o'clock twenty-nine ants came ; and though there were ten pins, seventeen of them went straight to the right pin. On the 16th July I did the same again. At 6.25 I put an ant to the honey ; at 6.47 she went. At 6.49 an ant came to the right pin. 6.50 another 6.55 6.56 G,5S 7. 7. 5 the first ant came back, and remained at the honey till 7.11. 7. 5 another came to the right pin ; but she was with the first. 7. 6 another ant came to the right pin. 7. 6 7.12 7.13 99 95 99 55 71 wrong pin, and then to the right one. right pin. 55 15 99 99 55 59 99 55 59 99 These two ants were met by the first one, which crossed antennae with them, when they came straight to the honey. At 7.14 another ant came straight to the honey. 7.21 the first ant returned; at 7.26 she left. 7.24 another ant came, but went first to a wrong pin, and then on to the right one. „ an ant came to wrong pin. 55 »5 99 95 99 99 55 7.34 7.35 99 55 55 55 55 99 59 59 7.38 the first came back, at 7.45 went away again. -.a,"-- miKS«ii¥aejat.i*-\^i!A-~i hataajtoagjititj 380 EXPERIMENTS ON 95 9> >9 9? 99 99 99 99 99 At 7.42 an ant went to a wrong pin. 7.47 „ „ „ 7.48 7.49 7.52 „ „ the riglit pin. 7.55 the first ant returned, and at 7.56 went away again. 7.57 an ant went to wrong pin. 7.58 „ right „ 8. n wrong „ „ 8. 1 „ wrong „ After this, for an hour no more ants came. On this occasion, therefore, while there were ten pins, out of thirty ants, sixteen came to the right one, while four- teen went to one or other of the nine wrong ones. July 18. — I put out the boards as before at 4 o'clock. Up to 4.25 no ant came. I then put one (No. 1 ) to the honey; she fed for a few minutes, and went away at 4.31. At 4.35 she came back with four friends, and went nearly straight to the honey. At 4.42 she went away, butcame back almost directly, fed, and went away again. At 4.57 she returned, and at 5.8 went away again. 4.45 an ant came to wrong pin. n 99 right pin. 99 • wrong pin. right pin. This ant (No. 2) 1 allowed to return tothene8t, which she did at 5.23. right pin. wrong pin. 99 99 4.47 99 99 4.49 W 99 4.50 91 99 4.52 99 99 4.55 99 99 4.56 W 99 5. 6 99 99 5.11 n POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 381 At 5.12 5.16 99 99 99 99 99 5.19 5.20 99 5.25 an ant came to right pin. I changed the pin. an ant came to the pin which I had put in the same place, right pin. 99 two ants ant No. 1 an ant 99 99 99 5.26 another ant 5.35 5.37 5.40 5.41 5.45 5.50 „ 5.51 5.58 5.59 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ant No. 1 another ant 99 99 19 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 with No. 2. and went at 5.25. This ant had been spoken to by No. 2. and went at 5.49 99 99 99 6.49 „7. 1 9, 7.20 7.33 7.46 99 99 ant No. 1 came back, and 5.54 went. two ants came to the right pin. another ant „ „ came to a wrong pin. I changed the pin again, an ant came to the pin which I had put in the same place, another ant came to the right pin. 99 99 >9 99 99 99 99 ant No. 1 returned, 7.55 went. Thus during this time, from 4.50 until 7.50, twenty- nine ants came, twenty-six went to the right pin, while only three went up any of the nine wrong ones. ]\lore- over, out of these twenty-six, only four were distinctly brought by the two ants which I had shown the honey. On the 19th I tried a similar experiment. The marked ants frequently brought friends with them ; but, : ■>itvJaw>'B!»f\»awi..vatft>iaiiaMB8wfca-'.«i 382 EXPERIMENTS ON witliout counting these, from 3.20 to 8 o'clock, out of forty-five ants, twenty-nine went up the right pin, while sixteen went up the nine wrong ones. Thus on July 13, out of 27 ants, 19 went right and 8 wrong. 15 „ 29 „ 17 „ 12 16 „ 30 „ 16 „ U 18 „ 26 „ 23 „ 3 19 „ 45 „ 29 „ 16 19 Or adding them all together, while there were never less than ten pins, out of 156 ants, 103 came up the right pin, and only 53 up the others. I was at first disposed to infer from these facts that the first ant must have described the route to its friend.^ but subsequent observations satisfied me that they might have found their way by scent. i^MniUtiat-' ' -"• ^'""aitiidaf iaiBi.jai»&aaAiA jmf j. :ffr-fjst^ POWEB OF COMMUNICATION. 383 APPENDIX E. The following are the details of the experiment referred to in p. 168 : — January 24, 1875.— I put an ant, which already knew her way, on the larvoe at 3.22. At 3.30 she returned. 4.15 4.25 4.34 4,42 4.50 4.56 >5 9> » 55 >5 At 3.38 another ant came ; and the bridge / being turned towards m, shewent over it to 7a. 3.50 4.35 5.15 At 5. 5 she returned. 5.14 5.25 55 55 55 n 5J January 25.— 6.30 a.m. put two ants, which knew their way, to the larvae. No. 1. No. 2. Returned ^*^^ 7. 7 Returned 7.11 7.15 7 *>7 7.35 7.46 9» W n 384 EXPERIMENTS ON POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 385 No. 1. Returned 7.49 M » No. 2. Returned 7.51 7.53 » 8. 99 8. 3 » 8. 8 8.17 8.21 » 7.57 » 8.18 8.16 an ant to 9lk 8.22 99 99 8.25 99 8.25 8.27 9* 99 8.29 99 8.30 99 8.31 99 8.34 99 8.35 99 8.36 99 8.40 99 8.40 99 8.44 99 8.46 8.45 • 99 8.47 99 8.51 99 8.51 99 8.55 99 8 5S 99 9. 3 9» 9. 8 99 9.18 99 9.24 99 9.2" . 99 9.30 99 9.32 99 9.34 No. 1. No. 2. Returned 9.35 Returned 9.37 99 9.43 99 9.43 99 9.45 99 9.45 99 9.47 )9 9.50 99 9.51 99 9.55 99 9.55 99 9 58 99 9.58 99 10. 1 99 1.10 9» 10. 7 99 10. 7 99 10.10 99 10.10 99 10.15 99 10.16 99 10.17 99 10.18 99 10.20 99 10.20 99 10.22 99 10.22 99 10.24 9J 10.28 99 10.30 99 10.32 99 10.33 99 10.35 99 10.35 99 10.38 99 10.39 99 10.42 99 10.42 99 10.45 99 10.46 99 10.48 99 10.49 99 10.51 9' 10.51 9) 10.53 99 10.53 99 10.55 9.44 an ant to m laii k,*a^*v au—fOi. nii[iiiiiiii*iiijniiMnninian aArii^SAiiBBMrfig 386 EXPERIMENTS ON POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 387 No. 1. No. 2. Returned 10.58 Returned 10.58 n 11. 99 11. 1 n 11. 2 »> 11. 5 99 11.10 99 11.12 11.15 another an to m 99 11.16 99 11.21 99 11.23 95 11.24 19 11.26 9> 11.26 99 11.30 5> 11.30 99 11.35 5) 11.35 99 11.36 99 11.40 99 59 11.40 11.43 11.40 n 11.42 ^ » 11.45 59 11.45 H 11.46 9"' 99 5> 11.50 11.51 11.56 »» 11.58 W 11.59 »9 12. 99 12. 2 99 12. 2 ?9 12. 6 95 12. 6 99 12.10 59 12.10 99 12.14 »9 12.16 M 12.20 95 12.20 12.20 „ 9* 12.24 99 12.30 1. 2 dropped, imprisoned her. No. 1. Returned 12.31 12.36 12.44 12.46 12.50 12.54 12.59 1. 1 No. 2. 12.35 an ant to m. 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 I then put her into a small bottle. I let them out again at 7.10 on the 27th. Though the interval was so long, they began at once to work ; but one unfortunately met with an accident. The other returned as follows, viz. at 7.20 7.30 7.40 7.46 7.51 7.55 7.59 In these experiments, therefore, 17 unmarked ants came ; but at the i)oint n they all took the wi'ong turn, and not one reached the lai'vae. 7.48 stranger to m. 886 EXPhJlTMKNTS OM POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 387 No. 1. No. 2. Returned 10.58 Returned 10.58 )> 11. 99 11. 1 •1 11. 2 »> 11. 5 »» 11.10 » 11.12 11.15 anotbei an to m ti 11.16 >? 11.21 »> 11.23 >» 11.24 «> 11.26 5) 11.26 j» 11.30 »5 11.30 >^ 11.35 5J 11.35 » 11.36 >» 11.40 5> 5> 11.40 11.43 11.40 n 11.42 „ » 11.45 » 11.45 w 11.46 5» 11.50 11.51 11.56 >t 11.58 M 11.59 w 12. >5 12. 2 »> 12. 2 ?> 12. 6 5» 12. 6 5> 12.10 » 12.10 » 12.14 W 12.16 W 12.20 » 12.20 12.20 „ f* 12.24 )> 12.30 1. 2 dropped, imprisoned her. No. 1. No. 2. Return led 12.31 12.35 an ant to rru 99 12.36 99 12.44 99 12.46 99 12.50 99 12.54 99 12.59 99 1. 1 I then put her into a small bottle. I let them out agiiin at 7.10 on the 27th. Though the interval was so long, they began at once to work ; but one unfortunately met with an accident. The other returned as follows, viz. at 7.20 7.30 7.40 7.46 7.51 7.55 7.59 In these experiments, therefore, 17 unmarked ants came ; but at the point n they all took the wrong turn, and not one reached the larvee. 7,48 stranger to m. ■•a'ttgiM«S5 6. »» 6. 8 »» 6.26 6.22 an ant to m. >? 6.32 »> 6.37 ») 6.41 » 6.45 » 6.48 »» JJ 6.49 6.50 » 6.51 6.52 »> 6.54 >5 »> 7. 6.53 an ant to larvae. >9 7. 1 >» 7. 5 >1 *> 7. 6 H 7. 9 >5 ?♦ 7.12 >5 7.17 » »9 7.17 »» »? 7.22 7.2 7 an ant torn >1 7.25 )» JJ 7.28 » 7.29 » J> 7.34 POWKR OF COMMUNICATION. 389 January 28.- —Let them out at 6.45. No. 1. No. 2. Baek at 7. 7. 3 >? 9» 7. 5 J9 7.11 >/ 7.12 99 7.16 •9 7.21 99 7.27 7.31 an ant to m. 99 7.32 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 » 7.45 7.52 8. 2 8.11 8.20 8.26 8.30 8.36 8.40 8.44 8.48 7.42 She dropped into some water. I then put them into the bottle. I then put them into the bottle. January 29. — I let them out at 7.35 A.M. No. 1 returned at 7.47, after which T saw her no more. I fear she must have met with an accident. No. 2 returned at 7.56 H. 8 8.18 8.28 H.35 8.42 8.48 390 EXPERIMENTS ON 8.50 another ant came to the larvae; marked her No. 3. 8.56 9. 5 9.19 No. 3. 9.20 9.26 9.36 9.46 2 ants to larvao. 9.47 5 ants to 7ri, At 9.40 I found one of the ants which had been tindfcf observ.ition on the 24th, and put her to the liirvie She returned as follows (No. 4): — ^o. 2. No. 3. 9.50 9.55 No. 4. 9.52 ^,C^H 10. 3 10. 1 u 10.15 10.12 10.20 10.23 10.20 10.26 10.20 10.29 1 0.33 10.36 10.37 10.40 10.41 10.41 10.44 10.44 10.48 . 