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In its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: Chittick, James Title: Silk manufacturing and its problems Place: New York Date: 1913 ^5-%a^3^-S MASTER NEGATIVE * COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD ■ " I millNESS 360 C44 Chittick, James, 1861- Silk manufacturing and its problems, by James Chittick; being a series of papers on important questions of interest to all those engaged in the manufacture and distribution of silks and other textiles. New York, J. Chittick, 1913. xvi, 432 p. front, (port.) illus. 23°». $2.50 "The papers which have been here assembled were, with two excep- tions, originally published in 'Silk' during the period from October, 1907, to October, 1912."— Pref. 1. Silk manufacture and trade. Library of Congress ^^^ HD9915.C5 Copy 2. rj Copyright A 350344 ^^ £28eli 13—15934 RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: 3^\nr\v>f> REDUCTION RATIO: m. IMAGE PLACEMENT: I A [II A IB IIB DATE FILMED: /S-'^^A? INITIALS: Sh. TRACKING # : /ws// os'yoo FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES. BETHLEHEM, PA. ^y. 'V?- 00 In 3 3 O > Is ■D n r-»- z c < X OPQ ^ -J} N CO 00 en ^-< OOM o ^ 3 3 > CD o m CD O OQ ^o o CO < N M o A^^ A^ C^^ ^^^y^ 'V^ ^. ^.. Vj' o o 3 3 > en O 3 3 .^/ > Ul J^ "V? '^V^^^^'S^ o o 3 3 O n o|S ■" ro ro bo c> 00 ro b K5 to 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghi|klmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 2.5 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Lo* t V <^ :o- % fo ¥cP fp ^A' ^. '^. '^ ■^. ■/^ c^ €^ ^ ^» «<> ^- V ^^^^X-' X : C CO I T3 ^ m 3D O m ■^A ^ .♦* i> < ■^ •— • ro CJl O 3 ^ is ?s fa 3t ^Jk. ^J -!-»%,-«** ^ - # ■i^ < ^^:^o Q^;^^ LIBRARY School of Business Oyt.^^ SILK MANUFACTURING AND ITS PROBLEMS SILK MANUFACTURING AND ITS PROBLEMS BY JAMES CHITTICK Being a series of papers on important questiotis of interest to all those engaged in the Manufacture and Distribution of Silks and Other Textiles PUBLISHED BY JAMES CHITTICK NEW YORK 1913 V' yJly^/Jy^A^ COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY JAMES CHITTICK AI,I, RIGHTS RESERVED /" 3fou Printed by THE BARNES PRINTING CO. NEW YORK ^ Filature at the same figure as a Best Re-reel, though the cost to him may be 5 to 10 cents a pound more in either case. Adherence to Policy. In conclusion, it may be said that one will not go far wrong after a certain policy has been adopted, in sticking to it closely and in buying nothing except the exact qualities and sizes demanded by the goods to be made, and in leaving alone everything else, even when the price may be very enticing. It may be of interest, also, to note that most of the very suc- cessful manufacturers use largely the highest qualities of silk III THE CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS. From time to time, inquiries have been set on foot in this market, by influential persons in Japan who were interested in the welfare of the silk industry of that country, with the object of ascertaining the nature of any objections to Japanese silk that might exist, so that if anything was wrong, either with the silk itself or in the methods of trading in it, steps might be taken in the direction of improvement. It is well that the Japanese interests recognize that there is always room for improvement, and it is to be hoped that, in time, their aver- age product may be brought to a point where it >yill compare favor- ably with European reelings for regularity and reliability. In connection with this subject, it may, therefore, be of interest to discuss the general character of Japanese silks, and to make note of some of those features that make them desirable for the use of American manufacturers, and to point others wherein they are prop- erly subject to adverse criticism. Good Features of Japanese Silks, Among the features which make these silks popular may be men- tioned their small amount of boil-off, their generally good white or creamy color, their freedom from hard gums, their generally well- made skeins, being cross reeled and of convenient size and weight, the small size of the bales and the compact books in which they are packed, the moderate prices, the relatively long time on which the silk is sold, and the large quantities that are nearly always to be had tor prompt delivery in the different grades. So far as brilliancy, strength, and elasticity are concerned, the silks will vary among themselves as all silks do, but the average is very fair. 20 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS. CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS. 21 n ii Where Japanese Silks are Deficient. Points of criticism may be found in the irregularity in size of the silk; m the unreliability of chop tickets and gradings in the fact that ttristVriorT' W J'^.T"'"^^' '' "^^"^^ -ufh'silk is detered that is inferior to what has been contracted for; in the usual custom making the real cost of it always something of a question- in the d^- Dan"o'/Z-r '^' ^V 1^ '''^''' ^^ ^^"^^^^^ -i'h buyer; To all or t^he nature nf^'t^^^^ .'^ ''^ u-\'' .^ ^^^^ ^'''''^ ^"^ ^" ^^^ ^^^' tha[ ttie nature of the inspection which the shippers from Japan are oer mitted to make of the silk that they purchase is of^n Kch an^L- conclusive character, that the question of what any lot of sHk wiMl be like when it gets into work is always problematical. Percentage of Boil-Off. boifoT'""^ """"^ ^"^ ^^ '^^*^"'' ^^ "^'^ ^''^ ^^^' "P ^^^ '"^t^^^ «f the fn 7^ ''^T' ^^ *u^ ^^?"' Conditioning House for the years i8q^ to 1908, inclusive, show that the average losses of Japan raw-silk in 80. iT^f x« """^'r'^-^ '7.26, 17.25, 18.06:18.15, 18.05. aJerL^of^hem?; tI\?' '^"^^^ J^-'^^' ^^.98, 17.93, and 17.90. The the a™e W nf T'^^ 'mi^^ •' ^^^' ^° '^^^" ^^^^^ ^^ ^^"^^^ """^bers, tne average loss of Japan silks is not over 18 per cent. fr.. ifif ''^^•n''* r^.^ ^^""^ conditioning house of average boil-off losses for other silks, of large general use, during the year I908, shows the wifv' Pedmont, 22.92; Spanish, 24.34; Syrian, 24.35; Bengal 2200' White silks: French 21.54; Piedmont, 20.68; Italian 2140. BruTa' 21.92; China, 17 98; Canton, 22.17; and Japan, '17.90 per cent ' ' It may be noted here that the average boil-off of white China silks as shewn by the reports of twelve year!, is 18.45 per cent. ' fhJj L^ '^^" ^^^* *h^ h°^^-^^ ^^ J^P^n silks is lower than that of any of he other important silks, and fhis is an advantage of no inconsiderable moment. When the silk is used in piece dyes^ the cloth made of an equal quantity of yellow silk. If, on the other ,W Ihl '' "^^^V"" '^? ^^r^r^ '' ^^^^hted up to the desired wdght- ing, the proportion of silk fibre in the thread will be greater and the K^'eater^d'^^^ ^'^^ ^' ^'''' '^"" ^^"^^ ^' '^'^^'^ with a sill WhSLrTf ' *^^ f ^f ntage of loss varies widely in different lots. Whether the amount of gum averages less in silks of soft nature than in those of hard nature is difficult to say, but it is possible that h does. At any rate, those soft silks, like Sinshius, are frequently much injured by a too severe boiling-off as a preliminary to the dye"ng The result is that the individual filaments of the silk are opened up, and the dyed silk is soft, spongy, and hairy. . , , The injurious effect of too severe a treatment in the degumming is seen in the well-known specky or **lousy" appearance shown by some dyed silks, which is due to the splitting up into fibnllae, in places, of the individual cocoon filaments. It would seem to be the part of prudence for manufacturers to notify the dyers about all lots of soft nature silk sent them to dye, so that they could govern themselves accordingly. . A disadvantage connected with the low boil-off is obvious m the case of silk intended for single weaving. For this work, great co- herence of the cocoon filaments composing the thread is a necessity, and, owing to their greater amount of gum, the yellow silks commonly used for the purpose excel in this respect. Silks Reeled for Single Weaving. In spite of the careful efforts that have been made by many Japa- nese reelers to produce silk suitable for single weaving, most of them have still far to go. A thread may be very regular and perfect, and if one defect occurred in 1,000 yards it would seem almost neghgible and a thing that no one could complain of. If, however, such a silk were used in a 36-inch satin warp, containing, say, 11,000 ends, it would mean, practically, that in weaving one yard of cloth, which might ordinarily take half an hour, the loom would have to stop tor broken warp threads eleven times, an amount of stoppage that would more than cut the production in half and render such a silk commer- cially useless for the purpose. , . , .|, ^u- To attain the great perfection demanded in these silks, nothing will take the place of the careful, constant, and vigilant inside superin- tendence, and the watchfulness over the smallest details of the work that is typical of the high-class European filatures, and which is, it we may trust the statements of intelligent and apparently disinterested observers, conspicuous by its absence in most of the Japanese reeling establishments. . , . • ^ j-i The annual consumption of raw silk for single weaving is steadi y increasing, and when Japan can send us a steady supply of thoroughly reliable silks for this purpose, in, the standard sizes of 12-14, 13-15. and 14-16 deniers, and silks that are equally reliable each year and every year, they will be eagerly welcomed. Color, Strength, Elasticity and Brilliancy. The color of Japan silk, in the medium and better grades, is all that can be desired. While not so white as the China silks, it is white enough for practically all purposes. In the lower grades, there is more or less streakiness and discoloration to be looked for which is apt to cause shadiness in the dyed silk. This is a fault that should be guarded against, and corrected by the reelers so far as possible. 22 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS The strength and elasticity vary widely, the writer having observed different cases where silks graded as low as No. 1 1^ filature, New York Classification, were very superior in this respect, but it is too often the other way and a large amount even of so-called Extras are any- thing but satisfactory in this regard. ^ Reports regarding these qualities must, however, be considered with discrimination, as a silk when fresh and when worked under fairly moist atmospheric conditions, may be all that could be desired while the same silk, if stored long in a dry place, and then worked in a very dry atmosphere, might be found to have lost all its vitality and to be brittle in the extreme. Japanese silk does not possess, as a rule, the brilliancy of the Chinese, or high class European silks, nor does it have the same nerve and Its relative deficiency in these respects puts it at a disadvantage for some classes of work. Character of the Packing, The manner in which the silk is put up is convenient and satis- factory. Standard sized skeins, neither too large nor too small, with a good crossing, and the ends properly tied in, are wanted by the throwsters, and there is usually not much to be complained of along this line. Packing the silk in books is also a convenience, and the moderate size of the bales— about 133 pounds net— is quite a help to many small people who can only handle a bale at a time, whereas, in buying a European bale, they would have to take 220 pounds. Terms and Conditions of Sale. European silks, usually, are sold on 60 days' credit, though 3 months' or 4 months' terms (at, of course, a difference in price equal to the interest), are very common. Asiatic silks, on the other hand, are sold on 6 months' terms, and the additional time so given is a great help to many houses in the financing of their business, and makes them favor Asiatic silks, other things being equal. The custom of selling Asiatic silks on invoice weight, or conditioned weight plus 2 per cent., is a practice that might well be changed. All silk should be sold on conditioned weight and in no other way. The prices adjust themselves to the weight given. The position that was generally assumed by raw-silk dealers that btivers must either accept invoice weight, or else conditioned weight plus 2 per cent., for Asiatic silk transactions, is an illogical one, and one which tends to militate against the general use of a conditioned weight basis. All manufacturers of experience know that the average run of Japan silks will not show a loss of as much as 2 per cent., and, there- fore, if they buy on conditioned weight basis plus 2 per cent., they are out of pocket. Thus, many of them will accept invoice weights as the least of two evils, and will omit conditioning their silks, as they will CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS 23 not only have no recourse against the seller for short weight, but will have to pay for the testing charges as well, and unverified weights of silk deliveries open the door for many evils. Similar remarks apply to China steam filatures. With reference to the loss in conditioning of Japanese raw-silks, the writer has before him the report of 300 bales tested, representing lots aggregating 900 bales, where the average loss figures 1.61 per cent., the better qualities averaging, as a general rule, appreciably less loss than the lower qualities. Hence, as compared with invoice weights, a basis of conditioned weight plus 2 per cent, would bear more heavily on the users of the better silks than on the users of the poorer grades. (Note. At the time when the Raw-Silk Division of the Silk As- sociation of America adopted rules to govern transactions in razv-silks-— May 22, ipo8 — provision was only made for the selling of suchAsiatu silks on the basis of conditioned weight plus 2 per cent., or ''actuaV weight, or invoice weight, although the writer, and no doubt others, strongly protested, in writing, against the manner in which these terms militated against the manufacturers. However, it is gratifying to Und that the raw-silk merchants have come at last )o recognize the justice of these criticisms, and, on August g, ipii, they amended their rules so as to provide for the selling of Asiatic 'silks on conditioned zveight also. It is to be hoped that, m time, sales on conditioned weight alone will be the invariable custom.) With the excellent testing-house facilities in Yokohama and in New York, there appears to be no reason why the whole business could not be put on a conditioned weight basis, and the added 2 per cent, elim- inated from calculations, where it is a disturbing factor. Concerted action of all the raw-silk houses looking to this end would be very welcome, and general terms of net 3 months, for both European and Asiatic silks, would be a reasonable limit. The size of the Japanese crop, the immense importation into Amer- ica, and the great quantity of silk handled by the large importers, ma- terially assist the operations of those buying this staple. It is gen- erally easy to find on the market any standard quality or size that may be desired, or at any rate very prompt deliveries can be had, and the importers often accommodate their customers by exchanging contracts of one grade for another, at the market difference in price, accord- ing to the exigencies of the trade. The importers also carry, at ordi- nary interest charges, silk for their clients until it suits their con- venience to call for it. This arrangement is of the greatest help in facilitating large transactions for future delivery. Speculative Attitude of Japanese Reelers, A peculiarity observed in dealing with Japanese silk producers, is the general disinclination or refusal of the reelers to contract the output of their establishments far ahead. A European reeler welcomes 24 CHARACTERISTICS OP JAPANESE RAW SILKS. CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS. 25 iti a contract at the beginning of a season that will keep him fully em- ployed throughout the season, and at a reasonable profit. The specula- tive spirit of the Asiatic, however, prevents him from doing this, and he seems to prefer taking his chance of the rise and fall of the market, rather than to work at a small, but assured, profit. This is a distinct drawback, as it militates against the stability of prices, and makes of each reeler a potential speculator, and the result is seen m those erratic advances in prices, with their subsequent reactions, which upset so seriously the orderly and regular sale and distribution of merchandise, and which cause very heavy and needless losses to the manufacturers. How Price Fluctuations Hurt Manufacturers, When the raw-silk market advances heavily, those who have a good stock of silk rarely get much benefit from their foresight, because there are always some people, also long of silk, who, owing to pressure from their customers and from their own salesmen, do not advance their prices for goods until their cheap silk is exhausted, and their competi- tors, in great part, have to follow suit. At the same time, those who are short of silk, and who have to buy on the rising market, are in the unpleasant position of having to pay more for their raw material while getting no more for their goods, and thus have no alternative but stopping their looms, or running, either without profit or at a loss. On the other hand, when the market is falling, and prices are break- ing rapidly, firms who are bare of silk go out and book orders at prices lower than the market then warrants, expecting, and generally with good reason, to be able to cover themselves a little later with silk at remunerative figures. This action as to price, gives those who are long of high-priced silk no chance to turn it into money without loss, and, even when they have booked business on the high-price basis, the bulk of the contracts are promptly cancelled by their customers in favor of the cheaper goods being oflFered by their neighbors. A large number of the manufacturers thus suffer whenever these sharp fluctuations in prices occur, and, at the same time, the sales of goods are often much restricted, as the buyers are unsettled in their minds regarding values, and the consequent eflPect on the trade, as a whole, is disastrous. It would be a distinct advantage to the market if a great thrown- silk business should be built up here. Not only would it be a con- venience and advantage in many ways to the users of silk, large as well as small, but the constant presence on the market of a large stock of thrown-silk, would assist materially in helping to check some of the acute variations in prices, caused by speculative manipulation and not by the legitimate operations of the law of supply and demand. Irregularity of Japanese Silks, Japanese silks are distinctly irregular in size as compared with the standards set in Europe. The quality known as strict No. i, 13-15 deniers. New York Classification, may have a variation in size of as much as 6 to 10 deniers between the finest and the coarsest reelings. Some sellers are brave enough, in selling such silk, to promise that there will not be a variation of more than 5 or 6 deniers, but such state- ments are quite unwarranted, and if the size does come within these limits it is simply a matter of chance, as it is quite as likely to vary 8 deniers as 6. The better grades, of course, will show less variation, and the lower ones more. In America, there is not much attention paid by buyers of goods to the evenness or regularity of size of the silk in them as is the case abroad. Price is the dominating consideration with the buyer, as production is with the manufacturer, and if the weaver should buy more expensive silk for the sake of getting greater perfection of fabric, he would not, in most instances, be able to secure any higher prices for his goods. So long as the size has not been too grossly irregular, and so long as it would be otherwise strong and weave well, the American rnanu- facturer has shown marked indifference on this point, and this indiffer- ence has, no doubt, been reflected in the lack of improvement in Asiatic silks in this respect. These variations in size frequently affect the cost of goods not a little, as it makes quite a difference whether a silk averages 13.90 deniers or 14.40 deniers if no modification of picks or ends is made. Unsatisfactory Classifications. Yokohama classifications do not correspond with those of New York, the No. i of Japan being called here Best No. i., and in fact the greatest haziness and looseness seem to exist in this classification matter. This is one of the very worst features of the situation. For years there has been a gradual lowering of the standard of all grades — if the best authorities are to be believed — and the merit, or demerit, of most of the chops will vary widely frorr\ season to season. The same chop may be offered at the same time, by different houses under two, or even three, different gradings. As there are no fixed standards for compari- son, it is next to impossible to absolutely demonstrate that any inferior delivery is not of the classification bought. Buyers often know next to nothing about how any particular silk should be classified. Most of them are apt to declare that they rarely buy anything lower than Extras for organzines, or lower than No. i Filatures for tram. Also, that they only buy hard-nature silks and Summer reels. Just the same, there is a large importation of both 26 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS soft-nature silk and so-called Spring reels, and a great quantity of silk below No. I is sold, and somebody must get it. The throwsters can speak with feeling on this subject, for many of their clients buy silk not much better than No. i to ij/^ for organ- zine and then wonder that it does not run well in the looms, and still lower qualities will be regarded by them as first-class tram stock. These clients think that if a silk is troublesome and expensive to throw, it is the throwster's lookout and not theirs, but they fail to consider that trouble in the throwing means increased waste, and, if a throwster is out of pocket 10 cents a pound for excessive labor on a particular lot, the owner of the silk loses as much, or more, on the excess waste made, but this he generally does not know as the wastage is concealed by a heavy soaping. If throwsters' prices were modified by the grade of the silk, lower figures being charged for high-class silk and higher figures for poor silks, it would help to correct this, but they are not. Inferior silks of whatever grade are undesirable property, as they mean excessive waste, poor merchandise, and diminished production, and it is a notable fact that, as a rule, the best and most successful houses are free users of the very best silks. Rereels and Their Relative Cost. Rereels go very well in the throwing process and are much favored by many buyers. There is, however, no way to distinguish a rereel, either from its appearance or from the manner in which it is put up, from the regular filatures, nearly all of which, of course, have also been rereeled. Now, with rereels commanding a price of say yj4 to I2j^ cents a pound above the price of No. i Filatures, as is often the case, and with the latter silk perhaps just as good, and no way to distinguish between them, the temptation to put well-known rereel chop tickets on market chops of filatures must be a strong one, but whether it is yielded to or not is for others to say. I have often had parcels of rereels submitted to me as being the very last 20 or 40 bales of this or that chop to be had, and, having bought them, have been offered a few days later more of the same mark. Whether the silks on such occasions are held back, and the quantity for sale is lied about, or whether the additional supplies of rereels are secured by the use of the paste brush and chop tickets, I do not know. Table Showing Gradings of Rereels. In this connection I am presenting a table which was published in "Silk," in October, 1907, showing the various chops and grades of the principal Japanese rereel factories, as produced at that time. CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS 27 X H Z O Q X < CO < Ok O X o I oi w ^ O H U < C4 M < Qu, < o o < > O O Z Q < O H X O c^ Ok Qu < O o X CO OQ U Q O OQ (0 X S ae 3 s S la o S o pi \ 5 o as :i2 v*0 -a l^i P Pi Co O 9>.. H 60 'St: •15 00 1^ •d • Si! I a n o SB 1 ■S ■ r- o S > mo a * n S3 1^ 1^ to » a fig I 2 ■3 C5 i . if 'GO O a •« O V e O kS X •a b h * £-3:5 HeQco ■<3 !r O >• .i h «'0 m] J -IS so as CI QQ £ •9 s S o CO 2 "o O. at > 00 I a 0< 1 eji o 9% o c a 00 IS 11 Sgq (4 9 6 X. S o 5© I-) I 5 o e CQ Je. d {B a 9 M a e E !B CD 8 S e 28 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS, CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE RAW SILKS, 29 Inaccurate Crop Information. Reliable information as to the real size of the crop, and the amount of silk available for export, is not always to be had, and the stock reported as being on hand at Yokohama is no criterion. It is realized that if too large a stock is visible there, it will have a depressing effect on the market, and the opinion seems to prevail that, even if the reports of stock are trustworthy, silk must at many times be held back in the interior so as to keep it out of sight. Unreliability of Chops. The unreliability of chops, and the loose way in which grades are described, is bewildering. Three manufacturers may each have made a purchase of ^'Extras" at the same time. One may have paid $4.00, another $4.10, and the third $4.20, and very likely the $4.20 man will not have got a real Extra. The honest dealer, who will not misrepre- sent his silks, is at a serious disadvantage in such a competition, par- ticularly when the ignorance of so many of the buyers is considered, for, while such a dealer may be able to sell quite as cheap, the buyer cannot judge the silk well and simply relies on its nominal classifi- cation. Some salesmen meet the situation by asking the manufacturer for a sample of his "Extra" or other grade, or for the name of the chop he is buying, and then quoting on one of similar merit, and calling it an ''Extra" to satisfy him, even if it be a No. i. He practically names the price, and they supply him with whatever silk can be offered at that figure. This, in turn, means the undercosting of his goods by that manu- facturer, for, by the time he finds that the quality he is using has caused him diminished production, and increased cost in consequence, the harm has been done as his prices have been quoted and his orders taken. Manufacturers having a good experience with certain chops, are apt to specify those marks in their offers, and in this way help to bid up the prices on themselves, and when they get the silk it may be disappointingly poor compared with what they had before. Private Chops, Then, they may turn to the private chops, relying on the inspec- tion and care of the houses putting out such marks. Now private chops, in many cases, do not sell as readily or command, on the aver- age, quite so full a price as market chops. Of course, if the house offering the silk has been able to buy a thoroughly good silk for the grade, at a low price, either because of its being a new or little-known mark, or for whatever reason, it would be right for them to so ticket it, and they could sell at a little lower than the market chops and at the same time make an extra profit for themselves. Such opportunities cannot always be found, and the temptation is strong for those putting up private chops to select silk of a little lower grade than they should ; and different houses, even some of high stand- ing, at times put out silk under their private chops that is disgracefully overclassified. If they are selling to any customers whose credit is poor, and who are not in a position to rebel, such lots are sure to be unloaded upon them, and, perhaps, may even have been put up with that intention. In this way, private chops are often spoken of in disrespectful terms, but it all depends on the house, certain houses keeping up the standard of their qualities at all times. Nevertheless, private chops do not give the guarantee of correct grading that is the only reason for their existence, and I would avoid them ; and I do not believe that the seller has the right to deliver his own private chops against a contract, unless specially arranged for with the buyer. Manufacturers Suffer When Silk is Wrong. Contracts being placed as they are, and the silk being carried by the importer after its arrival till the manufacturer needs it, it follows that it is generally not called for till just when it is needed. This being so, the manufacturer finds himself in an unfortunate position if the silk turns out badly, for his machinery needs silk right then, and, unless the seller has a spot lot of equal quality with which he can replace it — which is not often the case — the manufacturer is forced to go ahead and use this poor lot, as he cannot wait for an- other to arrive. In conclusion it may be said that, as the bulk of Japanese silks are bought to arrive, the spot business being relatively very srnall, a buyer has no assurance as to what sort of silk he will receive against his order, and, in the last analysis, has no trustworthy means of in- forming himself. ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS 31 I IV ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS The reputation of silk fabrics has, of late years, suffered greatly in the public estimation, on account of the extent to which the use of adulterants has been carried, resulting in a general overweighting of their goods by manufacturers. Retailers, and other distributers, from time to time, rush into print decrying in unmeasured terms this practice, boldly charging manu- facturers as a class with dishonesty, and talking as if each increase in the degradation of the fabric was done by their volition and design, and for the purpose of increasing their profits. Where Adulteration is Justifiable. It is well to inquire what adulterations are right and necessary, what are to be condemned, and who are the people mainly responsible for them. Any deceit, practised on any customer, by manufacturer, jobber, cutter-up, or retailer, is wrong and indefensible, and if goods are adul- terated they should not be represented as other than what they are; but, on the other hand, if there be no deception, many goods can be adulterated with great advantage to all concerned. Take rubber, for instance. The price of crude rubber may be $1.50 a pound. If our garden hose, overshoes, or other rubber goods were composed solely of the pure stock, the prices would be so high as to force many goods out of general use, and also would no doubt push the price of the pure gum far above such a level as the above. It is quite true that a great quantity of trashy, so-called rubber, goods are regularly sold, the adulterations being far in excess of reasonable limits; but it is also equally true that a judicious and reasonable ad- mixture of foreign substances with the rubber, will allow of the manu- facture of rubber goods with thoroughly good wearing qualities and at most reasonable prices. In this way, the consumer saves money, the world's supply of the material is conserved, and the manufacturer and dealer find their account not in any increase in their percentage of profit (for the competition in trade prevents that), but in the widen- ing of the field for articles made of rubber, which means a larger manufacture and a larger sale. Shoddy and Woolens. Then, there is the introduction into woolen goods of so-called shoddy admixtures, which some of our well intentioned but not very well informed Congressmen, laboring for the public weal, have been earnestly trying to have prohibited by law, though, fortunately, the absurdity of their propositions, and the impossibility of enforcing the proposed laws, have so far been made apparent in time to prevent the enactment of such measures. The term "shoddy" covers a wide range of substances, and is often used to include all waste textile products, whether they be new wastes from the mill machinery or scraps of the oldest and poorest clothing. The columns of various textile papers, which give waste and shoddy quotations, will show what a long list of materials are included under this head— noils, card waste, all kinds of spinning, weaving and knit- ting waste, flocks, mungo, garnett waste, old stockings and jerseys, new tailors' clips, seamed and unseamed rags, and a lot of others. At the one end of the scale may stand the long and beautiful white wool and worsted waste, from the combing, spanning, knitting and weaving operations, or long and fine white worsted waste extracted by the garnett machine from old white jerseys, sweaters, etc., and these materials, when worked over, may be, and frequently are, far superior to much of the new wool, fresh from the sheep's back, that is on the market, and the price is correspondingly high. At the other end of the scale (leaving out the floor sweepings mixed with trash), may be placed the shear flocks, that fine woolen dust, as it might be called, which is sheared from the face of the cloth, and which is very useful in increasing the weight of such fabrics as ladies' cloths and other fulled goods. The use, and re-use, and use again on a descending scale, of these various waste materials, furnishes the mainstay of the stock of woolen material that is annually required to clothe the race and protect the people of the country from cold. Were the use of such materials pro- hibited, woolen garments would be beyond the reach of the poor. Manufacturers are not anxious to use these admixtures, as they are very troublesome to handle, while to have the best new stock for his raw material would make any mill man happy. It is the necessity of furnishing goods at prices within the reach of the masses that drives him to use shoddies, and the competition prevents his getting any better profit from the fabrics so made. 32 ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS 33 Annual Per Capita Supply of New Wool, It may be of interest to state here that, in 1907 (and similarly for other years), the amount of scoured wool annually produced in, and imported into, the United States, 306,500,000 pounds, would only allow 54^^ oz. of scoured wool (which will lose 30 per cent, in manufac- turing), for each inhabitant, to provide for all their multifarious needs, whether blankets, carpets, clothes, or what not. How far would this go unless backed up by the great floating stock of re-manufactured wool ? The 70 per cent, remaining from the 54H oz. would be 38% oz-. equal to about 2% yards of 16 oz. 54-inch men's wear goods, so, if a man was restricted to his share of the stock of new woolen material, he would have enough for a coat and waistcoat, but would have to go without trousers. The cotton cloth used for bags for salt or flour has large amounts of clay and starch in its composition, thereby making a cheaper and yet thoroughly serviceable and satisfactory article, and at the same time reducing the demand upon the over-taxed cotton fields. Many other instances of so-called adulterations could be cited, cov- ering a wide variety of products, where the uses of goods have been extended, prices have been lowered, and the drain upon supplies of raw material, difficult and costly to produce, has been lessened. All of these instances bear out the statement that, within proper commercial limits, and allowing that no deception be practiced, many adulterations, or admixtures of foreign material, are not only defensible but absolutely necessary. Fraudulent Representations. Fraudulent representation is common, mostly on the part of those who deal with the consumer. Brass-plated iron is sold as solid brass ; papier-mache as leather ; cotton-mixed cloths as all wool ; lumber, cur- tain poles, etc., furnished in scant size ; coal allowed to have much slate (dignified by the name of bone) in it; oleo-margarine masqueradmg as butter ; and so on, ad infinitum. The fraud, be it observed, is not in the production and sale of the goods, but in the representing them to be something other than what they are. Silk Weighting, and Why. Returning to silk, it is fair to presume that, originally, the desire to use weighting agents was created by the large loss that silk under- goes in the boiling-off processs preparatory to the dyeing. It is no light matter to see the weight of such an expensive material shrink, in this way, from 20 to 25 per cent. When, therefore, it was observed that silk had an affinity for certain substances which it would absorb, and still retain through the dyeing process, what more natural than that they should be so employed? The practice of weighting the silk having been once begun it would be naturally used to a greater and greater extent, being limited only by the power of the material to absorb it, the ability of the dyer to apply it, or the limitations of the strength of the fibre. There are many substances that can be used as weighting materials, such as sugar, different forms of tannin, salts of iron, tin, and other metals, and a variety of other agents. Sugar has largely gone out as a weighting agent, and so to a great extent have gall and tannin, for colors, these latter materials being un- suitable for use where pale shades are needed. The iron dye is used where blue-blacks are required. The weighting material of the great- est general use is tin, that is, the metal tin dissolved in dilute hydro- chloric acid. As this solution is colorless, it can be employed when dyeing the most delicate colors, and while for some time dyers continued to dye the dark shades in gall weighting, using the tin for the pale shades, they have eventually found it more convenient and economical to use tin for all colors. Processes of Weighting. Without going into technical descriptions it may be explained that, after the boiling out of the natural gum in the silk, if it is then treated to a bath of the tin liquor it will absorb a certain amount, say a couple of ounces to the pound of silk. If the silk is now washed out, treated to a bath of a phosphate of soda preparation, and again washed out, it is brought into a condition where it will absorb a couple more ounces of the tin. This succession of baths can be carried on continuously, being lim- ited only by the skill of the dyer and the diminishing strength of the silk. Limits of Weighting. It is a matter of nice judgment to know how far it is prudent to go in weighting, and this will depend on many things — the character of the silk, whether organzine or tram, whether colors or blacks, the use to which the goods are to be put, etc., etc. Where filling is wanted for cheap, black, heavy ribbed gros-grain, or similar fabrics, where the filling is entirely covered, silk weighted to 40 oz. and upwards can be employed; that is, a pound of silk, boiling off to 12 or 13 oz., can have added to it enough adulterant to increase its weight to the above figure. For "bright" silks in blacks, that is, for silks from which the gum has been fully discharged, and which in consequence have a good lustre, the maximum limit of weighting is about 44 oz., and about 40 oz. is the limit in the case of spun or schappe silks. Souple silks, being those from which very little of the gum has been 34 ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS 35 discharged, and which are consequently somewhat dead and lustreless in appearance, can be weighted up to 60 oz. For ordinary black goods of fair quality, the warp iricv; be weighted, say from 20 to 26 oz., and the filling, say, from 26 to 30 oz. In colored goods with tin weighting, it is not usually safe to go above about 18 oz. for warp and 24 oz. for filling, which would mean that a silk fabric, whose warp and filling were equal m amount, and the silk in which boiled off, say, 20 per cent., would be so treated that the apparently pure silk, finished, article would really be composed of 61 per cent, of silk and 39 per cent of tin. ^ The writer's opinion is, that the limits of judicious weightings (as far as the durability of the silk is concerned), are 16 oz for or^anzine, and 22 oz. for tram, when Asiatic silks are used, and less weightings for silks with greater boil-oflfs. Above these limits, silks are apt to deteriorate too soon. Relative Weights of Fibre and Adulterant. The real amount of weighting, that is, the percentage of adulterant added to the silk fibre by these weightings of various ounces, will de- pend upon the amount of gum, soap and oil, that the thrown silk loses in the boiling-off. . , , ^ r 1 j- Most manufacturers have no real idea of the percentage of loading they are putting on their silk, as they seldom have boil-of! tests made on their thrown silk. . , ^ 00/ /..u *. • 4.u^4. tA If silk was regularly ordered weighted 2%4 oz. (that is, that 16 oz of thrown silk must, when dyed, weigh not less than 22, nor more than 24 oz.), it might happen that one lot of Japan tram would have a natural boil-oflf of 16 per cent., that 2 per cent, of soap and oil had been added by the throwster, and that the weight returned by the dyer ""'^Anothfr^ k^t' might have a natural boil-oflf of 20 per cent., the throwster might have added 4 per cent, of soap and oil, and the return weip'ht mie'ht be 24 oz. . . . ,.1 . Now the manufacturer thinks that both lots are weighted alike, yet the first would have been weighted but 67.68 per cent., while the last "'fhis'wdf m^^^^^^^ difficulty that would confront those who wish laws passed requiring manufacturers to mark on their eoods the exact amount of adulterant contained in them. , ^ Of course, these figures are all relative, heavier weightings being permissible for special reasons and lighter weightings being necessary in many cases. Dyers, and Their Charges. This adulterating is a high-class chemical art, and any carelessness, or mistake in process, may so destroy the strength of the silk either at the time or before it has been long in stock, as to make it rotten 8 and worthless. For this reason it is vitally important for manufac- turers to commit their work only to dyers of the highest reputation, and, by preference, to those sufficiently strong financially to be able to pay a heavy claim for damage should the occasion ever arise, which, with such firms, it is not apt to. Whatever such a dyer's price may be above competitive quotations, it will be no more than what it is worth to the manufacturer as an insurance that he will get his silk properly handled. Such work of course is not cheap. While pure dye may cost 25c. a pound, 14-16 oz. will be 50c. and 20-22 oz. 90c., in colors, while the very heavy weightings on blacks may run up to $2.50 a pound. From these prices there will be some discount, according to the market and the size of the customer's business. While expensive, the weighting, naturally, costs less than the silk. Advantage of Adulteration to the Consumer. Taking now an ordinary 19-in. colored taflfeta, of a good quality, retailing at, sav, 75 cents a yard, and composed of five-eighths silk and three-eighths tin, it is safe to say that if such a cloth has been made of good silk, carefully weighted and dyed, and well manufac- tured, it can be safely claimed to be a sound commercial article, that if properly stored will not deteriorate by being kept in stock for an extended period, and that will give most satisfactory wear in service for all usual purposes. Such a fabric, if made in pure dye, could not, on the same rela- tive basis of costs, be retailed at less than about $1.10 a yard. The woman who has a waist or dress made of a colored silk does not expect or desire it to last for a life-time. At the end of the season it is much soiled, the fashion of the sleeves, etc., has changd, and the color may be passe. If she desires, she may get a second season's wear from it, but if it were indestructible she would seldom want to wear it longer. She has, therefore, been able to get her material of the right weight, feeling, color, and strength at a price of only two-thirds of what it would have cost her had adulterants been unknown, and the quantity of raw-silk that would otherwise have had to be produced has been lessened in consequence. Here is a clear commercial gain to the world, in that a smaller value of material has been made to do the work of a larger value, and no one has suffered in consequence. Difficulties with Weighted Silks. It is true that all weighted silks have some drawbacks, and are not suited for every surpose. Tin-weighted fabrics, particularly in pale shades, deteriorate rapidly in strength when subjected to continued exposure to sunlight. The acid of perspiration, too. will speedily rot 36 ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS 37 such a cloth so that ample-sized dress shields are a necessity for waists made of weighted silk. There is always a chance, also, that some oc- casional lot, even when very little weighted, may have gone wrong in the dyeing, and the goods made from it may prove to be defective in strength. This should be a very unusual occurrence. Where the Blame Lies for Overweighting. Allowing, now, the commercial propriety and necessity of such reasonable adulterations as manufacturers are compelled to use, and in using which the competition prevents them from realizing any extra profit (for the dyer will weight silk for any one and every one), and allowing that manufacturers always prefer to use good materials and that consumers desire to puchase reliable goods, why is it that we find such grossly excessive weightings employed, which give the makers no end of trouble, and which go into fabrics that get rotten almost as soon as made up into garments, and which bring all silk fabrics into disrepute ? Who is the one who puts this pressure on the producer to lower, and still lower, the quality of his merchandise, while still making a fabric of seeming worth? The blame lies squarely on the shoulders of the distributers — the retailers and cutters-up — ^those gentlemen who so vigorously condemn the adulteration of silks. The buyer is under no illusion as to the fact of the merchandise he orders being heavily weighted, or, if he is, he is not fit for his position. Let him just weigh a heavy but cheap piece of black taffeta or satin, and then look up the ruling quotations on raw-silks, and he will probably find that the total price he is paying for the goods would hardly be as much as the same number of pounds of unmanufactured silk would cost. Retailers* Advertisements, and Their Expenses, Then glance at the advertisements of certain retail houses and see what they offer as bargains. Here is one: "27-in. fine, heavy, black taffeta, all pure silk, 59 cents; our regular 69-cent quality." Such a description as this is a lie, and the palming off of such trash on the public as "all pure silk" is a swindle. In some other branches of trade obtaining money under false pretenses is likely to put the persons who do it behind the bars, but this is just what such advertisers are doing. It is here that the deception is practised, and yet these are the moralists who accuse the manufacturers of deceit. The expense of doing a retail business in the cities has been con- stantly increasing. Higher rents, finer stores and fittings, more taxes and insurance, free delivery of goods further and further afield, moun- tains of goods cut up and mailed out as samples, heavy advertising charges, higher wages, and many other things have so increased the ratio of selling expenses that a larger margin of profit than ever before must be looked for. Silk goods, like all other merchandise, will cost more to make as the raw material market advances, to say nothing of increases in cost due to higher wages, etc., and, therefore, at times, a higher price must be had for the making of any standard quality of goods. The retailer, however, refuses to consider any price for goods that does not show him a certain average of profit— say 40 per cent, (and he wants as much more as he can get), and he still wants to retail his goods at prices as low as, or lower than, usual, so the manufacturer, with frequently a higher cost, is invited to make even lower prices to offset the increased cost that the retailer is at in doing his business. Trying to do the Impossible. The manufacturers struggle madly to do this impossible thing, and between them prices come down to a point where it is not a question as to who will take the least profit but who is willing to make the big- gest loss. Not getting as low a price, perhaps, as he demands, the retailer, instead of placing a large advance order, says that he will wait. Owing to the fact that the jobber has been almost eliminated, and that the great bulk of the goods is sold direct by the mill agents to the retailers, it follows that the mills need orders long before the retailers need goods, and these latter are consequently in a most commanding position. The retailer, therefore, waits, and waits, for weeks and for months, and meantime the manufacturer is sweating blood, as he must either take the hazard (generally a losing one) of making goods for stock, or see his machinery standing idle and his organisation dispersed. The cutter-up is equally insistent in his demands, and equally able to wait, and between them they have the manufacturer by the throat. This is the compulsion that leads to overweighting, and it is due to the refusal of the distributer to pay the price necessary to get decent goods. Refusing to Overweight Goods. Some manufacturers will not make goods that will go rotten for any consideration, and they generally suffer in consequence, for along comes some competitor who offers a cloth, grossly overweighted, but which looks and feels all right and which suits the customers* ideas of price, and he walks off with the business. The distributer does not appear to care much as to how durable the goods are, so long as too many complaints about them do not come in. It is no uncommon thing, either, for a buyer, who has given the go-by to a line of goods of approved merit which he has been handling (and for a difference in price of perhaps a cent a yard), to tell the mill salesman in confidence that he wants the goods, believes they are worth much more than the difference in price, and that he would willingly buy them, but that his principals would find fault with him for doing so. He would, perhaps, be told bv them that every one else 38 ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS ADULTERATION OF SILK GOODS 39 was buying this same grade from such and such houses at the lower price, and getting the regular retail figure for them, and that, whether the fabric was quite as good or not, there was no special complaint about it, and that if he bought the higher priced one he would be simply throwing away a cent a yard of the firm's money, and that they would not sanction it. Cutters-up of goods habitually say that they don't care what is in the goods as long as they look well, feel well, and are fairly strong at the time. Then, when they are cut up and sent out, that is the last they hear of them. All of these distributers know, or should know, that such goods are going to be unsatisfactory in very many cases, but they are not in the slightest degree concerned about this so long as they do not have to allow too many claims, and these they try to pass on to the manu- facturer. What interests them vitally is to increase by every means, and at any cost, their already very liberal profits, and hence they pur- chase and distribute goods that never ought to be allowed on their counters. Trade publications, newspapers, and many people who are prom- inently identified with the trade, are very free with advice to the pro- ducers to get away from cheap stuff and make better (and naturally more expensive) goods, saying that such a course is vitally necessary if silk is to be rehabilitated in popular esteem. This advice is all very well, but it seems impossible to get such goods before the purchasing public in any quantity. The Barrier to the Sale of Sound Goods. The retailer is the barrier that prevents the manufacturer from making honest goods and the purchaser from getting a chance to buy them. He wants goods that are first cheap, and which appear to be good, as he can then make large sales easily and with a big margin of profit. If you want him to handle and push a line of pure-dye goods, and represent them as such, he would probably decline, as the question would at once be raised by the customer that if these were pure dye what, then, is all the rest of his stock composed of? The cutter-up reasons in the same way. That purchasers do appreciate good wearing goods is evident from the constant favor which is shown for such goods as foulards, crepes, Shantungs, etc., which, being piece-dyed, have been free from weight- ing. The Weighting of Piece Dyes. It is much to be regretted that weightings have at last been com- mercially applied to piece-dyed fabrics. At this writing (January, 1913), chiffons are being extensively adulterated, as are certain satin- faced fabrics made of raw-silk, and this is done in ribbons as well as in broad goods. The weighting given to such raw-silk fabrics runs up to nearly 100 per cent., which, on silks having a 25 per cent, boil-off, is equal to 24 ounces. . . , , , , With fabrics made of organzine and tram, it is probably as cheap to weight them in the skein as it is in the piece. Honestly made goods of any kind would have their proper and continued sale, but the con- sumer has no way of knowing whose goods she is getting, and where a line of poorer goods is substituted by the retailer, for the reason of a difference of a cent a yard in price, she is no wiser, except that she finds that this gown did not wear well, while the last one of the supposedly same quality did, and so she gets the belie* that no silks are reliable. A Suggested Remedy, Overweighting will continue, and the unloading of inferior goods on the public will continue, just so long as the different makes are unidentifiable. Let the manufacturers, however, each for his own prod- ucts and each in his own way, go over the heads of the retailers and advertise their goods direct to the public, and have them marked so as to be known. The demand for such meritorious goods would then come on the retailer and he would be compelled to keep them in stock and instead of the