Is thq oj thi» Chiiwsc Classics the same Dcing 
 
 as lehovah oH thij Sacred Scriptures? 
 
 ^ ^oothat geinp is 9fsts«‘ite(l Shang-^i in the (Thinese O’lassics 
 and in thij gitual o)f the State gcUgion o); d!hina. 
 
 HY 
 
± 
 
 PAST I, 
 
 Js the oj; th(j (ffhintsc Classics the sainij leing 
 
 as Jehocalt of the ^acrod ^rrijjturj^s? 
 
 P A E T II, 
 
 ^that is gosi^nated ^hang-Si in lln* dihinese (Klassit^s 
 and in llt([ Jliiual of the ^tate |leli(|ion of (l{Iuna. 
 
 INQUIRER, 
 
 
 shanghai: 
 
 i^i^ESBirTEK/i^a^r a^issioa:^ 
 
 MDCCCLXXVII. 
 
TO THE DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS, OF THE MISSIONARY, BIBLE AND TRACT 
 
 SOCIETIES OF GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN AND AMERICA, WHO ARE CO-OPERAT- 
 ING IN THE EFFORTS FOR THE EVANGELIZATION OP THE EMPIRE OF CHINA; 
 
 AND TO THE MISSIONARIES WHO ARE LABORING AMONG THIS PEOPLE : 
 
 Dear Brethren : — 
 
 It is with unfeigned diffidence, that I address these lines to you. The 
 unexpected favor with which my former article on the meaning of “ Shin” 
 was received by many, and other circumstances, led me to continue 
 my inquiries. In the prosecution thereof, I have arrived at some conclu- 
 sions which I regard as of great importance, and therefore venture to 
 present them to you for your consideration. 
 
 Formerly it was considered by some of those who were engaged in 
 translating the Sacred Scriptures into Chinese, that Shangti was a com- 
 mon name which could be applied, with more or less propriety,' to all 
 objects of worship. It has been so used by some in the translation of the 
 Bible into this language. But the Rev. Dr. Legge, formerly missionary 
 at Hongkong, and now the Professor of Chinese at Oxford, has shown 
 with a conclusiveness that utterly precludes all further discussion on that 
 point, in his translation of the Slioo King and the Shi King, that Shangti 
 is the name of a distinct and individual Being, who has been worshipped 
 in China for more than four thousand years, and that Heaven is the 
 synonym of Shangti in designating that Being. Dr. Legge also maintainse 
 with great ability, that the Being called Shangti is the same as Jehovah 
 of the Sacred Scriptures. 
 
 In Part I, of this pamphlet, I have given the reasons, drawn from 
 various sources, which show that Shangti is not the same Heing as 
 Jehovah. In the second Part I have presented the evidence drawn fi’om 
 the Chinese classics and other standard writers, from the ritual of the 
 State religion of China, from Imperial Edicts and prayers, that the great 
 object of Chinese worship is deified Heaven ; and that Shangti is the 
 designation of this deified object. Hence it follows that Shangti is the 
 name of a false God. 
 
 It is this last stated fact, wdiich I consider to be of great importance 
 to all w'ho are engaged in the efforts for the evangelization of this 
 populous country. For the proper and d.istinctive name of one Being can- 
 not pi’operly be applied to any other Being. And so far as I know, it 
 has never happened hitberto, in the dissemination of the Gospel, that 
 the name of a false God has become the standard or distinctive name of 
 Jehovah in the language of any peojile. 
 
11 
 
 The question ivhicli now presses for consideration and decision is 
 this, can the name of a particular Being, which is extensively worship- 
 ped and which is the great object of worship in the State religion of this 
 Empire, be used as the translation of Elohim in translating the Sacred 
 Scriptures into the language of this people? Praying that “the spirit of 
 a sound mind and of an understanding heart” may be given unto all 
 who are called to consider this question, 
 
 I remain, with great respect and esteem for you all, 
 
 Yours in Christian love. 
 
 Inquirer. 
 
PART I, 
 
 Jfj the ^han5=i^i flj! the Chinese Cliissirs the same ^einig 
 as Jehouah of the ^acred ^tripturos. 
 
 By inquirer. 
 
 ^NE of the most important questions that can engage the minds of mis- 
 
 sionaries at the present time is this ; is the Shangti of the Chinese 
 
 Classics, the same Being as Jehovah of the Sacred Scriptures ? This 
 question is not only important in itself, but it is still more important 
 from its connection with other questions which press for settlement. But 
 little further progress can be made in deterniining what word shall be 
 used in the translation of Elohim and Theos into Chinese, until this 
 preliminary question shall have been decided. Every one can see, that if 
 Shangti of the Chinese Classics is indeed the same Being as Jehovah of 
 the Bible, what an immense vantage ground this gives us as missionaries 
 in our efforts to introduce the Bible and its^doctrines amongst this people. 
 So also, if it can be established that Shangti is the same as Jehovah, 
 then there is an end to all further controversy in regard to the distinctive 
 name for God. For if from time immemorial, Jehovah has been called 
 in the language of this people, Shangti, why should we, who bring to 
 them a revelation from Jehovah, sfiek any other name by which to desig- 
 nate him than that by which he has been so long known to them ? But 
 in a matter of so much importance and of such extended relations, we 
 may not receive such a statement as true, on slight or insufficient grounds. 
 The consequences of an error here would be most serious and long 
 continued. 
 
 The affirmative of this question has been argued with great ability 
 and learning by the Rev. J. Legge D.D., LL.D., formerly a distinguish- 
 ed missionary at Hongkong, and now the learned Professor of Chinese at 
 Oxford. The statement of his opinion on this subject was first published 
 in a series of letters to the “Hongkong Register,” in 1849, and then in 
 1852, in a book entitled “The Notions of the Chinese Concerning God 
 and Spirits : ” and recently, in his paper which was read before, t he 
 General Missionaiy Conference at Shanghai on May 11th, 1877, on 
 “ Confucianism in relation to Christianity.” The ability and learning 
 displayed in these publications are acknowledged by all; and all will 
 readily admit the clearness and courage with which the learned profes- 
 sor states his opinions. On page 2.3 of the “Notions of the Chinese” 
 
4 
 
 IS THE SHAXGTI OP THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAME 
 
 the Dr. says; “My thesis is that the Chinese have a knowledge of the 
 true God, and that the highest Being whom they worship is indeed the 
 same whom we worship.” After presenting the argument, in proof of 
 this opinion, and expressing his opinion of Shangti, he says: “lam 
 confident the Christian world will agree with me in saying “this God is 
 our God.” The explicit statement thus made by a Christian missionary 
 and a learned scholar, that he regards the chief god of a heathen people, 
 to be the same Being as the God revealed to mankind in the Bible, is 
 sufficiently startling as to challenge investigation. This opinion is so 
 contrary to the opinions on that subject which have been held by Chris- 
 tian men of all ages and countries, that it must be substantiated by very 
 clear proofs before it can be received as true. The Jews regarded the 
 chief gods of all the nations around them, whatever were the titles and 
 attributes ascribed to them, as false gods. The histories of the ancient 
 nations of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, India and Greece have spoken of the 
 gods of these nations as false gods, hence it would be surpassingly strange 
 and at the same time most interesting, if, while all the other nations 
 of the world within a few hundred years after the deluge had all formed 
 to themselves gods after their own imagination, it should be found that 
 the Chinese have preserved the knowledge of the one living and true 
 God through the long period of more than four thousand years. I have 
 given the subject very careful and patient investigation and at the con- 
 clusion of it, I must declare, that after the consideration of all the pro- 
 fessor’s arguments, I cannot receive the opinion which he supports. The 
 arguments which he presents in support of the opinion that Shangti is 
 the same Being as Jehovah entirely fail to establish their indentity. And 
 the arguments on the other side, in my judgment, make it clear beyond 
 all doubt that Shangti is not the same Being as Jehovah. 
 
 I will now present to my readers the arguments, which, in my judg- 
 ment, establish the opinion that Shangti is not the same as Jehovah. 
 These will be arranged under three heads. 1st, It is contrary to the 
 teachings of the Bible that they are the same Being. 2nd, That the chief 
 gods of the other heathen nations have had attributes and worship, which 
 belong to Jehovah, ascribed to them, as they have been ascribed to Shang- 
 ti. And 3rd, Shangti is destitute of some of the essential attributes and 
 work which belong to Jehovah, and, therefore, he is not the same Being. 
 
 1st, This opinion is contrary to the teaching of the word of God. The 
 Bible teaches that all men had corrupted their way before Jehovah, and 
 had made unto themselves gods after their own vain thoughts. This is 
 taught in many different ways, both by indirect implication and inferences, 
 and by positive statements. In the Old Testament the implied teachings 
 is, that as all nations had gone away from Jehovah the true God, and 
 made for themselves false gods, the only way of preserving a knowledge 
 of the true God among men was to call a chosen people from among men 
 to whom the knowledge of Jehovah was again made known by special 
 revelation and this knowledge w'as committed to them as a special trust 
 
HKING AS JEHOVAH OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 
 
 & 
 
 for preservation. Thus throughout the whole of the Old Testament 
 history, all the nations, with whom the Jews came in contact — such as 
 the vainous nations of Canaan, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Baby- 
 lonians, &c., worshipped false gods — each nations had its own chief god — 
 as Baal, Ashtoroth, Chemosh, Osiris, &c., in contradistinction to Jehovah 
 the God of the Israelites. 
 
 So in the New Testament, wherever the apostles went in preaching 
 the Gospel, in fulfilment of the command of their ascended Lord — to 
 “go into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature ” the 
 people are spoken of as idolaters, worshippers of false gods, and the 
 obvious teaching of the whole narrative, is that the whole world was in 
 the same condition of ignorance of the one living and true God. It 
 w'Oiild be easy to quote many wTiters to show that such has been the 
 wide spread and prevailing opinion of Christians of all ages, as to the 
 condition of the nations that had not yet received the written revelation 
 of Jehovah as made in the Bible. But it is hardly neccessary to quote 
 testimony to an opinion of such general currency. One may suffice. 
 The late M. L’ Abbe Hue, in his woi’k, “ History of Christianity in 
 China, &c., Ac.,” writes thus in a note. “It is not without surprise 
 that we find in the writings of this learned Jesuit ^Father Le Comte], 
 such propositions as the following: — ‘ The people of China have preserved 
 for more than 2000 years the knowledge of the true God, and have paid 
 him homage in a manner that might serve as an example to Christians.’ 
 Another [Jesuit], too, in speaking of Confucius says; — ‘His humility 
 and modesty might give gi-ounds for conjecture, that he was not merely 
 a philosopher formed by reason, but a man inspired ly Ood, for the reform 
 of this new world.’ Father Le Comte was doubtless inspired by a great 
 desire to facilitate the conversion of the Chinese, and especially the 
 literati, but, in the words of the modern apologist of the Society of 
 Jesus, we must say, that in this in.stance, Christian charity, and the 
 enthusiasm of science, led the Jesuits astray.” Cretinean Joly, vol. iii, p. 
 178, quoted in Hue, vol. iii, p. 247. 
 
 The positive statements of the Sacred Scriptures are equally as clear 
 and decided on this point, as the general implications and inferences of 
 the sacred narratives — Joshua says to the children of Israel, after they 
 had entered into the promised land — “ Thus saith Jehovah, the God of 
 Israel, your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood in old time, even 
 Terah, the father of Abraham and the father of Nachor: and they served 
 other gods. Now, therefore, fear Jehovah, and serve him in sincerity 
 and truth : and put away the gods which your fathers served on the other 
 side of the flood, and in Egypt, and serve ye Jehovah.” Josh. 24! 3, II. 
 “ Neither shall ye make mention of their gods, nor cause to swear by 
 them.” Josh. 28-7. “And the servants of the king of AssjTia, said unto 
 him, their gods are gods of the hills ; therefore are they stronger than 
 we.” Kings, 20: 23. “ Hath any of the gods of the nations delivered at 
 
 all his land out of the hand of the king of Assyria ? . Where are the gods 
 
6 
 
 IS THE SHANGTI OF THE CHINESE CL.ASSICS THE SAME 
 
 of Hamotli, and of Arssud? Where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena 
 and Ivah? Have they delivered Samaria out of my hand ? Who are they 
 among all the gods of the countries that have delivered their country out 
 of mine hand? That Jehovah should deliver Jerusalem out of my hand.” 
 II, Kings 18 : 33, 35. “Also Cyrus, the king, brought forth the vessels 
 of the house of Jehovah which Xebuchadnezzar had brought forth out of 
 Jerusalem, and had put them in the house of his gods ? ” Ezra. 1 : 7. 
 “ Hath a nation changed its gods, which are yet no gods ? ” Jer. 2 : 11. 
 These passages all clearly teach that every nation had distinctively its 
 own gods, which each nation respectively worshipped and trusted in. 
 
 “Jehovah looked down from heaven upon the children of men 
 to see if there were any that did understand, and did seek God. 
 They are all gone aside, they are all together filthy ; there are none that 
 doeth good, no, not one.” Ps. 14: 2, 3. “Blessed is the nation whose 
 God is Jehovah; and the people whom he hath chosen for his inheritance. 
 Jehovah looketh from heaven, he beholdeth all the sons of men. From 
 the place of his habitation he looketh upon all the inhabitants of the 
 earth. Ps. 33 : 12-14. “Declare his glory among the heathen, his wonders 
 among all people. For Jehovah is great and greatly to be praised ; he is 
 to be feared above all gods. For all the gods of the nations are idols bu,t 
 Jehovah made the heavens.” Ps. 96 : 3-5. This positive and absolute 
 statement, that all the gods of the nations are idols, can only be set aside 
 by a supposition that the reference is not to all the nations of the whole 
 world, but only to those nations near to Judea. But any such sup- 
 position is precluded by the preceding context where the reference is so 
 wide and universal. And the passages might be indefinitely multiplied 
 showing the universality ,of the meaning of such expressions in the 
 Psalms. The words are not spoken by a man of his owm motion, but by 
 the inspiration of God, to whose omniscient eye the condition of all 
 nations and the objects of tlieir worship were always present. Cah-in re- 
 marks on this passage. “The people of God were at that time called to 
 maintain a conflict of no inconsiderable or common description with the 
 hosts and prodigious -mass of superstitions, which then filled the whole 
 v'orhl, every country had its own gods peculiar to itself, but these were 
 not unknown in other parts, and it was the true God which was robbed 
 of the glory which belonged to him ” — Calvin, Com. on Ps. Vol. IV. On 
 Ps. 14; 2, 3, Calvin says: — “That the interpretation is more appropriate, 
 which supposes that men are here condemned as guilty of a detestable 
 revolt, inasmuch as they are estranged from God.” Com. on Ps. Vol. I. 
 Alexander says : “ Total and universal corruption .could not be more 
 
 clearly expressed than by the accumulation of the strongest terms, in 
 which, as Luther well observes, the Psalmist, not content with saying all, 
 adds, torjether, and then negativel}', no, not erne. The whole, not merely all 
 the indimduals as such, but the entire race as a totality or ideal person. 
 The whole (race) has departed, not merely from the right way, hiit from 
 God instead of seeking him, as intimated in v. 4. Together, not merely 
 
MEIXG AS JEHOVAH OE THE SACREH 'sCKlPTURES ? 
 
 7 
 
 altogether, or without exception ; but in union and by one decisive act or 
 event.” Alexander, Com. on Ps. Vol. I. 
 
 The declarations of the iSTew Testament are equally clear and explicit. 
 Paul in addressing the idolaters at Lystra, says : “We preach unto you 
 that you should turn from these vanities unto the living God, who made 
 heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all the things that are therein. Who in 
 times past suffered all nations to wmlk in their men way. Acts. 14 : 16. The 
 same apostle addressing the Athenians, who w'ere so given to the worship 
 of false gods, says;” “The times of this ignorance God winked at: but 
 now he commandeth all men every where to repent.” Acts. 17, 30. This 
 same apostle in writing to the Romans, speaking of the Gentiles, which 
 term was used to include all nations other than the Jew's, w'rites. — “And 
 changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into an image made like to 
 coiTuptible man, * * * who changed the truth of God into a lie, and 
 worshipped and senod the creature more than the Creator, and even 
 as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them 
 over to a reprobate mind, &c.” Rom. 1 ; 23, 25, 28. Alexander on Acts, 
 explains v. 16 of chap. 14, “All nations, i. e. all but one, to w'hom he 
 granted an exclusive revelation. It is therefore equivalent to all the 
 gentiles.” On verse 30 of chap. 17, he says : — “A thought to be supplied 
 between the verses is, that this degradation and denial of the Godhead 
 had been practised universally for ages, i. e. in the whole heathen w'orship 
 and mythology — all (men) every where, a double expression of the univers- 
 ality of the command, made still more striking in the Greek by the use 
 of two cognate terms, which might be englished, everybody everywhere.” 
 Dr. Lange in com. on this passage says: that “the Greek w'olds express 
 the conception of universality in the most explicit manners.” The sin 
 must have been as extensive as the commanded repentance. Barnes in 
 his Com. on Roms, on v. 2, 5, chap, i, says: — “ The phrase the ‘truth of 
 God ’ is a Hebrew phrase, meaning the true God ; into a lie i. e. into idols 
 or false gods. ‘The creature,’ created things, as the sun, moon, animals, 
 &c.” Hodge on Rom. explains creature in the same way, “not creation 
 but any particular created thing.” Hodge also remarks on v. 24, — “this 
 abandonment of the heathen to the dominion of sin is represented as a 
 punitive infliction. They forsook God wherefore also he gave them up to 
 uncleanness.” The sin which the apostle refers to is idolatry. It is ad- 
 mitted by all writers that the Chinese nation have in themselves suffered 
 all the punishment which the apostle states as the punishment of this 
 sin. For a fuU discussion of the whole subject see Dr. Lelands “Advan- 
 tage and Necessity of Revelation,” and Tholucks “Nature and Moral 
 Influence of Heathenism.” Paul in his Epis. to the Thes. says ; “Not in 
 the lust of concupiscence even as the gentiles who know not God ; ” and 
 in the Epis. to the Gal. he writes: “Howbeit then, when ye know not 
 God, ye did service unto them which be no gods” chap. 4, 8. The great 
 apostle of the gentiles, who was ever ready to become “ all things to all 
 men that he might save some," whether addressing the literati of Athens, 
 
8 
 
 IS THE SHAKGTI OP THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAME 
 
 or writing to those at Imperial Rome, declares them all to be idolaters 
 and without the knowledge of the true God, Jehovah. 1 think that those 
 who receive the Bible as the revelation of God will consider these pas- 
 sages of Scripture to warrant the language of Calvin when he says that 
 the conflict of the people of God is “ with the hosts, and prodigious mass 
 of superstition which then filled the whole world ; ” and the expression of 
 the same idea by Alexander when he says ; “ that this degradation and 
 denial of the Godhead had been practised universally for ages, i. e. in the 
 tvhole heathen worsl»i) and mythology;” and that they utterly preclude the sup- 
 position that during these 4000 years, the Chinese people have retained the 
 knowledge of the one true God, Jehovah, under the designation of Shangti. 
 
 2nd, But the learned professor, the Rev. Dr. Legge, presents as his 
 strongest argument in proof that Shangti is the same being as Jehovah, 
 the fact, that in the Chinese classics and liturgies, so many of the at- 
 tributes and works which properly belong to Jehovah are ascribed to 
 Shangti. I proceed to consider this argument. The essence of all false 
 religions consists in ascribing the attributes, works, and worship of the 
 true God to some false god. In the very nature of idolatry then, there 
 must he the ascription of some of the attributes and works of Jehovah to 
 every false god that is worshipped. It must be predicated of false gods 
 that there are omnipresent, or how can they hear prayers which are offer- 
 ed at different places; that they are omniscient, or how can they know the 
 hearts of those who pray to them ; that they are omnipotent, or how can 
 they help those who seek their aid ; that they are the rulers over the 
 affairs of men, or how would it pertain to them to attend to the requests 
 of men, that they are merciful and beneficent, or else what ground to 
 hope for their help, and so on as to many other attributes of the true 
 God. It is, therefore, utterly incorrect to say, that the ascription of 
 attributes to any specified being, which properly belong only to Jehovah, 
 is a proof that that Being is Jehovah. We must know that the said Being 
 is really Jehovah, and then such ascription of the attributes of Jehovah 
 to him is right and proper: but if the specified being is not Jehovah, 
 then the ascription of all the attributes that properly belong to Jehovah 
 only make it a more flagrant case of false worship and homage. In the 
 celebrated case of the claimant to the Tichbourne estates, he had sufficient 
 resemblance to the true heir, and sufficient knowledge of the heir’s home 
 life, school days, and early friends as to deceive the mother and many 
 acquaintances ; but when this case of resemblance was submitted to rigid 
 investigation and the tests that decide the matter of real identity, it was 
 manifest to the greater portion of impartial and discriminating minds, 
 that there was only a resemblance and not true identity. Thus also 
 through the able argumentation of the learned Doctor there is a sufficient 
 degree of resemblance presented to convince some minds that Shangti is 
 the same Being as Jehovah, and to confuse others ; but I trust that in the 
 inquiry for the truth, it will be made clear to all, that Shangti is not the 
 same Being as Jehovah, who is God over all. 
 
BEING AS JEHOVAH OE THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 
 
 9 
 
 The latest results of the best scholarship, and the widest reseai’ch 
 into the history of ancient nations, have made known the fact — that to a 
 very large extent, the doctrines of religion, which were made known to 
 the early patriarchs, were transmitted among all nations after the disper- 
 sion from Babel. The interesting paper which was prepared by the Rev. 
 John Chalmers, A. M. for the last International Congress of Orientalists, 
 and which was published in the “ China Review” for March and April, 
 1877, shows, how largely this knowledge of the nature and character of God 
 has been transmitted by tradition at first, and subsequently, by written re- 
 cords amongst the Chinese — as the Chinese records have come down to 
 the present time, in a greater number than those of any of the other an- 
 cient nations, it is but reasonable that it is possible to compile so full a 
 statement of “ The Chinese Natural Theology.” The literature on this 
 subject, as regards other nations is abundant and valuable, sucli as the 
 writings of Wilson and Muller on the religions of India: Wilkinson and 
 Bunsen on those of Egypt: Rawlinson and Layard on Assyria: Adams 
 and Smith on the Antiquities of Greece and Rome: Maurice’s Lectures on 
 the Religions of the World, Hardwick’s Christ and other masters; Mof- 
 fat’s comparative History of Religions, Gillett’s, God in Human Thought, 
 Tyler’s Theology of the Greek Poets, and various other authors. The 
 statements made by these various authors, make it clear that among all 
 the early nations there existed, to a wonderful extent, exalted ideas and 
 conceptions of the nature, attributes, and works of God. — They also make 
 it clear, that while all the nations forgot Jehovah, they adopted some 
 particular being as the chief god of tlieir respective countries, and assign- 
 ed the attributes and works, which belong only to Jehovah, to this im- 
 aginary being. 
 
