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 Van Berg"en, Robert. . ; 
 
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 JO 19IC 
 
 ; 1 
 
 
THE STORY OF RUSSIA 
 
 : 
 
 BY 
 
 R. VAN BERGEN, M.A. 
 
 AUTHOR OF " THE STORY OF JAPAN," " THE STORY OF CHINA," ETC. 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI :• CHICAGO 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
Copyright, 1905, 
 By AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
 
 Story of Russia 
 
 W. P. I 
 
 ^^1 
 
 .X71. 
 
 JTo 
 
 HENRY MATHER EOWMAN 
 
 AMICUS CKRTUS RE INCERTA CERNITUR. 
 
\ 
 
 PRE FAC E 
 
 Recent events have drawn the attention upon Russia, a 
 country of which but httle is known here, because the in- 
 tercourse between it and the United States has been hmited. 
 In my frequent journeys to the Far East, I found it often 
 difhcult to comprehend events because, while I could not 
 help perceiving that the impulse leading to them came from 
 Russia, it was impossible to discover what prompted the gov- 
 ernment of the czar. I felt the necessity to study the history 
 of Russia, and found it so fascinating, that I resolved to 
 place it in a condensed form before the students in our 
 schools. They must be the judges of how I have succeeded. 
 
 R. Van Bergen. 
 
1 I 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 T. 
 II. 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 VII. 
 VIII. 
 IX. 
 X. 
 XL 
 XII. 
 XIII. 
 XIV. 
 XV. 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Realm of the Czar ^3 
 
 Karly Ri<:cords ok Russia 23 
 
 The Norsemen (or Varixgians) in Russia 29 
 
 Saint Vladimir and Iaroslore the Great 41 
 
 A Russian Republic 49 
 
 Troublous Times 57 
 
 The Yellow Peru ^3 
 
 Ru.ssiA Under the Mongol Yoke 71 
 
 Lithuania and Moscow 79 
 
 Decline of the Tartar Power. Dmitri Donskoi 87 
 
 Ivan III, the Great 97 
 
 Russia becomes an Autocracy 106 
 
 Ivan IV, the Terrible i^i 
 
 Russia Under Ivan the Terrible 122 
 
 Feodor, the Last of Rurik's Descendants 129 
 
 Michael Feodorovitch (Son of Theodore), the 
 
 First Romanof '37 
 
 Karly Years of Peter the Great (Peter 
 
 Alexievitch) M5 
 
 11 
 

 12 
 
 CHAPTER PAGB 
 
 XVIII. Peter the Great and His Reign 153 
 
 XIX. Peter the Great and His Time 162 
 
 XX. The Successors of Peter the Great 173 
 
 XXI. Russia Under Catherine II (the Great) 183 
 
 XXII. Russia During the Wars of Napoleon 194 
 
 XXIII. An Eventful Period 208 
 
 XXIV. Alexander II, the Liberator 219 
 
 XXV. Great Events During Alexander's Reign. 
 
 Nihilism 229 
 
 XXVI. Alexander III, the Peasants' Friend 241 
 
 XXVII. Russia Under the Present Czar, Nicholas II.. 251 
 XXVIII. TheOrigin AND Growth OF The Asiatic Empire 259 
 
 XXIX. Russian Methods. The War with Japan 267 
 
 XXX. Russia Loses her Prestige 277 
 
 THE STORY OF RUSSIA 
 
 I_THE REALM OV THE CZAR 
 
 WHEN we think of our country, we feel proud of it 
 for other and better reasons than its great size. 
 We know how its extent compares with that of other 
 nations ; we know that the United States covers an area 
 ahiiost ecpial to that of luirope, and, more favored than 
 that (irand Division, is situated on the two great highways 
 of commerce, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Europe is 
 as far from the latter, as Asia is from the former; and 
 these highways, powerful means toward creating pros- 
 perity, remain at the same time barriers whereby nations 
 that find irreater delight in the arts of war than in those 
 of peace, are restrained from disturbing our national 
 
 progress. 
 
 At the beginning of this twentieth century the nations 
 upon which depends the world's peace or war, hai)piness 
 or misfortune, are the Tnited States, (jreat Britain, 
 Tiermany, hVance, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Japan, 
 and in the near future China. Here we see that Europe, 
 although little larger in area than the I'nited States, is 
 represented bv seven nations, Asia by two, and the 
 Western Hemisphere by one which by its institutions 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 stands for peace and progress, for law and order. Hence 
 we, its citizens, are known all over the world as 
 Americans. 
 
 If we compare the area occupied by the several Euro- 
 pean powers with that covered by the main body of our 
 republic, that is, not including Alaska and other outlying 
 territories, we find that Austria-Hungary has four 
 thousand scpiare miles less than Texas, while Germany 
 lacks forty thousand square miles in c(Mnparison with the 
 Lone Star State. France is four thousand square miles 
 less than dermany, and Italy is only a thousand square 
 miles greater than Nevada. The I'ritish Kingdom in 
 Europe is about twice the area of Illinois. Among the 
 great nations of the world, aside from outlying posses- 
 sions beyond the (irand Division, our country stands 
 third, and should occupy the second place, because China, 
 the next larger, owes its greater area to territories over 
 which she has little or no control, and whirh she seems 
 destined to lose. 
 
 The largest country is Russia, covering as it does one- 
 sixth of all the land on the earth. This empire, although 
 inhabited by people differing in race, religion, and cus- 
 toms, is one compact whole. It embraces in Europe 
 2,113,000 square miles, or more than all other Euro- 
 pean nations combined ; its area in Asia is 6,672,000 
 square miles, making a total of 8,785,000 scjuare miles, or 
 2.8 times as many as the main body of cnir country. All 
 the people living in this immense em])ire, whatever their 
 race, religion, or language, obey the will of one man. 
 We, who dwell in our beloved country, yield obedience 
 onlv to the Law ; but the laws are made by ourselves, and 
 
 15 
 
 thev allow us to do as we please, so long as we do not 
 interfere with others who have the same rights ; and those 
 laws are ever ready to i)rotect us. In Russia laws arc 
 made or unmade at the will of one i)erson who is himself 
 above the laws. ICvery man, woman, or child, born and 
 living in that country, is at his mercy. Mere suspicion is 
 sufficient to drag a man from his family and home, per- 
 haps to disappear without leaving a trace. Such a 
 government is called an autocracy, and the man who may 
 thus dispose of people's life and property, is known as 
 an Autocrat. Hence the title of the Emperor of Russia 
 is : Autocrat of All the Russias. 
 
 Why "All the Russias"? Look at the map of 
 Eurasia, the continent embracing the two Grand Divi- 
 sions Europe and Asia. You will see that the Russian 
 Empire is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; 
 on the east by the Bering Strait, the Bering Sea, the 
 Sea of Okhotsk, and the Japan Sea; on the south by 
 China, Pamir, Afghanistan, Persia, Asiatic Turkey, 
 and the lUack Sea; and on the west by Roumania, 
 Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Baltic Sea. 
 Sweden, and Norway. This immense empire is the 
 growth of many centuries, and even in Europe it has 
 not yet been welded into one whole. When we read 
 Russian books, we learn about Great and Little Russia, 
 White and Red Russia, which shows that divisions of 
 bygone years are still observed by the people. Much 
 has been done towards effacing those boundary lines; 
 but the fact that the czar, autocrat though he is, recog- 
 nizes and admits the division in his title, shows that even 
 he is, to some extent, subject to public opinion. 
 
16 
 
 Russia in Europe, however, with the exception of 
 Poland and Finland, is a country with one religion and 
 one language ; that is, the czar and his government recog- 
 nize and admit no other. That is the cause of the ])erse- 
 cution of the Jews, four fifths of whoiu dwell in the 
 southwest of Russia in an area covering 35^),^)Hi square 
 miles, which is sometimes mentioned as the Jewish terri- 
 tory. Everv succeeding czar has tried to make all his 
 subjects think and act in the manner prescribed by him. 
 The process is known as '* Russianizing," and goes on 
 incessantly in its different stages. Immediately after the 
 conquest of a country, its people are assured that their 
 religion, institutions, and language, shall be respected: 
 the only difference is that the native officials are displaced 
 by Russians. This continues until Russian rule is firmly 
 established, and no one dreams of resisting the czar. 
 Then the Russian language displaces the native tongue, 
 and if disturbances occur, the military is cal1<^d in to 
 inflict a terrible punishment. The loss of the native 
 language carries with it that of old institutions, and when 
 the people have submitted to their fate, it is the turn of 
 their religion. The Russian is in no hurry ; he has a 
 conviction that time has no changes in store for his 
 empire, hence he bides his time, and is likely to succeed 
 in his purpose. This prcxress is now carried on in 
 Central Asia where Russian power has found its greatest 
 expansion in modern times. It is but fair to admit that 
 Russian absorption there has been highly beneficial 
 because robber tribes were reduced to law and order. 
 
 Before telling the Story of Russia, that is, of how the 
 huge empire was formed and grew to its present size, 
 
i8 
 
 it is necessary to become better acquainted with the 
 aspect and nature of the country. Looking at the map 
 of the Eurasian continent, that is. the continent embrac- 
 in^:^ Europe and Asia, we cannot fail to notice that Russia 
 is a country of the plains. Its southern boundary seems 
 to follow the mountain barriers which divide Asia into 
 two parts. Does it not seem as if long billows of earth 
 roll down toward the Arctic Ocean, where they rest 
 benumbed by the eternal cold? These mountains branch 
 off toward the south, east or west, but scorn to throw 
 so much as a spur northward. It is true that a solitary 
 chain, the Urals, runs north and south, but it stands by 
 itself, and is nothinj^: more than what the word Ural 
 sif^^nifies, a belt or ij^irdlc separatinj^ the European from 
 his Asiatic brother. These mountains do not form the 
 backbone of a couiUry. nor do they serve as a watershed, 
 like our Rocky Mountains or the .Andes of South .\merica. 
 Some of their peaks rise to a hci.c^ht of 6,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea, but the chain, 1531 miles long, seems 
 destined only to keep the two races ajiart. 
 
 Beyond the Ural mountains, the plain resumes its 
 sway. This extensive flat could not fail to exert a 
 noticeable inlluence upon the country and its inhabitants. 
 The dense forests in the north, while acting as a screen, 
 do not aft'ord protection against the icy polar winds which 
 sweep with scarcely diminished force over the broad 
 expanse, so that the northern shores of the Hlack and 
 Caspian Seas in January have about the same temperature 
 as Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. The mountains of 
 Western Europe shut off the aerial current of the Gulf 
 Stream which tempers the summer heat as well as the 
 
 # 
 
 19 
 
 winter cold. Russia's climate, therefore, is one of 
 extremes. In summer the heat is very oppressive, owing 
 to the absence of the sea breeze which elsewhere affords 
 so much relief; and when a wind d(H's blow, it only adds 
 to the discomfort, because it has lost its moisture. That 
 is the reason why Russia suffers so often from drought. 
 This is especially the case in Uie south where no forests 
 are found to attract rain. 
 
 Nature has provided a substitute in the splendid water- 
 ways. In about the center of Euroi)ean Russia, rises the 
 \aldai plateau to a height of i.ioo feet above the sea 
 level. This is Russia's great watershed. Near it, in 
 Lake X'olgo, rises the largest river of Europe, " Mother 
 X'olga," as the Russian ballad singers love to call it. 
 Its entire length is 2.336 miles, or nearly the length of 
 the Missouri; it has a basin of 590,000 square miles. 
 Owing to the slight slope of the land, the great river 
 flows placidly in its bed, which is fortunate since its 
 waters are swollen by several large rivers, so that there 
 are points where it is seventeen miles wide. The Kama, 
 one of the tributaries of the X'olga, is 1,266 miles long; 
 the Oka. another confluent, has a length of 633 miles. 
 At Kazan, the \'olga is 4-953 ^^'^t wide, at Jaroslaf 2,106 
 feet, and at Samara, 2446 feet. It empties into the 
 Caspian Sea, with a delta of more than seventy branches. 
 The fish caught in this river often grow to gigantic 
 proportions; its sturgeons, lampreys, and salmon, are 
 highly prized. Since time immemorial, the Volga has 
 been a great highway of trade. Kostroma, Xishni Nov- 
 gorod, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan, are die 
 most populous cities on its banks. 
 
20 
 
 Other large rivers rise on the Valdai plateau. The 
 Dnieper runs south, passing by Kief, and empties in the 
 Black Sea, near Odessa. The Dwina runs northward, 
 seeking the icy Arctic, which it enters by way of the 
 White Sea near Archangel. The Diina takes a westerly 
 course towards the Gulf of Riga where it empties near the 
 city of that name. Of greater importance are the small 
 streams which feed Lakes Ladoga and Onega, because 
 they connect Central Russia with the Baltic Sea by 
 means of the Neva. 
 
 European Russia is usually divided into four zones 
 or belts, from the character of the soil and the nature 
 of its productions ; their general direction is from south- 
 west to northeast. In the north, as a screen against 
 the Arctic blast, is the policssa or forest region, densely 
 covered with lindens, birches, larches, and sycamores, 
 with oaks on the southern fringe. These forests are 
 invaluable to Russia where, in the absence of mountains, 
 stone is scarce. The houses are built of wood, and 
 fires are of common occurrence. I>oth lumber and fuel 
 are supplied by these forests which originally extended 
 to Novgorod, Moscow, and Jaroslaf. The increase in 
 population together with the growing demand for 
 lumber, have caused extensive clearings ; but the area 
 covered by the forests is so large, that the supply is 
 well-nigh inexhaustible. 
 
 South of this zone are the black earth lands, extend- 
 ing down to the Caucasus and across the Urals, and 
 covering in Europe an area of one hundred and fifty 
 million acres, — equal to that of Texas. This zone 
 derives its name from an apparently inexhaustible bed 
 
 
 I 
 
 IT_EARLY RECORDS OF RUSSIA 
 
 AT an early period in the history of Greece, we hear of 
 colonies established on the northern shore of the 
 Pontus Euxinus or Hospitable Sea, as they named the 
 Black Sea We niav even now recognize some of the 
 names of those colonies, snch as (^dessos. at the month 
 of the Bnp, Tvras. at that of the Dniester, and Pityas 
 where Colchis, the object of the search of Jason and his 
 fellow Argonauts, is supposed to have been. In the 
 fourth centurv before our era, some of these colomes 
 unite<l under a hereditary arclwn or governor, probably 
 for the purpose of securing better protection aganist the 
 barbarians who dwelt further inland. 
 
 The Creeks mention these barbarians as the Scythians, 
 an.l divided them into three classes. The agricultural 
 Scythians .Iwelt in the black earth belt, near the Dnieper ; 
 the noma.l Scvtbians lived at some distance to the east 
 of them, an.l the royal Scythians occupied the land around 
 
 the Sea of Azof. 
 
 Learned men of Russia have made many excavations 
 on the spots where the Greek settlements once stood 
 ,l„ring the past century. They have been rewarded 
 by finding many works of art, illustrating the mode of 
 
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 Otiicr lar.i;c rivers rise on the X'aldai plateau. The 
 Dniejjer inns sontli, passini^^ hy Kief, ainl emptier in ilic 
 I'laek Sea. neai" ( )(l.wsa. '1 lu- Mwin.i inns n( Mlliw ai<l. 
 seeking llie icy Arelie, wliieli it enters \)v wav of tlie 
 White Sea near .\relian,i;el. Tlie I )rnia talse> a westerlv 
 conrse towards the ( inlf of Ki^a wheie it empties near the 
 city of that name. ( )f i;ri-;iter imp<»rtanee are the small 
 streams which feed Lakes I.adoi^a and ( )nei^a. heeanse 
 they comiect C'entral Knssia with the I'ailic Sea hy 
 means of the Xeva. 
 
 luiropean ivnssia is nsnally divided into fonr zones 
 or helts, from the character of the soil and the natnre 
 of its |)io(lnctions : their general direction i^ from sonth- 
 west to northeast. In the north, as a screen ai;ainsl 
 the Arctic hlast. is the ["olicssa or forest rej^don. denselv 
 covered with lindens, hirches, larches, and svcamores, 
 with oaks on the sonthern fringe. 'llu-se forests are 
 invaluahle to Rnssia where, in the ahsence of momitains. 
 stone is scaice. The honses are hnilt (tf wo'xl. and 
 fires are of connnon occnricncr. I'oth Inmher and fnel 
 arc sni)plied hy these forests which orii^inallv extended 
 to NovL;(>rod. Moscow, and jaroslaf. 'idle increase in 
 popnlatioii lo^einei wiili the q^rowini;' demand for 
 Inmher. have cansed extensive clearint;^ ; hnl the area 
 covered hy the forests is so lari^c, that the supplv is 
 well-nii;h inexhanstihle. 
 
 Sonth of this zoiu- are the black earth lands, extend- 
 itii^f down to the Cancasns and across the I'rals. and 
 covering in lun-ope an area of one hnndred and fifty 
 million acres. — cipial to that of Texas. This zone 
 derives its name from an apparenilv inexhanstihle bed 
 
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 2 1 
 
 of black mold, so rich that no manure is recinired to 
 produce abnn«lant crops. I'ntil late in the last century, 
 and before the rniled Stales be.^an to export its surplus 
 harvests, this region was c<»nsidered the granary of 
 Europe. It was kn(.wn in ver\' ol<l times since we read 
 of it in the Heroic .\.m' (»f Ancient (ireece. when Jason 
 sailed in the Ar^o to brim;- home the ( ioldeii Meece. 
 
 Almost e(|ual in extent is the zone of arable stei)pes, 
 or prairies. onc«- the home of the ( "ossack. the nomad 
 who led here the life of a shepherd kinij:. moviiii; about 
 as the condition of pasture and llock reipiired. M(^st of 
 this land is now nn«ler cultivation, and with careful 
 farming- prodtucs i^ood crops. 1 Iksc arable steppes 
 cover an area e(|nal to that of Iowa, Kansas, and 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 The fourth an<l last zone is that of the barren stei)i)es. 
 There is ample evidence that at some remote time these 
 plains were covered with salt water. Ihe Casijian Sea 
 has a level ei.ubtv feet below that of the I'.lack Sea, and it 
 is therefore probable that lure was a lari^U' inland sea of 
 which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. These 
 stepi)es are unlit for farming;. Mere dwell the Kalmucks 
 and Kir;;hi/es. <lescen<lants of thi' dartars whose yoke 
 once pressed heavily ni)un Russia. 
 
 
 
 
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 TI— I'AKLV Rl'.CoUnS Ol- RTSSIA 
 
 A T an early |)i'iiM(l in tin- lii^loi \ <>f ( Iifcrc. wc hear of 
 •^ ^ colonics f^lahlishcd on llir norlhcrn shore of the 
 Pontiis I'.nximis or I lospitahlc Sea. as ihcy named the 
 ]*)lack Sea. \\ C nia\- e\(n imw re<'»c^rin/,. sdine of (he 
 names of those e«>l<»nies. sneh as ( )(le^sos. al th<* mouth 
 of the r>u.[^. ryras. at that of the I )niester, and Tityas 
 where Colchis, the ohjeet nf the search of Jason and his 
 fellow Ar^M)nanls. is snpiMi^ccl to have heen. In the 
 fourth centur\- hefore our era. some of these colonies 
 united innler a liereditarv iwchon or i^overnor. i)rohal)ly 
 for the ])nri)ose of secnriniL; hettt-r protection a.L^ainst the 
 harharians who dwelt further inlaufl. 
 
 The ( Ireeks mentinn the^e harharians as the Scsthians, 
 and divided ihcm into three classes. The aL;ricultural 
 ScNthians dwelt in the hlack earth helt . near the l)nie])er; 
 the nomad Sc\thians lixi-d at some distance to the east 
 of them, and the royal Scythians occui)ied the land around 
 the Sea t)f A/of. 
 
 I-earned men of Russia have made many excavaliojis 
 on the spots where the Creek settlements once stood, 
 (hirini:^ tlie i)a^t century. 'They have heen rewarded 
 l)y lindini; manv \\<>rks <>f art. illu^tralini; the mode of 
 
 
 
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 •**5;»c.k;^ 
 
 .? 
 
 ■ '.IJ- 
 
 ■■^:wi 
 
 
 
 
 ij^.. 
 
 
24 
 
 living of the Scythians. They have been placed, and 
 may be seen in the Hermitage museum of St. Petersburg. 
 Among these relics of the past are two beautifully 
 engraved vases, one of gold, the other of silver. The 
 Scythians on the silver vase wear long hair and beards, 
 and are dressed in gowns or tunics, and bear a close 
 resemblance to the Russians of our time. These vases 
 and other ancient objects confirm what is said about these 
 people by Herodotus, a (ireek historian who lived in the 
 fourth century before Christ. 
 
 We learn from him that the Scythians worshiped a 
 sword stuck into the ground, representing the god of 
 war, and that they made human sacrifices. They drank 
 the blood of the first enemy killed in battle, scalped their 
 prisoners, and used their skulls as drinking cups. In the 
 course of lime the (ireek civilization exerted its influence, 
 and penetrated to tribes dwelling much further in the 
 north, as is shown by the antiquities found in the govern- 
 ment of Ekaterinoslaf. 
 
 The orbis icrrarum or world so far as it was known 
 to the Greeks, was centered about the Mediterranean ; 
 hence the name of that sea, meaning Middle of the Land 
 or Middle of the Earth. I'eyond that there was an 
 unknown region, supposed to be inhabited by people of 
 whom many wonderful stories were told. Thus they 
 believed in the existence of the Arimaspians, a race of one- 
 eyed people ; there are legends, too, of the Agri])pei who 
 wxre described as bald and snub-nosed. The Greeks also 
 mention the Gryphons, who, they said, were guardians 
 of immense ((uantities of gold. The most w^onderful 
 people to the Greeks were the Hyperboreans, or dwellers 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ^s 
 
 beyond the regions of the north wind, who were looked 
 upon wnth awe and pity because it was said that they 
 hved in a country w^here snow fell summer and winter. 
 These were some of the races and tribes supposed to 
 inhabit Russia, which goes far to prove that the knowl- 
 edge of that country, in those times, w-as neither extensive 
 nor verv accurate. 
 
 The truth is that we know very little about the early 
 inhabitants of Russia : nor do they concern us greatly, 
 because grave changes occurred in the fourth century 
 of our era. At that time several large and warlike tribes 
 of Central Asia moved westward compelling other tribes 
 on their route to join them or to move ahead. Thus 
 they gathered strength until it looked as if Asia \vas 
 bent upon the conquest of Europe. They poured in 
 through the gap between the l>al mountains and the 
 Caspian Sea, and the civilized people of southeastern 
 Europe were unable to cope with the savage hordes. In 
 the vanguard were the Goths, who made an effort to 
 settle in Scythia, but they were forced to move on when 
 Attila, who is known as the Scourge of God, swooped 
 down upon them with his Huns. He was followed by 
 a host of Einns, Bulgarians, Magyars, and Slavs who, 
 how^ever, left his wake, scattered and settled down. 
 Soon after the Slavs became known to Greek authors and 
 were described by them. They were divided into a 
 number of tribes, among them the Russian Slavs who 
 settled about the sources of the Volga and the Oka, 
 and were the founders of Novgorod, Pskof, and Izborsk. 
 
 They must have been a numerous people. We hear 
 of another tribe settling on the banks of the Vistula, and 
 
26 
 
 lavinir the foundation of the future kingdom of Poland. 
 They settled on the upper Elbe, and in the north of 
 Gernianv. It is believed that tlie Slavs are ancestors 
 of the people in lioheniia, lUil.L;aria. Croatia, Servia, 
 and Dalniatia, and in Prussia oi those livini^ in Ponierania 
 and lirandenburi;-. 
 
 All these Slavs, although widely dispersed, practiced 
 the same heathen rites, spoke the same laui^niai^e, and 
 nursed the same traditions, until they fell under different 
 influences. They were, however, not the sole occui)ants 
 of northeastern Europe. Other races had followed in 
 Attila's wake, and amon^ them the h'inns were the 
 most numerous and most warlike. They settled in the 
 basin of tlie Dwina and the Kama and named their new- 
 home liiarmaland, while the Russians called it (ireat 
 Permia. They also occupied what is now known as 
 Finland, but which was then known as Land of the 
 Suomi. The Finns, more than any other tribe, bore 
 evidence of their Asiatic origin. 
 
 Thus the present European Russia was divided amon.i]: 
 a host of tribes, belonf^iui^ either to the Slav or I'inn 
 families, and each kept to a ^reat extent the superstitions 
 and traditions of his race. Even in our time the traces 
 of these superstitions are plainly descernible in many 
 parts of Russia. When Christianity was introduced 
 amoni^^ diese people, the missionaries found many of the 
 barbaric rites so strongly implanted amon.c: the people 
 that, instead of makinj:^ vain efforts to uproot them, they 
 preferred to admit them under a Christian name. 
 
 The religion of the Slavs bore a great resemblance to 
 that of the Norsemen and of the Germanic races; that 
 
 27 
 
 is, they worshiped nature and its phenomena. Dagh Bog 
 was the sungod ; Perun, the Thor of northern mythology, 
 was the god of thunder ; Stri Bog, the god of the winds ; 
 \'oloss, the protector of flocks. They had neither temples 
 nor regular priests, but worshii)e(l the oak as the symbol 
 of Perun, and before it the leaders offered sacrifices. 
 These ancient deities are preserved under the names of 
 St. John, who displaced Perun ; X'oloss who became St. 
 \naise, etc. \\1ien a chief died, the wife often refused 
 to survive her husband. The men-servants were sum- 
 moned and asked which of them would be buried with 
 his master. When one of them came forward, he was 
 immediately strangled. Then the same question was 
 put to the women servants, and if one of them consented, 
 she was feasted until the day when the funeral pyre 
 awaited the corpse. She was then killed and her body 
 burned with that of her master. There were, however, 
 some tribes that buried their dead. 
 
 The father was absolute master of his family, but his 
 authority did not descend to the eldest son, but to the 
 oldest of the family, his brothers, if any were living, 
 according to their age. The Slavs kept several wives, 
 and were given to consume large quantities of a strong 
 drink called kvass. They were a people devoted to 
 agriculture ; the land under cultivation was not owned by 
 one person or a family, but by all the members of a 
 community, or mir. The heads of the families composing 
 the mir assembled in a council or vctchc, which had 
 authority over the mir. Only the house and the dvor 
 or incl(jsure, and his share in the harvest, were the prop- 
 erty of each householder. In the course of time, several 
 
28 
 
 of these rural communities united in a canton or county, 
 called a Z'olost, which was then governed by a council 
 composed of the elders of several communes. It happened 
 sometimes that one of these elders, who was considered 
 unusually wise or powerful, became chief of the volost, 
 a dignity which might become hereditary. This was 
 probably the origin of the boyards or nobles. As a 
 rule, the volosts were proud of their independence ; they 
 disliked entangling alliances, although in time of danger 
 or necessity they would enter into a confederacy of 
 all the counties belonging to the same tribe, which 
 was then called plcniia. lUit it was always under- 
 stood that such an arrangement was temporary. In 
 most of the volosts, there was at least one s])ot forti- 
 fied by earthen walls and wooden palisades, where the 
 people might take refuge in case of an attack. 
 
 We know that some of the Slav tribes attained some 
 degree of civilization as early as the seventh century of 
 our era. Novgorod was a town, large for that time, 
 w'hich carried on a brisk trade with Asia. This is amply 
 proved by the discovery of Asiatic coins belonging to 
 that period. Although the favorite occupation of the 
 Slavs was agriculture, the construction of the fortified 
 places suggests that they were not averse to increase 
 their wealth by an occasional raid upon their unprepared 
 neighbors. There is other evidence that Novgorod, 
 grown into a wealthy city in the middle of the ninth 
 century, longed for peace. Xo wonder that such a com- 
 munity sought for means of security for its commerce. 
 Rut the manner in which it accomplished this desire, 
 decided the fate of Russia. 
 
 III_THE XORSEMEX (OR VARIXGIAXS) IN 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 IT would have been strange indeed, if the bold Xorse- 
 men, the bold buccaneers who in their frail craft 
 pillaged the west coasts of Europe and extended their 
 voyages into the Mediterranean, should have omitted to 
 pav a visit to the shores of the Baltic Sea. We know that 
 thev settled in England and h>ance, and it causes no sur- 
 ])rise when we read that the Slavs in the neighborhood of 
 the Baltic i)ai(l tribute to them. They must have been 
 exacting tax collectors, because we read also that, in 859, 
 the Slavs rose and expelled their visitors. Three years 
 later they returned at the invitation of the people of 
 Novgorod. 
 
 Nestor, the historian of the Slav race, who lived in the 
 twelfth century, and whose account is remarkablv clear 
 and trustworthy, wrote that the inhabitants of Xovgorod 
 *' said to the princes of Wiringia, ' Our land is great 
 and fertile, but it lacks order and justice; come, take 
 possession, and govern us.' *' 
 
 The invitation was accepted. Three brothers, Rurik 
 or the Peaceful. Sineous or the X'ictorious, and Truvor or 
 the Faithful, proceeded to Russia with their families 
 and fighting men. Rurik settled on the south shore of 
 Lake Ladoga, Sineous on the White Lake, and Truvor 
 
 29 
 
30 
 
 at Izborsk. The two younger brothers died, and Rurik 
 moved to Xovj^orod where he biiiU a castle. At about 
 the same time two other Norsemen, Askold and Dir. 
 landed in Russia, and went to Kief, then also a tlourish- 
 mg city, where they were equally well received. They 
 persuaded its people to prepare an expedition against 
 Czargrad, the City of the Czar or Emperor of the 
 Eastern Roman Empire, now known as Constantinople, 
 but at that time named P.yzantium. The expedition of 
 Kief under Askold and Dir sailed down the Dnieper in 
 a fleet of 200 large boats, entered the Golden Horn— or 
 Bosphorus,— and began the siege of Constantinople. The 
 capital was saved by the Patriarch or head of the (ireek 
 Church, who plunged a wonder-working robe into the 
 waves, whereupon a violent storm destroyed the Russian 
 
 fleet. 
 
 The two chiefs, Askold and Dir. must have escaped, 
 because they were back at Kief when that city received 
 a disagreeable visit. Upon Rurik's death, he was suc- 
 ceeded, not by his son Igor, but by his brother Oleg as 
 the eldest of the family. The new prince or kiiiac did 
 not approve of rival Norsemen in his neighborhood. 
 With his own men and a large number of Slavs and 
 Finns, he marched upon Kief, and on his way compelled 
 Smolensk and Loubetch to submit to his authority. 
 
 When he arrived before Kief, he succeeded in cap- 
 turing Askold and Dir who were put to death " because," 
 Oleg explained, " they were neither princes themselves, 
 nor of the blood of princes." Kief was taken, and Oleg 
 took up his residence in that city. 
 
 It is at this time that the name Russia first appears. 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 ro 
 
30 
 
 at Izborsk. The two youni^cr limthers died, and Rurik 
 moved to Xov.i^orod where he huiU a castle. At about 
 the same lime two other Norsemen, Askold and Dir. 
 landed in Russia, and went to Kief, then also a llnurish- 
 ini,- cilv. where they were e(|ually well received. They 
 persuaded its i)eoi)le t.. j.repare an expedition at^ainst 
 Czar-rad. the C'ily of the Czar ui I'.mperor of the 
 h:astern Roman i'jnpire, now known as Constantinople, 
 but at that time named P.yzantium. The expedition of 
 Kief under Askold and Dir sailed down the l)niei)er in 
 a i1eet of 200 lari^e boats, entered the (^lolden Horn — or 
 r.osj^horus,— and beiian the siege of Constantinople. The 
 cai)ital was saved by the Patriarch <^r head of the Creek 
 Chnrrli. w I10 phmired a wonder-workin.1^ robe into the 
 waves. \MKiLup.-ii a violent storm (lestrnv(>d the Russian 
 
 Oeet. 
 
 The two chiefs. Askold and Dir. must have escaped, 
 because they werr back ai Kief when that city rec.Mved 
 a disagreeable visit. Cpon Rurik's death, he was .suc- 
 ceeded, not by his bon l.i^or. but by his brother ()le.t,^ as 
 the eldest of the family. Tlu- new i)rincr ..r kiiiaz did 
 not approve of rival Norsemen in his neii^hborhood. 
 With h\< <'wn nun and a lari;e number of Slavs and 
 Finns, he marched ui)ou Kief. an. I i.n his way compelled 
 Smolensk an<l Loubetch to submit to his authority. 
 When he arrived before Kief, he succeeded in cap- 
 turinir Ask<»ld and Dir who ueu put to death " because." 
 ()lo<»- exi)laine<l, " thev were neither i)rince> themselves, 
 nor of the blood of i)rinces " Kief was taken, and ( )leg 
 took u]) his residence in that liL\. 
 
 It is at this time that the name Russia first appears. 
 
 
 *> 
 
 c 
 <u 
 
 e 
 
 o 
 2 
 
3^ 
 
 Its derivation is doubtful and is, besides, of no great 
 importance. Oleg ruled over Russia, that is, the plain 
 extending from Kief to Novgorod. There is a story 
 that he was defeated by the Hungarians, who liad crossed 
 the Dnieper, but it is doubtful, because in the year 907, 
 we find him preparing another expedition against Con- 
 stantinople. On this occasion the people of that capital 
 forgot to bring out the robe, and tried to poison the 
 invaders, but their scheme was discovered in time; they 
 were forced to pay a heavy tribute and Oleg secured, 
 besides, a very advantageous commercial treaty. 
 
 One of the wizards at (Cleg's court had warned him 
 that his favorite horse would be the cause of his death, 
 and the animal was kept away from him until it died. 
 Oleg did not believe in wizards ; he insisted upon seeing 
 the body and entered the stable. A snake came out of 
 the horse's skull and stung Oleg in the foot, and he died 
 from the efifect of the poison. 
 
 . Igor, Rurik's son, was the eldest, and succeeded his 
 uncle. He led another expedition against Constantinople, 
 but it ended in disaster, because the Russian fleet was 
 destroyed by Greek fire. A large number of Russians 
 were captured but Igor esca|)e(l. This failure did not 
 prevent him from again attacking the Byzantine lunpire, 
 and this time he was successful. The emperor agreed to 
 pay tribute and signed another connnercial treaty. 
 
 Nestor, the Russian historian, tells us the story of 
 Igor's death. " In the year 945," he says, " the drujina " 
 (that is, the body-guard, composed of Norsemen or their 
 descendants), " of Igor said to him, ' The men of Sveneld 
 are richly provided with weapons and garments, while 
 
 Z2> 
 
 we go in rags ; lead us, Prince, to collect the tribute so 
 that thou and we may become rich.' Igor consented, 
 and conducted them to the Drevlians to raise the tribute. 
 He increased the first imposts, and did them violence, 
 he and his men; after having taken all he wanted, he 
 returned to his city. While on the road he bethought 
 himself and said to his drujina, ' Go on with the tribute; 
 I will go l)ack and try to get some more out of them.' 
 Leaving the greater part of his men to go on their way, 
 he returned with only a few. to the end that he might 
 increase his riches. The Drevlians, when thev learnt 
 that Igor was coming back, held council with Nal, their 
 prince. * When the wolf enters the sheepfold he slays 
 the whole flock, if the shepherd does not slay him. Thus 
 it is with us and Igor; if we do not destrov him, we 
 are lost.' Then they sent deputies who said to him, 
 ' why dost thou come anew unto us ? Hast thou not 
 collected all the tribute?' lUit Igor would not hear 
 them, so the Drevlians came out of the town of Koros- 
 thenes, and slew Igor and his men, for they were but a 
 few." 
 
 The drujina or body-guard of the duke was at the 
 same time his council. The men composing it were con- 
 sidered as members of his family ; they ate at his table 
 and shared his amusements as well as his toil. He did 
 nothing without consulting them, and was really but the 
 first among his |)eers. They formed a court of justice, 
 and it was from among them that he api)ointed the 
 voievods or governors of fortresses, and possadniks or 
 commandants of large towns. \\> have a description of 
 the courts of that time bv an Arab writer named Ibn 
 
34 
 
 Dost. He says : '' When a Russian brings a complaint 
 against another, he summons him before the court of 
 the prince where both state their case. When the prince 
 has pronounced his verdict, his orders are executed ; but 
 if both parties are dissatisfied, the (hspute must be decided 
 by weapons. He whose sword cuts sharper, gains his 
 cause. At the time of the fight, the relatives of the two 
 adversaries appear armed, and surround the space set 
 apart. The combatants then come to blows, and the 
 victor may impose any terms he pleases." 
 
 The people of the country, the peasants, were not 
 quite so free as when Rurik landed. They began to be 
 known as inoujik, a contemptuous diminutive of the word 
 mouj or man, hterally manikin. The merchants or i^osti 
 did not form a distinct class, but in larger cities, such as 
 Novgorod and Kief, tliey had a voice in the administra- 
 tion. These cities had a vetche or municipal council which 
 directed the city's business without any direct interference 
 from the prince. The successors of Rurik attended to the 
 defense of the country, the administration of justice, and 
 the collection of tribute and taxes, which sources of 
 revenue were appropriated by them and served for their 
 support and for that of the drujina. 
 
 The Slavs of that time exhibited many characteristics 
 which we recognize in the Russians of our time. Leo the 
 Deacon, a noted writer of that time, mentions that they 
 fought in a compact body, and seemed like a wall of 
 irom bristling with lances, glittering with shields, whence 
 rang a ceaseless clamor like the waves of the sea. A 
 huge shield covered them to their feet, and. when they 
 fought in retreat, they turned this enormous buckler 
 
 35 
 
 on their backs and became invulnerable. The fury 
 of the battle frenzied them. 'Hicy were never seen to 
 surrender. When victory was lust they stabbed them- 
 selves, for they believed that those who died by the hand 
 of an enemy were condemned to serve him in the life 
 after death. The emperors of Byzantium were glad to 
 secure their services, and the ross, as they called them, 
 often formed the body-guard. In the r)yzantine expedi- 
 tion against Crete, 700 Russians served in the army. 
 
 The Norsemen readily adapted themselves to the habits, 
 customs, and language of the people among whom they 
 settled. We find the Xorse names of Rurik. Oleg, and 
 Igor, but after the last named their descendants were 
 Russians and bore Russian names. 
 
 At Igor's death his son Sviatoslaf was still a minor, 
 whose mother, Olga, became Regent. She was a woman 
 of determination, whose first thought was to avenge the 
 death of her husband. The Drevlians, hearing of her 
 preparations, sent two deputations to appease her: not a 
 man returned. They were all put to death at her com- 
 mand. Nestor tells us that Olga herself commanded 
 her warriors at the siege of Korosthenes, and that she 
 oflfered to make peace on payment of a tribute of three 
 l)igeons and three sparrows for every house. This was 
 accepted and the birds were delivered, when she ordered 
 lighted tow to be fastened to their tails, and when they 
 flew back to the wooden town, they set fire to the houses 
 and barns. Korosthenes was then captured and a great 
 number of its inhabitants were slaughtered and the rest 
 were made slaves. 
 
 It seems strange that such a woman should have been 
 
I, 
 
 3<; 
 
 the first of Riirik's house to embrace Christianity. There 
 is no doubt that she visited Constantinople where she 
 astonished the emperor by the force of her character. 
 She was baptized and received the name of Helen. It 
 is quite possible that she came to Constantinoi)le for that 
 purpose, because we read that she refused to be baptized 
 at Kief '* for fear of the pa.i^ans." This confirms the 
 Greek records in which it is stated that a bishop was 
 established in Russia. ])robably at Kief, in the time of 
 Oleg. 
 
 It is not strantre that Christianity should have taken 
 root in Russia after the frequent wars with the l)yzantine 
 Empire, and considering^ the commerce carried on between 
 Kief and Constantinople. Missionaries entered Russia at 
 an earlv period. Two of them, Cyril and Methodius, 
 prepared a Slavonic alphabet, in which many Greek 
 letters were used, and the liible was translated into that 
 language. There is a tradition that Askold was baptized 
 after his defeat at Constantinople, and that this is the 
 reason why the people still worship at his tomb at Kief, 
 as of that of the first Christian prince. The Norsemen 
 had no taste for persecution on account of religious belief, 
 but for themselves they clung to the heathen deities. 
 When Igor swore to observe the treaty concluded with 
 Emperor Leo M, he went up to the hill of Rerun and 
 used the ancient Slavonic rites ; but the emperor's 
 deputies went to the church of St. Elias, and there laid 
 their hands upon the P.ible as a token of good faith. 
 
 The drujina and warriors did not take kindh' to Chris- 
 tianity. They, as well as the peasants, preferred to 
 worship Rerun and Voloss. The same thing happened 
 
 V 
 
 i 
 
 ) 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 elsewhere. Christianity made the greatest progress in 
 cities, whereas the dwellers on the *' heath " remained 
 " heathen." *' When one of the warriors of the prince 
 wished to become a convert," says Nestor, " he was not 
 prevented ; they simply laughed at him." When Olga 
 returned from Constantinople, she was anxious that her 
 son, who was of age and had succeeded to his father, 
 should follow her example. Sviatoslaf refused ; " my 
 men will laugh at me," was his usual answer. Nestor 
 mentions that he sometimes lost his temper. Chris- 
 tianity did not make much progress during his reign. 
 
 He was a warrior, like his Norse ancestors. In the 
 brief time of eight years, 964-972, he found time to wage 
 two wars. The first was with the Khazar empire on the 
 Don. Sviatoslaf captured its capital, the White City, 
 and received tribute from two tribes of the Caucasus. 
 The second war did not turn out so well. 
 
 From Nestor's account and that of Leo the Deacon, 
 it appears that the liyzantine emperor, wishing to make 
 use of Sviatoslaf, decided to find out what sort of man 
 he was. He therefore sent him presents of gold and 
 fine clothes, but the grandson of Rurik would scarcely 
 look at them and told his warriors to take them away. 
 W hen the emperor heard this, he sent him a fine sword 
 and other weapons ; these were accepted with every 
 token of satisfaction by Sviatoslaf. When the emperor 
 was informed of the result, he exclaimed : " This must 
 be a fierce man, because he despises wealth and accepts 
 a sword as tribute.'' 
 
 This did not prevent the emperor, who had a private 
 quarrel with Peter, Czar of Bulgaria, from urging 
 Sto. of Russia — 3 
 
38 
 
 Sviatoslaf to make war upon his enemy. The Russian 
 irave a lieartv consent, and in a very short time he 
 captured several fortresses and Tereiaslaf, the capital, 
 fell into his hands. lie determined to transfer his capital 
 there, and when he returned to Kief, he told his mother 
 of the city on the Danuhe. *' The place." he said, " is 
 the central p(Mnt of my territory, and ahounds in wealth. 
 Precious goods, gold, wine, and all kinds of fruit, come 
 from Greece. Silver and horses are brought from the 
 country of the Czechs and Hungarians, and the Russians 
 bring money, furs, wax, and slaves." 
 
 Meanwhile the emi)eror of Constantinople was dead ; 
 his successor, John Zimisces was a very different man, 
 who preferred having a weak lUilgarian ruler as his 
 neighbor, instead of an empire which, even at that time, 
 extended from Lakes Ladoga and Onega to the Balkans. 
 He, therefore, made up his mind to oust the Russians. 
 Sviatoslaf had left lUdgaria, but he returned and recon- 
 quered it, when he received a demand from the new 
 emperor to execute the treaty entered into with his 
 predecessor, that is, to leave lUdgaria. Sviatoslaf 
 replied i)rou(lly that he expected to visit the emperor at 
 Constantinople before long, but Zimisces, a brave and 
 able man, took measures to prevent it. liefr-e Sviatoslaf 
 expected him. Zimisces attacked and defeated the Rus- 
 sians in the defiles of the Balkan, and soon after stormed 
 and captured Pereiaslaf. Eight thousand Russians with- 
 drew into the castle, which they defended heroically. 
 They refused to surrender and, when the castle was set 
 on fire, they perished in the flames. 
 
 When Sviatoslaf heard of this disaster, he advanced 
 
 39 
 
 against the emperor. The Greek historian says that the 
 Russian army was 60,000 men strong, but Nestor gives 
 the number at 10,000. The two armies met and both 
 fought with desperate valor, but at last the Russians gave 
 wav before the furious charges of the (ireek cavalry — 
 the Ironsides — and withdrew to Dorostol. Zimisces 
 started in jntrsuit, and laid siege to the city wdiere the 
 same courage was displayed. After Sviatoslaf drew^ his 
 men up out of the city and prepared to give battle, 
 Zimisces proposed to him to decide the issue by a personal 
 fight, but the offer was declined. " I know better than 
 mv enemy what I have to do," said Sviatoslaf. " H 
 he is weary of life, there are a thousand ways by w^iich 
 he can end his days." The battle ended in defeat for the 
 Russians who. Leo the Deacon tells us, left 15.500 dead, 
 and 20000 shields on the battlefield. Sviatoslaf was 
 compelled to come to terms. Zimisces permitted him 
 and what remained of his army to return to Russia, after 
 he had sworn by Perun and \'oloss that he would never 
 again invade the empire, but would hclj) in defending it 
 airainst its enemies. If he broke his oath, he wished that 
 he might " become as yellow as gold, and perish by his 
 own arms." Zimisces showed the nobility of a brave man. 
 He sent messengers to a warlike tribe requesting a free 
 passage for the Russians; but this tribe was anxious to 
 seize the opportunity. Sviatoslaf and his men were 
 attacked near the Cataracts of the Dnieper; he was 
 killed, but most of his men escaped. (A. D. [)72.) 
 
r.' 
 
 (40^ 
 
 Vladimir 
 
 IV— SAINT VLADIMIR AND lAROSLAF THE 
 
 GREAT 
 
 SVIATOSLAF had dividcci the empire anionfT^ his three 
 sons ; he left Novgorod to Vla(Hmir, the eldest ; 
 Oleg, the second, was made prince of the Drevlians, and 
 the youngest, laropolk, received Kief. As happens often, 
 none of the three was satisfied with his share, and 
 civil wars followed. ( )leg was killed by laropolk, wdiere- 
 npon the youngest son of Sviatoslaf was slain by his 
 brother X'ladimir, who thus became the sole heir and 
 successor to his father. His first act was to make 
 war upon Poland, lie compelled it to restore Red 
 Russia or Old Gallicia. a territory in our tmie divided 
 into seven governments, or ])rovinces. He also reduced 
 two revolted tribes, and forced the Lithuanians and 
 Livonians to pay tribute. 
 
 At the beginning of his reign, X'ladimir showed an 
 unusual devotion to the old Slav gods. He erected idols 
 on the sandy cliflFs of Kief ; that of Perun had a head 
 of silver and a beard of gold. It seems that after some 
 time he became displeased with this religion and, Nestor 
 tells us, he grew anxious to know what religion was the 
 best. He, therefore, sent deputies to l^iulgaria to study 
 the Moslem or Mohammedan creed, and to the Khazars, 
 
 41 
 
I 
 
 (¥i 
 
 Vladimir 
 
 I\_SAIXT \LADIMIR AXD lAROSLAF THE 
 
 S\ lA l( )S1. Al' had dividcMl ilio enipirr ann^nj^ his three 
 sons: lie left Xovi^orod lo \ ladimir, the eldest; 
 ( )lej^, the >cet»nd. was made i)riiice of tlie 1 )revlians. and 
 the youn^^est, lampolk received Kief. As happens often, 
 none of the ihrre was satistiecl with his share, and 
 eivil uar.s follow cm 1. ( )\c'^ was killed 1)\' laropolk. where- 
 npon the yonni^esl son of Sviatoslaf was slain 1)y liis 
 hrother \ ladimir. who thus hecame the sole heir and 
 siiccess(»r to his father. His first act was to make 
 war npon I'ohmd. \\c compeHed it lo restore Red 
 Russia or ( )ld ( lallicia. a territory in our mne divided 
 into seven i^overnments, or i)rovinces. lie also reduced 
 two revolted irihes, and forced the Lithuanians and 
 Liv(»nians to ])ay trihute. 
 
 At the hei^innini; of his rei^n, \ ladimir sliowed an 
 unusual devotion to the old Slav i^ods. lie erected idols 
 on the sandy cliffs of Kief; that of iVrun had a head 
 of silver and a heard of v;('>\(\. It seems that after some 
 time he hecame displeased with this relii^ion anil. Xestor 
 tells u>, he i^^rew anxious to know what relii^ion was the 
 best. He. therefc^re, sent de])uties to Ihiliiaria to studv 
 the Moslem or .\h)hammedan creed, and to the Khazars, 
 
 41 
 
'SSv 
 
 42 
 
 who occupied the plain hetvveen the Buii: ^^^ the Vol^a, 
 to make iii(|uiries ahout the Jewish faith. hVoni the 
 Poles and dernians he wanted to know all ahout the 
 Roman Catholic Church, and at Constantinople he ex- 
 pected to learn of the Cireek faith. When these deputies 
 returned and reported to him, X'ladimir selected the Cireek 
 Church, which choice was approved hv his drujina; "if 
 the Creek relis^ion had not heen the hest, your j^rand- 
 mother Olga, the wisest of mortals, would not have 
 adopted it,'' said they. Thus Madimir hecame a convert ; 
 hut his method of showings it was rather peculiar. 
 
 He might have l)een haptized hy the hishop of Kief ; 
 or, if he had aj)plied at Constantinople, the emperor 
 would gladly have sent him a high jjrelate to perform 
 the service. Instead of this. X'ladimir collected an army 
 and marched against Kherson, — the last city in Russia 
 held by the lUzantine. It was taken hy means of treach- 
 erv. and from this city X'ladimir sent to Constantinople 
 to demand in marriage the sister of the two emperors 
 Basil and Constantine. Although the emperors did not 
 like the proposed connection, they consented hecause they 
 feared an invasion, hut made it a condition that X'lad- 
 imir should be baptized. The ceremony was performed at 
 Kherson ; soon after the bride arrived and the marriage 
 took place in the same city. XX'hen he returned to Kief, 
 he carried with him the priests and sacred ornaments 
 taken from the churches of Kherson. 
 
 Upon his return to Kief, he began missionary work by 
 his own peculiar methods. His first orders were to pull 
 down the idols; during the execution the people wept, 
 moaned, and wrung their hands. Perun's image was 
 
 43 
 
 handsomely flogged and thrown into the Dnieper. Since 
 it was made of wood, it soon came to the surface, which 
 was looked upon as a miracle by the people who rushed 
 down to worship it. But XTadimir's soldiers gave it 
 another bath, and this time it was caught by the current 
 and drifted away. The cliff where it stood is still known 
 at Kief as ** the devil's leap," and the spot where Perun 
 floated ashore, is shown to visitors. 
 
 After thus getting rid of the idols, X'ladimir com- 
 manded the people of Kief, men, women, and children, 
 to plunge into the Dnieper, which had been consecrated 
 for the occasion, that they might be baptized. XX'hen they 
 had obeyed his order, the priests read the service, so 
 that after entering into the river as heathen, they left it 
 as Christians. The peoj^le of Novgorod were converted 
 in the same swift and practical manner, since no attention 
 was paid to their objections. 
 
 Heathen temples were next converted into churches, 
 which were decorated by Creek artists. Madimir erected 
 at Kief the church of St. Basil, on the place where Perun's 
 imaee had stood. Numerous other churches were built ; 
 he also founded schools where the l^ible was taught in 
 the Slav language. At first the people objected to send 
 their children, because they looked upon reading and 
 writing as magic. But X'ladimir had persuasive ways, 
 and was not likely to be deterred by such opposition. 
 Nestor admired him very much. He says that X'ladimir 
 was a different man after he had been converted ; that he 
 was so afraid of committing a sin, that he hesitated to 
 infiict capital i)unishment, until the bishop reminded 
 him that crime must be punished. He also divided his 
 
44 
 
 income among the churches, and thus became the Saint 
 X'huhniir of Russia. Popular ballads keep alive the 
 memory of the first Christian i)rince. He is often men- 
 tioned in them as " The Beautiful Sun " of Kief. 
 
 It cannot be supposed that the Russian people were 
 converted at once into good Christians by X'ladimir's 
 forceful method. Several centuries were to pass away 
 before the peasants could be induced to part with their 
 heathen customs. The priests preferred to let them 
 remain under a Christian name. There is something 
 mystic in the Slav character. He nurses the belief in 
 magicians and sorcerers, which has never been uprooted. 
 It is seen at present in the worship of the cikon or saint's 
 image. 
 
 Madimir died in 1015. He, too, divided Russia among 
 his numerous sons. One of them, laroslaf, received 
 Novgorod, where he began to interfere with the rights 
 of the people. A deputation of leading citizens came to 
 him with a protest. He ordered their arrest and con- 
 demned them to death. Meanwhile Madimir's othet 
 heirs had indulged in the usual quarrels and wars, until 
 it seemed as if Sviato|)olk, a nei)hew, would become the 
 sole ruler. laroslaf then called the i)rinci|)al people of 
 Novgorod together, and threw himself ui)on their gen- 
 erosity. They forgave him and promised their support. 
 They kept their word, and after a long and bloody war 
 he entered Kief as his father's successor. 
 
 laroslaf was unfortunate in a war with the Byzantine 
 Empire. The Russian fleet was badly defeated in the 
 Bosphorus; 8,000 men were killed, and 800 prisoners 
 were taken to Constantinople. 
 
 45 
 
 Of greater importance was laroslaf's work at home. 
 He built churches and monasteries; St. Sophia church 
 was the pride of Kief; the monastery of The Catacombs 
 still draws pilgrims from all parts of Russia. Kief 
 became known as " the city of four hundred churches." 
 He also founded a school for three hundred boys at 
 Novgorod, thereby showing that Russia at that time 
 was second to no European nation. 
 
 Kief, under his reign, was one of the most ])rosperous 
 cities. This was due to her situation on the Dnieper and 
 her trade with the liyzantine hZmpire, to the great fertility 
 of the Black Earth land, and to laroslaf's connection bv 
 marriage with the reigning families of ICurope. Of his 
 daughters Elizabeth was the wife of the King of Norway, 
 Anne of the King of hVance, and Anastasia of the Kine 
 of Hungary; his sister Marv was married to the Kinir 
 of Poland, and his sons had married into royal families. 
 Merchants from Holland, (iermany, Hungary, and Scan- 
 dinavia were established at Kief. The Dnieper was alive 
 with merchant vessels, and she counted eight markets. 
 It is evident that laroslaf took pains to protect and 
 advance commerce. He had coins minted with his Slav 
 name on one side, and his Christian name loury (George), 
 on the other. 
 