10.51 10.53 10.56 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 391 No. 1. 10.59 11. 4 11. 9 11.17 11.40 No. 2. 10.59 11. 2 11.17 11. 9 11.13 11.16 11.20 11.23 11.23 11.26 11.28 11.30 11.33 11.33 11.47 • 12. 11.42 11.46 11.50 1 1 .54 1 1 .58 12. 1 No. 3. 10.57 11. 2 11. 5 an ant to laiTae. 11. 8 j> 11.10 11.14 11.18 .0 larvas. «9 95 11.23 11.20 11.21 11.22 aTj ant to m 1 1.25 an ;int to larvie. 11.35 »» 99 11.44 1 1 .50 11.54 11.5 1 1 .55 ;m ant to m. 12. 6 12. 7 «» » 392 No. 1. 12.10 12,15 9. 7 » 12.3G 1.13 1.22 1.44 EXPERIMENTS ON No. 2. 12. 8 12.13 12.18 12.25 12.30 12.3G 12.40 12.43 12.47 12.50 12.53 12.5G 12.59 1. 7 1.12 1..55 No. ». 12.14 12.24 12.39 12.45 12.52 12.57 1. 1. 7 1.18 1.25 1 ..S3 1.41 1.51 1.56 2. 9 2.35 POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 393 I then put her into a small bottle. We kept a look- out for Nos. 2 and 3 till 7.30 p.m. ; but they did not return. January 30.— Let No. 4 out at 7 a.m. She returned at 7.45. No. 3 came) of herself at I ^- ^ Returning at 8. 9 8.20 8.30 8.36 No. 4. 8. 6 8.15 another ant to larvae. 8.25 No. 3. Returning at 8.40 99 8.52 No. 4. 8.43 8.51 an ant to m. 3. 3 n 9 5 Imprisoned them. Let them out at 10.55. Returning at 11. 1 11. 3 11. 8 ,9 11. 9 1\14 another ant to m. And they went on coming regularly till 1, wheji I put them again into a bottle. January 31.— Let them out at 6.35 a.m. No 3. No. 4. 6.55 7.12 7.15 7.21 27 1 > 394 EXPERIMENTS ON No. 3. 7.37 7.42 7.48 8. 1 8.12 8.20 8.27 8.32 No. 4. 7.29 7.42 7.53 7.55 another ant to m 8. 8.18 8.24 » 8.28 8.36 an ant to larvaR. 8.39 8.44 I imprisoned them. January 31. — Let them out at 5.35 P.M. No. 3. No. 4. 5.47 6.25 6.35 6.48 6.53 7. 2 7. 7 7.11 7.16 7.20 7.23 another ant to larvae 7.25 7.26 7.27 9> POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 395 No. 3. 7.30 Tm pri:?oned her 7.29 another ant to m. 7.30 „ larvae. 7.31 „ m. F'ebimary 1. — Let her out at 7.5. No. 3. She returned at 7.20 7.30 j> 7.38 another ant to m. 99 7.40 M 7.48 »> 7.58 7.59 ft >» 8. 6 M 8.12 8.14 w 8.17 9« 99 8.22 99 99 99 99 99 55 Imprisoned her and let her out again at 6.20 P.M. She returned at 6.35 6.52 7. 7. 5 7.15 7.20 7.25 Imprisoned her. Ffibrun.ry 2. — Let her out at 6.30 A.M. She returned at 6.50 7. 7. 2 another ant to m. 7. 7 7.10 two other ants to iru 7.13 99 99 396 EXPKRIMEN1S ON She returned at 7.17 n 7.28 7.36 7.45 7.50 7.55 8. 4 7.27 another ant to larvae, 99 f9 7.38 7.51 8. 6 m- 99 99 n 8.11 8.18 8.25 8.30 8.35 8.45 8.46 Imprisoned her. In this experiment, then, the bridge over which the marked ant passed to the larvaB was left in its place, the scent, however, being removed or obscured by the friction of my finger ; on the other hand, the bridge had retained the scent, but was so placed as to lead away from the larvae ; and it will be seen that, under these circumstances, out of 41 ants which found their way towards the larvae as far as e, 14 only passed over the bridge / to the larvae, while 27 went over the bridge d to the empty glass m. Taking these observations as a whole, 150 ants came to the point e, of which 21 only went on to the larvae, while 95 went away to the empty glass. These experiments, therefore, seem to show that when an ant has discovered a store of food and others flock to it, they are guided in some cases by sight, while in others they track one another by scent. POWEK OF COMMUNICATION. 39? APrENDIX G. The following are the details of the experiment referred to on p. 172 : — Experiment 1. — Time occupied, 1 hour. The ant with few larvae made 6 visits and brought no friends. The one with many larvae made 7, and brought 11 friends. Experiment 2. — Time occupied, 2 hours. The ant with few larvae made 13 journeys, and brought 8 friends. The one with many larvae did not come back. Experiment 3. — Time occupied, 3 hours. The ant with few larvae made 24 journeys, and brought 5 friends. The one with many larvie made 38 journeys, and brought 22 friends. Experiment 4. — Time occupied, 2^ hours. The ant with few larvae did not come back. The one with many made 32 journeys, and brought 1 9 friends. Experiment 5. — Time ocupied, 1 hour. I'he ant with few larvae made 10 journeys, and brought 3 friends. The other made 5 journeys and brought 16 friends. Experiment 6. — Time occupied, IJ hour. The ant with few larvae made 15 journeys, but brought no friends. The other made 11 jccupied 3 hours. The ant with few larvae made 23 journeys and brought 4 friends. 398 EXPERIMENra ON Experiment 8. — Time occupied, 1^ hour. The ant with few larvae made 7 journeys and brought 3 friends. The one with many larvae made 1 9 journeys and brought. 6 friends. Experiment 9. — Time occupied, I hour. The ant with few larvae made 1 1 journeys and brought 1 friend. The one with many larvae made 15 journeys and brought 13 friends. Experiment 10. — I now reversed the glasses, the same two ants being under observation ; so that the ant which in the previous observation had few larvae, now consequently had many, and vice versa. Tinte occupied 2 hours. The ant with few larvae made 21 journeys and brought 1 friend. The one with many larvae made 32 journeys and brought 20 friends. These two experi- ments are, I think, very striking. Experiment 11. — Time occupied, 5 hours. The ant with few larvae made 19 journeys and brought 1 friend. The one with many larvae made 2(j journeys and brought 10 friends. Experiment\2, — Time occupied, 3 hours. The ant with few larvae made 20 joume3's and brought 4 friends. The one with many larvae brought no friends and made 17 journeys. Experiment 13. — Time occupied, 1 hour. Tlie ant with few larvae made 5 journeys and brought no friends. The one with many made 10 journeys and brought 16 friends. Experiment 14. — I now reversed the glasses. Time occupied, 2^ hours. The ant with few larvae made 10 journeys and brought 2 friends. The other made 41 journeys and brought 3 friends. Experiment 15. — Time occupied, 4^ hours. The ant with few hirvae made 40 journeys and brought 10 friends. Of these, 8 came at the beginning of the ex- periment, and I much doubt whether they were brought; diu'ing the last hour and a half she only brought 1 iMMfe^-J"^.-: POWEll OF COMMUNICATION. 31)9 friend. However, I think it fair to record the observa- tion. The ant with many larvae made 47 journeys and brought 1 friend. Experiment 16.— Time, 4^ hours. The ant with few larvae made 20 journeys and brought 1 friend. She did not return after the first 2 hours. The other ant made 53 journeys and only brought 2 friends. This latter was the same one as in the previous experiment, when, however, she had the glass with only two or three larvae. Experiment 17. — Time, 1 hour. The ant with few larvae made 6 journeys and brought no friend. The one with many larvte made 11 journeys and brought 12 friends. Experiment 18. — Time, 1^ hour. The ant with few larva3 made 25 journeys and brought four friends. The one with many larvae made 20 journeys and brought 15 friends. Expjeriment 19.— Time, ^ hours. The ant with few larvae made 74 journeys and brought no less than 27 friends. This is quite in opposition to the other observations ; and I cannot account for it. She was the ant who brought 15 friends in the previous experi- ment, and it certainly looks as if some ants were more influential than others. The ant with many larvae made 71 journeys and only brought 7 friends. Experiment 20. — Time, 2 hours. The ant with few larvje made 35 journeys and brought 4 friends. The one with many larvae made 34 journeys and brought 3 friends. Experiment 21. — I now transposed the two glasses. Time, 1^ hour. The ant with few larvae made 15 journeys and brought no friends. The other made 35 journeys and brought 21 friends. Experiment 22.— I now transposed the glasses again. Time, 2 hours. The ant with many larva? made 400 EXPERIMENTS ON POWER OF COMMUNICATION. EXI'EIUMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. 401 37 journeys and brought 9 friends. The ant with fe^* larvae made 18 journeys and brought no friend. This, I think, is a very striking case. She was under observa- tion 5^ hours ; and the scene of her labour was the same throughout. The first 2 hours she had few larvae and brought 4 friends ; then for 1^ she had many larvae and brought 21 friends; then agiiin for 2 hours she had few larvae and brought no friend. Experiment 23. — Time, 1^ hour. The ant with few larvae made 2^ journeys and brought 3 friends. The other made only 9 journeys, but brought 10 friends. Experiment 24. — I now transposed the glasses. Time occupied, 2 hours. The ant which now had few larvae made 14 journeys, but brought no friends. The other made 37 journeys and brought 5 friends. Experiment 25. — Time 3 hours. I put an ant for an hour to a full glass ; she made 10 journeys and brought 4 friends. I then left only two or three larvae : in the second hour she made 7 journeys and brought no friend. I then again filled the glass ; and during the third hour she made 14 journeys and brouglit 3 friends APPE^^)IX H. TnE following are the detailed observations on bees alluded to in Chapter X. August 24. — I opened the postern door at 6.45, and watched some marked bees till the middle of the day. 6.50 7.21 7.26 7.30 8.40 8.45 10.35 10.45 12.35 Bee No, 1. One came to the honey. She then flew to the window, but after buzzing about for some time returned to the hive, back to honey. 