 Bunsen in his God in History, thus gives the character of Osiris, 
 one of the chief gods of Egypt. — “Some say Osiris represented the sun; 
 others the Nile — Osiris is the lord, the god and father of each indivi- 
 dual soul, the judge of men, who passes sentence strictly according to 
 right and wrong, rewarding goodness and punishing crime. As he 
 reigns in the spirit world, so does Helios, the god of skies, from his 
 sunny path watch over the doings of the living.” Vol. I, p. 226. Miil- 
 ler in speaking of the sacred Books of India — the Yedas says. “ But hid- 
 den in this rubbish there are precious stones, only, in order to appreciate 
 them justly, we must try to divest ourselves of the common notions of 
 polytheism so repugnant not only to our feelings, but to our understand- 
 ing. No doubt if, we must employ technical terms, the religion of the 
 Veda is polytheism, not monotheism, deities are invoked by different 
 names, some clear and intelligible, such as Agni, fire ; Surya, the sun ; 
 Ushas, dawn; Maruts, the storms ; Prithevi, the earth ; Ap, the waters; 
 Nadi, the rivers : others, such as Varuna, Mitra, Indra, which have become 
 proper names, and disclose but dimly their original application to the 
 great aspects of nature, the sky, the sun, the day. But whenever one of 
 these individual gods is invoked, he is not conceived of as limited by 
 
10 IS THE SHAXGTI OF THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAME 
 
 the powers of others, as superior or inferior in rank. Each god is to the 
 uiind of the supplicant as good as all gods. He is felt at the time as a 
 real divinity, — as supreme and absolute, — without a suspicion of these 
 limitations, which, to our minds, a plui'ality of gods must entail on every 
 single god.” Chips from a Grerman Workshop, Vol. I, p. 27. “Thus in 
 one hymn, Agni (fire) is called ‘the ruler of the universe,’ ‘the lord of 
 men,’ the wise king, the father, the brother, the son, the friend of man ; 
 nay all the powers and names of the other gods are distinctly ascribed to 
 Agni,” idem p. 28. And what more could human language achieve in 
 trying to express the idea of a divine and supreme power, than what 
 another poet says of another god Varunat [heaven]. “ Thou art lord of 
 all, of heaven and earth; thou art king of all, of those who are gods, and 
 of those who are men, idem, p. 28. In “Whitney’s Oriental and Lin- 
 guistic studies” the character of this Varuna (heaven), which is consi- 
 dered to be identical with the Greek Ovpavo^ (heaven), is thus drawn; 
 “ He is the orderer and ruler of the universe. He established the eter- 
 nal laws which govern the movements of the world, and which neither 
 mortals nor immortals may break. He regulated the seasons. He ap- 
 pointed sun, moon and stars their courses. He gave to each creature 
 that which is its peculiar characteristic. In a no less degree is he a 
 moral governor; to the Adityas [the twelve sun-gods of which Varuna 
 is the central figure], and to him in particular, attach themselves very 
 remarkable, almost Christian ideas respecting moral right and wrong, 
 transgression and its punishment, * * *. It is a sore grief to the poets 
 that man daily transgresses Varuna’s commands. They acknowledge 
 that without his aid, they are not masters of a single moment; they fly 
 to him for refuge from evil, expressing at the same time all confidence 
 that their prayers will be heard and granted. From his station in the 
 heavens, Varuna sees and hears everything; nothing can remain hidden 
 from him,” p. 43. One of the hymns to Varuna, as translated by Muller, 
 reads thus: verse 10. “ He, the upholder of order, Varuna sits down 
 
 among his people; he, the wise, sits there to govern. II, From thence 
 perceiving all wondrous things, he sees what has been, and what will be 
 done.” 19, O hear this my calling, Varuna, be gracious now, longing for 
 help I have called upon thee. 20, Thou, O wdse god, art lord of all, of 
 heaven and earth; listen on thy way.” In another hymn. Varuna is 
 almost spoken of as a creator, “Wise and mighty are the works of him 
 who stemmed asunder the wide firmaments. He lifted on high the 
 bright and glorious heaven, he stretched out apart the starry sky and 
 the earth.” And in another he is addressed as the god, who has mercy 
 for sinners. — 1, “Let me not yet, 0 Varuna, enter into the house of clay; 
 have mercy, almighty, have mercy. 2, If I go along trembling, like 
 a cloud driven by the wind ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy. 5, When- 
 ever we men, O V aruna, commit an offence before the heavenly host ; 
 whenever we break thy law through thoughtlessness : have mercy, 
 almighty, have mercy.” Again in a hymn to Varuna it is said. 3, I ask, 
 
HEIXG AS JEHOVAH OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 11 
 
 O Vai’RTia, wishing to kzaow this my sin. I go to ask the wise. The sages 
 all tell me the same; Varuna it is, who is angry with thee. 4, Was it an 
 old sin, O Varuna, that thou wished to destroy thy friend who always 
 praises thee ? Tell me, thou unconquerable lord, and I will quickly turn 
 to thee with pz’aise, freed from sin. 5, Absolve us from the sins of our 
 father’s and from those which we committed with our own bodies. 6, It 
 was not our own doing, O V aruna, it was necessity (temptation) , an in- 
 toxicating draft, passion, vice, thoughtlessness. The old is there to mis- 
 lead the young; even sleep brings unrighteousness. 7, Let me without 
 sin give satisfaction to the angry god like a slave to the bounteous lord. 
 The lord god enlightened the foolish; he the wisest leads his worshipper 
 to wealth. 8, 0 lord, Varuna, may this song go well to thy heart. 
 May we prosper in keeping and acquiring. Protect us, O gods, always 
 with your blessing.” The consciousness of sin is a prominent feature of 
 the religion of the Veda. So is likewise the belief that the gods are able 
 to take away from man the heavy burden of his sins. The next hymn, 
 which is taken from the Athava Veda (IV. 16). Will show how near the 
 language of the ancient poets of India may approach to the language of 
 the Bible: — •“!, The great lord of these worlds sees as if he were near. 
 If a man thinks he is walking by stealth, the gods know it all. 2, If a 
 man stands or walks or hides, if he goes to lie down or to get up, what 
 two people sitting together whisper, king Varuna knows it; he is there as 
 the third. 3, This earth, too, belongs to Varuna, the king, and this wide 
 sky with its ends far apart. The two seas (the sky and the ocean) are 
 V aruna’s loins : he is also contained in this small drop of water. 4, He 
 who should flee far beyond the sky, even he would not be rid of Varuna. 
 His spies proceed from heaven towards this world: with thousand eyes 
 they overlook this earth. 5, King Varuna sees all this, what is between 
 heaven and earth, and what is beyond. He has counted the twinklings 
 of the eyes of men. As a player throw's the dice, he settles all things.” 
 Chips from a German Workshop, Vol. I, pp, 39-42. 
 
 The character of Zeus the chief god of the Greeks, is thus given by 
 Smith in his Classical-Dictionary, art. Zeus. — •“ He is called the father 
 of gods and men, the most high and powerful among the immortals, 
 whom all others obey. He is the supreme ruler, who with his counsel 
 manages every thing ; the founder of kingly powder, and of law and of 
 order, whence Dice, Themis and Nemesis are his assistants. For the 
 same reason, he protects the assembly of the people, the meetings of the 
 council, and as he presides over the whole state, so also over every house 
 and family. He also w'atched ovm’ the sanctity of the oath, and the laws of 
 ho.spitality, and protected suppliants. He avenged those w'ho were wi’onged, 
 and punished those who had committed a crime, for he w'atched the doings 
 and sufferings of all men. He w'as also the original source of all prophetic 
 power, from him all prophetic sounds and signs proceeded. Everything good 
 as well as bad comes from Zezis ; according to his own choice he assigns 
 good or evil to mortals ; and fate itself w'as subordinate to him,” p. 830. 
 
12 
 
 IS THE SHAJ^GTI OF THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAME 
 
 Tlie cliaracter of tlie Greek Zeus is thus drawn by the poet Aesch 3 'lu 3 
 as stated by prof. Tyler in his “Theology of the Greek Poets.” The 
 character of the supreme deity, as it is generally represented in the other 
 tragedies, and as it appears in the epithets by which he is addressed by 
 the chorus, corresponds much more nearly with our ideas of the true God. 
 He is the universal father — father of gods and men ; the universal cause 
 (Trarairto", Agamem. 1485) ; the all-seer and all-doer TTave6nTrj(r, TTavepyerr];- 
 Ibid, and snp. 139) ; the all-wise and all-controlling (nayKpav'q;- Sup. 
 818) ; the just and the execntor of justice (SiKTjcpopo^-, Agamem. 525) ; 
 true and incapable of falsehood (Prom. 1031) ; holy (ayvoy, Sup. 650), 
 merciful (zrpevpevTjg-, Ibid. 139) ; the god especiallj^ of the suppliant and 
 the stranger (supplices, passim) ; the most high and perfect one (reAelo v 
 vxpiarov^ Eumen. 28 ; “ King of kings, of the happy the most happy ; of 
 the perfect most perfect power; blessed Zeus,” (Sup. 522). 
 
 The general resemblance, suggested by these attributes, between the 
 supreme god of the Greek tragedies, and of the Hebrew Scripture, 
 derives additional force from the frequency ■ndth which, as we shall see, he 
 is spoken of as a jealous god, visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon 
 the children ; one who will by no means clear the guilty ; whose mysterious 
 providence is an unfathomable abyss, and before whose irresistible power 
 the heavens and the earth are shaken, and gods and men are as nothing. 
 Theol. of the Greek Poets, pp. 213-15. 
 
 The same authority gives the character of the Latin god Jupiter, as 
 follows : “ his name signifies the father or lord of heaven, being a contrac- 
 tion of Diovispater, or Diespiter. Being the lord of heaven, he was wor- 
 shipped as god for rain, storms, and lightening. In consequence of his 
 possessing such powers over the elements, and especially of his alwaj’s 
 having the thunderbolt at his command, he was regarded as the highest 
 and most powerful among the gods. Hence he is called the best and 
 most high (Optimus Haximus). His temple at Rome stood on the lofty 
 hill of the Capitol, whence he derived the names of Capitolinus and Tar- 
 peias. He was regarded as the special protector of Rome. As such he 
 was worshipped bj' the Consuls on entering upon their office ; and the 
 triumph of a victorious general was a solemn procession to his temple.” 
 Art. Jupiter, p. 358. 
 
 “ In Babjdon and As.sj'ria we find as sujmeme god. At the head of 
 the Assyi’ian pantheon stood the “ great god” Asshur. His usual titles 
 are “the great lord,” “the king of all the gods,” “he, who rules supreme 
 over the gods.” Sometimes he is called “the father of the gods,” though 
 that is a title which is more properlj- as.signed to Belus. His place is 
 first in invocations. He is regarded throughout all the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions as the special tutelary- deity both of the kings and the country. He 
 places the monarchs upon their thrones, firmly establishes them in the 
 government, lengthens the years of their reigns, preserves their power, 
 protects their forts and arms, etc. To him they look to give them the 
 victory over their enemies, to grant them all the wishes of their heart. 
 
BKIXG AS JEHOVAH OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 
 
 13 
 
 They represent themselves as passing their lives in his service. It is to 
 spread his worship, that they carry on their wars. Unlike other god.s, 
 Asshur had no notorious temple or shrine in any particular city, a sign 
 that his worship was spread equally throughout the whole land, and was 
 not to any extent localized. The Assyrian religion is “ the woi’ship of 
 Asshur.” No similar phrases are used with respect to any of the other 
 gods of the pantheon. It is indicative of the (compai’atively speaking) 
 elevated character of Assyrian polytheism, that this exalted and awful 
 deity continued, from first to last, the main object of worship, and was 
 not superseded in the thoughts of men by the lower and more intelligible 
 divinities.” Rawlinson’s Anc. Monarchies, II. 2, 3. “In the time of the 
 twelfth dynasty of their kings, more than two thousand years before 
 Christ, and before the days of Abraham, the Unity of God was still not 
 so far obscured but that each district or great city had only its one great 
 object of worship. The union of all the districts into one kingdom consti- 
 tuted the primitive polytheism of Egypt. Thus Phtah was god as wor- 
 shipped in Memphis ; Ra, in the holy city of On ; Khem in Khemmis in 
 the Thebiad, and Amun in the city of Thebis. Phtah was regarded as 
 the creator of the world ; Khem as the father of men. Ra as the god 
 of light, represented by the sun, and Amun, as the almighty and inscru- 
 table power of deity. The commonest symbol of God, in all parts of 
 Egypt, was the sun. It seems to have been conceived of as a sign of the 
 governing power of God. The kings of Egypt always bore an image of 
 the sun’s disk ujion their seal ; and the name of the sun-god Ra, entered 
 as an element into their royal title, and they were all sons of Ra.” 
 Moffat’s Comparative Hist, of Religions, Vol. II. p. 77. 
 
 These quotations might be multiplied indefinitely showing that all 
 the ancient nations of the world ascribed many of the attributes and 
 works of the true God to the chief god of their respective countries. But 
 this will suffice. — They also show that they had the idea of a certain 
 kind of unity and supremacy as belonging to the deity — as also benevol- 
 ence, clemency, justice and universal government. They had a deep 
 conviction that the good would be rewarded and the wicked punished, 
 that a revelation from God might be expected, that help might be obtain- 
 ed in the time of distress, and also help to live virtuously. They all had 
 the knowledge of the external rites of religion, consisting in the offering 
 of pi-ayers, sacrifices, thank offerings and worship with the singing or 
 chanting of hymns. There was a knowledge that the will of God regulat- 
 ed the affairs of the world, set up kings and jmt down princes. Indeed it 
 is most remarkable to what an extent the knowledge of the gTeat truths 
 in reference to God and man, and of man’s relation to and his duty to 
 God was transmitted by tradition among all the early nations after the 
 dispersion. “ On those monuments [of Egypt] appear pictorial represen- 
 tations of gods, priests, worshippers in acts of sacrifice, offerings, prayer, 
 adoration, in religious processions and the various attitudes of worship. 
 Of the books described by Clement, as those of Hermes (Thoth), the first 
 
14 
 
 IS THE SHANGTI OF THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAilE 
 
 was one of lijTnns to tlie gods ; the second contained the whole duty of 
 a king’s wife.” Moffat’s Comp. Hist. Eel. Yol. I.-p. 61.” Apparently the 
 most ancient and highly valued of all was the hook containing the hj’mns 
 to the gods” Ib. p. 62. The “Book of the death” or the “Funeral 
 Ritual ” of the Egyptians is in some respects the most remarkable book 
 which has come down from the past, and makes it clear that the ancients 
 had a much clearer idea of the doctrine of future rewards and punish- 
 ment, than has been hitherto supposed, they had. 
 
 I proceed to remark that Jehovah has some essential characteris- 
 tics which distinguish him from all other beings. And while in some 
 there may be a resemblance to him, yet before any being bearing another 
 name can be considered as identically the same with him, it must be 
 shown beyond all doubt that he has those attributes and works which are 
 the essential characteristics of Jehovah. 
 
 One special distinguishing characteristic of Jehovah is this — he his 
 etenialhj self existent. “The Lord said unto Moses, I am that I am; and 
 he said, thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I am hath sent 
 me to you. “Ex. 3: 14. “Before the mountains were brought forth, or 
 ever those hadst formed the earth or the world, even -from everlasting to 
 everlasting, thou art God.” Ps. 90: 2. “Thy throne is established of 
 old, thou art from everlasting.” Ps. 98: 2. “For thus saith the High 
 and lofty One that inhabiteth eternity.” Is. 57: 15. “The everlasting 
 God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth, fainteth not neither 
 is weary.” Is. 40; 28. “ Tliy name is from everlasting.” Is. 63: 16. 
 
 “Art thou not from everlasting O Jehovah my God, mine Holy One?” 
 Hab. 1 : 12. “Thus saith Jehovah, I am the first and I am the last and 
 beside me there is no God.” Is. 44: 6. Such are some of the declara- 
 tions of the Bible in regard to Jehovah — The late Rev. W. H. Medhurst 
 D.D. in his “Inquiry into the jrroper mode of rendering the word God 
 &c.,” say: “We do not find that the Chinese predicate of him [/. e. 
 Shangti] self-existence; nor do we remember any jdace in which they ex- 
 pressly describe him as existing from eternity,” p. 5. Dr. Legge admits 
 - that it has not been shown that the Chinese deelare Shangti to be self- 
 existent. “This” he says, “may still be urged as a bar to the conclusion 
 that he is the true god. Be it so, that a proposition in so many words 
 to that effect, has not yet been produced ; yet, I contend that the natural 
 conclusion from the passages which I have brought forward, is, that 
 Shangti is self-existent.” “Motions of the Chinese,” p. 32. So it might 
 be said, that it would be a “ natural conclusion ” from the statements 
 which have been quoted above in regard to the chief god of every other 
 nation, that he was self-existent. But in a matter of such transcendent 
 importance, we cannot be satisfied with any “ natural conclusion ” or 
 mere inference, we want some clear and positive statements before we can 
 accept the opinion that the Chinese have considered Shangti as self-existent. 
 
 There is a second essential characteristic, which Jehovah declares be- 
 longs to him, and which is not ascribed to Shangti. Jehovah justly and 
 
BEING AS JE{IOVAH OE THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 
 
 16 
 
 riglitfally claims for himself exclusively the religious homage and worship 
 of ail his rational creatures. He says, “I am Jehovah, thy God.** Thou 
 shalt have no other gods before me. TIiou shait not make unto thee any 
 graven image, or any likeness of anj-thing that is in heaven above, or that 
 is iu tlie earth beneath, or that is in tlie water under tlie earth; thou shalt 
 not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I, Jehovah thy God, 
 am a jeahius God, visiting the iiiiquity of the fathers upon the cliildren 
 unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me; and shewing 
 mercy unto tliousands of them that love me and keep my commandments 
 E.V. 20 ; 2-6. That of which Jehovah is jealous is the giving of religions wor- 
 ship to any other being beside himself. The Bible every where declares 
 that any form of idolatry is the object of his special displeasure, and that 
 it will I’eceive his most condign punishment. “For thou shalt w-orship no 
 other God; for Jehovah whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God, Ex. 34: 
 14. “I'ake heed unto yourselves, lest ye forget the covenant of Jehovah 
 your God, which he made with you, and make you a graven image, or the 
 likeness of anything which Jehovah, thy God, hath forl)idden thee; for 
 Jehovah thy God is a consuming fire, even a jealous God.” Dent. 4: 23, 
 24, “Ye shall not go after other gods, of the gods of the people which are 
 round about you; (for Jehovah thy God is a jealous God among you;) lest 
 the anger of Jehovah, thy God, be kindled against you, and destroy you 
 from the face of the earth.” Deut. 6: 14, 15. “And Joshua said unto the 
 people. Ye cannot serve Jehovah; for lie is a holy God; he is a je.ilous 
 God ; he will not forgive your transgressions and your sins. If ye forsake 
 Jehovah aud serve strange gods, theu he will turn and do you hurt and 
 consume you after that he hath done you good.” Josh. 24; 19. 20. “For 
 they will turn away thy son from following me, that they may serve other 
 gods: so will the anger of Jehovah be kindled against thee, and destro5' 
 thee suddenly.” Deut. 7 : 4. These are a few’ of the many passages in which 
 Jehovah has expressed his displeasure at evei'y form and kind of idolatry. 
 But nowhere do the Chinese attribute any such feelings to Shangti. So 
 far from any such feelings being ascribed to him, in the great sacrifice which 
 is made to heaven at the winter solstice by the emperor of China, and which 
 sacrifice Dr. Legge says is offered to Shangti, other objects are associated 
 with Shangti as receivers of the sacrifice. This concurrent worshi|) of other 
 objects in connection with Shangti has existed in China from the very earliest 
 period of which we have any records. “The chiefs and rulers of the 
 ancient Chinese were not without some considerable knowledge of god 
 [i. e. Shangti]; but they were accustom_ed, on their first appearance in the 
 country, if the earliest portions of the Shoo can be relied on at all, to worship 
 other spiritual beings as w’ell. Shun had no sooner been designated by 
 Yaou to the active duties of the government as co-emperor with him, than he 
 offered a special sacrifice, but with the ordinary forms of god [Shangti] ; 
 sacrificed purely to the six honoured ones ; offered their appropriate 
 sacrifices to the rivers and hills, and extended his worship to the hosts of 
 spirits.” [i. e. Shin] Legge’s Shoo-kiug. Prolegomena, p. 192, 193. The 
 
16 
 
 IS THE SHAXGTI OF THE CHINESE CLASSICS THE SAME 
 
 Cliinese have no idea that such feelings, as those which Jehovah expresses 
 as belonging to himself in regard to the worship of any other being or 
 object, pertain to Shangti, or any of the gods. Many of this jieople on 
 reading the 2nd, Commandment, have expressed surprise tliat Jehovah is 
 represented as having this characteristic, as they consider such feelings as 
 derogatory to the divine character. Here then is a second essential charac- 
 teristic of Jeliovali whicli does not belong to Shangti. 
 
 In the third place I remark, that the Bible everj’where presents as the 
 great and distingnishing work of Jehovah, that he is the creator of the 
 heavens, the earth, the sea and all things which are in them. “For in 
 six days, Jehovah made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is.” 
 Ex. 20: 11. Jehovali hath made the earth by his power, he hath establislied 
 the world by his wisdom and he hath stretched out the heavens by his 
 discretion. Jer. 10: 12. “In the beginning God created the heavens and 
 the earth.” Gen. 1:1. “ Thou even thou art Jehovah alone. Thou hast 
 
 made heav§n, and the heaven of heavens, with all their hosts, the earth 
 and all things that are therein, the seas and all that is therein, and thou 
 pi’eservest them all; and the host of heaven worshippeth thee.” Neh. 9: G. 
 “Thus saith Jehovah, I have made the earth, and created man upon it; I, 
 even my hands, have stretched out the heavens, and all their hosts have I 
 commanded.” Is. 45: 12. “I am Jehovah, that maketh all things; that 
 stretclieth forth the heavens alone ; that spreadeth abroad the earth by 
 myself.” Is. 44 : 24. “ Thou art worthy, 0 Lord, to receive glory, and 
 
 honor, and power, for thou hast created all things and for. thy pleasure 
 they are and were created.” Rev. 4 : 11. These are a few of the almost 
 innumerable passages in the Bible, which refer to Jehovah as the creator 
 of the heavens and the earth. They are however sufficient to show the 
 prominence which is given in the S. S. to this great work of Jehovah. But 
 how different is it in all Cliinese literature. The Rev. Dr. Medhurst says, 
 “ In one important particular, the Chinese ideas, respecting God fall short 
 of the truth, for they do not appear to ascribe the ci’eation of heaven and 
 earth to any one being.” An Inquiry, <ic. p. 4. Moffat in his Comj). Hist, 
 of Rel. says. “ In the historical classics of China, there is no mention of 
 creation, nor of anything prior to the reign of King Yaou. Later traditions 
 on the subject, as they do not belong to Chinese scripture, do not come 
 under this head. 'I’he cosmological theories of mythologers and philosophers 
 have no right to be assigned to the credit of the original national taith.” 
 Vol. 11, p. 7. He also remarks that “creation out of nothing does not 
 appear in the religion of Greece.” Ibid. p. 12. This all agrees with the 
 general remark that the creation of all things out of nothing is not spoken 
 of in any heathen system. Whatever semblance of creation that may be 
 spoken of in heathen writers refers to the transformation of })re-existing 
 matter. I am fully aware that Dr. Legge maintains that the work of 
 creation is ascribed to Shangti. But as Moffat has stated, there is no 
 reference to the creation of heaven and earth out of nothing in the Shoo- 
 King as translated by Dr. L. The strongest passage which he brings forwai'd 
 
BEING AS JEHOVAH OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? 17 
 
 ill support of his opinion is a hymn in praise of Shangti, which was prepared 
 in the 17th year of the emperor Kea-tsing, about the year 1539, A.D. and 
 wliich is found in “The Collected Statutes of Ming Dynasty.” But if we 
 could admit Dr. Legge’s translation as correct, it can hardly be claimed 
 that a hymn of the date of 1539, A.D. is an expression of the opinions of 
 the people who lived 1000 or 1500 years before Christ. There were several 
 sources from which the Chinese scholars of A.D. 1539 might have obtained 
 some idea of the Bible account of the creation. The Jews came to Chinn, 
 if not before, very soon after the Clmstian era. The Nestorians came in 
 the year A.D. 505 and were here for more than three hundred years. The 
 Mohammedans came in the 8th century and the Homan Catholics at the end 
 of the 13th century. See Williams’ Middle King. Vol. II, pp. 290-99. But 
 apart from this, the accuracy of the translation is not admitted. One word 
 which he translates creation, is held by many not to have that meaning — ■ 
 and among others who hold this opinion, is the Eev. Dr. Medhurst. To his 
 learing in Chinese Dr. Legge has given strong testimony. In his preface to 
 the Shoo-King he says: “Dr. iledhurst’s attainments in Chinese were pro- 
 digious.” p. vi. He also dedicates one of his pamphlets to the Rev. Dr. 
 Medhurst “ in token of his admiration of tlie extent and depth of his 
 acquaintance with the Chinese language and literature.” In “a Dissertation 
 on the Theology of the Chinese.” Dr. M. says : “ The words Tsaou Iiwa, 
 here translated ‘production and change,’ are not to be rendered ‘creation 
 and transformation;’ for the Chinese have no idea of creation, as we under- 
 stand it; viz. the bringing the ivorld into existence. It is true, tlie writer 
 above quoted, explains production by the bringing of something out of no- 
 thing; but by that the Chinese mean, the birth of animals, the spiringing up 
 of plants, the advancing of the tides, or the blowing of the wind, wlien to all 
 appearance, nothing was before. They do not mean bij it, the original for w- 
 ation of all things, but the constant production of things observable every 
 day.” p. IG. As the Chinese in common with all other heathen nations had 
 not the conception of the creation of heaven and earth and all things out of 
 nothing it is self evident that they could not ascribe such a woilc to Shang- 
 ti. From all these testimonies and considerations, it appears clear that the 
 Chinese have not ascribed the great and characteristic work of Jehovah to 
 Shangti. 
 
 From the above course of reasoning, it is evident that Shangti is 
 without two of the most essential characteristic -attributes that belong to 
 Jehovah, viz., eternal self-existence and that hoi}' jealousy which requires 
 the religious service of all his creatures to himself. Neither has he had 
 the most distinguishing work of Jehovah ascribed to him. In the celebrated 
 case already referred to, the claimant to the Tichbourne estates had an 
 outward resemblance to the true heir, he had acquired a considerable 
 knowledge of the mental habits, acquirements aud acquaintances of the 
 heir, so as to pi-esent a strong presumption in the minds of many that he 
 w'as the identical person. But when it was found that he was destitute 
 of those things which most distinctively belonged to the heir, such as, the 
 
18 IS SHAXGTI OF CHINESE CLASSICS SAME BEING AS JEHOVAH ? 
 
 knowledge of the members of the heir’s own family — the ability to speak 
 and read French which he had known like his own tongue, — the knowledge 
 of the places and studies of the college where he studied, <tc., all candid and 
 considerate persons concurred with the learned judge and the jury in the 
 opinion that the claimant was not the same person as the true heir. So 
 notwithstanding that Dr. Legge, in the earnest advocacy of Shangti was 
 so hopeful as toes press his belief in these words. — “ I am confident the 
 Christian world will agree with me in saying, this god [Shangti] is our 
 God” — I feel assured that the great body of Christian men will agi'ee in 
 the conclusion — that, while the Chinese have ascribed to Shangti many of 
 the attributes and works which belong to Jehovah, just as many others of 
 the ancient nations did to their supreme god, yet Shangti is not the same 
 being as Jehovah, — who alone is “God over all blessed for ever.” Any one 
 of these three lines of argument, viz. 1st, The testimony of the sacred Scrip- 
 tures that all nations have forgotten the true God. 2ud, The evidence 
 furnished by various writers that in the early ages of the world all nations 
 ascribed many of the attributes and works of Jehovah to their respective 
 chief gods and hence that such ascription is not any proof that any one of 
 them is Jehovah. 3rd, The evidence that Shangti is without some of the 
 most chai’acteristic and essential attributes and works of Jehovah — would 
 be suflBcient to satisfy most minds, that the opinion that Shangti is the 
 same being as Jehovah is not tenable ; but when they all converge to the 
 same point, they establish the negative of the proposition and prove beyond 
 all reasonable doubt that Shangti is not the same being as Jehovah. They 
 will also serve yet more to establish all minds in the truth which has been 
 held by the worshippers of Jehovah in all ages, that all the nations had 
 departed from the one true God, and made to themselves false gods and 
 make evident the interpretation that “ all the gods of the nations are idols 
 but Jehovah made the heavens.” Ps. 96 : 5. 
 