 Perhaps his greatest work is the code of laws estab- 
 lished by him, known as the Riisska'ia Prarda or Russian 
 Right. Though necessarily jirimitive, it was a long step 
 in advance of that time. It followed chieflv the ideas of 
 right and wrong according to the concejjtions of the 
 Scandinavians. 
 
 At this time, although the dignitv of kniaz, duke or 
 
46 
 
 prince, was hereditary in the family of Rurik, it was 
 understood hy all i)arties that the reign of the prince 
 depended upon the consent of his suhjects, and perhaps 
 more still upon that of his drujina. A story is told that 
 in \'ladimir's time the drujina complained that they were 
 made to eat from wooden bowls, whereupon he £^ave 
 them silver ones, sayinir: I could not buy myself a drujina 
 with i^old and silver; but with a drujina. I can acquire 
 p)l(l and silver, as did niy father and my grandfather. 
 
 Ever since Kief had been the residence of Rurik's 
 descendants, they had been recognized as (irand Dukes, 
 because they represented the eldest of the descend- 
 ants. They did not. as a rule, interfere with the 
 administration, but were the dukes, the commanders of the 
 armies. Many districts had such a duke, who was. 
 however, invariably of the blood of Rurik. and recognized 
 the superior authority as the eldest of the blood. When 
 the C;rand Duke of Kief died, he was not succeeded by 
 his son, unless he had neither uncle nor brother livino^- 
 but it was within the power of the grand duke to leave 
 one or more districts to his sons. 
 
 The descendants of the Norsemen were, therefore, 
 the defenders of the districts which they ruled as dukes. 
 Novgorod and Pskof were republics on the northwest 
 frontier, and usually had the same duke. Smolensk was 
 an important dukedom, because it contained the sources 
 of the X'olga. the Dniei)er. and the Dwina, and embraced 
 the ancient forest of ( )kof. Not far from it was the 
 dukedom of Toropetz. On the Tpper Oka was Tcher- 
 nigof— a rival of Kief; further to the south was Nov- 
 gorod-Swerki. and east of the Upper Don, extending as 
 
 47 
 
 far as the Oka. were Riazan and Mourom. The dukedom 
 of Souzdal. inhabited by a mixture of Finns and Slavs, 
 was in the north, the soil still covered by forests. 
 Southeast Russia embraced Red Russia, that is Volhvnia 
 and ( iallicia Proper. 
 
 The introduction of the (ireek Church caused impor- 
 tant changes. The (ireek Priests could not comprehend 
 the relation between the people and its defenders. To 
 them the duke was not a du.v (leader), but a Qesar, 
 Kaiser, or Czar, ruling, not with the consent of the 
 governed, but by the grace of Cod, as did the emperors at 
 Constantinople. This idea gradually penetrated into the 
 minds of the several dukes, until it was accepted and en- 
 forced by them. 
 
 Another very important change was effected by the 
 Greek religion. We have seen that according to the old 
 Slav customs, it was not the son who succeeded as the 
 head of the family, but its eldest member. It appears 
 that the same custom prevailed among the Norsemen, 
 as we have seen that it was Rurik's brother, and not his 
 son who succeeded him. In the l»yzantine Empire, the 
 oldest son was the heir, and the priests tried to introduce 
 this as a law. 
 
 As the descendants of Rurik increased in number, it 
 was not always easy to determine who was entitled to 
 the succession. Hence there were often several claimants, 
 and as a result, civil wars followed. These wars, strange 
 as it may appear, served to bind the dukedoms together, 
 because most of them were waged for the purpose of 
 establishing the claim of a duke upon the possession of 
 Kief. 
 
48 
 
 laroslaf died in 1054, and was Iniried in the cluireh of 
 St. Sophia at Kief. In his will we see the effect of the 
 Greek Church, for he specially appointed his eldest son 
 Isiaslaf as his successor. A younger brother, Sviatoslaf, 
 took up arms, and expelled him in 1073. I'pon his death 
 in 1076, Isiaslaf returned to Kief, where he lived two 
 years. He died in 1078, and was succeeded by his 
 brother \ sevolod, who was j^rand duke until io()3, 
 when he was succeeded by Sviatopolk, the son of Isiaslaf, 
 as the eldest of the family. He was not opposed by 
 Vsevolod's famous son Madimir Monomachus, who 
 admitted that Sviatopolk's " father was older than mine, 
 and reigned first in Kief." 
 
 fcsf:i 
 
 V— A RUSSIAN REPUBLIC 
 
 Q\^IATOPOLK reigned from 1093 to 11 13. It was at 
 ^^ this time that Russia was disturbed by two civil 
 wars. At the instance of Madimir Monomachus a con- 
 gress of dukes met in 1097, at Loubetch on the Dnieper to 
 discuss the folly of civil wars which placed the countrv 
 at the mercy of its enemies. An agreement was con- 
 cluded, wherein the dukes swore upon the Cross that 
 " henceforth the Russian land shall be considered the 
 country of us all, and whoso shall dare arm himself 
 against his brother, shall be our common enemy." 
 
 Soon after this a (piarrel broke out about the succession 
 of \'olhyuia, and again the country was plunged into 
 civil strife, which lasted two years. In 1100 another 
 congress was held at \'ititchevo, on the left bank of die 
 Dnieper, where the disi)ute was settled, and it was 
 resolved to unite in a war with a i)owerful nomad peo])le. 
 The Russians under X'ladimir Monomachus cfained a 
 brilliant victory ; the nomads had seventeen khans killed 
 on the battlefield. 
 
 When Sviatopolk died, the people of Kief declared that 
 they would have no grand duke excei)t X'ladimir. He 
 declined saying that there were elder heirs entitled to the 
 succession ; but when troubles broke out in the city, he 
 
 49 
 
so 
 
 gave his consent. During his reign of twelve years, 
 from 1 113 tu 1125, Kief reached the height of prosperity 
 and power. He reduced Souzdal, in the north, to sub- 
 mission, and made many improvements. His memory is 
 cherished in Russia. He compiled a set of instructions 
 for his sons, from which we may judge of his character. 
 Among other remarks, he says: *' It is neither by fasting, 
 nor solitude, nor the life in a cloister that will procure 
 for you the life eternal, — it is doing good. Do not forget 
 the poor but feed them. Do not bury your wealth in 
 the bosom of the earth, for that is contrary to the precepts 
 of Christianity. Re a father to orphans, judge the cause 
 of widows yourself." '* Put to death no one be he 
 innocent or guilty, for nothing is more precious than 
 the soul of a Christian." '' When you have learned any- 
 thing useful, try to preserve it in your memory, and strive 
 ceaselessly to acquire knowledge. Without ever leaving 
 his palace, my father spoke five languages, a thing that 
 foreigners admire in us/' 
 
 There are in the museum at Moscow, a throne and 
 crown, supposed to have belonged to this noble and 
 patriotic duke ; unfortunately it has been shown that they 
 were never in his possession. 
 
 In his will, Vladimir gave the dukedom of Souzdal to 
 his son George Dolgorouki, and another son, Mstislaf, 
 succeeded as grand duke at Kief. When the latter died 
 in 1 146, leaving the grand dukedom to his son Isiaslaf, 
 George Dolgorouki claimed the succession as the eldest 
 of the family. Roth sides were supported bv their 
 friends, ^nd some fierce battles were fought, but Tsiaslaf 
 maintained himself until his death in 1157. After his 
 
 reign. Kiel's importance began to decrease. Twelve 
 years later, in i Ux;. it was captured by the Russians of 
 the north. A native historian ' says of this event : " This 
 mother of Russian cities had been many times besieged 
 and oppressed. She had often opened her (iolden Gate 
 to her enemies, but none had ever yet entered by force. 
 To their eternal shame, the victors forgot that they, too, 
 were Russians! During three days not only the houses, 
 but the cloisters, churches, and even the temples of St. 
 Soi)hi;i and the Dime, were given over to pillage. The 
 precious images, the sacerdotal ornaments, the books, 
 and the bells, — all were carried off." 
 
 With the fall of Kief, the scene of Russian activity 
 shifts to the north. There, in the dukedom of Souzdal, 
 George Dolgorouki laid, in 1147, the foundation of a 
 town, Moscow, on a height overlooking the Moscowa. 
 For many years it remained an obscure village, and gave 
 no sign of its future greatness. 
 
 The chief interest at this time centers about the Russian 
 republics, Novgorod, Pskof, and \'iatka. Although Nov- 
 gorod did not possess the advantages of Kief, since its 
 soil was sandy, marshy, and unproductive, the enterprise 
 of its people made it the wealthiest and most populous 
 city of Russia. It is recorded that it counted 100,000 
 inhabitants, when Rurik arrived in Russia. He and 
 his immediate successors were satisfied with the position 
 of Defender, which suited their warlike and blunt char- 
 acter, and with the revenues assigned to them, which with 
 the spoils taken from the enemy, were ample for their 
 wants. These rei)ublics were administered by a vetche 
 
 1 Karamsin. 
 
5^ 
 
 or municipal council, with a possadnik or burgomaster, 
 whose duty it was to see that the city's privileges were 
 preserved, and who distributed the taxes. He shared 
 with the duke in the administration of justice. There 
 was a militia for the defense of the people's rights, com- 
 manded by a tysatski. livery ward of the city had a 
 starost, charged with preserving the ])eace. It is said 
 that a written constitution, partaking of the nature of the 
 Magna Charta, was granted to Novgorod by laroslaf 
 the Great. The duke's rights and i)rivileges, his duties 
 and his revenues, were carefully set down. He was 
 entitled to the tribute of some of die volosts, — cantons 
 or counties, — and to certain fines ; he could gather in 
 his harvests at stated times, and wa^^ not permitted to 
 hunt in the forest except in the auiunui. He could 
 neither execute nor annul a judgment without the 
 approval of the possadnik. and he was expressly forbidden 
 to carry a lawsuit beyond Novgorod. livery duke, 
 before he entered upon his office, was compelled to take 
 an oath to this constitution. 
 
 The members of the vetche were elected by a unani- 
 mous vote, instead of by a majority. This gave rise to 
 fre(|uent, and sometimes very serious disorder, because 
 if a minority did not approve of the candidate, they were 
 apt to be illtreated. There were occasions when two 
 rival vetches were elected, and when this happened in 
 the two parts of the city divided by tlie river \'olkhof, 
 the bridge between them was often the scene of a free 
 fight. Owing to the extensive trade connections, the mer- 
 chants trachng with western luirope by way of the Baltic 
 sought to promote friendly relations with die dukes 
 
 53 
 
 of the west, who had it in their power to promote 
 or obstruct their trade ; but the merchants dealing with 
 Asia, and those who connected with Constantinople had 
 other interests to consider and to guard. Thus there 
 were often three parties, each concerned with its own 
 interests, and forgetting that their prosperity was first 
 and chiefly dependent upon the power of the republic, 
 they rendered it an easy prey for an ambitious duke. 
 The people, however, boasted of their patriotism, and 
 during the early period they were strong enough to 
 defy the duke. On some occasions, he and his drujina 
 were expelled, or, as they expressed it, " the people made 
 him a reverence, and showed him a way to leave." Some- 
 times, too, it happened that the duke was made a prisoner, 
 and confined in the Archbishop's palace. When Sviato- 
 polk was (irand Dtike of Kief (1093-1113), he wished 
 to force one of his sons upon the people of Novgorod. 
 '•Send him along," said they, "if he has a head to 
 spare ! " Usually the duke was glad to leave Novgorod, 
 if he could secure another dukedom. In 1132, Vsevolod 
 Gabriel left Novgorod to become Duke of Pereiaslaf, 
 hoping to succeed as Grand Duke of Kief. Seeing no 
 way to attain the coveted dignity, he signified his wish to 
 return to the people of Novgorod. '' You have forgotten 
 your oath to die with us," they replied; 'Sou have 
 sought another dukedom; now you may go where you 
 please. In this case, however, the people changed their 
 mind, and did take him back ; but four years afterwards 
 they expelled him, declaring that " he took no care of the 
 poor people ; he desired to establish himself at Pereiaslaf ; 
 at the battle of Mount Idanof against the men of Souz- 
 Sto. of Russia — 4 
 
54 
 
 (lal, he and his drujina were the first to leave the battle- 
 field : he was fickle in the (jnarrels of the dukes, some- 
 times joining one parly and sometimes the other." 
 
 So long as the descendants of Rurik remained satisfied 
 with dieir position, Novgorod hid enough men and 
 resources to maintain its independence ; but more than 
 that was required after the dukes had tasted of the 
 sweets of unlimited j)ower. 
 
 George Dolgorouki had established colonies in Souzdal. 
 The land was his, the colonists were his subjects. He 
 was no longer merely the defender, he was the owner, not 
 the duke, but the prince. There was no vetche or 
 popular assembly in his possessions. His son, Andrew 
 Bogolioubski, was brought up and educated amid these 
 conditions, more in conformity with those prevailing in 
 Greece and other parts of Europe, where the people were 
 supposed to exist for the sole benefit of their prince. It 
 was he who ruined Kief, and the fall of that city fore- 
 told the doom of Novgorod. " The fall of Kief," says 
 a Russian author, ^ " seemed to foreshadow the loss of 
 Novgorod liberty ; it was the same army, and it was the 
 same prince who commanded it. But die people <^f 
 Kief, accustomed to change their masters, — to sacrifice 
 the vanquished to the victors, — only fought for the honor 
 of their dukes, while those of Novgorod were to shed 
 their blood for the defense of the laws and institutions 
 established by their ancestors." 
 
 During his father's life, Andrew left his castle on the 
 Dnieper, and moved northward to \'ladimir which town 
 he enlarged, and where he founded a quarter named 
 
 1 Karamsin. 
 
 \ 
 
 55 
 
 Bogolioul)ovo, whence his nan.e of Bogolioubski. After 
 the death of G«orge Dolgorouki, Andrew first made a 
 successful campaign against the Bulgarians, and then, 
 after sacking Kief, he turned his attention toward Nov- 
 gorod, where he had established one of his nephews. The 
 cause of the quarrel is not known, but Andrew began by 
 compelling the neighboring dukes to join him, and over- 
 ran the territory of the republic with fire and sword. The 
 people of Novgorod, remembering the fate of Kief, were 
 prepared to die in the defense of the city. The siege 
 commcnce.1. One day the .\rchbishop took the c.kon-- 
 image— of the \irgin, which was carried around m 
 solemn procession. It was struck by an arrow shot by 
 a Souzdalian soldier, when miraculous tears appeared 
 upon its face. The besiegers were struck by a panic, 
 and the i.eople of Novgorod sallied out, killed a number 
 of the enemv, and took so many prisoners that " you 
 could get six Souzdalians for a grivna." Whatever may 
 have been the value of that coin, the market was evidently 
 overstocked with Souzdalians. 
 
 Foiled in this attemi^t, Andrew tried other means. He 
 prohibite.1 the sale of grain to the people of Novgorod, 
 who were thereby compelled to make peace. They did 
 not surrender any of their privileges but accepted as 
 their duke the prince selected by Andrew. 
 
 Mis next war was with Mstislaf the Brave, Duke of 
 Smolensk, who, ai<led by his brothers, had taken Kief. 
 Andrew sent a herald to him demanding the evacuation 
 of Kief, and imposing a fine upon each brother. Mstislaf 
 who, the Russians say, • feared none but God," gave 
 orders to have the herald's head and beard shaved —a 
 
56 
 
 gross insult at that time, — and then dismissed him. 
 saying : ** ( io and repeat these words unto your master, — 
 * Up to this time we have respected you like a father, but 
 since you do not blush to treat us as your vassals and 
 common people, since you have forgotten that you speak 
 to princes, we laugh at your threats. Execute them ! — 
 we appeal to the judgment of (iod.' " The challenge was 
 accepted, and Andrew was defeated. 
 
 The Duke of Souzdal did not relax in his attempts to 
 established absolute government. It was with this pur- 
 pose in view that he expelled his three brothers, and made 
 friends of the priests. Kief was still the residence of the 
 Metropolitan or head of the ( ireek Cliurch in Russia, 
 and Andrew was anxious that he should transfer his 
 residence to Madimir so as to make that city the religious 
 center of Russia. Mis wish was not gratified, lie failed 
 in everything, except in making enemies by his disregard 
 of law. He was murdered in 1174 in his favorite palace 
 at Bogolioubovo, by his own hoyards or nobles. 
 
 VI— TROUBLOUS THIES 
 
 I'^HE death of Andrew was a welcome relief for the 
 people of Xovgorod. They celebrated it by attack- 
 ing the houses of the rich, and committed so many 
 excesses that the ])riests made a procession with the 
 eikons. In Souzdal there was trouble about the succes- 
 sion. Two of Andrew's brothers returned from exile, and 
 claimed the dukedom, and the city of Madimir gave 
 them its support. That was enough for Souzdal and 
 Rostof to recognize another claimant, one of Andrew's 
 nephews. X'ladimir was victorious in the contest, and 
 Andrew's brother, Michael, became Grand Duke of Souz- 
 dal. He died two years afterwards, and the people of 
 Souzdal once more refused to recognize Vladimir's candi- 
 date, Andrew's other brother Wsevolod, surnamed the 
 liig Xest on account of his numerous family. Vladimir 
 defeated Souzdal and V\sevolod was its grand duke 
 from 1176 to 121 2. The people of Novgorod thought 
 best to pacify him. They sent a deputation to X'iadimir, 
 to tell \'sevolod, " Lord and Grand Duke, our countrv is 
 your patrimony ; we entreat you to send us the grandson 
 of (ieorge Dolgorouki, the great-grandson of Mono- 
 machus, to govern us." The request was granted, and 
 Vsevolod's eldest son Constantine came to Xovgorod. 
 
 57 
 
58 
 
 The ^rand duke, however, was soon displeased with 
 him and displaced him by a yonnj^er son, laroslaf. Soon 
 there were quarrels between him and the jx'ople, where- 
 upon laroslaf moved to Torjok, a town within Novgorod 
 territory, and from there stopped all supplies. Famine 
 appeared in the city, and at last envoys were sent to the 
 duke, who had them arrested. Xothin^ except absolute 
 submission would satisfy him. In this dire need help 
 came from an unexpected quarter. Alstislaf the liold, 
 son of Mstislaf the Brave, Duke of Smolensk, heard 
 of Novgorod's plif^ht and sent word to the city, *' Torjok 
 shall not hold itself higher than Xovgorod. 1 will deliver 
 your lands and citizens, or leave my lK)nes among you." 
 He was as good as his word. There was a great war 
 between Souzdal and Smolensk ; no (piarter was asked or 
 given. In 1216, \ sevolod's sons were attacked at Lipetsk 
 by the troops of Xovgorod and Smolensk, with such fury 
 that they were routed, and 9,000 were killed whereas 
 only 60 were taken prisoners, laroslaf renounced Nov- 
 gorod and released the citizens arrested by him. 
 
 Constantine succeeded his father X'sevolod, but died 
 in 1 217, and another brother, (ieorge, became Grand Duke 
 of Souzdal. This prince made an expedition down the 
 Volga, levying tribute as he proceeded. In 1220, he laid 
 the foundation of Nishni Xovgorod, and of several 
 villages in what was then Mordvian territory. 
 
 Meanwhile Mstislaf the I'old resigned as drand Duke 
 of Novgorod in an assembly of the ])eople, saying, 
 
 I salute St. So|)hia, the tomb of my father, ^ and you. 
 People of Novgorod, I am going to reconquer (^alitch 
 
 1 Mstislaf the Brave was buried in the church nf St. Sophia. 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 59 
 
 from the strangers, but I shall never forget you. I hope 
 I may lie by the tomb of my father in St. Sophia." The 
 people implored him to remain ; but he had made up his 
 mind, and in 1218 he left for the southwest, where he 
 did succeed in concjuering Galitch, that is the name given 
 to southwestern Russia at that time. 
 
 After his departure the people of Xovgorod called his 
 nephew Sviatoslaf as their grand duke, but soon there 
 was a quarrel. The possadnik Tferdislaf caused the 
 arrest of one of the wealthy citizens, whose friends rose 
 to set him free. Then the burgomaster's friends came 
 and there was a fight in which ten men were killed. The 
 grand duke then demanded the dismissal of the burgo- 
 master, and the vetche assembled to hear both sides. The 
 errand duke was asked what crime the possadnik had 
 committed. 
 
 '' None," he replied, " but it is my will that he be dis- 
 missed." 
 
 The burgomaster then said : " I am satisfied, because 
 I am not accused of any fault ; as for you, my brothers, 
 \ou can dismiss alike jiossadniks and dukes." 
 
 The vetche consulted, and announced its decision: 
 " Prince, since you do not accuse the possadnik of any 
 fault, remember that you have sworn to depose no 
 magistrate without trial. Tferdislaf will remain our 
 possadnik, — we will not deliver him to you." 
 
 Sviatoslaf was very much displeased and resigned, 
 and one of his brothers, \'sevolod, was appointed in his 
 place. This was in 1219; two years later, in 1221, 
 \\sevolod was expelled, and the i)eo])le called back that 
 same laroslaf from whom thev had been rescued by 
 
 i 
 
6o 
 
 6i 
 
 Mstislaf the Bold. Soon there was another dispute and 
 he was sent about his business. X'sevolod of Smolensk 
 was again made (hike, but the people soon grew tired of 
 him. At this time the Grand Duke of Souzdal inter- 
 fered ; he made Novgorod pay him tribute, and appointed 
 a prince of Tchernigof as its duke ; Init he did not like 
 the place and resigned. Then the city suflFered from a 
 famine, when 42.000 citizens i^erished and a hre destroyed 
 a whole quarter of the city. laroslaf was made duke for 
 the fourth time ; the spirit of the people was broken, and 
 he was permitted to rule over them as he pleased. He 
 succeeded as grand duke in 1236, when he left his son 
 Alexander Xevski as duke in Novgorod. 
 
 The east coast of the Baltic was considered tributary to 
 Xoveorod. Several colonies had been established on 
 the Diina and south of that river, but in the 12th and 13th 
 centuries missionaries and merchants from ( lermany 
 appeared and gradually penetrated as far as the Diina 
 where Bishop Meinhard, in 1187, built a Roman Catholic 
 Church and a fortress. The Livonians were converted 
 much as St. Madimir had made Christians of the people 
 of Kief; but in this case, the people of Livonia revolted ; 
 in 1 198 the second bishop was killed in Ixittle, and the 
 natives returned to the heathen gods. Pope Innocent III 
 ordered a crusade against them. Another bishop sailed 
 up the Diina with a fleet of twenty-tlnee ships, and in 
 1200 founded Riga. The year after a religious society, 
 the Sword-bearers, resembling the Templars, was in- 
 stalled in Livonia, and the natives appealed to the Duke 
 of Polotsk for help. They marched ui)()n Riga and were 
 defeated in 1206. 
 
 i 
 
 German colonization proceeded actively under the 
 Sword-bearers. Several cities were founded, and the 
 country was divided into fiefs, according to the feudal 
 system of Western Europe. The towns were modeled 
 after Hamburg. Bremen, and Liibeck. Riga grew into 
 a large and powerful city. 
 
 In 1225, another religious brotherhood, the Teutonic 
 Order, entered into Lithuania, and twelve years later 
 the two orders united. The introduction of the Roman 
 Catholic religion carried with it the elements of Roman 
 civilization, and did much toward estranging the natives 
 of the lialtic provinces from the Russians of the east. 
 
 Southwestern Russia, or Galitch, had, more than any 
 other section, preserved the old Slav character. " The 
 duke was a j^rince of the old Slavonic type. He was 
 elected by a popular assembly, and kept his seat by its 
 consent." ' The assembly was composed of boyards or 
 nobles, and sometimes disputes occurred between them 
 and the duke, which ended in more or less serious dis- 
 orders. In 1 188, the position was offered to Roman, 
 Duke of X'olhynia. He accepted, but before he could 
 enter the capital, a duke who had been expelled was re- 
 installed. After his death, Roman entered the territory 
 of (ialitch, not as an elected duke, but as a conqueror at 
 the head of an army, and treated the dukedom as a con- 
 quest. He was especially cruel to the boyards, treating 
 their rights and i)rivileges with scorn. Russian authors 
 praise him ; one of them says that he " walked in the ways 
 of God, exterminated the heathen, flung himself like a 
 lion upon the infidels, icas saz'uge as a z^nld cat, deadly as 
 
 * Kostomarof . * 
 
62 
 
 a crocodile, swooped down on his prey like an ea^le," 
 which seem strange (juahties for praise. Roman died in 
 battle, in 1205. Mstislaf the liold conquered CiaHtch 
 and at his death, in 1228, his son-in-law Daniel became 
 
 duke. 
 
 We have seen that, in the 13th c- tury, Russia was 
 
 divided into a number of small states, most of them under 
 
 a duke, but all possessin,c: some dej^ree of hberty, except 
 
 in the north where the duke was beinp: chan<;ed into 
 
 an hereditary monarch. We have also seen that Russia 
 
 was part of Europe, and that commercial relations were 
 
 maintained. At the same time, just as there had been an 
 
 invisible but none the less real dividing; line between the 
 
 Eastern Roman, or Ryzantine, Empire and the west of 
 
 Europe, so with the adoption of the (ireek Church, Russia 
 
 inherited the oriental type and principles which separated 
 
 that form of Christianity from that of Rome. Thus the 
 
 slii^ht split grew gradually into a schism, as Western 
 
 Europe progressed with every evolution of the Roman 
 
 Church, whereas Russia remained stationary. 
 
 Byzantium or Constantinople, situated at the eastern- 
 most edge of Europe, owing to its intimate association 
 with the Persians who, at the time represented the 
 Oriental character, w^as more of an oriental than a west- 
 ern city ; its sympathies were also with its neighbors of 
 the east. There was thus an oriental tendency in Russia 
 as well as in the l»yzantine Empire, and this vague senti- 
 ment enabled Russia to bend before a blast, which would 
 have withered any nation of a more pronounced occidental 
 character. 
 
 VIT— THE YELLOW PERIL 
 
 OX the borders of the Chinese Empire, in the north- 
 east of Asia, roamed a Mongol tribe, known as the 
 Tartars or Tatars. A Chinese author of that time, 
 described them as follows : " The Ta-tzis ^ or Das occupy 
 themselves exclusively with their flocks ; they go wander- 
 ing ceaselessly from pasture to pasture, from river to 
 river. They are ignorant of the nature of a town or a 
 wall. They are ignorant of writing and books; their 
 treaties are concluded orally, brom infancy they are 
 accustomed to ride, to aim their arrows at rats and 
 birds, and thus acquire the courage essential to their 
 life of wars and destruction. They have neither religious 
 ceremonies nor judicial institutions. b>om the prince 
 to the lowest among the people, all are fed by the tlesh of 
 the animals whose skin they use for clothing. The strong- 
 est among them have the largest and fattest morsels at 
 feasts ; the old men are put off with the fragments that 
 are left. They respect nothing but strength and courage ; 
 age and weakness are condemned." 
 
 The people were, therefore, nomads, moving their 
 flocks as necessity required, and occasionally making 
 a raid upon a neighboring town. *' They move on horse- 
 back ; " says the Chinese author ; " when they wish to 
 
 ' Ta, great ; hence : the Great Tzis. 
 63 
 
64 
 
 65 
 
 capture a town, they fall on the suhiirhan villages. Each 
 leader seizes ten men, and every prisoner is forced to 
 carry a certain quantity of wood, stones, and other 
 material. They use these for tillini^ uj) moats or to d\fj^ 
 trenches. In the capture of a town the loss of a myriad 
 men was thous^ht nothinj^:. Xo ])lace could resist them. 
 After a sici^e, the entire i^opulation was massacred, with- 
 out distinction of old or young-, rich or poor, heautiful 
 or uq:lv, those who resisted or those who viclded ; no 
 distinguished j)erson escaped death, if a defense was 
 attempted." 
 
 These nomad Tartars were united hy and under 
 Genghis Khan ( 1 154-1227 ), one of their chiefs or khans. 
 He summoned all the khans of the several trihes, and 
 he fore them took the title of emperor over all, declaring 
 that, as there was only one sun in heaven, so there should 
 he hut one emperor on earth. At the head of his trihes, 
 Genghis conquered Manchuria and Xorth China; then 
 he moved west. He himself remained in Asia, hut two of 
 his lieutenants proceeded in that direction, suhduing the 
 trihes on their way, and often joined hy them. The 
 long march had rendered the Tartars inured to hardshij) 
 and wholly indifferent to danger. At last they passed hy 
 the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, and, crossing the 
 Caucasus, commenced the invasion of Europe. 
 
 The march of such a host could not he kept secret. 
 When the Polovtsi, the old enemies of Russia, heard of 
 the approach, they sent for help to the Christian dukes. 
 " When they have taken our country, they will take 
 yours," they said. Mstislaf the Bold of Cialitch, urged 
 that die assistance he <rranted, and the chief of the 
 
 Polovtsi agreed to enter the (ireek Church. The Rus- 
 sians assembled on the lower Dnieper, where they were 
 approached hy some Tatar envoys who told them that 
 they had "come hy (iod's command against our slaves 
 and grooms, the accursed Polovtsi. I'e at peace with us; 
 we have no (juarrel with you." The envoys were arrested 
 and put to death. The Russian army then moved east- 
 ward, and met the Tartar host at the Kalka, a small river 
 rumiing into die Sea of Azof. Instead of waiting for 
 the troops still on the way, Mstislaf the P.old and his 
 friends began die battle. While it was at its height, the 
 Polovtsi were seized by a panic and, falling back, threw 
 the Russians into disorder. The Russian army was 
 routed; six dukes and seventy high boyards were left 
 dead on the battlefield, and hardly a tenth of the army 
 escaped. The (irand Duke of Kief still occupied a 
 fortified cam]) on the Kalka. The Tartars offered to 
 allow him and his drujina to retire upon payment of a 
 ransom. He accepted, and was attacked by the Tartars 
 after he had left his fortifications. He and his two sons 
 were stifled under boards, and his guard was massacred. 
 
 The Tartars at this time needed all their men to com- 
 plete the conquest of China, and therefore the armies 
 invading luirope were recalled, after southern Russia 
 was at dieir mercy. The Russians did not inquire into 
 the cause of this relief, but resumed their old life, con- 
 fident that all danger was past. 
 
 When the Tartars had made themselves masters of 
 China, P.ati. a nephew of (lenghis, was dispatched west- 
 ward to mark further conquests. He did not follow the 
 same route but passed south of the Ural Mountains. 
 
 k 
 
66 
 
 67 
 
 Thirteen years after the battle of the Kalka, Bati besieged 
 
 and took the capital of the liulgars, east of the grand 
 
 dukedom of Souzdal ( 1237). As soon as the dukes of 
 
 Central Russia heard this, they united against the Tartars, 
 
 but the Grand Duke of Souzdal refused to join them. 
 
 The Tartars sent envoys to the allied dukes. " If you 
 
 want peace," they said, '* give us the tenth of your goods." 
 
 " When we are dead," was the proud reply, '* you can 
 
 have the whole. A battle was fought in which the 
 
 Russians were crushed. Nearly all the dukes died on 
 
 the battlefield ; Riazan was stormed, sacked, and burned, 
 
 and the other towns of that dukedom met the same fate. 
 
 It was now the turn of Souzdal. The army of the 
 
 grand duke was defeated on the Oka; Moscow was 
 
 burned and \'ladimir besieged. After an heroic defense, 
 
 the Tartars took the city by assault, and many Russians 
 
 were burned in the cathedral which was set on fire. 
 
 Leaving ruin in their wake, the Tartars went in search of 
 
 the grand duke who had taken a position on the Sit, 
 
 near the frontiers of Novgorod. Here another battle 
 
 was fought ending in disaster for the Russians. The 
 
 headless corpse of the grand duke was found by the 
 
 Bishop of Rostof. On swept the Asiatic hoards, as if 
 
 nothing would stop them. At Torjok, " Russian heads 
 
 fell beneath the sword of the Tartars as grass beneath 
 
 the scythe." Leaving Souzdal behind, they entered the 
 
 territory of Novgorod ; but the dense forests and swollen 
 
 rivers delayed them, and when within fifty miles of the 
 
 citv, thev turned southeast. The little town of Kozelsk * 
 
 did not surrender but inflicted such a loss upon the 
 
 ^ Where Kalouga now stands. 
 
 invaders that they mentioned it as " the wicked city.'' 
 When it was cai)ture(l, every man, woman, and child, 
 was butchered. 
 
 The years 1239 and 1240 were spent in ravaging 
 southern Russia. Pereiaslaf and Tchernigof, after a 
 desperate defense, were burned, and the Tartars under 
 command of (lenghis's grandson Mangou, marched upon 
 Kief. Mangou oflfered terms, but Kief, knowing the 
 fate of other cities, executed Mangou's envoys. The 
 grand duke and his rival, Daniel of (ialitch, fled from 
 the city, but the people fought for their lives. iMangou 
 was reen forced by Bati's army and the siege began. The 
 walls were knocked to i)ieces by battering rams. " The 
 people of Kief, led by the brave Dmitri, a Gallician 
 boyard, defended the battered ramparts till the end of 
 the dav, and then retreated to the Church of the Dime, 
 which they surrounded by a palisade. The last defenders 
 of Kief were grouped round the tomb of laroslaf. The 
 next day they perished. Mangou gave the boyard his 
 life, but the Mother of Russian Cities was sacked. This 
 third pillage was the most terrible ; even the tombs were 
 nnt respected. All that remains of the Church of the 
 Dune is only a few fragments of mosaic in the museum at 
 Kief. Saint Sophia and the Monastery of the Catacombs 
 were delivered up to be plundered." Kief fell in 1240. 
 
 There remained only \olhynia and Gallicia, which also 
 bowed under the Tartar yoke. With the exception of 
 Novgorod and the northwest, Russia was in possession 
 of the Yellow race. The Russian dukes who had escaped 
 carried the tale to Western Europe which was soon in a 
 state of alarm. The Emperor of Germany wrote to the 
 
68 
 
 69 
 
 other monarchs: " This is the moment to open the 
 eyes of body and soul, now that die brave princes on 
 whom we depended are dead or in slavery." The Pope 
 called upon the Christian princes to take up arms. 
 Meanwhile Uati continued his westward march and pene- 
 trated as far as Moravia, when he was recalled by the 
 death of the second Tartar emperor. He withdrew to 
 Russia and on the X'ol^a built a city which he named 
 Sarai— the Castle —which became the capital of a Tartar 
 empire extendincr from the I'ral river and Caspian Sea 
 to the mouth of the Danube, and is known as the Golden 
 
 Horde. 
 
 The first three successors of (leni^his Khan are known 
 as the Great Khans, and ruled over all the Tartars : but 
 after Kublai Khan established himself in China, in i2Cyo, 
 the Golden Horde declared its independence. So lon^ 
 as Bati lived, this khanate was united and powerful, but 
 after his death, in 1257, it orradually lost stren-th. In 
 1272, these Tartars became Mahomedans and spread that 
 faith. The Golden Horde enjoyed another period of 
 prosperity under the Khan Uzbcck. 
 
 How did the Russians bear this blow? We have seen 
 that laroslaf, the duke who had been expelled so many 
 times from Novc^orod, became Grand Duke of Souzdal. 
 He found the country in Souzdal in ruins. Nothing was 
 left of the towns and villai^es but charred remains ; the 
 inhabitants who had survived the Tartar massacres had 
 fled into the forests. laroslaf's first work was to induce 
 them to return and rebuild their homes. The Tartar 
 general Bati heard of this and sent word to Taroslaf to 
 come to him. The grand duke dared not refuse. He 
 
 
 
 ■%f.' 
 
 •i^'. 
 
 went to Sarai on the \^olga where Bati told him that he 
 might continue as grand duke, but that it would be best 
 for him to pay a visit to the great khan, who was then 
 un the A moor in the far eastern part of Asia. laroslaf 
 agreed ; he started on his long journey, and after many 
 months of travel through deserts and wastes, he arrived 
 .It the head(juarters of the Tartars. There he was com- 
 pelled to kneel before Oktai, the successor of Genghis. 
 It appears that some Russian boyards had preceded 
 laroslaf hoping to secure favors from the khan, and 
 that they accused the grand duke, but Oktai refused to 
 listen to them. After some delay laroslaf was confirmed 
 as grand duke, and ]:>ermiUed to return, but he died 
 from exhaustion in the desert, in 1246. His remains 
 were brought to X'ladimir. 
 
 laroslaf left two sons, Andrew, who succeeded him 
 in Souzdal, and Alexander who was duke at Novgorod. 
 This younger son was an able as well as a brave man. 
 On one (Kcasion, when the Scandinavians had invaded 
 Novgorod's territory aided by the Catholic Orders, Alex- 
 ander had gained a great victory on the Neva, from which 
 he is known in history as Alexander Nevski (1240). 
 Cpon his return to Novgorod he had a dispute with the 
 vetche, and he left the city. After his departure the 
 territory of the Republic was invaded by the German 
 Sword-bearers who erected a fort on the Neva, captured 
 Pskof, Novgorod's ally, and plundered merchants within 
 a short distance of the walls. The i)eople sent to Alex- 
 ander Nevski, begging him to come to their rescue, and 
 after several refusals he consented. Alexander collected 
 an army, drove the (iermans out of Pskof and their new^ 
 Sto. of Russia — 5 
 
70 
 
 fort, and at last defeated them on the ice of Lake Peipus 
 in 1242. This is known as the liattle on the lee. Alex- 
 ander then returned to Novgorod where he was received 
 with honor and joy. 
 
 Andrew, the Grand Duke of Souzdal, Alexander's 
 brother, refused to recognize liati's authority, whereupon 
 a Tartar army ravaged his territory for the second time. 
 Novgorod, as we have seen, had escaped the Tartar 
 invasion, but when Alexander Xevski received a letter 
 from Bati, in which the khan said, '* God has subjected 
 many peoples to me, will you alone refuse to recognize 
 my power? If you wish to keep your land, come to 
 me ; you will see the splendor and the glory of my govern- 
 ment." The duke thought it prudent to comply. He 
 and his brother Andrew went to Sarai, where honors 
 were showered upon the hero of the Xeva. The two 
 brothers were directed to visit the great khan, as their 
 father laroslaf had done. They did so; and the Mongol 
 emperor confirmed Andrew as Duke of Souzdal, but to 
 Alexander's dukedom, he added Kief and South Russia. 
 They returned from the Far East in 1257. 
 
 •.4- * 
 
 
 
 
 VIII-RUSSIA UNDER THE MONGOL YOKE 
 
 THE Tartars did not interfere with tlie people, their 
 institutions, or rcH^ion, but they denian<led tribute 
 in the form of an annual poll-tax. Officers called baskaks 
 went from house to house to collect it, either in money 
 or in furs, and those who couUl not pay were sold as 
 slaves Sometimes this collection caused disturbances. 
 It was some time before the people of Novgorod would 
 submit When Bati sent his collectors to the Republic, 
 the ciuestion was brouRht before the vetche where the 
 possa.lnik urged the wisdom of paying the tax but the 
 people would not hear of it and promptly murdered the 
 unfortunate burgomaster. .Alexander, too. advised to 
 avoid trouble, but the people refused and several boyards, 
 including Alexander's .son X'assili urged resistance. The 
 .hike acted vigorously. He ordered the arrest of h.s 
 son and had the boyards punished ; but it was not before 
 the 'people heanl of the approach of a Tartar army, that 
 they submitted. Still such was their resentment that 
 Mexander ha<l the baskaks guarded night and day. At 
 last \lexander threatened to leave Novgorod with h.s 
 drujina; then the people oflfered no further opposition 
 to the collection of the hate.l poll-tax (.260). Two 
 years later the people of Souzdal. \ladimir. an<l Rostof 
 
 71 
 
72 
 
 77^ 
 
 rose against the baskaks and killed one of them, a Russian 
 who had become a Mahomedan. Alexander, who had 
 succeeded his brother Andrew as Grand Duke, decided 
 to attempt to appease the khan by going himself to 
 Sarai with presents ; he also wished to be excused from 
 furnishing a body of Russians to serve in the Tartar army. 
 He succeeded, but was kept at the court of the khan 
 for a year. His health broke down and he died on his 
 return journey in 1263. The news of his death was 
 brought to Xovgorod. as mass was being said in the 
 cathedral. The Metn politan who was reading the service, 
 interrupted it, and said, ** Learn, my dear children, that 
 the Sun of Russia has set,— is dead." and the people cried, 
 " We are lost." The death of Alexander Xevski was a 
 heavy blow to Russia. 
 
 The Russians, that is the people of Russia whose story 
 we are reading, did not mingle with any Tartar except 
 the tax collector whom they did not like. The victors 
 were nomads, who did not care to occupy the land they 
 had conquered. When they did settle at Sarai on the 
 Lower X'olga, they absorbed the tribes who had lived 
 there before the invasion, and who were not Russians, 
 but nomads. The Russian people did not associate with 
 the conquerors. It was at this time that the word Kres- 
 fianine or " true Christian " was applied to the peasant, 
 instead of the contemptuous term moujik. 
 
 Whatever Asiatic characteristics were grafted upon 
 the Russians, came to them through their kniazes and 
 boyards. The dukes soon showed that all ilk x uued for, 
 was to hold their positions. After Alexander Xevski, 
 there is not a single instance of a desire to relieve the 
 
 lis 
 
 people; and the victors on their part never interfered so 
 long as the tribute was paid regularly. The descendants 
 (^f Andrew liogolioubski were not disturbed in Souzdal : 
 those of Roman continued to hold (ialitch and Volhvnia. 
 and ( )leg's house remained in possession of Tchernigof. 
 The dukes might fight about Kief: Xovgorod might 
 appoint or expel its dukes, — the Tartars did not mind. 
 r»ut the khan did insist that the dukes should visit him 
 and pay him homage. He also reserved the right of 
 approving the succession of a duke, who was compelled 
 to apply for a written consent, called an iarlikh. On one 
 occasion when the people of Xovgorod elected Duke 
 Michael, they afterwards refused to recognize him, 
 asserting that ** it is true we have chosen Michael, but 
 on condition that he should show us the iarlikh." 
 
 The dukes, holding their possessions by favor of the 
 khan, tried to gain his good-will and favor, (deb, duke 
 of P)ielozersk married in the khan's family about 1272; 
 Feodor of Riazan was the son-in-law of the khan of the 
 Nogais. In 13 18. the (Irand Duke (leorge married Kon- 
 tchaka, sister of the Khan I'zbeck. It was the rulers, 
 and not the people of Russia, that quietly submitted to 
 the lartartchina or Mongol yoke. 
 
 The khans, while they did not care about the people 
 took care that the dukes should show them slavish respect. 
 In 1303. the dukes were convoked, and when they were 
 assembled a letter from the khan was read, in which 
 they were commanded to stop fighting because the great 
 khan desired to see peace established. Whenever such 
 a letter was brought, the dukes were directed to meet the 
 envoys on foot, prostrate themselves, spread fine carpets 
 
74 
 
 under their feet, present them with a cup filled with ^old 
 pieces, and listen, kneeling, while the letter was read. 
 
 Children of the prairie and the desert, the Tartars had 
 neither a religion nor a civilization to impose upon the 
 Russian people. fhe khans were tolerant hecause thev 
 did not care. Koiyuk had a Christian chapel near his 
 residence. In 1261, the Khan of Sarai gave ])ermission 
 for the erection of a (ireek church in his capital, and he 
 allowed a hishop to reside there. Mangou gave equal 
 privileges to Christians, Jews, and Mahomedans. 
 
 The dukes and hoyards, paying court to the Tartars, 
 gradually adopted their mode of dressing and, as they 
 became Asiatic in appearance, they came under the in- 
 fluence of Asiatic thought. They dressed in a long caftan 
 or flowing robe, wore a sort of turhan on the head, 
 swords and daggers in their belts, and when on horseback, 
 sat in very high saddles with short stirrui)s. Dukes and 
 boyards thus became semi- Asiatic, and drifted awav from 
 the people among whom the national i)rinciple was kept 
 alive. 
 
 Every succeeding visit to the khan served to increase 
 the intimacy of the dukes and their Asiatic masters. It 
 was not many years before the relation with the great 
 khan was severed, but that with the Golden florde was 
 kept alive. A writer ^ living at that time, who visited 
 Sarai during Bati's life, gives the following description: 
 ** It (the court) is crowded and brilliant. Tlis army 
 consists of 600,000 men, 150,000 of whom are Tartars, 
 and 450,000 strangers. Christians as wxdl as infidels. On 
 Good Friday we were conducted to his tent, between two 
 
 ^ Planus Corpinius. 
 
 
 ^Pi- 
 
 i 
 
 ^'■^ 
 
 75 
 
 fires, because the Tartars believe that a fire purifies 
 everything, and robs even poison of its danger. JVe 
 had to make ;;/(/;/y proslrations, and enter the tent with- 
 out touching the threshold. Uati was on his throne with 
 one of his wives ; his brothers, his children, and the Tartar 
 lords were seated on benches ; the rest of the assembly 
 were on the ground, the men on the right, the women on 
 the left. . . . The khan and the lords of the court emi)tied 
 from time to time cu])s of gold and silver, while the musi- 
 cians made the air ring with their melodies, liati has a 
 bright comi)lexion ; he is aft'able with his men, but inspires 
 general terror. ' ** The same writer visited the court of 
 the great khan, and in his description dwells upon the 
 fact that it was not the 1\artars who were most terrible, 
 but the Russian dukes and nobles who accused one 
 another and who sought to destroy their own country- 
 men by bribing the favorites. It was thus that Duke 
 Michael of Tchernigof was murdered in 1246, and Duke 
 Michael of Tver in 13 19, by a Russian hireling of the 
 Cirand Duke of Moscow who was present when the foul 
 (Kh'(1 was committed. Servile submission to the khans, 
 a haughty demeanor towards their own people, became 
 the characteristics of the dukes. *' The dukes of Mos- 
 cow," says a Russian author, ^ " took the humble title of 
 servants of the khan, and it was by this means that they 
 became powerful monarchs." An luiglish writer- comes 
 to the following evident conclusion: "The first czars of 
 Muscovy u ere the i)olitical descendants, not of the 
 Russian dukes, but of the Tartar khans." 
 
 A gradual change came over the Golden Horde after 
 
 ^ Karamsin. ^ Wallace. 
 
76 
 
 // 
 
 the Tartars departed from their nomadic h'fe and settled 
 in and about Sarai. They lost their warlike habits, and 
 with them much of their vigor. They began to farm out 
 the poll-tax, that is. they sold the right to collect the tax- 
 to merchants of Khiva, whose oppression was so great 
 that the people of Souzdal revolted in 1262, Koursk in 
 1284, Kolomna in 13 18, and Tver in 1327. lint the 
 opi)ression was greater when the dukes of Moscow 
 farmed this tax, not only from their own subjects, but 
 also from neighboring dukedoms. They were absolutely 
 pitiless in collecting from the \n,or i)eople as much as 
 they could extort, and this was the disgraceful foundation 
 of their wealth and power. The poll-tax, thereafter, was 
 always a favorite source of revenue in Russia. 
 
 P.esides this tribute, the dukes were compelled to 
 furnish soldiers to their masters. Soon after the ccnKjuest, 
 we read of Russian dukes marching with the Tartars at 
 the head of their drujinas, and of supplying them with 
 infantry. In 1276 lioris of Rostof and others, followed 
 Mangou Khan in the war against the tribes of the Cau- 
 casus, and helped to sack the town of Dediakof in 
 Daghestan. This was excusable, because the enemv was 
 an alien; but what can be thought of Prince Andrew, 
 the unworthy son of Alexander Nevski, who, in 1281, 
 induced the Tartars to aid him in pillaging X'ladimir, 
 Souzdal, ^[our()m, ^^oscow, and Pereiaslaf, and led in 
 profaning churches and convents? In 1284, when two 
 descendants of Qleg were dukes of Koursk. one of th(Mn 
 put his brother to death for having insulted the khan, and 
 Russian historians blame not the murderer, but the 
 victim, because he had aroused the khan's anger! In 
 
 
 1327, the dukes of Moscow and Souzdal marched against 
 Tver at the command of their Asiatic master. Such was 
 the influence of the Tartar yoke. 
 
 The Russian dukes and their nobles lost not onlv the 
 principle of patriotism, but also that of personal honor. 
 The unfortunate Russians henceforth were to them, not 
 fellow-countrymen but *' tchcrnc " " black people." The 
 khans, with true political instinct looking to the perpetua- 
 tion of this condition, gained the friendship of the Church, 
 as they had that of the dukes. In 1313, the Khan Uzbeck, 
 at the request of the Metropolitan or head of the Church 
 of Moscow, ordered that the Church should retain its 
 l)rivileges, and that it should not be deprived of its 
 property, because, he says, *' these possessions are sacred, 
 as they belong to men whose prayers preserve our lives 
 and strengthen (mr armies." The churches and convents 
 grew enormously rich. They received gifts of land, and 
 the priests, so bribed, allied themselves with the heathen 
 masters, and aided further in oppressing the people. 
 
 The descendants of the dukes and drujinas lost the 
 large and generous impulses of the old X(jrsemen, to 
 make way for the Asiatic deformities of treachery, cruelty, 
 cunning, and disregard of honor. Whatever came in 
 the wav of their own interests, was trampled under foot 
 by fair means or foul. The boyards, too, were tainted 
 by the example of the chiefs. The vast extent of the 
 country, the sparsity of the ])opulati()n, the difficulties 
 in the way of communication, and above all the general 
 ignorance, i)revente(l the appearance of a patriot who 
 might have raised a truly national banner, and shaken 
 off the voke of the servile lackevs of the Tartars. 
 
IX— LITHUANIA AND MOSCOW 
 
 W^ I'- have seen that the Tartar invasion stopped short 
 ' » of Novgorod, and turned southeast, thus leaving 
 northwest Russia free. What are now known as the 
 lialtic Provinces, was at that time covered with dense 
 forests, inhahited hv the h'inns or Suonii, the Tchouds, 
 Jniouds, and Lithuanians, all of the same race and speak- 
 ing the same language, hut constantly at war with one 
 another. In the 13th century a chief named Mindvog, 
 after killing his brothers and sons, united the tribes, and 
 made himself master of Lithuania. He then invaded 
 Russia whose dukes, sutYering under the Tartar yoke, 
 were unable to withstand him. He captured Grodno and 
 Novogredek, when he was confronted by Alexander 
 Nevskv and Daniel of \'olhvnia in front, and bv the 
 Knights of Livonia in his rear. In this extremity Mind- 
 vog sent to the Pope piomising that he would be con- 
 verted in return for his good services. Pope Innocent 
 I\^ replied by sending a papal legate to Grodno, where 
 Mindvog and his wife were baptized, and he was made 
 King of Lithuania ( 1252). Soon after he had a dispute 
 with the Livonian Knights to whom he was forced to 
 cede the country of the Jmouds. He again became a 
 pagan and, marching against the Knights, defeated them. 
 
 79 
 
> 
 o 
 
 ') 
 
 IX— LITHr.\XT.\ AXn MOSCOW 
 
 'XT ^ I'', have seen that llie Tarlar invasion st<)|)])e(l sliort 
 » * of X(^\'i^oro(l, and tnrned southeast, thus leavin<^ 
 northwest Russia free. W liat are now known as the 
 llahic Provinces, was at that lime covered with dense 
 forests, inhahited l)y tlie I'inns or Suouii, the Tchouds, 
 Jniouds. and Lithuanians, ah of the same race and si)eak- 
 \\v^ the same lani^uai^e, hut constantly at war with one 
 an<»ther. In tlie i^^th century a chii'f named Mindvo^-. 
 alter kilHn^ his hrothers and sons, united tlie tri])es, and 
 made himself master of Lithuania. lie then invaded 
 Russia whose dukes, sutVeriui; under the Tartar yoke, 
 were unahle to withstand him. lie captured (irodno and 
 Xovoi^redek. when he was confronted hv Alexander 
 Xevsky and Daniel of \01hynia in front, and hv the 
 Kni«4"hts t)f Lixonia in his rear. In this extremity Mind- 
 vo<:^ sent to the Lope promisin^^" that he would he con- 
 verted in return for his j^ood services. Lope Innocent 
 \\ replied by sendintj;- a i)ai)al legate to ( injdno, where 
 Mindvoj^ and his wife were l)a])tized. and he was made 
 Kiui^ of Lithuania ( 125J). Soon after he had a disj)ute 
 with the Livoiiian Knii^hts to whom he was forced to 
 cede the country of the Jmouds. lie ai^ain became a 
 pagan and. marching against the Knights, defeated tlieni. 
 
 79 
 
8o 
 
 Upon his return from this expedition, he was murdered 
 by a chief named Dovmont whom he had injured. 
 Lithuania a^^ain fell into anarchy until another enterpris- 
 ing^ chief named ( iedimin restored order in i ^15. 
 
 (ieiHnn'n invaded Russia, defeated a Kusso-Tartar 
 army in 1321, and took Tcherni-of and \'ladinnr. He 
 then went south, where the Russian cities readilv opened 
 their ^ates to him. hopincr for relief from the' Mon-oj 
 yoke. He took the old capital Kief, and there had his 
 sons baptized in the (^reek church and tried to marry 
 them into the families of Russian dukes. He established 
 his capital at Wilna where he attracted many (German 
 artists and mechanics by -ranting them special privile^-es. 
 He died a pa^^an, in 1340, dividing his country amon.i,^ 
 his sons and his brother. 
 
 One of his sons, ( )l-erd, succeeded in ^ettin- possession 
 of the whole, and then started upon a career of con(|uest. 
 He first attacked Novgorod, where one of his brothers 
 had taken refu^-e, and made concjuests east and south, 
 until he reached the Black Sea. Althou-h he was a 
 pa.o^an, Simeon the Proud, (irand Duke of Moscow, <rave 
 him his dau-hter; btit this did not prevent Ol-erd' from 
 waging war with Simeon's successors. In 1368. he de- 
 feated the Tartars of the Lower Dneiper, and destroved 
 Cherson in the Crimea. 
 