retailer stating how much profit he must have, and the price at which he must buy his goods, the manufacturer would fix the retail price, and might also fix the amount of profit that the retailer would have to be content with. This has been done in many instances and is a growing custom, and if it becomes general, the distributers may find that their greedi- ness has been the cause of their being placed in a position where thev are compelled to do a large portion of their business on advertised fabrics, and on a very narrow margin of profit. ANALYSIS OF PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS &\ The basis upon which the skein silk dyers of the United States make their charges is a peculiar one. It is what might be called the ounce" method. How Weightings are Ordered, Every one knows how the dyers' printed price lists read : "Colors Pure Dye— 25c. ; 14/16 oz., 50c., 16/18 oz., 60c.," etc., etc. The un- derstandmg is that if, say, 20/22 oz. weighting, listed as 90c. a pound for colors, is wanted, and if the dye order is for 100 pounds, the dyer ^yill weigh out 100 pounds of the customer's silk, on the basis of the ticket, bundle, or scale weight as received by him. If the silk, from which the lot for the order is to be drawn has taken up moisture or has dried out, while in store at the dye house, a proper allowance should be made when weighting it out, as it is necessary to do this in order to have the lot check out properly when all of it is used up. The natural gum, and any soap and oil added in the throwing, is then boiled out of the silk, after which it is treated to weighting baths till the original pound of 16 ounces of silk is brought up to the 20/22 oz. weighting ordered. In this case, the weight of the dyed silk should not come below 20 ounces for each pound put in work, and, unless by special agree- ment, a greater weight than 22 ounces cannot be claimed. If the weight comes less than 20 ounces, the customer can claim the price corresponding with what it weighs. If, however, it runs over 22 ounces, even when not specially agreed upon, the dyer cannot charg-e more for the extra weight. PERCENTAGES AND COSTS , OF , WEIGHTINGS 41 I It has become quite a common practice, of late, for manufacturers to demand, and to receive, from the dyers a couple of ounces more weighting than each of the various prices calls for, but in such cases the discount given cannot be as large as it otherwise might be. Relation of Weighting to Silk Fibre. Without regard to this, we will suppose that the customer wants, and the dyer gives, 22 ounce weighting. The silk, when weighted, col- ored, and finished will therefore have increased in weight in the same proportion as 16 ounces bears to 22 ounces, and this figures out a return weight of 137/2 pounds. What, now, is the amount of dye- stuff and the amount of silk fibre in this dyed material? The manufacturer cannot tell unless he knows the conditioned weight and the boil-off of the thrown silk. The dyer cannot tell, though he knows more than the manufacturer about it, for, while he does not know the conditioned weight, he has found out, in the stripping of the silk from its gum, etc., approximately what the boil-off has been. Losses Caused by Ignorance of Boil-Offs, It may be mentioned here, as a matter of first-class importance, that the failure to furnish the dyer with exact information as to the boil-off of the silk is the cause of most serious loss to the manufacturer Not knowing anything on this point, the dyer has got to go ahead and do the best he can, and so he prepares stripping baths of certain proportions for Japans, others for Italians, and so on. All ot the different lots, regardless of their varying, but unknown, boil-offs, go through the same treatment and, while most of them are satisfactory, there are many lots of such a nature that they cannot stand the almost complete degumming that they may thus get, and which are severely '"^^The result is seen in the hairy and "lousy" lots of silk that give so much trouble, and in the general unsatisfactoriness of such lots The loss falls on the manufacturer, and the dyer cannot be held very blame- able if his customer will not afford him the information necessary for the proper working of the silk. Variations in Weighting. To return to our illustration, we will assume that the silk that is being dyed is a Japan tram, having a boil-off in the raw of 18 per cent., and that 2 per cent, of soap and oil was added to it by the throwster, so that it has now a boil-off of 20 per cent. . , , We will also assume that the ticket, bundle, or scale weight hap- pened to correspond with thrown conditioned weight (absolute dry silk fibre plus anv soap and oil added to it and the standard regain of 1 1 per cent, of moisture), and we will therefore so consider it. :i'i 42 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 43 Our 100 pounds is now seen to consist of 2 pounds of soap and oil, 18 pounds of soluble silk-worm gum, and 80 pounds of silk fibre. This 80 pounds, in turn, consists of the normal proportion of about y2 pounds of dried-out silk fibre and 8 pounds of moisture, that together make up the conditioned weight. What the dyer returns is what he has added to the silk, namely, weighting material, dye-stuff and coloring, plus the net silk fibre treated. This, of course, carries its proper proportion of moisture, affected, no doubt, in a slight but unknown degree, by the manner in which the treatment of the silk will modify its power of absorbing water. We have now received 1373/2 pounds of dyed silk, and we are fur- nished with a bill for 100 pounds, 20/22 ounce weighting, at the list- price of 90c. a pound, making a total of $90.00. This 1373^ pounds, it will be seen, consists of 80 pounds, con- ditioned weight, boiled-off silk, 20 pounds of dyeing material that has replaced the 18 pounds of gum and the 2 pounds of soap and oil that the silk contained before dyeing, and 37 J4 pounds more of dyeing material that has been added to the original gross weight of the silk, making, therefore, a combination of 80 pounds of silk and 57^^ pounds of weighting, etc. This 57J/2 pounds of foreign matter is 71% per cent, of the 80 pounds of conditioned weight boiled-off silk, or, as otherwise expressed, the silk has been weighted yi]/^ per cent. By having had our silk tested at the Conditioning House for weight and for boil-off, we are enabled to order our weighting intelligently, with a view to getting precisely the amount of loading added to our fibre that we desire, and we can then know exactly the percentage of weighting that we are really getting. We will next suppose that another lot is dyed for 22 ounce weight- ing, and that we had had no tests of it made, and only knew that the silk was Japan stock, of a fairly well regarded mark, and that it was thrown by a reputable throwster, and that there was nothing about his clearance of the lot that was out of the common, though the weight returned might even have been full — what is commonly referred to as a good clearance. In this case we will assume that the raw-silk had a boil-off of 21 per cent. ; that the throwster had made more waste than usual, and had covered it up with a heavy soaking, having added 5 per cent, to the weight in soap and oil; and that the silk had taken up a further 2 per cent, of atmospheric moisture. These added together give a potential loss of about 28 per cent., and our 100 pounds now consists of 72 pounds of conditioned weight, thrown, boiled-off silk, and 28 pounds of gum, soap and oil, and excess moisture. The dyer treats the silk and once more returns to us 1373^ pounds, dyed weight. As only 72 pounds of this, however, is silk, the re- maining 65J/2 pounds is necessarily weighting, and this represents a weiehting of about 91 per cent., or over 19 per cent, in excess of the weighting of the other lot, and which may seriously imperil the sound- ness of the fibre. . , . , The dyer, at the same time, is furnishing about 14 per cent, more weighting, for which he receives nothing. Of these matters of prime importance, many manufacturers are profoundly ignorant, and, by neglecting to test their silk, they pave the way for trouble, damage, and irregular goods. . Europe spends a huge sum of money annually in Conditioning House tests, and there they very properly consider this testing to be just as much a part of the unavoidable and necessary expense of the mill as the fuel for the boilers or the salary of the timekeeper would be regarded here. Necessity of Systematic Tests. When the constant, regular, and automatic testing of every bale of raw and thrown silk, used in this country, for weight, size, boil-ott, etc. instead of being the exception, becomes the rule, as it will be m the not distant future, we will then be able to produce lines of goods with little or no perceptible variation in the quality of the pieces, in- stead of as at present, bringing forward great quantities of goods which, in spite of every care, will include from 10 to 20 per cent of pieces that are too light and as many that are heavier than they should be. Dyers' Price-Lists. The dyers' price-lists can hardly be said to be made on any scien- tific basis. The costs of different, much used, weightings have been ascertained through practice and fixed at certain levels by competition, and the prices for other weightings have been spaced between them as conveniently as possible. In this way the price-lists have grown up, on the basis of an average satisfactory to the dyers. , The system of charging by the ''ounce," as at present pursued, is a ^^The dyer^ undertakes to furnish something of tangible value, for which he should in all cases receive a reasonable return for the service rendered Leaving out the general expense entailed in conducting his business, he does the specific work of degumming the silk, weighting it, and coloring it. If therefore, the silk contains a large amount of gum, soap, etc., the time, labor and expense required to strip it will be greater than for a silk carrying less of these substances, and the cost of bringing up the weight will be largely increased. , , . „ ^ xt * u Does he make his charge proportionately and logically? Not he. He weights a silk, to a given ounce, that boils-off 30 per cent at the same price he charges for a silk with a boil-off of 20 per cent., although in the former case he gives far more weighting than in the 4' 44 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 45 latter. The result is that he is charging too little on the one silk and too much on the other. If he should demand from his customer a higher price for bringing up the weighting of a silk with a heavy boil-off, he knows that his customer could easily find a dyer who would make no such objection, and so he continues to sell his dyeing on the old basis for fear of losing his customer. Charging for Weighting on Percentage Basis. The only logical system for dyeing charges is to base them upon the service actually rendered, i.e., upon the specific percentage of weighting added to the conditioned, boil-off, weight of the silk. If this were done, the dyer would get a proper return for his work in every case. As the customer would furnish him with the Conditioned Weight and Boil-off certificates of the silk, he would know exactly how much the silk would lose in boiling-off, and could prepare his stripping baths intelligently, to the great advantage of the silk. The customer could get exactly the percentage of weighting that he wanted on his silk, and would know that he had got it and was only paying for what he got. Under such an arrangement as this, it would be very proper that the charges for the boiling-off tests be divided between the dyer and the manufacturer. It is greatly to be desired that the dyers should afford their cus- tomers a price-list based on this idea, and, with the facilities offered to the trade for the testing of silks, by the Conditioning House, there should be little difficulty in getting many manufacturers to adopt it. Dyeing Costs Affected by B oil-off s. The seriousness of this matter will be better appreciated when it is considered how greatly the percentage of the weighting on the silk is affected by its boil-off, and how the material, in case of a heavy boil-off, may be grossly overweighted without the manufacturer hav- ing the least idea of it. In fact, he can know nothing of the weight- ing he is getting on his silk unless he has the thrown silk tested for conditioned weight and for boil-off. To present this in a clearer light I have prepared the following table covering weightings from 14 oz. to 60 oz. and boil-off s from 20 per cent, to 30 per cent. Observe how, on only a 16 oz. weighting, the percentage of tin on the silk may run up to 43 per cent., when the boil-off is 30 per cent. — a not unusual occurrence — while with a 20 per cent, boil-off it is but 25 per cent. On the 60 oz. weighting, the increase under the same circumstances is 67 per cent. This table merits careful consideration. o n < o (A K. < ^ '-' 1^ < > (/J o 06 O .J X H U H O Q /-> sjJ « R « S S g ^ H X o H O X If) O 111 u 2 o a O o < H u u O u X H H < X H li/l X H X H O X Q O Q O U b U* O I Q U _} o n u ti: H trt to (d •J D O H Q U H X 2 O Ui > ^ ,n 5> (/] o X CO u ij o < cq PQ •J •J •J (O ^ u* X O H I D O (d H 2 (d H 2 Cd (^ C* td to O U o < u 2 •J Q Cd to to (d O OS S H (/J 2 .J .J < > o Id a f^ " % H (d H b « Id U, td O O C^ Q Oe; (d (d H U < X o (d O P < o (d a H a td H a > (d H < - a o <— « H (d O Cd (A Cd a H uT O to < n < a H O ^ i to < O H td t:^ t/5 a > t-1 2 o t/5 (Hi < Q < (d -1 t/j (d a H C14 O H a o I— < Cd S ^ Cl4 o • Q Cd _] I— « o Cd a H O Q Cd m < n Cd" t/3 (A O O U b O (d* < Cd O < H (d u td Id a :2; o 00 C4 t- 5? IS v-fOt-iOOvO Tj-ix CSVO TfPl t^Ol t^fOOO ^00 CxvO CO "^ T}- '-' 00 VO CO Q 00 t>^ t- •>*• 00 W M CH ►H 10 00 . 00 10 CO O t^ "^ 00 O C< '<*• 10 l>* O |_| |_l |_l H4 H4 C^ r< t^ •-< 10 Cn Tj- CS 01 CO fO fO •^ j^OO CO 10 vO 00 coOvO coo tJ-00 r< VPON^oiN. o ^< fOiot^^o ^i>oi2ii;2. iiH^i-.MH.^MCICirorOfO'^ v, t^ fO O covovOOO O *■* comvO CO O O C4 8 0* CO r^ covo CO r>. _ CO O CO PO ro ■'i- ^^^ |.HHHt-tl-ll-lC*On»-; ^1000 W ioOO'-'^OO ;;,:.;»H>-,.-ioiciciPOcoco »' »-it-^i-i>-ii^CICIv|COCOCO o i? CI -* in »i4 ti* CI 00 tN.00 fo ON "ooo IM ^H l»4 ^4 l>4 d CO "^ 100 00 Q\ CI M CO CO CO too lOQ vnO ^oQ d iot>xO ^J iPi>a •-I CI C040VO tN.00 O 000 10 O 10 CI to tN. CI 01 ci §d Q o 01 lO t>. CO CO «0 CO N - w V. O "* - - •«t^ 00 o t-" •"••-• 01 01 01 -"tvO 00 01 01 01 ^ V V >• O 01 VO O CO CO «0 "^ ?00 01 \0 Q < 46 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 47 How the Dyer may he Mulcted, Under the present system the dyer is, in a measure, at the mercy of his customer in regard to the dye-stuff he has to furnish at a given price. As his prices are not based upon the conditioned, boiled-off, weight of the silk he is treating, there is nothing to hinder an un- scrupulous customer from artificially altering the weight of the silk he sends him, if it is for his advantage to do so. This can be done by instructing the throwster to increase the weight of the lot by the addition of extra soap and oil, or by moistening the silk, or in both of these ways. If sufficient weight is added to the thrown silk, so that the per- centage of weighting wanted on the fibre will then be had from a weighting of a nominally less number of ounces, the manufacturer will make a material saving. To show how the dyers may be taken advantage of by those who wish to increase their profits by the free use of the soap bath and the watering pot, I have prepared the following table to illustrate how this works out in practice. One hundred pound lots are figured on, and, at the artificially in- creased weights, the percentage of weighting added to the conditioned- weight, boiled-off silk,, for the lower weight dye orders, will be found to exactly equal the weighting got from the original amount of silk at the higher weight dye order. At the same time, the larger number of pounds at the lower price will cost the manufacturer distinctly less money than the less number of pounds at the higher price. This table is not affected by differences in the original boil-off of the thrown silk. In the medium weighting also, by a freer use of the watering can, a sufficient addition might be made so that two weightings lower could be managed. The writer does not advocate the use of any such questionable methods, but has presented these phases of the matter to show the necessity of a change in the basis on which weightings are charged for. It may be objected that the dyer would complain if the boil-off of a lot seemed unusually large. He might, and for that matter he often does complain as it is, but, just the same, he takes the order and dyes the silk to the weighting demanded. Both dyer and customer, working as they now do in the dark have no solid basis for valuing the work that is done on the silk arid the price that should be charged for it. \r> m ^O O CO N. ^s ts. C lO w lO -* CO CO M Tf CO ^ 8 % 8 VO VO to \n QvOO 1 '^■" ^^ 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 00 r^ . ^ 9 ro ^f Tt »£> ^ - CO "^ t^ o\ - ;* l-l 1-1 11 »H CI C^ •-I O 0\ <0 CN Tt- ^ O 5 foo -: n 2 g^^ S^"^ ^ '- ^- — VO CO O Tl- 00 4 4^ 1 O 5 c? 8 lO c lO 48 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS Variation of B oil-off s, Boil-offs differ widely. The averages of the Lyons Conditioning House reports will show that Japans lose i8 per cent. — most of the tests running say from 17 to 19 per cent. ; Chinas about 19 per cent. — say 18 to 20 per cent. ; Cantons 22 per cent. — say 21 to 23 per cent. ; and Yellow Italian and Cevenues silks about 24 per cent. — say 23 to 25 per cent. Many lots of each kind will have a boil-off off several per cent, more or less than the above averages, which, of course, represent the bulk of the tests recorded. The soap and oil added by the throwster is also a very variable quantity — being generally larger than it is supposed to be. Good quality silks with free gums need only a light soaking and could be readily worked with a solution that would return an increase of but I per cent., though 2 per cent, would be a normal low average. On the other hand, with hard gums a heavier bath may be required, and, if excessive wastage is to be covered up, any amount may be added, and additions of 5 to 8 per cent, are not uncommon. Then, again, the silk will take up moisture from the atmosphere if the weather, or the place of storage, be damp, and it may readily gain as much as 3 per cent, in this way. « Differences Between Lots, It is, therefore, apparent that wide variations may exist in practice without any attempt on the part of the manufacturer to influence the weight. Thus, one lot of Italian silk might have a boil-off of but 21 per cent. ; it might have had only i per cent, of soap and oil added to it in the soaking, and it might have been stored in a properly dry place so that its weight was practically the same as conditioned weight, and its boil-off, therefore, would be only about 22 per cent. Another lot might boil-off in the raw 2y per cent. ; it might have had 5 per cent, of soap and oil added to it in the soaking; it might also have taken up 3 per cent, of moisture from the air. These amounts will aggregate a shrinkage in boiling-off and conditioning of approxi- mately 35 per cent. Here, then, is a difference between two lots of silks, of the same nature, of 13 per cent. ; and a manufacturer, knowing the raw boil-off of his silk, could readily arrange to have the throwster add whatever soap, oil, and water seemed to suit the requirements of the case. As these additions could be arranged so as to keep the boil-off within the extreme limit of practice, the dyer would have no proof that he had been finessed against. PERCENTAGES. AND COSTS QF ^IGHTINGS 49 '^Z,^t^%X:.:.^Z^^^^^^^^^ fattening-up of the silW. How the Watering Can Affects Costs. Thp manner in which the percentage of weighting, and the cost of I tnX custonTer ma^ be affected by increased moisture m the SuL Conditioning and Testing Company, under the headmg ot """thllSe'^aSXIe'lots of silk, one of loo pounds Conditioned reproducing here, in full, the section referred to: "VALUE OF BOIL-OFF TESTS IN DYEING. We invite careful attention to the f ollowmg : T3r»TT OFF TN DYEING Showing that variations may result in pracSf ConiSo?^^^^^ and BoVoff Thrown certificates are '^^^^^::^^^ based on xoo lbs. of Conjtioned weStf^^^^^^^^ ^rr^riii^^' ^^The^x^^otd^'c^^^^^^^^ 105 IK)unds, scale or ticket weight, for the purpose of this illustration. The cost of Dyeing and the returns are shown tor I. Pure dye at 30c. per pound. 16 oz. dye at 50c. per pound. 24 oz. dye at 80c. per pound. 32 oz. dye at $1.00 per pound. 48 oz. dye at $1.50 per pound. Pure Dye at 30c. per pound. I05lbs.at30c W.50 ,^:; « « « 30-90 100 " " " (Conditioned Weight) . . . 30.00 Conditioned. Weight saves $1 .50 80 lbs. of Boiled-off Silk Dyed. Saving 5%. I. II. III. IV. V. ^^__^^^^^^^^^ OF WEIGHTINGS II. i6 02. T>yt at 50c. per pound. Silk A. 105 lbs. at 50c 80 2- 103 " " " .... 80 C icx) *t tt u • • • • 80 Weighting + 2S =. + 23 = + 20 = Return Bill 105 $52.50 103 51.50 100 50.00 5 lbs. weight gained on A. for $..50 = 50c. per lb. no saving. 3 lbs. weight gamed on B. for $1.50 = 500. per lb. no saving III. 24 oz. Dye at 80c. per pound. Silk Weighting A. 105 lbs. at 80c 80 + 771^ = B- 103 " " " .... 80 + 74^ =, C. 100 """... 80 + 70 = • • • • Return Bill I57>^ $84.00 I54>^ 82.40 150 80.00 Iff 7^ lbs. gain on A. for $4.00 saves $2.00 = ^y,% on dyeing i w" r^- '" ^'•'' ''"" ^^-^^ = 'y^% - Eyeing.' % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, A^-g6,8% % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, B~93. i % % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, C-87.5% w 1 IV. 32. oz. Dye at $1.00 per pound. Silk Weighting A. 105 lbs. at $1.00. .. 80 +130 = B. 103 C. 100 it n it tl tt tt 80 -f- 126 = 80 -j- 120 = Return Bill 210 $105.00 206 103.00 2CX) 100.00 10 lbs. gain on A. for $5.00 saves $5.00 = 5% on dyeing. 6 lbs^ga.„ on B. for $3.00 saves $3.00 = 3% on dyeing. % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, A—i62y^% % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, 6-157^^% % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, €—150% PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 51 V. 48 oz. Dye at $1.50 per pound. Silk Weighting A. 105 lbs. at $1.50. . . 80 +235 = B. 103 """... 80 +229 = C 100 " " " ... 80 + 220 = Return Bill 315 $157.00 309 15450 300 150.00 15 lbs. gain on A. for $7.50 saves $15.00 r= 10% on dyeing. 9 lbs. gain on B. for $4.50 saves $9.00 = 6% on dyeing. % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, A— 293^%. % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, B — 286>4%. % Weighting on original 80 lbs. silk, C — 275%. Therefore : So long as the price of dyeing is based on ticket bundle or actual weight, the manufacturer will, as illustrated, find it profitable to arrange that 1. All silk of 16 oz. dye and under should be soaked lightly in throwing and kept very dry. II. All silk for 16 oz. dye and over should be soaked heavily in throwing and kept moist. To know the real return, however, the Conditioned Weight Boiled- off Thrown Silk must be used as the basis of figuring or your silk may be overweighted 10% or more without your being aware of it." Figuring the Waste Made in Throwing, When figuring the clearance on a lot of thrown silk, for the pur- pose of ascertaining what loss has been made in throwing, care should be taken to see that the proper method is employed. Some will figure this by taking the differences in the percentages of boil-offs, and then applying this to the weight of the raw or tlirown silk with, of course, an erroneous result. The only right way to pursue is the one followed by the Condition- ing Houses. In this the weight of the conditioned, boiled-off, thrown silk is subtracted from the weight of the conditioned, boiled-off raw- silk, and the relation that this difference bears to the weight of the latter shows the percentage of the loss made. No silk manufacturer, large or small, who wishes to know as ex- actly as possible what his goods cost him, and who does not desire to waste large sums of money annually, can afford to neglect the sub- jecting of all his silk to regular and comprehensive tests. . 11 H mm 52 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS S3 ) '. Scientific, and Unscientific, Tests. size°and"l'^hi''n ^''f^'" "^'"'■' °^ ''"^' ''' ^'^^t'^'^' variations in for . he K P'-oportJons of gum that it contains, and its capacity knnwW "^ '"°'''"''' " r^-es the finest equipment and the greS knowledge, precision, and care in the making of these tests if Uev are to have any value at all. What may be termed "home made tests " only m!s°le"r '"''' "^ °"' "^ ^^""^"^ ^°"^ ^"^^ useless forSy t,•fi/l^^°'' ^A^ P^'P'"'" °^ furnishing accurate tests, made on a scien- ishmenK ""'" ""'^"/^^^t ^"^ constant conditions, that testing esteb- hshments, or Conditioning Houses, as they are called for silks ^nd all other textHe materials, have been established in various textile centres throughout the world, and American manufacturers are for! Sr in £"&*'"■" ""'" '""^ ^^""^"' ^""'•'^'-■"^ House that Owing to unfamiliarity with the technique of the subject it often happens that manufacturers, who are induced to start making °ests do not know how to make use of the information that the condign mg tickets give them; in fact, they too often have hardly anyTdeTat all of the meaning of the figures. ^ Others, again, make their tests in a random manner, spending per- haps, quite a sum of money, but getting no complete infomation aLt foTmXn'Jaii^' ^"' ''' '°^'"^' ^" ^-* P-- ^'^ -•- o^ the in-. The Value of Conditioning. To give the most thorough insight into the principles and methods of testing silk, and to show how the information obtained shou d be apphed in practice, the book, already referred to, entitled "The Valul CondSr'"r^' ^'' P"^."'''"'^ '" '9o8 by the United States |^^ "T Tnffin Q. ? ^^"Pf.?