 AVhilst therefore, it would be a great vantage ground in prosecuting 
 missionary labour in China, if it were true that Shangti of the classics is 
 the same being as Jehovah, yet as it is not true, we must not compromise 
 the truth for any supposed advantage. And however distasteful it may be 
 to the pride of the Chinese, especially to the literary classes, to declare to 
 them that the Shangti of the classics, as well as Yuh hwang Shangti, is a 
 false god, and that no worship of him can be acceptable to Jehovah, yet we 
 must in faithfulness to our God declare the whole truth to themj and exhort 
 them to turn from the worship of Shangti and all other false gods to the 
 worship of Jehovah, the only living and true God and from whom alone 
 cometh salvation. 
 
5 
 
 P A E T II 
 
 ^hat m gesi^natcd ^han(|-S;i in ihc (thinesc Classics 
 and in ihe Ritual o); ih«[ ^tatij llclicjion of China. 
 
 T MIGHT end this discussion with the close of Part first. Bat it ap- 
 
 pears to me very desirable that some satisfactoiy answer should be 
 given to the question which is often asked, viz., who or what is Shangti 
 of the Chinese Classics ? It is most natural to suppose that the Chinese 
 books give some definite information on a matter of such importance. 
 Having arrived, after months of careful study and pains-taking inquiry, 
 at a definite conclusion in my own mind, I proceed to place the matter 
 before my readers with the reasons which have led me to these results. 
 It is my sincere conviction that the evidence which is submitted to them 
 for consideration will satisfy most readers that the conclusion, at which I 
 have arrived, is well founded. 
 
 In order to give a satisfactory view of the matter, it will be necessary 
 to take some notice of the religions of China. It is generally represented 
 that there are three systems of religion prevailing in China, which are 
 commonly styled, Confucianism, Taouism and Buddhism. Buddhism, as 
 is well known, was introduced into China from India, in the first century 
 of the Christian era. Taouism originated from the teachings of Laou- 
 tsz, who was contemporaneous with Confucius. With these two systems 
 of religion, my inquiries, at this time, have nothing to do. Their origin 
 was entirely subsequent to that of Confucianism ; and whilst it might be 
 interesting to consider the causes which have resulted in these two sys- 
 tems superseding, to such an extent, the primitive worship of China, I 
 refrain from entering upon such an interesting subject and restrict my 
 inquiries entirely to the consideration of Confucianism. Here also I 
 must pursue further this course of elimination ; for Confucianism, as 
 commonly spoken of, comprehends two distinct systems, viz., a system 
 of ethical and political doctrines, and a system of religions worship. 
 The former of these has attracted the principal attention of the students 
 of Chinese history, and the latter has been in a great measure overlooked. 
 At this present time I confine my inquiries to this latter subject, the early 
 system of religions worship which prevailed among the Chinese, before 
 the introduction of Taouism and Buddhism. 
 
 We have no clear statement of the time of the commencement of this 
 
20 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 primitive worship. We may, however, suppose that it commenced very 
 soon after the settlement of this branch of the human race in China — or, 
 in a general way, we may say that it commenced more than two thousand 
 years before the Christian era. This early worship was the only kind 
 that was known to Confucius : and all the terms used in connection with 
 religion and the remarks made by him in relation thereto, refer to this 
 system. This fact should be carefully kept in mind in reference to the 
 different Chinese authors who have written in regard to it ; for a great 
 many of the different opinions and statements which have been published 
 in the discussion of these matters have come from want of a proper dis- 
 crimination of the time when the different Chinese authors lived and wrote. 
 
 This worship, which had its origin in the earliest ages of the Chinese 
 race, is of that same simple character which has been found to have pre- 
 vailed among the nations of central and western Asia and eastern Europe. 
 Men not liking to retain the knowledge of Jehovah in their minds, and 
 looking at the external objects, from which the blessings of rain and sun- 
 shine, fruitful seasons and the abundant supply of the grains and fruits 
 of the earth were received, gave the worship and service, which was due 
 to the Creator alone, to these external objects. They worshipped the 
 heaven’s, the sun, the moon and the stars, and all the elements, as the 
 wind, the clouds, the rain and the thunder ; the earth and all its compon- 
 ent parts, as the five mountains and the five hills, the four seas and the 
 four rivers. 
 
 Though this primitive worship has been so much overshadowed by 
 Taouism and Buddhism in the outward appearances, by ihe number of 
 their temples and services, their priests and their ceremonies, yet its in- 
 fluence is felt in all the religious sentiments of the Chinese people ; and 
 this worship is much practiced, though it does not attract much attention, 
 amidst the more imposing ceremonies of the other systems. Thus the 
 worship of heaven and earth is a part of the worship performed in con- 
 nection with marriage ceremonies and also at funerals, in some parts of 
 China. The worship of the local earth-god in every house every morning 
 and evening, is a part of this early worship, as is also the observance of 
 the nev/ and full moon as days of special worship — the worship of the 
 moon in the eighth month and many others ceremonies which will be re- 
 ferred to hereafter. 
 
 Of the primitive worship in other lands, Moffat in his “ Comparative 
 History of Religions,” says “In the oriental world the greatest of the 
 gods were, throughout the whole of what we have defined as the ancient 
 period, taken from the great objects of nature ; but latterly disguised by 
 combination with meaner things,” Vol. II, p. 62. “In the history of the 
 Greek religion there are several stages. The earliest on record was a pure 
 nature worship, in which the divine beings wei’e all symbolical of things 
 in nature. Such also were Heaven, Earth, Aether, Day, Sky, Mountains, 
 Sea, Ocean, Sun, Moon, Aurora, streams, woods, seasons and various 
 products of the soil. In that stage the mythology of Greece was of the 
 
AND IN IHE RTTUAD OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 21 
 
 same class with that of the Hindu in the Hig- — Veda. It’s gods were the 
 same, and some of the names were identical.” Ibid. p. 65. Smith’s 
 Diet, of the Bible in the Article on Idolatry, says, “The old religion of 
 the Shemitic races consisted, in the opinion of Movers, in the deification 
 of the powers and law^s of nature. * * The sun and moon were early 
 selected as thq outword symbols of this all prevailing power, and the wor- 
 ship of the heavenly bodies was not only the most ancient, but the most 
 prevalent system of idolatry. Taking its rise in the plains of Chaldea, it 
 spread through Egypt, Greece Scythia and even Mexico and Ceylon.” 
 English Abbreviated Ed. p. 342. With these statements as regards the 
 early worship of the nations of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, the 
 fetatement of the early worship of the Chinese as given by Dr. Legge, 
 mainly agrees. “Shun had no sooner been designated by Yaou to the 
 active duties of the government as co-emperor with him, than ‘he of- 
 fered a special sacrifice, but with the ordinary forms, to God [the word 
 in the original is SJiang-ti ] ; sacrificed purely to the six honored ones ; 
 offered their appropriate sacrifices to the rivers and hills ; and extended 
 his worship to the hosts of the spirit’s [Shin]. Subsequently, in the 
 progresses which he is reported to have made to the different mountains, 
 where he met the princes of the several quarters of the empire, he always 
 commenced his proceedings with them by ‘ presenting a burnt offering to 
 heaven, and sacrificing in order to the hills and rivers.’” (This offering 
 was made B.C. 2283). “Who the six honored ones” whom Shun sacri- 
 ficed to, next to God, [Shang-ti] were, is not known — (according to the 
 Chinese Commentators they were “the seasons, cold and heat, sun, moon, 
 stars, and drought.”) In going to worship the hills and rivers, and the 
 hosts of the spirits, he must have supposed that there were certain 
 tutelary beings who presided over the more conspicuous objects of nature, 
 and its processes.” Shoo King, Prolog, p. 92. Again in Shi King, Dr. 
 Legge says “While the ancient Chinese thus believed in God [Shang-ti], 
 and thus conceived of him, they believed in other spirits [Shin] under 
 him, some presiding over hills and rivers, and others dwelling in the 
 heavenly bodies. In fact there was no object to which a tutelary spirit 
 [or god] might not at times be ascribed.” Prolog, p. 132. The early 
 worship of the Japanese appears to have been very neai’ly the same as that 
 of the Chinese. It is thus represented by the late Bishop Smith, in his 
 “ Ten weeks in Japan.” “ Hence it has come to pass that the Sinto re- 
 ligion is in a peculiar manner ‘the way of the Kami,’ and abounds with 
 shrines erected to the popular divinities of the earth and water, the sea, 
 the sky and the mountains, peopling every nook and corner with the 
 objects of idolatrous worship, and teaching the common people to find a 
 god in every place. The great “ Sun — goddess ” at the present time seems, 
 to be the principal object of divine adoration to the multitude, pp. 45, 46. 
 In this last particular, the Japanese agree with the Egyptians and Syrians 
 in making the sun the chief object of worship, and in this differed from the 
 Chinese, who made heaven and earth the principal objects of their worship. 
 
22 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 In China from the earliest periods, the worship of ancestors has 
 also prevailed in connection with this general worship of the objects of 
 natnre. In relation to this, Dr. Legge says, “There was also among the 
 early Chinese the religions worship of their departed friends, which still 
 continues to be observed by all classes from the emperor downward, and 
 seems of all rehgions services to have the greatest hold upon the people. 
 The rule of Confucius, that ‘parents when dead, should be sacrificed to 
 according to propriety,’ was, doubtless, in accordance with a practice which 
 had come down from the earliest times of the nation.” Shoo King 
 Prolog, p. 194. 
 
 We have thus arrived at the result that the objects of nature and 
 their ancestors, were the objects of worship among the Chinese people 
 from the earliest period of their history. 
 
 In the Chinese handbook which is called the “ Three Character 
 Classic,” the objects of their worship are very summarily referred to in the 
 line, “ There are three powers, heaven, earth and man.” In the fuller 
 statement of the matter these are more fully expressed as “ ^ Tien- 
 shin, Ti-k'i and A ^ j'in-kwei.” The “Tien-shin” not only refers to 
 
 deified heaven specifically, hut it is used to refer to all the component 
 parts thereof as the sun, the moon and stars, and the elements wind, 
 rain, clouds and thunder ; so also the Tiki not only refers to deified 
 earth, specifically, but, also it is used in refering to the various parts of 
 the earth as the five mountains, the five hills, the four seas and the four 
 rivers, and the jin-kwei not only includes the manes of deceased parents, 
 but it includes the manes of public benefactors, who for their supposed 
 merit have been deified ; such as those who are called the “gods of the 
 land and of the grains,” — “the god agriculture” and the goddess of 
 silk culture.” These are the gods which an agricultural people, as the 
 Chinese are, would soon make to themselves. Dr. Legge, in a note on 
 the passage of the Shoo King. “ Heaven and earth is the parent of all 
 creatures,” says, “ there can be no doubt that the deification of ‘ heaven 
 and earth,’ which appears in the text, took its rise from the Ylh King, of 
 which King Wan may properly be regarded as the author. Ko one who 
 reads what Wan says on the first and second diagrams, and the fuiiher 
 explanation of his son Tan (Duke of Chow) can be surprised to find King 
 Woo speaking as he does in the text.” Shoo King,, vol. ii, p. 283. 
 
 These objects were not only the objects of worship among the people, 
 but also were worshipped by the kings and rulers of the people. The 
 worship of “heaven and earth” more especially pertained to the chief 
 ruler of the kingdom. And notwithstanding the extent to which the 
 ceremonies of Taouism and Buddhism have superseded those of the 
 primitive worship among the people, this early religion of the country 
 consisting in the worship of the objects of natnre and of ancestors con- 
 tinues to be the State religion, of this empire. We have in this, the 
 singular fact, that the same system of religion has continued to be the 
 recognized state religion of this people for the long period of more than 
 
AND IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 23 
 
 f'/Tir thousand years. And as this is the oldest state religion, it is also 
 the most imposing in its ceremonies of any other system of false religion, 
 except perhaps the worship of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill in Imperial 
 Eome on special occasions, as when a triumphant general M'eut in grand 
 procession to the temple of Jupiter to return thanks for victory. In 
 the Imperial city of Peking, there are nearly twenty altars and temples 
 connected with this state religion. Some of them are the most imposing 
 structures in the city. Some of these altars and buildings are as follows ; 
 the altar to Heaven with the adjoining blue dome made to represent the 
 vault of Heaven and other buildings connected with the worship at that 
 altar on the south of the city. The altar to earth out of the north-gate. 
 The temple to the Imperial ancestors to the east of the altar to Heaven, 
 and the Temple to the gods of the land and of the grain near to that 
 of the ancestors. The altar to the god of agriculture to the west of the 
 altar of Heaven. The altar to the Sun on the east of the city, and of 
 the Moon on the west of the city. The temple to Confucius, to the Sages 
 of all ages, to the kings of previous dynasties, to the god of the year, &c., 
 &c. Instead of giving my own statement of the sacrifices which are 
 offered to the various objects and persons, I prefer to copy the account of 
 the State religion of China as given by the distinguished scholar and 
 missionary the late Rev. R. Morrison, D.D., on the last year of his life 
 in the “ Chinese Repository” for 1834 at page 49. The statement, he tells 
 his readers, was compiled from “ The collected Statutes ” of this Dynasty 
 and from collected “ Laws ” of the empire. “ The collected Statutes ” 
 of this Dynasty “has been published in at least two editions; one was 
 published in the 29th year of Kien-lung and the other in the 24th year 
 of Kia-king or in the year, A. D. 1765 and 1819. 
 
 The latter edition is bound in 240 vols. and the account of the rites 
 and ceremonies at these sacrifices with the prayers that are offered, and 
 the hymns that are sung fill some 30 vols. of the work. Dr. Morrison 
 writes ; “The State religion as practised by the Court of Peking and the 
 Provincial governments, is contained in the collected statutes ” and 
 “ Code of Laws ” of this dynasty under the head of “ rites and ceremonies,” 
 and in the subordinate head of ‘ sacrifices and offerings.’ From these two 
 works, we shall briefly specify the persons or things to whom these sacriflces 
 are presented or the objects of governmental worship. These are chifly 
 things, although persons are also included. The state sacrifices are divided 
 into three classes ; first, the gi’eat sacrifices ; second, the medium sacri- 
 fices ; and third, the little sacrifices. In the following list, the 1st, 2nd, 
 3rd, and 4th, are the objects, or the classes of objects, to which the great 
 sacrifices are offered ; [These four are Heaven, Earth, the Imperial 
 ancestors and the gods of the land and the grain]. From the 5th, to the 
 I3th, are those to which the medium sacrifices are offered ; that of the 
 I4th and onward have right only to the little sacrifices. 
 
 I. Then, the Heavens or sky.. This object of worship is otherwise called 
 the azure heavens; and hwangkung yii “the imperial concave expanse. 
 
24 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 2. Ti, the Earth. This, like the heavens, is dignified with th6 
 epithet imperial. 
 
 3. Tae Meaou, ‘The great temple’ of Ancestors. This title is used, 
 to include all the tablets contained therein dedicated to the manes, or 
 shades of the deceased emperors of the present dynasty. This triad of 
 titles, the Heavens, the Earth, the great temple, always placed together 
 on a level in respect of dignity at the great sacrifices, are also worshipped 
 apart. 
 
 4. Shay tseih, the gods of the land and grain : these are the special 
 patrons of each existing dynasty and are generally located in the fourth 
 place. 6. The sun also called “the great light.” 6. The moon, called 
 also “the night light.” 7. The manes of the emperors and kings of form- 
 er ages. 8. The ancient master Confucius. 9. The ancient Patron of 
 agriculture. 10. The ancient Patron of the manufacture of silk. 11. T'ien 
 shin, the gods of heaven. 12. Te ke, the gods of the earth. 13. Tae 
 suy, the god of the passing year. [These objects from 5 to 13 inclusive 
 receive the medium sacrifices]. 14. Seon e, the ancient patron of the 
 healing art; together with the innumerable ghosts of deceased philanthro- 
 pists, faithful statesmen, eminent scholars, martyrs to virtue, &c. 15. Sing 
 shin, the stars. 16. The clouds. 17. The rain. 18. The wind. 19. The 
 thunder. 20. The five great mountains of China. 21. The four seas. 
 22. The four rivers. 23. The famous hills. 24. The great streams of 
 water. 25. Military flags and banners. 26. The god of the road, where 
 an army may pass. 27. The god of cannon. 28. The gods of the gate. 
 29. The queen goddess of the ground. 30. The north pole, &c., &c.” 
 From this specimen it is apparent that in the Chinese State religion, the 
 material universe, as a whole and in detail, is worshipped; and that sub- 
 ordinate thereto, they have gods celestial and terrestrial and ghosts in- 
 fernal ; that they worship the work of their own hands, not only as images 
 of persons or things divine, but human workmanship for earthly pur- 
 poses, as in flags and banners and destructive cannon. That the material 
 universe is the object of worship appears not only from the names of those 
 several parts which have been given above, but also from other circum- 
 stances. Thus the imperial high-priest when he worships heaven, wears 
 robes of azure color, in allusion to the sky. When he worships the earth, 
 his robes are yellow to represent the clay of this earthly clod. When the 
 sun is the object, his dress is red ; and for the moon, he wears a pale 
 white. The altar on which to sacrifice to heaven is round to represent 
 heaven: this is expressly said.” Chi. Repos. Vol. Ill, p. 49-51. Dr. 
 Williams in his Middle Kingdom accepted this statement of the nature- 
 worship of the Chinese as the correct representation of the State religion 
 of China, Vol. II, pp. 233-234. As we close the perusal of this clear state- 
 ment of the objects of the state worehip by the government of this heathen 
 people, every one must feel that he is in the presence of a wonderful 
 system of idolatry which is an integral part of a well established govern- 
 ment. It is calculated to impress every one with the idea of how deeply 
 

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AXD IN IHE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OP CHINA. 
 
 25 
 
 the roots of idolatry run in the structure of this government, and ho\v 
 Herculean is the work of its uprooting. It is no less a work than that 
 which was before the early disciples of our Lord, when they went forth to 
 pi’each the Gospel in the Roman empire. With a view to deejien this im- 
 pression I present the Chinese text of the sacrifices as offered by the 
 emperor of China to Heaven and Earth, the one at the winter solstice, 
 and the other at the summer solstice, with a translation. They are ex- 
 tracted from the imperial edition of the collected statutes of this dynasty 
 as published in the 29th year of the reign of Kien-lung in the 37th and 
 38th sections, or Kiuen, under the part relating to the “Board of Rites 
 and Ceremonies.” The Chinese is cojDied as it stands on the original to 
 show the place of honor which is assigned by the imperial authority to 
 the different objects and persons. 
 
 TRANSLATION OP THE CHINESE RITUAL FOR THE SACRIFICE TO HEAVEN, 
 “the IMPERIALLY AUTHORIZED EDITION OF THE COLLECTED STATUTES 
 OP THE GREAT PURE DYNASTY. SECTION 37tH. 
 
 Board of Rites. Bureau of Sacrifices. Great Sacrifice No. 1. All 
 the rites of the Imperial sacrifice to Heaven must take in the South Com- 
 mon, where, because it is the place of the male principle (Yang), thei’e 
 shall be erected an altar, round in shape to resemble Heaven, which shall 
 be called the Round Hillock. It shall consist of three terraces. Here 
 yearly, on the day of the winter solstice, is to be offered the sacrifice to 
 Impei ial Heaven, Ruler above ; to this sacrifice, as equal sharers, are to 
 be invited Emperor T'ai Tsu Kao (T'ien Ming, I6l6), Emperor T'ai 
 Tsung Wen (T'ien Tsung, 1627), Emperor Shih Tsu Chang (Shun Chih, 
 1644), Emperor Sheng Tsu Jen (Kang Hi, 1662) and Emperor Shih 
 Tsung Hien (Yung Ching, 1723); and as secondary participators the 
 Great Light, the Night Light, the Stars, the Clouds, Rain, Wind and 
 Thunder. The place of the Ruler above shall be in the first (topmost) 
 terrace facing the South, that of the respective Holy Ones facing East 
 and West. The positions of the four classes of secondary participators 
 shall be in the second terrace ; the Great Light facing West, with the 
 Stars next to him ; the Night Light facing East, with the Clouds, Rain, 
 Wind and Thunder next to her. All these shall be covered with light 
 blue tents. Before the Ruler Above belong an Azure gem, (an ancient 
 jude badge of office, round with a hole in the middle) 12 bundles of silk 
 burnt in sacrifices, I calf, 1 platter, 2 hampers (square outside and round 
 within) 2 hampers (round outside and square within), flat baskets and 
 trenchers 12 of each, I wine vessel, 3 cyathi, I furnace, 6 candlesticks and 
 1 roasted bullock. Before the respective Holy Ones belong equally; 1 
 sacrificial bundle of silk, 1 calf, I platter, of the two kinds of hampers 
 two of each, flat baskets and trenchers 12 of each, I wine vessel, 3 cyathi, 
 1 furnace and 4 candlesticks. Before the Great Lio'ht and Niffht Li^ht 
 belong respectively ; 1 sacrificial bundle of silk, I bullock, 1 platter, the 
 
26 "WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 
 two kinds of hampers 2 of each, flat baskets and trenchers 10 of each, 2 
 wine vessels, 3 cyathi, 20 wine cups, 1 furnace and 2 candlesticks. Be- 
 fore the Stars belong 11 sacrificial bundles of silk, before the Clouds, Rain, 
 
 Wind, and Thunder belong 4 sacrificial bundles of silk then to these two 
 classes respectively belong ; 1 bullock, 1 sheep, 1 pig, 1 platter, 2 sacrificial 
 broth jars, the two kinds of hampers 2 of each, flat baskets and trenchers 
 10 of each, 1 wine vessel, 3 cyathi, 20 wine cups, 1 furnace and 2 can- 
 dlesticks. The Imperial sacrificial bundles of silk shall he placed in 
 baskets, the sacrificial animals in trays, the wine vessels shall be full of 
 wine and coai’se cloths shall cover the spoons. The day previous to the 
 sacrifice the Board of music shall place in readiness the musical instru- 
 ments for playing the hai’monious airs of Shun under the altar hanging 
 them on the right and left. The Imperial Guard shall arrange the state 
 traveling equipage outside of the Palace, and place the Imperial chariot 
 at the foot of the steps of the Great Peace gate. At 9 o’clock A. M. an 
 officer of the sacrificial Court shall go to the T'ien Ts'ing (Heavenly Pure) 
 gate, and memorialize the Emperor to go to the Hall of Fasting. The 
 Emperor shall then put on his Imperial dragon embroidered robes, ascend 
 the ceremonial chair, and depart from the Palace proceeded by ten great 
 household Lords, and followed by a retinue of two great household Lords 
 and two companies of the Imperial Guard, twenty men in each, called the ^ 
 
 Leopard-tail bands, one of which is armed with guns and swords, the 
 other with bows and arrows. The side escorts shall be along as usual. 
 
 When the bottom of the steps of the Great Peace gate is reached, the 
 Emperor shall leave the chair and mount the Imperial chariot. When the 
 procession starts, all persons are to be w'arned off the road. The bell o^ 
 the Palace shall then be rung, and while the grand Imperial equipage is 
 moving off, those members of the royal family and all those civil and 
 military officials who are not going to assist in the sacrifice, dressed in 
 official robes shall all kneel to see it start. The musicians of the proces- 
 sion shall be there, but shall not play, one of the orderlies of the Imperial 
 Guard, however, shall ring the bell of the Hall of Fasting. When the 
 Emperor has entered the West gate of the altar, and arrived at the out- 
 side of the Ch'iiu HSug gate, he shall .dismount from his chariot, when 
 two ushers of the sacrificial ‘Court, shall reverently lead the Emperor 
 through the left door within, unto the Circular Hall of the Imperial Ex- 
 panse, when before the Ruler Above and the respective Holy Ones, he 
 shall offer incense and thereafter kneel three times and worship (kow 
 tow) nine times. Before the shrines of the Secondary Pai’ticipators in 
 the two side vestibules, shall deputized sacrificial officers he sent to offer 
 incense and perform the rites. Then the Emperor shall go to the Round 
 Hillock, and look at the tablet places of the altar ; then go to the treasury 
 of the gods, and look at the baskets and trenchers and the stables of 
 the sacrificial animals, when done he shall, by the left south gate of the 
 inner enclosure, and through the left south gate of the outer enclosure ^ 
 
 go to the right side of the road of the gods, when he shall ascend the 
 
AXD IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGIOX OF CHIXA. 
 