 When he died he followed Gedimin's example by divid- 
 ing his territories among his sons, but one of them, 
 Jagellon, became sole ruler by putting his brothers to 
 flight and his uncle to death. At this time the Russian 
 language was adopted and with it the (ireek Church, 
 although Jagellon was still a pagan. When he married' 
 
 81 
 
 Hedwiga, the heiress to the Kingdom of Poland, he 
 embraced the Roman Catholic church; in 1386, he went 
 to Cracow, where he was crowned King c^f Poland, and 
 soon after gave orders that his people must join the same 
 eluirch, converting them as Xdadimir had intro- 
 duced Christianity among the people of Kief. Jagellon 
 made Cracow his capital. Some time afterwards one of 
 his cousins, V'itovt. raised a revolt against him in Lithu- 
 ania, and Jagellon was compelled to cede that territory to 
 him. Thus \'itovt became Grand Duke of Lithuania. 
 
 V'itovt married the sister of Vassili, (^rand Duke of 
 Moscow, and extended his domain toward the east. He 
 invaded Smolensk, whose (irand Duke Sviatoslaf, when 
 fighting in Russia, had taken a delight in impaling and 
 burning alive Prussian women and children. That savage 
 had been killed in 1387, in a battle with the Lithuanians, 
 and his son had succeeded him. \'itovt, before Smolensk, 
 invited this prince and his brothers to visit him in his 
 tent. They accejned and were warmly received, but 
 when they were ready to depart, they were told that they 
 were prisoners of war. Smolensk was taken by surprise, 
 and pillaged. 
 
 Vitovt contemplated the conquest of Russia. His terri- 
 tory bordered in the east on Souzdal and Riazan. He 
 had defeated an army of Tartars in the south, and was 
 making preparations for a bold ^tmke. Collectino- an 
 army of Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, and five hundred 
 Knights of the Teutonic ( )rder, he set out from Kief and 
 came upon the Tartar army near Pultowa where, in 1399. 
 he suflFered a serious defeat. He recovered from this 
 blow, and after some time began a war with the Teutonic 
 
82 
 
 Order which he defeated in 1410, at the battle of the 
 Tannenberg. He thereupon re-annexed the Jnioud 
 country. 
 
 X'itovt had given up liis designs upon Russia: he 
 planned to raise Lithuania into a kingdom, and to have 
 a MetropoHtan of its own, instead of being dependent 
 upon the head of the Greek Church at ]\Ioscow. He 
 succeeded in the last-named object. I>ut met with a check 
 in the former, and. as he was eighty years old, the dis- 
 appointment caused an illness from which he died, in 
 1430. After his death, Lithuania had no more influence 
 upon Russia. Sometimes it had a grand duke of its 
 own, at other times it was united with Poland. In 1501, 
 it became the property of the King of Poland, who added 
 to his title that of Grand Duke of Lithuania. Its nobles 
 spoke the l\)Iish language. 
 
 It was necessary to sketch in a few words the history 
 of Lithuania, not only because it is part of Russia to-dav, 
 but because it has always been claimed by Russia. The 
 history of that country, however, from the beginning 
 of the 14th century, is centered about Muscovia, the terrP- 
 tory of the Grand Duke of Moscow. At the time of the 
 Lithuanian conquest, Muscovia was bounded on the north 
 by Tver, on the east by Souzdal, on the south bv Riazan, 
 and on the west by Lithuania. It belonged to Alexander 
 Nevski, who at his death left it to his son Daniel. Its 
 area was increased by him by the towns of Pereiaslaf, 
 Zabiesski and Kolomma. Daniel died in 130^, and was 
 buried in the church of St. Michael the Archangel, which 
 remained the burial place of the Muscovite princes until 
 the time of Peter the Great. 
 
 83 
 
 The next grand duke was Daniel's son George, whose 
 first act was to capture the Duke of Smolensk fron'i whom 
 he took the town of Mojaisk. In 1304 the Grand Duke 
 of Souzdal died. Alichael of Tver claimed the succession 
 as the eldest of the family, but George of Moscow con- 
 tested it. Michael was supported by the boyards of 
 Madimir and the people of Novgorod ; the khan at Sarai' 
 also declared in his favor, and Michael was installed. 
 George, however, was not satisfied and began a war; 
 he was defeated in battle, and twice besieged in .Moscow.' 
 Suddenly he heard that the khan was dead ; he hastened 
 to Sarai, and thea^ made friends with the new Khan 
 Uzbeck, who gave him his sister Kontchaka in marriage, 
 and ordered that George should have possession of Souz- 
 dal. He returned to Moscow with a Tartar army and 
 Michael, considering the odds, proposed to cede Vladimir 
 on condition that his own patrimony of Tver should re- 
 main intact. George refused, and the war broke out 
 anew. Michael defeated him and captured Kontchaka 
 and the Tartar general, but he released his prisoners, and 
 the dispute was again brought before the khan. George 
 took good care to be at Saraf, and having ample means 
 at his disposal from his poll-tax collecting, distributed 
 bribes right and left. Michael, confident in the justice 
 of his cause, committed the mistake of sending his twelve- 
 \ear-ol(I son in charge of high boyards, to represent 
 him; but when he was informed of George's methods, he, 
 too. proceeded to Sarai, after making his will. Upon 
 his arrival, he was accused of having drawn his sword 
 upon the Khan's envoy, and of having poisoned Kon- 
 tchaka. Uzbeck would not even listen to such absurd 
 
84 
 
 complaints, but George invented other falsehoods, and at 
 last Michael was arrested. The khan went on a hunting 
 trip in the Caucasus, and the wretched Duke of Tver 
 was dragged after him in chains. ( )ne day he was put 
 in the pillory in the market of a i)opulous town, where 
 the people crowded around him to look at the man who, 
 a short time before, was a powerful i)rince in his own 
 country. Michael's boyards urged him to esca])e, but 
 he dreaded the khan's vengeance uj)on his family and 
 people. George increased his bribes, and thus secured 
 the order that Michael should be put to death. 
 
 One of iMichael's pages came to the tent occupied by 
 him, and told him that George and a Tartar general were 
 approaching. " I know what their object is," said the 
 unfortunate duke. He at once sent his young son to 
 one of the khan's wives, who had promised to protect 
 the child. The two men came to the tent and ordered 
 the Tver boyards to leave. Hired assassins were called 
 m, and a Russian ruffian named Rc^nanetz stabbed the 
 unfortunate duke. When ( ieorge and the Tartar entered, 
 they saw the nude corpse; it had been despoiled. The 
 Tartar was shocked. " What ! " he cried, "Will you allow 
 the body of your uncle to be outraged ! " George only 
 smiled ; but one of his attendants threw a cloak over the 
 murdered man. 
 
 When Michael's children grew up, one of his sons, 
 Dmitri of the Terrible Eyes, secured some friends at 
 the khan's court. He obtained the title of grand duke, 
 and a baskak received orders to install him. When 
 George heard this, he hurried to Sarai; there the two 
 men met. and Dmitri, drawing his sword, killed his 
 
 iSi 
 
 fS 
 
 85 
 
 father's murderer ( 1325). Dmitri was arrested and put 
 to death by order of the khan, but his brother Alexander 
 was ])ermitted to succeed him at Tver. 
 
 This duke was in sympathy with the people. Suffer- 
 ing under the oppression of the Tartar tax collectors, the 
 people revolted under the leadershij) of Alexander. The 
 palace of the baskak was attacked, and he and his attend- 
 ants were killed. Uzl)eck, incited by Ivan Kalita, 
 (^jeorge's brother and successor at Moscow, prepared to 
 take revenge, when Ivan volunteered to punish Tver, 
 as well as Riazan and Novgorod which had given evidence 
 of sympathy. The ofi"er was accepted, and Ivan at the 
 head of a Muscovite army reenforced by 50.000 Tartars 
 marched upon the doomed city. Alexander and his 
 brothers fled. Tver and two other cities were sacked, the 
 Duke of Riazan was put to death, and Novgorod had to 
 pay a heavy fine. Ivan thought that his services would 
 procure him Tver and Riazan, but Tzbeck did not intend 
 to extend the power of the treacherous family, and Con- 
 stantine, another son of Michael, was made Duke of 
 Tver. He and Ivan went to Sarai, where the latter was 
 ordered to bring Alexander before the khan. The 
 prince had found an asylum in Pskof, where Ivan's 
 messengers appeared to demand his surrender. The 
 envoys urged hini to give himself up under the plea 
 *' not to expose a Christian peo])le to the wrath of the 
 infidels." The people of Pskof thought otherwise. '' Do 
 not go to the Horde, my lord," said they ; " whatever hap- 
 pens, we will die with you." Alexander refused to obey 
 the summons, and the people of Pskof began to construct 
 a new fort. Ivan Kalita, the Grand Duke of Moscow, per- 
 Sto. ok Ri'ssiA— 6 
 
86 
 
 '4 »*<■-■• 
 
 suaded the Metropolitan to place Alexander and Pskof 
 under the ban of the Church, which was done, W'c see 
 here a Christian prince persecuting^ a relative, and a 
 Christian priest exconiniunicatin^ a Christian people, — 
 all to please an infidel concpieror! Still the people of 
 Pskof refused to yield, but Alexander left the city and 
 took refug-e in Lithuania. Then T^skof informed Ivan of 
 his departure, sayin^^:, ** Alexander is gone ; all Pskof 
 swears it, from the smallest to the greatest, popes,^ 
 monks, nuns, orphans, women, and children." (1329.) 
 
 Some years afterwards an attempt was made by Alex- 
 ander to recover Tver. He went to Sarai with some of 
 his boyards. There he made submission. '* Lord, all- 
 powerful Czar," he said, "if [ have done anything 
 against you, I have come hither to receive of you life 
 or death. Do as (lod inspires you ; I am ready for 
 either." Uzbeck pardoned him and Alexander returned 
 to Tver. This did not please Ivan Kalita, who knew that 
 he was hated everywhere, and that his enemies only need- 
 ed a leader. He went to Sarai where he told Czbeck that 
 Alexander was a very dangerous enemy to the Tartars. 
 Alexander was summoned to api)ear and when he com- 
 plied, he was arrested, condemned to death, and beheaded. 
 
 ^ Priests. 
 
 0. 
 
 
 ••iLCk-' 
 
 X— DFXLIXE OF THE TARTAR POWER. 
 
 DAHTRI DONSKOI 
 
 CRAFTY and unscrupulous, the grand dukes of 
 Moscow were feared by their neighbors. Ivan 
 Kalita, as farmer of the poll-tax, grew^ immensely 
 wealthy. He collected a double tax from Novgorod, 
 which the republic, although allied w'ith Lithuania, dared 
 not refuse. He bought several towns, besides land in the 
 neighborhood of Vladimir, Rostof, and Kostroma. His 
 title was still (irand Duke of X'ladimir, but Moscow was 
 the real capital. Ivan took very good care to stand 
 well with the Church. He built convents and churches, 
 and never went out without an alms-bag or kalita to give 
 money to the poor ; hence his surname. The seat of the 
 Metropolitan was still at Vladimir, but he often came to 
 Moscow, and finally moved there; so that it became also 
 the capital of the Church. It is reported that the Metro- 
 politan said to Ivan, " God will bless you and raise you 
 above all other dukes, and this city above all other cities. 
 Your house will reign in this place during many cen- 
 turies ; their hands will conquer all their enemies ; the 
 saints will make their dwelling here. nn(\ here my bones 
 shall rest." 
 
 When Ivan with the Alms-bag died in 1341, he left the 
 
 87 
 
88 
 
 bulk of his possessions to his ehlest son Simeon, and gave 
 only small estates to his other children ; he also forbade 
 that Moscow's territory should be divided. His body 
 was scarcely in the grave before the dukes of Tver and 
 Souzdal were on the way to Sarai to claim the grand 
 dukedom of \ladimir; they were supported by other 
 dukes who disliked and dreaded the Muscovite familv. 
 Simeon hurried after them, well provided with some of 
 his father's treasure. He used it so well, that he received 
 the iarlikh. and was installed at Madimir. Servile 
 toward the khan, he was overbearing toward the other 
 Russian dukes, which ])rocure(l for him the surname of 
 the Proud. He was the first to assume the title of Grand 
 Duke of all the Russias ; and, acting in that capacity, he 
 graciously confirmed the charter of Xovgorod, for which 
 he demanded and obtained payment. Simeon died in 
 1353 of the '• black death," a pestilence which was 
 imported from Asia. 
 
 Great changes were taking place at Sarai, in the Khan 
 of the Golden Horde. Its power was broken by internal 
 discord, when Mourout. the legal heir of Rati, was 
 attacked by a rival Mamai, who succeeded in establishing 
 himself at Sarai. Simeon was succeeded by his brother, 
 Ivan n, an easy-going, good-natured man whose reign 
 of six years did not increase the influence of Moscow. 
 At his death, in 1359, he left several minor children, the 
 oldest of whom was Dmitri, a boy of twelve. Dmitri of 
 Souzdal went to Sarai — and secured the iarlikh, which 
 made him (irand Duke of X'ladimir, but Alexis, the 
 Metropolitan, was loyal to Ivan's children, and appealed 
 to the khan in the name of his yotmg ward. Mourout, 
 
 
 
 (89) 
 
 Dmitri Donskoi 
 
<S8 
 
 bulk of his possessions to his cMest son S 
 
 inicon, and j^ave 
 
 only small estates to his other ehildren : he also forbade 
 that Moseow's territory should be divided. His body 
 was scareely in the grave before the dukes of Tv(^r .and 
 Sou/.dal were on the way t(^ SaraT to claim tlu- i^rand 
 
 ere su])ported 1)\- other 
 
 w 
 
 dukedom of \ladimir: the\ 
 dukes who disliked and dreaded the Muscovite family, 
 imeou hurried after them, well jjrovided with some of 
 
 e used it so well, that he received 
 
 s 
 
 his father's treasiu'e. 1 1 
 
 ervile 
 
 the iarlikh, and was in>lalled at \ladimir. < 
 toward the khan, he was overbeariuij: toward the other 
 Russian dukes, which ])rocured for him the surname of 
 the rroutl. He was tlu> fu-t to assume the title of ( irand 
 
 Ouke of all the Russi; 
 
 IS ; and. actinij- in 
 
 that 
 
 capacity, he 
 
 i^raciously confirmed the charter of Xovi^orod. for which 
 he deman«Ie(l and obtained paynunl. Simeon died in 
 of the "black death." a pestilence which was 
 
 K^ 
 
 imi)orted from Asia, 
 
 ( ireat chau; 
 
 A> w (. 1 r lakini^ place ai .^arai, in the Khan 
 
 of the ( iolden H<»rde. Its ])ower was broken by internal 
 discord, when Mourout. the leiral hiMr of liati, was 
 attacked by a rival Mamai. who succeeded m establishiui^^ 
 himselt at Sarai'. Simeon was succeeded b\ his brother, 
 Ivan 11. an easy-goin<^, j^^o, „l-natured man whose rcii^n 
 of six \e.ii> did not increase the intluence of Moscow. 
 At his death, in I35(;. he left several minor children, the 
 oldest of wlu)in \vn< Dinitri i lu.x of twelve. Dmitri of 
 Souzdal Weill lo >arai and secured the iarlikh. which 
 
 made him ( irand Duke of \ladimir. but Al 
 
 exis. 
 
 th. 
 
 Metro|)olitan. was loyal to Ivan's children, and appealed 
 to the khan in the name «»f his vounj/ ward. Mourout. 
 
 ,-.■- /. ■ 
 
 ■*. 
 
 (89) 
 
 Dmitri Donskoi 
 
90 
 
 the heir of Rati, declared in his favor, and yount^r Dmitri 
 was taken to Madimir escorted bv an arniv, and installed 
 
 The appointment was disputed hv the dukes of Tver, 
 Sonzdal. and Riazan. Dnntri of Souzdal held an iarlikh 
 from Mourout's opponent, and tried to enter in Madimir, 
 but was expelled. The Metropolitan excommunicated 
 the opponents of Ivan's son, who held the fort as Grand 
 Duke. Youno- Dmitri made war upon the Huke of Tver, 
 and after a seven years' stru-gle ( 1368-1375), compelled 
 him to renounce his claims. 
 
 Dmitri was summoned before the Khan, in 1371. He 
 went but what he saw at Sarai convinced him that the 
 Tartars were no longer able to uphold their authority. 
 He did not hesitate to en-a.i,re in a struircrie with Riazan, 
 althouc^h it was supported by a Tartar army. Thereafter, 
 when orders arrived from the khan, Dmitri ignored 
 them. In 1376. he sent a large army to Kazan on the 
 Volga, and forced two Mongol chiefs to pay tribute. 
 Two years later, in 1378, a battle was fought between 
 Dmitri and one of Mamai's generals in Riazan. when the 
 Tartars were defeated, which made the grand duke 
 exclaim: "Their time is come, and God is with us!" 
 The khan sent an army to ravage Riazan. and made 
 preparations to reestablish his authority at Moscow. 
 
 To make sure of success, Mamai took two years to 
 collect an immense army and to mature his plans. This 
 could not remain secret to the Russians, who, aroused by 
 Dmitri, laid aside their private feuds to make common 
 cause against the infidels. A large number of dukes 
 assembled at Moscow, and even the Lithuanians prom- 
 
 91 
 
 ised to send troops to Kostroma where the Russian army 
 was gathering. The Metropolitan assured Dmitri of the 
 victory, and sent two monks to go with the troops. Mak- 
 ing the sign of the Cross on their cowls, he said, " Behold 
 a weapon which faileth never ! " 
 
 Russia was united against the Mongol ; all the dukes, 
 with the exception of those of Tver and Riazan. lent their 
 aid. These two dreaded Moscow's power, and the Duke 
 of Riazan tried to conclude an alliance with Jagellon of 
 Lithuania and Mamai. 
 
 Dmitri, at the head of an army estimated at 150,000 
 men. marched through Riazan to the Don where the 
 Tartars were drawn up. awaiting the reenforcements of 
 their ally Jagellon. who was still fifteen leagues distant. 
 Dmitri resolved to fight the Tartars before a junction 
 could be effected. He crossed the Don and met the 
 enemy on the j)lain of Koulikovo, — the Field of the 
 Woodcocks, — where a furious battle was fought. It 
 was decided by a sudden attack ujion the Tartars from 
 an ambush, which threw them into a ])anic. The Tartars 
 were routed; Mamai's camp, his chariots and camels, 
 were all captured. Dmitri was found in a swoon from 
 loss of blood. He was surnamed Donskoi. in honor of 
 this victory. (1380.) 
 
 It seemed as if the end of the Mongol yoke had come, 
 when another great leader api)eared among them. Tam- 
 erlane, after coiKpiering Bokhara, Hindostan, Iran, and 
 Asia Minor, entered luirope, and ordered Mamai to be 
 j)Ut to death, lie summoned Dmitri Donskoi to ap])ear 
 before him, and received a curt refusal. Tamerlane sent 
 one of his generals with an immense army to Moscow, and 
 
92 
 
 93 
 
 Dmitri, not finding the former support, went to Kostroma 
 to collect troops. The Tartars ap])eare(l before Moscow, 
 which they tried to carry by assault but failed. They 
 pretended to enter into negotiations, when they sur- 
 prised the gates and Moscow was delivered up to fire and 
 sword. It is said that 24,000 inhabitants were slaugh- 
 tered. \'la(limir and other towns suffered the same fate. 
 
 It is tohl that Dmitri wept when he saw the charred 
 remains of his capital after the Tartars had withdrawn. 
 There was nothing for it but to make peace with the 
 khan, and once more the Tartar tax gatherers went their 
 rounds, lint Dmitri's heart was sore against the Dukes 
 of Tver and Riazan who had abetted Mamai, and Nov- 
 gorod, which had used the oi)portunity of Moscow's dis- 
 tress to plunder some of its towns. After the country 
 had sufficiently recovered, he compelled the Duke of 
 Riazan to conclude " a perpetual peace," and Novgorod 
 paid an indemnity besides agreeing to an annual tribute. 
 
 When Dmitri died in 1389, he left Moscow the most 
 powerful of Russian dukedoms. He was succeeded by 
 his eldest son \'assili, with the consent of his cousin 
 Madimir, wh.o was the eldest of the family. Vassili men 
 tioned Novgorod as ** his patrimony,'* and acted as if the 
 republic was his private property. He visited Sarai in 
 1392, and while there bought an iarlikh, which placed 
 him in i)ossession of Souzdal, Xishni Novgorod, and 
 Mourom. In 1393, the peo|)le of NovgornrI revolted, but 
 \^assili's army convinced them that the repuijlic was fast 
 losing its former power. 
 
 At this time Tamerlane, dissatisfied with his generals, 
 arrived in Europe and after pillaging the (jolden Horde, 
 
 m.' 
 
 moved westward, spreading ruin and desolation. He 
 drew near to Moscow, where the famous eikon of the 
 \'irgin was taken in solemn procession, when the Tartar 
 army stopped and turned to the south, where Azof, 
 Astrakhan, and Sarai, were plundered and destroyed. 
 (I395-) After Tamerlane's withdrawal, Vassili pre- 
 tended not to know to whom to ])ay the tribute, — and so 
 paid none at all. The Tartars under Rdiger marched 
 upon Moscow to collect it, but the city was bravely 
 defended and I'^diger, fearing an invasion from Asia, 
 agreed to accept a ransom of 3000 rubles, which was 
 ])aid by the boyards. 
 
 More dangerous were the attacks of \^itovt of Lith- 
 uania, X'assili's father-in-law, who marched three times 
 against Moscow, lioth X'itovt and \'assili were indis- 
 posed to risk a decisive battle, fearing that, if defeated, 
 their enemies would despoil them. In 1408 a treaty was 
 signed wherel)y the Ouger was made the frontier between 
 them. This gave Smolensk to Lithuania, and Kozelsk to 
 Moscow. 
 
 \'assili extended his territory, and with it his name ; 
 one of his daughters married the liy^antine Emperor, 
 John Palaeologus. At his death, in 1425, he left his 
 territory to his son \ assili, the lUind, whose title was 
 contested by his uncle (leorge, on the ground of being 
 the eldest of the family. The dis])ute was submitted to 
 the khan, in 1431. lioth sides humbled themselves, but 
 the argument of \ assili's boyards i)revailed. '* My Lord 
 Czar," they said to the khan, " let us speak, — us, the 
 slaves of the grand duke. ( )ur master, the grand duke, 
 prays for the throne of the grand dukedom, which is your 
 
94 
 
 95 
 
 property, having no other title but your protection, your 
 investiture, and your iarHkh. Vou are master and can dis- 
 pose of it according to your good pleasure. My Lord, the 
 Duke Cieorge, his uncle, claims the grand dukedom by 
 the act and will of his father, but not as a favor from the 
 all-powerful." \'assili the Blind was the first grand 
 duke to be crowned at Moscow instead of at X'ladimir. 
 
 His reign was disturbed by constant wars with his 
 uncle, and afterwards with his cousins. In 1446 he was 
 taken prisoner by one of the latter, who ordered his eyes 
 to be put out. In 1450, peace was restored when the 
 second son of George died of poison. Notwithstanding 
 the loss of his sight X'assili displayed considerable energy 
 in reestablishing his authority. Novgorod was forced to 
 pay another indemnity, and to give a written promise 
 that in future all deeds would be void unless stamped 
 with the seal of the grand duke. 
 
 The most remarkable incident of X'assili's reign was 
 the Council at Florence, Italy, in 1449. where delegates 
 of the Roman and (ireek Churches tried to eflfect a union. 
 There were seventeen Metroi)()litans, among them Isi- 
 dore of Moscow, who signed the .\ct of Union. When 
 Isodore returned and declared what he had done, a great 
 opposition appeared. \'assili himself insulted the Metro- 
 politan, who fled to Rome. In 1453, Mahomet II cap- 
 tured Constantinople when a host of priests, monks, 
 artists, and learned men fled from the extinct Byzantine 
 Empire, to find an asylum in Russia. 
 
 While nothing resulted from the Council of I'lorence, 
 owing to the opi)osition of members of the (ireek Church, 
 the fall of Constantinople left a deep impression upon 
 
 
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 w ■_ -■ 
 
 '»»J^ 
 
 «'r?ffi^"'*- 
 
 -.•«■',': 
 
 "j'ii 
 
 Russia, which chose to consider itself as the heir to the 
 Byzantine Empire. More than this, the influence of the 
 men who found a refuge in Russia, served to inoculate 
 the country of their adoption with the >vmi-oriental 
 civilization which had distinguished Constantino])le from 
 Western luirope. The time, too, was propitious. Russia 
 was gradually recovering from the blow of Tartar rule, 
 which had marred its progress during two centuries. 
 Here was, therefore, to all intent and purposes, a virgin 
 soil, which promised to yield a rich harvest to whatever 
 princii)les were planted in it. It might even regenerate 
 the decaying elements of the Byzantine civilization. 
 
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 ,•:* 
 
 
 I* 
 
 (96) 
 
 Ivan HI 
 
 XI— I VAX III, THE GREAT 
 
 VASSILI'S eldest son Ivan was born in 1^40. It 
 is said tiiat upon the occasion of his birth, an old 
 monk at Xovi^orod had a vision which he rej^ortcd to the 
 Archbishop. " Truly." he said, " it is to-day that the 
 grand duke triumphs ; God has given him an heir ; I 
 behold this child making himself illustrious by glorious 
 deeds. He will subdue princes and nations. P.ut woe 
 to Novgorod! Novgorod will fall at his feet, and never 
 rise again." 
 
 Vassili, wishing to avoid the disputes incident upon the 
 succession, during his lifetime admitted Ivan as co- 
 regent. Upon his father's death, in 1462, Ivan was 
 twenty-two vears old. He succeeded without the usual 
 disturbances, and the first six years of his reign were 
 uneventful. In 1468, he gained forcible possession of his 
 brother George's estate, and allowed him to die in prison. 
 When he heard of his death,— he wept. Another brother, 
 Andrew, was in his way, and was tlung into prison, w^here- 
 upon Ivan called the Metropolitan and bishops to his 
 palace, wept some more, and confessed that he had been 
 too severe ; — but he forgot to restore Andrew's property. 
 When his third brother, Boris, died. Ivan seized the estate 
 and kept it ; but he wept some more. 
 
 97 
 

 — *■. 
 
 f 
 
 '^\"XT^ 
 
 
 Jf^ 
 
 (y6) 
 
 Ivan III 
 
 
 
 - *-j» 
 
 \I_1\ AX III, rill-: C.REAT 
 
 ATASSILI'S eldest son Ivan was born in 1440. It 
 i> .said that npon llic occasictn of liis birth, an old 
 monk at Novgorod bad a vision which he reported to the 
 Archbisboj). *' Trnly." he said. ** il is to-day that the 
 ^rand dnke trinni|)h> ; (.<»d has i^iven him an heir; I 
 behold this child making;- himself ilhisirions by .glorious 
 deeds. He will snbdue princes and nations. lUu woe 
 to Xovi^orod! Xcn-.c^orod will fall at hi> feet, and never 
 
 rise ajL^ain." 
 
 X'assili, wisbini:" to avoid the dispntes incident ni)on the 
 sncce.ssioii, (hn-inL,^ his lifetime admitted Ivan as co- 
 rei;ent. rp(»n his father's death, in 14(^2, Ivan wa.s 
 twentv-two \ears old. lie sncceeded withont the nsnal 
 distnrbances, and the first six years of his reii;n were 
 uneventful. In i4f>S. he gained forcible i)o.vsession of his 
 brother ( ieo rise's estate, and allowed him to die in prison. 
 When he heard of his death.— he wei)t. Another brother, 
 Andrew, was in his wa\. and was ihmi^- into i)rison, where- 
 ni)on Ivan called the Metropolitan and l)ishoi)s to his 
 palace, wept some more, and et»iiie.s>ed that he had been 
 too severe; — bnt he fori^ot to restore Andrew's pro])erty. 
 When his third brother, I'.oris. died. Ivan seized the estate 
 and kei)t it; bnt he wept >ome more. 
 
 97 
 
98 
 
 This soft-hearted but tenacious gentleman found fault 
 with his neif2:hbor, Michael of Tver, for entering into an 
 alliance with Lithuania. To settle the difficulty, he in- 
 vaded the dukedom, and annexed it to Moscow. Then, 
 having his hands free, he thought of Novgorod. The 
 Germans of the Hanseatic League had formed a colony 
 in the old republic, which had grown very wealthy. Ivan 
 looked upon that wealth as his ; if it was not, it ought to 
 be. Acting upon this satisfactory conclusion, he remem- 
 bered that the people of Novgorod had omitted to do 
 him homage when he succeeded his father. Thev had 
 even failed to appreciate the gentle letter of remonstrance 
 in which he reminded them of their oversight. (^lood- 
 natured as he knew himself to be, he could not afford to 
 encourage such a rebellious spirit ; but, being a careful 
 man, he concluded that it would be more humane as well 
 as cheaper to try the gentle means of bribery. His gold, 
 distributed where it would do most good, procured him a 
 large party. The opposition was led by a woman named 
 Marfa, the wealthy widow of a possadnik. She urged 
 that the republic should ask the help of Casimir I\', King 
 of Poland, but Ivan's friends in the vetche replied that, if 
 Poland should win, the Roman Catholic Church would 
 enter, whereas Russia was at least loyal to the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Marfa's influence prevailed ; the republic submitted to 
 Poland, on condition that its charter should be respected. 
 Gentle Ivan desi)atched some Envoys to warn the i)eople 
 of the error of their ways, and when that did no good, 
 he hired Tartar cavalry, overran the territory of the re- 
 public, and directed his troops to cut off the noses and 
 
 ,\ 
 
 r 
 
 h 
 
 
 H 
 
 III 
 
 99 
 
 lips of the prisoners. It is probable that he wept, although 
 history omits mentioning the fact. Novgorod was unpre- 
 pared ; a mob was collected and styled an army, and in 
 the battle of the Chelona, 3,000 trained troops put to 
 flight 30.000 citizen soldiers. Novgorod was lost. Ivan 
 kindly permitted the name " republic " to continue, but 
 his authority was admitted. He also received a share of 
 the wealth as an indemnity. (1470.) 
 
 Two years later he married the niece and supposed 
 heiress of the last Byzantine emperor. Her father, 
 Thomas Palaeologus, had fled to Rome where he died 
 leaving one daughter Sophia. Pope Paul II wished to 
 find her a husband, and Cardinal Bessarion of the Greek 
 Church advised him to offer her hand to Ivan. The offer 
 was accepted ; Sophia received a dower from the Pope 
 who still hoped to unite the two churches, and the bride 
 was received with great honor in Ivan's territory. The 
 grand duke probably had his eye on Constantinople, but 
 deferred his claim to some favorable opportunity. With 
 Sophia came many (ireek nobles, artists, and learned 
 men. Ivan, as may be judged from his gentle nature, 
 was a patron of art. and had no prejudice against for- 
 eigners. Several Italians came to Moscow where their 
 services were appreciated. 
 
 Ivan left Novgorod in jieace during five years, when 
 he thought it time to familiarize the citizens with the 
 fact that their republic was a thing of the past. He needed 
 a pretext; by a judicious use of money, his agents raised 
 a mob against the boyards, who, being assaulted, invoked 
 the strong arm of the law, in the person of Ivan. The 
 grand duke came to Novgorod in 1475, to hold court. 
 
lOO 
 
 lOI 
 
 He at once ordered the arrest of the possadnik, Marfa's 
 son, and a number of bovards who believed in a repubHc, 
 had them put in chains and carried to Ab)SCo\v. This 
 was in violation of the charter, but Ivan had an elastic 
 conscience. Next he tem])te(I a scribe to mention him as 
 Sovereign instead of " lord," in an official document; and 
 when, in a last effort to save the republic. Mar fa's 
 partisans killed a number of Ivan's friends, it was evi- 
 dently his duty to restore order. 
 
 Upon his return to Moscow, he announced that Nov- 
 gorod was the enemy of the (ireek Ihurch, and the ally 
 of the Pope and of Lithuania. This so alarmed the 
 Metropolitan and the priests that they bei^j^ed Ivan to 
 make war upon the wicked city. Many dukes and 
 boyards, moved by loyalty for the church, and j^erhaps 
 scenting spoils, flocked to his camp. Marfa's partisans 
 in vain tried to arouse the citizens by the cry, *' Let us 
 die for liberty and St. Sophia ! " It fell on deaf ears ; every 
 one for himself, was the general thought. Novgorod 
 surrendered. Ivan guaranteed, — for just so long as it 
 should suit him, — the people's lives and property, their 
 ancient code of laws, and exemption from Muscovite 
 service ; but the vetche and office of possadnik were 
 abolished, and with them died the republic. ( 1478.) 
 
 Having settled with Novgorod to his satisfaction, Ivan 
 bethought himself of establishing peace in his own house- 
 hold. Russian writers state that his wife, Sophia, 
 annoyed him by often repeating the interesting inquiry, 
 '* How long am I to be the slave of the Tartars? " The 
 Khan of the Golden Horde had been dissolved since 
 Tamerlane's raid ; several states had been formed from it, 
 
 of which the principal were Kazan, Sarai or Astrakhan, 
 and the Crimea. Kazan was ruled by a czar ; its people 
 were the descendants of Mongols and Uulgars who had 
 made great progress in commerce. The Khan of Sarai 
 and his men clung to the life of nomads ; but the subjects 
 of the Khan of the Crimea, were Mongols, Armenians, 
 (ireeks, Jews, and Italians; and all three had this in 
 common that they were constantly indulging in quarrels 
 and strife at home. 
 
 Ivan knew all this, because sometimes a chief would 
 come to Moscow for an asylum, and others took service 
 in his army. He no longer sent tribute, although occa- 
 sionally, when he was occupied elsewhere, he did send a 
 small j)resent. In 1478 Khan Akhmet sent ambassadors 
 to Moscow to remind him that the tribute was in arrears. 
 Ivan, who had apparently a wonderful command over 
 his features, pretended to lose his temper, jumped on the 
 picture of the khan, and ordered all the envoys except 
 one to be put to death. The survivor was told to go home, 
 and tell his master of his reception. 
 
 Ivan had reasonable cause for thinking that Akhmet 
 would be displeased, and collected an army of 150,000 
 men on the Oka, where he took up a strong position. 
 He had been right in his conjecture, for Akhmet gathered 
 an army and in due time arrived on the opposite bank 
 of the river. Ivan had time to reflect. He did not much 
 fancy risking a decisive battle, and returned to Moscow to 
 consult his mother, the boyards, and the priests. All 
 urged him to fight, and finally he came back to the camp, 
 convinced that scheming and plotting were more in his 
 line. All this time the two armies lay within earshot, 
 Sto. of Russia — 7 
 
 I 
 
I02 
 
 exchanf^^inor complimentary remarks, with no casnaltles. 
 The khan otYered to pardon Ivan on condition tliat he 
 shonld come and hold his stirrnj); or, if he were too 
 tired, if he shonld send some hii^di officer to do it in his 
 name. Ivan shook his head. Meanwhile the priests at 
 Moscow were growing- impatient, and the Archhishop 
 Vassian sent him a warm letter. It happened that Akhmet 
 was (piite as prndent as Ivan; hnt when the winter came 
 and the Oka, instead of a harrier, became an easy crossing", 
 Ivan ordered the retreat. Jnst then the two armies, led 
 by snch brave commanders, were seized with a panic, and 
 away they Hed in oi)posite directions. (1480.) The 
 honors were with Ivan, becanse he did not have so far 
 to rnn as Akhmet, who did not stop nntil he reached 
 Sarai. It is not stated why Ivan received no snrname 
 from this great battle. 
 
 The following year, 1481, Ivan had snfficiently re- 
 covered to show the conrage he possessed. There was a 
 distnrbance in Novgorod, where the jK'ople did not ap- 
 preciate the nobility of his character. He ordered some 
 of the boyards to be tortured and put to death, and cii^lit 
 thousand citizens were forcibly j)acked off to Souzdal. 
 
 In fear of his doughty enemy Akhmet. Ivan made 
 friends with the Khan of the Crimea, calculating that if 
 the former should attack him again, he would have to 
 look out for his rear. Akhmet. however, seemed to have 
 had enough of it, and Ivan, who was on bad terms with 
 Lithuania and I^oland, suggested to his friend that a 
 raid into those territories might pay. The Khan of the 
 Crimea took the hint; he j^enetrated as far as Kief which 
 he captured and pillaged. ( 1482.) The famous monastery 
 
 103 
 
 of the Catacombs was almost destroyed ; but Ivan had the 
 satisfaction of knowing that his two enemies had other 
 tilings to think of, instead of annoying him. 
 
 In 1487 war broke out with Kazan. A Russian army 
 marched against it, but Ivan did not take command. As 
 a result, the city was taken and the khan, who had 
 assumed the title of czar, was brought a prisoner to Mos- 
 cow. Fearing that he would unite the other Tartars 
 against him if he annexed the territory at once, he 
 appointed a nephew of his friend, the Khan of the Crimea, 
 but placed Russian soldiers in the fortress, while he 
 added die title of Prince of lUilgaria to his own. Other 
 Tartar princes sent envoys to protest against the arrest. 
 Ivan did not receive them in i)erson, and refused to 
 release the prisoner, but he ordered the envoys to be 
 treated with great honor and gave them so many presents, 
 that they returned in great good humor. 
 
 In 1492, die King of Poland died, leaving that king- 
 dom to his eldest son Albert, and Lithuania to his second 
 son Alexander. Ivan was justly indignant that he had 
 not been remembered in the will. He sent envoys to 
 P>ajazet II, Sultan of Turkey, to the Kings of Hungary 
 and Moldavia, and to his old friend the Khan of the 
 Crimea, to secure their assistance or at least their kind 
 neutrality. ( )f the services of the Khan of the Crimea he 
 felt assured. 
 
 He began by discovering a Polish i)lot against his life 
 at Moscow, and api)eale(l to the religious prejudices of 
 the Lithuanian nobles belonging to the (ireek Church, 
 omitting to mention his little arrangement with the in- 
 fidel sultan. When Alexander sent envoys to negotiate 
 
104 
 
 terms of peace, Ivan's deputies said to them : " Lithuania 
 has profited by the misfortunes of Russia to take our terri- 
 tory, but to-day thing-s are changed." They were right. 
 When ])eace was concluded in 1494, Ivan's frontier in the 
 west was extended. 
 
 The marriage of Alexander to Ivan's daughter seemed 
 to end the hostility between the two countries, but noth- 
 ing was further from the schemes of the wily grand 
 duke. He stipulated that she should have a Oeek chapel 
 in the palace, and warned her never to ai)i)ear in a 
 Catholic church, and always to wear the Russian national 
 dress. Soon after the wedding Ivan complained that his 
 daughter was forced to wear Polish costumes, and that 
 the Greek Church was being persecuted. These were to 
 him ample cause for war, the more so since he had good 
 reason to count upon his friends, the i)riests and boyards 
 of the Greek Church. When the war broke out, cities 
 where the majority of the i^eople belonged to that church, 
 opened their gates to his army, and Alexander was badly 
 defeated in the battle of \edrocha. This war added 
 another slice to Ivan's territory. 
 
 Alexander in his distress made an alliance with the 
 Livonian Order and with the (ireat Horde at Sarai : but 
 Ivan's old friend, the Khan of the Crimea, made a raid 
 in (iallicia and X'olhynia, and the Lithuanians were 
 defeated at Mstislaf ; but they compelled the Russians to 
 raise the siege of Smolensk. Meanwhile Ivan had serious 
 trouble. In I4(;5. he ordered the merchants of several 
 Hanseatic towns to be arrested at Novgorod, and in- 
 cidentally had goods to the value of $200,000, — an 
 immense sum in those days, — carried to Moscow. This 
 
 105 
 
 caused the foreign merchants to leave for safer places; 
 but the Livonian Order invaded his territory, and in the 
 battle of Siritza, they crushed a Russian army of 50,000 
 men, but the following year, 1502, they were defeated at 
 
 Pskof. 
 
 Toward die end of his life he was in doubt about his 
 successor, because his eldest son was dead. At first 
 he thought of making his grandson Dmitri, his heir ; but 
 he changed his mind, sent his daughter-in-law and grand- 
 son to prison and i)roclaimed his second son Vassili his 
 heir. He died in 1505, after a reign of forty-three years. 
 It was under his direction that a new code of laws, the 
 Oulogenia, was i)repared. 
 
IS-' 
 
 XII— RUSSIA ^FXO^[ES AX AUTOCRACY 
 
 T TASSILI, Ivan's son, showed a great resemblance to 
 ^ his father. He did not evince any greater love for 
 his near relatives, as one of his first acts was to put his 
 nephew Dmitri in prison, where he died. One of his 
 brothers who did not like his manners, tried to escape, 
 but was brought back and severely punished. 
 
 The republic of Pskof. and the dukedoms of Riazan 
 and Xovgorod-Seversky were still enjoying some degree 
 of liberty, which X'assili did not approve. At l*skof, the 
 grand duke was represented by a jiaiiiicsfjiik, or ducal 
 delegate ; the people, citizens and peasants, nobles and 
 lower classes, quarreled constantly among themselves, 
 but united to quarrel with the delegate. Vassili deter- 
 mined to put an end to this. He came to Xovgorod to 
 hold court, and summoned the magistrates of Pskof to 
 appear before him, and when they arrived he ordered 
 their arrest. A merchant of Pskof heard of it and, hurry- 
 ing home, told the people. Immediately the bell was rung 
 to convoke the vetche, and the masses called for war with 
 Moscow. More prudent counsels prevailed when mes- 
 sengers arrived from the prisoners, imploring their 
 friends not to try a useless resistance and to avoid the 
 shedding of blood. A leading citizen was sent to V assili 
 
 1 06 
 
 107 
 
 to offer him submission; he was dismissed with the 
 answer that one of the diaks or secretaries would come 
 to Pskof to let the people know the terms. When that 
 officer arrived, he was admitted in the vetche, where he 
 informed his hearers that Vassili imposed two conditions, 
 namely, that Pskof and the towns subject to it must re- 
 ceive his delegates, and that the vetche must be abolished 
 and the great bell, used to convoke it, must be taken down. 
 Twenty-four hours were asked to deliberate. Before the 
 time expired, the vetche met for the last time, when the 
 first magistrate addressed the delegate. '* It is written in 
 our chronicles," he said, '* that our ancestors took oaths to 
 the grand duke. The people of Pskof swore never to 
 rebel against our lord who is at Moscow, nor to ally 
 themselves with Lithuania, with Poland, nor with the 
 (Germans, otherwise the wrath of God would be upon 
 them, bringing with it famine, fires, floods, and the 
 invasion of the infidels. If the grand duke, on his part, 
 did not observe his vow, he dared the same consequences. 
 Xow our town and our bell are in the power of (lod and 
 the duke. As for us, we have kept our oath." The 
 great bell was taken to Xovgorod, and \^assili visited 
 ** his patrimony." Three hundred wealthy families were 
 transported to other cities and replaced by as many 
 families from Moscow. When he departed from Pskof, 
 he left a garrison of 5,000 guards and 500 artillerymen. 
 That was the end of the last republic in Russia. (1510.) 
 lu 1521, it was the turn of Riazan whose duke was 
 accused of having entered into an alliance with the Khan 
 of the Crimea. He was summoned to Moscow, where 
 he was arrested, but he managed to escape. His duke- 
 
io8 
 
 dom, however, was annexed to ^Moscow. Two years 
 later, in 1523, the Duke of Xovgorod-Severski was put 
 in prison for underhand deahng with Poland, and that 
 dukedom was added to Vassili's territories. This 
 rounded up X'assili's possessions in Central Russia. 
 
 The grand duke continued his father's policy toward 
 Lithuania. When Alexander died, he tried to become 
 Grand Duke of Wilna, but the King of Poland was too 
 quick for him. War broke out, but neither gained any 
 important advantage, and in 1509 a perpetual peace was 
 concluded wherein \'assili renounced all claims upon 
 Kief and Smolensk. The '' perpetual peace " lasted three 
 years. X'assili then went to the other extreme, by declar- 
 ing that '* as long as his horse was in marching condition 
 and his sword cut sharp, there should be neither peace 
 nor truce with Lithuania." In 15 14, the Russian army 
 besieged and took Smolensk, but in the same year they 
 were badly defeated in the battle of Orcha. 
 
 The two grand dukes tried to involve as many allies 
 as they could. The Khan of the Crimea, the useful 
 friend of Vassili's father, had become the son's enemy; 
 Vassili offset him by an alliance with the Khan of Astra- 
 khan. When Sigismund tried to secure the help of 
 Sweden, X'assili sought that of Denmark ; and when his 
 enemy set the Dnieper Cossacks at him, the grand duke 
 induced the Teutonic Order to invade Poland. After 
 Sigismund was defeated at Smolensk, the Emperor of 
 Germany and the Pope offered to mediate ; the latter 
 advised X'assili to let Lithuania alone, and to turn his 
 attention toward Constantinople. Negotiations com- 
 menced in 1520, but it was six years later before a truce 
 
 109 
 
 was concluded. On this occasion Vassili made a speech 
 in which he praised Emperor Charles V, and Pope Clem- 
 ent VII,— but Lithuania lost Smolensk. It was during 
 this war that the partition of Poland was first mentioned. 
 Vassili did not neglect the east, even while engaged in 
 the west. Kazan had expelled the nephew of the Khan of 
 the Crimea whom Ivan III had appointed, and elected a 
 Khan hostile to Russia. Two expeditions were sent 
 against the city but nothing was effected. When this 
 khan died. X'assili succeeded in installing a friendly 
 prince, but he was overthrown and a relative of the Khan 
 of the Crimea took his place. He prepared a great inva- 
 sion of Russia in 1521, and did gain a decided victory on 
 the Oka, after which he ravaged the territory of the grand 
 duke. X'assili was compelled to humble himself before 
 the khan, in order to save Moscow ; he made him pres- 
 ents and in the treaty signed by him, called himself the 
 khan's tributary. When the khan withdrew, he was 
 attacked in Riazan and the treaty was taken away from 
 him. The invasion was, however, a calamity for the 
 grand dukedom, which was devastated by fire, and a host 
 of women and children were carried off, to be sold as 
 slaves at Astrakhan and Kaffa. 
 
 The following year Vassili collected a large army on 
 the Oka and challenged the Khan of the Crimea to come 
 and give battle. The offer was declined with the remark 
 that he knew the way into Russia, and that he was not 
 in the habit of consulting his enemies as to when and 
 where he was to fight. 
 
 Hoping to profit by the quarrels among the Tartars, 
 Vassili sent an expedition to Kazan in 1523, and again m 
 
I lO 
 
 1524, but both were unsuccessful. Kazan owed its 
 wealth to a fair, which attracted a host of merchants. 
 X'assili thought that he would destroy his enemy's pros- 
 perity by establishing a rival fair. Accordingly one was 
 opened at Makarief, and this time the grand duke's 
 expectations were realized. This was the origin of the 
 world-famous fair at Xishni Novgorod, whither it was 
 transferred afterwards. 
 
 \'assili made a long stride forward in the direction of 
 autocracy. He consulted neither boyard nor priest. Tie 
 deposed the Metropolitan and banished him to a mon- 
 astery. Prince Kholmski, who was married to one of 
 Vassili's sisters, was thrown into prison for failing to 
 show abject respect. When one of the boyards com- 
 plained that " The grand duke decided all the (piestions, 
 shut up with two others in the bedchamber," the noble 
 was promptly arrested, condemned to death, and exe- 
 cuted, lie interrupted the objection of a high noble 
 with, " ]>e silent, lout!" His court displayed great 
 splendor, but it was semi-Asiatic. The throne was 
 guarded by young nobles called rytidis, dressed in long 
 caftans of white satin, high caps of white fur, and carry- 
 ing silver hatchets. 
 
 Like his father, he tried to attract artists and learned 
 men, and exchanged embassies with most of the Euro- 
 pean Courts. He extended the frontiers of his empire, 
 but ruthlessly suppressed free thought. It has been 
 claimed that the Slav is fit only for an absolute govern- 
 ment. The history of Russia contradicts the statement. 
 The idea of aut(^cracy was Asiatic and was imported with 
 the Tartar \oke. 
 
 XII I—I VAX IV, THE TERRIHLE 
 
 WHEN Wassili died in 1533, he left two infant sons, 
 Ivan and (leorge, the elder three years old. His 
 widow, Helena (ilinski, assumed the regency. She was a 
 woman remarkable for si)irit and beauty, and showed her 
 courage in ruthlessly suppressing every attempt of high 
 nobles to contest her authority. She sent her husband's 
 brother (ieorge to prison, and let him die there, (^ne of 
 her own uncles, who had been in her confidence, showed 
 too much ambition and suffered the same fate. Andrew, 
 another brother of X^assili, tried to make his escape ; he 
 was promptly brought back and placed in confinement. 
 This caused an unimportant war with Poland, ending in a 
 truce in 1537. 11ie Tartars of Kazan and the Crimea 
 were fre(iuently defeated. But Helena was cordially hated 
 by the great nobles at Moscow; she was poisoned, and 
 
 died in 1538. 
 
 Ivan, the oldest son and heir, was dien eight years old. 
 It must be placed to the credit of his mother that he had 
 learned to read, for the children were sadly neglected 
 after her death, and it was the boy's principal solace and 
 occupation. In later years Ivan wrote of this time, " We 
 and our brother louri (George) were treated like 
 strangers, like the children of beggars. We were ill- 
 
 III 
 
112 
 
 clothed, cold and luinc^ry." What impressed the child 
 especially, was that when foreign envoys arrived he was 
 placed upon the throne and the same nobles who showed 
 him such contemptuous indifference, were respectful 
 and even servile on such occasions. He noticed, too. that 
 when these proud nobles needed anything, it was neces- 
 sary that the papers should be signed by him. All this 
 set the child thinking, and being a manly, bright boy, 
 he came to the conclusion that, after all, he was the real 
 master. 
 
 After many quarrels among themselves, Andrew 
 Choui'ski, the head of a noble family, had become all- 
 powerful ; all important offices were occupied by his 
 favorites and friends. Ivan noticed it all, but said noth- 
 ing. He was thirteen years old when, after the Christmas 
 celebration of 1543, he suddenly summoned the boyards 
 before him, and in a threatening tone sternly accused 
 them of their misdeeds. '* There are among you many 
 guilty ones," he said, '* but this time I am satisfied with 
 making one example." He ordered the guards to seize 
 Andrew Chouiski, and had him then and there torn to 
 pieces by dogs. After this terrible punishment, he 
 ordered the arrest of the most disobedient nobles, who 
 were transported to distant places. 
 
 The thirteen-year-old boy then assumed the government, 
 relying chiefly upon his mother's relations, the Glinskis. 
 In 1547, at the age of seventeen, he directed the Metro- 
 politan to crown him, not as ( irand Duke but as Czar. In 
 a Bible printed in the Slavonic language, he had read 
 of the C::ar Xebuchadnezzar, the Ccar Pharaoh, David, 
 Gear of Israel, etc. He knew, besides, that the former 
 
 I 
 
 (113) 
 
 Ivan IV 
 
I 12 
 
 cIotbe(l. 0(^1(1 and luini^ry." W'liat impressed the cliild 
 especially, was that when foreii^n envoys arrived he was 
 l)lace(l upon the throne and the same nobles who showed 
 him such contemptuous indifference, were r<'*;])ectful 
 and even servile on such occasions. lie notice<l. loo. that 
 when these proud nobles needed anythini^. it was neces- 
 sary that the papers should be sii^nud by him. All this 
 set the child thinkinj^, and hviuix a manly, bright boy, 
 he came to the conclusion that, after all, he was the real 
 master. 
 
 After many quarrels amonq- themselves, .\ndre\v 
 Chouiski, the head of a noble familv. had become all- 
 ]")owerful ; all important office were occupied b\' his 
 favorites and friends. Ivan noticed it all, but said noth- 
 ing-. 1 le was thirteen \ ears old wlun. after the Christmas 
 celebration of 154^^. he suddenly smnrnoned the l)o\ards 
 before him, and in a threatening- lone sternly accused 
 them of their misdeeds. *' There are atuon^- you many 
 o^uiltx one>." he said, *" but this lime 1 am >ati^fied with 
 makini;- one example." lie ordered the i^uar<ls to seize 
 Andrew ("houiski. and had him then and there torn to 
 pieces by docfs. \fter this terrible punishment, he 
 ordered the arrest of the most disobedient nobles, who 
 were transported to distant places. 
 
 The thirteen-year-old boy then assumed the ij^ovemment. 
 relyiui; chiefly upon his mother's relations, the (ilinskis. 
 In 1547, at the aj^e of seventeen, he directed the Metro- 
 politan to crown him, not as ( Irand Duke but as Czar. In 
 a Bible printed in the Slavonic lan|L;-uai;e. he had read 
 of the C::iir Xebuchadnezzar, the C ".::(/;' Pharaoh, Davitl, 
 Ccnr of Israel, etc. Me knew, besides, that the former 
 
 (•13) 
 
 Ivan IV 
 
114 
 
 masters of the grand dukes, the khans, had been ad- 
 dressed by that title. F^erhaps it was because he wished 
 it to be known that he considered himself the equal of any 
 Tartar ruler ; perhaps because he desired to have a title 
 superior to that of the nobles who descended from former 
 grand dukes, and who inherited the rank without the 
 power; at any rate Ivan I\' was crowned as the first 
 Czar. 
 
 Young as he was, and since his thirteenth year beyond 
 control, Ivan's life had been the reverse of good. But 
 when, soon after the coronation, he married Anastasia 
 Romanof, he made an earnest effort to reform. The 
 relatives of his mother and of his wife, the Glinskis and 
 the Romanofs, enjoyed his favor at this time. 
 
 There was much suppressed dissatisfaction among the 
 nobles, and many plots were hatched against him. In 
 the year of his coronation, a fire swept wooden Moscow, 
 and about 1,700 peo|)le perished in the flames. Ivan 
 ordered an investigation, and withdrew to Vorobief. 
 Crowds gathered in the thoroughfares, when mysterious 
 persons appeared among them declaring that the Glinskis 
 had set the city on fire. Soon after shouts were heard, 
 '* It is the Princess Anne Glinski who, with her two sons, 
 has bewitched the city ; she has taken human hearts, 
 plunged them in water, and with this water has sprinkled 
 the houses. This is the cause of the destruction of Mos- 
 cow ! " A mob collected and made for the ])alace of the 
 Glinskis and one of them, Cieorge, was stabbed. They 
 went on to Vorobief, where they demanded the life of 
 Ivan's uncle. The czar's own life was in danger and 
 the mob had to be dispersed by force. 
 