7.23 back to hive, back to honey, flew^ to window and then fell on the floor. I was afraid she would be trodden on, so at 7.45 I showed her the way to the hive, back to honey, back to hive. I now closed the postern dooi till 10.15. back to honey. 10.39 to hive. and then to hive. 12.37 to hive again. 55 » Bee Ko, 2. 7. she came to the honey, 7. 5 she went back to hive. 7.12 back to the honey. 7.22 7.24 „ 7.30 7.42 „ 7.46 7.52 „ 7.57 55 >5 55 »9 ■ r^^ ^,Stji^ 6 "Sfa. Tetter."! i.-tf , J^ ^V faTJ 402 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEE3. 8. 5 back to the honey. 8.15 8.26 8.40 8.55 95 8. 9 she went back to hive, 8.20 8.30 8.44 9. >5 >5 » I then closed the door till 10.15 ; at 9.5, however, she came round to the honey through an open window, but could not find her way back, so I had to put her into the hive. 10.15 back to the honey. 10.20 10.30 10.50 11. 1 11.17 11.33 11.45 12. 12.10 12.24 12.37 12.52 99 99 5> 99 10.17 she ^ nventbackiohive 10.23 99 10.33 99 10.55 99 11. 6 99 11.23 99 V • 99 11.50 99 12. 3 99 12.15 99 12.30 12.43 12.56 )5 95 99 Bee No, 3. Also on August 24. 10.16 came to honey. 10.30 99 10.55 99 11. 2 9» 11.11 99 11.24 99 11.35 99 11.45 99 11.57 99 12.13 M 10.19 returned to hive. iO.34 „ 10.57 11. 5 11.15 11.27 11.37 11.47 ? 12.16 95 99 55 95 99 55 99 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 403 9? 99 12.26 came to honey. 12.30 returned to hive. 12.36 „ 12.42 12.56 „ 12.59 The next day I timed this bee as follows : — 7.23 came to honey. 7.25 returned to hive. 7.35 „ 7.37 7.45 8.12 8.55 (Tlie door was then closed till 9.30.) 9.40 to window, and at 7.44 8.10 8.53 99 99 99 59 99 59 99 55 9.35 10. 10.1.5 10.22 1().:55 10.45 10.56 11. 7 11.18 11.35 11.47 12. 2 12.25 12.51 95 95 59 55 55 95 55 95 95 55 55 99 95 99 9.49 to hive. 10. 5 returned to hive. 10.15 10.26 10.40 10.48 • 11.12 11.20 11.37 11.51 12. 6 12.29 12.54 55 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 55 During these observations scarcely any unmarked bees came to the honey. In these cases the postern, being small and on one Bide, was not very easily found. If the honey had been in an open place, no doubt the sight of their com- panions feasting would have attracted other bees ; but tlie honey was rather out of sight, being behind the hive entrance, and was, moreover, only accessible by the narrow and winding exit through the little postern door. But, however exposed the honey miglit be, I found infrjaC^^^Sas-^ 404 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. similar results, unless the bees were visible to their fellows. Of this it may be well to give some detiiiled evidence. Thus, one morning at 9.19 I brought a bee ] to some honey. J • 9.24 she returned to the hive. 9.55 she came back to the honey. » 10. 9* 10. 8 » 10.10 99 10.16 » 10.19 99 10.28 99 10.30 n 10.37 n 10.40 99 10.50 99 10.53 99 11. 9» 11. 4 • 99 11.11 99 11.15 99 11.22 99 11.27 99 11.34 99 11.37 99 11.46 99 11.50 99 11.55 9* 12. 99 12. 6 99 12. 7 99 12.40 99 12.46 99 12.54 99 12.57 99 1. 2 99 1. 4 99 Flew about. 1.15 99 1.18 99 1.23 99 1.27 99 1.34 99 1.41 99 1.54 5» 2. 5? After which she did not return. During this time no other bee came to the honey. Again on another occasion I watched several bees, which on my list of marked bees stood as Nos. 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, and 11. 9.45 bee No. 10 came. 9.50 went back to hive, 10. „ 10 „ 10. 3 10.18 „ 10 „ 10.21 10.26 „ n .. 10.30 »» 99 99 99 COMMUNICATION' AMONG BEES. 405 10.30 bee No. 4 came. 10.35 went back to hive, 10.36 55 7 55 10.45 99 10.46 55 4 55 10.52 99 10.49 55 7 55 10.52 99 11. 55 7 55 11. 9 99 11. 5 55 4 55 11. 9 99 11.11 55 7 55 11.16 99 11.21 55 7 55 11.29 99 1 1 .22 a strange bee came. 1 1 .26 bee No . 4 came. 11.31 99 11.30 55 7 11.39 99 9» 55 10 11.36 99 11.40 55 4 11.45 99 11.45 55 7 11.50 5? 11.47 55 10 11.59 99 ?) another Ftrange bee came. 12. 1 bee No . 4 came. 12. 6 99 12. 2 55 7 55 12. 8 19 12. 3 55 3 55 12. 7 99 12. 4 55 10 55 12. 7 99 12.14 55 7 55 12.18 99 12.17 55 4 55 12.21 99 12.24 55 7 55 12.31 99 12.30 55 10 55 12.33 99 12.36 55 7 55 12.46 99 12.37 55 4 55 12.44 99 12.37 55 10 55 12.40 99 12.45 55 10 55 12.49 99 12.50 5? 7 55 12.54 99 12.50 55 4 55 12.54 99 12.53 55 10 55 12.56 99 12.57 55 / 55 1. 99 12.57 55 4 55 1. 2 99 1. 19 10 55 • 99 1. 2 55 7 55 1. 6 99 1. 9 55 4 55 1.12 99 1.10 5) 8 » 1.16 99 ' fi'.>M-»v »fc'*a'''.<» 1.24 j> 1.25 » 1.24 >» 1.27 » After this I ceased recording in detail; but the above shows that while the marked bees came regu- larly, only in two cases did any unmarked bees come to the honey. In the above cases the honey was poured into saucers, but not weighed. In the following I used a wide-mouthed jar containing rather more than one poT-nd of honey. 1.44 bee No. 5 came. 1.54 2. 2 2. 9 2. 9 2.18 2.19 2.28 2.37 2.32 2.49 2.52 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 O 5 5 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 55 55 55 55 55 55 5» 55 55 55 55 1.45 went away. 1.58 2. 5 2.13 2.15 2.20 2.21 2.31 2.41 2.40 2.51 55 55 55 55 >» 55 55 55 55 55 3.10 another came which I numbered as No. 14 3.11 bee No. 1 came. 3.13 went away. 3.19 3.20 3.19 3.30 3.31 55 55 55 55 55 5 1 14 5 14 55 55 55 55 55 3.22 3.23 3.23 3.32 3.33 55 55 55 Yt COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 407 3.37 bee N D. 1 3.38 5 3.38 14 3.47 5 3.46 14 3.54 14 4. 1 4. 5 4. 5 14 4.10 5 4.15 14 4.22 1 4.24 14 4.26 5 came. 3.40 3.42 3.41 3.49 3.51 3.56 4. 3 4. 3 4.11 4.12 4.20 4.25 4.29 4.29 went away. 5> 5J 55 55 55 55 » W }She was disturbed. During the whole of this time only one strange bee came, as recorded above. In the following case I put out, besides one pound of honey, also four ounces of honey spread over two plates. 12.15 one of my marked bees came. 12.26 she returned 12.21 she went. 12.36 55 12.51 » 1. 4 9> 1.15 »> 1.25 »> 1.38 » 1.49 99 2. 99 2.14 99 2.25 99 2.38 99 2.50 99 3. 5 99 12.31 95 12.44 55 12.57 55 1.12 1.19 1.32 1.44 55 55 59 59 1.55 55 2. 7 2.19 55 55 2.33 99 2.44 2.58 99 99 3.13 99 408 COMMUNICATION AMONii BEES. 3.20 she returned 3.39 »» 3.52 5? 4. 7 9J 4.15 95 4.27 5) 4.43 >5 4.50 »9 5. 7 »5 5.25 » 5.42 55 5.56 55 6.14 3.32 she went. She was 3.45 „ [disturbed. 4. 55 4. 9 *5 4.20 55 4.32 55 4.45 55 4.59 55 5.13 55 5.31 55 5.48 55 6. 1 » During this time no other bee came to the honey. I had, on August 20, introduced some bees to honey in my room, since which it had been much visited by them. On the 24th I put a bee to some honey inside a flower-pot five inches high and five wide at the base. The flower-pot was laid on its side, and the mouth closed, so that the bee had to come out through the hole in the bottom, which was about ^ an inch in dia- meter. To make things easier for her, I made her a small alighting-board of wood, the top of which was level with the hole. I then placed the flower-pot on the spot where she was accustomed to find the honey. She had made her first visit that morning at 6.45, re- turning At 6.55 7. 5 7.14 7.23. I then arranged the flower-pot as de- scribed, and put her, while feeding, into it : she found her way out without diffi- culty. At 7.40 she returned, but did not seem able to find COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 409 her way ; so I put her in. The same thing happened again at 7.50 8. 6 and 8.20 but at 8.38 she found her way in easily, and had no further difficulty. She returned at 8.53 9. 5 9.14 9.25 9.41 9.55 10. 6. This time a friend came with her and followed her in. I captured her. No. 2 took no notice, but returned At 2.43 At 10.19 10.30 10.44 10.54 11. 6 11.20 11.31 11.44 11.55 12. 9 12.25 12.37 12.50 1. 2 1.14 1.25 1.36 1.47 1.57 2. S 2.19 2.31 28 2.59 3.23 3.33 3.44 3.56 4. 7 4.21 4.34 4.44 4.55 5.10 5.24 5.35 5.46 5.58 6. 9 6.20 6.42 7. 7.15 making 59 visits. 410 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. After which she came no more that day. With the one exception above mentioned, during the whole time no other bee came to the honey. I might also mention that I had put out six similar flower-pots in a row, and that this seemed to puzzle the bee a good deal ; she frequently buzzed about before them, and flew from one to the other before entering. When she went in, she generally stood still just inside the entrance for about thirty seconds buzzing loudly with her wings. 1 thought at first whether this could be intended as a sort of gong to summon other bees to the feast ; but though several were flying about, at any rate none came. The following day (August 25) she came at 6.51, and had made nine journeys up to 8.41, when I left off watching. During this time no other bee came. August 26.— She came at 6.32, and up to 8.43 had made thirteen journeys. . a aox^^a August 27.