 27 
 
 Imperial chariot, and proceed to the Hall of Fasting. Those members of 
 the royal family and those numerous officials, who are to assist in the 
 sacrifice, dressed in their official robes shall all assemble outside of the Hall 
 of Fasting, and there divided into companies 'reverently watch the Em- 
 peror enter and then retire. The rising of the sun must be watched, and 
 when it is one hour and three quarters before sunrise, an officer of the 
 Sacrificial Court, shall enter the Hall of Fasting to tell the time. The 
 Emperor shall then put on his Imperial sacrificial robes, and having 
 entered his ceremonial chair go out, then leaving his chair, he shall mount 
 his chariot, while an orderly of the Imperial Guards rings the bell of the 
 Hall of Fasting. When the Emperor has arrived at the outside of the 
 south gate of the outer enclosure, at the right side of the road of the 
 gods, he shall dismount from his chariot, whence two ushers of the Sacri- 
 ficial Court shall reverently lead him within the great waiting place. 
 The head of the Board of Rites shall then direct some officers of the Sac- 
 rificial Court to enter the Circnlar Hall of the Imperial Expanse, and 
 reverently invite the tablets of the gods out ; having placed them within 
 the light blue tents, the officer of the Sacrificial Court shall then mem- 
 orialize the Emperor to perform the rites. The Emperor shall then leave 
 the great waiting place, and wash, after which the ushers of the Sacri- 
 ficial Court shall reverently lead the Emperor out through the left south 
 gate of the outer enclosure, in through the left south gate of the inner 
 enclosure, up the main steps to the second terrace yellow tent waiting 
 place, where he shall stand before the worshipping place there. A master 
 of ceremonies of the Sacrificial Court, shall then lead in the four dele- 
 gated sacrificial officers, entering by the right south gate to the raised 
 middle walk at the front of the steps, when they shall stand. Officers of 
 the Court of Ceremonies shall then lead in the relations of the Emperor 
 and the Barons, who are to assist in the sacrifice, to their positions at the 
 top of the steps on the third terrace ; some other nobles to their positions 
 at the bottom of the steps, and the numerous mandarins to their posi- 
 tions at the outside of the outer enclosure gate,, where they shall stand on 
 the right and left, facing North. The ceremonial officer shall then call 
 the musicians and acrobats to sing a song, and the different attendants 
 to attend to their respective duties. (Hereafter from the burning of the 
 whole burnt offering until the taking away of the dishes and the watch- 
 ing of the burning, it pertains to the duty of the ceremonial officer to is- 
 sue the necessary calls). The eight bands of military performers shall 
 now enter, while the ushers shall memorialize the Emperor to take his 
 position. The Emperor shall then take his worshipping place and stand, 
 while the whole burnt offering is being burnt to receive the Ruler god. 
 The incense officials, each bearing a censer, shall then enter, while the 
 Drum Major shall command the band to play the tune for receiving the 
 Ruler god, viz., the air of Original Peace. (All calls for music, from 
 this time on, must be given through the musical director). Then 
 the Master of Ceremonies shall cry “ ascend the altar,” whereupon 
 
28 ■VVIIAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 tliey shall reverently lead the Emperor to the first terrace before the 
 shrine of the Ruler Above. The incense officials shall then kneel and 
 hold out the incense, the Master of Ceremonies shall then cry “ kneel,” 
 the Emperor shall then kneel, cry, “offer incense,” the Emperor shall 
 then offer a stick of incense, “a second time,” “a third time offering 
 sliced sandlewood,” “arise.” After this he shall approach the shrines 
 of the respective Holy Associates, and before them offer incense, the rites 
 of which shall be the same. Then the Master of Ceremonies shall cry 
 “ return to your place ; ” the Emperor shall then return to his place : the 
 Master of Ceremonies shall cry “ kneel,” “ worship,” “ arise.” (All the 
 formalities of ascending the altar, and returning to the original position, 
 and the carrjdng out of other ceremonies must be under the direction of 
 a crier now and hereafter). The Emperor shall then kneel three times, 
 and worship (kow tow) nine times, the different royal relatives and 
 numerous officials shall all likewise follow him in these rites. The manda- 
 rins in charge of the Imperial sacrificial bundles of silk, each carrying a 
 basket, shall now enter, while the band plays the Brilliant Peace air. 
 Then the Emperor shall ascend the altar, and approach before the shrine 
 of the Ruler Above. The mandarin in charge of the Imperial sacrificial 
 bimdles of silk, shall then kneel and hold out the basket, the Emperor 
 is then to kneel, take the basket, offer the Imperial sacrificial bundles of 
 silk, arise, and afterwards approach the shrines of the respective As- 
 sociated Holy Ones, and before them offer the Imperial sacrificial bundles 
 of silk with the same rites. The Emperor shall then return to his posi- 
 tion, and the bowls are to be brought in. The Emperor shall then turn 
 and stand at the side of his worshipping position, facing the West, while 
 the proper officers shall pour the broth into jugs, and then reverently carry 
 them from the bottom of the altar, straight up the main steps to the 
 shrine of the Ruler Above, and the shrine of the respective Holy Ones, 
 where they shall kneel and hold them up, then arise, and pour some of the 
 broth into the bowls three times, after which they shall all retire descend- 
 ing by the west stair case. Then the Emperor shall resume his position, 
 and while the band plays the General Peace air, the Emperor is to mount 
 the altar, and go before the shrine of the Ruler Above, and before the 
 shrine of the Associated Ones, where he shall kneel, offer the bowls, arise, 
 and then return to his place The first of the (drink) offering ceremonies 
 shall now take place. The cyathi bearers, each carrying a cyathus shall 
 then enter. The Longevity Peace air shall be played, and the martial 
 performance with shields and battle axes shall then be gone through with. 
 The Emperor shall ascend the altar, and go before the shrine of the 
 Ruler Above. The cyathi bearers shall kneel and present their cyathi, 
 the Emperor shall likewise kneel, offer the cyathi, pour libations in the 
 middle, arise, go to the worshipping position, which shall be his during 
 the reading of the ritual, and stand there. The ritual officer shall then 
 approach the ritual table, kneel, kow tow three time take up the ritual 
 tablet, and kneel at the left of the table. The music shall now cease for 
 
AXn IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGIOX OF CHINA. 
 
 29 
 
 a while. The Emperor shall then kneel, and likewise the whole company 
 of mandarins. When the ritual officer shall have finished reading the 
 ritual, he shall take the ritual tablet, approach before the shrine of the 
 Ruler Above, kneel, place it upon the table, kow-tow three times and 
 retire, where upon the music shall begin again. The Emperor shall now 
 lead all his officers in worshipping three times. Wlien he has arisen, he 
 shall go before the shrines of the Associated Ones, and offer the cyathi 
 successively wdth the same rites. The Master of Ceremonies shall then 
 lead the delegated sacrificial officer to ascend the altar, by the east 
 and west steps to the positions of the secondary Participators, to offer 
 incense, to present sacrificial bundles of silk and to successively offer the 
 cyathi ; when accomplished, they shall descend and retire to their ori- 
 ginal positions. The music shall again cease. The military performers 
 shall now retire, while the eight bands of civil performers shall enter. 
 The Second of the (drink) offerings ceremonies shall now be carried out, 
 during the playing of the Excellent Peace air and during the perform- 
 ances with feathers and fifes. The Emperor shall ascend the altar, offer 
 successively the cyathi, pour libations on the left with the same rites as 
 those of the First (drink) offering, and return to his place. Then shall 
 take place the final (drink) offering during the playing of the Everlast- 
 ing Peace air (the mummer’s play to be the same as that of the second 
 (drink) offering) . The Emperor shall ascend the altar, offer successively 
 the cyathi, pour libations to the right with the same rites as those of the 
 second (drink) offering, and then return to his place. The delegated 
 sacrificial officers shall then offer the cyathi just as on the previous oc- 
 casion. The music shall cease now, while the civil mummers retire. 
 The officer of the Sacrificial Court shall then cry “the bestowed hap- 
 piness (wine) and roast meats.” Two chief Butlers shall then approach 
 the east table, take up the happiness (wine) and roast meats, enter be- 
 fore the shrine of the Ruler Above, and hold them up. The Emperor 
 shall then approach the drinking-their-happiness and getting-their-fiesh 
 worshipping position, and there stand. Two members of the Imperial 
 Guard shall then enter and stand on the left. The officers in charge of 
 the happiness (wine) and roast meats shall then descend and stand on 
 the right. The Emperor is then to kneel, the right and left officers on 
 duty shall all also kneel, whereupon the right hand officers shall present 
 the happiness wine, the Emperor shall receive the cyathus, raise it up, 
 and pass it to the left hand officer. The roast meats shall be presented 
 and received in the same manner. He then shall worship three times, 
 arise, return to his place, and then lead all his officials in kneeling three 
 times and worshipping (kow-towing) nine times. The dishes shall now 
 be removed, while the band shall play the Glorious Peace air. An of- 
 ficer, whose duty it is, shall now approach before the shrine of the Ruler 
 Above, and take away the azure gem and retire. The Ruler god shall 
 then be dismissed to the tune of Pure Peace, while the Emperor shall 
 lead the whole band of his officers in kneeling three times, and worship- 
 
30 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 ping (kow-towing) nine times. Officers in charge shall then remove 
 successively the ritual tablet, the sacrificial bundles of silk, the dishes, 
 and the incense, and reverently take them to the burning place. The Em- 
 peror shall then change his position standing at the side of his worship- 
 ping place facing West, to watch the ritual and sacrificial bundles of silk 
 pass, after which he shall resume his position. The incense and sacri- 
 ficial bundles of silk belonging to the Secondary Participator, s, shall, 
 likewise, by the east and west staircases, be carried to their respective 
 burning furnaces during the performance of the Great Peace air. 
 When the ritual and sacrificial bundles of silk shall be half burnt, the 
 Emperor shall be memorialized to watch the burning, whereupon he 
 shall be reverently lead through the left south gate of the inner en- 
 closure outside to the place for watching the burning, there to witness the 
 burning. The delegated sacrificial officers shall respectively also be led 
 to the outside of the right hand and left hand gates to watch the burning. 
 It shall there be memorialized to the Emperor, that the rites are over, 
 whereupon he shall be reverently led out through the left south gate of 
 the outer enclosure, to the great waiting place, where he shall change his 
 clothes. Then the highest officer of the Board of Rites, shall instruct an 
 officer of the Sacrificail Court,' to reverently invite the tablet of the gods 
 to return to the Circular Hall of the Imperial Expanse. When the Em- 
 peror shall have reached the outside of the Chau Hang gate, he shall as- 
 cend the ceremonial chair. As the Imperial equipage proceeds, the musi- 
 cians in the procession, shall play the Protecting Peace air. When the 
 Emperor returns home, he must be followed by his relatives, but the 
 different manderins may successively disperse. Those relatives and nu- 
 merous officials, who did not assist at the sacrifice, shall be dressed in 
 their official robes to kneel and receive the Emperor outside of the Palace. 
 While the bell of the Palace is ringing, the different relations shall follow 
 the Imperial chariot within, unto the inner gold water bridge, where they 
 shall reverently watch the Emperor enter the Palace, and then one and 
 all disperse.” 
 
 THE RITUAL FOR PRATER TO HEAVEN ON ANT SPECIAL OCCASION. 
 
 If for any reason a prayer should be reverently offered, a delegated 
 officer shall take charge of the service. At the fifth watch, the Sacrificial 
 Court shall see that the light blue tents are put up on the Round Hillock. 
 At the first crowing of the cock, the Delegated Officer shall be reverently 
 waiting at the outside of the Chau Hang gate. An officer of the Sacri- 
 ficial Court shall then dispatch the proper person to reverently invite the 
 Imperial Heaven, Ruler Above’s divine tablet forth, and place it within 
 the tent, and also arrange before it, one sacrificial bundle of silk, one wdne 
 vessel, three cyathi, one furnace, two candlesticks, the liams of a deer, some 
 minced venison, some minced rabbit, and five kinds of fruit. Trays of 
 roasted animals shall not be needed, neither shall there be any music. 
 Two ushers of the Sacrificial Court shall lead the Delegated Officer within 
 the right door of the Chau Hang gate, and through the right south gate 
 
AND IN IHE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 31 
 
 of the outer enclosure, and there through the right south gate of the in- 
 ner enclosure, bring him to the Round Hillock, which he shall ascend by 
 the west steps unto the third terrace, and from there by the main steps 
 go up to the front of the worshipping place, where he shall stand, facing 
 north. The ceremonial officer shall then cry. “ All ye attendant officers 
 see that ye, each of you, do your respective duties.” (Hereafter from 
 the receiving of the god until the watching of the burning, it pertains to 
 the duty of the ceremonial officer to issue the necessary calls) . The us- 
 hers shall then lead the Delegated Officer to his worshipping place, wffiere 
 he shall stand and there receive the god. The incense mandarin shall 
 now take his censer and enter. The master of ceremonies having issued 
 the call to ascend the altar, shall lead the Delegated Officer by the west 
 steps up to the first terrace unto the incense table. The incense mandarin 
 shall kneel and offer the incense. The master of ceremonies shall cry 
 “kneel” the Delegated Officer shall kneel, cry, “offer incense,” the Dele- 
 gated Officer shall offer a stick of incense, then on the second time, and 
 on the third sliced saudlewood and then arise. Then it shall be cried 
 “return to your place,” whereupon the Delegated Officer shall be led 
 down the west steps to his original place. Then it shall be cried, “kneel,” 
 “ kow-tow,” “arise.” (Hereafter all formalities connected with ascending 
 the altar, returning to ones place and other ceremonies, shall be announced 
 by a crier) whereupon the Delegated Officer shall kneel three times, and 
 kow-tow nine times. Then should come the ceremonies of presenting the 
 sacrificial bundle of silk, and the first (drink) offering. The officer in 
 charge of the sacrificial bundle of silk, bearing his basket, and the officer 
 in charge of the cyathus carrying the cyathus shall now successively 
 enter. The Delegated Officer shall now mount the altar, and approach 
 before the shrine of the Ruler Above. The officer in charge of the sacri- 
 ficial bundle of silk, shall kneel and offer the basket, the Delegated Of- 
 ficer shall likewise kneel, receive the basket, and place it upon the table. 
 Then the cyathus bearer shall kneel, and offer the cyathus. The Delegat- 
 ed Officer shall kneel receive the cyathus, reverently offer it, pour a 
 libation in the middle, and then arise. The officer in charge of the ritual 
 shall then approach before the ritual table, kneel, kow-tow three times, 
 respectfully receive the ritual tablet and then kneel to the left of the table. 
 The ushers shall then lead the Delegated Officer from the first terrace 
 down the right side of the middle steps, to the second terrace, to his place 
 for listening to the reading of the ritual, where he shall kneel facing 
 Horth. The ritual officer having finished the reading of the ritual, shall 
 approach before the shrine of the god, kneel, place it back in the table, 
 kow-tow as before, and then retire. The Delegated Officer shall kow-tow 
 three times, and descend by the west steps to his place. Then shall come the 
 second (drink) offering, in which the libation is poured to the left. This 
 is to be followed by the last (drink) offering, in which the libation is to 
 be poured in the right, with exactly the same rites in each case. Then 
 the god is to be dismissed, while the Delegated Officer shall kneel three 
 
32 TVHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SIIANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 times and kow-tow nine times. The proper officers shall then receive 
 successively the ritual, the sacrificial bundle of silk, and the incense, and 
 reverently take them to the burning place. The Delegated Officer shall 
 turn and stand on the west side of his worshipping place facing East, t> 
 watch them pass. Having resumed his proper position, he shall be led 
 without the right south gate of the inner enclosure, to the place for 
 watching the burning, where he shall stand to witness the burning. The 
 accomplishment of all the rites having been announced, he shall be led 
 out by the right south gate of the outer enclosure. An officer of the 
 Sacrificial Court shall then direct the proper officer to reverently invite 
 the tablet of the god back to its Imperial place, after which all shall retire.” 
 
 TRANSLATION OF THE CHINESE RITUAL ON THE PRAYER FOR GRAIN. 
 
 “ All ceremonies connected with prayer on behalf of grain, must take 
 place on the South Common, North of the Round Hillock, on an altar 
 constructed with three terraces, on the top one of which shall be raised a 
 temple to be called “'Prayer for the Year.” Yearly, on the first lin of the 
 first month, sacrifice shall be offered to the Ruler Above, on behalf of the 
 common people to beseech for a good harvest. The shrine of Imperial 
 Heaven, Ruler Above, shall be in the first (topmost) terrace, within the 
 temple, facing South. The (deceased) Emperors T'ai Tsu Kao (T'ien 
 Ming, 1616), T'ai T.sung Wen (T'ien Tsung, 1627), Shih Tsu Chang 
 (Shun Chih, 1644), Shing Tsu Jen (Kang Hi, 1662), and Shih Tsung 
 Hien (Yung Cheng, 1723), shall be associated with him, having their 
 places facing East and West. Tire day previous to the sacrifice, the 
 Emperor shall go to the South Common to fast and sleep. When he shall 
 have arrived at the right side of the south gate. of the outer enclosure of 
 the Prayer-on-behalf-of-gi’ain-altar, he shall dismount from his chariot. 
 Two ushers of the Sacrificial Court shall then lead the Emperor within 
 the left door of the Prayer-for-the-Year gate, unto the Imperial Heaven 
 temple, when he shall offer incense and worship. He shall then go to 
 the Prayer-for-the-Year temple, to reverently inspect the shrines of the 
 altar. When that is done, he shall pass through the east gate unto the 
 Treasury of the gods, to inspect the baskets and trenchers, and also the 
 stalls of the sacrificial animals. When done, he shall go to the Hall of 
 fasting. On the day of the sacrifice, the Emperor’s worshipping place 
 shall be set up in the first (topmost) terrace within the temple door. The 
 position for hearing the ritual and receiving the happiness (wine) and 
 roast meats, shall be in front of the worshipping place. The Emperor 
 shall enter the left door of the Prayer-for-the-Year gate, ascend by the 
 left steps, and enter the left door of the temple unto his worshipping 
 place, where he shall worship. The position of the rojml relations assist- 
 ing on the sacrifice shall be in the first terrace without the temple, at the 
 head of the steps. The position of the numerous civil and military 
 officers shall be in the third terrace, at the foot of the steps. The head 
 of the Board of Rites shall now dispatch an officer of the Sacrificial Court, 
 to go to the Imperial Heaven temple to reverently write the tablets, of 
 
AND IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 33 
 
 the gods out and place them within tlie temple of Prayer-for-the Tear. 
 Before the Ruler Above shall be used one sacrificial bundle of silk, music 
 and whole burnt offerings shall be employed to receive the Ruler god, the 
 band to play the Praying for Peace air. At the presenting of the Imperial 
 sacrificial bundle of silk, the Steady Peace air shall be played. When 
 the sacrificial bowl is carried in, the Ten Thousand Peace air shall be 
 played. At the fii’st (drink) offering, the Precious Peace air. The second 
 (drink) offering, the Luxuriant Peace air. The final (drink) offering, the 
 Felicitous Peace air. At the removing of the dishes the Enriched Peace 
 air. At the dismissal of the Ruler god, the F ruitful Peace air. At the 
 watching of the burning, the Grain Peace air. When the Rites shall 
 have been accomplished, the head of the Board of Rites shall dispatch an 
 officer of the Sacrificial Court, to reverently invite the tablets of the gods 
 to return unto the royal Imperial Heaven temple. All the rest of the 
 ceremonies shall be just like those of the Round Hillock.” 
 
 TRANSLATION OP THE RITUAL AT THE SACRIFICE IN PRATER FOR RAIN. 
 
 “ All ceremonies connected with the usual Prayer for rain. A sacri- 
 fice to Imperial Heaven, Ruler Above, at the Round Hillock, to pray for 
 a fruitful rain in behalf of the one hundred kinds of grain, shall take 
 place yearly, in the fourth month, when the dragon star has appeared, on 
 a day selected by divination. On the day previous to the sacrifice, the 
 Emperor shall fast and sleep at the South Common. He shall also enter 
 the Circular Hall of the Imperial Expanse to offer incense, go to the 
 Round Hillock to inspect the shrines of the altar, enter the treasury of the 
 gods to look after the baskets and trenchers, and inspect the stalls of the 
 sacrificial animals. On the day of the sacrifice the shrines of Imperial 
 Heaven, Ruler Above, of the Associated Ones, of the Secondary Partici- 
 pators, shall be set up exactly as at the Great Sacrifice on the Winter solstice. 
 Before the Ruler Above, shall be used only one sacrificial bundle of silk, 
 as in the case of prayer on behalf of grain. Music and whole burnt offer- 
 ings shall be employed to receive the ruler god, the band to play the 
 Cloudy Peace air. At the presenting of the Imperial sacrificial bundle of 
 silk, the Cloud Peace air shall be played, when the sacrificial bowl is 
 carried in, the Necessary Peace air. At the first (drink) offering the 
 Soaking Peace air shall be prayed. At the second (drink) offering, the 
 Dew Peace air. At the final (drink) offering, the Drizzling Peace air. 
 When removing the dishes, the Spirit Peace air. At the dismissal of the 
 Ruler god the Steeped Peace air. When watching the burning the 
 Drenching Peace air. The rest of the rites are exactly like those of the 
 Great sacrifice on the Winter solstice.” 
 
 TRANSLATION OP THE RITUAL AT THE SACRIFICE, WITH THE 
 EXTRAORDINART PRATER FOR RAIN. 
 
 “ All ceremonies connected with the Extraordinary Prayer for rain. 
 If it should not rain after the ordinary yearly prayer for rain in the 
 fourth month, a Delegated Officer should be sent to reverently inform 
 the Celestial gods, the teirestrial gods, and the Great Year (god). Should 
 
34 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 it not rain then after seven days, the gods of the land and grain should 
 he informed. If it still does not rain the celestial and terrestrial gods 
 and the Great Tear (god) should be informed again. If after this third 
 time it should not rain, then the Extraordinary Prayer for rain shall take 
 place. The day previous to offering the Extraordinary Prayer for rain, 
 an officer shall be delegated to reverently inform the Imperial Ancestors. 
 On this same day also at 9 o’clock a.m., the Emperor dressed in his ordin- 
 ary clothes, shall go to the Hall of Fasting. There shall be no music, no 
 cleaning of the streets, and no cries to clear the way. On the day of the 
 sacrifice wearing a rain hat and plain clothes, he shall personally make 
 known his request at the Round Hillock where he shall have set up the 
 shrine of Imperial Heaven, Ruler Above, and those of the four Secondary 
 Participators. All the royal relatives and those beneath them in rank 
 assisting in the sacrifice shall likewise be dressed in rain hats and plain 
 clothing. When the three (drink) offerings shall have been offered, and 
 the music stopped, the respective sixteen dancing youths dressed in dark 
 green clothes, shall perform the royal exercise with feathers and fans and 
 sing the eight milky-way hymns composed personally by the Emperor to 
 pray for a good heavy rain. The rest of the rites, together with the 
 musical airs, shall be exactly like those of the Ordinary Prayer for rain. 
 Should it rain then let another sacrifice be offered under the care of a 
 Delegated Officer dressed in official robes who shaU perform all the rites 
 as in ordinary occasions. If it should rain after the fast, but before the 
 sacrifice, another sacrifice shall take place as in the former case.” 
 
 TRANSLATION OF THE CHINESE RITUAL FOR THE SACRIFICE TO EARTH. THE 
 IMPERIALLY AUTHORIZED EDITION OF THE COLLECTED STATUTES 
 OF THE GREAT PURE DYNASTY. SECTION 38tH. 
 
 Board of Rites. Bureau of Sacrifices. Great Sacrifice, No. 2. All 
 sacrificial rites to Earth must take place on the North Common, where, 
 because it is the place of the female principle, (Yin) an altar shall be 
 erected to be called the Square Pool. It shall consist of two terraces, 
 and at the four extremes of it, there shall be square pits to collect water. 
 Here on the day of the summer solstice, is to be offered a sacrifice to Im- 
 perial Earth, the Producer. To this sacrifice, as equal sharers, are to be 
 invited Emperor T'ai Tsu Kao, (T'ien Ming, 1616), Emperor T'ai Tsung 
 Wen (T'ien Tsung, 1627), Emperor Shih Tsu Chang (Shun Chih, 1644), 
 Emperor Sheng Tsu Jen (Kang Hi, 1662) and Emperor Shih Tsung 
 Hien (Yung Ching, 1723); and as secondary participators, the five high 
 mountains, the five marts, the four oceans, the four rivers, and the five 
 hills Ch'i Yun, T'ien Chu, Lung Yeh, Ch5,ng Zhui and Yung Ning. The 
 place of Imperial Earth, the Producer, shall be on the first (topmost) 
 terrace, facing North; that of the respective Holy Ones facing East and 
 West. The positions of the four classes of Secondary Participators, shall 
 be on the second terrace ; the five High mountains and three hills, Ch'i 
 
AND IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 35 
 
 Yun, T'ien Clm and Yung King facing West, witli the four Oceans next 
 to them; the five Marts and the two hills, Lung Yeh and Chang Zhui 
 facing East, with the four Rivers next to them. All these shall be cover- 
 ed with yellow tents. Before Imperial Earth, the Producer, shall belong 
 a yellow jade badge (much used during the Chen dynasty to denote 
 princely rank, it has eight corners with a round hole in the center, and 
 its shape was thought to resemble the earth) one sacrificial bundle of 
 silk, 1 calf, 1 platter, 2 hampers (square outside and round within), 2 
 hampers (round outside and square within), flat baskets and trenchers 
 12 of each, 1 wine vessel, 3 cyathi, 1 furnace, and 4 candlesticks. Before 
 the respective Holy Ones shall belong, equally, 1 sacrificial bundle of silk, 
 
 1 calf, 1 platter, the two kinds of hampers 2 of each, flat baskets and 
 trenchers 12 of each, 1 wine vessel, 3 cyathi, 1 furnace, and four candle- 
 sticks. Before each of the Secondary Participators shall belong 1 sacri- 
 ficial bundle of silk, while before each tent shall belong, equally, 1 cow, 1 
 sheep, 1 pig, 1 platter, 2 sacrificial broth jars, the two kinds of hampers 
 two of each, flat baskets and trenchers ten of each, 1 wine vessel, 3 cyathi, 
 30 wine cups, 1 furnace and two candlesticks. The Imperial sacrificial 
 bundle of silk, shall be placed in the baskets, the sacrificial animals in the 
 trays, the wine vessels shall be full of wine, and course cloths shall cover 
 the spoons. The day previous to the sacrifice, the Board of Music shall 
 place in readiness the musical instruments for playing the harmonious airs 
 of Shun under the altar, hanging them in the right and left. The Im- 
 perial Guard shall arrange the state traveling equipage outside of the 
 Palace, and place the Golden chariot at the foot of the steps of the Great 
 Peace gate. A 9 o’clock a.m., an officer of the Sacrificial Court shall go 
 to the Kien T'sing (Heavenly Pure) gate, and memorialize the Emperor 
 to go to the Hall of Fasting. The Emperor shall then put on his Imperial 
 dragon embroidered robes, ascend the ceremonial chair, and depart from 
 the Palace. There shall be the retinue of household Lords and Imperial 
 Guards to proceed and follow him as is customary. When the bottom of 
 the steps of the Great Peace gate is reached, the Emperor shall leave the chair 
 and mount the Imperial chariot. When the procession starts, all persons are 
 to be warned off the road. The bell of the Palace shall then be rung, and 
 while the Imperial equipage is moving off, those members of the Imperial 
 family and all those civil and military officials, who are not going to 
 assist in the sacrifice, being dressed in official robes shall all kneel to see 
 it depart. The musicians of the procession shall be there, but shall not 
 play, an orderly of the Imperial Guard, however, shall ring the bell of 
 the Hall of Fasting. When the Emperor has entered the West gate of 
 the Altar, and arrived at the outside of the North gate of the Square 
 Pool, he shall descend from his chariot, whence two ushers of the Sacrificial 
 Court shall reverently lead the Emperor through the right hand door 
 within unto the Imperial Producer House, when before Imperial Earth, 
 the Producer, and before the respective Holy Ones, he shall offer in- 
 cense, and thereafter kneel three times and worship (kow-tow) nine times. 
 