/' .whose name has since been changed to the United States Conditioning and Testing Company," the present writer being the author of a very substantial portion of this took It IS to be hoped that every manufacturer, after a careful readine- subjS aTcts S'pSeV ''''''' ^P^^^^'"'"" °^ ''^ -"^'^ ^^^ The ''Combination Test." For the purpose of encouraging manufacturers to order their tests IL^"^3f/r ''"^T'^f-""' ^u' u' ^^' ^^'^ ^""" ^^^''^^ ^^^i^t is called the Combination Test/' in which groups of bales are tested for varia- A u\ "'^^ average size, conditioned weight raw and thrown and boil-off raw and thrown. The information so arrived at shows, by the conditioning of the raw-silk, just what weight the manufacturer should pay for, and the weight upon which the throwster should base his charges ; by sizing tests, it shows the yardage per pound of the raw-silk and its limits of variation in size; by giving the conditioned weight of the silk after throwing it shews what percentage of its weight is water, and, by boil-off tests, it shows the amount of gum in the raw-silk and the amount of gum, soap, etc., in the thrown silk, so that, by figuring these percentages from the raw and thrown conditioned weights, the exact loss made in the throwing can be arrived at. By the knowledge of the boil-off of the thrown silk, the manufacturer can also tell exactly what percentage of weighting to order, so that the amount of weighting on his fibre will be no more and no less than he desires. Without this knowledge he is in the dark. Thus, if he sent three lots of silk to the dyer to be weighted to 30 oz., intending to use them in the same line of goods, he would, if the lots boiled off 20, 25, and 30 per cent, respectively, have his fibre in turn weighted 134 per cent, 150 per cent., and 168 per cent., and, apart from the risk of overweight- ing, as the weighting material does not bulk up as the silk does, he would necessary have irregular groups of goods. If, however, he knew the boil-off of these three lots, and was or- dering his weightings by the prevailing "ounce" system, he would order the 20 per cent, boil-off lot dyed in 32 oz., the 25 per cent in 30 oz., and the 30 per cent, in 28 oz., and in each case he would have the same percentage of weighting, namely 150 per cent., on the fibre, as may be seen by the foregoing table, and his merchandise would be correspondingly regular. Forms Used in Connection with Tests. With the object of simplifying the recording and working out of the information given by the "Combination Tests," the United States Conditioning and Testing Company has devised a loose-leaf ledger, into which all of the information for each lot can be entered, and into which can also be inserted the various documents pertaining to the lot, such as the duplicate invoice of the raw-silk, the chop ticket, the throwster's report and clearance, the Conditioning, Sizing, and Boiling- off certificates, etc. ., r ^ c All of the details of a lot are shewn on the two sides ot one leat, and, when a lot is all worked up, its leaf, together with its documents, is removed from the book and filed away. By this means, all of the information about each lot is concentrated in the same place, where it can be instantly referred to, and anything that is out of the usual can be at once detected. Copies of these forms are presented herewith : i- 54 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS ALL THIS INFORMATION IS NECESSARY FOR INTELLiaBNT USE OP EACH LOT SILK LOT COMBINATfON TEST RECORD Lot Hofp^ ^ Conditioning Tickets FilddJ*9Qfl r-^. Quality Chop or Filature -C*: i5>^ij^<4irf Weight Terms ^^, ^f^3^. •¥- %y. 0«l* W«.ght W.,,M W..,M Bal* Numlwrt Invoice ThrowfUf't W«%hl ^us- nt /-3^ XT /3i «o /iL xr /^il37 Bf^Mfftt Torw'd /fo ^^717^ /;>^^o /s^ro /^ab^ /8'f /■r^-J;/ /j^ -Ot /jj4«« /37 i*f /^^ /j^fj- /3 6JV« /^Ai^ lif 91 /^3 nf ur /J^jeo /^(f tff /h^ /¥ ^fnA Uo Jo i?7 «ro Uc ^? TOTAL ^<^<^i^ f«r«M«r4 Boil Off Raw, /^ r7 .%. Boil Off Thrown. Add 7% to Conditioned Weight Lbs. to be charged, Limit 2lJ^«j!lC_%. Difference_fCL^ ZJLJJ ^JjL^^ V Average, Regular Sizing J*/.. %X. deniers. Average, Compound Sizing -/^^ ^■^ denier* THROWN RETURN NOTE— ALWAYS iNSTmiCT TMROWSTCR. WHEN RCTUHNING SILK, TO P*CK IN SAME NUMBER OF BAtC$ AS HC HECCtVtS Bi* N«1 8urld'« T.t.«T W«.gM Cortd'tic^d W«.cM, IDV Numb«rt T.*k.l w..tM Co^dcr«4f W«.g»il Boii(l-l Fwoli4 »r2> / /©i. «rf ^6d,^ yTO JU /-€>/ ^iT fAjf •~o3 .^«^ ^ r 4^ »r«*/ ^''y 44 X^-j <,! / /■ / ..;_^;d i*^ C3C Z2. xfa* 7A TOTAL /i^^ ^^ vOo 72 FoTMtr^ Mvit anj far »«)» hy U S. Silk Canii\«nAi\t Co.. ind br W. F. Vaodtn Houtcn Co, 40» P««l St., N«w Ywlt FRONT 8IDE OF PAGE FROM LOOSE LEAF KEirORD BOOK PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 55 ALL THIS INFORMATION IS NECESSARY FOR INTELUOENT USE OP EACH LOT SILK LOT COMBINATION TEST RECORD Estimated yds. to lb. Raw y^ / y x^-S S on Compound Sizing. Estimated yds. to lb Thrown_J / 4^ ^/2 on Skeins returned, ir. term, of single thread. Cduct from R.W yds to lb 3« for short.nine in .w^t plu. d.ffr.nc. .n % of BoH Off Thrown .nd Boi. Off R.w result is APPROXIMATE yds per Ib. wh.ch should b« returned Thrown. f«w«d from avenge bur.dle we.ght Lot No.-^-6 CJJ lbs r/xr^,7o ih> s~^rt/.yo ib«. Total Conditioned Weight Thrown - <^g^' ^ »- - lbs. Boil Off Thrown.lJ,^^% /^^T^O lbs. Net Boilec Off Thrown >f3o,y^- lbs. - Difference- Difference divided by Net Boiled Off R»w equsis Loss m t /rt *■ /• DYEING ON isr. tea err EOCUS UOZ. NCTSOIl 14 01.=: i63i% 1 t6 - = 33J4* s 18 " = 50 % 10 " = 66)5% i 22 " = 83-6^ 84 "=100 % s £6 - =\\6Wk 1 28 " =133Ji% 1 30 " =1S0 % 1 32 " =M^% » 34 " =183^^%' s 36 " =300 % i 38 - =216f^% 8 40 " =233V5% 2 42 " =250 % ENTER FOR EACH DYE LOT Figure Order for Dyeing by % on Conditioned We.ght Boiled Off Thrown Silk. Thfow«t»r'$ Boilad 0» Ordtf» 0< Siiatns Thr«iivtt«r'l B«t« Numb«fl Bo REMARKS.— On working of Silk m actual u»e Ibde «ad for sale by U. S. Silk CoBdKiomof Co..»dky W F. V««l«. Ho.wn Co.. «0» P««l St., N.. YoA. REVERSE SIDE OF PAGE FROM LOOSE LEAF RECORD BOOK. i> I i_ iilii 1 • 54 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS AtL THIS INFORMATION IS NBCESSA«Y FOR INTELLWENT USE OF BACH LOT SILK LOT COMBINATfON TEST RECORD Lot UoJAA Conditioning Ticket* FilodJSd?50C»r* Invoice Filed »/^'g>^^ *^ Throvwler's Report V^^'«9t/7 // Chop Filed vx/v^; •x"^ -lCB.Ie»_l^^A-^R,w Silk jl^^Averege Denier,. From _ ChoporFil.tureX^:i;s^^g.^^,,,^, WejgKt Termsjgg^,^. M^. -^^^ Il9AL .Quality Boil Off Raw, -%. Boil Off Thrown Add 2% to Conditioned Weight. Lbs. to be charged. Limit %7- t CC %. Differenco tT.^a Average. R.gul., Si.ing_Z4i^J|._ denier.. Average. Compound Sizing JM.^^ deniers. THROWN RETURN N0T6-.,w.ys INSTRUCT TH,OWST». WHEN RETU.MINS S..K. TO P.CK ,N SAME NUMBER O. BALES AS HE RECEIVES y"o »_ y/^Qti l/'0 4h^ N«t Bundle T.c.l W«.tM /oa. /«i_ ^:^ Conditioned Wi-.gl't ff ^/ ±.c :^4^ rofw«f4 2iZ 5 ^4^ 1^ ^i£ Roii«d OM la Csc Zi J"3« N4«mb«rs Biow(t>t foriwtfd Nat B,indi« Co^.d't>o<'»d TOTAL BoiUd OH /^^^ 12. y^o ^2 . M^. .n. io, ^. >, t: S. S... C.na.,^„i n, Co.. .nd br W. F. V..d«, Hou..., Co. «0. P«.. S... N.w Yclc FRONT SIDE OF PAGE FROM L008B LEAF RECORD BOOK. evcN PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS 55 ALL TMI5 INFORMATION IS NECESSARY FOR INTELLWENT USE OF EACH LOT SILK LOT COMBINATION TEST RECORD Estimated yds. to ib. Raw ■.. \7 / "7 \f~'3l ^ on Compound Sizing. Estimated yds. to lb Thrown. J / 4^ <^^ 2 on Skeins returned, in terms of single thread. Dtduet from Raw yds to lb 3< for shortening in "iwist plu» difference in « of Boil Cff Thrown »nd Boil Off B»w result is APPROXIMATE yds P" >*>. wMch should be relumed Thrown, figured from a«cr*2* bundle weight Lot Wo.-^-jE3 Total Conditioned Weight Ra-v Boil Off Bti*t-/^^JL.% Net Boiled Off Raw CLEARANCE d6 C.J ^ lbs /y^.^y IK. b ^»^^^«M^K^«^^^ Total Conditioned Weight Thrown — 6 g ^f ^ ^ Boil Off Thrown^^2..^^% /^rVT^O Net Boilec Off Thrown . 'J'3o,pt.._ .lbs. .lbs. .lbs. »r^o Difference. i- 9 ,y^ 7^ 'K* .lbs. DYEING ON IS r. Boa err eecus u oz. Ntr siu| 14 01.=; uVi% S n " = 33Vi% s IS " = iO % 20 - = 66M% i 23 - = 83V4% 24 " =100 % f W - =11656% \ 28 - =133>i% 30 " =liO % 32 " =166?^% % 34 " =183}^%' 2 36 " =300 % % 38 " =216*^% 8 40 " =233Kj% 2 42 •' =2S0 % ^^»^»^»^N^»^^»^>^^^^i» Difference divided by Net Boiled Off Raw equtis Lou ...M^Ji^/' ENTER FOR EACH DYE LOT Figure Order for Dyemg by % on Conditioned Weight Boiled Off Thrown Silk. Th W«'ili1. Ibi. Ord.r.d Ib< Num6«i ol Slitint ThfO»v»t»' • B«l« Nornb«n Bcilad Oh w»tg^t. ib> REMARKS,— On working of Silk m actual uke Mm!* »ad for talc by U. S. Silk Conditioninf Co ., ind by W F. Vaodtn Houun Co.. ♦<>» P«»tl St., N.« VoHt REVERSE SIDE OF PAGE FROM LOOSE LEAF RECORD BOOK. h 'OMMMItWiM 56 PERCENTAGES AND COSTS OF WEIGHTINGS It will be seen at once that such a record as this can be kept by any intelligent clerk, and so the time of his principals need not be taken up in working out the results. They can see by a glance at the salient points— the limit of weight that should be charged for as compared with the invoice weight the boil-offs raw and thrown, the regular and compound sizings, and the loss shown by the throwing clearance— whether all appears to be right, or if some point needs investigation. The form accommodates 20 bales of raw-silk, as this is the limit to which any one Combination Test is applied, and the figures here given are taken from actual practice. VI COTTON YARNS, AND THEIR USE IN SILK MANUFACTURE ■H Almost all silk manufacturers, from time to time, have to make use of cotton yarns, and frequently these uses are on an extensive scale. To make a proper selection of this material, when it is required, is a necessity, if the goods made from it are to be right in quality and in price, and yet it is a matter to which, in many cases, but slight attention is paid by those who use it. As but few silk manufacturers have had any training along cotton lines, they have, of course, when purchasing cotton yarns, to put them- selves very largely into the hands of those from whom they make their purchases, generally yarn agents, or brokers, who cater to the silk trade. Value of the Yarn Dealer^ s Advice, Beyond the fact that fairly stiff prices may sometimes have to be paid, this does not, on the whole, work badly, as these yarn dealers understand very well about what sorts of yarns are generally required for certain kinds of goods, and are thus in a position to advise their clients intelligently, that is, if their clients are not above taking advice, as is the case with many of them. Others, again, are so secretive, that their dealer is left quite in the dark as to the purpose for which the yarn is needed, and the manu- facturer will often load himself with a lot of unsuitable yam which his dealer could easily have saved him from buying had he been consulted. ., j ir Such persons deserve to suffer the losses that are thus entailed, for the selecting of yams is a technical matter, requiring judgment and experience, and when those without the necessary knowledge have S8 COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE ■is I got to do the purchasing, and refuse to confide in an experienced and trustworthy dealer, they are inviting any loss that may fall upon them. At times, questions will arise that are of importance, and yet many silk manufacturers, owing to a lack of knowledge of the cotton-spinning trade, may be very much at sea regarding them. It is with reference to some of these moot points that this article will concern itself. Proper Yardage Per Pound. Take, for instance, the yardage per pound, for any given count, that the buyer has a right to demand from the seller— a question that directly aflPects the cost of his goods. It is manifestly impossible for a spinner always to spin exactly to count, and, as the thread runs a little finer or coarser, a number of tests on the same lot will show varying sizes. Irregularities in size will be more numerous in the single yarns than in two or more ply, as, by joining a number of threads, it tends to equalize the size. The thickness of a two-ply yarn will not necessarily be just twice that of the single, but will be markedly affected by the twisting it receives. Twists Employed in Cotton Spinning. The great bulk of the cotton yarns are spun into regular warp and filling twists, and there is also a good deal used of extra-hard warp yarn, as well as a large volume of hosiery twist, which is very soft. A standard number of turns of twist is generally given, both for single and for ply yams, according to the count, and, of course, in selecting cotton for any yarn, the length of its staple must be well considered. The regular twist put into single cotton yarns is 4 times the square root of the count. Some twists are what are known as "balanced," as when a yam has, say, twelve turns of twist in the single and twelve tums in the two-ply. The eflFect of the second-time twisting is to untwist the turns put in during the first twisting, so in a balanced twist all of the twist is supposed to have been eliminated from the single yarn. How Twists Affect the Length. This untwisting of the single leads to a lengthening of the two-ply yarn beyond what the single would count, but after the maximum of lengthening has taken place a shortening begins, becoming more ac- centuated as the twist increases, and rising to a large perecent- age in the case of hard-twist yarn. The table presented herewith was published some years ago by the "Textile World Record," of Boston, having been copied from a Ger- man paper. COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFAC TURE 59 It shows in graphic form how the count is affected by the twist and a fne drawn^from one corner to the other practicaly crosses each count at the twist which gives the standard 840-yard length. ,.T^ r^r^AV THF TOUNTS OF 2-PLY COTTON YARNS "^^^."^/TF^KnY ™E sTcJ,ND TIME LISTING. THE LeJgTHS OP ™e IkEINS in the single being 840 YARDS. TCN8 PEE IKCH-SECOKD TIME TWIST. MEA8UEEMEXTS IK TAEDS. ^r 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Tr'^MO 832 825 817 810 800 790 u'"^ 838 833 824 815 806 798 773 VL""^9. bS 838 831 823 816 809 787 772 ::::™ ™ S S ^ .» .» ~ ~ » ,„ S;:::SS ^ - ^ » ^ ^ i s S S S f: ofi. 863 861 859 855 849 846 843 840 837 Z ''' t\ 862 860 857 853 849 845 842 ^ f, 863 861 858 854 850 846 843 840 40 If two single threads are doubled and twisted in the same direction as the twist of the single, the resultant ply yam becomes brittle and '^"Xhus" SVyard hanks of 1/32 are doubled, and given 18 turns reverse twist, the length is increased to 855 yards. If twisted in the same direction as the singles, the length would shrink to 720 yards. The yarn from which the above table was worked out was made from first quality American cotton, i%-mz\v staple, and was spun on rbg frames. The number of turns of twist in the single yarns was four times the square root of the count. Yam was spooled for twistmg, and was twisted dry. , , . , . ,„ When a spinner starts to fill an order for a stated size of two-ply vam he will, therefore, spin his single threads to a count that, when doubled and wisted to the twist ordered, will give him the yardage per pound demanded by the count. Thus, for a 2/40's yam, his singles may have to be spun to 38*8 in one case, to 40's in another, and to 42 s in a third, according to the twist, so that the finished yam will measure 20 times 840 yards per pound. iiSiMiiA 6o COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE 6i •^ Yarns for Moires, and Reverse Twists. For use in fabrics that are to be subjected to the moireing process, hard, well rounded, threads are desirable, and three, or more, ply yarns are consequently used for this purpose. It is the fashion to use reverse twists in these yarns, though for what good reason is not clear to the writer, as, in practise, no difference is apparent. The probable explanation of this custom may be found in the fact that when cotton yarns for moire purposes were first called for largely by the American silk trade, they were wanted in a hurry, as is usually the case with yarns for moires. These special twists were not to be had offhand from the yarn spinners, but there was at the time a lot of suit- able thread yarn in the market, and thread yarns are made with reverse twist, for special reasons. Thus, the ball was started rolling, and, as the yarns proved to be all right, re-orders have been coming in right along on the "same-as-last" basis, and so the custom has fastened itself on the trade, while the ignorance of most silk manufacturers regarding cottons has made them afraid to change, and has caused them to keep on demanding this reverse twist. Testing the Counts of the Yarns. To determine the count of any yarn delivered to them, manufactur- ers can make fairly satisfactory working tests if they are equipped with accurate reels and scales, and if the tests are made by an intelligent and experienced man. A number of representative samples should be taken, and a number of reelings and weighings from each should be made with much care and accuracy, and such tests should be made either at a time or in a place when the atmospheric conditions are normal. Care should also be taken to see whether the yarn has been stored in an unduly dry or unduly darnp place, and, in either event, or in case nothing is known on the subject, the skeins drawn for testing should be hung up for a few hours in some place where the humidity was normal, to give them a chance to return to their natural condition. If the tests are sufficiently numerous, according to the size of the lot, and the foregoing precautions are carried out, the average size arrived at should be fairly accurate. Should really exact tests for weight or for size be needed, either as a basis of sale or purchase, or for establishing a case before a court or an arbitration committee, the services of a testing or conditioning house should always be secured, and, by having the tests made on a standard conditioned weight basis, the variations caused by moisture are elimi- nated. In the reeling of the skeins for testing, great care should be taken to see that only a reasonable tension is put upon the yarn — a very nice matter to decide. Now, while the spinner of the yarn will know what stock he should use, and to what fineness he J,ouM^^^^^^^ agt/andthatTs 'Lt Z^V^^^Z^ falls appreciably short of what it should? Causes of Too Coarse Counts. The spinner n,ay h-e found that a lot of^c^^^^^^^^^^^ what it should be, and, with all his skA he coma not the count and make good yarn of it, ^^^^J^^^ ^^^^^^XJ^l iutA coarser Or owing to advancing prices of cotton, he may "P*^ 'J' ^^ use a Tower Val, and so have run up against the ^^"^^^ ^ifficulty^^ Or customer never knowing the ditterence, or u not being able to enforce any claim against him. Deception Regarding Size of Fine Yarns. In low counts, there is little temptation to deceive ^;;these matters, °'-!T irfYctV^fsiKlnufac^^^^^^^^ genLlly been teuS to Lthatink require" testing for weight, count, etc., they seen, o"htVkt"cotton go by d\fault, and are 0^- f^ l^-«/J-%^^ wViPn tp<;t<; for Strength and elasticity are to be maae, ii is ouugatv^ y thatThe atmospheric con^ditions be right! as otherwise they may be most "'"'infeilk trade 2/80's cotton is often used. This is the count at whiclt the tariff 'th^re was a change to a highj ra^^'wo and^a'S this increase, the imported yarns were spun to 2/78-two ^^d ^ ^a" per cent, coarser. This count is frequently sold as 2/80, and many '^'t:^^^i:^'of^^^'^^oZXl:Zlk. most conmcting state menlTmfaftrwhat W should he expected on d^« ^r,^ man nrnnerlv statinff. for instance, that a 2/150 must oe 75 ximcs 8^0 Tds^ffanXr saying that 69 times 840 yards (the count of !/ii^) is aU that should be expect^ on account of take-up m twist, while others gave lengths between these. Regarding Harness Twines. It mav be noted here that such special twists as g/if'*, largely used for harness building, are spun to count m the single, and then *nuKi:ts°;iT2;8Vr(r7y^i./78^^ -/eCs, and x./50's. are ^^^S^^^^^X^^^"^^ - per cent, less mmtm mm 62 COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE M: fi yardage per pound than their nominal counts would call for owine to shortening due to the twist put into them. Users of such yams shfu d make careful tests of the count of each lot delivered. Necessity of Care in Ordering. . Much confusion is created by careless ordering, and exactness m statmg details on an order is necessary. If a 2/ici)'s is called for froni a spmner and he is asked to have it bleached-probably addine so much a pound for the bleaching-it will be a finer yarn than I/!oo wlien delivered by just the percentage of its loss in weight in bleaching bu" .a bleached yarn of 2/100 is asked for, the spinner will spin to a^suffi- cently coarser size to give the right count after the bleaching. Mercerized yarns are largely bought by silk manufacturers on the grey-weight basis, plus so much for bleaching and mercerizing In should grt. P"'"*'^"'' """°' ^^" '^" J"^' what return weifht he Changes in Mercerizing, o-roy^ "fi,'" "?^rceri2ing gain in length, but also increase in specific fh.n Ihl • ^"^ ^•'' ^^.'"l'" ^^"^^ '^ "'"^"y proportionately greater than the increase in weight; so yarns, after mercerizing, generally reel to a slightly finer count than before being processed. or fi^er ^^"^^^"^' °^ gassing, of yarns makes them appreciably lighter Effect of Dyeing Upon Weight. Cotton, when d3;ed, is considerably modified in weight according to the CO bring used. The writer has observed that carded peeler 2/lo's and 2/40 s, cotton yarns, when dyed fast to scouring, would reg-ulariv alter in weight about as follows : One hundred pounds grey tei^ht would come back, m aniline black, no pounds ; logwood black Too pounds; dark green and dark cardinal, 99 pounds; navy blue and brown, 98 pounds; medium blue and dark slate, 95 pounds; light slate ^t\fXF^^' ^l *° 93 pounds. These yarns would be warm from the dye house and would take up something in moisture, but the pro- portions are interesting. ' ^ Customs of the Trade Regarding Accuracy of Spinning Etc In this country, there is no settled basis on which claims for diflFer- ^"fn.'" 'If^.^^^y.b^ b^s^d- True, there has not been much complaint made, and American spinners keep to the counts of their yarns very well ; and, of course, the bulk of the fine numbers used are spun abroad fr"e uent '" diflFerences in count are most expensive and most Southern-spun cottons will, presumably, not reel so correctly as Eastern cottons, on account of the difference in the quality of the labor It IS hard to say what the decision would be in a case at law on a nice question of count. Of course, no court would compel a man to COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE 63 accept 20's in place of 40's, but how if the yarn was 34's, or 36's, or ^^ The "custom of the trade" might be made the basis of a decision, but no well-accepted custom has yet grown up here. The nearest thing that might be said to approach a custom, is the opinion of many promi- nent yarn men that cotton yarns ought to be spun withm 3 per cent, ot their nominal count. This would make the limits for a 1/50 between ^^In^Snd, the matter is better settled, and a yarn there must not vary morl than 2/.% either way. In practice, one ^u^iber above and one below-for fine yarns-will be about the variation for singles and two numbers for two-ply. Spinners do not usually vary on he fine side, but if they do, and their weights are light, they may be required to make up the short weight. If, on the other hand, their yarn ;s coarser they may be made to give enough extra skeins to make up the proper yardage. ^, ._ . Raw Cotton Classifications. There are a great many gradings in raw cotton, as may be seen by the Cotton Exchange classifications, and each is at a different price. They vary in fineness, strength, length of staple, color, cleanliness, etc., etc Markets vary, and spinners try and make the lowest grade possible do 'for their work, and, as the price rises, they often are tempted to buy grades lower than is judicious. A very trifling reduction m quality may be just enough to make unsatisfactory yarn, and this, of course, is passed along to the weaver. j . j • -n It is also true that a great deal of the cotton used to-day m silk mills could be made of a lower grade of stock ^yithout detriment to either the quality or quantity of the product, though mills are naturally afraid to change from a tried and satisfactory article to an unknown one. • . ,./-.•• 4. The following list will show the various classifications in raw cot- ton at present recognized by the New York Cotton Exchange. The standard grade, upon which quotations are made, is that known as "Middling." NEW YORK COTTON EXCHANGE INSPECTION BUREAU. NEW YORK DIFFERENCES IN GRADE. Cents Fair i-50 on Strict Middling Fair 1.30 ,^ Middling Fair i-io ^^ Strict Good Middling 68 Fully Good Middling 57 Good Middling 46 ]] Barely Good Middling 35 64 COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE Strict Middling 24 " Fully Middling 12 " Middling Basis Barely Middling 17 off Strict Low Middling 35 ** Fully Low Middling cc " Low Middling go " Strict Good Ordinary 1.40 " Good Ordinary 2.15 " Strict Good Middling Tinged 35 on Good Middling Tinged Value of Mid. Strict Middling Tinged 15 off Middling Tinged 30 " Strict Low Middling Tinged 85 " Low Middling Tinged 2.00 " Middling Stained 90 " New York, November 20, 19 12. There can be no revision until February 5, 1913. COTTON YARNS IN SILK MANUFACTURE 65 About 75 per cent, of all the American cotton sold, will normally grade between Fully Good Middling and Strict Low Middling, inclu- sive, the proportion of the better grades produced being limited These qualities are all used by the ordinary yarn spinners, as are also the grades from Good Middling Tinged to Strict Low Middling Tinged, these tinged grades being unsuitable for certain purposes on account of their color, but otherwise good. Strict Good Middling Tinged is in the higher class, while Strict Good Ordinary and Good Ordinary are used for twines and similar purposes, and Low Middling Tinged and Middling Stained are ap- plied to very inferior uses. Fully Low Middling and Low Middling are poorer than what regular yarn spinners desire to handle. If a cotton broker buys a contract for a quantity of cotton, he may have delivered to him some of all or any of these grades, and he then tries to place them with his manufacturing clients according to their varying needs. In New York, these classification differences are determined three times a year. In New Orleans they change them constantly. The question as to the sufficiency or insufficiency of the price dif- ferences established between the various grades from time to time is a very debatable point. Sharp differences of opinion concerning it will prevail, and the variations allowed, say, on the New Orleans Cot- ton Exchange, may be considerably different from those prevailing in New York. ** On a sale of raw cotton, the seller is permitted to deliver grades above or below the grade contracted for, by paying the difference in price, as established at the time by the Exchange If good spinnable cotton is scarce, the manufacturer may have to accept against his contracts, lower grades which may be very un- satisfactory regardless of the allowance for difference m grade. About these different qualities of cotton, silk manufacturers know little and probably care less. They speak glibly of peeler, Egyptian, and Sea Island cottons, and of carded and combed yams, and that is about all They know that for cotton-backs a combed, or double- combed, yarn is needed for light colors-as being free from much dirt or speck, while carded, or double carded, yarn will answer for the dark shades, and for blacks a distinctly cheaper yarn will answer. Sea Island Cotton. There is a good deal of cotton sold as Sea Island, that is really from the Sea Islands, but which, from seed and from cultivation, is away below what its quality should be ; and there is an immense amount of yarn sold as Sea Island, the cotton in which never saw that region, though probably a good deal of it is grown from Sea Island seed, planted somewhere else. . , , , • This Sea Island seed has also been extensively planted in upper Egypt, making a white Egyptian cotton of very satisfactory char- acter. Some splendid cotton from Sea Island seed is now grown m Barbadoes— second to none in the world. The average white American cotton loses, in waxy products, etc., in bleaching, about 3 per cent., while the regular yellow Egyptian cotton will lose about 7 per cent. Allowance for Tubes, Great quantities of yarn are bought on paper tubes for weaving purposes, and it is customary to charge the tubes in as yam. The finer counts are generally wound into smaller cops, and on them the tare to be figured on, as represented by the weight of the tubes, is about 4 per cent., while, in the coarser sizes, the tubes will probably amount to about 7 per cent., and will often weigh i or 2 per cent, in excess of this. This allowance for tare is very frequently overiooked. If cops are to remain long in storage they should be kept in a properly moist place, but if stored in any naturally very dry place some means of humidifying the air should be adopted, or else there will be heavy waste in the weaving, from the dried, and consequently loose, yarn being knocked off the tubes. 