 115 
 
 Ivan did not forget this, and terrible was his vengeance 
 ujKMi the boyards. At this time he gave his confidence to 
 two men, one a priest named Silvester, who had the 
 reputation of being a very honest man ; the other, a 
 member of the smaller nobility, named Adachef who, in 
 1551, as Minister of the Interior, gave to Russian cities 
 the first municipal liberties. Ivan showed an unusual 
 interest in the people; it was under his orders that a 
 new code of laws (Soudebnik) was prepared, and many 
 reforms were made in the Church. 
 
 This rather increased than diminished the hostility 
 of the nobles. Ivan's favorites, Silvester and Adachef 
 had grown ambitious and the former especially was over- 
 bearing. He openly opposed the czar, and tried to sow 
 discord between him and his wife. When Ivan's favorite 
 son died, Silvester told him that it was a punishment from 
 heaven for his disobedience. The two men tried to 
 procure the dismissal of the Glinskis and Romanofs, and 
 for that purpose made friends widi the boyards whom 
 Ivan suspected. In 1553, the czar fell dangerously ill; 
 he called in the boyards and ordered them to swear 
 loyalty to his infant son Dmitri. They refused. He was 
 informed that the nobles were conspiring with his cousni 
 X'ladimir, whose modier was distributing money in the 
 army. He was in terror for the lives of his wife and son. 
 Once he said to the boyards who had remained faithful, 
 " Do not, 1 pray you, forget that you have sworn an oath 
 to my son and to me ; do not let him fall into the hands 
 of the boyards; fly with him to some foreign country, 
 whithersoever God may guide you." Ivan recovered 
 but he never could forget the anguish of those days. 
 
ii6 
 
 Ivan's character at this time was far from bad. He 
 was only twenty years old, and on several occasions 
 showed that he was compassionate instead of cruel. It 
 was only natural that his nature should be perverted, 
 surrounded as he was by men of whom he was suspicious. 
 Still, such a change could only be gradual. The im- 
 mediate consequence of the conduct of his nobles, was 
 that it drew him closer to the people. This w^as shown in 
 1506, when he convoked the three orders, nobles, priests, 
 and people, to discuss public affairs. 
 
 His first act, after his recovery, was to banish his 
 former favorites. Silvester was ordered to the monasterv 
 of St. Cyril, and Adachef was sent to Livonia. Soon 
 afterwards the Czarina Anastasia died ; there was a 
 strong suspicion that she had been poisoned. To add to 
 his bitterness. Prince Andrew Kourbski. a descendant of 
 Rurik and a great friend of Silvester and Adachef, per- 
 mitted 15,000 Russians to be defeated by the Poles with 
 whom Ivan was at war. Kourbski deserted to the Kinc 
 of Poland. 
 
 It appears that Ivan at this time feared for his life, for 
 he withdrew to a neighboring castle with his friends, 
 servants, and treasures. From there he wrote his abdica- 
 tion in two letters, one addressed to the Metropolitan, 
 the other to the people of Moscow. This action struck 
 terror among the nobles and the people. The former 
 dreaded that the people might rise and avenge the czar, 
 and the people were afraid that the nobles would once 
 again usurp the government. The nobles and priests 
 consulted and decided to beg Ivan's pardon and to sub- 
 mit to any punishment he might impose. Ivan consented 
 
 1 1 
 
 to return to Moscow but on his own terms. This was 
 accepted. After his arrival in the capital he established 
 a special guard of one thousand men who had a dog's 
 head and a broom hanging from their saddles, to show 
 that they were ready to bite and ready to sweep the 
 czar's enemies from off Russian soil. 
 
 It was then that Ivan began to earn the surname of The 
 Terrible, which has clung to him ever afterwards. We 
 have his own record in a letter to the Monastery of St. 
 Cyril, in which he asks the prayers of the Church for the 
 victims of his vengeance. He a])i)ears to have kept a 
 careful account, as we read, " Kazarine Doubrofsky and 
 his two sons, with ten men who came to their assistance ; " 
 " Twenty men of the village of Kolmenskoe ; " '' Eighty 
 of Matveiche." It amazes us to read, " Remember, Lord, 
 the souls of thy servants, to the number of 1,505 persons, 
 Novgorodians." The boyards lived in a state of terror ; 
 few among them knew how long they would keep their 
 heads on their shoulders. Neither rank nor title was a 
 safeguard. The Archbishop of Moscow was dismissed, 
 and probably murdered. Alexander, (ieorge's widow, 
 and Ivan's sister-in-law, went to the scaffold. Prince 
 Vladimir and his mother, Ivan's uncle and grand-aunt, 
 were also executed. It was on this occasion that the 
 '' Novgorodians, to the number of 1,505 persons" were 
 j)ut to death, because Ivan suspected them of a plot to 
 open the gates to the King of Poland. In 1571, there w^is 
 another wholesale execution, in which several of Ivan's 
 latest favorites were victims. 
 
 The burden of his wrath fell upon the boyards. It may 
 have been for the purpose of humiliating them and the 
 
Ii8 
 
 Churchmen that he assembled delegates of those two 
 classes to confer with representatives of the merchants of 
 Moscow and Smolensk, about the war with Poland. Ivan 
 addressed the assembly in person, and it was decided 
 that the war should continne. 
 
 It was under his reign that r>ritish traders acci<lentally 
 discovered the White Sea and the mouth of the Dwina. 
 They came overland to Moscow where they were well 
 received and secured several privileged. Ivan was 
 anxious to conclude an offensive-defensive alliance with 
 Elizabeth of England, and proposed an agreement to 
 furnish each other with an asylum if either of them 
 should be compelled to fly from the ccnmtry through 
 bein<j defeated bv an enemv or the rebellion of their 
 subjects. Elizabeth did not fancy such an alliance, and 
 declined the offer of an asylum, " finding/' as she de- 
 clared, " by the grace of God no dangers of the sort in 
 her dominions." Ivan never ceased recurring to, and 
 pleading for, such an agreement, thus showing his ever 
 present suspicions. 
 
 After commercial intercourse was established with 
 England, and P)ritish traders settled in Moscow. Ivan 
 continued to show them his favor. He was himself the 
 greatest merchant of Russia. The furs which he received 
 from Siberia were sold to the foreign merchants at 
 the fairs. His agents went into the provinces where 
 they compelled the people to sell him furs, wax. honey, 
 etc., at such prices as he chose to pay, and the foreign 
 merchants had to buy them from him at a high price. 
 He also bought the imported goods and sold them to 
 Russian merchants. They were not permitted to buy 
 
 119 
 
 from anybody else, until the goods of the czar were 
 
 sold. 
 
 At the beginning of his reign, in 1551, Ivan was 
 preparing an expedition to Kazan, and in June of the 
 following year he descended the Volga and laid siege to 
 that city. It was captured after a brave defense, when 
 a number of the people were massacred and the rest 
 sold as slaves. This conquest was followed by that of 
 Astrakhan in 1554; the Volga from its source to its 
 mouth was thereafter a Russian river. The Cossacks of 
 the Don also submitted to him. 
 
 The European countries bordering on Russia dreaded 
 that country's growing power. Ivan, after his corona- 
 tion, sent to western Europe to engage a number of 
 euLnneers and mechanics ; these men were stopped on the 
 road, and none of them ever reached Moscow. Sigis- 
 nuuid of Poland even threatened to kill the British mer- 
 chants on the P>altic, " because," he said, " if the Mus- 
 covite, who is not only our present adversary, but the 
 eternal enemy of all free countries, should provide him- 
 self with guns, bullets, and munitions; and, above all, 
 with mechanics who continue to make arms, hitherto 
 unknown in this barbaric country," he would be a menace 
 to Europe. Ivan, on the other hand, was equally anxious 
 that the Russians should possess all the advantages of 
 Europe's superior civilization. This, added to the in- 
 herited hostility between the two countries, caused many 
 
 wars. 
 
 While Ivan was pursuing his conquests in the south, 
 he was attacked by Ciustavus Wasa, Sweden's famous 
 king, who entertained the same fears as the King of 
 
I20 
 
 Poland. The war ended by a commercial treaty whereby 
 Swedish merchants miij^ht trade with India and China 
 by way of Russia, and those of Russia with Holland, 
 England, and France by way of Sweden. This war had 
 scarcely ceased before envoys of the Livonian Order 
 arrived to recjuest a renewal of the truce. Ivan de- 
 manded tribute for louricf which he claimed as his 
 " patrimony." This was refused, and war was declared. 
 It was owing to Ivan that this brotherhood was dissolved 
 and its territory divided. In 1566, a truce was proposed 
 by Poland. 
 
 It was on this occasion that he called the assembly 
 referred to on page 116. The war continued. Ivan was 
 attacked also by Sultan Selim II of Turkey, in 1569, and 
 the Khan of the Crimea marched straight upon Moscow, 
 set fire to the suburbs, and destroyed the capital exce])t 
 the Kremlin. He carried off a hundred thousand 
 prisoners. (1571.) As he withdrew, he wrote to Ivan: 
 *' I burn, I ravage everything on account of Kazan and 
 Astrakhan. I came to you and burned Moscow. I 
 wished to have your crown and your head, but you did 
 not show yourself; you declined a battle and you dare 
 call yourself a Czar of Moscow! Will you live at peace 
 with me? Yield me up Kazan and Astrakhan. If you 
 have only money to offer me, it will be useless were it 
 the riches of the world. What I want is Kazan and 
 Astrakhan ! As to the roads to your empire, I have seen 
 them — I know them." The khan made another invasion 
 the next year, 1572, but was defeated. 
 
 In the same year Sigismund Augustus TT of Poland 
 died. There was a party at Warsaw that proposed to 
 
 
 121 
 
 elect Ivan's son, but the czar wanted Poland for himself. 
 He failed in the attempt, and the Duke of Anjou, brother 
 of the King of France, was chosen. He did not like the 
 people and fled ; his place was filled by Stephen P^atory, 
 Governor of Transsylvania, a young, capable, and ener- 
 getic noble. I'atory took in his service a number of 
 trained (krman and Hungarian soldiers, and took 
 Polotsk after a brave defense. He also captured several 
 other towns, but was rej^ulsed at Pskof. 
 
 Ivan sought the mediation of Pope (jregory XIII, and 
 a truce was concluded in 1582; Ivan ceded Polotsk and 
 
 all Livonia. 
 
 Ivan, in his manhood, was a man of violent temper. 
 He was never seen without an iron-tipped staff, which he 
 used freely and recklessly upon the people around him. 
 Nobody, whatever his rank, was safe from corporal 
 punishment. He killed his eldest son Ivan with a blow, 
 and suffered from remorse ever afterward. He left a 
 lasting impression upon Russia by his reforms. He made 
 a law whereby neither church nor convents could accjuire 
 new lands. He was wonderfully well educated, consider- 
 ing the neglect of his early youth, and tolerant of religious 
 opinions. A Presbyterian and a Lutheran church were 
 built at Moscow with his consent, but in deference to the 
 opposition of the people, they were removed to the 
 surburbs. He was also the founder of the strcltsi or 
 
 national guard. 
 
 Ivan died in 1584, after a reign of forty-one years. 
 
XI\— RUSSIA UNDER T\ AX THE TERRIBLE 
 
 THE reign of Ivan the Terrible is remarkable, first, 
 because it is the beginning of Russia as we know it 
 in our time ; and also because it occurred at a time when 
 Great Britain was exploring the Atlantic, and preparing 
 the way for the wonderful expansion of the English- 
 speaking race, which culminated in the great North 
 American Republic. It was under this reign, in 1558, 
 that Russia's invasion of Asia began, and with it a move- 
 ment eastward, which has not yet ceased. 
 
 It is interesting, therefore, to study the condition of 
 the Russian people at this important period. Although, 
 as we have seen, the Tartar yoke did not inlluence the 
 people directly, because there was no intercourse between 
 victor and vanquished, the indirect inHuence was great, 
 owing to the adoption of Tartar habits or customs by the 
 dukes and nobles, during their visits to the khan. Dur- 
 ing this time intercourse with Europe ceased ; hence, in 
 the 1 6th and 17th centuries, Russia was more Asiatic 
 than European, although the Russians hated the victors. 
 Who can say how much influence this has exerted upon 
 Russia's conquests in Asia? 
 
 Among the old Slavs, the family was the unit from 
 which the State was built up, and this was confirmed 
 
 123 
 
 123 
 
 under the Tartar yoke. There is some similarity between 
 the Empire of Russia and that of China, for there, too, 
 the family is the unit. In both countries the Emperor is 
 not onlv the master, he is also considered as the father 
 and high priest of his people. Their persons and ])roperty 
 are the emperor's, to do with as he pleases. But in Rus- 
 sia there was a nobility descended from the former 
 dukes; in China there was none, except the descendant 
 of Confucius. Yet in Russia these lords, many of whom 
 traced their descent to Rurik, became in time the slaves 
 of the czar. They prostrated themselves before him, as 
 they had seen the courtiers of the khan do. When they 
 presented a petition, they expressed it by the word 
 tchclobitic, which means *' beating of the forehead," 
 showing that they performed what is known in China as 
 the kcm^tozc. In addressing the czar, they said, "Order 
 me not to be chastised ; order me to speak a word ! " 
 The Grand Dukes of Moscow considered their territory 
 and the |)eople on it, as their own i)rivate pro])erty. They 
 had learned this from the khans. The palace, a mixture 
 of oriental splendor and barbarism, showed the influence 
 of the Tartars. 
 
 The people of Russia were divided into classes, the 
 lowest of which were the slaves or kliolop, prisoners, of 
 war, men who had sold themselves, or who were born 
 in slavery. Above them were the peasants, born on the 
 estate of a noble, but still known as free men. Then 
 came the peasants who farmed the land of an owner, 
 but these were few. Much of the land was owned by the 
 several niirs or villages, but in the course of time they 
 were assigned to gentlemen, who were able to serve in 
 
124 
 
 the army without pay, bein^ supported by the revenues 
 derived from these villages. Gradually these gentlemen 
 looked upon the land of the mir as their own property, 
 but the peasants never did lose the conviction that the 
 mir was the real proprietor. In Ivan's time and later, 
 the mir and not the individual, was held responsible for 
 the tax to the czar, for the free labor furnished to the 
 lord, and for his dues. The mir, therefore, was absolute 
 master over every inhabitant of the village, and this 
 power was vested in the starost. The peasant gradually 
 descended into a beast of burden, who was not even a 
 human being, but merely a productive force for the bene- 
 fit of the State and of the lord. 
 
 A Russian town consisted, first of the krcmlin, a fort- 
 ress of wood which, when required, was defended by 
 '* men of the service " ; then came the suburbs, built 
 around the krcmlin, and inhabited by the people. They 
 were governed l)y a vo'icvod or governor, appointed by 
 the czar, or by a starost or mayor, elected by the nobles, 
 priests, and privileged citizens. The principal duty of 
 the citizens was to pay the taxes, and therefore they were 
 forbidden to leave the city. Under the Czar Alexis, the 
 penalty for such offense was death. 
 
 The merchants did not form a separate class. They 
 are known in Russian as i^^osti or guests, thus showing 
 that, notwithstanding the old and honorable record of 
 Novgorod and Kief, the Tartar yoke and subsequent arbi- 
 trary rule of the grand dukes had ruined trade or left 
 it in the hands of aliens. Ivan the Terrible called them 
 the moujiks of commerce. I'letcher, an Englishman who 
 spent many years in Moscow under Ivan I\', gives the 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 ' 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 125 
 
 following curious pen picture: ''Often you will see 
 them trembling with fear, lest a boyard should know what 
 they have to sell. 1 have seen them at times, when they 
 had spread out their wares so that you might make a 
 better choice, look all around them,— as if they feared 
 an enemv would surprise them and lay hands on them. 
 If I asked them the cause, they would say to me, ' I was 
 afraid that there might be a noble or one of the sons of 
 boyards here : they would take away my merchandise by 
 
 force.' " 
 
 The Russian women were kept secluded in women's 
 quarters as they are in China, but they remained a mem- 
 ber of their own family. A wife's duty was " to obey 
 her husband as the slave obeys his master," and she was 
 taught to think of herself as her master's property. He 
 had the right to punish her as he did his children or his 
 slaves. The priest Silvester advises the husband not to 
 use sticks that are too thick or tipped with iron, nor to 
 whip her before his men, but to correct her moderately 
 and in private. Xo Russian woman dared object to 
 being beaten. A Russian proverb says: "I love you 
 like my soul, and I dust you like my jacket." 
 
 The men wore oriental tunics or robes, and a long 
 beard ; the women painted their faces. Ivan the Terrible 
 said that to shave the beard was " a sin that the blood of 
 all the martyrs could not cleanse. Was it not to defile 
 the image of man created by (iod.' 
 
 There was a general belief in magic and witchcraft : 
 sorcerers were burned alive in a cage. Ivan, althougli in 
 advance of his age, was not free from superstition. The 
 art of medicine was, of course, still in its uifancy, and 
 
126 
 
 127 
 
 those who practiced it were in constant danger of their 
 Hves, because if they did not cure a patient, they might 
 suffer for it. 
 
 Both the nobles and the people were addicted to the 
 vice of drunkenness. Xo one paid any attention when a 
 person, rich or poor, young or old, fell down in the street 
 from the effects of drink. This is what the priests said of 
 this vice: " My brethren, what is worse than drunken- 
 ness? You lose memory and reason like a madman who 
 does not know what he is doing. The drunkard is sense- 
 less ; he lies like a corpse. If you speak to him he does 
 not answer. Think of his poor soul which grows foul in 
 its vile body which is its prison. ... To drink is law- 
 ful and is to the glory of God, who has given us wine to 
 make us rejoice." 
 
 The Metropolitan of Moscow, until a Patriarch was 
 appointed, was supposed to be the head of the Church, 
 but the czar held the real power. There wxre two classes 
 of priests: The lUack Clergy lived as monks in monas- 
 teries, some of which were exceedingly wealthy ; they 
 were forbidden to marry, and the bishops were appointed 
 from among them. The White Clergy lived among the 
 people and were compelled to marry. Most of them 
 were grossly ignorant. The same Englishman quoted be- 
 fore, Mr. Fletcher, says of these priests : '* As for ex- 
 horting or instructing their Hock, they have neither the 
 habit of it nor the talent for it, for all the clergy are as 
 profoundly ignorant of the Word of (iod as of all other 
 
 learning." 
 
 The revenues of the Empire consisted of a tax on every 
 sixty measures of corn ; of a house-tax, or tax on every 
 
 fire ; the customhouse dues, and what remained of the 
 municipal taxes after paying expenses ; of a tax on public 
 baths ; the farming out of lands belonging to the crown ; 
 the fines and confiscations in the *' Court of the liri- 
 gands ; " and finally of the tribute paid by thirty-six towns 
 and their landed possessions '* belonging to the Crown." 
 
 The Courts of Justice belonged to the Middle Ages; 
 tortures were applied similar to those employed by the 
 Spanish Inquisition. A wife who murdered her husband 
 " was buried alive up to her neck." Heretics were 
 burned at the stake : sorcerers were burned in an iron 
 cage, and coiners had liquid metal poured down their 
 throats. A noble who killed a moujik was fined or some- 
 times whipped ; but he might kill as many slaves as he 
 l)leased, because they were his property. 
 
 The Russian infantry, so famous under the early 
 Norsemen, had given way to cavalry, in imitation of the 
 Tartars. The Imperial Guard was composed of 8,000 
 young nobles. The " men-at-arms " were mounted, but 
 received no pay beyond the revenue of their lands, which 
 they held in return for their military service. The army 
 numbered about 80,000, and, with a levy among the peas- 
 ants, could be brought up to 300,000. There was, be- 
 sides, the irregular cavalry of the Don Cossacks, and of 
 the Tartars. Such infantry as there was, consi.sted of 
 peasants from the crown lands, churches, and convents ; 
 the national guard, and foreign soldiers or officers. 
 
 I 
 
I 
 
 126 
 
 those who practiced it were in constant danp^er of their 
 Hves, because if they did not cure a patient, they might 
 suffer for it. 
 
 Both the nobles and the people were addicted to the 
 vice of drunkenness. Xo one paid any attention when a 
 person, rich or poor, young or old, fell down in the street 
 from the effects of drink. This is what the priests said of 
 this vice: " My brethren, what is worse than drunken- 
 ness? You lose memory and reason like a madman who 
 does not know what he is doing. The drunkard is sense- 
 less ; he lies like a corpse. If you speak to him he does 
 not answer. Think of his poor soul which grows foul in 
 its vile body which is its prison. . . . To drink is law- 
 ful and is to the glory of God, who has given us wine to 
 make us rejoice." 
 
 The Metropolitan of Moscow, until a Patriarch was 
 appointed, was supposed to be the head of the Church, 
 but the czar held the real power. There were two classes 
 of priests: The lUack Clergy lived as monks in monas- 
 teries, some of which were exceedingly wealthy ; they 
 were forbidden to marry, and the bishops were appointed 
 from among them. The White Clergy lived among the 
 people and were compelled to marry. Most of them 
 were grossly ignorant. The same Englishman quoted be- 
 fore, Mr. Fletcher, says of these priests : '* As for ex- 
 horting or instructing their flock, they have neither the 
 habit of it nor the talent for it, for all the clergv are as 
 profoundly ignorant of the Word of (iod as of all other 
 learning." 
 
 The revenues of the Empire consisted of a tax on every 
 sixty measures of corn ; of a house-tax, or tax on every 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 12 J 
 
 fire ; the customhouse dues, and what remained of the 
 municipal taxes after paying expenses ; of a tax on public 
 baths : the farming out of lands belonging to the crown ; 
 the fines and confiscations in the *' Court of the l>ri- 
 gands ; " and finally of the tribute paid by thirty-six towns 
 and their landed possessions " belonging to the Crown." 
 
 The Courts of Justice belonged to the Middle Ages; 
 tortures were applied similar to those employed by the 
 Spanish Incpiisition. A wife who murdered her husband 
 *' was buried alive up to her neck." Heretics were 
 burned at the stake ; sorcerers were burned in an iron 
 cage, and coiners had liquid metal poured down their 
 throats. A noble who killed a moujik was fined or some- 
 times whipped ; but he might kill as many slaves as he 
 pleased, because they were his property. 
 
 The Russian infantry, so famous under the early 
 Norsemen, had given way to cavalry, in imitation of the 
 Tartars. The Imperial Guard was composed of 8,000 
 young nobles. The " men-at-arms " were mounted, but 
 received no pay beyond the revenue of their lands, which 
 they held in return for their military service. The army 
 numbered about 80,000, and, with a levy among the peas- 
 ants, could be brought up to 300,000. There was, be- 
 sides, the irregular cavalry of the Don Cossacks, and of 
 the Tartars. Such infantry as there was, consisted of 
 peasants from the crown lands, churches, and convents ; 
 the national guard, and foreign soldiers or officers. 
 

 
 \ 
 
 (138) 
 
 Feodor 
 
 •rniM'y 
 
 XV— FEODOR. THE LAST OF RURIK'S 
 
 DESCENDANTS 
 
 IVAN the Terrible left two sons, Feodor, the son of 
 Anastasia Ronianof. and Dmitri, a child, the son of 
 his seventh wife. Feodor was neither a strong-minded 
 nor a very able man. He was married to Irene Godou- 
 nof, and, following the usual custom, his wife's relations 
 held the principal offices of the government. Gradually 
 the czar's authority passed into the hands of Prince Boris 
 Godounof, Irene's brother, a very ambitious and unscru- 
 pulous man. Wizards had foretold that Boris would be 
 czar, but that his reign would last only seven years, and 
 he did all he could to aid his destinv. 
 
 He first caused Feodor 's half-brother, Dmitri, to be 
 sent with his mother and her relations to Ouglitch, where 
 they would be out of the way. He also caused the Metro- 
 politan to be dismissed, and had a friend appointed in 
 his place. He aroused the higher nobles against him, 
 and then made an effort to make friends with the smaller 
 nobility, — at the expense of the poor peasants. Accord- 
 ing to law, these people were free ; that is, when the con- 
 tract with a landowner expired, they could move where 
 they pleased, and the large owners could offer better 
 terms than those who held small estates. But without 
 
 129 
 

 x 
 
 
 VH\ 
 
 \ 
 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 .^ 
 
 * 
 
 iWtPi( 
 
 iftitiiit' 
 
 "^^■i^UiiLLiU 
 
 (128) 
 
 Feodor 
 
 X\— FEUDUR. THE LAST OF RURIK'S 
 
 DESCEXDAXTS 
 
 T \ ,\X tlu' Terril)k' left two sons, T'oodor. the son of 
 ^ Anaslasia Konianof. and Dmitri, a child, the son of 
 his seventh wife. r\H)(lor was neither a stronc^-minded 
 nor a very ahle man. lie was married to Irene (^lodou- 
 nof, and. followinjLT the nsnal custom, his wife's relations 
 held the principal offices of the i^overnment. (iradually 
 the czar's authorit\ i)asscd into tlu- hands of Prince lioris 
 (iodounof, Irene's hrother. a very amhitions and unscru- 
 ])ulous man. Wizards had foretold that r)Oris would be 
 czar, hut that his rei.^n would last only seven years, and 
 he did all he could to aid his destiny. 
 
 He first caused l'e()dor's half-hrother, Dmitri, to be 
 sent with his mother and her relations to Ouglitch, where 
 they would he out of the way. He also caused the Metro- 
 politan to be dismissed, and had a friend appointed in 
 his place, lie aroused the hiii^her nobles ag'ainst him, 
 and then made an effort to make friends with the smaller 
 nobility. — at the exi)ense of the ])Oor ]>easants. Accord- 
 ingly to law, these people were free; that is, when the con- 
 tract with a landowner cx])ired, they could move where 
 they pleased, and the large owners could offer better 
 terms than those who held small estates. lUit without 
 
 129 
 
I30 
 
 labor, the land was worthless and Russia, at the time, was 
 so sparsely populated, that every hand counted. The 
 object of the government was not to open up new lands, 
 so as to create prosperity, but to provide for its current 
 wants by seeing that the taxes were paid, and that the 
 army was kept up to its standard. How could the men- 
 at-arms, that is the small nobility, defray their own ex- 
 penses while serving, if their revenues failed from lack 
 of labor? Boris Godounof, therefore, made a law for- 
 bidding peasants to go from one estate to another. They 
 were tied to the ground, and this was the first step to 
 make serfs of them. The peasants did object; they had 
 been accustomed to change service on St. George's day, 
 and that day remained for many years one of deep sor- 
 row. There was no rebellion, but a great many fled, and 
 joined the Cossacks. After some years the law was 
 changed so that peasants were permitted to change from 
 one small estate to another. 
 
 Another change under Feodor's reign was the appoint- 
 ment of a Patriarch as the head of the Greek Church 
 under the czar. He was i)laced above the several Metro- 
 politans, and thus the Church secured more unity. 
 
 Feodor had no heirs, and his health was bad. It was, 
 therefore, to young Dmitri at Ouglitch that the great 
 nobles looked for relief from Godounof's tyranny. In 
 1 59 1, this man sent hired assassins to Ouglitch and the 
 youngest son of Ivan was murdered. Some of the hire- 
 lings were arrested by the people, and put to death. 
 There was not even a doubt as to the facts. lUit God- 
 ounof ordered an investigation by his own friends ; they 
 declared that the young heir had committed suicide in a 
 
 131 
 
 fit of insanity, and that the people of Ouglitch had put 
 innocent men to death. The assassination of Dmitri's 
 relatives, and the depopulation of Ouglitch made further 
 inquiry impossible. 
 
 Stephen Batory who had worsted Ivan the Terrible, 
 died in 1586, and the throne of Poland was once again 
 vacant. Godounof tried hard to have Feodor elected, 
 but the Poles feared that the czar might attach dieir 
 kingdom to Moscow like a sleeve to a coat. " Besides, 
 the Roman Catholic electors did not like the thought of 
 having a king belonging to the Greek Church ; last of 
 all, money counted in these elections, and Godounof was 
 a very saving man. The result was that the Prince of 
 Sweden was elected, and that war with Sweden broke 
 out. 
 
 The Poles, fearing lest Sweden should grow too power- 
 ful, held aloof; as a consequence, Russia gained back the 
 towns which had been lost under Ivan the Terrible. 
 Godounof made an eflFort to bring about a war between 
 Poland and Sweden, but he only succeeded in arousing 
 the suspicion and dislike of both countries. 
 
 Feodor died in 1598; with him the house of Rurik, the 
 old Norse \'iking, ceased to exist. 
 
 By trickery and knavery, Boris Godounof was elected 
 czar by the dounta or council of nobles, a body presided 
 over by his friend the Patriarch, and containing many 
 of his partisans. The great nobles, many of whom traced 
 their descent to Rurik, objected to a czar, whom they 
 considered and called an upstart. ^ But Boris displayed 
 cruelty as well as severity. Feodor, the eldest of the 
 noble familv of the Romanofs, was forced to become a 
 
l.V 
 
 monk and his wife a nun. He took the name of Phila- 
 rete, and she that of Marfa. 
 
 Godounof did reign seven years, according to the 
 wizard's prediction, but it was a stormy time for Russia. 
 A young adventurer named (iregory Otrepief, pretended 
 that he was the murdered Dmitri, and secured a large 
 following. The troops sent against him " had no hands 
 to fight but only feet to fly." At Godounof's death, in 
 1605, he confided his son and heir to a favorite named 
 Basmanof, who turned traitor, joined the false Dmitri, 
 and caused Godounof's widow and son to be murdered. 
 Otrepief, who lacked neither courage nor ability, was 
 made czar, but he reigned little over a month, when he, 
 too, was murdered by a band of nobles under the leader- 
 ship of Chouiski. This man seized the throne in 1606. 
 The people in the country, owing to its vast extent and 
 the poor roads, heard of Otrepief's coronation, his death, 
 and the succession of Chouiski almost at the same time, 
 and anarchy followed. At the same time Russia was in- 
 volved in a war with Poland, at the time when a second 
 false Dmitri made his appearance. The Cossacks and 
 a host of Polish adventurers joined him, and he laid siege 
 to the immensely wealthy Troitsa monastery, where the 
 monks defended themselves for sixteen months, and he 
 was forced to withdraw. AflFairs came to such a pass 
 that the people of Moscow ** humbly recjuested the czar 
 to abdicate, because he was not successful, and also be- 
 cause he was to blame for the shedding of Christian blood. 
 Chouiski was forced to yield, and soon after entered a 
 monastery as a monk. 
 
 Two candidates appeared for the vacant throne ; the 
 
 133 
 
 second false Dmitri and Vladislas, the second son of 
 Sigismund, King of Poland. The douma, not fancying 
 the idea that an impostor should rule over them, invited 
 the hetman of a Polish army to Moscow, to discuss the 
 other candidate. This hetman promised in name of the 
 prince to maintain the Greek Church and the privileges 
 of the three orders, nobles, priests, and people, and 
 that the law-making power should be shared by the czar 
 and the douma ; that no one should be executed without 
 a trial, or deprived of his dignity without good reason; 
 and finally, that Russians might go abroad to be educated 
 if they so desired. Vladislas was then elected czar on 
 condition that he should enter the Greek Church, and two 
 envoys, one of them Philarete Romanof who had risen 
 to the rank of Metropolitan, left for the Polish camp at 
 Smolensk to complete the necessary arrangements. The 
 douma invited the hetman to occupy the kremlin with 
 his shoulders. He did so, taking the late Czar Chouiski 
 and his two brothers as hostages. 
 
 At Smolensk a difficulty occurred : the King of Poland 
 wanted the Russian throne for himself. He also asked 
 the envoys to cede Smolensk to Poland ; they refused, 
 and in turn asked that X'ladislas should leave at once 
 for Moscow. The king refused his consent, and began 
 to use money. He found many Russian traitors willing 
 to accept it, but the envoys remained firm. 
 
 Soon after this, the second false Dmitri died, and the 
 people began to show an interest in the dispute with 
 Sigismund. Leading men at Moscow and Smolensk 
 wrote to the provinces, begging their friends not to recog- 
 nize the King of Poland as czar. Men-at-arms gathered, 
 Sto. of Russi.\ — 9 
 
134 
 
 and when an army of them drew near Moscow, the Poles 
 fortified the Kremhn. At this time a quarrel arose be- 
 tween the Polish troops and the people, and some 7,000 
 persons were killed. The Russians made a stand in the 
 suburbs, when the Poles set fire to the city, and the 
 greater part of Moscow was burned. 
 
 Sigismund ordered the arrest of the two envovs who 
 were taken to Marienburg in Prussia under escort. 
 Smolensk fell soon after into his hands, and the king 
 returned to Warsaw which he entered in triumph with 
 the last Czar Chouiski a prisoner in his train. ]W this 
 time the Russians were aroused; 100,000 men-at-arms 
 gathered at Moscow and besieged the Poles in the Krem- 
 lin. Meanwhile Sweden had declared war, giving as 
 reason the election of \dadislas, and had captured the 
 ports on the Baltic. The monks of Troitsa, whose heroic 
 defense against the second false Dmitri had made the 
 convent famous, sent letters to all the Russian cities bid- 
 ding them fight for their country and religion. When 
 this letter was read in public at Xishni Novgorod, a 
 butcher, Kouzma Minine spoke up: "If we wish to 
 save the Muscovite Empire," he said, " we must spare 
 neither our lands nor our goods; let us sell our houses 
 and put our wives and children out to service ; let us seek 
 a man who will fight for the national faith, and march 
 under his banner." He set the example by giving one- 
 third of all he possessed, and others followed. Those 
 who refused to contribute were compelled to do so. 
 Minine was elected treasurer; he accepted on condition 
 that his orders should be obeyed without delay. Believ- 
 ing that the leadership should be given to a noble, Minine 
 
 ,1 
 
 !• 
 
 135 
 
 went to Prince Pojarski who lived in the neighborhood. 
 Pojarski accepted the command, and ordered three days 
 of fasting and prayer. The streltsi were equipped as well 
 as the men-at-arms ; but the services of Cossacks and 
 foreign mercenaries were refused. 
 
 An army was collected and marched toward Moscow, 
 with bishops and monks carrying holy eikons at the head ; 
 at laroslaf they were reenforced by other troops. They 
 laid siege to the Kremlin ; an attempt to relieve the fort- 
 ress by the Poles was defeated. At last the garrison was 
 forced to surrender. Among the Russian prisoners who 
 regained their liberty was a fifteen-year-old boy, Michael 
 Romanof, the son of Philaretc and Marfa. 
 
 Sigismund was on the way to reenforce the garrison, 
 but hearing of its surrender, he fell back. An assembly 
 was convoked to elect a czar. It was composed of dele- 
 gates of the clergy, the nobles, the men-at-arms, the mer- 
 chants, towns, and districts. There was much bickering, 
 but all were agreed that no alien should be presented. 
 When the name of Michael Romanof was called, it was 
 received with enthusiasm, and he was declared elected. 
 (1613. ) The delegates remembered the relation between 
 his family and Ivan the Terrible, and the services ren- 
 dered by his father, the Metropolitan Philarete. There 
 is a story that the King of Poland, wdien he heard of 
 Michael's election, tried to kidnap him at Kostroma, and 
 that a peasant guide led the party astray on a dark night. 
 When the Poles discovered it. he was struck dead. This 
 is the subject of a famous opera " ^\ Life for the Czar." 
 
 Russia's efforts to resume intercourse with Europe, 
 which during the Tartar yoke had been suspended, were 
 
136 
 
 continued under Godounof. He sent an ambassador to 
 Queen Elizabeth with a letter, in which he says:—'* I 
 have learned that the Queen had furnished help to the 
 Turks against the Emperor of Germany. We are as- 
 tonished at it, as to act thus is not proper for Christian 
 sovereigns; and you, our well-beloved sister, you ought 
 not in the future to enter into relationships of friendship 
 with Mussulman princes, nor to help them in any way, 
 whether with men or money ; but on the contrary should 
 desire and insist that all the great Christian potentates 
 should have a good understanding, union, and strong 
 friendship, and unite against the Mussulmans, till the 
 hand of the Christian rise and that of the Mussulman is 
 abased." Judging from Elizabeth's character, it is 
 likely that she shrugged her shoulders as she read this 
 sermon. During the period of Russia's internal troubles, 
 and owing to the vacancy of the throne, the relations with 
 Europe were again suspended. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 X\'I— MICHAEL EEODOROVITCH OR MICHAEL, 
 THE SON OE THEODORE, THE EIRST 
 
 ROMAXOF. 
 
 T7IFTEEN years of anarchy left Russia in disorder. 
 -■- The boyards had done as they pleased since there 
 was no one to control them. The peasants who asked for 
 nothing but a sim])lc existence, had seen their crops 
 trampled under foot, and their homes laid in ruins. It 
 needed a strong hand to restore order ; more than could 
 be expected from a fifteen-year-old boy, who had neither 
 the iron will of Ivan the Terrible, nor the advantage of 
 having grown up with the conviction that he was the 
 Master. Besides, although his election had been regular, 
 the Don Cossacks and others refused to recognize him 
 as the czar. On the other hand, the ^^atriots stood by 
 him. But the conditions were such that a foreigner in 
 Moscow wrote at the time : " Oh that God would open 
 the eyes of the czar as He opened those of Ivan, other- 
 wise Muscovv is lost ! " 
 
 There was no money in the treasury, and the men-at- 
 arms demanded pay because they received no revenues 
 from their ruined estates. The czar and the clergy 
 wrote to the Russian towns begging them for money and 
 for troops to help the government, and a generous re- 
 
'38 
 
 sponse "was made. The peoj)le of the provinces, anxious 
 to see law and order restored, rose in favor of the czar, 
 and Astrakhan sent a rebel chief to prison. He was 
 shortly afterwards tried and executed. 
 
 While the people were thus aidint; the j^overnnient, no 
 time was lost in dealinix with the foreign enemy. In 
 1614, Michael sent envoys to Holland to request help in 
 men and money. The Dutch gave a small sum, regret- 
 ting that they could do no more as they had just ended 
 a war that had lasted forty-one years ( 1 568-1609) ; they 
 promised that they would persuade Sweden to come to 
 an understanding with Russia. Another embassy went 
 to James I of England, who was told that the Poles had 
 murdered British merchants and plundered their ware- 
 houses. This was a falsehood, because the envoys knew 
 that the outrage had been committed by Cossacks and a 
 Russian mob, but they hoped that the king would not 
 know it. James did not, and advanced 20,000 rubles. 
 After this British merchants demanded concessions and 
 privileges in Russia, but as they asked too much, they 
 received nothing. Sweden, urged by England and Hol- 
 land, concluded with Russia the Peace of Stolbovo in 
 161 7. Sweden received an indemnity of 20,000 rubles, 
 and surrendered Novgorod and other towns. 
 
 The war with Poland was then continued more vigor- 
 ously, and in 161 8 a truce of fourteen years and six 
 months was arranged. It was understood that this was 
 temporary, because the King of Poland still claimed the 
 throne of Russia, and refused to recognize Michael. 
 lUit the prisoners were released and Philarete, the czar's 
 father, returned to Moscow, where his presence was soon 
 
 (»39) 
 
 Michael Feodorovitch 
 
I3S 
 
 sponsc was niadc. I1ic pcoplo of the ])rovinccs. anxious 
 to sec law and <>r(Kr rcstnixd. n>sc in favnr of llu- czar, 
 and Astrakhan sent a rehel chief to prison. He was 
 shortly afterwards tried and executed. 
 
 While the people were thus aiding the .i^nx t-rnnicnt. no 
 time was lost in dealini^^ with the forcit^ni enemv. In 
 I'">14. Michael sent envoys to Ijolland to recpiest help in 
 men and money. The Dutch i^ave a small sum. resj^rct- 
 tini^ that they c(>uld do no more as tliev had just ended 
 a war that had lasted forty-one years ( i^()>^-]f)aj ) ; thev 
 pro?nised that they would persuade Sweden to come to 
 an understanding: with Ivussia. Anotlier emhassy went 
 to James I of Kn^riand. who was told that the Poles had 
 murdered British merchants and plundered their ware- 
 houses. This was a falsehood, because the envoys knew 
 tliat the outra.i^e had been committed 1)\ i.()>sacks and a 
 Russian nioh, ])ut they hoped that the kinij^ would not 
 know it. James did not, and advanced Jo,ooo rubles. 
 .\tter this T.ritish merchants demanded concessions and 
 privileges in Russia, but as they asked too much, they 
 received nothini^. Sweden. uri^U'd l)y bjij^land and Hol- 
 land, concluded with Russia the Peace of Stolbovo in 
 1^)17. Sweden received an indenmitv of 20,000 rubles, 
 and surrendered Xovu^^orod and other towns. 
 
 The war with Poland was then continued nujre vigor- 
 ously, and in 1618 a truce of fourteen years and six 
 months was arran<^e(l. It was understood that this was 
 temporary, because the Kins;- of Poland still claimed the 
 throne of Russia, and refused to recomiize Michael. 
 I hit the prisoners were released and Philan-tiv the czar's 
 father, returned to Moscow, where hi.^ pre.^e^ce was suuu 
 
 (139) 
 
 Michael Feod<»rovitch 
 
I40 
 
 felt by the nobles. The most independent were arrested 
 and sent into exile. So long as Philarete assisted his 
 son, there was no disorder. 
 
 In 1618, the great struggle between Protestant and 
 Roman Catholic Europe began and Sweden, which was 
 to take such a glorious part in it, sought Russia's aid. 
 Gustavus wrote to Michael telling him that if the Cath- 
 olic league should prevail, the Greek Church would be 
 in danger. *' When your neighbor's house is on fire," 
 he wrote, '' you must bring water and try to extinguish 
 it, to guarantee your own safety. May your Czarian 
 Majesty help your neighbors to protect yourself." Sound 
 as the advice was, Russia had enough to do at home. 
 Sultan Osman of Turkey offered an alliance against 
 Poland, when Michael convoked the Estates. The dep- 
 uties beat their foreheads," and implored the czar " to 
 hold himself firm for the holy churches of God, for his 
 czarian honor, and for their own country against the 
 enemy. The men-at-arms were ready to fight, and the 
 merchants to give money." The war was postponed 
 when news arrived that the Turks had been defeated. 
 
 Sigismund of Poland died in 1632, and his son Vla- 
 dislas was elected. The following year Philarete died, 
 and the nobles, released from his stern supervision, re- 
 sumed their former behavior. The war between the two 
 neighbors recommenced, but did not last long. When a 
 new truce was concluded Michael's title as czar was 
 recognized by X'ladislas. 
 
 It was entirely the fault of the Polish nobles that 
 Poland lost Lithuania or White Russia. The only ex- 
 cuse that can be offered, is the spirit of religious per- 
 
 
 141 
 
 secution which was rampant all over Europe in the 
 seventeenth century. It was the ceaseless effort of the 
 Poles to force the Lithuanians from the Greek into the 
 Roman Church that drove them into the arms of Rus- 
 sia ; but it was not until after the death of Michael, in 
 1645, that the consequences of this short-sighted policy 
 were to show. 
 
 Michael was succeeded by his son, who ascended the 
 throne as Alexis Michaelovitch. He was better educated 
 than his father had been and resembled him in good na- 
 ture. He had been taught by a tutor named Morozof, 
 who during thirty years exerted a great intUience over his 
 pupil. When Alexis married into the Miloslavski fam- 
 ily, its members secured the most influential positions, 
 according to well-established custom. Morozof did not 
 oppose them ; instead he courted and married the czar- 
 ina's sister, and thus became the czar's brother-in-law. 
 
 The wars in which Russia w-as engaged and the 
 necessity of maintaining a large and well-equipped army, 
 together with the increasing expenses of the Court, and 
 above all, the dishonest practices of the ofificials ren- 
 dered the burden of taxation so unbearable, that several 
 revolts broke out. In 1648, the people of Moscow rose 
 and demanded the surrender of a judge and another of- 
 ficer, both of whom were notoriously corrupt ; the two 
 men were promptly murdered. Then the popular fury 
 turned upon Morozof, who would have suffered the same 
 fate, had not the czar helped him to escape. The gov- 
 ernment was hel])less. In some places, such as Pskof, 
 Novgorod, and elsewhere, the streltsi joined the people, 
 and Russia was for some time at the mercy of an enemy. 
 
142 
 
 It was fortunate for Russia that just at that time, Po- 
 land had serious trouble at home. A Cossack, owner of 
 a large estate, educated and brave, was ill-treated and 
 imprisoned by a Polish landowner; and his little son was 
 publicl\- whipped. He went to Warsaw and laid his com- 
 plaint before the king. Madislas told him ])lainly that 
 the nobles were beyond his control ; then, pointing to his 
 sword, he asked if the Cossack could not help himself. 
 The Cossack took the hint, went home, and when the 
 Polish landowners tried to arrest him, he fled to the 
 Khan of the Crimea, interested him in his cause and 
 returned at the head of a Mussulman army. Lithuania 
 rose in rebellion against Poland ; the governors and no- 
 bles, and especially the priests of the Catholic Church, 
 were hunted down, and those of the (ireek Church took 
 revenge for recent injuries and insults. 
 
 Vladislas died, and the Diet elected his brother John 
 Casimir. He tried to reduce the very serious rebellion 
 by promises, but there was too deep a hatred between the 
 two churches. Meanwhile order had been restored in 
 Russia, when the people of Lithuania wrote to the czar 
 begging him to take them under his protection. Alexis 
 convoked the Estates, told them that he had been insulted 
 by Poland, and that the Poles were persecuting the mem- 
 bers of the (ireek Church. They declared in favor of 
 war. and a boyard was sent to Kief to receive the oath of 
 allegiance. The people were willing ])rovided their liber- 
 ties would be respected. This the czar promised. He 
 declared that the privileges of the Assembly and of the 
 towns would be maintained, that only natives would be 
 employed in the administration and in taxation. 
 
 H3 
 
 Poland was now sorely pressed. Charles X of Sweden 
 invaded the kingdom and took two of its capitals. The 
 Cossack and Lithuanians entered it from the south, and 
 the Czar .Klexis at the head of his own army attacked it 
 on the east. He maintained strict discipline so that the 
 Polish Governors said, *' Moscow makes war in quite a 
 new way, and conquers the people by the clemency and 
 good-nature of the czar. The towns of White Russia 
 opened their gates to his army, and Smolensk surrendered 
 after a five weeks' siege. The Swedes captured War- 
 saw, the last capital of the misruled kingdom. 
 
 It was the jealousy of its enemies that saved Poland 
 this time. Alexis entered into a truce and attacked Swe- 
 den. This war was carried on from 1656 until 1661, 
 and ended by the peace of Cardis whereby neither coun- 
 try gained any advantage. The Poles, seeing the dan- 
 ger they had incurred, rallied, and once again war broke 
 out with Russia. It was carried on with various success 
 until both countries were exhausted. In 1661, a thirteen 
 years' truce was concluded, whereby Russia restored 
 Lithuania, but kept Little Russia on the left bank of the 
 Dnieper, together with Kief and Smolensk. 
 
 In 1668, a revolt was organized by the Metropolitan 
 of Kief, who preferred the jurisdiction of the Patriarch 
 of Constantinople to that of Moscow. As a result. Little 
 Russia was subject to all the horrors of war, but the 
 Russian power prevailed in the end. Then the Cossacks 
 of the Don broke out, and until 167 1 the territory 
 between that river and the Volga suflFered terribly. 
 
 Alexis' reign was remarkable for the introduction of 
 so-called '' reforms " in the Church, which were confined 
 
144 
 
 wholly to ceremonies and externals. The czar supported 
 the " reformer " Xicon, and those who did not agree 
 with him were called religious maduicn and suffered per- 
 secution. The monasteries near Archangel rebelled and 
 troops were sent against them ; but it was eight months 
 before the sturdy monks ca])itulated. 
 
 Alexis continued his father's efforts to reestablish in- 
 tercourse with Western Europe. But the West was only 
 recovering from the terrible Thirty Years' War, so that 
 little interest was shown. 
 
 Alexis had married twice. From the first marriage 
 he had two sons Feodor and Ivan, and six daughters; 
 by his second wife he had one son, Peter, and two daugh- 
 ters. When he died, in 1676, he was succeeded by his 
 eldest son Feodor. 
 
 Feodor Alexievitch, the third czar of the Romanof 
 family, reigned only six years, from 1676 to 1682. It 
 was under his reign that a truce for twenty years with 
 Turkey, restored peace to White Russia. 
 
 Hitherto Russia had suffered from the rivalry result- 
 ing from disputes caused by precedence of birth ; gen- 
 erals had lost battles, because they refused to serve 
 under men whom they looked upon as inferiors. At an 
 assembly of the higher clergy, it was resolved to burn 
 the Book of Rank, and the czar made a law that any one 
 disputing about his rank, should lose it as well as his 
 property. 
 
 To protect the Greek Church from dividing into sects, 
 an academy was founded at Moscow where the Slav, 
 Latin, and Greek languages were taught. 
 
 XVI I—EARLY YEARS OF PETER THE GREAT 
 
 (PETER ALEXIEVITCH) 
 
 m 
 
 FEODOR died childless, and should have been suc- 
 ceeded by his little brother Ivan, but the child was 
 of unsound mind. The other son of Alexis, Peter, was the 
 child of his last wife, and nine years old at the time. The 
 question about the succession w^as discussed in the Coun- 
 cil, and decided in Peter's favor, and his mother Natalia 
 became Regent. Among Peter's half sisters was one, 
 Sophia, twenty-five years old, who did not propose to 
 submit to this decision. She took part in Feodor's 
 funeral, in defiance of the law which forbade women to 
 appear in public, and after it schemed and plotted to 
 form a party in her favor. A rumor was spread that 
 the czarina's brother had seized the throne and that 
 Ivan had been murdered. The people of Moscow rose, 
 and the streltsi marched to the kremlin where the ap- 
 pearance of Natalia with the two children made the mob 
 hesitate. Unfortunately Prince Dolgorouki addressed 
 the men in violent language ; they seized him on their 
 pikes and killed him. They then stabbed the czarina's 
 foster father, Matveef, in her presence, and sacked the 
 palace, murdering many of its inmates. One of Natalia's 
 brothers was thrown out of a window and caught on 
 
 MS 
 
146 
 
 the points of the lances of the streltsi who were waiting 
 below. Natalia's father and brother were taken from 
 her ; Cyril, the father, was sent to a monastery and her 
 brother Ivan was tortured and cut to pieces, although 
 the czarina went on her knees begging for his life. The 
 streltsi acted under authority from Sophia when they 
 committed these outrages. After this rioting had con- 
 tinued seven days, the streltsi sent their commandant 
 Khovanski to the douma, to demand that there should be 
 two czars, Ivan, with Peter as his assistant. The douma 
 did not fancy the idea, — hut there were the streltsi with 
 their pikes, and they carried the day. 
 
 From this time it was Sophia who was the real czar. 
 She reigned in name of the two half-brothers, and 
 showed herself in public, insisting upon being present on 
 every occasion. The Russians as a rule are not fond of 
 new fashions; they did not like this, and objected so 
 strongly that Sophia was forced to give way. Thereafter 
 the two young czars sat in public on the throne, but it 
 was constructed in such a manner that Sophia could hear 
 and see without being visible. 
 
 She shocked every Russian by her manners until the 
 streltsi began to speak of her as *' the scandalous person." 
 They hated her when she persecuted the raskohiik or 
 Old Believers, that is, the men who objected to the re- 
 forms of Xicon. At last she thought that it was not 
 safe for her to remain at Moscow ; she fled to the strong 
 convent at Troitsa, taking with her the czarina and the 
 two little tsars, and there summoned the men-at-arms 
 whom she could trust. Khovanski, the commandant of 
 the streltsi, was summoned before her; he was arrested 
 
 H7 
 
 on the way, and put to death with his son. The streltsi 
 were considering another revolt, when they were seized 
 with a panic ; instead of marching upon Troitsa, they 
 went there to beg her pardon. Sophia forgave them, but 
 their leaders were executed. 
 
 Sophia trusted the government to two favorites, Prince 
 Galitsyne who was at the head of Foreign Affairs, and 
 Chaklovity whom she made commandant of the streltsi. 
 Galitsyne tried hard to form an alliance among the 
 Christian powders against the Turks and Tartars. His 
 scheme failed because Louis XIV of France kept the 
 whole of Western Europe in turmoil by his constant wars 
 with the House of Austria, and the Christian princes had 
 to look after their owm interests. He was more fortunate 
 in Poland where John Sobieski was king. A treaty of 
 " perpetual " peace was concluded betw^een Russia and 
 Poland at Androussovo, in 1686, and an alliance was 
 entered into against the Turks. 
 
 In 1687, an army of 100,000 Russians and 50,000 
 Cossacks marched against the Crimea. The Tartars had 
 burned the steppes, and the Russians suffered such 
 severe hardships that they were forced to retreat. The 
 hetman of the Cossacks was accused of treachery, and 
 deported to Siberia, when Mazeppa, who had been 
 his secretary, was api)ointed hetman. In the spring of 
 1689, the Russians under Galitsyne and the Cossacks 
 under Mazeppa started again for the Crimea, but they 
 had no better success than before. 
 
 Peter, who was born in 1673, was then sixteen years 
 old, but being tall and strongly built, he looked much 
 older. He was bright and anxious to learn, and at an 
 
148 
 
 149 
 
 early age had shown that he possessed a will of his own. 
 He had read much, but his tutor, a man named Zorof, 
 had allowed him to have his own way, and when the 
 boy grew up to be a man, he made that tutor " the arch- 
 priest of fools." When the boy was tired, Zorof would 
 allow him to put his work aside, and would read to him 
 about the great deeds of his father Alexis, and of those 
 of Ivan the Terrible, their campaigns, battles, and sieges ; 
 how they endured privations better than the common 
 soldiers, and how they added other territory to Russia. 
 He also learned Latin, German, and Dutch. He after- 
 wards complained that his education was neglected, 
 because he was allowed to do as he pleased. He chose 
 his own companions, and as he did not like to be confined 
 within the palace grounds, he roamed in the streets and 
 often became acquainted with men whom he would not 
 have met in the palace, Russians, Dutch, Swiss, English, 
 and Germans. His usual attendants were Boris Galit- 
 syne and other young nobles with whom he played at 
 soldier. He pressed the palace servants into the ranks 
 and had them drilled in European tactics. Peter took 
 lessons in geometry and fortification; he constructed 
 small forts which were besieged and defended by the 
 young players. Sometimes the game became earnest; 
 blows were given and received, when Peter took his 
 share without a murmur, even when he was wounded as 
 sometimes happened. 
 
