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THE EXPRESSION OF THE 
 MOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES DARWIN 
 
 M. A., F. R. S., ETC. 
 
 WITH PHOTOGRAPHIC AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1899 
 
Authorized Edition. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction Pages 1-26 
 
 CHAP. I.— Genekal Principles of Expression. 
 
 The three chief principles stated — The first principle — Serviceable ac- 
 tions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, 
 and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case — 
 The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated habitual movements in 
 man — Reflex actions — Passage of habits into reflex actions — Asso- 
 ciated habitual movements in the lower animals — Concluding re- 
 marks 27-49 
 
 CHAP. II, — General Principles of Expression — continued. 
 
 The Principle of Antithesis — Instances in the dog and cat — Origin of 
 
 the principle — Conventional signs — The principle of antithesis has 
 
 not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under 
 
 opposite impulses 50-65 
 
 CHAP. III. — General Principles of Expression — concluded. 
 The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the 
 body, independently of the will and in part of habit — Change of 
 colour in the hair — Trembling of the muscles — Modified secretions — 
 Perspiration— Expression of extreme pain — Of rage, great joy, and 
 terror — Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause 
 expressive movements — Exciting and depressing states of the mind — 
 Summary 66-82 
 
 CHAP. IV. — Means of Expression in Animals. 
 The emission of sounds — Vocal sounds — Sounds otherwise produced — 
 Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the 
 emotions of anger and terror — The drawing back of the ears as a prep- 
 aration for fighting, and as an expression of anger — Erection of the 
 
 ears and raising the head, a sign of attention 83-114 
 
 ill 
 
 347617 
 
iy CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. V. — Special Expressions of Animals. 
 The Dog, various expressive movements of— Cats — Horses — Ruminants 
 — Monkeys, their expression of joy and affection — Of pain — Anger — 
 Astonishment and Terror Pages 115-145 
 
 CHAP. VI.— Special Expkessions of Man: Siffering and 
 Weeping. 
 The screaming and weeping of infants — Form of features — Age at which 
 weeping commences — The effects of habitual restraint on weeping- 
 Sobbing— Caase of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes dur- 
 ing screaming — Cause of the secretion of tears 146-175 
 
 CHAP. YIL— Low Spirits, Anxiety, Grief, Dejection, Despair. 
 General effect of grief on the system— Obliquity of the eyebrows under 
 suffering— On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows — On the de- 
 pression of the comers of the mouth 176-195 
 
 CHAP. VIII.— Joy, High Spirits, Love, Tender Feelings, Devotion. 
 
 Laughter primarily the expression of joy — Ludicrous ideas — Movements 
 of the features during laughter — Nature of the sound produced — The 
 secretion of tears during loud laughter— Gradation from loud laughter 
 to gentle smiling — High spirits — The expression of love — Tender feel- 
 ings-Devotion 196-219 
 
 CHAP. IX. — Eeflection — Meditation — Ill-tem;per — SuLKiinEss — 
 
 DETERillNATION. 
 
 The act of frowning — Eeflection with an effort or with the perception of 
 something difficult or disagreeable — Abstracted meditation — Ill-tem- 
 per — Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness and pouting — Decision or 
 determination — The firm closure of the mouth 220-236 
 
 CHAP. X. — Hatred and Anger. 
 
 Hatred — Eage, effects of on the system — Uncovering of the teeth — Eage 
 
 in the insane — Anger and indignation — As expressed by the various 
 
 races of man — Sneering and defiance — The uncovering of the canine 
 
 tooth on one side of the face 227-252 
 
 CHAP. XI. — Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt— Pride, etc. — 
 Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation and Negation. 
 Contempt, scorn and dLsdain, variously expressed — Derisive smile — 
 Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust — Guilt, deceit, pride, etc. — 
 Helplessness or impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — Shrugging the 
 shoulders common to most of the races of man — Signs of affirmation 
 and negation 253-277 
 
CONTENTS. V 
 
 CHAP. XII. — SuRPUisE — Astonishment— Fear — Horror. 
 Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Opening the mouth 
 — Protrusion of the lips — Gestures uecompanying surprise — Admira- 
 tion — Fear — Terror — Erection of the hair — Contraction of the platys- 
 tua muscle — Dilatation of the pupils — Horror — Conclusion. 
 
 Pages 278-308 
 
 CIIAP. XIII.— Self-attention— Shame— Shyness— Modesty : 
 Blushing. 
 
 Nature of a blush — Inheritance — The parts of the body most affected — 
 Blushing in the various races of man — Accompanying gestures — Con- 
 fusion of mind — Causes of blushing — Self-attention, the fundamental 
 element — Shyness — Shame, from broken moral laws and conventional 
 rules — Modesty— Theory of blushing — Kecapitulation 309-346 
 
 CHAP. XIV. — Concluding Eemarks axd Summary. 
 The three leading principles which have determined the chief move- 
 ments of expression — Their inheritance — On the part which the will 
 and intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions 
 — The instinctive recognition of expression — The bearing of our sub- 
 ject on the specific unity of the races of man — On the successive ac- 
 quirement of various expressions by the progenitors of man — The im- 
 portance of expression — Conclusion 347-366 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 F:o. Page 
 
 1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell 24 
 
 2. " " " Henle 24 
 
 3. " " « " 25 
 
 4. Small dog watching a cat.on a table 43 
 
 5. Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions 52 
 
 6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind 53 
 
 7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog 54 
 
 8. Dog caressing his master 55 
 
 9. Cat, savage, and prepared to fight 58 
 
 10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind 59 
 
 11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine 93 
 
 12. Hen driving awav a dog from her chickens 98 
 
 13. Swan driving away an intruder 99 
 
 14. Head of snarling dog 117 
 
 15. Cat terrified at a dog 125 
 
 16. Cynopithecui niger, in a placid condition 135 
 
 17. The same, when pleased by being cares^J 135 
 
 18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. . . JT 139 
 
 19. Photograph of an insane woman ^ .. 296 
 
 20. Terror 299 
 
 21. Horror and Agony 306 
 
 Plate 1. to face page \^*I. 
 " II. " 178. 
 
 " III. " 200. 
 
 " IV. " 248. 
 
 Plate V. to face page 254. 
 « VI. " 264. 
 
 «' VII. " 300. 
 
 2^. B. — Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have 
 been reproduced from photograplis, instead of from the original nega- 
 tives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Kevertheless 
 they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any 
 drawing, however carefully executed. 
 
ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE 
 EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. 
 
 INTEODUCTIOX. 
 
 Many works have been written on Expression, but a 
 greater number on Physiognomy, — that is, on the recog- 
 nition of character through the study of the permanent 
 form of the features. With this latter subject I am not 
 here concerned. The older treatises,^ which I have con- 
 sulted, have been of little or no service to me. The 
 famous ' Conferences ' ^ of the painter Le Brun, pub- 
 lished in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and con- 
 tains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, 
 namely, the ' Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the 
 well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,^ can hardly be 
 considered as having made any marked advance in the 
 subject.^ The following works, on the contrary, deserve 
 the fullest consideration. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in 
 physiology, published in 1806 the first edition, and in 
 
 ^ J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the * Philo- 
 sophical Transactions ' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty- 
 one old authors who have written on Expression. 
 
 ^ ' Conferences sur I'expression des differents Carac- 
 teres des Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote 
 from the republication of the ' Conferences ' in the edition 
 of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given 
 in vol. ix. p. 257. 
 
 " ' Diseours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de repre- 
 senter les diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 
 
 1 
 
2 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 1844 the third edition of his ' Anatomy and Philosophy 
 of Expression.' * lie may with justice be said, not only 
 to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch 
 of science, but to have built up a noble structure. His 
 work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes 
 graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and is ad- 
 mirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his 
 service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate rela- 
 tion which exists between the movements of expression 
 and those of respiration. One of the most important 
 points, small as it may at first appear, is that the muscles 
 round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent 
 expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate or- 
 gans from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which 
 has been fully investigated for me with the greatest Idnd- 
 ness by Professors Bonders of Utrecht, throws, as we shall 
 hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most im- 
 portant expressions of the human countenance. The 
 merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued or 
 quite ignored by several foreign writers, but have been 
 fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,* 
 w^ho with great justice says: — " Le livre de Ch. Bell 
 devrait etre medite par quiconap? essaye de faire parler 
 le visage de I'homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que 
 par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus legere et 
 sous le pretexte de I'esthetique, c'est un des plus beaux , 
 monuments de la science des rapports du physique ei * 
 du moral." 
 
 From reasons which will presently be assigned. Sir 
 
 * I always qiTote from the third edition, 1844, which 
 was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains 
 his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much 
 inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more 
 important views. 
 
 ° ' De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Le- 
 moine, 1865, p. 101. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 C. Bell did not attempt to follow out his views as far as 
 they might have heen carried. lie does not try to ex- 
 plain why dill'erent muscles are brought into action 
 under diirerent emotions; why, for instance, the inner 
 ends of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the 
 mouth depressed, by a person sufTering from grief or 
 anxiety. 
 
 In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater 
 on Physiognomy,^ in which he incorporated several of 
 his own essays, containing excellent descriptions of the 
 movements of the facial muscles, together with many 
 valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light 
 on the philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. 
 Moreau, in speaking of the act of frowning, that is, of 
 the contraction of the muscle called by French writers 
 the sourcilier {corrugator svpercilii)^ remarks with 
 truth : — " Cette action des sourciliers est un des symp- 
 
 ® ' L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater. 
 The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface 
 to the edition of 1S20 in ten volumes, as containing the 
 observations of ^[. Moreau, is said to have been published 
 in 1807; and I have no doubt that this is correct, because 
 the ' Notice sur Lavater ' at the commencement of volume 
 i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works, 
 however, the date of 1805--1809 is g-iven, but it seems im- 
 possible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks 
 (' Mecanisme de la Thysionomie Ilumaine,' 8vo edit. 18G2, 
 p. 5, and ' Archives Generales de Medecine,' Jan. et Fev. 
 1862) that M. Moreau " a compose pour son ouvrage un 
 article important" &c., in the year 1805; and I find in vol- 
 ume 1. of the edition of 1820 passag-es bearing- the dates of 
 December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides 
 that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence 
 :>f some of these passages having thus been composed in 
 
 *S05, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over 
 
 (dr C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published 
 
 \ 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining 
 
 ' e priority of scientific works; but such questions are 
 
 extremely little importance in comparison with their 
 
 itive merits. The passages above quoted from ]M. 
 •eau and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other 
 
 schs from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, torn. iv. p. 228, 
 torn. ix. p. 279. 
 
4: INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tomes les plus tranches de I'expression des affections 
 penibles ou concentrees." He then adds that these 
 muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted 
 "a resserrer, a concentrer les principaux traits de laface, 
 comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment 
 ojDpressives ou profondes, dans ces affections dont le 
 sentiment semble porter I'organisation a revenir sur 
 elle-meme, a se contracter et a s'^amoindrir, comme pour 
 offrir moins de prise et de surface a des impressions re- 
 doutables ou importunes/' He who thinks that remarks 
 of this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin 
 of the different expressions, takes a very different view 
 of the subject to what I do. 
 
 In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, 
 advance in the philosophy of the subject, beyond that 
 reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in de- 
 scribing the expression of fright, says : — " Le sourcil 
 qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de I'autre, fait voir 
 que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau 
 pour le garantir du mal que I'ame apergoit, et le cote 
 qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle, nous fait trouver dans 
 cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abon- 
 dance, comme pour couvrir Tame et la defendre du mal 
 qu'elle craint ; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisisse- 
 ment du coeur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui 
 I'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire un effort qui est cause 
 que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il 
 passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est 
 point articule ; que si les muscles et les veines parais- 
 sent enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau 
 envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the fore- 
 going sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the 
 surprising nonsense which has been written on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 ' The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing/ by Dr. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 Burgess, appeared in 1839, and to this work I shall fre- 
 quently refer in my thirteenth Chapter. 
 
 In 18G2 Dr. Duehenne published two editions, in 
 folio and octavo, of his ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie 
 Humaine,' in which he analyses by means of electricity, 
 and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the move- 
 ments of the facial muscles. He has generously per- 
 mitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I de- 
 sired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite 
 passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible 
 that Dr. Duehenne may have exaggerated the impor- 
 tance of the contraction of single muscles in giving ex- 
 pression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which 
 the muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's 
 anatomical drawings "^ — the best I believe ever published 
 — it is difficult to believe in their separate action. Never- 
 theless, it is manifest that Dr. Duehenne clearly appre- 
 hended this and other sources of error, and as it is known 
 that he was eminently successful in elucidating the 
 physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of elec- 
 tricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right 
 about the muscles»of the face. In my opinion, Dr. 
 Duehenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treat- 
 ment of it. No one has more carefully studied the con- 
 traction of each separate muscle, and the consequent 
 furrows produced on the skin. He has also, and this is 
 a very important service, shown which muscles are least 
 under the separate control of the will. He enters very 
 little into theoretical considerations, and seldom at- 
 tempts to explain why certain muscles and not others 
 contract under the influence of certain emotions. 
 
 A distinguished French anatomist, PieiTc Gratiolet, 
 
 ^ ' Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Men- 
 schen.' Band I. Dritte AbtheiluDg-, 1858. 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 gave a course of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, 
 and his notes were published (1865) after his death, 
 under the title of ' De la Physionomie et des Mouve- 
 ments d^Expression/ This is a very interesting work, 
 full of valuable observations. His theory is rather com- 
 plex, and, as far as it can be given in a single sentence 
 (p. 65), is as follows :— " II resulte, de tous les faits que 
 j'ai rappeles, que les sens, I'imagination et la pensee elle- 
 meme, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peu- 
 veut s'exercer suns eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et 
 que ce sentiment se traduit directement, sympathique- 
 ment, symboliquement ou metaphoriquement, dans 
 toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la racontent 
 tous, suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun 
 d'eux avait ete directement aifecte." 
 
 Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and 
 even to some extent habit in the individual; and there- 
 fore he fails, as it seems to me, to give the right explana- 
 tion, or any explanation at all, of many gestures and ex- 
 pressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic 
 movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from 
 M. Chevreul, on a man playing at billiards. " Si une 
 bille devie leg^rement de la direction que le joueur pre- 
 tend lui imprimer, ne I'avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pous- 
 ser du regard, de la tete et meme des epaules, comme si 
 ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient recti- 
 fier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs 
 se produisent quand la bille manque d'une impulsion 
 suffisante. Et chez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelque- 
 fois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les l^vres 
 des spectateurs." Such movements, as it appears to me, 
 may be attributed simply to habit. As often as a man 
 has wished to move an object to one side, he has always 
 pushed it to that side; when forwards, he has pushed it 
 
IXTUODUCTIOX. 7 
 
 forwards; and if he hat; wished to arrest it, he has pulled 
 backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travel- 
 ling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to 
 go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit, 
 unconsciously performing movements which in other 
 cases he has found effectual. 
 
 As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet 
 gives (p. 212) the following case: — " un jeune chien a 
 oreilles droites, auquel son maitre presents de loin quel- 
 que viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux sur cet 
 objct dont il suit tons les mouvements, et pendant que 
 les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant 
 com me si cet objet pouvait ^tre entendu." Here, in- 
 stead of speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes, 
 it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs 
 during many generations have, whilst intently looking 
 at any object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any 
 sound; and conversely have looked intently in the direc- 
 tion of a sound to which they may have listened, the 
 movements of these organs have become firmly associ- 
 ated together through long-continued habit. 
 
 Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, 
 wliich I have not seen, but in which, as he states, he 
 forestalled Gratiolet in many of his views. In 1867 
 he published his ' "Wissenschaftliches System der ^limik 
 und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a 
 few sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the 
 two following sentences will tell as much as can be 
 briefly told : " the muscular movements of expression 
 are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part to 
 imaginary sensorial impressions. In this proposition 
 lies the key to the comprehension of all expressive mus- 
 cular movements.'' (s. 25.) Again, " Expressive move- 
 ments manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and 
 \ mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 by which they are set into motion originate in the most 
 immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly also 
 because these muscles serve to support the organs of 
 sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's 
 "work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that vio- 
 lent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the na- 
 ture of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irri- 
 tate the eyes, and thus excite the contraction of the sur- 
 rounding muscles. Many good remarks are scattered 
 throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter 
 refer. 
 
 Short discussions on Expression may be found in 
 various works, which need not here be particularised. 
 Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has treated the 
 subject at some length. He says,^ " I look upon the 
 expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. 
 I believe it to be a general law of the mind that, along 
 with the fact of inward feeling or consciousness, there 
 is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily mem- 
 bers." In another place he adds, " A very considerable 
 number of the facts may be brought under the following 
 principle: namely, that states of pleasure are connected 
 with an increase, and states of pain with an abatement, 
 of some, or all, of the vital functions." But the above 
 law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general 
 to throw much light on special expressions. 
 
 Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in 
 his ^Principles of Psychology' (1855), makes the fol- 
 lowing remarks: — "Fear, when strong, expresses itself 
 in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations and 
 tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that 
 
 « ' The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 
 and 2SS. The preface to the first edition of this work is 
 dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's 
 work on the ' Emotions and Will.' 
 
INTKODUCTION. 9 
 
 would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. 
 The destructive passions are shown in a general tension 
 of the muscular system, in gnashing of the teeth and 
 })rotrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils, 
 in growls; and these are weaker forms of the actions 
 tliat accompany the killing of prey." Here we have, 
 as I hclieve, the true theory of a large numher of expres- 
 sions; hut the chief interest and dilliculty of the suhject 
 lies in following out the wonderfully complex results. I 
 infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able 
 to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, 
 for Sir C. Bell says," " It has been maintained that what 
 are called the external signs of passion, are only the con- 
 comitants of those voluntary movements which the struc- 
 ture renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also pub- 
 lished ^® a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, 
 in which he insists on " the general law that feeling 
 passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily 
 action; " and that " an overflow of nerve-force undirected 
 by any motive, will manifestly take first the most 
 habitual routes; and if these do not suffice, will next 
 overflow into the less habitual ones." This law I believe 
 to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our 
 subject." 
 
 * ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121. 
 
 ^° ' Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second 
 Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laug-hter in 
 the First Series of Essays, which discussion seei^ to me 
 of very inferior value. 
 
 " Since the publication of the essay just referred to, 
 Mr. Spencer has written another, on " Morals and Moral 
 Sentiments," in the ' Fortniij-htly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 
 426. He has, also, now published his final conclusions in 
 vol. ii. of the second edit, of the ' Principles of Psycholog-y,' 
 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be ac- 
 cused of trespassing" on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I an- 
 nounced in my ' Descent of !Man,' that I had then written 
 a part of the present volume: my first MS. notes on the 
 subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838. 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 All the authors who have written on Expression, 
 with the exception of Mr. Spencer — the great expounder 
 of the principle of Evolution — appear to have been 
 firml}^ convinced that species, man of course included, 
 came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. 
 Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of 
 our facial muscles are " purely instrumental in expres- 
 sion; " or are " a special provision " for this sole ob- 
 ject.^^ But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes 
 possess the same facial muscles as we do,^^ renders it 
 very improbable that these muscles in our case serve 
 exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would 
 be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed 
 with S2:)ecial muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous 
 grimaces. Distinct uses, independently of expression, 
 can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost 
 all the facial muscles. 
 
 Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a dis- 
 tinction as possible between man and the lower animals; 
 and he consequently asserts that with " the lower crea- 
 tures there is no expression but what may be referred, 
 more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or neces- 
 sary instincts." He further maintains that their faces 
 " seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear." ^* 
 But man himself cannot express love and humility by 
 external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with droop- 
 ing ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, 
 he meets his beloved master. Xor can these movements 
 
 " ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131. 
 
 " Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog". Soc. 
 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang-, 
 and specifies all the more important muscles which are 
 well known to serve with man for the expression of his 
 feeling-s. See, also, a description of several of the facial 
 mnscles in the Chimpanzee, hy Prof. !Macalister, in ' Annals 
 and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 
 342. 
 
 ^* ' Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138. 
 
INTRODUCTION. H 
 
 in the dog be explained by acts of volition or necessary 
 instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling 
 cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir 
 C. Bell had been questioned about the expression of 
 affection in the dog, he would no doubt have answered 
 that this animal had been created with special instincts, 
 adapting him for association with man, and that all 
 further enquiry on the subject was superfluous. 
 
 Although Gratiolet emphatically denies ^^ that any 
 muscle has been developed solely for the sake of ex- 
 pression, he seems never to have reflected on the prin- 
 ciple of evolution. He apparently looks at each species 
 as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers 
 on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after 
 speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers to those 
 which give expression to the face, and remarks: ^* " Le 
 createur n'a done pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins 
 de la mecanique ; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou — que Ton 
 me pardonne cette maniere de parler — par une divine 
 fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou 
 plusieurs muscles a la fois, lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes 
 caracteristiques des passions, meme les plus fugaces, fus- 
 sent ecrits passagerement sur la face de Thomme. Ce 
 langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suflS, 
 pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout 
 ^tre humain la faculte instinctive d'exprimer toujours 
 ses sentiments par la contraction des memes muscles." 
 
 Many writers consider the whole subject of Expres- 
 sion as inexplicable. Thus the illustrious physiologist 
 Miiller, says,^^ " The completely different expression of 
 
 " ' De la rhysionomie,' pp. 12, 73. 
 
 " ' Mecanisme de la riivsionomie Ilumaine,' 8vo edit, 
 p. 31. 
 
 " * Elements of rh\-siolog-y,' Eng-lish translation, vol. 
 ii. p. 934. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the features in different passions shows that, according 
 to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups 
 of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the 
 cause of this we are quite ignorant." 
 
 No doubt as long as man and all other animals are 
 viewed as independent creations, an effectual stop is put 
 to our natural desire to investigate as far as possible 
 the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anytliing 
 and everything can be equally well explained; and it 
 has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression 
 as to every other branch of natural history. With 
 mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the 
 hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the un- 
 covering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can 
 hardly be understood, except on the belief that man once 
 existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The 
 community of certain expressions in distinct though 
 allied species, as in the movements of the same facial 
 muscles during laughter by man and by various mon- 
 keys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we be- 
 lieve in their descent from a common progenitor. He 
 who admits on general grounds that the structure and 
 habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will 
 look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and 
 interesting light. 
 
 The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the 
 movements being often extremely slight, and of a fleet- 
 ing nature. A difference may be clearly perceived, 
 and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it 
 so, to state in what the difference consists. When we 
 witness any deep emotion, our sympath}" is so strongly 
 excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered 
 almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curi- 
 ous proofs. Our imagination is another and still more 
 serious source of error; for if from the nature of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 circumstances we expect to see any expression, we readily 
 imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne's 
 great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states, 
 that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, 
 whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the move- 
 ment was confined to a single muscle. 
 
 In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, 
 and to ascertain, independently of connnon opinion, 
 how far particular movements of the features and 
 gestures are really expressive of certain states of the 
 mind, I have found the following means the most serv- 
 iceable. In the first place, to observe infants; for they 
 exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell remarks, "with 
 extraordinary force; " whereas, in after life, some of 
 our expressions " cease to have the pure and simple 
 source from which they spring in infancy." ^^ 
 
 In the second place, it occurred to me that the in- 
 sane ought to be studied, as they are liable to the strong- 
 est passions, and give uncontrolled vent to them. I had, 
 myself, no opportunity of doing this, so I applied to Dr. 
 Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. 
 J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asy- 
 lum near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already 
 attended to the subject. This excellent observer has 
 with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and de- 
 scriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; 
 and I can hardly over-estimate the value of his assist- 
 ance. I owe also, to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, 
 of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements 
 on two or three points. 
 
 Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already 
 
 seen, certain muscles in the face of an old man, whose 
 I . . . . 
 
 ' skin was little sensitive, and thus produced various ex- 
 
 " ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198. 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 pressions which were photographed on a large scale. It 
 fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best 
 plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty 
 educated persons of various ages and both sexes, asking 
 them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old 
 man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their 
 answers in the words which they used. Several of the 
 expressions were instantly recognised by almost every- 
 one, though described in not exactly the same terms; 
 and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and 
 will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most 
 widely different judgments were pronounced in regard 
 to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another 
 way, by convincing me how easily we may be misguided 
 by our imagination; for when I first looked through 
 Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time 
 the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was 
 struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with 
 only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined 
 them without any explanation, no doubt I should have 
 been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons 
 have been. 
 
 Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the 
 great masters in painting and sculpture, who are such 
 close observers. Accordingly, I have looked at photo- 
 graphs and engravings of many well-known works; 
 but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The 
 reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the 
 chief object; and strongly contracted facial muscles 
 destroy beauty.^^ The story of the composition is gen- 
 erally told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully 
 given accessories. 
 
 Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascer- 
 
 " See remarks to this effect in Lessing's ' Laocoon,' 
 translated by W. Eoss, 1836, p. 19. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 tain whether the same ex})ressi()ns and <;estiires prevail, 
 as has often been asserted without niueli evidence, witl^ 
 all the races of mankind, especially with those who have 
 associated but little with Europeans. AVhenever the 
 same movements of the features or body express the 
 same emotions in several distinct races of man, we may 
 infer with much probabilit}', that such expressions are 
 true ones, — that is, are innate or instinctive. Con- 
 ventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the in- 
 dividual during early life, would probably have dif- 
 fered in the different races, in the same manner as do 
 their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the 
 year 18G7, the following printed queries with a request, 
 which has been fully responded to, that actual observa- 
 tions, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries 
 w^ere written after a considerable interval of time, dur- 
 ing which my attention had been otherwise directed, 
 and I can now see that they might have been greatly 
 improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, 
 in manuscript, a few additional remarks: — 
 
 (1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and month 
 being- oj)ened wide, and by the eyebrows being 
 raised ? 
 
 (2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the 
 skin allows it to be visible? and especially how 
 low down the body does the blush extend? 
 
 (3.) When a man is indig-nant or defiant does he frown, 
 hold his body and head erect, square his shoulders 
 and clench his fists? 
 
 (4.) When considering- deejily on any subject, or trying- 
 to understand any puzzle, does he frown, or 
 wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids? 
 
 (5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth 
 depressed, and the inner corner of the eyebrows 
 raised by that muscle which the French call the 
 " Grief muscle " ? The eyebrow in this state be- 
 comes slig-htly oblique, with a little swelling- at 
 the inner end; and the forehead is transversely 
 wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the 
 whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised 
 in surprise. 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the 
 skin a little wrinkled round and under thera, and 
 with the mouth a little drawn back at the 
 corners ? 
 
 (7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the 
 corner of the upper lip over the canine or eye 
 tooth raised on the side facing- the man whom he 
 addresses? 
 
 (8.) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recog- 
 nized, which is chiefly shown by the mouth being 
 firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight 
 frown ? 
 
 (9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of 
 the lips and b3^ turning up the nose, and with a 
 slight expiration? 
 
 (10.) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned 
 down, the upper lip slightly raised, with a sud- 
 den expiration, something like incipient vomit- 
 ing, or like something spit out of the mouth? 
 
 (11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general 
 manner as ^vith Europeans? 
 
 (12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as 
 to bring tears into the eyes? 
 
 (13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot pre- 
 vent something being done, or cannot himself do 
 something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn in- 
 wards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and 
 open the palms; with the eyebrows raised? 
 
 (14.) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly pro- 
 trude the lii:)s? 
 
 (15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recog- 
 nized? though I know not how these can be de- 
 fined. 
 
 (16.) Is the head nodded vertically in afRrmation, and 
 shaken laterally in negation? 
 
 Observations on natives who have had little communi- 
 cation with Europeans would be of course the most valu- 
 able, though those made on any natives would be of much 
 interest to me. General remarks on expression are of com- 
 paratively little value; and memory is so deceptive that 
 I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite descrip- 
 tion of the countenance under any emotion or frame of 
 mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which 
 it occurred, would possess much value. 
 
 To these queries I have received thirty-six answers 
 from different observers, several of them missionaries 
 or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom I am 
 deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have 
 taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chap- 
 ter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks. The 
 answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage 
 races of man. In many instances, the circumstances 
 liave been recorded under which each expression was 
 observed, and the expression itself described. In such 
 cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers. 
 When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have 
 always received them with caution. It follows, from 
 the information thus acquired, that the same state of 
 mind is expressed throughout the world with remark- 
 able uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting 
 as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure 
 and mental disposition of all the races of mankind. 
 
 Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended, as closely as I 
 could, to the expression of the several passions in some 
 of the commoner animals; and this I believe to be of 
 paramount importance, not of course for deciding how 
 far in man certain expressions are characteristic of 
 certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis 
 for generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various 
 movements of Expression. In observing animals, we 
 are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and 
 we may feel safe that their expressions are not conven- 
 tional. 
 
 From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting 
 nature of some expressions (the changes in the features 
 being often extremely slight); our sympathy being 
 easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, 
 and our attention thus distracted; our imagination de- 
 ceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner what to 
 expect, though certainly few of us know what the ex- 
 act changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even 
 our long familiarity with the subject, — from all these 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 causes combined^ the observation of Expression is by 
 no means easy, as many persons, whom I have asked to 
 observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence 
 it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the 
 movements of the features and of the body, which com- 
 monly characterize certain states of the mind. N'ever- 
 theless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I 
 hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants, 
 — of the insane, — of the different races of man, — of 
 works of art, — and lasth', of the facial muscles under 
 the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr. Duchenne. 
 
 But there remains the much greater difficulty of 
 understanding the cause or origin of the several ex- 
 pressions, and of judging whether any theoretical ex- 
 planation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as 
 we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which 
 of two or more explanations is the most satisfactory, 
 or are quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of test- 
 ing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the 
 same princii:>le by which one expression can, as it ap- 
 pears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases; 
 and especially, whether the same general principles can 
 be applied with satisfactory results, both to man and 
 the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined 
 to think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty 
 of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation, 
 and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, 
 is the great drawback to that interest which the study 
 seems well fitted to excite. 
 
 Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may 
 state that they were commenced in the year 1838; and 
 from that time to the present day, I have occasionally 
 attended to the subject. At the above date, I was al- 
 ready inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, 
 or of the derivation of species from other and lower 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great 
 work, his view, that man had heen created with cer- 
 tain muscles si)ecially adapted for the exi)ression of 
 his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed 
 prohable that the habit of expressing our feelings by 
 certain movements, though now rendered innate, had 
 been in some manner gradually acquired. But to dis- 
 cover how such habits had been acquired was perplex- 
 ing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be 
 viewed under a new aspect, and each expression de- 
 manded a rational explanation. This belief led me to 
 attempt the present work, however imperfectly it may 
 have been executed. 
 
 I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, 
 as I have said, I am deeply indebted for information in 
 regard to the expressions exhibited by various races of 
 man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under 
 which the observations were in each case made. Owing 
 to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. 
 Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from 
 Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my 
 queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the 
 Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of 
 all the races of man. It will be seen that the observa- 
 tions have been chiefly made in the south, in the out- 
 lying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excel- 
 lent answers have been received from the north. 
 
 Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valu- 
 able observations, made several hundred miles in the 
 'interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, 
 of ^lelbourne, I am much indebted for observations made 
 by himself, and for sending me several of the following 
 letters, namely: — From the Eev. Mr. Hagenaucr, of 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, 
 who has had much experience with the natives. From 
 Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langere- 
 nong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the Rev. George Tap- 
 lin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settle- 
 ment at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, 
 of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where 
 aborigines, old and young, are collected from all parts 
 of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Vic- 
 toria, a police magistrate and warden, whose observ^a- 
 tions, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From 
 Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on 
 the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus 
 been able to observe many aborigines who have had 
 little intercourse with white men. He compared his 
 observations with those made by two other gentlemen 
 long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. 
 Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, 
 Victoria. 
 
 I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist. Dr. 
 Ferdinand Miiller, of Victoria, for some observations 
 made by himself, and for sending me others made by 
 Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters. 
 
 In regard to the Maoris of Xew Zealand, the Eev. 
 J. W. Stack has answered only a few of my queries; 
 but the answers have been remarkably full, clear, and 
 distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which 
 the observations were made. 
 
 The Rajah Brooke has given me some information 
 with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. 
 
 Respecting the Malays, I have been highly success- 
 ful; for Mr. F. Geach (to whom I was introduced by Mr. 
 Wallace), during his residence as a mining engineer in 
 the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had 
 never before associated with white men. He wrote me 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 two long letters with admirable and detailed observa- 
 tions on their expression. lie likewise observed the 
 Chinese immigrants in tlie Malay archipelago. 
 
 The well-known naturalist, II. M. Consul, Mr. Swin- 
 hoe, also observed for me the Chinese in their native 
 country; and he made inquiries from others whom he 
 could trust. 
 
 In India Mr. 11. Erskine, whilst residing in his ofTicial 
 capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay 
 Presidency, attended to the expression of the inhabitants, 
 but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe con- 
 clusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all 
 emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also ob- 
 tained information for me from ]\Ir. West, the Judge 
 in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native 
 gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, 
 curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the 
 various tribes of men therein employed during a con- 
 siderable period, and no one has sent me such full and 
 valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, 
 gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to 
 bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much 
 indebted to the Rev. S. 0. Glenie for answers to some 
 of my queries. 
 
 Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with 
 respect to the negroes, though Mr. Winwood Reade 
 aided me as far as lay in his power. It would have been 
 comparatively easy to have obtained information in 
 regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they have 
 long associated with white men, such observations would 
 have possessed little value. In the southern parts of 
 the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and 
 Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. 
 Mansel Weale also made some observations on the na- 
 tives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, 
 brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his 
 fellow-coimtr3'men. In the northern regions of Africa 
 Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians, 
 answered my queries partly from memory and partly 
 from observations made on the son of King Theodore, 
 who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. 
 Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of 
 the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the 
 Xile. 
 
 On the great American continent Mr, Bridges, a 
 catechist residing with the Fuegians, answered some 
 few questions about their expression, addressed to liim 
 many years ago. In the northern half of the conti- 
 nent Dr. Eothrock attended to the expressions of the 
 wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Xasse Eiver, in 
 N"orth-"\Yestern America. Mr. Washington Matthews, 
 Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also ob- 
 served with special care (after having seen my queries, 
 as printed in the ' Smithsonian Eeport ') some of the 
 wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States, 
 namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assina- 
 boines; and his answers have proved of the highest 
 value. 
 
 Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I 
 have collected some few facts incidentally given in books 
 of travels. 
 
 As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the 
 latter part of this volume, to the muscles of the human 
 face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1) copied and reduced 
 from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others, with more ac- 
 curate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Henle's well-known 
 'Handbuch der Sj^stematischen Anatomic des Menschen.' 
 The same letters refer to the same muscles in all three 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 figures, but the names are given of only the more im- 
 portant ones to which I sliall have to alhide. The facial 
 muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, 
 hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are 
 here represented. Some writers consider that these 
 muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired; ^^ 
 but others make the number much larger, amounting 
 even to fifty-five, according to ^lorcau. They are, as is 
 admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, 
 very variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that 
 they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects.-^ They 
 are also variable in function. Thus the power of un- 
 covering the canine tooth on one side differs much in 
 different persons. The power of raising the wings of 
 the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit,^- variable 
 in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be 
 given. 
 
 Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my 
 obligations to Mr. Rejlander for the trouble which he 
 has taken in photographing for me various expressions 
 and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann, 
 of Ilamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of 
 crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one 
 of a smiling girl. I have already expressed my obliga- 
 tions to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to 
 have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. 
 All these photographs have been printed by the Ilelio- 
 type process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guar- 
 anteed. These plates are referred to by Roman numerals. 
 
 I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. ^Y. Wood for 
 
 ^ Afr. Partriflg-e in Todd's ' Cj^clopaedia of Anatomy and 
 Physio] og-y,' vol. ii. p. 227. 
 
 *^ ' La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, torn. iv. 1820, p. 
 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 
 209-211. 
 
 " ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91. 
 
24 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Diagram from Henle. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 3. — Dia<rram from Henle. 
 
 A. Occipito-frontalis, or frontal mus- 
 cle. 
 
 B. Comigator supercilii, or corruga- 
 tor muscle. 
 
 C. Orbicularis palpebrarum, or or- 
 bicular muscles of the eyes. 
 
 D. Pyramidalis nasi, or pyramidal 
 muscle of the nose. 
 
 E. Levator labii euperioris alspque 
 nasi. 
 
 F. Levator labii proprius. 
 
 G. Zygomatic. 
 n. Malaris. 
 
 I. Little zygomatic. 
 
 K. Triangularis oris, or depressor 
 anguli oris. 
 
 L. Quadratus menti. 
 
 M. Risorius, part of the Platysma 
 mycides. 
 
 the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from 
 
 life the expressions of various animals. A distinguished 
 
 artist, Mr. Eiviere, has had the kindness to give me two 
 
 drawings of dogs — one in a hostile and the other in a 
 
 humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has 
 
 also given me two similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper 
 
 has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of 
 3 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. 
 May, and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were 
 first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of 
 photography, and then engraved: by this means almost 
 complete fidelity is ensured. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 General Principles of Expression. 
 
 The three cliief principles stated — The first principle — 
 Serviceable actions become habitual in association 
 with certain states of the mind, and are performed 
 whether or not of service in each particular case — 
 The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated habitual 
 movements in man — Reflex actions — Passag-e of habits 
 into reflex actions — Associated habitual movements in 
 the lower animals — Concluding- remarks. 
 
 I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which 
 appear to me to account for most of the expressions 
 and gestures involuntarily used by man and the lower 
 animals, under the influence of various emotions and 
 sensations.^ I arrived, however, at these three Prin- 
 ciples only at the close of my observations. They will 
 be discussed in the present and two following chapters 
 in a general manner. Facts observed both with man 
 and the lower animals will here be made use of; but 
 the latter facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive 
 us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will describe 
 the special expressions of some of the lower animals; 
 and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Every- 
 one will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my 
 
 * Mr. Herbert Spencer (' Essays,' Second Series, 1863, 
 p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions 
 and sensations, the latter being " g-enerated in our cor- 
 poreal framework." He classes as Feelings both emotions 
 and sensations. 
 
 27 
 
28 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. L 
 
 three principles throw light on the theory of the sub- 
 ject. It appears to me that so many expressions are 
 thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that 
 probably all will hereafter be found to come under the 
 same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly pre- 
 mise that movements or changes in any part of the 
 body, — as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back 
 of a horse's ears, the shrugging of a man's shoulders, 
 or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the skin, — 
 may all equally well serve for expression. The three 
 Principles are as follows. 
 
 I. Tlie pri?iciple of serviceable associated Habits. — 
 Certain complex actions are of direct or indirect serv- 
 ice under certain states of the mind, in order to relieve 
 or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.; and when- 
 ever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, 
 there is a tendency through the force of habit and asso- 
 ciation for the same movements to be performed, though 
 they may not then be of the least use. Some actions 
 ordinarily associated through habit with certain states 
 of the mind may be partially repressed through the 
 will, and in such cases the muscles which are least under 
 the separate control of the will are the most liable still 
 to act, causing movements which we recognize as expres- 
 sive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual 
 movement requires other slight movements; and these 
 are likewise expressive. 
 
 II. Tlie principle of Antithesis. — Certain states of 
 the mind lead to certain habitual actions, which are of 
 service, as under our first principle. Xow when a direct- 
 ly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a strong and 
 involuntary tendency to the performance of movements 1 
 of a directly opposite nature, though these are of no 
 use; and such movements are in some cases highly ex- 
 pressive. 
 
CuAi'. I. SKKVIL'KABLI-: ASSOClAT':i) HABITS. 21) 
 
 111. The princijih of actions duo to the constitution 
 of the Nervous System^ imlependen',ly from the first of 
 the Will J and indvpendently to a certain extent of Habit. 
 — \\'hen the scnsoriuni is strongly excited, iierve-foree 
 is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain 
 delinite directions, depending on tlie connection of the 
 nerve-cells, and i)artly on habit: or the supply of nerve- 
 force may, as it ai)pears, be interrupted. Effects are thus 
 produced which we recognize as expressive." This third 
 princii)le may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of 
 the direct action of the nervous system. 
 
 With respect to our first Principle, it is notorious 
 how powerful is the force of habit. The most complex 
 and difficult movements can in time be performed with- 
 out the least effort or consciousness. It is not posi- 
 tively known how it comes that habit is so efficient 
 in facilitating complex movements; but physiologists 
 admit ^ " that the conducting power of the nervous 
 fibres increases with the frequency of their excitement." 
 This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as 
 well as to those connected with the act of thinking. 
 That some physical change is produced in the nerve-cells 
 or nerves which are habitually used can hardly be doubt- 
 ed, for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the 
 tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. 
 That they are inherited we see with horses in certain 
 transmitted paces, such as cantering and ambling, which 
 are not natural to them, — in the pointing of young 
 pointers and the setting of young setters — in the peculiar 
 
 ^ ^NHiller, ' Elements of Physiolosry,' Enpf. translat. vol, 
 ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting- specula- 
 tions on the same subject, and on the g-enesis of nerves, 
 in his ' Principles of Biolopfv,' vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 
 * Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp. 511—557. 
 
30 THE PRINCIPLE OP Chap. I. 
 
 manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &c. 
 AVe have analogous c ases with mankind in the inheritance 
 of tricks or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently 
 recur. To those who admit the gradual evolution of 
 species, a most striking instance of the perfection with 
 which the most difficult consensual movements can be 
 transmitted, is afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx- 
 moth {Macroglossa) ; for this moth, shortly after its 
 emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its 
 unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the 
 air, with its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and 
 inserted into the minute orifices of flowers; and no 
 one, I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to 
 perform its difficult task, which requires such uner- 
 ring aim. 
 
 When there exists an inherited or instinctive tend- 
 ency to the performance of an action, or an inherited 
 taste for certain kinds of food, some degree of habit 
 in the individual is often or generally requisite. "We 
 find tliis in the paces of the horse, and to a certain extent 
 in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point 
 excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they 
 often associate the proper inherited attitude with a 
 WTong odour, and even with eyesight. I have heard 
 it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck its mother 
 only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear 
 it by hand.^ Caterpillars which have been fed on the 
 leaves of one kind of tree, have been known to perish 
 from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another 
 tree, although this afforded them their proper food, 
 
 ^ A remark to miicli the same effect was made long ag-o 
 by Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey: for both 
 assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few 
 days the art of sucking, and cannot without some diffi- 
 cuitv again acquire it. I give these assertions on the au- 
 thoritv of Dr. Darwin, ' Zoonomia,' 179-i, vol. i. p. 140. 
 
CuAP. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 31 
 
 under a state of nature; * and so it is in many other 
 cases. 
 
 The power of Association is admitted by everyone. 
 Mr. Bain remarks, that " actions, sensations and states 
 of feeling, occurring together or in close succession, 
 tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that 
 when any one of them is afteru-ards presented to the 
 mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea." ^ 
 It is so important for our purpose fully to recognize that 
 actions jeadily become associated with other actions 
 and with various states of the mind, that I will give^a 
 good many instances, in the first place relating to man, 
 and afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the in- 
 stances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as good 
 for our purpose as more important habits. It is known 
 to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it is, with- 
 out repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed 
 directions which have never been practised. Analogous 
 cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment 
 of rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fin- 
 gers, when it feels exactly like two marbles. Everj'pne 
 protects himself when falling to the ground by extend- 
 ing his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few 
 can resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a 
 soft bed. A man when going out of doors puts on his 
 gloves quite unconsciously; and tliis may seem an ex- 
 tremely simple operation, but he who has taught a child 
 
 * See for my authorities, and for various analogous 
 facts, ' The Variation of Animals and Plants under Do- 
 mestication,' 1868, vol. ii. p. 304. 
 
 ' ' The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. 
 Prof. Huxley remarks (' Elementary Lessons in Phvsi- 
 ology,' 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a 
 rule, that, if any two mental states be called up tog-ether, 
 or in succession, with due frequency and vividness, the 
 subsequent production of the one of them will suthce to 
 call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not." 
 
32 THE PRINXIPLE OF Chat. L 
 
 to put on gloves, knows that tliis is by no means the 
 case. 
 
 When our minds are much affected, so are the move- 
 ments of our bodies; but here another principle be- 
 sides habit, namely the undirected overflow of nerve- 
 force, partially comes into play. Xorfolk, in speaking 
 of Cardinal Wolsey, says — 
 
 " Some strange commotion 
 Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts; 
 Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground. 
 Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight, 
 Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again, 
 Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts 
 His eye against the moon: in most strange postures 
 We have seen him set himself." — Hen. Till., act 3, sc. 2. 
 
 A vulgar man often scratches his head when per- 
 plexed in mind: and I believe that he acts thus from 
 habit, as if he experienced a slightly uncomfortable 
 bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to 
 which he is particularly hable, and which he thus re- 
 lieves. Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or 
 gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting in either 
 ease as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in 
 his eyes or windpipe.^ 
 
 From the continued use of the eyes, these organs 
 are especially Hable to be acted on through association 
 under various states of the mind, although there is mani- 
 festly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, 
 who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost cer- 
 tainly shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he 
 accepts the proposition, he will nod his head in affirma- 
 tion and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this 
 
 ® Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his discus- 
 sion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. 
 See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel 
 is quoted fp. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his 
 thoughts change. 
 
CuAP. I. SKKVlCEAIiLE ASSOCIATED HAIilTS. 33 
 
 latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the 
 former case as if he did not or would not see it. I 
 have noticed that persons in describing a horrid sight 
 often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake 
 their heads, as if not to see or to drive away some- 
 thing disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when 
 thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle, closing 
 my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly at any object, 
 or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows, 
 so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; 
 and Duchenne remarks that ^ a person in trying to re- 
 member something often raises his eyebrows, as if to 
 see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same 
 remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. 
 I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to recollect a 
 painter's name, and she first looked to one corner of 
 the ceiling and then to the opposite corner, arching 
 the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there 
 was nothing to be seen there. 
 
 In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand 
 how the associated movements were acquired through 
 habit; but with some individuals, certain strange gestures 
 or tricks have arisen in association with certain states of 
 the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are 
 undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one 
 instance from my own observation of an extraordinary 
 and complex gesture, associated with pleasurable feel- 
 ings, which was transmitted from a father to his 
 daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.® 
 
 ^ ' ^[ecanisme de la Physionomie Hnmaine,' 1SG2. p. 17. 
 
 * ' The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domesti- 
 cation,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual g-estures 
 is so important for us, that I gladly avail mj'self of Mr. 
 F. Galton's permission to give in his own words the follow- 
 ing- remarkable case: — " The following- account of a habit 
 occurring in individuals of three consecutive generations 
 
34 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. I. 
 
 Another curious instance of an odd inherited move- 
 ment, associated with the wish to obtain an object, will 
 be given in the course of this volume. 
 
 There are other actions which are commonly per- 
 formed under certain circumstances, independently of 
 habit, and which seem to be due to imitation or some 
 sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with 
 
 is of peculiar interest, because it occurs only during" sound 
 sleep, and therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must 
 be altog"ether natural. The particulars are perfectly trust- 
 worthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak 
 from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman 
 of considerable position was found by his wife to have the 
 curious trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, 
 of raising" his rig^ht arm slowly in front of his face, up to 
 his forehead, and then dropping" it with a jerk, so that 
 the wrist fell heavily on the bridg-e of his nose. The trick 
 did not occur every nig"ht, but occasionally, and was in- 
 dependent of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was 
 repeated incessantly for an hour or more. The g-entle- 
 man's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became 
 sore from the blows which it received. At one time an 
 awkward sore was produced, that was long in healing, 
 on account of the recurrence, nig'ht after night, of the 
 blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the 
 button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe 
 scratches, and some means were attempted of tjdng his 
 arm. 
 
 " ]\rany years after his death, his son married a lady 
 M'ho had never heard of the family incident. She, how- 
 ever, observed precisely the same peculiarity in her hus- 
 band; but his nose, from not being particularly promi- 
 nent, has never as yet suffered from the blows,. The trick 
 does not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, 
 when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment he is fast 
 asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father, inter- 
 mittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and some- 
 times almost incessant during a part of every night. It 
 is performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand. 
 
 "One- of his children, a girl, has inherited the same 
 trick. She performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but 
 in a slightly modified form; for, after raising the arm, 
 she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of the 
 nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and 
 down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very in- 
 termittent Avith this child, not occurring for periods of some 
 months, but sometimes occurring almost incessantly." 
 
CiiAi'. I. SKRVICEAHLK ASSOCIATED HABITS. 35 
 
 a i)air of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simul- 
 taneously with the blades of the scissors. Children 
 loarnin«]j to write often twist about their tonf]^ues as 
 tlieir Ihigers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a 
 public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many 
 of those present may be heard, as I have been assured 
 by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear their 
 throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we 
 clear our own throats under similar circumstances. 
 I have also been told that at leaping matches, as the 
 performer makes his spring, many of the spectators, 
 generally men and boys, move their feet; but here 
 again habit probably comes into play, for it is very 
 doubtful whether women would thus act. 
 
 Rcfiex actions. — Reflex actions, in the strict sense of 
 the term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral 
 nerve, which transmits its influence to certain nerve- 
 cells, and these in their turn excite certain muscles or 
 glands into action; and all this may take place without 
 any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often 
 thus accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly 
 expressive, the subject must here be noticed at some 
 little length. We shall also see that some of them 
 graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from 
 actions which, have arisen through habit. ^ Coughing 
 and sneezing are familiar instances of reflex actions. 
 With infants the first act of respiration is often a sneeze, 
 although this requires the co-ordinated movement of 
 
 " Prof. Huxley remarks (' Elementary Physiolog-y,' 5th 
 edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord 
 are natural; but, by the help of the brain, that is throug-h 
 habit, an infinitj' of artificial reflex actions may be ac- 
 quired. VirchoAv admits (' Sammluno* wissenschaft. Yor- 
 trag-e,' &c., " Ueber das Kiickenmark," 1871, ss. 24, 31) 
 that some reflex actions can hardly be disting"uished from 
 instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot 
 be distinguished from inherited habits. 
 
36 THE PRINCIPLE OP Cuap. I. 
 
 numerous muscles. Eespiration is partly voluntary, but 
 mainly reflex, and is performed in the most natural and 
 best manner without the interference of the will. A vast 
 number of complex movements are reflex. As good an 
 instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a 
 decapitated frog, which cannot of course feel, and cannot 
 consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop of 
 acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a 
 frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper 
 surface of the foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut 
 off, it cannot thus act. " After some fruitless efforts, 
 therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems restless, 
 as though, says Pfliiger, it was seeking some other way, 
 and at last it makes use of the foot of the other leg and 
 succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Xotably we have here 
 not merely contractions of muscles, but combined and 
 harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special 
 purpose. These are actions that have all the appear- 
 ance of being guided by intelligence and instigated by 
 will in an animal, the recognized organ of whose intelli- 
 gence and will has been removed." ^^ 
 
 We see the difference between reflex and voluntary 
 movements in very young children not being able to 
 perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry Holland, cer- 
 tain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and 
 coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their 
 noses (i. e. to compress the nose and blow violently 
 through the passage), and in their not being able to clear 
 their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to perform 
 these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a little 
 older, almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and 
 coughing, however, can be controlled by the will only 
 partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat 
 
 " Dr. Maudsley, ' Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 8. 
 
Chap. 1. SKRVICEABLE ASSOClATP:i) HABITS. 37 
 
 and blowing the nose are completely under our com- 
 mand. 
 
 When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating 
 particle in our nostrils or windpipe — that is, when the 
 same sensory nerve-cells are excited, as in the case of 
 sneezing and coughing — we can voluntarily expel the 
 particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; 
 but we cannot do this with nearly the same force, 
 rapidity, and precision, as by a reflex action. In this 
 latter case the sensory nerve-cells api)arently excite 
 the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by 
 first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres — the 
 seat of our consciousness and volition. In all cases 
 there seems to exist a profound antagonism between the 
 same movements, as directed by the will and by a reflex 
 stimulant, in the force with which they are performed 
 and in the facility with which they are excited. As 
 Claude Bernard asserts, " L'influence du cerveau tend 
 done a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a limiter leur / 
 force et leur etcndue." ^^ 
 
 The conscious wdsh to perform a reflex action some- 
 times stops or interrupts its performance, though the 
 proper sensory nerves may be stimulated. For in- 
 stance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen 
 young men that they would not sneeze if they took 
 snuff, although they all declared that they invariably 
 did so; accordingly they all took a pinch, but from 
 wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their 
 eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay 
 me the wager. Sir H. Holland remarks ^- that atten- 
 tion paid to the act of swallowing interferes with the 
 proper movements; from which it probably follows, 
 
 " See the very interesting- disenssion on the whole snb- 
 ject by Clande Bernard, ' Tissns Vivants.' ISGG, p. 353-356. 
 " ' Chapters on Mental Thysiolog-y,' 1858, p. 85. 
 
38 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. L 
 
 at least in part^ that some persons find it so difficult to 
 swallow a pill. 
 
 Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the 
 involuntary closing of the eyelids when the surface of 
 the eye is touched. A similar winking movement is 
 caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but 
 this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as 
 the stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by 
 the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The whole bod}" 
 and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly 
 backwards. These latter movements, however, can be 
 prevented, if the danger does not appear to the imagi- 
 nation imminent; but our reason telling us that there 
 is no dancrer does not sufflce. I mav mention a triflincr 
 
 c .,0 
 
 fact, illustrating this point, and wliich at the time 
 amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass- 
 plate in front of a puff-adder in tlie Zoological Gardens, 
 with the firm determination of not starting back if the 
 snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was struck, 
 my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or 
 two backwards with astonisliing rapidity. My will and 
 reason were powerless against the imagination of a 
 danger which had never been experienced. 
 
 The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the 
 vividness of the imagination, and partly on the con- 
 dition, either habitual or temporary, of the nervous 
 system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse, 
 when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the 
 gradation from a mere glance at some unexpected ob- 
 ject, with a momentar}' doubt whether it is dangerous, 
 to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably 
 could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a man- 
 ner. The nervous system of a fresh and highly-fed 
 horse sends its order to the motory system so quickly, 
 that no time is allowed for him to consider whether 
 
Chap. I. SEIIVICKABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 39 
 
 or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when 
 he is excited and the blood flows freely through his 
 brain, he is very apt to start again; and so it is, as I have 
 noticed, with young infants. 
 
 A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is 
 conveyed through the auditory nerves, is always accom- 
 panied in grown-up persons by the winking of the eye- 
 lids.^^ I observed, however, that though my infants 
 started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, 
 they certainly did not always wink their eyes, and I be- 
 lieve never did so. The start of an older infant appar- 
 ently represents a vague catching hold of something to 
 prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before 
 the eyes of one of my infants, when 114 days old, and 
 it did not in the least wink; but when I put a few 
 comfits into the box, holding it in the same position as 
 before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes 
 violently every time, and started a little. It was ob- 
 viously impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could 
 have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its 
 eyes indicated danger to them. But such experience 
 will have been slowly gained at a later age during a 
 long series of generations; and from what we know 
 of inheritance, there is nothing improbable in- the 
 transmission of a habit to the offspring at an earlier 
 age than that at which it was first acquired by the 
 parents. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that 
 some actions, which were at first performed consciously, 
 have become through habit and association converted 
 into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed and in- 
 herited, that they are performed, even when not of the 
 
 " Miiller remarks (' Elements of Physiologry,' Eng". tr. 
 vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting- being- always accomi^anied 
 by the closure of the eyelids. 
 
40 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. I 
 
 least use/* as often as tlie same causes arise, which 
 originally excited them in us through the volition. In 
 such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the motor cells, 
 without first communicating with those cells on which 
 our consciousness and volition depend. It is prohable 
 that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by 
 the habit of expelling, as violently as possible, any irri- 
 tating particle from the sensitive air-j^assages. As far 
 as time is concerned, ther^. has been more than enough 
 for these habits to have become innate or converted into 
 reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the 
 higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first 
 acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of clear- 
 ing the throat is not a reflex action, and has to be learnt 
 by our children, I cannot pretend to say; but we can 
 see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be 
 learnt. 
 
 It is scarcely credible that the movements of a head- 
 less frog, when it -wipes off a drop of acid or other object 
 from its thigh, and which movements are so well co- 
 ordinated for a special purpose, were not at first per- 
 formed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy 
 through long-continued habit so as at last to be per- 
 formed unconsciously, or independently of the cerebral 
 hemispheres. 
 
 So again it appears probable that starting was 
 originally acquired by the habit of jumping away as 
 quickly as possible from danger, whenever any of our 
 senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is 
 accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to 
 protect the eyes, the most tender and sensitive organs 
 
 " Dr. ^raudsley remarks (' Body and ]Nfind,' p. 10) that 
 " reflex movementj? ^vhich commonly effect a useful end 
 may, under the chang-ed circumstances of disease, do srreat 
 mischief, becoming" even the occasion of violent suffering 
 and of a most painful death." 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 41 
 
 of the body; and it is, I believe, always accompanied 
 by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the 
 natural preparation for any violent elfort. But when 
 a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly against 
 his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ 
 which has never been under the control of the will, 
 partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. 
 To this point, however, I shall return in a future 
 chapter. 
 
 The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimu- 
 lated by a bright light, is another instance of a move- 
 ment, which it appears cannot possibly have been at 
 first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit; 
 for the iris is not known to be under the conscious 
 control of the will in any animal. In such cases some 
 explanation, quite distinct from habit, will have to be 
 discovered. The radiation of nerve-force from strongly- 
 excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the 
 case of a bright hght on the retina causing a sneeze, may 
 perhaps aid us in understanding how some reflex actions 
 originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind, if 
 it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irri- 
 tation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris pre- 
 venting too much light from falling on the retina, might 
 afterwards have been taken advantage of and modified 
 for this special purpose. 
 
 It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in 
 all probability liable to slight variations, as are all 
 corporeal structures and instincts; and any variations 
 which were beneficial and of sufficient importance, would 
 tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex actions, 
 when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards 
 be modified independently of the will or habit, so as to 
 serve for some distinct purpose. Such cases would be 
 parallel with those which, as we have every reason to 
 4 
 
42 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. I. 
 
 believe, have occurred with many instincts; for al- 
 though some instincts have been developed simply 
 through long-continued and inherited habit, other 
 highly complex ones have been developed through the 
 preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts — that 
 is, through natural selection. 
 
 I have discussed at some little length, though as I 
 am well aware, in a very imperfect manner, the acquire- 
 ment of reflex actions, because they are often brought 
 into play in connection with movements expressive of 
 our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least 
 some of them might have been first acquired through 
 the will in order to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a dis- 
 agreeable sensation. 
 
 J Associated halitical movements i7i the lower animals. 
 — I have already given in the case of Man several in- 
 stances of movements associated with various states 
 of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but 
 which were originally of use, and are still of use under 
 certain circumstances. As this subject is very impor- 
 tant for us, I will here give a considerable number of 
 analogous facts, with reference to animals; although 
 many of them are of a very trifling nature. My ob- 
 ject is to show that certain movements were originally 
 performed for a definite end, and that, under nearly 
 the same circumstances, they are still pertinaciously per- 
 formed through habit when not of the least use. That 
 the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, 
 we may infer from such actions being performed in the 
 same manner by all the individuals, young and old, of 
 the same species. We shall also see that they are excited 
 by the most diversified, often circuitous, and sometimes 
 mistaken associations. 
 
 Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or 
 
CriAP. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 43 
 
 other hard surface, generally turn round and round and 
 scratch the ground with their fore-paws in a senseless 
 manner, as if they intended to trample down the grass 
 and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents 
 did, when they lived on open grassy plains or in the 
 woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied animals in 
 the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in this man- 
 ner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, 
 after observing for some months, have never seen the 
 wolves thus behave. x\ semi-idiotic dog — and an ani- 
 mal in this condition would be particularly liable to 
 follow a senseless habit — was observed by a friend to 
 turn completely round on a carpet thirteen times before 
 going to sleep. 
 
 Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards 
 their prey and prepare to rush or spring on it, lower their 
 heads and crouch, partly, as it would appear, to hide 
 themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and 
 this habit in an exaggerated form has become heredi- 
 tary in our pointers and setters. Now I have noticed 
 scores of times that when two strange dogs meet on an 
 open road, the one which first sees the other, though 
 at the distance of one or 
 two hundred yards, after 
 the first glance always 
 lowers its head, generally 
 crouches a little, or even 
 lies down; that is, he 
 takes the proper attitude 
 for concealing himself and 
 
 for making a rush or 
 spring, although the road 
 
 Fig. 4.— Small dog watching a cat on a 
 table. From a photograph taken 
 by Mr. Rojlander. 
 
 is quite open and the dis- 
 tance great. Again, dogs of all kinds when intently 
 watching and slowly approaching their prey, frequently 
 
44 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. I. 
 
 keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, 
 ready for tlie next cautious step; and this is eminently 
 characteristic of the pointer. But from habit they be- 
 have in exactly the same manner whenever their atten- 
 tion is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of 
 a high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the oppo- 
 site side, with one leg doubled up; and in this case there 
 could have been no intention of making a cautious ap- 
 proach. 
 
 Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with 
 all four feet a few scratches backwards, even on a bare 
 stone pavement, as if for the purpose of covering up 
 their excrement with earth, in nearly the same manner 
 as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens in exactly the same manner, yet, as I 
 am assured by the keepers, neither wolves, jackals, nor 
 foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever cover 
 up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these 
 animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we 
 rightly understand the meaning of the above cat-hke 
 habit, of which there can be little doubt, we have a 
 purposeless remnant of an habitual movement, which 
 was originally followed by some remote progenitor of 
 the dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has 
 been retained for a prodigious length of time. 
 
 Dogs and jackals ^^ take much pleasure in rolling 
 and rubbing their necks and backs on carrion. The 
 odour seems delightful to them, though dogs at least 
 do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves 
 for me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen 
 them roll on it. I have heard it remarked, and I be- 
 lieve it to be true, that the larger dogs, which are prob- 
 ably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in 
 
 " See Mr. F. H, Salvin's account of a tame jackal in 
 * Land and Water,' October, 1869. 
 
CuAP. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 45 
 
 carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended 
 from jackals. AVlion a piece of brown biscuit is oil'ered 
 to a terrier of mine and she is not hungry (and I have 
 heard of similar instances), she first tosses it about and 
 worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then 
 repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of 
 carrion, and at last eats it. It would appear that an 
 imaginary relish has to be given to the distasteful 
 morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual 
 manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt 
 like carrion, though he knows better than we do that 
 this is not the case. I have seen this same terrier 
 act in the same manner after killing a little bird or 
 mouse. 
 
 Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one 
 of their hind-feet; and when their backs are rubbed 
 with a stick, so strong is the habit, that they cannot 
 help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a use- 
 less and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, 
 when thus scratched with a stick, will sometimes show 
 her delight by another habitual movement, namely, by 
 licking the air as if it were my hand. 
 
 Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of 
 their bodies which they can reach with their teeth; 
 but more commonly one horse shows another where he 
 wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other. 
 A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, 
 observed that when he rubbed his horse's neck, the 
 animal protruded his head, uncovered his teeth, and 
 moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse's 
 neck, for he could never have nibbled his owm neck. If 
 a horse is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish 
 to bite something becomes so intolerably strong, that he 
 will clatter his teeth together, and though not vicious, 
 bite his groom. At the same time from habit he closely 
 
46 THE PRINCIPLE OF Chap. L 
 
 depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being 
 bitten, as if he were fighting with another horse. 
 
 A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the 
 nearest approach wliicli he can to the habitual move- 
 ment of progression by pawing the ground. Xow when 
 horses in tlieir stalls are about to be fed and are eager 
 for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. 
 Two of my horses thus behave when they see or hear 
 the corn given to their neighbours. But here we have 
 what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing 
 the ground is universally recognized as a sign of eager- 
 ness. 
 
 Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with 
 earth; and my grandfather ^' saw a kitten scraping 
 ashes over a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; 
 so that here an habitual or instinctive action was falsely 
 excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by eye- 
 sight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their 
 feet, owing, it is probable, to their having aboriginally in- 
 habited the dry country of Egypt; and when they wet 
 their feet they shake them violently. My daughter 
 poured some water into a glass close to the head of a 
 kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual 
 manner; so that here we have an habitual movement 
 falsely excited by an associated sound instead of by the 
 sense of touch. 
 
 Eattens, puppies, young pigs and probably many 
 other young animals, alternately push with their fore- 
 feet against the mammary glands of their mothers, to 
 excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. "Now 
 it is very common with young cats, and not at all rare 
 with old cats of the common and Persian breeds (be- 
 
 '' Dr. Darwin, * Zoonomia.' 1794. vol. i. p. 160. I find that 
 the fact of cats protruding- their feet when pleased is also 
 noticed (p. 151) in this work. 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 47 
 
 lieved by some naturalists to be specifically extinct), 
 when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft 
 substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their 
 fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly 
 protruded, precisely as when sucking their mother. 
 That it is the same movement is clearly shown by their 
 often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl into 
 their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their 
 eyes and purring from delight. This curious move- 
 ment is commonly excited only in association with the 
 sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen an 
 old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, 
 pounding the air with its feet in the same manner; so 
 that this action has almost become the expression of a 
 pleasurable sensation. 
 
 Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add 
 that this complex movement, as well as the alternate 
 protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex actions; for they 
 are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed 
 in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain 
 has been removed.^^ It has recently been stated in 
 France, that the action of sucking is excited solely 
 through the sense of smell, so that if the olfactory nerves 
 of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In like man- 
 ner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only 
 a few hours after being hatched, of picking up small 
 particles of food, seems to be started into action through 
 the sense of hearing; for with chickens hatched by arti- 
 ficial heat, a good observer found that " making a noise 
 with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of 
 the hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their 
 meat." ^^ 
 
 " Carpenter, ' Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 
 1854, p. 690, and Mliller's ' Elements of Physiolog-y,' Eng. 
 translat. vol. ii. p. 936. 
 
 " Mowbray on ' Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54. 
 
48 THE PKIXCIPLE OF Chap. I. 
 
 I will give only one other instance of an habitual 
 and purposeless movement. The Sheldrake {Tadorna) 
 feeds on the sands left uncovered by the tide, and when 
 a worm-cast is discovered, " it begins patting the ground 
 with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole; " and this 
 makes the worm come to the surface. Xow Mr. St. John 
 says, that when his tame Sheldrakes " came to ask for 
 food, they patted the ground in an impatient and rapid 
 manner.'' '^^ This therefore may almost be considered 
 as their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs 
 me that the Flamingo and the Kagu [Rliinochetus 
 juhatus) when anxious to be fed, beat the ground with 
 their feet in the same odd manner. So again King- 
 fishers, when they catch a fish, always beat it until it is 
 killed; and in the Zoological Gardens they always beat 
 the raw meat, with which they are sometimes fed, before 
 devouring it. 
 
 We have now, I tliink, sufficiently shown the truth 
 of our first Principle, namely, that when any sensation, 
 desire, dislike, &c., has led during a long series of gen- 
 erations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency 
 to the performance of a similar movement will almost 
 certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any anal- 
 ogous or associated sensation &c., although very weak, 
 is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in 
 this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual 
 movements are often, or generally inherited; and they 
 then differ but little from refiex actions. When we treat 
 of the special expressions of man, the latter part of our 
 first Principle, as given at the commencement of this 
 chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that when 
 movements, associated through habit with certain states 
 
 ^» See the account g-iven by this excellent observer in 
 ♦ Wild Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142. 
 
CuAP. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 49 
 
 of the mind, are partially repressed by the will, the 
 strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are 
 least under the separate control of the will, are liable 
 still to act; and their action is often highly expressive. 
 Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently 
 weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involun- 
 tary. It is a fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell 
 remarks,-*' " that when debility arises from affection of 
 the brain, the influence is greatest on those muscles which 
 are, in their natural condition, most under the command 
 of the will." AVe shall, also, in our future chapters, con- 
 sider another proposition included in our first Principle; 
 namely, that the checking of one habitual movement 
 sometimes requires other slight movements; these latter 
 serving as a means of expression. 
 
 ^ ' Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 General Peixciples of Expeessiox — continued. 
 
 The Principle of Antithesis — Instances in the dog" and cat 
 — Orig'in of the principle — Conventional signs — The 
 principle of antithesis has not arisen from opposite 
 actions being consciously performed under opposite im- 
 pulses. * 
 
 We will now consider our second Principle, that of 
 Antithesis. Certain states of the mind lead, as we have 
 seen in the last chapter, to certain habitual movements 
 which were primarily, or may still he, of service; and 
 we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind 
 is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency 
 to the performance of movements of a directly opposite 
 nature, though these have never been of any service. 
 A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, 
 when we treat of the special expressions of. man; but 
 as, in these cases, we are particularly liable to confound 
 conventional or artificial gestures and expressions with 
 those w^hich are innate or universal, and which alone 
 deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present 
 chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals. 
 
 When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a 
 savage or hostile frame of mind he walks upright and 
 very stififly; his head is slightly raised, or not much 
 lowered; the tail is held erect and quite rigid; the hairs 
 bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked 
 
 50 
 
Chap. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 51 
 
 ears are directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed 
 stare: (see figs. 5 and 7). These actions, as will hereafter 
 be explained, follow from the dog's intention to attack 
 his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible. 
 As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his 
 enemy, the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are 
 pressed close backwards on the head; but with these 
 latter actions, we are not here concerned. Let us now 
 suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man he 
 is approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let 
 it be observed how completely and instantaneously his 
 whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking up- 
 right, the body sinks downwards or even crouches, and 
 is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of 
 being held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from 
 side to side; his hair instantly becomes smooth; his 
 ears are depressed and drawn backwards, but not closely 
 to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From the draw- 
 ing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and 
 the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should 
 be added that the animal is at such times in an excited 
 condition from joy; and nerve-force will be generated 
 in excess, which naturally leads to action of some kind. 
 Xot one of the above movements, so clearly expressive 
 of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal. 
 They are explicable, as far as I can see, solel}' from being 
 in complete opposition or antithesis to the attitude and 
 movements which, from intelligible causes, are assumed 
 when a dog intends to fight, and which consequently 
 are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look 
 at the four accompanying sketches, which have been 
 given in order to recall vividly the appearance of a dog 
 under these two states of mind. It is, however, not a 
 little difficult to represent affection in a dog, whilst ca- 
 ressing his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of 
 
52 
 
 THE PRI^'C1PLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
CnAP. II. TIIK PUINCIPLK OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 53 
 
 e 
 
 >> 
 
 JH 
 
64: THE PRIXCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
iHiP. 
 
 11. TUK 
 
 ,,, ,R1KCU>LK 0..- ANTITUESIS. 55 
 
 „„. 8._The same eare.smg hU master. B, Mr. A. May. 
 
56 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
 the expression lies in the continuous flexuous move- 
 ments. 
 
 We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is 
 threatened by a dog, it arches its back in a surprising 
 manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth and spits. 
 But we are not here concerned with this well-known 
 attitude, expressive of terror combined with anger; 
 we are concerned only with that of rage or anger. 
 This is not often seen, but may be observed when two 
 cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well ex- 
 hibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy. The 
 attitude is almost exactly the same as that of a tiger 
 disturbed and growling over its food, which every one 
 must have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes 
 a crouching position, with the body extended; and the 
 whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or curled from side 
 to side. The hair is not in the least erect. Thus far, 
 the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when 
 the animal is prepared to spring on its prey, and when, 
 no doubt, it feels savage. But when preparing to fight, 
 there is this difference, that the ears are closely pressed 
 backwards; the mouth is partially opened, showing the 
 teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with 
 protruded claws; and the animal occasionally utters a 
 fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or almost all, 
 these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be ex- 
 plained), from the cat's manner and intention of attack- 
 ing its enemy. 
 
 Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame 
 of mind, whilst feeling affectionate and caressing her 
 master; and mark how opposite is her attitude in every 
 respect. She now stands upright with her back slightly 
 arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but 
 it does not bristle; her tail, instead of being extended 
 and lashed from side to side, is held quite stiff and per- 
 
Chap. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 57 
 
 pcndiciilarly upwards; her ears are erect and pointed; 
 her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master 
 with a purr instead of a growl. Let it further 
 be observed how widely different is the whole bear- 
 ing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with 
 his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and 
 wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. 
 This contrast in the attitudes and movements of these 
 two carnivorous animals, under the same pleased and 
 alTectionate frame of mind, can be explained, ag it 
 appears to me, solely by their movements standing in 
 complete antithesis to those which are naturally as- 
 sumed, when these animals feel savage and are pre- 
 pared either to fight or to seize their prey. 
 
 In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every 
 reason to believe that the gestures both of hostility and 
 affection are innate or inherited; for they are almost 
 identically the same in the different races of the spe- 
 cies, and in all the individuals of the same race, both 
 young and old, 
 
 I will here give one other instance of antithesis in ex- 
 pression. I formerly possessed a large dog, who, like 
 every other dog, was much pleased to go out walking. 
 He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely before me 
 with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected 
 ears, and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Xot far from 
 my house a path branches off to the right, leading to 
 the hot-house, which I used often to visit for a few 
 moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was 
 always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not 
 know whether I should continue my walk; and the in- 
 stantaneous and complete change of expression which 
 came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least 
 towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an 
 experiment) was laughable. His look of dejection was 
 5 
 
58 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
Chap. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITUESIS. 
 
 59 
 
 ^-^->A^ 
 
 Fig. 10.— Cat in an affectionate frame of mind, by Mr. Wood. 
 
60 THE PRINCIPLE OP ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
 known to every member of the family^ and was called 
 his hot-house face. This consisted in the head drooping 
 much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining 
 motionless; the ears and tail falling suddenly down, 
 but the tail was by no means wagged. With the fall- 
 ing of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes became 
 much changed in appearance, and I fancied that they 
 looked less bright. His aspect was that of piteous, 
 hopeless dejection; and it was, as I have said, laugh- 
 able, as the cause was so slight. Every detail in his 
 attitude was in complete opposition to his former joy- 
 ful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it 
 appears to me, in no other way, except through the 
 principle of antithesis. Had not the change been so 
 instantaneous, I should have attributed it to his lowered 
 spirits affecting, as in the case of man, the nervous sys- 
 tem and circulation, and consequently the tone of his 
 whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part 
 the cause. 
 
 We will now consider how the principle of antithesis 
 in expression has arisen. With social animals, the power 
 of intercommunication between the members of the 
 same community, — and with other species, between the 
 opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the 
 old, — is of the highest importance to them. This is 
 generally effected by means of the voice, but it is cer- 
 tain that gestures and expressions are to a certain ex- 
 tent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inar- 
 ticulate cries, gestures, and expressions, but has in- 
 vented articulate language; if, indeed, the word in- 
 vented can be applied to a process, completed by in- 
 numerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who 
 has watched monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly 
 understand each other's gestures and expression, and 
 
CiiAr. 11. THE rUINCIPLE OF ANTTTnESIS. 61 
 
 to a large extent, as Kengger asserts/ those of man. 
 An animal when going to attaek another, or when afraid 
 of another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erect- 
 ing its hair, thus increasing the apparent bulk of its 
 body, by showing its teeth, or brandishing its horns, 
 or by uttering fierce sounds. 
 
 As the power of intercommunication is certainly of 
 high service to many animals, there is no a priori im- 
 probability in the supposition, that gestures manifestly 
 of an opposite nature to those by which certain feelings 
 are already expressed, should at first have been volun- 
 tarily employed under the influence of an opposite state 
 of feeling. The fact of the gestures being now innate, 
 would be no valid objection to the belief that they 
 were at first intentional; for if practised during many 
 generations, they would probably at last be inherited. 
 Nevertheless it is more than doubtful, as we shall imme- 
 diately see, whether any of the cases which come under 
 our present head of antithesis, have thus originated. 
 
 With conventional signs which are not innate, such 
 as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages, 
 the principle of opposition or antithesis has been par- 
 tially brought into pla}^ The Cistercian monks thought 
 it sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding 
 some communication, they invented a gesture language, 
 in which the principle of opposition seems to have been 
 employed.^ Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb 
 Institution, writes to me that " opposites are greatly 
 used in teaching the deaf and dumb, w^ho have a lively 
 sense of them." ISTevertheless I have been surprised 
 
 ^ ' Naturgeschichte der Siiugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, 
 s. 55. 
 
 ' !N[r. Tylor gives an aoconnt of the Cistercian gesture- 
 language in his ' Early History of Mankind ' (2nd edit. 
 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle of 
 opposition in gestures. 
 
62 THE PRIXCIPLE OF i\XTITHESIS. Ch^vt. II. 
 
 how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This 
 depends partly on all the signs having commonly had 
 some natural origin; and partly on the practice of the 
 deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs 
 as much as possible for the sake of rapidity.^ Hence 
 their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or 
 is completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate 
 language. 
 
 Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in oppo- 
 sition to each other, appear to have had on both sides 
 a significant origin. This seems to hold good with 
 the signs used by the deaf and dumb for light and dark- 
 ness, for strength and weakness, <S:c. In a future chap- 
 ter I shall endeavour to show that the opposite gestures 
 of affirmation and negation, namely, vertically nodding 
 and laterally shaking the head, have both probably had 
 a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from 
 right to left, which is used as a negative by some savages, 
 may have been invented in imitation of shaking the 
 head; but whether the opposite movement of waving 
 the hand in a straight line from the face, wliich is used 
 in affirmation, has arisen through antithesis or in some 
 quite distinct manner, is doubtful. 
 
 If we now turn to the gestures which are innate 
 or common to all the individuals of the same species, and 
 which come under the present head of antithesis, it is 
 extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at first 
 deliberately invented and consciously performed. With 
 mankind the best instance of a gesture standing in direct 
 
 ^ See on this subject Dr. W. E. Scott's interesting- work, 
 * The Deaf and Dumb.' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, " This 
 contracting of natural g-estures into much shorter gestures 
 than the natural expression requires, is very common 
 amongst the deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture 
 is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all semblance 
 of the natural one. but to the deaf and dumb who use it, 
 it still has the force of the original expression." 
 
Chap. II. TUE PRINCIPLE OP ANTITHESIS. 63 
 
 opposition to otliLT movements, naturally assumed under 
 an opposite frame of mind, is that of shrugging the 
 shoulders. This expresses impotence or an apology, — 
 something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. 
 The gesture is sometimes used consciously and volun- 
 tarily, but it is extremely improbable that it was at first 
 deliberately invented, and afterwards fixed by habit; 
 for not only do young children sometimes shrug their 
 shoulders under the above states of mind, but the move- 
 ment is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chap- 
 ter, by various subordinate movements, which not one 
 man in a thousand is aware of, unless he has specially 
 attended to the subject. 
 
 Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it 
 useful to show by their movements that they are friendly, 
 and do not wish to fight. When two young dogs in 
 play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs, 
 it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's 
 gestures and manners. There seems, indeed, some de- 
 gree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and kittens, that 
 they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too 
 freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and 
 a squeal is the result; otherwise they would often injure 
 each other's eyes. "When my terrier bites my hand in 
 play, often snarling at the same time, if he bites too 
 hard and I say gently^ gently^ he goes on biting, but 
 answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to 
 say " Never mind, it is all fun." Although dogs do thus 
 express, and may wish to express, to other dogs and to 
 man, that they are in a friendly state of mind, it is in- 
 credible that they could ever have deliberately thought 
 of drawing back and depressing their ears, instead of 
 holding them erect, — of lowering and wagging their 
 tails, instead of keeping them stiff and upright, &c., 
 because thev knew that these movements stood in direct 
 
Q4: THE PRINX'IPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
 opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage 
 frame of mind. 
 
 Again, when a cat, or rather when some early pro- 
 genitor of the species, from feeling affectionate first 
 slightly arched its back, held its tail perpendicularly 
 upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that the 
 animal consciously vdshed thus to show that its frame 
 of mind was directly the reverse of that, when from being 
 ready to fight or to spring on its prey, it assumed a 
 crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to side and 
 depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe that 
 my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and 
 " hot-house face^'' which formed so complete a contrast 
 to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing. It 
 cannot be supposed that he knew that I should under- 
 stand his expression, and that he could thus soften my 
 heart and make me give up ^dsiting the hot-house. 
 
 Hence for the development of the movements which 
 come under the present head, some other principle, dis- 
 tinct from the will and consciousness, must have inter- 
 vened. This principle appears to be that every move- 
 ment which we have voluntarily performed through- 
 out our lives has required the action of certain muscles; 
 and when we have performed a directly opposite move- 
 ment, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually 
 brought into play, — as in turning to the right or to the 
 left, in pushing away or pulling an object towards us, 
 and in lifting or lowering a weight. So strongly are 
 our intentions and movements associated together, that 
 if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction, 
 we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same 
 direction, although we may be perfectly aware that this 
 can have no influence. A good illustration of this fact 
 has already been given in the Introduction, namely, in 
 the grotesque movements of a young and eager billiard- 
 
CuAr. II. THE riilNX'IPLE OF ANTITHESIS. C5 
 
 player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man 
 or child in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice 
 to begone, generally moves his arm as if to push him 
 away, although the ofrender may not be standing near, 
 and although there may be not the least need to explain 
 by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we 
 eagerly desire some one to approach us closely, we act 
 as if pulling him towards us; and so in innumerable 
 other instances. 
 
 As the performance of ordinary movements of an 
 opposite kind, under opposite impulses of the will, has 
 become habitual in us and in the lower animals, so when 
 actions of one kind have become firmly associated with 
 any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions 
 of a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be 
 unconsciously performed through habit and association, 
 under the influence of a directly opposite sensation or 
 emotion. On this principle alone can I understand 
 how the gestures and expressions which come under 
 the present head of antithesis have originated. If in- 
 deed they are serviceable to man or to any other animal, 
 in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they will like- 
 wise be voluntarily employed, and the habit wall thus 
 be strengthened. But whether or not of service as a 
 means of communication, the tendency to perform op- 
 posite movements under opposite sensations or emotions 
 would, if we may judge by analogy, become hereditary 
 through long practice; and there cannot be a doubt that 
 several expressive movements due to the principle of 
 antithesis are inherited. 
 
QQ THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 General Prixciples of Expressiox — concluded. 
 
 The principle of direct action of the excited nervous sys- 
 tem on the body, independently of the will and in part 
 of habit — Chang-e of colour in the hair — Trembling of 
 the muscles — ^fodified secretions — Perspiration — Ex- 
 pression of extreme pain — Of rag-e, great joy, and 
 terror — Contrast between the emotions which cause 
 and do not cause expressive movements — Exciting and 
 depressing states of the mind — Summary. 
 
 We now come to our third Principle, namely, that cer- 
 tain actions which we recognize as expressive of certain 
 states of the mind, are the direct result of the consti- 
 tution of the nervous system, and have been from the 
 first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of 
 habit. "When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve- 
 force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain 
 directions, dependent on the connection of the nerve- 
 cells, and, as 'far as the muscular system is concerned, 
 on the nature of the movements which have been ha- 
 bitually practised. Or the supply of nerve-force may, 
 as it appears, be interrupted. Of course every movement 
 wliich we make is determined by the constitution of 
 the nervous system; but actions performed in obedience 
 to the will, or through habit, or through the principle 
 of antithesis, are here as far as possible excluded. Our 
 present subject is very obscure, but, from its impor- 
 
 66 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. G7 
 
 tancc, must be discussed at some little length; and it is 
 always advisable to perceive clearly our ignorance. 
 
 The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal 
 one, which can be adduced of the direct influence of the 
 nervous system, when strongly affected, on the body, is 
 the loss of colour in the hair, which has occasionally 
 been observed after extreme terror or grief. One au- 
 thentic instance has been recorded, in the case of a man 
 brought out for execution in India, in which the change 
 of colour was so rapid that it was perceptible to the eye.^ 
 
 Another good case is that of the trembling of the 
 muscles, which is common to man and to many, or 
 most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no service, 
 often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first 
 acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual 
 in association with any emotion. I am assured by an 
 eminent authority that young children do not tremble, 
 but go into convulsions under the circumstances which 
 would induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling 
 is excited in different individuals in very different de- 
 grees, and by the most diversified causes, — by cold to 
 the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature 
 of the body is then above the normal standard; in 
 blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other diseases; 
 by general failure of power in old age; by exhaustion 
 after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such 
 as burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of 
 a catheter. Of all emotions, fear notoriously is the most 
 apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally great an- 
 ger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had 
 just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands 
 
 ^ See the interesting- cases collected by ^f. G. Ponchet 
 in the ' Eevue des Deux ^^londes.' January 1, 1872, p. 79. 
 An instance was also bronsrht some years ago before the 
 British Association at Belfast. 
 
68 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIliECT Chap. IIL 
 
 trembled to such a degree from delight, that he could 
 not for some time reload his gun; and I have heard 
 of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, 
 to whom a gun had been lent. Fine music, from the 
 vague emotions thus excited, causes a shiver to run 
 down the backs of some persons. There seems to be 
 very httle in common in the above several physical 
 causes and emotions to account for trembling; and Sir 
 J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several of the 
 above statements, informs me that the subject is a very 
 obscure one. As trembling is sometimes caused by 
 rage, long before exhaustion can have set in, and as it 
 sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear that 
 any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts 
 the steady flow of nerve-force to the muscles. - 
 
 The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary 
 canal and of certain glands — as the liver, kidneys, or 
 mammae — are affected by strong emotions, is another 
 excellent instance of the direct action of the sensorium 
 on these organs, independently of the will or of any 
 serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest dif- 
 ference in different persons in the parts which are thus 
 affected, and in the degree of their affection. 
 
 The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating 
 night and day in so wonderful a manner, is extremely 
 sensitive to external stimulants. The great physiologist, 
 Claude Bernard,^ has shown how the least excitement 
 of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a 
 nerve is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly 
 
 ' ^Nfiiller remarks (' Elements of Physiolog-y.' Eng-. 
 translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feeling's are very- 
 intense, " all the spinal nerves become affected to the ex- 
 tent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trem- 
 bling- of the whole body." 
 
 ^ ' Legons sur les Prop, des Tissus Yivants,' 1866, pp. 
 457-466. 
 
Chai'. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 69 
 
 be felt by the animal under experiment. Hence when 
 the mind is strongly excited, we might expect that it 
 would instantly all'ect in a direct manner the heart; 
 and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the 
 case. Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this 
 deserves especial notice, that when the heart is affected 
 it reacts on the brain; and the state of the brain again 
 reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; 
 so that under any excitement there will be much mu- 
 tual action and reaction between these, the two most 
 important organs of the body. 
 
 The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter 
 of the small arteries, is directly acted on by the sen- 
 sorium, as we see when a man blushes from shame; but 
 in this latter case the checked transmission of nerve- 
 force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly 
 explained in a curious manner through habit. We shall 
 also be able to throw some light, though very little, on 
 the involuntary erection of the hair under the emotions 
 of terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no 
 doubt, on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but 
 here again we can trace some few of the steps by which 
 the flow of nerve-force through the requisite channels 
 has become habitual under certain emotions. 
 
 A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of 
 the stronger sensations and emotions will best serve to 
 show us, although vaguely, in how complex a manner 
 the principle under consideration of the direct action 
 of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined 
 with the principle of habitually associated, serviceable 
 movements. 
 
 When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they 
 generally writhe about with frightful contortions; and 
 those which habitually use their voices utter piercing 
 
70 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is 
 brought into strong action. With man the mouth may 
 be closely compressed, or more commonly the lips are 
 retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground together. 
 There is said to be " gnashing of teeth " in hell; and I 
 have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of 
 a cow which was suffering acutely from inflammation 
 of the bowels. The female hippopotamus in the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens, when she produced her young, suf- 
 fered greatly; she incessantly walked about, or rolled 
 on her sides, opening and closing her jaws, and clatter- 
 ing her teeth together.* With man the eyes stare wildly 
 as in horrified astonishment, or the brows are heavily 
 contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops 
 trickle down the face. The circulation and respiration 
 are much affected. Hence the nostrils are generally 
 dilated and often quiver; or the breath may be held 
 until the blood stagnates in the purple face. If the 
 agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change; 
 utter prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions. 
 
 A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some in- 
 fluence to the nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this 
 transmits its influence, first to the corresponding nerve- 
 cell on the opposite side of the body, and then upwards 
 and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other 
 nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the 
 strength of the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole 
 nervous system may be affected.^ This involuntary trans- 
 mission of nerve-force may or may not be accompa- 
 
 * 'Mr. Bartlett, " Xotes on the Birth of a Hippopota- 
 mus," Proc. Zoolog-. Soc. 1871, p. 255. 
 
 ° See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, ' Tissus Vivants.' 
 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to al- 
 most exactly the same effect in his essay " Ueber das 
 Elickenmark " (Sammlung- wissenschaft. Vortrage, 1871, 
 s. 28). 
 
CuAi'. III. ACTION OF THE Nb:RVOUS SYSTEM. 71 
 
 nied by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve- 
 cell should generate or liberate nerve-force is not known; 
 but that this is the case seems to be the conclusion ar- 
 rived at by all the greatest physiologists, such as Miiller, 
 Virchow, Bernard, &c.^ As Mr. Herbert Spencer re- 
 marks, it may be received as an " unquestionable truth 
 that, at any moment, the existing quantity of liberated 
 nerve-force, wliich in an inscrutable way produces in us 
 the state we call feeling, must expend itself in some 
 direction — must generate an equivalent manifestation 
 of force somewhere; " so that, when the cerebro-spinal 
 system is highly excited and nerve-force is liberated in 
 excess, it may be expended in intense sensations, active 
 thought, violent movements, or increased activity of 
 the glands.^ ^Ir. Spencer further maintains that an 
 " overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will 
 manifestly take the most habitual routes; and, if these 
 do not suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual 
 ones." Consequently the facial and respiratory mus- 
 cles, which are the most used, ys'iW be apt to be first 
 brought into action; then those of the upper extremi- 
 ties, next those of the lower, and finally those of the 
 whole body.^ 
 
 An emotion may be very strong, but it will have 
 little tendency to induce movements of any kind, if it 
 
 • Miiller (' Elements of Physiolog-y,' Eng. translat. vol. 
 ii. p. 932) in speaking- of the nerves, says, " any sudden 
 chano-e of condition of whatever kind sets the nervons 
 principle into action." See Virchow and Bernard on the 
 same subject in passages in the two works referred to 
 in my last foot-note. 
 
 ^ H. Spencer, ' Essavs, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second 
 Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111. 
 
 ^ Sir H. Holland, in speaking- (' ^fedical Xotes and Re- 
 flexions,' 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called 
 the fidf/ets, remarks that it seems due to "an accumula- 
 tion of some cause of irritation which requires muscular 
 action for its relief." 
 
72 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. IIL 
 
 has not commonly led to voluntary action for its relief or 
 gratification; and when movements are excited, their 
 nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which 
 have often and voluntarily been performed for some 
 definite end under the same emotion. Great pain urges 
 all animals, and has urged them during endless genera- 
 tions, to make the most violent and diversified efl;orts to 
 escape from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb 
 or other separate part of the body is hurt, we often see 
 a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off the cause, 
 though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit 
 of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will 
 have been established, whenever great suffering is ex- 
 perienced. As the muscles of the chest and vocal or- 
 gans are habitually used, these will be particularly liable 
 to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will 
 be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries 
 has here probably come into play in an important man- 
 ner: for the young of most animals, when in dis- 
 tress or danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, 
 as do the members of the same community for mutual 
 aid. 
 
 Another principle, namely, the internal conscious- 
 ness that the power or capacity of the nervous system is 
 limited, will have strengthened, though in a subordinate 
 degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme 
 suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his 
 utmost muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago ob- 
 served, if tT\'o pains are felt at the same time, the 
 severer one dulls the other. ]\Iart}TS, in the ecstasy of 
 their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, 
 been insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors 
 who are going to be flogged sometimes take a piece of 
 lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their 
 utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SVSTEM. 73 
 
 women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in 
 order to relieve their sull'erings. 
 
 We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve- 
 force from the nerve-cells which are first afi'ected — 
 the long-continued habit of attempting by struggling 
 to escape from the cause of sufl'cring — and the con- 
 sciousness !hat voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, 
 have all probably concurred in giving a tendency to the 
 most violent, almost convulsive, movements under ex- 
 treme suffering; and such movements, including those 
 of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as highly 
 expressive of this condition. 
 
 As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a 
 direct manner on the heart, severe pain will obviously 
 react on it in like manner, but far more energetically. 
 Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not overlook 
 the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall 
 see when we consider the signs of rage. 
 
 When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the per- 
 spiration often trickles down his face; and I have been 
 assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has frequently 
 seen drops falling from the belly and running down the 
 inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of 
 cattle, when thus suffering. He has observed this, when 
 there has been no struggling which would account for 
 the perspiration. The whole body of the female hippo- 
 potamus, before alluded to, was covered with red-col- 
 oured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So 
 it is with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often 
 seen horses sweating from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett 
 with the rhinoceros; and with man it is a well-known 
 symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in 
 these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some 
 physiologists to be connected with the failing power of 
 the capillary circulation; and we know that the vaso- 
 
74 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. IIL 
 
 motor system, which regulates the capillar}' circulation, 
 is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the 
 movements of certain muscles of the face under great 
 suffering, as well as from other emotions, these will be 
 best considered when we treat of the special expressions 
 of man and of the lower animals. 
 
 We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of 
 Eage. Under this powerful emotion the action of the 
 heart is much accelerated,^ or it may be much dis- 
 turbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from the 
 impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. 
 The respiration is laboured, the chest heaves, and the 
 dilated nostrils quiver. The whole body often trembles. 
 The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched or ground 
 together, and the muscular system is commonly stimu- 
 lated to violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures 
 of a man in this state usually differ from the purposeless 
 writhings and struggles of one suft'ering from an agony 
 of pain; for they represent more or less plainly the act 
 of striking or fighting with an enemy. 
 
 All these signs of rage are probably in large part, 
 and some of them appear to be wholly, due to the direct 
 action of the excited sensorium. But animals of all 
 kinds, and their progenitors before them, when attacked 
 or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost 
 powers in fighting and in defending themselves. Un- 
 less an animal does thus act, or has the intention, or at 
 least the desire, to attack its enemy, it cannot properly 
 be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular 
 exertion will thus have been gained in association with 
 rage; and this will directly or indirectly affect vari- 
 
 ® I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having 
 informed me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which 
 a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and 
 this shows much difPerence in the rate and other charac- 
 ters from that of the ramc woman in her ordinary state. 
 
CuAi'. 111. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 75 
 
 oils organs, iu nearly the same manner as does great bod- 
 ily sii lie ring. 
 
 The heart no doubt will likewise be afTected in a direct 
 manner; but it will also in all probability be affected 
 through habit; and all the more so from not being 
 under the control of the will. We know that any great 
 exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, 
 through mechanical and other principles which need 
 not here be considered; and it was shown in the first 
 chapter that nerve-force flows readily through habitu- 
 ally used channels, — through the nerves of voluntary 
 or involuntary movement, and through those of sen- 
 sation. Thus even a moderate amount of exertion will 
 tend to act on the heart; and on the principle of asso- 
 ciation, of wliich so many instances have been given, 
 we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, 
 as great pain or rage, which has habitually led to much 
 muscular action, will immediately influence the flow of 
 nerve-force to the heart, although there may not be at 
 the time any muscular exertion. 
 
 The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily 
 affected through habitual associations, as it is not under 
 the control of the will. A man when moderately angry, 
 or even when enraged, may command the movements of 
 his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating 
 rapidly. His chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and 
 his nostrils just quiver, for the movements of respiration 
 are only in part voluntary. In like manner those mus- 
 cles of the face which are least obedient to the will, 
 will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emo- 
 tion. The glands again are wholly independent of the 
 will, and a man suffering from grief may command 
 his features, but cannot always prevent the tears from 
 coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food 
 is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any 
 
76 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chaf. Ill 
 
 outward gesture, but lie cannot check the secretion of 
 saliva. 
 
 Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is 
 a strong tendency to various purposeless movements, and 
 to the utterance of various sounds. AVe see this in our 
 young children, in their loud laughter, clapping of hands, 
 and jumj^ing for joy; in the bounding and barking of a 
 dog when going out to walk with his master; and in the 
 frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. 
 Joy quickens the circulation, and this stimulates the 
 brain, which again reacts on the whole body. The 
 above purposeless movements and increased heart-action 
 may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of 
 the sensorium,^^ and to the consequent undirected over- 
 flow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It 
 deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation of a 
 pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, Avhich leads to 
 purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, 
 and to the utterance of various sounds. AYe see this 
 in our children when they expect any great pleasure or 
 treat; and dogs, which have been bounding about at 
 
 " How poAverfully intense joy excites the brain, and 
 how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the 
 rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton 
 Browne (' ^ledical ^Mirror,' 1S65) records the case of a 
 young" man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on 
 hearing- by a teleg"ram that a fortune had been bequeathed 
 him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in 
 the highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then 
 took a walk with a friend for the sake of tranquillising 
 himself, but returned staggering- in his gait, uproariously 
 laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and 
 singing loudh^ in the public streets. It was positively 
 ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, 
 though every one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomit- 
 ing after a time came on, and the half-digested contents 
 of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol 
 could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awak- 
 ing was well, except that he suffered from headache, 
 nausea, and prostration of strength. 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTE.M. 77 
 
 the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not 
 show their delight by any outward sign, not even by 
 wagging their tails. Now with animals of all kinds, 
 the acquirement of almost all tlieir pleasures, with the 
 exception of those of warmth and rest, are associated, 
 and have long been associated with active movements, 
 as in the hunting or search for food, and in their court- 
 ship, ^loreover, the mere exertion of the muscles after 
 long rest or confinement is in itself a pleasure, as we 
 ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of young ani- 
 mals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might 
 perhaps expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show 
 itself conversely in muscular movements. 
 
 With all or almost all animals, even with birds. 
 Terror causes the body to tremble. The skin becomes 
 pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles. The se- 
 cretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are 
 increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to 
 the relaxation of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be 
 the case with man, and as I have seen with cattle, dogs, 
 cats, and monkeys. The breathing is hurried. The heart 
 beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it 
 pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may 
 be doubted, for the surface seems bloodless and the 
 strength of the muscles soon fails. In a frightened horse 
 I have felt through the saddle the beating of the heart 
 so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The 
 mental faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration 
 soon follows, and even fainting. A terrified canary-bird 
 has been seen not only to tremble and to turn white 
 about the base of the bill, but to faint; ^^ and I once 
 caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, 
 that for a time I thought it dead. 
 
 *^ Dr. Darwin, ' Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148. 
 
78 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, 
 independently of habit, of the disturbed state of the 
 sensorium; but it is doubtful whether they ought to be 
 wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is alarmed 
 it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in 
 order to collect its senses and to ascertain the source 
 of danger, and sometimes for the sake of escaping de- 
 tection. But headlong flight soon follows, with no hus- 
 banding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal 
 continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, until utter 
 prostration, with failing respiration and circulation, with 
 all the muscles quivering and profuse sweating, renders 
 further flight impossible. Hence it does not seem im- 
 probable that the principle of associated habit may in 
 part account for, or at least augment, some of the above- 
 named characteristic symptoms of extreme terror. 
 
 That the principle of associated habit has played an 
 important part in causing the movements expressive of 
 the foregoing several strong emotions and sensations, 
 we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly, some 
 other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require 
 for their relief or gratification any voluntary move- 
 ment; and secondly the contrast in nature between 
 the so-called exciting and depressing states of the 
 mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but 
 a mother may feel the deepest love for her helpless 
 infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign; or 
 only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle smile 
 and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally injure 
 her infant, and see w^hat a change! how she starts up 
 with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her 
 face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils dilate, and 
 heart beats; for anger, and not maternal love, has ha- 
 bitually led to action. The love between the opposite 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 79 
 
 sexes is widely different from maternal love; and when 
 lovers meet, we know that their hearts beat quickly, 
 their breathing is hurried, and their faces flush; for 
 this love is not inactive like that of a mother for her 
 infant. 
 
 A man may have his mind filled with the blacked; 
 hatred or suspicion, or be corroded with envy or jealousy, 
 but as these feelings do not at once lead to action, and as 
 they commonly last for some time, they are not shown 
 by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state 
 assuredly does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. 
 If indeed these feelings hreak out into overt acts, rage 
 takes their place, and will be plainly exhibited. Paint- 
 ers can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &c., 
 except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; 
 and poets use such vague and fanciful expressions as 
 " green-eyed jealousy." Spenser describes suspicion as 
 " Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows look- 
 ing still askance," &c.: Shakespeare speaks of envy "as 
 lean-faced in her loathsome case; " and in another place 
 he says, "no black envy shall make my grave;" and 
 again as " above pale envy's threatening reach." 
 
 Emotions and sensations have often been classed as 
 exciting or depressing. When all the organs of the 
 body and mind, — those of voluntary and involuntary 
 movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &c., — 
 perform their functions more energetically and rapidly 
 than usual, a man or animal may be said to be excited, 
 and, under an opposite state, to be depressed. Anger 
 and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they 
 naturally lead, more especially the former, to energetic 
 movements, which react on the heart and this again 
 on the brain. A physician once remarked to me as a 
 proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when 
 excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary; 
 
80 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 offences and put himself into a passion, unconsciously 
 for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hear- 
 ing this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full 
 truth. 
 
 Several other states of mind appear to be at first 
 exciting, but soon become depressing to an extreme 
 degree. AYhen a mother suddenly loses her child, some- 
 times she is frantic with grief, and must be consid- 
 ered to be in an excited state; she walks wildly about, 
 tears her hair or clothes, and wrings her hands. This 
 latter action is perhaps due to the principle of anti- 
 thesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and 
 that nothing can be done. The other wild and vio- 
 lent movements may be in part explained by the relief 
 experienced through muscular exertion, and in part by 
 the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited 
 sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a beloved 
 person, one of the first and commonest thoughts which 
 occurs, is that something more might have been done 
 to save the lost one. An excellent observer,^^ in de- 
 scribing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden death 
 of her father, says she " went about the house wring- 
 ing her hands like a creature demented, sa}dng ^ It was 
 her fault; ' ^ I should never have left him; ^ ^ If I had 
 only sat up with him,' " &e. ^Yith such ideas vividly 
 present before the mind, there would arise, through 
 the principle of associated habit, the strongest tendency 
 to energetic action of some kind. 
 
 As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing 
 can be done, despair or deep sorrow takes the place of 
 frantic grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or gently 
 rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes languid; res- 
 piration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. 
 
 " Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of ' Miss Majoribanks,' 
 p. 362. 
 
:hap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 81 
 
 All tliis reacts on tlie biain, and prostration soon 
 follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As 
 associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, 
 he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion, and 
 not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion 
 stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and 
 aids the mind to bear its heavy load. 
 
 Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or 
 prostration; but it is at first a stimulant and excites to 
 action, as we see when we whip a horse, and as is shown 
 by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands on ex- 
 hausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. 
 Fear again is the most depressing of all the emotions; 
 and it soon induces utter, helpless prostration, as if in 
 consequence of, or in association with, the most violent 
 and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger, 
 though no such attempts have actually been made. 
 Nevertheless, even extreme fear often acts at first as a 
 powerful stimulant. A man or animal driven through 
 terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful 
 strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the highest 
 degree. 
 
 On the whole we may conclude that the principle of 
 the direct action of the sensorium on the body, due to 
 the constitution of the nervous sj^stem, and from the first 
 independent of the will, has been highly influential in 
 determining many expressions. Good instances are 
 afforded by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating 
 of the skin, the modified secretions of the alimentary 
 canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations. 
 But actions of this kind are often combined with others, 
 which follow from our first principle, namely, that actions 
 which have often been of direct or indirect service, under 
 certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or relieve 
 
82 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 certain sensations, desires, &c., are still performed under 
 analogous circumstances through mere habit although 
 of no service. We have combinations of this kind, at least 
 in part, in the frantic gestures of rage and in the writh- 
 ings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the increased ac- 
 tion of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even 
 Avhen these and other emotions or sensations are aroused 
 in a very feeble manner, there will still be a tendency to 
 similar actions, owing to the force of long-associated 
 habit; and those actions which are least under voluntary 
 control will generally be longest retained. Our second 
 principle of antithesis has likewise occasionally come into 
 play. 
 
 Finally, so many expressive movements can be ex- 
 plained, as I trust will be seen in the course of this 
 volume, through the three principles which have now 
 been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all 
 thus explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, 
 however, often impossible to decide how much weight 
 ought to be attributed, in each particular case, to one 
 of our principles, and how much to another; and very 
 many points in the theory of Expression remain inex- 
 plicable. 
 
Chap. IV. MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS. 83 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Means of Expression ix Animals. 
 
 The emission of sounds — Vocal sounds — Sounds otherwise 
 produced — Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, 
 feathers, &c., under the emotions of anger and terror 
 — The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for 
 fighting, and as an expression of anger — Erection of 
 the ears and raising the head, a sign of attention. 
 
 In this and the following chapter I will describe, but 
 only in sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the ex- 
 pressive movements, under different states of the mind, 
 of some few well-known animals. But before consider- 
 ing them in due succession, it will save much useless 
 repetition to discuss certain means of expression common 
 to most of them. 
 
 TJie emission of Soujids. — With many kinds of ani- 
 mals, man included, the vocal organs are efficient in the 
 highest degree as a means of expression. TVe have seen, 
 in the last chapter, that when the sensorium is strongly 
 excited, the muscles of the body are generally thro^vn 
 into violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds 
 are uttered, however silent the animal may generally 
 be, and although the sounds may be of no use. Hares 
 and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal 
 organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when 
 a wounded hare is killed by the sportsman, or when a 
 young rabbit is caught by a stoat. Cattle and horses 
 
84 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 suffer great pain in silence; but when this is excessive, 
 and especially when associated with terror, they utter 
 fearful sounds. I have often recognized, from a dis- 
 tance on the Pampas, the agonized death-bellow of the 
 cattle, when caught by the lasso and hamstrung. It is 
 said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud and 
 peculiar screams of distress. 
 
 Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the mus- 
 cles of the chest and glottis, excited in the above man- 
 ner, may have first given rise to the emission of vocal 
 sounds. But the voice is now largel}^ used by many ani- 
 mals for various purposes; and habit seems to have 
 played an important part in its employment under other 
 circumstances. Xaturalists have remarked, I believe 
 with truth, that social animals, from habitually using 
 their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication, 
 use them on other occasions much more freely than other 
 animals. But there are marked exceptions to this rule, 
 for instance, \nth the rabbit. The principle, also, of as- 
 sociation, wliich is so widely extended in its power, has 
 likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice, 
 from having been habitually emploj^ed as a serviceable 
 aid under certain conditions, inducing pleasure, pain, 
 rage, &c., is commonly used whenever the same sensa- 
 tions or emotions are excited, under quite different con- 
 ditions, or in a lesser degree. 
 
 The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each 
 other during the breeding-season; and in not a few cases, 
 the male endeavours thus to charm or excite the female. 
 This, indeed, seems to have been the primeval use and 
 means of development of the voice, as I have attempted 
 to show in my ' Descent of ^lan.' Thus the use of the 
 vocal organs will have become associated with the an- 
 ticipation of the strongest pleasure which animals are 
 capable of feeling. Animals which live in society often 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 85 
 
 call to each other when separated, and evidently feel 
 much joy at meeting; as we see with a horse, on the re- 
 turn of his companion, for whom he has been neighing. 
 The mother calls incessantly for her lost young ones; for 
 instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many ani- 
 mals call for their mothers. When a flock of sheep is 
 scattered, the ewes bleat incessantly for their lambs, and 
 their mutual pleasure at coming together is manifest. 
 Woe betide the man who meddles with the young of the 
 larger and fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of 
 distress from their young. Eage leads to the violent 
 exertion of all the muscles, including those of the voice; 
 and some animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike 
 terror into their enemies by its power and harshness, as 
 the lion does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I 
 infer that their object is to strike terror, because the lion 
 at the same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog 
 the hair along its back, and thus they make themselves 
 appear as large and terrible as possible. Eival males 
 try to excel and challenge each other by their voices, 
 and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the 
 voice will have become associated with the emotion of 
 anger, however it may be aroused. We have also seen 
 that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent outcries, and 
 the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; 
 and thus the use of the voice will have become associ- 
 ated with suffering of any kind. 
 
 The cause of -widely different sounds being uttered 
 under different emotions and sensations is a very ob- 
 scure subject. Xor does the rule always hold good that 
 there is any marked difference. For instance with the 
 dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, 
 though they can be distinguished. It is not probable 
 that any precise explanation of the cause or source of 
 each particular sound, under different states of the mind. 
 
86 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 will ever be given. We know that some animals, after 
 being domesticated, have acquired the habit of utter- 
 ing sounds which were not natural to them.^ Thus do- 
 mestic dogs, and even tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, 
 which is a noise not proper to any species of the genus, 
 with the exception of the Canis latrans of ISTorth Ameri- 
 ca, which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the do- 
 mestic pigeon have learnt to coo in a new and quite 
 peculiar manner. 
 
 The character of the human voice, under the influ- 
 ence of various emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Her- 
 bert Spencer ^ in his interesting essay on Music. He 
 clearly shows that the voice alters much under different 
 conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in reso- 
 nance and timbre, in pitch and intervals. No one can 
 listen to an eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man call- 
 ing angrily to another, or to one expressing astonish- 
 ment, without being struck with the truth of Mr." Spen- 
 cer's remarks. It is curious how early in life the modu- 
 lation of the voice becomes expressive. With one of my 
 children, under the age of two years, I clearly perceived 
 that his humph of assent was rendered by a slight modu- 
 lation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine 
 his negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. 
 Spencer further shows that emotional speech, in all the 
 above respects is intimately related to vocal music, and 
 consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts 
 to explain the characteristic qualities of both on physio- 
 logical grounds — namely, on " the general law that a 
 feeling is a stimulus to muscular action." It may be 
 
 ^ See the evidence on this head in my ' Variation of 
 Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 37. 
 On the cooing" of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155. 
 
 ^ ' Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858. 
 ' The Orig-in and Function of Music,' p. 359. 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 87 
 
 admitted that the voice is afTected through this law; but 
 the explanation appears to me too general and vague 
 to throw much light on the various differences, with the 
 exception of that of loudness, between ordinary speech 
 and emotional speech, or singing. 
 
 This remark holds good, whether we believe that 
 the various qualities of the voice originated in speaking 
 under the excitement of strong feelings, and that these 
 qualities have subsequently been transferred to vocal 
 music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the 
 habit of uttering musical sounds was first developed, as 
 a means of courtship, in the early progenitors of man, 
 and thus became associated with the strongest emotions 
 of which they were capable, — namely, ardent love, rival- 
 ry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes is 
 familiar to every one, as we may daily hear in the sing- 
 ing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that an ape, 
 one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of musical 
 sounds, ascending and descending the scale by half- 
 tones; so that this monkey " alone of brute mammals 
 may be said to sing." ^ From this fact, and from the 
 analogy of other animals, I have been led to infer that 
 the progenitors of man probably uttered musical tones, 
 before they had acquired ths power of articulate speech; 
 and , that consequently, when the voice is used under 
 any strong emotion, it tends to assume, through the prin- 
 ciple of association, a musical character. We can plainly 
 perceive, \vith some of the lower animals, that the males 
 employ their voices to please the females, and that they 
 
 » ' The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words 
 quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown 
 that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than mon- 
 keys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical 
 tones: see the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the 
 Rev. S. Lockwood, in the ' American Naturalist,' vol. v. 
 December, 1871, p. 7G1. 
 
88 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances; 
 but why particular sounds are uttered, and why these 
 give pleasure cannot at present be explained. 
 
 That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to 
 certain states of feeling is tolerably clear. A person 
 gently complaining of ill-treatment, or slightly suffer- 
 ing, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice. Dogs, 
 when a little impatient, often make a high piping note 
 through their noses, which at once strikes us as plain- 
 tive; * but how difficult it is to know whether the sound 
 is essentially plaintive, or only appears so in this par- 
 ticular case, from our having learnt by experience what 
 it means! Rengger, states^ that the monkeys {Cehus 
 azarce)^ which he kept in Paraguay, expressed astonish- 
 ment by a half -piping, half -snarling noise; anger or im- 
 patience, by repeating the sound hu hto in a deeper, 
 grunting voice; and fright or pain, by shrill screams. 
 On the other hand, with mankind, deep groans and high 
 piercing screams equally express an agony of pain. 
 Laughter may be either high or low; so that, with adult 
 men, as Haller long ago remarked,*' the sound partakes 
 of the character of the vowels (as pronounced in German) 
 and A ; whilst with children and women, it has more 
 of the character of E and /; and these latter vowel- 
 sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher 
 pitch than the former; yet both tones of laughter equally 
 express enjoyment or amusement. 
 
 In considering the mode in which vocal utterances 
 express emotion, we are naturally led to inquire into 
 
 * Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), 
 in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining" 
 of the dog-. 
 
 ^ ' Xaturgeschichte der Saug-ethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, 
 s. 46. 
 
 ^ Quoted by Gratiolet, ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 
 115. 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 89 
 
 the cause of what is called " expression " in music. 
 Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long attended 
 to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me 
 the following remarks: — " The question, what is the es- 
 sence of musical ' expression ' involves a number of ob- 
 scure points, which, so far as I am aware, are as yet 
 unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, however, any 
 law which is found to hold as to the expression of the 
 emotions by simple sounds must apply to the more de- 
 veloped mode of expression in song, which may be taken 
 as the primary type of all music. A great part of the 
 emotional effect of a song depends on the character of 
 the action by which the sounds are produced. In songs, 
 for instance, which express great vehemence of passion, 
 the effect often chiefly depends on the forcible utterance 
 of some one or two characteristic passages which demand 
 great exertion of vocal force; and it will be frequently 
 noticed that a song of this character fails of its proper 
 effect when sung by a voice of sufficient power and range 
 to give the characteristic passages without much exer- 
 tion. This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of effect 
 so often produced by the transposition of a song from 
 one key to another. The effect is thus seen to depend 
 not merely on the actual sounds, but also in part on the 
 nature of the action which produces the sounds. Indeed 
 it is obvious that whenever we feel the ^ expression ' of 
 a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of move- 
 ment — to smoothness of flow, loudness of utterance, and 
 so on — we are, in fact, interpreting the muscular actions 
 which produce sound, in the same way in which we in- 
 terpret muscular action generally. But this leaves un- 
 explained the more subtle and more specific effect which 
 we call the mvsical expression of the song — the delight 
 given by its melody, or even by the separate sounds which 
 make up the melody. Tliis is an effect indefinable in 
 7 
 
90 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 language — one which, so far as I am aware, no one has 
 been able to analyse, and which the ingenious specula- 
 tion of Mr. Herbert Spencer as to the origin of music 
 leaves quite unexplained. For it is certain that the 
 melodic effect of a series of sounds does not depend in 
 the least on their loudness or softness, or on their also- 
 lute pitch. A tune is always the same tune, whether it 
 is sung loudly or softly, by a child or a man; whether 
 it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The purely 
 musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what 
 is technically called a ' scale; ' the same sound produc- 
 ing absolutely different effects on the ear, according as 
 it is heard in connection with one or another series of 
 sounds. 
 
 " It is on this relative association of the sounds that 
 all the essentially characteristic effects which are summed 
 up in the phrase ^ musical expression/ depend. But 
 why certain associations of sounds have such-and-such 
 effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved. 
 These effects must indeed, in some way or other, be con- 
 nected with the well-known arithmetical relations be- 
 tween the rates of vibration of the sounds which form 
 a musical scale. And it is possible — but tliis is merely 
 a suggestion — that the greater or less mechanical facility 
 with which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx 
 passes from one state of vibration to another, may have 
 been a primary cause of the greater or less pleasure pro- 
 duced by various sequences of sounds." 
 
 But leaving aside these complex questions and con- 
 fining ourselves to the simpler sounds, we can, at least, 
 see some reasons for the association of certain kinds of 
 sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for in- 
 stance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the 
 members of a community, as a call for assistance, will 
 naturally be loud, prolonged, and high, so as to pene- 
 
Chap. 1\ . IN ANIMALS. 91 
 
 trate to a distance. For Ilelmholtz has shown ' that, 
 owing to the sliape of the internal cavity of the human 
 ear and its consequent power of resonance, high notes 
 produce a particuhirly strong impression. When male 
 animals utter sounds in order to please the females, they 
 would natirally employ those which are sweet to the 
 ears of the L'pecies; and it appears that the same sounds 
 are often pleasing to widely different animals, owing to 
 the similarity of their nervous systems, as we ourselves 
 perceive in the singing of birds and even in the chirping 
 of certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other 
 hand, sounds produced in order to strike terror into an 
 enemy, would naturally be harsh or displeasing. 
 
 Whether the principle of antithesis has come into 
 play with sounds, as might perhaps have been expected, 
 is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing or tittering 
 sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys 
 when pleased, are as different as possible from the pro- 
 longed screams of these animals when distressed. The 
 deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig, when pleased 
 with its food, is widely different from its harsh scream 
 of pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, 
 the bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by 
 no means stand in opposition to each other; and so it is 
 in some other cases. 
 
 There is another obscure point, namely, whether the 
 sounds which are produced under various states of the 
 mind determine the shape of the mouth, or whether its 
 shape is not determined by independent causes, and the 
 sound thus modified. When young infants cry they 
 open their mouths widely, and this, no doubt, is neces- 
 
 ^ ' Theorie Physioloeriqiie de la ^fiisiqiie,' Paris, 1868, 
 p. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this pro- 
 found work the relation of the form of the cavity of 
 the mouth to the i^roduction of vowel-sounds. 
 
92 MEANS OF EXPRESSION C'hap. IV. 
 
 sary for pouring forth a full volume of sound; but the 
 mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct (:ause, an 
 almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter 
 be explained, on the firm closing of the eyelids, and con- 
 sequent drawing up of the upper lip. How far this 
 square shape of the mouth modifies the wailmg or cry- 
 ing sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from 
 the researches of Helmholtz and others that the form 
 of the cavity of the mouth and lips determines the na- 
 ture and pitch of the vowel sounds which are produced. 
 It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under 
 the feeling of contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, 
 from intelligible causes, to blow out of the mouth or 
 nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh or pish. 
 "When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there 
 is an instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intel- 
 ligible cause, namely, to be ready for prolonged exer- 
 tion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw a deep and 
 rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration fol- 
 lows, the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from 
 causes hereafter to be discussed, are somewhat protruded; 
 and this form of the mouth, if the voice be at all ex- 
 erted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of 
 the vowel 0. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged 
 Oh! may be heard from a whole crowd of people im- 
 mediately after witnessing any astonishing spectacle. 
 If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there is a tend- 
 ency to contract all the muscles of the body, including 
 those of the face, and the lips will then be drawn back; 
 and this will perhaps account for the sound becoming 
 higher and assuming the character of Ah! or Ach! As 
 fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble, the 
 voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time 
 husky from the dryness of the mouth, owing to the sali- 
 vary glands failing to act. ^Vhy the laughter of man and 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 93 
 
 the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly reiterated 
 sound, cannot be exi)lained. During the utterance of 
 these sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by 
 the corners being drawn backwards and upwards; and 
 of this fact an explanation will be attempted in a future 
 chapter. But the whole subject of the difTerences of 
 the sounds produced under different 
 states of the mind is so obscure, that 
 I have succeeded in throwing hardly 
 any light on it; and the remarks which 
 I have made, have but little signifi- 
 cance. 
 
 All the sounds hitherto noticed de- 
 pend on the respiratory organs; but 
 sounds produced by wholly different 
 means are likewise expressive. Rab- 
 bits stamp loudly on the ground as a 
 signal to their comrades; and if a man 
 knows how to do so properly, he may 
 on a quiet evening hear the rabbits 
 answering him all around. These ani- 
 mals, as well as some others, also stamp 
 on the ground when made angry. Por- 
 cupines rattle their quills and vibrate 
 their tails when an^rered; and one be- ^^ 
 
 '^ ^ ^ Fio. 11. — Sound -pro- 
 
 haved in this manner when a live snake dncingr quiiis from the 
 was placed in its compartment. The ^^ ° ^ ^ orcupme. 
 quills on the tail are very different from those on the 
 body: they are short, hollow, thin like a goose-quill, 
 with their ends transversely truncated, so that they are 
 open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic foot- 
 stalks. Xow, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these 
 hollow quills strike against each other and produce, 
 as I heard in the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar 
 
94: MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 continuous sound. We can, I think, understand why- 
 porcupines have been provided, through the modifica- 
 tion of their protective spines, with this special sound- 
 producing instrument. They are nocturnal animals, 
 and if they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey, 
 it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to 
 give warning to their enemy what they were, and that 
 they were furnished with dangerous spines. They would 
 thus escape being attacked. They are, as I may add, 
 so fully conscious of the power of their weapons, that 
 when enraged they will charge backwards with their 
 spines erected, yet still inclined backwards. 
 
 Many birds during their courtsliip produce diversi- 
 fied sounds by means of specially adapted feathers. 
 Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering noise with 
 their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattUng 
 noise. Many insects stridulate b}^ rubbing together spe- 
 ciall)^ modified parts of their hard integuments. This 
 stridulation generally serves as a sexual charm or call; 
 but it is likewise used to express different emotions.^ 
 Every one who has attended to bees knows that their 
 humming changes when they are angry; and this serves 
 as a warning that there is danger of being stung. I have 
 made these few remarks because some writers have laid 
 so much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as 
 having been specially adapted for expression, that it was 
 advisable to show that sounds other"vvise produced serve 
 equally well for the same purpose. 
 
 Erection of the dermal appendages. — Hardly any ex- 
 pressive movement is so general as the involuntary erec- 
 tion of the hairs, feathers and other dermal appendages; 
 for it is common throughout three of the great verte- 
 
 ' I have given some details on this subject in my 
 ' Descent of Man,' vol. i. pp. 352, 384. 
 
CuAP. IV. IX ANIMALS. 95 
 
 brate classes. These appendages are erected under the 
 excitement of anger or terror; more especially when 
 these emotions are combined, or quickly succeed each 
 other. The action serves to make the animal appear 
 larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and 
 is generally accompanied by various voluntary move- 
 ments adapted for the same purpose, and by the utter- 
 ance of savage sounds. ^Ir. Bartlett, who has had such 
 wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt 
 that this is the case; but it is a different question whether 
 the power of erection was primarily acquired for this spe- 
 cial purpose. 
 
 I will first give a considerable body of facts showing 
 how general this action is with mammals, birds and rep- 
 tiles; retaining what I have to say in regard to man for 
 a future chapter. ^Ir. Sutton, the intelligent keeper 
 in the Zoolosrical Gardens, carefullv observed for me 
 the Chimpanzee and Orang: and he states that when 
 they are suddenly frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or 
 when they are made angry, as by being teased, their 
 hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed 
 at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the hair rose all 
 over his body: he made Httle starts forward as if to at- 
 tack the man, without any real intention of doing so, 
 but with the hope, as the keeper remarked, of frighten- 
 ing him. The Gorilla, when enraged, is described by Mr. 
 Ford ® as having his crest of hair " erect and projecting 
 forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown 
 down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, 
 designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonists." I 
 saw the hair on the Anubis baboon, when angered bris- 
 tling along the back, from the neck to the loins, but not 
 
 ° As quoted in Huxley's ' Evidence as to Plan's Place 
 in Nature,' 1863, p. 52. 
 
96 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a stuffed 
 snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several 
 of the species instantly became erect; especially on their 
 tails, as I particularly noticed with the Cercopitliecus 
 nictitans. Brehm states ^^ that the Midas cedipus (be- 
 longing to the American division) when excited erects 
 its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful 
 as possible. 
 
 With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to 
 be almost universal, often accompanied by threatening 
 movements, the uncovering of the teeth and the utter- 
 ance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have seen 
 the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including 
 the tail; and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicu- 
 ous manner by the Hyaena and Proteles. The enraged 
 lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along 
 the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body 
 of the cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. 
 With the cat it apparently occurs only under fear; with 
 the dog, under anger and fear; but not, as far as I have 
 observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be 
 flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog 
 shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. 
 I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is particu- 
 larly liable to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, 
 as on beholding some object only indistinctly seen in 
 the dusk. 
 
 I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he 
 has often seen the hair erected on horses and cattle, on 
 which he had operated and was again going to operate. 
 When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair 
 rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it 
 does with the boar when enraged. iVn Elk which gored 
 
 " lUust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130. 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 97 
 
 a man to death in the United States, is described as first 
 brandishing his antlers, squeaHng with rage and stamp- 
 ing on the ground; " at length his hair was seen to rise 
 and stand on end," and then he plunged forward to the 
 attack." The hair likewise becomes erect on goats, and, 
 as I hear from ]\Ir. Blyth, on some Indian antelopes. I 
 have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater; and on the 
 Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,^" which 
 reared her young under confinement, when any one 
 looked into the cage " erected the fur on her back, and 
 bit viciously at intruding fingers." 
 
 Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their 
 feathers when angry or frightened. Every one must 
 have seen two cocks, even quite young birds, preparing 
 to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these feath- 
 ers when erected serve as a means of defence, for cock- 
 fighters have found by experience that it is advantageous 
 to trim them. The male Ruff [Machetes piignax) like- 
 wise erects its collar of feathers when fighting. When 
 a dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she 
 spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her feath- 
 ers, and looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the 
 intruder. The tail is not always held in exactly the same 
 position; it is sometimes so much erected, that the cen- 
 tral feathers, as in the accompanying drawing, almost 
 touch the back. Swans, when angered, likewise raise 
 their wings and tail, and erect their feathers. They open 
 their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts for- 
 wards, against any one who approaches the water's edge 
 too closely. Tropic birds ^^ when disturbed on their nests 
 
 " The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad, of Xat. wSciences, 
 May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the Capra JEijagrus, ' Land and 
 Water,' 1867, p. 37. 
 
 " ' Land and Water.' July 20, 1867, p. 659. 
 
 " Phaeton rubricauda: 'ibis,' voL iii. 1801, p. ISO. 
 
98 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 are said not to fly away, but " merely to stick out their 
 feathers and scream." The Barn-owl, when approached 
 " instantly swells out its plumage, extends its wings and 
 tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles Avith force and rapid- 
 ity." ^"* So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am 
 
 Fig. 12. — Hen driving away a dog from her chickens. 
 Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
 informed by Mr. Jenner "Weir, likewise ruffle their feath- 
 ers, and spread out their wings and tail under similar 
 circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their feath- 
 ers; and I have seen this action in the Cassowary, when 
 angered at the sight of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos 
 in the nest, raise their feathers, open their mouths 
 widely, and make themselves as frightful as possible. 
 
 " On the Strix flammea, Audubon, ' Ornithological Bi- 
 ography,' 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases 
 in the Zoological Gardens. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 99 
 
 Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as 
 various fiiK'lu\>^, l)imtin«,^s and warblers, when angry. 
 