66 COTTON YARNS IN SIL K MANUFACTURE Length and Diameter of the Cotton Staple. From the book, entitled "Cotton," by C. M. Burkett and C H. Poe C1006). I quote the following figures as to the length and diameter, in mches, of the fibre of certain cottons, stated to have been arranged by "Evans." Variety Av. Length Av. Diameter of Staple of Staple Sea Island 1.61 .000640 New Orleans 1.02 .000775 Texas 1.02 .000763 Upland 93 .000763 Egyptian 141 .000655 Native Indian 89 .000844 Because cotton is a cheaper material than silk is no reason why it should not be as accurately tested, and its attributes as carefully studied. By careful attention to this end of the business, much loss and waste may be avoided and profits substantially increased. ^ ) VII SHOULD A MILL DO ITS OWN THROWING? Manufacturers, as a class, are apt to believe that the usual prices they have to pay for throwing are excessive; that deliveries are un- necessarily slow; that too much waste is made in the process; and, finally, that the work is none too well done. These complaints, and many others, are made to throwsters by people who know little or nothing about the processes of throwing, and many of these manufacturers are convinced that it would be a good thing for them if they did their own throwing. Let us consider what advantages they would expect to gain, and then see how likely they are to attain them. Advantages Hoped For. They feel sure that a heavy reduction in cost is to be effected, and look forward to a net saving of anywhere from 10 to 40 per cent.; that they will get their throwing done just when they need it and as they need it ; that they will get their lots through quicker ; that they will make much less waste ; and, lastly, that they will get much better work. It may be admitted at the start that there are instances where many or most of these advantages can be realized, and perhaps the instances may be numerous, but in very many cases not one of them will materialize. Relative Employment of Spindles and Looms. The demand for throwing fluctuates greatly, and it is apt to be either a feast or a famine. At the same time, the employment of spindles is generally steadier than the employment of looms. A throw- ster is likely to have in his outfit just as many spindles as his en- gines will turn, and if he wishes to add to them, with a view of in- 68 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING 69 creasing his product, he is at once confronted with the necessity of considerably enlarging his power plant — an extremely costly and time-consuming undertaking. He knows well that, long before he could get into action the motive power to drive new spindles, the pressing demand would be past, so he contents himself with doing the best that he can, and his customers have to wait more or less, and new business he has to decline. When a throwster makes an enlargement, therefore, it is more often done by his building and equipping an entirely new mill, perhaps in a new town where help has to be trained, and, as such a project requires much capital and much work, the throwster is likely to make haste slowly. Not so the weaver. When his goods are in active request, and he believes he sees a steady demand for some time to come, he thinks little of buying another fifty or hundred looms, and, if he has no space to spare, he will install them in rented premises and will have them turning out goods in short order. He expects, of course, to get silk thrown for these new looms by simply calling for it, and, as other mills are in similar case, there is quickly created an excessive demand for throwing with no new spindles to supply it. Thus it is that the installation of spindles lags behind the installa- tion of looms, and the throwster is consequently in a more independent position than the weaver. Also, if broad silk weaving is dull, rib- bons may be good, or vice versa, and from one or the other the throw- ster will get work. The Different Operations in Throwing. The operations of throwing cover the opening, weighing, and ex- amining of the silk; the opening of the skeins and the soaking, fol- lowed by the wringing out of the water; the unfolding of the damp skeins and the rubbing of the gums where it is deemed necessary; the drying and the allowing the silk to regain its natural moisture; then follow, for organzine, the winding, first spinning, doubling, sec- ond spinning, reeling, stitching of the skeins, examining, bundling, packing, and shipping. For the tram there is, of course, only one spinning. It will be seen from the above that there are many operations to be attended to. Spinning Necessary for Organzine. The work which takes the larger part of the power used, and which requires a great number of expensive spinning spindles, is the spin- ning (or twisting) of the organzine. If organzine is to be thrown with 16 turns of twist per inch in the single, and 14 turns of reverse twist when two ends are doubled together, it follows that the twist in each inch of the raw single thread (if no allowance be made for take up in twist), will be 16 turns, plus one-half of 14 turns, equal to 7, or 23 turns of twist per inch in all. Few manufacturers realize what this twisting means. How many know that a single pound of 13-15 denier silk, averaging 14 denier s, will measure about 319,000 yards, a length of over 181 miles? A pound of such silk would give a continuous thread reaching from New York to Philadelphia and back. Now, when 23 turns have to be put into every inch of this great length, we reach the enormous total of over 264,000,000 turns of twist in one pound of 13-15 denier organzine. A spinning spindle, running 10,000 turns a minute, for 55 hours a week, without stopping an instant for any cause, would require 8 weeks, even at this great speed, to twist up a single pound. Hence it is that great power and many spinning spindles are re- quired in the throwing of organzine. Questions Affecting Location. Bearing such facts in mind, the manufacturer begins to lay his plans. In his mill buildings he will probably have little unoccupied space and, of course, will have no spare margin of power sufficient for the throwing. New buildings must therefore be erected, and suit- able power producing equipment provided. Where shall these installa- tions be made ? Allowing that land be available, one would naturally wish to build the throwing mill beside the weaving mill, where there would be great economy in management, saving of transportation, better supervision, etc. Here, however, one is confronted by a serious difficulty. Weav- ing is a high branch of the textile art, as are most of the preparatory processes, warping, twisting, etc. The wages paid are in accordance, and it takes many years to produce first-class workers in these fields. The operations of throwing, however, are more easily and quickly learned, and the degree of skill required is far lower. Therefore, the relative price that such work should command is much less. Considerations Regarding Labor. If you have the throwing mill beside, or near to, the weaving mill, all the operatives in the former will think themselves very hardly used if they do not get about as much wages as the latter, and they are therefore in a chronic state of discontent, and are all the time drift- ing away whenever they can get a job in one of the weaving mills in the vicinity. Then, in order to hold the help, it is often neces- sary to pay the hard-silk workers nearly as much money as the dyed- silk workers, a sum far higher than should be the case, and which makes the cost of the throwing very dear, labor of course being the chief element which enters into its cost. Thus, it may be necessary to look for a location in some town that may be free from this objection, and so some of the expected benefits must be sacrificed at the outset. Also, when the location se- ! 70 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING lected is at a distance from the parent mill, everything will depend upon the faithfulness and capacity of the manager selected for the post, and such a man it is not easy to find. Whatever location is selected, one thing should be positively as- sured and that is a full and constant supply of female labor. Such a condition may exist in a small town for a time, but when other industries come to the place every one is left shorthanded, and the price of the labor is bid up, for there is no growth of population to give the supply needed. Therefore, large towns or cities of good size, which are growing rapidly would seem to be the most favorable locations for this end. In such places, the price that suitable labor costs will, m the long run, be probably not much greater than in country villages, and where he p is plenty a full product can be got. This help, in any case, would need to be trained, and from the time a mill of fair size was started up it would likely be six to twelve months, according to circumstances, before a full and perfect output could be counted on. It is very undesirable to locate a throwing plant near silk weav- ing mills, for the reason already stated, nor is it desirable to get near any other textile works, thread works, or any establishments in fact where female labor of a higher grade, and consequently earning higher wages is employed. A location, however, in those parts of a city where the industries employ principally male labor, such as iron-works, tanneries, machine-shops, silver manufacturing, lumber mills, etc might be advantageous, for in the families of these male workers would be many unemployed girls who would be glad to get work in a throw- ing mill where they could earn wages equal to, or better than what they would make as shop girls or servants. If the popu ation in the vicinity was fairly dense, most of the help might live within walking distance of the mill, and the saving of 60 cents a week m carfare is a consideration. Land, Buildings and Power. The cost of the land, in or about a town, will not, of course, be very cheap, but to be in the midst of a large laboring population far outweighs all other considerations. 1, r 1 It i! not easy to rent a suitable building, for even if one be found it will rarely have a sufficiently large power plant to do thenvork, and no one wants to install his own plant on some one else s property. Outside electric power, at the prices generally charged, is too ex- pensive to consider, and the throwster must make his own powen This being so, and the consumption of power being great, the location selected should be made with this point well in mind. Cheap coal is needed, and, if the mill has a railroad siding, the cost of hauling will be saved. Steam, gas or turbine engines may be used and a location near a stream from which water can be taken for the con- densers or scrubbers, is desirable. Natural-gas belts he too far away, SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING 71 and water powers are scarce and often not reliable. Oil for fuel is dear and has disadvantages. The erection of a mill demands that numerous points be well considered. A building of one story has many advantages, though, of course, it covers more ground, and it is undesirable to go hi^er than two stories. It may be of brick or of reinforced concrete. Ihe lighting, both natural and artificial, is of great importance Roots, skylights, floors, ventilation, heating, sanitation, and many other points are all problems in themselves. 1 i_ 1 • A matter of much moment is the question as to whether electric transmission of power, in whole or in part, will be economical under the circumstances, and if so what system, voltage, and kind of cur- rent should be used. , , • It is desirable that the buildings be laid out so that there is a mini- mum of handling of material as it advances from one process to an- other. Also that the transmission of the power from the engine-room to the work be as simple and direct as possible, and, again, that it be as easy as possible for the foreman to keep each part of the mill floor constantly under his eye. Other Matters of Moment. If there is no natural source of water supply, it may be necessary to sink a well and pump the water for the engine, etc., as city water generally costs so much as to make it expensive. n , r • A good system for moistening the air should be installed, tor it increases the quantity and improves the quality of the product. It may be thought desirable to put in a sprinkling plant, with pump etc., for fire protection, which would mean much added expense, and there may be a water tank, and stand pipe and hose, to provide. When the building is ready, the shafting and transmission ma- chinery must be installed. Careful attention to this important work will save much money in operation. Good and proper sized material, well erected, and with carefully aligned shafting and suitable sizes of pulleys and belting will be money well spent. Machinery and Hours of Operation. Then comes the throwing machinery, and the number of spindles of each sort to be provided will depend on the output of specific sizes, and of specific twists, which the mill is designed to produce. There is the question whether the mill will run during the day only, or night and day, and, if the latter, whether six nights a week or only five ; also whether, during the night, the organzine spinners alone will run, or if tram spinners or preparatory machinery will also be in operation. Another factor is the speed at which the frames can be run, which again depends on what degree of skill the workers have, how the qualities of the silk may be expected to average, and what experience may have ^^^ 72 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS TH ROWING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING 73 M II shown to be the highest speeds at which a good and economical product can be secured. Speeds of Machinery. With a high-class plant, kept in excellent condition, speeds such as the following are practicable. 1st time spinners 12,000 R.P.M. 8,000 9,000 9,000 6,000 2d time Doubler " W Combination " Tram " Winders-ave. of 175 yards per minute. Doublers vary much, but usually run slower than winders. Reel flies, 400 turns per minute. Organzine, after first spinning, may be doubled and twisted on the "down spinner," receiving about 3 turns of twist. It can then be given the rest of its twist on the second time spinner, speeded up to 10,000 r.p.m., and run without flyers. Power Taken in Spinning. The power needed for belt spinners running at 10,000 r.p.m. is usually upwards of iJ4 h.p. for each 100 spindles. For combination spinners, 100 spindles will require about 3 h.p. or over, with a speed of 8,500 r.p.m. The percentage that the actual output may be expected to bear to the theoretical must likewise be considered. Different Types of Machines. Then, what types of machinery shall be bought ? Shall the spinners be belt or band spinners ? Shall the spindles be of this or that type ; shall single-deck or double-deck frames be used; shall there be some doubler-spinners in the outfit ; or some of the types of spinners that de- liver completely thrown organzine from the one machine? What sort of winders shall be used; this or that make or style; single or double deck ? Shall the doublers be upright, or the old style ; high speed or not? Shall the tram spinners be used which double at the same time, or shall the usual single or double deckers be employed ? How many flies shall each reel have ? Finally, what are the best average speeds to run all these various machines at? Intelligent answers to these questions require sound judgment and much knowledge and experience, and on their proper answer the welfare of the enterprise will largely depend, to say nothing of the fact that the capital required will be much more or less according to the decisions arrived at. If tussahs are to be handled, a far larger proportion of winding spindles will be needed ; and if much crepe twist is required the spin- ning spindles must be enormously increased. Other Equipment Needed. Then come questions as to the styles of bobbins, spindles, swifts, etc., and the materials of which they shall be made. A large sum of money has to be locked up in bobbins alone. There is needed a hydro-extractor, a bundling press, soaking tanks, and a host of things required for the mill equipment from scales to oil tanks, or from fire pails to clocks. Office furniture and equipment must be provided, as well as partitions, bins, shelving and a current stock of the supplies that the mill consumes, soap, oil, banding, paper, belting, and a score of other things. Capital Invested and Operating Costs. The outlay of capital that will confront any manufacturer who con- templates erecting his own throwing mill is large. He must arrange for land, buildings, a very expensive power outfit, and a well and pump, heating plant, lighting plant, humidifyer system, transmission machin- ery (with or without motors), belting, the throwing machinery proper, the accessory equipment of the machinery, the general mill equipment, the furniture and fixtures, and the current stock of mill supplies. To this must be added the architect's and consulting engineer's fees, the organization expenses, and the loss that the mill will make at the out- set while itie help is being trained. In the operating of the plant the great item of cost, as already stated, is the labor. Then there is the cost of the management, and the office and other salaries. Then the power, light, and heat expenses. There is interest, insurance, taxes, transportation charges, deprecia- tion of machinery and buildings, repairs to machinery and buildings, office expenses, traveling, a long list of supplies constantly being con- sumed, and many sundry expenses. Conditions Necessary for Profitable Operation. For any mill of moderate size, say up to 300 looms, the throwing of Its o\vn silk could hardly be specially profitable in any event. In larger mills, if the business were thoroughly understood and well man- aged, there might be a respectable profit in doing this work, if the department could be kept running full continuously. Should there be slack work, which is a condition that might arise at any time, or should the demand for goods take such a turn that more raw-silk, spun-silk, cotton or other yarns would go into their manufacture, and less thrown-silk, then the throwing branch, running with a limited output, would probably be found to be making no money or, more likely, would be falling behind its expenses. It is not a bad plan, however, when a large mill is arranging to ao Its own throwing, to put up a plant that will only take care of nait, or at most two-thirds, of the regular throwing required, the re- mainder of the work being given to outside throwsters 74 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING The result will be that the throwing department can then be run full, probably all the time, and consequently at the maxnnum of efficiency. Some* throwsters will say that they would not desire the business of a mill where the work coming to them would be cut off, in whole or in part, whenever business got slack, but if some mills would not take the work many others would, and an arrangement of this sort will be found to be of very great advantage. Serious Risks to be Taken. A manufacturer, unskilled in the throwing art, has a formidable task before him, and, if he undertakes it, at every step he will have to rely on what some one else tells him. Should he be ill advised, or un- fortunate enough to commit the care of the throwing mill to a poor manager, he will find that he has locked up a small fortune of capital, is making more waste, poorer work, and at a higher cost than what he could obtain from any respectable commission throwster. By continuing to have his work done outside, he need only send to be thrown what he wants for his current requirements. Should he have a hurry call for a lot of goods, he could send some bales to each of several throwsters and accumulate a good stock quickly. He can also guard himself from bad work and excessive waste by a free use of the Conditioning House facilities. Finally, by putting his money into looms, if he has proper capital to operate them, he is likely to make much more money in this field that he does know, than by trying to exploit the throwing end of the business, a field that he does not know. Market Prices for Throwing. In this connection, a few words concerning the ordinary market prices for throwing may not be out of place, and these prices will vary widely at times. The charges made by first-class concerns who do good throwing, and who keep the waste down to a minimum, may vary from a basis of, say, about 57J^ cents a pound for 2 thread, 13/15 denier organzme, and, say, about 27 J4 cents a pound for 4 thread tram, when business is very depressed, to around 72}^ cents and 35 cents respectively when business is good and prices high. Figures as low as 471^ cents for the organzine and 25 cents for the tram may be quoted by many firms in bad times under the stress of competition. As such prices will usually shew a loss to the throwster, the manu- facturer, who is so ill advised as to be willing to risk his silk with any concern making such irrationally low prices, should see to it that every pound, both raw and thrown, is tested at the Conditioning House both for weight and for boil-off so that he may know how much of his silk SHOULD A MILL DO ITS THROWING 75 t( ti (( €( Regular Tram, 2 Thread 37j^c. 3 " 32>^c. 4 ;; 32>^c. 5 30c. 30c. alb. « « he IS actually getting back. Coupled with this should be tests to shew whether or not any insoluble materials had been added by the throwster to the soaking bath. If the deliveries of every low-priced throwster were checked off in this fashion, there would be very few such impossible prices quoted. Approximate Prices and Wastages to Use in Calculations. For the ordinary purposes of cost calculating, the following figures may be taken as representing reasonably low average prices for good throwing, and reasonably low wastages. Regular Organzine. 10/12 Denier 85c. a lb. 11/13 " 80c. " 12/14 " 70c. 13/15 " 65c. 14/16 " 60c. 16/18 " 55c. For 3 thd. organ, add 5c. a lb. For Cantons add 5c. a lb. [Silks, such as Tsatlees, Kakedas, Tussahs, etc., vary greatly, and throwing prices vary also.] 4 thread, 70 turn, hard-twist Canton Tram $1.25 a lb. 3 thread, 70 turn, hard-twist Canton Tram $1.50 a lb. Singles, 13/15, 60 turns, hard-twist raw-silk. .