36 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 Before the positions of the Secondary Participators, a delegated sacrificial 
 officer shall be sent to offer incense and perform the rites. Then the 
 Emperor shall go to the Square Pool, and look at the tablet places of the 
 altar ; then go to the treasury of the god, and look at the baskets and 
 trenchers, and the stables of the sacrificial animals, when done, he shall 
 leave by the right Xorth gate of the inner enclosure, and through the 
 right North gate of the outer enclosure go out to the left side of the road 
 of the gods, when he shall ascend the Imperial chariot and proceed to 
 the Hall of Fasting. Those members of the Imperial family and those 
 numerous officers, who are to assist iu the sacrifice, dressed in their official 
 robes, shall all assemble outside of the Hall of Fasting, and then divided 
 into companies, reverently watch the Emperor enter and then retire. On 
 the day of the sacrifice when it is one hour and three quarter before sun- 
 rise, an officer of the Sacrificial Court shall enter the Hall of Fasting, to 
 tell the time. The Emperor shall then put on his Imperial sacrificial 
 robes, and having entered his ceremonial chair go out, then leaving his 
 chair he shall mount his chariot, while an orderly of the Imperial Guards 
 rings the bell of the Hall of Fasting. When tlie Emperor has arrived at 
 the outside of the North gate of the outer enclosure, at the left side of 
 the road of the gods, he shall dismount from his chariot, whence two 
 ushers of the Sacrificial Court shall reverently lead him within the great 
 waiting place, to wait while the head of the Board of Rites shall dis- 
 patch some officer of the Sacrificial Court to enter the Imperial Producer’s 
 House, and reverently invite the tablet of the god out ; having placed it 
 within the yellow tent, the officer of the Sacrificial Court shall then 
 memorialize the Emperor to perform the rites. The Emperor shall then 
 leave the great waiting place and wash, after which the ushers of the 
 Sacrificial Court shall reverently lead the Emperor through the right 
 North gate of the outer enclosure, in through the right Noi’th gate of the 
 inner enclosure, up the main steps to the second terrace yellow tent waiting 
 place, where he shall stand before the worshipping place there. A master 
 of ceremonies of the Sacrificial Court, shall then lead the four delegated 
 sacrificial officers, entering by the left North gate, to the raised middle 
 walk at the front of the steps, where they shall stand. Officers of the 
 Court of ceremonies shall then lead in the Imperial relations, who are to 
 assist in the sacrifice, to their position at the foot of tbe steps, and the 
 numerous mandarins to their position at the outside of the gate of the 
 outer enclosure where they shall each take his place standing on the right 
 and left and all facing the South. The ceremonial officer shall then call 
 the musicians and mummers to sing a song, and the different attendants 
 to attend to their respective duties. (Hereafter from the burying of the 
 hair and blood until the removing of the dishes, it pertains to the duty 
 of the ceremonial officer to issue the necessary calls). The eight bauds of 
 military performers shall enter, while the ushers shall memorialize the 
 Emperor to take his position. The Emperor shall then take his worship- 
 ping place and stand, while the hair and blood is buried in the ground 
 
AXD IN IHE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA, 
 
 37 
 
 to receive tlie gods. At the same time the musical Director shall com- 
 mand the band to strike up the tune for receiving the god, viz., the air 
 of Complete Peace. (All calls for music, from this time in, must be given 
 through the musical director). Then the ushers shall cry “kneel,” “wor- 
 ship,” “arise,” whereupon the Emperor shall kneel three times, and worship 
 (kow-tow) nine times. The Imperial relatives and numerous officers shall 
 all follow him in performing these rites. The incense bearers each carrying 
 a censer, and the officers in charge of the Imperial sacrificial bundle of silk, 
 each carrying a basket shall now enter, while the air of Wide Spread Peace is 
 being played. Then the master of ceremonies shall cry “ascend the altar,” 
 whereupon, they shall reverently lead the Emperor to the first terrace before 
 the shrine of Imperial Earth, the Producer. The incense bearers shall then 
 kneel, and hold out the incense, the master of ceremonies shall then cry 
 “kneel,” the Emperor shall then kneel, cry, “offer incense,” the Emperor 
 shall then offer a stick of incense, “a second time” “a third time offering 
 sliced sandlewood,” “arise.” The Emperor shall now approach before 
 the table of the Imperial sacrificial bundle of silk, thereupon the officer 
 in charge of the sacrificial bundle of silk, shall kneel and present the 
 basket. The Emperor shall then kneel, receive the basket, place the Im- 
 perial sacrificial bundle of silk, and arise. After this he shall approach 
 before the shrines of the respective Holy Associates, to offer incense and 
 place the sacrificial bundles of silk, with the same rites. The master of 
 ceremonies shall then cry “return to your place.” (All the formalities 
 of ascending the altar, returning to the original position, and the carry- 
 ing out of the other ceremonies must be under the direction of a crier 
 now and hereafter) the Emperor shall then return to his place. Then the 
 bowls are to be brought in, thereupon the Emperor shall turn and stand 
 at the side of his worshipping position, facing the West, while the proper 
 officers shall pour the broth into jugs, and then reverently carry them 
 from the bottom of the altar straight up the main steps to the shrine of 
 Imperial Earth, the Producer, and to the shrines of the respective Holy 
 Ones, where they shall kneel and hold them up, then arise and pour 
 some of the broth into the bowls three times, after which they shall all 
 retire, descending by the West steps. The Emperor then resumes his 
 position. While the band plays the Full Peace air, the Emperor is to 
 mount the altar and go before the shrine of Imperial Earth, the Producer, 
 and before the shrines of the Associated Ones, where he shall kneel, offer 
 the bowls, arise and then return to his place. The first of the (drink) 
 offering ceremonies shall now take place. The Cyathi bearers, each 
 carrying a cyathus shall now enter, the band to play the Great Peace air, 
 and the martial perfonners to go through their exercise wdth shields and 
 battle axes. The Emperor shall ascend the altar and go before the shrine 
 of Imperial Earth, the Producer. The Cyathi bearers shall kneel and 
 present their cyathi, the Emperor shall likewise kneel, offer the cyathi, 
 pour libations in the middle, arise, go to the worshipping position which 
 shall be his during the reading of the ritual, and stand there- The ritual 
 
38 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 officer shall then approach the ritual table, kneel, kow-tow three times, 
 take np the ritnal tablet, and kneel at the left of the table. The music 
 shall now cease for a while. The Emperor shall then kneel, and likewise 
 the whole company of mandarins. When the ritual officer has finished 
 reading the ritual, he shall take the ritual tablet, approach before the 
 shrine of Imperial Earth, the Producer, kneel, place it upon the table, 
 kow-tow three times and retire, whereupon the music shall begin again. 
 The Emperor shall now lead all his officers in worshipping (kow-towing) 
 three times. When he has arisen, he shall go before the shrines of the 
 Associated Ones and offer the cyathi successively with the same rites. 
 The Master of Ceremonies shall then lead the delegated sacrificial officers 
 to ascend the altar by the East and West steps, to the shrines of the 
 Secondary Participators, to offer incense, to present sacrificial bundles of 
 silk, and to successively offer the cyathi. When this is accomplished, 
 they shall descend and retire to their original positions. The music shall 
 again cease. The military performers shall now retire, while the eight 
 bands of civil performers shall enter. The second of the (drink) offering 
 ceremonies shall now take place, during the playing of the Tranquil 
 Peace air, and the performance with feathers and fifes. The Emperor 
 shall ascend the altar, offer successively the cjmthi, pour libations to the 
 left with the same rites as those of the first (drink) offering, and retire 
 to his place. Then shall take place the ceremonies of the final (drink) 
 offering during the playing of the Seasonable Peace air (the mummers’ 
 play to be the same as that of the second (drink) offering). The Em- 
 peror shall ascend the altar, offer successively the cyathi, pour libations 
 to the right, with the same rites as those of the second (drink) offering, 
 and then return to his place. The delegated sacrificial officers shall then 
 offer the cyathi just as on the previous occasions. The music shall cease 
 now, while the civil performers retire. An officer of the Sacrificial Court 
 shall then cry “the bestowed happiness (wine) and roast meats.” Two 
 chief Butlers shall then approach the West table, take up the happiness 
 (wine) and roast meats, enter before the shrine of Imperial Earth, the 
 Producer, and hold them up. The Emperor shall then approach the 
 drinking-theii’-happiness and getting- their- flesh worshipping place, and 
 there stand. Two members of the Imperial Guard shall then enter and 
 stand on the left. The officers in charge of the happiness (wine) and 
 roast meats shall then descend and stand on the right. The Emperor is 
 then to kneel, the right and left hand officers on duty shall each also 
 kneel, whereupon the right hand officer shall present the happiness wine, 
 the Emperor shall receive the cyathus, raise it up and pass it to the left 
 hand officer. The roast meats shall be presented and received in the 
 same manner. He then shall worship three times, arise, return to his 
 place, and there lead all his officials in kneeling three times and worship- 
 ping (kow-towing) nine times. The dishes shall now be removed, while the 
 band shall play the Pure Peace, air. An officer, whose duty it is, shall 
 now approach before the shrine of Imperial Earth, the Producer, and take 
 
AND IN THE RITUAL OE THE STATE RELIGION OE CHINA. 
 
 39 
 
 away the yellow jade badge and retire. The gods shall then be dismissed to 
 the tune of Soothing Peace while the Emperor shall lead the whole band of 
 his ofi&cers in kneeling three times, and worshipping (kow-towing) nine 
 times. Officers, in charge, shall then remove successively the ritual, the 
 sacrificial bundle of silk, the dishes, and the incense, and reverently take 
 them to the burying pit, and also remove the sacrificial bundle of silk, 
 dishes and incense belonging to the shrines of the Associated Ones, and 
 reverently carry them to the burning place. The Emperor shall then 
 change his position, standing at the side of his worshipping place facing 
 West, to watch the ritual and sacrificial bundle of silk pass, after which 
 he shall resume his old position. The incense and sacrificial bundle of 
 silk belonging to the Secondary Participators shall likewise, by the east 
 and west steps be carried to their respective burying places during the 
 performance of music. When the sacrificial bundle of silk belonging to 
 the Associated Ones are half burnt, the Emperor shall be memorialized to 
 look at the burying, whereupon he shall be reverently led out through 
 the right hand north gate of the inner enclosure to the place for watch- 
 ing the burying, there to witness the burying. The delegated sacrificial 
 officials shall also respectively be led to the outside of the right and left 
 hand gates, to witness the burying. It shall then be memorialized to the 
 Emperor that the rites are over, whereupon, he shall be reverently led out 
 through the right hand north gate of the outer enclosure into the great 
 waiting place, where he shall change his clothes. Then the head of the 
 Board of Rites shall dispatch an officer of the Sacrificial Court to reverent- 
 ly invite the tablet of the god to return to the royal Imperial Producer’s 
 House. When the Emperor has reached the outside of the north gate, 
 he shall ascend the ceremonial chair. As the Imperial equipage proceeds, 
 the musicians in the procession shall play the Protecting Peace air. When 
 the Emperor returns home, he must be followed by his relatives, but the 
 different mandarins may successively disperse. Those relatives and 
 numerous officials, who did not assist at the' sacrifice, shall be dressed in 
 their official robes to kneel and receive the Emperor, outside of the Pa- 
 lace. While the Palace bell is ringing, the different relatives shall follow 
 the Imperial chariot within unto the inner Gold Water bridge, w'here 
 they shall reverently watch the Emperor enter the Palace, and then one 
 and all disperse.” 
 
 THE RITUAL FOE PRATER TO EARTH ON ANT SPECIAL OCCASION. 
 
 “ If for any reason a prayer to earth should be reverently offered, a 
 delegated officer shall take charge of the service. The Sacrificial Court, 
 shall see that the yellow tents are put up in the Square Pool. An officer 
 of the Sacrificial Court shall dispatch the proper officer to reverently invite 
 the divine tablet of Imperial Earth the ’ Producer, forth, and place it 
 within the tent. The master of ceremonies of the Sacrificial Court shall 
 lead the delegated officer in the left door of the north gate of the Square 
 Pool, and through the left north gate of the outer enclosure enter the left 
 north gate of the inner enclosure, unto the second terrace of the Square 
 
40 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 Pool, to tile worsliippiiig place at the foot of the main steps, to carry out 
 the rites. All ascending of the altar to offer incense, to present the sacri- 
 ficial bundle of silk, and to pour out (drink) offerings, must be by the 
 west steps. For the reading of the ritual, he must descend from first, 
 terrace by the right hand side of the main steps to the reading-the-ritual- 
 worshipping place, on the second terrace. All the goings-down to his 
 regular position, shall, as usual, be by the west steps. All the remaining 
 rites shall be just like those of^ Round Hillock, when prayer of like 
 character is to be offered.” 
 
 THE SACRIFICE TO EARTH. 
 
 Having thus presented a translation of the ritual for the sacrifice to 
 Heaven and Earth, as the chief divinities of this worship, I come now to 
 consider the text. In the “Collected Statutes” the sacrifice to Heaven 
 is placed first in order: and that to Earth is second in order; but I will 
 take up the explanation of the sacrifice to Earth first. This sacrifice is 
 offered at the time of the summer solstice, on the altar to Earth, which is 
 located on the north of the city, in a large open area, designated and pre- 
 served for this special purpose. This park is said to be only second to 
 that in which the altar to Heaven is located. Connected with the altar 
 to Earth there is a square pool, which is walled up with yellow bricks in 
 reference to the color of the Earth. This pool is to be supplied with 
 water at the time of offering the sacrifice. This sacrifice is offered to 
 Deified Earth, or Earth considered as a god and the giver of great blessings. 
 As in the case of idols, there is the external image which is the supposed 
 representation of the spiritual Being connected with it, so in the worship 
 of the objects of nature, there is a spiritual Being which is supposed to 
 animate the visible object. The worshipper, in common language, is said, 
 to worship the visihle object whether it is an image or an object of nature. 
 Earth as the object of worship is designated |i|5 Ti K'i. What the 
 particular meaning of H i in this connection is, has been with me, the 
 subject of much inquiry. After much investigation I have come to the 
 conclusion, that its meaning will be better e.xpressed by the designation. 
 The Producer than any other single term; but with the idea of nomushing 
 also implied. Kang-hi in his Dictionary, copying fi’om the Shwoh-wan 
 defines Ti Ki as “the one who causes the myi’iad things to come forth. 
 This same definition is given in the Imperial Thesaurus. It is a common 
 remark among the Chinese, that “ Heaven is Father and Earth is 
 Mother,”^ which remark has reference to this early worship. The senti- 
 ment which assigns the functions of Mother to Earth favors the tran- 
 slation of Ki as the Producer. This definition of the deified earth by 
 Kang-hi, shows that the very same idea was present in the nature worship 
 in China as there was in Greece. Smith in his Classical Dictionary in the 
 
 iai6, (¥*)■ ^ (ISIS). 
 
AND IN IHE RITUAL OP THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 41 
 
 article Gaea or Earth, says, “ Gaea belonged to the gods of the nether 
 world. The surnames and epithets given to her, have more or less refer- 
 ence to her character as the all-producing and all-nourishing mother 
 (mater omniparens et alma) . At Rome, the earth was worshipped under 
 the name of Tellus (which is only a variation of Terra),” page 271. 
 
 In the ritual. Earth has the same dignified adjective applied to it as 
 is applied to Heaven. It is styled Imperial Earth. Dr. Legge has stated 
 that this adjective was given to Heaven by Kea-tsing of the Ming Dynas- 
 ty in the year 1535. I suppose that it was given to Earth with some- 
 thing of the same ceremonies as it was given to Heaven, at some time 
 subsequent to that. But I have not been able to find out at what parti- 
 cular time. ' The sacrifice was formerly offered at an altar in the Park 
 on the south of the city, which is still the altar to Heaven. But the 
 grounds for the new park on the north of the city were prepared during 
 this dynasty. Most probably at an early period in the reign of Kien-lung. 
 He states in an imperial edict, referring to the park north of the city, in 
 the 9th year of his reign, that the trees had not grown sufl&ciently to 
 protect the retinue of officers and others, that accompanied the Emperor 
 to the service, from the scorching sun. And again in an edict of the 
 11th year he says that the trees have grown so as to afford suitable pro- 
 tection from the heat. If any person can get a copy of a Book called 
 “ ^ 19 Hwang Chiu T'ung tien,” he would probably find when 
 
 the adjective Imperial was given to Earth, and when the altar was re- 
 moved to the north of the city. My efforts to get a copy of the work 
 have been unsucces.sful. 
 
 When the tablet with the title inscribed. Imperial Earth, the Produ- 
 cer, is brought out from the house where it is carefully kept during the 
 intervening time, it is placed in a central position facing the North, in 
 accordance with the doctrine of the Yin and the Yang. The tablets of 
 the Imperial Ancestors of the reigning dynasty, are also brought forth 
 from their sacred depository, and placed some facing the East, and some 
 facing the West to the north of the tablet to the Earth, and on the same 
 level with it, as the equal recipients of the sacrifice together with the Earth. 
 That they are the equal and joint recipients of the sacrifice with the Earth, 
 appears evident from three things stated in the text. 1st, This is the cor- 
 rect rendering of the word ^ P'ei, which refers to their being present. 
 2nd, The text after giving in detail the offerings to be presented to 
 Imperial Earth, then gives in like detail, the offerings which are to be 
 presented to the Imperial Ancestors, and states that the Emperor, after 
 he has gone through with the “ three kneelings and nine prostrations ” to 
 Earth, gives the same worship to each one of the amcestral tablets. 3rd, 
 As it is stated that the tablets of the gods of the five mountains, the five 
 hills, the four seas and the four streams, which are parts of the Earth, 
 are there as seconclanj participants in the sacrifice, it makes it all the 
 viore clear that the ancestors are there as co-principals, in receiving the 
 sacrifice. The secondari/ recipients are said to be placed on a lower plane 
 
42 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 than the principals, as indicating this distinction. It is also further in- 
 dicated by the fact that the worship is performed before them by some 
 high official appointed for that purpose, and not by the Emperor himself. 
 
 In the official text of the sacrifice to Earth, the object worshipped is 
 variously designated — sometimes it reads Imperial Earth, the Producer — 
 sometimes Imperial Producer — sometimes the Square Pool and sometimes 
 Shin ijil^ the god — is used — and all the tei’ms which are applied to Earth 
 and those which ai’e applied to the Imperial Ancestors are placed on the 
 same plane, to show the honor which is shown to them. 
 
 In the long lapse of the four thousand years during which we have 
 the accounts of the worship of deified Earth, there have been various 
 terms used to designate it. The constant and standard one is the sacrifice 
 to Earth, the Producer — some of the other designations of Earth have been 
 as follows : — iii$ ^ Shin hau, Heau t'6, jfi Shie an d It T' a shie, 
 and during the Han dynasty the imposing title was given to 
 
 Earth. The altar for Earth has also had different designations, some of 
 which are as follows; “square hillock,” that to Heaven being called 
 
 the “round hillock;” “the great altar” ^ hut the present canonical 
 designation is the square pool ^ 
 
 A close examination of the account of the sacrifices to Heaven and to 
 Earth will show that one is the exact counterpart of the other. The 
 worship in each service is rendered by the Emperor in person when pos- 
 sible. There is the same variety in the offerings which are presented. 
 There are songs of praise sung at each service, and prayers are offered for 
 blessings. I will now present some extracts from the Chinese Classics, 
 from which will be seen, the light in which the Deified Earth has been 
 regarded from the early times : and some extracts from the Imperial edicts 
 and declarations of different Emperors showing their habitual recognition 
 of the earth as a god. These authorities will fully explain why the sacri- 
 fice to Earth is in every thing the exact counterpart of that to Heaven. 
 
 In the Book of Rites, the following explanation is given of why the 
 sacrifice to Earth is called Shie. “ This is by reason of the deification 
 of the Earth. Earth contains all things, Heaven presents the appear- 
 ances ; supplies are obtained from Earth, rules are obtained from Heaven ; 
 hence we ought to honor Heaven and love Earth, and thereby teach the 
 people to increase the thank-offering. The explanation says: ‘We speak 
 of recompensing the Shie’s abundance, because it (the Earth) has the same 
 merit as Heaven.' To increase the recompense is to make greater the 
 thanks-giving ceremonies. The containing things — shows that the merit 
 of Earth is the same as that of Heaven — therefore they appoint the Shie 
 ceremony, and make it the same as the sacrifice to Heaven at the winter 
 solstice — and truly give a worthy recompense to the [earth] god. The 
 Tsieh-chi says. “ If we obtain supplies, we have wherewith to nourish, 
 nourishing is a mother’s function ; if we obtain rules, we have wherewith 
 
 1 (ttiea*)- 
 
AXU IN IIIK Iirn AI, OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 43 
 
 to teach, teaching is a father’s function. That which heaven and earth 
 manifest to men is excellent, therefore we ought to recomjjense them with 
 that which is excellent.”^ 
 
 In the Shoo King it is said “ Heaven and Earth are the Father and 
 ^Mother of all things.” Dr. Legge in his note on this passage says, “by 
 “all things” hei’e we understand all things inanimate as well as animate.” 
 In one of the native commentaries, the following passages from the Yih 
 King ai*e quoted in explanation of this passage. “ How gi’eat is the 
 originating virtue of Heaven, all tilings have their beginning from it ; ” 
 “How great is the originating virtue of earth, all things were produced 
 by it ; it is the complaisant help mate of Heaven.”^ The Yih King also 
 says. “ K'ien is Heaven, therefore we style it father, K'wan is earth, 
 therefoi’e we style it mother.”^ “First there are Heaven and Earth, and 
 then all things are pi’oduced.”'* “ Heaven and Earth exert their in- 
 fluences arid all things are produced.”® “ The great virtue of Heaven 
 and Earth is to produce.”® “ Heaven and Earth nourish all things.”^ 
 Tso chuen says “Imperial Heaven and Sovereign Ear'th truly hear 
 w'hat the King says.”® Chau-tsz saj's, “ When Heaven and Earth are 
 propitious, all things will be prosperous ; therefore the Shen and the 
 Ki will be rendered gracious.”® This same idea is somewhat differently 
 expressed in the Sze Ki. “ When Heaven and Earth ai’e liappily harmo- 
 nious, and the Yin and the Yang are mutually efficacious, then the vivi- 
 fying warmth and the substance, overshadow and nourish all things.” 
 On the explanation Chang Huen says: the vivifying warmth is called hii 
 and the substance is called j'ii, and means, that Heaven and Earth by their 
 fructifying effects overshadow and nourish all things.”^® And again, 
 “When Heaven and Earth are harmonious, the four seasons are, — season- 
 able.”^^ In a commentary on the “Four Books” is the followingex- 
 
 X01-0, 
 
 2 
 
 3 (mtm- 
 
 ^ (^M)- 5 (^m- 
 
 « (&m- 
 
 11 
 
44 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 planation of the Kiau and Shie worship or rites is given. “ Kiau is the 
 sacrifice to Heaven; Shie is the sacrifice to Earth.” Chie Chung-tsze sa^-s : 
 
 “ The prayer in the spring for a good harvest, the great intercession for 
 rain, in the summer, the thanks-giving in the fall, in the illustrious Hall, 
 were all sacrifices to Heaven, but the sacrifice to Heaven at the winter 
 solstice at the Round Hillock is the most important of all ; so also the 
 Li shie. The chau shie of the villages and the country’s haw shie are all 
 sacrifices to Earth, but the sacrifice to Earth at the summer solstice at 
 the square pool is the most important of all.”^ The Book of Rites says : 
 
 Therefore the Emperor sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.” The Com- 
 mentary says ; “ The Heaven has the merit of overshadowing all things, 
 
 the Earth has the merit of containing all things. The Emperor with 
 heaven and earth is a trio, therefore the Emperor sacrifices to Heaven at 
 the Round Hillock, and to Earth at the square pool.”^ 
 
 The ode says : “ Heaven bestows, the Earth nourishes, hence the 
 hundred grains grow abundantly. The Book of Rites says: “According 
 to Heaven, serve Heaven, according to Earth, serve Earth.” The Com- 
 mentary says : according to Heaven’s elevation, and earth’s depression. 
 Heaven should be worshipped with flaming burnt offerings ; and Earth 
 should be worshipped by burying the animals on the ground, as at the 
 summer and winter solsticial sacrifices.”^ The Chau Li says : “ Use 
 jade stone and make six vessels and offer to Heaven, Earth and the four 
 quarters ; the azure jade offer to Heaven, and the yellow to Earth.” The 
 explanation says : The pih should be in shape exactly round and azure 
 to resemble Heaven. The tsung should be in shape eight cornered and 
 yellow to resemble Earth. “ For I have heard that for the Emperor 
 in person to sacrifice to Heaven and Earth is an ancient and present 
 prevailing usage.”® In the Li Tsi I it is said ; “ of things which 
 Heaven has produced, and Earth nourished, there is nothing greater 
 than man.”’ 
 