 Fig. 13.— Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
 ruffle all their feathers, or only those round the neck; 
 or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers. With 
 their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with 
 open beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. "Weir con- 
 cludes from his large experience that the erection of the 
 feathers is caused much more by anger than by fear. He 
 gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most irasci- 
 ble disposition, which when approached too closely by 
 a servant, instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of 
 ruffled feathers. He believes that birds when frightened, 
 as a general rule, closely adpress all their feathers, and 
 their consequently diminished size is often astonishing. 
 
100 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 As soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the 
 first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers. 
 The best instances of this adpression of the feathers and 
 apparent shrinking of the body from fear, which Mr. 
 Weir has noticed, has been in the quail and grass-parra- 
 keet.^^ Tlie habit is intelligible in these birds from 
 their being accustomed, when in danger, either to squat 
 on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch, so as to 
 escape detection. Though, with birds, anger may be 
 the chief and commonest cause of the erection of the 
 feathers, it is probable that young cuckoos when looked 
 at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when ap- 
 proached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Teget- 
 meier informs me that with game-cocks, the erection of 
 the feathers on the head has long been recognized in the 
 cock-pit as a sign of cowardice. 
 
 The males of some lizards, when fighting together 
 during their courtship, expand their throat pouches or 
 frills, and erect their dorsal crests.^^ But Dr. Giinther 
 does not believe that they can erect their separate spines 
 or scales. 
 
 We thus see how generally throughout the two higher 
 vertebrate classes, and with some reptiles, the dermal 
 appendages are erected under the influence of anger and 
 fear. The movement is effected, as we know from Kolli- 
 ker's interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute, 
 unstriped, involuntary muscles,^^ often called arredores 
 pili^ which are attached to the capsules of the separate 
 
 " Mclopsittacus iinditlatuff. See an account of its habits 
 bv Gould, ' Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. 11. 
 pi! 82. 
 
 " See, for instance, the account which I have given 
 (' Descent of !Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco. 
 
 " These muscles are described in his v^'cll-known 
 works. I am g-reatly indebted to this distinguished ob- 
 server for having given me in a letter Information on 
 this same subject. 
 
CuAP. IV. IX ANIMALS. 101 
 
 hairs, feathers, &c. By the contraction of these muscles 
 the hairs can be instantly erected, as we see in a dog, 
 being at the same time drawn a little out of their sockets; 
 they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast num- 
 ber of these minute muscles over the whole body of a 
 hairy quadruped is astonishing. The erection of the hair 
 is, however, aided in some cases, as with that on the head 
 of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the 
 underlying pannicidus carnosus. It is by the action of 
 these latter muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines. 
 It appears, also, from the researches of Leydig ^^ and 
 others, that striped fibres extend from the panniculus 
 to some of the larger hairs, such as the vibrissas of cer- 
 tain quadrupeds. The arredores pili contract not only 
 under the above emotions, but from the application of 
 cold to the surface. I remember that my mules and dogs, 
 brought from a lower and warmer country, after spend- 
 ing a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over 
 their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror. We see 
 the same action in our own goose-skin during the chill 
 before a fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,^^ that tick- 
 ling a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection 
 and protrusion of the hairs. 
 
 From these facts it is manifest that the erection of 
 the dermal appendages is a reflex action, independent 
 of the will; and this action must be looked at, when, 
 occurring under the influence of anger or fear, not as a 
 power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but 
 as an incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the 
 sensorium being affected. The result, in as far as it is 
 
 " ' Lehrbiich der Histolos-ie des Menschen,' 1857, s. 
 82. I owe to Prof. ^Y. Turner's kindness an extract from 
 this work. 
 
 ^^ ' Quarterly Journal of ^ficroscopical Science,' 1S53, 
 vol. i. p. 262. 
 
102 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 incidental, may be compared with the profuse sweating 
 from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless, it is re- 
 markable how slight an excitement often suffices to cause 
 the hair to become erect; as when two dogs pretend to 
 fight together in play. We have, also, seen in a large 
 number of animals, belonging to widely distinct classes, 
 that the erection of the hair or feathers is almost always 
 accompanied by various voluntary movements — by 
 threatening gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the 
 teeth, spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and 
 by the utterance of harsh sounds; and the purpose of 
 these voluntary movements is unmistakable. Therefore 
 it seems hardly credible that the co-ordinated erection of 
 the dermal appendages, by which the animal is made to 
 appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, 
 should be altogether an incidental and purposeless result 
 of the disturbance of the sensorium. This seems almost 
 as incredible as that the erection by the hedgehog of its 
 spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of the orna- 
 mental plumes by many birds during their courtship, 
 should all be purposeless actions. 
 
 We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the 
 contraction of the unstriped and involuntary arredores 
 pili have been co-ordinated with that of various volun- 
 tary muscles for the same special purpose? If we could 
 believe that the arrectores primordially had been volun- 
 tary muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become 
 involuntary, the case would be comparatively simple. 
 I am not, however, aware that there is any evidence in 
 favour of this view; although the reversed transition 
 would not have presented any great difficulty, as the 
 voluntary muscles are in an unstriped condition in the 
 embryos of the higher animals, and in the larvae of some 
 crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the skin 
 of adult birds, the muscular network is, according to 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 103 
 
 Leydig,'" in a transitional condition; tlie fibres exhibit- 
 ing only indications of transverse striation. 
 
 Another explanation seems possible. We may admit 
 that originally the arrecturcs pili were slightly acted on 
 in a direct manner, under the influence of rage and 
 terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system; as is 
 undoubtedly the case with our so-called goose-skin be- 
 fore a fever-flt. Animals have been repeatedly excited 
 by rage and terror during many generations; and con- 
 sequently the direct effects of the disturbed nervous 
 system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly 
 have been increased through habit and through the tend- 
 ency of nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed 
 channels. We shall find this view of the force of habit 
 strikingly confirmed in a future chapter, where it will 
 be shown that the hair of the insane is affected in an 
 extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated accesses 
 of fury and terror. As soon as with animals the power 
 of erection had thus been strengthened or increased, 
 they must often have seen the hairs or feathers erected 
 in rival and enraged males, and the bulk of their bodies 
 thus increased. In this case it appears possible that they 
 might have wished to make themselves appear larger and 
 more terrible to their enemies, b}^ voluntarily assuming 
 a threatening attitude and uttering harsh cries; such 
 attitudes and utterances after a time becoming through 
 habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed 
 by the contraction of voluntarv muscles mis^ht have been 
 combined for the same special purpose with those ef- 
 fected by involuntary muscles. It is even possible that 
 animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some 
 change in the state of their hair, might act on it by re- 
 peated exertions of their attention and ^nll: for we have 
 
 ■* * Lehrbuch der Histologic,' 1857, s. 82. 
 
lOJ: MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 reason to believe that the will is able to influence in an 
 obscure manner the action of some unstriped or involun- 
 tary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic move- 
 ments of the intestines, and in the contraction of the 
 bladder. Nor must we overlook the part which varia- 
 tion and natural selection may have played; for the 
 males which succeeded in making themselves appear the 
 most terrible to their rivals, or to their other enemies, 
 if not of overwhelming power, will on an average have 
 left more offspring to inherit their characteristic quali- 
 ties, whatever these may be and however first acquired, 
 than have other males. 
 
 The inflation of the lody^ and other means of excit- 
 ing fear in an enemy. — Certain Amphibians and Rep- 
 tiles, which either have no spines to erect, or no muscles 
 by wliich they can be erected, enlarge themselves when 
 alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known 
 to be the case with toads and frogs. The latter animal 
 is made, in ^sop's fable of the ^ Ox and the Frog,^ to 
 blow itself up from vanity and qhxj until it burst. This 
 action must have been observed during the most ancient 
 times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,-^ the 
 word toad expresses in all the languages of Europe the 
 habit of swelling. It has been observed with some of th^ 
 exotic species in the Zoological Gardens; and Dr. Giin- 
 ther believes that it is general throughout the group. 
 Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably 
 was to make the body appear as large and frightful as 
 possible to an enemy; but another, and perhaps more im- 
 portant secondary advantage is thus gained. AYhen frogs 
 are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies, they 
 enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be 
 of small size, as Dr. Giinther informs me, it cannot swal- 
 low the frog, which thus escapes being devoured. 
 
 ^ ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403. 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 105 
 
 Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves 
 when angry. Thus a species inhabiting Oregon, the 
 Tapaya Douglasii^ is slow in its movements and does 
 not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; " when irritated 
 it springs in a most threatening manner at anything 
 pointed at it, at the same time opening its mouth wide 
 and hissing audibly, after which it inflates its body, and 
 shows other marks of anger." ^^ 
 
 Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves 
 when irritated. The puff-adder {Clotho arietans) is re- 
 markable in this respect; but I believe, after carefully 
 watching these animals, that they do not act thus for 
 the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply 
 for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their 
 surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. 
 The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge them- 
 selves a little, and hiss moderately; but, at the same 
 time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of 
 their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of 
 the neck into a large flat disk, — the so-called hood. With 
 their widely opened mouths, they then assume a terrific 
 aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to be consider- 
 able, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened 
 rapidity (though this is still great) with which, when di- 
 lated, they can strike at their enemies or prey; on the 
 same principle that a broad, thin piece of wood cannot 
 be moved through the air so quickly as a small round 
 stick. An innocuous snake, the Tropidonotus macroph- 
 thalmus, an inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck 
 when irritated; and consequently is often mistaken for 
 its compatriot, the deadly Cobra." This resemblance 
 perhaps serves as some protection to the Tropidonotus. 
 
 " See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr, 
 Cooper, as quoted in ' Nature,' April 27, 1S71, p. 512. 
 « Dr. Giinther, ' Reptiles of British India,' p. 262. 
 
 8 
 
106 MEANS OF EXPKESSIOX Chap. IV. 
 
 Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South Afri- 
 ca, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and darts 
 at an intruder.^^ Many other snakes hiss under similar 
 circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate their protruded 
 tongues; and this may aid in increasing their terrific 
 appearance. 
 
 Snakes possess other means of producing sounds 
 besides hissing. Many years ago I observed in South 
 America that a venomous Trigonocephalus, when dis- 
 turbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which strik- 
 ing against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling 
 noise that could be distinctly heard at the distance of 
 six feet.-^ The deadly and fierce Ecliis carinata of India 
 produces " a curious prolonged, almost hissing sound " 
 in a very different manner, namely by rubbing " the 
 sides of the folds of its bodv asrainst each other," whilst 
 the head remains in almost the same position. The 
 scales on the sides, and not on other parts of the body, 
 are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a saw; 
 and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these 
 grate against each other. ^® Lastly, we have the well- 
 known case of the Eattle-snake. He who has merely 
 shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can form no just idea 
 of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor 
 Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made 
 by the male of a large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), 
 which inhabits the same district.-^ In the Zoological 
 
 " :Mr. J. Mansel Weale. ' Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508. 
 
 ^ ' Journal of Eesearches during" the Voyao-e of the 
 " Beag"le," ' 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling- thus 
 produced with that of the Eattle-snake. 
 
 ^^ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
 1871, p. 196. 
 
 " The ' American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. T reg-ret 
 that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing- that the 
 rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural selection, 
 for the sake of producing- sounds -which deceive and at- 
 tract birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 107 
 
 Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and pufT-adders were 
 greatly excited at the same time, 1 was much struck at 
 the simiharity of the sound produced by them; and al- 
 though that made by the rattle-snake is louder and 
 shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when 
 standing at some yards distance I could scarcely distin- 
 guish the two. For whatever purpose the sound is pro- 
 duced by the one species, I can hardly doubt that it serves 
 for the same purpose in the other species; and I conclude 
 from the threatening gestures made at the same time 
 by many snakes, that their hissing, — the rattling of the 
 rattle-snake and of the tail of the Trigonocephalus, — 
 the grating of the scales of the Echis, — and the dilata- 
 tion of the hood of the Cobra, — all subserve the same 
 end, namely, to make them appear terrible to their ene- 
 mies.^® 
 
 It seems at first a probable conclusion that venom- 
 ous snakes, such as the foregoing, from being already 
 so well defended by their poison-fangs, would never be 
 attacked by any enemy; and consequently would have 
 
 I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may 
 occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at 
 which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling* serves as a 
 warning" to would-be devourers, appears to me much more 
 probable, as it connects tog^ether various classes of facts. 
 If this snake had acquired its rattle and the habit of 
 rattling-, for the sake of attracting- prey, it does not seem 
 probable that it ^vould have invariably used its instru- 
 ment when ang-ered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes 
 nearly the same view as I do of the manner of develop- 
 ment of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion 
 since observing- the Trig-onocephalus in South America. 
 
 ^ From the accounts lately collected, and g-iven in 
 the ' Journal of the Linnean Society,' by Mrs. Barber, 
 on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from 
 the accounts published by several writers, for instance 
 by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North America, — it 
 does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance 
 of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may like- 
 wise serve in procuringr prey, by paralysing-, or as it is 
 sometimes called fascinating-, the smaller animals. 
 
108 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 no need to excite additional terror. But tliis is far from 
 being the case, for they are largely preyed on in all quar- 
 ters of the world by many animals. It is well known 
 that pigs are employed in the United States to clear dis- 
 tricts infested with rattle-snakes, which they do most 
 effectually.^^ In England the hedgehog attacks and de- 
 vours the viper. In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, 
 several kinds of hawks, and at least one mammal, the 
 Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous species; ^® 
 and so it is in South Africa. Therefore it is by no means 
 improbable that any sounds or signs by which the venom- 
 ous species could instantly make themselves recognized 
 as dangerous, would be of more service to them than to 
 the innocuous species which would not be able, if at- 
 tacked, to inflict any real injury. 
 
 Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted 
 to add a few remarks on the means by which the rattle 
 of the rattle-snake was probably developed. Various 
 animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate 
 their tails when excited. This is the case with many 
 kinds of snakes.^^ In the Zoological Gardens, an in- 
 
 ^ See tlie account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 
 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig- sees a snake it 
 rushes upon it; and a snake makes oft' immediately on 
 the appearance of a pig. 
 
 ^^ Dr. Glinther remarks ('Reptiles of British India,' p. 
 340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or 
 herpestes, and whilst the cobras are j'oung- by the jung-le- 
 f owl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills 
 snakes. 
 
 ^^ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his 
 ' Method of Creation of Organic Types,' read before the 
 American Phil. Soc, December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. 
 Cope takes the same view as I do of the use of the ges- 
 tures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to 
 this subject in the last edition of my ' Origin of Species.' 
 Since the passages in the text above have been printed, 
 I have been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson (' The 
 American Naturalist,' :N[ay, 1872, p. 260) also takes a simi- 
 lar view of the use of the rattle, namely " in preventing 
 an attack from being made." 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 100 
 
 nocuous species, the Coronella Sayi^ vibrates its tail so 
 rapidly that it becomes almost invisible. The Trigono- 
 cephahis, before alluded to, has the same habit; and 
 the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends 
 in a bead. In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied 
 to the rattle-snake that it was placed by Linnaeus in 
 the same genus, the tail ends in a single, large, lancet- 
 shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as 
 Professor Shaler remarks, " is more imperfectly detached 
 from the region about the tail than at other parts of the 
 body." Now if we suppose that the end of the tail of 
 some ancient American species was enlarged, and was 
 covered by a single large scale, this could hardly have 
 been cast off at the successive moults. In this case it 
 would have been permanently retained, and at each 
 period of growth, as the snake grew larger, a new scale, 
 larger than the last, would have been formed above it, 
 and would likewise have been retained. The foundation 
 for the development of a rattle would thus have been 
 laid; and it would have been habitually used, if the spe- 
 cies, like so many others, vibrated its tail whenever it was 
 irritated. That the rattle has since been specially devel- 
 oped to serve as an efficient sound-producing instrument, 
 there can hardly be a doubt; for even the vertebrae in- 
 cluded within the extremity of the tail have been altered 
 in shape and cohere. But there is no greater improb- 
 ability in various structures, such as the rattle of the 
 rattle-snake, — the lateral scales of the Ecliis, — the neck 
 with the included ribs of the Cobra, — and the whole body 
 of the puff-adder, — having been modified for the sake 
 of warning and frightening away their enemies, than in 
 a bird, namely, the wonderful Secretary-hawk (Gypo- 
 gcramis) having had its whole frame modified for the 
 sake of killing snakes with impunity. It is highly prob- 
 able, judging from what we have before seen, that this 
 
110 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 bird would ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a 
 snake; and it is certain that the Herpestes, when it 
 eagerly rushes to attack a snake, erects the hair all over 
 its body, and especially that on its tail.^- We have also 
 seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at 
 the sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus pro- 
 ducing a pecuhar sound by the striking together of the 
 hollow quills. So that here both the attackers and the 
 attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as 
 possible to each other; and both possess for this purpose 
 specialised means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the 
 same in some of these cases. Finally we can see that if, 
 on the one hand, those individual snakes, which were 
 best able to frighten away their enemies, escaped best 
 from being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those 
 individuals of the attacking enemy survived in larger 
 numbers wliich were the best fitted for the dangerous 
 task of killing and devouring venomous snakes; — then 
 in the one case as in the other, beneficial variations, sup- 
 posing the characters in question to vary, would com- 
 monly have been preserved through the survival of the 
 fittest. 
 
 Tlie Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the 
 Head. — The ears through their movements are highly 
 expressive in many animals; but in some, such as man, 
 the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in tliis 
 respect. A slight difi'erence in position serves to express 
 in the plainest manner a different state of mind, as we 
 mav daily see in the dog: but we are here concerned 
 only with the ears being drawn closely backwards and 
 pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus 
 shown, bat only in the case of those animals which fight 
 
 " Mr. des Voeux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3. 
 
Chap. IV. IX ANIMALS. HI 
 
 with their teeth; and the care which they take to pre- 
 vent their ears being seized by their antagonists, accounts 
 for this position. Consequently, through habit and as- 
 sociation, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend 
 in their play to be savage, their ears are drawn back. 
 That this is the true explanation may be inferred from 
 the relation which exists in very many animals between 
 their manner of fighting and the retraction of their ears. 
 
 All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and 
 all, as far as I have observed, draw their ears back when 
 feeling savage. This may be continually seen with dogs 
 when fighting in earnest, and with puppies fighting in 
 play. The movement is different from the falling 
 down and slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog 
 feels pleased and is caressed by his master. The retrac- 
 tion of the ears may likewise be seen in kittens fighting 
 together in their play, and in full-grown cats when really 
 savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although 
 their ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they 
 often get much torn in old male cats during their mu- 
 tual battles. The same movement is very striking in 
 tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in 
 menageries. The lynx has remarkably long ears; and 
 their retraction, when one of these animals is approached 
 in its cage, is very conspicuous, and is eminently expres- 
 sive of its savage disposition. Even one of the Eared 
 Seals, the Ofariapusilla^vrhich. has very small ears, draws 
 them backwards, when it makes a savage rush at the legs 
 of its keeper. 
 
 WTien horses fight together they use their incisors for 
 biting, and their fore-legs for striking, much more than 
 they do their hind-legs for kicking backwards. This 
 has been observed when stallions have broken loose and 
 have fought together, and may like\nse be inferred from 
 the kind of wounds which thev inflict on each other. 
 
112 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 Every one recognizes the vicious appearance wliicli the 
 drawing back of the ears gives to a horse. This move- 
 ment is very different from that of listening to a sound 
 behind. If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined 
 to kick backwards, his ears are retracted from habit, 
 though he has no intention or power to bite. But when 
 a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as when enter- 
 ing an open field, or when just touched by the whip, he 
 does not generally depress his ears, for he does not then 
 feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with their teeth; 
 and they must do so frequently, for I found the hides 
 of several which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored. So 
 do camels; and both these animals, when savage, draw 
 their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have no- 
 ticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their 
 offensive saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract 
 their ears. Even the hippopotamus, when threatening 
 with its widely-open enormous mouth a comrade, draws 
 back its small ears, just like a horse. 
 
 Now what a contrast is presented between the fore- 
 going animals and cattle, sheep, or goats, which never 
 use their teeth in fighting, and never draw back their 
 ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear 
 such placid animals, the males often join in furious con- 
 tests. As deer form a closely related family, and as I 
 did not know that they ever fought with their teeth, I 
 was much surprised at the account given by Major Ross 
 King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when 
 " two males chance to meet, lapng back their ears and 
 gnashing their teeth together, they rush at each other 
 Tvith appalling fury." ^^ But Mr. Bartlett informs me 
 that some species of deer fight savagely with their teeth, 
 
 '* ' The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p. 53. 
 p. 53. 
 
Cii AP. I V. I N A N I M A LS. 1 1 3 
 
 SO that the drawin<jj hack of tlie cars by the moose ac- 
 cords with our rule. Several kinds of kangaroos, kept 
 in the Zoological Gardens, fight by scratching with their 
 fore-feet and by kicking with their hind-legs; but they 
 never bite each other, and the keepers liave never seen 
 them draw back their ears when angered. l?abbits fight 
 chiefly by kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite 
 each other; and I have known one to bite olf half the 
 tail of its antagonist. At the commencement of their 
 battles they lay back their ears, but afterwards, as they 
 bound over and kick each other, they keep their ears 
 erect, or move them much about. 
 
 Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather 
 savagely with his sow; and both had their mouths open 
 and their ears drawn backwards. But this does not 
 appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when 
 quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards 
 with their tusks; and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they 
 then draw back their ears. Elephants, which in like 
 manner fight with their tusks, do not retract their ears, 
 but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each 
 other or at an enemy. 
 
 The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with 
 their nasal horns, and have never been seen to attempt 
 biting each other except in play; and the keepers are 
 convinced that they do not draw back their ears, like 
 horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following 
 statement, therefore, by Sir S. Baker ^* is inexplicable, 
 namely, that a rhinoceros, which he shot in North Africa, 
 " had no ears; they had been bitten off close to the head 
 by another of the same species while fighting; and this 
 mutilation is by no means uncommon." 
 
 Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which 
 
 '* ' The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443. 
 
114 MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS. Chap. IV. 
 
 have moveable ears, and which fight with their teeth — 
 for instance the Cercopithecus ruber — draw back their 
 ears when irritated just Hke dogs; and they then have 
 a very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the Inuus 
 ecaudatus, apparently do not thus act. Again, other 
 kinds — and this is a great anomaly in comparison with 
 most other animals — retract their ears, show their teeth, 
 and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed. 
 I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and 
 in the Cynopithecus niger. This expression, owing to 
 our familiarity with dogs, would never be recognized 
 as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with 
 monkeys. 
 
 Erection of the Ears. — This movement requires hard- 
 ly any notice. All animals which have the power of. 
 freely moving their ears, when they are startled, or when 
 they closely observe any object, direct their ears to the 
 point towards which they are looking, in order to hear 
 any sound from this quarter. Ai the same time they 
 generally raise their heads, as all their organs of sense 
 are there situated, and some of the smaller animals rise 
 on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on 
 the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, gen- 
 erally act momentarily in this manner, in order to ascer- 
 tain the source and nature of the danger. The head 
 being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed for- 
 wards, gives an unmistakable expression of close atten- 
 tion to any animal. 
 
Chap. V. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: DOGS. 115 
 
 CHxYPTER V. 
 Special Expressions of Animals. 
 
 The Dog", various expressive movements of — Cats — Horses 
 — Ruminants — Monkeys, their expression of joy and 
 affection — Of pain — Anger — Astonishment and Terror. 
 
 Hie Dog. — I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) 
 the appearance of a dog approaching another dog with 
 hostile intentions, namely, with erected ears, eyes in- 
 tently directed forwards, hair on the neck and back 
 bristling, gait remarkably stiif, with the tail upright 
 and rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that 
 an angry man is sometimes said " to have his back up." 
 Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright tail alone 
 require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks ^ that, 
 when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is sud- 
 denly roused to ferocity, " every muscle is in tension, 
 and the limbs are in an attitude of strained exertion, 
 prepared to spring." This tension of the muscles and 
 consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the prin- 
 ciple of associated habit, for anger has continually led 
 to fierce struggles, and consequently to all the muscles 
 of the body having been violently exerted. There is also 
 reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some 
 short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before 
 being brought into strong action. My own sensations 
 
 ^ ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190. 
 115 
 
llg SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 lead me to this inference; but I cannot discover that it 
 is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget, 
 however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly 
 contracted with the greatest force, without any prepara- 
 tion, they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips 
 unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an 
 action, however violent, is deliberately performed. 
 
 With respect to the upright position of the tail, it 
 seems to depend (but whether this is really the case I 
 know not) on the elevator muscles being more powerful 
 than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the 
 hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail 
 is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before 
 his master with high, elastic steps, generally carries his 
 tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when 
 he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an 
 open field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, 
 the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows when 
 they frisk about from pleasure, throw up their tails 
 in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various animals 
 in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, 
 however, in certain cases, is determined by special 
 circumstances; thus as soon as a horse breaks into a 
 gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so 
 that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the 
 air. 
 
 When a dog is on the point of springing on his an- 
 tagonist, he utters a savage growl; the ears are pressed 
 closely backwards, and the upper lip (fig. 14) is retracted 
 out of the way of his teeth, especially of his canines. 
 These movements may be observed with dogs and pup- 
 pies in their play. But if a dog gets really savage in his 
 play, his expression immediately changes. This, how- 
 ever, is simply due to the lips and ears being drawn back 
 with much greater energ}\ If a dog only snarls at an- 
 
CUAP. V. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 11 
 
 other, the lip is <^^'iuM-ally retracted on one side alone, 
 namely towards his enemy. 
 
 The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection 
 towards his master were described (figs. G and 8) in our 
 second chapter. These consist in the head and whole 
 body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, 
 with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. 
 The ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, 
 which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and alters the 
 
 Fig. 14.— Head of snailing Dog. From life, by Mr. Wood. 
 
 whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, 
 and the hair remains smooth. All these movements or 
 gestures are explicable, as I believe, from their stand- 
 ing in complete antithesis to those naturally assumed 
 by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind. 
 When a man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog. 
 
118 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 we see the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag 
 of the tail, without any other movement of the body, and 
 without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit 
 their affection by desiring to rub against their masters, 
 and to be rubbed or patted by them. 
 
 Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in 
 the following manner: and the reader can judge whether 
 the explanation appears satisfactor}'. Speaking of ani- 
 mals in general, including the dog, he says,^ " C'est tou- 
 jours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui re- 
 cherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque toute la 
 longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible, Fanimal ser- 
 pente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se 
 propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments 
 jusqu'aux extremites de la colonne vertebrale, la queue 
 se ploie et s'agite." Further on, he adds, that dogs, when 
 feeling affectionate, lower their ears in order to exclude 
 all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concen- 
 trated on the caresses of their master! 
 
 Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting 
 their affection, namely, by licking the hands or faces of 
 their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, and 
 then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs lick- 
 ing cats with whom they were friends. This habit prob- 
 ably originated in the females carefully licking their 
 puppies — the dearest object of their love — for the sake 
 of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, 
 after a short absence, a few cursory licks, apparently 
 from affection. Thus the habit will have become asso- 
 ciated with the emotion of love, however it may after- 
 wards be aroused. It is now so firmly inherited or in- 
 nate, that it is transmitted equally to both sexes. A 
 female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed, 
 
 * ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp. 187, 218. 
 
Cdap. V. DOGS. 119 
 
 and though at all times a very affectionate creature, I was 
 much struck with the manner in which she then tried 
 to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it 
 on me; and her desire to liok my hands rose to an insati- 
 able passion. 
 
 The same principle probably explains why dogs, 
 when feeling affectionate, like rubbing against their 
 masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for from 
 the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved ob- 
 ject has become firmly associated in their minds with the 
 emotion of love. 
 
 The feeling of affection of a dog tovrards his master 
 is combined with a strong sense of submission, which is 
 akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their bodies and 
 crouch a little as they approach their masters, but some- 
 times throw themselves on the ground with their bellies 
 upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite 
 as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly pos- 
 sessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with 
 other dogs; but a wolf -like shepherd-dog in the neigh- 
 bourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful as 
 my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they 
 met on the road, my dog used to run to meet him, with 
 his tail partly tucked in between his legs and hair not 
 erected; and then he would throw himself on the 
 ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say 
 more plainly than by words, " Behold, I am your slave." 
 
 A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated 
 with affection, is exhibited by some dogs in a very pecul- 
 iar manner; namely, by grinning. This was noticed 
 long ago by Somerville, who says, 
 
 " And with a courtly grin, the fawning" hound 
 Salutes thee cow'ring-, his wide op'ning' nose 
 Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes 
 Melt in soft blandishments, and humble n'oy.' 
 
 The Chase, book i. 
 
120 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound, ^laida, had 
 this habit, and it is common with terriers. I have also 
 seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. Eiviere, who 
 has particularly attended to this expression, informs me 
 that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite 
 common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the 
 act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the 
 canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; 
 but the general appearance of the animal clearly shows 
 that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell ^ remarks " Dogs, in 
 their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of 
 the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a 
 way that resembles laughter." Some persons speak of 
 the grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we 
 should see a similar, though more pronounced, move- 
 ment of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of 
 joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often 
 follows a grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing 
 with their comrades or masters, almost always pretend 
 to bite each other; and they then retract, though not 
 energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that 
 there is a tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel live- 
 ly pleasure combined with affection, to act through habit 
 and association on the same muscles, as in playfully bit- 
 ing each other, or their masters' hands. 
 
 I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and 
 appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked 
 antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected 
 and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and 
 chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation 
 of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in 
 an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The tendency 
 to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or runs in 
 
 » ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140. 
 
Chap. V. DOGS. 121 
 
 the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog 
 barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his mas- 
 ter that he becomes a nuisance. 
 
 An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the 
 same way as by many other animals, namely, by howl- 
 ing, writhing, and contortions of the whole body. 
 
 Attention is shown by the head being raised, with 
 the ears erected, and eyes intently directed towards the 
 object or quarter under observation. If it be a sound 
 and the source is not known, the head is often turned 
 obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner, 
 apparently in order to judge with more exactness from 
 what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog 
 greatly surprised at a new noise, turning his head to one 
 side through habit, though he clearly perceived the 
 source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when 
 their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching 
 some object, or attending to some sound, often lift up 
 one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, as if to make 
 a slow and stealthy approach. 
 
 A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, 
 howl, and void his excretions; but the hair, I believe, 
 does not become erect unless some anger is felt, I have 
 seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who 
 were plapng loudly outside the house, with every mus- 
 cle of his body trembling, with his heart palpitating so 
 quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and pant- 
 ing for breath with widely open mouth, in the same 
 manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not 
 exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and rest- 
 lessly about the room, and the day was cold. 
 
 Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown 
 by the tail being tucked in between the legs. This tuck- 
 ing in of the tail is accompanied by the ears being drawn 
 backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head, 
 9 
 
122 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog 
 is pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase 
 each other in play, the one that runs away always keeps 
 his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the high- 
 est spirits, careers like a mad creature round and round 
 his master in circles, or in figures of eight. He then 
 acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious 
 kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who 
 has attended to dogs, is particularly apt to be excited, 
 after the animal has been a little startled or frightened, 
 as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the 
 dusk. In this case, as well as when two young dogs are 
 chasing each other in play, it appears as if the one that 
 runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the 
 tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch 
 each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who 
 had kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to other 
 experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen 
 hounds thus seize a fox; but they never had. It appears 
 that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of being 
 struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these 
 cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his 
 whole hind-quarters, and that from some sympathy or 
 connection between the muscles, the tail is then drawn 
 closely inwards. 
 
 A similarly connected movement between the hind- 
 quarters and the tail may be observed in the hyagna. 
 Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals 
 fight together, they are mutually conscious of the won- 
 derful power of each other's jaws, and are extremely 
 cautious. They well know that if one of their legs were 
 seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; 
 hence they approach each other kneeling, with their legs 
 turned as much as possible inwards, and with their whole 
 bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point; the 
 
CiiAP. V. DOGS. 123 
 
 tail at the same time being closely tucked in between 
 the legs. In this attitude they approach each other side- 
 ways, or even partly backwards. So again with deer, 
 several of the s])ocies, wlicn savage and fighting, tuck in 
 their tails. Wlien one horse in a field tries to bite the 
 hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy 
 strikes a donkey from behind, the hind-quarters and the 
 tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this 
 were done merely to save the tail from being injured. 
 We have also seen the reverse of these movements; for 
 when an animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail is 
 almost always carried aloft. 
 
 As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, 
 he keeps his ears directed backwards but still open; and 
 this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the footsteps 
 of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in 
 this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the dan- 
 ger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, with 
 a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some 
 object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows 
 and does not need to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long 
 time hold her ears and tail in this position, looking the 
 image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is 
 similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, 
 just at the time when this same dog knew that her dinner 
 would be brought. I did not call her, but she wished 
 much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished 
 much for her dinner; and there she stood, first looking 
 one way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and 
 ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appear- 
 ance of perplexed discomfort. 
 
 Almost all the expressive movements now described, 
 with the exception of the grinning from joy, are innate 
 or instinctive, for they are common to all the individ- 
 uals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them 
 
12^ SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the 
 dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to 
 other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and 
 jackals, when caressed by their masters, jump about for 
 joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their master's 
 hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the 
 ground belly upwards.* I have seen a rather fox-like 
 African jackal, from the Gaboon, depress its ears when 
 caressed. Wolves and jackals, when frightened, certain- 
 ly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been de- 
 scribed as careering round his master in circles and fig- 
 ures of eight, like a dog, with his tail between his legs. 
 
 It has been stated ° that foxes, however tame, never 
 display any of the above expressive movements; but 
 this is not strictly accurate. Many years ago I observed 
 in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the 
 time, that a very tame English fox, when caressed by 
 the keeper, wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then 
 threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The black 
 fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a 
 slight degree. But I believe that foxes never lick the 
 hands of their masters, and I have been assured that 
 when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the 
 explanation which I have given of the expression of 
 affection in dogs be admitted, then it would appear that 
 animals which have never been domesticated — namely 
 wolves, jackals, and even foxes — have nevertheless ac- 
 
 * Many particulars are g-iven by Gueldenstiidt in his 
 account of the jackal in Xov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. 
 Petrop. 1775, torn. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent 
 account of the manners of this animal and of its play, in 
 'Land and Water,' October, 1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., 
 has also communicated to me some particulars with re- 
 spect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about 
 wolves and jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have 
 observed them for mvself. 
 
 6 ' Land and Water,' November 6, 1869. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 ('ATS. 
 
 li>5 
 
 quired, throu^li tlu> i)rinciple of antithesis, certain ex- 
 pressive gestures; I'or it is not probable that these ani- 
 mals, confined in cages, should liavo learnt llifui l)y imi- 
 tatin^x dogs. 
 
 Cats. — I have already described the actions of a cat 
 
 Fig. 15.— Cat terrified at a dog. From life, by Mr. Wood. 
 
 (fig. 9), when feeling savage and not terrified. She as- 
 sumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes 
 her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for striking. 
 
126 SPECIAL EXPKESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to 
 side. The hair is not erected — at least it was not so in 
 the few cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely 
 backwards and the teeth are shown. Low savage growls 
 are uttered. We can understand why the attitude as- 
 sumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another 
 cat, or in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different 
 from that of a dog approaching another dog with hostile 
 intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for striking, 
 and tliis renders a crouching position convenient or 
 necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a 
 dog to He concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. 
 Xo cause can be assigned with certainty for the tail 
 being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is 
 common to many other animals — for instance, to the 
 puma, when prepared to spring; ® but it is not common 
 to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John's ac- 
 count of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare. We 
 have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various 
 snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their 
 tails. It would appear as if, under strong excitement, 
 there existed an uncontrollable desire for movement of 
 some kind, o\\dng to nerve-force being freely liberated 
 from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left 
 free, and as its movement does not disturb the general 
 position of the body, it is curled or lashed about. 
 
 All the movements of a cat, when feeling affection- 
 ate, are in complete antithesis to those just described. 
 She now stands upright, with slightly arched back, tail 
 perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs 
 her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. 
 The desire to rub something is so strong in cats under 
 this state of mind, that they may often be seen rubbing 
 
 • Azara, ' Quadrupedes du Paraquat',' ISOl, torn, i. p. 136. 
 
Chap. V. CATS. 127 
 
 themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or against 
 door-posts. This manner of expressing alfection prob- 
 ably originated tlirougli association, as in the case of 
 dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; 
 and perhaps from the young themselves loving each 
 other and playing together. Another and very different 
 gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been de- 
 scribed, namel}', the curious manner in which young and 
 even old cats, when pleased, alternately protrude their 
 fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and 
 sucking their mother's teats. This habit is so far analo- 
 gous to that of rubbing against something, that both 
 apparently are derived from actions performed during 
 the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by 
 rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter 
 delight in contact with their masters, and why cats only 
 occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs 
 always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by 
 licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. 
 On the other hand, their tongues seem less well fitted 
 for the work than the longer and more flexible tongues 
 of dogs. 
 
 Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch 
 their backs in a well-known and ridiculous fashion. 
 They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair over the whole body, 
 and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the in- 
 stances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held 
 upright, the terminal part being thrown on one side; but 
 sometimes the tail (see fig. 15) is only a little raised, and 
 is bent almost from the base to one side. The ears are 
 drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens 
 are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten 
 the other. From what we have seen in former chapters, 
 all the above points of expression are intelligible, except 
 the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to be- 
 
128 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 lieve that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they 
 rufl&e their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to 
 make themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand 
 upright at their full height, arch their backs, often raise 
 the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the 
 same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch 
 its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers 
 in the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency 
 to this action in the larger feline animals, such as tigers, 
 lions, &c.; and these have little cause to be afraid of any 
 other animal. 
 
 Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, 
 and they utter, under various emotions and desires, at 
 least six or seven different sounds. The purr of satis- 
 faction, which is made during both inspiration and ex- 
 piration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, 
 and ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, 
 " emits a peculiar short snuffle, accompanied by the clos- 
 ure of the eyelids.'' '^ It is said that the lion, jaguar, 
 and leopard, do not purr. 
 
 Horses. — Horses when savage draw their ears closely 
 back, protrude their heads, and partially uncover their 
 incisor teeth, ready for biting. When inclined to kick 
 behind, they generally, through habit, draw back their 
 ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar 
 manner.® "Wlien pleased, as when some coveted food is 
 brought to them in the stable, they raise and draw in 
 their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently to- 
 wards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is ex- 
 pressed by pawing the ground. 
 
 ' ' Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the 
 Puma, in the work abore quoted. 
 
 « Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123. 
 See also p. 126, on horses not breathing- throug-h their 
 mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils. 
 
CnAr. V. RUMINANTS. 120 
 
 The actions of a horse when much startled arc highly 
 expressive. One day my horse was much frightened 
 at a drilling machine, covered by a tarpaulin, and lying 
 on an open field. lie raised his head so high, that his 
 neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from 
 habit, for the machine lay on a slope below, and could 
 not have been seen with more distinctness through the 
 raising of the head; nor if any sound had proceeded 
 from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. 
 His eves and ears were directed intentlv forwards; and I 
 could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his 
 heart. With red dilated nostrils he snorted violently, 
 and whirling round, would have dashed off at full speed, 
 had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils 
 is not for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for 
 when a horse smells carefully at any object and is not 
 alarmed, he does not dilate his uostrils. Owing to the 
 presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when panting 
 does not breathe through his open mouth, but through 
 his nostrils; and these consequently have become en- 
 dowed with great powers of expansion. This expansion 
 of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the palpita- 
 tions of the heart, are actions which have become firmly 
 associated during a long series of generations with the 
 emotion of terror; for terror has habitually led the horse 
 to the most violent exertion in dashing away at full speed 
 from the cause of danger. 
 
 Ruminants. — Cattle and sheep are remarkable from 
 displaying in so slight a degree their emotions or sen- 
 sations, excepting that of extreme pain. A bull when 
 enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which 
 he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and 
 by bellowing. He also often paws the ground; but 
 this pawing seems quite different from that of an im- 
 
130 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 patient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up 
 clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner 
 when irritated by flies, for the sake of driving them 
 away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois 
 when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through 
 their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to their 
 comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when 
 encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.^ How this 
 stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from in- 
 quiries which I have made it does not appear that any 
 of these animals fight with their fore-legs. 
 
 Some species of deer, when savage, display far more 
 expression than do cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has 
 already been stated, they draw back their ears, grind 
 their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the ground, 
 and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological 
 Gardens, the Formosan deer {Cervus pseudaxis) ap- 
 proached me in a curious attitude, with his muzzle 
 raised high up, so that the horns were pressed back on 
 his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From 
 the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; 
 he approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to 
 the iron bars, he did not lower his head to butt at me, 
 but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns with 
 great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs 
 me that some other species of deer place themselves in 
 the same attitude when enraged. 
 
 Mo7iJceys. — The various species and genera of mon- 
 keys express their feelings in many different ways; and 
 this fact is interesting, as in some degree bearing on the 
 question, whether the so-called races of man should be 
 ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall 
 
 » ' Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152. 
 
CiiAP. V. MONKEYS. 131 
 
 see in the following chapters, the different races of man 
 express their emotions and sensations with remarkable 
 uniformity throu«:hoiit the world. Some of the expres- 
 sive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, 
 namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As 
 I have had no opportunity of observing any one species 
 of the group under all circumstances, my miscellaneous 
 remarks will be best arranged under different states of 
 the mind. 
 
 Pleasure, joy, affection. — It is not possible to distin- 
 guish in monkeys, at least without more experience than 
 I have had, the expression of pleasure or joy from that 
 of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind of bark- 
 ing noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom 
 they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers 
 call a laugh, is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so 
 they are under various other emotions. Xevertheless 
 I could perceive that when they were pleased the form 
 of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they 
 were angered. If a young cliimpanzee be tickled — and 
 the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in 
 the case of our children, — a more decided chuckling or 
 laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is some- 
 times noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then 
 drawn backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower 
 eyehds to be slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, 
 which is so characteristic of our own laiTghter, is more 
 plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the 
 upper jaw in the cliimpanzee are not exposed when they 
 .utter their laughing noise, in wliich respect they differ 
 from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as 
 Mr. "W. L. Martin,^"^ who has particularly attended to 
 their expression, states. 
 
 '° ' Natural History of Mammalia,' 1S41, vol. i. pp. 383, 
 410. 
 
132 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS : Chap. V. 
 
 Young Orangs, wlii^ji tickled, likewise grin and make 
 a chuckling sound; and Mr. Martin says that their eyes 
 grow brighter. As soon as their laughter ceases, an ex- 
 pression may be detected passing over their faces, which, 
 as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. 
 I have also noticed something of the same kind with 
 the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne — and I cannot quote a 
 better authority — informs me that he kept a very tame 
 monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it dur- 
 ing meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that 
 the corners of its mouth were slightly raised; thus an 
 expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an 
 incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the 
 face of man, could be plainly perceived in this animal. 
 
 The Cehcs azarce^^ when rejoiced at again seeing a 
 beloved person, utters a peculiar tittering (kicliernden) 
 sound. It also expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing 
 back the corners of its mouth, without producing any 
 sound. Eengger calls this movement laughter, but it 
 would be more appropriately called a smile. The form 
 of the mouth is different when either pain or terror is 
 expressed, and high shrieks are uttered. Another spe- 
 cies of Celus in the Zoological Gardens (C. liypoleuciis) 
 when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise 
 draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through 
 the contraction of the same muscles as with us. So does 
 the Barbary ape {Inuus ecaudatus) to an extraordinary 
 degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of 
 the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the 
 same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a 
 spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed; but the 
 noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which 
 
 ^^ Eeng-g-er (' Saug-etheire von Paraquay', 1S30, s. 46) 
 kept these monkeys in confinement for seven years in 
 their native country of Paraguay. 
 
CuAP. V. MONKEYS. 133 
 
 we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers 
 affirmed that this slight sound was the animal's laughter, 
 and when I expressed some doubt on this head (being at 
 the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or 
 rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the 
 same compartment. Instantly the whole expression of 
 the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened 
 much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully 
 exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered. 
 
 The Anubis baboon [Cynocejjhalus aniihis) was first 
 insulted and put into a furious rage, as was easily done, 
 by his keeper, who then made friends ^nth him and 
 shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the ba- 
 boon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and 
 looked pleased. When we laugh heartily, a similar move- 
 ment, or quiver, may be observed more or less distinctly 
 in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest are 
 more particularly acted on, whilst with tliis baboon, and 
 with some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws 
 and lips which are spasmodically affected. 
 
 I have already had occasion to remark on the curious 
 manner in wliich two or three species of Macacus and 
 the Cynopithecus niger draw back their ears and utter a 
 slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by being 
 caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. IT), the corners 
 of the mouth are at the same time drawn backwards 
 and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed. Hence this 
 expression would never be recognized by a stranger as 
 one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead 
 is depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head 
 drawn backwards. The eyebrows are thus raised a little, 
 and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower 
 eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrin- 
 kling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent trans- 
 verse furrows on the face. 
 
134 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 Painful emotions and sensations. — With monkeys 
 the expression of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, 
 such as grief, vexation, jealousy, &c., is not easily dis- 
 tinguished from that of moderate anger; and these states 
 of mind readily and quickly pass into each other. Grief, 
 however, with some species is certainly exhibited by 
 weeping. A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological 
 Society, beheved to have come from Borneo {Macaciis 
 maurus or M. inornatus of Gray), said that it often cried; 
 and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton, have 
 repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much 
 pitied, weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down 
 its cheeks. There is, however, something strange about 
 this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in the 
 Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never 
 been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed 
 by the keeper and myself when much distressed and 
 loudly screaming. Eengger states ^^ that the eyes of the 
 Ceius azarcB fill with tears, but not sufficiently to over- 
 flow, when it is prevented getting some much desired 
 object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts 
 that the eyes of the CaJlithrix sciureus " instantly fill 
 with tears when it is seized with fear; " but when this 
 pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was 
 teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do 
 not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the ac- 
 curacy of Humboldt's statement. 
 
 The appearance of dejection in young orangs and 
 chimpanzees, when out of health, is as plain and almost 
 as pathetic as in the case of our children. This state of 
 mind and body is shown by their listless movements, 
 fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion. 
 
 " Reng-g-er, ibid, s. 46. Hnmboldt, ' Personal Xarra- 
 tive,' Eng". translat. vol. iv. p. 527. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. 10.— Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition. 
 Drawn from life by Mr. Wolf. 
 
 Fia. 17.— The eame, when pleased by being caressed. 
 
136 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V.. 
 
 Aiiger. — This emotion is often exhibited by many 
 kinds of monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin re- 
 marks/^ in many different ways. " Some species, when 
 irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare 
 on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about 
 to spring forward, uttering at the same time inward gut- 
 tural sounds. Many display their anger by suddenly 
 advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same time open- 
 ing the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal 
 the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, 
 as if in savage defiance. Some again, and principally 
 the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, 
 and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp, 
 abrupt, reiterated cry." Mr. Sutton confirms the state- 
 ment that some species uncover their teeth when en- 
 raged, whilst others conceal them by the protrusion of 
 their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The 
 Cynointliecus niger^ lately referred to, acts in this man- 
 ner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its 
 forehead, and showing its teeth; so that the movements 
 of the features from anger are nearly the same as those 
 from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distin- 
 guished only by those familiar vrith the animal. 
 
 Baboons often show their passion and threaten their 
 enemies in a very odd manner, namely, by opening their 
 mouths widely as in the act of yawning. Mr. Bartlett 
 has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the 
 same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and 
 thus alternately opening their mouths; and this action 
 seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett 
 believes that both animals wish to show to each other 
 that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as 
 is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the 
 
 ^^ Nat. Hist, of Mammalia, IS-il, p. 351. 
 
CuAP. V. MONKEYS. 137 
 
 reality of tliis yawning gesture, ^Ir. Bartlett insulted 
 an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and 
 he almost immediately thus aeted. Some species of 
 Macacns and of Cercoi)ithecus ^* behave in tlie same 
 manner. l>ul)oons likewise show their anger, as was ob- 
 served by Brehm with those which he kept alive in Abys- 
 sinia, in another manner, namely, by striking the ground 
 with one hand, " like an angry man striking the table 
 with his fist." I have seen this movement with the ba- 
 boons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the 
 action seems rather to represent the searching for a stone 
 or other object in their beds of straw. 
 
 Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the Maca- 
 cus rhesus^ when much enraged, growing red. As he was 
 mentioning this to me, another monkey attacked a rhe- 
 sus^ and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of a man 
 in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, 
 after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its 
 natural tint. At the same time that the face reddened, 
 the naked posterior part of the body, which is always 
 red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively 
 assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in 
 any way excited, the brilliantly coloured, naked parts 
 of the skin are said to become still more vividly coloured. 
 
 With several species of baboons the ridge of the fore- 
 head projects much over the eyes, and is studded with 
 a few long hairs, representing our eyebrows. These 
 animals are always looking about them, and in order to 
 look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have 
 thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of frequently 
 moving their eyebrows. However this may be, many 
 kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered 
 
 " Brehm, ' Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons strik- 
 ing the ground, s. 61. 
 
 10 
 
138 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 or in any way excited^, rapidly and incessantly move their 
 eyebrows np and down, as well as the hairy skin of their 
 foreheads.^^ As we associate in the case of man the rais- 
 ing and lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of 
 the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eye- 
 brows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I 
 once observed a man who had a trick of continually rais- 
 ing his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, 
 and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with 
 some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a lit- 
 tle drawn backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient 
 smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased. 
 
 A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending 
 to another monkey, slightly uncovered her teeth, and, 
 uttering a peevish noise like tish-shist, turned her back 
 on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little 
 more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a 
 harsh barldng noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a 
 violent passion, presented a curious resemblance to a 
 child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely 
 open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth 
 were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about, 
 sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on 
 the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her 
 belly, and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon 
 (HyJolates syndactylus) in a passion has been described ^*^ 
 as behaving in almost exactly the same manner. 
 
 The lips of young orangs and cliimpanzees are pro- 
 truded, sometimes to a wonderful degree, under various 
 circumstances. They act thus, not only when slightly 
 angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at 
 
 ^' Brehm remarks (' Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eye- 
 brows of the I nuns ecaudatus are frequently moved up 
 and down ^vhen the animal is angered. 
 
 ^" G. Bennett, ' Wanderings in Xew South Wales,' &c. 
 vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 139 
 
 Fio. 18.— Chimpanzee disappointed and enlky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
140 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 anything — in one instance^ at the sight of a turtle/^ — 
 and likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of 
 protrusion nor the shape of the mouth is exactly the 
 same, as I believey in all cases; and the sounds which 
 are then uttered are different. The accompanjdng 
 drawing represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an 
 orange having been offered him, and then taken away. 
 A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though 
 to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed 
 a looking-glass on the floor before two young orangs, 
 who, as far as it was known, had never before seen one. 
 At first they gazed at their own images with the most 
 steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. 
 They then approached close and protruded their lips 
 towards the image, as if to kiss it, in exactly the same 
 manner as they had previously done towards each other, 
 when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. 
 They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put them- 
 selves in various attitudes before the mirror; thev 
 pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands 
 at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and 
 finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became 
 cross, and refused to look any longer. 
 
 When we try to perform some little action which is 
 difficult and requires precision, for instance, to thread 
 a needle, we generally close our lips firmly, for the sake, 
 I presume, of not disturbing our movements by breath- 
 ing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. 
 The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself 
 by tr}'ing to kill the flies on the window-panes with its 
 
 " W. L. Martin, Xat. Hist, of Mamm. Animals, 1841, 
 p. 405. 
 
Chap. V. MOXKEYS. 141 
 
 knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed about, 
 and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and 
 at the same time slightly protruded. 
 
 Although the countenances, and more especially the 
 gestures, of orangs and chimpanzees are in some re- 
 spects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the whole 
 they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of 
 monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears 
 being immovable, and in part to the nakedness of their 
 eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered less 
 conspicuous. "When, however, they raise their eyebrows 
 their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. 
 In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, 
 chiefly owing to their not frowning under any emotion 
 of the mind — that is, as far as I have been able to ob- 
 serve, and I carefully attended to this point. Frown- 
 ing, which is one of the most important of all the expres- 
 sions in man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators 
 by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, 
 so that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. 
 Both the orang and chimpanzee are said ^^ to possess 
 this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at 
 least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands into 
 a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, 
 allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee to try their 
 utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather 
 cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Xor was there 
 any frown when they were enraged. T^^^ice I took two 
 chimpanzees from their rather dark room suddenly into 
 bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us 
 to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only 
 
 " Prof. Owen on the Orang-, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1S30, p. 
 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals 
 and Mag", of Xat. Hist, vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states 
 that the cornigator sitpercilii is inseparable from the 
 orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
142 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, 
 I tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as 
 it crumpled up its face, slight vertical furrows appeared 
 between the eyebrows. I have never seen a frown on the 
 forehead of the orang. 
 
 The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting 
 its crest of hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating 
 its nostrils, and uttering terrific yells. ^lessrs. Savage 
 and AVyman ^^ state that the scalp can be freely moved 
 backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is 
 excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that 
 they mean by this latter expression that the scalp is low- 
 ered; for they likewise speak of the young chimpanzee, 
 when crying out, " as having the eyebrows strongly con- 
 tracted." The great power of movement in the scalp 
 of the gorilla, of many baboons and other monkeys, de- 
 serves notice in relation to the power possessed by some 
 few men, either through reversion or persistence, of vol- 
 untarily moving their scalps.-*^ 
 
 AstojiisTiment^ Terror. — A living fresh- water turtle 
 was placed at my request in the same compartment in 
 the Zoological Gardens with many monkeys; and they 
 showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. 
 This was displayed by their remaining motionless, star- 
 ing intently with widely opened eyes, their eyebrows 
 being often moved up and down. Their faces seemed 
 somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised them- 
 selves on their hind-legs to get a better ^iew. They often 
 retreated a few feet, and then turning their heads over 
 one shoulder, again stared intently. It was curious to 
 observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle 
 than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in 
 
 ^' Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845-47, vol. v. p. 423. 
 On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843—44, vol. iv. p. 365. 
 
 ^ See on this subject, ' Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 20. 
 
Chap. V. MONKEYS. 143 
 
 their compartment;-^ for in the course of a few min- 
 utes some of the monkeys ventured to approach and 
 touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the larger 
 baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the 
 point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed- 
 up doll to the Cynopithecus nigery it stood motionless, 
 stared intently with widely opened eyes, and advanced 
 its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was 
 placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved 
 its lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the 
 keeper declared was meant to conciliate or please the 
 turtle. 
 
 I was never able clearly to perceive that the eye- 
 brows of astonished monkeys were kept permanently 
 raised, though they were frequently moved up and down. 
 Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by 
 man by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Du- 
 chenne informs me that when he gave to the monkey 
 formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it 
 elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appear- 
 ance of close attention. It then took the food in its 
 fingers, and, with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, 
 scratched, smelt, and examined it, — an expression of re- 
 flection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would 
 throw back its head a little, and again with sud- 
 denly raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the 
 food. 
 
 In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when 
 it was astonished. Mr. Sutton observed for me a young 
 orang and chimpanzee during a considerable length of 
 time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst 
 listening intently to some strange sound, they did not 
 keep their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with 
 
 " * Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 43. 
 
144 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: Chap. V. 
 
 mankind hardly any expression is more general than a 
 widely oj^en mouth under the sense of astonishment. 
 As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe 
 more freely through their nostrils than men do; and 
 this may account for their not opening their mouths 
 when they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future 
 chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when 
 startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full 
 inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of breathing 
 as quietly as possible. 
 
 Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by 
 the utterance of shrill screams; the lips being drawn 
 back, so that the teeth are exposed. The hair becomes 
 erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr. 
 Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Macacus rhesus 
 grow pale from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; 
 and sometimes they void their excretions. I have seen 
 one which, when caught, almost fainted from an excess 
 of terror. 
 
 Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to 
 the expressions of various animals. It is impossible to 
 agree with Sir C. Bell when he says ^^ that " the faces 
 of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and 
 fear; " and again, when he says that all their expressions 
 " may be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of 
 volition or necessary instincts.'^ He who will look at a 
 dog preparing to attack another dog or a man, and at 
 the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch 
 the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when 
 fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the 
 movements of their features and their gestures are almost 
 as expressive as those of man. Although no explanation 
 
 ^ ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121. 
 
Ch^p. v. monkeys. 145 
 
 can be given of some of the expressions in the lower ani- 
 mals, the greater number are explicable in accordance 
 with the three principles given at the commencement of 
 
 the first chapter. 
 
146 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VL 
 
 CHAPTER Yl. 
 
 Special Expeessioxs of Max: Suffeeixg axd 
 TTeepixg. 
 
 The screaming- and weeping- of infants — Forms of features 
 — Ag-e at Avhich "weeping commences — The effects of 
 habitual restraint on weeping— Sobbing" — Cause of the 
 contraction of the muscles round the eyes during 
 screaming- — Cause of the secretion of tears. 
 
 Ix this and the following chapters the expressions 
 exhibited by Man under various states of the mind will 
 be described and explained, as far as lies in my power. 
 My observations will be arranged according to the order 
 which I have found the most convenient; and this will 
 generally lead to opposite emotions and sensations suc- 
 ceeding each other. 
 
 Suffering of the body and mind: weeping. — I have 
 already described in sufficient detail, in the third chap- 
 ter, the signs of extreme pain, as shown by screams or * 
 groans, with the writhing of the whole body and the 
 teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are 
 often accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, pal- 
 lor, trembling, utter prostration, or faintness. Xo suf- 
 fering is greater than that from extreme fear or horror, 
 but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be 
 elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of 
 the mind, passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and 
 despair, and these states will be the subject of the follow- 
 
Piilsjnvuri 1y "i^wcksMayiSsn 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 147 
 
 in<:^ chapter. ITcro I sliall almost confine myself to weep- 
 ing or crying, mor ; especially in children. 
 
 Infants, when tnlTering even slight pain, moderate 
 hunger, or discom'ort, utter violent and prolonged 
 screams. Whilst th is screaming their eyes are firmly 
 closed, so that the skir round them is wrinkled, and the 
 forehead contracted in' o a frown. The mouth is widely 
 opened with the lips retracted in a peculiar manner, 
 which causes it to assume a squarish form; the gums 
 or teeth being more or less exposed. The breath is in- 
 haled almost spasmodically. It is easy to observe in- 
 fants whilst screaming; but I have found photographs 
 made by the instantaneous process the best means for 
 observation, as allowing more deliberation. I have col- 
 lected twelve, most of them made purposely for me; and 
 they all exhibit the same general characteristics. I have, 
 therefore, had six of them ^ (Plate I.) reproduced by the 
 heliotype process. 
 
 The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent com- 
 pression of the eyeball, — and this is a most important 
 element in various expressions, — serves to protect the 
 e3xs from becoming too much gorged with blood, as will 
 presently be explained in detail. With respect to the 
 order in which the several muscles contract in firmly 
 compressing the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff, 
 of Southampton, for some observations, which I have 
 since repeated. The best plan for observing the order 
 is to make a person first raise his eyebrows, and this pro- 
 duces transverse wrinkles across the forehead; and then 
 very gradually to contract all the muscles round the eyes 
 
 ^ The best photographs in my collection are by Mr. 
 Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kinder- 
 mann, of Hamburg". Fig's. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; 
 and figs. 2 and 5, by the latter g-entleman. Fig. 6 is given 
 to show moderate crying in an older child. 
 
14-8 EXPRESSION OF SUFFER XG : Chap. VI. 
 
 with as much force as possible. The r-eader who is un- 
 acquainted with the anatomy of the free, ought to refer 
 to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The corru- 
 gators of the brow (corrugator super lilii) seem to be the 
 first muscles to contract; and thes', draw the eyebrows 
 downwards and inwards towards the base of the nose, 
 causing vertical furrows, that is a frown, to appear be- 
 tween the eyebrows; at the sami time they cause the 
 disappearance of the transverse t rinkles across the fore- 
 head. The orbicular muscles contract almost simultane- 
 ously with the corrugators, and produce wrinkles all 
 round the eyes; they appear, however, to be enabled to 
 contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of 
 the corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, 
 the p}Tamidal muscles of the nose contract; and these 
 draw the eyebrows and the skin of the forehead still 
 lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across 
 the base of the nose.- For the sake of brevity these mus- 
 cles will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as 
 those surrounding the eyes. 
 
 Wlien these muscles are strongly contracted, those 
 running to the upper lip ^ likewise contract and raise 
 the upper lip. This might have been expected from 
 the manner in which at least one of them, the malar is^ 
 
 » Henle (' Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) 
 agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the con- 
 traction of the pijramidaJis nasi. 
 
 ' These consist of the levator lahli superioris alwquc nasi, 
 the levator labii propriiis, the malaris, and the zygomaticus 
 minor, or little zyg-omatic. This latter muscle runs parallel 
 to and above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the 
 outer part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 
 (I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first 
 showed (' ;Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Al- 
 bum, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the contraction of 
 this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in cry- 
 ing. Henle considers the above-named muscles (except- 
 ing the malaris) as subdivisions of the quadratus labii 
 sup€7'ioris. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 149 
 
 is connected witli the orbiculars. Any one who will 
 gradually contract the muscles round his eyes, will feel, 
 as he increases the force, that his upper lip and the 
 wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of 
 the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. 
 If he keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting 
 the muscles round the eyes, and then suddenly relaxes 
 his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes im- 
 mediately increases. So again when a person on a bright, 
 glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is 
 compelled partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip 
 may almost always be observed to be somewhat raised. 
 The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who 
 are forced habitually to reduce the aperture of their 
 eyes, wear from this same reason a grinning expression. 
 The raising of the upper lip draws upw^ards the flesh 
 of the upper parts of the cheeks, and produces a strongly 
 marked fold on each cheek, — the naso-labial fold, — 
 which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to the 
 corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or fur- 
 row may be seen in all the photographs, and is very 
 characteristic of the expression of a crying child; though 
 a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of laughing 
 or smiling.* 
 
 * Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the 
 contraction of the different muscles during- the act of 
 crying", and the furrows on the face thus produced, there 
 seems to be something incomplete in his account; but 
 what this is I cannot say. He has given a figure (Album, 
 fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by gal- 
 vanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other 
 half is similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those 
 (viz. nineteen out of twenty-one persons) to whom I 
 showed the smiling half of the face instantly recognized 
 the expression; but, with respect to the other half, only 
 six persons out of twenty-one recognized it, — that is, if 
 we accept such terms as " grief," " misery," " annoy- 
 ance," as correct; — whereas, fifteen persons were ludi- 
 crously mistaken; some of them saying the face ex- 
 
150 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of 
 screaming, in the manner just explained, the depressor 
 muscles of the angles ofijjthe mouth (see K in woodcuts 
 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the 
 mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may 
 be poured forth. The action of these opposed muscles, 
 above and below, tends to give to the mouth an oblong, 
 almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the accom- 
 panyiiig photographs. An excellent observer,^ in de- 
 scribing a baby crying w^iilst being fed, says, " it made 
 its mouth like a square, and let the porridge run out at 
 all four corners.^' I believe, but we shall return to this 
 point in a future chapter, that the depressor muscles of 
 the angles of the mouth are less under< the separate con- 
 trol of the will than the adjoining muscles; so that if a 
 young child is only doubtfully inclined to cry, this mus- 
 cle is generally the first to contract, and is the last to 
 "Y cease contracting. When older children commence cry- 
 ing, the muscles which run to the upper lip are often the 
 first to contract; and this may perhaps be due to older 
 children not having so strong a tendency to scream 
 
 loudl}', and consequently to keep their mouths widely 
 
 ai. ___^ 
 
 pressed " fun," " satisfaction," " cunning-," " disgust," &c. 
 We may infer from this that there is something wrong in 
 the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, how- 
 ever, hA^e been partly misled by not expecting to see 
 an old ^an crj-ing, and by tears not being secreted. With 
 respect* to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in 
 which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in 
 order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the eye- 
 brow on the same side rendered oblique, which is charac- 
 teristic of misery, the expression was recognized by a 
 greater proportional number of persons. Out of twenty- 
 three persons, fourteen answered correctly, " sorrow," 
 " distress," " grief," " just going to cry," " endurance 
 of pain," &c. On the other hand, nine persons either 
 could form no opinion or were entirely wrong, answer- 
 ing, " cunning leer," " jocund," " looking at an intense 
 light," " looking at a distant object," &c. 
 