$2.00 a lb. Grenadine twists average from $1.25 to $2.25. Wastages to he expected. Regular organzine i j^ to Regular tram i^ to Canton tram ^y^ to Crack tussah chops Lower grade Press-packed tussahs yy^ to Crepe twists (except Cantons) 2 to Tsatlees o to [As wages, which have been low, in the silk-throwing^ centres are steadily advancing, higher prices for throwing are likely to prevail in the future.] ^ *- 2J^% 3 % 6 % 5 % 10 % 3 % 5 % SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING 77 VIII SHOULD A MILL DO ITS OWN SILK PRINTING? All fancy-goods mills, or mills that make a portion of their product in fancies, may, from time to time, require to brmg forward Imes of surface or warp print goods. . . There are not many concerns on the market who do a commission printing business, and much of the time there is httle enough work for any of them. Delay in Deliveries of Prints. When print effects come into vogue, lots of manufacturers take them up and look to these market printers to do the work, and of course/each manufacturer wants his work done in a hurry, ihe printer's, crowded with work, no doubt do the best they can bf that best is, at such times, far from being satisfactory to the bulk of the^r customers. The getting out of new patterns the making of the sam- ples and the bringing forward of the goods ordered, may each be delayed to an unbelievable extent, and a manufacturer may see the cream of the season's business lost to him, and may even be badly stuck with goods, late for delivery, that are cancelled. Damages to be Allowed For. Goods printed in the piece, as well as printed warps, are subject to a great many kinds of imperfections and damages in the process, and such damages can and do cause extremely heavy losses to the manufacturer. The printers have no relish for making good these big losses, and while thev will allow some claims, of course, yet thev are generally trivial compared with those not allowed. It is but fair to state that silk printing is a very technical difficult, and hazardous trade and it is only in the exceptional years that there is much money in it, and if the printer had to guarantee the absolute perfection of all the work he did, he would either have to double his prices or go into bankruptcy from the losses he would have to allow. Be this as it may, the manufacturer, who has to get his printing done outside, will often have occasion to feel anything but pleased at the service he receives, and he may sometimes think that it would be a good move to put in a printing plant of his own. Equipment Required for a Plant. It is the purpose of this article to point out what a manufacturer might have to provide in the way of plant and appliances for such work, and to outline briefly what the work consists of. The equipment for a fair-sized broad silk plant might consist of the following : Two presses, of eight colors each, with their equipment of endless rubber or felted-wool blankets, mandrels, color pans, color rollers, doctor blades, etc., and with special engines or motors to drive them ; a mandrel forcer for pushing the copper rollers onto the steel mandrels; a steaming kier, or "cottage," for steaming the printed goods to set the colors ; a well equipped drying room, or other cham- ber, for drying the goods after they pass from the press ; a measuring machine ; several take-up and let-off machines for rolling and unrolling the goods and grey cloths in the various stages; some dye jiggers; many vats, or tubs, for different uses such as for stripping the gum from the silk piece goods, washing the silks after the steaming process to rid them of their loose color, washing the huge amount of grey cloths, which are used as a backing for the silk while being printed, cleaning the color pans, etc., most of these tubs having suitable ap- paratus for revolving the goods in them; a large upright, or hori- zontal, can drying machine with many copper cylinders for drying the grey cloths, printed warps, and printed piece goods ; a large hydro- extractor ; a small one-color printing press and a small steaming kier, for experimental work; one large double- jacket copper kettle, with automatic mixer, for mixing and boiling the gums and starches used as a base with which to mix the colorings ; some smaller kettles of similar kind for color mixing; all necessary power transmission ma- chinery and belting; a large assortment of stone crocks, copper uten- sils, and vessels of various kinds ; a well equipped chemical laboratory ; a big stock of heavy cotton grey cloths, and cheese cloths; a large supply of colorings of all sorts, acids, and other chemicals, gums, starches, oils and what-not. It is also very desirable to have a tentering machine in this depart- ment, for fabrics dried and stretched on such a frame are markedly superior to those run over a can dryer, and are more regular in width. An effective machine of such a kind, however, is very expensive and uses up much space. A suitable one may cost from $3,000 to $6,000 and require a space 50 to 90 feet long, and perhaps 8 to 10 feet wide. 78 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING Cost of the Equipment, The cost for such an equipment as outlined might be from $12,000 to $20,000 and a space of 8,000 to 10,000 square feet of space should be sufficient to comfortably house it. With so many wet processes, it is desirable that part of the space occupied be on the ground floor. It is quite customary, however, to have the dry room on a floor above, and sometimes the drying is done in a tower built upwards through the roof. Storage of Rollers and Chemicals, A thoroughly dry and secure place should be arranged for the stor- age of the large stock of engraved copper rolls that has to be carried, and good arrangements for conveying them to and from the presses should be made, so that there will be little or no chance of damage to them. The supports of the floor they are kept on should be substantial, as they are very heavy. A safe and convenient storage place for the chemicals should be provided. Water, Sewerage, and Steam Supply. An ample supply of suitable and very clear water must be always available, and, if the water may come muddy at times, filters must be provided. Sewer connections should be direct and of generous size, so that there will be no risk of choking up. As a great deal of steam is used in the stripping, dyeing, steaming, drying cans, drying room, kettles, engines, etc., a boiler of good size must be employed and a considerable coal consumption figured on. Operations of Printing, Coming now to the processes of printing, they may be broadly divided into three operations: first, the preparation of the goods for printing ; second, the printing of the goods ; third, the steaming, wash- ing, and drying. If only dark shades are to be produced, and no delicate colors or whites are required, a very simple soap bath will strip oflf the gum in the goods and the work can be proceeded with ; if, however, the pat- tern consists of delicate shades, three, or more, separate soap baths, followed by a final alkaline bath and a rinsing, may be needed to get the silk sufficiently white. Should an absolute white be wanted, the silk will have to be bleached as well, which may be done with Sulphur- ous Acid, or better still with Peroxide of Hydrogen, or Peroxide of Sodium. In these processes, great care in the arrangement of the tubs and their mechanism, and in the handling of the goods, has to be taken to avoid the damages known as chafe marks, which are principally due SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING 79 to the displacement of the silk fibres when wet, and which, once made, are very difficult to remedy. The printing of silk can be accomplished in three ways : first, by printing a resist on the goods and dyeing them afterwards; second, by dyeing the goods first and discharging afterwards ; third, by printing the pattern on direct. Resist Printing, The first of these processes is used in two ways : A, by printing on a resist which, after the goods are dyed and steamed, will destroy the coloring matter and form a white; B, by printing on a resist which will prevent the fibre from taking up the color, wherever the resist is, when the pieces are dyed afterwards. In this case, the resist is composed of waxy substances, which must subsequently be dissolved out with benzine. The "B'* process is not to be recommended as it involves working with large quantities of the benzine, which, being highly inflammable, is very dangerous. Extract Printing, The second method of printing is very important, as in printing the discharge you can not only produce white but color effects. The selec- tion of the colors is simple and they are mixed with the discharge. The goods are first dyed in the ordinary way in the color that is wanted for the ground, and they are then dried, and the discharge is printed on them. After being again dried they are passed through the steam- ing apparatus, washed well, and finished. Direct Printing. The third and most usual method is the printing of the pattern direct upon the white cloth. In blotch printing, that is, when the ground is in solid color, it is very difficult on some fabrics to get a clear eflFect, and mottled grounds in such cases are common. By using the first or second process this trouble is overcome and an absolutely clear ground can be got. The engraved rollers, mounted on their mandrels, are arranged in the press in proper order and so that the impressions that they make will fit to a hair's breadth, and also so that the pressure given by each and all of them will be the same, and the same at both ends. ^ Under each of these rollers is a copper pan with the proper color- ing mixture in it for that roller. This color is conveyed to the en- graved roller by an intermediate wooden roller and the surplus color is scraped off the face of the engraved roller by the doctor blade, a long polished knife of steel, with 3: straight and true edge, which lies against it. Covering the big cylinder of the printing press, against which the rollers work, is a heavy endless rubber or woolen blanket which acts f 80 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING 81 as a cushion and which extends above the machine for a short distance and. passing over a roller, returns to it. , . , . . With the roll of goods to be printed, there is also fed into the press a heavy cotton cloth which acts as a sort of blotting pad to take up the surplus color squeezed through the silk. After leaving the ma- chine these cloths separate, the cotton being led to a rolling machine where it is rolled up for use again or, if necessary, it is then sent to be washed out. The silk passes at once to the dry room and it is dry before it emerges. . To set up a pattern in a press, adjust the rolls to a nicety, put in the colorings and test everything to see that all is right, may take the printer and his assistant half a day or more, even if only a single sample is to be made, while a big length of goods to be printed may be run through in five minutes, so the speed at which a press can be run has but little to do with its product. .• 1. * In printing silks, it is necessary not to dry them at too high a tem- perature, and also to leave the pieces, after drying, for a time before they are steamed. The Steaming Process, The silk is now taken to the steaming kier where it is put in, hang- ing in festoons from sticks at the top. When warps have been printed, they are accompanied in their passage with an equal length of cheese cloth and this envelops and protects them during the steaming, etc. The steam should be live steam and at ordinary atmospheric pressure, and the goods, when entering the steaming apparatus, must be warm so that no steam may condense and drop on the goods, producing stain. The condensation of some steam in the kier must be expected, and the goods be carefully guarded against any drip. Most printers think it necessary to have 5 or 10 pounds of pressure when steaming the goods, but the. writer's experience is that if the door of the kier be just closed to, with some cotton or woolen material stopping the gap, so that only a little steam can escape, better results were obtained than when there was pressure. After steaming, the goods msut be carefully and thoroughly washed with a full supply of water sluicing the loose color away, in which case the white will remain clear, whereas, if the water did not run off freely or if too little were used, it would become colored from the dvestuflfs and would convey a distinct tinge of color to the white. The goods are now taken to the hydro-extractor and the water is whizzed out of them, and they are then dried on the hot cylmders of the can dryer or on the tentering frame. Should they require any finish or sizing it can be put on before the drying. Employees Required. The staff of such a department must include a first-rate color mixer, who, of course, should be a good chemist. Such men are very scarce and are rather expensive. Also a thoroughly competent printer not a cheap man either. The number of other employees will depend on the amount of work being done, and, while there will be quite a few of them, they will be mostly cheap men, though, if dyeing is to be done there should also be a dyer who knows his business. Each color mixer has his own experience and views as to colors and color makers, and, if a new color mixer is engaged, he will frequently be unable, or unwilling, to use more than a small part of the colors on hand and will want new ones ordered. . , -u u Much of his time, and much expensive material, will be spent in experimental work. He should therefore be required to put all sam- ples, and full formula for reproducing same, into a book, the property of his employers, so that if he should leave they will not lose the benefit of the experience that has been so acquired at their expense. Block Printing Facilities. It may also be desirable to have some block printing facilities in the department. For this purpose a specially constructed table, very true and level, is needed, a color box in which to ink the blocks, and a supply of pattern blocks, etc. j t u a These blocks can be, say, 8 to 12 inches square, are made of hard wood and the pattern work is edged with brass and stands out m relief' A good block printer will get through quite a yardage in a dav. It is 'economical to use blocks if orders are likely to run small and sometimes it is well to have roller patterns duplicated m blocks, so that samples and small duplicate orders can be brought forward quickly and cheaply in that way. It will be necessary, however, to have on the staff a man skilled at that work, though he may be used in other directions when there is no block printing to do. Copper Rollers and Their Cost. The cost of the copper rollers is a huge expense in a printing busi- ness The makers of such rollers charge for them 10 cents a pound above the price of ingot copper, and, when they are finally turned down till too thin for further use, or if scrapped for any other reason, the makers will take them back at the ruling price of ingot copper, if accompanied with an order for an equal quantity of pounds of new rollers on the above basis. . , , 1 A mill will carry a certain number of standard patterns always on hand, polka dots, rose buds, etc., and will always be engraving new patterns and turning off ones that are passe. , • , The engraving may be done by means of the pantograph and acid etching, or by the more expensive, and better, milling process. This work may cost from $8 to $20 a roller, without including the cost of the mills when they are used. The artist's sketches from which the designs are made, may cost, say, from $5 to $15 each. 82 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING A common size of roller will be 28 inches long and of a thickness that will give a weight of about 140 pounds per roller, and the num- ber of rollers to a pattern, running from one to eight, may be averaged as five. If, therefore, a mill had on hand the moderate number of one hun- dred patterns, the cost would figure as follows, taking copper at 15 cents a pound, which, plus 10 cents, would make the rollers cost 25 cents a pound. Five rollers per set, at 140 pounds each, equal 700 pounds, which at 25 cents a pound makes $175. To this add, say, $15 a roller for the engraving, making $75, and $10 for the sketch, and we thus have each pattern costing the average amount of $260. The one hundred patterns would thus represent an investment of $26,000, over and above the total cost of the plant. Capital That Must be Invested, A manufacturer, starting his own Silk Printing department on such lines as these, may consequently be confronted with a fixed investment of $40,000, more or less, in addition to his building, boiler plant, water supply, etc., and he will have an expensive staiT that he must carry (for his skilled people, at any rate, cannot be laid off whenever it suits him), and he must drag all the current expenses of the plant besides. Risky Business to Go Into. When prints are in active request, which is perhaps in one year out of five, or more, this is all right. Or a broad-silk manufacturer may get printing work from friendly ribbon manufacturers, or vice versa, to help out. But where is he when prints are not wanted? Sampling all the time and no orders but trivial ones dribbling in now and then, always hoping for an improvement, and always showing a smart loss at the end of each season. The department would do all right, of course, if the mill should keep it supplied with goods to print. If a couple of hundred looms were kept going, say, on foulards, which were regularly printed and sold, if it were possible to get out at a profit on them, then the doing of one's own printing might be a very safe and profitable enterprise. Any manufacturer, however, who goes into printing, and who is not prepared to give this department full and constant work of some kind, will probably find that he has a very large white elephant on his hands, and will wish that he had never gone into it. PRINTERS' PRICE LISTS. The following prices, which are some current quotations of one of the large concerns which do printing, will serve to shew how such work is charged for. Special prices may be made to meet special conditions, however. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS SILK PRINTING 83 PRICE LIST. SURFACE PRINTING. Width I Color Each Extra Color Habutais to 21" 5J/^c yic Foulards to 27" 6c >4c Grenadines to 36" 9c ^c Marquisettes to 40" 12c ic Charmeuse over 40" 15c ic Crepes de Chine over 40" 15c ic I Color 2 or ^ Color Multi-Color Mulls — to 27" 4c 4j^c 5c " —to 36" 5c 5J^c 7c " —to 40" 6c 6>^c 8c For Cotton and Tussah, or Cotton and Schappe goods, add ic extra. WARP PRINTING. Width I Color Each Extra Color Double Warp 2f 6c J^c Add 50% 36" 8c >4c " " 44" 9c . ic " " When only single warps are printed, J^c extra. Weighted warps printed at customers' risk. WATERPROOFING. Width, 21" Price, i^^c " 27" " 2}4c " 36" " 3C IX SHOULD A MILL DO ITS OWN FINISHING? This question is one with many sides. Silk finishing, as a business, is conducted on a large scale by various firms, and the work, on the whole, is done by them at reasonable rates and in a generally satis- factory manner. A manufacturer who may be wondering if he should or should not put in his own plant for finishing may well hesitate. Lack of Knowledge of the Processes. He may know little or nothing of the processes, and, if he should not get the right man for a foreman, his product might come on the market improperly finished and severe losses be entailed thereby. He is unaware of the value or amount of the machinery necessary, the space required, the power and heat needed, or the labor that must be employed. If goods are spoiled, there is no one on whom he can make reclamation. Advantages of Outside Finishing. The outside finisher is prepared to finish for him any fabric from taflfeta to moire antique, and, if his own product were varied, he could hardly expect to maintain a plant that would care for all the diflferent cloths that he might get out. The outside man, also, getting business from many sources, is likely to be much better informed as to the kind of finish that is going to be wanted for the season, and this guidance he would lack if he were doing his own work. He may feel, too, that, when getting his finishing done on commis- sion, he knows the exact cost of the work, and that it will be the same whether his output is large or small. Should he assume the respon- sibilities connected with doing his own work, he would have a natural fear that the occasional slack work that has to be looked for might turn an expected profit into an actual loss. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING 85 Considerations such as these are apt to make a man feel that he will be wise to leave well enough alone, and if he has any money to spare to put it into additional looms instead of into a finishmg plant. It is the purpose of this article to point out what a broad-silk manu- facturer has to consider if he desires to finish his own goods. It is not intended here to go into a detailed description of the machines, or of the work done by them, but simply to indicate their functions in a general way. Objects Aimed At in the Finishing. The results to be attained are the stiffening or softening of the goods the making of them thinner or fuller to the hand, the smooth- ing, stretching, polishing, singeing, moireing, embossing, etc etc. ac- cording to the requirements of the trade and the fashion of the day. Be it noted, also, that, as silks are finished dry, any imperfections oc- curring in the weaving or other previous processes will not be covered up or minimized by the finishing. Machinery and Processes Employed. To attain the desired results, various machines are needed, those in common use being the spray machine, quetsch, paper-drying machine, button breaker (upright and horizontal), knife breaker, cylindering ma- chines of different kinds (and which may be equipped with expand- ing rollers for stretching out the cloth to its full width and getting rid of wrinkles), calender, hydraulic press, singeing machine, polishing machine, brushing machine, tentering frame, sewing machine, folding and measuring machine, embossing machine, etc., etc. The spray machine, as its name indicates, is intended to spray the goods with a sizing mixture finely atomized. This sizing is composed of various materials, gums, glues, gelatines, waxes, starches or what not, each finisher having his own preparation and generally imagining that there is no other mixture equal to it. The "quetsch" derives its name from the German "quetschen," to squeeze, and is a machine in which the sizing from a trough can be applied to the goods by means of a series of rollers mounted one above the other. Goods that require excessive gumming, such as grenadines, may be finished "au mouiller," as it is called, in which case the fabric is com- pletely saturated with the sizing, the surplus size being squeezed out. This is accomplished by passing the goods, under pressure, between a pair of rollers, the lower one of which is revolving in a trough of size. The name is taken from the French "mouiller," meaning "to saturate." After the spraying, the goods, being damp, are rolled up with dry, hot paper, which dries the fabric but dampens the paper. This is where the paper-drying machine comes in, which dries out the paper and puts it in shape for use again. r 86 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING S? ill The spraying fills the air with a gummy vapor, and this process is, therefore, usually carried on in a room partitioned off. In this room a waterproof floor is needed, and provision has to be made for keeping the room pretty clear of steam. On account of the all-pervading gum, the ventilating and drainage of the spray room are often quite difficult to arrange satisfactorily. The goods, if gummed, after having been unrolled from the paper they are wound up with, will be found to be stiff and papery. To soften them, without robbing them of the dressing they have absorbed, is the function of the button breaker. The knife breaker accomplishes a similar object, and it also has a polishing effect on the fabric, but strips it of rather more dressing than does the button breaker. An excellent breaker, of recent design, is one in which the cloth passes between bars having deep spiral flutings (alternately right and left), which produce a breaking effect similar to the old fashioned hand breaking. Goods with plenty of silk in them are not usually much gummed, unless the fashion of the day demands some unnatural stiffness, or unless the weave be of a character where the threads are liable to slip, as gumming them would help to prevent this. The cheaper grades of goods are generally well sized, and this added thickness and stiff- ness serves to make them satisfactory for uses where otherwise they would not be acceptable. While it is necessary to add to the body of many goods by sizing them, so as to give a commercial article at a low price, yet the gumming generally detracts from the lustre and silkiness of the cloth. Silk goods also, are readily softened by heat and by pressure, and for these purposes cylindering machines, tuiles, calenders, presses, etc., are employed. The effect of heat and pressure is to make the fabric softer and more lustrous, but at the same time it loses much of its apparent fulness or hand. Cloths with plenty of silk in them can stand this and be greatly helped by it, but for poor or thin cloths it would not do, as it would make them too flimsy. In the calenders, the goods are squeezed between ponderous rollers of metal or paper, some of which rollers can be heated if desired. The movement of the rollers can be so arranged, if required, that a friction, or rubbing, can be given to the goods as they pass through. In the cylindering process, the cloth is run over hollow metal cylin- ders, either hot or cold, thus acquiring an added smoothness or lustre. There are machines with a combination of friction bars, heated cylinders, steam jets, and expanding rollers, specially designed for removing wrinkles and smoothing and lustreing the goods, which are known as smoothing machines. The "tuile" imparts the same finish as a hot ironing. Its rnain feature is a hollow steel cylinder, steam heated, enclosed in a specially woven blanket cover, and which revolves in a sort of iron cradle or hollow (being the upper part of the hollow base of the machine), which also is heated from the inside by steam. The cylinder carries the fabric with it, and irons it against the pol- ished surface of the hollow, or cradle, in which it rests. Tuile is the French word for tile, or the hollow gutter tile, sugges- tive of the deep hollow in which the blanketed cylinder revolves. Everyone is familiar with the hydraulic press, its ponderous char- acter, the enormous power it exerts, and its hollow, steam-heated plates. Such a machine needs a very solid foundation, and is usually erected on a basement floor, though it may pass up through the floor above. If put on any floor above the basement, most substantial support must be provided. Goods in such a press can be given either a hot or cold treatment. The advantage which such presses are believed by many to possess, over any machines of a rotary character, is that the goods can remain under pressure for such a length of time that the finish given acquires a permanence that it might otherwise not attain. Screw presses, driven by power, can also be used and are fairly effective if well mounted, but the hydraulic press is much the best. Calenders and presses, be it noted, are not only very heavy, but are very expensive machines. For umbrella silks, good polishing is necessary, and, in fact, it improves nearly all fabrics. The machines which give the best results in this work are expensive, and the older types take up considerable room and give a very limited output. Some polishing machines of recent construction are much more economical of space, and will give a very satisfactory output of well polished goods, 2,000 yards a day, of certain fabrics, being polished. To some fabrics, a fairly satisfactory polish can be given by a steel blade or edge, set where the reed should be in a loom, and over which the goods are passed, back downwards, while the machine runs at high speed. Cotton-back satins require a special treatment for filling up the backs and making them firm and smooth. This entails, among other apparatus, the use of a dryer which takes up much space and uses considerable steam. The application of the heavy dressing to the backs of these goods is known as "en regie" finishing. Regie is French for "rule," and the reference is to the scraper or rule which, by the height at which it IS set, governs the amount of the finish that is to be imparted to the goods. Some goods, on account of their hairy character, require to be smged, a process with some drawbacks to 'it, and which must be re- garded as a necessary evil and to be avoided if possible. A good tvpe of gas singeing machine will be needed for this purpose. II SHOULD A MILL DO lTSJlNmiWG_ 88 __ 'A";;:u;:;T;achi„e that pro^jy b^^^^^^^^^^^ ;: the tentering frame. Fh.s '^ "^f ^J; ^Jf^^'^J^rfd and which are still a fixed width, of goods that l^^^^^J^lf'f" d for thin and stretchy in a damp state. It '^PL'^^^iiyj^Pe? etc but other firmer and fabrics, such as crepes, chiffons gTenadmes etc ^^^^^^ ^-rtreii;re^t.^rr^achin.^^^^^ driven by special engines and ^av^ autom^tK cla^^^^^^^^ ^ St^r Kbo\^fs't°^;t S a^y Sg/roducti be handled woS justify the installation of such a machme. Moireing and Embossing. . ( .u^ The moireing, or watering, of -"^J^ ^ SC'^ed I't IS biisiness. Various sorts of calenders and PJ^^e the different moire and numerous devices are employed to P'°duce the ^^ effects that are demanded romt.n^e to t^e. Those _^ ^^^^ ^^^.^ bring out moire fabrics, when they may come i ^.^^ To^^S i^ant if^K^wTil^iirSl Pt^e winted, the fashion will be out again before they can get^ready ^^^ impressing There is also ^e process know ^^^.^ ^^^^^ ^^^^_. small pattern effects on the suriace oi ^"^ '. J^,. j^is process pressure and with heat ^aween-^^^^^^^ Plough is sometimes applied to sott, J™" S"" > , . • not many silk goods are f^.atedm this fashion ^ ^^^^ ^j^^ to I^S'S^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^''^ •""'^'"'^ ^^ silk fabrics. . ---jpj Also a brushing ma- A good railway sewing machine »« needed ais 6 m2. and a folding and measuring machme. A large nui Sen rollers and ifon mandrels have also to be provided. Supplies Required. . whit, paper fo, .h. «n...d.. 1" "''"Vli! r S«l. »[«' " i' "«*" cost from ten to fifteen cents a pound. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING 89 Analysis of Costs. It is very seldom that, in private finishing departments, any reliable information can be produced as to the actual costs of the different processes, or the cost of treating different fabrics. The following figures, showing the amount and cost of the sup- plies only, used in finishing 19 inch plain taffetas, were prepared by the writer some years ago, and may be of interest in this connection. SUPPLIES USED IN THE FINISHING OF 100 PIECES OF 19 INCH TAFFETA. Sizing material. 16.80 lbs. Glue @ loc $1.6800 8.00 lbs. Glycerine @ i6c 1.2800 2.40 lbs. Olive Oil @ 25c 6000 Cotton sewing thread (7,200 yds. per lb.), 195 yards =195/7200 lbs. @ $1.00 0270 Green Stitching Cotton, 2/4's, mercerized, 22.2 yards = 1/76 lbs. @ 80C 0106 100 Sheets, i8>4 x 36, Inside white book paper, = 13^ lbs. @ S^c 7906 100 Sheets, 19^^ x 24, Outside buff-and-white paper, = 25 7/16 lbs. @ 41^ c 1. 1460 150 Yds. Red Tape, @ $2.50 per 1,000 yds 3750 Total $59092 There is also something to be added for wear and tear of finishing paper, lap cloths, etc., and for water used for size, steam, and spray- room cleaning, as well as for the gas used in the calendering, and also something for transportation charges on the supplies. The additions will bring the cost up to a trifle over 6 cents per piece. Expenditures made in connection with such matters as power, heat- ing and lighting, could hardly be segregated for such a calculation. Floor Space and Power Needed. The floor space needed for a finishing plant is not excessive. It should be very well lighted both naturally and artificially. Four to five thousand square feet of area should be sufficient space to house a good plant suitable for finishing the product of from 500 to, perhaps, 1,000 broad silk looms, unless the output was of so diverse a char- acter as to make a large variety of special machinery necessary. The aggregate power that is annually consumed in a finishing plant is not large, as not many of the various machines will be in operation at the same time. Few of them, excepting calenders and presses, re- quire very much power to drive them. In spite of this, it is necessary to provide such a sufficient supply of power that, if most of the machines were in operation at once, there would be enough to go round. A unit 90 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING of from 20 to 30 horse-power would probably be sufficiently large, under any ordinary circumstances, to provide for the necessary power for such a plant as referred to above. Pipe connections, in various parts of the room, must be made for water, steam, gas, etc., and gas is often very freely used. Necessary Equipment and Its Cost. The cost of machinery equipment will vary widely. Should a mill, even a large one, be producing only goods of a simple and uniform character — fabrics, for example, that might only require gumming and breaking — then a very small amount of machinery would suffice; but should the product embrace a large variety of cloths, each needing some special treatment, it would follow that a whole lot of machines would be absolutely necessary. An individual manufacturer who finishes his own goods has, in this respect, an advantage over the job finisher, for, while the former has only to provide the exact number, kind, and width of machines needed to handle his own products, the latter has got to be prepared at all times to finish any and all kinds of goods that may be sent to him, and, consequently, he requires to have a much more diversified plant, and to employ an unduly large staff with a consequent loss in the cost of the labor. The cost of the finishing machinery for a mill with 500 to 1,000 looms, might amount to between $6,000 and $15,000, according to the nature of the work to be done, and provision would also have to be made for the transmission machinery, piping, blowers, ventilators, etc., and the small equipment — scales, measures, and so forth. The Kind of Foreman Needed. The foreman must be a man with good experience, and he should have both intelligence and judgment. He should be able to convey clearly his ideas and instructions to his assistants. Unless the plant is a very large and busy one, there is nothing to prevent his doing his full share of the manual work of the department by running a machine as the occasion requires. r • i_ j u When the goods come each day to the room to be finished, he should inspect them, or oversee their inspection, and should have them separated into groups such as light, average, and heavy, and he will then issue the necessary instructions as to the treatment to be accorded each group. One of the principal aims in good finishing is to correct, as far as possible, the unavoidable diflFerences in the pieces as they come from the looms, reducing somewhat the "hand" of those that are too heavy, and bringing up the weight of the light ones, and so securing a good degree of uniformity in the finished product. As the goods are being finished, the foreman must follow them up to see that they cor- respond closely to the standard samples to which he is working. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING 91 Overhead Charges. At the moderate rates charged by the commission finishers, it is apparent that a mill must be of fair size to warrant it in expecting to do its own work more cheaply, as, outside of the sinking of capital in the plant, there is the cost of the interest on same, the depreciation, rental value of space occupied, and salary of foreman, all of which amount to quite a charge on the business, and which goes right on whether the mill be running slack or not. When these, and other fixed charges, are added to the labor and expenses directly applied to the goods, it will generally be found that, for a medium to small sized mill, there is no profit, but rather a loss, in running such a plant. As to where the dividing line comes, the opinion seems to prevail among broad silk manufacturers that, for plants of about 300 looms or less, there is little or no saving to be made in doing one's own finishing, and that it is then better to have this work done outside by a public finisher. From about 400 looms and upward the case is different, as the unit cost for fixed charges is then greatly reduced. In installing the plant, the manufacturer will provide machinery that will finish the bulk of the fabrics he produces, and such occasional lines of goods as he may make that require special or difficult treatment, and of which the quantity is not large, he will have done outside. Advantages Over the Commission Finisher. The job finisher, in his general expense, has to include a large num- ber of items that are already carried by any manufacturer contemplating doing his own finishing. He must provide for partners' salaries, bad debts, for a wagon delivery service, for his business office and its ex- penses and for the salaries of the clerks, for one or more outside men or salesmen, and, of course, he also properly expects to make a profit on his work. These many and heavy expenses should all be saved when a mill doe§ its own finishing, and, if the plant is large and the output full and steady, the manufacturer may reasonably count that, with good manage- ment, and an experienced man in charge, he can cut the costs of his finishing from one-third to one-half by doing it himself. Other Advantages in Mill Finishing, He may also look forward to having his goods finished more quickly, and to the facilities which he will have for the speedy getting out of samples, sample pieces, and hurry orders, advantages of moment if realized. In addition, he can have a personal knowledge of the treatment his different fabrics are receiving, and has also the assurance that there is no chance of any special styles or fabrics that he is working on becom- ing public property before he has fairly got them on the market him- self. 92 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS FINISHING Character of Finish and Its Importance, I have reserved till the last the discussion of the most important ques- tion of all, a question beside which the nominal cost of the finishing sinks into insignificance, and that is, the character of the finish obtained. Good finishing department managers are very, very scarce, and about the only thing open for a manufacturer to do is to take a chance on some one and try him out, and then keep on trying till he gets a good man, if, indeed, he ever gets one. This is an expensive experience to have to go through, and, if he begins by hiring away from some one else a man of acknowledged standing, he would have to pay a much higher price than his business would warrant. It goes without saying that the big commission finishers, who must have the best men, do have them and are able and willing to pay them high prices, and do not let them get away from them. The public finisher also, knowing the latest market requirements, can turn out the finishes desired as soon as they are called for, and without expensive delays for experimenting. These difficulties have induced different manufacturers, who had installed their own finishing departments, but \vho constantly found themselves outclassed by the work of the public finishers, to abandon them. The difference between a first class finish and an inferior one will readily mean a difference of lo per cent, in the selling price of the goods, and what figure does a saving of half-a-cent a yard, in the cost of the work, cut in comparison with this? Let the Specialist Do the Finishing. Any one contemplating doing his own finishing may well consider whether the money that he would have to invest in the plant would not bring him in a better return if expended for looms, instead of plunging into a branch of the business that he has no knowledge of, saddling himself with the constant burden of finishing problems and difficulties, and, above all, running a serious risk of having his goods so indiffer- ently finished as not to command the market price that they otherwise should. Finishers' Price Lists. The large finishing establishments publish, from time to time, printed price lists of their charges. As it may be of interest, I am pre- senting herewith one of the price lists current at this writing — Janu- ary, 1913. It may be said, however, that large customers often get material reductions from such printed prices if their business, on par- ticular articles, is so considerable as to be attractive. FINISHERS' PRICE LIST Class of Goods Width Suryah <« 36" and 40" 26" and 27" 18" and 20" Satin Brocade Dress goods S. Lining 20" «« " *« «« t« 27» 36" and 40" 27" 20" 36" and 44 24" and 26" 42" and 44" 36" 24" and 26" 36" and 40" 24" 36" 24* 36" and 40" , 19" and 26" Gros Grain (( (( <( «« Foulard <( JJ. <{ Waterproof Tie Silk (Crefeld Fin) ti << (( tt ** ** All Silk tt H tt tl Fold and Paper per piece Tissue Paper tt tt Rubbing only Singeing only Napping 4* Moire Velours tt n tt tl tt t* tt Antique Velours (( tt tt tt it tt^ tt tt Moire Francaise ti it* (< tt tl ' tt Moire Reserve (Pekin) Moire Antique (All Silk) tt tt tt ft ti a tt tt tt tt Price n II tl (I tl iy2 Cents iy4 1 2 IX 1 2 11/2 - 3 21/2 " 2 3 21/2 " 2 11/2 - 25 V2 •* 1 1 20 15 10 4 5 6 8 10 6 7 8 lo 12 V4 " over 50" 42" and 44" 36" and less 18" and 22" 24" 26" and 27" 36" 44" 18" and 22" 24" 26" and 27" 36" 44" 18" 24" 27" 36" 18" to 24" 18" to 24" 24" to 30" 36" 44" liouisine Moire. Moire Soliel 20" to 24" For framing goods i/^c per yard will be charged. An extra charge for Doubling and rolling on boards or rollers will be made. No freight, express charges or discount will be allowed. 5 6 7 10 12 10 12 15 20 10 tl tl It II tl tl tt <( tt tt •<( it it tl It It it tt tt tl i( It (( tl It (OVER) .fpl*' (CONTINUED) FINISHERS' PRICE LIST Class of Goods Cotton-Back t( n t( <( Lining Sleeve Lining Knee Silk Lining Chiffon Taffeta Width Price Stripe or Fancy Taffeta Fancy Taffeta Millinery Taffeta Reg. Taffeta Umbrella Taffeta it ti it ii Messalines t< It (« Duchess (i n Peau de Cygne M «< Peau de Sole •( Satin Majestic it (( Armure (( ■•••>•••■■••••«■•• ••••••■••••••■••,,. ••..■•*, vOO lo<'18 •■«• ••••.«. •».••,... «79 M-» ^ 20-22 „ UM» 22-24 ~ 1.15 24-2i..-. 13$ 26-28 „ 1.50 28-30 165 TAILORING AND HATBAND DYES p. D Bri|*hts $ .50 "16 " 65 P. D. Soaples so 18-20 •• 65 20-22 •• 75 22-24 " :.::;::;: ::.::::..:::;:; m SOUPLES p. D . . * 25 16-18 Su|«ar Weighted ...„" '35 16-18 Tannin Weighted .., 35 18-20 20.22 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30. .45 SS .75 .90 1.10 125 TUSSAH Boil-off.. .. .. . 5 _2o Colors.., 50 Colors, full bleached .n VELVET DYES Spun or Scbappe Extra for bleacfaiog ....-^' S shades S-tO • 10-15 '• . OMBRES 15-20 •• 20-30 •• 30-40 " %3S .15 $.7S IM 1-25 1.S0 1.75 2.00 ,^ OMBRES WEIGHTED 14-16 Exfnrper lb 16-18 •• •• •• .S.2S J5 ALIZARINE DYE5 JO lbs. or over ^ ,„ Lc*s than 10 lbs . - * r"2 1.40 MOIRE FINISH, extra per lb.. Steam Stretching Kxtra Brilliant, or Metallic ..... 40 .06 40 BLACKS BardorOmn, per lb S.M P.O. 14-16.. 16-18. 18-20.. 20-22.. 2^24.. 24-26.. 26-28. 28 30.. 30-32.. 32-34.. 34-36. 36-40.. 40-44.. BRIGHTS P. D., 16-18.. 18-20.. 20-22.. 22-24.. 34-26.. 26-20.. 28-30.. 30-32.. 32-36. 36-40.. SPUN AND SCHAPPE $.45 40 .60 .70 40 .95 LIO 140 IM 1.40 140 1.60 140 ZOO $.45 .50 .60 .70 .85 IJOO 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.60 SPUN AND SILK TWIST "SPECIAL BLACK" 30.32.. 32-36... 36-40... 40-45.. 45-50... $1.70 145 XOO 2 35 2.S0 2.75 TUSSAH p. D. -. $ .45 16-18 Special Bine Black 55 ORGANZINE Oonble Dye, extra per ponod s <5 Triple Dye. ;.:: ' "25 TAILORING DYES ACID AND BURNING TEST P. D. Bright j 4, 14-16 ::;;:•; * -^ P. D. Sonple Sj 16-w " ■ rx 18-20 " *^ 20-22 " 22-24 " . . .7C .90 UMBRELLA DYES Bright, extra per lb 5 13 " * .15 Sonple, MOIRE FINISH. Bright, extra per lb . ,- Sonple. •• » " ....'.'.■.■.■■.■.■..■.■.■.■...■■ .25 Steam stretching per lb ac lixtra Brilliant or Metallic "."'Z. ['".....[.[[ .10 P. D. 18-20. 2022.. 22-26.. 26-28.. SOUPLES 28-30.. 30-32.. 32-36.. 36-40., 44-48 48-50. 50-56.. 56-60. $ .45 .50 .to .80 .90 LOO 1.05 1.20 1-40 1.60 140 1.90 2.25 2i0 TERMS — 30 days net or 1 for cash within 10 days per cent. Uiscoont ■■Ml SHOULD A MILL DO ITS_^YEING_ 98 '^^^^^^ average, however, is what they consider, and that average ^^ ^SJsCTprice Ust w^ch is prese-ed Je. one issued by one of the great silk dyers, under ^ate °f J«nejst 19^2^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ntwing that our manufacturer enjoy. this^o% dUcoun^^^^^^^^^ ing bill would then be $82,500 00 1«^ g^S^^^^^^ H^g of, say, 30 yelr. If, therefore he argues hat h« ^J"^!™^, ^,^ ^um of $22,- ^er cent, by doing his own dyeing an'0"n^ng decide that he should might have very incorrect ideas. Location for a Dye-house. supposing that tHe Hufac^ur^r conclu^^^^^^^ he will find at once that the ^"f '°" ° Ji^^^Llty of ^wa^ a suitable nating factor. He nius have a bount.fd simply o ^^^ .^^ ^^^^.^^^ :i:r-an5'th^:r:^t reVS 1" sUk dyeing is u^nbelievable. ^-^"^tlVeLtvSLJrcrain favored locali- Froni tinie >>"memor.al dyers have set^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^.^ ^^^ ^j,^ I5e£: S\r:orrprtucTrn,any such places is largely at- *^'^^^r ir^ethods of ^i^f^%:s:\^^^ efficiency, yet, none the 'es^; a ^uU ^^J^ "j,^^^';^, „;„ j, located, or qua non. If such a -^Pb >s to be foun^. .h ^^ ^^ can be conducted to it .l^i 1 a ok - unlikely to be the case, and problen, will be nn-.ch J'"^pl'fif '^ J"* %'^ f^'^ location. ihe manufacturer nuist look further ahew lor ^^ SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING 99 In case the water to be found at short distances below the surface is pure and suitable, these wells need not be deep, but if this upper flow is unsuitable, then expensive deep wells may have to be sunk. Deep well pumps, too, are sometimes very troublesome to keep in order, so it may be well to raise the water by pneumatic pressure, which is a method now much used. Impurities in Water. In connection with the water supply, extensive tanks or cisterns in which to permit the water to settle, when rains have made it turbid, are often provided. There may also be tankage needed in which to chemically treat waters that contain undesirable matters in solution, and filtering facilities may have to be provided on a large scale. The suspended matter in the water may be either organic or min- eral. Among the mineral elements frequently found in water are sihca, alumina, oxide of iron, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, sulphuric acid (in the form of sulphates of lime, etc.), chlorine, calcium carbon- ate, and carbonic acid, free, as well as combined in bicarbonates, etc. The presence of elements such as the above in the water, in appre- ciable quantity, may cause much trouble to the dyers, and means must often be employed for neutralizing them. Constant tests are neces- sary of the waters being used, as their condition frequently changes. Hardness of water is due principally to its containing salts of lime and magnesia, which, in conjunction with the fatty acids of soaps, form insoluble stearates, palmitates, oleates, etc., which are extremely ob- jectionable. Land, Buildings, Etc. Considerable land is required for dye-works' purposes, as a variety of buildings are necessary, mostly one-storied, and there should be rail- way trackage into the property, and considerable vard room for handling wagons and teams. Ample coal storage space is a requisite, and there should be proper stabling accommodations, and suitable and commodious storage houses for the various acids, mordanting or weighting materials, coloring substances, and chemicals, so largely required in dyeing operations, with proper arrangements for handhne them mechanically, as far as possible. Then, there are the dye-houses proper, and a diflFerent dye-house is usually provided for the black dyeing. The boiling-off, or stripping, d e-house ""^^ '" ^ separate building, or in a wing of the color Power and Steam Required. The boilers engines, and pumps must be housed in still other build- ings, and, while the power required is moderate, the demands on the u^T^ Y!u^\^^M^'''^\ ^^^^"'' everywhere, is needed in immense vol- ume and the boiler plant, and the piping connected therewith, will cost niucn money. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING lOI ! I yij< I 1 1 BHh I ■mi hi lOO cdoreHuk with which it might come m contact. The Operations of Skein Dyeing. It ma, be ^f^:^:^.^^^^^^^:^ = tions are «skem dyeing wihoutattem^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ .. nltlnk reSes he dye n tndfes usually weighing about 20 ent Asiatic silks, from about ^^J^^- ^, ^ During the throw- ^ZT.t'ZlStllZ!ST:^^'s^vl^o^ -Lde to the ^- Puf^ffi,r«i1k usually aggregating from 2 to 5 per cent. ""'Iflr the oSinTup of the bundlfs, and the weighing or countmg Alter tne oP^""^s "H , ^ ^ ^ operation in dyeing con- "^^IX^^^zi^^^o^^^^^^^^-' -'P' ^"'^ °"' '""^ P'°"" '""IhSt'TSd^^wSI the skeins for an hour or two in a hot^baliySh olive-03 so| f X^^^^^^^^ I fi-Tbath f?r n.ay also ^^ -^d the -co"d ^^^^^^^^^ ™ ^^^^^^, , ^nsed. the next lot. itie siiK, aner udv g ^olor and s known as bhould tne s"k ^av necessary mordants and coloring mat- ?e"s havr^^en^ ^d^slS^ani'^f^Tbeinl colored in this, has no more "^HdS fas'tn'okered, it is necessary to add the loading *° %M''^-t. tV^i?;^f^a^oTnV^anr:;taining considerable is said to have been weighted. Various Weighting Agents. Some, which have been largely employed at various tin^^, are sugar tannins of different sorts-gall, sumac, g^mb.er etc.-and «ats of various metals-tin, lead, iron, aluminium, etc. At the present time, °he salt of dn known ks stannic chloride is greatly used m the we.ght- „g o silk that is to be dyed into colors, and an .ron base js used m preparing the blue-black shade of black s.lk so generally used. The tin liquor used in weighting is expensive, and care must be ex- ercised not to waste any, and to recover all possible from that which has b^en used. It is prepared by dissolving tin metal, in granulated form, in a solution of muriatic acid, dangerous hydrochloric acid gases being given off during the process, for the carrying away of which special arrangements must be provided. The resulting solution is col- orless, except for the possible suggestion of a greenish tinge. The vats in which it is used have to be lined with lead, and the workmen who are in attendance use india-rubber gloves. This weighting agent can be bought in fluid form or in the form of crystals, soluble in water, but the big dyers prepare it for themselves. Loading the Silk. For each two ounces of weighting, the silk is given one pass through a tin bath. That is, when the boiled-off silk skeins are entered into the bath, and worked for the proper time, the 12 or 13 ounces of boiled-off silk remaining from the pound of thrown silk absorb about two ounces of the tin salt, which would then be known as 14 oz. weighting, the weighted silk still being without color. The silk is removed from the tin bath and wrung out, generally being whizzed in a hydro-extractor lined with hard rubber, and the expressed liquor is recovered and pumped back for further use. Then the skeins are washed, a good form of washing machine being one in which the silk is held at a stretch between two sets of perforated porcelain rollers, which are made to revolve slowly, and, while thus held, water is squirted through the skeins from the perforated rollers as well as being squirted against the skeins from other sources. The washing is most thorough, perfect rivers of water flowing through and over the skeins, the washing assisting in fixing the tin salt in the fibre, as well as preparing the silk for the next operation. Insufficient or faulty washing is the cause of much of the trouble that is experienced at times with weighted silks, for if, after the pro- cesses are finally completed, any free acid remain in the fibre, it will not take long for the silk to rot. When a dyer has not great quantities of water at his command, or when his water costs him appreciably, there is always a temptation to slight this washing, with a consequent risk of trouble for his customer. After the washing, the silk is wrung out and then entered in a bath of phosphate of soda. This treatment makes the silk once more receptive to the tin, and, after another washing, it is once more treated to a tin bath, taking on two ounces more of the metal and becoming now 14/16 oz. weight. Thus, alternate baths of tin and soda are employed, with thorough washings between, and the weight is raised 2 ounces at a time to 16/18 18/20, 20/22, 22/24 oz., etc. The limit of this weighting is determined by how much mechanical 'I 102 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING 103 I ,,m\ ; !! I ;'t: li^^T^iury the silk can stand in the enormous amount of working fw !t /xneriences in these continued processes, as well as by the pro- to if ^^ds are to stay sound on the shelf and m the garmerit, for a proif^eriod of time' Higher weight.ings than these are universally ^-'AT^r^^l^'^ri^^^^r. of a different and less de- ctriirtive character much higher weightmgs can there be got. '^'ThL whole matter of we^hting silk is a Wgh-classchenncal and me- chanical art and requires the most complete equipment, and the most experienced and conscientious n,anagement, if it ,s to be Properly done. •^O her treatments, and additional weightmg agents, are also em- r>loved in connection with the above described processes, but it is not icessa y to go .no them here. The tin and phosphate d.ps can also be ^iven bv the use of hydro-extractors instead of vats, with much ad- Cge'in SeTatter of cost and time, and lessening also the stress upon the silk special Dyeing Operations. Silk from which all of the gum has been discharged is designated as "bright" Tn dyeing -'souple'' silk, the major portion of the gum is aflowed to remafn m the fibre, which consequently gives ,t greater Smness, andTuk treated in this way has a characteristic touch, and has much less lustre than the "bright silk. , , , , , , . Tn ombre dyeing, a series of graduated shades of the same color is dyed soThat sh^ded'^kects can be produced. This work req"'^- "'"^ management to get the proper graduations, which may number from 5 S 40 Fait dye! are made from alizarine colors, which are expensive. ''"'iJthfd'ydnS bSuck, the mordanting agents used increase the weight consider^ably, the 12/13 oun«\°f .,b°i»'=tf„elw r"eoSteS on the first treatment as 16 oz., and such silk is frequently representea a^ bdng pu e!dye, because the color cannot be produced in any other way Be^this as it may, a pure-dye silk should be Puje silk fibre plu a neelicible weight of coloring matter, and if silk has had added to it 4 ounSn t": pound, of iron^ it is certainly a loaded si«< whether the weighting has been added to it incidentally or mtentionally. IS dyes are prepared for special purposes, and dyes for um- brella silks linings, hat bands, velvets, tailoring purposes, etc., etc., are Sarlv produced. Many classes of dye-stuflfs must be employed, acfording Cthe colors wanted, and the conditions to be met, and a dyer to be abreast of the times, must be a high-class chemist and colorist. Coloring and Finishing. After the weighting comes the coloring of the weighted silk, and the washing off and brightening of it. Where silk has been much worked, as in the case of heavily weighted blacks, it is apt to be harsh and dull, and a bath with oil and soap may be employed to render it supple and lustrous. The drying follows, which must be carefully and judiciously done. Other processes, having for their object the smoothing out and stretching of the skeins, and bringing up the lustre of the silk, are steam-stretching, lustreing, stringing, etc., after which the skeins are twisted into rolls, carefully bundled and packed, and are ready for shipping. Bleaching. When silk is to be dyed in light shades, or white, a bleaching process may be necessary. For this purpose, specially constructed brick cham- bers must be provided, in which the silk is exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur. A better and more permanent bleach is produced by the use of the peroxides of hydrogen and sodium, but these processes are very much more expensive than the sulphur bleaching. Dye-Hotise Equipment, The equipment of the dye-houses will include endless tubs and vats of copper, or of wood with copper or canvas lining, no iron being al- lowed to come in contact with the liquors. Lead-lined vats are needed for the tin liquors, and a large quantity of copper vessels and utensils must be supplied. To the vats will be carried, through suitable pipes, water, steam, boil-off liquors, or mordants, as required, and ample sewerage will be needed. Floors should be of special construction, channelled to drain off waste waters quickly, and covered by suitable gratings. Ventila- tion is important, and special arrangements for keeping the dye-houses clear of steam are desirable. In the power transmission, belts should be avoided where subject to damage from dampness and steam. Sewerage Difficulties. The question of sewerage is one of steadily growing importance. Year by year the objection on the part of the authorities to permitting dye-house wastes to run off into water courses is becoming more pro- nounced. It seems only a question of time till the burden of disposing; in some other way, of their waste waters will be thrown upon the dyers, and it will mean a serious additional expense to their business. Color Matching, and Lighting. Good lighting is imperative, and, where color matching is done, any artificial light used should approach as near to the quality of day- / I04 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING 105 I I'M 'Pi !