-She came at 6.7, and up to 8.43 had made fourteen journeys. ^ ^ ^^ v^a Auqust 28.-She came at 6.17, and up to 7.11 had made five journeys. During these days no other bee ^^""on July 19 I put a bee (No. 10) to a honeycomb . containing 12 lbs. of honey At 12.36 went back to hive 12.55 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 411 At 12.30 she returned. 12.50 » 1. 6 99 1.53 » 2. 5 9> 2.16 J> 2.28 »> 2.49 W 3.13 W 3.31 » 3.45 >» 4. 2 9» 1.12 1.57 2 9 2.20 2.32? 2.55 3.20 3.39 «5.0o 4. 8 j> jj »» »» » »> >? 99 » » » 4.18 she returned. 4.31 4.47 5.10 5.27 6. 9 6.23 7.19 7.35 7.50 9) 99 99 99 99 99 4.24 went back to hive. 4.37 4.58 5.19 5.30 6.15 6.29 7.24 7.40 7.55 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 and during all this time no other bee came to the comb. On the following morning, July 20, this bee came to the honeycomb t 6. 5 A.M. At 6.10 6.37 she returned. 6.42 7.17 99 7.21 7.41 99 7.47 8. 8 99 8.12 8.21 99 8.25 8.32 99 8.54 9. 4 99 9. 9 9.45 » 9.51 10. 4 99 10.10 10.19 5> 10.26 10.40 99 10.47 10.59 99 11. 4 11.14 J9 11.19 11.44 99 11.52 11.59 12. 6 12.15 12.23 12.29 12.35 12.41 Hi ^was dis- turbed) 12.52 1. 2 1. 9 1.16 1.30 1.46 1.55 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 9* 9> 9» 99 t» 9* 99 99 99 ■k^ x^^i^r^i-y/z-,^ > %j3iiiAMU^i'? 55 99 99 99 55 net alight. At 7.21 went back to hive 7.31 7.44 7.56 8. 8 8.22 8.35 8.46 8.59 9.11 9.25 9.50 10. 1 10.11 10.23 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 a strange bee she returned. 99 came ; I killed her. At 10.40 went back to hive, 10.59 11. 8 1 1 .30 11.38 55 55 55 55 Another strange bee came. At 11.52 she returned. At 11.55 went. 12. 7 •- 12.12 99 BBrtsfcj^aiihp- ^t'Ja.jfe 6' *:**-■ I&<^^.i:^l^tffc^*^^^..Jfcri 'smtiJ.^'d^: £j2Zi^/lbi^ J&A'l - ■• COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 413 12.17 she returned. 12.31 12.58 1. 8 1.19 1.30 1.45 2. 2 2.15 2.29 2.45 2.50 2.57 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 55 12.22 went. 12.36 1. 2 1.12 1.23 1.34 1.48 2. 6 2.18 2.35 2.47 2.52 3. 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 after which she did not come any more that day. It was, however, a bad day, and after 1 o'clock she was almost the only bee which came out of the hive. The following morning she came to the honey at 7.58 A.M., but did not alight, behaving just as she had done the day before. At 8. 6 A.M. No. 11 returned to honey. At 8. 9 went. 8.14 8.30 8.42 8.54 9. 9 9.19 9.29 9.37 9.54 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 59 ?9 99 99 99 8.20 8.34 8.46 8.59 9.14 9.24 9.33 9.44 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 but was distm-bed A strange bee came. At 9.59 No. 1 1 went. At 10. 5 she returned to the honey. At 10. 8 10.12 „ 5, 10.13 10.16 „ 5, 10.20 10.26 „ 55 10.28 10.33 „ „ 10.36 10.40 - .. 10.46 went 99 55 55 55 55 5> 414 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 10.55 a strange bee came. No. 11 returned to the honey regularly, and went on coming. October 13. — At 6,28 a.m. she came, but, as before, flew away again without alighting. At 6.32 she came to the honey. 6.42 6.51 >5 7.10 99 7.26 » 7.46 99 7.55 » 8.12 n 8.20 n 8.30 n 8.37 n 8.50 »> and so on. ?> J5 J> i» 5> 55 55 55 55 55 55 At 6.36 went away. 6.46 55 6.56 55 7.14 55 7.34 55 7.50 55 8. 15 8.15 55 8.26 55 8.33 55 8.44 55 8.56 54 Octoher\^. — She came for the first time at 8.15 a.m., and went on visiting the honey at the usual intervals. After this day 1 saw her no more ; she had probably met with some accident. But these facts show that some bees, at any rate, do not communicate with their sisters, even if they find an untenanted comb full of honey, which to them would be a perfect Eldorado. This is the more remarkable because thesr. bees began to work in the morning before the rest, and continued to do so even in weather which drove all the others into the shelter of the hive. That the few strange bees which I have recorded should have found the honey is natural enough, because there were a good many bees about in the room. My room, I may add, is on the first floor ; if it had been on the level of the ground I believe that many more bees would have found their way to the honey. I will now proceed to the similar observati»)ns made with wasps. ir**'W-'»T^«TEP ■»»»"•*' TiWS^iia t^o fct-"-* : EXPERIMENTS WITH WASPS. 415 The first one, I believe a worker of Vespa Germanica, 1 marked and put to some honey on September 18. The next morning she came for the first time at 7.25, and fed till 7.28, when she began flying about the room, and even into the next ; so I thought it well to put her out of the window, and she then flew straight away to her nest. My room, as already mentioned, had windows on two sides; and the nest was in the direction of a closed window, so that the wasp had to go out of her way in passing out through the open one. At 7.45 she came back. I had moved the glass containing the honey about two yards ; and though it 3tood conspicuously, the wasp seemed to have much difficulty in finding it. Again she flew to the window in the direction of her nest, and I had as before to show her the way out, which I did at 8.2. At 8.15 she returned to the honey almost straight. At 8.21 she flew again to the closed window, and apparently could not find her way, so at 8.35 I put her out again. It seems obvious from this that wasps have a sense of direction, and do not find their way merely by sight. At 8.50 back to honev, and 8.54 a^jain to wrongr window ; but finding it closed, she took two or three turns round the room, and then flew out through the open window. At 9.24 back to the honey, and 9.27 away, first, however, paying a visit to the wrong window, but with- out alighting. At 9.36 back to honey ; 9.39 away, but, as before, going first to wrong window. She was away, there- fore, 9 minutes. 9.50 back to honey ; 9.53 away.' Interval 11 minutes. K. „ „ 10. 7 „ „ 11 ., * This time straight. 416 COMMUNICATION. 10.1 9 back to he mey; 10.22 away. Interval 12ininutea 10.35 j> 10.39 99 13 10.47 99 10.50 99 9 11. 4 » 11. 7 99 14 11.21 W 11.24 99 14 11.34 » 11.37 99 10 11.49 99 11.52 99 11 12. 3 59 12. 5 99 11 12.13 99 12.15^ 99 8 12.25 99 12.28 99 10 12.39 99 12.43 99 11 12.54 99 12.57 99 11 1.15 99 1.19 99 18 1.27 99 1.30 99 8 Here for the first time anc >the r specimen came tc the honey. At 1.37 back to hooey ; 1.39 a\ v-ay. 1 ■ 1.46 55 99 1.49 Interval 7 minutes 1.54 55 1.58 99 5 2. 5 99 2. 7 99 7 2.15 99 2.19 99 8 2.27 2 55 9 2.32 99 8 2.39 99 2.42 99 7 2.50 99 2.54 99 8 3. 2 99 3. 6 99 8 3.14 99 3.17 99 8 3.26 99 3.29 99 9 3.38 99 3.42 99 9 3.50 99 3.58 99 8 4. 7 99 4.12 99 9 4.20 55 4.23 99 8 4.32 99 4.36 99 9 .- -TfT-jSto-?' - ,< - ■* 'AT ■: v-iMSPmaJKim- apucr^'-w^-^ -"-V , V' *',^^;':?^K*:rT*^ '^^^'W^^^ : COMMUNICATION. 417 4.46 back to honey ; 4.49 away. Interval 10 minutes. 5. , 5. 3 5 11 5.13 , 5.17 5 10 5.26 , 5.30 9 5.40 , 5.44 , 10 5.54 , 5.59 , 10 6. 7 , 6.11 5 8 6.20 , « 1 6.25 Xl,„i. A 9 9 ■^ rt vm 1 1 She d . . be seen, she had made forty-five visits to the honey m eleven hours. During the whole of this time no strange wasp, except the one above mentioned, came to this honey. The following day, September 20, this wasp made her appearance in my room at 6.55, when she flew straight to the honey. At 6.55 came to honey ; 6.59 went away. • Was rather disturbed, as I tried to mark her. ' She very often, however, throughout the day, in goinp^ away, flew to the other window tirst, and then, without alighting, returnod ♦o and went through the open one. 7. 8 7.18 7.30 7.41 7.53 8. 4 8.15 8.27 8.38 8.50 9. 1 9.12 9.22 9.34 9.46 10. 1 10.13 10.28 10.38 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 7.10 7.22 7.32 7.45 7.56 8. 7 8.18 8.30 8.41 8.53 9. 4 9.15 9.25 9.36 9.51 10. 3 10.18 10.30 10.42 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 } 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 Absent 9 minutes. 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 95 8 8 9 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 8 7 9 10 10 10 10 8 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 59 59 95 59 99 95 59 99 y.jB5 55 1 X 5> 5? J» 10 7 J> >J ?5 » The wasp which came once yesterday returned vnd rather disturbed the first. At 11. 49 came to honey; 11.50away. Absent 13 minutes, 11.57 „ 12. „ „ 7 12» o «« 1^.11 ,. ., o 9? 5> Here I was away for about two hours. 2.42 came to honey ; 2.46 away. 2.58 „ 3. 2 „ Interval 12 minutes, Om2D M O.ZO .« «« O ?) >» Here I was called away. 4.25 came to honey ; 4.28 4.41 5.15 5.30 5.45 6. 2 6.15 99 99 99 99 4.45 5.19 5.35 5.50 6. 6 6.17 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 13 30 11 10 12 9 55 55 55 55 55 55 This was the last visit that day. She made, there- fore, thirty-eight visits during the time she was watched, which was not quite eight hours. She was at work from 6.55 to 6.15; and assuming that she was occupied in the same manner during the three hours when she was not watched as during the rest of the time, she would have made over fifty visits to the honey during the day. Wishing, however, to have a complete record of a day's work, I watched her the following day without intermission. September 21.