 At first Peter did not like the water; no Russian does; 
 but he mastered his dislike. Once, when he saw a 
 stranded English boat, he sent for a boatbuilder to make 
 him a sailboat and to teach him how to manage it. He 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 took a great fancy to sailing, and often took his boat on 
 the Vaousa, and afterwards on Lake Pereiaslaf, to the 
 terror of his mother. Thus Peter grew up, healthy in 
 body and strong of mind, until his ambitious half-sister 
 Sophia began to think what would become of her when 
 the bov should be czar. She had stvled herself Autocrat 
 of all the Russias and did not like the idea of surrender- 
 ing the title. Eor some time she was appeased when 
 her courtiers told her that the boy cared for nothing 
 except to amuse himself. 
 
 When he was sixteen years old, Peter asserted himself. 
 Sophia had ordered a triumphal entry for Prince 
 Galitsyne and the army of the Crimea, when Peter 
 forbade her to leave the palace. She paid no attention 
 to his orders, but headed the procession of the returned 
 army. Peter saw that this meant war to the knife, and 
 left for Preobajenskoe. 
 
 As soon as she heard of this, Sophia determined to 
 seize the throne. She intended to attack the palace, kill 
 Peter's friends and arrest his mother, and after that to 
 deal with the young czar as circumstances demanded. 
 She sent for the commandant of the streltsi who agreed 
 to sound the men. He told them that Sophia's life was 
 in danger, and that she had fled to a convent. The latter 
 part of the story was true, as she had in fact retreated to 
 such a place, from which she sent letters to the streltsi to 
 come to her rescue. The commandant failed to secure 
 more than 500 men ; the other streltsi told him that there 
 should be an investigation. 
 
 Two of the streltsi went to Peter and reported to him 
 what was going on, whereupon he moved to the famous 
 
 Sto. of RrssiA — 10 
 
ISO 
 
 Troitsa monastery. The Patriarch, forei|c:n officers 
 servinj^ in the army, his playmates, and even a ret^iment 
 of streltsi came to liim to offer their services. IVter 
 issued orders for the arrest of Sophia's favorite, the 
 commandant of the mihtia. She he^^i^cd the Patriarch 
 to interfere but met with a refusal. The commandant 
 under torture confessed the plot, and was beheaded. 
 Sophia's other friends were arrested ; some were 
 executed while others were sent to prison ; she herself 
 was confined in the convent where she had found a 
 retreat. Peter was now the czar, althoui^h he conducted 
 the government in his own name and in that of his weak- 
 minded brother Ivan. 
 
 If Sophia had shocked the Russians by leaving" the 
 seclusion of the women's apartments, Peter's acts were 
 likely to astonish them still more and to give offense. 
 Rowing in a boat, instead of sitting in it surrounded by 
 his grandees ; working like a carpenter, instead of merely 
 giving his orders through a courtier, and fighting with 
 foreigners and grooms, were acts so unlike to what a 
 czar should do, that Peter made a host of enemies. Little 
 did he care ! Xo sooner was he free to do as he pleased, 
 than he rushed off to Archangel, the only port Russia 
 could call her own, and there he saw salt water for the 
 first time. He mingled freely with captains of the 
 foreign merchant vessels and went out in their boats. 
 On one occasion, he was out in a storm and came near 
 being drowned ; but this did not prevent *' Skipper Peter 
 Alexievitch," from putting out to sea again. C)nce he 
 piloted three Dutch vessels. The young czar gave orders 
 to construct a dockvard and to have boats built. 
 
 i;r 
 
 Peter longed for ports on an open sea, a sea that 
 would not freeze in winter. There were three which 
 Russia might reasonably hope to own some day, the 
 lialtic, the Black, and the Caspian Sea. The Baltic 
 belonged to Sweden, and Peter feared difficulties in that 
 direction ; but the P)lack Sea belonged to the Turks, and 
 Peter quite understood that a war with the infidels would 
 be popular in Russia. He wished to visit Western 
 Europe; to see for himself the wonders of which he had 
 heard foreigners speak ; but he made up his mind not to 
 go until he could appear as a victorious general. 
 
 Thus Peter made preparations for war with the Khan 
 of the Crimea. He did not command his army ; what he 
 wanted, was to learn, and therefore he went as the gunner 
 Peter Alexievitch. That did not prevent him from 
 keeping a sharp eye on his generals. Chief-engineer 
 Jansen received a sound whipping from him and deserted 
 to the enemv. For this and other causes he was com- 
 pelled to raise the siege of Azof and to fall back to 
 Russia. His mother died in 1694. He returned to Rus- 
 sia in 1695, and notwithstanding his defeat, he ordered 
 a triumphal entry into Moscow; but he felt very sore. 
 The following year, i6(j6, his half-brother Ivan died, and 
 Peter was the sole Autocrat of all the Russias. 
 
(152) 
 
 Peter the Great 
 
 XVIII— PETER THE GREAT AND HIS REIGX 
 
 FAR from being discouraged by his defeat, Peter was 
 more than ever resolved to have a port on the 
 Black Sea. He introduced reforms in the army, and 
 while doing this, he ordered a fleet of boats to be built 
 on the Don. and set 26.000 men to work on them. He 
 also sent to Holland and other parts of Europe for 
 officers and gunners, and superintended everything. It 
 was at this time that he wrote to Moscow that, '* following 
 the command God gave Adam, he was earning his bread 
 by the sweat of his brow. When he was ready, the army 
 and the boats went down the Don; Azof was blockaded 
 by sea and by land, and forced to capitulate. When the 
 news arrived at Moscow, there was general rejoicing, 
 and even at Warsaw in Poland the people cheered for 
 the czar. The army returned to Moscow under 
 triumphal arches, the generals seated in magnificent 
 sledges. A young officer, Peter Alexievitch, recently 
 promoted to captain, was marching in the ranks. 
 
 Peter wished to make of Azof a Russian town in the 
 shortest time possible. He secured from the douma an 
 order by which three thousand families were moved to 
 that port, and streltsi were dispatched to garrison it. 
 The czar wanted a naval force, and moved by his 
 
 »53 
 
■ 
 
 (15-;) 
 
 Peter the Great 
 
 
 I 
 
 X\ III—PFTKR THK (;RKAT AXD MIS RRKA' 
 
 "^AR from bcini^ discourai^cd by his defeat, IVter was 
 more than ever resolved to have a jjoit on tlie 
 r.lack Sea. Jle intro(hice(l reforms in the army, and 
 while doini,^ this, he ordered a Heet of h(^ats to he built 
 on the Don. and set 2(),ouu men to work on them. He 
 also sent to Holland and other ])arts of Kuroi)e for 
 officers and i^anmers, and su])erinten(led everythin.q". It 
 was at this time that he wrote to Moscow that. ** folhnvini,^ 
 the command ( io(l «^^ave Adam, he was earnini^- his bread 
 l)v the sweat of his brow. W hen he was ready, the army 
 and the boats went down the Don; .\zof was blockaded 
 bv sea an<l by land, and forced to caj^itulate. When the 
 news arrived at Moscow, there was i^eneral rejoicin.u:, 
 and even .at Warsaw in Poland the people cheered for 
 tile czar. Tin army retm-ned to Moscow under 
 triumphal arches, the i^enerals seated in mai^nit'icent 
 sledi;es. \ \«>un.i^ officer, Peter Alexievilch, recently 
 promoted to cai)tain, was marchini^ in the ranks. 
 
 Peter wished to make of Azof a Russian town in the 
 shortest time pcjssible. He secured from the douma an 
 order l)v which three thousand families were moved to 
 that ])ort. and streltsi were dispatched to i^arrison it. 
 The czar wanted a naval foriw and moved by his 
 
 '53 
 
154 
 
 ener^v, the Patriarch, the prelates, and the monasteries 
 offered to [jive one ship for every 5,000 serfs owned by 
 them. This example was followed by nobles, officials, 
 and merchants, and once more Peter sent to the west for 
 competent men to help build them. At the same time 
 fiftv voung nobles were dispatched to \'enice to learn 
 shipbuilding. 
 
 When he was seventeen years old, Peter had married 
 Eudoxia Lapoukine, whose relatives abhorred all that was 
 new ; Peter's wife shared their sentiments, so that his 
 home life was far from hai)py. He had a son by her. 
 named Alexis; after the fall of Azof, Peter secured a 
 divorce, an act unheard of in Russia, where she remained 
 czarina in the eyes of the people, l^.usy as he was, IVter 
 left his son and heir in charge of his divorced wife, while 
 he was making preparations for the long expected visit 
 to the west of Europe. 
 
 He determined that an embassy should be sent, and 
 
 that it should be worthy of Russia. Accordingly he 
 
 appointed the Swiss Lafort and two Russian generals 
 
 " the great Ambassadors of the Czar." Among their 
 
 retinue composed of two hundred and seventy persons, 
 
 was a young man Peter Mikhailof, better known as 
 
 Peter Alexievitch. When the embassy came to Riga, 
 
 that voung man was insulted by the governor. Peter 
 
 said nothing, but made a note of it for future use. At 
 
 Konigsberg, "Mr. Peter Mikhailof" was appointed 
 
 master of artillery by the Prussian Colonel Stern f eld. 
 
 The progress of the embassy was too slow for Peter 
 
 who had an object in view. He w^ent ahead to Holland 
 
 where he hired a room from a blacksmith at Zaandam, 
 
 155 
 
 bought a workman's suit, and went to work in a dockyard. 
 He often visited Amsterdam where his good nature and 
 passion to learn gained him the good-will of the people. 
 Peter then crossed over to London where he spent three 
 months. Competent men of every profession and trade 
 were engaged by him everywhere. Returning to Holland, 
 his ship was caught in a violent gale, which frightened 
 even the sailors. Peter kept cool, and, smiling, asked 
 them if they " had ever heard of a Czar of Russia who 
 was drowned in the North Sea ? " 
 
 Peter did not forget Russia's political interests. He 
 talked with William of Orange, the great opponent of 
 Louis XI\', and with other influential men, but he did 
 not visit the court of Prance. After satisfying his 
 curiosity, he went to X'ienna where he intended to study 
 strategy ; but his stay was cut short by bad news from 
 
 home. 
 
 Peter had met with a sullen, obstinate opposition in 
 Russia. It was led by the priests who said, and perhaps 
 believed, that Peter was the anti-Christ. It was a cause 
 for complaint that Peter often wore clothes of a German 
 fashion ; was the Russian costume not good enough for 
 him? Again, why did he not devote his time to war, as 
 the other czars done? He had made a bargain with 
 P>ritish merchants to import tobacco into Russia; what 
 did the Russians want with this "sacrilegious smell?" 
 lUit the climax was that a Ccar of the Russias should 
 leave Holv Russia to go among heretics and heathens. 
 Geography was not studied in the czar's empire, and all 
 nations on earth were thought to belong to eidier of the 
 two classes. 
 
 / 
 
154 
 
 cnerq-y, the Patriarch, the prelates, and the monasteries 
 offered to ^nve one sliip for every 5.0(X) serfs owned by 
 them. This example was followed by nobles, officials, 
 and merchants, and once more IVter sent to the west for 
 competent men to help build them. At the same time 
 fifty young nobles were dispatched to X'enice to learn 
 
 shipbuilding. 
 
 When he was seventeen years old, Peter had married 
 Eudoxia Lapoukine, whose relatives abhorred all that was 
 new; Peter's wife shared their sentiments, so that his 
 home life w^as far from happy, lie had a son by her. 
 named Alexis; after the fall of Azof, Peter secured a 
 divorce, an act unheard of in Russia, where .she remained 
 czarina in the eyes of the people. lUisy as he was, Peter 
 left his son and heir in charge of his divorced wife, while 
 he was making preparations for the long expected visit 
 to the west of Europe. 
 
 lie determined that an embassy should be sent, and 
 that it should be worthy of Russia. .Accordingly he 
 appointed the Swiss Lafort and two Russian generals 
 " the great Ambassadors of the Czar." Among their 
 retinue composed of two hundred and seventy ])ersons. 
 was a young man Peter Mikhailof, b(>tt(T known as 
 Peter Alexievitch. When the embassy came lo Riga, 
 that young man was insulted by the governor. Peter 
 said nothing, but made a note of it for tntnre use. At 
 Konigsberg, "Mr. Peter Mikhailof" was appointed 
 master of artillery by the Prussian Colonel Sternfeld. 
 The progress of the embassy was too slow for Peter 
 w^ho had an object in view. He went 'ahead to Holland 
 where he hired a room from a blacksmith at Zaandani, 
 
 155 
 
 bought a workman's suit, and went to work in a dockyard. 
 He often visited Amsterdam where his good nature and 
 ]:)assion to learn gained him the good-will of the people. 
 Peter then crossed over to London where he spent three 
 months. Competent men of every ])rofession and trade 
 were engaged by him everywhere. Returning to Holland, 
 his ship was caught in a violent gale, which frightened 
 even the sailors. Peter kept cool, and, smiling, asked 
 them if they *' had ever heard of a Czar of Russia who 
 was drowned in the North Sea?" 
 
 Peter did not forget Russia's political interests. He 
 talked with William of Orange, the great opponent of 
 Louis XI\", and with other influential men, but he did 
 not visit the court of hYance. After satisfying his 
 curiosity, he went to X'ienna where he intended to study 
 strategy; but his stay was cut short by bad news from 
 
 home. 
 
 Peter had met with a sullen, obstinate opposition in 
 Russia. It was led by the i)riests who said, and perhaps 
 believed, that Peter was the anti-Christ. It was a cause 
 for complaint that Peter often wore clothes of a German 
 fashion ; was the I^ussian costume not good enough for 
 him? Again, why did he not devote his time to war, as 
 the odier czars (k)ne? He had made a bargain with 
 r»ritish merchants to import tobacco into Russia; what 
 did the Russians want with this "sacrilegious smell?" 
 r.ut the climax was that a Ccar of the Russias should 
 leave Hob Russia to go among heretics ..nd heathens, 
 (ieography was not studied in the czar's empire, and all 
 nations on earth were thought to belong to eidier of the 
 two clashes. 
 
 \ 
 
156 
 
 The trouble began among the streltsi who had been 
 sent to Azof. These citizen soldiers looked upon their 
 destination at the other end of the empire as an exile,— 
 which it may have been. Two hundred deserted and 
 made their way back to Moscow and their families; they 
 were promptly hunted down. When they returned to 
 their regiments, they brought with them a secret proc- 
 lamation from Sophia. " Vou suffer," she declared, 
 "but it will grow worse still. March on Moscow! 
 What are you waiting for? There is no news of the 
 czar!^' There was a rumor that Peter was dead and 
 that his son Alexis had been murdered by the boyards. 
 Four regiments revolted and left the ranks. Generals 
 Gordon and Schein went after them with the regular 
 troops, and after overtaking the nuitineers, tried to bring 
 them to reason. In reply they stated their grievances 
 and persisted in their determination not to return to 
 duty. The government troops then fired and scattered 
 the streltsi. A number of them were arrested, tortured, 
 and executed. 
 
 At this time Peter returned, furious at what had 
 happened. He was determined to strike at the head of 
 the opposition, the Russians who openly denounced in- 
 novations. He ordered that the face must be shaved. 
 This was hitting every adult Russian in a tender spot, 
 because the shaving of the face was considered in the 
 light of a blasphemy. He began to enforce his orders 
 at his court, sometimes acting as a barber himself, when 
 he was none too gentle. A number of gibbets erected 
 on the Red Square, reminded the bearded noble that the 
 choice lay between losing the beard or the head. The 
 
 157 
 
 Patriarch appealed to Peter, a holy eikon of the Virgin 
 in his hand. '* Why did you bring out the holy eikon? " 
 asked the czar. " Withdraw and restore it to its place. 
 Know that I venerate God and His mother as much as 
 you do, but know also that it is my duty to protect the 
 people and to punish the rebels." 
 
 The gibbets did not stand as an idle threat. The 
 Austrian Minister Korb was a witness of the executions, 
 which he describes thus: "Five rebel heads had been 
 sent into the dust by blows from an ax wielded by the 
 noblest hand in Russia." Thus Peter did not hesitate 
 to be his own executioner. It was like him to do his 
 own work, regardless of what the people might think. A 
 thousand men were sent to a gory grave, by the highest 
 officers of the court ; the executions lasted a week. The 
 funeral of the executed was forbidden. Bodies were 
 seen dangling from the walls of the kremlin for five 
 months, and for the same length of time, the corpses 
 of some of the streltsi hung from the bars of Sophia's 
 prison, clutching the secret proclamation. Peter's 
 divorced wife had joined Sophia's party ; the two ladies 
 had their head shaved and were confined in convents. 
 The streltsi were dissolved and replaced by regular 
 troops. 
 
 Peter then turned upon the Cossacks of the Don, who 
 had shown greater independence than pleased him. 
 Prince Dolgorouki to whom the task was confided of 
 bringing them to order, wrote to the czar after he had 
 destroyed the Cossack cam]): "The ciiief rebels and 
 traitors have been hung ; of the others, one out of every 
 ten ; and all these dead malefactors have been laid on 
 
i:^8 
 
 159 
 
 rafts, and turned into the river, to strike terror into the 
 hearts of the Don people and to cause them to repent." 
 
 Mazeppa, as we have seen, was at this time hetman of 
 the Cossacks of Little Russia. In his youth he had been 
 a page of John Casimir, king of Poland ; it was then 
 that he had that terrible adventure which is connected 
 indelibly with his name. After he was cut loose from 
 the back of the unbroken horse that had carried him in 
 the steppes, he entered among the Cossacks, and rose 
 from the ranks by betraying every chief who helped 
 him. Although it was Sophia who made him hetman, 
 he was among the first to declare for IVter. His enemies, 
 of whom he had many, accused him before the czar, but 
 Peter admired him, and delivered his accusers up to 
 him; they did not live long after Mazeppa had them in 
 his power. 
 
 It was Mazeppa's scheme to establish an independent 
 kingdom, he had the support of the Cossacks who did 
 not care to work but i)referre(l to be sui)ported by the 
 people. The industrious classes longed to get rid of 
 this burden, and looked toward the czar to sci them free. 
 The tribute which Little Russia paid to .Moscow was 
 quite heavy, and when it was rumored that Peter was 
 going to war with Sweden, Mazeppa thought this was 
 an opportunity to carry out his scheme. He entered into 
 negotiations with Stanislas Lecszinski whom Swedish in- 
 fluence had ])lace(l upon the throne of Poland. Peter 
 was informed of this in detail, btit he did not credit it, be- 
 headed one of his informants, and the others were tor- 
 tured and sent to Siberia. 
 
 The war broke out, Charles XII, the romantic king 
 
 of Sweden arrived in the neigh])orhood of Little Russia, 
 and IVter called on Mazeppa to join the Russian army 
 with his Cossacks, lie pretended to be dying, but when 
 the two hostile armies were drawing close, he crossed 
 the Desna with his most trusted Cossacks to join the 
 Swedes. Peter's eyes were o])ened ; he gave orders to 
 his general Menzikoff to take and sack Mazeppa's capital. 
 This was done and Mazeppa's friend?, who had remained 
 behind, were executed. Mazeppa himself reached the 
 Swedish camp. He was comi)elled to seek safety in 
 Turkev. where he died miserably at liCnder. His terri- 
 tory was annexed to Russia, the Cossacks lost all their 
 privileges, and 1,200 of them were set to work on the 
 Ladoga canal. 
 
 It was in 1700 that Peter, after concluding an alliance 
 with Poland, determined to declare war against Sweden 
 where young Charles XII had recently succeeded to the 
 throne. Attacked at the same time by Russia, Poland, 
 and Denmark, this young hero invaded the last-named 
 country and compelled its king to conclude peace. After 
 relieving Risra, Charles marched into Russia at the head 
 of 8.500 men, and on the 30th of November defeated a 
 Russian army of 63,000 men. This victory proved a 
 misfortune, because it inspired the King of Sweden with 
 contempt for Russian soldiers and made him careless, 
 whereas Peter worked cheerfully and hard to profit from 
 the lesson. While Charles was absent in Poland, his 
 army was twice defeated. 
 
 Each of the two antagonists was worthy of the other's 
 steel. Both were brave, but Charles was impetuous, 
 whereas Peter acted upon cool judgment. The war 
 
i6o 
 
 continued until 1709 when Charles found himself in Little 
 Russia, far away from su])plies and reenforcements, in a 
 Russian winter which happened to he exceptionally 
 severe. In the spring he laid siege to Pultowa. 
 The czar arrived on the 15th of June with 60.000 
 men; Charles had 29,000. On July 8, 1709, the 
 battle of Pultowa was fought and Charles was defeated ; 
 he narrowly esca])ed being caj^tured. With Mazeppa 
 and the Pole Poniatowski, he made his way across the 
 Turkish frontier, and remained until 17 13, in the territory 
 of the Sultan, whom he finally induced to declare war 
 against Peter. This victory gave Peter the longed-for 
 port on the Baltic, since Sweden was no longer in a 
 condition to stop him. 
 
 What induced Sultan Ahmed III to risk war with 
 Russia, was the hope of regaining Az(^f. Peter, on the 
 other hand, hoped for an opportunity to capture Con- 
 stantinople, the Czargrad of former times. Tie knew 
 that he had the sympathy of the many Christians of the 
 Greek Church, who were suffering under the yoke of the 
 Turk. Trusting upon their support, Peter arrived on the 
 bank of the Pruth with 38,000 exhausted soldiers. There 
 he found himself surrounded bv 200,000 Turks and 
 Tartars. Peter gained a slight success, but not of suffi- 
 cient importance to extricate or relieve him. h\'aring an 
 overwhelming calamity, Peter was ])repared to make 
 immense sacrifices in return for ])eace, and even to 
 surrender Azof and the territory taken from Sweden, 
 when his second wife Catherine had a happy thought. 
 She collected all the money and jewels in the Russian 
 camp, and sent them as a present to the drand \'izier in 
 
 161 
 
 command of the enemy, asking at the same time, what 
 terms he would make. They were found unexpectedly 
 reasonable : the surrender of Azof, the razing of the 
 Russian forts erected on Turkish territory, and that 
 Charles XII should be free to return to Sweden. Peter 
 accepted eagerly, nuich as he regretted the loss of Azof 
 and the failure of his schemes. 
 
 In 17 1 3, a Russian fleet under Admiral Apraxine, with 
 Peter serving under him as vice-admiral, captured several 
 cities on the I>altic, and a Russian force entered north 
 Germany. An alliance was formed against him and 
 Peter decided to make an attempt at an alliance with 
 France. In 17 18, just as peace was being concluded with 
 Charles XII, the King of Sweden, died and war broke 
 out anew, lasting until 1721, when, by the Peace of 
 Nystad, Sweden surrendered to Russia Livonia, Esthonia, 
 and part of Finland. Peter had his way : Russia had 
 open ports. 
 
 Peter was greatly pleased, and Russia rejoiced with 
 him. The senate and Holy Synod conferred upon him 
 the titles of ** the Great, the Father of his country, and 
 Emperor of all the Russias." In 1722, Peter led an 
 expedition to the Caspian Sea. He captured Baku and 
 five other important towns. He died three years later, 
 in 1725. 
 
XIX— PETER THE GREAT AND HIS TIME 
 
 BEP^ORE judging Peter the Great, the time in which 
 he Hved, and the conchtions which prevailed should 
 receive careful consideration. Thnnii^hout Western 
 Europe, in France, (iermany, Spain, and Italy, in par- 
 liamentary En<2:land and repuhlican Holland, the people, 
 that is the masses, toiled early and late for the privilege of 
 pavinf^ the taxes; all immunities were reserved for the 
 favored few composing the aristocracy. 
 
 There was no education among the people, with the 
 exception perhaps of Holland, then still a power of the 
 first rank. The princii)le was that the interests of the 
 individual were unworthy of consideration by the side of 
 those of the State. That was the case in France as well 
 as in Russia. Peter inherited the idea of autocratic 
 power, and his travels in Europe conveyed to him nothing 
 to upset or contradict that idea. He cannot, therefore, 
 be considered in the light of a tyrant. He acted, so far 
 as he could know, within his prerogative, and did his 
 duty as he saw it. 
 
 Russia, with a thin and scattered population largely 
 engaged in agriculture, felt no impulse toward progress. 
 The moujik lived as his father had lived. He never 
 came in contact with people of a superior civilization who, 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 
 bv introducing new wants, could make him discontented 
 with his lot. Knowing no desire but to satisfy his 
 phvsical craving, he bore the extremes of heat and cold 
 with equal fortitude ; the soil and his labor provided for 
 his subsistence. A life so sordid must either brutalize 
 man or feed his imagination widi the unknown and 
 dreaded forces of nature ; superstition, deep and strong, 
 became part of the peasant's existence. It is genera- 
 tions before a traditional and deep-rooted belief can be 
 eradicated. 
 
 But Peter the Great gave as little thought to the 
 moujik as did Louis XIV to the ])easants of France. His 
 influence was exerted upon the boyards, and among them 
 the opposition was the stronger as they had been imbued 
 with Asiatic ideas under the Tartar yoke. Here the great 
 muscular strength of Peter rendered him great service. 
 He did not hesitate to use a stick upon the highest 
 officials any more than Ivan the Terrible had used his 
 iron-tipped staff. Even Menzikoff was chastized in this 
 manner. Frederick the Great of Prussia did the same 
 afterwards. Nor was this method of punishing without 
 its use. One day when Peter was looking over the 
 accounts of one of his nobles, he proved to him that, 
 whereas the boyard had been robbing the government, he 
 in turn had been robbed by his steward. The czar took 
 the noble by the collar and applied the stick with a 
 nuiscular arm and great vigor. After he had ])unished 
 him to his heart's c(Mitent, he let him go, saying, " Now 
 you had better go find your steward and settle accounts 
 with him." 
 
 It was Peter's purpose to make the Russians again 
 
^T^^Ci^^ST^" 
 
 164 
 
 into Europeans. He rightly deemed it best to begin with 
 externals, because they are the object lessons of changes 
 The Russian boyard was attached to the long caftan or 
 tunic adopted from the Tartars, but above all he was 
 devoted to the hair on his face. The beard was doomed 
 .by the czar. He could not play barber to all his subjects, 
 but he imposed a heavy tax upon unshaven faces. Owners 
 of beards paid from thirty to one hundred rubles, and 
 moujiks had to pay two pence for theirs every time they 
 entered a city or town. 
 
 The reform which had the most lasting influence upon 
 Russia, w'as the abolition of the landed nobility as a 
 separate class. They would be known as " tcliiii " or 
 gentlemen, and any one who entered the service of the 
 government, regardless of birth, was at once entitled to 
 be classed among the tchinoziiik. Fn^ii that time the 
 terms gentleman and officer, became synonymous. Every 
 service, civil, military, naval, or ecclesiastic, was divided 
 into fourteen grades. The lowest grade in the civil ser- 
 vice was held by the registrar of a college, the highest 
 by the Chancellor of the Empire ; the cornet was at the 
 bottom, the field marshal at the top in the army ; and the 
 deacon in a church was fourteen degrees removed from 
 the Patriarch, — but all were tchin. 
 
 When, in 1700, the Patriarch Adrian died, the dignity 
 was abolished by Peter who did not relish the idea of a 
 rival power in the State. Instead he created the Holy 
 Synod together with the office of Superintendent of the 
 Patriarchal Throne. He gives his reasons in the ukase 
 wherein the change is announced. " The sim])le people," 
 this document reads, " are not quick to seize the distinc- 
 
 16; 
 
 tion between the spiritual and imperial power ; struck with 
 the virtue and the splendor of the supreme pastor of the 
 Church, they imagine that he is a second sovereign, equal 
 and even su])erior in power to the Autocrat." 
 
 The Holy Synod consisted of bishops and a Procura- 
 tor-general who represented the czar and as such could 
 veto any resolution. This official was often a general. 
 Every bishop had to keep a school in his palace, and the 
 sons of priests who refused to attend were taken as sol- 
 diers. Autocrat though he was, Peter dared not confis- 
 cate the property of the monasteries, but he forbade any 
 person to enter a convent before his thirtieth year. The 
 monks were ordered to work at some trade, or to teach 
 in the schools and colleges. At this time, the Protestant 
 and Catholic churches of the West tried to make con- 
 verts, and the raskols were hostile to the national church. 
 As a rule Peter did not favor persecution ; so long as 
 the church did not interfere with his authority, there was 
 nothing to fear from him ; but upon the slightest suspicion 
 his heavy hand was felt. Thus, in 17 10, he suddenly 
 ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits. He used to say: 
 *' God has given the czar power over the nations, but 
 Christ alone has power over the conscience of man." 
 This did not prevent him from exacting a double tax 
 from the raskols in Moscow, nor from punishing cruelly 
 any Russian converted to one of the western churches. 
 
 The great mass of the people suflfered severely by 
 Peter's reforms. The peasants as tenants of the large 
 landowners had enjoyed some liberty and were legally 
 free men ; they were by him assigned to the soil, which 
 they were not permitted to leave. Thus they, too, passed 
 Sto. of Russia — 11 
 
1 66 
 
 into serfdom. If the proprietor sold the estate, the rural 
 population went with it. The owners paid a poll-tax for 
 their serfs. These unfortunates could also be sold with- 
 out the land, but the czar made a law that '* If the sale 
 cannot be abolished completely, serfs must be sold by 
 families without separating- husbands from wives, parents 
 from children, and no longer like cattle, a thincf unheard 
 of in the whole world." 
 
 The citizens of towns were divided into three classes; 
 to the first class belonged bankers, manufacturers, rich 
 merchants, physicians, chemists, ca])italists, jewelers, 
 workers in metal, and artists ; storekeepers and master 
 mechanics were in the second ; all other people belonged 
 to the third, h^oreigners could engage in business, accfuire 
 real estate ; but they could not depart from the country 
 without paying to the government one tenth of all they 
 possessed. 
 
 Cities and towns were administered by burgomasters 
 elected by the citizens; this board selected its own presi- 
 dent or mayor. If an important (juestion arose, represent- 
 atives of the first two classes were summoned for 
 consultation. All the mayors of Russia were subject to 
 a magistrate selected from the Council of St. Petersburg, 
 and appointed by the czar. This official watched over 
 the interests of commerce and agriculture, settled dis- 
 putes between citizens and burgomasters, confirmed local 
 elections, authorized executions when a death sentence 
 was pronounced by provincial authorities, and made 
 reports to the tsar. 
 
 The vo'icvodcs or governors of a province directed 
 all the affairs of their jurisdiction and disbursed the 
 
 I 
 
 167 
 
 revenues as they thought best. "Help yourself first!" 
 was the unwritten law, and it was universally obeyed. 
 Peter divided his empire into forty-three provinces, form- 
 ing twelve governments each under a viceroy and deputy, 
 who were assisted by a council elected by the nobles. 
 
 The courts were crude and medicxval, but not more so 
 than in the west of Europe. Justice, such as it was, 
 was administered by the General Police Inspector, and in 
 large cities there was a police officer for every ten houses. 
 Servants wdio failed to keep the house front clean were 
 punished with the knout. Peter created the Bureau of 
 Information, a court of secret police, and thus inaugurated 
 the terrible spy system which still disgraces Russia. 
 
 The douma was abolished, and in its stead Peter created 
 a '* Directory Senate," which could meet only in presence 
 of the czar. It was originally composed of nine members, 
 but it w^as afterwards increased and at last embraced the 
 duties of the Grand Council, the High Finance Com- 
 mittee, and the Supreme Court. A fair idea of the moral 
 and mental condition of Russia's high aristocracy, may 
 be had from a rule made by Peter, forbidding the 
 Senators under severe penalties, while in session ' to cry 
 out, to beat each other, or to call one another thieves." 
 
 Peter's visits to the west, taught him the value of 
 factories. He gave every possible inducement to foreign 
 capital and skill to come to Russia, and patronized 
 home industry wherever he could, as by purchasing the 
 uniforms for army and navy from recently established 
 mills. Some of his methods appear strange, as, for 
 instance, when he ordered every town in Russia to send 
 a stipulated number of shoemakers to Moscow, to learn 
 
1 68 
 
 their trade. Those who continued to work in the old 
 fashion, were severely punished. The czar would have 
 met with greater success, if he had not been hampered by 
 the cupidity of the officials, who found means to secure 
 the lion's share of the profits. 
 
 Peter discarded the old Slavonic ali)habet and intro- 
 duced the one used at present. St. Petersburg had four 
 printing presses, Moscow two, and there were also some 
 at Novgorod, Tchernigof, and other large places. The 
 first newspaper in Russia, the St. Petersburg Gazette, 
 was founded by him. He established, in 1724, the 
 Academy of Sciences, in imitation of the institution of 
 that name of Paris. 
 
 St. Petersburg was founded in 1703. It was far from 
 a promising site for a new capital, the dreary wastes, 
 dark forests, and marshes where wild ducks and geese 
 found a favorite feeding place. It was exposed to fre- 
 quent floods, and piles were needed before a building 
 could be erected. But when this autocrat had made up 
 his mind, objections were brushed aside. Peter collected 
 40,000 men, soldiers, Cossacks, Kalmucks, Tartars and 
 such natives as could be found, and put them to work. 
 At first he provided neither tools nor shelter, and food 
 was often scarce. Thousands of workmen died ; — what 
 did he care? Others were compelled to take their place. 
 The fortress of St. Peter and Paul arose first; the czar 
 himself was watching the progress from a little wooden 
 house on the right bank of the Neva. Men of means 
 were forced to build stone houses in the new cai)ital. 
 Swedish prisoners and merchants from Novgorod were 
 invited to move to St. Petersburg, and no excuse was 
 
 I 
 
 169 
 
 admitted. Goods could be brought only by boat, and no 
 boat was allowed to land unless it carried a certain number 
 of white stones to be used as building material. He 
 erected churches, and ordered that he should be buried 
 in the Church of St. Peter and Paul. 
 
 Peter's domestic life, as we have seen, was not happy. 
 After his divorce from his first wife, he married Catherine 
 who, in 1702, had been made prisoner at Marienburg. 
 It is not known where she was born, but she was probably 
 a native of Livonia, and was a servant in the family of 
 Pastor Gliick and engaged to be married to a Swedish 
 dragoon. She became the property of Menzikoff who 
 gave her to the czar. There was a secret marriage which 
 was confirmed by a public ceremony in 171 2, in reward 
 for her services at Pultowa. Peter also instituted the 
 Order *' For Love and Fidelity," in her honor. A German 
 princess describes her thus : — '' The czarina was small 
 and clumsily made, very much tanned, and without grace 
 or air of distinction. You had only to see her to know 
 that she was lowborn. From her usual costume you 
 would have taken her for a German comedian. Her dress 
 had been bought at a secondhand shop ; it was very old- 
 fashioned, and covered with silver and dirt. She had a 
 dozen orders, and as many portraits of saints or relics, 
 fastened all down her dress, in such a way that when she 
 walked you would have thought by the jingling that a 
 mule was passing." She could neither read nor write, 
 but she was sharp, had natural wit, and obtained great 
 influence over Peter. Thev had two sons, Peter and 
 Paul, who died in childhood, and two daughters, Anne 
 and Elizabeth. The former married the Duke of Holstein. 
 
]JO 
 
 Alexis, the son by his first wife, was Peter's heir. He 
 had grown to be a young man before Teter realized that 
 the result of all his efforts depended upon his successor, 
 and the czar began to pay attention to his son's education 
 when it was too late, when habits had been formed. The 
 czarevitch had imbibed the prejudices of his mother; he 
 was narrow-minded, lazy, weak, and obstinate, and 
 associated with people to whom Old Russia was Holy 
 Russia, who abhorred reforms of every kind. Peter 
 sent him to travel in Germany, but the prince would learn 
 nothing. Hi'> father warned him in vli\ plain terms. 
 " Disquiet for the future," he wrote to Alexis, '* destroys 
 the jov caused by my present successes. 1 see that you 
 despise everything that can make you worthy to reign 
 after me. What you call inabiHty, I call rebellion, for you 
 cannot excuse yourself on the ground of the weakness 
 of your mind and the state of your health. We have 
 struggled from obscurity through the toil of war, which 
 has taught other nations to know and respect us, and yet 
 you will not even hear of military exercises. If you d > 
 not alter your conduct, know that I shall de])rive you of 
 my succession. I have not spared, and I shall not spare, 
 my own life for my country; do you think that I shall 
 spare yours? I would rather have a stranger who is 
 worthy for my heir, than a good-for-nothing member of 
 
 my own family." 
 
 Alexis should have known that his father was in terrible 
 earnest, yet he did not heed the warning. When Peter 
 was traveling in Western Europe, his son fled to Vienna, 
 where he thought that he should be safe. Finding that 
 this was not so, he went to the Tyrol and afterwards to 
 
 171 
 
 Naples, but his father's agents traced him and one of 
 them, Tolstoi, secured an interview in which he assured 
 the prince of his father's pardon, and finally persuaded 
 him to return to Moscow. As soon as he arrived there, 
 he was arrested. The czar convoked the three Estates 
 before whom he accused the czarevitch. Alexis was 
 forced to sign his resignation of the Crown. When he 
 was being examined, probably under torture, a wide- 
 spread cons])iracy was revealed. Peter learned also 
 that his son had begged the Emperor of Austria for 
 armed intervention, that he had negotiated with Sweden 
 and that he had encouraged a mutiny of the army in 
 Germany. It was shown that his divorced wife and 
 several prelates were in the plot. Peter crushed his 
 enemies. Most of the persons involved suffered a cruel 
 death, and Alexis himself, after being punished with the 
 knout, was sentenced to die. Two days later his death 
 was announced. It appears that on that day, the heir to 
 the throne was brought before a court composed of nine 
 men of the h idlest rank in Russia and that he was beaten 
 with a knout to secure further confessions, and that he 
 exi)ired under the torture. Those present were sworn to 
 secrecy, and kept the oath. 
 
 Peter, therefore, had no male heir. Alexis, however, 
 had left a son Peter by Charlotte of Brunswick whom he 
 married against his will. In 1723 the czar ordered 
 Catherine to be crowned as Empress. He had established 
 the riHit to select his successor but failed to do so, owing 
 to his sudden death. 
 
 The following description of Peter the Great at the 
 age of forty, is given by a Frenchman : " He was a very 
 
172 
 
 tall man, well made though rather thin, his face some- 
 what round, with a broad forehead, beautiful eyebrows, 
 a short nose, thick at the end ; his lips were rather thick, 
 his skin was brown and ruddy. He had splendid eyes, 
 large, black, piercing, and well-opened; his expression 
 was dignified and gracious when he liked, but often wild 
 and stern, and his eyes, and indeed his whole face, were 
 distorted by an occasional twitch that was very un- 
 pleasant. It lasted only a moment, and gave him a 
 wandering and terrible look, when he was himself again. 
 His air expressed intellect, thoughtfulness, and greatness, 
 and had a certain grace about it. He wore a linen collar, 
 a round wig, brown and unpowdered, \>'hich did not reach 
 his shoulders; a brown, tight-fitting coat with gold 
 buttons, a vest, trousers, and stockings, and neither gloves 
 nor cuffs ; the star of his order on his coat, and the ribbon 
 underneath it ; his coat was often unbuttoned, his hat lay 
 on the table, and was never on his head, even out of doors. 
 In this simplicity, however shabby might be his carriage 
 or scanty his suit, his natural greatness could not be 
 mistaken." 
 
 XX— THE SUCCESSORS OF PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 PETER'S strong hand had stifled the opposition to his 
 reforms, but with his death it reappeared. There 
 were, therefore, two parties in Russia : the men who had 
 assisted the dead czar, MenzikofT, Aproxine, Tolstoi, and 
 others, such as the members of the secret Court who had 
 witnessed the violent death of Peter's only son. They 
 dreaded the succession of Peter's grandson, the boy who, 
 although only twelve years old, might order an investi- 
 gation of his father's death. These men held the power 
 and decided that, since Catherine had been crowned as 
 Empress, it was she who should succeed. Thus the form- 
 er maid servant, not even a native Russian, became Em- 
 press of all the Russias. There were some protests in 
 favor of Peter's grandson, but they were disregarded. 
 
 MenzikofT who was the cause of Catherine's rise, fan- 
 cied himself all-powerful, and there was jealousy among 
 Peter's associates. Menzikoff sent one of them, Tolstoi, 
 to Siberia, but Catherine would not consent to the pun- 
 ishment of the other friends of the late czar. She was 
 honest in carrying out Peter's unfinished i)rojects. He 
 had planned the marriage of his daughter Anne to the 
 Duke of Holstein: the wedding took place; he intended 
 to send an exploring expedition to Kamtschatka; she 
 
 ^7Z 
 
1/4 
 
 /D 
 
 enji^agecl the services of a Danish captain. P>erin^, who 
 discovered the sea and strait named after him. The 
 Academy of Sciences was opened in 1726. She, how- 
 ever, chani^ed the Senate into a Secret Hi^h Council, 
 which met under tlie presidency of the empress. 
 
 Catherine (hed in 1727, and on her deathhed api)ointed 
 Peter's grandson, then fourteen years old, as her succes- 
 sor. In case of his death, the throne would go to Anne, 
 and next to Elizabeth. During his minority these two 
 daughters assisted by the Duke of Holstein, Menzikoff, 
 and some other high officers, would constitute a Board of 
 Regents. 
 
 Menzikoff had taken precautions. He had obtained 
 her consent that the young heir, Peter II, should marry 
 one of his daughters, a young lady two years older than 
 the boy. He showed, in his letters to Peter, that he 
 looked upon him as his son. He also intended his own 
 son to marry the boy's sister Natalia. There was one 
 member of Peter the Great's family who did not approve 
 of Menzikoff's schemes, Elizabeth, the young czar's 
 aunt, then seventeen years old. Not long after Cathe- 
 rine's death, Menzikoff fell ill; he was compelled to keep 
 to his rooms, and in that time Elizabeth roused her 
 nephew's suspicions. IVter left Menzikoff's palace and 
 when Catherine's favorite tried to resume his authority, 
 he was arrested and exiled to his estates. Soon after 
 he was sent to Siberia, where he died two years later, in 
 
 1729. 
 
 The Dolgorouki family succeeded, but its head rnm- 
 mitted the same mistakes, besides showing a tendency to 
 undo the work of I'eter the Great. The young czar was 
 
 o-rowincf wearv of the Dolgorouki when, in January 1730, 
 he caught cold and died after a brief illness. 
 
 It was during his short reign that Prussia, Austria, 
 and Russia, first seriously di.scussecl the partition of Po- 
 land. A treaty was signed between Prussia and Russia 
 wherebv the two powers agreed to select and support a 
 candidate for the throne of that kingdom which was to 
 illustrate the truth that " a kingdom divided against it- 
 self cannot exist." 
 
 Peter's death left Russia without a male heir. There 
 were, as we have seen, two daughters from his marriage 
 with Catherine. Anne, who had married the Duke of 
 Holstein, had died in 1728, leaving a son also named 
 Peter. Elizabeth, the other daughter, was in St. Peters- 
 burg, quietly engaged in establishing a party of her own. 
 There were, besides, two other parties having claims 
 upon the throne. Ivan, the weak-minded half-brother of 
 Peter the Great, had been married and had left two 
 (lau"-hters, Anne, Duchess of Courland, and Catherine, 
 Duchess of Mecklenburg. 
 
 The decision rested with the Secret High Council. 
 Dolijorouki's claim, that Peter II had made a secret will 
 leaving the throne to his bride, was laughed to scorn. 
 The members of the High Council saw an opportunity 
 to secure most of the autocratic power for themselves, 
 and resolved to offer the throne to Anne of Courland, 
 provided that she subscribed to the following conditions: 
 That the Secret High Council should always consist of 
 eight members, all vacancies to be filled by themselves; 
 that she could make neither war nor peace, nor appoint 
 an officer above the rank of colonel, without the consent 
 
of the Council ; that she could not condemn a noble to 
 death, nor confiscate his property, without a trial; and 
 that she could neither appoint a successor, nor marry 
 again without the approval of the Council. She was also 
 to siirn an atrreement wherehv she would forfeit the crown 
 " in case of my ceasing to observe these engagements." 
 The Council also decided upon moving the capital back 
 to Moscow. 
 
 This might have been the beginning of a more liberal 
 government for Russia, since it diminished the power of 
 the czar and the people would have benefited by the in- 
 creased rights of the nobles, as was the case in England. 
 It was the nobility who objected, from fear that the 
 power might be absorbed in the families of the Council 
 members. Anne of Courland accepted the conditions and 
 came to Moscow. There she received letters from the 
 enemies of the Council imploring her to disregard her 
 promises. (3n the 25th of February, 1731, the Council 
 was in session when an officer appeared summoning them 
 before the czarina. I'po" arrival in the apartment, they 
 found about eight hundred persons presenting a petition 
 that Anne might restore autocracy. She read it and 
 seemed astonished : " What ! " she exclaimed, '* the con- 
 ditions sent to me at Mittau were not the will of the peo- 
 ple? " There was a shout of '' No! no! " " Then," she 
 said, addressing the Council, "you have deceived me!" 
 Anne was a true daughter of the czars. She began by 
 exiling the principal members of the Council to their es- 
 tates ; when she saw that there was no opposition, they 
 were sent to Siberia : and when no one remonstrated, 
 other members were condemned to a cruel death. 
 
 ^77 
 
 Anne was thirty-five years old when she was crowned 
 as czarina. She had been in Germany so long that she 
 preferred to surround herself with Germans w^ho did 
 serve her well, but they naturally aroused the jealousy 
 and hatred of the Russian nobles. In 1733, Augustus II, 
 King of Poland, died. Russia, Prussia, and France, 
 each had a candidate. Austria and Russia favored Au- 
 gustus III of Saxony, and Louis XV of France supported 
 his father-in-law Stanislas Leszcinski. 
 
 This candidate secretly proceeded to Warsaw, where 
 he was elected by a vote of 60,000 against 4,000. A 
 Russian army crossed the frontier, whereupon Stanislas 
 withdrew to Dantzig and the Russians proclaimed Au- 
 gustus III. The war spread and a Russian army of 20,- 
 000 men advanced as far as Heidelberg in Baden. It 
 ended in 1735, by the Peace of Vienna, but Russia be- 
 came involved in a war with Turkey, as an ally of Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 In 1736, the Russians took Azof and ravaged the 
 w^estern Crimea. In the following year they laid waste 
 its eastern part, and in 1739 they gained a great victory 
 at Savoutchani. Austria was not anxious to have Rus- 
 sia as a close neighbor, and arranged the Peace of Bel- 
 grade. (1739.) Russia surrendered all the conquests, 
 except a small tongue of land between the Dnieper and 
 the Bug. Sweden threatened war, but it was averted. 
 The following year, 1740, Anne died, leaving the throne 
 to her infant son, Ivan of Brunswick. 
 
 Anne Ivanovna introduced western luxury into Rus- 
 sia. Prior to her arrival, fashions were unknown, and 
 people used to wear their clothes until they were worn 
 
178 
 
 out. Soon after restoring autocracy, she returned to St. 
 Petersburg where she endeavored to estabhsh a court in 
 imitation of that of France. She could compel her 
 nobles to appear in the costume of the west, and, unless 
 they were very wealthy, make them sacrifice estates and 
 serfs to pay his increased expenses, but of the refinement 
 which creates fashion, there was none. One of her 
 guests, a procurator-general was so intoxicated at one 
 of her receptions that he insulted one of Anne's most 
 trusted advisers; she was a witness, but only laughed 
 
 heartily. 
 
 The young nobles benefited by the German influence 
 at Court, since they received a better education. A law 
 was made requiring them to study from their seventh 
 to their twentieth year, and to serve the government from 
 that age until they were forty-five. Between the age 
 of twelve and sixteen they were made to appear before 
 an examining board, and any one failing to pass the 
 second time in catechism, arithmetic, and geometry, was 
 put into the navy. In the schools for young nobles,— 
 the serfs received no instruction of any kind, — the course 
 of studies was enlarged after the German system. 
 
 Anne's infant son, Ivan, was three months old, when 
 he succeeded to the throne as Ivan VI. Elizabeth, the 
 daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine, was twenty- 
 eight years old; tall and masculine, bright and bold, dar- 
 ing on horseback as well as on the water, she had made a 
 host of friends among the high officials and the Guards. 
 She found an able adviser in the French Minister at St. 
 Petersburg who was anxious to destroy the influence of 
 Germany. The Swedes went so far as to begin a war, 
 
 179 
 
 proclaiming the desire to deliver '' the glorious Russian 
 nation " from the (ierman yoke. Elizabeth decided that 
 the time had come to act, when the regiments devoted to 
 her were ordered to the frontier. In the night of Oc- 
 tober 25, 1 741, she went with three friends to the bar- 
 racks. *' Boys," she said to the men, ** you know whose 
 daughter I am?" '' Matuska," (little mother), they re- 
 plied, " we are ready ; we will kill all of them." She 
 said that she did not wish any blood to be shed, and 
 added: *' I swear to die for you; will you swear to die 
 for me?" They made the oath. When she returned to 
 the palace, the regent, the infant czar, and the (jcrman 
 members of the Government were arrested. Ivan VI 
 was sent to a fortress near the Swedish frontier. The 
 Ciermans were brought before a court and condemned to 
 death, but Elizabeth commuted the sentence to exile. 
 After this she went to Moscow, where she was crowned 
 as czarina, ller next act was to send for her nephew, 
 Peter, the son of her sister Anne of Holstein. He came 
 and entered the Greek Church, when he was proclaimed 
 as heir to the throne as Peter Feodorovitch. 
 
 Sweden demanded the cession of the territory con- 
 quered by Peter the Great, and, since Elizabeth refused, 
 the war continued. But Sweden was no longer the 
 kingdom of Charles XII; the Russians were everywhere 
 victorious, and by the ]*eace of Abo, in 1743, Sweden 
 ceded South Finland and agreed to elect Elizabeth's ally, 
 Adoli)hus of Holstein, as heir to the throne. 
 
 In 1740 the Emperor of Germany died, after obtaining 
 from the powers the consent to set aside the Salic Law of 
 succession, in favor of his daughter. This law restricted 
 
i8o 
 
 i<Si 
 
 the right of succession to male heirs excUisively. In 
 violation of the pledged word, several claimants appeared 
 to contest the claim of his daughter Maria Theresa, and 
 since almost every nation took sides, it was important to 
 know what Russia would do. Elizabeth was undecided ; 
 at least, she played with both sides until 1746, when she 
 entered into an alliance with Maria Theresa, while Eng- 
 land promised subsidies in money. It was, however, 
 1748 before a Russian army of 30,000 men passed 
 through Germany and took up a position on the Rhine. 
 In the same year the war was ended by the Peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, without the Russians having been under fire. 
 Elizabeth hated Frederick the Great of Prussia. She 
 claimed that '' The King of Prussia is certainly a bad 
 prince who has no fear of God before his eyes ; he turns 
 holy things into ridicule, and he never goes to church." 
 The real reason was that Frederick had expressed his 
 opinion about Elizabeth's private life, and she was not 
 the woman to forgive his remarks. Then again, Fred- 
 erick had an excellent army of 200,000 men ; Elizabeth's 
 chancellor, on that account, called Prussia "the most 
 dangerous of neighbors, whose power it was necessary to 
 
 break.'* 
 
 Russia, Austria, France, and Saxony, entered into a 
 secret alliance against Prussia. Frederick found it out, 
 and in 1756, began the famous Seven Years' War. The 
 same vear, 83,000 Russians under Apraxine crossed the 
 frontier and seized East Prussia. A battle was fought ; 
 the Russians were the victors, but Apraxine fell back 
 across the Niemen. France and Austria suspected 
 treacherv: Apraxine was arrested and the chancellor 
 
 \ 
 
 
 was dismissed and exiled. h\Tmor was appointed com- 
 
 niander-in-cliiof. 
 
 The Russian army recrossed the frontier in 1758, took 
 K()nigsberg and bombarded Kiistrin on the Oder. Fred- 
 erick with 32,000 men attacked the Russian army 89,000 
 strong at Zorndorf. The Russians fought stubbornly 
 but were defeated with a loss of 20,000 men. Fermor 
 was recalled, and succeeded by Soltykof who, in 1759, 
 entered Frankfort on the Oder. Another battle was 
 fought and Frederick was defeated by greatly superior 
 numbers. He lost 8,000 men. Prussia was exhausted, 
 but his enemies, too, began to feel the expense of the 
 war. Elizabeth, however, was determined to humble the 
 outspoken King when she died suddenly in 1761. She 
 was succeeded by her nephew Peter Feodorovitch under 
 the name of Peter III. 
 
 Elizabeth, although careless in her mode of living, was 
 a stout supporter of the Greek Church. In 1742, she 
 agreed with the Holy Synod to suppress all other 
 churches, as well as the Mosques or Mahomedan temples 
 in the south. This caused a revoU of the Mahomedans. 
 The Jews were also expelled in some parts of the empire. 
 A fever of fanaticism broke out ; fifty-three raskolnik in 
 Russia, and one hundred and seventy-two in Siberia, 
 burned themselves to death. 
 
 Count Ivan Schouvalof, one of Elizabeth's friends, 
 believed in education and was given a free hand. He 
 ordered that the priests and their children should attend 
 school, on penalty of being whipped. He founded the 
 University of Moscow, which has educated many learned 
 Russians. To induce students to enter, he induced Eliza- 
 Sto. of Russia— 12 
 
I 82 
 
 both to make a law that all studciils should he tchins of 
 the tenth grade, and the professors hold the eighth grade. 
 He sent young men abroad to study and established 
 higher schools in every Government. Schouvalof was 
 also the founder of the Acadeniv of Fine. Arts at St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 That capital was growing ; its population was 74,000 
 under Elizabeth. She built the Winter l\alace and saw 
 the plans for Tsarskoe Selo, the magnificent retreat of 
 the Russian emperors. She reestablished the Senate, as 
 organized by Peter the Great. 
 
 XXI-RUSSIA UNDER CATHERINE II 
 
 (THE GREAT) 
 
 PETER III was thirty-four years old when he suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. Although it was twenty 
 years since his aunt Elizabeth sent for him from Holstein, 
 he was more of a (icrman than a Russian, and had an 
 intense admiration for Frederick the Great. He at once 
 reversed Russia's policy, ordered the commander-in- 
 chief of the Russian armies to leave his Austrian allies, 
 and made peace with the King of Prussia to whom he 
 restored all Russia's conquests. Then he entered into an 
 alliance with Frederick, which was the means of saving 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Pptcr relieved the nobles of the duty of serving the 
 state, for which they were so grateful that they proposed 
 to erect his statue in gold ; he heard of it, and forbade 
 their doing so. He abolished the Secret Court of Police, 
 and showed great kindness to the raskols and permitted 
 many of them to return from Siberia. A host of other 
 exiles were recalled, and he thought of relieving the hard 
 lot of the moujiks. 
 