 And the Li Ki says : “ The Emperor sacrifices to Heaven and Earth. 
 
 1 li, 
 
 2 M, 
 
 (liltili')- 
 
 iifeiiii. (istlEfSp)- 
 
 H, ^^5^4. 
 
 7 
 
AXD IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 45 
 
 The explanation reads : “ Heaven and Earth are the greatest objects in 
 the region ; the Emperor is the most honorable in the kingdom, therefore 
 he Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth. Q notations of the same import as 
 the above, might be multiplied indefinitely. But perhaps these are suffi- 
 cient. I proceed to present some which represent the imperial acts and 
 declarations of Emperors of successive dynasties. • 
 
 The Emperor Tang, the first of the Shang dynasty, in his declaration 
 says: “ I therefore, a little child; charged with the decree of Heaven, 
 and its bright terrors, did not dare to forgive. I used a dark colored 
 animal and announced it to Heaven above and to divine Earth, and re- 
 quested that they would consider Hea as a trangressor and punish him.” 
 Shoo King, p. 187. The Emperor Fah, the first of the Chaou dynasty 
 says : “ Hating the sins of Shang, I have announced to Imperial Heaven 
 and Soverign Earth.” Shoo King, p. 312. The first Emperor of the 
 Sung dynasty Kien Teh in the first year of his reign sacrificed to Heaven 
 and Earth at the Round Hillock. 
 
 The first Emperor of Ta Tsing dynasty. Shun Chi, in the first year 
 of his reign personally sacrificed to Heaven and Earth at the Southern 
 suburbs. He says : “ He ventures to announce to Imperial Heaven and 
 Soveriijn Earth.”^ Hong Hi, the second Emperor of this dynasty, in an 
 Imperial edict in the 36 th year of his reign says : “I having determined 
 that Kaldan should be punished, I sacrificed and announced to Heaven, 
 Earth, and the ancestral temjjla and prayed that wherever my troops 
 went Heaven above would protect and assist them.”^ 
 
 In December 1722, Kang Hi died after a reign of 61 years — on 
 the next day after his death, the Peking Gazette published, as a most 
 important document his lost testament. The Emperor, in this- paper, 
 after speaking of the length of his reign and his happiness, says he owes 
 these things not to his own weak reason, “but to the invisible help of 
 Heaven and of Earth, of my ancestors, and of the gods who preside over 
 the Empire and over the land and the grain.”® These words of Kang 
 Hi are of special importance, as they, in a state paper, show what he re- 
 garded as the gods of his country. 
 
 The usual formula of announcement on all great matters of state ; as 
 a new Emperor ascending the throne, declaration of war, the death of an 
 Empress, conferring a title on a deceased parent, or any additional title to 
 a living mother is thus: “ circumspectly sacrifice and announce to Heaven, 
 
 a )• 
 
 4 ±%mjy 
 
 5 (jiE±i)- 
 
46 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 to Eartli, to the ancesti’a! temple, to the gods of the land and of the grain. 
 
 Quotations, showing the prominence which is given to the w'orship of 
 Earth in the State Religion of China, might be greatly multiplied. But 
 I close them here with a translation of an ode which is sung at the time 
 of the summer solstice, when the service is concluded and the tablet of 
 the god is about to return to the depository amidst the fragrance of the 
 incense and the peals of the music. “ The brilliant flags follow the 
 cloudy way ; the flying dragon mounts the high heaven ; the virtues and 
 actions of Earth are perfect ; by thy care over all within the four seas 
 there are no troubles ; the Compeer of the imperial canopy, thou art one 
 of the two great ones ; tliou dost keep in peace the people of the Earth 
 below.^ Thus it appears that the Heaven, the Earth, the Imperial 
 ancestors and the gods of the land and the grain, (which gods are also 
 the special protectors of each successive dynasty) are the objects to which 
 the great sacrifices are resjDectively olTered. It is also evident, from the 
 language used in speaking of them, and from the worship and offerings 
 given to them, that when the sun, moon and stars, the powers of nature, 
 such as the winds, the clouds, the rain and the thunder; also when the 
 mountains and the hills, the seas and the streams are sacrificed to, they 
 are all considered as deified, and they are worshipped as gods. 
 
 THE SACRIFICE TO HEAVEN. 
 
 This sacrifice is offered to Heaven by the Emperor in person, after 
 preparation by fasting, at the time of the wnnter solstice of each year, at 
 the altar to Heaven in the Southern suburbs. The Emperor goes forth 
 to attend to it in great state, attended by a large retinue of officials and 
 guards and musicians. Nothing is absent from the ceremony which is 
 adapted to make it imposing to the Chinese nation. The object to which 
 the sacrifice is offered and the homage is given, is Heaven. The style of 
 address wdiich is now used, is Imperial Heaven. This honourable ad- 
 jective was given — as Prof. Legge has stated, by Kiah Tsiug’, of the Ming 
 dynasty, in the I7th year of his reign. This appellation had been used 
 previously to that time, but had been in a great measure superseded by 
 ^ X Haou Tien. After what has been already written, I suppose very 
 few will have any doubt but that the object then worshipped is the visible 
 Heavens regarded as a cllvinitij , — or deified Heaven. If any one does 
 doubt it, then I submit this further proof. The word Heaven is used in 
 designation of the object, in connection with the words earth, sun, 
 moon, stars and the other objects of nature which are worshipped, with- 
 out any indication that it is used in any other sense than they are, viz, : 
 to indicate the object of nature usually so designated. Other words are 
 also used to designate it which, if possible, indicate more distinctly the 
 
 k 
 
 2 
 
AND IX THE RITCAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 47 
 
 object wliich is intended. The object worshipped is often styled, “The 
 canopied azure, thus indicating both its shape and its color. Sometimes 
 it is styled “The high canopy,”- “The imperial canopy, “The azure 
 canopy,”'* “The azure heaven,”^ “The glorious azure,”® “The heaven above, 
 azure, azure,”’^ “The azure above.”® The object -ss-hich is worshipped is 
 also represented by resemblances. The altar is made round designedly to 
 represent the Heaven. There is near to the altar to Heaven, an impos- 
 ing building of a dome shape and of a blue color which is called “ The 
 altar for prayer in behalf of grain,” f|/f which prayer is offered to 
 
 Hpaven. The Building in shape and color resembles the blue vault of 
 Heaven. The name of the southern chapel means, “ The circular hall 
 of the Imperial canopy.” The jade stone gem, which is one of the things 
 presented to Hea\'en at the time of offering the sacinfice, is required to be 
 made “ round and azure so as to resemble Heaven.”® 
 
 The function of the object which is worshipped is also clearly expres- 
 sed. “ Heaven is said to overshadow, while earth contains. The one thus 
 corresponds to the other. Heaven overshadows the things which the 
 earth contains. Manifestly and be3’ond all contradiction that tvhich over- 
 shadows earth is the visible Heavens. If these various words and resemb- 
 lances and fuctions which are used to indicate the ihteuded object of wor- 
 ship, do not render it evident beyond all doubt that the object sacrificed 
 to is the visible Heaven, then it is impossible for human language to des- 
 ignate the visible Heaven. The worshipper of course regards this vis- 
 ible object as a god. And hence it is clear bc^'ond all successful contra- 
 diction that deified Heaven and Earth are the two great objects of worship 
 by the Emperor of China, in the state ceremonial. 
 
 These two great objects of worshiji are not only their chief gods, but 
 they are the special protectors of the Empire and the Emperor. Hence it 
 is said the Emperor I'egards Heaven as his Father, and Earth as his 
 mother. And as the correlate of this. Heaven and Earth regard the 
 Empei’or as their son. The Emperor Kien Lung in his prayer for a plen- 
 tiful year thus expi’esses himself. “The son of Heaven, &c., recognizes 
 
 1 It. ^4. (I# 
 
 mmm)- 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 m, mmmw- 
 
48 -WHAT HEIXG IS DESIGXATED SHAXG-TI IX THE CIIIXESE CLASSICS 
 
 Heaven as Father and Earth as mother ; the reverently accepted duties, 
 cannot be disi’egardedd” In the Han-yu it is said of the Tang Dynasty. 
 “The Tang having received the command of Heaven to bo Heaven’s son 
 [he. Emperor], all the kingdoms of the four regions were submissive and 
 obedient to the dynasty.^ “In the .Hwang-chiu, one of the odes expresses 
 the feelings of the Emperor thus, “He whom Heaven recognizes as .son, is 
 my unworthy self. I, a mere child, with reverential awe, invoke you to 
 send a bountiful year, for all creatures I’ely on the Imperial canopy.^” In 
 the Tung Tien, it is said, that the kings recognize Heaven as Father, and 
 Earth as mother.'^ 
 
 At the sacrifice to Heaven, tlie Imperial ancestors ai’e the partici- 
 pants with Heaven in receiving the sacrifice. The tablet to Heaven face 
 the South and the tablets to the ancestoi’s are arranged some facing to 
 the East and some toward the West according to their respective rank. 
 When it is considered that the Emperor is the Son of Heaven and Earth, 
 it is not so strange that the deified Imperial earthly ancestors are thus 
 brought forth to be the participators with Heaven and Barth at the 
 sacrifice offered to each respectively. The sun, moon and stars, to- 
 gether with the gods of the winds and the clouds, the rain and the 
 thunder are the secondary participators in the sacrifice. The services,- in 
 the offerings, the worship, the prayers, and the hymns of praise, are in 
 all respects the counterpart to those which occur in the sacrifice to Earth, 
 
 To us who have been taught from our childhood to regard the true 
 God, Jehovah, as a Spiritual Being possessing all divine attributes and 
 all power in Heaven and Earth, it appears very strange that the human 
 mind can be so darkened as to ascribe the attributes and works of Jehov- 
 ah to any other Being, whether that Bcin g may be a so-called immortal 
 god, or a deified object of nature. But the whole history of idolatrys 
 and the observation of those who liv’e among a heathen people, show that 
 the heathen recognize a personality and intelliyence, and the exercise of 
 poiver, as belonging to every object, whatever it may be, that they deify. 
 Many of the heathen pray to the so-called Goddess of ilercy, with the 
 same sincerity and belief in her power to grant mercy, as the Christian 
 prays to the true and only Saviour. The various nations of antiquity 
 trusted in, and acknowledged their respective chief god to be their 
 special protector, as earnestly as did the Israelites trust in and acknow- 
 ledge Jehovah to be their God. So the Chinese people in all ages have 
 ascribed, personality, intelligence and power to deified Heaven and Earth. 
 They have received it as a truth, that -Heaven liad the absolute and 
 entire control of every thing relating to the government of China ; the 
 
 1 
 
 mw:)- 
 
 4 
 
 kn- (icifw 
 
AXD IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 49 
 
 right of appointing the rulers of the country, of displacing those who had 
 disregarded the command of Heaven, and oppressed the people — the 
 granting of fruitful seasons and the products of the Earth— the infliction 
 of national calamities in punishment of national sins, &c., &c. While the 
 government has suffered the idolatries of Taouism and Buddhism to 
 spread among the people, and while some of the Emperors of different 
 dynasties have given special encouragement to one or other of these false 
 religions, as they are styled by the Confucianists, yet during this long 
 period of four thousand j'ears, the government has retained, in wonderful 
 uniformity, the services of the state religion free from any change or cor- 
 ruption. It is therein a striking commentary on the words of Jeremiah 
 to the Jews when he asks: “Hath a nation changed their gods which 
 are yet no gods." Jer. 2: 11, and again “For all people will walk every 
 one in the name of his God." Mic. 4: 5. The Chinese books are abund- 
 ant in passages setting forth the power and rule of Heaven and his 
 beneficence to the Chinese people. I will present only a few out of the 
 many that are at hand. In the Shoo King at page 153 of Dr. Legge’s 
 translation, one of the Emperor’s of the Hea Dynasty going to war 
 against a rebellious vassal says : “On this account Heaven is about to 
 destroy him (the vassal) and bring to an end the favor it has shown to 
 him ; and I am reverentially executing the punishment appointed by 
 Heaven.” Chung hwui of the Shang Dynasty announces thus: “Hea- 
 ven gives birth to the people with such desires, that without a Ruler, 
 they must fall in to all disorders; and Heaven again gives birth to the 
 man of intelligence whose business it is to resrulate them. * * Heaven 
 gifted our king with valor and wisdom to continue the old ways of Yaou. 
 You are now only following the standard course, honoring and obeying 
 the appointment of Heaven. The king of Hea was an offender, falsely 
 pretending to the sanction of supreme Heaven.” Shoo, pp. 178-9. In 
 the Shoo King, the Emperor Yaou said to Shun when he wanted him to 
 occupy the throne with him, “The determinate appointment of Heaven 
 (to be Emperor) rests upon your person ; you must eventually ascend 
 the throne of the great sovereigns: p. 61. “The way of Heaven is to 
 bless the good and to punish the bad. It sent down calamities on 
 the house of Hea to make manifest its crimes.” Therefore I the lit- 
 tle child, charged with the decree of Heaven did not dare to forgive the 
 criminal. I used a dark colored animal, and making a clear announce- 
 ment to Heaven above and sovereign Earth, requested them to deal 
 with Hea as a criminal.” pp. 186-7. “ The King on succeeding to 
 
 the throne, did not follow the advice of Ahang. E Yin then made the 
 following writing. “ The former king kept his eye continually upon the 
 bright requirements of Heaven, and served the spirits (gods) of Heaven 
 and Earth, of the land and the grain, and of the ancestral temple. 
 Heaven took notice of his virtue, and caused his great appointment 
 to light upon him.” p. 199. “ Great Heaven has graciouly favored the 
 
 house of Shang, and granted to you, 0 young King, at last to become 
 
50 AVHAT BEIXG IS DESIGNATRD SHAXG-TI IX THE (TIIXESE CLASSICS 
 
 virtuous.” p. 206. E Yiu said : “ Oh it is difficult to rely on Heaven ; its 
 appointments are not constant. If the sovereign virtue is constant, lie 
 ■will preserve his throne. The King of Hea could not maintain the virtue 
 of his ancestors unchanged, but contemned the spirits [gods] and oppres- 
 sed the people. Great Heaven no longer extended its protection to him. 
 * * * Xlien were E Yin and T’ang possessed of virtue and able to satisfy 
 the mind of Heaven. He received the bright favor of Heaven, and 
 became the Master of the nine provinces ; * * * it was not that Heaven 
 had any partiality for Shang; Heaven simply gave its favor to pure 
 virtue.” p. 214-16. “It is Heaven which is all-intelligent and ob- 
 servant. Let the sage King take it as his pattern ; then his minis- 
 ters will reverently accord with him p. 255. O King, yon ai’e bring- 
 ing on the end yourself, on this account Heaven has cast us off.* * Our 
 people now all wish the dynasty to perish saying, “ Why does not Hea- 
 ven send down its indignation? Why does not some one with its great 
 decree make his appearance. What has the jiresent King to do with us. 
 The King said Oh ! is not my life secured by the decree of Heaven ? Tsoo 
 E, returned and said. Ah ! Your crimes which are many are set above : and 
 can you speak of your fate as if give it in charge to Heaven P’ pp. 271-2. 
 An emperor of the Chow Dynasty which succeeded the Shang, says : 
 “ The iniquity of Shang is full. Heaven gives command to destroy it. 
 If I did not comply with Heaven, my iniquity would be as great.* * I 
 have received charge from my deceased Father Wiln : I have offered 
 special sacrifice to Shangti ; I have performed the due services to great 
 Earth; and I lead the multitude of you to e^eeate the punishment ap- 
 pointed by Heaven. Heaven compassionates the people. What the people 
 desire. Heaven will be found to give effect to.” pp. 287-8. “ Heaven loves 
 the people, and the sovereign should i-everenca Heaven. Keih, the 
 sovereign, could not follow the example of Heaven.* * * Heaven favored 
 and charged T’ang, the successful, to make an end of the decree of Hea- 
 ven.* * * It would seem that Heaven is going by means of me, to rule 
 the people. My dreams coincide with my divinations; the auspicious 
 omen is double.” pp. 290-1. “ Heaven sees as my people see. Heaven hears 
 as my people hear.” p. 292. “ He neglects the sacrifice to Heaven and 
 
 Earth. He has discontinued the offerings in the ancestral temple.” 
 p. 295. “ Do ye support with untiring zeal me, the one man, reverently 
 to execute the punishment appointed by Heaven.” p. 296. “On the day 
 ting-we, he sacrificed in the ancestral temple of Chow. * * * Thi'ee days 
 after he presented a burnt offering to Heaven and ■worshipped to- 
 ward the mountains and the rivers, solemnly announcing the successful 
 completion of the war.” p. 309. “ Detesting the crimes of Shang, I an- 
 nounced to great Heaven and sovereign Earth, to the famous hill and the 
 great hill by which I passed.* * * Reverently obeying the determinate 
 counsel of Heaven, I pursue my punitive work to the end, to give tran- 
 quility to its men and women, “p, 314. “In the autumn, when the grain 
 was abundant and ripe, but -before it was reaped, Heaven sent a great 
 
AXD IX THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 51 
 
 storm of thunder and lightning, along with wind, by which the grain was 
 all beaten down and great trees torn up. * * Now Heaven has displayed 
 its terrors to display the Aurtue of the Duke of Chow. The King then 
 went out to the borders, when Heaven sent down rain : and by virtue of 
 a contrary wind the grain all rose up,” pp. 3.59-60. “Great Heaven hav- 
 ing given the Middle Kingdom with its people and territories to the form- 
 er kings, do you, our present sovereign, employ your virtue, effecting a 
 gentle harmony among the deludedjpeople, leading and urging them on ; so 
 also will you please the former kings who received the appointment from 
 Heaven,” p. 418. Such passages might be quoted to any extent out of 
 the Shoo-king. But perhaps this is sufficient. Those who ai’e interested 
 in pursuing the subject will consult it for themselves — as this Book is in 
 the hands of most Chinese scholars, I do not copy out the Chinese text, 
 of the above quoted passages. This same style of speaking in regard to 
 the change of dynasties, and the setting up of the Rulers in this Empire, 
 continues to the pi-esent time. “The first Emperor of this dynasty made 
 the announcement to Heaven and Earth, ascribed the obtaining of the 
 kingdom to Heaven. Kang Hi, when he obtained the victory over the 
 Kaldan, on the 36th year of his reign, ordered a thanksgiving to Heaven. 
 He also ascribes the prosperity of his reign “to the invisible help of 
 Heaven, Earth, his ancestors and the gods of the land and the grain. 
 
 Each one of the successive Emperors, when he ascends the throne, 
 “announces the important event to Heaven, Earth, the Imperial ancestors 
 and to the gods of the land and of grain. Very many more passages 
 with such statements as these from the classics, and other standard works 
 and from the Collected Statutes of this pi’esent dynasty, are in my posses- 
 sion. But the passages ali’eady quoted are more than sufficient to satisfy 
 every candid mind that the great gods of the Chinese Government are 
 Deified Heaven and Earth, and that the Imperial ancestors and the Shie 
 Tsik, the gods of the land and the grain, are associated with them as ob- 
 jects of Imperial Avorship and service, in the state religion of the empire. 
 
 I come to the translation of ^ ^ ^ Avhich I regard as the most 
 
 important phrase in the whole ritual. I have translated ft “Imperial 
 Heaven, The Ruler above.” I have translated it thus as expressing the 
 obA'ious sense of the phrase, as required by the grammatical construction ; 
 and as supported by the highest authorities, both Chinese and Foreign. 
 This is to me ih.(; obvious meaning of the sentence. For we have seen above 
 that the object sacrificed to is the visible HeaA'en regarded as a god. We 
 have also seen that to deified Heaven all power and rule are ascribed. 
 These ideas are expressed in the translation “Imperial Heaven, the Ruler 
 above.” This translation is also in accordance with plain grammatical 
 construction, as the first noun refers to the object sacrificed to, the positive 
 
 3 
 
52 AVIIAT BEIXG IS DESIGXATED SHAXG-TI IX THE ClilXESE CI.ASSICS 
 
 ohjecf Heaven, and the second noun, Ruler, is in oj^position with the first, 
 as expressing the great function of Heaven “ ihe Ruler above." 
 
 In reference to deified Earth, we saw that as “ the mother of all 
 things” it is very properly designated “ Thu Producer.” Deified Heaven 
 is designated “ the Father of all thing.s.” By the common consent of 
 mankind of all ages, the function of ruling and governing the family 
 pertains to the Father. So likewi.se, the Chinese people having design- 
 ated Heaven “the Father of all thing.s,” have ascribed to it the function 
 of ruling and governing all thing.s; and as expressive of this function 
 thus ascribed to Heaven, it is designated “ The Ruler above.” The 
 Chinese writers all concur in this explanation. 
 
 The Chinese aiithorities thus define and explain the words Shangti. 
 Kang Hi explains Shangti “ as being the same as Heaven.” The Book 
 of History has the same statement. “ Shangti is Heaven.^” In the Fung- 
 Shen Book it is said that, “ Shangti is another name for Heaven.^” In 
 the explanation of a passage in the Shoo where Heaven ayd Shangti are 
 used interchangeably, we have an explanation why they are so used. — The 
 passage of the Shoo reads: “When T'ang the successful, had received 
 the favoring decree, he had with him E Yin whoso virtue was able to 
 affect great Heaven. T’ao Mow had E Chiu and Chin Hoo, whose virtue 
 was able to affect Shangti.” p. 478. The explanation reads. “ When we 
 speak in reference to its overshailiug all things we c<all it Heaven; when 
 we speak in reference to its ruling and governing, we call it Tl, (or Ruler.) 
 In the Books whether it is styled Heaven or Ruler, the one or the other is 
 used according to what is referred to, and these designations are alike 
 honorable."^ The passage in the Shoo, page 179, which also has Heaven 
 and Ruler used interchangeably reads thus ; “ The King of Heaven was 
 
 an offender, falsely pretending to the sanction of Heaven above to spread 
 abroad his commands among the people. On this account Ti [the Ruler] 
 viewed him with disaprobation.” The commentary in explanation of 
 Heaven and Ruler, says: “On account of its form and substance it 
 is called Heaven, and on account of its ruling and governing it is 
 called Ruler. I may remark that every where in the classics, and the 
 commentaries on them, “Ruler above,” and “Ruler” are used interchange- 
 able. In the ode Ching yueh of the Shi King, there occurs the expres- 
 sion. “ There is the great Ruler above.” The explanation reads ; “ ‘ hwang ’ 
 means great — Shangti is the Heaven-god. Ching Tsze says, in refer- 
 ence to its form and substance, we call it Heaven; in reference to its 
 
 ^ 'i ?? mw 
 
 m 15 ^ 4 . 
 
a:vd in -jiiE raxuAL of the state religion of china. 53 
 
 ruliiuj and tjovenilnij ice call it Ttuler."^ In tlie Li Ki it reads : “The 
 
 Emjieror (i.e. The son of Heaven) is about to go forth and sacrifice to 
 tlie Ruler abov'e.” The Chili chi explains “to offer sacrifice to Shangti, 
 is to sacrifice to Heaven.”^ In the Sha Khvj we find the following passage 
 “The people suffering from cruel ojipression and murderous slaughter 
 plead their innocence on liigh, and asked the Ruler above to look down 
 on the people, but they have no acceptable virtue.” The explanation 
 reads: “cruel opjiression on the part of the sovereign, leads to numerous 
 executions among the people: whereupon the people plead their in- 
 nocence before Heaven ; Heavens looks down upon the people of ISIin, but 
 they have no acceptable virtue.”^ In the Shoo, at p. 286, wc have this 
 remarkable passage — “Heaven, to protect the people below, made for 
 them rulers and made for them instructors, that they might be aiding to 
 the Ruler above and secure the tranquility of the four quarters of the 
 Empire.” The commentary reads : “It says that Heaven out of regard 
 to the people below, established rulers to govern them, appointed in- 
 structors to teach them and the rulei’s and the instructors are able to help 
 the Rider above. 
 