 * Mrs. Gaskell, ' Mary Barton,' new edit. p. 84. 
 
 S 
 
 K. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 151 
 
 open; so that the above-named depressor muscles are not 
 brought into sucli strong action. 
 
 With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and 
 for some time afterwards, I often observed that tlie first 
 sign of a screaming-fit, when it could be observed com- 
 ing on graduall}', was a little frown, owing to the con- 
 traction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries 
 of the naked licad and face becoming at the same time 
 reddened with blood. As soon as the screaming-fit ac- 
 tually began, all the muscles round the eyes were strongly 
 contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the manner 
 above described; so that at tliis early period the features 
 assumed the same form as at a more advanced age. 
 
 Dr. Piderit ® lays great stress on the contraction of 
 certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow 
 the nostrils, as eminently characteristic of a crying ex- 
 pression. The depressores anguli oris, as we have just 
 seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and they 
 indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in 
 this same manner on the nose. With children having 
 bad colds a similar pinched appearance of the nose may 
 be noticed, which is at least partly due, as remarked to 
 me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the 
 consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. 
 The purpose of this contraction of the nostrils by chil- 
 dren having bad colds, or whilst crying, seems to be to 
 check the downward flow of the mucus and tears, and 
 to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip. 
 
 After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, 
 face, and eyes are reddened, owing to the return of the 
 blood from the head having been impeded by the violent 
 expiratory efforts; but the redness of the stimulated 
 
 ' ' ]\rimik und Physiofi-nomik,' 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, 
 Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34. 
 
152 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The 
 various muscles of the face which have been strongly- 
 contracted, still twitch a little, and the upper lip is still 
 slightly drawn up or everted/ with the corners of the 
 mouth still a Httle drawn downwards. I have myself 
 felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that 
 when tears are restrained with diihculty, as in reading 
 a pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the 
 various muscles, which with young children are brought 
 into strong action during their screaming-fits, from 
 slightly twitching or trembling. 
 
 Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is 
 well known to nurses and medical men. This circum- 
 stance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal glands 
 being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed 
 this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff 
 of my coat the open eye of one of my infants, when 
 seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to water freely; 
 and though the child screamed violently, the other eye 
 remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. 
 A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously 
 in both eyes during a screaming-fit. The tears did not 
 run over the eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this 
 cliild, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old. This 
 first happened IT days later, at the age of 139 days. A 
 few other children have been observed for me, and the 
 period of free weeping appears to be very variable. In 
 one case, the eyes became slightly suffused at the age 
 of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days. With two other 
 children, the tears did not run down the face at the ages 
 of 84 and 110 days; but in a third child they did run 
 down at the age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was 
 positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually early 
 
 " Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39. 
 
CuAP. VI. WEEPING. 153 
 
 age of 4*3 davs. It would appear as if the lacrymal glands 
 required some practice in the individual before they are 
 easily excited into action, in somewhat the same manner 
 as various inherited consensual movements and tastes 
 require some exercise before they are fixed and perfected. 
 This is all the more likely with a habit like weeping, 
 which must have been acquired since the period when 
 man branched off from the common progenitor of the 
 genus Homo and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous 
 apes. 
 
 The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age 
 from pain or any mental emotion is remarkable, as, later 
 in life, no expression is more general or more strongly 
 marked than weeping. When the habit has once been 
 acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest man- 
 ner suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental 
 distress, even though accompanied by other emotions, 
 such as fear or rage. The character of the crying, how- 
 ever, changes at a very early age, as I noticed in my own 
 infants, — the passionate cry differing from that of grief. 
 A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when 
 in a passion screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, 
 however, are shed when she is punished by her chair 
 being turned with its back to the table. This difference 
 may perhaps be attributed to weeping being restrained, 
 as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, 
 under most circumstances excepting grief; and to the 
 influence of such restraint being transmitted to an earlier 
 period of life, than that at which it was first practised. 
 
 With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon 
 ceases to be caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This 
 may be accounted for by its being thought weak and 
 unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous races, ^ 
 to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this 
 exception, savages weep copiously from very slight 
 11 
 
154 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VL 
 
 causes, of wliicli fact Sir J. Lubbock ^ has collected in- 
 stances. A New Zealand chief " cried like a child be- 
 cause the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering 
 it with flour." I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who 
 had lately lost a brother, and who alternately cried with 
 hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at anything 
 which amused him. With the civilized nations of Eu- 
 rope there is also much difference in the frequency of 
 weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pres- 
 sure of the acutest grief; whereas in some parts of the 
 Continent the men shed tears much more readily and 
 freely. 
 
 The insane notoriously give way to all their emo- 
 tions with little or no restraint; and I am informed by 
 Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is more charac- 
 teristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than 
 a tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no 
 cause. They also weep disproportionately on the occur- 
 rence of any real cause of grief. The length of time dur- 
 ing which some patients weep is astonishing, as well as 
 the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic 
 girl wept for a whole day, and afterwards confessed to 
 Dr. Browne, that it was because she remembered that 
 she had once shaved off her eyebrows to promote their 
 growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time 
 rocking themselves backwards and forwards; " and if 
 spoken to, they stop their movements, purse up their 
 eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out 
 crying.'^ In some of these cases, the being spoken to or 
 kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful and sor- 
 rowful notion; but in other cases an effort of any kind 
 excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful idea. 
 Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have parox- 
 
 « ' The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 355. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 15^ 
 
 ysms of violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of 
 their incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too 
 much stress on the copious shedding of tears by the in- 
 sane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for cer- 
 tain brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and 
 senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weep- 
 ing. Weeping is common in the insane, even after a 
 complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power 
 of speech lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep; * 
 but it is said that this is not the case with cretins. 
 
 Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expres- 
 sion, as we see in children, of suffering of any kind, 
 whether bodily pain short of extreme agony, or mental 
 distress. But the foregoing facts and common experi- 
 ence show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain 
 weeping, in association with certain states of the mind, 
 does much in checking the habit. On the other hand, 
 it appears that the power of w^eeping can be increased 
 through habit; thus the Eev. E. Taylor,^^ who long re- 
 sided in New Zealand, asserts that the women can volun- 
 tarily shed tears in abundance; they meet for this pur- 
 pose to mourn for the dead, and they take pride in cry- 
 ing " in the most affecting manner." 
 
 A single effort of repression brought to bear on the 
 lacrymal glands does little, and indeed seems often to 
 lead to an opposite result. An old and experienced phy- 
 sician told me that he had always found that the only 
 means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies 
 who consulted him, and who themselves wished to de- 
 sist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and to assure 
 
 " See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot 
 in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to 
 cretins, see Dr. Piderit, ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, 
 s. 61. 
 
 " ' New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p. 175. 
 
15G EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 them that nothing would reheve them so much as pro- 
 longed and copious crying. 
 
 The screaming of infants consists of prolonged ex- 
 pirations, with short and rapid, almost spasmodic in- 
 spirations, followed at a somewhat more advanced age 
 by sobbing. According to Gratiolet/^ the glottis is 
 chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound 
 is heard " at the moment when the inspiration conquers 
 
 S. the resistance of the glottis, and the air rushes into the 
 chest." But the whole act of respiration is likewise 
 spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same 
 time generally raised, as by this movement respiration 
 is rendered easier. With one of my infants, when sev- 
 enty-seven days old, the inspirations were so rapid and 
 strong that they approached in character to sobbing; 
 when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which 
 subsequently followed every bad crying-iit. The res- 
 piratory movements are partly voluntary and partly in- 
 voluntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in 
 part due to children having some power to command 
 after early infancy their vocal organs and to stop their 
 screams, but from having less power over their respira- 
 tory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an in- 
 voluntary or spasmodic manner, after having been 
 brought into \dolent action. Sobbing seems to be pecul- 
 iar to the himian species; for the keepers in the Zoologi- 
 cal Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob 
 from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream 
 loudly whilst being chased and caught, and then pant 
 for a long time. We thus see that there is a close anal- 
 
 ^ ogy between sobbing and the free shedding of tears; for 
 with children, sobbing does not commence during early 
 infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and 
 
 " ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 126. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 157 
 
 then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is 
 checked with advancing years. 
 
 On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round 
 the eyes during screaming, — We have seen that infants 
 and young children, whilst screaming, invariably close 
 their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the surrounding 
 muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. 
 With older children, and even with adults, whenever 
 there is violent and unrestrained crying, a tendency to 
 the contraction of these same muscles may be observed; 
 though this is often checked in order not to interfere 
 with vision. 
 
 Sir C. Bell explains ^^ this action in the following 
 manner: — " During every violent act of expiration, 
 whether in hearty laughter, weeping, coughing, or sneez- 
 ing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres of th^ ' 
 orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and 
 defending the vascular system of the interior of the eye 
 from a retrograde impulse communicated to the blood 
 in the veins at that time. When we contract the chest 
 and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in 
 the veins of the neck and head; and in the more power- 
 ful acts of expulsion, the blood not only distends the 
 vessels, but is even regurgitated into the minute 
 branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that 
 time, and a resistance given to the shock, irreparable 
 injur}^ might be inflicted on the delicate textures of the 
 interior of the eye." He further adds, " If we separate 
 the eyelids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries 
 and struggles with passion, by taking off the natural 
 support to the vascular system of the eye, and means of 
 
 " ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See 
 also his paper in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, 
 p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also ' The Nervous 
 System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175. 
 
158 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 guarding it against the rush of blood then occurring, 
 the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and 
 the eyelids everted." 
 
 Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly 
 contracted, as Sir C. Bell states and as I have often ob- 
 served, during screaming, loud laughter, coughing, and 
 sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. 
 A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows 
 his nose. I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as 
 he possibly could, and as soon as he began, he firmly 
 contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this repeat- 
 edly, and on asking him why he had every time so firmly 
 closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the 
 fact: he had acted instinctively or unconsciously. 
 
 It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contrac- 
 tion of these muscles, that air should actually be expelled 
 from the chest; it suffices that the muscles of the chest 
 and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst 
 by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent 
 vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend 
 by the chest being filled with air; it is then held in this 
 position by the closure of the glottis, " as well as by the 
 contraction of its own fibres." ^^ The abdominal mus- 
 cles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper 
 muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are thus 
 ejected. During each effort of vomiting " the head be- 
 comes greatly congested, so that the features are red and 
 swollen, and the large veins of the face and temples visi- 
 bly dilated." At the same time, as I know from observa- 
 tion, the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. 
 This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles 
 
 " See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting", 
 in Todd's Cyclop, of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. 
 v. Supplement, p. 318. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 159 
 
 act downwards with niiusual force in expelling the con- 
 tents of the intestinal canal. 
 
 The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if 
 those of the chest are not brought into strong action in 
 expelling or compressing the air within the lungs, does 
 not lead to the contraction of the muscles round the 
 eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gym- 
 nastic exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended 
 bodies by their arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights 
 from the ground, but there was hardly any trace of con- 
 traction in the muscles round the eyes. 
 
 As the contraction of these muscles for the protection 
 of the eyes during violent expiration is indirectly, as 
 we shall hereafter see, a fundamental element in several 
 of our most important expressions, I was extremely 
 anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be 
 substantiated. Professor Bonders, of Utrecht,^* well 
 known as one of the highest authorities in Europe on 
 vision and on the structure of the eye, has most kindly 
 undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of the 
 many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has 
 published the results.^^ He shows that during violent 
 expiration the external, the intra-ocular, and the retro- 
 ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways, 
 namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the 
 arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins 
 
 ^* I am greatly indebted to 'Mr. Bowman for having 
 introduced me to Prof. Bonders, and for his aid in per- 
 suading this great physiologist to undertake the inves- 
 tigation of the present subject. I am likewise much in- 
 debted to Mr. Bowman for having given me, with the 
 utmost kindness, information on many points. 
 
 " This memoir first appeared in the ' Xederlandsch 
 Archief voor Genees en Natuurkunde,' Deel 5, 1870. It 
 has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title 
 of " On the Action of the Ej^elids in determination of 
 Blood from expiratory efTort," in ' Archives of Medicine,' 
 edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20. 
 
160 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 being impeded. It is, therefore, certain that both the 
 arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less dis- 
 tended during violent expiration. The evidence in de- 
 tail may be found in Professor Bonders' valuable me- 
 moir. "We see the effects on the veins of the head, in 
 their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face 
 of a man who coughs violently from being half choked. 
 I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole 
 eye certainly advances a little during each violent ex- 
 piration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular 
 vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate 
 connection of the eye and brain: the brain being known 
 to rise and fall ^ith each respiration, when a portion of 
 the skull has been removed: and as may be seen along 
 the unclosed sutures of infants' heads. This also, I pre- 
 sume, is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man ap- 
 pear as if they were starting from their sockets. 
 
 "With respect to the protection of the eye during ^4o- 
 lent expiratory efforts by the pressure of the eyelids. Pro- 
 fessor Bonders concludes from his various observations 
 that this action certainly limits or entirely removes the 
 dilatation of the vessels.^^ At such times, he adds, we 
 
 ^' Prof. Bonders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, "After 
 injury to the eye, after operations, and in some forms 
 of internal inflammation, we attach great value to the 
 uniform support of the closed eyelids, and "we increase 
 this in many instances by the application of a bandage. 
 In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great ex- 
 piratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known." 
 Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photo- 
 phobia, accompanying w-hat is called scrofulous ophthal- 
 mia in children, when the light is so very painful that 
 during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the 
 m.ost forcible closure of the lids, he has often been 
 struck on opening the lids by the paleness of the eye, 
 — not an unnatural paleness, but an absence of the red- 
 ness that might have been expected when the surface 
 is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and 
 this paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible 
 closure of the evelids. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 161 
 
 not unfrequcntly see the hand involuntarily laid upon 
 the eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the 
 eyeball. 
 
 Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be 
 advanced to prove that the eye actually suffers injury 
 from the want of support during violent expiration; but 
 there is some. It is " a fact that forcible expiratory 
 ell'orts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially 
 in sneezing, sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little 
 (external) vessels '^ of the eye.^^ With respect to the 
 interual vessels. Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a case 
 of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough, 
 which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the 
 deeper vessels; and another analogous case has been re- 
 corded. But a mere sense of discomfort would probably 
 suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting the 
 eyeball by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. 
 Even the expectation or chance of injury wonld probably 
 be sufficient, in the same manner as an object moving too 
 near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids. 
 "We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell's 
 observations, and more especially from the more careful 
 investigations by Professor Bonders, that the firm clo- 
 sure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is an 
 action full of meaning and of real service. 
 
 We have already seen that the contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles leads to the drawing up of the upper 
 lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept widely open, 
 to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction 
 of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso- 
 labial fold on the cheeks likewise follows from the draw- 
 ing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief expressive 
 movements of the face during crying apparently result 
 
 " Donders, ibid. p. 36. 
 
162 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We 
 shall also find that the shedding of tears depends on, or 
 at least stands in some connection with, the contraction 
 of these same muscles. 
 
 In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of 
 sneezing and coughing, it is possible that the contrac- 
 tion of the orbicular muscles may serve in addition to 
 protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration. I 
 think so, because dogs and cats, in cruncliing hard bones, 
 always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in 
 sneezing; though dogs do not do so whilst barking 
 loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young 
 orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always 
 closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst 
 screaming violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a 
 monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and 
 it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a sub- 
 sequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries. 
 
 Cause of the secretion of tears. — It is an important 
 fact which must be considered in any theory of the se- 
 cretion of tears from the mind being affected, that when- 
 ever the muscles round the eyes are strongly and invol- 
 N^ untarily contracted in order to compress the blood-ves- 
 sels and thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often 
 in sufficient abundance to roll down the cheeks. This 
 occurs under the most opposite emotions, and under no 
 emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is only a 
 partial one, to the existence of a relation between the in- 
 voluntary and strong contraction of these muscles and 
 the secretion of tears is that of young infants, who, whilst 
 screaming violently -^^ith their eyelids firmly closed, do 
 not commonly weep until they have attained the age 
 of from two to three or four months. Their eyes, how- 
 ever, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. 
 It would appear, as already remarked, that the l acryma l 
 
CnAP. VI. WEEPING. 1G3 
 
 glands do not, from the want of practice or some other 
 cause, come to full functional activity at a very early 
 period of life.. With children at a somewhat later age, 
 crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly 
 accompanied by the shedding of tears, that weeping and 
 crying are synonymous terms. ^® 
 
 Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amuse- 
 ment, as long as laughter is moderate there is hardly 
 any contraction of the muscles round the eyes, so that 
 there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter 
 are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expira- 
 tions, tears stream down the face. I have more than 
 once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of 
 violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular mus- 
 cles and those running to the upper lip were still par- 
 tially contracted, which together with the tear-stained 
 cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an expression 
 not to be distinguished from that of a child still blub- 
 bering from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the 
 face during violent laughter is common to all the races 
 of mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter. 
 
 In violent coughing, especially when a person is half- 
 choked, the face becomes purple, the veins distended, 
 the orbicular muscles strongly contracted, and tears run 
 down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary cough- 
 ing, almost ever}' one has to wipe his eyes. In violent 
 vomiting or retching, as I have myself experienced and 
 seen in others, the orbicular muscles are strongly con- 
 tracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the cheeks. 
 It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irri- 
 tating matter being injected into the nostrils, and caus- 
 
 " Mr. Hensleigrh Wedg-\vood (Diet, of English Ety- 
 molog-y, 1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, " the verb to weep comes 
 from Ang-lo-Saxon wop, the primary meaning of which 
 is simply outcry." 
 
164: EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 ing by reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly 
 I asked one of my informants, a surgeon, to attend to 
 the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up 
 from the stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he him- 
 self suffered the next morning from an attack of retch- 
 ing, and three days subsequently observed a lady under 
 a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case 
 an atom of matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the 
 orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears 
 freely secreted. I can also speak positively to the ener- 
 getic contraction of these same muscles round the eyes, 
 and to the coincident free secretion of tears, when the 
 abdominal muscles act with unusual force in a downward 
 direction on the intestinal canal. 
 
 Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, fol- 
 lowed by a long and forcible expiration; and at the 
 same time almost all the muscles of the body are strongly 
 contracted, includinsr those round the eves. Durino; this 
 act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even 
 rolling down the cheeks. 
 
 I have frequently observed that when persons scratch 
 some point which itches intolerabh', they forcibly close 
 their eyelids; but they do not, as I believe, first draw a 
 deep breath and then expel it with force; and I have 
 never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; 
 but I am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. 
 The forcible closure of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a 
 part of that general action by which almost all the mus- 
 cles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It 
 is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes 
 which often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,^^ the 
 smelling a delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious 
 morsel, and which probably originates in the desire to 
 shut otit any disturbing impression through the eyes. 
 
 ^^ 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 217. 
 
CuAP. Vr. WEEPING. * 105 
 
 Professor Dondcrs writes to me to the following ef- 
 fect: '' I have observed some cases of a very curious 
 affection when, after a slight rub (attoucliernent), for ex- 
 ample, from the friction of a coat, which caused neither 
 a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular mus- 
 cles occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, lasting 
 about one hour. Subsequently, sometimes after an in- 
 terval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same mus- 
 cles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion of tears, 
 together with primary or secondary redness of the eye." 
 ^Ir. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally ob- 
 served closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, 
 there was no redness or inflammation of the eyes. 
 
 1 was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in 
 any of the lower animals a similar relation between the 
 contraction of the orbicular muscles during violent ex- 
 piration and the secretion of tears; but there are very 
 few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged 
 manner, or which shed tears. The 3Iacacus maurns, 
 which formerly wept so copiously in the Zoological Gar- 
 dens, would have been a fine case for observation; but 
 the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to 
 belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless 
 they were carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, 
 whilst screaming loudly, and they seemed to contract 
 these muscles; but they moved about their cages so rap- 
 idly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No 
 other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, 
 contracts its orbicular muscles whilst screaming. 
 
 The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. 
 Sir E. Tennent, in describing these which he saw cap- 
 tured and bound in Ceylon, says, some " lay motionless 
 on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than 
 the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessant- 
 ly." Speaking of another elephant he says, '' When 
 
166 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. 
 
 overpowered and made fast, liis grief was most affecting; 
 his violence sank to utter prostration, and he lay on the 
 ground, uttering choking cries, \\*ith tears trickling 
 down his cheeks." -^ In the Zoological Gardens the 
 keeper of the Indian elephants positively asserts that he 
 has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the 
 old female, when distressed by the removal of the young 
 one. Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain, as an 
 extension of the relation between the contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man, 
 whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly 
 contract these muscles. At Mr. Bartlett's desire the 
 keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to trum- 
 pet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just 
 as the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, espe- 
 ciallv the lower ones, v.-ere distinctlv contracted. On a 
 
 ^ ' Ceylon,' 3rd edit. 1S59, vol. ii. pp. 364. 376. I applied 
 to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with 
 respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in conse- 
 quence received a letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, ^vho, 
 with others, kindly observed for me a herd of recently 
 captured elephants. These, when irritated, screamed vio- 
 lently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus 
 screaming" contracted the muscles round the ejes. Nor 
 did they shed tears; and the native hunters asserted 
 that they had never observed elephants weeping. Never- 
 theless, it apx^ears to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Ten- 
 nent's distinct details about their weeping, supported 
 as they are by the positive assertion of the keeper in the 
 Zoological Gardens. It is certain that the two elephants 
 in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet loudly, in- 
 variably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can recon- 
 cile these conflicting statements only by supposing that 
 the recentU' captured elephants in Ceylon, from being 
 enraged or frightened, desired to observe their perse- 
 cutors, and consequently did not contract their orbicular 
 muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. 
 Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, 
 and had given up the contest in despair. The elephants 
 which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word 
 of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor en- 
 raged. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 167 
 
 subsequent occasion the keeper made the old elephant 
 trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the 
 upper and lower orbicular muscles were strongly con- 
 tracted, and now in an equal degree. It is a singular 
 fact that the African elephant, which, however, is so 
 different from the Indian species that it is placed by 
 some naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on 
 two occasions to trumpet loudly, exhibited no trace of 
 the contraction of the orbicular muscles. 
 
 From the several foregoing cases with respect to 
 Man, there can, I think, be no doubt that the contrac- 
 tion of the muscles round the eyes, during violent ex- 
 piration or when the expanded chest is forcibly com- 
 pressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with 
 the secretion of tears. This holds good under widely 
 different emotions, and independently of any emotion. 
 It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted 
 without the contraction of these muscles; for it is notori- 
 ous that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not 
 closed, and with the brows unwrinkled. The contrac- 
 tion must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during 
 a choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere 
 involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often re- 
 peated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Xor does the 
 voluntary and prolonged contraction of the several sur- 
 roundino: muscles suffice. As the lacrvmal orlands of 
 children are easily excited, I persuaded my own and sev- 
 eral other children of different ages to contract these 
 muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to con- 
 tinue doing so as long as they possibly could; but this 
 produced hardly any effect. There was sometimes a lit- 
 tle moisture in the eyes, but not more than apparently 
 could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the al- 
 ready secreted tears within the glands. 
 
 The nature of the relation between the involuntary 
 
\ 
 
 168 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VL 
 
 and energetic contraction of the muscles round the eyes, 
 and the secretion of tears, cannot be positively ascer- 
 tained, but a probable view may be suggested. The 
 pmn ^r}LfllII£JJ2ILilLl]l- s^?I§ii^S_9i-t£^^s, together with 
 some mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and 
 a secondary one, as some believe, is to keep the nostrils 
 damp, so that the inhaled air may be moist,-^ and like- 
 wise to favour the power of smelling. But another, and 
 at least equally important function of tears, is to wash 
 out particles of dust or other minute objects which may 
 get into the eyes. That this is of great importance is 
 clear from the cases in which the cornea has been ren- 
 dered opaque through inflammation, caused by particles 
 of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye 
 and eyelid becoming immovable.^^ The secretion of 
 tears from the irritation of any foreign body in the eye 
 is a reflex action; — thai is, the body irritates a peripheral 
 nerve which sends an impression to certain sensory 
 nerve-cells; these transmit an influence to other cells, 
 and these again to the lacrymal glands. The influence 
 transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good rea- 
 son to believe, the relaxation of the muscular coats of 
 the smaller arteries; this allows more blood to permeate 
 the glandular tissue, and this induces a free secretion of 
 tears. When the small arteries of the face, including 
 those of the retina, are relaxed under very different cir- 
 cumstances, namely, during an intense blush, the lacry- 
 mal glands are sometimes affected in a like manner, for 
 the eyes become suffused with tears. 
 
 It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions 
 have originated, but, in relation to the present case of 
 
 *^ Berg-eon, as quoted in the ' Journal of Anatomy and 
 Physiolog-y,' Nov. 1871, p. 235. 
 
 ^ See, for instance, a ease given by Sir Charles Bell, 
 * Philosophical Transactions,' 1823, p. 177. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 1C9 
 
 the afTection of the lacrymal glands through irritation 
 of the surface of the eye, it may be worth remarking 
 that, as soon as some primordial form became semi- 
 terrestrial in its habits, and was liable to get particles 
 of dust into its eyes, if these were not washed out they 
 would cause much irritation; and on the principle of 
 the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the 
 lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As 
 this would often recur, and as nerve-force readily passes 
 along accustomed channels, a slight irritation would 
 ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of tears. 
 
 As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex 
 action of tliis nature had been established and rendered 
 easy, other stimulants applied to the surface of the eye 
 — such as a cold wind, slow inflammatorj' action, or a 
 blow on the eyelids — would cause a copious secretion 
 of tears, as we know to be the case. The glands are also 
 excited into action through the irritation of adjoining 
 parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated by pungent 
 vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed, 
 tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise follows 
 from a blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing- 
 glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, as I have 
 seen, the same effect. In these latter cases the secretion 
 of tears is an incidental result, and of no direct service. 
 As all these parts of the face, including the lacrymal 
 glands, are supplied with branches of the same nerve, 
 namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible 
 that the effects of the excitement of any one branch 
 should spread to the nerve-cells or roots of the other 
 branches. 
 
 The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under cer- 
 tain conditions, in a reflex manner on the lacrymal 
 glands. The following statements have been kindly 
 communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject 
 12 
 
170 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VI. 
 
 is a very intricate one, as all the parts of tlie eye are 
 so intimately related together, and are so sensitive to 
 various stimulants. A strong light acting on the retina, 
 when in a normal condition, has very little tendency to 
 cause lacrvmation: but with unhealthy children havinsr 
 small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina be- 
 comes excessively sensitive to light, and exposure even 
 to common daylight causes forcible and sustained closure 
 of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When persons 
 who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually 
 strain the waning power of accommodation, an undue 
 secretion of tears very often follows, and the retina is 
 liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In general, 
 morbid affections of the stirface of the eye, and of the 
 ciliarv structures concerned in the accommodative act, 
 are prone to be accompanied with excessive secretion of 
 tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to inflamma- 
 tion, but implying a want of balance between the fluids 
 poured out and again taken up by the intra-ocular ves- 
 sels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation. Allien 
 the balance is on the other side, and the eye becomes 
 too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. 
 Finally, there are numerous morbid states and structural 
 alterations of the eyes, and even terrible inflammations, 
 which may be attended with little or no secretion of 
 tears. 
 
 It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our 
 subject, that the eye and adjoining parts are subject to 
 an extraordinary number of reflex and associated move- 
 ments, sensations, and actions, besides those relating to 
 the lacr^-mal glands. AVhen a bright light strikes the 
 retina of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris 
 of the other eye moves after a measurable interval of 
 time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to near 
 or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made to 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 171 
 
 converge.-^ Ever}' one knows how irrcsistiVly the eye- 
 brows are drawn down under an intensely bright light. 
 The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object is 
 moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly heard. The 
 well-known case of a bright light causing some persons 
 to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force here radi- 
 ates from certain nerve-cells in connection viith the 
 retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing 
 it to tickle; and from these, to the cells which command 
 the various respiratory muscles (the orbiculars included) 
 which expel the air in so pecuUar a manner that it rushes 
 through the nostrils alone. 
 
 To return to our point: why are tears secreted during 
 a screaming-fit or other violent expiratory efforts? As . 
 a slight blow on the eyelids causes a copious secretion 
 of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic con- 
 traction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eye- 
 ball, should in a similar manner cause some secretion. 
 This seems possible, although the voluntary,' contraction 
 of the same muscles does not produce any such effect. 
 AYe know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough 
 with nearly the same force as he does automatically; and "^ 
 so it is ^-ith the contraction of the orbicular muscles: 
 Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that by 
 suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, 
 sparks of light are seen, Hke those caused by tapping 
 the eyelids with the fingers; " but in sneezing the com- 
 pression is both more rapid and more forcible, and the 
 sparks are more brilliant." That these sparks are due 
 to the contraction of the eyelids is clear, because if they 
 " are held open during the act of sneezing, no sensation 
 of light will be experienced.'' In the peculiar cases re- 
 
 " See, on these several points. Prof. Donders ' On the 
 Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,' 
 1864, p. 573. 
 
172 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VL 
 
 ferred to by Professor Bonders and Mr. Bowman, we 
 have seen that some weeks after the eye has been very 
 slightly injured, sjDasmodic contractions of the eyelids 
 ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse flow of 
 tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently 
 due solely to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles 
 round the eyes. Xotwithstanding these latter cases, it 
 seems hardly credible that the pressure of the eyelids 
 on the surface of the eye, although effected spasmodi- 
 cally and therefore with much greater force than can 
 be done voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by re- 
 flex action the secretion of tears in the many cases in 
 which this occurs during violent expiratory efforts. 
 
 Another cause may come conjointly into play. We 
 have seen that the internal parts of the eye, under cer- 
 tain conditions, act in a reflex manner on the lacr^-mal 
 glands. We know that during violent expiratory efforts 
 the pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of 
 the eye is increased, and that the return of the venous 
 blood is impeded. It seems, therefore, not improbable 
 that the distension of the ocular vessels, thus induced, 
 might act by reflection on the lacrymal glands — the ef- 
 fects due to the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the 
 surface of the eye being thus increased. 
 
 In considering how far this view is probable, we 
 should bear in mind that the eyes of infants have been 
 acted on in this double manner during numberless gen- 
 erations, whenever they have screamed; and on the prin- 
 ciple of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed 
 channels, even a moderate compression of the eyeballs 
 and a moderate distension of the ocular vessels would 
 V ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands. 
 We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles 
 being almost always contracted in some slight degree, 
 even during a gentle crying-fit, when there can be no 
 
CuAP. VI. WEEPLNG. 173 
 
 distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable sensation 
 excited within the eyes. 
 
 Moreover, when complex actions or movements have 
 long been performed in strict association together, and 
 these are from any cause at first voluntarily and after- 
 wards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting 
 conditions occur, any part of the action or movement 
 which is least under the control of the will, will often 
 still be involuntarily performed. The secretion by a 
 gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will; 
 therefore, when with the advancing age of the individ- 
 ual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit 
 of crying out or screaming is restrained, and there is 
 consequently no distension of the blood-vessels of the 
 eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should 
 still be secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the 
 muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic 
 story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as 
 hardly to be detected. In this case there has been no 
 screaming and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet 
 through habit certain nerve-cells send a small amount 
 of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles 
 round the eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells 
 commanding the lacr\-mal glands, for the eyes often 
 become at the same time just moistened with tears. 
 If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the 
 secretion of tears had been completely prevented, never- 
 theless it is almost certain that there would have been 
 some tendency to transmit nerve-force in these same 
 directions; and as the lacrymal glands are remarkably 
 free from the control of the will, they would be emi- 
 nently liable still to act, thus betrajdng, though there 
 were no other outward signs, the pathetic thoughts 
 which were passing through the person's mind. 
 
 As a further illustration of the view here advanced. 
 
174 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERIXG: Chap. VL 
 
 I may remark that if, during an early period of life, when 
 habits of all kinds are readily established, our infants, 
 when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud peals 
 of laughter (during wrdch the vessels of their eyes are 
 distended) as often and as continuously as they have 
 \ielded when distressed to screaming-fits, then it is prob- 
 able that in after life tears would have been as copiously 
 and as regularly secreted under the one state of mind 
 as under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even 
 a pleasing thought, would have sufficed to cause a mod- 
 erate secretion of tears. There does indeed exist an evi- 
 dent tendency in this direction, as will be seen in a future 
 chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings. "With the 
 Sandwich Islanders, according to Freycinet,-"* tears are 
 actually recognized as a sign of happiness: but we should 
 require better evidence on this head than that of a pass- 
 ing voyager. So again if our infants, during many gen- 
 erations, and each of them during several years, had al- 
 most daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during 
 which the vessels of the eye are distended and tears 
 copiousty secreted, then it is probable, such is the force 
 of associated habit, that during after life the mere 
 thought of a choke, without any distress of mind, would 
 have sttfhced to bring tears into our eyes. 
 
 To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the re- 
 sult of some such chain of events as follows. Children, 
 when wanting food or suffering in any way, cry out 
 loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a 
 call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great -^ 
 exertion serving as a relief. Prolonged screaming in- 
 evitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels of the 
 eve; and this will have led, at first consciouslv and at 
 
 " Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times,' l?.Go, 
 p. 458. 
 
Chap. VI. WEEPING. 175 
 
 last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles round 
 the eyes in order to protect them. At the same time the 
 spasmodic pressure on the surface of the eye, and the 
 distension of the vessels within the eye, without neces- 
 sarily entailing any conscious sensation, will have af- 
 fected, through reflex action, the lacrymal glands, /n 
 Finally, through the three principles of nerve-force read- 
 ily passing along accustomed channels — of association, 
 which is so widely extended in its power — and of cer- 
 tain actions, being more under the control of the will 
 than others — it has come to pass that suffering readily ^ 
 causes the secretion of tears, without being necessarily^ 
 accompanied by any other action. 
 
 Although in accordance with tliis view we must look 
 at weeping as an incidental result, as purposeless as the 
 secretion of tears from a blow outside the eve, or as a 
 sneeze from the retina being affected by a bright light, 
 yet this does not present any difficulty in our under- 
 standing how the secretion of tears serves as a relief to 
 suffering. And by as much as the weeping is more vio- 
 lent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be greater, -- 
 — on the same principle that the writhing of the whole 
 body, the grinding of thej^th, and the uttering of 
 piercing shrieks, all give. ^lief, under an agony of pain, " 
 
176 EXPKESSION OF GKIEF: Chap. VIL 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Low Spirits, Anxiety, Geief, Dejectiox, Despaib. 
 
 General effect of grief on tlie system — Obliquity of the 
 eyebrows under suffering — On the cause of the ob- 
 liquity of the eyebrov>s — On the depression of the 
 corners of the mouth. 
 
 After the mind has suffered from an acute parox- 
 jsm. of grief, and the cause still continues, we fall into a 
 state of low spirits; or we may be utterly cast down and 
 dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to 
 an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. 
 If we expect to suffer, we are anxious; if we have no 
 hope of relief, we despair. 
 
 Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek re- 
 lief by violent and almost frantic movements, as de- 
 scribed in a former chapter; but when their suffering is 
 somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer wish 
 for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may 
 occasionally rock themselves to and fro. The circula- 
 tion becomes languid; the face pale; the muscles flaccid; 
 the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted 
 chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink down- 
 wards from their own weight. Hence all the features 
 are lengthened; and the face of a person who hears bad 
 news is said to fall. A party of natives in Tierra del 
 Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend. 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 177 
 
 the captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by 
 pulling down their cliecks with both hands, so as to 
 make their faces as long as possible. ^Ir. Bunnet in- 
 forms me that the Australian aborigines when out of 
 spirits have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged 
 suffering the eyes become dull and lack expression, and 
 are often slightly suffused with tears. The eyebrows 
 not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their 
 inner ends being raised. This produces peculiarly- 
 formed wrinkles on the forehead, which are very differ- 
 ent from those of a simple frown; though in some cases 
 a frown alone may be present. The corners of the mouth 
 are drawn downwards, which is so universally recognized 
 as a sign of being out of spirits, that it is almost pro- 
 verbial. 
 
 The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often 
 interrupted by deep sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, when- 
 ever our attention is long concentrated on any subject, 
 we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a 
 deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, 
 owing to his slow respiration and languid circulation, 
 are eminently characteristic.^ As the grief of a person 
 in this state occasionally recurs and increases into a par- 
 oxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he 
 feels as if something, the so-called globus hystericus^ 
 was rising in liis throat. These spasmodic movements 
 are clearly allied to the sobbing of children, and are 
 remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a 
 person is said to choke from excessive grief.^ 
 
 ^ The above descriptive remarks are taken in part 
 from mv own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet 
 (' De la Physionomie,' pp. 53, 337; on Sig-hing-, 232), who 
 has well treated this whole subject. See, also, Huschko. 
 * Mimiees et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Phj'siolosri- 
 cum,' 1821, p. 21. " On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit, 
 ' ;Mimik und Physiog^nomik,' 1867, s. 65. 
 
 * On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, 
 
178 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: Chap. VIL 
 
 OUiquity of the eyebrows. — Two points alone in the 
 above description require further elucidation, and these 
 are very curious ones; namelj^ the raising of the inner 
 ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down of the cor- 
 ners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they 
 may occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position 
 in persons sufiering from deep dejection or anxiety; for 
 instance, I have observed this movement in a mother 
 whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is sometimes 
 excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or 
 pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position 
 owing to the contraction of certain muscles (namely, the 
 orbiculars, corrugators, and p3Tamidals of the nose, 
 which together tend to lower and contract the eyebrows) 
 being partially checked by tlie more powerful action of 
 the central fasciae of the frontal muscle. These latter 
 fascia? by their contraction raise the inner ends alone 
 of the eyebrows; and as the corrugators at the same time 
 draw the eyebrows together, their inner ends become 
 puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly char- 
 acteristic point in the appearance of the eyebrows when 
 rendered oblique, as may be seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate 
 II. The eyebrows are at the same time somewhat rough- 
 ened, owing to the hairs being made to project. Dr. J. 
 Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic 
 patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, 
 " a peculiar acute arching of the upper eyelid." A trace 
 of this may be observed by comparing the right and left 
 eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate 
 11.) ; for he was not able to act equally on both eyebrows. 
 This is also shown by the unequal furrows on the two 
 sides of his forehead. The acute arching of the eyelids 
 
 see more especially Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' 
 3rd edit. 1844, p. 151. 
 
■•-lb 11 
 
 ^ViV^^^ 
 
 m*. 
 
 ?fci;yriv_-T - .'7 r.-:.-Jt>JrJ» 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 170 
 
 depends, I believe, on tlic inner end alone of the eye- 
 brows boin<: raised; for wlien tlie wliole eyebrow is ele- 
 vated and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight 
 degree the same movement. 
 
 But the most conspicuous result of the opposed con- 
 traction of the above-named muscles, is exhibited by the 
 peculiar furrows formed on the forehead. These mus- 
 cles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be 
 called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When 
 a person elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the 
 whole frontal muscle, transverse wrinkles extend across 
 the whole breadth of the forehead; but in the present 
 case the middle fascia? alone are contracted; consequent- 
 ly, transverse furrows arc formed across the middle part 
 alone of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts 
 of both eyebrow^s is at the same time drawn downwards 
 and smooth, by the contraction of the outer portions of 
 the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are likewise 
 brought together through the simultaneous contraction 
 of the corrugators; ^ and this latter action generates 
 
 ^ In the foreg"oing" remarks on the manner in which 
 the eyebrows are made oblique, I have follo\N'ed what 
 seems to be the universal opinion of all the anatomists, 
 whose works I have consulted on the action of the above- 
 named muscles, or with whom I have conversed. Hence 
 throughout this work I shall take a similar view of the 
 action of the cornujfitor suiHTcilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis 
 nasi, and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, be- 
 lieves, and every conclusion at which he arrives deserves 
 serious consideration, that it is the corrug'ator, called by 
 him the sourcilicr, which raises the inner corner of the 
 eyebrows and is antag-onistic to the upper and inner 
 part of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pjframidalis 
 nasi (see !Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. 
 v., text and fig-ures 19 to 29: octavo edit. 1S62, p. 43 text). 
 He admits, however, that the corrug-ator draws tocrether 
 the eyebrows, causing" vertical furrows above the base of 
 the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards 
 the outer two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrug'ator acts 
 in conjunction with the upper orbicular muscle; both 
 here standing in antag-onism to the frontal muscle. I 
 
180 EXPRESSION OP GRIEF: Chap. VII. 
 
 vertical furrows, separating the exterior and lowered 
 part of the skin of the forehead from the central and 
 raised part. The union of these vertical furrows with 
 the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) 
 produces a mark on the forehead which has been com- 
 pared to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly 
 form three sides of a quadrangle. They are often con- 
 spicuous on the foreheads of adult or nearly adult per- 
 sons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with 
 young children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, 
 they are rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be de- 
 tected. 
 
 These peculiar furrow^s are best represented in fig. 3, 
 Plate II., on the forehead of a young lady who has the 
 powxr in an unusual degree of voluntarily acting on the 
 requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the attempt, 
 whilst being photographed, her • expression was not at 
 all one of grief; I have therefore given the forehead 
 alone. Fig. 1 on the same plate, copied from Dr. Du- 
 chenne's work,^ represents, on a reduced scale, the face, 
 in its natural state, of a young man who was a good 
 actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the 
 
 am unable to understand, judg-ing" from Henle's drawings 
 (woodcut, fig". 3), how the corrugator can act in the man- 
 ner described by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, 
 Prof. Bonders' remarks in the ' Archives of Medicine,' 
 1870, vol. V. p. 34. ]\Ir. J. Wood, who is so well known 
 for his careful study of the muscles of the human frame, 
 informs me that he believes the account which I have 
 g"iven of the action of the corrug^ator to be correct. But 
 this is not a point of any importance with respect to 
 the expression which is caused by the obliquity of the 
 eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its 
 origin. 
 
 * I am greatly indebted to Br. Buchenne for permission 
 to have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced 
 by the heliotype process from his work in folio. Many 
 of the foregoing remarks on the furrowing of the skin, 
 when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are taken from 
 his excellent discussion on this subject. 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 181 
 
 two eyebrows, as before remarked, are not equally acted 
 on. That the expression is true, may be inferred from 
 the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the origi- 
 nal photograph was shown, without any clue to what 'was 
 intended being given them, fourteen immediately an- 
 swered, " despairing sorrow," " sulfering endurance," 
 " melancholy," and so forth. The history of fig. 5 is 
 rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, 
 and took it to Mr. IJejlander for the sake of finding out 
 by whom it had been made; remarking to him how 
 pathetic the expression was. He answered, " I made it, 
 and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few min- 
 utes burst out crying." He then showed me a photo- 
 graph of the same boy in a placid state, which I have 
 had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of obliquity 
 in the eyebrows may be detected ; but this figure, as well 
 as fig. 7, is given to show the depression of the corners 
 of the mouth, to which subject I shall presently refer. 
 
 Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily 
 act on their grief -muscles; but after repeated trials a 
 considerable number succeed, wliilst others never can. 
 The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether as- 
 sumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in dif- 
 ferent persons. AVith some who apparently have unusu- 
 ally strong pyramidal muscles, the contraction of the 
 central fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may be 
 energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the 
 forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, 
 but only prevents their being so much lowered as they 
 otherwise would have been. xA.s far as I have been able 
 to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action 
 much more frequently by children and women than by 
 men. They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up 
 persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from 
 mental distress. Two persons who, after some practice, 
 
1S2 EXPHESSIOX OF GRIEF: Chap. VIL 
 
 succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found by 
 looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows 
 oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed 
 the corners of their mouths; and tliis is often the case 
 when the expression is naturally assumed. 
 
 The power to bring the grief -muscles freely into ])\sij 
 appears to be hereditary, like almost every other human 
 faculty. A lady belonging to a family famous for hav- 
 ing produced an extraordinary number of great actors 
 and actresses, and who can herself give this expression 
 " vrith singular precision," told Dr. Crichton Browne 
 that all her family had possessed the power in a remark- 
 able degree. The same hereditary tendency is said to 
 have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to 
 the last descendant of the family, which gave rise to 
 Sir Walter Scott's novel of ' Eed Gauntlet; ' but the 
 hero is described as contracting liis forehead into a horse- 
 shoe mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen 
 a young woman whose forehead seemed almost habit- 
 ually thus contracted, independently of any emotion 
 being at the time felt. 
 
 The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought 
 into play; and as the action is often momentary, it easily 
 escapes observation. Although the expression, when ob- 
 served, is universally and instantly recognized as that 
 of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand 
 who has never studied the subject, is able to say precisely 
 what change passes over the sufferer's face. Hence prob- 
 ably it is that this expression is not even alluded to, as 
 far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the 
 exception of ' Eed Gauntlet ' and of one other novel; 
 and the authoress of the latter, as I am informed, be- 
 longs to the famous family of actors just alluded to; so 
 that her attention may have been specially called to the 
 subject. 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 183 
 
 The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the 
 expression, as shown in the statues of the Laocoon and 
 Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks, they carried the 
 transverse furrows across the whole Lreadth of the fore- 
 head, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: 
 this is likewise the case in some modern statues. It is, 
 however, more probable that these wonderfully accurate 
 observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the sake of 
 beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular 
 furrows on the forehead would not have had a grand 
 appearance on the marble. The expression, in its fully 
 developed condition, is, as far as I can discover, not 
 often represented in pictures by the old masters, no 
 doubt owing to the same cause; but a lady who is per- 
 fectly familiar with this expression, informs me that in 
 Fra Angelico's ' Descent from the Cross,' in Florence, it 
 is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the right- 
 hand; and I could add a few other instances. 
 
 Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended 
 to this expression in the numerous insane patients under 
 his care in the West Eiding Asylum; and he is familiar 
 with Duchenne's photographs of the action of the grief- 
 muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be 
 seen in energetic action in cases of melancholia, and 
 especially of hypochondria; and that the persistent lines 
 or furrows, due to their habitual contraction, are char- 
 acteristic of the physiognomy of the insane belonging 
 to these two classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for 
 me during a considerable period three cases of hypochon- 
 dria, in which the grief-muscles were persistently con- 
 tracted. In one of these, a widow, aged 51, fancied that 
 she had lost all her viscera, and that her whole body was 
 empty. She wore an expression of great distress, and 
 beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together for 
 hours. The grief-muscles were permanently contracted. 
 
184 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: Chap. VIL 
 
 and the upper eyelids arched. This condition lasted for 
 months; she then recovered, and her countenance re- 
 sumed its natural expression. A second case presented 
 nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the 
 corners of the mouth were depressed. 
 
 Mr. Patrick Xicol has also kindly observed for me 
 several cases in the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has 
 communicated to me full details with respect to three 
 of them; but they need not here be given. From his 
 observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol con- 
 cludes that the inner ends of the eyebrows are almost 
 alwaj^s more or less raised, with the wrinkles on the fore- 
 head more or less plainly marked. In the case of one 
 young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in 
 constant slight play or movement. In some cases the 
 corners of the mouth are depressed, but often only in 
 a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the ex- 
 pression of the several melancholic patients could almost 
 always be observed. The eyelids generally droop; and 
 the skin near their outer corners and beneath them is 
 wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs from the 
 wings of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth, and 
 which is so conspicuous in blubbering children, is often 
 plainly marked in these patients. 
 
 Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act 
 persistently; yet in ordinary cases they are sometimes 
 brought unconsciously into momentary action by ludi- 
 crously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a young 
 lady by an absurdly small present; she pretended to be 
 offended, and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows be- 
 came extremely oblique, with the forehead properly 
 wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in 
 the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with 
 extraordinary rapidity; and I noticed that, as often as 
 the young lady was beaten, and could not get out her 
 
CiiAP. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 185 
 
 words fast enough, licr eyebrows went obliquely up- 
 wards, and rectan<^ular furrows were formed on her fore- 
 head. She thus eacli time hoisted a flag of distress; and 
 this she did half-a-dozen times in the course of a few 
 minutes. I made no remark on the subject, but on a sub- 
 sequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles; 
 another girl who was present, and who could do so vol- 
 untarily, showing her what was intended. She tried re- 
 peatedly, but utterly failed; yet so slight a cause of dis- 
 tress as not being able to talk quickly enough, sufficed 
 to bring these muscles over and over again into energetic 
 action. 
 
 The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the 
 grief-muscles, is by no means confined to Europeans, 
 but appears to be common to all the races of mankind. 
 I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in re- 
 gard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill- 
 tribes of India, and therefore belonging to a quite dis- 
 tinct race from the Hindoos), ^Malays, Negroes and Aus- 
 tralians. With respect to the latter, two observers an- 
 swer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no 
 details. Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive 
 remarks the words " this is exact." With respect to 
 negroes, the lady who told me of Era Angelico's picture, 
 saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he encoun- 
 tered an obstruction, she observed his grief -muscles in 
 strong action, with the middle of the forehead well wrin- 
 kled. Mr. Geach watched a Malay man in Malacca, with 
 the corners of his mouth much depressed, the eyebrows 
 oblique, with deep short grooves on the forehead. This 
 expression lasted for a very short time; and Mr. Geach 
 remarks it " was a strange one, very much like a person 
 about to cry at some great loss." 
 
 In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were 
 familiar with this expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the 
 13 
 
186 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: Chap. VII. 
 
 Botanic Gardens^ Calcutta, has obligingly sent me a full 
 description of two cases. He observed during some time, 
 himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Xag- 
 pore, the wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby 
 who was at the point of death; and he distinctly saw the 
 eyebrows raised at the inner corners, the eyelids droop- 
 ing, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth 
 shghtly open, with the corners much depressed. He 
 then came from behind a screen of plants and spoke to 
 the poor woman, who started, burst into a bitter flood 
 of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The sec- 
 ond case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness 
 and poverty was compelled to sell his favourite goat. 
 After receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the 
 money in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting 
 whether he would not return it. He went to the goat, 
 which was tied up ready to be led away, and the animal 
 reared up and licked his hands. His eyes then wavered 
 from side to side; his " mouth was partially closed, with 
 the corners very decidedly depressed." At last the poor 
 man seemed to make up his mind that he must part with 
 his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows be- 
 came slightly oblique, with the characteristic puckering 
 or swelling at the inner ends, but the wrinkles on the 
 forehead were not present. The man stood thus for a 
 minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, raised 
 up his two hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and 
 without looking again, went away. 
 
 On the cause of tlie obliquity of the erjelroios under 
 suffering. — During several years no expression seemed 
 to me so utterly perplexing as this which we are here 
 considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the 
 central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together mth 
 those round the eyes, to contract? Here we seem to 
 have a complex movement for the sole purpose of ex- 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 187 
 
 pressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare expres- 
 sion, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is 
 not so dillicult as it at lirst appears. Dr. Diiclicnne 
 gives a pliotograph of tlie young man before referred to, 
 who, when looking upwards at a strongly illuiiiinated 
 surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an 
 exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this 
 photogra})!!, when on a very bright day with the sun 
 behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl whose eye- 
 brows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique, 
 with the proper furrows on her forehead. I have ob- 
 served the same movement under similar circumstances 
 on several subsequent occasions. On my return home 
 I made three of my children, without giving them any 
 clue to my object, look as long and as attentively as they 
 could, at the summit of a tall tree standing against an 
 extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular, 
 corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically 
 contracted, through reflex action, from the excitement 
 of the retina, so that their eyes might be protected from 
 the briglit light. But they tried their utmost to look 
 upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic 
 twitchings, could be observed between the whole or only 
 the central portion of the frontal muscle, and the sev- 
 eral muscles which serve to lower the eyebrows and close 
 the eyelids. The involuntary contraction of the pyram- 
 idal caused the basal part of their noses to be trans- 
 versely and deeply wrinkled. In one of the three chil- 
 dren, the whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and 
 lowered by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal 
 muscle and of the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that 
 the whole breadth of the forehead was alternately wrin- 
 kled and smoothed. In the other two children the fore- 
 head became wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectan- 
 gular furrows being thus produced; and the eyebrows 
 
188 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF : Chap. VH 
 
 were rendered oblique, with their inner extremities puck- 
 ered and swollen; — in the one child in a slight degree, 
 in the other in a strongly marked manner. This differ- 
 ence in the obliquity of the eyebrows apparently de- 
 pended on a dift'erence in their general mobility, and 
 in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both these 
 cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under 
 the influence of a strong light, in precisely the same 
 manner, in every characteristic detail, as under the in- 
 fluence of grief or anxiety. 
 
 Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the 
 nose is less under the control of the will than are the 
 other muscles round the eyes. He remarks that the 
 young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles, 
 as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not 
 contract the pyramidals.^ This power, however, no 
 doubt differs in different persons. The pyramidal mus- 
 cle serves to draw down the skin of the forehead be- 
 tween the eyebrows, together with their inner extremi- 
 ties. The central fasciae of the frontal are the antago- 
 nists of the pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is 
 to be specially checked, these central fasciae must be 
 contracted. So that with persons having powerful pyram- 
 idal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright 
 light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of 
 the eyebrows, the central fascia? of the frontal muscle 
 must be brought into play; and their contraction, if suf- 
 ficiently strong to overmaster the pyramidals, together 
 with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular 
 muscles, will act in the manner just described on the 
 eyebrows and forehead. 
 
 When children scream or cry out, they contract, as 
 we know, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal mus- 
 
 ^ Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15. 
 
Chap. VII. OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 189 
 
 cles, primarily for tlic sake of compressing tlieir eyes, 
 and thus protecting them from being gorged with blood, 
 and secondarily through habit. I therefore expected 
 to find with children, that when they endeavoured either 
 to prevent a crying-fit from coming on, or to stop crying, 
 they would check the contraction of the above-named 
 muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards 
 at a bright light; and consequently that the central fas- 
 ciae of the frontal muscle would often be brought into 
 play. Accordingly, I began myself to observe children 
 at such times, and asked others, including some medical 
 men, to do the same. It is necessary to observe care- 
 fully, as the peculiar opposed action of these muscles 
 is not nearly so plain in children, owing to their fore- 
 heads not easily wrinkling, as in adults. But I soon 
 found that the grief-muscles were very frequently 
 brought into distinct action on these occasions. It would 
 be superfluous to give all the cases which have been ob- 
 served; and I will specify only a few. A little girl, a 
 year and a half old, was teased by some other children, 
 and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became de- 
 cidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity 
 was observed, with the inner ends of the eyebrows plain- 
 ly puckered; and at the same time the corners of the 
 mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst 
 into tears, the features all changed and this peculiar 
 expression vanished. Again, after a little boy had been 
 vaccinated, which made him scream and cry violently, 
 the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the pur- 
 pose, and this pleased the child much; as he stopped 
 crying all the characteristic movements were observed, 
 including the formation of rectangular wrinkles in the 
 middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a 
 little girl three or four years old, who had been fright- 
 ened bv a dog, and when I asked her what was the mat- 
 
190 EXPRESSION OF GllIEF: Chap. VII. 
 
 ter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows instantly 
 became obUque to an extraordinary degree. 
 
 Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to 
 the problem why the central fasciae of the frontal mus- 
 cle and the muscles round the eyes contract in oppo- 
 sition to each other under the influence of grief; — wheth- 
 er their contraction be prolonged, as with the melan- 
 cholic insane, or momentary, from some trifling cause 
 of distress. We have all of us, as infants, repeatedly 
 contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal mus- 
 cles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our 
 progenitors before us have done the same during many 
 generations; and though with advancing years we easily 
 prevent, when feeling distressed, the utterance of 
 screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a 
 slight contraction of the above-named muscles; nor in- 
 deed do we observe their contraction in ourselves, or 
 attempt to stop it, if slight. But the pyramidal mus- 
 cles seem to be less under the command of the will than 
 the other related muscles; and if they be well devel- 
 oped, their contraction can be checked only by the an- 
 tagonistic contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal 
 muscle. The result which necessarily follows, if these 
 fasciae contract energetically, is the oblique drawing up 
 of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends, and 
 the formation of rectangular furrows on the middle of the 
 forehead. As children and women cry much more freely 
 than men, and as grown-up persons of both sexes rarely 
 weep except from mental distress, we can understand 
 why the grief -muscles are more frequently seen in action, 
 as I believe to be the case, with children and women 
 than with men; and with adults of^both sexes from men- 
 tal distress alone. In some of the cases before recorded, 
 as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the Hin- 
 dustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OP THE MOUTH, 191 
 
 followed by bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, 
 whether great or small, our brains tend through long 
 habit to send an order to certain muscles to contract, 
 as if we were s^U infants on the point of screaming out; 
 but this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, 
 and through habit, are able partially to counteract; al- 
 though this is effected unconsciously, as far as the means 
 of counteraction are concerned. 
 
 Oji the depression of the corners of the mouth. — This 
 action is effected by the depressores angtiili oris (see let- 
 ter K in figs. 1 and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge 
 downwards, with the upper convergent ends attached 
 round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower lip 
 a little way within the angles.® Some of the fibres ap- 
 pear to be antagonistic to the great zj-gomatic muscle, 
 and others to the several muscles running to the outer 
 part of the upper lip. The contraction of this muscle 
 draws downwards and outwards the corners of the 
 mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and 
 even in a slight degree the wings of the nostrils. When 
 the mouth is closed and this muscle acts, the commis- 
 sure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved 
 line with the concavity downwards,^ and the lips them- 
 selves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the 
 lower one. The mouth in this state is well represented 
 in the two photographs (Plate II., figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. 
 Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. G) had just stopped cry- 
 ing, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; 
 and the right moment was seized for photographing him. 
 
 " Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. 
 i. s. 148, fi£>-s. 68 and 69. 
 
 ^ See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr. 
 Duchenne, ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, 
 Album (1862), viii. p. 34. 
 
192 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: Chap. VIL 
 
 The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due 
 to the contraction of this muscle has been noticed by 
 every one who has written on the subject. To say that 
 a person ^^ is down in the mouth/' is synonymous with 
 saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the 
 corners may often be seen, as already stated on the au- 
 thority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the 
 melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some 
 photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of 
 patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been 
 observed with men belonging to various races, namely 
 with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, 
 as the Eev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me, with the abo- 
 rigines of Australia. 
 
 When infants scream they firmly contract the mus- 
 cles round their eyes, and this draws up the upper lip; 
 and as they have to keep their mouths widely open, the 
 depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise 
 brought into strong action. This generally, but not 
 invariably, causes a slight angular bend in the lower 
 lip on both sides, near the corners of the mouth. The 
 result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on, 
 is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The con- 
 traction of the depressor muscle is best seen in infants 
 when not screaming violently, and especially just before 
 they begin, or when they cease to scream. Their little 
 faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as 
 I continually observed with my own infants between 
 the ages of about six weeks and two or three months. 
 Sometimes, when they are struggling against a crying- 
 fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so exaggerated a 
 manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of 
 misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature. 
 
 The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, 
 under the influence of low spirits or dejection, appar- 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OF THE MOUTH. 193 
 
 ently follows from the same general principles as in the 
 case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne 
 informs me that he concludes from his observations, now 
 prolonged during many years, that this is one of the 
 facial muscles which is least under the control of the 
 will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has 
 just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully 
 beginning to cry, or endeavouring to stop crying; for 
 they then generally command all the other facial mus- 
 cles more eifectually than they do the depressors of the 
 corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who 
 had no theory on the subject, one of them a surgeon, 
 carefully watched for me some older children and women 
 as with some opposed struggling they very gradually 
 approached the point of bursting out into tears; and 
 both observers felt sure that the depressors began to 
 act before any of the other muscles. Now as the de- 
 pressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action 
 during infancy in many generations, nerve-force will 
 tend to flow, on the principle of long associated habit, 
 to these muscles as well as to various other facial mus-* 
 cles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of dis- 
 tress is experienced. But as the depressors are some- 
 what less under the control of the will than most of the 
 other muscles, we might expect that they would often 
 slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. 
 It is remarkable how small a depression of the corners 
 of the mouth gives to the countenance an expression of 
 low spirits or dejection, so that an extremely slight con- 
 traction of these muscles would be sufficient to betray 
 this state of mind. 
 
 I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will 
 serve to sum up our present subject. An old lady with 
 a comfortable but absorbed expression sat nearly oppo- 
 
194 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: Chap. VII. 
 
 site to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I was looking 
 at her, I saw that her depressor es anguli oris became 
 very slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her 
 countenance remained as placid as ever, I reflected how 
 meaningless was this contraction, and how easily one 
 might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred 
 to me when I saAV that her eyes suddenly became suf- 
 fused with tears almost to overflowing, and her whole 
 countenance fell. There could now be no doubt that 
 some painful recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost 
 child, was passing through her mind. As soon as her 
 sensorium was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from 
 long habit instantly transmitted an order to all the re- 
 spiratory muscles, and to those round the mouth, to pre- 
 pare for a fit of crying. But the order was counter- 
 manded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit, 
 and all the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight 
 degree the depressores anguli oris. The mouth was not 
 even opened; the respiration was not hurried; and no 
 muscle was affected except those which draw down the 
 corners of the mouth. 
 
 As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involun- 
 tarily and unconsciously on her part, to assume the 
 proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel almost sure 
 that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted 
 through the long accustomed channels to the various 
 respiratory muscles, as well as to those round the eyes, 
 and to the vaso-motor centre which governs the supply of 
 blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we 
 have indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly 
 suffused with tears; and we can understand this, as the 
 lacrjTnal glands are less under the control of the will 
 than the facial muscles. Xo doubt there existed at the 
 same time some tendency in the muscles round the eyes 
 at contract, as if for the sake of protecting them from 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OF THE MOUTH. 195 
 
 being gorged with blood, but this contraction was com- 
 pletely overmastered, and her brow remained unru filed. 
 Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles 
 been as little obedient to the will, as they are in many 
 persons, they would have been slightly acted on; and 
 then the central fascine of the frontal muscle would have 
 contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have 
 become oblique, with rectangular furrows on her fore- 
 head. Her countenance would then have expressed still 
 more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or rather 
 one of grief. 
 
 Through steps such as these we can understand how 
 it is, that as soon as some melancholy thought passes 
 through the brain, there occurs a just perceptible draw- 
 ing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight raising 
 lip of the inner ends of the eyeb^o^\ s, or both movements 
 combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffu- 
 sion of tears. A thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along 
 several habitual channels, and produces an effect on any 
 point where the will has not acquired through long 
 habit much power of interference. The above actions 
 may be considered as rudimental vestiges of the scream- 
 ing-fits, which are so frequent and prolonged during 
 infancy. In this case, as well as in many others, the 
 links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and 
 effect in giving rise to various expressions on the human 
 countenance; and they explain to us the meaning of 
 certain movements, which we involuntarily and uncon- 
 sciously perform, whenever certain transitory emotions 
 pass through our minds. 
 
196 EXPHESSIOX OF JOY: Chap. Vlll. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 Joy, High Spieits, Love, Tender Feelixgs, 
 Devotiox. 
 
 Laughter primarily the expression of joy — Ludicrous ideas 
 — Movements of the features during" laughter — Mature 
 of the sound produced — The secretion of tears during 
 loud laughter — Gradation from loud laughter to gentle 
 smiling— High spirits — The expression of love — Tender 
 feelings — Devotion. 
 