 For all this, he was unpopular and disliked. His dis- 
 regard for old Russian customs and his mode of life gave 
 deep oiTense. He was married to Sophia of Anhalt, who 
 
 183 
 
1 84 
 
 had assumed the name of Catherine ; she was a woman of 
 decided ability and strong character. Peter wanted a 
 divorce. She heard of it and contrived a conspiracy 
 amonq- the hig^h nobles and officers of the armv and navv. 
 Peter had no thought of danger, when he ordered the 
 arrest of Passek, a young officer and favorite of Cath- 
 erine. Thinking that the conspiracy had l)een discovered, 
 she left her palace in the outskirts and came to St. Peters- 
 burg: where the three regiments of Foot (iuards declared 
 in her favor, and Peter's uncle was arrested by his own 
 regiment of Horse Guards. When Catherine entered the 
 Winter Palace, she was sure of the army and navy ; 
 Cronstadt was seized by her su])])orters, and she issued 
 a proclamation assuming the government. At the head 
 of 20,000 men, she marched upon the Palace, where the 
 czar, her husband, was residing. 
 
 Peter fled to Cronstadt and sought the Admiral. " I 
 am the czar," he said. " There is no longer a czar,*" was 
 the reply, and all Peter could do was to return to his 
 palace, where he abdicated *' like a child being sent to 
 sleep." as bVedorick the (ireat expressed it. He then 
 called on his wife, ** after which," Catherine tells us, ** I 
 sent the deposed emperor, under the command of Alexis 
 Orlof accompanied by four officers and a detachment of 
 gentle and reasonable men, to a place called Ropcha, 
 fifteen miles from IVterhof, a secluded spot, but very 
 pleasant." lM)ur days later Peter III was dead. Cath- 
 erine declared that he died of colic " with the blood 
 flying to the brains.'' 
 
 But one was living with just and strong claims to the 
 throne. Ivan \ I, the infant czar sent to prison by Eliza- 
 
 (185) 
 
 Catharine II 
 
-r, 'ii.^ - -ui".^ 
 
 IS4 
 
 had assiinied tlic namo of Catherine : slie was a woman of 
 decided ahility and stron<j cliaraeter. IVter wanted a 
 (Hvorce. She heard of it and contrived a conspiracy 
 anioni; the hii^h nobles and officers of the army and navy. 
 IVter liad no thoucflit of (hmjjer, wlun he ordered the 
 arrest of Passek, a yonnjLT officer and favorite of Cath- 
 erine. Tliinkinii- that the conspiracy had heen (hscovered, 
 she left her ])alace in the ontskirts and canu' to St. Teters- 
 hnri^ where the three rei^iments of j-'oot ( inards declared 
 in her favor, and Peter's nncle was arrested hy his own 
 reijiment of I f orse dnards. When Catherine entered the 
 Winter Palace, she was snre of the army and navy; 
 Cronstadt was seizecl hy her snpporters, and she issned 
 a proclamation assnmincr the c^overmnent. At the head 
 of 2o.(X)o men, she marchetl npon the Palace, where the 
 czar, her hnshand. was residinir. 
 
 IVlei- lied lo I loiisUidl .iini m-u-hI llie Admiral. "I 
 am the czar," he said. " There is no loniL;er a czar," was 
 the reply, and all Peter conld do was to retnrn to his 
 palace, where he alxlicaled '" like a child hemiL; sent to 
 sleep," as k'rederick the ( ireat e.\])ressed it. lie then 
 called on hi< wife, "after which." ( 'nthcrinc tells ns, *' I 
 sent the depo>ed emperor, nnder the coiuhuuki oi Ale\i> 
 Orlof accom])anied hy fonr ofticers and a detachment of 
 Identic and reasonable men t,, 1 pkiee called ]\o])cha, 
 fifteen miles from IVterhoi, a sechided spot, bnt very 
 plea.sijit." I'onr days later Peter 111 was dead. Cath- 
 erine declared that he died of colic "with thr blood 
 fIvinjL;' to the brains." 
 
 P>nt one was livini.^ with jnst and strong' claims to the 
 thn»ne. Ivan \ 1, the infant czar sent to prison b\ Kliza- 
 
 (185) 
 
 Catharine II 
 
1 86 
 
 beth in 1741, was now twenty-one years old. Tt was 
 reported that he had lost his reason, which may have 
 been true or false. Catherine disposed of him. She said : 
 '* It is my opinion that he should not be allowed to escape, 
 so as to place him beyond the powr^r nf doinfjharm. It 
 would be best to tonsure him (thai is, to make a monk of 
 him), and to transfer him to some monastery, neither 
 too near nor too far off; it will suffice if it does not 
 become a shrine." She did not desire that the people 
 should make a martyr of a descendant of Peter the Great, 
 while she, a foreipi woman, was occui)yinjL^ the throne. 
 Poor Ivan was murdered by his keepers two years later, 
 when a lieutenant of the Guards was tryinor to effect his 
 escape. After that, Catherine had no rival for the crown, 
 except her son Paul, whom she disliked. 
 
 At first it seemed as if Catherine would reverse her 
 husband's policy with regard to Prussia. She gave or- 
 ders to the army to leave the Prussian camp, but she did 
 not command active hostilities ; since the parties felt the 
 exhaustion of a seven years' struggle, i)eace negotiations 
 were begun and concluded successfully. 
 
 Catherine made Russia a party to the System of the 
 North ; that is, she entered into an alliance with England, 
 Prussia, and Denmark, as against France and Austria. 
 Nearlv all Europe was deeply interested in the severe 
 illness of the King of Poland, because of the election 
 which must follow his death. Unh:ii)i)y Poland was 
 bringing destruction ui)on itself. .A lawless nobility kept 
 the country in anarchy, and religious persecution, which 
 had disappeared elsewhere, was still rami)ant. It was the 
 gold distributed by interested powers, that controlled the 
 
 187 
 
 vote of the Diet, and since it was merely a question of 
 the highest bidder, Frederick the Great and Catherine 
 came to an understanding. They decided to elect Stan- 
 islas Poniatofski, a Polish noble. France and Austria 
 supported the Prince of Saxony, who was also the choice 
 of the Court party. After the death of Augustus III, the 
 Diet assembled and elected the French and Austrian can- 
 didate. Members of the Diet asked for Russian inter- 
 vention and, supported by Catherine's army, Poniatofski 
 was placed on the throne. 
 
 Russia and Prussia were not satisfied; they wanted 
 part of the kingdom and the prevailing anarchy on -their 
 frontiers justified them. But Catherine made a pretext 
 out of Poland's religious intolerance,— although the same 
 existed in Russia. In 1765, Koninski, the Bishop of the 
 Greek Church presented to the King a petition asking 
 redress for a number of grievances which he enumerated. 
 The King promised relief and submitted the matter to 
 the Diet of 1766. The majority would not hear of any 
 tolerance, although Russia had on the frontier an army 
 of 80,000 men ready to invade Poland. The Diet of 
 1767 showed the same foolish spirit, but it was broken 
 when two of its members, both Catholic bishops, were 
 arrested under Russian orders, and carried into Russian 
 territory. The Diet did not appear to resent this vio- 
 lation of a friendly territory but entered in 1768 into a 
 treaty with Russia, in which it was agreed that Poland 
 would make no change in its constitution without Rus- 
 sia's consent. The Russian army was withdrawn from 
 Warsaw, and a deputation from the Diet was sent to St. 
 Petersburg to thank Catherine, 
 
1 88 
 
 Two hostile parties soon appeared in arms. The 
 CathoHcs raised the hanner '* Pro rehj^^ione et hhertate ! " 
 — as if they understood what hberty meant ! France 
 helped with money, and urged the Sultan of Turkey to 
 declare war against Russia, so that Catherine would be 
 compelled to withdraw her troops. Russia was inciting 
 those of the (ireek and Protestant religions to whom 
 assistance was promised. 
 
 In the winter of 1768, the Tartars of the Crimea, aided 
 by the Turks, invaded Russia, and Catherine dispatched 
 an army of 30,000 men, — all she could spare. In the fol- 
 lowinsf vear, the Russians attacked and defeated the 
 enemy 100,000 strong at Khotin on the Dnieper, and in 
 1770 the Khan of the Crimea met the same fate. In the 
 same year at the battle of Kagul, 17,000 Russians defeated 
 150,000 Turks commanded by the Crand \'izier. In the 
 same year the Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet in the 
 port of Chesme. In 1771, the Tartars of the Crimea were 
 put to rout, and the Russians took liessarabia and some 
 forts on the Danube. They wTre, however, too late to 
 take possession of the Dardanelles, which the Turks had 
 put into a state of defense. 
 
 Austria was becoming alarmed at Russia's victories, 
 and lent a willing ear to the suggestion of Frederick the 
 Cireat that it would be safer to permit Russia to gain 
 territory belonging to Poland, provided .\ustria and 
 Prussia should receive their share. On bVbruary 17, 
 1 77 1, a treat v was concluded between Russia and Prussia, 
 and accepted by Austria in April, whereby Poland was 
 deprived of a good part of its territory. Catherine 
 secured White Russia with a population of 1,600,000; 
 
 189 
 
 Frederick the Great took West Prussia with 900,000 
 inhabitants, and Austria received Western Gallicia and 
 Red Russia with 2,500,000 people. This was the begin- 
 ning of the end of Poland. 
 
 The i)eace negotiations with Turkey were broken off, 
 and war was resumed. Being busy elsewhere, Catherine 
 could not prevent a coup d'etat in Sweden, which saved 
 that country from the fate of Poland. Besides suffering 
 from these constant wars, Russia was visited by the 
 plague, which in July and August, 1771, daily carried off 
 a thousand victims in Moscow alone. The Archbishop, 
 an enlightened man, was put to death by a mob for order- 
 ing the streets to be fumigated. Troops were necessary 
 
 to restore order. 
 
 The condition of the country was dreadful. Alexander 
 Bibikof was sent to suppress a dangerous insurrection, 
 he wrote to his wife after arriving on the spot, that the 
 general discontent was frightful. It was for this reason 
 that Catherine concluded peace with the sultan in 1774; 
 besides an indemnity, she received Azof on the Don and 
 all the strong places in the Crimea, and was recognized 
 as the protector of the sultan's Christian subjects. In 
 1775, she finallv broke the power of the Cossacks. 
 
 Through the mediation of France and Russia, a war 
 between Prussia and Austria concerning the succession 
 in Bavaria, was narrowly averted. During the American 
 War of Independence, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prus- 
 sia, and Portugal, ])r()claimed armed neutrality, and Hol- 
 land declared war, because P>ritish warships caused 
 endless trouble to vessels under neutral Hags. This cele- 
 brated act declared "that contraband goods" included 
 
190 
 
 only arms and ammunition. Most countries agreed to 
 this, with the exception of England. 
 
 In 1775 Catherine annexed the Crimea, on the plea 
 that anarchy prevailed. Turkey protested and threatened 
 war but France meditated and the sukan recognized the 
 annexation by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1783. 
 
 In 1787, a remarkable secret agreement was signed 
 between Russia and Austria. It is known as the Greek 
 Project, and was nothing less than a scheme to divide 
 Turkey between the two powers. The plot as proposed 
 by Russia, was to create an independent state under the 
 name of Dacia, to embrace Moldavia. Wallachia, and 
 Bessarabia, with a prince belonging to the Cireek Church 
 at the head. Russia was to receive Otchakof, the shore 
 between the Bug and the Dnieper, and some islands in 
 the Archipelago, and Austria would annex the Turkish 
 province adjoining its territory. If the Turk should be 
 expelled from Europe, the old Byzantine Empire was to 
 be reestablished, and the throne occupied by Catherine's 
 grandson Constantine, ** who would renounce all his 
 claims to Russia, so that the two empires might never be 
 united under the same scepter." Austria agreed on con- 
 dition that she should also receive the \>netian i)osses- 
 sions in Moldavia, when Venice would be indemnified by 
 part of Greece. 
 
 Soon after this the sultan declared war against Rus- 
 sia. This took Catherine by suri)rise. Other enemies 
 sprang up: the King of Prussia wanted Dantzig, the 
 King- of Sweden. South Finland. The latter invaded 
 Russia and might have marched upon St. Petersburg, for 
 all Catherine could collect was an army of 12,000 men. 
 
 191 
 
 A mutiny in the camp of Gustavus III, compelled him to 
 return to Stockholm, and the opportunity was lost. lie 
 defeated the Russians in the naval battle of Svenska 
 Sund, but a second engagement was to the advantage of 
 Russia. The French Revolution caused him to make 
 peace, and to enter into an alliance with Russia against 
 the French. 
 
 In the south Russian arms were more fortunate. The 
 Turks were defeated in 1789, and 1790, on which occa- 
 sions a young general named Souvorof distinguished 
 himself. Upon the death of Joseph II of Austria, his 
 successor Leopold made peace with Turkey at Sistova. 
 (1791.) It was the French revolution, which seriously 
 alarmed every crowned head in Europe, and which 
 induced Catherine to follow Leopold's example at Jassy, 
 in January, 1792, Russia kept only Otchakof and the 
 shore between the lUig and the Dniester. 
 
 Poland, meanwhile, had made an earnest effort at 
 reform. Thaddeus Kosciusko had returned from the 
 United States, where he had fought for liberty and was 
 trying to save his own country. Born in 1752, he entered 
 a military school founded by the Czartoryskis at the age 
 of twelve, and distinguished himself by attention to his 
 studies and duties. His father was assassinated by exas- 
 perated peasants, and he himself was scornfully ejected 
 by a powerful noble whose daughter he was courting. 
 Attracted by the struggle of a handful of colonists 
 against powerful England, he went to America and 
 served with distinction in the War of the Revolution. 
 After seeing Great Britain humbled and a new republic 
 established in the New World, he came back to Poland 
 
UJ2 
 
 and was soon amon^: the foremost reformers,— a man in 
 whom the patriotic Poles justly trusted. lUit traitors 
 were found to accept Russian brihes, and for the second 
 time Poland was despoiled. Russia annexed the eastern 
 provinces with 3,000,000 inhabitants, and Prussia took 
 Dantzi^ and Thorn. Austria was told that she might 
 take from the French Rei)ublic as much as she wished,— 
 
 or could. 
 
 Manfully and indefatigably did Kosciusko labor to 
 stem the tide of his country's ruin. His patriotism 
 aroused even that of the poor, down-trodden serfs, who 
 had no interests to defend, yet stood by him in battle 
 when the nobles on horseback tied, and wrenched a vic- 
 tory out of defeat. Well might Kosciusko thereafter 
 dress in the garb of a peasant ; a gentleman's dress was a 
 badge of dishonor. 
 
 It was in 1794, that this battle took place and gave 
 the signal, too, for an etTort to restore Poland. P.ut Aus- 
 tria, Prussia, and Russia combined, and Poland was lost. 
 Heroic children were made to pay for the sins of their 
 fathers. Poland expired in 1795. Prussia took Eastern 
 Poland, including Warsaw; Austria annexed Cracow, 
 Sandomir, Lublin, and Selm, and Russia took what 
 remained. The patriots dispersed; most of them took 
 service with the French, hoping for an opportunity to 
 revive their country. 
 
 Catherine took especial pains to prevent the ideas, 
 which alone made the French revolution possible, from 
 entering into Russia. There was no occasion for this 
 prudence. The great majority of the Russian people did 
 not know of any world beyond Russia; most of them 
 
 193 
 
 knew nothing beyond the narrow horizon of their own 
 village, and could neither read nor write. The harrow- 
 ing tales brought by the fugitive French nobles did not 
 tend toward inspiring the Russian aristocracy with sym- 
 l)athy for Liberty, PLquality, and Fraternity. 
 
 Satisfied that Russia was beyond the sphere of what 
 she regarded as pernicious doctrines, Catherine deter- 
 mined to make the greatest possible profit out of the dis- 
 turbed condition of Europe. She never ceased to incite 
 Prussia and Austria against the French Republic, but 
 carefully refrained from spending a dollar or risking a 
 man. She pleaded first her war with Turkey, and after- 
 wards the Polish insurrection. She said to Osterman, 
 one of her ministers: *' Am I wrong? For reasons that 
 I cannot give to the Courts of Berlin and Menna, I wish 
 to involve them in these affairs, so that I may have my 
 hands free. Many of my enterprises are still unfinished, 
 and they must be so occui)ied as to leave me unfettered." 
 
 While Europe was engaged in the hopeless task of 
 establishing and maintaining the divine rights of kings, 
 Catherine began a war with Persia. One of her " unfin- 
 ished enterprises " was interrupted by her death in 
 November, 1796, at the age of sixty-seven. She left the 
 throne to her son Paul. 
 
XXII— RUSSIA DURIXG THE WARS OF 
 
 NAPOLEON 
 
 PAUL was forty-two years old when he succeeded to 
 the throne. His youth and early manhood had 
 been far from pleasant. His mother had never shown 
 any love for him, and Paul had not for-:otten his father's 
 sudden death. He was held in absolute submission, and 
 was not permitted to share in the government ; he had not 
 even a voice in the education of his children. The cour- 
 tiers, in order to please his mother, showed him scant 
 courtesy; this is probably the reason of his sensitiveness 
 after he came to the throne. 1 le ordered men and women 
 to kneel down in the street when he was passing, and 
 those who drove in carriages had to halt. It is also 
 shown in this remark, " Know that the only person of 
 consideration in Russia is the person whom I address, 
 at the moment that I am addressing him." It was justice, 
 but it reflected upon his mother's memory when, im- 
 mediately after her death, Paul ordered his father's 
 remains to be exhumed, to be buried at the same time 
 and with the same pomp as those of Catherine. 
 
 Such a man could have no sympathy with the French 
 revolution which was shaking the foundations of Old 
 Europe. He forbade the use of any word that might 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 be construed to refer to it. He ordered the army 
 to ado])t the Russian uniform, including the powdered 
 pigtails of that time. Souvorof fell in disgrace because 
 he was reported to have said : '* There is powder and 
 powder. Shoe buckles are not gun carriages, nor pig- 
 tails bayonets ; we are not Prussians but Russians." 
 
 Paul pardoned a number of exiled Poles, and brought 
 the last king, Stanislas Poniatofski, to St. Petersburg. 
 He discontinued the war with Persia, and instructed his 
 ambassadors to announce that since Russia, and Russia 
 alone, had been at war since 1756, *' the humanity of the 
 Emperor did not allow him to refuse his beloved subjects 
 the peace for which they sighed." 
 
 Nevertheless, Russia was drawn into Napoleon's gigan- 
 tic wars. Uneasy at the plans of the French Republic, 
 Paul entered into an alliance with England, Austria, 
 Naples, and Turkey. He furnished troops for England's 
 descent upon Holland, and recalled Souvorof to take 
 command of the Russian forces cooperating with those 
 of Austria. The P)ritish expedition proved a failure, but 
 Souvorof's strategy and indomitable courage shed glory 
 upon the Russian army. 
 
 When Souvorof arrived at Vienna, he took command 
 of the allied forces consisting of 90,000 men. On April 
 28, 1799, he surprised Moreau at Cassano and took 3,000 
 prisoners. He entered Milan, and soon after laid siege 
 to Mantua, Alessandria, and Turin. On June 17, Sou- 
 vorof was attacked on the Trebia ; the battle lasted three 
 days, leaving the victory to the Russians. After the 
 victory at Novi, on the 15th of August, the French were 
 forced to evacuate Italv. 
 
196 
 
 Souvorof had divided his force of 80,000 Russians 
 into two corps, one to operate in Switzerland, the other 
 nnder his own command, to conchtct the campaign m^ 
 Italy His great success brought upon him the envy ot 
 the Austrian generals, by whom his movements were con- 
 stantly hampered. He therefore resolved to effect a 
 junction with the forces in Switzerland, who, on the 
 26th of September, had been defeated at Zurich with a 
 loss of 6,000 men. Souvorof did not know this. He 
 reached the St. Gothard on the 21st and crossed it under 
 unheard-of difficulties. " In this kingdom of terrors, ' 
 he writes to Paul, " abysses open beside us at every step, 
 like tombs awaiting our arrival. Nights spent among the 
 clouds, thunder that never ceases, rain, fog, the noise 
 of cataracts, the breaking of avalanches, enormous masses 
 of rocks and ice which fall from the heights, torrents 
 which sometimes carry men and horses down the preci- 
 pices, the St. Gothard, that colossus who sees the mists 
 pass under him,-we have surmounted all, and in these 
 inaccessible spots the enemy has been forced to give way 
 before us. Words fail to describe the horrors we have 
 seen, and in the midst of which Providence has preserved 
 us." " The Russian, inhabitant of the plain, was awe- 
 struck by the grandeur of this mountain scenery." 
 
 Souvorof brushed the French out of his way until, on 
 the 26th, he arrived at Altdorf with the loss of only 2,000 
 men. Here he received information of the defeat at 
 Zurich and saw that he was surrounded on all sides by 
 superior forces. His retreat showed the highest military 
 skill, as well as the man's indomitable energy. Over un- 
 trodden mountains, and snow at one place five feet deep, 
 
 197 
 
 he guided the remains of his army to a lower altitude, and 
 went into winter quarters between the Her and the Lech. 
 
 Souvorof complained bitterly to the czar of the 
 Austrian generals, who had given him ample reason. 
 At about this time Xapoleon had returned from his fruit- 
 less campaign in Egypt, and at Marengo defeated the 
 Austrians. whereby the results of Souvorof's campaign 
 were lost. Paul was angry at Austria and Great Pritain. 
 Xapoleon, shrewdly guessed the czar's feelings, released 
 the Russian ])risoners, after equipj)ing them anew. Paul 
 satisfied that Xapoleon was an enemy of republican in- 
 stitutions, conceived an intense admiration for his military 
 genius, and came to an understanding with him to over- 
 throw liritish rule in India. The czar at once commenced 
 to prepare its execution. Two armies were formed ; one 
 was to march on the I'pper Indus by way of Khiva 
 and Bokhara, while the Cossacks under their hetman 
 Denisof would go by Orenburg. He was confident that 
 the gigantic task could be accomplished, and sent daily 
 instructions to the hetman. 
 
 Xapoleon had a far better idea of the difficulties, but 
 he did not consider the exj)e(lition as hopeless. But even 
 if it failed, he would be the winner, because England 
 would be compelled to send most of her navy to India, 
 while Russia would be too fully occupied, to interfere 
 with his projects in Europe. The Cossacks started on 
 their long journey, by crossing the Volga on the floating 
 ice when, on the 24th of March, 1801, Paul was assassi- 
 nated in his palace. 
 
 There was no doubt as to the guilty men, but Paul's son, 
 Alexander, who succeeded him, did not order an investi- 
 Sto. of Russia— 13 
 
19^ 
 
 gation. Pahlen, Panine, Zoubof. and others, known as 
 the " men of the 24th of March," were removed from 
 office, but that was their only punishment. Paul's mother 
 had aHenated her grandchildren from the father, and 
 Alexander always showed greater affection for Catherine 
 than for Paul. The greatest sufferer was Napoleon, 
 who saw his grand schemes go up in smoke. Alexander 
 reversed his father's policy, both at home and abroad. He 
 came to an understanding with England. NapolecMi tried 
 earnestly to secure the new czar's friendship. He 
 wanted a free hand in Europe and in return offered the 
 same privilege in Asia, but Alexander mistrusted the 
 First Consul. The murder of the Duke of F.nghien, who, 
 by Napoleon's order, was kidnaped in a neutral terri- 
 tory and shot,— still furdier alienated the czar. 
 
 After Napoleon's coronation as emperor, Alexander 
 entered into an alliance with England, whereby he would 
 receive six million dollars for every 100,000 men Russia 
 placed in the field. The Emperor of Austria and the 
 King of Prussia joined, but the Austrians, whose generals 
 seemed unable to learn by experience, were defeated 
 before the Russian army could reach the Tyrol. Once 
 again the Russians covered themselves with glory by 
 Koutouzof's masterly retreat to the north, and liagration's 
 heroic self-sacrifice. At Olmutz, in the presence of Alex- 
 ander, the Russo-Austrian army, 80,000 strong, was 
 attacked by Napoleon with 70,000 men. The Austrians 
 had induced the czar to adopt their plan of battle, and it 
 met with the usual result. Alexander escaped, escorted 
 by his phvsician, two Cossacks, and a company of the 
 Guards. (Dec. 2., 1805.) Twenty-four days later Alex- 
 
 199 
 
 ander concluded peace with France by the Treaty of 
 IVesburg. 
 
 The growing power of Napoleon induced Alexander 
 to enter hitu a new coalition with England, Prussia, and 
 Sweden. Russia bore the brunt of the war, after Prussia 
 had been rendered harmless after the battles of Jena and 
 Auerstadt. The Russians withdrew from Prussian 
 Poland ; they suddenly left their winter quarters and 
 attacked the h>ench. On the 8th of February, one of the 
 bloodiest battles was fought at Eylau ; the h>ench claimed 
 the victory, but it was barren of results. 
 
 Napoleon dreaded Russia. He persuaded the Sultan of 
 Turkey and the Shah of Persia to declare war, so as to 
 occupy Alexander elsewhere. The czar, however, was 
 loyal to his allies until, on the 14th of June, his army 
 was almost annihilated at Friedland. This loss com- 
 pelled him to enter into negotiations. On June 25, 1807, 
 die two emperors met on a raft at Tilsit. Napoleon was 
 prepared to do almost anything that would induce Alex- 
 ander to cease interfering in Europe. An offensive-defen- 
 sive alliance was concluded, whereby Napoleon agreed 
 not to oppose the expulsion of the Turk or Russia's 
 concjuest of Constantinople. The czar meant to carry 
 out the treaty in letter and in spirit, but he soon saw^ that 
 Napoleon's ambition was limitless, and that he was play- 
 ing with his ally. This was evident by the proposed parti- 
 tion of Turkey : nothing came of it. Still he accepted 
 Napoleon's invitation to a conference at F.rfurt. where he 
 was received by the French Emperor amid a court com- 
 posed of sovereigns and princes. A convention was 
 signed on the 12th of October, 1808, whereby Alexander 
 
200 
 
 promised Napoleon a free hand, in return for the annexa- 
 tion by Russia of Finland and the Turkish provinces on 
 
 the Danube. 
 
 This led to a war with (ireat liritain, Sweden, and 
 Austria, not including Turkey and Persia. Russia 
 ac(|uired l^nland, when Alexander, after convoking the 
 Diet, guaranteed its constitution, privileges, and university. 
 In iSaj, war again broke out between Austria and 1' ranee. 
 By the terms of the alliance, Russia had agreed to furnish 
 troops, but they showed that they did not relish fighting 
 with the French. There were two engagements ; in one 
 of these, the casualties were one Russian killed and two 
 wounded. By an oversight of Napoleon the Poles serving 
 under him were to cooperate with the Russians, and, 
 far from doing so, they often came to blows. The Russian 
 general constantly sent complaints to the czar. Napoleon 
 made a great effort to appease Alexander by assigning to 
 Russia Fastern (iallicia with a poptilation of 400,000. 
 Alexander declined to be represented in the peace negotia- 
 tions at \Tenna. Napoleon's creation of the Grand Duke- 
 dom of Warsaw was a constant menace to Russia. 
 
 Meanwhile the Russians were uniformly victorious in 
 Turkey; the czar concluded peace only when it was 
 evident that war with France was unavoidable, and that 
 Russia would need every man. It was on this account 
 that he gave easy terms to the hard-pressed Sultan. 
 Russia annexed r>essarabia. part of Roumania, Ismail, 
 and Kilia on the Lower Danube. 
 
 The time for the momentous struggle had arrived. 
 Napoleon, the master of Continental Europe, thought that 
 he was more than a match for serf-ridden Russia. He 
 
 201 
 
 reckoned upon the echo which the words libertv, equality, 
 and fraternity, would awaken in the hearts of the moujik, 
 and forgot that they were abstract ideas which to the serf, 
 struggling for enough black bread to allay the cravings 
 of hunger, were so many empty sounds. He tried to 
 arouse Europe's suspicions of Russia's designs, not think- 
 ing that any yoke, even that of the Tartars, would be a 
 welcome relief to nations mourning for the slaughter of 
 their sons. 
 
 Nai)oleon left Paris for Dresden on the 9th of May, 
 181 2 ; on the first of June an army of 678,000 men, includ- 
 ing 60,000 Poles, stood ready to invade Russia. Alex- 
 ander had only 150,000 men under liagration and 
 Barclay de Tolly, 90,000 posted on the Niemen, and 
 60,000 on the \'istula ; but he issued a proclamation 
 announcing a Holy War. " Rise all of you ! " he urged, 
 ** With the Cross in your hearts and arms in your hands, 
 no human force can prevail against you ! " 
 
 Napoleon advanced clutching shadows. After his army 
 left Wihia, leaving dead desolation in its wake, the time 
 soon came when retreat was no longer possible. Russian 
 patriotism clamored for battle and Russian prudence had 
 to give way to it. All of Koutouzofs remarkable in- 
 fluence was required to restrain his men under the retreat 
 which foretold victory, because every step forward sealed 
 Napoleon's doom. The Corsican knew it but, with the 
 superstition born in him, trusted to his star. Finally 
 he drew near M(xscow, the Holy City, where Count 
 Rostopchine, the governor, was preparing the grand 
 climax of the drama, while pacifying Russian patriotism 
 by a series of hardv falsehoods. '* I have resolved," he 
 
202 
 
 explained, " at every disagreeable piece of news to raise 
 doubts as to its trutb : by this means, I shall weaken the 
 first impression, and before there is time to verify it, 
 others will come which will require investiiration." The 
 people implicitly believed his most darin- inventions. 
 When he evactiated Moscow, he ordered all prisons to be 
 opened, and the Ki"i> i" ^he arsenal to be distribtited 
 among the people ; he also had the i>umps removed and 
 finally gave instructions to set fire to the stores of vodka 
 and die boats loaded with alcohol. 
 
 Napoleon arrived at the Kremlin on the 14th of 
 September. Short as was his sojourn, it was widi diffi- 
 culty that he escaped through the tlames and found refuge 
 iu a park. W'hv did he waste thirty-five days in the 
 charred capital? Was it belief in his star, or was it 
 despair at the ruin of his prospects? On the 13th of 
 October, tlie remnant of the Oand Army started on its 
 loner journev over the desert it had left behind, because 
 all other roads were closed to it. The retreat has been 
 described bv manv writers; but what pen shall do justice 
 to the suffering caused by the unusually severe winter, 
 the snow, the ice, the hunger, an.l the diirst? And how 
 tiianv hearts were rent, when the ncu.s came of die dead, 
 the wounded, and the missing? Xapoleon's campaign in 
 Russia was the most impressive sermoti acrainst war, but 
 it fell upon heedless ears. 
 
 \fter the liattle of the Berezina, Napoleon left the 
 armv and hurried home. All his thoughts were on the 
 eft-ect of die disastrous defeat,-not upon the hundred 
 thousand desolate homes, but upon his own fortunes. He 
 arrived in Paris where he gathered 450.000 men, many ot 
 
 \ 
 
 203 
 
 them mere youths, to support him with their blood. But 
 Europe was weary of slaughter. Kings might tremble 
 for dieir crowns, it was die people, aroused to frenzy, 
 that impelled them to action. On Napoleon's heels, 
 besides, there was a bloodhound whom nobler instincts 
 than mere self-preservation inspired to ceaseless pursuit. 
 Alexander I, at diis time, earned and deserved the glorious 
 surname of The Well-beloved. Not a thought of self- 
 glory or personal aggrandizement sullied the relentless 
 chase. Emperors and kings dreading the awakened 
 conscience of the people would have made peace, and 
 they could have done so with security for themselves, 
 but Alexander said, '' No ! " Under fire at the four days' 
 battle of Leipzig, he personally directed reenforcements 
 where they were required. And when, at last, the 
 host of invaders stepped on the soil whose people during 
 twenty years had committed outrages in almost every 
 known country of Europe, they were noble words which 
 the Autocrat addressed to his troops whom he had 
 brought so far away from home. " By invading our 
 empire," he says, " the enemy has done us much harm, 
 and has therefore been subjected to a terrible chastise- 
 ment. The anger of Ciod has overthrown liim. Do not 
 let us imitate him. The merciful God does not love 
 cruel and inhuman men. Let us forget the evil he has 
 wrought: let us carry to our foes, not vengeance and 
 hate, but friendship, and a hand extended in peace." 
 
 These were not mere words; Alexander die Well- 
 beloved was sincere. But it was he who refused to 
 receive Napoleon's envoy at. Freiburg, and it was he 
 who, when Napoleon, fighting like a tiger at bay, was 
 
204 
 
 defeating the separated armies, so that the British envoy 
 urged to come to terms with him, answered. *' It would 
 not be a peace but a truce. I cannot come four hundred 
 leagues to your assistance every day. Xo peace, so long 
 as Napoleon is on the throne!" I'v his direction the 
 united armies rolled like an avaianciic upon Paris, — and 
 Napoleon gave up the struggle by abdicating. 
 
 Again it was Alexander the W'ell-bclnvrd who inter- 
 vened when other powers would have overwhelmed the 
 fallen colossus. It was Alexander who ])rocured for his 
 enemv the sovereignty of the island of l^lba, and com- 
 missioned Count Schouvalof to escort him. '* I confide 
 to you a great mission ; " he said ; " you will answer 
 to me with your head for a single hair which falls from 
 the head of Napoleon." 
 
 At the Congress of Menna assembled the statesmen 
 to dispose of nations and peoples, as their own ambition 
 prompted. Alexander desired to unite Poland to his 
 crown, but separate from Russia; but was opposed by 
 Austria, Cireat I'ritain, and hVance, who entered into 
 a secret alliance against him. Had Napoleon waited two 
 hundred days instead of half that time, who kn<nvs that 
 he might not yet have been the arbiter of Europe? Mis 
 descent united all factions, and Alexander declared that 
 he w^ould pursue Napoleon " down to his last man and his 
 
 last ruble." 
 
 Once again armies were set in motion, and once again 
 Napoleon resorted to his well-known tactics of destroying 
 his enemies one by one. He failed at Waterloo. (June 
 17, 1815.) Again the allies re-entered Paris, the IVus- 
 sians first but closely followed by the czar and his army. 
 
 205 
 
 ** Justice, but no revenge! " ])roclaimed Alexander when 
 liliicher would have followed Napoleon's example of 
 robbing a country of its works of art. The czar stood 
 the friend of hVance when Prussia demanded a frontier 
 which would render her safe from French invasion; but 
 he said frankly that he '* wished to allow some danger 
 to exist on that side, so that Cermany, having need of 
 Russia, might remain dependent." He was in favor of 
 allowing the rVench to select their ow^n government, but 
 was overruled. At last the allies came to an understand- 
 ing, and Poland was joined to the Russian Crown. 
 
 The Polish soldiers who had fought so bravely under 
 Nai)ole()n, placed themselves at the czar's service, hoping 
 and trusting that their country w^ould revive under a 
 Russian king. Alexander's promises at \'ienna had 
 been vague, but recent events had made a deep impres- 
 sion ui)on him. In this frame of mind, he directed that 
 Poland be restored. This was announced on the 21st of 
 June, at Warsaw amid the roar of cannon. Constantine, 
 Alexander's ])r()ther, was made King, and a legislative 
 body, com])osed of a senate and house of representatives, 
 was formed under a constitution which also guaranteed 
 the freedom of the press. 
 
 Thus Alexander returned to Russia. Soon after that 
 he gave evidence that strong emotions were required to 
 subdue the inborn prejudice in favor of autocracy. Rus- 
 sia, of necessity, had accpiired an overwhelming influence 
 in Europe. This showed at the several Congresses, at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, at Carlsbad in 1819, at Troppau 
 in 1820, and at Verona in 1822. The crowned heads of 
 Europe appeared unable to comprehend that the French 
 
2o6 
 
 revolution, with its orc^ies of blood and tears, had pro- 
 duced an impassable abyss between the ei.i^diteenth and 
 nineteenth centuries. They wished to return to the con- 
 ditions prevailing before the revolution, which caused the 
 success of that upheaval ; but the people, the masses, had 
 quaffed of the cup of liberty, and the taste linp:ered. The 
 Holy Alliance with its unholy aims mij^ht ordain what it 
 pleased, the people obstinately refused to resume the place 
 of beasts of burden for the benefit of the State. Thus a 
 spirit of unrest was perceptible, and when Alexander 
 learned that his '* 1, the czar, will it!" was not able to 
 restore quiet, he joined the other crowned headh m their 
 strui^gle against more liberal ideas. From that time his 
 conduct changed. 
 
 There was evidence of this in the events occuring in 
 the south. The majority of the inhabitants of the Balkan 
 provinces of Turkey belonged to the Oeek Church, and 
 looked to Alexander for relief from the oppressive 
 Mahomedan > oke. The Servians took up arms, the people 
 of Greece did the same. On Easter day, 1821. the 
 Patriarch of the Greek Church at Constantinople was 
 seized at the altar, and hung in his vestment at the door 
 of the church. Three metropolitans and eight bishops 
 were also murdered. The news caused deep indignation 
 in Russia, but Alexander moved not. He believed in the 
 theor\' that no people should be encouraged in rising 
 against its ordained masters. In Russia all liberal ideas 
 w^ere rigidly suppressed. 
 
 In 1825, Alexander left St. Petersburg for the south 
 where he intended to spend some time. He was full of 
 gloomy forebodings and gave further evidence of an 
 
 i 
 
 207 
 
 unsound mind by having a mass for the dead sung in his 
 presence in broad daylight. While in the Crimea he was 
 heard to repeat : " They may say what they like of me, 
 but I have lived and will die a republican." He died on 
 the 19th of November, 1825, while on his journey. 
 
 He left no sons. His brother Constantine had re- 
 nounced the crown when he became King of Poland, 
 and in 1823, Alexander had made his next brother 
 Nicholas his successor. Alexander's reign marked a 
 new era for Russia inasmuch as it was brought into 
 closer contact with Europe, and promised to change in 
 thought and impulse, from an Asiatic into a European 
 nation. The necessity of securing the help of the masses 
 against Napoleon's invasion created newspapers, and 
 writers of unusual ability expressed their patriotic 
 thoughts in prose and poetry. In 1814, the Imperial 
 Library was opened to the public at St. Petersburg. It 
 contained at that time 242,000 volumes, and about 10,000 
 
 manuscripts. 
 
 In 1803, Captains Krusenstern and Lisianski made the 
 first Russian vovage around the world in the Nadcjda 
 (the Hope), and the Ncra. It was on this occasion that 
 Russia entered into relations with the United States. 
 
XXIII— AX EVEXTFUL PERIOD 
 
 ALEXAXDER'S will came as a surprise upon 
 Xicholas, but Constantine was loyal to his promise 
 and after a brief but <^cnerous contest, Xicholas was 
 crowned at Moscow. Twenty-three days had elapsed 
 since Alexander's death, lons^ enough to show that the 
 spirit of unrest had penetrated into Russia. On the 2r)th 
 of December there were some disturbances at Moscow, 
 but they were suppressed without great trouble. The 
 secret police hunted down the leaders, many of whom 
 were known in art or literature, but they suffered death. 
 Xicholas, a man of colossal stature, commanding appear- 
 ance, iron will, passion for a military life, of simple and 
 correct habits, was a true champion of the right divine 
 of kings. He had neither sympathy nor patience wdth 
 any movement tending toward greater liberty for the 
 people. Xevertheless Xicholas was much more popular 
 than Alexander had been, because he was the type of the 
 Russian czars, who had increased Russia's power and 
 territory. 
 
 Xot many days after his coronation, Xicholas became 
 involved in a quarrel with the Shah of Persia. In vain 
 did the shah call upon (ireat P.ritain for hel]> ; the Per- 
 sians were twice defeated in 1826, and the Russians were 
 
 208 
 
 I 
 
 209 
 
 on the road to Teheran when the shah preferred to save 
 his capital by ceding two provinces, and paying a heavy 
 indemnitv in 1828. The following year, the Russian 
 Minister at Teheran was nnirdered, but Persia escaped 
 with a humble ai)ology. 
 
 Turkev, too, was made to feel Xicholas' heavy hand; 
 urged by other powers the sultan submitted to the loss 
 of territory in Asia, which had been in dispute, and per- 
 mitted the free passage of Russian vessels between the 
 P»lack Sea and the Mediterranean. (Convention of 
 Akkerman, Oct. 8, 1826.) The czar, after this, took up 
 the (ireek question, and entered into an agreement with 
 Enirland and France. In vain did the sultan offer the 
 plea which had been successful with Alexander, that the 
 Greeks " violated the passive obedience owed by subjects 
 to their legitimate sovereigns." Xicholas wanted Turkey 
 for himself, and proposed to leave no stone unturned to 
 secure possession of Constantinople. 
 
 After the battle of Xavarino, on the 20th of October, 
 1827, where the allied forces destroyed the Turkish fleet. 
 England withdrew, suspicious of Xicholas' schemes; but 
 I'rance and Russia continued the war until by the Peace 
 of Adrianople, the sultan recognized the independence of 
 (Ireece, — and ceded to Russia four fortresses in Asia 
 and the islands in the delta of the Danube. Russia was 
 thus in possession of the whole southern slope of the 
 Caucasus, besides holding part of its northern front. 
 The czar began war upon the tribes dwelling in the 
 mountains, but found that he had engaged in a very diffi- 
 cult enterprise. A soldier-priest named Schamyl defied 
 the power of Russia for a quarter of a century. It cost 
 
210 
 
 Nicholas more in men and money to subdue the liberty- 
 lovini; mountaineer, than all the wars he wa^ed in Asia. 
 
 The year 1830, was one of j^reat unrest in Europe. 
 Nicholas was deeply angered when his friend Charles X 
 of France was expelled. The revolution in Paris was the 
 signal for a similar movement in the capital of Poland. 
 Owing to the independent expression of opinion in the 
 Diet, Alexander had adjourned that body indefinitely in 
 1822. At the same time the liberty of the press was 
 revoked and the police assumed a power in defiance of 
 the law. The Grand Duke Constantine was really a 
 friend of Poland, but he was eccentric and inpetuous 
 and often unconsciously gave ofTense. In 1830, Nicholas 
 came to Warsaw to open the Diet, when its members 
 made demands which he could not grant. IJoth sides 
 were angry when Nicholas returned to St. Petersburg. 
 
 As soon as the French tricolor was raised above the 
 consulate at Warsaw, the trouble commenced. Taken 
 unprepared, Constantine withdrew with his troops. 
 Again the Poles were divided ; the patriots advised recon- 
 ciliation with Russia, while hotheads demanded the 
 abdication of the Romanofs. The first party sent a depu- 
 tation to St. Petersburg and another to Paris and Lon- 
 don, to secure mediation. The czar's answer was 
 decisive ; he absolutely refused to ** make concessions 
 (to the revolutionists), as the price of their crimes." 
 Again, too, there was discord among the leaders as they 
 entered upon a life or death struggle. Poland appealed 
 to Europe. The people were sympathetic, but the gov- 
 ernments, rejoicing at seeing a revolutionary movement 
 suppressed, refused to interfere. 
 
 2TT 
 
 In February, 183 1, a Russian army of 130,000 men 
 invaded Poland. The Poles showed a heroism which 
 appealed to the i)eople of Europe, but more than sym- 
 pathy was needed to arrest the irresistible Russian 
 advance upon Warsaw. Constantine and the Russian 
 commander-in-chief fell the victims of cholera, but an 
 epidemic of discord struck Poland and sealed its fate. 
 On the 6th of September, Warsaw was invested. The 
 capital was forced to surrender. '* Warsaw is at your 
 feet," wrote the commander-in-chief to the czar, who 
 lost no time in trampling upon the conquered. The con- 
 stitution was abrogated, the Diet, a thing of the past. 
 Poland was no more. Where it had stood, was a Russian 
 province. Russian officials introduced Russian taxes, 
 Russian coinage, and Russian justice such as it was. 
 The Poles saw samples of it when thousands were 
 arrested widiout process of law, and were sent to 
 pri.son or to Siberia, while other thousands lost their 
 l)roperty by confiscation. In White Russia and Lithuania 
 the use of the Polish language was prohibited and the 
 Catholic Clergy were forced to " ask;' admittance to the 
 bosom of the Greek Church. It must be admitted that 
 the Polish peasants benefited by the change. With a view 
 of reducing the influence of the nobles, the government 
 issued regulations protecting the laborer against the 
 landowner. 
 
 The Polish revolution caused the reorganization of 
 European policies. Austria and Prussia, each in posses- 
 sion of territory that formerly belonged to Poland, 
 entered into friendly relations with Russia, whereas Eng- 
 land and France, where public opinion could not be 
 
212 
 
 ignored, drew more closely together. Nicholas was 
 posing as the arbiter of luirope and the champion of 
 kings. He assumed the right to command, hut would 
 soon find his will C()nteste<l. 
 
 This was brought home to him in l^^32, when trouble 
 broke out between Turkey and ICgypt. The I\gyi)tian 
 armv was victorious and threatened Constantinople, 
 when the sultan appealed to the powers. Russia 
 responiled at once by sending two armies, but a strong 
 protest from England and h>ance caused the withdrawal 
 of the troops of Russia as well as those of Kgypt. Raf- 
 fled, Nicholas on June 3, 1833, entered into an ofifensive- 
 defensive alliance with the sultan, which really i)lace(l 
 Turkey and with it Constantinople in Russia's i)Ower. 
 Another sharp protest from England and bVance 
 prevented the consummation of the alliance. 
 
 In 1839 the trouble between Turkey and Egypt recom- 
 menced when Creat liritain, anxious to preserve Tur- 
 key's integrity, entered into an agreement with Russia, 
 Austria and Prussia, which was signed at London in 
 Julv, 1840. There was sr^iK* danger of a war with 
 Erance but England, fearmg Russia's designs, returned 
 to her former ally. liy the Convention of July 13, 1841, 
 Russia's designs upon old Czargrad were postponed until 
 a more favorable opportunity. In 1844, Nicholas visited 
 England, but his recej)tion in London was cool. He, 
 however, entered into an agreement whereby the Khan- 
 ates of Central Asia should remain neutral ground 
 between Russia and India. 
 
 In 1846, trouble broke out in (iallicia, where the Poles 
 rose against Austria ; but as the nobles had to subdue 
 
 213 
 
 a revolt of their own peasants, order was quickly re- 
 stored. The free city Cracow was the resort of the Poles. 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia sent troops against it, and 
 Cracow was annexed by Austria notwithstanding a pro- 
 test from England and Erance. 
 
 The year 1848 will long be remembered for the blows 
 bestowed upon the divine right of kings, and the privi- 
 leges which the sovereigns were compelled to concede to 
 the people. The Em])eror Eerdinand of Austria was 
 expelled from his capital, and the King of Prussia was 
 subjected to humiliation by his own people. Erance pro- 
 claimed the republic, and Nicholas proclaimed himself 
 tlie champion of the right divine. He dispatched an 
 army into Hungary, which was soon " at the feet of 
 your Majesty," and felt the wrath of the frightened 
 Ferdinand. 
 
 Notwithstanding this cooperation, the understanding 
 among the three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, 
 was giving wav before individual interests. When, in 
 1852, Prussia attempted to seize the German provinces 
 of Denmark, it was Nicholas who compelled her to with- 
 draw. On the 8th of May of that year, the independence 
 and integrity of Denmark were recognized by the Treaty 
 of London. 
 
 In the same year Louis Napoleon made an end to the 
 Erench Republic by the notorious Coup t/' Etat. This 
 gave great satisfaction to the czar who was heard to 
 remark : " Erance has set an evil example ; she will now 
 set a good one. I have faith in the conduct of Louis 
 Napoleon." The new emperor of Erance did not seem 
 to appreciate this condescension, or else he showed gross 
 Sto. ok Russia — 14 
 
214 
 
 ingratitude when France and Austria, without even con- 
 sulting Nicholas, settled some troubles in Turkev. The 
 czar sent Mcnzikoff as s])ecial envoy to Constantin()j)le 
 to demand a new uealy whereby Russia's rights as Pro- 
 tector of the (ireek Christians should be recognized. 
 Supported as he was by hVance, the sultan refused. 
 Nicholas then had a plain talk with Sir Hamilton Sey- 
 mour, the British Minister at St. Petersburg, wherein he 
 revealed his designs upon Turkey. As to Constantinople, 
 he said, he might establish himself there as a trustee, but 
 not as a proprietor. Sir Hamilton, as in duty bound, 
 notified his government, and England hastened to join 
 France in opposing Russia. 
 
 Pretending that all he wanted was a recognition of his 
 rights, Nicholas, on the 3(1 of July, 1853, sent an army 
 under Gortchakof across the Pruth. At this an allied 
 British-French fleet took up a position near the threat- 
 ened point, but did not cross the Straits, which would 
 have been a violation of the treaty. Nicholas stormed; 
 he declared that " This was a threat " and would lead to 
 complications. Austria proposed a conference at which 
 Russia, Great I'ritain, France, Austria and Prussia 
 assisted. It seemed as if peace would be secured, when 
 the sultan demanded that the Russian forces should 
 withdraw, whereupon Admiral Nakhimof, on the 30th 
 of November, 1853, destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope. 
 The British-French fleet then sailed into the Black Sea, 
 and the Russian ships sought shelter in the ports. 
 
 In January, 1854, Napoleon III made a last attempt at 
 maintaining peace, but Nicholas was thoroughly angry 
 at the publication of Seymour's dispatches, claiming that 
 
 21 
 
 the conversation with the British Minister was entitled 
 to secrecy as between '* a friend and a gentleman." Aus- 
 tria and Prussia resented the contempt which the czar 
 had expressed for them, and on the loth of April Eng- 
 land and France entered into an oflfensive-defensive alli- 
 ance. Ten days later Austria and Prussia arrived at a 
 written agreement providing for the possibility that the 
 Russians should attack Austria or cross the Balkans. 
 Nicholas had aroused all Europe against him. 
 
 The Russian fleet was unable to cope with that of the 
 allies, and thus condemned to inactivity in the ports. 
 After heroic efforts, the Russians were compelled to raise 
 the siege of Silistria, and to retire from the Danube, 
 while Austria occui)ied the evacuated territory. But 
 Nicholas was dismayed when, after a conference on July 
 21, 1854, the allied commanders resolved to attack the 
 Crimea. Russia i^'as unprepared. It was the assault 
 upon Russia's vaunted " holy soil," which gave a severe 
 blow to the arbiter of Europe, at home as well as abroad. 
 Still with dogged energy the Russians worked to con- 
 struct defenses. On the 14th of September 500 troop- 
 ships landed the allied armies, and on the 20th, the Battle 
 of the Alma opened the road to Sebastopol. The port of 
 I'alaclava was captured by the allies, and three bloody 
 battles were fought, at P>alaclava on the 25th of October, 
 at Inkermann on the 5th of November, and at Eupatoria 
 on the 17th of February. 1855. 
 
 It seemed as if the knowledge that an enemy was in 
 Russia, aroused the Russians from a torpor. Pamphlets 
 and other publications denouncing the government in 
 withering terms, seemed to spring up from the pave- 
 
2l6 
 
 ment. *' Arise, Oh Russia ! " says one unknown writer, 
 '* Devoured by enemies, ruined by slavery, shamefully 
 oppressed by the stupidity of tchinovnik and spies, 
 awaken from thy long- sleep of ignorance and apathy ! 
 We have been kept in bondage long enough by the suc- 
 cessors of the Tartar khaiis. Arise ! and stand erect and 
 calm before the throne of the despot ; demand of him a 
 reckoning for the national misfortunes. Tell him boldly 
 that his throne is not the altar of God, and that God has 
 not condemned us to be slaves forever." 
 
 The feeling among his people was not unknown to 
 Nicholas. Whatever may be said of him, he was not 
 weakling, fool, or hypocrite, and it was no disgrace 
 that he felt as if the ground were giving way under his 
 feet. He was upright and sincere, and had lived up to 
 his convictions. There is no doubt that when these con- 
 victions grew dim, his strength vanished. He was heard 
 to exclaim '* My successor may do what he will : I can- 
 not change." The sincerity of this man of iron showed 
 in his losing his courage when doubts arose. Life ceased 
 to have any value for him. One day, in February, 1855, 
 while suffering from a severe cold, he went out without 
 his overcoat. To the physician who tried to restrain him, 
 he said : '' You have done your duty ; now let me do 
 mine ! " A serious illness followed, and he sent for his 
 successor to whom he gave some instructions. As a 
 message to his people, and a last cry for sympathy, he 
 dictated the dispatch '* The emperor is dying," which 
 was sent to all the large towns of Russia. On the 19th 
 of March, 1855, Nicholas I was dead. 
 
 Under his directions wealthv merchants were classi- 
 
 217 
 
 fied as '' chief citizens," which procured for them exemp- 
 tion from poll-tax, conscrii)tion, and corporal punish- 
 ment. They might take part in the assessment of real 
 estate, and^vere eligible to the offices to which members 
 of the first class were entitled. The same privilege was 
 extended to all who were entitled to the degree of Master 
 of Arts, and free-born and qualified artists. It was he 
 who built the first railway in Russia, by drawing a 
 straight line between Moscow and St. Petersburg. He 
 also joined the X'olga and the Don by a canal. His reign 
 is also noted for the progress of Russian literature. The 
 works of Ivan Tourguenief are known throughout the 
 civilized world. 
 
(2l8) 
 
 Alexander II 
 
 XXIV— ALEXANDER II, THE LIBERATOR 
 
 ALEXANDER II was thirty-seven years old when he 
 succeeded to the throne. The war oppressed Rus- 
 sia, and he felt that peace nnist be concluded. But 
 Russian diplomacy loves die tortuous path. The first 
 proclamation of the czar announced that he promised 
 ** to accomplish the plans and desires of our illustrious 
 predecessors, Peter, Catherine, Alexander the Well- 
 beloved, and our father of imperishable memory." It was 
 hoped that this would cause the other powers to propose 
 peace, on account of the expense of the war. Indeed, a 
 conference was proposed and took place at Vienna, but 
 the demands of the allies were not so modest as Russia 
 expected ; hence the war continued, and with it the siege 
 of Sebastopol. 
 