 These passages, it appears to me, express the meaning as clear as 
 human language can express the ideas of a people, that in regard to 
 deified Heaven, when the ohjeeb thus worshipped is referred to, it is called 
 Heaven, and that when its function as the Ruler and Governor of all 
 things is referred to, then it is designated “The Ruler above.” From this 
 it follows, that Shangti is a designation applied to deified Heaven when 
 it is referred to as the Ruler of all things. Heaven is the positive existence 
 and the divinity which is worshipped, and Shangti, or Ruler above, is the 
 designation applied to it as the Ruler of the ^liddle Kingdom, and gov- 
 ernor and director of all its affairs. Hence come the various expressions 
 as, the Son of Heaven ^ designate the Emperor. The Heaven 
 coufered throne to designate the throne of China ; The Heaven 
 
 appointed punishments ^ fij, to punishments which Heaven has decreed. 
 The decrees of Heaven 3^ which are .literally the decrees of deified 
 Heaven. The Heaven appointed or established dynasty ^ meaning 
 
 . T.S. 
 
 _ 
 
 * Dr. Legge states that this explanation of the meaning of the designation of Heaven 
 and Shangti as given by Ch'ing Tsze “ is accepted by Choo and all subsequent 
 tcriters ” See She King p. 316. 
 
54 "WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SIIANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 that each reigning dynasty has the throne by the appointment or 
 Heaven. In all the classics, Shangti the Ruler above, and Ti, Rule, are 
 used in common,- the one for the other, and both are used interchangeable 
 with Heaven. Dr. Legge, in his Prolegomena to the Shoo King says “We 
 find The Ruler and the Supreme Ruler h ^ constantly interchanged 
 with Heaven,” p. 193. Indeed the words Shangti, and its synonym Ti, 
 have no other use, or application, in the classical Books and the Rituals 
 of the State religion, but as a designation of deified Heaven, the great pro- 
 tecting god of China. To some it has been a matter of surprise that the 
 Japanese, though they have so long introduced the ethical system 
 of Confucius and its nomenclature, yet hare uQver used the name 
 Shangti. The reason of their so doing appears very obvious to me. The 
 Japanese have their own system of nature worship. The sun is the great 
 goddess of Japan. She is the progenitrix of their race of Emperors and 
 the Protectress of their land. They never introduced the worship of 
 Heaven as a god — and hence they had no occasion to use Shangti, which 
 is a designation of deified Heaven. 
 
 I translate this designation Jl “The Ruler above,” because all 
 uses of the word and the relations of the ideas call for that meaning. In 
 connection with the two gi’eat gods of the Chinese, Heaven and Eai-th 
 their relative position is constantly refeiTcd to by the words “above” 
 and “ beloiv ” ±,y It is one of the most common phrases among the 
 people “above is Heaven,” and “below is Earth,” ^ W ilfe’ 
 
 among the words used as synonyms of “ the Ruler above ” as have “ the 
 Heavenazure,” Jl 3^, the “azure above” “the high canopy ” ^ 
 
 I suppose no one would insist on translating these, as, “ The supreme 
 Heaven,” “The supreme azure,” “The supreme canopy,” yet they all re- 
 fer to the one same object, deified Heaven. So we have “Heaven above 
 and the people below,” _t "F JS- Ko one I suppose would think this 
 should be translated “ Supreme Heaven, and lowest peojde.” 
 
 So in my opinion, Shangti is simply the Rnler above, to indicate 
 its relative position to the earth' god. Besides all this, there is not one 
 expression in the whole of the Chinese Books to indicate any superiority 
 of Heaven over the Earth. But they are frequently said to be equal — 
 they are honored with the same worship and sacrifices, and their merit is 
 said to be the same. If it is asked if the use of “above ” is only to dis- 
 tinguish the relative positions of the gods, why do they not use the cor- 
 responding prefix to Earth. The reason appears to me obvious. As 
 men, who are the writers, are all on the same plane or level with Earth 
 as to locality, there would be no propriety in profixing the corresponding 
 prefix below to Earth. Heaven is above men and the Earth as to locality, 
 hence there is great propriety in prefixing the word Shang before the object 
 above, whether it is called Heaven, as Heaven above, or Ruler, as Ruler 
 above. The fact that Ti ^ Ruler, without the prefix Shang is so 
 very frequently used in. the classics, and in the rituals, as the svnonyrr 
 
AND IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 65 
 
 of Heaven, and to designate it as the Ruler, shows that there is no special 
 significance in the prefix Shang Jl- 
 
 I come now to present the authority of Foreigners, who have used the 
 Chinese language or translated from Chinese, as to the meaning of this 
 phrase, Hwang T'ien Shangti. The Catholic missionary, P. Lacharme, 
 who translated the Shiking into Latin, and which translation was edited 
 by Julius Mold, in 1830, translated Shangti, in the coi’respending phrase 
 “haou t’ien Shangti ^ ^ as in apposition with haou t’ien 
 
 as stated by Dr. Legge, in his Shi-king, p. 530. P. Lacharme’s transla- 
 tion reads in Latin, “Augustum coelum, qui est summus rerum dominus 
 et dominator.” The Catholic missionary, who translated the prayer of the 
 Emperor K'ang Hi, which he offered at the time he sacrificed to HeSaven 
 when he was going forth to war against the Kaldan, translates Shangti 
 in opposition with hwang t’ien thus. “ Oh Sovereign Heaven, Supreme 
 Emperor ^ -t ^ ^ invoke your aid with respectful confidence in 
 
 the war that I am just now compelled to undertake. You have over- 
 whelmed me with favors, you have shovvn me signal and extraordinary 
 protection.” See Hue’s “ Christianty in China, vol. Ill, p. 214; where 
 he quoted from De Mailla, Hist. Gen de la China, Vol. II, p. 187. If 
 Deified Heaven was not the object to which pi’ayer was offered in such 
 imperial sacrifices, then in case the words Shangti, which are here 
 translated as in apposition 'tt’ith hwang t’ien, wei’e omitted and only 
 hwang t’ien remained, it would be hard to say what would be the mean- 
 ing of the sentences. In Williams’ “Middle Kingdom,” there is a trans- 
 lation given of a prayer for rain, which was offered by the Emperor Taou 
 Kwang in the year 1832, in a time of drought. In this very remarkable 
 paper, the expression “hwang t’ien” ^ 3^ occurs /o?(r times in the form 
 of direct address, withoid the words Shangti added to it. As thus : “ Oh ! 
 alas. Imperial Heaven, ^ 3^, wei’e not the world afflicted by extra- 
 ordinary changes I would not dare to offer extraordinary services.” 
 “Prostrate, I beg Imperial Heaven (hwang t’ien) to pardon my iniquity.” 
 “Oh alas! Imperial Heaven, ob.serve these things. Oh! alas! Imperial 
 Heaven, be gracious to them.” See Mid. Kingdom, Vol. I, pp. 369-371. 
 
 In the controversy which lasted among the Catholic missionaries, 
 during the whole of the seventeenth century, in regard to what was call- 
 ed “The rites,” there appears to have been no difference of opinion 
 among the missionaries on this one point, as to what, prayer and sacrifice 
 were offered by the Emperor at the winter solstice. All agreed that the 
 sacrifice teas to Heaven, (T'ien). The point of the controversy among them 
 was whether deified Heaven was worshipped, or whether Heaven was wor- 
 shipped as a symbol merely of the Lord and Ruler of Heaven. That this 
 was the point in discussion appears from the memorial, or petition, which 
 some of the missionaries presented to the Emperor K'ang Hi, in the year 
 1699. — In that memorial, the memorialists say: “We believe that the 
 sacrifices offered to heaven are not tendered to the visible heavens, which ai’e 
 seen above us, but to the supreme Master, Author, and Preserver of heaven 
 
56 WHAT BEIXG IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 and eartli and all they contain.” See Williams, Mid. King. vol. II. p. 309. 
 This point is equally clear from the reply of the Emperor to the petition 
 in which he said “T'ien means the trne God.” idem 309. If the transla- 
 tion accepted of the phrase “ Hwang T'ien Shangti” had then been “ The 
 supreme Ruler of the Imperial Heaven, the controversy would not have 
 been about T'ien, Heaven, but about Shangti. It would not have been 
 said, as the memorialists say: “We believe the sacrifices offered to 
 Heaven but they would have said “We believe the sacrifices offered to 
 the Supreme Ruler of the Imperial Heavens.” &c. It is perfectly clear 
 that the only translation known to them, was that which is given by 
 P. Lacharme, the translator, and K'ang Hi, as given above, “Imperial 
 Heaven, Supreme Emperor,” making “Shangti” in apposition with 
 Imperial Heaven. 
 
 As the long continued discussion of “The rites” by the Catholic mis- 
 sionaries, has an intimate and important connection with the question 
 what is the object which is worshipped by the Chinese, it is important to 
 briefly refer to that discussion. My principle authority in regard to it, 
 is “Christianity in China, <fec.,” by M. L’Abble Hue, London 1857 — the 
 2nd and 3 vols. Father Ricci reached Peking, the Capital of China, in 
 1590 — and engaged in making himself useful to the government, in order 
 to secure a permanent foot-hold. He was under a great temptation to look 
 very leniently on the rites of the Chinese in worshipping Confucius, de- 
 ceased parents, and Heaven. The two former were considered to be merely 
 civil ceremonies, of no religious import, and the offerings to Heaven were 
 explained as offei'ings to the Lord of Heaven. M. Hue says: ‘It was a 
 system which offered every facility to the missionaries, and that greatly 
 assisted them in propagating Christianity. The ancient and only 
 religion of the Chinese, had been confined to the worship of Heaven, 
 (T'ien), of the wise men and of their ancestors.’ Christianity, in China, 
 Vol. II. p. 228. When Ricci died in 1610, he entrusted the care of the 
 missions to Father Lombard, as the best qualified to take the charge of so 
 important a trust. P. Lombard had, hitherto, out of respect to Ricci, 
 suspended his judgment on the question of the rites. When the respon- 
 sibility of the mission rested upon him, he studied and wu-ote upon the 
 subject. He came to the conclusion “that the Chinese in reality recogn- 
 ized no divinity but Heaven” p. 229. “The use of the words, T’ien, 
 and “Shangti, even, by which they designated the divinity were interdic- 
 ted,” p. 230. Thus the parties divided; those who sought worldly influ- 
 ence and power at Peking, were in favor of Ricci’s views of the rites; the 
 more spiritual and self-sacrificing laborers, whether they were Jesuits, Fran- 
 ciscans, vicar apostolic Dominicans, or were connected with the seminary 
 of Foreign mi.ssions in Paris, held with P. Lombard. Some of the most 
 distinguished and learned of those who held with P. Lombard, were Father 
 Morales, a Dominican, Father Kavarette, also a Dominican, M. Maigrot, 
 Doctor of the Sorbonne, and vicar apostolic of Fuh Kien, P. Visdelom 
 and many others, who were known as devoted and laborious missionaries. 
 
AXD IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 67 
 
 Many of those who refused to accept the rites as allowable, were called to 
 endure persecution for their opinions; whilst many of those who did 
 accept them, were promoted to high honors. Bishop Maigrot, at the 
 request or command of K'ang Hi, “cited from the Sacred Books of China 
 fifty texts in support of his opinion that the rites were idolatrous.” p. 
 266. If any copy of this compilation is extant, it would be of great 
 importance in this inquiry. The Emperor, having all along coincided in 
 the view that these rites were not idolatrous, was very angry that M- 
 Maigrot furnished such strong proofs from the classics that the Emperor’s 
 opinion was not in accord with the teachings of the classics. It would 
 appear that he never could forgive him. One statement of the nature 
 of the first decisions of the Pope in regard to the non-idolatrous nature 
 of the rites, reveals to us the nature of some of the arguments which 
 were urged in favor of that opinion. “They obtained a third decree, 
 which maintained the validity of the two former ones (one of which was 
 in favor and one against the rites) by declaring that the Chinese cere- 
 monies were forbidden to those who thought them idolatrous, and allowed 
 to such as regarded them as raerehj civil acts." Here was where the 
 mental reserve of the Jesuits came in. But nothing so effectually sets 
 forth the utter incorrectness of the views of those who regarded the rites 
 as not idolatrous as the language of the memorialists to the Emperor, 
 K'ang Hi. They say: “We have always supposed that Confucius was 
 honored in China as a legislator, and that it was in this character alone 
 and \oUh this viesv solely, that the ceremonies established in his honor 
 were practiced. We believe that the ancestral rites are only observed in 
 order to exhibit the love felt for them, and to hallow the remembrance of 
 the good received from them during their life.”* 
 
 We believe that the sacrifices offered to heaven, are not tendered to 
 the visible heavens, which are seen above us, but to the supreme Master, 
 Author, and Preserver of Heaven and Earth and all that they contain.” 
 Williams, Mid. King. Vol, II, pp. 309-10. All these different rites to 
 Confucius, to ancestors, and to Heaven consisted of sacrifices and offer- 
 ings, bowings dovTi before them witli prayers to each of the objects for 
 protection and blessings. With the words of Jehovah, as expressed in 
 the second commandment before us, “ Thou shalt not make unto thee any 
 
 ♦ To show the nature of the prayers offered to ancestors I present an example of one 
 whicli was offered on the 12th year of Taou K^rang and the 1st day of the 3rd 
 month. “ I, Lin Kwang, the second son of the third generation presume to come 
 before the grave of my ancestor Lin Kung. Revolving years have brought again 
 the season of spring. Cherishing sentiments of veneration, I look up and sweep 
 your tomb. Prostrate, I pray that you will come and be present ; that you will 
 grant to your posterity that they may he prosperous and illustrious ; at this season 
 of genial sbowers and gentle breezes, I desire to recompense the root my existence, 
 and exert myself sincerely. Always grant your safe protection. 3Iy trust is in 
 your divine spirit. Reverently I present the five-fold sacrifice of a pig, a fowl, a 
 duck, a goose and a fish ; also an offering of five plates of fruit, with oblations of 
 spirituous liquors ; earnestly entreating that you will come and view them, with 
 most attentive yespect this annunciation is presented on high.” Chi. Rep. vol. 
 I, p. 202. 
 
58 AVHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SIIANG-TI IN THE CTIINESE CLASSICS 
 
 graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in Heaven above, 
 or that is in tho earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth : 
 thou shall not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them,” every 
 Christian man and Biblical student must regard them all as forbidden 
 by the command of Jehovah. If such services and prayers, offered to de- 
 ceased men and to an object of nature, are not idolatrous sei’vices, there 
 is no idolatry in the world. 
 
 Therefore, as the facts in regard to the worship of Heaven, the 
 grammatical construction of the sentence, and the tveight of autlnority both 
 Chinese and Foreign, support the ti-anslation, which has been given of 
 the phrase under consideration, viz., hwang Then Shangti, “ Imperial 
 Heaven, the Ruler above,” I consider it as the true and coi’rect tran.sla- 
 tion, and hence it appeal’s, that Shangti is the designation of deified 
 Heaven, in reference to its being the Ruler over all things. 
 
 As refei’ence has been made to the controversy, which existed, dur- 
 ing the whole of tho seventeenth cenfar}', on the question of the Chinese 
 rites, among the Catholic Missionaries of that time, it will be interest- 
 ing to note the result, to which, after long investigation, the Pope and 
 his advisers arrived, on the whole matter. The main points of the 
 decision are expi’essed, as follows : “ Such practices being imbued with 
 supei’stjtion, Christians must not be allowed to perform any ceremonies 
 in the temples of Confucius, or offer oblations, such as are offered in his 
 honor, every month, at the new and full moon.* * That, moreover, it 
 must not be permitted Christians to make the less solemn oblations to 
 their ancestors in temples or buildings dedicated to them, nor to serve or 
 minister at such oblations in any manner luhateuer; Hor to render them 
 any worship, or pei’form any ceremonies to their honor. That Christians 
 must be forbidden to practice this worship, or those oblations or ceremo- 
 nies, in the presence of the small tablets of ancestors in pi’ivate houses, 
 oi' at their tombs, or before interring the dead in the manner that is 
 customary, either separately or conjointly with pagans, or to serve, 
 minister or assist at them in any manner whatever.* * That to express 
 our idea of the most high and good God, the name ‘T'ien ’ and ‘Shangti.’ 
 must be absohitely rejected. That for this rea.son it must not be permitted 
 that tablets bearing the Chinese inscription ‘King T'ien’ ‘adore Heaven’ 
 should be placed in Christian churches.” Hue’s Christianity in China, 
 Vol. III. p. 4I0-4II. 
 
 This, decision forbidding the use of both Heaven and Shangti in 
 speaking of Jehovah, clearly implies that the See of Rome had, after full 
 consideration, arrived at the conclusion, that as T'ien and Shangti were 
 the names by which the chief god of the Chinese government, viz: deified 
 Heaven, was commonly designated, they could not bo used in speaking of 
 Jehovah without danger of confounding him with the false god; and 
 therefore, the Pope forbade their use entireljn There is a very singular 
 use of the phrase ‘‘King- t'ien” by the emperors of China, which fully war- 
 rants the special prohibition of this phrase. Not only is it frequently 
 
ANB IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 59 
 
 used by the Emperors in edicts and prayers when .speaking of their rever- 
 ence for their great protector, but in the most solemn imperial announce- 
 ments or statements, it is used somewhat in the same way as in the lan- 
 guage of Western Rulers the phrase “by the grace of God, Emperor, &c,” 
 is u.sed. In the last solemn Testament of Kang Hi he commences it thus 
 . ^ fjH- “I, the Emperor, who honor Heaven and have 
 
 received the thi’one by its order, say.” This decision of the Roman See as 
 to the rites in China, caused the mis.sionaries to lose, in a "reat measure, 
 the favor of Kang Hi, and their influence at the court of Peking; it 
 caused a great many of those, who, during the continuance of the tem- 
 porizing cour.se in regard to the rites, had become adherents of Christian- 
 ity, to withdraw from the connection, and the Catholic church has never 
 since, had such a number of professed followers in China, as it had pre- 
 vious to that decision. But notwithstanding these apparently disastrous 
 results of the decision of the Pope, every one who prefers truth and right- 
 eousness to mere temporaiy and outward success, must unite in approv- 
 ing of the decision, and in giving honor to Clement XI, who had the 
 moral courage to give and to execute so righteous a decision, and one of 
 such great importance to Christianity. 
 
 As the decision on the points referred to above, is in such' entire ac- 
 cord with the plain teachings of the Bihle, it ought to be widely made 
 known to all the propagators of Christianity in this empire, and to all 
 those who accept of its doctrines from among this people. And the 
 decision ought to be faithfully accepted by all missionaries whether 
 Catholic or Protestant. 
 
 I ought perhaps to refer to the fact, that there are some sinologists, 
 who have given a different translation of this important phrase, which 
 has been under consideration, lest some should suppose I am not aware 
 of the fact. I am fully aware that one learned sinologist has publisbed 
 in a book, that the Emperor of China, when he goes to the altar of Hea- 
 ven, worships “the supreme Ruler pf the universe.” It is well known 
 that the ancient Chinese, from whom this worship has come down, sup- 
 posed that the earth was an expanded surface surrounded by four seas: 
 that the Heavens overshadowed this extended surface, and that there 
 were, in this “overhanging canopy,” the Sun, ]\Ioon and Stars, but 
 having very little idea as to what they were. That was the tmiverse to 
 them. How inadequate a conception is that to what is suggested to our 
 minds by the word universe, a word which naturally -fills our minds with 
 awe and adoration, in the conception of the A-ast sy.stem of worlds, and 
 the systems of suns and of other worlds which aie supposed to till the 
 boundless immensity. And what a glorious conception of the power and 
 glory of the Great God does the idea of the universe give to us, for He 
 “created tho Heavens and all the hosts thereof.” How inconsiderate 
 it is to use an expression which recalls to us this grand and glorious idea, 
 in reference to the worship of a heathen Emperor at the altar of deified 
 HeaA'en. 
 
60 WHAT BEI>rG IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 I am also fully aware that the distiuguished scholar and learned 
 professor, Dr. Legge, has translated this phrase, “The supreme Ruler 
 [dwelling] in the sovereign heavens.” Notions of the Chinese, p. 25. 
 1 can onlj’- express my deep regret and great surprise, that so great a 
 scholar should have fallen into so great an error in the translation of so 
 important a phrase. I have examined his writings, and his translations 
 of the Shoo-king and She-king, and I have failed to discover any satisfac- 
 tory statement either of the facts of the case, or the grammatical construc- 
 tion on which he justifies his translation. He, in the main, disregards 
 the opinions of Chinese commentators on that point, and also that of 
 other sinologists. In the She-king at p. 530, whei’e he controverts the 
 translation of P. Lacharme, who translates Shangti as in apposition with 
 Haou Then,” he says: “Lacharme makes the two parts of the line in 
 apposition.’ ‘ Augustum coelum qui est summus rerum dominus et domi- 
 nator.’ But such an apposition of the personal name, and the vague de- 
 signation of Heaven, especially with the epithet of great attached, is to 
 my mind exceedingly uimatural." Dr. Legge’s translation of the passage 
 there is, “God [from his] great Heaven.” 
 
 Dr. Legge well knows that all idolatry is “unnatural” and unrea- 
 sonable. If the supposition was, that it was the great Heaven, the material 
 Heaven as a pai’t of dead and inert matter that was meant, it would be 
 unnatural and i neon ijr mux to the last degree. But that is not the idea of 
 the Heathen Chinese. Dr. Legge, in the Shoo King at p. 283, on the 
 passage “ Heaven and Earth is the Parent of all creatures,” says: “There 
 can be no doubt that the deification of Heaven and Earth, which appears 
 in the text, took its rise from the Yih King, of which King Wgn may pro- 
 perly be regarded as the author.” What is involved in the “ deification 
 of Heaven ?” It clearly imjjlies, that Heaven is regai’ded as a god, and 
 as such, he is considered to jiossess life, volition, power, and all the attri- 
 butes that belong to the conception of the supreme Ruler. When Heaven 
 is thn.s conceived of by them as a god, possessed of all the attributes 
 which Dr. Legge sa_ys are ascribed to Shangti, the considering of Heaven 
 as in apposition with Shangti is very congruous. The ascribing of these 
 attributes to an object of nature, is very unnatural to us, enlightened as 
 we are b}' the Bible. But that is just what the Bible and the history of 
 all nations show to us that mankind in every age and country has done. 
 The Egyptians, Syrians, Hindoos and Grecians were just as enlightened as 
 the Chinese of the same age were. And when it is so universally admitted 
 that the people of these nations deified the objects of nature, luliy is it 
 regarded as so incredible that the Chinese, from the earliest times, have 
 deified Heaven, and that they continue to do so to this time? When it 
 is admitted that the Chinese regarded Heaven as a god, and clothed him 
 with the attributes of the great God to a wonderful extent, there is no- 
 thing unnatui'al or incongruous in putting Shangti in apposition with 
 Heaven, as Lacharme has done, in the passage under consideration. His 
 Latin will read thus in English “great Heaven, who is the highest Lord 
 
AND IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 
 
 61 
 
 and Enler of things.” If Dr. Legge will, in his very admirable transla- 
 tions of the Shoo-king and She-king, give T'ien the sense of Heaven, as a 
 god, as the great god, and to Shangti the sense of Ruler or Ruler above, 
 as the s 3 monym of Heaven, then there will be little else to be desired in 
 regard to the translation of these books. But in view of the full proof 
 which I have given, that dei6ed Heaven is the great god and protector 
 of the Chinese, and that Shangti is a designation of this false god, — 
 I can not for a moment say with Dr. Legge — “this god is our God.” I 
 hold on the contrary that he is one of the gods “ whick shall perish.” 
 But our God is Jehovah, “Who of old hast laid the foundations of the 
 Earth ; and the -heavens are the woi'ks of thine hands. They shall perish, 
 but thou shalt endure ; yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment ; as 
 a vesture shalt thou change them, and they shall be changed ; but thou 
 art the same, and tin' years shall have no end.” Ps. 102; 25-27. And 
 long before the destruction of the visible heavens this worshipping 
 of Heaven shall cease ; for the knowledge of God, Jehovah, shall till the 
 whole Earth. 
 
 In connection with this worship of Heaven, Earth and men, by the 
 Chinese there is a passage in the prophet Isaiah, which has .new force 
 and application as covering the whole ground and cutting away all the 
 roots of these various idolatries. “Thus saith God Jehovah, he that 
 created the heavens, and stretched them out ; he that spread forth the 
 Earth and that which cometh out of it ; he that giveth breath unto the 
 people upon it, and spirit unto them that walk therein : I Jehovah have 
 called thee in righteousness and wull hold thine hand and will keep thee 
 and give thee for a covenant to the people, for a light to the Gentiles. 
 Is. 42 : 5-6. Thus Jehovah is the Creator and Lord of all the things of 
 which the nations have made gods unto themselves. 
 
 There are some things which present themselves for consideration in 
 connection with the results which have been arrived at in these inquiries, 
 which may be adverted to. 
 
 1st. — These discussions have brought to view a great system of 
 idolatry which has hitherto received but little attention from the mis- 
 sionaries. It is more deeply looted in the hearts of the people than any 
 other, because it is the indigenous system, and because it is sanctioned by 
 all the sages of antiquity : it is also more securely entrenched, because it 
 is the state religion, and it has all the prestige which the support of the 
 government can give to it. Against this great sj'stem of the early wor- 
 ship in China we will need to unite all our forces, and to cooperate with 
 all harmony of purpose and aim, in order to effect its overthrow. "VYe 
 must explain to all the time nature of idolatry, whether it exists in high 
 or low places ; but with all charity and love for those who are engaged in 
 its practice. There must be no excusing, or covering it over with glosses 
 or excuses, as if it was not sin against the great Lord of all nations, 
 Jehovah. 
 