 Joy, when intense, leads to varions purposeless move- 
 ments — to dancing about, clapping the hands, stamping, 
 &c., and to loud laughter. Laughter seems primarily 
 to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. "We 
 clearly see this in children at play, who are almost inces- 
 santly laughing. With young persons past childhood, 
 when they are in high spirits, there is always much 
 meaningless laughter. The laughter of the gods is de- 
 scribed by Homer as " the exuberance of their celestial 
 joy after their daily banquet." A man smiles — and 
 smiling, as we shall see, graduates into laughter — at 
 meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any 
 trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.^ 
 Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, could 
 not have acquired any expression through imitation, 
 yet when a letter from a beloved friend was communi- 
 cated to her by gesture-language, she " laughed and 
 
 ^ Herbert Spencer, ' Essays Scientific,' &c., 1858, p. 360. 
 
Chap. VIII. LAUGHTER. 197 
 
 clapped lier hands, and the colour mounted to her 
 cheeks." On other occasions she has been seen to stamp 
 for joy.^ 
 
 Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evi- 
 dence that laughter or smiling primarily expresses mere 
 happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton Browne, to whom, as 
 on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the results 
 of his wide experience, informs me that with idiots 
 laughter is the most prevalent and frequent of all the 
 emotional expressions. ^lany idiots are morose, pas- 
 sionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or utterly 
 stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh 
 in a quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapa- 
 ble of speech, complained to Dr. Browne, by the aid of 
 signs, that another boy in the asylum had given him 
 a black eye; and this was accompanied by " explosions 
 of laughter and with his face covered with the broadest 
 smiles." There is another large class of idiots who are 
 persistently joyous and benign, and who are constantly 
 laughing or smiling.^ Their countenances often exhibit 
 a stereotyped smile; their joyousness is increased, and 
 they grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed 
 before them, or when they are caressed, are shown bright 
 colours, or hear music. Some of them laugh more than 
 usual when they walk about, or attempt any muscular 
 exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots cannot 
 possibly be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any 
 distinct ideas: they simply feel pleasure, and express 
 it by laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather higher 
 in the scale, personal vanity seems to be the commonest 
 cause of laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from 
 the approbation of their conduct. 
 
 * F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridguian, ' Smith- 
 sonian Contributions.' 1851, vol. ii. p. 6. 
 
 ' See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 18G4, p. 326. 
 
198 EXPRESSION OF JOY : Chap. VIII. 
 
 TTith grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes 
 considerably different from those which suffice during 
 childhood; but this remark hardly applies to smiling. 
 Laughter in this respect is analogous with weeping, 
 which with adults is almost confined to mental distress, 
 v.-hilst with children it is excited by bodily pain or any 
 suffering, as well as by fear or rage. Many curious dis- 
 cussions have been written on the causes of laughter 
 with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely com- 
 plex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, excit- 
 ing surprise and some sense of superiority in the laugher, 
 who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the 
 commonest cause.* The circumstances must not be of 
 a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile 
 on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been be- 
 queathed to him. If the mind is strongly excited by 
 pleasurable feelings, and any little unexpected event or 
 thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,^ 
 " a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being 
 allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent 
 amount of the new thoughts and emotion which were 
 nascent, is suddenly checked in its flow." ..." The 
 excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and 
 there results an efflux through the motor nerves to vari- 
 ous classes of the muscles, producing the half-convul- 
 sive actions we term laughter." An observation, bear- 
 ing on this point, was made by a correspondent during 
 the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German sol- 
 diers, after strong excitement from exposure to extreme 
 
 * Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will.' 1865, p. 247) 
 has a long" and interesting- discussion on the Ludicrous. 
 The quotation above sriven about the laug-hter of the 
 g-ods is taken from this work. See, also, Mandeville, 
 ' The Fable of the Bees.' vol. ii. p. 168. 
 
 ' ' The Physiology of Laughter,' Essays, Second Series, 
 1863, p. 114. 
 
200 EXPRESSION OF JOY: Cuap. VIII. 
 
 surface; but the surface on wliicli we sit offers a marked 
 exception to this rule. According to Gratiolet/ certain 
 nerves are much more sensitive to tickhng than others. 
 From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself, or in 
 a much less degree than when tickled by another person 
 it seems that the precise point to be touched must not 
 be known; so with the mind, something unexpected- -a 
 novel or incongruous idea which breaks through i«'' 
 habitual train of thought — appears to be a strong elc 
 ment in the ludicrous. 
 
 The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspira 
 tion followed by short, interrupted, spasmodic contrac- 
 tions of the chest, and especially of the diaphragm.^ 
 Hence we hear of " laughter holding both his sides." 
 From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. 
 The lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise 
 the case with some species of baboons, when thev- ■" ^•' 
 much pleaeed. 
 
 During laughter the mouth is opened more 
 widely, with the corners drawn much backwards, 
 well as a little upwards; and the upper lip is somewhat 
 raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen 
 in moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile — 
 the latter epithet showing how the mouth is widened. 
 In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate III., differe ''' 
 degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have ^ "^^^ 
 nhnf,- .- ^ Ti.p R-^ - ' ■' '••■'■ -o^ -.•■•^im the 
 lat, is by Dr. W allich, and the expression was a genuine 
 ^ne; the other two are by Mr. Rejlander. Dr. Duchenne 
 repeatedly insists ^ that, under the emotion of joy, the 
 
 lev- ■" ^ 
 or^V 
 
 ^ * De la Physionomie,' p. 186. 
 
 * Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some 
 remarks on the movement of the diaphrag-m durino- 
 laug-hter. ^ 
 
 ' ' ^recanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album. 
 Legende vi. 
 
C[iAP. VIII. LAUGHTER. 199 
 
 danger, were particularly apt to burst out into loud 
 laughter at the smallest joke. So again when young 
 children are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event 
 will sometimes suddenly turn their crying into laughter, 
 which apparently serves equally well to expend their 
 
 • superfluous nervous energy. 
 "^v The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a 
 
 ^dicrous idea; and this so-called tickling of the mind 
 s curiously analogous v ith that of the body. Every one 
 
 'cnows how immoderately children laugh, and how their 
 . hole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The 
 
 anthropoid apes, as we have seen, likewise utter a re- 
 
 • iterated sound, corresponding with our laughter, when 
 ley are tickled, especially under the armpits. I touched 
 
 "v^iih a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my 
 
 15. \nts, when only seven days old, and it was suddenly 
 
 o> ^ H. awav and the toes curled about, as in an older 
 
 iiiv/ii Such movements, as well as laughter from being 
 ?ed, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is like- 
 
 ise shown by the minute unstriped muscles, which 
 serve to erect the separate hairs on the body, contract- 
 ing near a tickled surface.^ Yet laughter from a ludi- 
 crous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strict- 
 Iv reflex action. In this case, and in that of laughter 
 
 Sm being tickled, the mind must be in a pleasurab^ '' 
 
 ^^dition; a voung child, if tickled bv a strange mai. 
 
 an idea or event, to be ludicrons, must not be of graY^„ ^ 
 L ort The parts of the body whieh are most easil^.^,^ 
 Xd are tho'e which are not comn^only ^^M^^^ 
 as the armpits or between the toes, or V^^^' ff" ^^ ^he 
 soles of the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad 
 
 . .T. Lister in ' Quarterly Journal ol Microscopical Sci- 
 ence,' 1853, vol. 1. p. 266. 
 
TablU 
 
 Fhcta^mnrt hyV3nde Dgrt S-- 
 
CuAr. Vlll. LAUGHTER. 201 
 
 mouth is acted on exclusively by the <]^eat zygomatic 
 muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards and 
 upwards; but judging from the manner in which the 
 upper teeth are always exposed during laughter and 
 broad smiling, as well as from my own sensations, I can- 
 not doubt that some of the muscles running to the upper 
 lip are likewise brought into moderate action. The 
 upper and lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the 
 same time more or less contracted; and there is an inti- 
 mate connection, as explained in the chapter on weep- 
 ing, between the orbiculars, especially the lower ones, 
 and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. 
 Ilenle remarks ^^ on this head, that when a man closely 
 shuts one eye he cannot avoid retracting the upper lip 
 on the same side; conversel}^ if any one will place his 
 finger on his lov/er eyelid, and then uncover his upper 
 incisors as much as possible, he ^^ill feel, as his upper 
 lip is drawn strongly upwards, that the muscles of the 
 lower eyelid contract. In lienle's drawing, given in 
 woodcut, fig. 2, the iiniscidus rnalaris (H) which runs 
 to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral 
 part of the lower orbicular muscle. 
 
 Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old 
 man (reduced on Plate III. fig 4), in his usual passive 
 condition, and another of the same man (fig. 5), nat- 
 urally smiling. The latter was instantly recognized by 
 every^ one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He 
 h.as also given, as an example of an unnatural or false 
 smile, another photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, 
 with the corners of his mouth strongly retracted by the 
 galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles. That 
 tlie expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this 
 
 '*• Handbiich der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1S5S, 
 B. i. s. 144. See ni}' woodcut (H. tig. 2). 
 
 U 
 
202 EXPRESSION OF JOY: Chap. VIII. 
 
 photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could 
 not in the least tell what was meant, whilst the others, 
 though they perceived that the expression was of the 
 nature of a smile, answered in such words as " a wicked 
 joke," " trying to laugh," " grinning laughter," " half- 
 amazed laughter," &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the 
 falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular 
 muscles of the lower eyelids not being sufficiently con- 
 tracted; for he justly lays great stress on their contrac- 
 tion in the expression of joy. ISTo doubt there is much 
 truth in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the w^hole 
 truth. The contraction of the lower orbiculars is always 
 accompanied, as we have seen, by the drav/ing up of the 
 upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6, been thus acted 
 on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been less 
 rigid, the naso-labial furrow would have been slightly 
 different, and the whole expression would, as I believe, 
 have been more natural, independently of the more con- 
 spicuous effect from the stronger contraction of the 
 lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in fig. 
 6, is too much contracted, causing a frown; and this 
 muscle never acts under the influence of joy except dur- 
 ing strongly pronounced or violent laughter. 
 
 By the drawing backwards and upwards of the cor- 
 ners of the mouth, through the contraction of the great 
 zygomatic muscles, and by the raising of the upper lip, 
 the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are thus 
 formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their 
 outer ends; and these are highly characteristic of laugh- 
 ter or smiling. As a gentle smile increases into a strong 
 one, or into a laugh, every one may feel and see, if he will 
 attend to his own sensations and look at liimself in a 
 mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up and the lower 
 orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids 
 and those beneath the e3'es are much strengthened or 
 
CiiAP. VIIT. LAUGHTER. 203 
 
 increased. At the same time, as I have repeatedly ob- 
 served, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, which shows 
 that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars contract 
 at least to some degree, though this passes unperceived, 
 as far as our sensations are concerned. If the original 
 photograph of the old man, with his countenance in its 
 usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with that (fig. 5) 
 in which he is naturally smiling, it may be seen that the 
 eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I presume 
 that this is owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, 
 through the force of long-associated habit, to act to a 
 certain extent in concert with the lower orbiculars, 
 which themselves contract in connection with the draw- 
 ing up of the upper lip. 
 
 The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract 
 under pleasurable emotions is shown by a curious fact, 
 communicated to me by Dr. Browne, with respect to 
 patients suffering ivovn general paralysis of the insane}^ 
 " In this malady there is almost invariably optimism — 
 delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur — insane joyous- 
 ness, benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest 
 physical symptom is trembling at the corners of the 
 mouth and at the outer corners of the eyes. This is a 
 well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of 
 the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is 
 pathognomic of the earlier stages of general paralysis. 
 The countenance has a pleased and benevolent expres- 
 sion. As the disease advances other muscles become 
 involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, the pre- 
 vailing expression is that of feeble benevolence." 
 
 As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and 
 upper lip are much raised, the nose appears to be short- 
 
 " See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. .T. CnVh- 
 ton Browne in ' Journal of Mental Science,' Ax^ril, 1S71, 
 p. 149. 
 
20^ EXPRESSION OF JOY: Chap. VIII. 
 
 ened, and the skin on the bridge becomes finely wrin- 
 kled in transverse lines, with other oblique longitudinal 
 lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly 
 exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, 
 which runs from the wing of each nostril to the corner 
 of the mouth; and this fold is often double in old per- 
 sons. 
 
 A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a 
 pleased or amused state of mind, as is the retraction 
 of the corners of the mouth and upper lip with the 
 wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of microcepha- 
 lous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn 
 to speak, brighten slightly when they are pleased.^^ 
 Under extreme laughter the eyes are too much suffused 
 with tears to sparkle; but the moisture squeezed out of 
 the glands during moderate laughter or smiling may 
 aid in gi^dng them lustre; though this must be of alto- 
 gether subordinate importance, as they become dull from 
 grief, though they are then often moist. Their bright- 
 ness seems to be chiefly due to their tenseness,^^ owing 
 to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and to the 
 pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. 
 Piderit, who has discussed this point more fully than 
 any other writer,^^ the tenseness may be largely attrib- 
 uted to the eyeballs becoming filled with blood and other 
 fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation, conse- 
 quent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the 
 contrast in the appearance of the eyes of a hectic pa- 
 tient with a rapid circulation, and of a man suffering 
 from cholera with almost all the fluids of his body 
 drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circula- 
 tion deadens the eye. I remember seeing a man utterly 
 
 " C. Vog-t, ' Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 21. 
 " Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 133. 
 " ' Mimik und Physiog-nomik,' 18G7, s. 63-67. 
 
Chap. VIII. LAUGHTER. 205 
 
 prostrated by prolonged and severe exertion during a 
 very hot day, and a by.-tander comjiared his eyes to those 
 of a boiled codlij>h. 
 
 To return to the sounds produced during laughter. 
 We can see in a vague manner how the utterance of 
 sounds of some kind would naturally become associated 
 with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large 
 part of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds 
 are employed either as a call or as a charm by one sex 
 for the other. They are also employed as the means for 
 a joyful meeting between the parents and their offspring, 
 and between the attached members of the same social 
 community. But why the sounds which man utters 
 when he is pleased have the peculiar reiterated charac- 
 ter of laughter we do not know. Nevertheless we can 
 see that they would naturally be as different as possible 
 from the screams or cries of distress; and as in the pro- 
 duction of the latter, the expirations are prolonged and 
 continuous, with the inspirations short and interrupted, 
 so it might perhaps have been expected with the sounds 
 uttered from joy, that the expirations would have been 
 short and broken with the inspirations prolonged; and 
 this is the case. 
 
 It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the 
 mouth are retracted and the upper lip raised during 
 ordinary laughter. The mouth must not be opened to 
 its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a parox- 
 ysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; 
 or it changes its tone and seems to come from deep down 
 in the throat. The respiratory muscles, and even those 
 of the limbs, are at the same time thrown into rapid 
 vibratory movements. The lower jaw often partakes of 
 this m.ovement, and this would tend to prevent the 
 mouth from being widely opened. But as a full vohmie 
 of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice of the mouth 
 
206 EXPRESSION OF JOY: Chap. VIII. 
 
 must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this end that 
 the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised. Al- 
 though we can hardly account for the shape of the mouth 
 during laughter, which leads to wrinkles being formed 
 beneath the eyes, nor for the peculiar reiterated sound 
 of laughter, nor for the quivering of the jaws, neverthe- 
 less we may infer that all these effects are due to some 
 common cause. For they are all characteristic and ex- 
 pressive of a pleased state of mind in various kinds of 
 monkeys. 
 
 A graduated series can be followed from violent to 
 moderate laughter, to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, 
 and to the expression of mere cheerfulness. During 
 excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown back- 
 ward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respira- 
 tion is much disturbed; the head and face become gorged 
 with blood, with the veins distended; and the orbicular 
 muscles are spasmodically contracted in order to pro- 
 tect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as for- 
 merly remarked, it is scarcely possible to point out any 
 difference between the tear-stained face of a person after 
 a paroxysm of excessive laughter and after a bitter cry- 
 ing-fit.^^ It is probably due to the close similarity of the 
 spasmodic movements caused by these widely different 
 emotions that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh 
 with violence, and that young children sometimes pass 
 suddenly from the one to the other state. Mr. Swin- 
 hoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese, when 
 suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits 
 of laughter. 
 
 ^^ Sir J. Reynolds remarks ('Discourses,' xii. p. 100), 
 " It is curious to ohr-erve, and it is certainly true, that the 
 extremes of contrary passions are, with very little varia- 
 tion, expressed by the same action." He gives as an in- 
 stance the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief of a 
 ^Nfary Magdalen. 
 
Chap. VIII. LAUGHTER. 207 
 
 I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed 
 during excessive hiughter by most of the races of men, 
 and I hear from my correspondents that this is the case. 
 One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and they 
 themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with 
 the Chinese. The women of a wild tribe of Malays in 
 the Malacca peninsula, sometimes shed tears when they 
 laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the 
 Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least 
 with the women, for I hear from the Eajah C. Brooke 
 that it is a common expression with them to say " we 
 nearly made tears from laughter." The aborigines of 
 Australia express their emotions freeh^, and they are 
 described by my correspondents as jumping about and 
 clapping their hands for joy, and as often roaring with 
 laughter. No less than four observers have seen their 
 eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one in- 
 stance the tears rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, 
 a missionary in a remote part of Victoria, remarks, " that 
 they have a keen sense of the ridiculous; they are ex- 
 cellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate 
 the peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it 
 IS very common to hear all in the camp convulsed with 
 laughter." "With Europeans hardly anything excites 
 laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious 
 to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who 
 constitute one of the most distinct races in the world. 
 
 In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, espe- 
 cially with the women, their eyes often fill with tears 
 during laughter. Gaika, the brother of the chief San- 
 dilli, answers my query on this head, with the words, 
 *^ Yes, that is their common practice." Sir Andrew 
 Smith has seen the painted face of a Hottentot woman 
 all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter. In N'orth- 
 em Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted under 
 
208 EXPRESSION OF JOY; Chap. VIH 
 
 the same circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the 
 same fact has been observed in a remarkably savage and 
 isolated tribe, but chiefly with the women; in another 
 tribe it was observed only on a single occasion. 
 
 Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates 
 into moderate laughter. In this latter case the muscles 
 round the eyes are much less contracted, and there is 
 little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh and a 
 broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting 
 that in smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a 
 single rather strong expiration, or slight noise — a rudi- 
 ment of a laugh — may often be heard at the commence- 
 ment of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance 
 the contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still 
 just be traced by a slight lowering of the eyebrows. The 
 contraction of the lower orbicular and palpebral mus- 
 cles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of 
 the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together 
 with a slight drawing up of the upper lip. From the 
 broadest smile we pass by the finest steps into the gen- 
 tlest one. In this latter case the features are moved in 
 a much less degree, and much more slovrly, and the 
 mouth is kept closed. The curvature of the naso-labial 
 furrow is also slightly different in the two cases. We 
 thus see that no abrupt line of demarcation can be 
 drawn between the movement of the features during the 
 most violent laughter and a very faint smile.^*^ 
 
 A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage 
 in the development of a laugh. But a different and 
 more probable view may be suggested; namely, that 
 the habit of uttering loud reiterated sounds from a sense 
 of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of 
 the mouth and of the upper lip, and to the contraction 
 
 " Dr. ridcrit hns come to the same conclnsioTi, ibid. s. 99. 
 
CiiAi'. VIII. LAUGHTER. 209 
 
 of the orbicular muscles; and that now, through associa- 
 tion and long-continued habit, the same muscles are 
 brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in 
 us a feeling which, if stronger, would have led to laugh- 
 ter; and the result is a smile. 
 
 Whether we look at laughter as the full development 
 of a smile, or, as is more probable, at a gentle smile as 
 the last trace of a habit, firmly fixed during many gen- 
 erations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we can 
 follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into 
 the other. It is well known to those who have the charge 
 of young infants, that it is difficult to feel sure when cer- 
 tain movements about their mouths are really expressive; 
 that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully 
 watched my own infants. One of them at the age of 
 forty-five days, and being at the time in a happy frame 
 of mind, smiled; that is, the corners of the mouth were 
 retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became decidedly 
 bright. I observed the same thing on the following 
 day; but on the third day the child was not quite well 
 and there was no trace of a smile, and this renders it 
 probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days 
 subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it 
 was remarkable how his eyes brightened whenever he 
 smiled, and his nose became at the same time trans- 
 versely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little 
 bleating noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At 
 the age of 113 days these little noises, which were al- 
 ways made during expiration, assumed a slightly differ- 
 ent character, and were more broken or interrupted, as 
 in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. 
 The change in tone seemed to jne at the time to be con- 
 nected with the greater lateral extension of the mouth 
 as the smiles became broader. 
 
 In a second infant the first real smile vras observed 
 
210 EXPRESSION OF HIGH SPIRITS. Chap. VIII. 
 
 at about the same age, viz. forty-five days; and in a 
 third, at a somewhat earlier age. Tlie second infant, 
 when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly and 
 plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same 
 age; and even at this early age uttered noises very like 
 laughter. In this gradual acquirement, by infants, of 
 the habit of laughing, we have a case in some degree 
 analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite 
 with the ordinary movements of the bod}^, such as walk- 
 ing, so it seems to be with laughing and weeping. The 
 art of screaming, on the other hand, from being of serv- 
 ice to infants, has become finely developed from the 
 earliest days. 
 
 High spirits, cheerfuhiess. — A man in high spirits, 
 though he may not actually smile, commonly exhibits 
 some tendency to the retraction of the corners of his 
 mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the circula- 
 tion becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the 
 colour of the face rises. The brain, being stimulated by 
 the increased flow of blood, reacts on the mental powers; 
 lively ideas pass still more rapidly through the mind, 
 and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a little 
 under four years old, when asked what was meant by 
 being in good spirits, answer, '' It is laughing, talking, 
 and kissing." It would be difficult to give a truer and 
 more practical definition. A man in this state holds his 
 body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There 
 is no drooping of the features, and no contraction of the 
 eyebrows. On the contrary, the frontal muscle, as Mo- 
 reau observes,^" tends to contract slightly; and this 
 smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown, arches 
 
 " ' La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. 
 iv. p. 224. See, also. Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' 
 p. 172, for the quotation given below. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OP HIGH SPIRITS. 211 
 
 the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Ilcncc the 
 Latin phrase, cxporrigere fronteni — to unwrinkle the 
 brow — means, to be cheerful or merry. The whole ex- 
 pression of a man in good spirits is exactly the opposite 
 of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to Sir 
 C. Bell, " In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, 
 eyelids, the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are 
 raised. In the depressing passions it is the reverse." 
 Under the influence of the latter the brow is heavy, the 
 eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes 
 are dull; the countenance * pallid, and the respiration 
 slow. In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens. 
 AVhether the principle of antithesis has here come into 
 play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of 
 the direct causes which have been specified and which 
 are sufficiently plain, I will not pretend to say. 
 
 With all the races of man the expression of good 
 spirit appears to be the same, and is easily recognized. 
 My informants, from various parts of the Old and New 
 Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this 
 head, and they give some particulars with respect to 
 Hindoos, Malays, and New Zealanders. The brightness 
 of the eyes of the Australians has struck four observers, 
 and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New 
 Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo. 
 
 Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only 
 by smiling, but by gestures derived from the pleasure 
 of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood ^^ quotes Petherick 
 that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general rub- 
 bing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and 
 Leichhardt savs that the Australians smacked and clacked 
 their mouths at the sight of his horses and bullocks, and 
 
 ^^ A ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, 
 Introduction, j). xliv. 
 
212 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. VIIL 
 
 more especially of his kangaroo dogs. The Greenland- 
 ers, "when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck 
 down air with a certain sound; " ^^ and this may be an 
 imitation of the act of swallowing savoury food. 
 
 Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles of the mouth, which prevents the great 
 zygomatic and other muscles from drawing the lips 
 backwards and upwards. The lovrer Kp is also some- 
 times held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish ex- 
 pression to the face, as was observed with the blind and 
 deaf Laura Bridgman.-° The great zygomatic muscle 
 is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a 
 young woman in whom the depressores anguli oiHs were 
 brought into strong action in suppressing a smile; but 
 this by no means gave to her countenance a melancholy 
 expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes. 
 
 Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner 
 to conceal or mask some other state of mind, even anger. 
 We often see persons laughing in order to conceal their 
 shame or shyness. When a person purses up his mouth, 
 as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there 
 is nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free 
 indulgence, an affected, solemn, or pedantic expression 
 is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing more 
 need here be said. In the case of derision, a real or pre- 
 tended smile or laugh is often blended with the expres- 
 sion proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry 
 contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning of the 
 laugh or smile is to show the offending person that he 
 excites only amusement. 
 
 LovG^ tender feelings^ d'c. — Although the emotion of 
 
 ^' Crantz, quoted by Tylor, ' Primitive Culture,' 1S71, 
 vol. i. p. 1C9. 
 
 *° F. Lieber, ' Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. 
 ii. T^. 7. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 213 
 
 love, for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one 
 of the strongest of which the mind is capable, it can 
 hardly he said to have any. proper or pecuHar means of 
 expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not habit- 
 ually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as 
 affection is a pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a 
 gentle smile and some brightening of the eyes. A 
 strong desire to touch the beloved person is commonly 
 felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly 
 than by any other.-^ Hence we long to clasp in our 
 arms those whom we tenderly love. AVe probably owe 
 this desire to inherited habit, in association with the 
 nursing and tending of our children, and with the mu- 
 tual caresses of lovers. 
 
 With the lower animals we see the same principle of 
 pleasure derived from contact in association with love. 
 Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure in rubbing against 
 their masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or 
 patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am as- 
 sured by the keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight 
 in fondling and being fondled by each other, and by 
 persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett has 
 described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather 
 older animals than those generally imported into this 
 country, when they were first brought together. They 
 sat opposite, touching each other with their much pro- 
 truded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder of 
 the other. They then mutually folded each other in 
 their arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with one 
 arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads, 
 opened their mouths, and yelled with delight. 
 
 ■^ ^Tr. Bain remarks (' Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, 
 p. 239), " Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, varioiisiv 
 stimulated, whose effort is to draw human beings into 
 mutual embrace." 
 
214 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. VIII. 
 
 "We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a 
 mark of affection, that it might be thought to be innate 
 in mankind; but this is not the case. Steele was mis- 
 taken when he said " Xature was its author, and it began 
 with the first courtship." Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, 
 told me that this practice was unknown in his land. It 
 is equally unknown with the Xew Zealanders, Tahitians, 
 Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the Esqui- 
 maux.-- But it is so far innate or natural that it appar- 
 ently depends on pleasure from close contact with a be- 
 loved person; and it is replaced in various parts of the 
 world, by the rubbing of noses, as with the Xew Zea- 
 landers and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of 
 the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking 
 his own face with the hands or feet of another. Perhaps 
 the practice of blowing, as a mark of affection, on vari- 
 ous parts of the body may depend on the same princi- 
 ple.-3 
 
 The feelings which are called tender are difficult to 
 analyse; they seem to be compounded of affection, joy, 
 and especially of sympathy. These feelings are in them- 
 selves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity is 
 too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured 
 man or animal. They are remarkable under our present 
 point of view from so readily exciting the secretion of 
 tears. Many a father and son have wept on meeting after 
 a long separation, especially if the meeting has been un- 
 expected. Xo doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act 
 on the lacrymal glands; but on such occasions as the 
 foregoing vague thoughts of the grief which would have 
 
 ~ Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1860, 
 p. 552, gives full authorities for these statements. The 
 quotation from Steele is taken from this work. 
 
 ^ See a full acount. with references, by E. B. Tylor, 
 ' Researches into the Early History of }>Iankind,' 2nd edit. 
 1870, p. 51. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 215 
 
 been felt bad tbe fatbor and son never met, will prob- 
 ably bave passed tbroiigb tbeir minds; and grief nat- 
 urally leads to tbe secretion of tears. Tbus on the re- 
 turn of Ulysses: — 
 
 " Telomac'luis 
 liose, and clung" ^veoping■ round his father's breast. 
 There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus. 
 ****■«•» 
 
 Thus piteoiisly they wailed in sore unrest. 
 And on their wee|)ings had gone do\vn the day, 
 liut that at kist Tekunaehus found words to say." 
 Worslcy's Translation of the Od\ji<svy, 
 
 Book xvi. St. 27. 
 
 So again wben Penelope at last recognized her hus- 
 band : — 
 
 " Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start 
 And she ran to him from her place, and threw 
 Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew 
 Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake: " 
 
 Book xxiii. st. 27. 
 
 The vivid recollection of our former home, or of 
 long-past happy days, readily causes the eyes to be suf- 
 fused with tears; but here, agam, the thought naturally 
 occurs that these days will never return. In such cases 
 we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our pres- 
 ent, in comparison with our former, state. S^'mpathy 
 with the distresses of others, even with the imaginary 
 distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, for whom we 
 feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does sympa- 
 thy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, 
 at last successful after many hard trials in a well-told 
 tale. 
 
 Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct 
 emotion; and it is especially apt to excite the lacrymal 
 glands. This holds good whether we give or receive 
 sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily 
 children burst out crying if we pity them for some small 
 
21G EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. Till 
 
 hurt. "With the melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton 
 Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge them 
 into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our 
 pitv for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our 
 owTi eyes. The feeling of sympathy is commonly ex- 
 plained by assuming that, when we see or hear of suf- 
 fering in another, the idea of sufiering is called up so viv- 
 idly in our own minds that we ourselves suffer. But tliis 
 exnlanation is hardlv sutFieient, for it does not account 
 for the intimate alliance between S3^mpathy and affec- 
 tion. We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with 
 a beloved than with an indifferent person; and the 
 sympathy of the one gives us far more relief than that 
 of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize with 
 those for whom we feel no affection. 
 
 Why suffering, when actually experienced by our- 
 selves, excites weeping, has been discussed in a former 
 chapter. With respect to joy, its natural and universal 
 expression is laughter; and with all the races of man 
 loud laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely 
 than does any other cause excepting distress. The suf- 
 fusion of the eyes with tears, which undoubtedly occurs 
 under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as it 
 seems to me, be explained through habit and associa- 
 tion on the same principles as the effusion of tears from 
 grief, although there is no screaming. Xevertheless it 
 is not a little remarkable that sympathy with the dis- 
 tresses of others should excite tears more freely than 
 our own distress; and this certainly is the case. Many 
 a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could 
 wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a be- 
 loved friend. It is still more remarkable that sympathy 
 with the happiness or good fortune of those whom we 
 tenderly love should lead to the same result, whilst a 
 similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our eyes 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. 217 
 
 dr}\ We should, however, bear in mind that the lonf^- 
 continued habit of restraint which is so powerful in 
 cheeking the free flow of tears from bodily pain, has not 
 been brought into play in preventing a moderate effu- 
 sion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happi- 
 ness of others. 
 
 Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere 
 attempted to show,-^ of recalling in a vague and in- 
 definite manner, those strong emotions which were felt 
 during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early 
 progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. 
 And as several of our strongest emotions — grief, great 
 joy, love, and sympathy — lead to the free secretion of 
 tears, it is not surprising that music should be apt to 
 cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially 
 when we are already softened by any of the tenderer 
 feelings. Music often produces another pecuHar effect. 
 "We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or ex- 
 citement — extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the pas- 
 sion of love — all have a special tendency to cause the 
 muscles to tremble; and the thrill or slight shiver which 
 runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons 
 when they are powerfully affected by music, seems to 
 bear the same relation to the above trembling of the 
 body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the power of 
 music does to weeping from any strong and real emo- 
 tion. 
 
 Devotion. — As devotion is, in some degree, related to 
 affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often 
 combined with fear, the expression of this state of mind 
 may here be briefly noticed. With some sects, both 
 past and present, religion and love have been strangely 
 combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable 
 
 " ' The Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 336. 
 15 
 
218 EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. Chap. VIII. 
 
 as the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but 
 little from that which a man bestows on a woman, or a 
 woman on a man.-^ Devotion is chiefly expressed by 
 the face being directed towards the heavens, with the 
 eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the ap- 
 proach of sleep, or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the 
 pupils are drawn upwards and inwards; and he believes 
 that " when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and 
 outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised 
 by an action neither taught nor acquired; " and that 
 this is due to the same cause as in the above cases. ^^ 
 That the eyes are upturned during sleep is, as I hear 
 from Professor Bonders, certain. With babies, whilst 
 sucking their mother's breast, this movement of the eye- 
 balls often gives to them an absurd appearance of ec- 
 static delight; and here it may be clearly perceived that 
 a struggle is going on against the position naturally 
 assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell's explanation of 
 the fact, which rests on the assumption that certain 
 muscles are more under the control of the will than 
 others is, as I hear from Professor Bonders, incorrect. 
 As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the 
 mind being so much absorbed in thought as to approach 
 to the unconsciousness of sleep, the movement is prob- 
 ably a conventional one — the result of the common be- 
 lief that Heaven, the source of Bivine power to which 
 we pray, is seated above us. 
 
 A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned 
 and palms joined, appears to us, from long habit, a ges- 
 ture so appropriate to devotion, that it might be thought 
 to be innate; but I have not met with any evidence to 
 
 " Dr. Maudsley has a discussion to this effect in his 
 ' Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 85. 
 
 ^ ' The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 103, and ' Philo- 
 sophical Transactions,' 1823, p. 182. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. 219 
 
 this effect with the various extra-European races of 
 luankind. During the classical period of lloman history 
 it does not appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, 
 that the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr. 
 Hensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given ^^ the true 
 explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one 
 of slavish subjection. '• When the suppliant kneels and 
 holds up his hands with the palms joined, he represents 
 a captive who proves the completeness of his submission 
 by offering up his hands to be bound by the victor. It 
 is the pictorial representation of the Latin dare manus, 
 to signify submission." Hence it is not probable that 
 either the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open 
 hands, under the influence of devotional feelings, are in- 
 nate or truly expressive actions; and this could hardly 
 have been expected, for it is very doubtful whether feel- 
 ings, such as we should now rank as devotional, affected 
 the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past 
 ages in an uncivilized condition. 
 
 -^ ' The Origin of Lang-uag-e,' 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor 
 (' Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives 
 a more complex origin to the position of the hands dur- 
 ing prayer. 
 
220 REFLECTION. Chap. IX 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Reflection — Meditation — Ill-temper — Sulkiness 
 — Determination. 
 
 The act of frowning — Eeflection with an effort, or with the 
 perception of something difficult or disagreeable — Ab- 
 stracted meditation — Ill-temper — Moroseness — Obsti- 
 nacy — Sulkiness and pouting — Decision or determina- 
 tion — The firm closure of the mouth. 
 
 The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eye- 
 brows and bring them together, producing vertical fur- 
 rows on the forehead — that is, a frown. Sir C. Bell, 
 who erroneously thought that the corrugator was pecul- 
 iar to man, ranks it as " the most remarkable muscle 
 of the human face. It knits the eyebrows with an ener- 
 getic effort, which unaccountably, but irresistibly, con- 
 veys the idea of mind." Or, as he elsewhere says, " when 
 the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and 
 there is the mingling of thought and emotion with the 
 savage and brutal rage of the mere animal." ^ There 
 
 ^ ' Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 137, 139. It is not sur- 
 prising that the corrugators should have become much 
 more developed in man than in the anthropoid apes; for 
 they are brought into incessant action by him under vari- 
 ous circumstances, and will have been strengthened and 
 modified by the inherited effects of use. We have seen 
 how important a part they play, together with the orbicu- 
 lares, in protecting the eyes from being too much gorged 
 with blood during violent expiratory movements. When 
 the eyes are closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible, 
 
CuAP. IX. REFLECTION. 221 
 
 is nuich truth in these remarks, but hardly the whole 
 truth. IJr. Duchcnne has called the corrugator the 
 muscle of reflection; ^ but this name, without some lim- 
 itation, cannot be considered as quite correct. 
 
 A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and 
 his brow will remain smooth until he encounters some 
 obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is interrupted by 
 some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a shadow 
 over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently 
 how to obtain food, but he probably will not frown un- 
 less he encounters either in thought or action some dif- 
 ficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous. I 
 have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if 
 he perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. 
 I asked several persons, without explaining my object, 
 to listen. intently to a very gentle tapping sound, the 
 nature and source of which they all perfectly knew, and 
 not one frowned; but a man who joined us, and who 
 could not conceive what we were all doing in profound 
 silence, when asked to listen, frowned much, though not 
 in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least under- 
 stand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit,^ who has pub- 
 lished remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers 
 generally frown in speaking; and that a man in doing 
 even so trifling a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if 
 
 to save them from being" injured by a blow, the corrug-ators 
 contract. With savages or other men whose lieads are 
 uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and con- 
 tracted to serve as a shade ag-ainst a too strong light; and 
 this is effected partly by the corrugators. This movement 
 would have been more especially serviceable to man, as 
 soon as his early progenitors held their heads erect. Last- 
 ly, Prof. Bonders believes (' Archives of Medicine,' ed. by 
 L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are 
 brought into action in causing the eyeball to advance in 
 accommodation for proximity in vision. 
 
 ' * Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, 
 Legende iii. 
 
 * ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 46. 
 
222 REFLECTION. Chap. IX 
 
 he finds it too tight. Some persons are such habitual 
 frowners, that the mere effort of speaking almost always 
 causes their brows to contract. 
 
 Men of all races frown Avhen they are in any way per- 
 plexed in thought, as I infer from the answers which 
 I have received to my queries; but I framed them badly, 
 confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflec- 
 tion. Xevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, 
 Malays, Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, 
 when they are puzzled. Dobritzhoffer remarks that the 
 Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their 
 brows.** 
 
 From these considerations, we may conclude that 
 frowning is not the expression of simple reflection, how- 
 ever profound, or of attention, however close, but of 
 something difficult or displeasing encountered in a train 
 of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, how^ever, 
 seldom be long carried on without some difficulty, so 
 that it will generally be accompanied by a frown. Hence 
 it is that frowning commonly gives to the countenance, 
 as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy. 
 But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes 
 must be clear and steady, or they may be cast downwards, 
 as often occurs in deep thought. The countenance must 
 not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case of an ill-tem- 
 pered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects 
 of prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping 
 javr, or who perceives a bad taste in his food, or who 
 finds it difficult to perform some trifling act, such as 
 threading a needle. In these cases a frown may often be 
 seen, but it will be accompanied by some other expres- 
 sion, which will entirely prevent the countenance hav- 
 
 * ' History of the Abipones.' Ensr. translat. vol. ii. p. 59, 
 as quoted by Lubbock, ' Orig-in of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 355. 
 
Chap. IX. REFLECTION. 223 
 
 m^ an appearance of intellectual energy or of profound 
 tli()u*j;ht. 
 
 We may now inquire how it is that a frown should 
 express the perception of something difficult or dis- 
 agreeable, either in thought or action. In the same 
 way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryo- 
 logical development of an organ in order fully to under- 
 stand its structure, so with the movements of expression 
 it is advisable to follow as nearly as possible the same 
 plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen dur- 
 ing the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited, 
 is that displayed during the act of screaming; and 
 screaming is excited, both at first and for some time 
 afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing sensation 
 and emotion, — by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, 
 &c. At such times the muscles round the eyes are 
 strongly contracted; and this, as I believe, explains to a 
 large extent the act of frowning during the remainder 
 of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, 
 from under the age of one week to that of two or three 
 months, and found that when a screaming-fit came on 
 gradually, the first sign was the contraction of the cor- 
 rugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly fol- 
 lowed by the contraction of the other muscles round 
 the eyes. When an infant is uncomfortable or unwell, 
 little frowns — as I record in my notes — may be seen in- 
 cessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being 
 generally, but not alwa3^s, followed sooner or later by 
 a crying-fit. For instance, I watched for some time a 
 baby, between seven and eight weeks old, sucking some 
 milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him; 
 and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. 
 This was never developed into an actual crying-fit, 
 though occasionally every stage of close approach could 
 be observed. 
 
224 REFLECTION. Chap. IX 
 
 As the habit of contracting the brows has been fol- 
 lowed by infants during innumerable generations, at the 
 commencement of every crying or screaming fit, it has 
 become firmly associated with the incipient sense of 
 something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under 
 similar circumstances it would be apt to be continued 
 during maturity, although never then developed into a 
 crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to be volun- 
 tarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frown- 
 ing is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps 
 worth notice that with children much given to weeping, 
 anything which perplexes their minds, and which would 
 cause most other children merely to frown, readily 
 makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, 
 any effort of mind, however slight, Avhich with an ha- 
 bitual frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to their 
 weeping in an unrestrained manner. It is not more sur- 
 prising that the habit of contracting the brows at the 
 first perception of something distressing, although 
 gained during infanc}^, should be retained during the 
 rest of our lives, than that many other associated habits 
 acquired at an early age should be permanently retained 
 both by man and the lower animals. For instance, full- 
 grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often 
 retain the habit of alternately i^rotruding their fore-feet 
 with extended toes, which habit they practised for a 
 definite purpose whilst sucking their mothers. 
 
 Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened 
 the habit of frowning, whenever the mind is intent on 
 any subject and encounters some difficulty. Vision is 
 the most important of all the senses, and during prime- 
 val times the closest attention must have been incessantly 
 directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtain- 
 ing prey and avoiding danger. I remember being struck, 
 wliilst travelling in parts of South America, which were 
 
Chap. IX. REFLECTION. 225 
 
 (lan<]:oroiis from the presence of Indians, how incessantly, 
 yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos 
 closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one 
 with no covering on his head (as must have been abo- 
 riginally the case with mankind), strives to the utmost 
 to distinguish in broad dayhght, and especially if the 
 sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably con- 
 tracts his brows to prevent the entrance of too much 
 light; the lower eyelids, cheeks, and upper lip being at 
 the same time raised, so as to lessen the orifice of the 
 eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young 
 and old, to look, under the above circumstances, at dis- 
 tant objects, making them believe that I only wished 
 to test the power of their vision; and they all behaved 
 in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put 
 their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the 
 excess of light. Gratiolet, after making some remarks 
 to nearly the same effect,^ says, " Ce sont la des atti- 
 tudes de vision difficile." He concludes that the muscles 
 round the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding 
 too much light (which appears to me the more impor- 
 tant end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the 
 retina, except those which come direct from the object 
 that is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on 
 this point, thinks that the contraction of the surround- 
 ing muscles may, in addition, " partly sustain the con- 
 sensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer 
 support while the globes are brought to binocular vision 
 by their own proper muscles." 
 
 As the effort of viewing with care under a bright 
 light a distant object is both difficult and irksome, and 
 
 ° ' De la Physionomie,' pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert 
 Spencer accounts for frowning" exclusively by the habit 
 of contracting" the brows as a shade to the eyes in a brig"ht 
 light: see ' Principles of Physiology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546. 
 
226 MEDITATIOX. Chap. IX. 
 
 as this effort has been habitually accompanied, during 
 numberless generations, by the contraction of the eye- 
 brows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much 
 strengthened; although it was originally practised dur- 
 ing infancy from a quite independent cause, namely as 
 the first step in the protection of the eyes during scream- 
 ing. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state 
 of the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing 
 a distant object, and following out an obscure train of 
 thought, or performing some little and troublesome me- 
 chanical work. The belief that the habit of contracting 
 the brows is continued when there is no need whatever 
 to exclude too much light, receives support from the 
 cases formerly alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eye- 
 lids are acted on under certain circumstances in a use- 
 less manner, from having been similarly used, imder 
 analogous circumstances, for a serviceable purpose. 
 For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes when we do 
 not wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, 
 when we reject a proposition, as if we could not or would 
 not see it; or when we think about something horrible. 
 "We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all 
 round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly 
 desire to remember something; acting as if we endeav- 
 oured to see it. 
 
 Abstraction. Meditation. — When a person is lost in 
 thought with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes 
 said, " when he is in a brown study,'^ he does not frown, 
 but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids are gen- 
 eralh' raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when 
 a short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant ob- 
 ject; and the upper orbicular muscles are at the same 
 time slightly contracted. The wrinkling of the lower 
 evelids under these circumstances has been observed 
 
Chap. IX. MEDITATION. 227 
 
 with some savages, as by ^Ir. Dyson Lacy with the Aus- 
 trahaiis of (^ueeiishiiKl, and several times by Mr. Geach 
 witli the Malays of the interior of ^lalacca. What the 
 meaning or cause of this action may be, cannot at pres- 
 ent be explained; but here we have another instance of 
 movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the 
 mind. 
 
 The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and 
 at once shows when a man is completely lost in thought. 
 Professor Bonders has, with his usual kindness, investi- 
 gated this subject for me. He has observed others in 
 this condition, and has been himself observed by Pro- 
 fessor Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any 
 object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on some 
 distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes even 
 often become slightly divergent; the divergence, if the 
 head be held vertically, with the plane of vision hori- 
 zontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. 
 This was ascertained by observing the crossed double 
 image of a distant object. When the head droops for- 
 ward, as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, 
 owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the 
 plane of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily 
 a little turned upwards, and then the divergence is as 
 much as 3°, or 3° 5': if the eyes are turned still more 
 upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. Professor 
 Bonders attributes this divergence to the almost com- 
 plete relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which 
 would be apt to follow from the mind being wholly ab- 
 sorbed.^ The active condition of the muscles of the eyes 
 
 ® Grntiolot remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), " Quand I'atten- 
 tion est fixce sur quelqiie imag-e interieure, I'ceil reg-arrle 
 flans le vide et s'associe aiitomatiquement a la contem- 
 plation de I'esprit." But this view hardly deserves to be 
 called an explanation. 
 
228 ILL-TEMPER. Chap. IX, 
 
 is that of convergence; and Professor Bonders remarks, 
 as bearing on their divergence during a j^eriod of com- 
 plete abstraction, that when one eye becomes bhnd, it 
 almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates out- 
 wards; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the 
 eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision. 
 
 Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain 
 movements or gestures. At such times we commonly 
 raise our hands to our foreheads, mouths, or chins; but 
 we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we are 
 quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. 
 Plautus, describing in one of his plays '^ a puzzled man, 
 says, ''' ]S[ow look, he has pillared his chin upon his 
 hand." Even so trifling and apparently unmeaning a 
 gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has been 
 observed with some savages. M. J. Mansel Weale has 
 seen it with the Kafirs of South Africa; and the native 
 chief Gaika adds, that men then " sometimes pull their 
 beards." Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to 
 some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western 
 regions of the United States, remarks that he has seen 
 them when concentrating their thoughts, bring their 
 " hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in contact 
 with some part of the face, commonly the upper lip." 
 We can understand why the forehead should be pressed 
 or rubbed, as deep thought tries the brain; but why the 
 hand should be raised to the mouth or face is far from 
 clear. 
 
 Ill-temper. — We have seen that frowning is the nat- 
 ural expression of some difficulty encountered, or- of 
 something disagreeable experienced either in thought or 
 action, and he whose mind is often and readily affected 
 
 ^ ' Miles Gloriosus,' act ii. sc. 2. 
 
Chap. IX. ILL-TEMPER. 229 
 
 in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly 
 angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frown- 
 ing. But a cross ex})re8sion, due to a frown, may be 
 counteracted, if the mouth appears sweet, from being 
 habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright 
 and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, 
 and there is the appearance of earnest reflection. Frown- 
 ing, with some depression of the corners of the mouth, 
 which is a sign of grief, gives an air of peevishness. If 
 a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2) ** frowns much whilst cry- 
 ing, but does not strongly contract in the usual man- 
 ner the orbicular muscles, a well-marked expression of 
 anger or even of rage, together with misery, is dis- 
 played. 
 
 If the whole frowning brow be drawn much down- 
 ward by the contraction of the pyramidal muscles of the 
 nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or folds across 
 the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of mo- 
 roseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of 
 this muscle, without any frowning, gives the appearance 
 of extreme and aggressive hardness.^ But I much doubt 
 whether this is a true or natural expression. I have 
 shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man, with 
 this muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, 
 to eleven persons, including some artists, and none of 
 them could form an idea what was intended, except one, 
 a girl, who answered correctly, " surely reserve." When 
 I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was in- 
 tended, my imagination added, as I believe, what was 
 necessary, namely, a frowning brow; and consequently 
 
 ^ The orig-inal photoerraph by Herr Kiiidermann is much 
 more expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on 
 the brow more plainly. 
 
 ' ' Mecanisme de' la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, 
 Legende iv. figs. 16—18. 
 
230 SULKIXESS. Chap. IX. 
 
 the expression appeared to me true and extremely mo- 
 rose. 
 
 A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and 
 frowning brow, gives determination to the expression, 
 or may make it obstinate and sullen. How it comes 
 that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appear- 
 ance of determination will presently be discussed. An 
 expression of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recog- 
 nized by my informants, in the natives of six different 
 regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to 
 Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized 
 with the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in 
 a conspicuous degree, according to Dr. Eothrock, with 
 the wild Indians of Xorth America, and according to 
 Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have 
 also observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili. 
 Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of Australia, 
 when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms 
 across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with 
 us. A firm determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, 
 also, sometimes expressed by both shoulders being kept 
 raised, the meaning of which gesture will be explained 
 in the following chapter. 
 
 With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, 
 or, as it is sometimes called, " making a snout." ^^ When 
 the corners of the mouth are much depressed, the lower 
 lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is like- 
 wise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to, 
 consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular 
 form, sometimes to such an extent as to project as far 
 as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is gen- 
 erally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the 
 
 " Hensleig-h Wedgwood on ' The Origin of Language,' 
 
 1866, p. 78. 
 
CuAP. IX. SULKINESS. 231 
 
 utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This expression 
 is remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, 
 which is exhibited much more plainly during childhood, 
 at least with Europeans, than during maturity. There 
 is, however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips 
 with the adults of all races under the influence of great 
 rage. Some children pout when they are shy, and they 
 can then hardly be called sulky. 
 
 From inquiries which I have made in several large 
 families, pouting does not seem very common with Euro- 
 pean children; but it prevails throughout the world, and 
 must be both common and strongly marked with most 
 savage races, as it has caught the attention of many ob- 
 servers. It has been noticed in eight different districts 
 of Australia; and one of my informants remarks how 
 greatly the lips of the children are then protruded. Two 
 observers have seen pouting with the children of Hin- 
 doos; three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of 
 South Africa, and with the Hottentots; and two, with 
 the children of the wild Indians of Xorth America. 
 Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abys- 
 sinians, Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often 
 with the Xew Zealanders. Mr. Mansel Weale informs 
 me that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only 
 with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of 
 both sexes when sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes 
 observed the same thing with the men, and very fre- 
 quently with the women of Xew Zealand. A trace of the 
 same expression may occasionally be detected even with 
 adult Europeans. 
 
 We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, espe- 
 cially with young children, is characteristic of sulldness 
 throughout the greater part of the world. This move- 
 ment apparently results from the retention, chiefly dur- 
 ing youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional 
 
232 SULKINESS. Chap. IX. 
 
 reversion to it. Young orangs and chimpanzees pro- 
 trude their hps to an extraordinary degree, as described 
 in a former chapter, when they are discontented, some- 
 what angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a 
 little frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their 
 mouths are protruded apparently for the sake of mak- 
 ing the various noises proper to these several states of 
 mind; and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee, 
 differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of 
 anger were uttered. As soon as these animals become 
 enraged, the shape of the mouth wholly changes, and 
 the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when wounded 
 is said to emit " a singular cry, consisting at first of high 
 notes, which at length deepen into a low roar. While 
 giving out the high notes he thrusts out his lips into a 
 funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes he holds his 
 mouth wide open." ^^ With the gorilla, the lower lip is 
 said to be capable of great elongation. If then our semi- 
 human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or 
 a little angered, in the same manner as do the existing 
 anthropoid apes, it is not an anomalous, though a curi- 
 ous fact, that our children should exhibit, when similarly 
 affected, a trace of the same expression, together with 
 some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all un- 
 usual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during 
 early youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which 
 were aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors, 
 and which are still retained by distinct species, their 
 near relations. 
 
 'Not is it an anomalous fact that the children of sav- 
 ages should exhibit a stronger tendency to protrude 
 their lips, when sulky, than the children of civilized 
 
 " ^Nfiiller, as quoted by Huxley, ' Man's Place in Nature,* 
 1863, p. 38. 
 
Chap. IX. DECISION. 233 
 
 Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to consist 
 in the retention of a primordial condition, and this occa- 
 sionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.^^ It 
 may be objected to this view of the origin of pouting, 
 that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips 
 when astonished and even when a little pleased; whilst 
 vrith us this expression is generally confined to a sulky 
 frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter 
 that with men of various races surprise does sometimes 
 lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great sur- 
 prise or astonishment is more commonly shown by the 
 mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or laugh 
 we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have lost 
 any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased, if in- 
 deed our early progenitors thus expressed pleasure. 
 
 A little gesture made by sulky children may here be 
 noticed, namely, their " showing a cold shoulder." This 
 has a different meaning, as, I believe, from the keeping 
 both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its par- 
 ent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it 
 away, as if from a caress, and afterwards give a backward 
 push with it, as if to push away the offender. I have 
 seen a child, standing at some distance from any one, 
 clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving 
 it a little backward movement, and then turning away its 
 whole body. 
 
 Decision or determination. — The firm closure of the 
 mouth tends to give an expression of determination or 
 decision to the countenance. Xo determined man prob- 
 ably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence, also, 
 a small and weak lower jaw, wliich seems to indicate that 
 
 " I have g-iven several instances in my * Descent of Man,' 
 vol. i. chap. iv. 
 
 16 
 
234 DECISION. Chap. IX. 
 
 the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is com- 
 monly thought to be characteristic of feebleness of char- 
 acter. A prolonged effort of any kind, whether of body 
 or mind, implies previous determination; and if it can 
 be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firm- 
 ness before and during a great and continued exertion 
 of the muscular system, then, through the principle of 
 association, the mouth would almost certainly be closed 
 as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Xow 
 several observers have noticed that a man, in commenc- 
 ing any violent muscular effort, invariably first distends 
 his lungs with air, and then compresses it by the strong 
 contraction of the muscles of the chest; and to effect 
 this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon 
 as the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps 
 his chest as much distended as possible. 
 
 Various causes have been assigned for tliis manner of 
 acting. Sir C. Bell maintains ^^ that the chest is dis- 
 tended with air, and is kept distended at such times, in 
 order to give a fixed support to the muscles which are 
 thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men 
 are engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence pre- 
 vails, broken only by hard stifled breathing. There is 
 sHence, because to expel the air in the utterance of any 
 sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of 
 the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle 
 to take place in the dark, we at once know that one of 
 the two has given up in despair. 
 
 Gratiolet admits ^* that when a man has to struggle 
 with another to his utmost, or has to support a great 
 weight, or to keep for a long time the same forced atti- 
 tude, it is necessary for him first to make a deep inspira- 
 
 " ' Anatomy of Expression.' p. 190. 
 " ' De la Pliysionomie,' pp. 118--121. 
 
Chap. IX. DECISION. 235 
 
 tion, and tlien to cease brcathin<x; but ho thinks that 
 Sir C. lielFs explanation is erroneous, lie maintains 
 that arrested respiration retards the circulation of the 
 blood, of which 1 believe there is no doubt, and he ad- 
 duces some curious evidence from the structure of the 
 lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded 
 circulation is necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, 
 and, on the other hand, that a rapid circulation is neces- 
 sary for rapid movements. According to this view, when 
 we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths 
 and stop breathing, in order to retard the circulation of 
 the blood. Gratiolet sums up the subject by saying, 
 " C'est la la vraie theorie de Feffort continu; " but how 
 far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I do 
 not know. 
 
 Dr. Piderit accounts ^^ for the firm closure of the 
 mouth during strong muscular exertion, on the principle 
 that the influence of the will spreads to other muscles be- 
 sides those necessarily brought into action in making any 
 particular exertion; and it is natural that the muscles 
 of respiration and of the mouth, from being so liabiL ' 
 ually used, should be especially liable to be thus acted 
 on. It appears to me that there probably is some truth 
 in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth hard to- 
 gether during violent exertion, and this is not requisite 
 to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest 
 are strongly contracted. 
 
 Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and 
 difficult operation, not requiring the exertion of any 
 strength, he nevertheless generally closes his mouth and 
 ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus in order 
 that the movements of his chest may not disturb those 
 of his arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a 
 
 " * ;Mimik unci Physiog-nomik,' s. 70. 
 
236 DECISION. Chap. IX. 
 
 needle, may be seen to compress his lips and either to 
 stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as possible. So 
 it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chim- 
 panzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its 
 knuckles, as they buzzed about on the window-panes. 
 To perform an action, however trifling, if difficult, im- 
 plies some amount of previous determination. 
 
 There appears nothing improbable in all the above 
 assigned causes having come into play in different de- 
 grees, either conjointly or separately, on various occa- 
 sions. The result would be a well-estabhshed habit, 
 now perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at 
 the commencement of and during any violent and pro- 
 longed exertion, or any delicate operation. Through 
 the principle of association there would also be a strong 
 tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind 
 had resolved on any particular action or line of con- 
 duct, even before there was any bodily exertion, or if 
 none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of 
 the mouth would thus come to show decision of char- 
 acter; and decision readily passes into obstinacy. 
 
Chap. X. ANGER, ^37 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Hatred and Axger. 
 
 Hatred — Rag-e, effects of on the system — Uncovering- of the 
 teeth — Kag-e in the insane — Anger and indignation— As 
 expressed by the various races of man — Sneering and 
 defiance — The uncovering of the canine tooth on one 
 side of the face. 
 
 If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful 
 injury from a man, or if he is in any way offensive to 
 us, we dislike him; and dislike easily rises into hatred. 
 Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are 
 not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or 
 features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of be- 
 haviour, or by some ill-temper. Few individuals, how- 
 ever, can long reflect about a hated person, without feel- 
 ing and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. But 
 if the offending person be quite insignificant, we ex- 
 perience merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other 
 hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into terror, 
 as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or a savage 
 about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.^ Most of our 
 emotions are so closely connected with their expression, 
 that they hardly exist if the body remains passive — the 
 nature of the expression depending in chief part on the 
 
 ^ See some remarks to this effect bv Mr. Bain, ' The 
 Emotions and the Will,' 2nd edit. 1865, p.' 127. 
 
238 ANGER. Chap. X 
 
 nature of the actions whieli have been habitually per- 
 formed under this particular state of the mind. A man, 
 for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest 
 peril, and may strongly desire to save it; yet, as Louis 
 XVI. said, when surrounded by a fierce mob, " Am I 
 afraid? feel my pulse." So a man may intensely hate 
 another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he can- 
 not be said to be enraged. 
 
 Eage. — I have already had occasion to treat of this 
 emotion in the third chapter, when discussing the direct 
 influence of the excited sensorium on the body, in com- 
 bination with the effects of habitually associated actions. 
 Eage exliibits itself in the most diversified manner. The 
 heart and circulation are always affected; the face red- 
 dens or becomes pur23le, with the veins on the forehead 
 and neck distended. The reddening of the skin has been 
 observed with the copper-coloured Indians of South 
 America,- and even, as it is said, on the wliite cicatrices 
 left by old wounds on negroes.^ Monkeys also redden 
 from passion. AVith one of my own infants, under four 
 months old, I repeatedly observed that the first s}Tnp- 
 tom of an approaching passion was the rushing of the 
 blood into liis bare scalp. On the other hand, the action 
 of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, 
 that the countenance becomes pallid or livid,* and not 
 a few men with heart-disease have dropped down dead 
 under this powerful emotion. 
 
 - Eeng-g-er, Xaturgfesch. der Saug-etliiere von Paraguay, 
 1830, s. 3. 
 
 ' Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 96. On the 
 other hand. Dr. Burg-ess (' Physiolog-y of Blushing-,' 1839, 
 p. 31) speaks of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress 
 as of the nature of a blush. 
 
 * Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the 
 face under the intiuence of intense passion: see the edit. 
 of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, 
 * De la Physionomie,' p. 345. 
 
Chap. X. ANGER, 239 
 
 The respiration is likewise aftccted; the chest heaves, 
 and the dikited nostrils quiver.^ As Tennyson writes, 
 " sharp breaths of anger puffed her fairy nostrils out." 
 Hence we have such expressions as " breathing out 
 vengeance," and " fuming with anger." ® 
 
 The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and 
 at the same time energy to the will. The body is com- 
 monly held erect ready for instant action, but sometimes 
 it is bent forward towards the offending person, with 
 the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally 
 closed with firmness, showing fixed determination, and 
 the teeth are clenched or ground together. Such ges- 
 tures as the raising of the arms, with the fists clenched, 
 as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in 
 a great passion, and telling some one to begone, can re- 
 sist acting as if they intended to strike or jDush the man 
 violently away. The desire, indeed, to strike often be- 
 comes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are 
 struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures fre- 
 quently become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young 
 children, when in a violent rage roll on the ground on 
 their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking, scratching, or 
 
 '- Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 91, 107) has 
 fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit, 
 of 1S20 of ' La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,' vol. iv. p. 237), 
 and quotes Portal in confirmation, that asthmatic patients 
 ac(^ire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to the ha- 
 bitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of the wings 
 of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (' Mimik und 
 Physiognomik,' s. S2) of the distension of the nostrils, 
 namely, to allo^v free breathing whilst the mouth is closed 
 and the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so 
 correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who attributes it to the sym- 
 pathy (f. e. habitual co-action) of all the respiratory mus- 
 cles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become 
 dilated, although his mouth is open. 
 
 ' Mr. Wedgwood, ' On the Origin of Language.' 1866, 
 p. 76. He also observes that the sound of hard breathing 
 " is represented by the syllables putf^ Jiiiff, whiffy whence a 
 huff is a fit of ill-temper." 
 
240 ANGER. Chap. X. 
 
 biting everything within reach. So it is, as I hear from 
 Mr. Scottj with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, 
 with the young of the anthropomorphous apes. 
 
 But the muscular sj^stem is often affected in a wholly 
 different way; for trembling is a frequent consequence 
 of extreme rage. The paralysed lips then refuse to obey 
 the will, " and the voice sticks in the throat; " ^ or it 
 is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be 
 much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair 
 sometimes bristles; but I shall return to this subject 
 in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled emo- 
 tions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a 
 strongly-marked frown on the forehead; for this follows 
 from the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, to- 
 gether with concentration of mind. But sometimes the 
 brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, 
 remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. 
 The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses 
 it, glisten with fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and 
 are said to protrude from their sockets — the result, no 
 doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as shown 
 by the veins being distended. According to Gratiolet,^ 
 the pupils are always contracted in rage, and I hear from 
 Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case in the fierce 
 delirium of meningitis; but the movements of the iris 
 under the influence of the different emotions is a very 
 obscure subject. 
 
 Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage 
 as follows: — 
 
 " In peace there's nothing" so becomes a man, 
 As modest stillness and humility; 
 But when the blast of war blows in our ears, 
 
 ' Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95) has some 
 excellent remarks on the expression of rage. 
 * ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 346. 
 
Chap. X. ANGER. 211 
 
 Then imitate the notion of the tig-er: 
 Stitl'on the sinews, sunimon up tlie blood, 
 Then lend the eye a terrible aspect; 
 Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide, 
 Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit 
 To his full height! On, on, you noblest English." 
 
 Henry V., act iii. sc. 1. 
 