— I began watching at ten minutes past six. 6.16 came to honey; 6.19 away 6.29 6.41 G,55 7.11 7.23 7.37 7.56 8.11 8.20 8.31 8.40 8.50 8.58 9. 8 9.18 9.30 9.39 9.50 10. 1 10.14 10.25 10.37 10.47 11. 11.17 11.34 11.5C 12. 5 12.20 12.36 1. 8 55 95 55 5» 95 55 99 6.32 6.44 7. 7.15 7.26 7.42 8. 3 Interval 10 minutes. 9 11 11 8 11 14 99 99 n n 95 99 99 55 55 99 55 95 Was disturbed, and seemed rather troubled. Interval 8 minutes. came to honey; 8.14 away. 8.24 55 55 55 95 95 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 55 99 8.34 8.42 8.52 9. 9.11 9.22 9.32 9.40 9.54 10. 5 10.17 10.28 10.40 10.51 11. 6 11.20 11.37 11.53 12. 8 12.24 12.40 1.11 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 n 99 99 99 6 7 6 8 6 8 7 8 7 10 7 9 8 9 7 9 11 14 13 12 12 12 28 95 95 55 95 95 55 99 99 59 99 99 99 •99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 n :SiB&gfciiia!.-a.>^!* ;.-«»- J ■Jii.ailtSt.Ti i20 COMMUNICATION. 1.26 came to honey ; 1.28 away. Interval 15 minutes 1.40 1.57 2.10 2.25 2.45 1.42 2. 2 2.13 2.30 2.56 5> 55 99 12 15 8 12 15 f9 n 55 She buzzed about at the other window for a few minutes, which made the interval longer than usual. 3.13 came to honey ; 3.18 away. Interval 17 minutes. 3.29 55 3.31 55 n 11 55 3.41 55 3.45 55 jj 10 55 3.49 55 3.52 55 99 4 7 55 4. 2 55 4. 6 55 99 99 4.19 55 4.22 55 99 13 55 4.29 55 4.33 55 99 7 59 4.40 59 4.44 55 99 7 55 4.51 55 4.53 55 99 7 55 5. 4 55 5. 6 55 99 11 55 5.16 55 5.20 55 99 10 55 5.32 55 5.35 55 99 12 55 5.45 » 5.50 55 99 10 55 It will be seen that the intervals of her absence were remarkably regular. On one occasion, indeed, she was only away four minutes ; but this time I think she had been disturbed, and had not provided herself with a regular supply of food. The number of visits was fifty-one in eleven hours and a half. I tried whether she would be in any way affected by a dead wasp, so I put one on the honey ; but she took no notice whatever. I observed with other wasps, that when the open window was not the shortest way to their nests, they had a great tendency to fly to that which was in the right direction, and to remain buzzing about there. INDUSIFwY OF WASPS. 421 During the whole of this day only four or five Btrange wasps came to the honey. As regards the regularity of their visits, and the time occupied, other wasps which I observed agreed very closely with this one. For comparison, it may be worth while to give one or two other cases. I will (X3mmence with that of a worker, I believe V. vulgaHs. observed on September 19. 10 A.M. I put her to the honey; she fed and then flew about the room, and at last got into my bee- hive. 1 0.54. She came in again at the window. I again put her to the honey. She again flew all about the room. 11.41. She returned, and this time came to the honey; but when she had fed again flew round and round the room, and did not seem able to find her way out. I therefore put her out. 12.11 she returned, and the same thing happened again. ^^•-^ [ to'honey ; j ^^'^^ ^^^ straight away. 12.45 12.53 1.10 1.26 l.,38 1.50 2. 3 2.12 2.20 2.40 2.51 3. 1 3.13 3.25 12.57 55 1.29 55 1.41 55 Interv al 9 minutes 1.53 55 »9 9 99 2. 6 55 55 10 55 2.16 55 99 6 «« Was disturbed. 9f 2.25 55 99 4 99 2.43 55 55 15 59 2.54 55 99 8 99 3. 4 55 99 7 99 3.16 >» 99 9 99 3.28 9 9f 422 REGULARITY OF VISITS. 3 35 I'^^'?^^''''^! 3.38 (^^"^ \ Interval 7 minutes. ^•^^ I to honey ; J I away J 5? 8 8 9 9 9 8 8 Was disturbed and flew about. 8 3.46 „ 3.50 3.58 „ 4. 1 4.10 „ 4.14 4.23 „ 4.25 4.34 „ 4.38 4.46 „ 4.50 4.58 .. 5. 4 5.14 She did not return any more that evening, but made her appearance again at half-past six the next morning. From twelve o'clock, when she had learnt her way, till five, she made twenty-five visits in five hours, or about five an hour, as in the previous cases. It struck me as curious that on the following day this wasp seemed by no means so sure of her way, but over and over again went to the closed window. Again, September 21, at 11.50 I fed a wasp. 1 1.56 she returned to honey ; 11.57 flew away 12. 6 1.25 1.37 1.57 2.15 2.22 2.32 2.50 3. 2 3.14 3.28 3.40 3.51 4. 4 4.16 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 5> » 5> 9f 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 »• 12. 8 1.27 1.39 2. 2.17 2.25 2.36 2.55 3. 4 3.18 3.30 3.44 3.55 4. 8 4.20 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 »• 55 55 55 A DAY'S WORK. 423 ? she returned to honey ; 4.31 flew away. 4.37 4.41 4.46 4.48 4.57 5. 5. 9 5.12 5.22 5.26 5.31 •, 5.36 She made therefore twenty-three journeys, but did not bring a single friend. Tlie last case of which I will give particulars is the following, which has been already alluded to on p. 321. When 1 went to my sitting room at 4.13 a.m., I found her already there, though it was still almost dark. Her visits to the honey were as follows : — 4.13 A.M., returning at 4.32 55 » 4.50 J> >5 5. 5 55 J» 5.15 JJ J» 5.22 5» 55 5.29 JJ J> 5.36 J> »5 5.43 )» 55 5.50 5> >5 5.57 >) 55 6. 5 >J J5 6.14 >; 55 6.23 >» ?» 55 6.30 >5 >> 55 6.40 >> ij 55 6.48 ?> j> » 6.56 » j> 55 7. 5 >» »» 55 7.12 >> 5> 55 7.18 >» » 55 7.25 j> 55 55 7.31 >> 55 5> 7.40 j> 55 5> 424 A DAY'S WORK. 7.46 A.M., returning at 7.52 8. 8.10 8.18 8.24 8.29 8.36 8.40 8.45 8.56 9. 7 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.37 9.43 9.50 9.57 10. 4 10.10 10.15 10.24 10.29 10.37 10.45 10.50 10.59 11. 6 11.15 11.22 11.30 11.35 11.47 11.55 12. 6 P.M., 12.14 12.22 12.36 J) » » » >> >> )> » 9 » » » ■ «v^i^ V^**^* ' e *■-*■» , ■TPT'T'fff 11> » » 1. 4 )> »> » l.ll >? » » 1.20 » » 55 1.25 )> » 55 1.30 j> » 55 1.35 )» » 55 1.43 5> » 55 1.48 ?» » 55 1.53 >> » 55 -) /w. » » 55 2. 7 >> » 55 2.12 >> » 55 2.23 5» ?> 55 O *>'» »i.»>»> »> »> 55 2.39 )» »> '5 2.45 ?» » 55 2.55 )» >» 55 3. 2 ?J )» 55 3. 9 J> » 55 3.17 >» » 55 3.25 >» » 55 3.30 J> » 5) 3.37 ?> » 55 3.45 J> >» 55 »* ."" ^ 3.i);) >) » 5> 4. 5 5» » 55 4.12 >> » 55 4.19 55 » 5> 4.28 J» » 55 4.39 >J » if 4.46 >» » 5> 4.56 55 >» 55 5. 3 55 » 55 5.14 55 » 5> 5.25 55 » 79 5.35 55 j> It 29 a-c. -.vc:, ^jLifc 420 A DAY'S WOKK. A DAY'S WORK. 427 5.46 r.M., returning at 5.50 )> J) » 6. 5 >) » >» ().12 » >» » ().r>0 » » 99 0.30 ?» » » 0.40 >» » » 0.4<) V >i 9» 0.55 ?> » 99 7. 7 5> »> 99 7.17 ?» j» »> 7.:}0 >> » 99 7.36 >> j» 99 7.46 »> >» 99 Tliis was bor last visit for the eveninij:, and she thus made no less than 116 visits in the day, durinir whieh time only three other wasps found the honey, though it was lying exposed on a table at an ojjen wiiuluw. It will be seen that she worked with the utmost industry. No doubt, however, if a wasj* is put to honey in an exposed plaee, other wasj»s gradually find their way to it. In the preceding ex})erinuMits some few, though but few, did so. I then thought 1 would try a similar experiment with concealed honey. Accordingly, on Sei)tember 20, I marked a wasp and put^ her to some honey, which she visited assiduously. The following morning I opened my window at (>, and she made lur first visit at 6.27, the temj»erature being 61' Fahr. I then placed the honey in a box communicating with the outside by an india-rubber tube 6 inches long and I inch in diameter. The wasp, however, soon got accus- tomed to it, and went in and out without much loss of time. The 22nd was finer ; and when I opened my window at 6 in the morning, she was already waiting outside, the temperature being 61°. The 23rd was rather colder, and she came first at 6.20, the temperature being again 61°. I was not at home during these days ; but, as far as ft I couhl judge from watching in the mornings and even- ings, no other wasp found the honey. On the 24th I had a holi.40, when the temperature was 58°. She returned, as follows : — 6.49 0.58 7.12 7.22 7.32 7.40 7.50 H. 8. U 8.19 8.26 8.35 8.45 8.52 9. 2 9.12 9.45 I had alm(>st closed the window, so that she had a ditliculty in finding her way. 9.58 10.10 10.32 10.51 The temi)crature was still only 60°, and it was rain- ing, scarcely any other vvasps about. 11. 1 11.11 11.21 11.29 11.40 11.46 11.56 12. 6 12.14 12.25 12.33 1.21 1.32 1.42 1.53 2. 2.11 2.26 2.51 2.59 3. 8 3.14 3.23 3.32 3.40 1. ■!&»■■■£;.•. ■ ^"•ffT^v -fiv^^i^w^vA yk,:A 428 DESCRIPTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN UONEY .VNT. 429 3.48 3.57 4.12 4.20 4.29 4.39 4.47 4.58 5. G 5.17 5.28 5.35 5.42 5.52 This was her last visit. During tlic whole day no other wasp found tlie honey. I also tried (►ther wasi)s, concealing the honey in the same manner, and with a similar result. I have no doubt some wasps would make even more journeys in a day than those recorded above. The following are descriptions of some new species referred to in the preceding pages. The tirst is the Australian honey ant. Camponotus iNFLATUs, n. s]).