 The Danube territory was lost to Russia since, on the 
 2d December 1854, Austria had undertaken to defend 
 it, and Prussia had agreed to help Austria. But Sebasto- 
 pol was stubbornly defended. In the latter part of 
 August 1855, 874 guns vomited death and destruction 
 upon the doomed city where the Russians lost 18,000 
 men. The Erench had dug fifty miles of trenches during 
 the 366 days of the siege, and 4,100 feet of mines before 
 a single bastion. In one day 70000 bombs and shells 
 
 219 
 
IJIS) 
 
 Alexander 11 
 
 XXI\ -ALKXAXDKR II, THE LIliERATOR 
 
 ALl'.X AXDl^k II was tliirtx -seven years old when he 
 succeeded to tlie throm-. The war oppressed Rus- 
 sia, an<l he l\ll ihaL p<.-.u ^ must 1)e eonehided. Ihit 
 Russian diplouiacv loves the tortuous i)ath. The hrst 
 ]»ritelam.'>ti(.n of the czar announced that he promised 
 "to accomphsh the plans and desires of our illustrious 
 predecessors, Peter, Catherine. Alexander the W'ell- 
 hi'Ioved, and (tur father nf inipcrislinhle mcniory." It was 
 hoped that this would cau.se the oiiier p«»\\ers to ])r()])osc 
 peace, on account of the e.\])ense of the war. Indeed, a 
 conference was proposrd and to(»k ])lace at \ ituna, hut 
 the demands of the allies were not so modest as Russia 
 expected: hence the war contiiuted. and with it the sieij^e 
 i»f Sebast(tpol. 
 
 The Oanuhe territory was lost to Russia since, on the 
 Ji\ December 1*^54, Austria had undertaken to defend 
 it. and Prussia had agreed to hel]) Austria. Put Sebasto- 
 pol was stubbornly defended. In the latter i)art of 
 .\ui4Ust 11^53, •'^74 i;uns vomited death and destruction 
 upon the doomed cit\ where the Russians lost |S.(X)0 
 nu-n. The JM-ench had dn.^- flftv miles of triuches durini^ 
 the V'^' da\s of the sieiic and 4.100 feet of nn'nes 1)efore 
 a sint^le ba>tion. In one day 7()()()() bombs and shells 
 
 219 
 
220 
 
 were tired into the town. On the 8th of September the 
 assault was ordered, and Sebastopol fell. 
 
 Again Russia tried what boasting would effect. Gor- 
 tchakof declared to whoever chose to believe him that he 
 would not voluntarily al)andon the country where Saint 
 Madimir had received baptism, and the official news- 
 paper atmounced that the war was now becoming serious, 
 and that Sebastopol being destroyed, a stronger fortress 
 would be built. This meant that Russia was anxious to 
 secure favorable terms. The war had cost 250,000 men, 
 and Russia's credit at home was in a bad condition. 
 Austria offered the basis of an agreement which was 
 accepted by Russia, and on the 25th of February, 1856, 
 a Congress met at Paris. Five days later the Treaty of 
 Paris was signed. Russia renounced the right of pro- 
 tecting the Christians in the Danubian principalities, and 
 restored the delta of that river. The Black Sea was 
 opened to merchant vessels of all nations, but closed to 
 all warships, and no arsenals were to be constructed on 
 its shores. The sultan agreed to renew the privileges of 
 his Christian subjects, but with the understanding that 
 the powers should not find cause to interfere. It was a 
 hard blow to Russia's prestige, and indefinitely postponed 
 the execution of making of Russia the restored Eastern 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Alexander, in many respects, was the opposite of his 
 father; he seemed more like his uncle in his younger 
 days when he earned the surname of Well-beloved. It 
 may bo, however, that Alexander was but the executor 
 of his father's instructions, after doubt began to torture 
 him. It is known that Nicholas had seriouslv considered 
 
 221 
 
 the emancipation of the serfs. Alexander took it up in 
 earnest. There were two serious diflficulties, namely, the 
 compensation to be allowed to the serf owners, and the 
 extent of the soil to be allotted to the serfs. It must be 
 remembered that, although the peasant had become re- 
 signed to serve the landowner, his proverb : " Our backs 
 are the owMier's, but the soil is our own," show^ed how 
 stubbornly he held to the conviction that it was his own 
 land which he cultivated, however little profit he derived 
 from his toil. For once the tchinovnik dared not inter- 
 fere; public opinion had so strongly condemned their 
 incompetence and dishonesty that the Russian official w^as 
 glad to efface himself ; the landowners, on the other hand, 
 showed little enthusiasm. They knew w^hat their revenues 
 were, but not what they would be under altered circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Soon after the Treaty of Paris had restored peace, 
 Alexander addressed his " faithful nobles " at Moscow, 
 inviting them to consult about the proper measures to 
 be taken with the view^ to emancipation. When this 
 produced no results, he appointed a Committee, '' for 
 the amelioration of the condition of the peasants." 
 The nobles of Poland, seeing what was coming, declared 
 themselves ready to emancipate their serfs. The czar 
 gave his consent and the ukase containing it was sent to 
 all the governors and marshals of the nobility " for your 
 information," and also *' for your instruction if the nobles 
 under your administration should express the same in- 
 tention as those of the three Lithuanian governments." 
 
 The press supported the czar, and for that reason was 
 allowed an unusual freedom of expression. The plan was 
 
222 
 
 formed to reconstruct and strcnj^then the national nilr. 
 This was favored by a number of larj^e landowners who 
 saw in this plan the beginning of constitutional liberty. 
 The czar directed that committees be appointed to 
 examine the scheme. 
 
 There were at this time 47,000,000 serf«^ of whom 21,- 
 000,000 belonged to private landowners, 1,400,000 were 
 domestic servants, and the rest Crown ])easants who 
 possessed greater i)rivileges and enjoyed "^omc degree of 
 self-government. Their local affairs were administered 
 by the mir and an elected council w ith an elder as execu- 
 tive. They were judged by elected courts, that is juries, 
 either in the mir court or in that of the volost (district). 
 
 Forty-six committees composed of 1,336 land and serf- 
 owners, assembled to discuss the future of 22,500,000 
 serfs and of 120.000 owners. These committees declared 
 in favor of emancipation, but could not agree upon the 
 allowance of acreage or the indemnity to the owners. 
 Another committee of twelve was ai)pointed, presided 
 over by the czar, but there Alexander met considerable 
 passive opposition. The czar made a journey through 
 the provinces, where he appealed to the nobles, warning 
 them that " reforms came better from alx)ve than below.'' 
 After his return another committee superior in authority 
 to the one existing and composed of friends of 
 emancipaticm was called. Its members, inspired by the 
 czar, drafted laws whereby emancii)ation was to ])roceed 
 at once, and stringent laws were made to i)revent the free 
 peasant from again becoming a serf, and to make of him a 
 proprietor upon payment of an indemnity. On the 3d 
 of March, 1861, the emancipation ukase was published. 
 
 223 
 
 The scheme, as is evident, was fraught with difficulty. 
 A stroke of the ])en by the hand of the czar could set free 
 millions of serfs, but all the czar's ])ower stopped short 
 of endow ing the serf w ith the dignity and responsibility, 
 which are the freeman's birthright, h'or more than a 
 centurv and a half, the moujik had been a beast of burden, 
 toiling as he was bid, and finding recreation only in 
 besotting himself with strong drink whenever he could 
 find the means to indulge. Mental faculties, save such 
 as are insei)arable from animal instinct, had lain dormant ; 
 moral j)erception was limited between the knout on one 
 side, and gross superstition on the other. Could such a 
 being be intrusted with life and pro])erty ? When the 
 serf, brutalized by generations of oppression, should come 
 to understand that he was free to do as he pleased, and 
 that the hovel where he and his brood were styed was 
 his to do with as he pleased, what could he be expected 
 to do?* Would he not seize the opportunity to indulge in 
 his favorite craving, and, having sold his property, swell 
 the army of homeless vagabonds ? 
 
 The mir was the only means to prevent this, and mir 
 meant serfdom under anodier name. The landowners 
 (lis])ose(l of their land, or of so much as was required to 
 support the ])easants, not to individuals but to the mir. 
 To indemnify the owners, the mir could secure a loan 
 whereby the debt was transferred from the owner to the 
 government, and the mir was responsible for its payment 
 as well as for the taxes. The moujik, as part of the mir, 
 was responsible to the community for his share of the 
 debt, and was not allowed to leave his village without 
 a written permission from the starost or elder. He was, 
 
224 
 
 therefore, in a worse position than hefore the emancipa- 
 tion because in time of distress it was his lord's interest 
 to support him, whereas after it he had to deal with a 
 soulless government that demanded the taxes regardless 
 of circumstances. The mir might succeed so long as the 
 peasant remained in a state of tutelage; education only 
 could lift him out of this, — but this means was not con- 
 sidered by the government. 
 
 But whatever may have been Alexander's intentions, 
 the men charged with their execution had no sympathy 
 with the moujik. The question never occurred to them: 
 How shall we raise the peasant from his degradation? 
 The problem before them was, how he should be made to 
 support the State, as he had done before. The Russian 
 statesmen had no conception of the truth that the wealth 
 of a State is guaged by the prosperity of the people. 
 
 As to the serf, he did not consider that a boon had been 
 bestowed ujxm him. The soil and the hovel were his. 
 descended to him from his forbears! Why, then, should 
 he pay for them? He clung to this idea with all the stub- 
 bornness inplanted by a sense of justice upon a limited 
 intelligence. It had been hammered into his head that 
 the Little Father at St. Petersburg was conferring a favor 
 upon him, and this was within his limited conception; 
 but when he heard what the favor was, the only solution 
 which his cunning brain could devise was that the nobles 
 had cheated the czar, or that there had been some jug- 
 gling with the ukase. Thus grave disturbances occurred. 
 In one district, that of Kazan, 10,000 men rose at the call 
 of the moujik Petrof. who promised them the real article 
 of libertv. Tr(X)ps were called out and a hundred peasants 
 
 2-25 
 
 besides Petrof were shot. Similar disturbances occurred 
 in other provinces. The poor moujik did not know that 
 he was saddled with a debt which neither he nor his 
 children could hope to pay ; but he did know that he was 
 charged with a debt which he had not incurred. 
 
 Nevertheless, the emancipation was a step forward. 
 Under the liberal impulse then rushing irresistibly over 
 Russia's broad level the upper classes clamored for 
 reforms. They asked for the re-estabilishment of the 
 douma as the beginning of a constitutional government, 
 but the czar was not prepared to grant this, and he was 
 right because under existing circumstances the peasants 
 would have to be disfranchized,— and there is small choice 
 between an autocracy and an oligarchy. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the reforms in the judicial 
 system, introduced by Alexander in the ukases of 1862 
 to 1865, have since been rescinded. Secret examinations 
 were displaced by open sessions of the courts, and crimi- 
 nal cases were decided by juries; the police was for- 
 bidden to examine the accused, which duty was placed 
 into the hands of a qualified judge. Appeals could be 
 taken to a higher court, and the Senate acted as a 
 Supreme Court in the last resort. Apart from this 
 system was the justice of the i)eace who adjudged ordi- 
 nary police cases, acted as an arbitrator, and decided 
 civil suits when the amount involved did not exceed 500 
 rubles ($250). No appeal could be taken in cases 
 involving less than thirty rubles in civil suits, or fifteen 
 rubles or three days' prison in police offenses. If an 
 appeal was taken the case was brought, not before a 
 higher court, but before the collective justices of the 
 
226 
 
 peace of the district, whose verdict could be set aside 
 only by the Senate. 
 
 The Russian goubcniii, governments, were divided 
 into districts (o/r/V^t//). The imperial ukase of 1864, 
 created constz'os or district assemblies composed of 
 representatives of the landed ])roprietors or <^entlemen ; 
 or rural communes or mirs, and of the towns. These 
 representatives were elected every three years. The 
 assembly appointed an executive committee which is in 
 permanent session, but the zemstvo assembles once a 
 year. Its duties are strictly limited to local affairs, such 
 as keeping- roads and bridges in re])air; to watch over 
 education and sanitation, to re])ort on the condition of the 
 harvest, and to guard against the occurrence of famine. 
 Above the district zemstvo is the goubernkoe zemstvo or 
 provincial assembly, whose members are elected from the 
 district zemstvos. Its duties embrace the estimate of the 
 provincial budget, and a general supervision over the 
 districts. 
 
 Alexander was kindly disposed and meant to do well. 
 He showed it by removing the barriers erected by his 
 father between Russia and western Europe. T^oreigners 
 in Russia were granted civil rights, and Russians were 
 allowed to travel abroad. The universities were re- 
 lieved of restraints and Jews who had learned a trade 
 could settle where they ])leased. All these reforms were 
 so many promises of a new era for Russia. 
 
 Alexander soon found out that his concessions only 
 served to create demands for more. The trouble began 
 in Poland, where the news of Nicholas' death was re- 
 ceived with relief, if not with joy. Great hopes were 
 
 I 
 
 22'; 
 
 entertained from the new czar; besides, the Europe of 
 1855 was very different from that of 1825: monarchs had 
 learned the lesson that the i)eople ])ossessed inalienable 
 rights. Italy had shaken off the encumbrance of a 
 number of princelings, — and was the better for it ; 
 Austria had been comi)elled to grant self-government to 
 its Hungarian subjects ; why, then, should Poland despair 
 of recovering its indei/cndence ? 
 
 It was Poland's greatest misfortune that her best sons 
 were always divided in opinion ; many of them, moreover, 
 thought that Poland's cause should command the 
 sacrifices of every people. They forgot that their 
 country owed its downfall to itself and that, whereas 
 people might express their sympathy, it cannot be ex- 
 pected that they shall neglect their own business for the 
 sake of other people. Some of the leaders expected that 
 the czar would grant them self-government, and 
 Alexander might have done so after some time ; but 
 others demanded not only independence but that Russia 
 should restore the parts which she had owned for so many 
 years that they had become parts of the empire. The 
 czar dared not grant such a request, because it would 
 have produced a revolution in Russia, besides a war with 
 Austria and Prussia, since those powers owned part of 
 Poland. He was, however, willing to grant important 
 concessions and did so. In h\^bruary 1863, an insur- 
 rection broke out, and Russian troops were dispatched to 
 subdue it. The Russians acted with great cruelty, so 
 that England. Erance, and Austria protested on the 17th 
 of June. Russia, knowing that Prussia would come to 
 her assistance paid no attention, and in 1866, Russian 
 
22^^ 
 
 Poland became a part of Russia. The Russian lan.c:uap:e 
 displaced the Polish, and Poland is no Ioniser even a 
 name ; it is a memory and a warning. — nntliini; more. 
 
 Ouite different was Alexander's treaiment of iMuland. 
 In 1863, he convoked the Diet of that ^rand dukedom, 
 where nobility and |)eople appreciated the (k\c:ree of 
 liberty which they enjoyed. The government did not 
 interfere with the national lanc^uai^^e or reli.i^non, but took 
 measures that neither should spread in Russia. 
 
 Alexander's concessions raised the ex])ectation of a 
 constitution among those who knew what the word 
 implies, including the students at the universities. These 
 institutions were closed. The provincial zemstvos ex- 
 ceeded their authority. That of Tver demanded the con- 
 vocation of the three Estates ; that at Toula discussed a 
 national assembly. Was it Alexander or his court and 
 ministers who bore the responsibility for the suppressive 
 means that w^re employed? It may be that the attempts 
 upon his life, by Karakozof in 1866, and by the Pole 
 Berezofski at Paris in 1867, embittered him. P.ut his 
 kindly feeling and love for his people, taken in con- 
 junction with a later event, warrant the belief that he was 
 ignorant. 
 
 XXV— GREAT EVENTS DURING ALEXANDER'S 
 
 REIGN. NIHILISM 
 
 1) RUSSIA'S behavior during the Polish insurrection 
 brought her into a close friendship with Russia. 
 The result was seen when Austria and Prussia, in 1864, 
 invaded the (ierman provinces of Denmark, when Russia 
 prevented intervention, and Denmark lost the two prov- 
 inces by the Treaty of Menna, October 30, 1864. Soon 
 after Prussia and Austria quarreled about the spoils. 
 The countries of South (iermany supported Austria. 
 War began on June 18, 1866, and little over two months 
 later, on August 2},, 1866, it ended by the Peace of 
 Prague, which gave to Prussia Hanover, Schleswig- 
 Holstein, Hesse, Nasssau, and the city of Frankfort. 
 Prussia did not annex Wurtemburg in compliment to the 
 czar, who was related to its king by marriage. 
 
 If Russia looked carelessly upon Prussia's growth, not 
 so Napoleon III of France. He saw in it a threat, and to 
 offset Prussia's increase of power, tried to secure other 
 territory. It was evident that nothing but a pretext was 
 needed to bring on war. It was found, and Napoleon 
 declared war on July 15, 1870. Once again it was Alex- 
 ander who protected Prussia on the east, by threatening 
 Austria which would gladly have seized the opportunity 
 
 Sto. ok Russia — 15 
 
 229 
 
130 
 
 to avenge 1866. As a consequence France liad to fight 
 the whole of Germany ; and Russia seized the oppor- 
 tunity for repucHating the treaty of Paris of 1856, which 
 forhade the construction of arsenals on the coast of the 
 Black Sea and did not permit any war vessels in it. None 
 of the powers felt any inclination to fight Russia single- 
 handed, but Prussia proposed a conference, which was 
 held at London. The result was that Russia was left free 
 in the Black Sea, but the sultan has the right to close the 
 Dardanelles to warships. 
 
 On January 18, 1871, the King of Prussia became 
 German Emperor, and in the following year the Em- 
 peror of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and the 
 German Emperor met at X'ienna, with the result that an 
 alliance was concluded among the three powers. 
 
 In 1867 Russia resolved to dispose of its possessions 
 on the western hemisphere by selling Alaska, a territory 
 covering 590,884 square miles, to the United States. In 
 the same year a Slavophil Congress was held at Moscow 
 with the czar's approval. The object was said to be to 
 unite all the nations of Slav origin by a bond of friend- 
 ship ; but the real purpose was to bring them under the 
 rule of the czar. This was apparent when it was re- 
 solved to send emissaries among the Slavs under Turkish 
 rule. They met with encouragement in Montenegro, 
 Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. General TgnatiefF, 
 the Russian ambassador at Constantinople, thought that 
 this might be the means to bring about the longed-for 
 annexation of the old Czargrad. Me worked upon the 
 Turkish subjects belonging to the Greek Church, but 
 showed his hand when, under his decision, the P>ulgarians 
 
 231 
 
 were released from the authority of the Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. In 1875, the Bulgarian Christians rose 
 against the Turkish tax-farmers. The revolt was fanned 
 by the Russian emissaries, and it spread to Servia and 
 Montenegro. Ignatieflf did not think that the time was 
 ripe and interfered ; but he threatened the Sultan with 
 European intervention and Abdul Aziz granted the in- 
 surgents the privileges enjoyed by the Christians in 
 Turkey. 
 
 Austria looked with apprehension upon the increasing 
 influence of Russia in Turkey, and suggested drastic re- 
 forms in a note addressed to the powers on December 30, 
 1875. It was approved and presented to the sultan by 
 the five great European powers. Abdul Aziz quietly ac- 
 cepted it. This was not what the Russian Slavophils ex- 
 pected, and they incited the Servians to revolt. A re- 
 ligious insurrection followed which was put down by 
 the Turks w^ith such cruelty that it aroused universal in- 
 dignation in Europe, especially in Russia. In Constan- 
 tinople the Turks were indignant at the sultan's evident 
 fear of IgnatiefT. The situation became so alarming 
 that Great Britain assembled a fleet in Besika Bay. The 
 triple alliance, Russia, Austria and Prussia, demanded 
 of the sultan an armistice and the execution of reforms 
 under foreign supervision. The situation changed by a 
 revolution in Turkey on May 29, 1876, when Abdul Aziz 
 was assassinated and succeeded by his nephew Murad V. 
 
 Russia felt that war was inevitable and approached 
 Austria with proposals to take joint action. The reply 
 was that Austria could not permit the creation of a Slav 
 state on the frontier and that, if any changes were made 
 
22,2 
 
 in the Balkans, Austria must receive compensation. 
 This was athnitted by Russia. A number of Russian 
 officers took service in Servia, amon^ them (ieneral Cher- 
 naiev, who had g^ained distinction in Central Asia. 
 Montenegro declared war against Turkey on July 2, 
 1876. 
 
 On the 31st of August, of the same year. Sultan Murad 
 V was deposed, and his half-brother became sultan as 
 Abdul Hamid II. Meanwhile the Turks were victorious, 
 and on September, 17, the Servians asked for an armis- 
 tice. 
 
 The reports of Turkish atrocities aroused great indig- 
 nation in Cireat Britain; its government was forced to 
 join the other great powers in a note to the sultan de- 
 manding reforms. Abdul Hamid made vague promises 
 but when the Servians, trusting to intervention, again 
 took up arms, they were badly defeated and a great num- 
 ber of Russian officers were killed. The czar was forced 
 to interfere. On October 31, he demanded an armistice 
 of six weeks, to which Abdul Hamid replied that he 
 would make it six months. This was declined because 
 it would keep the Servians too long in suspense, and the 
 war continued. In the beginning of November Cher- 
 naiev admitted that the Slav cause was lost unless foreign 
 helj) came. 
 
 Alexander was really concerned in seeking a peaceable 
 solution, but his high officers were e(|ually earnest in ])re- 
 venting it. Ignatieff, at Constantinople, was es|)ecially 
 active with every means at his disposal. Alexander sug- 
 gested a European conference but before it assembled 
 he declared publicly at Moscow (Nov. 10), that, anxious 
 
 233 
 
 as he was to avoid the shedding of Russian blood, he 
 would act alone to support his brethren in race and 
 religion unless the conference brought relief. 
 
 The rei)resentatives of the powers met at Constanti- 
 no])le on the 5th of December, 1876. The sultan, a man 
 of rare ability and cunning, knew that Turkey's disin- 
 tegration was discussed in its own capital. He did not 
 object, but made one of the reform party his Grand 
 X'izier, and astonished the world by proclaiming a con- 
 stitution on December 25. 
 
 The conference concluded its deliberations, and pre- 
 sented its conclusions to the sultan who agreed to sub- 
 mit them to the National Assembly, which was to meet 
 in March, 1877. • Abdul Hamid was wise. He made the 
 first lejrislature Turkev ever had, — and he had firmlv 
 resolved that it should also be the last, — responsible 
 for whatever might hai)pen. The session was brief, 
 but long enough to refuse the conditions imposed by the 
 j)Owers. 
 
 Alexander demanded that the sultan make peace with 
 Montenegro which was declined. On the 24th of April 
 the czar declared war. England protested against Rus- 
 sia's in(le|)endent action, but 250,000 men crossed 
 the Turkish frontier. The principal incident was the 
 siege and fall of Tlevna (July 20 — Dec. 10, 1877), under 
 Osman Pasha. The surrender of this brave Turk 
 alarmed England, which, however, did not grant Tur- 
 key's appeal for intervention. It was at the battle of 
 Senova, Jan. 9. 1878, when he captured 27,000 prisoners 
 and 43 Krupp guns, that Skobelef won fame. On Jan- 
 uary 23, Constantinople was at the czar's mercy. 
 
\ 
 
 234 
 
 But this awoke Encrland. On February 13, the British 
 fleet passed throu^2:h the Dardanelles without obtaining 
 the suUan's consent, and thereby ruined Russia's schemes. 
 In vain (hd its government comi)lain of the violation of 
 the Treaty of Paris : before the czar could make good his 
 threat that he would occupy Constantinople,— the object 
 of the Russian's most fervid hope,— a tleet of British 
 ironclads prevented its consummation. 
 
 Peace negotiations were opened at San Stefano, when 
 Russia imposed exaggerated demands which the cunning 
 sultan hastened to grant, convinced that the other powers 
 w^ould prevent their execution. lie was right. Great 
 Britain. Austria, and Turkev entered into an alliance. 
 England sent for Indian troops to occupy Malta, and 
 called out the reserves. The war had cost Russia $r)00,- 
 000,000 and 90,000 men, and she was not in a condition 
 to fight the three powers. Thus, for the second time, 
 Czargrad slipped out of Russia's clutches, and each time 
 she owed the disappointment to Oeat Britain. 
 
 The Balkan question was settled at the Congress at 
 Berlin which opened on June 13. 1878, and finished its 
 sessions a month later. Turkey ceded to Russia a part 
 of Bessarabia, and in Asia, Kars, Ardahan, and P»atoum. 
 This ending of the war, so different from what was ^ex- 
 pected by the Slavophils, caused great dissatisfaction in 
 Russia, and the czar dissolved all Slavophil committees. 
 This gained him the dislike of the high officers and of the 
 
 tchinovnik. 
 
 The absurd and dangerous doctrine of nihilism, that 
 is, the destruction of everything that constitutes society, 
 penetrated into Russia by way of Germany. At first it 
 
 235 
 
 was nothing but a theory, fascinating for young and in- 
 experienced people such as students of the universities 
 who, unless properly guided, are apt to adopt any idea 
 that appeals to the generous sentiments of youth. In 
 1864, an exile named Bakunin escaped from Siberia, and 
 made his way to London where he secured employment 
 on the Kolokol or " Bell," a revolutionary paper pub- 
 lished in Russia which was smuggled over the frontier 
 and scattered broadcast in the czar's domains. Under 
 Bakunin's influence this paper became hostile to society, 
 and preached nihilism. In i8(x;, a Congress of Nihilists 
 was held at I'asel. Switzerland; I>akunin proposed to 
 create an International Committee of active workers. 
 
 Soon umnistakablc signs of trouble appeared in Rus- 
 sia, but the government was on the alert and took strong 
 means of sui)pression. Nicholas I, the man with the iron 
 will, had sent an average number of 9,000 persons an- 
 nually to Siberia ; this number under Alexander the 
 Liberator increased to from 16,000 to 20,000. l)akunin 
 urged his follow^ers to " go among the people," and a 
 host of young persons, male and female, many of them 
 belonging to the wealthy classes, adopted the life of the 
 moujik in the villages. But the Russian peasant pos- 
 sesses a degree of cunning which shows his dormant in- 
 telligence, and suspected the motives of those who said 
 they wanted to benefit him, and this, added to his real 
 affection for the czar, rendered the attempt of the nihil- 
 ists a failure. The Russian peasant dreads a change in 
 his condition, because experience has taught him that it 
 will end to his disadvantage. In 1876 there were still 
 2,000,000 peasants who preferred serfdom. 
 
236 
 
 The Turkish war, when the government was occupied 
 elsewhere, afforded an opportunity which was not neg- 
 lected by the nihilists. On a July night of the year 1877, 
 fifteen voung men met in the forest near Litepsk, and 
 formed a conspiracy against all existing institutions. 
 Two papers, The Popular Will and The Black Partition 
 advised assassination as the means to gain their object. 
 We may judge of conditions in Russia from knowing 
 that many good and wealthy people made contributions, 
 well aware that arrest and punishment would follow if 
 the secret police should hear of it. In October, 1877, 
 253 nihilists were arrested, and \(yo were convicted at 
 the trial. In February, 1878, General Trepof, Governor 
 of St. Petersburg was openly accused in the papers of 
 gross cruelty toward a prisoner, and Vera Zazulich, a 
 young woman, sought to kill him. She was arrested, 
 tried,— and acquitted, much to the disgust of the audior- 
 ities who made every effort to re-arrest her. Then be- 
 gan a reign of terror. Officials were condemned to death 
 by an " Executive Committee," composed of members 
 whose names were unknown. The police did not know 
 whom to suspect, and therefore suspected everybody, and 
 no one was safe. Often the condemned officer was 
 warned of his doom by letter or paper, but the messenger 
 could not be found. In April, the president of the Kief 
 University was dangerously wounded, and a police offi- 
 cer was stabbed in public. In August, General Me- 
 zensof, Chief of the dreaded Secret Police, was killed, 
 and when the government abolished trial by jury in favor 
 of a military court, it seemed as if the public took the 
 part of the terrorists. These men grew bolder. On the 
 
 237 
 
 22(1 of February, 1878, Prince Krapotkine, the Governor 
 of Kharkof, was shot, and his death sentence was found 
 posted in many cities. On the following 7th of March, 
 Colonel Knoop of die Odessa police, was killed, and as a 
 climax, on the 14th of April a school-teacher named 
 Solovief fired a pistol at the czar. Xot satisfied with 
 assassination, the terrorists resorted to incendiarism at 
 Moscow, Xishni Novgorod, and other cities, and there 
 were riots at Rostof. In April, 1878, the government 
 proclaimed martial law, and the most renowned generals, 
 Melikof, Gcurko, Todleben, and others were appointed 
 governors w^ith unlimited authority. At St. Petersburg 
 the dvorniks or house janitors were directed to spy upon 
 the residents and to report their movements to the secret 
 police. Executions, imprisonment, and exile multiplied 
 until it seemed as if the government wished to terrify 
 the terrorists. 
 
 Still the situation went from bad to worse. On 
 December i, 1879, as the imperial train was entering 
 Moscow, it was wrecked by a mine. Alexander escaped 
 because he had traveled in an earlier section. Three days 
 later the " Executive Committee " issued a proclamation 
 excusing the attempt and announcing that the czar had 
 been condemned to death. On February 17, 1880, an 
 explosion of dynamite in the guard room of the Winter 
 Palace, just beneath the imperial dining-room, killed and 
 maimed a large number of soldiers, but the imperial fam- 
 ily escaped by a hair's breadth, as the czar had not en- 
 tered the room. On the 24th of the same month Louis 
 Melikof was placed in charge of the city of St. Peters- 
 burg, and eight days later there was an attempt upon his 
 
238 
 
 life. There was a panic in tlie capital, when a nihilist 
 proclamation announced that these attempts would cease, 
 provided the czar would renounce his autocracy and 
 ** leave the task of establishing social reforms to an as- 
 sembly representing^ the entire Russian people." 
 
 Whatever may have been his motive, Melikof urged 
 the czar to try what conciliation would effect. Upon 
 his advice, a large number of exiles in Siberia were par- 
 doned, and persons imprisoned for political offenses were 
 released. About 2,000 students expelled from the uni- 
 versities were readmitted, and in several cases the death 
 sentence pronounced against nihilists was commuted. 
 Only two men out of the sixteen convicted of the attempt 
 to blow up the Winter Palace, were executed. The ef- 
 fect of this new policy was so satisfactory, that on the 
 1 8th of August. 1880, the czar revoked the ukase of 
 February 24, and Melikof was appointed as Minister of 
 the Interior. He advised the czar to grant a constitu- 
 tion, and in February 1881, placed before Alexander a 
 plan t(^ effect this important change gradually. It was 
 discussed in the Council of State. The majority ap- 
 proved, but a bitter opi)osition was manifested by the 
 other members. The czar himself was in favor of it. 
 but the persons with whom he came into daily contact 
 caused him to hesitate. He told Melikof that he would 
 give his final decision on March 12. 
 
 On that day he had not made up his nund, but on the 
 13th, he ordered that Melikof 's scheme should become a 
 law, and that it be published in the Official (iazette. 
 That afternoon, as he was returning from his usual drive, 
 and his carriage was passing between the Catherine Canal 
 
 239 
 
 and Michael's Garden, a bomb was thrown under his car- 
 riage and exploded, killing or wounding a number of the 
 guard, but Alexander was unhurt. He was hurrying to 
 assist the wounded, when another bomb exploded near 
 him and he was dreadfully mangled. He regained con- 
 sciousness for a moment while his attendants were bear- 
 ing him to the i)alace, but died at 3.30 p. m., without 
 having spoken a word. 
 
 A man named Rissakof, said to be a nihilist, w^as ar- 
 rested for throwing the Ix^mb ; but there were ugly ru- 
 mors that the assassination was committed under the 
 direction of parties interested in maintaining an auto- 
 cratic government at all risks. Owing to the secret pro- 
 ceedings in Russian courts, the murder of Alexander the 
 Liberator still remains a mystery. 
 
(240) 
 
 Alexander III 
 
 XXVI— ALEXANDER III, THE PEASANTS' 
 
 ERIEND. 
 
 THE atrocious death of The Liberator c^ave the throne 
 to his son. who succeeded as Alexander III. The 
 new czar was thirty-six years old. Nicholas, the eldest 
 son of Alexander II, had died of consumption in 1865, 
 and, since he had been the heir, his younger brother had 
 not received any special training^. His principal tutor 
 had been PobiedonostzefF, a man who believed In autoc- 
 racy. He had imbued his pupil with a deeply religious 
 feeling, and iir.i)arted to him a thorough knowledge of 
 Russia's history. Alexander III was of powerful build 
 and possessed unusual strength. He was loyal to his 
 word, and tenacious in his likes and dislikes. Married 
 to Princess Dagmar of Denmark, he was a model hus- 
 band and father. His education made him a firm believer 
 in autocracy. 
 
 The sudden and tragic death of his father moved him 
 so deeply that he gave orders that the last wishes of the 
 late czar should be respected. " Change nothing in my 
 father's orders ; " he said to Melikof ; '* they are his last 
 will and testament. He issued two ])roclamations ; in 
 the first he announced that he would strengthen the bond 
 with Poland and Einland, and thus gained the support of 
 the Slavophils ; and in the second, he reminded the peas- 
 
 241 
 
 »i 
 
(240) 
 
 Alexander III 
 
 xx\ I— .\Li':xAXi)i^:k in. riii-: im-lasaxts' 
 
 iRii':xi). 
 
 Tl 1 1*', alrnriiuis (kalli of Vhv 1 jhcrator _q^avc the throne 
 t(> his son, who succeeded as Alexander III. The 
 new czar was thirt\-six years old. Xicliolas, the eldest 
 son of Alexander II. had died of consumption in i<*^^)5, 
 and. since he had heen the heir, his youn,<^er hrother had 
 not received any special traininjL;'. llis ])rincipal tutor 
 had 1)een PohiedonostzefF. a man who helievecl in autoc- 
 racy, lie had imhued his pu])il with a deeply religious 
 feelin:L^^ and imparted t<» him a thorough knowledi^e of 
 Russia's historx . Alexander III was of jxiwerful huild 
 and ])ossessed unusual strength. lie was loyal to his 
 word, and tenaciou> in his likes and dislikes. Married 
 to iVincess I )airmar of Denmark, he was a model hus- 
 band and father. His education made him a firm believer 
 in autoeracN. 
 
 The sudden and tragic death of his father moved him 
 S(» deeply that he i^ave orders that the last wishes of the 
 lale czar should be resprcled. " ( "hani^e nothinii* in my 
 father's orders;" he said to Melikof; " they are his last 
 will and testament. lie issued two ])roclamations ; in 
 the tirst he announced that he would streui^then the bond 
 with Poland and Mnland. and thus gained the support of 
 the Slavoi)hils ; and in the second, he reminded the pcas- 
 
 241 
 

 !!l 
 
 242 
 
 ants of the freedom given to them by his father, and or- 
 dered them to swear allegiance to himself and his heir. 
 Six men and a woman implicated in the murder of the 
 late czar were arrested, tried, condemned to death, and, 
 with the exception of the woman, they were executed on 
 April 15. The czar appointed his former tutor as Proc- 
 urator of the Holy Synod. Pobiedonostzeff persuaded 
 his pupil that this was not the time to make concessions. 
 On the nth of May, 1881, Alexander issued a proclama- 
 tion in which he declared his intention to maintain the 
 absolute power. Melikof resigned as Minister of the 
 Interior and was replaced by Ignatieff, the former Rus- 
 sian Minister at Constantinople. 
 
 Shortly after his succession to the throne, Alexander 
 made a journey to Moscow, and was everywhere re- 
 ceived wath unmistakable tokens of loyalty and affection. 
 This confirmed his opinion that the great bulk of the 
 population was satisfied with the form of government, 
 and strengthened his determination to defend it. 
 
 In 1881, an anti-semitic movement was felt in Ger- 
 many ; that is, an outburst of hatred for the Jews broke 
 out, which spread to Russia. It is not generally known 
 that of all the Jews in the world, four fifths live in Rus- 
 sia in the southwest, in an area of 356,681 square miles, 
 This is sometimes mentioned as the Jewish territory. 
 Few of these people engage in agriculture; they are 
 sometimes mechanics, but more often pedlers, store- 
 keepers, bankers and moneylenders. The principal ob- 
 jection to them was that they succeed where others fail. 
 In May, 1881, there were anti-Jewish riots at Kief and 
 other places. Pobiedonostzeff's motto was, '* One Rus- 
 
 ^43 
 
 sia. One Religion, One Czar;" prompted by him, Alex- 
 ander did not take any energetic measures to suppress 
 the di.sorder, for he, too, disliked to see in Russia a peo- 
 ple differing in religion, language, and outward appear- 
 ance. Ignatieff began a system of persecution by remov- 
 ing the Jews who had profited by the late czar's permis- 
 sion to settle anywhere, and when the act which recalled 
 the Middle Ages was hotly condemned by the foreign 
 press, even the Slavophils said that Ignatieff had gone 
 too far. The persecution died out until 1884, when the 
 Jews were deprived of their civil rights, and an attempt 
 was made to compel them to enter the Greek Church, 
 liut the Jew is steadfast under persecution, and the only 
 result was that some of them heartily joined the nihilists. 
 
 The public condemnation which followed these acts, 
 induced Ignatieff to advise the czar to adopt Melikof's 
 scheme of a constitution. Alexander did not understand 
 this change of views and when de Giers was appointed 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ignatieff resigned. He was 
 succeeded bv D. Tolstoi. 
 
 Misunderstandings and the clashing of interests were 
 dissolving the triple alliance of Russia, Austria, and Ger- 
 many. This was apparent in the Balkan States which 
 had been formed after the last Russo-Turkish war. 
 Charles I, King of Roumania, was a (lerman prince who 
 mistrusted Russia's schemes. In March, 1882, Prince 
 Milan Obrenovitch of Servia assumed the title of king, 
 and the czar offered no objection. The ruler of Bul- 
 garia was Alexander of Battenberg who was a relative 
 of the czar and had served in the Russian army, which 
 may have been the reason of his appointment. The Rus- 
 
n 
 
 244 
 
 sian Minister at his court was evidently of the opinion 
 that his word, as representative of the czar, was law, and 
 when he found out that his orders were set at nauj^ht. 
 he withdrew from his post, whereni)on the Russian offi- 
 cers servinj^ in ihe lUdi^^arian aiiii\, were dismissed. 
 This ^ave grave offense at St. IVtershurg, hut the affair 
 was arranged, and the Russian Minister returned. In 
 Septemher, 1885, there was a revolution in Sofia, the ca- 
 pital of Eastern Roumelia, when the crown was offered 
 to Alexander of l>attenherg. who accepted. He hastened 
 to inform the czar, who was too angry to i)ay any atten- 
 tion to letters or telegrams. 
 
 Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia. although united un- 
 der one prince, sent deputations to St. Petersburg to ap- 
 pease the czar, hut were informed that their future would 
 be decided by the great powers. Soon after Servia de- 
 clared war against I'ulgaria ; after a few unimportant 
 skirmishes, they were driven back by Prince Alexander, 
 who would have captured the capital P.elgrad, if he had 
 not been stopped by Austria's intervention. Alexander, 
 after another fruitless attempt to mollify the czar, ap- 
 plied to the sultan, who appointed him as Governor-gen- 
 eral over Eastern Roumelia for five years. The czar pro- 
 tested and invited the powers to a conference which was 
 held at Constantinoi)le on April 5, 1886. To the infinite 
 disgust of the czar, the dispute was decided in favor of 
 Prince Alexander. 
 
 Russia, however, had a pro-Russian party in Bulgaria. 
 On August 21, 1886, Prince Alexander was kidnaped 
 and carried across the Danube, after being compelled to 
 abdicate. At Lemberg, In Austrian territory he was set 
 
 245 
 
 free. The Bulgarians rallied under the President of the 
 National Assembly and forced the pro-Russians to flee, 
 after which Prince Alexander returned on the 3d of Sej)- 
 tember. Once more he made an attempt to pacify the 
 czar, but when his telegram remained unanswered, he 
 abdicated three days later, rather than involve the 
 country in a war with Russia. He left on the same day, 
 to the sorrow of the people. 
 
 The czar was angry. He knew that Austria would 
 not have dared oppose him unless assured of the support 
 of Germany. The feeling in Russia grew more bitter 
 when the election in Bulgaria showed a total defeat of 
 the pro-Russian i)arty, and the crown was offered to 
 Prince Waldemar of Denmark, who declined at the In- 
 stance of the czar. The lUilgarians then made an offer 
 to Prince l^>rdinand of Saxe-Coburg, who accepted, and 
 In August made his formal entry in Tirnova. Alexander 
 once more protested to the powers, but it passed un- 
 heeded and he urged the sultan to expel Ferdinand. 
 Abdul Hamid declined with thanks, preferring to have 
 as neighbor a small independent country to Russia. 
 Alexander then demanded payment of the war indemnity 
 due since the Treaty of San Stefano, but could obtain 
 nothing except a profusion of excuses and apologies. 
 Soon after the sultan had trouble in Armenia, which 
 was Russia's latest resort to arouse public opinion against 
 
 the Turk. 
 
 This is the age of colossal enterprises and combina- 
 tions in every direction, in politics as well as in other 
 branches of human activity. In Russia Slavophilism, 
 gave way to Panslavism, that is, the scheme to unite all 
 
!« 
 
 246 
 
 Slav nations. Germany was quick to respond with Pan 
 Germanism, that is, to bring all German-speaking nations 
 under one scepter. The czar, obeying this impulse, 
 made every effort to convert the Baltic provinces, — which 
 Germany called the German Provinces, — into Slavs by 
 making the Russian language the only language that was 
 taught in the schools ; and Germany retaliated in the 
 Polish provinces. Under these circumstances friendship 
 ceased. Russia established a protective tariff, which was 
 a rude blow to Germany's commerce ; and that country 
 replied by refusing to loan Russia any more money. 
 The czar's government applied to l^>ance which re- 
 sponded with unexpected generosity. From that time 
 Russia's internal improvements have been made with 
 French capital. 
 
 Prudent as he was, Alexander allowed his anger and 
 dislike to master him, when Prince Alexander of Batten- 
 berg was accepted as suitor to a daughter of Queen \'ic- 
 toria. Troops were hurried from the Caucasus into Po- 
 land, but Germany averted war by having the match 
 broken off. When the present German emperor, 
 William II, succeeded to the throne, he attempted to 
 make friends with the czar by dismissing Prince l>is- 
 marck, in 1890, but Alexander could neither forgive nor 
 forget. It was chiefly owing to this that Russia and 
 France drew closer together until it ended in an alliance. 
 
 Strong, self-willed, and masterful, Alexander did love 
 his people in his own way. In January, 1884, he ordered 
 the poll-tax to be abolished, and thereby relieved the 
 peasants of a heavy burden ; he also compelled the land- 
 owners to sell to their former serfs the land cultivated 
 
 247 
 
 by them. Since the price was payable in installments and 
 the owners needed the money, the government assumed 
 the position of creditor, but Alexander reduced the total 
 indebtedness by 12,000.000 rubles, and granted 5,000,000 
 rubles for the relief of overburdened villages. He cal- 
 culated that the land would be paid for in 1930, when 
 the title will be vested in the mir, — unless one of his suc- 
 cessors should please to appropriate the past payments 
 for other purposes. 
 
 In the black earth belt the allotments had been ac- 
 cording to the needs of the population, but the increase 
 among the i)eoi)le rendered them too small and several 
 severe fauiines followed. The government tried to in- 
 duce the surplus population to emigrate to Siberia, but 
 the Russian peasant lacks education and has been held in 
 tutelage so long that he is not fit for the life of a pioneer 
 settler. Transportation facilities increased by the aid of 
 French capital, and added to the prosperity of merchants 
 and speculators, but did not help the moujik who did not 
 know how to profit by them. 
 
 Alexander, as autocrat of all the Russias, did not suf- 
 fer any authority but his own. The zemstvos, volosts, 
 and mirs, were all placed under officials appointed by 
 him. Every shadow of self-government was destroyed. 
 This demanded a reorganization of the army, which was 
 increased by 900.000 men. The reserves were called out 
 once a year, and drilled as in actual war. Strategic rail- 
 ways were built for the speedy transportation of troops. 
 Coast defenses were constructed and the navy was in- 
 creased. In 1884, P>atoum was closed as a port and con- 
 verted into a naval base, and when England protested, 
 
248 
 
 claiminj^ that this was in violation of the Treaty of Ber- 
 lin, — as it was, — Russia, referring to the changes in the 
 Balkan, inquired if the duty of observing the treaties 
 was reserved exclusively for Russia. 
 
 Alexander's reign was especially discouraging for the 
 Poles who still hoped for the revival of their country. 
 Poles were made into Russians; but Panslavism de- 
 manded that the German should be banished, h^ 1887, 
 Alexander ordered that, when a foreign landowner in 
 Poland died, his estate must be sold unless his heirs had 
 been residents of Poland before this order was published. 
 Germany, suffering from Pan-Germanism, collected sev- 
 eral thousand Russian Poles who had settled in (Germany, 
 and put them across the frontier. Russia replied by mak- 
 ing a law in the Baltic provinces that nothing but Rus- 
 sian could be taught in any school, and that no more 
 Lutheran churches could be built without the permis- 
 sion of the Holy Synod. 
 
 Then came Finland's turn. In 1890, Russian money, 
 Russian stamps, and worse than that, Russian taxes were 
 introduced. There were loud protests, which received 
 courteous answers, but the process continued. In i8(ji. 
 the Finnish Committee at St. Petersburg, which had di- 
 rected the affairs of Finland, was abolished, and Russian 
 censorship abolished the free press. The Russian lan- 
 guage was made obligatory, and the Finns who could 
 afford it emigrated to the United States and settled in 
 the northwest. 
 
 In 1890. Alexander ordered the construction of the 
 trans-Siberian railway, of which more will be said in 
 the chapter on Asiatic Russia. 
 
 249 
 
 All these years Alexander had battled with nihilism 
 and revolution. His policy neither gave nor asked for 
 quarter. In May, 1888, an army officer named Timovief 
 made an attempt uix.n the czar^s life. On October 29th 
 of the same year, as he was traveling in southern Russia 
 an accident occurred in which twenty -one were killed 
 and many injured; it was ascribed to nihilists, but may 
 have been caused by- defects. Be that as it may, Alex- 
 ander never recovered from the shock. In March, 1890, 
 another plot against his life was discovered. In Novem- 
 ber, 1891, the secret police came on the scent of a con- 
 spiracy at Moscow, and in April, 1894. they learned of 
 one at St. Petersburg. In constant fear of assassination, 
 Alexander resided at Gatschina, twenty-five miles south 
 of St. Petersburg, as in an armed fortress. The never- 
 ceasing tension wore out the strong man. He caught 
 coki and suffering from inflammation of the kidneys he 
 went south, but experienced no relief. He died on the 
 1st of November, 1894. 
 
 In his private life he was essentially a good man ; as 
 czar, he acted according to his convictions. He gave 
 much thought to the welfare of the peasants and as such 
 deserved the surname of The Peasants' Friend. 
 
i 
 
 (250) 
 
 Nicholas II 
 
 XX\'I I— RUSSIA UXDRR THE PRESEXT CZAR. 
 
 NICHOLAS n. 
 
 NEGLPXT nothing that can make my son truly a 
 man ! " This was the instruction given by Alex- 
 ander to the tutors of his son. Consequently, Nicholas 
 in his youth was allowed to indulge in manly exercises 
 and sports, while special tutors taught him mathematics, 
 natural philosoi)hy, history, political economy, English, 
 French, and German, besides his native language. Des- 
 tined for the throne, he began his military career at the 
 age of thirteen as hetman of the Cossacks, and passed 
 successively through the different grades. Tn 1889, at 
 the age of twenty-one, he was appointed president of a 
 committee to prepare plans for the trans-Siberian rail- 
 way, and the following year he made a tour in the Far 
 East, visiting China and Japan. In the last-named coun- 
 try he was attacked and wounded by a police officer who 
 had been brooding over the wrongs which his country 
 h.id suffered at the hands of Russia. Nicholas recovered 
 and proceeded to Vladivostok, where he initiated the 
 building of the great continental line. He returned to 
 St. Petersburg bv way of Siberia and Moscow, and was 
 the first czar who had ever visited his Asiatic empire. 
 Born on May 18, 1868, he was twenty-six years old 
 
 251 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 ( 
 
 «^ ^Jr 
 
 
 
 V- 
 
 hi 
 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 
 (-50) 
 
 Nicholas II 
 
 xx\ii-RrssiA r\Di':K rnr. presext czar. 
 
 XKllOLAS II. 
 
 ^T FXiLECT nolhini,^ that can make niy son truly a 
 ^ man!" This was the instruction .t^ivcn l)y Alex- 
 ander to the tutors of liis son. C'onse(|uently, Nicholas 
 in his vouth was allowed t«> indul-e in manly exercises 
 and si)orts, while .si)ecial tutors tau.^ht him mathematics, 
 natural i)hilosoi)hy. historx, i)olitical economy, Eni^lish, 
 r>encli, and ( ierman, hesides his native lani^uai^e. Des- 
 tined for the throne, he he.i^^an his military career at the 
 a^c of thirteen as hetman of the Cossacks, and passed 
 successivelv throu.<;h the ditYerent .i^rades. In i8«^<), at 
 the a.i^e of twenty-one, he was ai)i)ointed i)resident (^f a 
 committee to ])rei)are plans for the trans-Siheriau rail- 
 way, and the f(»llowin.<: year he made a tour in the h\ar 
 East, visitiu-- China and Japan. In the last-named coun- 
 try he was attacked and wounded by a police officer who 
 had hein hroodin.i: nver the wroni^^s which his country 
 h id suffered at the hands of Russia. Nicholas recovered 
 and proceeded to \ladiv(,st()k. where he initiated the 
 huildini^ of the i^reat continental line, lie returned to 
 St IVtrrshuri,^ hy way of Siberia an.l M«»cow, and was 
 the lir.st czar who had ever visited his Asiatic emi)ire. 
 Born on May iS, iSrSS, he was twenty-six years old 
 
 -5' 
 
^5^ 
 
 when he was called to the throne. He announced that 
 he would *' promote the progress and peaceful glory of 
 our beloved Russia, and the happiness of all our faithful 
 subjects." On the 26th of November, 1894, the czar mar- 
 ried Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt, the granddaugh- 
 ter of Queen \ ictoria, who, on entering the Greek 
 Church, received the name of Alexandra Feodorofna. 
 The czar retained his father's ministers, except that 
 Prince Khilkof, who had learned practical railroading in 
 the United States, was appointed Minister of Public 
 Works. Pobiedonostzeff continued as Procurator of the 
 Holy Synod. 
 
 Nicholas showed greater leniency toward Poland and 
 Finland than his father had done. He revoked several 
 of his father's ukases and seemed to be willing to treat 
 them fairly. T^inland's forests are a source of great 
 prosperity and the Russian officials have long been anx- 
 ious to secure a share. \Mien the Secretary of State for 
 Finland resigned, (k^ieral Kuropatkin became Minister 
 of War, and he wished to introduce Russia's military 
 system, (ieneral liobrikof, a brusque and haughty man, 
 was appointed Governor-general with instructions to pro- 
 ceed with the conversion of the Finns into Slavs. He 
 convoked an extraordinary session of the Diet, January 
 24, 1899, and submitted Kuropatkin's scheme, with a 
 strong hint that it must p iss. The Diet ignored the hint 
 and rejected the scheme, wliereui)on liobrikof ignored 
 the Diet and published it as a law to go into effect in 1903. 
 An imperial ukase of h\'bruary 15, 1899, reorganized 
 the Diet according to a plan drawn up by Pobiedonost- 
 zeff. Dobrikof increased the rigor of the press censor- 
 
 253 
 
 ship, but the Finns remained within the law. A petition 
 was circulated which in ten days secured 500,000 signa- 
 tures, and a delegation was sent to St. Petersburg to 
 present it. The delegation was not admitted. 
 
 In January, 1895, the czar received a deputation of 
 all classes of his subjects who hinted that the zemstvos 
 might be used as the germ of a constitutional government. 
 He replied that he believed in autocracy and that he in- 
 tended to maintain it as his predecessors had done. On 
 the 26th of May, 1896, he was crowned at Moscow with 
 more than usual splendor, and in the same year he and 
 the czarina made a tour through Europe. After visiting 
 the German Emperor and Queen X'ictoria, they went to 
 Paris where the czar, after reviewing 100,000 soldiers 
 declared that the Empire and the Republic were united 
 in indissoluble friendship. The visit was returned by 
 the President of the I'rench Republic. M. Faure, in Au- 
 gust, 1897. On this occasion the world received notice 
 that an alliance existed between the two powers, and diat, 
 if one of them was attacked by more than one power, the 
 other would assist with the whole of its military and 
 naval strength, and peace could be concluded only in con- 
 cert between the allies. 
 
 Two great reforms are noticeable under the present 
 reign. The sale of spirits has greatly decreased since 
 the government took the monopoly of the manufacture 
 and sale of liquor. The Trench loans made the establish- 
 ment of the gold standard possible and speculation in 
 Russian paper money ceased. 
 
 The completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway aroused 
 great expectation for the future of Russia's commerce. 
 
254 
 
 The war with Japan has prevented the possihiHty of es- 
 timating- the effect it will have upon oceanic trade. But 
 Russia's manufactures have had a wonderful increase ; 
 its effect is shown in the population of the cities. In 
 1870, Russia contained only six cities with a population 
 of over 100,000; their number was doubled in 1897. 
 Warsaw, the old capital of Poland, had 243,000 inhabit- 
 ants in 1865; in 1897, ^^^^T ^^'^^^ increased to 615,000. 
 Lotz, also in Poland, rose from 12,000 to 315,000. This 
 cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon the future 
 of the empire ; first, on account of the creation of a mid- 
 dle class which, even at this early day, numbers nine per 
 cent of the population ; and next, because the mechanics 
 and factory hands are recruited from among the peasants, 
 who thus are brought into daily contact with more intel- 
 ligent people, and acquire new ideas and new necessities. 
 The official class is bitterly opposed to this new dei)arture, 
 because it foreshadows the day when the drag upon Rus- 
 sia will be cast off. 
 