 The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a 
 manner, the meaning of which I do not understand, 
 unless it depends on our descent from some ape-like 
 animal. Instances have been observed, not only with 
 Europeans, but with the x\ustralians and Hindoos. The 
 lips, however, are much more commonly retracted, the 
 grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed. This 
 has been noticed by almost every one who has written 
 on expression.^ The appearance is as if the teeth were 
 uncovered, ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though 
 there may be no intention of acting in this manner. Mr. 
 Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the 
 Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with 
 the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,^** in speaking 
 of an atrocious murderer who had just been caught, and 
 was surrounded by a furious mob, describes " the people 
 as jumping up one behind another, snarling with their 
 teeth, and making at him, like wild beasts.'' Every one 
 who has had much to do with young children must have 
 
 ' Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 177. Gratiolet 
 (De la Phys. p. 369) says, " les dents se deconvrent, et 
 imitent symboliquement Taction de dechirer et de mordre." 
 If, instead of using- the vague term symboliqucnient, Gratio- 
 let had said that the action was a remnant of a habit ac- 
 quired during primeval times when our semi-human pro- 
 genitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas and 
 orangs at the present day, he would have been more intel- 
 ligible. Dr. Piderit (' ^limik,' &c., s. 82) also speaks of 
 the retraction of the upper lip during rage. In an engrav- 
 ing of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures, passion is rep- 
 resented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes, 
 frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth. 
 
 " ' Oliver Twist,' vol. iii. p. 245. 
 
2^2 ANGER. Chap. X. 
 
 seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a passion. 
 It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, 
 Avho snap their little jaws as soon as they emerge from 
 the egg. 
 
 A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips 
 appear sometimes to go together. A close observer says 
 that he has seen many instances of intense hatred (which 
 can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less sup- 
 pressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English 
 woman. In all these cases there " was a grin, not a scowl 
 — the lips lengthening, the cheeks settling downwards, 
 the eyes half-closed, vrhilst the brow remained perfectly 
 calm." " 
 
 This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth 
 during paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, is 
 so remarkable, considering how seldom the teeth are 
 used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. J. 
 Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the 
 insane whose passions are unbridled. He informs me 
 that he has repeatedly observed it both with the insane 
 and idiotic, and has given me the following illustra- 
 tions: — 
 
 Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an 
 uncontrollable outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy 
 in an insane lady. At first she vituperated her husband, 
 and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Xext she ap- 
 proached close to him with compressed lips, and a viru- 
 lent set frown. Then she drew back her lips, especially 
 the corners of the upper lip, and showed her teeth, at 
 the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A second 
 case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested 
 to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way 
 to discontent, terminating in fury. He commonly begins 
 
 " ' The Spectator,' July 11, 1S6S, p. S19. 
 
CnAi>. X. ANGER. 243 
 
 by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not ashamed to 
 treat him in such a manner. He then swears and blas- 
 ])liemes, i)aees up and down, tosses his arms wildly about, 
 and menaces any one near him. At hist, as his exaspera- 
 tion culminates, he rushes up towards Dr. Browne with 
 a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking his doubled fist, 
 and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may 
 be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that 
 his huge canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his 
 curses through his set teeth, and his whole expression 
 assumes the character of extreme ferocity. A similar 
 description is applicable to another man, excepting that 
 he generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and 
 Jumping about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out 
 liis maledictions in a shrill falsetto voice. 
 
 Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic 
 idiot, incapable of independent movements, and who 
 spends the whole day in playing with some toys; but 
 his temper is morose and easily roused into fiorcviness. 
 "When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his 
 bead from its habitual downward position, and fixes his 
 eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry scowl. If 
 the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick lips 
 and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large 
 canines being especially noticeable), and then makes a 
 quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at the offend- 
 ing person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne 
 remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid 
 that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by 
 any noise, to turn his head from one side to the other. 
 If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other 
 article, be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth 
 and bites it. Mr. Kicol has likewise described to me two 
 cases of insane patients, whose lips are retracted during 
 paroxysms of rage. 
 
24:^ ANGER. Chap. X. 
 
 Dr. Maudsley, after detailing varions strange animal- 
 like traits in idiots, asks whether these are not due to 
 the reappearance of primitive instincts — " a faint echo 
 from a far-distant past, testifying to a kinship which 
 man has almost outgrown." He adds, that as every 
 human brain passes, in the course of its development, 
 through the same stages as those occurring in the lower 
 vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is in an 
 arrested condition, we may presume that it " will mani- 
 fest its most primitive functions, and no higher func- 
 tions." Dr. Maudsley thinks that the same view may 
 be extended to the brain in its degenerated condition 
 in some insane patients; and asks, whence come "the 
 savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene lan- 
 guage, the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by 
 some of the insane? Why should a human being, de- 
 prived of his reason, ever become so brutal in character, 
 as some do, unless he has the brute nature within 
 hiiixT " - This question must, as it would appear, be 
 answered in the affirmative. 
 
 Anger^ Indignation. — These states of the mind differ 
 from rage only in degree, and there is no marked dis- 
 tinction in their characteristic signs. Under moderate 
 anger the action of the heart is a little increased, the 
 colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The 
 respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the 
 muscles serving for this function act in association, the 
 wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised to allow of a 
 free indraught of air; and this is a highly characteristic 
 sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly com- 
 pressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. 
 Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an in- 
 dignant man unconsciously throws himself into an atti- 
 
 " ' Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 51-53. 
 
Chap. X. ANGER 245 
 
 tudc ready for attacking or striking his enemy, whom 
 he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. 
 He carries his head erect, with his chest well expand- 
 ed, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. He 
 holds his arms in various positions, with one or 
 both elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly sus- 
 pended by his sides. "With Europeans the fists are com- 
 monly clenched.^^ The figures 1 and 2 in Plate YI. 
 are fairly good representations of men simulating indig- 
 nation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vi\'idly 
 imagine that he has been insulted and demands an 
 explanation in an angr}' tone of voice, that he suddenly 
 and unconsciously throws liimself into some such at- 
 titude. 
 
 Eage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly 
 the same manner throughout the world; and the fol- 
 lowing descriptions may be worth giving as evidence of 
 this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing re- 
 marks. There is, however, an exception with .ospect to 
 clenching the fists, which seems confined chiefly to the 
 men who fight with their fists. "With the Australians 
 only one of my infonnants has seen the fists clenched. 
 All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with 
 two exceptions, state that the brows are heavily con- 
 tracted. Some of them allude to the firmly-compressed 
 mouth, the distended nostrils, and flashing eyes. Accord- 
 ing to the Eev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the Australians, 
 is ex-pressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being 
 widely open: and in the case of the women by their danc- 
 ing about and casting dust into the air. Another ob- 
 
 " Le Brun, in his well-known ' Conference sur I'Expres- 
 slon ' (' La Physionomie, par Lavater,' edit, of 1S20, vol. ix. 
 p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the clenching 
 of the fists. See, to the same effect, Huschke, ' Mimices 
 et Physiognomices, Fratrmentum Physiologiciim,' 1824, p. 
 20. Also Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 219. 
 
2^6 ANGER. Chap. X, 
 
 server speaks of the native men, when enraged, throwing 
 their arms wildly about. 
 
 I have received similar accounts, except as to the 
 clenching of the fists, in regard to the Malays of the 
 Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the natives of 
 South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of Xorth 
 America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then 
 hold their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with 
 long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, when 
 enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk distract- 
 edly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Eev. Mr. 
 Stack watched a Xew Zealand man and woman quarrel- 
 ling, and made the following entry in his note-book: 
 " Eyes dilated, body swayed violently backwards and for- 
 wards, head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now thrown 
 behind the body, now directed towards each other's 
 faces." Mr. Swinhoe says that my description agrees 
 with what he has seen of the Chinese, excepting that an 
 angry inan generally inclines his body towards his an- 
 tagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley of 
 abuse. 
 
 Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, ^Ir. J. 
 Scott has sent me a full description of their gestures 
 and expression when enraged. Two low-caste Bengalees 
 disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but soon 
 grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each 
 other's relations and progenitors for many generations 
 past. Their gestures were very different from those of 
 Europeans; for though their chests wA-e expanded and 
 shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly sus- 
 pended, with the elbows turned inwards and the hands 
 alternately clenched and opened. Their shoulders were 
 often raised high, and then again lowered. They looked 
 fiercely at each other from under their lowered and 
 strongly wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were 
 
CiiAr. X. SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 247 
 
 firmly closed. They approached each other, with heads 
 and necks stretched forwards, and pushed, scratched, 
 and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the head 
 and bod}' seems a common gesture with the enraged; 
 and I have noticed it with degraded English women 
 whilst quarrelling violently in the streets. In such cases 
 it may be presumed that neither party expects to receive 
 a blow from the other. 
 
 A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was 
 accused, in the presence of Mr. Scott, by the native 
 overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He listened 
 silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude 
 erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, 
 eyes firmly set and penetrating. He then defiantly 
 maintained his innocence, with upraised and clenched 
 hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the 
 eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also 
 watched two Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their 
 share of pa}Tnent. They soon got into a furioiio pas- 
 sion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their 
 heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each 
 other; their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly 
 bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands spasmodic- 
 ally closed, but not properly clenched. They continually 
 approached and retreated from each other, and often 
 raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were 
 open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar 
 observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw quar- 
 relling, and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid 
 and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands pushed 
 somewhat backwards and partially closed, but not 
 clenched. 
 
 Siieering, Defiance : Uncovering the canine tooth on 
 one side. — The expression which I wish here to consider 
 
248 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. Chap. X. 
 
 differs but little from that already described, when the 
 lips are retracted and the grinning teeth exposed. The 
 difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted 
 in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of 
 the face alone is shown; the face itself being generally 
 a little upturned and half averted from the person caus- 
 ing offence. The other signs of rage are not necessarily 
 present. This expression may occasionally be observed 
 in a person who sneers at or defies another, though there 
 may be no real anger; as when any one is playfully ac- 
 cused of some fault, and answers, " I scorn the imputa- 
 tion." The expression is not a common one, but I have 
 seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady 
 who was being quizzed by another person. It was de- 
 scribed by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an engrav- 
 ing, showing the uncovered canine on one side.^* Mr. 
 Eejlander, without my having made any allusion to the 
 subject, asked me whether I had ever noticed this ex- 
 pression, as he had been much struck by it. He has 
 photographed for me (Plate TV. fig 1) a lady, who some- 
 times unintentionally displays the canine on one side, 
 and who can do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness. 
 The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into 
 one of great ferocity when, together with a heavily 
 frowning brow and fierce eye, the canine tooth is exposed. 
 A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of some 
 misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to 
 his wrath in words, but it was plainly shown on his 
 countenance, sometimes by a defiant frown, and some- 
 times ^' by a thoroughly canine snarl." When this was 
 exhibited, " the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, 
 which happened in this case to be large and projecting, 
 was raised on the side of his accuser, a strong frown 
 
 " Transact. Philosoph. Soc, Appendix, 1746, p. 65. 
 
/lji.v/-j«rT '^VSnchJlmtSci 
 
CuAP. X. SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 249 
 
 being still retained on the brow." Sir C. Bell states ^^ 
 that the actor Cooke could express the most determined 
 hate " when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up 
 the outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp 
 angular tooth." 
 
 The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a 
 double movement. The angle or corner of the mouth 
 is drawn a little backwards, and at the same time a mus- 
 cle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up 
 the outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine 
 on this side of the face. The contraction of this mus- 
 cle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and produces 
 strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner 
 corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; 
 and a dog when pretending to fight often draws up the 
 lip on one side alone, namely that facing his antagonist. 
 Our word sneer is in fact the same as snarly which was 
 originally snar^ the I " being merely an element imply- 
 ing continuance of action." ^^ 
 
 I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression 
 in what is called a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips 
 are then kept joined or almost joined, but one corner 
 of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the de- 
 rided person; and this drawing back of the corner is 
 part of a true sneer. Although some persons smile 
 more on one side of their face than on the other, it is 
 not easy to understand why in cases of derision the 
 smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to 
 one side. I have also on these occasions noticed a slight 
 twitching of the muscle which draws up the outer part 
 
 " ' Anatomy of Expression,' \). 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 
 131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling 
 muscles. 
 
 " Hensleigh Wedf>-woocl, ' Dictionary of English Ety- 
 mology,' 1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243. 
 17 
 
250 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. Chap. X. 
 
 of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully carried 
 out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have 
 produced a true sneer. 
 
 Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote 
 part of Gipps' Land, says, in answer to my query about 
 the uncovering of the canine on one side, " I find that 
 the natives in snarling at each other speak with the 
 teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a 
 general angry expression of face; but they look direct 
 at the person addressed." Three other observers in Aus- 
 tralia, one in xAbyssinia, and one in China, answer my 
 query on this head in the affirmative; but as the ex- 
 pression is rare, and as they enter into no details, I am 
 afraid of implicitly trusting them. It is, however, by 
 no means imj^robable that this animal-like expression 
 may be more common with savages than with civilized 
 races. Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully 
 trusted, and he has observed it on one occasion in a Malay 
 in the interior of Malacca. The Eev. S. 0. Glenie an- 
 swers, " We have observed this expression with the 
 natives of Ceylon, but not often." Lastly, in Xorth 
 America, Dr. Eothrock has seen it with some wild In- 
 dians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs. 
 
 Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised 
 on one side alone in sneering at or defying any one, I 
 do not know that this is always the case, for the face 
 is commonly half averted, and the expression is often 
 momentary. The movement being confined to one side 
 may not be an essential part of the expression, but may 
 depend on the proper muscles being incapable of move- 
 ment excepting on one side. I asked four persons to 
 endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could 
 expose the canine only on the left side, one only on the 
 right side, and the fourth on neither side. Xeverthe- 
 less it is bv no means certain that these same persons. 
 
Chap. X. SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 251 
 
 if defying any one in earnest, wonld not unconsciously 
 have uncovered tlieir canine tooth on the side, which- 
 ever it might be, towards the offender. For we have 
 seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make their 
 eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when 
 affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of dis- 
 tress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine 
 on one side of the face being thus often wholly lost, 
 indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive 
 action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man should 
 possess the power, or should exhibit any tendency to its 
 use; for Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action 
 in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys in the Zoologi- 
 cal Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons, though 
 furnished with great canines, never act thus, but un- 
 cover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for 
 an attack. Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, 
 in the males of whom the canines are much larger than 
 in the females, uncover them when prepared to fight, 
 is not known. 
 
 The expression here considered, whether that of a 
 playful sneer or ferocious snarl, is one of the most curi- 
 ous which occurs in man. It reveals his animal descent; 
 for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a deadly grap- 
 ple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would 
 try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. 
 We may readily believe from our affinity to the anthropo- 
 morphous apes that our male semi-human progenitors 
 possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasion- 
 ally born having them of unusually large size, with inter- 
 spaces in the opposite jaw for their reception.^' We may 
 further suspect, notwithstanding that we have no sup- 
 port from analogy, that our semi-human progenitors un- 
 
 " ' The Descent of :Maii,' 1871, vol. i. p. 126. 
 
252 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. Chap. X. 
 
 covered their canine teeth when prepared for battle, as 
 we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneer- 
 ing at or defying some one, without any intention of 
 making a real attack with our teeth. 
 
CuAP. XI. CONTEMPT. 253 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 DisDAix — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — Pride, etc. 
 — Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation and 
 Negation. 
 
 Contemi3t, scorn and disdain, variously expressed — De- 
 risive smile — Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust 
 ^Guilt, deceit, pride, &c. — Helplessness or impotence 
 —Patience — Obstinacy — Shrug-g-ing- the shoulders com- 
 mon to most of the races of man — Sig-ns of affirmation 
 and negation. 
 
 Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from 
 contempt, excepting that they imply a rather more angry 
 frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly distinguished 
 from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under 
 the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensa- 
 tion rather more distinct in its nature, and refers to 
 something revolting, primarily in relation to the sense 
 of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined; and 
 secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling, 
 through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. 
 Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is often called 
 loathing contempt, hardly differs from disgust. These 
 several conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly re- 
 lated; and each of them may be exhibited in many dif- 
 ferent ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one 
 mode of expression, and others on a different mode. 
 
254: CONTEMPT. Chap. XI. 
 
 From this circumstance M. Lemoine has argued ^ that 
 their descriptions are not trustworthy. But we shall 
 immediately see that it is natural that the feelings which 
 we have here to consider should be expressed in many 
 different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions 
 serve equally well;, through the principle of association, 
 for their expression. 
 
 Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, 
 may be displayed by a slight uncovering of the canine 
 tooth on one side of the face; and this movement ap- 
 pears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the 
 smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision; 
 and this implies that the offender is so insignificant that 
 he excites only amusement; but the amusement is gen- 
 erally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my queries 
 remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his coun- 
 trymen, the Kafirs, by smiling; and the Eajah Brooke 
 makes the same observation with respect to the Dyaks 
 of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression of 
 simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever 
 laugh in derision. 
 
 The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne ^ in- 
 sists, or the turning away of the eyes or of the whole 
 body, are likewise highly expressive of disdain. These 
 actions seem to declare that the despised person is not 
 worth looking at, or is disagreeable to behold. The ac- 
 compan}ang photograph (Plate Y. fig. 1) by Mr. Eej- 
 lander, shows this form of disdain. It represents a young 
 lady, who is supposed to be tearing up the photograph 
 of a despised lover. 
 
 The most common method of expressing contempt is 
 
 ^ ' De la Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865. p. 89. 
 * ' Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Leg"ende viii. p. 35. 
 Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phj-s. 1865, p. 52) of the turn- 
 ing away of the eyes and body. 
 
Tai) V 
 
 yhoiajr-j-tuTt ^YBnAsBa^tSar, 
 
CuAP. XI. CONTEMPT. 255 
 
 by movements about the nose, or round the mouth; but 
 the latter movements, when strongly pronounced, indi- 
 cate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which 
 apparently follows from the turning up of the upper 
 lip; or the movement may be abbreviated into the mere 
 wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often slightly con- 
 tracted, so as partly to close the passage; ^ and this is 
 commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. 
 All these actions are the same with those which we em- 
 ploy when we perceive an offensive odour, and wish to 
 exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit 
 remarks,* we protrude and raise both lips, or the upper 
 lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the 
 nose being thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the 
 despised person that he smells offensively,^ in nearly 
 the same manner as we express to him by half-closing our 
 eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is not worth 
 looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such 
 ideas actually pass through the mind when we exhibit 
 our contempt; but as whenever we have perceived a dis- 
 
 ^ Dr. W. Og-le, in an interesting- paper on the Sense of 
 Smell (' Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' vol. liii. p. 268), 
 shows that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of 
 taking- one deep nasal inspiration, we draw in the air by 
 a succession of rapid short sniffs. If " the nostrils be 
 watched during- this process, it will be seen that, so far 
 from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The 
 contraction does not include the whole anterior opening", 
 but only the posterior portion." He then explains the 
 cause of this movement. When, on the other hand, we wish 
 to exclude any odour, the contraction, I presume, affects 
 only the anterior part of the nostrils. 
 
 * * Mimik und PhysiogTiomik,' ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. 
 p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respect- 
 ing- the expression of contempt and disgust. 
 
 ' Scorn implies a strong- form of contempt; and one of 
 the roots of the word ' scorn ' means, according to 'Sir. 
 \Yedgwood (Diet, of Eng-lish Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), 
 ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned is treated like 
 dirt. 
 
256 DISGUST. Chap. XI. 
 
 agreeable odour or seen a disagreeable sight, actions of 
 this kind have been performed, they have become habit- 
 ual or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous 
 state of mind. 
 
 Various odd little gestures likewise indicate con- 
 tempt; for instance, snapping one's fingers. This, as 
 Mr. Tjlor remarks,^ " is not very intelligible as we gen- 
 erally see it; but when we notice that the same sign 
 made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away 
 between the finger and thumb, or the sign of flipping 
 it awav with the thumb-nail and forefinsjer, are usual 
 and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, denoting 
 anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems as 
 though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a per- 
 fectly natural action, so as to lose sight of its original 
 meaning. There is a curious mention of this gesture 
 by Strabo." Mr. Washington Matthews informs me 
 that, with the Dakota Indians of I^orth America, con- 
 tempt is shown not only by movements of the face, such 
 as those above described, but " conventionally, by the 
 hand being closed and held near the breast, then, as the 
 forearm is suddenly extended, the hand is opened and 
 the fingers separated from each other. If the person at 
 whose expense the sign is made is present, the hand is 
 moved towards him, and the head sometimes averted 
 from him." This sudden extension and opening of the 
 hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away 
 a valueless object. 
 
 The term * disgust,' in its simplest sense, means 
 something offensive to the taste. It is curious how read- 
 ily this feeling is excited by anything unusual in the 
 appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del 
 Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold pre- 
 
 " ' Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45. 
 
Chap. XI. DISGUST. 257 
 
 served meat which I was eating at our hivoiiac, and plain- 
 ly showed utter disgust at its softness; whilst I felt 
 utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked sav- 
 age, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear 
 of soup on a man's beard looks disgusting, though there 
 is of course nothing disgusting in the soup itself. I pre- 
 sume that this follows from the strong association in 
 our minds between the sight of food, however circum- 
 stanced, and the idea of eating it. 
 
 As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in con- 
 nection with the act of eating or tasting, it is natural 
 that its expression should consist chiefly in movements 
 round the mouth. But as disgust also causes annoyance, 
 it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by 
 gestures as if to push away or to guard oneself against 
 the offensive object. In the tw^o photographs (figs. 2 
 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has simulated this 
 expression with some success. With respect to the face, 
 moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the 
 mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive 
 morsel drop out; by spitting; by blowing out of the pro- 
 truded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. 
 Such guttural sounds are wTitten ach or tigh ; and their 
 utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the 
 arms being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders 
 raised in the same manner as when horror is experienced." 
 Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the 
 mouth identical with those preparatory to the act of 
 vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper 
 lip strongly retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the 
 nose, and with the lower lip protruded and everted as 
 much as possible. This latter movement requires the 
 
 ^ See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleig-h Wedg-wood's Intro- 
 duction to the ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd 
 edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. 
 
258 DISGUST. Chap. XL 
 
 contraction of the muscles which draw downwards the 
 corners of the mouth. ^ 
 
 It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching 
 or actual vomiting is induced in some persons by the 
 mere idea of having partaken of any unusual food, as 
 of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although 
 there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to 
 reject it. When^ vomiting results, as a reflex action, 
 from some real cause — as from too rich food, or tainted 
 meat, or from an emetic — it does not ensue immediately, 
 but generally after a considerable interval of time. 
 Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so 
 quickly and easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion 
 arises that our progenitors must formerly have had the 
 power (like that possessed by ruminants and some other 
 animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed 
 with them, or which they thought would disagree with 
 them; and now, though this power has been lost, as far 
 as the will is concerned, it is called into involuntary 
 action, through the force of a formerly well-established 
 habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having 
 partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. 
 This suspicion receives support from the fact, of which 
 I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in the 
 Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect health, 
 which looks as if the act were voluntary. AVe can see 
 that as man is able to communicate by language to his 
 children and others, the knowledge of the kinds of food 
 to be avoided, he would have little occasion to use the 
 faculty of voluntary rejection: so that this power would 
 tend to be lost through disuse. 
 
 * Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip, 
 the corners are drawn downwards by the deprcssores anguli 
 oris. Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1S58, B. 1. s. 
 151) concludes that this is effected by the iuusculus quadra- 
 tus menti. 
 
CuAP. XI. DISGUST. 259 
 
 As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with 
 that of taste, it is not surprising that an excessively bad 
 odour should excite retching or vomiting in some per- 
 sons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting food 
 does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately 
 offensive odour should cause the various expressive move- 
 ments of disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid 
 odour is immediately strengthened in a curious manner 
 by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer 
 familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary re- 
 straint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton 
 of a bird, which had not been sufficiently macerated, 
 and the smell made my servant and myself (we not hav- 
 ing had much experience in such work) retch so vio- 
 lently, that we were compelled to desist. During the 
 previous days I had examined some other skeletons, 
 which smelt slightly; yet the odour did not in the least 
 affect me, but, subsequently for several days, whenever 
 I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch. 
 
 From the answers received from my correspondents 
 it appears that the various movements, which have now 
 been described as expressing contempt and disgust, pre- 
 vail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Eothrock, 
 for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with 
 respect to certain wild Indian tribes of N'orth America. 
 Crantz says that when a Greenlander denies anything 
 with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives 
 a slidit sound throuo^h it.® Mr. Scott has sent me a 
 graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at 
 the sight of castor-oil, which he was compelled occa- 
 sionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the same ex- 
 pression on tl'ie faces of high-caste natives who have 
 
 * As quoted bv Tylor, ' Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. 
 p. 169. 
 
260 DISGUST. Chap. XI. 
 
 approached close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges 
 says that the Fuegians " express contempt by shooting 
 out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning 
 up the nose.'' The tendency either to snort through 
 the nose, or to make a noise expressed by ugh or ach^ is 
 noticed by several of my correspondents. 
 
 Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt 
 or disgust; and spitting obviously represents the rejec- 
 tion of anything offensive from the mouth. Shakspeare 
 makes the Duke of Xorf oik say, " I spit at him — call 
 him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, Fal- 
 staff says, ^' Tell thee what, Hal, — if I tell thee a lie, 
 spit in my face.'' Leichhardt remarks that the Aus- 
 tralians " interrupted their speeches by spitting, and ut- 
 tering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparentl}' expressive of 
 their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks of certain 
 negroes " spitting with disgust upon the ground." ^^ 
 Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case 
 with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the 
 Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust " answers 
 to spitting from the mouth; " and with the Fuegians, 
 according to Mr. Bridges " to spit at one is the highest 
 mark of contempt." 
 
 I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on 
 the face of one of my infants at the age of five months, 
 when, for the first time, some cold water, and again a 
 month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put 
 into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole 
 mouth assuming a shape which allowed the contents to 
 run or fall quickly out; the tongue being likewise pro- 
 truded. These movements were accompanied by a little 
 shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether 
 
 ^° Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedg"- 
 wood, ' On the Origin of Lang-uage,' 186G, \). 75. 
 
Chap. XI. PRIDE. 261 
 
 the child felt real disgust — the eyes and forehead express- 
 ing much surprise and consideration. Tlie protrusion 
 of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall out of the 
 mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue 
 universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred. ^^ 
 
 We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and 
 disgust are expressed in many different ways, by move- 
 ments of the features, and by various gestures; and that 
 these are the same throughout the world. They all con- 
 sist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of 
 some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which 
 does not excite in us certain other strong emotions, such 
 as rage or terror; and through the force of habit and as- 
 sociation similar actions are performed, whenever any 
 analogous sensation arises in our minds. 
 
 Jealousy^ Eiivy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit^ 
 Slyness, Guilt, Va^iity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Hu- 
 mility, dec. — It is doubtful whether the greater number 
 of the above complex states of mind are revealed by any 
 fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or 
 delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as lean- 
 faced, or Hack, or pale, and Jealousy as " the green-eyed 
 monster;^' and when Spenser describes Suspicion as 
 ^''foul, ill-favoured, and grim,^"* they must have felt this 
 difficulty. Xevertheless, the above feelings — at least 
 many of them — can be detected by the eye; for instance, 
 conceit; but we are often guided in a much greater de- 
 gree than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the 
 persons or circumstances. 
 
 My correspondents almost unanimously answer in 
 the affirmative to my query, whether the expression of 
 
 " This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist, 
 of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, " it is not 
 clear why this should be so." 
 
262 PRIDE. Chap. XI. 
 
 giiilt and deceit can be recognized amongst the various 
 races of man; and I have confidence in their answers, as 
 the}^ generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized. 
 In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are 
 almost always referred to. The guilty man is said to 
 avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen looks. 
 The eyes are said " to be turned askant," or " to waver 
 from side to side," or '' the eyelids to be lowered and 
 partly closed." This latter remark is made by Mr. 
 Hagenauer with respect to the Australians, and by Gaika 
 with respect to tlie Kafirs. The restless movements of 
 the eyes apparently follow, as will be explained when 
 we treat of blushing, from the guilty man not enduring 
 to meet the gaze of his accuser. I may add, that I have 
 observed a guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in 
 some of my own children at a very early age. In one in- 
 stance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child 
 two years and seven months old, and led to the detec- 
 tion of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my 
 notes made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in 
 the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner, impossible to 
 describe. 
 
 Shmess is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by move- 
 ments about the eyes; for these are less under the con- 
 trol of the will, owing to the force of long-continued 
 habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. Her- 
 bert Spencer remarks,^^ " When there is a desire to see 
 something on one side of the visual field without being 
 supposed to see it, the tendency is to check the con- 
 spicuous movement of the head, and to make the re- 
 quired adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, 
 therefore, drawn very much to one side. Hence, when 
 the eyes are turned to one side, while the face is not 
 
 " ' Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552. 
 
CuAP. XI. HELPLESSNESS: 263 
 
 turned to the same side, we get the natural language of 
 wliat is calk'd slyness." 
 
 Oi' all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, per- 
 haps, is the most plainly expressed. A proud man ex- 
 hibits his sense of superiority over otliers by holding 
 his head and body erect. He is haughty (hajit), or high, 
 and makes himself appear as large as possible; so tliat 
 metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with 
 pride. A peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with 
 puffed-up feathers, is sometimes said to be an emblem 
 of pride.^^ The arrogant man looks down on others, 
 and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see them; 
 or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such 
 as those before described, about the nostrils or lips. 
 Hence the muscle which everts the lower lip has been 
 called the muscuhis su'per'bus. In some photographs of 
 patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by 
 Dr. Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, 
 and the mouth firmly closed. This latter action, ex- 
 pressive of decision, follows, I presume, from the proud 
 man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The 
 whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to 
 that of humility; so that nothing need here be said of 
 the latter state of mind. 
 
 Helplessness^ Impotence: Shrtigging the shoulders. 
 — When a man wishes to show that he cannot do some- 
 thing, or prevent something being done, he often raises 
 with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same 
 time, if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his 
 elbows closely inwards, raises his open hands, turning 
 
 " Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and 
 has some frood observations on the expression of pride. 
 See Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' p. Ill) on the 
 action of the musculus supcrbus. 
 
264 HELPLESSNESS: Chap. XI. 
 
 them outwards, with the fingers separated. The head 
 is often thrown a Httle on one side; the eyebrows are 
 elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. 
 The mouth is generally opened. I may mention, in order 
 to show how unconsciously the features are thus acted 
 on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged my 
 shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was 
 not at all aware that my eyebrows were raised and mouth 
 opened, until I looked at myself in a glass; and since 
 then I have noticed the same movements in the faces 
 of others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 
 4, Mr. Eejlander has successfully acted the gesture of 
 shrugging the shoulders. 
 
 Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the 
 men of most other European nations, and they shrug 
 their shoulders far less frequently and energetically than 
 Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all 
 degrees from the complex movement, just described, to 
 only a momentar}^ and scarcely perceptible raising of 
 both shoulders; or, as I have noticed in a lady sitting in 
 an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of 
 the open hands with separated fingers. I have never 
 seen very young English children shrug their shoulders, 
 but the following case was observed with care by a 
 medical professor and excellent observer, and has been 
 communicated to me by him. The father of this gen- 
 tleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. 
 His wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my 
 informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her 
 shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in 
 England, and the nursemaid is a thorough English- 
 woman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. 
 Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her 
 shoulders at the age of between sixteen and eighteen 
 months; her mother exclaiming at the time, " Look at 
 
s 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE snOULDER.S. 2G5 
 
 the little French girl shrugging her shoulders! " At 
 first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head 
 a little backwards and on one side, but she did not, as 
 far as was observed, move her elbows and hands in the 
 usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and 
 now, when she is a little over four years old, she is never 
 Been to act thus. The father is told that he sometimes 
 shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with any 
 one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter 
 should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he 
 remarks, she could not possibly have often seen this 
 gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit had been ac- 
 quired through imitation, it is not probable that it would 
 so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this 
 child, and, as we shall immediately see, by a second child, 
 though the father still lived with his family. This little 
 girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian grand- 
 father in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She 
 also presents another and very curious resemblance to 
 him, namely, by practising a singular trick. When she 
 impatiently wants something, she holds out her little 
 hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index 
 and middle finger: now this same trick was frequently 
 performed under the same circumstances by her grand- 
 father. 
 
 This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her 
 shoulders before the age of eighteen months, and after- 
 wards discontinued the habit. It is of course possible 
 that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she 
 continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at 
 first resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree 
 than did her sister at the same age, but now in a greater 
 degree. She likewise practises to the present time the 
 peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her 
 thumb and two of her fore-fingers. 
 IS 
 
266 HELPLESSNESS: Chap. XI. 
 
 In this latter case we have a good instance, like those 
 given in a former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick 
 or gesture; for no one, I presume, will attribute to mere 
 coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was com- 
 mon to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who 
 had never seen him. 
 
 Considering all the circumstances with reference to 
 these children shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly 
 be doubted that they have inherited the habit from their 
 French progenitors, although they have only one quar- 
 ter French blood in their veins, and although their 
 grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There 
 is nothing very unusual, though the fact is interesting, 
 in these children having gained by inheritance a habit 
 during early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is 
 of frequent occurrence with many kinds of animals that 
 certain characters are retained for a period by the young, 
 and are then lost. 
 
 As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a 
 high degree that so complex a gesture as shrugging the 
 shoulders, together with the accompanying movements, 
 should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain whether 
 the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have 
 learnt the habit by imitation, practised it. And I have 
 heard, through Dr. Innes, from a lady who has lately 
 had charge of her, that she does shrug her shoulders, turn 
 in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner 
 as other people, and under the same circumstances. I 
 was also anxious to learn whether this gesture was prac- 
 tised by the various races of man, especially by those 
 who never have had much intercourse with Europeans. 
 We shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears 
 that the gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising 
 or shrugging the shoulders, without the other move- 
 ments. 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 267 
 
 Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the 
 Bengalees and Dhangars (the latter constituting a dis- 
 tinct race) who are employed in the Botanic Garden at 
 Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that 
 they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy 
 weight. He ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; 
 but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a lat- 
 (Bral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott 
 knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could, 
 and insisted on his trying. His face now became 
 pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and 
 eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, 
 he looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoul- 
 ders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands, 
 and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head de- 
 clared his inabilit}'. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen 
 the natives of India shrugging their shoulders; but 
 he has never seen the elbows turned so much in- 
 wards as with us; and whilst shrugging their shoulders 
 they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their 
 breasts. 
 
 With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and 
 with the Bugis (true Malays, though speaking a different 
 language), Mr. Geach has often seen this gesture. I 
 presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query 
 descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, 
 hands, and face, Mr. Geach remarks, "it is performed 
 in a beautiful style." I have lost an extract from a 
 scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by 
 some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago 
 in the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy 
 informs me that the Abyssinians shrug their shoulders, 
 but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab 
 dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in 
 my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended. 
 
268 HELPLESSNESS: Chap. XL 
 
 would not go in the proper direction which had been 
 pointed out to him. 
 
 Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the 
 wild Indian tribes of the western parts of the United 
 States, " I have on a few occasions detected men using 
 a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the demonstra- 
 tion which you describe I have not witnessed." Fritz 
 Miiller informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil 
 shrugging their shoulders; but it is of course possible 
 that they may have learnt to do so by imitating the Por- 
 tuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture with 
 the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his 
 answer, did not even understand what was meant by 
 my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also doubtful about 
 the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the circum- 
 stances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press 
 their right elbow against their side, raise their eye- 
 brows, lift up their hand with the palm directed to- 
 wards the person addressed, and shake it from right to 
 left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of 
 my informants answer by a simple negative, and one 
 by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had 
 excellent opportunities for obser\'ation on the borders 
 of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a " yes," 
 adding that the gesture is performed ^' in a more sub- 
 dued and less demonstrative manner than is the case 
 with civilized nations." This circumstance may ac- 
 count for its not having been noticed by four of my in- 
 formants. 
 
 These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, 
 the hill-tribes of India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssin- 
 ians, Arabs, Xegroes, Indians of Xorth America, and ap- 
 parently to the Australians — many of these natives hav- 
 ing had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans — are 
 sufficient to show that shrugging the shoulders, accom- 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 2G9 
 
 panicd in some cases by the other proper movements, is 
 a gesture natural to mankind. 
 
 This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable 
 action on our own part, or one that we cannot perform; 
 or an action performed by another person which we 
 cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, " It 
 was not my fault; " '^ It is impossible for me to grant 
 this favour; " " He must follow his own course, I can- 
 not stop him." Shrugging the shoulders likewise ex- 
 presses patience, or the absence of any intention to re- 
 sist. Hence the muscles wdiich raise the shoulders are 
 sometimes called, as I have been informed by an artist, 
 " the patience muscles." Shylock the Jew, says, 
 
 " Signor Antonio, many a time and oft 
 In the Rialto have you rated me 
 About my monies and usances; 
 Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.'* 
 
 Merchant of Venice, act i. sc. 3. 
 
 Sir C. Bell has given ^* a life-like figure of a man, 
 who is shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is 
 on the point of screaming out in abject terror. He is 
 represented with his shoulders lifted up almost to his 
 ears; and this at once declares that there is no thought 
 of resistance. 
 
 As shrugging the shoulders generally implies " I 
 cannot do this or that," so by a slight change, it some- 
 times implies " I won't do it." The movement then ex- 
 presses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted 
 describes ^^ an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug 
 to his shoulders, when he was informed that a party of 
 men were Germans and not Americans, thus expressing 
 that he would have nothing to do with them. Sulky and 
 
 " ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166. 
 " * Journey through Texas,' p. 352. 
 
270 HELPLESSNESS : Chap. XI. 
 
 obstinate children may be seen with both their shoulders 
 raised high up; but this moYement is not associated with 
 the others which generally accompany a true shrug. An 
 excellent observer ^^ in describing a young man who was 
 determined not to yield to his father's desire, savs, " He 
 thrust his hands deep dov>'n into his pockets, and set 
 up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good warning 
 that, come right or wrong, this rock should fly from its 
 firm base as soon as Jack would; and that any remon- 
 strance on the subject was purely futile." As soon as 
 the son got his own v\'aY, he '* put his shoulders into their 
 natural position." 
 
 Eesignation is sometimes shown by the open hands 
 being placed, one over the other, on the lower part of 
 the body. I should not have thought this little gesture 
 worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle re- 
 marked to me that he had two or three times observed 
 it in patients who were preparing for operations under 
 chloroform. They exhibited no great fear, but seemed 
 to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had 
 made up their minds, and were resigned to the inevi- 
 table. 
 
 We may now inquire why men in all parts of the 
 world when they feel, — whether or not they wish to show 
 this feeling, — that they cannot or will not do something, 
 or will not resist something if done by another, shrug 
 their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their 
 elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended 
 fingers, often throwing their heads a little on one side, 
 raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths. These 
 states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a 
 determination not to act. Xone of the above move- 
 ments are of the least service. The explanation lies, I 
 
 " Mrs. Oliphant, ' The Brownlows,' vol. ii. p. 206. 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 271 
 
 cannot doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis. 
 This principle here seems to come into play as clearly as 
 in the case of a do^:, who, when feeling savage, puts him- 
 self in the proper attitude fur attacking and for making 
 himself appear terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he 
 feels affectionate, throws his whole body into a directly 
 opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use to him. 
 
 Let it be observed how an indignant man, who re- 
 sents, and will not submit to some injury, holds his head 
 erect, squares his shoulders, and expands his chest. He 
 often clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the 
 proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles 
 of his limbs rigid. He frowns, — that is, he contracts 
 and lowers his brows, — and, being determined, closes 
 his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless man 
 are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. 
 In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the 
 left side to have just said, " What do you mean by in- 
 sulting me?" and one of the figures on the right side 
 to answer, " I really could not help it." The helpless 
 man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead 
 which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and 
 thus raises his eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes 
 the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw 
 drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail, not 
 only in the movements of the features, but in the position 
 of the limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as 
 may be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless 
 or apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, 
 he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative manner. 
 
 In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows 
 and clenching the fists are gestures by no means uni- 
 versal with the men of all races, when they feel indig- 
 nant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it ap- 
 pears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is ex- 
 
272 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION Chap. XI. 
 
 pressed in many parts of the world by merely shrugging 
 the shoulders, without turning inwards the elbows and 
 opening the hands. The man or child who is obstinate, 
 or one who is resigned to some great misfortune, has 
 in neither case any idea of resistance by active means; 
 and he expresses this state of mind, by simply keeping 
 his shoulders raised; or he may possibly fold his arms 
 across his breast. 
 
 Signs of affirmation or approval^ and of negation or 
 disajpproval : nodding and shaking the head. — I was 
 curious to ascertain how far the common signs used by 
 us in afhrmation and negation were general throughout 
 the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent 
 expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of 
 approval with a smile to our children, when we approve 
 of their conduct; and shake our heads laterally with a 
 frown, when we disapprove. AVith infants, the first act 
 of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly 
 noticed with my own infants, that they did so by with- 
 drawing their heads laterally from the breast, or from 
 anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting food 
 and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads 
 forwards. Since making these observations I have been 
 informed that the same idea had occurred to Charma.^^ 
 It deserves notice that in accepting or taking food, there 
 is only a single movement forward, and a single nod im- 
 plies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing 
 food, especially if it be pressed on them, cliildren fre- 
 quently move their heads several times from side to side, 
 as we do in shaking our heads in negation. Moreover, 
 in the case of refusal, the head is not rarely thrown back- 
 wards, or the mouth is closed, so that these movements 
 
 " ' Essai sur le Lang-ag-e,' 2nd edit. 1846. I am much in- 
 debted to Miss Wedgwood for having" given me this in- 
 formation, with an extract from the work. 
 
Chap. XI. AND NEGATION. 273 
 
 might likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr. 
 Wedgwood remarks on this subject/^ that " when the 
 voice is exerted with closed teeth or lips, it produces the 
 sound of the letter n or m. Hence w^e ma}^ account for 
 the use of the particle ne to signify negation, and possi- 
 bly also of the Greek /xrj in the same sense." 
 
 That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least 
 with Anglo-Saxons, is rendered highly probable by the 
 blind and deaf Laura Bridgman " constantly accom- 
 panying her yes with the common affirmative nod, and 
 her no with our negative shake of the head." Had not 
 Mr. Lieber stated to the contrary,^^ I should have imag- 
 ined that these gestures might have been acquired or 
 learnt by her, considering her Avonderful sense of touch 
 and appreciation of the movements of others. With 
 microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they 
 never learn to speak, one of them is described by Vogt,^® 
 as answering, when asked whether he washed for more 
 food or drink, by inclining or shaking his head. Schmalz, 
 in his remarkable dissertation on the education of the 
 deaf and dumb, as -well as of children raised only one 
 degree above idiotcy, assumes that they can always both 
 make and understand the common signs of affirmation 
 and negation.-^ 
 
 Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, 
 these signs are not so universally employed as I should 
 have expected; yet they seem too general to be ranked 
 as altogether conventional or artificial. My informants 
 assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the 
 natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea 
 
 ^« ' On the Orig-in of Lang-uag-e,' 1866, p. 91. 
 
 " 'On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman; ' Smithsonian 
 Contrilmtions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11. 
 
 "^"^ ' ISlemoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 27. 
 
 -^ Quoted by Tylor, ' Early History of Mankind,' 2nd 
 edit. 1870, p. 38. 
 
274 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION Chap. XI. 
 
 coast, and, according to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South 
 Africa, though with these latter people Mrs. Barber has 
 never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With re- 
 spect to the Austrahans, seven observers agree that a nod 
 is given in affirmation; five agree about a lateral shake 
 in negation, accompanied or not by some word; but 
 Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queens- 
 land, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps' Land a nega- 
 tive is expressed by throwing the head a little backwards 
 and putting out the tongue. At the northern extremity 
 of the continent, near Torres Straits, the natives when 
 uttering a negative " don't shake the head with it, but 
 holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it half 
 round and back again two or three times." ^^ The throw- 
 ing back of the head with a cluck of the tongue is said 
 to be used as a negative by the modern Greeks and Turks, 
 the latter people expressing yes by a movement like that 
 made by us Avhen we shake our heads.^^ The Abys- 
 sinians, as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a 
 negative by jerking the head to the right shoulder, to- 
 gether with a slight cluck, the mouth being closed; an 
 affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown back- 
 wards and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The 
 Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I hear 
 from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say " yes," also throw 
 the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, 
 the Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising 
 the eyebrows, and a negation by slightly contracting 
 them, together with a peculiar look from the eyes. With 
 the Arabs on the Xile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray 
 concluded that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst 
 
 ^ Mr. J. B. Jukes, ' Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p. 
 248. 
 
 -^ r. Lieber, ' On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. p. 11. Tylor, 
 ibid. p. 53. 
 
Chap. XI. AND NEGATION. 275 
 
 shaking the Jiead in negation was never used, and was 
 not even understood by them. With the Esquimaux ^* 
 a nod means yes and a wink 7io. The Xew Zealanders 
 " elevate the head and chin in place of nodding acqiues- 
 cence." -^ 
 
 With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from 
 inquiries made from experienced Europeans, and from 
 native gentlemen, that the signs of affirmation and ne- 
 gation vary — a nod and a lateral shake being sometimes 
 used as we do; but a negative is more commonly ex- 
 pressed by the head being thrown suddenly backwards 
 and a little to one side, with a cluck of the tongue. What 
 the meaning may be of tliis cluck of the tongue, which 
 has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. 
 A native gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently 
 shown by the head being thrown to the left. I asked 
 Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this point, and, after 
 repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod 
 is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but 
 that the head is first thrown backwards either to the 
 left or right, and then jerked obliquely forwards only 
 once. This movement would perhaps have been de- 
 scribed by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He 
 also states that in negation the head is usually held 
 nearly upright, and shaken several times. 
 
 Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their 
 heads vertically in affirmation, and shake them laterally 
 in denial. With the wild Indians of Xorth America, 
 according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and 
 shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and 
 are not naturally employed. They express affirmation 
 " by describing with the hand (all the fingers except the 
 
 " Dr. King", Edinbiirg-h Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313. 
 " Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, 
 p. 53. 
 
27G SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION Chap. XL 
 
 index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards 
 from the body, whilst negation is expressed by mo^ing 
 the open hand outwards, with the palm facing inwards." 
 Other observers state that the sign of affirmation with 
 these Indians is the forefinger being raised, and then 
 lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved 
 straight forward from the face; and that the sign of 
 negation is the finger or whole hand shaken from side 
 to side.^^ This latter movement probably represents in 
 all cases the lateral shaking of the head. The Italians 
 are said in like manner to move the lifted finger from 
 right to left in negation, as indeed we English some- 
 times do. 
 
 On the whole we find considerable diversity in the 
 signs of affirmation and negation in the different races 
 of man. With respect to negation, if we admit that the 
 shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is sym- 
 bolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we 
 admit that the sudden backward movement of the head 
 represents one of the actions often practised by young 
 children in refusing food, then there is much uniformity 
 throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we 
 can see how they originated. The most marked excep- 
 tions are presented by the Arabs, Esquimaux, some Aus- 
 tralian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a frown is 
 the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accom- 
 panies a lateral shake of the head. 
 
 With respect to nodding in affirmation, the excep- 
 tions are rather more numerous, namely with some of 
 the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians, Dyaks, 
 Tagals, and Xew Zealanders. The eyebrows are some- 
 times raised in affirmation, and as a person in bending 
 
 =*« Liibbock, ' The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 277. 
 Tylor. ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the nega- 
 tive of the Italians. 
 
Chap. XL AND NEGATION. 277 
 
 his head forwards and downwards naturally looks up to 
 the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to raise his 
 eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbre- 
 viation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting 
 up the chin and head in affirmation may perhaps repre- 
 sent in an abbreviated form the upward movement of the 
 head after it has been nodded forwards and downwards. 
 
278 SURPHISE. Chap. XI. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Surprise — Astoxishmext — Fear — Horror. 
 
 Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Open- 
 ing* the mouth — Protrusion of the lips — Gestures accom- 
 panying" surprise — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection 
 of the hair — Contraction of the platysma muscle — Dila- 
 tation of the pupils — Horror — Conclusion. 
 
 Attextiox, if sudden and close, graduates into sur- 
 prise; and this into astonishment; and this into stupe- 
 fied amazement. The latter frame of mind is closely 
 akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being 
 slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, 
 they are raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes 
 and mouth widely open. The raising of the eyebrows 
 is necessary in order that the eyes should be opened 
 quickly and widely; and this movement produces trans- 
 verse wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which 
 the eyes and mouth are opened corresponds with the de- 
 gree of surprise felt; but these movements must be co- 
 ordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows 
 only slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as 
 Dr. Duchenne has shown in one of his photographs.^ 
 On the other hand, a person may often be seen to pre- 
 tend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows. 
 
 Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man 
 
 * ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p. 42. 
 
Chap. XII. SURPRISE. 279 
 
 with his eyebrows well elevated and arched by the gal- 
 vanization of the frontal muscle; and with his mouth 
 voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with 
 much truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without 
 a word of explanation, and one alone did not at all under- 
 stand what was intended. A second person answered 
 terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others, how- 
 ever, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the 
 epithets horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted. 
 
 The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expres- 
 sion universally recognized as one of surprise or aston- 
 ishment. Thus Shakespeare says, " I saw a smith stand 
 with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." {' King 
 John,' act iv. scene ii.) And again, " They seemed al- 
 most, with staring on one another, to tear the cases of 
 their eyes; there was speech in the dumbness, language 
 in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard of 
 a world destroyed." (^ Winter's Tale,^ act v. scene ii.) 
 
 My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to 
 the same effect, with respect to the various races of man; 
 the above movements of the features being often accom- 
 panied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to be 
 described. Twelve observers in different parts of Aus- 
 tralia agree on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has ob- 
 served this expression with the negroes on the Guinea 
 coast. The chief Gaika and others answer yes to my 
 query with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and 
 so do others emphatically with reference to the Abys- 
 sinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various tribes of 
 jSTorth America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, 
 Mr. Stack states that the expression is more plainly 
 shown by certain individuals than by others, though all 
 endeavour as much as possible to conceal their feelings. 
 The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Eajah Brooke to 
 open their eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging 
 
280 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XIL 
 
 their heads to and fro, and beating their breasts. Mr. 
 Scott informs me that the workmen in the Botanic Gar- 
 dens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but 
 they often disobey this order, and when suddenly sur- 
 prised in the act, they first open their eyes and mouths 
 widely. They then often slightly shrug their shoulders, 
 as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown 
 and stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they 
 recover from their surprise, and abject fear is exhibited 
 by the relaxation of all their muscles; their heads seem 
 to sink between their shoulders; their fallen eyes wan- 
 der to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness. 
 
 The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has 
 given ^ a striking account of stupefied amazement to- 
 gether with terror in a native who had never before seen 
 a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached unseen and 
 called to him from a little distance. " He turned round 
 and saw me. What he imagined I was I do not know; 
 but a finer picture of fear and astonishment I never saw. 
 He stood incapable of moving a limb, riveted to the spot, 
 mouth open and eyes staring. . . . He remained mo- 
 tionless until our black got within a few yards of him, 
 when suddenly throwing down his waddies, he jumped 
 into a mulga bush as high as he could get." He could 
 not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made 
 by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, " waved 
 with his hand for us to be ofi^." 
 
 That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinc- 
 tive impulse may be inferred from the fact that Laura 
 Bridgman invariably acts thus when astonished, as I 
 have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge 
 of her. x\s surprise is excited by something unexpected 
 or unknown, we naturally desire, when startled, to per- 
 
 "" ' The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 185S, p. 2. 
 
Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 281 
 
 ceive the cause as quickly as possible; and we consequent- 
 ly open our eyes fully, so that the field of vision may be 
 increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direc- 
 tion. Hut this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being 
 so greatly raised as is the case, and for the wild staring 
 of the open eyes. The explanation lies, I believe, in the 
 impossibility of opening the eyes with great rapidity by 
 merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eye- 
 brows must be lifted energetically. Any one who will 
 try to open his eyes as quickly as possible before a mirror 
 will find that he acts thus; and the energetic lifting up 
 of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare, 
 the white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, 
 the elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in looking 
 upwards; for as long as they are lowered they impede 
 our vision in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives ^ a curious 
 little proof of the part which the eyebrows play in open- 
 ing the eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the mus- 
 cles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently droop, in 
 the same manner as when we are falling asleep. To coun- 
 teract this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; 
 and this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well 
 represented in one of Hogarth's drawings. The habit of 
 raising the eyebrows having once been gained in order 
 to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement 
 would follow from the force of association whenever 
 astonishment was felt from any cause, even from a sud- 
 den sound or an idea. 
 
 With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, 
 the whole forehead becomes much wrinkled in trans- 
 verse lines; but with children this occurs only to a 
 slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with 
 each eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. 
 
 ^ ' The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 106. 
 19 
 
282 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XIL 
 
 They are highly characteristic of the expression of sur- 
 prise or astonishment. Each eyebrow, when raised, be- 
 comes also, as Duchenne remarks,* more arched than it 
 was before. 
 
 The cause of the mouth being opened when astonish- 
 ment is felt, is a much more complex affair; and several 
 causes apparently concur in leading to this movement. 
 It has often been supposed ^ that the sense of hearing 
 is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched per- 
 sons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and 
 source of which they knew perfectly, and they did not 
 open their mouths. Therefore I at one time imagined 
 that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the 
 direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving another 
 channel for its entrance into the ear through the eu- 
 stachian tube. But Dr. W. Ogle ^ has been so kind as to 
 search the best recent authorities on the functions of the 
 eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost 
 conclusively proved that it remains closed except during 
 the act of deglutition; and that in persons in whom the 
 tube remains abnormally open, the sense of hearing, as 
 far as external sounds are concerned, is by no means 
 improved; on the contrary, it is impaired by the respira- 
 tory sounds being rendered more distinct. If a watch 
 be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to touch 
 the sides, the ticking is heard much less plainly than 
 when held outside. In persons in whom from disease 
 or a cold the eustachian tube is permanently or tempo- 
 rarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but this may 
 
 * ' ISIecanisme de la Phj'sionomie,' Album, p. 6. 
 
 '^ See, for instance. Dr. Piderit (' JSIiniik nnd Physiog*- 
 noniik,' s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression 
 of surprise, 
 
 " Dr. Murie has also g-iven me information leading" to 
 the same conclusion, derived in part from comparative 
 anatomy. 
 
Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 283 
 
 be accounted for by mucus accumulatinfr within the tube, 
 and the consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore 
 infer that the mouth is not kept open under the sense 
 of astonishment for tlie sake of liearing sounds more 
 distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people keep 
 their mouths open. 
 
 Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, 
 quickens the action of the heart, and with it the respira- 
 tion. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet remarks "^ and as 
 appears to me to be the case, much more quietly through 
 the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore, 
 when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either 
 stop breathing, or breathe as quietly as possible, by open- 
 ing our mouths, at the same time keeping our bodies 
 motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night 
 by a noise under circumstances which naturally led to 
 great care, and after a few minutes he perceived that his 
 mouth was widely open. He then became conscious that 
 he had opened it for the sake of breathing as quietly as 
 possible. This view receives support from the reversed 
 case which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after 
 exercise, or on a hot day, breathes loudly; but if his at- 
 tention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his ears 
 to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as he is 
 enabled to do, through his nostrils. 
 
 When the attention is concentrated for a length of 
 time with fixed earnestness on any object or subject, all 
 the organs of the body are forgotten and neglected; ^ 
 and as the nervous energy of each individual is limited 
 in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the system, 
 excepting that which is at the time brought into ener- 
 getic action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to 
 
 T < 
 
 De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 234. 
 See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254. 
 
284 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. 
 
 become relaxed, and the jaw drops from its own weight. 
 This will account for the dropping of the jaw and open 
 mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps 
 when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appear- 
 ance, as I find recorded in my notes, in very young chil- 
 dren when they were only moderately surprised. 
 
 There is still another and highly effective cause, lead- 
 ing to the mouth being opened, when we are astonished, 
 and more especially when we are suddenly startled. "We 
 can draw a full and deep inspiration much more easily 
 through the widely open mouth than through the nos- 
 trils. Xow when we start at any sudden sound or sight, 
 almost all the muscles of the body are involuntarily and 
 momentarily thrown into strong action, for the sake of 
 guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the 
 danger, which we habitually associate with an}i:hing un- 
 expected. But we always unconsciously prepare our- 
 selves for any great exertion, as formerly explained, by 
 first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we conse- 
 quently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and 
 we still remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, 
 or breathe as quietly as possible, in order that every 
 sound may be distinctly heard. Or again, if our atten- 
 tion continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our mus- 
 cles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first sud- 
 denly opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes 
 concur towards this same movement, whenever surprise, 
 astonishment, or amazement is felt. 
 
 Although when thus affected, our mouths are gen- 
 erally opened, yet the lips are often a little protruded. 
 This fact reminds us of the same movement, though in 
 a much more strongly marked degree, in the chimpanzee 
 and orang when astonished. As a strong expiration nat- 
 urally follows the deep inspiration which accompanies 
 the first sense of startled surprise, and as the lips are 
 
Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 285 
 
 often protruded, the various sounds which are then com- 
 monly uttered can apparently be accounted for. But 
 sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura 
 jjridgman, when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, 
 opens them, and breathes strongly.^ One of the com- 
 monest sounds is a deep Oh ; and this would naturally 
 follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being 
 moderately opened and the lips protruded. On a quiet 
 night some rockets were fired from the * Beagle,^ in a 
 Uttle creek at Taliiti, to amuse the natives; and as each 
 rocket was let off there was absolute silence, but this was 
 invariably followed by a deep groaning Oh, resounding 
 all round the bay. Mr. TTashington Matthews says that 
 the Xorth American Indians express astonishment by a 
 groan; and the negroes on the West Coast of Africa, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips, and 
 make a sound like heigh, heigh. If the mouth is not 
 much opened, whilst the lips are considerably protruded, 
 a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is produced. ^Ir. 
 R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from 
 the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat 
 rapidly turning head over heels: '' he was greatly aston- 
 ished, and protruded his Hps, making a noise with his 
 mouth as if blowing out a match.'^ According to Mr. 
 Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter the ex- 
 clamation korlii, " and to do tliis the mouth is d^a^vn 
 out as if going to whistle." AVe Europeans often whistle 
 as a sign of surprise; thus, in a recent novel ^^ it is said, 
 "here the man expressed his astonishment and disap- 
 probation by a prolonged whistle." A Kafir girl, as ^Ir. 
 J. Mansel Weale informs me, " on hearing of the high 
 price of an article, raised her eyebrows and whistled just 
 
 ' Lieber, ' On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,' 
 Smithsonian Contributions. 1S51. vol. ii. p. 7. 
 ^° ' Wenderholme,' vol. ii. p. 91. 
 
286 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. 
 
 as a European would." Mr. Wedgwood remarks that 
 such sounds are written down as luliew^ and they serve 
 as interjections for surprise. 
 
 According to three other observers, the Australians 
 often evince astonishment by a clucking noise. Euro- 
 peans also sometimes express gentle surprise by a little 
 clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen 
 that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; 
 and if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely 
 against the palate, its sudden withdrawal will produce a 
 sound of this kind, which might thus come to express 
 surprise. 
 
 Turning to gestures of the body. xV surprised person 
 often raises his opened hands high above his head, or by 
 bending his arms only to the level of his face. The flat 
 palms are directed towards the person who causes this 
 feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This 
 gesture is represented by Mr. Eejlander in Plate VII. 
 fig. 1. In the ' Last Supper,' by Leonardo da Vinci, two 
 of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted, clearly 
 expressive of their astonishment. A trustworthy ob- 
 server told me that he had lately met his wife under 
 most unexpected circumstances: "She started, opened her 
 mouth and eyes very widely, and threw up both her arms 
 above her head." Several years ago I was surprised by 
 seeing several of my young children earnestly doing 
 something together on the ground; but the distance was 
 too great for me to ask what they were about. Therefore 
 I threw up my open hands with extended fingers above 
 my head; and as soon as I had done this, I became con- 
 scious of the action. I then waited, without saying a 
 word, to see if my children had understood this gesture; 
 and as they came running to me they cried out, " We 
 saw that you were astonished at us." I do not know 
 whether this gesture is common to the various races of 
 
Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 287 
 
 man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That 
 it is innate or natural may be inferred from the fact that 
 Laura Bridgman, when amazed, " spreads her arms and 
 turns her hands with extended fingers upwards; " ^^ nor 
 is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is gen- 
 erally a brief one, that she should have learnt this ges- 
 ture through her keen sense of touch. 
 
 Iluschke describes ^- a somewhat different yet allied 
 gesture, which he says is exhibited by persons when 
 astonished. They hold themselves erect, with the fea- 
 tures as before described, but with the straightened 
 arms extended backwards — the stretched fingers being 
 separated from each other. I have never myself seen 
 this gesture; but Huschke is probably correct; for a 
 friend asked another man how he would express great 
 astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this 
 attitude. 
 
 These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the prin- 
 ciple of antithesis. We have seen that an indignant 
 man holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, turns 
 out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and closes 
 his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in 
 every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an 
 ordinary frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking 
 of nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms sus- 
 pended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat 
 flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to 
 raise the arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the 
 fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the 
 
 " Lieber, ' On the Vocal Sounds,' &c., ibid. p. 7. 
 
 " Huschke, ' Mimices et Physiog-nomices,' 1821, p. 18. 
 Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) g-ives a figure of a man in this 
 attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear 
 combined with astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lava- 
 ter, vol. ix. p. 299) to the hands of an astonished man being 
 opened. 
 
288 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. 
 
 fingers, — or, again, to straighten the arms, extending 
 them backwards with separated fingers, — are movements 
 in complete antithesis to those preserved under an indif- 
 ferent frame of mind, and they are, in consequence, un- 
 consciously assumed by an astonished man. There is, 
 also, often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous 
 manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this 
 purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only 
 a few other states of the mind, be exhibited by move- 
 ments in antithesis to others. But this principle will 
 not be brought into play in the case of those emotions, 
 such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which nat- 
 urally lead to certain lines of action and produce certain 
 effects on the body, for the whole system is thus pre- 
 occupied; and these emotions are already thus expressed 
 with the greatest plainness. 
 
 There is another little gesture, expressive of astonish- 
 ment, of wliich I can offer no explanation; namely, the 
 hand being placed over the mouth or on some part of 
 the head. This has been observed with so many races 
 of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild 
 AustraUan was taken into a large room full of official 
 papers, which stirprised liim greatly, and he cried out, 
 cluck^ cluch^ cluck^ putting the back of his hand towards 
 his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes 
 express astonishment by a serious look and by placing 
 the right hand upon the mouth, uttering the word maiuo, 
 which means ' wonderful.' The Bushmen are said ^^ 
 to put their right hands to their necks, bending their 
 heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Eeade has observ^ed that 
 the negroes on the ^est Coast of Africa, when surprised, 
 clap their hands to their mouths, saying at the same 
 time, " My mouth cleaves to me,'' i. e. to my hands; and 
 
 " Huschke, ibid. p. 18. 
 
Chap. XII. FEAR. 289 
 
 he has lieard that this is their usual f^esture on such oc- 
 casions. Captain Speedy informs nic that the Ahys- 
 sinians phicc their right hand to the forehead, with the 
 palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington Matthews states 
 that the conventional sign of astonishment with the wild 
 tribes of the western parts of the United States " is made 
 by placing the half-closed hand over the mouth; in 
 doing this, the head is often bent forwards, and w^ords 
 or low groans are sometimes uttered." Catlin ^* makes 
 the same remark about the hand being pressed over the 
 mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes. 
 
 Admiration.. — Little need be said on this head. Ad- 
 miration apparently consists of surprise associated with 
 some pleasure and a sense of approval. When vividly 
 felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows raised; the 
 eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under 
 simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping 
 open, expands into a smile. 
 