* OjK>rarh(. — Long. 15 mill. Nigra, tarsis ])allidi()ribus ; subtil iter coriacea, setis cinereo-testaceis sj)arcis ; antennis til)iis(jue baud pilosis ; tarsis infra hirsutis ; mandibulis ])unctatis, hir- sutis, sexdentatis ; clypco non carinato, ant ice integro ; petioli squama modice incrassata, antice convexa, pos- tice ])lana emarginata. ILiJt. Australi;in. The colour is black, the feet l)t'ing somewhat ]>aler. The body is sparsely covered with stiff cinereo-testa- ceous hairs, especially on the lower and anterior ]>art of the head, the mandibles, and the posterior edge of the thorax. The head and thorax are finely coriaceous. The antennjB are of moderate length, twelve-jointed ; the scape about one-third as long as the termiiuil por- tion, and somewh.'it bent. At the a])ex of the scape are a few short spines, bifurcated at the point. At the apex of each of the succeeding segments are a few much less conspicuous spines, which decrease in size * In the Liuiuvaii Journ- v. I have given figures of this species. from the basal secrments outwards. The antenna is also thickly clothed with short hairs, and especially towards the apex with leaf-shaped sense-hairs. The clypeus is rounded, with a slightly developed median lobe and a row of stiff hairs round the anterior border ; it is not carinated. The mandibles have six teeth, those on one side be- ing rather more developed and more pointed than those on the other. They decrease pretty regularly from the outside inwards. The maxilla} are formed on the usual type. The maxillary j)alpi are six-jointed, the third segment being but slightly longer than the second, fourth, or fifth ; while in M(/nnecoci/stits the thired, flat behind, slightly arched in front, and with a few stiff, slightly diverging hairs at the u]>per angles. The length is about two- thirds of an inch. The following refers to a new s]iecles of mite which I have found in nests of Lttsitii^farns, and of which ]\Ir. jSIichnel has been good enough to draw up the following description. Uropoda formicari.k, sp. nov. This species, although it falls strictly within the ge- nus iyi)pfuii as defined by that writer, still in most respects, cxcej)t the very distinctions upon which the genus is 430 DESCRIPTION OF A MITE founded, resembles Trachy)wtm pf/riformis (Kramer) more closely than it does any other recorded species. It is, however, decidedly different, and is characterised by the s(iuareness of its abdomen, the thickness and rough- ness of its chitinous dermal skeleton, and inperlalbj by the powerful ciiitinous ridges or wing-like expansions on the lateral surface between the second and thiril pair of legs. Lenffth, $ and ? , about '05 millim. lireadth ?) »> •55 ij Tlie abdomen is almost scpiare, but somewhat longer than broad, and slightly narrowed at its junction with the cephalothorax, from which it is not ])lainly rotection of the legs, and the coxfc of the first pair are not flattened as in the adult. This mite lives in the nests of Fonmcajfava, Descrfpfio7i of a New Genets and Specks of Phoriy G. II. Vkrrall, Esq., Memb. Entom. 8oc. Sir Joiix LrnnorK has kindly forwarded for my exami- nation and determination certain specimens of dipterous insects said to have been found parasitic on species of ants, which latter he has been studying with care as to their habits. Having given considerable attention to the family Phorida3, I was agreeably surprised to find ■4mM 432 DESCRiniON OF TWO NEW i^LIES PARASITIC ON ANTS. 433 the parasitic specimens to be forms new to science. One of these is a new species of the genus Phora ; the other I regard as possessing cliaracters .resse*o;/.s) is ab<;ut once and a half broader than deep ; on the vertical triangle are two bristles ; the third joint of the an- tenna-i is moderately large, ovate, grey ; the arista short, somewhat yellowish, almost nake(l ; the jmljii con- s])icuous, all ]>ale yellow, with a few short hlark bris- tles at the tip ; on the cheeks are some short black bristles. The thorax is cfrey or brownish crrev, broad, not much arched, the disk being nearly flat, and on the hinlanx, tota abs(pie set is. Frons latissima. Thorax trans versus. Abdomen ]>aryus. Alarum vena cubit alis siinplex, subacostali parallela ; venuhe unroad, flat, shining; frons very l»road, tlie eyes scarcely occupying each one-sixth the width of tiie head ; it is moderately shining, gently arched, ani, base of antenna?, or coxai. pT^^nA* t^g^^^U^JjaMBSah i|WM«9(N«9MW«Mn t jytoafe^^tt. ^tSiiJssiiiCJlllS/'^iSkK^^ i.'-.M.ta^ Piil>/ifiMsitJf£i£ INDEX. ABD ABDOMEN of ant (1c.scril)C»l, 10, i:?; of the M«;xican lioiiey ant, ID. 47 A<"uia with holl'iw thorns in- habit e< I liy ants, o7 AfVection hss ]>ow«'rful than hatred among ants, UK) ; absence of, amonj^ bees, 2SG A;:ricultural ants, 01, 1)2 Aldrovandus quoted as to aiVs, Gl Amazon ants, see PoUjcr . f life in, fi; duration of life among. S, H8, 40 ; structure AFH of, 10 ; different classes of iridi- viduals among, 18 ; communities of, 24; games of, 28; their rela- tion to plants, 50; often ins4!cl»- vorous, 51) ; their relations to other animals generally hostile, r>:{ ; their enemies, 20, 07 ; their domestic animals, r>7-78 ; pro- gress among, 1)0 ; their beha- viour towards each other, 94, &c. ; mental powers of, 181 ; tleir sense of vision, 11, 182- 220, 258; of smell, 127, 2:58, 258; of liearing, 221, 220; stri- dulating apparatus amou'^^, 230. their intelligence, 2'M « Ant eggs,' 7 ♦ Ant-rice,* 01 Antenna of ant described, 10; sersc oiijan in terminal portion of, illustrated. 227 Antennjc as means of communica tion among ants, 153 ; as organs of hearing, 221, 220; of smell, 94, 234 Antirrhimim fertilised by humble bees, 54 Aphidts made use of by ants, 25, 07 ; different species of, utilised by different ants, 08; their honey, 09 ; their i-ggs tended by ants, 70 ; not domesticated by F. Ja.ua, ^di g3rifiiit»„»i:tat:k!r" ^'.*„-v"'--s. ■•A'aj^MA-g-bia 438 INDEX. M !. INDEX. 43r ARI CAR Aristida olignntJia, * ant- rice,' CI ArtiHcial nosts for ants. 3, 1(54 Ateuchits 2^1'i^rius, anecdote of, 154 Atrophy of the imaginal discs of the ant-workeis, 12; of the stina: in Ftmnica, 15; of the eyesof PlatyuTthrmimd Jicckia, 75 A^ta harbariiy the eye in, 11 ; variety of workers unionj^:, 19 — »trnct()r, its treatment of col- lected trrain, fil — te:(ttici'0-jnl4>sa, ex^ieT'imcnt with, .MS to power of cummunication, 177 Attachment amono: ants, 94 Auditory organs, structures in ant- antenn.'e probably nerve as, 220 Australian honey am, 49; de- scribed, 428 BATES, Mr., quoted af> to the live kinds of workers in JSaiiba, 22 ; as to ant-play, 29 ; as to the use made by ants of leaves, 57 ; as to the armies of Eciton, 65 ; as to leaf -cutting by Sauba, 2;i7 Ba,tHi(us, rarely more than one specimen of, found in an ants' nest, 78 TiecMa, one of the ant-guests, 74 Bees, occiisional fertility of workers among, 36 ; means of recognition among, 126 ; their sense of hearing, 221, 290 ; ob- servations with, 274; difficulty in finding tlieir waj-, 278 ; their behaviour in a strange hive, 281 ; their recklessness, 285; their want of mutual aflFcciion, 286; ^heir influence on the develop- ment of flowers, 61, 201 , their colour sense, 291 ; their prefer- ence for blue, 294 310 ; experi- ments on communication among them, 276, 401 Beetles kept in ants' nests, 74, 76, 90 Belt, Mr. Thomas, quoted as to lionil defences against anls, 51 ; as to defence agaii.st leaf-cut - tin^r ants, 57 ; on the raids of FHton, 66; on an ant-llkn spider, 66 Ben, Prof. I'aul, as to the limits of vision, 219 Bichromate of potash, ex|)criments with, 211 IJisulphidc of carbon, experiments with, 20S ; Blancliard, M., (juoted as to the origin of nests, 30 Blindness of Anumma and IJHfou onnet, .M., on aphis eggs, 70 Bonnier, M., on inditterence to colour among bees, 302 liof/trionif/rmfx meridionalix, the eyt' in, 1 1 Brazil, blind hunting ants of, 65 ; use made by the Indians in, of the tenacity of an ant-bite, 96 BuchUe dactnlnidi'H, seed of, col- lected by ants, 61 Biichner, Dr., as to Texan harvest- ing ants, 62 Burmeister, on the power of recog- nition among insect.s 126 Butterfly, ants seen licking the larva of, 68 riAMPONOTUS itt/atM, do- ^ scribed, 428 — liiiie alum, experiments as to ant vision with, 217 Cliromium chloride, experiments with, 217 Cla[>arede, M, as to insect-vision, 183 Clark, Rev. Hamlet, as to an ant- tunnel in S Am(-rica, 25 Cltivitjer, a blind beetle, a guest in ants' nests, 75, 70 ; cxju^ri- nu'nts with, by M. Les])es, 90 Cleanliness of ants, 29 Chccidt/', their use to ants, 68 Cocoons spun by some larvie of ati's, 7 Coliiltopsia trufiCf/tn and C.ftusij/cs, two forms of the same sixscies, 20 Colour-sense of ants, 180, 5cc. ; of bees, 291. \'c. ; of wasfts, 310; less develn|)ed among wasps than bees, 321 Colours of flowers, evolution of, •M\S Communication, power of, among ants, 153, &c. ; among bets, 156; exfxiriments »s to, with anls, 100, 344,370; with bees, 270, 401 ; with wasps. 311, 415 Communities of ants, 24 ; power of mutual recognition among members of, 1 19, 333 Compassion among ants, instances of, J 00, 108 ; absence of, among bees, 286 Co-o|jeration, experiments as to, among ants, 305-37eriments,asto the adoption of a queen by ants, 32 ; as to di- vision of labour among ants, 23, 44, 324 ; as to th. ir care of a phis- eggs, 70 ; on Clavvjer, 90 ; as to the treatment by ants of injured companions, 94, 107 ; with chloroformed ants, 98, 108-111; with drowned ants, 99; with buried anis, 102; as to treatment of stranger ants, 104, 119, 124. 