 Nicholas seems to have reversed his father's policy in 
 the Balkan States. He also acted in concert with pAirope 
 in 1896, when trouble arose between Turkey and (ireece. 
 It bec:an in Crete, where Turk and Christian could not 
 agree. Stories of massacres infuriated the Greeks and 
 the king had to choose between a revolution and a dec- 
 laration of war. In April, 1897, an army of 80.000 men 
 under Prince George crossed into Thessaly, but was 
 driven back by a Turkish army of 150.000 men. Prince 
 Cieorge had invaded Crete in February, but the powers 
 compelled him to evacuate the island. The czar inter- 
 ceded with the sultan, and the absurd war was ended. 
 
 ^55 
 
 The Slavophils, after their failure in the Balkan prov- 
 inces had excited the Armenians in the provinces near 
 the Russian Caucasus. 'Hiey attacked the Kurds, a no- 
 madic tribe of Mussulmans, when the Turks took the 
 side of their co-religionists and treated the Armenians 
 with no soft hand. The Panslavists demanded auton- 
 omy for Armenia, but this did not suit Prince Lobanof, 
 who had succeeded de Giers as Minister of Foreign Af- 
 fairs, because he feared trouble in the Caucasus. In 
 1895, Russia, France, and Fngland, presented a note to 
 the sultan, suggesting- die appointment of a high com- 
 missioner, the abolition of torture, and reforms in taxa- 
 tion. Turkey agreed, but Shakir Pasha, the high com- 
 missioner, failed to restore order and the disorder threat- 
 ened to become a revolt, h^ven in Constantinople a con- 
 dition of anarchy prevailed. 
 
 The atrocities committed by the Turks aroused indig- 
 nation everywhere, when the Armenians seized the Otto- 
 man P>ank, but the conspirators were forced to flee from 
 the building and to seek refuge on an English yacht. 
 The Turks were furious and killed more than 5,000 Ar- 
 menians. Again the powers remonstrated ; but at this 
 time it began to dawn upon die public that the Armenians 
 were a least quite as much to blame as the Turks, and 
 the interest subsided. Russia had discovered that the Ar- 
 menians are undesirable citizens, and sent back some 40,- 
 000 of them who had settled in the Russian Caucasus. 
 Germanv, intent upon securing concessions from Turkey, 
 left the sultan a free hand ; meanwhile the British public 
 was engrossed by the Boer war, and the Armenians, see- 
 ing that they were left to their own devices, subsided. 
 
1 
 
 256 
 
 The civilized world was startled when, on August 24. 
 1898, Russia issued a note \n the powers, declaring that 
 " military and naval hudj^^els attack puhlic prosperity at 
 its verv source, and divert national enerj^ies from useful 
 aims," and suj^j^estin^- a conference to discuss the sub- 
 ject of displacing war by an International Court. 
 
 The note received generous applause, especially in the 
 United States and (ireat liritain, the two foremost na- 
 tions devoted to the arts of peace. The several govern- 
 ments agreed to participate in the proposed conference. 
 The place selected was The Hague, the capital of the 
 Netherlands, where the sessions opened on May 18, 1899. 
 
 Of all the great powers, the United States was the only 
 one unreservedly in favor of an arrangement whereby 
 war would be prevented. Most of the other powers 
 looked upon an International Court as visionary, and so 
 far as the ostensible purj)ose is concerned, the conference 
 was a failure. Still, it bore fruit in defining and adding 
 strength to international law. Among its most impor- 
 tant results is the clause that " When a conflict seems 
 imminent, one or several powers shall have the right to 
 offer mediation, and its exercise shall not be regarded 
 as an unfriendly act." A permanent Court of Arbitra- 
 tion was established at The Hague. It is composed of 
 judges selected from a list on which every country is rep- 
 resented. On the 29th of July, the delegates of sixteen 
 nations signed the protocol embodying the conclusions; 
 it was afterwards signed by sixteen more. It remained, 
 however, with the United States, to give vitality to an 
 institution which was looked upon with ill favor by many 
 governments. 
 
 257 
 
 Although the reign of terror from the nihilists has 
 passed, political murder is still rampant in Russia, and 
 recent events in the Far East have caused a renewal of 
 the agitation for reforms. Tn 1904, the Governor-gen- 
 eral of Finland was assassinated, and soon afterwards, 
 the hated and dreaded Minister of the Interior de Plehve 
 shared that fate. His successor seems to be anxious to 
 grant greater liberties to the people. The united action 
 of the zemstvos, and the final issue of the war in the 
 Far East, may have important results. Nicholas H, 
 amid all his perplexities, was made glad by the birth of 
 a son and heir, who received the name of Alexis. 
 
XXVIII— THE ORIGIX AND GROWTH OF THE 
 
 ASIATIC EMPIRE 
 
 A CLOSE study of the history of Asiatic Russia reveals 
 the fact that, until within a comparatively recent 
 (late, the Russian jT^overnment had no fixed policy in or to- 
 ward Asia. There was a national instinct which impelled 
 Russia eastward. Twice had Europe been invaded by 
 Asiatic hordes, and. owing to its position, Russia was 
 doomed to bear the brunt of the onset. Russia's history 
 I)oint§ out a ceaseless desire to be a European nation, to 
 share with Europe its proi^ress and its burdens. It is 
 within a few years that the heir to the throne first visited 
 the extensive Asiatic dominions. No czar had ever put 
 foot in them. I'ntil the rei.c^n of Nicholas I ( 1825-1855), 
 the Russian Empire spread eastward much as the United 
 States expanded westward, by individtial efTort. 
 
 The movement began in 1558, when Ivan the Terrible 
 granted to Gregory Strogonof ninety-two miles of waste 
 land on the banks of the Kama. The new owner ex- 
 I)lored the mineral resources of the Urals, crossed 
 the mountains, and found himself in the kingdom of 
 Sibir. Strogonof had become acquainted with one 
 Yermak or Irmak. a Cossack and captain of a robber 
 band known as the Good Companions of the Don. He 
 
 259 
 
26o 
 
 had been condemned to death, if the p^overnment could 
 lay hands on him, which, on account of the sparsity of 
 the population, was exceedingly doubtful. Stroj^onof 
 discussed with him a raid into Sibir, and the Cossack 
 consented, provided his pardon could be secured. Strog- 
 onof went to Moscow and submitted his scheme to Ivan 
 who gave his approval. Upon his return to the IVals. 
 Strogonof found that he had 850 men, Russians, Cossacks, 
 Tartars, and Cierman and Polish prisoners of war, all 
 hardy adventurers. They marched east terrifying the 
 natives with their firelocks, and levying tribute, that is, 
 taking whatever was worth the trouble. They defeated 
 the khan, and took his cai)ital. Sibir, on the Irtish. 
 Yermak then visited Moscow, where he was the hero 
 of the day. Had he not struck at the very heart of the 
 mysterious continent whence so nuich trouble and dis- 
 grace had come upon Russia? And had he not exacted 
 tribute from the very people who not very long ago held 
 Russia under tribute. 
 
 Yermak was therefore praised and entertained and 
 graciously told to go ahead. Ivan had neither men nor 
 money to spare, but he was (juite willing that these 
 adventurers should despoil the Asiatics, instead of holding 
 up Russian travelers and traders. Ivan gave him a suit 
 of armor as a token of good will. After Yermak's return 
 to Siberia, he was surprised by the natives and drowned 
 by the weight of his armor as he was trying to escape 
 by swimming the Irtish. (1584.) Other Cossacks had 
 heard of his success and followed his example. In 1587, 
 Tobolsk was founded on the Irtish, ten miles below 
 Sibir. 
 
 261 
 
 There was little or no communication between 
 Siberia and Moscow, owing to the distance separating 
 them, and the successors of Ivan had ample trouble on 
 their hands. It was, therefore, left to the Cossacks to 
 make such explorations and contiuests as they could. 
 In 1619, Tomsk was founded. Farther and farther did 
 the Cossacks advance among the isolated tribes. In 
 1632, a log fort was built where Yakoutsk now stands, 
 and six years later they gazed upon the broad waters of 
 the Pacific and planted the czar's flag on the shore of 
 the Sea of Okhotsk. 
 
 It was a congenial occupation for the Cossack, to roam 
 where he pleased and to take what suited his fancy, and 
 he did not lack either the skill or the courage needed by 
 the explorer. In 1639, a party of Cossacks under Max 
 Perfirief, discovered the Upper Amoor, and heard tales 
 of such vast wealth that they hastened to Yakoutsk and 
 placed their discovery before Peter Petrovitch, the first 
 Russian Governor. 
 
 Men and money wqtq scarce, but the governor, after 
 many efiforts managed to collect 132 men whom he placed 
 in command of X'assili Poyarkof, with instructions to do 
 the best he could. The party started on the 15th of 
 July, 1643, and followed the usual course with the 
 natives with the result that he returned to Yakoutsk in 
 June 1646, having lost most of his men in attacks by 
 nifuriated and outraged natives, but in possession of a 
 fund of information, and some skins as tribute. 
 
 During the reign of Alexis Michaelovitch ( 1645-1676), 
 explorations of the Amoor regions were pursued 
 vigorously. A young officer of considerable Avealth, 
 Sto. of Russia — 17 
 
262 
 
 named Khabarof, offered to conduct an expedition at 
 his own expense. This was gladly accepted, and he left 
 Vakoutsk in 1649. ^^^' reached the Amoor and formed a 
 line of forts, and met a small party amoni; whom was 
 the khan, who aske<l what his object was. Khabarof 
 replied that he had come to trade, but that the czar 
 would probably take the khan under his powerful pro- 
 tection in return for a small annual tribute. The khan 
 did not answer, and Khal)arof after burning most of the 
 forts and leaving some of his men in another, returned 
 to Yakoutsk to report. 
 
 In June, 1651, he was on the way back to the Amoor, 
 where he came in conflict with the Manchus. He, how- 
 ever, forced his w^ay, and gained for the Russians the 
 reputation that they were '* devils, who would make grid- 
 irons of the parents to roast the children on." At this 
 time a report that the Amoor region contained untold 
 wealth reached Moscow, where it produced an effect very 
 similar to that felt in Spain after the return of Columbus. 
 Alexis intended to send an expedition of 3,000 men to 
 occupy and hold this treasure grove, but he was prudent 
 enough to dispatch an officer to order Khabarof to Mos- 
 cow, so that he might learn the facts. This officer, Simo- 
 vief left Moscow in March, 1652, and met Khabarof in 
 August of the following year. Leaving the command 
 to his lieutenant Stepanof, Khabarof obeyed the czar's 
 call. He arrived at Moscow and after the czar had 
 heard his report, the expedition was given up, but Alexis 
 wrote to Stepanof. upon whom he conferred some honors, 
 and told him to continue the good work. 
 
 The interest manifested by the czar inaugurated an 
 
 263 
 
 exploration fever among the Russian authorities. 
 Pashkof, the Governor of Yeniseisk started on the i8th 
 of July, 1656, for the Amoor at the head of 400 Cos- 
 sacks: in 1658, he built a fort w^iich was the beginning 
 of Nerchin.sk. It w^as 1662 before he returned to 
 Yeniseisk. 
 
 Unfortunately the Russians came into a clash with 
 the Manchus, at that time in full vigor; they had made 
 themselves masters of China, and their emperor, Kang-hi, 
 was an exccptionably able and strong man. He did not 
 want war. but on the other hand he did not intend to 
 suffer an injustice. 
 
 When the government at Moscow became aw^are that 
 further encroachment would entail a war with China 
 an ambassador, Feodor Golovin, was dispatched to come 
 to an under.standing. He left Moscow on January 20, 
 1686, but took his time. Kang-hi had been notified, and 
 ambassadors were sent from Peking to meet Golovin. 
 The Russian met the Chinese at Xerchinsk on the 22d 
 August, iC^j, and on the 27th the terms of a treaty were 
 agreed upon. Tw'o days later the treaty was exchanged. 
 Russia was compelled to withdraw from the Amoor. 
 After this no changes in the boundary line occurred until 
 after the year 1847. 
 
 In 1707, Kamtschatka was annexed to Russia, and two 
 vears later the first prisoners were sent to Siberia. They 
 were ])risoners of war and natives of conquered European 
 provinces who objected to Muscovite rule. About 14,000 
 persons were .sent the fir.st year, but many died from the 
 hardshi])s suffered on the road. 
 
 Besides Siberia, Russia in Asia consists of: 
 
264 
 
 T. The Caucasus. It was Peter the Great who, in 
 1722, invaded Dagestan and seized the greater part of 
 this territory. We have seen how the mountaineers 
 defended their Hberty under Schaniyl.^ and it was left 
 to his son Alexander to annex it and make it part of the 
 Russian Empire. Including Trans Caucasia, it covers 
 an area of 180,843 scjuare miles, — or about that of 
 Colorado and Utah, and contains a population of 
 
 8,350,000. 
 
 II. The Kirghiz Steppe. This is a country of plains, 
 unfit for agriculture and still inhabited by nomads 
 who live in tents and wander with their Hocks over 
 the 755,793 square miles of territory. They are divided 
 into three hordes or families, one of which surren- 
 dered to Anne Ivanovna in 1734. In 1869 the Kirghiz, 
 together with the Cossacks of the Don. revolted, but in 
 the autumn of 1870, order was restored. I' or admin- 
 istrative purposes, it is divided into: 
 
 III. Transcaspia, which, as the name indicates, in- 
 cludes the region east of the Caspian Sea. It contains 
 an area of 383618 square miles with a population esti- 
 mated at 352,000. Like the Kirghiz Steppe, it is unfit for 
 agriculture, although it contains several oases. It was 
 formed into a province by Alexander III, in 1881. 
 
 ly. Turkestan contains 4aj,4i4 square miles with a 
 population of 3,341,000. The valleys of the Oxus and 
 Jaxartes are very fertile, but the rest of the extensive 
 province is almost a desert. The Oxus or Amu Daria 
 once formed the boundary of the empires of Cyrus and 
 Alexander. It was conquered step by stej), and after 
 
 ' See p. 209 
 
 265 
 
 manv struggles with the Turkomans and Kirghiz to 
 whom it originally belonged. 
 
 V. The Khanates, so called because they once, formed 
 the territorv of the Khans of Khiva and liokhara. This 
 province embraces 114,320 square miles with a population 
 of 3,200,000. Both are recent acquisitions. It was the 
 war with Khiva, in 1872, which first drew the attention of 
 Europe to Russia's expansion in Central Asia. There 
 had been some doubts as to the wisdom of permitting 
 Russia to add more territory to her already enormous 
 domain, but they had been allayed by a circular note to 
 the powers, issued by Prince Gortchakof, the Minister 
 of Foreign Aflfairs, on November 21, 1864. He declared 
 that Russia had been brought into contact with a number 
 of half-savage tribes who proved a constant menace to 
 the security of the Empire, and that the only means of 
 maintaining order on the frontier, was to bring them 
 under submission. This, he said, had been done by the 
 United States, and was nothing but a measure necessary 
 for self-defense. 
 
 This reasoning was self-evident, but in 1873 the 
 press of (ireat P>ritain asked when and where 
 this necessity would cease. Count Schouvalof was sent 
 to London and in several interviews with Lord Granville, 
 he stated distinctly and plainly that Russia had no inten- 
 tion to annex any more territory in Central Asia. He 
 declared * solemnly with regard to Khiva that *' not only 
 was it far from the intention of the emperor to take pos- 
 session of Khiva, but positive orders had been prepared 
 
 1 Parliamentary Papers, Central Asia. 1873. 
 
266 
 
 to prevent it. and directions given that the conditions im- 
 posed should be such as would not in any way lead to 
 the prolonjT^ed occupation of Khiva." 
 
 Notwithstanding^ this positive declaration. Khiva was 
 annexed on the loth of June. 1873. I'Our months after- 
 wards, on the 10th of ( )ctober. a treaty was sij^ned by 
 the Khan of Bokhara. givin<^ to Russia free navigation 
 on the Oxus, and other privileges. It has never been 
 formally annexed, but is to all intents and purposes Rus- 
 sian territory. 
 
 XXIX-RUSSIAX METHODS. THE WAR WITH 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 AT the time when the United States and the commercial 
 powers of Europe were discussing the opening of 
 Japan. Russia resolved, if possible, to forestall them. 
 In 1847. the czar appointed a young general, Nicholas 
 Muravieff. as governor of Eastern Siberia. Shortly after 
 entering upon his oflfice he sent an officer named X'agarof, 
 who had explored the Amoor River, back to it with four 
 Cossacks to make an extensive report. The party left 
 Strelka in the spring of 1848, but was never heard of 
 again. Suspecting that they had been captured by the 
 Chinese, a demand was made for their surrender on the 
 plea that they were deserters, but the Chinese replied 
 that they knew nothing of them. Meanwhile Muravieff 
 had ordered the exploration of the shore of the Sea of 
 Okhotsk and the mouth of the Amoor. These orders 
 were promptly executed, and in 1850 Lieutenant Orloff 
 entered the river from the sea. The following year 
 Captain Xevilskoi, who had come out in the Baikal, sent 
 a boat up the river and laid the foundations of Nikola- 
 yefsk and Mariinsk, therel)y securing a foothold on the 
 Lower Amoor, knowing all the time that this was 
 Chinese territory, and that Russia was at peace with 
 
 267 
 
i 
 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 (/) 
 
 s 
 
 269 
 
 China. The survey of the Sea of Okhotsk was not 
 neglected. Port Imperial on the coast of Manchuria 
 was discovered and occupied, and Urup, one of the 
 Kurile Islands, was seized. When Commodore Perry 
 arrived off the coast of Japan, he was watched by 
 Admiral Poutiatine in command of the Pallas, Vostok, 
 Olivutzn and Mcnzikoff. Aniwa liay was seized the 
 same year, and Russians landed on the west coast of 
 what is known as Sai^halien, but was known and owned 
 by the Japanese under the name of Karafuto. 
 
 The Crimean War gave Muravieff a pretext to violate 
 further the treaty with China. He claimed that the 
 settlements on the Pacific, as well as the Russian ships, 
 were in need of sui)plies, and that the ocean route was 
 closed by the allied fleets. Was it Muravieff's duty to 
 furnish those supplies? In that case, any reference to 
 the ocean route was preposterous, because it is absurd to 
 suppose that supplies would be sent from Eastern Siberia 
 to the north Pacific coast by such a route; and if he 
 had furnished them before by the overland route through 
 Siberia, why, that road was open to him. What he 
 needed was a pretext to secure the occupation of Japan, 
 or at least of some of its islands, before the other powers 
 could know of it ; and for that purpose, it was necessary 
 to be in possession of the lower Amoor. Perry's ener- 
 getic action thwarted him ; but he could not know that. 
 What he did know was that China was not in a condition 
 to oppose him. and that the other powers need not know 
 what he was doing. 
 
 He determined to send an expedition strong enough to 
 insure respect, and lost no time in preparing it. Fifty 
 
C 
 
 o 
 10 
 
 0) 
 OS 
 
 s 
 
 China , 
 
 Tl 
 
 U' survcv n 
 
 269 
 
 f iIk' Soa of Okhotsk was not 
 
 isi of .Manchuria 
 f th( 
 
 nL'i;lcclc(l. Port lm|)(.'rial on the co; 
 
 was (Hso)vcrc(l and occupied and Vvu\\ one of the 
 
 Kurile Ishmds. was sei/.ec 
 
 1. When Commodore Perry 
 
 an 
 
 -ived off the coa>t oi |ai)an, Ik 
 
 w 
 
 ;is watched hv 
 
 \<hniral 1 outiainie ni comman< 
 
 Olii'iitzii ai 
 
 id Mcn.zikoft. Aniwa l»a\ 
 
 1 of the Palhis, J'ostok, 
 r,av was seized the 
 
 same vea 
 
 r. and Russians landed on the west coast ot 
 
 what is kn(»wn as Sa-haHen, hut was known and own 
 bv the Japanese un 
 
 led 
 
 ler the name of Karafuto 
 
 The Crimean 
 
 War irave Muravieff a i)retext to violate 
 
 further 
 settlements < .11 
 
 llu- 1 
 
 turm 
 
 ^h ll 
 
 the treatv with China, lie claimed that the 
 
 as well as the Russian ships. 
 
 and that the ocean route was 
 
 ,. Was it Muravieffs duty to 
 
 In that case, anv reference to 
 
 ,u-ili( 
 1; 
 
 were in need ot Mii)])lies, 
 closed h\ the allied ileet: 
 
 lose 
 
 .up] 
 
 )!l' 
 
 the ocean route was i)repo^ 
 suppose that sui)plies would 1 
 
 ll 
 
 lerou.s, hccause it is al)sur< 
 
 Sil) 
 
 ll to 
 
 )e so 
 
 nt from h'astern Siheria 
 
 to tl 
 
 1*. II'' 
 
 nil 
 
 aciti 
 
 C CO 
 
 [ist 1)\ ^n«"h a roll 
 
 te; and if he 
 
 liad furnished them hel'ore l)y the ovei 
 
 rland 
 
 r< ai 
 
 te tl 
 
 iroim'h 
 
 Siheria. whv, that road was open to him. What he 
 
 »rete\t to secure the occupation of |ai)an. 
 
 nee( 
 
 led 
 
 W.i: 
 
 ;i 1 
 
 or at least ot s< >nie o 
 
 f its islands, het'ore the other j^.wers 
 
 con 
 
 Id know of it: and h»r that i)urpose, it was nece 
 
 ssarv 
 
 f the lower Amoor. Perry's eiier- 
 l him: hut he could not know that. 
 What hr did know was that China was not in a condition 
 to o])po.se him. and that the other powers need not know 
 
 lu i»e 111 jio.ssessu 111 <» 
 j^etic action thwartec 
 
 w 
 
 II 
 
 hat 1 
 
 U' was ( 
 
 loin: 
 
 11, .l.i.rniinrd to send an expedition stron.i;- enou.^ 
 i.sure re.speci, aiMi i< -m ii-' lime in preparinj 
 
 it. 
 
 h to 
 
 I'iftv 
 
270 
 
 barges, a steamer, and niinieroiis rafts, a thousand Cos- 
 sacks with cannon, the whole commanded by Muravieff 
 himself, left Shilinsk on the 24th of May, 1854. Follow- 
 ing the usual custom, the expedition was accompanied 
 by scientific men to survey the river, prepare maps, 
 explore the country, and examine its resources. At ten 
 A. M., June 8, they arrived at Aigun where Muravieff 
 was received by the Chinese authorities, who displayed 
 about the same number of armed men. but such men and 
 such arms! Firelocks dating from the time of Kang-hi — 
 1689, — convinced Muravieff that fifty Cossacks could 
 put these braves to rout. Not caring to arouse Chinese 
 hostility for fear that his schemes might attract attention, 
 Muravieff did not resent it when the Chinese forbade him 
 to enter the town : he continued on his journey, and on 
 the 27th of June arrived at Mariinsk. After sending 
 part of his force to Xikolayefsk, he went on to Port 
 Imperial where he met Admiral Poutiatine. They dis- 
 cussed the situation, and Poutiatine left for Japan on 
 the Diana. 
 
 Muravieff hurried back as he had come, and prepared 
 another expedition which he took down the river in 
 1855. In that year he sent three thousand Cossacks, and 
 five hundred colonists down the Amoor, together with 
 horses, cattle, provisions, and military stores. This 
 activity could not escape the Chinese who dispatched four 
 officials to Xikolayefsk to protest against the invasion 
 of their territory. They arrived in July, and were 
 entertained by Muravieff with a review of his forces; 
 after this hint he simply dismissed them. At this time 
 the settlements which stood in such urgent need of sup- 
 
 271 
 
 plies, were Mariinsk, which consisted of two log cabins, 
 Xikolayefsk numbered ten, and Castries iiay had ** four 
 badly built huls."' 
 
 In a remarkably short time we hear of the indefatigable 
 Muravieff' at St. IVtersburg urging the annexation of the 
 Amoor. He was opposed by the czar's ministers, but 
 succeeded in convincing the emperor that China could 
 offer no resistance, and that the powers need not hear 
 of it until it was too late. Thus he secured large 
 supplies of men and money. In the beginning of 1857, 
 he was back at his post, and on the ist of June he dis- 
 patched Colonel Ushakof with six hundred men from 
 Shilkinsk, and soon after followed him with a brigade of 
 Cossack infantry and a regiment of cavalry, to garrison 
 the forts which he constructed at strategic points. 
 
 Seizing the opportunity of China's distress caused by 
 the war with Fngland and France, Muravieff demanded 
 the cession of the Amoor X'alley. The Chinese were 
 helpless. On the 28th of May, 1858, a treaty was signed 
 at Aigun. giving to Russia the left bank of the Amoor 
 down to the Cssuri, and both banks below that confluent, 
 besides the right to navigate die Sungari and Ussuri 
 rivers. Russia gave absolutely nothing in return. Mean- 
 while Count Poutiatine had been sent from St. Petersburg 
 to watch the allies and to profit by any blunder which they 
 or the Chinese might make. Poutiatine stopped in Japan, 
 claiming that the Koreans had given him the privilege 
 of establishing a coaling station at Port Hamilton, but 
 knowing that Cireat Britain would certainly investigate 
 his claim, he did not i>ress it. He tried to seize the 
 
 Ravenstein, Russian.s on the Amoor. 
 
272 
 
 Japanese Island Tsushima in the southern entrance to 
 the Jai)an Sea, and midway hetween Japan and Korea: 
 but a poHte and firm invitation from the IVitish admiral 
 to leave that island, and the admiral's insistence to remain 
 until after he had left it, spoiled that little i^ame. Poutia- 
 tine then proceeded to China where he proposed to help 
 put down the Tai P'in<:^ rebellion in return for the 
 cession of Manchuria to Russia. This handsome offer 
 was politely declined. Once a^^ain Muravieff hurried to 
 St. Petersburg; upon his advice the newly acquired 
 territory was officially annexed, and, by ukase of 
 October 31, joined to the littoral of the Sea of Okhotsk 
 and Kamtschatka under the name of Maritime Province 
 of Eastern Siberia, with Xikolayevsk as capital. Mura- 
 vieff remained in supreme command. 
 
 The tireless empire builder was a.q'ain on the Pacific 
 Coast in 1858. On May 21, he founded r>lai^ovestchensk 
 and, after descending the river, laid the foundation of 
 Khabarofka, at the mouth of the Ussuri. In October he 
 was back at Kiakhta, arranging for the postal service 
 between St. Petersburg and the extreme east. On the 
 2nth of August, he was created Count Amoorsky, or 
 Count of the Amoor, a promotion which he had well 
 earned. On the 31st of December, a remarkable ukase 
 was published, beginning " Now that Russia has rrgained 
 possession of this valuable region, etc." Ihe entire 
 territory of Eastern Siberia contained 740,922 square 
 miles, a territory equal to that of all the Atlantic Coast 
 States, together with Indiana, ( )hio, West X'irginia, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi. This 
 did not include the Amoor Province, which was placed 
 
 I 
 
 
 273 
 
 under the administration of a governor and eighteen 
 officials, who received a combined annual salary of $18,- 
 873.60, of which the governor received $4680. 
 
 Muravieff was back at his post in 1859. Both he 
 and Poutiatine tried to induce the Japanese to give up 
 Karafuto (Saghalien), but without success. At this 
 time there was again trouble between China and the 
 allied British and French, and when in i860, a P>ritish- 
 French force marched on Peking, Russia had sent another 
 empire builder. General Ignatieff, to watch if he could 
 not secure something. He did : when the allies entered 
 Peking, Ignatieff sought Prince Kung and told him that 
 the '' foreign devils " would surely seize the country un- 
 less some strong power com|)elled them to leave. Russia 
 was willing to do this, because she had always been fond 
 of China; and all she asked was a strip of outlying 
 territory of no value to China. Prince Kung gladly 
 signed away the whole east coast of Manchuria, six 
 hundred miles long; and Ignatieff redeemed his promise 
 by visiting Lord Elgin and Baron Cros, the British and 
 French plenipotentiaries. After paying them some 
 flattering compliments, he made the remark that the 
 Peiho river would freeze in a few days, and if they did 
 not get out at once, they would have to stay all winter in 
 Peking. The two gentlemen finished their business in 
 a hurry, packed up, and left, but not without thanking 
 Itrnatieff for his kindness and reporting the matter to 
 their government, which did not hear of the Russian s 
 diplomacy until a year later. This is how Russia ex- 
 tended her empire on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 For many years the efforts to secure the whole island 
 
274 
 
 of Karafuto continued and Japan saw that war must 
 follow unless a sacrifice was made. In 1875, Japan 
 surrendered the island, in return f(.r the Kurile Rroup, 
 but the Japanese treasured in their hearts the loss and 
 disgrace* It was this which caused the assault ui)on the 
 present czar, when he was traveling in Japan. 
 
 In 1894 the war between Japan and China broke out, 
 and when China, humbled, sued for peace, Japan de- 
 manded the cession of the Liaotung Peninsula,-where 
 Port Arthur is located,— besides making other condi- 
 tions. When this became known, Russia, after securing 
 the help of Germany and France, gave Japan the 
 - friendlv advice," which was really a threat, not to take 
 that penuisula. Japan, single-handed, could not fight the 
 three powers, and gave way ; but every Japanese, high 
 or low, young or old, was determined to pay off Russia. 
 They bought or built war vessels everywhere and in- 
 creased their armv. Russia did not like this, and pro- 
 posed that Japan should take all the islands in the 
 Pacific, the Philippines, Hawaii, Borneo, etc., and leave 
 the continent of Asia to Russia. Japan declined, and 
 went on building ships. In the end of 1898, Russia 
 announced that she had " leased " the very Liaotung 
 Peninsula which she had prevented Japan from taking. 
 Japan understood, as the whole world did, that this 
 '' lease " meant possession. The Japanese statesmen did 
 not protest, because there was but one protest that 
 Russia would heed,— an appeal to arms. That was 
 Japan's method when, in 1899, Alexander Pavloff, the 
 Russian minister in Korea, secured from that government 
 a concession in the port of Masampo, opening into the 
 
 275 
 
 entrance to the Japan Sea. Japan's demand was: Let 
 Masamix) go, or it means war, and Russia evacuated 
 Masampo, while Pavloff was t(4(l that he might take a 
 furlough. Then came 1900, the Boxer troubles and the 
 international march upon Peking. Japanese officers took 
 note of the Russian troops, leaving the Russians to do 
 the same with their soldiers. Japan never ceased her prep- 
 arations. In the latter part of 190T, Marquis Ito Hiro- 
 bumi visited the United States and crossed over to Eng- 
 land, where he proposed an offensive-defensive alliance. 
 P»ritish statesmen hesitated, when Ito told them in plain 
 terms that if no such treaty was concluded, he was 
 authorized to go on to Russia, and make the best terms 
 he could for his country. 
 
 Meanwhile Pavloff had returned to Seoul, the capital 
 of Korea, and by means best known to Russian diplomats, 
 was trying to gain a foothold on the I'eninsula. Under 
 the pretext of a timber concession, the Russians con- 
 structed a fort on the Korean side of the Yalu river, — 
 where it was afterwards discovered by newspaper cor- 
 respondents. Russia had secured control of Manchuria 
 with its 362,310 square miles and 11,250,000 population, 
 and none of the powers dared protest. Japan was ready. 
 Could she allow the *' peaceful " absorption of Korea, 
 as that of Manchuria had been accomplished? Safe in 
 the offensive-defensive alliance with Great Britain, Japan 
 approached Russia in a dignified manner, to be put off 
 with vague replies. After six months of patience, Japan 
 broke off diplomatic intercourse, and, as this is considered 
 equal to a declaration of war, she struck and hit hard. 
 
tuO 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 0) 
 
 (A 
 
 
 XXX— RUSSIA LOSES HER PRESTIGE 
 
 WHEN, in February, 1894, the world was startled 
 by the Jai)anese j^^iins in the harbor of Chemulpo 
 (Korea), one of Russia's well-known diplomats, speaking 
 in defense of his country, said : " Ours has been a peace- 
 ful absorption." Another statesman, pleading for sym- 
 pathy, remarked pathetically : *' \\\^ were unprepared for 
 war." The two advocates of Russia's cause spoke the 
 truth, but they did not proclaim the whole truth. 
 
 Ever since MuraviefF Amoorsky began the peaceful 
 absorption of Manchuria by seizing the coastline of that 
 province, Russia has extended her dominions using no 
 other weapon than her prestige, that is, the dread in- 
 spired by her name, power, and resources. Repeated 
 protests from Great Britain remained unheeded, because 
 the czar's government was convinced that they would not 
 be emphasized by a resort to arms. The semi-civilized 
 tribes of Central Asia were unable, of course, to oppose 
 the Russian advance; and China was justly afraid of 
 defying the great northern power. Thus the peaceful 
 absorption continued with such ease that the Russian 
 tchinovnik ended in believing in their country's prestige. 
 Herein lies the principal cause of the astounding history 
 of the war with Japan. 
 
 Sto. of Russia — 18 277 
 
*VL vl^^WMi'l 
 
 % ^^K'^ 
 
 
 ,#» 
 
 #** 
 
 
 a; 
 
 Hm ari^i 
 
 ftHV *>mm 
 
 rf ■ 
 
 
 Z^ I 
 
 (/I 
 
 00 
 
 XXX— RUSSIA LOSES HER PRESTIGE 
 
 ^^niEX, in Eebriiary, i8()4. the world was startled 
 » ^ l)v the Japanese i^uns in the harbor of Chemulpo 
 ( Korea), one of Russia's well-known di])loinats, speaking 
 in defense of his country, said : ** ( )urs has been a peace- 
 ful absorption." Another statesman, ])lea<linjL^ for sym- 
 j)athy, remarked patheticall\ : " W'c were unprepared for 
 war." The two advocates of Russia's cause spoke the 
 truth, but they did not proclaim the whole truth. 
 
 Ever since Muravietf Amoorsky be.^an the peaceful 
 absorption of Manchuria by seizint^ the coastline of that 
 province, Russia has extended her dominions using" no 
 other weapou than her prestijL^e, that is, the dread in- 
 spired by her name, power, and resources. Repeated 
 protests from ( ireat liritain remained unheeded, because 
 the czar's irovernment was convinced that thev would not 
 be emphasized bv a resort to arms. The semi-civilized 
 tribes of Central .\sia were unable, of course, to oppose 
 the Russian advance; and China was justly afraid of 
 defying- the ^reat northern power. Thus the peaceful 
 a])sorption continui'd with such ease that the Russian 
 tchinovnik ended in believini^ in their country's prestige. 
 TTcrcin b'cs the principal cause of the astounding history 
 of the war with Ja])an. 
 
 Sto. HI Krssi \ — iS 277 
 
278 
 
 Although Russia repeatedly agreed to evacuate Man- 
 churia, her actions in the construction of railways and 
 other roads, the opening of mines, the enormous capital 
 expended in creatini^ a commercial emporium in Dalny, 
 and her jealousy in excludinj^ foreij^ners from that ter- 
 ritory, — all this was ample evidence that nothing short of 
 compulsion would cause her to withdraw. Resides, 
 Alexander Pavloff, the Russian Minister in Korea, was 
 anxious to emulate Count Cassini, his former chief at 
 Peking. He was constantly plotting to secure a foot- 
 hold in the Peninsula. Tn 1903. it was announced that a 
 Russian company had obtained a timber concession on the 
 Yalu River. A few months afterwards, some American 
 newspaper correspondents with the Japanese army dis- 
 covered the ruins of a Russian fort on that river, 
 securely screened from indiscreet eyes, but in a fine posi- 
 tion to control the passage. That was the timber con- 
 cession. 
 
 Russia's policy, therefore, was a serious menace to 
 Japan. P)Ut Japan did not purpose to draw ridicule by 
 unavailing protests. Feverishly the preparations for more 
 emphatic action were continued ; in the latter part of 
 1903, Japan was ready. Safe from a possible European 
 intervention by her treaty with Great Britain, Japan re- 
 minded Russia of her promise to evacuate Manchuria on 
 October 7, and requested an explanation f(^r not keep- 
 ing the pledge. Russia, with a blind faith in her prestige, 
 replied that the affair did not concern Japan but China, 
 whereupon Japan made a proposition concerning Man- 
 churia and Korea which would be acceptable. With 
 studied contempt replies from the czar were held back 
 
 279 
 
 beyond the time permitted by international courtesy. 
 Moreover their tenor was not only unsatisfactory, but 
 was also calculated to exasperate the i)rou(l Japanese. 
 When the final preparations were made, Japan instructed 
 her minister to St. IVtersburg, to demand his passports, — 
 an act ecjuivalent to a declaration of war. 
 
 The tchinovnik doubted their senses. Russia main- 
 tained that a severance of (lij)lomatic relations did not 
 necessarily imply an apj)eal to the sword, when the news 
 flashed over the wires that the Russian war vessels 
 \'aryag and Koreyetz had been blown up at Chemulpo 
 to escape being ca])tured. The world was still marveling 
 at Japan's audacity when it was informed that three other 
 Russian war vessels had been disabled owing to a night 
 torpedo attack under Admiral Togo. 
 
 Why was the Russian fleet, numerically superior to 
 that of Japan, divided? The answer is found in that 
 fatal word : prestige. Pavloff in Korea had requested 
 the presence of the two doomed ships, to keep the Japan- 
 ese in awe. Admiral Stark lay under the guns of im- 
 pregnable Port Arthur, trusting to the prestige, when the 
 illusion vanished. There was still the Vladivostok squa- 
 dron ; it made an effort to induce Togo to leave Port 
 Arthur by making a raid upon the north coast of Japan, 
 but in vain. Beyond sinking a few^ unarmed merchant- 
 men, nothing of importance was accomplished. 
 
 The czar's choice to restore Russia's naval prestige, 
 fell upon Admiral Makaroff. At about the same time, 
 General Kuropatkin. the former Minister of War, was 
 charged with punishing Japan for her insolence. His 
 departure for the Far East was theatrical. After many 
 
2 So 
 
 genuflexions before sacred eikons, he promised to re- 
 store Russia's prestige by dictating terms of peace in 
 
 Tokyo. 
 
 Makarofif was less enthusiastic, and perhaps more in 
 earnest. It is asserted that he restored disciphne in a 
 sadly demoralized fleet. He was enticed out of Port 
 Arthur's shelter by a small tieet of the enemy's cruisers 
 sent out as a decoy. When he discovered Togo's iron- 
 clads he returned to port, but his flagship struck a mine 
 at the entrance to Port Arthur and sunk. The Admiral, 
 as well as his guest, the noted battle painter X'erestchagin, 
 
 perished. 
 
 With Togo blockading Port Arthur and Admiral 
 Kaminura guarding \'ladivostok, the Jai)anese secured 
 the freedom of the sea, and began to pour troops into 
 Korea. This was greeted with acclamation by the 
 tchinovnik who, after their naval misfortunes, claimed 
 that the situation would soon be reversed by the army. 
 Some Japanese soldiers were landed openly at Chemulpo, 
 but the bulk went ashore in a well-concealed harbor 
 south of the Yalu River, (ieneral Kuroki was in com- 
 mand. 
 
 Meanwhile Kuropatkin was in Manchuria busy organiz- 
 ing the army when not obstructed by Viceroy Alexieff. 
 Such troops as he found were capable of rendering good 
 service in hunting down Chinese brigands, but, as the 
 sequel proved, the army had also been nurtured upon 
 that most indigestible material, prestige. To the wonder 
 of Europe,— and to a less degree of America,— Kuroki 
 crossed the Yalu and sent the czar's dreaded soldiers 
 flying before him. (May i, 1904.) 
 
 281 
 
 Once more, and for the last time, did the Russian 
 fleet at Port Arthur attempt a sortie. It failed, and its 
 fate was sealed. 
 
 \\ bile the wreckage of Russia's once proud fleet lay 
 concealed in Port Arthur's inner basin, the Japanese, 
 after scouring the waters to clear them from mines, 
 landed troops on the Liao-tung Peninsula, claimed by 
 Japan after the war with China, but despoiled of it by 
 Russia's peaceful absorption. In 1894, Port Arthur was 
 taken in a day from the Chinese : the Russians defended 
 the impregnable fortress for six months. *'Our prestige 
 demands that the enemy shall not capture Port Arthur," 
 cried the tchinovnik, and Kuropatkin was ordered to 
 General Stoessel's rescue. The attempt failed, and Gen- 
 eral Xogi could pursue the siege without being dis- 
 turbed. (June 14-15, 1904.) 
 
 A stolid, ignorant, and densely superstitious people 
 was at war with a rejuvenated nation keenly alive to the 
 power of education. That is the secret. Man for man, 
 Russia would have won. lUit the resourcefulness of the 
 little brown man more than offset the Russian's physical 
 superiority. As the year 1905 dawned, the fall of Port 
 Arthur was made known to the world. 
 
 Slowlv, but heralded by the marvels it would accom- 
 plish, the P>altic fleet under Rojestvensky sailed to Mad- 
 agascar, welcome to whatever aid the Trench ally could 
 bestow. Jai)an said nothing, but made a note of it. She 
 cleaned and scrai)ed her sea-worn, battle-scarred vessels, 
 under the supervision of grim, silent Togo. Oyama, the 
 Jai)anese commander-in-chief, reenforced by the veterans 
 of Kuroki and Xogi, was playing with Kuropatkin until 
 
282 
 
 he had the game in his hand. After ten days of hard 
 fighting, the discomfited Russians made a masterly retreat 
 to the Sha river, after evacuating Mukden, the cradle of 
 the present Chinese dynasty, (August 26-September 4, 
 
 1904.) 
 
 Kuropatkin deserved credit for the manner in which 
 he extricated the remains of the czar's army. Oyama 
 did not feel safe in following up the pursuit. His game 
 was that of a skillful chessplayer. First make sure of the 
 result with mathematical precision, then strike. The 
 Japanese were deaf to the demand for brilliant dashes. 
 
 After the battle of Liao-yang, the armies seemed idle 
 so far as news from the front went. Oyama attacked his 
 former antagonist on the Shakhe River and drove the dis- 
 comfited Russians beyond Tie pass. General Kuropatkin 
 was superseded by his former subordinate Linievitch 
 who, however, accomplished nothing to warrant his pro- 
 motion. 
 
 Meanwhile the Baltic fleet left the hospitable shores of 
 IVIadagascar, proclaiming its search for Togo, together 
 with the determination to punish the impertinent Japan- 
 ese. In the latter part of May, 1905, Admiral Rojest- 
 vensky made a dash for X'ladivostok through the Tsu 
 channel, the southern entrance to the Sea of Japan. Togo 
 intercepted him, and a battle followed which, in its re- 
 sults, stands unifiue in the history of naval warfare. 
 At a cost of three torpedo boats, 113 killed, and 444 
 wounded, the Japanese sank 6 Russian battleships, i 
 coast defense vessel, 3 special service boats, and 3 de- 
 stroyers, besides capturing 2 battleships, 2 coast defense 
 vessels, and i destroyer. The losses in killed were 8,550 
 
 283 
 
 and over 3,000 prisoners, among them Admirals Rojest- 
 vensky and NebogatofT, were taken to Japan. As a 
 result of this one-sided battle, Russia's naval power is 
 broken. (May 27-28, 1905.) 
 
 While President Theodore Roosevelt seized this op- 
 portunity to approach the belligerents in favor of peace, 
 pointing out the hopelessness of continuing the struggle 
 to Russia and appealing to Japan's magnanimity, the 
 world was startled by the revolt of the Kniaz Potemkin, 
 a first-class battleship of the Black Sea squadron. The 
 mutineers found no support, and what might have proved 
 a serious danger to the house of Romanoff, ended by 
 the ship being sunk in Roumanian waters. She was 
 recovered by the Russians. 
 
 President Roosevelt's efforts toward bringing the two 
 powers together, proved successful. Washington was 
 agreed upon as the place for the negotiations, but the 
 plenipotentiaries, Sergius W^tte and Raron de Rosen 
 acting for Russia, met l>aron Komura and Minister Taka- 
 hira, who represented Japan, at Portsmouth, N. H., 
 where the United States acted as host. 
 
 The incompatibility of Japan's demands and Russia's 
 concessions on several occasions brought the plenipoten- 
 tiaries on the verge of rupture. With the singleminded- 
 ness born of an unselfish purpose. President Roosevelt 
 exerted all the personal influence he could bring to bear 
 upon czar and emperor with the result that the victor 
 gave the world an astounding lesson in magnanimity. 
 Japan made peace possible by withdrawing her demands 
 for indemnity and the cession of territory beyond that of 
 whicli Russia had robbed her, — the southern half of the 
 
284 
 
 island of Sakhalin, which will be once more Karafuto 
 for the Japanese. 
 
 The terms of the Treaty of Peace were agreed upon at 
 Portsmouth on the 29th of August 1905. The war had 
 lasted from the 5th of l-ebruary, 1904, or 572 days. Rus- 
 sia paid in men 375^000' in money $i,o75,ooo,ooo,--all 
 for peaceful absorption and support of prestige. Cassim's 
 shrewd move, ten years before, in robbing: Japan of the 
 Liao-tuni: Peninsula and Port Arthur, has ended in 
 Japan's obtaining possession of that key to Peking, with 
 the promise of holdincr it beyond the possibility of re- 
 capture, until China recovers its manhood. The Treaty 
 of Peace was signed September 5, at Portsmouth, X. H. 
 What will be the efifect of the war upon the Russian 
 people? While die plenipotentiaries were discussing the 
 terms of peace, autocracy launched a ukase calling for a 
 consultative assembly. Russian thinkers, however, re- 
 flect that, so long as autocracy exists and the tchin- 
 ovnik admit no other authority but that of the czar, 
 another ukase may revc^ke the doubtful boon. 
 
 No one knows what the morrow will bring, either to 
 us or to the Slav. Yet it seems absurd to suppose that, 
 after the lessons of corruption and incompetence of the 
 present government, the educated Russians will remain 
 quiescent while the great empire continues on its down- 
 ward course. Medicxvalism has come into contact with 
 the spirit of die twentieth century, and has been found 
 wanting. It seems as if the dawn of a new era for 
 Russia is at hand. 
 
 INDliX. 
 
 Abdul Aziz, 231 
 
 Abdul Hiunid, 232 
 
 Alexander I, the Well-beloved. 197 
 
 Alexander 11, the Liberator, 218 
 
 Alexander III. the Peasants' 
 
 Friend, 241 
 Alexander of Hattenber^. 246 
 Alexander Nevski. (jo, (^ 
 Alexis Michaelovitch. 141 
 Alexis, son of Peter the Great, 170 
 Andrew Hojjoliouski, 54 
 Ainie Ivanovna, Czarina, 175 
 .Area of Russia, 14 
 Armenians, 255 
 Askold, 30 
 
 B 
 
 Haskak, Tartar tax collector, 71 
 Bati. Khan of the Golden Horde. 65 
 Battle of the Oka, 102 
 Boundaries of Russia, 15 
 Boyard, noble, 56 
 
 Byzantium, former name of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 C 
 
 Catherine I, wife of Peter the 
 
 Great, iCk), 171, 173 
 Catherine II, the Great, 1S3 
 Caucasus, The 264 
 Choulski, Andrew, 112 
 Choulski, Czar, 134 
 Christianity, 36, 42 
 Climate of Russia, 18 
 Constantine, 58 
 
 Council of Florence, attempt to 
 unite the Roman and Greek 
 Churches, 60 
 
 Crimea The, annexed, 190 
 
 Crimean War, 215 
 
 Cyril, 36 
 
 Czar, king, 112 
 
 Czargrad, city of the king 
 
 Czarina, wife of the czar 
 
 D 
 
 Dagh Bog the sun g(jd, 26 
 
 Diak, secretary, 107 
 
 Dir, 30 
 
 Dmitri Donskol, 87 
 
 Dnieper, 20 
 
 Donskol, of the Don, surname of 
 
 Dmitri, 91 
 Douma, council of nobles, 131 
 Drujina, bodyguard, 32 
 Dinia, 20 
 
 Dvor, inclosure, 27 
 Dwina, 20 
 
 Eikon, image of a saint, 44, 55 
 F.lizabeth, Queen of England, 118 
 Elizabeth, Czarina, 178 
 
 F'eodor (Theodore), Son of Ivan 
 
 the Terrible, \2() 
 Feodor Alexievitch, 144 
 Finland, 2^) 
 Finns, 2C) 
 Frederick the Great, 188 
 
 285 
 
286 
 
 G 
 
 Galitch, Southwest Russia, 6i 
 
 (jt'dimin, 80 
 
 (ienghis Khan. 64 
 
 (jct)rge Dolj^orouki, 51 
 
 George, Grand Duke of Moscow. 83 
 
 Godounof, Boris, Czar, I3) 
 
 Gosti, guest, Russian for mercliant, 
 124 
 
 Goubernii, Government or pro- 
 vince, 226 
 
 Greece, independence of, 209 
 
 Greek Church, 42 
 
 Gustavus Wasa, 119 
 
 H 
 
 Hetman, chief of Cossacks. 
 
 I 
 
 larhkh, patent or written author- 
 isation from the khan, 73 
 laropolk, 41 
 laroslaf II, 44 
 Igor, son of Rurik, 30, 32 
 louri, George, 
 Isiaslaf, 50 
 Ivan Kalita, 85 
 Ivan II, 88 
 
 Ivan III, the Great, 97 
 Ivan IV, the Terrible, in 
 Ivan Alexievitch, 145 
 Ivan Ivanovitch, 177 
 
 Jagellon, 80 
 
 Jews, persecution of the, 242 
 
 K 
 
 KaHta, ahnsbag, 87 
 
 Kazan, 119 
 
 Khanates, the, 2O5 
 
 Kholop, slave, 123 
 
 Kief, 41 
 
 Kirghiz Steppe. 2^x4 
 
 Kniaz, duke, defender, prince, 30, 
 
 45 
 
 Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 191 
 
 Kostroma, 19 
 
 Kublai Khan, 68 
 
 Krestianine, true Christian, sur- 
 name given to the peasants 
 during the Tartar yoke. 
 
 Leo the Deacon, historian, 37, 39 
 M 
 
 Mangou, grandson of Genghis 
 
 Khan, 67 
 Mazeppa, 147, 158 
 Methodius, 36 
 Metropolitan, Head of the Greek 
 
 Church, 56 
 Michael, Grand Duke of Tver, 75 
 Michael, first czar of the present 
 
 dynasty, 135 
 Mindvog, 79 
 Minine, Kouzma, a Russian patriot, 
 
 134 
 Mir, communal village, 2^ 
 
 Moscow, Burning of, 202 
 Moujik, lit. Manikin, contemp- 
 tuous word for peasant, 34 
 Mstislaf the Bold, 58 
 Mstislaf the Brave, 55 
 Murad V, 231 
 Muravieff Amoorsky, 267 
 
 N 
 
 Namiestnik. ducal delegate, 106 
 
 Napoleon I, 197 
 
 Napoleon III, 213,229 
 
 Nicholas I, 207 
 
 Nicholas II, 251 
 
 Nicon, Reformer, 144 
 
 Nihilism, 234 
 
 Nestor, Russian historian, 29, 32 
 
 Novgorod, Republic of, 29, 97 
 
 O 
 
 Oktai, khan, 69 
 Olga. 42 
 
 287 
 
 Olgerd. 80 
 
 Oleg, 30, 41 
 
 Olmutz, Battle of, 198 
 
 Oulogenia, Code of Laws under 
 
 Ivan III., 105 
 
 Pan-Germanism, 246 
 Pan-Slavism, 245 
 
 Paul I, U)4 
 
 Peace Congress, 256 
 
 Peipus, Lake, Battle on the Ice, 70 
 
 Perun. god of thunder, 27 
 
 Peter the Great, 145 
 
 Peter II, 174 
 
 Peter III. 1 79 
 
 Philarete, Metropolitan, father of 
 
 the first Romanof, 135 
 Plemia, confederacy of tribes, 28 
 
 Poland, Partition of, 188 
 
 Poliessa, forest region, 20 
 
 Poniatofski, Stanislas, 187 
 
 Portsmouth, Peace treaty at, 284 
 
 Possadnik, burgomaster or com- 
 mandant, 52 
 
 Prestige. Russia loses her, 277 
 
 Pskof. Republic of, 51 
 
 Pultowa, Battle of. 81 
 
 Raskol, plur. Raskolnik, Religious 
 Madmen, opponents to N icon's 
 reforms, 146 
 
 Roman. Duke of Volhynia, 61 
 
 Romanof, Anastasia, wife of Ivan 
 the Terrible, 114 
 
 Romanof, Michael, elected czar, 
 
 135 
 Rurik, 2() 
 Russkaia Pravda, Russian Right, 
 
 45 
 Ryndis, young nobles, 1 10 
 
 S 
 
 St. Petersburg founded, 168 
 
 Sarai, Capital of the Golden Horde, 
 
 68 
 Schamyl, 209 
 Scythians. 23 
 Simeon, first Grand Duke of All 
 
 the Russias, 88 
 Sineous, 29 
 
 Slavophil. Friend of Slavs, 230 
 
 Slavs, 25 
 
 Smerd, boor, lout. 
 
 Sophia, Autocrat of All the Rus- 
 sias, 145 
 
 Starost, elder or mayor, 52 
 
 Streltsi, national guard. 121 
 
 Stri Bog. god of the winds, 27 
 
 Sviatopolk, 44, 49 
 
 Sviatoslaf, 35, 41 
 
 Tamerlane, 92 
 Tartars or Tatars, 63 
 Tartartchina. Tartar Yoke, 73 
 Tcherne. Black people, name ap- 
 plied to the people by the 
 nobles, 77 
 Tchel()bitit5, Beating of the fore- 
 head, i. e., petition, 123 
 Tchin, plur. Tchinovnik, lit. Gen- 
 
 tlemen, now Officials, 164 
 Tilsit, meeting at, 199 
 Transcaspia, --64 
 Treaty of Berlin, 234 
 Treaty of Paris, 220 
 Truvor, 29 
 Turkestan, 264 
 Turks, 94, 231 
 Turkey, war with, 232 
 Tysatski, commandant of the mi- 
 litia, 52 
 
 U 
 
 Ukase, imperial edict equal to law 
 Ural Mountains, 18 
 Uzbeck, Khan, 68 
 
288 
 
 Valdai Plateau, 19 
 
 Varanjiians, Norsemen. 29 
 
 Vassili the Blind, 1)3 
 
 Vetch6, Municipal Council, 27 
 
 Vitovt, 81 
 
 Vladimir Monomachus, 40 
 
 Vladimir, Saint, 41 
 
 Voievod, governor of a fortress, 33 
 
 Volga, 119 
 
 Voloss, god of the flocks. 
 Volost. county or canton, 28 
 Vsevolod, 57 
 
 Zemisces. John, 38 
 Zemstvo, Assembly, 226 
 
 l\ 
 
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