 Fear^ Terror. — The word ^ fear ' seems to be derived 
 from what is sudden and dangerous; ^^ and that of terror 
 from the trembling of the vocal organs and body. I 
 use the word ' terror ' for extreme fear; but some writers 
 think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imag- 
 ination is more particularly concerned. Fear is often 
 preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that 
 both lead to the senses of sight and hearing being in- 
 stantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are 
 widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened 
 
 " ' North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105. 
 
 " H. Wedg-wood, Diet, of Eng-lish Etj^molog-j^ vol. ii. 
 1862, p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' p. 
 135) on the sources of such words as ' terror, horror, 
 rig-idus, frigidus,' &c. 
 
290 FEAR. Chap. XIL 
 
 man at first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, 
 or crouches down as if instinctively to escape observa- 
 tion. 
 
 The heart beats quickly and violentl}-, so that it palpi- 
 tates or knocks against the ribs; but it is very doubtful 
 whether it then works more efficiently than usual, so as 
 to send a greater supply of blood to all parts of the body; 
 for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during incipient 
 faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is 
 probably in large part, or exclusively, due to the vaso- 
 motor centre being affected in such a manner as to cause 
 the contraction of the small arteries of the skin. That 
 the slvin is much affected under the sense of great fear, 
 we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in 
 which perspiration immediately exudes from it. This 
 exudation is all the more remarkable, as the surface is 
 then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat; whereas, 
 the sudorific glands are properly excited into action 
 when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the skin 
 stand erect; and the superficial muscles shiver. In con- 
 nection with the disturbed action of the heart, the breath- 
 ing is hurried. The sahvary glands act imperfectly; the 
 mouth becomes dry,^^ and is often opened and shut. I 
 have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong 
 tendency to yawn. One of the best-marked symptoms 
 is the trembling of all the muscles of the body; and this 
 is often first seen in the lips. From this cause, and from 
 the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or 
 
 1^ Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1S65, p. 54) 
 explains in the following manner the origin of the custom 
 " of subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of the 
 morsel of rice. The accused is made to take a mouthful 
 of rice, and after a little time to throw it out. If the 
 morsel is quite drj', the party is believed to be guilty, — 
 his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating 
 organs." 
 
Chap. XII. FEAR. 291 
 
 indistinct, or may altogctlicr fail. " Obstiipiii, stete- 
 runtque coma?, et vox faucibus lursit." 
 
 Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand de- 
 scription in Job: — '' In thoughts from the visions of the 
 night, when deep sleep fallcth on men, fear came upon 
 me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. 
 Then a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my 
 flesh stood up. It stood still, but I could not discern 
 the form thereof: an image was before my eyes, there 
 was silence, and I heard a voice, saying. Shall mortal 
 man be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure 
 than his Maker? " (Job iv. 13.) 
 
 As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, 
 as under all violent emotions, diversified results. The 
 heart beats wildly, or may fail to act and faintness ensue; 
 there is a death-like pallor; the breatliing is laboured; 
 the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated; " there is 
 a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor 
 on the hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the 
 throat; " ^" the uncovered and protruding eyeballs are 
 fixed on the object of terror; or they may roll restlessly 
 from side to side, hue illuc volvens oculos totumque 
 per err at }^ The pupils are said to be enormously dilated. 
 All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may 
 be thrown into convulsive movements. The hands are 
 alternately clenched and opened, often with a twitcliing 
 movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert 
 some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the 
 head. The Eev. Mr. Hagenauer has seen this latter 
 action in a terrified Australian. In other cases there is 
 
 ^' Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 
 308. ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 88 and pp. 164-169. 
 
 ^® See Moreaii on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit, of 
 1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la 
 Phys. p. 17. 
 
292 FEAR. Chap. XU 
 
 a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong flight; 
 and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be 
 seized with a sudden panic. 
 
 As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream 
 of terror is heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the 
 skin. All the muscles of the body are relaxed. Utter 
 prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. 
 The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease 
 to act, and no longer retain the contents of the body. 
 
 Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an 
 account of intense fear in an insane woman, aged thirty- 
 five, that the description though painful ought not to 
 be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams 
 out, " This is hell! " " There is a black woman! " " I 
 can't get out! " — and other such exclamations. When 
 thus screaming, her movements are those of alternate 
 tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her 
 hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi- 
 flexed position; then suddenly bends her body forwards, 
 sways rapidly to and fro, draws her fingers through 
 her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her 
 clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve 
 to bend the head on the chest) stand out prominently, 
 as if swollen, and the skin in front of them is much 
 wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back of 
 her head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands 
 on end; that in front being dishevelled by the move- 
 ments of her hands. The countenance expresses great 
 mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and 
 neck, down to the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead 
 and neck stand out like thick cords. The lower lip drops, 
 and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept half open, 
 with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow 
 and deeply furrowed in curved lines running from the 
 wings of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth. The 
 
CiiAP. XII. FEAR. 293 
 
 nostrils themselves are raised and extended. The eyes 
 are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears 
 swollen; the pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled 
 transversely in many folds, and at the inner extremities 
 of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in diverging lines, 
 produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of 
 the corrugators. 
 
 Mr. Bell has also described ^^ an agony of terror and 
 of despair, which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst 
 carried to the place of execution in Turin. " On each 
 side of the car the officiating priests were seated; and 
 in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was impossible 
 to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without 
 terror; and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatua- 
 tion, it was equally impossible not to gaze upon an ob- 
 ject so wild, so full of horror. He seemed about thirty- 
 five years of age; of large and muscular form; his coun- 
 tenance marked by strong and savage features; half 
 naked, pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb 
 strained in anguish, his hands clenched convulsively, 
 the sweat breaking out on his bent and contracted brow, 
 he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour, painted 
 on the flag which was suspended before him; but with 
 an agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever 
 exhibited on the stage can give the slightest conception." 
 
 I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man 
 utterly prostrated by terror. An atrocious murderer of 
 two persons was brought into a hospital, under the mis- 
 taken impression that he had poisoned himself; and Dr. 
 W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while 
 he was being handcuffed and taken away by the police. 
 His pallor was extreme, and his prostration so great that 
 
 " ' Observations on Italy,' 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ' The 
 Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168. 
 
294 FEAR. Chap. XII 
 
 he was hardly able to dress himself. His skin perspired; 
 and his eyehds and head drooped so much that it was 
 impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His 
 lower jaw hung down. There was no contraction of any 
 facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost certain that the 
 hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly, 
 as it had been dj'ed for the sake of concealment. 
 
 AVith respect to fear, as exhibited by the various 
 races of man, my informants agree that the signs are 
 the same as with Europeans. They are displayed in 
 an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of 
 Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn 
 pale and shake; and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a 
 native Australian " being on one occasion much fright- 
 ened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to what 
 we call paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a 
 very black man." Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme 
 fear shown in an Australian, by a nervous twitching of 
 the hands, feet, and lips; and by the perspiration stand- 
 ing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs 
 of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble 
 greatly. With the Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint 
 English, the shaking " of the body is much experienced, 
 and the eyes are widely open." "With savages, the sj^hinc- 
 ter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be observed in 
 much frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys 
 when terrified by being caught. 
 
 The erection of the hair. — Some of the signs of fear 
 deserve a little further consideration. Poets continually 
 speak of the hair standing on end; Brutus says to the 
 ghost of Caesar, " that mak'st my blood cold, and my 
 hair to stare." And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder 
 of Gloucester exclaims, " Comb down his hair; look, 
 look, it stands upright." As I did not feel sure whether 
 
CuAP. XII. ERECTION OF THE HAIR. 295 
 
 writers of fiction might not have applied to man what 
 they had often observed in animals, I begged for informa- 
 tion from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the in- 
 sane. He states in answer that he has repeatedly seen 
 their hair erected under the influence of sudden and ex- 
 treme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary 
 to inject morphia under the skin of an insane woman, 
 who dreads the operation extremely, though it causes 
 very little pain; for she believes that poison is being 
 introduced into her svstem, and that her bones will be 
 softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes 
 deadly pale; her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic 
 spasm, and her hair is partially erected on the front of 
 the head. 
 
 Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the 
 hair which is so common in the insane, is not always 
 associated with terror. It is perhaps most frequently 
 seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have 
 destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms 
 of violence that the bristling is most observable. The 
 fact of the hair becoming erect under the influence both 
 of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we have seen 
 in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases 
 in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, be- 
 fore the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, " the hair 
 rises up from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland 
 pony." He has sent me photographs of two women, 
 taken in the intervals between their paroxysms, and he 
 adds with respect to one of these women, " that the state 
 of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of her men- 
 tal condition." I have had one of these photographs 
 copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed from a little 
 distance, a faithful representation of the original, with 
 the exception that the hair appears rather too coarse and 
 too much curled. The extraordinarv condition of the 
 
296 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to 
 its dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutane- 
 ous glands failing to act. Dr. Bucknill has said ^^ that a 
 
 ■^ "•:'//; 
 
 W^'" 
 
 Fig. 19. — From a photograph of an insane woman, to show the condition of 
 
 her hair. 
 
 lunatic " is a lunatic to his finger's ends; " he might have 
 added, and often to the extremit}^ of each particular hair. 
 
 Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation 
 of the relation which exists in the insane between the 
 state of their hair and minds, that the wife of a medical 
 man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute 
 melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, 
 her husband and children, reported verbally to him 
 the day before receiving my letter as follows, " I think 
 
 Mrs. — will soon improve, for her hair is getting 
 
 smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better 
 whenever their hair ceases to be rough and unmanage- 
 able." 
 
 Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condi- 
 
 2° Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, ' Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 41. 
 
Chap. XII. EUECTION OF TUE IIAIK. 297 
 
 tion of the hair in many insane patients, in part to their 
 minds being always somewhat disturbed, and in part to 
 the effects of habit, — that is, to tlie hair being frequently 
 and strongly erected during their many recurrent parox- 
 ysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is 
 extreme, the disease is generally permanent and mortal; 
 but in others, in whom the bristling is moderate, as soon 
 as they recover their health of mind the hair recovers 
 its smoothness. 
 
 In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals 
 the hairs are erected by the contraction of minute, un- 
 striped, and involuntary muscles, which run to each 
 separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood 
 has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs 
 me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head 
 which slope forwards, and those on the back which slope 
 backwards, are raised in opposite directions by the con- 
 traction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle. So 
 that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of the hairs 
 on the head of man, in the same manner as the homolo- 
 gous j!7fl??7iiczJw5 carnosus aids, or takes the greater part, 
 in the erection of the spines on the backs of some of the 
 lower animals. 
 
 Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle. — This 
 muscle is spread over the sides of the neck, extending 
 downwards to a little beneath the collar-bones, and up- 
 wards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion, called 
 the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. 
 The contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the 
 mouth and the lower parts of the cheeks downwards and 
 backwards. It produces at the same time divergent, 
 longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck 
 in the young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse 
 wrinkles. This muscle is sometimes said not to be under 
 20 
 
298 FEAR. Chap. XII. 
 
 the control of the will; but almost every one^ if told to 
 draw the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards 
 with great force, brings it into action. I have, however, 
 heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one 
 side of his neck. 
 
 Sir C. Bell -^ and others have stated that this muscle 
 is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; and 
 Duchenne insists so strongly on its importance in the 
 expression of this emotion, that he calls it the muscle of 
 fright.-^ He admits, however, that its contraction is 
 quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open 
 eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied 
 and reduced in the accompanpng woodcut) of the same 
 old man as on former occasions, with his eyebrows strong- 
 ly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma contracted, 
 all by means of galvanism. The original photograph 
 was shown to twenty-four persons, and they were sep- 
 arately asked, without any explanation being given, what 
 expression was intended: twenty instantly answered, 
 '' intense fright " or " horror; " three said pain, and one 
 extreme discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another 
 photograph of the same old man, with the platysma 
 contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eye- 
 brows rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The 
 expression thus induced is very striking (see Plate YIL 
 fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appear- 
 ance of great mental distress. The original was shown 
 to fiiteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and 
 three agony or great suffering. From these cases, and 
 from an examination of the other photographs given 
 by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, 
 I think there can be little doubt that the contraction of 
 
 ^ ' Anatomy of Expression.' p. 168. 
 
 ^ Mecanisnae de la Plaj's. Humaine, Album, Legende xi. 
 
Chap. XII. CONTRACTION OP THE PLATYSMA. 299 
 
 the platysraa docs add greatly to the expression of fear. 
 Xevcrtheless this muscle ought hardly to be called that 
 of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a necessary 
 concomitant of tliis state of mind. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Terror, from a photograph by Dr. Dachenne. 
 
 A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest 
 manner by death-like pallor, by drops of perspiration on 
 his skin, and by utter prostration, with all the muscles 
 of his body, including the platysma, completely relaxed. 
 Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quiver- 
 
300 FEAR. Chap. XII. 
 
 ing and contracting in the insane, he has not been able 
 to connect its action with any emotional condition in 
 them, though he carefully attended to patients suffering 
 from great fear. Mr. Mcol, on the other hand, has ob- 
 served three cases in which this muscle appeared to be 
 more or less permanently contracted under the influence 
 of melancholia, associated with much dread; but in one 
 of these cases, various other muscles about the neck and 
 head were subject to spasmodic contractions. 
 
 Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London 
 hospitals about twenty patients, just before they were 
 put under the influence of chloroform for operations. 
 They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. 
 In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly con- 
 tracted; and it did not begin to contract until the pa- 
 tients began to cry. The muscle seemed to contract at 
 the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it 
 is very doubtful whether the contraction depended at 
 all on the emotion of fear. In a fifth case, the patient, 
 who was not chloroformed, was much terrified; and his 
 platysma was more forcibly and persistently contracted 
 than in the other cases. But even here there is room 
 for doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually 
 developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man 
 moved his head from the pillow, after the operation was 
 over. 
 
 As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a super- 
 ficial muscle on the neck should be especially affected 
 by fear, I applied to my many obliging correspondents 
 for information about the contraction of this muscle 
 under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to 
 give all the answers which I have received. They show 
 that this muscle acts, often in a variable manner and 
 degree, under many different conditions. It is \iolently 
 contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less de- 
 
PK.-'tc.-r^.-^ t h V3-^^ki3r.,}S 
 
CuAi'. XII. CONTRACTION OF THE PLATYSMA. 301 
 
 gree in lockjaw; sometinies in a marked manner durin<^ 
 the insensibility from chloroform. Dr. W. O^le observed 
 two male patients, suffering from such difficulty in 
 breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both 
 the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these men 
 overheard the conversation of the surgeons surrounding 
 him, and when he was able to speak, declared that he 
 had not been frightened. In some other cases of extreme 
 difficulty of respiration, though not requiring trache- 
 otomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the platysma 
 was not contracted. 
 
 Mr. J. Wood, who l^s studied with such care the 
 muscles of the human body, as shown by his various 
 publications, has often seen the platysma contracted in 
 vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and 
 adults under the influence of rage, — for instance, in 
 Irishwomen, quarrelling and brawding together with 
 angry gesticulations. This may possibly have been due 
 to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady, an ex- 
 cellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, 
 always contracts her platysma. So does a young man, 
 as I have observed, in sounding certain notes on the 
 flute. Mr. J, Wood informs me that he has found the 
 platysma best developed in persons w^ith thick necks and 
 broad shoulders; and that in families inheriting these 
 peculiarities, its development is usually associated with 
 much voluntary power over the homologous occipito- 
 frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved. 
 
 None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light 
 on the contraction of the platysma from fear; but it 
 is different, I think, with the following cases. The 
 gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act 
 on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive 
 that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled. 
 Evidence has already been given showing that this mus- 
 
302 FEAR. Chap. XIL 
 
 cle sometimes contracts^ perhaps for the sake of opening 
 the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered diffi- 
 cult by disease, and during the deep inspirations of cry- 
 ing-fits before an operation. Xow, whenever a person 
 starts at any sudden sight or sound, he instantaneously 
 draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction of the 
 platysma may possibly have become associated with the 
 sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a more etficient 
 relation. The first sensation of fear, or the imagination 
 of something dreadful, commonly excites a shudder. I 
 have caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder 
 at a painful thought, and I distinctly perceived that my 
 platysma contracted; so it does if I simulate a shudder. 
 I have asked others to act in this manner; and in some 
 the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my 
 sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, 
 and, as he happened to have his hand on his neck, he 
 plainly felt that this muscle strongly contracted. He 
 then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former 
 occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. 
 J. Wood has also several times observed tliis muscle con- 
 tracting in patients, when stripped for examination, and 
 who were not frightened, but shivered slightly from the 
 cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain 
 whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage 
 of an ague fit, the platysma contracts. But as it cer- 
 tainly often contracts during a shudder; and as a shud- 
 der or shiver often accompanies the first sensation of 
 fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter 
 case.-^ Its contraction, however, is not an invariable 
 
 '^ Duchenne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45). as he 
 attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shiver- 
 ing of fear (frisson de la prur) ; but he elsev^here compares 
 the action with that which causes the hair of frightened 
 quadrupeds to stand erect; and this can hardly be consid- 
 ered as quite correct. 
 
CuAi'. XII. DILATATION OF THE PUPILS. 303 
 
 concomitant of fear; for it probably never acts under the 
 influence of extreme, prostrating terror. 
 
 Dilatation of the Pupils. — Gratiolct repeatedly in- 
 sists -■* that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever 
 terror is felt. I have no reason to doubt the accuracy 
 of this statement, but have failed to obtain confirmatory 
 evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of 
 an insane woman sull'ering from great fear. When 
 writers of fiction speak of the eyes being widely dilated, 
 I presume that they refer to the eyelids. Munro's state- 
 ment,-^ that with parrots the iris is affected by the pas- 
 sions, independently of the amount of light, seems to 
 bear on this question; but Professor Bonders informs 
 me, that he has often seen movements in the pupils of 
 these birds which he thinks may be related to their power 
 of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner 
 as our own pupils contract vrhen our eyes converge for 
 near vision. Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils 
 appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness. 
 Xo doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the 
 dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to account 
 for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It 
 seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's state- 
 ment is correct, that the brain is directly affected by 
 the powerful emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils; 
 but Professor Bonders informs me that this is an ex- 
 tremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly 
 throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Xetley 
 Hospital, has observed in two patients that the pupila 
 were distinctly dilated during the cold stage of an ague 
 fit. Professor Bonders has also often seen dilatation 
 of the pupils in incipient faintness. 
 
 " ' De la Physionomie,' pp. 51, 256, 346. 
 
 " As quoted in White's ' Gradation in Man,' p. 57. 
 
304 HORROR. Chap. XIL 
 
 Horror. — The state of mind expressed by this term 
 implies terror, and is in some cases almost synon3'mous 
 with it. Many a man must have felt, before the blessed 
 discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought of 
 an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as 
 well as hates a man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, 
 a horror of him. We feel horror if we see any one, for 
 instance a child, exposed to some instant and crushing 
 danger. Almost every one would experience the same 
 feeling in the highest degree in witnessing a man being 
 tortured or going to be tortured. In these cases there 
 is no danger to ourselves; but from the power of the 
 imagination and of S}Tiipathy we put ourselves in the 
 position of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear. 
 
 Sir C. Bell remarks,-^ that " horror is full of energy; 
 the body is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear." 
 It is, therefore, probable that horror would generally 
 be accompanied by the strong contraction of the brows; 
 but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and mouth 
 would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as 
 far as the antagonistic action of the corrugators per- 
 mitted this movement. Duchenne has given a photo- 
 graph ^^ (fig. 21) of the same old man as before, with his 
 eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and 
 at the same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, 
 and the platysma in action, all effected by the means of 
 galvanism. He considers that the expression thus pro- 
 duced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or torture. 
 A tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him 
 to feel any dread for the future, would probably exhibit 
 horror in an extreme degree. I have shown the original 
 of this photograph to twenty-three persons of both sexes 
 
 ^® ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 169. 
 
 " * Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, pi. 65, pp. 
 44, 45. 
 
Chap. XII. IIORROK. 305 
 
 and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered 
 horror, gi-eat pain, torture, or agony; three answered 
 extreme friglit; so that sixteen answered nearly in 
 accordance with Duchenne's belief. Six, however, 
 said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly con- 
 tracted brows, and overlooking the peculiarly opened 
 mouth. One said disgust. On the whole, the evidence 
 indicates that we have here a fairly good representation 
 of horror and agony. The photograph before referred 
 to (PL VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this 
 the oblique eyebrows indicate great mental distress in 
 place of energy. 
 
 Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, 
 which differ in different individuals. Judging from pic- 
 tures, the whole body is often turned away or shrinks; 
 or the arms are violently protruded as if to push away 
 some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far 
 as can be inferred from the action of persons who en- 
 deavour to express a vividly-imagined scene of horror, 
 is the raising of both shoulders, with the bent arms 
 pressed closely against the sides or chest. These move- 
 ments are nearly the same with those commonly made 
 when we feel very cold; and they are generally accom- 
 panied by a shudder, as well as by a deep expiration or 
 inspiration, according as the chest happens at the time 
 to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made 
 are expressed by words like ^l^l or iiglir^ It is not, how- 
 ever, obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense 
 of horror, we press our bent arms against our bodies, 
 raise our shoulders, and shudder. 
 
 ^ See remarks to this effect by ^Mr. Wedo-wood, in the 
 Introduction to his ' Dictionary of Eng-lish Etymolog-y,' 2nd 
 edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate fornis that 
 the sounds here referred to have probably given rise to 
 many words, such as ugly, huge, &c. 
 
306 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Fig. 21.— Horror and Agony, copied from a photograph by Dr. Duchenne. 
 
 Conclusion. — I have now endeavoured to describe the 
 diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from 
 mere attention to a start of surprise, into extreme terror 
 and horror. Some of the signs may be accounted for 
 through the principles of habit, association, and inherit- 
 ance, — such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, 
 with upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible 
 all around us, and to hear distinctly whatever sound may 
 reach our ears. For we have thus habitually prepared 
 
Chap. XII. CONCLUSION. 3O7 
 
 ourselves to discover and encounter any danger. Some 
 of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, 
 at least in part, through these same principles. Men, 
 during numberless generations, have endeavoured to es- 
 cape from their enemies or danger by headlong flight, 
 or by violently struggling with them; and such great 
 exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the 
 breathing to be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nos- 
 trils to be dilated. As these exertions have often been 
 prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will have 
 been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of 
 all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, 
 whenever the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it 
 may not lead to any exertion, the same results tend to 
 reappear, through the force of inheritance and associa- 
 tion. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the 
 above symptoms of terror, such as the beating of the 
 heart, the trembling of the muscles, cold perspiration, 
 &c., are in large part directly due to the disturbed or 
 interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro- 
 spinal system to various parts of the body, owing to the 
 mind being so powerfully affected. We may confidently 
 look to this cause, independently of habit and associa- 
 tion, in such cases as the modified secretions of the in- 
 testinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to act. 
 With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we 
 have good reason to believe that in the case of animals 
 this action, however it may have originated, serves, to- 
 gether with certain voluntary movements, to make them 
 appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same invol- 
 untary and voluntary actions are performed by animals 
 nearly related to man, we are led to believe that man has 
 retained through inheritance a relic of them, now become 
 useless. It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the minute 
 
308 CONCLUSION. Chap. XII. 
 
 unstriped muscles, by wliicli the hairs thinly scattered 
 over man's almost naked body are erected, should have 
 been preserved to the present day; and that they should 
 still contract under the same emotions, namel}^ terror 
 and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the 
 lower members of the Order to which man belongs. 
 
Chap. Xlll. BLUSUING. 309 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Self- ATTENTION — Shame — Shyness — Modesty: 
 Blushing. 
 
 Nature of a blush — Inheritance — The parts of the bodj^ 
 most effected — Blushing- in the various races of man — 
 Accompanying" g-estures — Confusion of mind — Causes of 
 blushing- — Self-attention, the fundamental element — 
 Shj'ness — Shame, from broken moral laws and conven- 
 tional rules — ^Modesty — Theory of blushing — Recapitu- 
 lation. 
 
 Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human 
 of all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it 
 would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to 
 make us believe that any animal could blush. The red- 
 dening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation 
 of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which 
 the capillaries become filled with blood; and this de- 
 pends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. 
 No doubt if there be at the same time much mental agi- 
 tation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is 
 not due to the action of the heart that the network of 
 minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense 
 of shame gorged with blood. We can cause laughing 
 by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, 
 trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we 
 cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,^ by 
 
 ^ ' The Physiolog-y or Mechanism of Blushing-,' 1839, p. 
 156. I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the 
 present chaj^ter. 
 
310 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 any physical means, — that is by any action on the 
 body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blush- 
 ing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, 
 by leading to self-attention actually increases the ten- 
 dency. 
 
 The young blush much more freely than the old, but 
 not during infancy,- which is remarkable, as we know 
 that infants at a very early age redden from passion. I 
 have received authentic accounts of two little girls 
 blushing at the ages of between two and three years; 
 and of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, 
 when reproved for a fault. Many children, at a some- 
 what more advanced age blush in a strongly marked 
 manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants 
 are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their 
 blushing. Hence, also, it is that idiots rarely blush. 
 Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his 
 care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he 
 has seen their faces flash, apparently from joy, 
 when food was 2)laced before them, and from anger. 
 Xevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable 
 of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for instance, thir- 
 teen years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he 
 was pleased or amused, has been described by Dr. Behn,^ 
 as blushing and turning to one side, when undressed for 
 medical examination. 
 
 Women blush much more than men. It is rare to 
 see an old man, but not nearly so rare to see an old 
 woman blushing. The blind do not escape. Laura 
 Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely 
 
 ^ Dr. Burg-ess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on 
 ■v^'omen blushing" more freely than men, as stated belo^v. 
 
 ^ Quoted by Vogt, ' Memoire sur les ]Microcephales,' 1807, 
 p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever 
 blush. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSIIINO. 311 
 
 (leaf, blushes.* The Rev. E. II. Blair, Principal of the 
 Worcester College, informs me that three chiUlrcn born 
 bhnd, out of seven or eight then in the Asylum, are 
 great blushers. The blind are not at first conscious that 
 they are observed, and it is a most important part of their 
 education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this 
 knowledge on their minds; and the impression thus 
 gained would greatly strengthen the tendency to blush, 
 by increasing the habit of self-attention. 
 
 The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess 
 gives the case ^ of a family consisting of a father, mother, 
 and ten children, all of whom, without exception, were 
 prone to blush to a most painful degree. The children 
 were grown up; " and some of them were sent to travel 
 in order to wear away this diseased sensibility, but noth- 
 ing was of the slightest avail." Even peculiarities in 
 blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James Paget, whilst 
 examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular 
 manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first 
 on one cheek, and then other splashes, variously scat- 
 tered over the face and neck. He subsequently asked 
 the mother whether her daughter always blushed in 
 this peculiar manner; and was answered, " Yes, she 
 takes after me." Sir J. Paget then perceived that by 
 asking this question he had caused the mother to 
 blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her 
 daughter. 
 
 In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole 
 parts which redden; but many persons, whilst blushing 
 intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow hot and 
 tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must be 
 in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes 
 
 * Lieber ' On the Vocal Sounds,' &c.; Smithsonian Con- 
 tributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6. 
 " Ibid. p. 182. 
 
312 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 to commence on the forehead^ but more commonly on 
 the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and neck.® 
 In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes 
 commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, 
 over the parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased 
 into a circle; between this blushing circle and the blush 
 on the neck there was an evident line of demarcation; 
 although both arose simultaneously. The retina, which 
 is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at 
 the same time in redness.'^ Every one must have noticed 
 how easily after one blush fresh blushes chase each other 
 over the face. Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensa- 
 tion in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess the redden- 
 ing of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor, 
 which shows that the capillary vessels contract after di- 
 lating. In some rare cases paleness instead of redness 
 is caused under conditions which would naturally induce 
 a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that in a 
 large and crowded party she caught her hair so firm- 
 ly on the button of a passing servant, that it took 
 some time before she could be extricated; from her sen- 
 sations she imagined that she had blushed crimson; 
 but was assured by a friend that she had turned ex- 
 tremely pale. 
 
 I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes 
 extend; and Sir J. Paget, who necessarily has frequent 
 opportunities for observation, has kindly attended to 
 this point for me during two or three years. He finds 
 that with women who blush intensely on the face, 
 ears, and nape of neck, the blush does not commonly 
 extend any lower down the body. It is rare to see it as 
 low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and 
 he has never himself seen a single instance in which it 
 
 * Moreau, in edit, of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303. 
 
 ^ Burgess, ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p. 177. 
 
Chjlp. XIII. BLUSHING. 313 
 
 extended below the upper part of the chest. He has also 
 noticed that blushes sometimes die away downwards, 
 not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy 
 blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me 
 several women whose bodies did not in the least redden 
 while their faces were crimsoned with blushes. With 
 the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable 
 to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times 
 seen the blush extend as far down as the collar-bones, 
 and in two instances to the breasts. He gives me the 
 case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suf- 
 fered from epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival 
 in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, together with his assistants, 
 visited her whilst she was in bed. The moment that he 
 approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and 
 temples; and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She 
 was much agitated and tremulous. He unfastened the 
 collar of her chemise in order to examine the state of 
 her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her 
 chest, in an arched line over the upper third of each 
 breast, and extended downwards between the breasts 
 nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. This 
 case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend 
 downwards until it became intense by her attention being 
 drawn to this part of her person. As the examination 
 proceeded she became composed, and the blush disap- 
 peared; but on several subsequent occasions the same 
 phenomena were observed. 
 
 The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, 
 with English women, blushing does not extend beneath 
 the neck and upper part of the chest. Nevertheless Sir 
 J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case, 
 on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked 
 by what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed 
 all over her abdomen and the upper parts of her legs. 
 21 
 
314 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 Moreau also ^ relates, on the authority of a celebrated 
 painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body 
 of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, 
 reddened when she was first divested of her clothes. 
 
 It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the 
 face, ears, and neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole 
 surface of the body often tingles and grows hot. This 
 seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining parts 
 of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, 
 light, and alternations of temperature, by which the 
 small arteries not only have acquired the habit of readily 
 dilating and contracting, but appear to have become 
 unusually developed in comparison with other parts of 
 the surface.^ It is probably owing to this same cause, 
 as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the 
 face is so liable to redden under various circumstances, 
 such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat, violent exertion, anger, 
 a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that it is liable 
 to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured 
 during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable 
 to be affected by cutaneous complaints, by small-pox, 
 erysipelas, &c. This view is likewise supported by the 
 fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go 
 nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and 
 even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, 
 informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels 
 ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, 
 wrists, and hands, — that is, over all the exposed portions 
 of her skin. Xevertheless it may be doubted whether 
 the habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, 
 and its consequent power of reaction under stimulants 
 of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account for the much 
 
 ^ See Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303. 
 ° Burg-ess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. voL 
 iv. p. 293. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 315 
 
 greater tendency in English women of these parts than 
 of others to bliisli; for the hands are well supplied with 
 nerves and small vessels, and have been as much ex- 
 posed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands 
 rarely blush. We shall presently see that the attention 
 of the mind having been directed much more frequently 
 and earnestly to the face than to any other part of the 
 body, probably affords a sufficient explanation. 
 
 Blushing in the various races of man. — The small 
 vessels of the face become filled with blood, from the 
 emotion of shame, in almost all the races of man, though 
 in the very dark races no distinct change of colour can 
 be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan na- 
 tions of Europe, and to a certain extent with those of 
 India. But Mr. Erskine has never noticed that the necks 
 of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With the Lep- 
 chas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint 
 blush on the cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the 
 neck, accompanied by sunken eyes and lowered head. 
 This has occurred when he has detected them in a false- 
 hood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, 
 sallow complexions of these men render a blush much 
 more conspicuous than in most of the other natives of 
 India. With the latter, shame, or it may be in part fear, 
 is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly 
 by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes 
 wavering or turned askant, than by any change of colour 
 in the skin. 
 
 The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been 
 expected, from their general similitude to the Aryans. 
 Thus with the Jews, it is said in the Book of Jeremiah 
 (chap. vi. 15), " Nay, they were not at all ashamed, 
 neither could they blush." Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab 
 managing his boat clumsily on the Nile, and when 
 
316 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 laughed at by his companions, " he blushed quite to the 
 back of his neck." Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a 
 young Arab blushed on coming into her presence.^^ 
 
 Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he 
 thinks it is rare; yet they have the expression ^' to red- 
 den with shame." ^Ir. Geach informs me that the Chi- 
 nese settled in ^lalacca and the native Malays of the in- 
 terior both blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, 
 and he particularly attended to the do\\'nward extension 
 of the blush. Omitting the cases in which the face alone 
 was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed that the face, 
 arms, and breast of a Cliinaman, aged 24 years, reddened 
 from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why 
 he had not done his work in better style, the whole body 
 was similarly affected. In two Malays ^^ he saw the face, 
 neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a third Malay 
 (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist. 
 
 The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack 
 has seen hundreds of instances with the Xew Zealanders. 
 The following case is worth giving, as it relates to an 
 old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly 
 tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman 
 for a small yearly rental, a strong passion seized him to 
 buy a gig, which had lately become the fashion with the 
 Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all the rent 
 for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack 
 whether he could do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, 
 and ragged, and the idea of his driving himself about in 
 his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack so much that 
 he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then 
 " the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair." 
 
 ^<* ' Letters from Egypt.' 1S65, p. 66. Lady Gordon is mis- 
 taken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush. 
 
 ^^ Capt. Osborn (' Quedah,' p. 199), in speaking- of a 
 Malay, whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad 
 to see that the man blushed. 
 
Chap. Xin. BLUSHING. 317 
 
 Forster says that " }'ou may easily distinguish a spread- 
 ing blush " on the cheeks of the fairest women in Ta- 
 hiti.*- The native? also of several of the other archi- 
 pelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush. 
 
 Mr. "Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on 
 the faces of the young squaws belonging to various wild 
 Indian tribes of North America. At the opposite ex- 
 tremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives, 
 according to Mr. Bridges, " blush much, but chiefly in 
 regard to women; but they certainly blush also at their 
 own personal appearance." This latter statement agrees 
 with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, 
 who blushed when he was quizzed about the care which 
 he took in polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorn- 
 ing himself. With respect to the A}Tnara Indians on 
 the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says," that 
 from the colour of their skins it is impossible that their 
 blushes should be as clearly visible as in the white races; 
 still under such circumstances as would raise a blush 
 in us, " there can always be seen the same expression of 
 modesty or confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of 
 temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly 
 as occurs in the European." "With the Indians who in- 
 
 '- J. li. Forster, ' Observations during* a Voyage round 
 the World,' 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (' Introduction to 
 Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references 
 for other islands in the Pacific. See, also. Dampier ' On the 
 Blushing of the Tunquinese ' (vol. ii. p. 40): but I have not 
 consulted this \vork. Waitz quotes Bergmann. that the 
 Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after 
 what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also 
 quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable 
 of blushing. Unfortunately. Capt. Speedy, who lived so 
 long with the Abyssinians, has not answered my inquiry 
 on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke 
 has never observed the least sign of a blush Tvith the Dyaks 
 of Borneo: on the contrary under circumstances which 
 would excite a blush in us, they assert " that they feel the 
 blood drawn from their faces." 
 
 " Transact, of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16. 
 
318 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 habit the hot, equable, and damp parts of South America, 
 the skin apparently does not answer to mental excite- 
 ment so readily as with the natives of the northern and 
 southern parts of the continent, who have long been 
 exposed to great vicissitudes of climate; for Humboldt 
 quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, 
 " How can those be trusted, who know not how to 
 blush? "^* Von Spix and Martins, in speaking of the 
 aborigines of Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be 
 said to blush; " it was only after long intercourse with 
 the whites, and after receiving some education, that we 
 perceived in the Indians a change of colour expressive 
 of the emotions of their minds." ^^ It is, however, in- 
 credible that the power of blushing could have thus 
 originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent 
 on their education and new course of life, would have 
 much increased an}'^ innate tendency to blush. 
 
 Several trustworthy observers have assured me that 
 they have seen on the faces of negroes an appearance 
 resembling a blush, under circumstances which would 
 have excited one in us, though their skins were of an 
 ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, 
 but most say that the blackness becomes more intense. 
 An increased supply of blood in the sldn seems in some 
 manner to increase its blackness; thus certain exan- 
 thematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro 
 to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.^^ The 
 skin, perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the 
 
 " Humboldt, ' Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. 
 iii. p. 229. 
 
 " Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 
 1851, vol. i. p. 271. 
 
 ^* See, on this head, Burg-ess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz, 
 * Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 135. 
 Moreau gives a detailed account (' Lavater,' 1820, torn. iv. 
 p. 302) of the blushing of a Madagascar negress-slave when 
 forced by her brutal master to exhibit her naked bosom. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHIXG. 319 
 
 filling of the capillaries, would reflect a somewhat dif- 
 ferent tint to what it did before. That the capillaries of 
 the face in the negro become filled with blood, under 
 the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because 
 a perfectly characterized albino negress, described by 
 Buffon,^^ showed a faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks 
 when she exhibited herself naked. Cicatrices of the skin 
 remain for a long time white in the negro, and Dr. 
 Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing 
 a scar of this kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw 
 that it '^ invariably became red whenever she was abrupt- 
 ly spoken to, or charged with any trivial offence." ^® 
 The blush could be seen proceeding from the circum- 
 ference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not 
 reach the centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, 
 blush succeeding blush over their faces. From these 
 facts there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although 
 no redness is visible on the skin. 
 
 I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the 
 Kafirs of South Africa never blush; but this may only 
 mean that no change of colour is distinguishable. Gaika 
 adds that under the circumstances which would make a 
 European blush, his countrymen " look ashamed to keep 
 their heads up." 
 
 It is asserted by four of my informants that the 
 Australians, who are almost as black as negroes, never 
 blush, A fifth answers doubtfully, remarking that only 
 a very strong blush could be seen, on account of the dirty 
 state of their skins. Three observers state that they do 
 blush; ^® Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable 
 
 " Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 
 1851, vol. i. p. 225. 
 
 " Burgess, ibid, p. 31. On mulattoes blushing", see p, 33. 
 I have received similar accounts with respect to mulattoes. 
 
 ^^ Barrington also saj's that the Australians of New 
 South Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid, p, 135. 
 
320 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 only under a strong emotion, and when the skin is not 
 too dark from long exposure and want of cleanliness. 
 Mr. Lang answers, " I have noticed that shame almost 
 always excites a blush, which frequently extends as low 
 as the neck." Shame is also shown, as he adds, " by the 
 eyes being turned from side to side." As Mr. Lang was 
 a teacher in a native school, it is probable that he chiefly 
 observed children; and we know that they blush more 
 than adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blush- 
 ing, and he says that the aborigines have a word expres- 
 sive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who 
 has never observed the Australians to blush, says that 
 he has " seen them looking down to the ground on ac- 
 count of shame; " and the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, re- 
 marks that though " I have not been able to detect 
 anything like shame in the adult aborigines, I have 
 noticed that the eyes of the children, when ashamed, 
 present a restless, watery appearance, as if they did not 
 know where to look." 
 
 The facts now given are sufficient to show that blush- 
 ing, whether or not there is any change of colour, is 
 common to most, probably to all, of the races of man. 
 
 Movements and gestures wliich accompmiy Blushing. 
 — Under a keen sense of shame there is a strong desire 
 for concealment.-*^ "We turn away the whole bodj", more 
 especially the face, which we endeavour in some manner 
 to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet 
 
 ^ Mr. Wedg^vood says (Diet, of English Etymolog'y, vol. 
 iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame " may well originate 
 in the idea of shade or concealment, and may be illustrated 
 by the Low German scheme, shade or shadow." Gratiolet 
 (De la Phys. pp. 357—362) has a good discussion on the 
 gestures accompanying shame; but some of his remarks 
 seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 
 69, 134) on the same subject. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 321 
 
 the gaze of those present, so that he almost invariably 
 casts down his eyes or looks askant. As there generally 
 exists at the same time a strong wish to avoid the ap- 
 pearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look di- 
 rect at the person who causes this feeling; and the an- 
 tagonism between these opposite tendencies leads to vari- 
 ous restless movements in the eyes. I have noticed two 
 ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are ver}^ liable, 
 have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of in- 
 cessantly blinking their eyelids with extraordinary 
 rapidity. An intense blush is sometimes accompanied 
 by a slight effusion of tears; ^^ and this, I presume, is due 
 to the lacrjTnal glands partaking of the increased supply 
 of blood, which we know rushes into the capillaries of 
 the adjoining parts, including the retina. 
 
 Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the 
 foregoing movements; and it has already been shown 
 that the aborigines in various parts of the world often 
 exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, 
 or by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out 
 (ch. ix. 6), " 0, my God! I am ashamed, and blush to 
 lift up my head to thee, my God." In Isaiah (ch. 1. 6) 
 we meet with the words, " I hid not my face from 
 shame." Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) " that the Roman 
 players hang down their heads, fix their eyes on the 
 ground and keep them lowered, but are unable to blush 
 in acting shame." According to Macrobius, who lived 
 in the fifth century (^Saturnalia,' b. vii. c. 11), " Xat- 
 ural philosophers assert that nature being moved by 
 shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we 
 
 ^ Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed 
 (as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the 
 secretion of tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, 
 as we have seen, speaks of the " watery eyes " of the chil- 
 dren of the Australian aborigines when ashamed. 
 
322 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 see any one blushing often puts his hands before his 
 face/' Shakspeare makes Marcus {' Titus Andronicus,' 
 act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, "All! now thou tum'st 
 away thy face for shame/' A lady informs me that she 
 found in the Lock Hospital a girl whom she had for- 
 merly known, and who had become a wretched cast- 
 away, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her 
 face under the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded 
 to uncover it. "We often see Httle children, when shy or 
 ashamed, turn away, and still standing up, burv^ their 
 faces in their mother's gown; or they throw themselves 
 face downwards on her lap. 
 
 Co7ifusion of mind. — Most persons, whilst blushing 
 intensely, have their mental powers confused. This is 
 recognized in such common expressions as " she was 
 covered with confusion." Persons in this condition lose 
 their presence of mind, and utter singularly inappro- 
 priate remarks. They are often much distressed, stam- 
 mer, and make awkward movements or strange grimaces. 
 In certain cases involuntary twitchings of some of the 
 facial muscles may be observed. I have been informed 
 by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at such 
 times she does not even know what she is sapng. When 
 it was suggested to her that this might be due to her 
 distress from the consciousness that her blushing was 
 noticed, she answered that this could not be the case, 
 " as she had sometimes felt quite as stupid when blush- 
 ing at a thought in her own room." 
 
 I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance 
 of mind to which some sensitive men are liable. A gen- 
 tleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that he had 
 been an eye-witness of the following scene: — A small 
 dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy 
 man, who, when he rose to return thanks, rehearsed the 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 323 
 
 speech, which he had evidently learnt by heart, in abso- 
 lute silence, and did not utter a single word; but he acted 
 as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends, 
 perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the 
 imaginary bursts of eloquence, whenever his gestures 
 indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that 
 he had remained the whole time completely silent. On 
 the contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with 
 much satisfaction, that he thought he had succeeded 
 uncommonly well. 
 
 When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and 
 blushes intensel}^, his heart beats rapidly and his breath- 
 ing is disturbed. Tliis can hardly fail to affect the circu- 
 lation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the 
 mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging 
 from the still more powerful influence of anger and fear 
 on the circulation, whether we can thus satisfactorily 
 account for the confused state of mind in persons whilst 
 blushing intensely. 
 
 The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate 
 sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation, 
 of the surface of the head and face, and that of the brain. 
 On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Bro^\^le for information, 
 he has given me various facts bearing on this subject. 
 When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of 
 the head, the capillaries on this side are relaxed and 
 become filled with blood, causing the skin to redden and 
 to grow hot, and at the same time the temperature within 
 the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of the 
 membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the 
 face, ears, and eyes with blood. The first stage of an 
 epileptic fit appears to be the contraction of the vessels 
 of the brain, and the first outward manifestation is an ex- 
 treme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of the head 
 commonly induces delirium. Even the relief given to 
 
324 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 a severe headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, 
 depends, I presume, on the same principle. 
 
 Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients 
 the vapour of the nitrite of amyl,^^ which has the singu- 
 lar property of causing vivid redness of the face in from 
 thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing resembles blush- 
 ing in almost every detail: it begins at several distinct 
 points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole 
 surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but 
 has been observed to extend only in one case to the ab- 
 domen. The arteries in the retina become enlarged; 
 the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight 
 effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly 
 stimulated, but, as the flushing increases, they become 
 confused and bewildered. One woman to whom the 
 vapour had often been administered asserted that, as 
 soon as she grew hot, she grew muddled. With persons 
 just commencing to blush it appears, judging from their 
 bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their mental pow- 
 ers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the blush- 
 ing is excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore 
 it would seem that the capillaries of the face are affected, 
 both during the inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and 
 during blushing, before that part of the brain is affected 
 on which the mental powers depend. 
 
 Conversely when the brain is primarily affected, the 
 circulation of the skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. 
 Browne has frequently observed, as he informs me, scat- 
 tered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of epileptic 
 patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or 
 abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, 
 or, in strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the 
 
 *- See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this sub- 
 ject in the 'West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,' 
 1871, pp. 95-98. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHLVG. 325 
 
 finger, the surface becomes suffused in less than half a 
 minute with bright red marks, which spread to some 
 distance on each side of the touched point, and persist 
 for several minutes. These are the cerebral maculcB of 
 Trousseau; and they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, 
 a highly modified condition of the cutaneous vascular 
 system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted, an 
 intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in 
 that part of the brain on which our mental powers de- 
 pend, and in the skin of the face, it is not surprising that 
 the moral causes which induce intense blushing should 
 likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing 
 influence, much confusion of mind. 
 
 Tlie Nature of the Mental States wliich induce Blush- 
 ing. — These consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; 
 the essential element in all being self-attention. Many 
 reasons can be assigned for believing that originally 
 self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation 
 to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause; the 
 same effect being subsequently produced, through the 
 force of association, by self-attention in relation to moral 
 conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting on our 
 own appearance, but the thinking what others think of 
 us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most 
 sensitive person would be quite indifferent about his ap- 
 pearance. AVe feel blame or disapprobation more acutely 
 than approbation; and consequently depreciatory re- 
 marks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct, 
 causes us to blush much more readily than does praise. 
 But undoubtedly praise and admiration are highly effi- 
 cient: a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently 
 at her, though she may know perfectly well that he is 
 not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and 
 sensitive persons blush, when they are much praised. 
 
326 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 Hereafter the question will be discussed, how it has 
 arisen that the consciousness that others are attending 
 to our personal appearance should have led to the capil- 
 laries, especially those of the face, instantly becoming 
 filled with blood. 
 
 My reasons for believing that attention directed to 
 personal appearance, and not to moral conduct, has been 
 the fundamental element in the acquirement of the habit 
 of blushing, will now be given. They are separately 
 light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, con- 
 siderable weight. It is notorious that nothing make's 
 a shy person blush so much as any remark, however 
 slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice 
 even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, 
 Avihout causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient 
 to stare hard at some persons to make them, as Col- 
 eridge remarks, blush, — "account for that he who 
 can.^' -2 
 
 With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,^* 
 "the slightest attempt to examine their peculiarities 
 invariably " caused them to blush deeply. Women are 
 much more sensitive about their personal appearance 
 than men are, especially elderly women in comparison 
 with elderly men, and they blush much more freely. 
 The young of both sexes are much more sensitive on 
 this same head than the old, and they also blush much 
 more freely than the old. Children at a very early age 
 do not blush: nor do they show those other signs of self- 
 consciousness which generally accompany blushing; and 
 it is one of their chief charms that they think nothing 
 about what others tliink of them. At this early age 
 they will stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un- 
 
 *^ In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in 
 ♦ Table Talk,' vol. i. 
 2* Ibid. p. 40. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 327 
 
 blinking eyes, as on an inanimate object, in a manner 
 which we elders cannot imitate. 
 
 It is plain to every one that young men and women 
 are highly sensitive to the opinion of each other with 
 reference to their personal appearance; and they blush 
 incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex 
 than in that of their own.^^ A young man, not very 
 liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule 
 of his appearance from a girl whose judgment on any 
 important subject he would disregard. Xo happy pair 
 of j'oung lovers, valuing each other's admiration and 
 love more than anything else in the world, probably ever 
 courted each other without many a blush. Even the 
 barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, 
 blush " chiefly in regard to women, but certainly also at 
 their own personal appearance." 
 
 Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered 
 and regarded, as is natural from its being the chief seat 
 of expression and the source of the voice. It is also the 
 chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout 
 the world is the most ornamented.^® The face, there- 
 fore, will have been subjected during many generations 
 to much closer and more earnest self-attention than any 
 other part of the body; and in accordance with the prin- 
 ciple here advanced we can understand why it should 
 be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alter- 
 nations of temperature, (S:c., has probably much in- 
 creased the power of dilatation and contraction in the 
 capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet this by 
 
 " Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 65) 
 remarks on " the shyness of manners which is induced be- 
 tween the sexes .... from the influence of mutual re- 
 g"ard, by the apprehension on either side of not standing" 
 well with the other." 
 
 ^ See, for evidence on this subject, ' The Descent of 
 Man,' &c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341. 
 
328 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much 
 more than the rest of the body; for it does not explain 
 the fact of the hands rarely blushing. With Europeans 
 the whole body tingles slightly when the face blushes 
 intensely; and with the races of men who habitually 
 go nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger 
 surface than with us. These facts are, to a certain ex- 
 tent, intelligible, as the self-attention of primeval man, 
 as well as of the existing races which still go naked, mil 
 not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as 
 is the case with the people who now go clothed. 
 
 "We have seen that in all parts of the world persons 
 who feel shame for some moral delinquency, are apt to 
 avert, bend down, or hide their faces, independently of 
 any thought about their personal appearance. The ob- 
 ject can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face 
 is thus averted or hidden under circumstances which 
 exclude any desire to conceal shame, as when guilt is 
 fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, probable 
 that primeval man before he had acquired much moral 
 sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about his 
 personal appearance, at least in reference to the other 
 sex, and he would consequently have felt distress at any 
 depredator}^ remarks about his appearance; and this 
 is one form of shame. And as the face is the part of the 
 body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any 
 one ashamed of his personal appearance would desire 
 to conceal this part of his body. The habit having been 
 thus acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame 
 from strictly moral causes was felt; and it is not easy 
 otherwise to see why under these circumstances there 
 should be a desire to hide the face more than any other 
 part of the body. 
 
 The habit, so general ^^'ith every one who feels 
 ashamed, of turning away, or lowering his eyes, or rest- 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSRING. 329 
 
 lessly moving tlieni from side to side, probably follows 
 from each glance directed towards those present, bring- 
 ing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; 
 and he endeavours, by not looking at those present, and 
 especially not at their eyes, momentarily to escape from 
 this painful conviction. 
 
 Shyness. — This odd state of mind, often called 
 shamefacedness, or false shame, or manvaise lionte^ ap- 
 pears to be one of the most efficient of all the causes of 
 blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly recognized by the 
 face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down, 
 and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many 
 a woman blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps 
 a thousand times, to once that she blushes from having 
 done anj'thing deserving blame, and of which she is truly 
 ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to 
 the opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more espe- 
 cially with respect to external appearance. Strangers 
 neither know nor care anything about our conduct or 
 character, but they may, and often do, criticize our ap- 
 pearance: hence shy persons are iDarticularly apt to be 
 shy and to blush in the presence of strangers. The con- 
 sciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the 
 dress, or any slight blemish on the person, and more 
 especially on the face — points which are likely to at- 
 tract the attention of strangers — makes the shy intoler- 
 ably shy. On the other hand, in those cases in which 
 conduct and not personal appearance is concerned, we 
 are much more apt to be shy in the presence of acquaint- 
 ances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than 
 in that of strangers. A physician told me that a young 
 man, a wealthy duke, with whom he had travelled as 
 medical attendant, blushed like a girl, when he paid him 
 his fee; yet this young man probably would not have 
 
330 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a 
 tradesman. Some persons, however, are so sensitive, 
 that the mere act of speaking to almost any one is suf- 
 ficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a slight blush 
 is the result. 
 
 Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on 
 this head, causes shyness and blushing much more readily 
 Than does approbation; though the latter with some per- 
 sons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely shy; 
 for they value themselves much too highly to expect 
 depreciation. Why a proud man is often shy, as appears 
 to be the case, is not so obvious, unless it be that, with 
 all his self-reliance, he really thinks much about the 
 opinion of others, although in a disdainful spirit. Per- 
 sons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the pres- 
 ence of those with whom they are quite familiar, and 
 of whose good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly 
 assured; — for instance, a girl in the presence of her 
 mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper 
 whether sh}Tiess can be detected in the different races of 
 man; but a Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine that 
 it is recognizable in his countrymen. 
 
 Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in 
 several languages,-^ is closely related to fear; yet it is 
 distinct from fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no 
 doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly be 
 said to be afraid of them; he may be as bold as a hero 
 in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles 
 in the presence of strangers. Almost ever}' one is ex- 
 tremely nervous when first addressing a public assem- 
 bly, and most men remain so throughout their lives; 
 but this appears to depend on the consciousness of a 
 
 " H. Wedgwood, Diet. English Etymology, vol. ill. 1865, 
 p. 184. So with the Latin word verecundiis. 
 
CiiAi'. Xlil. BLUSHING. 331 
 
 great coming exertion, with its associated effects on the 
 system, rather than on shyness; -** although a timid or 
 shy man no doiil)t sun'ers on such occasions infinitely 
 more than another. With very young children it is dif- 
 iicult to distinguish between fear and shyness; but this 
 latter feeling with tlieni has often seemed to me to par- 
 take of the character of the wildness of an untamed 
 animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age. In one 
 of my own children, when two years and three months 
 old, I saw a trace of what certainly appeared to be shy- 
 ness, directed towards myself after an absence from 
 home of only a week. This w^as shown not by a blush, 
 but by the eyes being for a few minutes slightly averted 
 from me. I have noticed on other occasions that shyness 
 or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the 
 eyes of young children before they have acquired the 
 power of blushing. 
 
 As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we 
 can perceive how right are those who maintain that 
 reprehending children for shyness, instead of doing 
 them any good, does much harm, as it calls their atten- 
 tion still more closely to themselves. It has been well 
 urged that " nothing hurts young people more than to 
 be watched continually about their feelings, to have 
 their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their 
 sensibility measured by the survepng eye of the unmerci- 
 ful spectator. Under the constraint of such examina- 
 tions they can think of nothing but that they are looked 
 at, and feel nothing but shame or apprehension." -^ 
 
 '^ 'Sir. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' p. 64) has dis- 
 cussed the " abashed " feelings experienced on these occa- 
 sions, as well as the stafjc-fricjht of actors unused to the 
 stage. 'Sir. Bain apparently attributes these feeling's to 
 simple apprehension or dread. 
 
 " ' Essajs on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L. 
 Edg-eworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. 
 p. 187) insists strongly to the same effect. 
 
332 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 Moral causes : guilt. — With respect to blushing from 
 strictly moral causes, we meet with the same fundamental 
 principle as before, namety, regard for the opinion of 
 others. It is not the conscience which raises a blush, 
 for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault com- 
 mitted in solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse 
 for an undetected crime, but he will not blush. " I 
 blush," says Dr. Burgess,'"*^ " in the presence of my ac- 
 cusers." It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought 
 that others think or know us to be guilty which crim- 
 sons the face. A man may feel thoroughly ashamed at 
 having told a small falsehood, witliout blushing; but if 
 he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly 
 blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres. 
 
 On the other hand, a man may be convinced that 
 God witnesses all his actions, and he may feel deeply 
 conscious of some fault and pray for forgiveness; but 
 this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes, 
 ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference 
 between the knowledge by God and man of our actions 
 lies, I presume, in man's disapprobation of immoral 
 conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his deprecia- 
 tion of our personal appearance, so that through associa- 
 tion both lead to similar results; whereas the disappro- 
 bation of God brings up no such association. 
 
 Many a person has blushed intensely when accused 
 of some crime, though completely innocent of it. Even 
 the thought, as the lady before referred to has observed 
 to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or 
 stupid remark, is amply sufhcient to cause a blush, al- 
 though we know all the time that we have been com- 
 pletely misunderstood. An action may be meritorious 
 or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he 
 
 ^ ' Essays on Practical Eclii cation,' by Maria and E. L. 
 Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50. 
 
Chap. Xlil. BLUSIILNG. 333 
 
 suspects that others take a difTcrent view of it, will blush. 
 For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a 
 beggar without a trace of a blush, but if others are pres- 
 ent, and she doubts whether they approve, or suspects 
 that they think her influenced by display, she will Ijlush. 
 So it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a de- 
 cayed gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she 
 had previously known under better circumstances, as 
 she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be viewed. 
 But such cases as these blend into shyness. 
 
 Breaches of etiqneffe. — The rules of etiquette always 
 refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. 
 They have no necessary connection with the moral sense, 
 and are often meaningless. Nevertheless as they depend 
 on the fixed custom of our equals and superiors, whose 
 opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost 
 as binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. 
 Consequently the breach of the laws of etiquette, that 
 is, any impoliteness or gancherie, any impropriety, or an 
 inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will 
 cause the most intense blushing of which a man is capa- 
 ble. Even the recollection of such an act, after an in- 
 terval of many years, will make the whole body to tingle. 
 So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a sensitive 
 person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush 
 at a flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, 
 though the act may in no way concern her. 
 
 Modesty. — This is another powerful agent in exciting 
 blushes; but the word modesty includes very different 
 states of the mind. It implies humility, and we often 
 judge of this by persons being greatly pleased and blush- 
 ing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise wliich 
 seems to them too high according to their own humble 
 standard of themselves. Blusliing here has the usual 
 
S3J- BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 signification of regard for the opinion of others. But 
 modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy; and in- 
 delicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with 
 the nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who 
 is modest, and blushes easily at acts of tliis nature, does 
 so because they are breaches of a firmly and wisely estab- 
 lished etiquette. This is indeed shown by the derivation 
 of the word modest from modus^ a measure or standard of 
 behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is, more- 
 over, apt to be intense, because it generally relates to 
 the opposite sex; and we have seen how in all cases our 
 liabilit}' to blush is thus increased. We apply the term 
 'modest,' as it would appear, to those who have an 
 humble opinion of themselves, and to those who are 
 extremely sensitive about an indelicate word or deed, 
 simply because in both cases blushes are readily excited, 
 for these two frames of mind have nothing else in com- 
 mon. Shyness also, from this same cause, is often mis- 
 taken for modesty in the sense of humility. 
 
 Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have 
 been assured, at any sudden and disagreeable recollec- 
 tion. The commonest cause seems to be the sudden 
 remembrance of not ha\dng done something for another 
 person which had been promised. In this case it may 
 be that the thought passes half unconsciously through 
 the mind, " AATiat will he think of me ? " and then the 
 flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But 
 whether such flushes are in most cases due to the capil- 
 lary circulation being affected, is very doubtful; for we 
 must remember that almost every strong emotion, such 
 as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and causes the 
 face to redden. 
 
 The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute 
 solitude seems opposed to the view here taken, namely 
 
Chap. XIU. BLL'SillXG. 335 
 
 that the habit oripnally arose from thinking about what 
 others think of us. Several ladies, who are great blush- 
 ers, are unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of 
 them believe that they have blushed in the dark. From 
 what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the AjTuaras, 
 and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this 
 latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred 
 when he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say 
 to Eomeo (act ii. sc. 2): — 
 
 " Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face; 
 Else would a maiden blush bepaint my "cheek. 
 For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night." 
 
 But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost 
 always relates to the thoughts of others about us — to 
 acts done in their presence, or suspected by them; or 
 again when we reflect what others would have thought 
 of us had they known of the act. Xevertheless one or 
 two of my informants beUeve that they have blushed 
 from shame at acts in no way relating to others. If this 
 be so, we must attribute the result to the force of in- 
 veterate habit and association, under a state of mind 
 closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a 
 blush; nor need we feel surprise at this, as even s^tii- 
 pathy with another person who commits a flagrant breach 
 of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, sometimes 
 to cause a blush. 
 
 Finally, then, I conclude that blushing, — whether 
 due to shjuess — to shame for a real crime — to shame 
 from a breach of the laws of etiquette — to modesty from 
 humility — to modesty from an indelicacy — depends in 
 all cases on the same principle; this principle being a 
 sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for 
 the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our 
 personal appearance, especially of our faces; and sec- 
 
336 BLUSIilXG. Chap. XIIL 
 
 ondarily, through the force of association and habit, in 
 relation to the opinion of others on our conduct. 
 
 Theory of Blusliing. — We have now to consider, why 
 should the thought that others are thinking about us 
 affect our capillary circulation? Sir C. Bell insists ^^ 
 that blushing " is a provision for expression, as may be 
 inferred from the colour extending only to the surface 
 of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. 
 It is not acquired; it is from the beginning." Dr. 
 Burgess believes that it was designed by the Creator in 
 " order that the soul might have sovereign power of dis- 
 plajdng in the cheeks the various internal emotions of 
 the moral feelings; " so as to serve as a check on our- 
 selves, and as a sign to others, that we were violating 
 rules which ought to be held sacred. Gratiolet merely 
 remarks, — ^* Or, comme il est dans I'ordre de la nature 
 que I'etre social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus in- 
 telligible, cette faculty de rongeur et de paleur qui dis- 
 tingue I'homme, est un signe naturel de sa haute per- 
 fection." 
 
 The belief that blushing was specially designed by 
 the Creator is opposed to the general theory of evolu- 
 tion, which is now so largely accepted; but it forms 
 no part of my duty here to argue on the general ques- 
 tion. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult 
 to account for shyness being the most frequent and 
 efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes the 
 blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, with- 
 out being of the least service to either of them. They 
 will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other 
 dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of 
 colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible. 
 
 ^^ Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95. Burgess, as 
 quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phj's. p. 94. 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 337 
 
 No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maid- 
 en's face; and the Circassian women who are capable 
 of blushing, invariably fetch a higher price in the serag- 
 lio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.^^ But 
 the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will 
 hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual 
 ornament. This view would also be opposed to what 
 has just been said about the dark-coloured races blush- 
 ing in an invisible manner. 
 
 The hypothesis which appears to me the most prob- 
 able, though it may at first seem rash, is that attention 
 closely directed to any part of the body tends to inter- 
 fere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the small 
 arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, be- 
 come at such times more or less relaxed, and are in- 
 stantly filled with arterial blood. This tendency will 
 have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has 
 been paid during many generations to the same part, 
 owing to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed 
 channels, and by the power of inheritance. Whenever 
 we believe that others are depreciating or even consid- 
 ering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly 
 directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; 
 and of all such parts we are most sensitive about our 
 faces, as no doubt has been the case during many past 
 generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment that 
 the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, 
 those of the face will have become eminently susceptible. 
 Through the force of association, the same effects will 
 tend to follow whenever we think that others are con- 
 sidering or censuring our actions or character. 
 
 As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention 
 having some power to influence the capillary circula- 
 
 " On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; 
 see Burgess, ibid. p. 43. 
 
33S BLUSHING. Chap. XllL 
 
 tion, it will be necessary to give a considerable body 
 of details, bearing more or less directly on this subject. 
 Several observers/^ who from their wide experience and 
 knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound 
 judgment, are convinced that attention or consciousness 
 (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks the more ex- 
 plicit) concentrated on almost any part of the body pro- 
 duces some direct physical effect on it. This applies 
 to the movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the 
 voluntary muscles when acting involuntarily, — to the 
 secretion of the glands, — to the activity of the senses and 
 sensations, — and even to the nutrition of parts. 
 