333; as lo mode of recognition, 108; with in- toxicated ants. 111 118; as to power of recognition among ants, J 19, 333 ; and amon^' bees, 126; wiih ant-pup;u removed from nest, 129-117; i.n sisier- lUitii brought up separately, 147- 152, as to power of commnnl- cation among ants, 160-181, 344-376 ; among Ixjes, 274, 401 ; among wasps, 311, 415; as to perception of colour, 186; with coloured solutions, 194 ; with spectrum, 198 ; with the electric lighr, 201; as to ultra-\iolet rays, 200-220 ; with magnesium spark, 207 ; as to sense of hear- ing among ants, 222; among bees, 290 ; as to sense of smell among ants, 233, 258; among bees, 288 ; as to ant intelligence, 237 ; as to economy of labour, 241 ; as to ingenuity among ants. 24:M>; as to their power of Jiiiding their way, 250; as to means of tracking, 168, 383, 387; as to sense of direction among ants, 260 ; among bees, 278; and among wasps, 321 ; as to guidance of ants by sight, 266; as to the bel.av'.our of bees in a strange hive, 281 ; jis- to their compassion, 286 ; as to their colour sense, 291 ; and their preferetice of certiin colours, 302 ; as to colour sense among wasps, 316 Expulsion of ant from nest, 98 Eyes of twv) kinds in ants, 10; compound, 182; viirious de- velopments of, 183 I^ACETS of the eye in ants, number of, 1 1 ; descrihefl, 1 82 Feeding, loss of instinct of, 76. 83. 87 Fertilisation of plants by insects, 50, 291 Fighting among ants, ditTerent mod(8 of, 17 Fhjwers, their defences against improtital.le insects, 51-55 ; iu- thience of bees on their develop- ^ nient, 291 ; p.uiriiy of blue. 3<»8 Food of Hnt>, 2:., y\\\ : Us elUct in FOR FOR I determining the sex in ants and bees, 40; individual ants in certain species serve as recep- tacles of, 47 Foragers, certain ants of a nest told off as, 45, 47 Forel, Dr., referred to as to tlie emergence c>f ])up:v of ;ints, 8 : as to their compound eyes, 10; as to the jK^sition of spiracles, 14 ; as to the oMices of young ants, 23 : as to /'. rvfa, 27 ; as to ant-games, 28, 29 ; as to origin of nests. 31 ; as t ) eggs laid by workers, 35; on the honey ant. 40 ; on the germina- tion of grain in ant-stores, 61 ; as to Ixjetles in ant nests, 78; as to the slaves of /•'. mntjmnca, 80; as to the slave-making of Stroiuifihujnnthim, i>tTt '^ on A nrr- gtitt'A, 86 ; on the behaviour of ants to each other, 94 ; on re- cognition among ants, 120; as to power of crunmunication among ants, 158; as to their insensibibility to soujid,221 ; as to special organs in ti.eir an- tennie, 227 Formica hijtj/innsn, its nest, 24 — cincrra, 16; character of, 27; CiJgs l.'ud by workers among, 37, 39; duration of life of, 42 " '— coNf/cnnts, Thuigophila in nests »'., i 7 — rrM-rta, mode of attack of, 17 ; extent of nest of, 24 ; Th'uiiut- phihi in nests of, 77 ■^ jffirn, I'rnpoda in ne.sts of, 431 —/iigra, occasionally spins a cocoon, 7 ; its timidity, 27 ; in- troduction of a queen among, 31 ; e^rgs laid by workers among. 38, 39 ; queens produced in captivity, 40; longevity of, 42; division of labour among, 45; occasionally found in the nests of /'. rufft, 79 ; enslaved by r. »nnffuiNi(t, 80, J^ioft/- arthrus received in nests of, 90; tlieir condition analogous to that of the hunting races of men, 91 ; their neglect of friejvls in trouble, 96 ; expulsion of a member from the nest, 98 ; mite attached to the heai/irn, experiment as to power of communication among, 363 — priitrmtia, eye of, 10, IS4 ; at- tacked by P. rjrsi'cta, 18; its treatment of slain enemies, 27 ; Steniimuia in nests of, 78; large communities of, 119 — rufa, its power of ejecting poi- son, 15; its mode of attack. 17, 27; nests of, 23 ; large number of insects kept in nests of, 74, 75 ; Stenamind in nests of, 78 — rutihtirhis ])erhaps a variety of F.'fiixcu, 80 — gtniflKiucn, its mode of attack, 17 ; duration of life of, 41, 42 ; D'nmrdti in nests of^ 77; their periodi'ial attack on neighbour- ing nests, 79; slaves made by, 80 ; not yet degraded by slave holding, 88 ; they apparently understanting ants, frl), 92; in the houth of Europe and Texas, Gl INS Hatred a stronger passion with ants than affection, 106 Head of ant described, 10; large size of, in workers of certain species, 20, 22 Hearing, sense of, among insects, 221 ; possibly present in ants, 22(; ; among l)ees, 290 ; among wasps, 313 If(t ferine ftvKqmcornu, in ants' nests, 77 Hieks, Dr. J. r>raxton, on the antennsc of insects, 2i7 Hildebrand on the variations of blue tlovvers, 310 Honey, love of ants for, 51 ; oC aphis, 69 ; experiments on ants entangled in, 98 Honey ants, 19, 47 ; independently originated in Mexico and 'i'exar, 49 ; of Australia described, 428 Houe, Mr., tjuoted as to harvest- ing ants, 60 Hearse ant, see F. rvfa Huber, as to ants playing, 28 ; as to the formation of a nest, 30 ; on the care taken by ants o? a[)his v';!:y:,s^, 7(»; as to slavery among ants, 81 ; as to their re- cognition of friends, 120; as to their deafness, 221 Hui)tin'4 ants, 59, 63, 91 Ilildnophytitm fontiicuriimy its as- sociation with ants, 58 Hi/mcnoptcra, common origin of the sting in the, 15 ; the social, m< ans of comuiunication be tween, 153 INDIVIDUAL differences be- tween ants, 95, 101 ; between bees, 279 Indus ry of ants, 27; of wa-sps, 321, 421 Insects, their metamorphoses, 8; their agencv in fertilisation of liowers,50, 291 ; mimicking ants, 66; kept by ants, 73; recogni- tion among, 126 ; their visioii, INDEX. 443 INS 182; their hearing, 221; pos- sibly possess senses inconceiva- ble to ourselves, 225 fiisensible ants, experiments with, 99-108 Intelligence among ants, 181, 236; experiments as to, 240 intoxicated ants, ex))eriments on, 111; tabular view of experi- ments, 118; experiments re- ferred to, 128 KKRNEU on floral defences, 52 ; on the uses of nectaries, 56 Knot in ants, specific characters offered by ft)rr'i of, 13 Kirby and Sjxiuce, Messrs., as to power of conjmunication among ants. 15ft ; on the power of sound in MiitiUa, 229 I A HOUR, division of, among i ants, 23, 44 ; experiments as to economising, 210; tabular view of experiments on, 324 332 Landois, on the sound emitted bv Mutillu, 229; on stridulatiug ap- paratus in ants, 230 Langstrolh, Dr., as to recognition by smell among bees, 281 ; on their recklessness. 2S5 Larvie of ants described, 6; of stranger nests carefully tended, 129 La.'^i IIS hru n neus prefers the ajdiides of the bark of trees, 68 — fill!' US, period of larval life in, 7; the eye in, 11; will not adn])t astninge<|ueef), 32 ; mites jn the nest of, 67; keeps Hocks <»f the root-feeding apliis, (S^ \ keo[)s four or five species of aphis in i's nests, 73; Platij- arthrux a guest of, 75, 90 ; they have arrived at the 'pastoral stage' of progress, 91 : their behaviour to a dead (|ueen, 108; to chloroforiiu'd friends and ilrangers, 108-111; to intoxi- LEP cated friends and strangers. 111; their tre;itment of strangers, 123 ; perception of colour among, 190, 193, 195; experiments as to sense of hearing among, 223 ; stridulatiug apparatus in, 231 ; structure in tibia of, 232 ; want of ingenuity among, 248 ; eai'tli- works constructed by, 249 ; ex- periments with, as to power of communication, 365; as to co- operaiion, 372; new species of mite found in nests of, 429 L(i., -iO Lowne, Mr., (juoted asto the func- tions of ocelli, 1 83 Lund, M., quoted as to the intel- ligence of ants, 230 Lyc(pna pscvdarijiolusf, ants seen licking tlie larva of, 08 MCCOOK, Mr., quoted as to the adoption of a queen by Crematogaster, 34 ; as to honey- ants, 48 ; as to the grain-tields of the Texan harvesting ant, 02 ; as to ants licking the larva of a butterfly, 68 ; on reco^^nition by smell among ants, 127 Miirkel quoteedition of, de scribed, 81 ; degrading effect of slave-holding on, 89; impri.soned friends and strangers equally neglected, 105; power of com- munication among, 158, 180 Polygonuvi amjjhifnnm, glandular hairs absent from specimens growing in water, 56 PoiH-ra contracta, the eye in, 11 Poneridfc, one of i he three families of ants. 1 ; form of knot in, 13; stridulating ap{)aratus in, 230 Priinulacvie, evolution of colour in, 301) Protective mimicry, Gfi Pupae of ants, 7 ; experimented on as to power of recognition among ants, 1 29 Python said to have been de- Btroyed by the Driver ants, 64 QUEEN ants, longevity of, 9, 41; their wings, 12; several in a nest, 19; reluctance of ants to adopt a new, 32 ; never pro- duced from workers' eggs, 36 ; seldom produced in captivity, 40 ; treatment of a dead, 1(»8 Queen bees, limited nature of de- votion of subjects to, 287 -DA NUNCULA CE.