62 WHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 2iid. — The proof which has been presented, tliat Shangti is the dis- 
 tinctive designation of an individual Being, deified Heaven, and wliich 
 feeing is the great protecting god of this Empire and people, makes it 
 necessary that a most careful consideration of the use of this word 
 be made by those who have hitherto used Shangti as the standard 
 designation of the true God. Host of those who have so used it, have 
 used it for that purpose, under the impression, that it was wt in any 
 ivay connected with idolatry. Hitherto it has been conceded that Yuh 
 W1 lang Shangti is an idol. And also that when Shangti is applied 
 to the Northern Emperor, Peh Ti, it designates an idol. It has been con- 
 tended that Shangti of the classics is free from all connection with 
 idolatry. But it has noio been sliown that Shangti of the classics is not 
 only not the same as Jehovah, but that it is the designation of deified 
 Heaven and therefore it is the designation of a false god. Hence now 
 it must be admitted that Shangti of the classics is also a false god. This 
 fact now gives rise to the practical question, can the name or designation 
 of a well known and universally recognized false god, be properly used 
 to designate the true God ? I am satisfied that all the missionaries will 
 now give this question the most prayerful and careful consideration. I 
 pray God, that they all may bo guided to a right conclusion. I feel as- 
 sured that m}" brethren will suffer from me a few remarks on this point, 
 which I make in no spirit of controver.sy, but simply to further the 
 intersts of truth, which is the end that we all seek, though we do not 
 always see alike as to what is truth. In my former article at. page 78 of 
 the Chinese Recorder iov 1877, I, in remarking on “shin,” that though 
 it has the meaning of spii’it as w'ell as god, said that if used for spirit, 
 when speaking of those that are worshipped, as for instance the Holy 
 Spirit, there was great danger of its being understood in such connection 
 in the sense of God. I there say, “ So in the deification of God as given 
 in the Gospel by St. John, in Chap. 4: 24. ‘God is a Spirit;’ if this is 
 expressed in Chinese “ Sliangti Nai Shin,” there is great danger, that 
 from the association of ideas with the usage of Shin in such connection 
 for god, it will be understood as saying that Shangti is a god; which is 
 of course true, but it is not the idea there expressed.” According to a 
 statement published in the Recorder for 1877, page 259 — this very text 
 was presented to the assistants at Foochow as a Thesis for essays — and a 
 great majority of the writers understood the text to mean that Shangti is 
 a god, thus moi’e than justifying the fear that I had expressed in regard 
 to that point. It is my strong conviction, that if any snitable plan could 
 be devised, to arrive at the understanding which the members of the 
 native churches have in regard to Shangti, in the districts where Shangti 
 is used for God in preaching the Gospel among this people, it would be 
 found, that a large majority of the members have the idea that the native 
 Idol, whicli is commonly designated by that name in the said district, is 
 referred to. This must be the case in the very natui’e of things, and by 
 
AXD IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA, 
 
 63 
 
 the laws of the human mind. The people have been accustomed from 
 their childhood to hear the idol Tuh hwang called Shangti. When they 
 hear the word Shangti, they necessarily think of Yuh hwang, and nothing 
 else. All our ideas of things would be confused, if we did not thus as- 
 sociate the same Being with the name of that Being when we heard it 
 spoken. I cannot consider that Jupiter is spoken of when I hear the 
 name Jehovah, because Jehovah and Jupiter in my mind are two distinct 
 Beings and T always think of each respective Being when I hear each 
 name. A Chinese who all his life has heard the Idol Tuh hwang called 
 Shangti must always think of Yuh hwang when he hears the name 
 Shangti. He cannot understand that a new and different Being is referred 
 to when he hears the familiar sound Shangti. For a while, when under 
 direct instruction on that point, he may answer, that by Shangti, Jehovah 
 is referred to. But when away from the instruction, the law of associa- 
 tion and long established thought will come back, and Shangti to him 
 means Yuh luhang. Some will get the idea that Jehovah is the same as 
 Shangti, and that is the reason why he is called Shansi. By reason 
 of the laws of the human mind which lead us to connect or associate 
 the same person or Being with the name by which we have always 
 heard that person or Being called, I express the opinion, that a large 
 number of the chureh members where Shangti is used for God, un- 
 derstand, by Shangti, the native Idol 'which is commonly designated 
 by that name in that region. I have no means of verifying my 
 opinion. But as the other opinion has been verified by a very un- 
 expected incident, I expect to see this opinion, sooner or later, 
 shown to be correct in some way. While writing, an incident has 
 come to my knowledge to this effect. A missionary was surrounded by 
 a group of people telling them of the Gospel and of Jesus, using Shangti 
 when speaking of God. One of the most intelligent of the native Christ- 
 ians of that neighbourhood, was standing in the company. He volunteered 
 a side remark to the crowd to help them to understand the Foreigner. 
 His remark was to the effect that “ Shangti means Yuh hwang.” Here 
 is an instance of a church member, who, while listening to the remarks of 
 the missionary, having this association of the name of the native Idol so 
 strong in his mind, that he tells the heathen hearers that the missionary 
 means Yuh hwang. So far when Shangti is used for God in preaching. 
 
 3rd. — I come now to say a few words when Shangti is used in the 
 Sacred Scriptures as the translation of Elohim. I now speak of it as 
 used in the sense of Shangti of the classics. I suppose a literary Chinese 
 takes up a copy of the Bible, and he reads in the first chapter of 
 Genesis, “In the beginning Shangti created the Heavens and the Earth.” 
 What does he understand by this declai’ation ? — He having read the 
 classics knows that Shangti is the designation of a god of great power 
 and rule. He at once coneludes that it was this Being, w’hom he has long 
 known of by the name of Shangti, that created the world. If Dr. Legge’s 
 opinion, that the Shangti of the classics is the same Being as Jehovah is 
 
64 "WHAT BEIXG IS DESIGNATED SHAXG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 correct, then the Chinese reader gets the correct idea, for the Bible means 
 to teach that the God Jehovah created the he.avens and the earth. But if 
 that opinion is not correct, and it is the correct opinion that Shangti is the 
 designation of deified Heaven, then what is the meaning that the Chinese 
 reader gets ? Why, it is that Shangti, which is the same as deified Hea- 
 ven, created the Heavens and the Earth — and you cannot change that 
 idea. The Chinese scholar Icnows that Shangti means that particular 
 Being and nothing else. And this passage is thus made to teach that 
 another, and a different Being from Jehovah, created the Heavens and 
 the Earth. 
 
 Let us consider another passage of the Sacred Scriptures in which 
 Shangti occurs as the translation of Elohim. The first commandment 
 reads, “ I am Jehovah, thy Shangti.* * Thou shalt have no other 
 Shangti before me.” Ex. 20; 2, 3. We are all agreed as to what the 
 original means, and as to what it is intended to express in Chinese. In 
 this passage Jehovah claims to be the God of all men, of every nation, 
 and forbids all men, as well as each individual man, to have any other 
 God beside Jehovah. The present inquiry is to find out what the 
 Chinese will understand from the translation into Chinese where 
 Shangti is used to translate Elohim. It is admitted that this 
 Shangti is the Shangti of the Chinese classics. The Shangti of the 
 classics is the special protector of the Chinese Empire and people. He 
 appoints the Emperor, so that he is called in reference to being so ap- 
 pointed, “the son of Heaven.” (Heaven being the same Being with 
 Shangti and the synonym of Shangti.) Shangti cjianges the dynasty 
 when, by wickedness or misruling, the existing dynasty has forfeited his 
 favor. Shangti is prayed to for fruitful seasons, and when, for the sins 
 of the people or of the rulei’s, he sends drought or other calamities, he is 
 sought unto for deliverance from the calamity. Thanks are given to 
 Shangti for the fruits of the Earth, for victories in time of battle, &c. 
 The Chinese government and people have thus for 4,000 years recognized 
 Shangti as the protector and Ruler of this country. When therefoi-e a 
 revelation comes to them from a Divine Being, as it does in the Bible, 
 and says to this people, “I am Jehovah, thy Shangti,” it appears to me 
 beyond all doubt, that they can only understand, that it is the Shangti 
 w'hom they have so long known and worshipped that speaks to them. 
 They know no other Being who is called Shangti. And when a Divine 
 Being thus speaks to them and styles himself “thy Shangti,” who can 
 they suppose is speaking to them, but the Shangti they have so long wor- 
 shipped ? If Dr. Legge’s opinion, that Shangti is the same Being as 
 Jehovah, is correct, then Jehovah is, of course, the Shangti of this people 
 and thus the translation is most apposite and correct, for that is what the 
 passage expressly says. “I am Jehovah thy Shangti;” and this declara- 
 tion would be particular! g true and appropriately said of the Chinese 
 people; just as distinctively true of them, as it was of the Israelites, the 
 
AXD IN THE RITUAL OF THE STATE REIJGION OF CHINA. 65 
 
 chosen people of God. But if the opinion of Dr. Legge is not true, (and 
 it has been abundantly proven that it is not true,) and if it is true, that 
 Shangti is the designation of deified Heaven, which is the great divinity 
 of the Chinese government, then what follows ? In ray opinion, it neces- 
 sai’ily gives to the Chinese reader the idea that Jehovah is the same as 
 the Shangti which they have so long, worshipped ; and that they shall 
 worship no other Shangti but him, for they cannot suppose that the name 
 of their Shangti was given to another Being. I do not for a moment 
 intimate that any, with this understanding of its meaning, have preferred 
 this term to translate Elohim. I only ask my brethren to consider what 
 is the meaning which the use of Shangti to translate Elohim, gives 
 the Sacred Scriptures. Dr. Legge in his translation of the Shoo-king 
 and She-king, has made it clear beyond all doubt, that Shangti is the 
 distinctive title of an individual Being, which has been worshipped by 
 the Chinese from the earliest period of their history ; and that Hea- 
 ven is everywhere interchanged with Shangti, as referring to the same 
 Being. I have shown that that Being is deified Heaven. Hence Shang- 
 ti can no longer be considered in any sense, as a common noun which 
 might be applied to any worshipped Being. When the words Shang-ti are 
 u.sed they can properly only be understood to refer to that Being, to which 
 that designation has always been given in the Chinese classics. There 
 is now therefore no middle ground. Shangti is either the same Being as 
 Jehovah as Dr. Legge maintains, or Shangti is the designation of deified 
 Heaven, to which the Chinese have given the glory which belongs to Jehovah. 
 Hence, when Shangti is used, it conveys to the Chinese reader necessarily 
 the idea of that distictive and individual Being — just as much as the title 
 “The emperor Napoleon” suggests the idea of the one man, who was the 
 conqueror of so many nations of Europe. Therefore, when a Chinese 
 reads the verse, “Shangti created the Heavens and the Earth” — it can 
 only mean that the Being, who is designated Shangti, created the Heaven 
 and the Eai-th — and hence the transcendent importance of the question 
 which has occupied so much time in its discussion, viz ; What Being 
 is designated by the words Shangti? So far as I know it has never been 
 considered proper to choose the designation of an individual false god 
 and apply it to Jehovah. It would not appear best for us in China to 
 depart from a rule, which has been observed by the propagators of Christ- 
 ianity dui’ing all the past period of its dissemination among so many 
 nations. 
 
 Psee no other safe course to pursue in the matter except the common 
 and general %ise of the divinely revealed name of the one true God, Je- 
 hovah, to designate the God we seek to make known to this people, and 
 in connection with this peculiar and jjroper name of the true God, use 
 such others words and phrases as may be deemed most suitable to express 
 His various attributes and relations. 
 
G6 AVHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SIIANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 4tli. — I have not referred to tlie fact that the Chinese have, from the 
 earliest period of their history, worshipped other objects conjointly with 
 Heaven, as an argument to show that by Heaven, the great God cannot be 
 intended. But every one must acknowledge that the fact that the earth, 
 the Imperial ancestors, and the gods of the land and the grain, have been 
 always worshipped conjointly with Heaven, precludes the idea that by 
 Heaven, the true God, Jehovah, can be understood. It has been repeatedly 
 stated, that the use of Heaven to designate God in the 'Parable of the 
 Prodigal son by our Blessed Lord sanctions the use of Heaven as refer- 
 ring to God. His language does most certainly sanction the use of the 
 word Heaven as a symbol of the God of Heaven. But in the mind of 
 our Lord and Saviour, in the passage referred to, and in the minds of 
 Christians when using the same language, the great God is the Being who 
 is referred to, and heaven, which is the work of his hand, is but the 
 symbol of its great Lord and Creator. But in all the Chinese Books, 
 Heaven, deified Heaven, is the positive Being spoken of, and Shangti is 
 the designation of Heaven as the Ruler above. Hence the use of the 
 word Heaven in the Sacred Scriptures by our Lord, is as different as pos~ 
 siLlefrom the manner of using Heaven in the Chinese classics. 
 
 6th. — I think it quite proper to refer to some sentences which I have 
 met with on these investigations, which show the use of “Shin” in the 
 ritual and the classics. In the ritual of the sacrifice to Heaven, “Shin” 
 is used in these different senses. - In one place it is said. “The head 
 of the Board of Rites shall then direct some officers of the Sacrificial 
 court to enter the “Circular Hall of the Imperial Expanse” and reverently 
 invite the tablets of the gods out.” In this place “Shin” designates hath 
 Heaven and ancestors, ’ The Emperor had just previously entered that 
 Hall and “offered incense before the tablets of the Ruler above and the 
 respective Holy ones.” Now they are collectively invited to come out. 
 This manifests most clearly the egioality with which Heaven and the an- 
 cestors are regarded. Their tablets are kept on the same depository, and 
 they are invited to come out at the same time. I have met with this sen- 
 tence, stating a usage that prevailed in the Sung Dynasty. “ First they 
 [the emperors] sacrificed to the ancestors and then sacrificed to Heaven 
 and Earth. 
 
 In the ritual where the shrine of Heaven is specially referred to 
 three times, it is designated the shrine of Ti Shin ^ jpl^, which I have 
 ti’anslated the Ruler-god. I have so done in accordance with a usage of 
 of this language, as stated by P. Premare in his “Notitia Lingnas Sini- 
 Cffi,” page 155, par. 4th; where he says, “Shi jin A is an ode man, 
 Wttn jin is a writer of essays and Tsui jin fp A is one who sins” — 
 
 as, an ode man is one who makes odes, an essay man is one who writes 
 essays and a sin man is one who comirits sin, so by the same usage Ti 
 
 shin ^ is a god who rules. But in “the ritual for prayer to Hea- 
 
 ~ 
 
AXD IN' THE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 67 
 
 ven on any special occasion” there is a very important use of “shin.” The 
 only tablet that is present on that occasion is that of Heaven with the 
 full title a ± & “ the god, imperial Heaven, Ruler above’s 
 
 tablet.” In speaking of receiving this tablet, and in sending it away it 
 is called “ Shin,” simply, the god. I have also met with a precisely sim- 
 ilar use of “shin” in a memorial addi-essed to an Emperor of the Han 
 Chin in wRich the memorialist is asking* “that the title of Earth should 
 be changed from Sovereign Earth Js± to .$ life. ^ fiK imperial Earth 
 Sovereign Producer, because the god (t. e. Heaven) had been called 
 -t for a long time.^” 
 
 The original and normal use of “shin” is in connection with deified 
 Heaven, as it is called jjil|l the Heaven god; just as Ki is the word 
 uses in connection with deified Earth It must be particularly 
 
 observed that Then shin ^ iji^ and jljj Ti ki have two well defined 
 used. Such uses are authoritatively indicated in the ritual. One use is 
 when they distinctively indicate Heaven and Earth respectively. Then 
 each expression is singular, and it is placed in the highest place in the 
 column, which shows cleaidy that Heaven and Earth are meant. When 
 Then shin is used to designate the deified sun, moon and stars, and the 
 deified powers of nature, as the winds, the clouds, the rain and the thun- 
 der, then the expression is plural, and it is printed in the second place 
 in the column to indicate that they are secondary objects of worship. 
 The same thing is true of Ti ki when it refers to the deified mount- 
 
 ains and hills, the seas and the streams, it is plural, and in the ritual it 
 is placed in the second place in the column of characters to indicate that 
 it refers to objects of secondary worship. This “usus loquendi” in re- 
 ference to these two expressions, prevails all through the classics. Some- 
 times it is most difficult to distinguish which is the true meaning, for 
 it is not always possible to say certainly, whether Heaven itself and 
 Earth itself are referred to or not — and we have not anything to guide us 
 there, as we have in the ritual. In it, the position the character 
 occupies in the column, manifests the meaning beyond all doubt. I 
 now present some passages from the classics in which “shin” is used 
 interchangeably with Heaven. The Emperor of the Wei Chiu named 
 Ming Ti says : “ I, in my teaching have done something displeasing 
 
 to the imperial god, therefore Heaven above has sent something 
 to awaken me from my indifference.” Siau Yung sz in explaining 
 sacrifices, says; “The great ceremony is the sacrifice to Heaven 
 
 * From this statement it would appear that Heaven had the title “ imperial ” as early 
 as the Han Dynasty which occupied the throne from 202 B. C. to A. D. 221 ; 
 and because Heaven had this title the memorialist proposes that it should be 
 given to Earth also. The use of this title would appear to have fallen into dis- 
 use : and according to the collected statutes of the Ming Dynasty it was restored 
 to Heaven with great ceremony in 1535. 
 
68 -SVHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 and Earth : therefore the Chow Li, to honor and distinguish it,^ says : 
 
 ‘ Sacrifice to the great go>l and the great Producer.’ In the chapter on 
 music, in Li ki, it is said, hen the ceremonies and music of the ancient 
 kings were agreeable to the disposition of Heaven and Earth, they were 
 able to have communication with the virtue of the ijod’ and of the Ming.”^ 
 The word iling is used as a svnomym of Ki. And hence ^ “ Shin 
 ming ” is svnonomous wirli “Shin Kh.” Chang Kiun says of an 
 
 Emperor, that “ When he was about to attend to Kiau sacrifice, he had 
 not yet sacrificed to the “Shin” or the Ki ; and having obtained an 
 animal made it a victim for sacrifice ; becanse of this Heaven manifested 
 that it received the sacrifice of Wu Ti ^ 
 
 In the ode Chen-jang of the She, the writer again and again appeals 
 to Heaven. And in one stanza, he has a parallelism nsing “ shin ” in the 
 second line, for Heaven of the first. Thus “Why is it that Heaven 
 reproves ? Why is it that fhe god does not bless And Chan T.sz writes 
 “ ^Vhen Heaven and Earth are in harmony, all things are in accord ; 
 therefore the god and the producer are moved with delight.”® 
 
 The sacrifice “ will ascend to imperial Heaven, and tlie god above will 
 receive" it.” Here-S/uu refers to Heaven, the god above is of the same 
 meaning as the Ruler above. If any one insists that Shangti shonld be 
 translated “ Supreme Ruler,” then in this passage by the same usage 
 “ Shang shin ” should be translated “ Supreme god,” meaning Heaven. 
 Of sentences thus speaking of the worship of Earth, and its being equal 
 to Heaven, showing Heaven and Shangti being used interchangeably, 
 and “ Shin ” also being nsed in speaking of Heaven, and sentences in 
 which the emperor recognises Heaven as father, and Earth as mother, 
 <tc., &,2. I have more than three hundred and fifty. — But these are 
 sufficient to show how these things are spoken of in the Chinese Books. 
 
 In this ritnal there is another usage of “ Shin” which it is important 
 to notice. It is this, the manner in which it is written when it is applied 
 to any of the objects of the great sacrifice and when it is applied to other 
 objects of worship. When it is nsed in reference to Heaven, to Earth 
 and the Imperial ancestors, “ Shin” is then printed in the highest place 
 in the column, on a level with Heaven, Shangti and Earth. But 
 wherever in the ritual, it is used to refer to other objects of worship, 
 it is then written in the second place in the column of characters. This 
 usage is very similar to our use of the word God in the Bible. When 
 
AND IN IHE RITUAL OF THE STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 69 
 
 it is used to designate Jehovah, the only true God, we print it with a 
 capital Gr, but when it is used to refer to other objects of worship, then 
 it is written gods, commencing with a small g to indicate that they are 
 not the great God. The manner in which “Shin” is used in the Imper- 
 ial ritual, appears to me, to fully warrant the use of “shin” in connection 
 with the peculiar and distinctive name Jehovah, when speaking of the 
 one true and the false gods. The need of a tvord to be used in these ap- 
 plications is admitted by all. It appears to me that the use of shin in 
 this two-fold application not only meets the need, but that its use in 
 such a two-fold application, is, so to speak, authorized and sanctioned by 
 the manner in which it is used in the Imperial ritual of the sacrifices to 
 Heaven and Earth. Eor in that ritual it has a two-fold application, 
 one wdien applied to the chief gods and the other w'hen applied to 
 inferior gods. 
 
 It w'ill be interesting to many readers to notice the analogies with 
 Scripture teachings which are found in this the most ancient form of idol- 
 atry existing on the earth. The objects of worship are the I'ien shin, the 
 Ti Ki and the Jin kwei. Then shin is stated by Kang Hi to be “The one 
 who draw's, or stretches out all things. Jehovah says “Thus saith God 
 Jehovah, he that created the heavens and stretched them out, he that 
 spread forth the earth, and that wdiich cometh out of it.” Is. 42 : 5. 
 “He hath stretched o%tt the Heaven by his understanding. Jer. 51 : 15. To 
 him that stretched out the earth above the waters. Ps. 136 : G. The Ti Ki 
 is defined in K'ang Hi, “The one who produces all things.”- It was 
 stated above that “these all things” include “both animate and inanimate 
 things.” In Genesis we read — “And the eartlb brought forth grass, and 
 herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed 
 is in itself, after his kind.” Gen. 1; 12. “And God said, let the waters 
 bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowd that 
 may fly above the earth on the open firmament of heaven.” Gen. 1 : 20. 
 “And God said, let the earth bring forth the living creature after his 
 kind, cattle and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind ; 
 and it was so.” Gen 1 : 24. “And the Lord God formed man of the dust 
 of the ground.” Gen. 2 : 7. The third object of worship in this early wor- 
 ship of the Chinese is the Jin kwei. The w'ord kwei is defined by K'ang 
 Hi thus; “The Shuh w'au says, “man returned to w'hat he was is called 
 Kw'ei or [manes]. The Book I Ya says “kwei, to explain it is returned. 
 Lieh Tsze says, wdien the soul leaves the body, each returrus to its original, 
 therefore they are styled kwei — kwei is the same as returned: returned to 
 their original state.”® There is also a colloquial expression which says, 
 “ man w’as made of the dust, therefore when a man dies, he returns to the 
 
70 ■\VHAT BEING IS DESIGNATED SHANG-TI IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS 
 
 bosom of the earth and he is tlien at peace. How strikingly these are 
 in accord with the teachings of the Bible. “In the sweat of thy face 
 shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou 
 taken, for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.” Gen. 3: 19. 
 “Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit shall 
 return to God who gave it. Eccle. 12 : 7. Thus while the word of God 
 declares that the Heavens and the Earth were created by God, and that 
 God caused all things to 'proceed from the earth, men in their vain im- 
 aginations have supposed that the power was in the inert matter. The 
 supposition in regard to souls of the departed is nearly the same among the 
 Chinese, as it was among the Romans, who called them “manes” which 
 is defined by Andrews in his Latin-English Lexicon, “The deified souls 
 of the departed. 
 
 I have now finished the discussion of these two points which, it ap- 
 peared to me, needed elucidation. The arguments which are presented 
 in the first part, appear to me to establish the fact beyond all doubt, that 
 Shangti of the clas.sics is not the same Being as Jehovah, though they 
 are not all the arguments that might be pi’esented. Since, in the second 
 part, it is shown what object is designated Shangti, the first point admits 
 of no further discussion. On the second point, the proofs have been 
 much more abundant and conclusive than I could have supposed. Un- 
 less we can suppose that this peojile have been mistaken for these four 
 thousand years, in regard to the object to which the sacrifices and wmr- 
 ship have been offered by their Emperors, then that object is deified 
 Heaven. The abundance and clearness of the evidence in proof of the 
 fact, that the great god of the Chinese is deified Heaven has surprised 
 me ; and I suppose it will equally surprise most of my readers. I submit 
 these evidences and proofs to their consideration. I did not comprehend 
 the matter till since I entered upon these inquiiaes. To many of my 
 readers the results will be equally new and surprising, as they have been 
 to myself. My only desire is that the truth may prevail. I pray that 
 God may guide us all into the truth in this matter, as well as into all 
 truth. Asking the blessing of God to attend this discussion, which was 
 commenced with the desire that His name might be glorified, I commend it 
 to the candid consideration of all my readers and of my missionary brethren. 
 
 (mm) 
 
 Note. — To many readers it will be interesting to read the translation of a passage from 
 Homer’s Iliad, which shows how very like the idolatry of Greece was to that of 
 China — The passage is Book III of the Iliad, lines 276-78, at the time when Paris 
 and Menelaus were to engage in single conflict and end the strife. Both parties 
 called upon the god’s to be witness to the engagement which was made to this 
 effec t — The invocation was thus made ? 
 
 “ O Father Jove ! Who rulest from Ida height. 
 
 Most great ! Most glorious ! And thou Sun, who see’st 
 And hearest all things ! Bivers ! And thou Earth ! 
 
 And ye, who after death beneath the Earth 
 Your vengeance wreak on souls of men forsworn, 
 
 Be witness ye, and this our covenant guard.’’ 
 
 Earl Derby’s Translation. Vol. I. Page 69. 
 
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