 It is known that the involuntary movements of the 
 heart are affected if close attention be paid to them. 
 Gratiolet ^"^ gives the case of a man, who by continually 
 watching and counting his own pulse, at last caused 
 one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other 
 hand, my father told me of a careful observer, who cer- 
 tainly had heart-disease and died from it, and who posi- 
 tively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular to 
 an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment it 
 
 ^^ In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to 
 consider the influence of mental attention on various parts 
 of the body, in his ' Medical Xotes and Reflections,' 1839, 
 p. 64. This essay, much enlarg-ed, was reprinted by Sir H. 
 Holland in his '" Chapters on Mental Physiolog-5%' 1858, p. 
 79, from which work I ahva^'S quote. At nearly the same 
 time, as well as subsequently. Prof. Laj'cock discussed the 
 same subject: see ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Jour- 
 nal,' 1839, July, pp. 17--22. Also his ' Treatise on the Nerv- 
 ous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110; and ' Mind and Brain,' 
 vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter's views on mesmerism 
 have a nearly similar bearing. The great physiologist 
 Miiller treatecl (* Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. 
 vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on 
 the senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind 
 on the nutrition of parts, in his ' Lectures on Surgical Pa- 
 thologv,' 1853, vol. i. p. 39: I quote from the 3rd edit, re- 
 vised bv Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28. See, also, Gratiolet, De 
 la Phvs. pp. 2S3--287. 
 
 " De la Phys. p. 283. 
 
CuAP. XIII. BLUSHING. 339 
 
 invariably became ref:iilar as soon as m}' father entered 
 the room. Sir H. lloUand remarks,^^ that " the effect 
 upon the circuhition of a part from the consciousness 
 suddenly directed and fixed upon it, is often obvious and 
 immediate." Professor Laycock, who has particularly 
 attended to phenomena of this nature,'*'^ insists that 
 " when the attention is directed to any portion of the 
 body, innervation and circulation are excited locally, 
 and the functional activity of that portion developed." 
 
 It is generally believed that the peristaltic move- 
 ments of the intestines are influenced by attention being 
 paid to them at fixed recurrent periods; and these move- 
 ments depend on the contraction of unstriped and in- 
 voluntary muscles. The abnormal action of the vol- 
 untary muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known 
 to be influenced by the expectation of an attack, and by 
 the sight of other patients similarly affected. ^'^ So it is 
 with the involuntary acts of yawning and laughing. 
 
 Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of 
 them, or of the conditions under which they have been 
 habitually excited. This is familiar to every one in 
 the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for in- 
 stance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind.^® 
 It was shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and 
 long-continued desire either to repress, or to increase, 
 the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual. Some 
 curious cases have been recorded in the case of women, 
 of the powder of the mind on the mammary glands; and 
 still more remarkable ones in relation to the uterine 
 functions.^^ 
 
 ** • Chapters on Mental Physiolocrj-,' 1858, p. 111. 
 *» * Mind and Rrain,' vol. ii. 186o7 p. 327. 
 " ' Chapters on Mental Physiolo.sry,' pp. 104--106. 
 *^ See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phj's. p. 287. 
 ^' Dr. J. Crichton Browne, from his observations on the 
 insane, is convinced that attention directed for a prolonged 
 
340 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 When we direct our whole attention to any one 
 
 sense, its acuteness is increased; ^° and the continued 
 
 liabit of close attention, as with blind people to that 
 
 of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of touch, 
 
 appears to improve the sense in question permanently. 
 
 There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the 
 
 capacities of different races of man, that the effects are 
 
 inherited. Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well 
 
 known that pain is increased by attending to it; and Sir 
 
 B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt 
 
 in any part of the body to which attention is closely 
 
 drawn. ^^ Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become 
 
 not only conscious of the existence of a part subjected 
 
 to concentrated attention, but we experience in it various 
 
 odd sensations, as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or itch- 
 ing.'*^ 
 
 Lastb:, some physiologists maintain that the mind 
 
 period on any part or org"an may ultimately influence its 
 capillary circulation and nutrition. He has given me some 
 extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot here be 
 related in full, refers to a married woman fifty j^ears of 
 age, who laboured under the firm and long-continued de- 
 lusion that she was pregnant. When the expected jDcriod 
 arrived, she acted precisely as if she had been really deliv- 
 ered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme pain, so that 
 the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result 
 vras that a state of things returned, continuing for three 
 days, which had ceased during the six previous years. ]\rr. 
 Braid gives, in his ' Magic, Hypnotism,' &c., 1S52, p. 95, and 
 in his other works analogous cases, as well as other facts 
 showing the great influence of the will on the mammary 
 glands, even on one breast alone. 
 
 ^ Dr. Maudsley has given (' The Physiology and Pa- 
 thology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1S68, p. 105), on good authority, 
 some curious statements with respect to the improvement 
 of the sense of touch by practice and attention. It is re- 
 markable that when this sense has thus been rendered 
 more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a 
 finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point 
 on the opposite side of the body. 
 
 « ' The Lancet,' 1S38, pp. 39--t0. as quoted by Prof. Lay- 
 cock, ' Xervous Diseases of Women.' 1840, p. 110. 
 
 *2 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp. 91-93. 
 
Cdap. XIII. BLUSHING. 341 
 
 can influence the nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has 
 given a curious instance of the power, not indeed of the 
 mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair. A lady 
 " who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous head- 
 ache, always finds in the morning after such an one, that 
 some patches of her hair are white, as if powdered with 
 starch. The change is effected in a night, and in a few 
 days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark brownish 
 colour." "^^ 
 
 "We thus see that close attention certainly affects 
 various parts and organs, which are not properly under 
 the control of the will. By what means attention — per- 
 haps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers of 
 the mind — is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. 
 According to Miiller,** the process by which the sensory 
 cells of the brain are rendered, through the will, sus- 
 ceptible of receiving more intense and distinct impres- 
 sions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor 
 cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary 
 muscles. There are many points of analogy in the action 
 of the sensory and motor nerve-cells; for instance, the 
 familiar fact that close attention to any one sense causes 
 fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one muscle."*^ 
 When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention 
 on any part of the body, the cells of the brain which re- 
 ceive impressions or sensations from that part are, it is 
 probable, in some unknown manner stimulated into 
 activity. This may account, without any local change 
 in the part to which our attention is earnestly directed, 
 for pain or odd sensations being there felt or increased. 
 
 *" * Lectures on Surgical Patholog-},' 3rd edit, revised by 
 Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31. 
 
 ** ' Elements of Physiology,' Eng". translat. vol. ii. p. 938. 
 
 " Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very in- 
 teresting manner. See his ' Xervous Diseases of Women,' 
 1840, p. 110. 
 
312 BLUSHING. Chap. XIIL 
 
 If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we 
 cannot feel sure, as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked 
 to me, that some slight impulse may not be unconsciously 
 sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an 
 obscure sensation in the part. 
 
 In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and 
 lacrymal glands, intestinal canal, &c., the power of atten- 
 tion seems to rest, either chiefly, or as some physiologists 
 think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor system being af- 
 fected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to 
 flow into the capillaries of the part in question. This 
 increased action of the capillaries may in some cases be 
 combined with the simultaneously increased activity of 
 the sensorium. 
 
 The manner in which the mind affects the vaso- 
 motor system may be conceived in the following man- 
 ner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an impression 
 is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of 
 the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vaso- 
 motor centre, which consequently allows the muscular 
 coats of the small arteries that permeate the salivary 
 glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these 
 glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now 
 it does not seem an improbable assumption, that, when 
 we reflect intently on a sensation, the same part of the 
 sensorium, or a closely connected part of it, is brought 
 into a state of activity, in the same manner as when we 
 actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells 
 in the brain will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less 
 degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by 
 perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as 
 in the other, nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with 
 the same results. 
 
 To give another, and, in some respects, more appro- 
 priate illustration. If a man stands before a hot fire, 
 
CiiAP. XIII. BLUSHING. 343 
 
 his face reddens. This appears to be due, as Mr. Michael 
 Foster informs me, in part to the local action of the 
 heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor 
 centres.*® In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves 
 of the face; these transmit an impression. to the sensory 
 cells of the brain, which act on the vaso-motor centre, 
 and this reacts on the small arteries of the face, relax- 
 ing them and allowing them to become fdled with blood. 
 Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were re- 
 peatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our atten- 
 tion on the recollection of our heated faces, the same 
 part of the sensorium which gives us the consciousness 
 of actual heat would be in some slight degree stimulated, 
 and would in consequence tend to transmit some nerve- 
 force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capil- 
 laries of the face. Now as men during endless genera- 
 tions have had their attention often and earnestly di- 
 rected to their personal appearance, and especially to 
 their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial capil- 
 laries to be thus affected will have become in the course 
 of time greatly strengthened through the principles just 
 referred to, namely, nerve-force passing readily along 
 accustomed channels, and inherited habit. Thus, as it 
 appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of the 
 leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing. 
 
 Recapitulation. — Men and women, and especially the 
 young, have always valued, in a high degree, their per- 
 sonal appearance; and have likewise regarded the appear- 
 ance of others. The face has been the chief object of 
 attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked. 
 
 ** See, also, Mr. [Michael Foster, on the action of the 
 vaso-motor system, in his interesting" Lecture before the 
 Royal Institiition, as translated in the ' Revue des Cours 
 Scientifiques,' Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683. 
 
344 BLUSHING. Ciap. XIIL 
 
 the whole surface of his body would have beer attended 
 to. Our self-attention is excited almost exclusively by 
 the opinion of others^, for no person living in absolute 
 solitude would care about his appearance. Every one 
 feels blame more acutely than praise. ISTow, whenever 
 we know, or suppose, that others are depreciating our 
 personal appearance, our attention is strongly drawn 
 towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The 
 probable effect of this will be, as has just been explained, 
 to excite into activity that part of the sensorium which 
 receives the sensory nerves of the face; and this will 
 react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capil- 
 laries. By frequent reiteration during numberless gen- 
 erations, the process will have become so habitual, in 
 association with the belief that others are thinking of 
 us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices 
 to relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought 
 about our faces. With some sensitive persons it is enough 
 even to notice their dress to produce the same effect. 
 Through the force, also, of association and inheritance 
 our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imag- 
 ine, that any one is blaming, though in silence, our 
 actions, thoughts, or character; and, again, when we 
 are highly praised. 
 
 On this h3^pothesis we can understand how it is that 
 the face blushes much more than any other part of the 
 body, though the whole surface is somewhat affected, 
 more especially with the races w^hich still go nearly 
 naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured 
 races should blush, though no change of colour is visible 
 in their skins. From the principle of inheritance it is 
 not surprising that persons born blind should blush. 
 We can understand why the young are much more af- 
 fected than the old, and women more than men; and 
 why the opposite sexes especially excite each other's 
 
Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 345 
 
 blushes. It becomes obvious why personal remarks 
 should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why 
 the most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shy- 
 ness relates to the presence and opinion of others, and 
 the shy are always more or less self-conscious. With 
 respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we can 
 perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others 
 think us guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting 
 on a crime committed in solitude, and stung by his con- 
 science, does not blush; yet he will blush under the 
 vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one com- 
 mitted in the presence of others, the degree of blush- 
 ing being closely related to the feeling of regard for those 
 who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault. 
 Breaches of conventional rules of conduct, if they are 
 rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors, often cause 
 more intense blushes even than a detected crime; and 
 an act which is really criminal, if not blamed by our 
 equals, hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. 
 Modesty from humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a 
 vivid blush, as both relate to the' judgment or fixed cus- 
 toms of others. 
 
 From the intimate s}Tnpathy which exists between 
 the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and 
 of the brain, whenever there is intense blushing, there 
 will be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This 
 is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and 
 sometimes by the involuntary twitching of certain 
 muscles. 
 
 As blusliing, according to this hypothesis, is an in- 
 direct result of attention, originally directed to our per- 
 sonal appearance, that is to the surface of the body, and 
 more especially to the face, we can understand the mean- 
 ing of the gestures which accompany blushing through- 
 out the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turn- 
 23 
 
SJ:G BLUSHING Chap. XIII. 
 
 ing it towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are 
 generally averted or are restless, for to look at the man 
 who causes us to feel shame or shyness, immediately 
 brings home in an intolerable manner the consciousness 
 that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle 
 of associated habit, the same movements of the face and 
 eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, 
 whenever we know or believe that others are blaming, 
 or too strongly praising, our moral conduct. 
 
CuAP. XIV. CONCLUDING liKMAKKS AND SUMMARY. 347 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 C0^'CLUDIXG ReMAEKS and SUMilARY. 
 
 The three leading- principles which have determined the 
 chief movements of expression — Their inheritance — On 
 the part which the will and intention have played in 
 the acquirement of various expressions — The instinctive 
 recog-nition of expression — The bearing- of our subject 
 on the specific unity of the races of man — On the suc- 
 cessive acquirement of various expressions by the pro- 
 g-enitors of man — The importance of expression — Con- 
 clusion, 
 
 I HATE now described, to the best of mv ability, the 
 chief expressive actions in man, and in some few of 
 the lower animals. I have also attempted to explain 
 the origin or development of these actions through the 
 three principles given in the first chapter. The first 
 of these principles is, that movements which are service- 
 able in gratifj'ing some desire, or in relieving some sensa- 
 tion, if often repeated, become so habitual that they are 
 performed, whether or not of any service, whenever the 
 same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak de- 
 gree. 
 
 Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit 
 of voluntarily performing opposite movements under 
 opposite impulses has become firmly established in us 
 by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain 
 actions have been regularly performed, in accordance 
 with our first principle, under a certain frame of mind. 
 
3iS CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIY. 
 
 there will be a strong and involuntary tendency to the 
 performance of directly opposite actions^ whether or not 
 these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite 
 frame of mind. 
 
 Our third principle is the direct action of the excited 
 nervous system on the body, independently of the will, 
 and independently, in large part, of habit. Experience 
 shows that nerve-force is generated and set free when- 
 ever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction 
 which tliis nerve-force follows is necessarily determined 
 by the lines of connection between the nerve-cells, with 
 each other and with various parts of the body. But the 
 direction is likewise much influenced by habit; inas- 
 much as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed 
 channels. 
 
 The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man 
 may be attributed in part to the undirected flow of 
 nerve-force, and in part to the effects of habit, for these 
 actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. 
 They thus pass into gestures included under our first 
 principle; as when an indignant man unconsciously 
 throws himself into a fitting attitude for attacking his 
 opponent, though without any intention of making an 
 actual attack. We see also the influence of habit in all 
 the emotions and sensations which are called exciting; 
 for they have assumed this character from having ha- 
 bitually led to energetic action; and action affects, in an 
 indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory S3^stem; 
 and the latter reacts on the brain. Whenever these emo- 
 tions or sensations are even slightly felt by us, though 
 they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole 
 system is nevertheless disturbed through the force of 
 habit and association. Other emotions and sensations 
 are called depressing, because they have not habitually 
 led to energetic action, excepting just at first, as in the 
 
CuAP. XIV. AND SUMiMARY. 349 
 
 case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ulti- 
 mately caused complete exhaustion; they are conse- 
 quently expressed chiefly by negative signs and by pros- 
 tration. Again, there are other emotions, such as that 
 of aftection, which do not commonly lead to action of any 
 kind, and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly 
 marked outward signs. Afl!ection indeed, in as far as it 
 is a pleasurable sensation, excites the ordinary signs of 
 pleasure. 
 
 On the other hand, many of the effects due to the 
 excitement of the nervous system seem to be quite in- 
 dependent of the flow of nerve-force along the channels 
 which liave been rendered habitual by former exertions 
 of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state 
 of mind of the person thus affected, cannot at present 
 be explained; for instance, the change of colour in the 
 hair from extreme terror or grief, — the cold sweat and 
 the trembling of the muscles from fear, — the modified 
 secretions of the intestinal canal, — and the failure of 
 certain glands to act. 
 
 Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible 
 in our present subject, so many expressive movements 
 and actions can be explained to a certain extent through 
 the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter 
 to see all explained by these or by closely analogous 
 principles. 
 
 Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any 
 state of the mind, are at once recognized as expressive. 
 These may consist of movements of any part of the body, 
 as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of a man's 
 shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of 
 perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, la- 
 boured breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound- 
 producing instruments. Even insects express anger, 
 terror, jealousy, and love by their stridulation. With 
 
350 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 man the respiratory organs are of especial importance 
 in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher 
 degree in an indirect manner. 
 
 Few points are more interesting in our present sub- 
 ject than the extraordinarily complex chain of events 
 which lead to certain expressive movements. Take, for 
 instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering from 
 grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from 
 hunger or pain, the circulation is affected, and the eyes 
 tend to become gorged with blood: consequentlv the 
 muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly contracted 
 as a protection: this action, in the course of many gen- 
 erations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but 
 when, with advancing years and culture, the habit of 
 screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the 
 eyes still tend to contract, whenever even slight distress 
 is felt: of these muscles, the pATamidals of the nose are 
 less under the control of the will than are the others, 
 and their contraction can be checked only by that of the 
 central fasciae of the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae 
 draw up the inner ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the 
 forehead in a peculiar manner, which we instantly recog- 
 nize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight move- 
 ments, such as these just described, or the scarcely per- 
 ceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are 
 the last remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and 
 intelligible movements. They are as full of significance 
 to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary rudiments 
 to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of 
 organic beings. 
 
 That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man 
 and by the lower animals, are now innate or inherited, 
 — that is, have not been learnt by the indi^^dual, — is 
 admitted by every one. So little has learning or imita- 
 tion to do with several of them that thev are from the 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 351 
 
 earliest days and throughout Hfe quite beyond our con- 
 trol; for instance, the relaxation of the arteries of tlie 
 skin in blushing, and the increased action of the heart 
 in anger. We may see children, only two or three years 
 old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; 
 and the naked scalp of a very j'oung infant reddens from 
 passion. Infants scream from pain directly after birth, 
 and all their features then assume the same form as 
 during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to 
 show that many of our most important expressions have 
 not been learnt; but it is remarkable that some, which 
 are certainly innate, require practice in the individual, 
 before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; 
 for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance 
 of most of our expressive actions explains the fact that 
 those born blind display them, as I hear from the Rev. 
 R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. 
 We can thus also understand the fact that the young and 
 the old of widely different races, both with man and 
 animals, express the same state of mind by the same 
 movements. 
 
 We are so familiar with the fact of young and old 
 animals displaying their feelings in the same manner, 
 that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is that a 
 3^oung puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress 
 its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending 
 to be savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should 
 arch its little back and erect its hair when frightened 
 and angry, like an old cat. When, however, we turn to 
 less common gestures in ourselves, which we are accus- 
 tomed to look at as artificial or conventional, — such as 
 shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the 
 raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers, 
 as a sign of wonder, — we feel perhaps too much surprise 
 at finding that they are innate. That these and some 
 
352 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIY. 
 
 other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their 
 being performed by very young children, by those born 
 blind, and by the most widely distinct races of man. 
 We should also bear in mind that new and highly pecul- 
 iar tricks, in association with certain states of the mind, 
 are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to 
 have been afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in 
 some cases, for more than one generation. 
 
 Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural 
 that we might easily imagine that they were innate, ap- 
 parently have been learnt like the words of a language. 
 This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted 
 hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So 
 it is with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is in- 
 nate, in so far as it depends on the pleasure derived from 
 contact with a beloved person. The evidence with re- 
 spect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the 
 head, as signs of afhrmation and negation, is doubtful; 
 for they are not universal, yet seem too general to have 
 been independently acquired by all the individuals of 
 so many races. 
 
 TTe will now consider how far the will and conscious- 
 ness have come into play in the development of the 
 various movements of expression. As far as we can 
 judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those 
 just referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, 
 were consciously and voluntarily performed during the 
 early years of life for some definite object, or in imita- 
 tion of others, and then became habitual. The far greater 
 number of the movements of expression, and all the more 
 important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; 
 and such cannot be said to depend on the will of the 
 individual. Xevertheless, all those included under our 
 first principle were at first voluntarily performed for a 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 353 
 
 definite object, — namely, to escape some danger, to re- 
 lieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For in- 
 stance, there can hardly be a doubt that the animals 
 which fight with their teeth, have acquired the habit 
 of drawing back their ears closely to their heads, when 
 feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily 
 acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from 
 being torn by their antagonists; for those animals which 
 do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage 
 state of mind. We may infer as highly probable that 
 we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the 
 muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is, 
 without the utterance of any loud sound, from our pro- 
 genitors, especially during infancy, having experienced, 
 during the act of screaming, an uncomfortable sensation 
 in their eyeballs. Again, some highly expressive move- 
 ments result from the endeavour to check or prevent 
 other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the 
 eyebrows and the drawing down of the corners of the 
 mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a screaming- 
 fit from coming on, or to check it after it has come on. 
 Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must 
 at first have come into play; not that we are conscious 
 in these or in other such cases what muscles are brought 
 into action, any more than when we perform the most 
 ordinary voluntary movements. 
 
 With respect to the expressive movements due to 
 the principle of antithesis, it is clear that the will has 
 intervened, though in a remote and indirect manner. 
 So again with the movements coming under our third 
 principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by 
 nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, have 
 been determined by former and repeated exertions of the 
 will. The effects indirectly due to this latter agency 
 are often combined in a complex manner, through the 
 
354 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 force of habit and association, with those directly re- 
 sulting from the excitement of the cerebro-spinal sys- 
 tem. This seems to be the case with the increased action 
 of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion. 
 "When an animal erects its hair, assumes a threatening 
 attitude, and utters fierce sounds, in order to terrify an 
 enemy, we see a ctirious combination of movements 
 which were originally voluntary with those that are invol- 
 untary. It is, however, possible that even strictly in- 
 voluntary actions, such as the erection of the hair, may 
 have been affected by the mysterious power of the will. 
 
 Some expressive movements may have arisen spon- 
 taneously, in association with certain states of the mind, 
 like the tricks lately referred to, and afterwards been 
 inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this 
 view probable. 
 
 The power of communication between the members 
 of the same tribe by means of language has been of para- 
 mount importance in the development of man; and the 
 force of language is much aided by the expressive move- 
 ments of the face and body. "We perceive this at once 
 when we converse on an important subject with any per- 
 son whose face is concealed. Xevertheless there are no 
 grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any 
 muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively 
 for the sake of expression. The vocal and other sound- 
 producing organs, by which various expressive noises 
 are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I 
 have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were 
 first developed for sexual purposes, in order that one sex 
 might call or charm the other. Xor can I discover 
 grounds for believing that any inherited movement, 
 which now serves as a means of expression, was at first 
 voluntarily and consciously performed for this special 
 purpose, — like some of the gestures and the finger-Ian- 
 
CiiAr. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 355 
 
 guage used by the deaf and dumb. On the contrary, 
 every true or inherited movement of expression seems 
 to have had some natural and independent ori«2:in. But 
 when once acquired, such movements may be voluntarily 
 and consciously employed as a means of communication. 
 Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very 
 early age that their screaming brings relief, and they 
 soon voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a 
 person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express sur- 
 prise, or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and 
 acquiescence. A man often wishes to make certain ges- 
 tures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his 
 extended arms with widely opened fingers above his 
 head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his 
 ears, to show that he cannot or will not do something. 
 The tendency to such movements will be strengthened 
 or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeat- 
 edly performed; and the effects may be inherited. 
 
 It is perhaps worth consideration whether move- 
 ments at first used only by one or a few individuals to 
 express a certain state of mind may not sometimes have 
 spread to others, and ultimately have become universal, 
 through the power of conscious and unconscious imita- 
 tion. That there exists in man a strong tendency to 
 imitation, independently of the conscious will, is certain. 
 This is exhibited in the most extraordinary manner in 
 certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement 
 of inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been 
 called the " echo sign." Patients thus affected imitate, 
 without understanding, every absurd gesture which is 
 made, and every word which is uttered near them, even 
 in a foreign language.^ In the case of animals, the jackal 
 
 ^ See the interesting" facts gfiven by Dr. Bateman on 
 'Aphasia,' 1870, p. 110. 
 
356 COXCLUDIXG REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the 
 barking of the dog. How the barking of the dog, which 
 serves to express various emotions and desires, and which 
 is so remarkable from having been acquired since the 
 animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in 
 different degrees by different breeds, was first learnt, 
 we do not know: but may we not suspect that imitation 
 has had something to do with its acquisition, owing to 
 dogs having long lived in strict association with so 
 loquacious an animal as man? 
 
 In the course of the foregoing remarks and through- 
 out this volume, I have often felt much difficulty about 
 the proper apphcation of the terms, will, consciousness, 
 and intention. Actions, which were at first voluntary, 
 soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may 
 then be performed even in opposition to the will. Al- 
 though they often reveal the state of the mind, this re- 
 sult was not at first either intended or expected. Even 
 such words as that '' certain movements serve as a means 
 of expression *' are apt to mislead, as they imply that 
 this was their primary purpose or object. This, however, 
 seems rarely or never to have been the case; the move- 
 ments having been at first either of some direct use, or 
 the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. 
 An infant may scream either intentionally or instinc- 
 tively to show that it wants food; but it has no wish or 
 intention to draw its features into the peculiar form 
 which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the most 
 characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived 
 from the act of screaming, as has been explained. 
 
 Although most of our expressive actions are innate 
 or instinctive, as is admitted by everyone, it is a dif- 
 ferent question whether we have any instinctive power 
 of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed 
 to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 357 
 
 controverted by M. Leuioiue.- Monkeys soon learn to 
 distinguish, not only the tones of voice of their masters, 
 but the expression of their faces, as is asserted by a care- 
 ful observer.^ Dogs well know the difterence between 
 caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they 
 seem to recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as 
 I can make out, after repeated trials, they do not under- 
 stand any movement confined to the features, excepting 
 a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in some 
 cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge 
 has probably been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, 
 through their associating harsh or kind treatment with 
 our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not in- 
 stinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the 
 movements of expression in their elders in the same man- 
 ner as animals learn those of man. Moreover, when a 
 child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner 
 what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small 
 exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laugh- 
 ing meant in others. But the question is, do our children 
 acquire their knowledge of expression solely by experi- 
 ence through the power of association and reason ? 
 
 As most of the movements of expression must have 
 been gradually acquired, afterwards becoming instinc- 
 tive, there seems to be some degree of a priori probabil- 
 ity that their recognition would likewise have become 
 instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difiiculty in 
 believing this than in admitting that, when a female 
 quadruped first bears young, she knows the cry of dis- 
 tress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many 
 animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies; 
 and of both these statements there can be no reason- 
 
 2 ' La rhysionomie et la Parole,' 1805, pp. 103, 118. 
 ' Tlenci-firer, ' Xaturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Fara- 
 way,' 1830, s. 55. 
 
S'S CON'CLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 able doubt. It is however extremely difficult to prove 
 that our children instinctively recognize any expression. 
 I attended to tliis point in my first-born infant, who 
 could not have learnt an}i;liing by associating with other 
 children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile 
 and received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by 
 another, at much too early an age to have learnt anything 
 by experience. "When tliis child was about four months 
 old, I made in his presence many odd noises and strange 
 grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if 
 not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken 
 as good jokes; and I attributed this at the time to their 
 being preceded or accompanied by smiles. "When five 
 months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate 
 expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six 
 months old. his nurse pretended to cry. and I saw that 
 his face instantly assumed a melancholy expression, with 
 the corners of the mouth strongly depressed: now this 
 child could rarely have seen any other child crying, and 
 never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt 
 whether at so early an age he could have reasoned on 
 the subject. Therefore it seems to me that an innate 
 feehng must have told him that the pretended crying 
 of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the in- 
 stinct of sympathy excited grief in him. 
 
 M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate 
 knowledge of expression, authors and artists would not 
 have found it so difficult, as is notoriously the case, to 
 describe and depict the characteristic signs of each par- 
 ticular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a 
 valid argument. We may actually behold the expression 
 changing in an unmistakable manner in a man or ani- 
 mal, and yet be quite unable, as I know from experience, 
 to analyse the nature of the change. In the two photo- 
 graphs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 359 
 
 III. figs. 5 and 6), almost every one recognized that the 
 one represented a true, and the other a false smile; but I 
 have found it very dilhcult to decide in what the whole 
 amount of difference consists. It has often struck me 
 as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are 
 instantly recognized without any conscious process of 
 analysis on our part. Xo one, I believe, can clearly de- 
 scribe a sullen or sly expression; yet many observers are 
 unanimous that these expressions can be recognized in 
 the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom 
 I showed Duchenne's photograph of the young man with 
 obhque eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that 
 it expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably 
 not one of these persons, or one out of a thousand per- 
 sons, could beforehand have told anything precise about 
 the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends 
 puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the fore- 
 head. So it is with many other expressions, of which I 
 have had practical experience in the trouble requisite 
 in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, 
 great ignorance of details does not prevent our recog- 
 nizing with certainty and promptitude various expres- 
 sions, I do not see how this ignorance can be advanced 
 as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and 
 general, is not innate. 
 
 I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail 
 that all the chief expressions exhibited by man are the 
 same throughout the world. This fact is interesting, 
 as it affords a new argument in favour of the several 
 races being descended from a single parent-stock, which 
 must have been almost completely human in structure, 
 and to a large extent in mind, before the period at which 
 the races diverged from each other. Xo doubt similar 
 structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often 
 been independently acquired through variation and nat- 
 
360 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 ural selection by distinct species; but this view will not 
 explain close similarity between distinct species in a 
 midtitude of unimportant details. Xow if we bear in 
 mind the numerous points of structure having no rela- 
 tion to expression, in which all the races of man closely 
 agree, and then add to them the numerous points, some 
 of the highest importance and many of the most trifhng 
 valtie, on which the movements of expression directly 
 or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the 
 highest degree that so much similarity, or rather identity 
 of structure, could have been acquired by independent 
 means. Yet this must have been the case if the races 
 of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct 
 species. It is far more probable that the many points 
 of close similarity in the various races are due to inheri- 
 tance from a single parent-form, which had already as- 
 sumed a human character. 
 
 It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, 
 how early in the long line of our progenitors the various 
 expressive movements, now exhibited by man, were suc- 
 cessively acquired. The following remarks will at least 
 serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this 
 volume. "We may confidently believe that laughter, as 
 a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was practised by our 
 progenitors long before they deserved to be called 
 human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, 
 utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laugh- 
 ter, often accompanied by vibratory movements of their 
 jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn back- 
 wards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and 
 even by the brightening of the eyes. 
 
 We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from 
 an extremely remote period, in almost the same manner 
 as it now is by man; namely, by trembling, the erec- 
 tion of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely opened 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 361 
 
 eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the 
 whole body cowering downwards or held motionless. 
 
 Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused 
 screams or groans to be uttered, the body to be con-- 
 torted, and the teeth to be ground together. But our 
 progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expres- 
 sive movements of the features which accompany scream- 
 ing and crying until their circulatory and respiratory 
 organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes, had ac- 
 quired their present structure. The shedding of tears 
 appears to have originated through reflex action from 
 the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together per- 
 haps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood dur- 
 ing the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably 
 came on rather late in the line of our descent; and this 
 conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies, 
 the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must 
 here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which 
 are not closely related to man, weep, this habit might 
 have been developed long ago in a sub-branch of the 
 group from which man is derived. Our early progeni- 
 tors, when suffering from grief or anxiet}^, would not 
 have made their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down 
 the corners of their mouth, until they had acquired the 
 habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams. The 
 expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently 
 human. 
 
 Rage will have been expressed at a very early period 
 by threatening or frantic gestures, by the reddening of 
 the skin, and by glaring eyes, but not by frowning. 
 For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired 
 chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to 
 contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, 
 anger, or distress is felt, and there consequently is a near 
 approach to screaming; and partly from a frown serving 
 24 
 
362 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 as a shade in diffic-ult and intent vision. It seems prob- 
 able that tliis shading action would not have become 
 habitual until man had assumed a completely upright 
 position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a 
 glaring Hght. Our early progenitors, when enraged, 
 would probably have exposed their teeth more freely 
 than does man, even when giving full vent to his rage, 
 as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain 
 that they would have protruded their lips, when sulky 
 or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with 
 our own children, or even with the children of existing 
 savage races. 
 
 Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately 
 angry, would not have held their heads erect, opened 
 their chests, squared their shoulders, and clenched their 
 fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and 
 upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with 
 their fists or clubs. I'ntil this period had arrived the 
 antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a 
 sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been 
 developed. From the same reason astonishment would 
 not then have been expressed by raising the arms with 
 open hands and extended fingers. Xor, judging from 
 the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been 
 exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would 
 have been opened and the eyebrows arched. Disgust 
 would have been shown at a very early period by move- 
 ments round the mouth, like those of vomiting, — that is, 
 if the view which I have suggested respecting the source 
 of the expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors 
 had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and quickly 
 rejecting any food from their stomachs which they dis- 
 liked. But the more refined manner of showing con- 
 tempt or disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning 
 away the eyes and face, as if the despised person were 
 
Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 3C3 
 
 not worth looking at, would not probably have been ac- 
 quired until a much later period. 
 
 Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most 
 strictly lunnan; yet it is common to all or nearly all the 
 races of man, wliethcr or not any change of colour is 
 visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries 
 of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to 
 have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed 
 to the appearance of our own persons, especially of our 
 faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready flow 
 of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and after- 
 wards to have been extended by the power of associa- 
 tion to self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can 
 hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of 
 appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is 
 shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take 
 in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite 
 sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal, until 
 its mental powers had been developed to an equal or 
 nearly equal degree with those of man, would have 
 closely considered and been sensitive about its own per- 
 sonal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that 
 blushing originated at a very late period in the long line 
 of our descent. 
 
 From the various facts just alluded to, and given in 
 the course of this volume, it follows that, if the structure 
 of our organs of respiration and circulation had differed 
 in only a slight degree from the state in which they now 
 exist, most of our expressions would have been wonder- 
 fully different. A very slight change in the course of 
 the arteries and veins which run to the head, would prob- 
 ably have prevented the blood from accumulating in 
 our eyeballs during violent expiration; for this occurs 
 in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should 
 not have displayed some of our most characteristic ex- 
 
364: CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 pressions. If man had breathed water by the aid of ex- 
 ternal branchise (though the idea is hardly conceivable), 
 instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his fea- 
 tures would not have expressed his feelings much more 
 efficiently than now do his hands or limbs. Eage and 
 disgust, however, would still have been shown by move- 
 ments about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would 
 have become brighter or duller according to the state 
 of the circulation. If our ears had remained movable, 
 their movements would have been highly expressive, as 
 is the case with all the animals which fight with their 
 teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus 
 fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side 
 when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all 
 our teeth when furiously enraged. 
 
 The movements of expression in the face and body, 
 whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves 
 of much importance for our welfare. They serve as the 
 first means of communication between the mother and 
 her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages 
 her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We 
 readily perceive sympathy in others by their expression; 
 our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures in- 
 creased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. 
 The movements of expression give vividness and energy 
 to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts and 
 intentions of others more truly than do words, which 
 may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called 
 science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, 
 as Haller long ago remarked,* on different persons bring- 
 ing into frequent use different facial muscles, according 
 
 * Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, torn, 
 iv. p. 211. 
 
CiiAP. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 365 
 
 to their dispositions; the development of these muscles 
 being perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows 
 on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus 
 rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expres- 
 sion by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On 
 the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, 
 of all outward signs softens our emotions.'^ He who 
 gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage; he 
 who does not control the signs of fear will experience 
 fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive 
 when overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of 
 recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow 
 partly from the intimate relation which exists between 
 almost all the emotions and their outward manifesta- 
 tions; and partly from the direct influence of exertion 
 on the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the 
 simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds. 
 Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the 
 human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says: — 
 
 " Is it not monstrous that this plaj'er here, 
 But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, 
 Could force his soul so to his own conceit. 
 That, from her working, all his visage wann'd; 
 Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect, 
 A broken voice, and his whole function suiting 
 With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing! " 
 
 Hamlet, act ii. sc. 2. 
 
 We have seen that the study of the theory of ex- 
 pression confirms to a certain limited extent the con- 
 clusion that man is derived from some lower animal 
 form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub- 
 specific unity oi the several races; but as far as my 
 judgment serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. 
 
 ' Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 66) insists on 
 the truth of this conclusion. 
 
366 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY. Chap. XIV. 
 
 ^Ye have also seen that expression in itself, or the lan- 
 guage of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, 
 is certainly of importance for the welfare of mankind. 
 To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin 
 of the various expressions which may be hourly seen 
 on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our 
 domesticated animals, ought to possess much interest 
 for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that 
 the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the at- 
 tention which it has already received from several excel- 
 lent observers, and that it deserves still further atten- 
 tion, especially from any able physiologist. 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. 
 
 BULMER. 
 
 Abstraction, 226. 
 
 Actions, retlex, 35 ; coujrhiurj, 
 sneezinfj, &c., 35 ; muscular ac- 
 tion of decapitated fro^, 36 ; clos- 
 ing the eyelids, 38 : starting, 3S- 
 41 ; contraction of the iris, 41. 
 
 Admiration, 2S9. 
 
 Atfirmation, sitrns of. 272. 
 
 Albinos, blushing in, 312, 326. 
 
 Alison, Professor, 31. 
 
 Ambition, 261. 
 
 Anatomical drawinsrs by Henle, 5. 
 
 Anatomy and Philosophy of Ex- 
 pression, 2. 
 
 Anderson, Dr., 106, n. S6. 
 
 Anger, as a stimulant, 79 ; expres- 
 sion, 244 ; in monkeys, 136. See 
 also Rage. 
 
 Animals, special expressions of, 115. 
 See also Expression. 
 
 , habitual associated move- 
 ments in the lower, 42-49 ; docfs, 
 43; wolves and jackals, 44: 
 horses, 45 ; cats, 46 ; chickens. 
 47 ; sheldrakes, &c., 48. 
 
 Annesley, Lieut., K. A., 124, n. 4- 
 
 Antithesis, the principle of, 50 ; 
 dogs, 50, 57 ; cats, 56 ; conven- 
 tional signs, 61. 
 
 Anxiety, 176. 
 
 Ape, the Gibbon, produces musical 
 sounds, 87. 
 
 Arrectores pili, 101, 103. 
 
 Association, the power of, 31 ; in- 
 stances of, 31, 32. 
 
 Astonishment, 278 ; in monkeys, 
 142. 
 
 Audubon, 98, n. I4. 
 
 Avarice, 261. 
 
 Azara,126, n.6, 128, n. 7. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baboon, the Anubis, 95, 133, 137. 
 Bain, Mr., 8, 31, 198, n. 4, 213, n. 21. 
 290, n. 16, 327, n. 25. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel, 113. 
 
 Barber, Mrs., 21, 107, n. 28, 268, 
 
 288. 
 Bartlett, Mr., 44, 48, 112, 122, 134, 
 
 136. 
 Behn, Dr., 310. 
 Bell, Mr., 293. 
 , Sir Charles, 1, 9, 22, 49, 115, 
 
 120, 128, n. 8, 144, 157, 171, 210, 
 
 n. 17, 218, 220, 304, 336. 
 Bennett, G., 138, n. 16. 
 Bergeon, 168, n. 21. 
 Bernard, Claude, 37, 68, 70, n. 5. 
 Billiard- player, gestures of the, 6. 
 Birds ruffle their feathers when 
 
 angry. 97 ; when frightened ad- 
 press them, 99. 
 Blair, the Rev. R. H., 311, 351. 
 Blind, tendency of the, to blush. 
 
 310. 
 Blushing. 309 ; inheritance of, 311 ; 
 
 in the various races of man, 315; 
 
 movements and gestures which 
 
 accompany, 320; confusion of 
 
 mind, 322; the nature of the 
 
 mental states which induce, 325 ; 
 
 shyness, 329 ; moral causes : 
 
 guilt, 332; breaches of etiquette, 
 
 333 ; modesty, 333 ; theory of, 
 
 336. 
 Blyth, Mr.. 97. 
 Bowman, Mr., 159, n. I4, 160, n. 16, 
 
 165, 169, 225. 
 Brehm, 96, 128, 137, n. I4, 138, 
 
 n. 15. 
 Bridges, Mr., 22, 246, 260, 317. 
 Bridgman, Laura, 196, 212, 266, 273, 
 
 285', 310. 
 Brinton, Dr., 15=:. n. 13. 
 Brodie, Sir B., 340. 
 Brooke, the Rajah, 20, 207. 
 Brown, Dr. R., 108, n. 29. 
 Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 13, 76. n. 
 
 10, 154, 1^3, 197, 203, 242, 292, 
 
 295, 313, 339, /?. 39. 
 Bucknill, Dr., 296. 
 Bulmer, Mr. J., 20, 207, 250, 285, 
 
 320. 
 
 567 
 
368 
 
 BUNXETT. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 EXPRESSIONS. 
 
 Bunnett, Mr. Tompleton, 20, 177, 
 
 26S. 
 Burgess. Dr., 5, 309, 319, 336. 
 Burton. Captain, 260. 
 Button, Jemmy, the Fuegian, 214, 
 
 317. 
 
 C. 
 
 Camper. Pierre, 1 and n. 3. 
 
 Canine tooth, uncovering the, 247. 
 
 Carpenter on the principles of 
 Comparative Physiology, 47, n. 
 17. 
 
 Cat. the, 46, 125 ; preparing to fight, 
 56 ; caressing her master, 56 : 
 drawing back the ears, 111 ; lash- 
 inj? the tail, 126; movements ot 
 aftection, 126; when terrified, 
 127; erecting tlie tail, 127; pur- 
 ring, tfcc, 12S. 
 
 CatUn, 2S9. 
 
 Caton, the Hon. J.. 97. n. 11. 
 
 Cebus azarae, the, 132, 134. 
 
 Chameleons, 105. 
 
 Cheerfulness, 210. 
 
 Chevreul, M., 6. 
 
 Chimpanzee, the, 95, 131. 
 
 Cistercian Monks, gesture-language 
 of, 61. 
 
 Cobra-de-capello, the, 105. 
 
 Conceit, 261, 330. 
 
 Contempt, 253; snapping the fin- 
 gers, 256. 
 
 Cooke, the actor, 249. 
 
 Cooper, Dr., 105, n. 22. 
 
 Cope, Professor, 108, n. 31. 
 
 Coughing. 163. 
 
 Crantz, 212, 259. 
 
 D. 
 
 Darwin, Dr.. 30. n. 3, 46, n. 16, 77, 
 n. 11. 
 
 Deaf and dumb, opposites used in 
 teachinff them, 61, 62, n. 3. 
 
 Deceit, 261. 
 
 Decision, or determination, 233 ; 
 closing of the mouth, 233-236. 
 
 Defiance, 247. 
 
 Dejection. 176. 
 
 Depression of mind, 79. 
 
 Dermal appendages, erection of. 94 : 
 in the chimpanzee and orang, 95 ; 
 lion. &c.. 96 ; dog and cat^ 96 ; 
 horses and cattle, 96 : elk, 96 ; bat, 
 97; birds, 97: under the influ- 
 ence of anger and fear, 99. 
 
 Despair, 176. 
 
 Devotion, the expression of, 217- 
 219. 
 
 Dickens, Charles, 241. 
 
 Dilatation of the pupils, 303. 
 
 Disdain, 253. 
 
 Disgust, 256 ; spitting a sign of, 
 260. 
 
 Dog, the, sympathetic movements 
 of, 7 ; turning round before lying 
 down. 42 ; pointing, 43 : scratch- 
 ing, <tc., 45 ; antithesis in expres- 
 sion, 57 ; various gestures of, 63 ; 
 barking a means of expression, 
 85 ; whining, 88 ; drawing back 
 the ears, 111 ; various movements 
 of, 115 : gestures of affection, 118 ; 
 grinning, 119: pain, 121; atten- 
 tion, 12i; terror, 121; playing, 
 122. 
 
 Donders, Professor, 159, 165, 227, 
 303. 
 
 Duchenne, Dr., 5, 11, 13, 132. 143, 
 148, n. 3, 149, n. ^ 180, 188, 200. 
 
 Ears, the, drawing back. &c., 110 ; 
 in fighting, dogrs, cats, tigers, tfcc, 
 111 ; horses, 112 : guanacoes, &c., 
 112; moose-deer, 112; rabbits, 
 113 ; wild boars, 113 ; monkey.s, 
 113 ; erection of the, 114. 
 
 Edcreworth, Maria and R. L., 331. 
 
 Elephants, 113 : weeping, 165. 
 
 Engelmann, Professor, 227. 
 
 Envy. 261. 
 
 Erection of the dermal appendages, 
 94-104. 
 
 Erskine, Mr. H., 21, 33, 185, 267, 
 275. 
 
 Etiquette, breaches of, 333. 
 
 Expression, anatomy and philoso- 
 phy of, 2; general principles of, 
 27 ; principle of serviceable asso- 
 ciated habits. 29 ; principle of an- 
 tithesis. 50 ; principle of direct ac- 
 tion of the nervous system, 66 ; 
 means of, in animals, 83 : emission 
 of sounds, 83-94 ; erection of the 
 dennal appendages, 94-104; in- 
 flation of the body, &c., 10^110 ; 
 drawing back the ears, 110-114 ; 
 erection of the ears, 114. 
 
 Ex'pressions, special, of animals, 
 i 115; dogs, 1 1 5-1 25 ; cats. 1 25-1 23 ; 
 I horses, 123-129; ruminants, 129; 
 I monkevs, baboons, chimpanzees, 
 130-144. 
 
 — , special, of man, 146 : suffering, 
 73, 146 ; crying in children, 147 ; 
 contraction of the muscles round 
 the eyes during screaming, 148 ; 
 
EYEBROWS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ILL-TEMPER. 
 
 3G9 
 
 secretion of tears, 153, 162 ; grief, 
 176 ; obliquity of the eyebrows, 
 178; (rrief-inuscles, 15, 170-101 ; 
 depression of tlio corners of the 
 mouth, 101-105; joy, 106; high 
 spirits, ciiei-rfuluL'ss, 210; love, 
 tender feelings, 212; devotion, 
 217-210. 
 
 Eyebrows, obliquity of the, 178. 
 
 Eyes, the, contraction of the mus- 
 cles during screaming, 158. 
 
 Face, muscles of, 22. 
 
 Fear, 81, 280 ; description of, bv 
 Job, 201. 
 
 Feelings, tender, 212; e.vcited by 
 sympathy, 214. 
 
 Fighting, mode of, in animals, 111 ; 
 all caruivora fight with their ca- 
 nine teeth, HI; dogs, cats. 111 ; 
 horses, guanacoes, &c., 112; 
 moose-deer, 112; rabbits, 113; 
 boars, 113; elephants, 113; rhinoc- 
 eros, 113; monkeys, 113. 
 
 Fingers, snapping, to express con- 
 tempt, 256. 
 
 Forbes, Mr. D., 230, 317, 335. 
 
 Ford, Mr., 95. 
 
 Forster, J. R., 317. 
 
 Foster, Mr. Michael, 342, 343. 
 
 Fox, the, 124. 
 
 Freycinet, 174. 
 
 Frogs, 36, 104. 
 
 Frowning, the act of, 3, 220 ; men ot 
 all races frown, 222; in infants, 
 223 ; to assist vision, 224 ; to ex- 
 clude the bright light. 225. 
 
 Fyffe, Dr., 303. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaika, Christian, 22, 207, 254, 294, 
 310 
 
 Galton, ^rr. F., 33, n. 8. 
 
 Garrod, Mr. A. IL, 74, n. 9. 
 
 Gaskell. Mrs., 150, n. 5. 
 
 Geach, Mr. F., 20, 185, 250, 260, 267, 
 316. 
 
 Gesture-language, 61. 
 
 Gestures, 32, 62; inheritance of ha- 
 bitual, 33, n. 8; accompanying 
 blushing, 320. 
 
 Glenie, the Eev. S. 0.,21, 166, n. 20, 
 250. 
 
 Goose-skin, 101, 103. 
 
 Gordon, Ladv Dutf, 316. 
 
 Gorilla, the, 05, 142. 
 
 Gould, 100. n. 15. 
 
 Gratioiet, Pierre, 6, 32, 118, 156, 164, 
 
 177, 200, 225, 227, n. 6, 234, 241, 
 n. 9, 336. 
 
 Gray, Professor, and Mrs. Asa, 22, 
 267, 315. 
 
 Green, Mrs., 20. 
 
 Grief, 80; expression of, 176; obli- 
 quity of the eyebrows, 178 ; de- 
 pression of the corners of the 
 mouth, 101-105 ; in monkeys, 134. 
 
 Grief-muscles, 15, 170-101. 
 
 Gueldenstiidt, 124, n. 4. 
 
 Guilt, 261 • causes blushing, 332. 
 
 Gunning, Dr., 161. 
 
 G anther, Dr., 100, 104, 108, n. SO. 
 
 II. 
 
 Habit, force of, 29. 
 
 Ilagenauer, the liev., 10, 192, 262, 
 
 320. 
 Hair, change of colour in the, 67, 
 
 341 ; erection of the, 101, 294. 
 Ilaller, 88. 
 ' Handbuch der Anatomic des Men- 
 
 schen,' 5, n. 7. 
 Hare.s, 83. 
 Ilarvev, 30, n. 3. 
 Hatred, 237 ; anger, indignation, 244 ; 
 
 sneering, defiance, uncovering the 
 
 canine tooth, 247. 
 Heart, the, sensitive to external 
 
 emotion.s, 68 ; re-acts on the brain, 
 
 69 ; aftected by rage, 75. 
 Helmholtz, 88, 01. 
 Helplessness, 263. 
 Henderson, Mr., 108, n. 31. 
 Henle, 22, 148, n. 2, 3, 191, n. 6, 201. 
 Herpestes, the, 06, 1U8, 110. 
 High spirits, 210 ; definition of, by 
 
 a child, 210. 
 Hippocrates, 30, n. 3, 72. 
 Holland, Sir Henry, 36, 37, 71, n. 8, 
 
 338, n. 33, 339. 
 Homer's description of laughter, 
 
 106. 
 Horror, 304. 
 Horse, the, 45; nibbling, pawing 
 
 of, 45 ; scream in distress, 84 ; 
 
 fighting, 111 ; expression of fear, 
 
 pleasure, &c., 128. 
 Humboldt, 134, 318. 
 Humility, 261. 
 Iluschke, 287. 
 
 Huxley, Professor, 31, n. 5, 35, n. 9. 
 Hysena, the, 122. 
 
 I. 
 
 Idiots, weeping, 155: expression of 
 
 joy in, 197 ; l^lushing, 310. 
 Ill-temper, 228. 
 
370 
 
 IMPOTENCE. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 MUSIC. 
 
 Impotence, 263. 
 
 Indignation, 244. 
 
 Infants, expression in, 13 ; crying 
 of, 147 ; weeping, 152. 
 
 Inflation of the body, &c., 104 ; in 
 toads and frogs, 104 ; chameleons, 
 &c., 105; snakes, 105-110. 
 
 Inheritance of habitual gestures, 
 33, n. 8 ; blushing, 311. 
 
 Innes, Dr., 2G6. 
 
 Intercommunication, power of, with 
 social animals, 60 ; deaf and 
 dumb, 61 ; dogs and cats, 63. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jealousy, 79, 261. 
 
 Jerdon,*'Dr., 108. 
 
 Job, description of fear by, 291. 
 
 Joy, expression of, 75, 196; in 
 young children, 76 ; dogs, horses, 
 76; monkeys, 132; high spirits, 
 cheerfulness, 210; love, tender 
 feelings, 212. 
 
 Jukes, Sir. J. B., 274. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kangaroos, 113. 
 
 Kindermann, Herr, 23, 147, n. 1. 
 King, Major Ross, 112. 
 Kissing, 214. 
 Kolliker, 100. 
 
 Lacy, Mr. Dyson, 19, 230, 241. 
 
 Lane, Mr. H. B., 20. 
 
 Lang, Mr. Archibald G., 20, 320. 
 
 Langstaflf, Dr., 147, 151, 313. 
 
 Language, gesture, 61. 
 
 Laughter, 91, 131, 163 ; in monkeys, 
 131 ; joy expressed by, 196 ; in 
 children, 196; in idiots, 197; in 
 
 frown-up persons, 198; caused 
 y tickling, 199 ; sparkling eye, 
 204; tears caused by excessive, 
 206; among Hindoos, Malays, 
 &c., 207 ; to conceal feelings, 212 ; 
 incipient, in a baby, 209. 
 
 Lavater, G., 3, n. 6, 210, n. 17. 
 
 Lawson, 107, n. 28. 
 
 Laycock, Professor, 338. 
 
 Le Brun, 1, 4, 245, n. 18. 
 
 Leichhardt, 260. 
 
 Lemoine, M., 2, 357. 
 
 Lessing's Laocoon, 14, n. 19. 
 
 Leydig, 101, 103. 
 
 Lieber, Mr. F., 197, n. f, 273. 
 
 Lister, Mr., 101, 199, n. 6. 
 
 Litchfield, Mr-, 89. 
 
 Lizards, 105. 
 
 Lockwood, the Eev. S., 87, n. 8. 
 
 Lorain, M,, 74, n. 9. 
 
 Love, maternal, 78; of the opposite 
 
 se.xes, 78; expression, of, 212; 
 
 kissing, a mark of, 214 ; excites 
 
 tears, 214. 
 Low spirits, 176. 
 Lubbock, Sir John, 154, 214, n. 22. 
 
 M. 
 
 Man, special expressions of, 146. 
 See also Expression. 
 
 Mankind, Early History of, 256, 
 n.6. 
 
 Marshall, Mr., 155, n. P, 197, n. 8. 
 
 Martin, W. L., 131, 136, 140, n. 17. 
 
 Martius, 318. 
 
 Matthews, Mr. Washington, 22, 
 228, 256, 268, 275, 289. 
 
 Maudslev, Dr., 36, n. 10, 40, n. 2^ 
 244, 340, n. 40. 
 
 Mauvaise honte, 329. 
 
 May, Mr. A., 25. 
 
 ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie IIu- 
 maine,' 11, n. 16. 
 
 Meditation, 226 ; often accompanied 
 by certain gestures, 228, 
 
 Meyer, Dr. Adolf, 274. 
 
 Mind, confusion of, while blushino-, 
 322. 
 
 Modesty, 333. 
 
 Monkeys, 60; power of intercom- 
 munication and expression of, 60, 
 88, 96 ; their special expressions, 
 130; pleasure, joy, &c., 131, 213; 
 painful emotions, 134; anger, 136 ; 
 redden with passion, 137 ;"scream- 
 ing, 138 ; sulkiness in, 138 ; frown- 
 ing in, 141 ; astonishment, terror 
 in, 142. 
 
 Moose-deer, the, 112. 
 
 Moreau, M., 3, 210, 314. 
 
 Mouth, depression of the corners, 
 191-195; closure expresses deci- 
 sion, 233-236. 
 
 Movements, symbolic, 6 ; sympa- 
 thetic, 7 ; accompanying blush- 
 ing, 320. 
 
 , associated habitual, in the 
 
 lower animals, 42-49; dogs, 43; 
 woh'es and jackals, 44 : horses, 
 45 ; cats. 46 ; chickens, 47 ; shel- 
 drakes, &c., 48. 
 
 Mowbray on Poultry, 47. n. 18. 
 
 Miiller, Dr. Ferdinand, 20, 
 
 , Fritz, II, 29, n. 2, 68, n. j?, 71, 
 
 n. 6, 268, 
 
 Music, 217. 
 
NEGATION. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 371 
 
 N. 
 
 Ncfration, si^rns of, 272. 
 
 Nervous system, direct action of 
 the, 06 ; change of colour in tlie 
 hair, 67, 3-il ; trcmblinir of tlie 
 muscles, 67 ; secretions atlected, 
 68; pei-spi ration, 73; ra-re, 74; 
 joy, 76 ; terror, 77 ; love, 78 ; jeal- 
 ousy, 79 ; grief, SO. 
 
 Nicolj Mr. Patrick, 14, 184, 300. 
 
 O. 
 
 Ogle, Dr. W., 255, n. S, 270, 203. 
 Oliphant, Mrs., SO, n. 1;^, 270. 
 Olmsted, 20y. 
 
 Owen, Professor, 10, «. 13, 87. n. S, 
 141, n. IS. 
 
 r. 
 
 Paget, Sir J., 63, 110, 312, 341. 
 
 Pain, outward signs of, in animals, 
 69 ; in man, 69 ; in the hippopota- 
 mus, 70 ; induces perspiration, 73 ; 
 depression, 81 ; in monkeys, 134. 
 
 Parsons, J., 1, n. 1. 
 
 Perspiration caused by pain, 73. 
 
 Physiology of laughter, 9. 
 
 ' Physionomie, de la, et des Mouve- 
 ments d'Expression,' 6. 
 
 Piderit, Dr., 7, 23, 151, 204, 221, 235, 
 255. 
 
 Pigs employed to destroy rattle- 
 snakes, 108. 
 
 Platysma myoides muscle, contrac- 
 tion of the, 297. 
 
 Plautus, 228. 
 
 Porcupines, 93. 
 
 Pouchet, M. G., 67, n. 1. 
 
 Pride, 263. 
 
 Psychology, Principles of, 9. 
 
 Puff-adder, the, 105. 
 
 Pupils, dilatation of the, 303. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Queries regarding expression, &c., 
 15. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbits, S3. 93, 113. 
 
 Rage, 74, 238; tremblinsr a conse- 
 Quence of, 240; Shakespeare's 
 description of, 240 ; snarling with 
 the teeth, 242. 
 
 Rattlesnake, the, 106, 109. 
 
 Reade, Mr. Winwood. 21. 279, 288. 
 
 Reflection, 220 ; deep, generally ac- 
 companied with a frown, 222. 
 
 Reflex actions, 35. 
 Rcjlander, Mr., 23, 147, n. L 181, 
 200, 248. ' 
 
 Rcngtrer, 61, 88, 132, n. 11, 134. 
 Resignation, 270. 
 
 Retching or vomiting, 158, 163, 258 
 Revenge, 261. 
 Reynolds, Sir J., 206, n. 15. 
 Rhinoceros, 73, 113. 
 Riviere, Mr., 25, 120. 
 Rothrock, Dr., 22, 230, 250, 259. 
 Ruminants, their emotions, 129, 
 
 Salvin, Mr. F., 44, n. 15. 
 
 Sandwich islanders, 174. 
 
 Savage and Wvman, Mes.srs., 142 
 
 Schmalz, 273. ' 
 
 Scorn, 253. 
 
 Scott, Sir W., 120. 
 
 , Mr. J., 21, 1S5, 246-248, 259, 
 
 267. 
 
 , Dr. W. R., 62, n. 3. 
 
 Scream, as a call for assistance, 90. 
 
 Secretary-hawk, the, 109. 
 
 Secretions, atlected by strono- emo- 
 tions, 68. ° 
 
 Senses, the, and the Intellect, 8, n. 
 <?, 31. 
 
 Shaler, Professor, 106. 109. 
 
 Shame, gestures of, 320 ; description 
 of, in Isaiah, Ezra, &c., 321. 
 
 Sheldrake, the, 4S. 
 
 Shoulder, cold, 233. 
 
 Shrugcring the shoulders, 63, 263. 
 
 Shyness, 322, 329. 
 
 Signs of atiirmation and negation, 
 272 ; conventional, 61. 
 
 Slyness, 262. 
 
 Smiling, 202, 208 ; in infants, 209 ; 
 in savages, 211. 
 
 Smith, Sir Andrew, 207. 
 
 Smyth, Mr. Brough, 19, 285, 294. 
 
 Snakes, 105-110. 
 
 Snapping the finsrers. 256. 
 
 Sneering or snarling, 247. 
 
 Sobbinsr, peculiar "to the human 
 
 species, 156. 
 SomerWlle, 119. 
 
 Sounds, the emission of, efficient as 
 a means of expression, 83 ; be- 
 tween the sexes, 84 ; to animals 
 when separated, 84 ; of rage, 85 ; 
 the bark of a dog, 85 ; tamed 
 jackals, 86 ; pigeons. 86 ; human 
 voice, 86 ; as a means of court- 
 ship. 87 ; music. 89 ; in young in- 
 fants, 92 ; of surprise, contempt, 
 and disgust, 92 ; rabbits, 93 ; por- 
 
372 
 
 SPEEDY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 YAWNING. 
 
 cupines, 93 ; insects, 9i ; birds, 
 
 Speedv, Captain. 22, 260, 267. 
 Spencer, Mr. Herbert, 9, n. 11, 10, 
 
 27. n. i, 29, n. 2, 71, 86, 198, 225, 
 
 ft. 5, 262. 
 Spbinx-moth, the humming-bird, 
 
 30. 
 Spitting, a sign of disgust, 260. 
 Spix, von, 318. 
 St. John, Mr., 47, 126. 
 Stack, the Eev. J. W., 20, 231, 246, 
 
 316. 
 Stuart, Mr., 2^0. 
 Submission in dogs, 119. 
 Suffering of bodvand mind, 146. 
 Sulkiness, 230 ; expression of, pre- 
 vails throughout the world, 231 ; 
 
 in monkeys, 14'J, 232. 
 Summary, 347. 
 Surprise, 27 S. 
 Suspicion, 261. 
 Sutton, Mr., 95, 134, 136, 143, 162, 
 
 258. 
 Swinhoe, Mr., 21, 206, 246, 316. 
 Sympathy, 215. 
 
 Taplin, the Eev. George, 20, 185, 
 
 245, 320. 
 Taylor, the Eev. R., 155. 
 Tears, cause of the secretion of, 162 : 
 
 laughing, coughing. 163 ; yawn- 
 
 ingTl64l reflex action, 168. 
 Tegetmeier, Mr., 100. 
 Tendencies, inherited or instinctive, 
 
 30. 
 Tennent. Sir J. Emerson. 165. 
 Terror. 77, 2S9 ; m dogs, 121 : in 
 
 monkeys, 142 ; in an insane 
 
 woman, 292 ; in murderers, 293 ; 
 
 dilatation of the pupils, 303. 
 Thwaites, Mr., 166, n. 20. 
 Tickling. 199. 
 Toads, 104. 
 Trembling, induced by fear, 67 ; by 
 
 delight, 67 ; by fine music. 68 
 by rage, 68, 24u ; by terror, 77. 
 
 Turner, Professor W.' 101, «. i,?. 
 
 Tylor, Mr., 61, n. 2, 256, 261, n. 11. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Vanity, 261. 
 
 Variation of Animals and Plants 
 
 under Domestication, 33, n. 8. 
 Va-so-motor system, the, 69. 
 Virchow, 35. n. 9, 70, n. 5. 
 Vosux, Mr. des. 110. n. S2. 
 Vogt, C, 204, n. if,' 273. 
 Voice, in animals, 83 : the human, 
 
 86. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wallich. Dr.. 23. 200. 
 
 Weale. Mr. J. P. Mansel, 21, 228, 
 
 231. 2S5. 
 Wedgwood. Mr. Hensleigh, 104, 163, 
 
 ft. 18, 219, 230, ft. 10, 239, n. 6, 273, 
 
 320, ft. 20. 
 Weeping, 146; the period of first 
 
 shedding tears in infants quite 
 
 uncertain, 152 ; in savages, 153 ; 
 
 in the insane, 154 ; checking or 
 
 increasing the habit of, 155 ; 
 
 screaming and sobbing of infants, 
 
 156. ISee aho Tears. 
 Weir, Mr. Jenner, 93. 
 West. Mr., 21. 
 W^Ud-boar, 113. 
 Wilson. Mr., 19. 
 
 , Mr. Samuel. 20, 319. 
 
 '■ Wissenschaftliches System der Mi- 
 
 mik und Phvsiognomik," 7. 
 Wolf, Mr., 26. 
 Wood. Mr. J., 180. n. 3, 297, 302. 
 
 , Mr. T. W\, 23. 
 
 Wrinkles, 202. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yawning, 136, 164. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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