^, correl a- -^ tion of colour with speciali- sation of form in, 308 Recognition of friends by ants, experiments on, 108, &c., 119, Arc; after long separation, 123 233, 333 ; means of, 125 ; among bees, 126 ; experiments as to, with pupa},129-14V ; as to sister ants brought up separately, 117; proved to be communal, not per- sonal, 152 Relations, behaviour of ants to, 93 Retrogn'S'^ion of organs : of sting, 14 ; of wings, 15 : of eyes. 75 Roads made by ants, 25 Robbery among bees, 285 Rufescent ants on a slave- making expedition, 81 (^T. FAROE A IT, Lepeletier de, )^ on the origin of awts' nests, 31 ; on the benevolence of ants, 94 ; as to hearing among insects 221 Saiibaant, see d'A-odoma crphnlotn Sauvages, Abbe Boisier de, on the connection between ants and aphides, 68 Savage. Rev. T. S., * On the Habits of Driver Ants,' quoted, 20, 63, 64 Scavengers, some ant-guests may serve as, 75 Scent, power among ants of track- ing by, 124, 171; experiments with dilTcrent kinds of, 233 ; imi)ortance of, to ants, 258 Sclienk, Aiicrgates discovered by, 86 Secretion of aphis retained till re- quired by ants, 69 ; of Clanger nnd jyuiarda as food for ants, 75, 76 Seeds of violet collected by ants, 26 ; store'olil, vji^».veiB«fg- ,::Sk^ iftj^ ^ytf^B8aeilr"-^fe^fcHv. .V7 free from .ill mathjmatical or other discussions which might involve difficulty. The style is, in the main, excellent. " — Sch-ucf. "A remark.ahle book. ... 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Mbd *etween it and certain fi»rins of civiliz;.tioii. I he origin of an artistic activity sho.iU be sought atnontj the most primitive people-^, hke the native Ausirahans, the Mincopies of the Andaman Islands, the B )tociidos of Soutli America, »nd tiie Kski:nos: and with these al >ne the author studies his suhjo t Their arts arc regarded as a social phenom.'n )ii and a social function, and arc claNsified as aits t.f rest 4nd arts of motion. The arts of rest camprise decoration, first of the body by --carifica- uon, painting, tattooing, and dress; and then of implements painting and sculpinrc ; while the arts of motion are the dance (^a living sculpture), poetry or song, with rhythm, and music. TJ/^OAfAN'S SHARE IN PRIMITIVE CUL- '^'^ TCRE. P.y Otis Tukton Mason, A. M., Curator of the Department of Ethnology in the United States National Mu- seum. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, !?i.75. 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With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75. This interesting book gives a most attractive account of the rude methods employed by primitive man for recording his de in- terpreied, and traces the growth of convention il siuns up to syllabaries and alph.ibcts- — the two classes of signs employed by modern peoples. IN PRF.PARAI ION. THE SOUTH SEA ISLAXDHRS. Hy Dr. Schmeltz. THE ZUNI. By Frank Hamilton Cushing. THE AZTECS. By Mrs. Zelia Nittall. I). APPLETON AND COMPANY. NEW YORK. T T «*^«_?iBw*'^fe.^rwi"j';sffi*rr t?"! 1 * — r .^■s'Tr' -!••"<*' D. aPPLFTON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. F New Volumes in the International Education Series. ROEBEFS ED UCA TIONAL LA WS FOR ALL TEACHERS. By Jamfs L. Huohf.s, In.spector of Schools, Toronto. Vol. 41, International Education Series. i-mo Cloth, $1.50. ^f l^'lV'i^ "f this book is to give a simple exposition of the most important principles o I r .ehcl s educational philos,,phy, and to make suggestions regarding the nDpSi n o these principles to the work of ,'-.e schoolroom in teaching and .mining^' It S pr- s:^^'SSss;S;^ j;:;Ky'^'' "-^ ^^ ^^^^-^ ^'- ^^--^ ^^^^^^ ^CIIOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS By Or. J. Baldwin, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Texas; Author of " Elementary Psychology and i:ducation " and " Psychology applied to the Art of Teach- ing." Vol. 40, International Education Series. i2mo. Cloth $1.50. , This is eminently an ever^-day working book for teachers; practical, suggestive nsp.nng. It presents dearly tne best things achievcdv n" 'i;"rhV;ri'' , .^^"'^rr* , ' ^^ ^^^^^^^^ •'^ '^^^ ^^^ ^^^^'^' ''-^ ^^eal sch<.ol, e ™ the Sde d " '" ' stimulated to endeavor earnestly to realize JPrinciples and practice of teach- IXG. By Jamfs Joiionnot. Revised by Saraii Evans JoiioNNOT. i2mo. Cloth, .^1.50. This book embodies in a comp.ict form the results of the wide experience and careful reflection ..fan enthuMastic te.cher and .^chool super^■isor. Mr Johonnot as an educa- tional reformer helped thousands of Mnggling teachers who hnd'bronght oxer the rural school methods into village school work. He made life v orih living to them. His he p. through the pages of this book, will aid other thousands in the same stru-ele to ad..pt the better methods that are possib'e in the graded school. The teacher who a spires to better his mstruction will read this book with p-ofit J^HE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL DE- VELOPMENT OF THE CHILD. Containing the Chap- ters on Perception, Emotion, Memory, Imagination, and Con- sciousness. By Caurikl CdMl'AVRK. Translated from the French hy Marv E. Wilson, B. L. Smith College, Member of the (Graduate Seminary- in Child Study, University of Cali- fornia. !?i.5o. The object of the present work is to bring together in a systematic, pedagocical form what IS known re;:ar.hng the developm°nt of infant children, so far as the fact^ h.^ve any be .ring upon early e.lucation. It contains the rhaptcrs on Perception Fmo- tion. Memory, Im .i^ination, and Consci..usness. Anoth-r volume will f.^llow com- pleting the w..rk. and .lism^smg the subjects of hidgment. I earning to Talk. Activity ISIoral Sense, C har.i. ter. Morbid lendencics. Selfhood, and Personality. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, N^V YORK. T^ www rtMi ww tf .fX'jjBWftgHtrn ig ^WWHjB^aPtF^ r ■^fe^'" D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. Recent Volumes of the Lnternational Scientific Series. 'J^HE AURORA BOREALIS. ByALFRKD Angot, -* Honorary Meteorologist to the Central Meteorological Office of France. With iS Illustrations. Si.75. While there have been many in»iioj;raphs in dilTcrent lanRuaces upon v.iiioiis phases of this subject, there has been a want of a convenient and cnrnpichcnsive sur- vey of tlie whole fiekl. Prof Angot has cited t few illustr.itioi.s of e.nch class of phe- nomena, and without encumbering his book with a mass of minor details, lie presents a picture of the actual state of present knowledge, with a summary both ot definite results and of the points demanding additional investigation. rHE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF MUSIC. By C. HuBKRT H. Parry, D. L. C, M. A., etc. $i.75- Dr. Parry's high rank among modern writers upon music assures to this t>fw|« a conlial welcome. It w.as first published as ** The Art of Music," in octavo form. 1 he title of this revised edition lias been slightly amplified, witli a view of suggesting the intention of the work more efTectually. J TZHAT IS ELECTRICITY 1 By John Trow- ' '^ BRIDGE, S. D., Rumfortl Professor and Lecturer on the Appli- cations of Science to the Useful Arts, Harvard University. Illustrated. $1.50. Prof. 'I'rowbri'lge's long experience both as an oriainal investigator and as a te.nchcr imp.irts a p'.culiar value to this important w.-rk. Finding that no tre.tti^e could be recommended which answers the question, What is Klectricity ? satisfactorily, he has explained in a popular way the electro magnetic theory of lii;ht and heat, and the subject of periodic currents and electric waves, seeking an answer for his titular ques- tion in the study of the ttansformations of energy and a consideration of the hypotheses of movements in the ether. TCE-WORK, PRESENT AND PAST. By T. Cx. -» BoNNEY, D. Sc, F. R. S., F. S. A., etc., Professor of Cleology at University College, London. $1.50. In his work Prof. Bonney has endeavored to give greater prominence to those facts of glacial geology on which all inferences must be founded. After setting foith the ficts shown in various regions, he has given the various interpntations which have been proposed, adding his comments and criticisms He also explains a method by which he believes we can appro.ximate to the teiii{>enitnre at various places during the (llacial epoch, and the different explanations of this general refrigeration arc staled and briefly discussed. JlyfOVEMENT. By E. J. Marfy, Member of the •^'^ Institute and of the Academy of Medicine; Professor at the Colleoe of l>.inre ; Author of " Animal M«ichanism." Trans- latedby Eric Pritchard, M. A. With 200 Illustrations. $1.75. The present work describes the methods employed in the extended development of photogratihy of moving objjcts attained in the last few years, an-l shows the imp-^rtance of such researches in mechanics and other departments of physics, the fine arts, physi- ology and zoology, and in regulating the walking or marching ol men and the gait of horses. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. NEW YORK. 'Pf I I COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES This book is due on the date indicated below, or at the expiration of a definite period after the date of borrowing, as provided by the library rules or by special arrangement with the Librarian in charge. m 1 DATE BORROWED DATE DUE DATE BORROWED 1 ; DATE DUE i 1 » i 1 C28( 546 » M25 *;'■;■ .'. ■■• ^t ^ ^ O w* •- ^ub> boc> ^vi and wa sps K THE ^"^^a SCIENTIFIC SKRIES fT" ii mmI -d ■J,