(W 1 * B r ! '' , i 1 light as possible. A special room for color matching is needed so ar- rfnged as not to be subject to the influence of any reflected light Sometimes such rooms, and everything in them, are covered with bk^k cloth, and lighted by a skylight in the roof so as to avoid any trouble from reflected light. ^ .,. . ,r j j Other Facthhes Needed. The drying room must be of such construction and arrangement that the process proceeds with precision and regularity, as irregular drvine* will affect the colors. 1 • j r There must be a first-class laboratory, provided with every kind of equipment for testing and experimenting. . , ,. ^ .u,^ ^:i1 Vats for the storage of liquors, and pumps for circulating them will be needed. . rr ji j How Soap ts Handled, Soap is used on a large scale and the big establishments make their own, and this entails much tankage, and a considerable number of con- tainers on trucks, into which the liquid soap is run to solidify, and after it solidifies, the sides and ends of the containers can be removed and the soap cut up in bars and stored away to dry. The waste soap can also be recovered and worked up again, and though it is dark and streaked with all sorts of colors, it can be used for blacks. . Recovery of Iw. In great dye works, the waste waters from the washing machines, containing some of the tin, are led into a series of underground cis- terns, whfre the tin is precipitated with lime, and the precipitate is then dried and, by smelting it, the tin is recovered and used over again. Such economies are not practicable except for very large concerns A fire-proof silk vault is a requisite, and ample space must be al- lowed for the receiving and shipping of the silk. Special Machines. The labor of turning silk by hand is <^°^f^'^}>l'''^^^'}''\ir^, many machines that do this work satisfactorily, but they are rather infreauentlv used in silk dye-houses. . , • j •„ Spedal machinery, also' is built for dyeing cotton in skems and m cops Many of the other machines needed have a ready been referred toj^among them being the hydro-extractors, of which a number will be require . Methods of Water Extraction. Water mav be mechanically removed from textiles by wringing, squeezing, and hydro-extracting. Grothe is quoted as giving in his •'Appretu der Gewebe," 1882, page 616, a series of comparative tests It It (( (< n it Silk Yarns- « « « u of the amount of absorbed water removed from silks by these three agencies, as follows: (The hydro-extractors in these tests were run for 15 minutes.) * Silk piece goods — Wringing, 454% Squeezing, 714% Hydro-Extracting, 77'^7o Wringing, 44-5% Squeezing, 69.7% Hydro-Extracting, 75 • 5 % Moisture may also be removed by vacuum suction, and this is very suitable for light fabrics, and is quicker than hydro-extracting. Piece Dyeing and the Equipment Needed. When piece dyeing is to be undertaken, it has its own difficulties, and, while much of the equipment is similar to that needed for skein dyeing, it requires a lot of machinery suitable for handling goods in the piece, as well as a full equipment of finishing machinery for treat- ing them after they are colored. Thus, one would need vats for boiling-off, bleaching, and coloring, with dye- jigs and other arrangements for handling the pieces me- chanically ; dryers of the cylinder or can types, or drying cylinders in connection with steam pipes, or tentering frames ; apparatus for finish- ing cotton-back satins, nets, etc., and spreading or smoothing rolls and appliances. For the finishing, there will be needed spray machines ; paper dry- ers; cylinders; breakers; polishing, singeing, doubling, calendering, moireing, and folding and measuring machines. All this means a very costly equipment. The ease with which the goods can be damaged in piece dyeing is surprising. The cheap labor commonly employed is responsible, also, for many of these damages — "crows' feet,*' "chafe marks,'* torn sel- vages, etc. — which are so provoking and expensive to manufacturers. Facilities Required. Of course, every dye-house will not have or need all the equipment and facilities referred to here, but the big dyers do have them, and it is by the use of these facilities that they make whatever profit they do on their operations. The man who wants to dye his own silk must, in any event, provide most of them if he wants his work done right, and the mere recital of them shows the magnitude of the undertaking. io6 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING Hi**. Water Requirements. As to the quantity of water needed, it may be said that one of the great silk dye-houses, when dyeing 20,000 to 25,000 pounds of skein silk a day, consumes the almost incredible volume of 7,000,000 gallons of water in the processes. Attendant Risks and Drawbacks. Instead of effecting economies by doing one's own dyeing, the re- sult may be quite the reverse. There will be an expensive organiza- tion with high-priced chemical talent ; much apparatus and machinery standing at times; no one to fall back on for mistakes or damages; liability for injury to workmen ; new and vexing problems to take the time and thought of the firm away from other parts of their business; the sinking of large sums of capital which could be more profitably em- ployed elsewhere; and the inability to conduct many processes on a sufficiently large scale to be profitable. It must not be forgotten that the various branches of dyeing are looked after by specialists, and, to get the best results, specialists are absolutely necessary. The great commission dye-houses will have particularly trained men in charge of their various departments,— stripping, tin-weighting, coloring, black dyeing, etc., and so can rely always on high-class work. What private dye-house could afford to employ such a staff? In skein dyeing, a number of manufacturing firms who have ven- tured into that field, have, after a longer or shorter time, concluded that profits did not lie that way, and have given it up. As to piece dyeing, the experience of one great house that tried it and abandoned it. was that unless they were prepared to run their mills for the benefit of the dye-house, it was a losing proposition. What Experience Teaches. Therefore unless a manufacturer's business is very large, and of a fairly constant character, he had better leave dyeing alone ; and, in fact unless one of the partners or head men has been trained as a dyer and knows the trade well enough to manage the dye-house him- self 'it had better be left alone anyway. "Let the cobbler stick to his last" has always been good advice, and a good manager in the other departments of silk manufacture may make but a sorry figure when conducting what is practically a chemical works. Piece Dyers^ Price Lists. The figures presented herewith will shew what some of the large piece dyers are charging to-day for the dyeing of certain fabrics. SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING 107 PIECE DYERS' PRICE LIST FOR DYEING AND WEIGHTING CHIFFONS. VOILES, AND SIMILAR FABRICS. 1912-191S. Chiffon Finish 40-44 Chiflfon Finish 45-48 Elastic Ordinary 40-44 Elastic Ordinary 45-48 Voile Finish 40-44 Voile Finish 45-48 Dry Goods Finish 40-44 Dry Goods Finish 46-48 Neck Wear Finish 40-44 Neck Wear Finish 45-48 10-15% N. 40-44 10-15% N 45-48 15-30% A 40-44 15-30% A. 45-48 30-46% T 40-44 30-45% T 45-48 45-60% S 40-44 45-60% S 46-48 60-75% 1 40-44 60-71% 1 46-48 «7> bo o « Shi Ol-H OjQ ©a, SS3 O 4, a, _ o © ifi 1 c ' « V5 1^ 1 93 .i3 3 V 3 3 »^5 J. o gS ta O O 3 3% 3% 8H 3% 3% 3% 4 3% 3% 3% 3% 4 3% 4 4^ 3^ 3% 3% 3% 4 4 4% 4H 3% 3% 3% 4 4% 4% 4% 4% 'i^k 3% 3% 4 4% 4% 4% 4% 3% 4 4 4% 4% 4H 4% 6 3% 4 4 4% 4% 4% 4H 4% 4 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5 4 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5 4% 4% 4% 49i 5 4% 5 5^ 4 4% 4% 4% 5 6 6^ 6 4% 6 4% 6 5H 5% 6 6H ^% 6% 5 5% 6 6% 6^ ihk 5% 5% 5% 6 6% 6% 7 7% b% 6 6% 6% 6H 6% 7% 8^ 6 6% 6% 694 7% 7% 8% 9^ 6% 6% 6% 7 7% 7% 8% 9^ 6% 7% 7 7% 7% 7% 8% 994 7 7% 7% 7% 8 8 9 10 7% 8 7% 8^ 8H 8V^ 9% 1094 PIECE DYE PRICE LIST. Dyed and Finished. 24 inch C. B. Satins. Colors, 5c.; black, 4c. ; bleaching, extra. . J4c. 36 inch " " 7c. ; " 6c. For goods 16 to 25 lbs. per 100 yds. ; bleaching, extra, ic. For goods 16 to 25 lbs. per 100 yds.; cross dye, extra, ic. Z6 inch C. B. Satin. Tailoring black go. 36 inch " Imitation yarn dye gc. 36 inch Peau de Cygne. Light quality 6c. 36 inch Satin Liberty " " 6c. 40 inch " " " g^^* 23 inch Crepe de Chine Ar - . , ^ 4*'' 36 inch " g^. 40-44 inch " .'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'."! IOC." 24 inch Crepe Meteor -(, 40 inch " " .'.".'.'.■.■.■.■.■ .■.■.■.■ ICC.' (over) I I i« ■Mi'liftia I i}m n '•jW io8 SHOULD A MILL DO ITS DYEING (CONTINUED) 24 inch Cotton and Silk Bengaline 6c. 27 inch " " " 7^- 36 inch " " " IOC. 42 inch " " " I2C. 48 inch " " " 15c. 24 inch Silk and Wool Poplin oc. 27 inch " " " 7c. 36-40 in. " 43-45 in- " 46-48 in. " _ 36 inch Crepe Charmeuse ^c. .^ ft « « IOC. 40 •* ^2 inch Pongee, silk or schappe filled, Dyed 4C. ^2 inch " " " " Boiled off 3C. 36 inch " " " " Dyed 4/2C. 36 inch " « « « « « « 8c. 9c. IOC. Boiled off 3J^c. XI POWER TRANSMISSION IN TEXTILE MILLS. Many articles on the above subject have been appearing in the various technical publications, particularly with reference to electrical transmission, but, of those that the writer has seen, none have been written by textile manufacturers, and it seems to him that, in conse- quence, too great stress has been laid upon some points and not enough upon others. It is needless to say that a textile manufacturing establishment, hav- ing to meet, as it does, the keenest and fiercest competition, must be so organized as to produce the greatest number of properly made com- mercial units at the minimum cost per unit, and produce them on time. Any money, in reason, spent in the furtherance of this end, is money well spent, but any other expenditure, whether for beauty, convenience, novelty, pride or what not, must be considered with care and, at the best sparingly made, as active capital is so vital to a business that every dollar unnecessarily locked up is a drawback. Electric Transmission Problem. The introduction of electric transmission has solved many prob- lems and created many others. Like all other things, it has both ad- vantages and drawbacks, and, as every mill has different conditions to be met, each case must be decided on its merits, and the writer will at- tempt to point out some of the features to be considered. t Methods of Generating Power. Everyone is aware that, aside from water powers, the power trans- mitted electrically has first to be created by combustion. The power may be generated in internal combustion engines, using gas, gasoline, kerosene, or alcohol as fuel. WM IIO POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS III p>i m I: It may be produced by steam turbines, condensing or non-condens- ing, using high-pressure steam, superheated or otherwise. The most efficient form of prime mover that we have at present, from a fuel-consumption standpoint, is the gas engine, using producer- gas as a fuel. A gas-producer outfit, of fair size, will develop a horsepower from less than i lb. of anthracite pea or buckwheat coal, being about half the amount usually required for a high-class steam plant. If electric transmission is to be used, the high speed of a gas engine lends itself well to the purpose. The prime mover in most general use in textile mills is, however, the steam engine, driven by steam from horizontal tubular boilers, us- ing coal as a fuel, and it is with power outfits of this kind that com- parisons are here intended. Crude petroleum has, in the past, been largely experimented with, and considerably used as a fuel in place of coal, but its use has not proved as economical as was once hoped. Disadvantages and Advantages. To transform power into electrical form and then back again into useful work is attended with considerable expense, and there must, therefore, be equal or greater savings or advantages to warrant its employment. Suppose, for instance, a one-story spinning mill, with a line-shaft, running along one side, carrying pulleys which drive the spinning frames. Now, if the engine house extended out from the building about midway in the length of the shaft, and if an engine had its fly- wheel belted directly onto a pulley on the shaft, the loss in transmis- sion would be very slight. On the other hand, where scattered mill buildings have to be sup- plied with power from a central power-house, and it has to be con- veyed by rope or belt drives, the loss of power so entailed may be ex- treme. In such cases there will be endless heavy shafts, pulleys and belts, straight or crossed, to be driven, and a serious amount of space is taken up by the belt ways. Sometimes, in high-class mills, belt-towers have been built out from the mill buildings proper, and separate belts have been run from the power house to each floor, to avoid putting objectionable belt holes through the floors and to eliminate the belt slippage entailed by belting from floor to floor. In occasional instances, mill buildings have been grouped round the power house like the spokes of a wheel round the hub, and power has been carried to each by rope-drives. Rope Driving, Relatively few people in this country are familiar with the use and possibilities of rope-driving, and frequently, where such installations have been made, there have been complaints regarding them. This is often because those to whom the care of the rope-drive is committed know little about ropes, though thoroughly familiar with belt transmission, and unintentional neglect, leading to trouble, makes noticeable the fact that ropes require attention just as belts do. By means of ropes, power can be transmitted and subdivided in end- less ways, and at all angles, and with excellent efficiency. Comparison of Rope and Belt Drives. Criticism is sometimes heard about ropes stretching and needing resplicing, but it is also a fact that the ordinary grades of belting stretch, during their life, almost as much as good ropes, and need re- splicing quite as often, while failures under load are more frequent with belts than with ropes. It is regarded as good shop practice to figure that a first-class belt will stretch 6 per cent, during its life, and 40 per cent, of this during the first three months. The expense of the upkeep for transmission appliances is greatly affected by the duty placed upon them. It is shown that a grade of belting that will wear 5 years at 120 pounds radial load, would wear 15 years at 90 pounds, or 30 years at 70 pounds. It has also been stated that, comparing an ideal belt-drive from the prime mover to the main shaft (with a distance of about 50 feet be- tween centres), with an ideal rope-drive for the same purpose, the main- tenance of the belt-drive will cost 5 per cent, per annum, against 8 per cent, for the rope-drive. This would be when run under fair conditions, and when installed with low cost of maintenance as a special end in view. Against this must be set the fact that the first cost of the belt-drive, in such a case, will be about 50% greater than the cost of the rope- drive. When 6% interest is charged on this difference in cost, disregard- ing any provision for depreciation, it will be found that the charge for interest and maintenance on the belt-drive will be about 17^^% more than on the rope-drive. Longer distances between centres would give figures more favora- ble to ropes, and shorter distances would favor the belts. Another consideration is, that the scrap value of the worn-out rope is about 15% of the new cost, and of belt about 10%. Transmission by Gears. A common practice in English mills has been to carry the power from floor to floor of a building by vertical shafts, with bevel gears I ff 112 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS connecting with the line shafting on each floor, using, in any event, much power, even if the design, cutting, and alignment of the gears was perfect, and, if faulty in any of these respects, the waste of power would be excessive. This method insures regularity of speed in the line shafts on each floor, so long as the speed of the prime mover is constant. In all cases where, owing to the distance or the direction to which the power has to be transmitted, heavy initial expenditure would be en- tailed for the necessary appliances, as well as much waste of power in the process, the substitution of electrical transmission will be of the greatest advantage. Cost of Power. The cost of power in each mill will vary, depending on size, char- acter, and condition of plant, cost of coal and water, price of labor, etc., etc. As a fair approximation, it may be stated that, in silk-weaving mills of reasonable size, using good types of engines and boilers and run- ning non-condensing, employing good engineers and firemen, and pay- ing for anthracite No. i pea coal about $4 per gross ton delivered, the cost per brake horse power per annum may run from $45 to $55. This figure will include coal, water, oils, repairs and supplies, en- gineer and fireman, together with 6% interest on the total power plant investment, 10% depreciation on the boilers, engines, piping, etc., and 2^% depreciation on the power house and stack. It does not include anything for the general shafting, or steam pip- ing, through the mill, but stops at the main jack shaft. The power cost, above stated, will probably be found to represent from three-quarters to one and one-quarter per cent, of the total net cost of the product of the mill, though in small plants, or in those not operated with proper efficiency, it may rise to 2^%. On the other hand, in power plants of larger size, and thoroughly equipped, the cost may be brought down to $30, $25, or even lower, per horse power per annum (approximately 3,000 H. P. hours) ; and for large plants which run night and day, such as throwing mills working on organzine, considerably lower figures than the above are attainable. Such power plants, however, are exceptional in silk mill work, and we must consider the average plants, and as they actually are. In cotton mills, which conduct all the operations themselves from the raw cotton to the finished cloth, the cost of the power required is customarily assumed to be 6 per cent, of the total cost of the pro- duct, and, of this amount, 60 per cent, is consumed in the spinning alone. Advantages of Forced Draught. The employment of forced draught, with automatic regulation, may enable important fuel economies to be effected, and will allow of POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 113 proper draught being obtained when the size of the stack would otherwise have been insufficient. By the use of such a system, the writer was enabled to switch from No. I pea coal at $4.00 per gross ton delivered, to No. 3 buckwheat (fresh mined coal) at $2.40 per gross ton delivered, and used no greater weight of the latter than of the former. While it will be seen from the following record of tests made on these fuels that the No. 3 buckwheat had about 3% less calorific value than the No. i pea, yet the more complete combustion of the fine size under the forced draught fully oflFset this difference. Tests of Samples of Coal. Sample of Pea Coal contained 12,724 B. T. U. (British thermal units) per pound of coal. Ash, 12 per cent. Sample of No. 3 Buckwheat contained 12,332 B. T. U. per pound of coal. Ash, 15.3 per cent. Another sample of No. 3 Buckwheat contained 12,383 B. T. U. per pound of coal. Moisture 3-9 per cent. Volatile and combustible matter 6.1 Fixed carbon 75-5 Ash 14.5 " " Total 100.00 Questions Affecting Electrical Installations. Many questions arise when the subject of electric transmission is considered. There is the comparative cost of installation, or, if the mill be an old one, the cost of the necessary changes ; the question as to whether there will be a saving or a loss in power ; the liability to break-down, and the steadiness of the power ; the attendant expense for labor ; the liability for personal injury; the interchangeability of the power and the advantage of being able to run any part of the mill by itself ; the questions of fire hazard; of ability to place machinery wherever con- venient; of circulation of dust; of improvement in the quality of the product; of increase in production; and many other considerations. When an old mill is having electrical equipment installed, the subject is still more complicated, and in many cases it will be found advantageous to continue to drive, as usual, those parts of the plant that are in close relation to the prime mover, while, to the more re- mote parts, the power will be delivered electrically. If a power plant is being laid out, ab initium, and electric trans- mission is being arranged for, a generator capable of transforming at best efficiency all of the energy that the engine is capable of exerting should be supplied. The current may be direct or alternating; the * J 9 I'! ^ ':'i^' ^Hi?; I'' 114 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS speed and voltage are matters for consideration ; in an induction motor, different cycles or phases may be preferred; and the generator may be direct-connected or belted. Each mill building may have but one motor in it, the power being conveyed to other floors by belts; or there may be a motor on each floor; or a motor may be mounted on the end of each line shaft; or there may be a motor for each individual machine, or for groups of machines. Alternating or Direct Currents. The first question that arises is as to the character of the cur- rent. Alternating (or induction) current motors maintain a constant speed, corresponding with the engine and generator speeds. Direct- current motors are subject to some variation in speed due to the amount and shifting character of the loads, the degree to which the motor has been heated, etc. As constancy of speed in textile mills is very important, the alter- nating-current motor lends itself best to this work, while the fact that it has neither commutator nor brushes greatly simplifies its use. For use on individual looms, the alternating-current motor is the only one to be considered. Textile Printing Requirements. In the case of machines for textile printing, the direct-current motor has advantages. In this work, the operator must be able to vary the speed at will, and double-angle steam engines are largely used for the driving, the speed being controlled by the throttle. Direct-current motors can thus be used with special advantage for this purpose, and the methods provided for speed control are won- derfully sensitive and efficient. Questions Concerning Kinds of Currents. Where a diflferent kind of current from that supplied by the main generator is required, as for certain kinds of lighting, special gen- erators may be driven by motors. If direct-current motors are used, the change in their speed, due to heating up, is a matter to be reckoned with. In from two to four hours after starting, the speed may have grad- ually increased by 5 to 10 % as the motor has heated up, which would cause the machinery that was being driven to go too fast, or else it would have to be started too slow, so as to allow for the subsequent speeding-up. To correct this tendency, there has to be introduced into the field circuit a resistance box, or rheostat, which has to be frequently regu- lated to correct the increase in speed. The speed will also change with changes in voltage, and heavy loads POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 115 being thrown on or off the generator, as the work in the mill varies, will affect the speed of the motors. The commutators and brushes of direct-current generators and mo- tors also require attention, while alternating-current machines, which have no commutators, are free from this trouble. Brushes must be ad- justed to prevent sparking, and must be renewed from time to time, and commutators must be trued up on the lathe, at intervals. Voltage for Lighting. The voltage to be selected is a matter for careful consideration, and it should be such as to lend itself readily to whatever lighting system is to be adopted. Alternating currents can be transformed into any needed voltage. Direct current cannot, and so a voltage suitable for the lighting in- tended must be selected. Incandescent lamps are not usually made for voltages over 220, and are more generally used at 1 10 volts. Direct- current electricity may, therefore, be usefully employed with voltages of 1 10, 220, or 500. The latter is very satisfactory for power transmis- sion, on account of the much smaller sizes (and consequent lower cost) of the wiring required, and a rather better efficiency can be looked for from the apparatus than from the lower voltages. While arc lights can use 500 volt current, yet, in taking off incandescent lights, it is necessary to wire in series two 220 volt lamps, or four no volt lamps, a style of wiring sometimes objected to by Boards of Fire Underwriters, though for very flimsy reasons if the installation has been properly made. Still, if an inspection certificate is necessary to obtain insurance, this point must not be overlooked. Danger from Electrical Shock. It should also be remembered that the danger to life from a heavy electrical shock is greater in the case of alternating current than in the case of direct current. The effect of electrical shock will vary with the individual, the surface of contact, the amount and voltage of the current, and whether the current can pass freely through the person or not. There are therefore no exact rules that can be laid down, but it has been stated that alternating electric currents are dangerous above 500 volts and direct currents above 800 volts. Speeds of Generators and Motors. When the speeds at which generator and motors are to run is con- sidered, it is to be observed that, as the speed becomes slower, so does the size, and the consequent cost, increase. Thus, taking motors of fair size, say from 50 to 150 H. P., we would probably find them made for speeds of 200 to 300 R. P. M., 550 to 650 R. P. M., and 850 to 950 R. P. M. There is a considerable difference in size, and a distinct difference in cost, between each speed. ii6 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS I I r; i vi: the slowest ones being the biggest and dearest, and the fastest ones being the smallest and cheapest. Be it remarked, also, that the efficiency of the faster ones is somewhat the greater. In small motors, say from 5 H. P. down to J4 H. P., speeds ranging from 1,200 R. P. M., to 1,700 R. P. M., may be looked for, but, in these, alternatives in speeds are rarely offered. Direct-Connected or Belted Types. This brings us to the question as to whether the generator should be direct-connected or belted. If the former, its speed would, of course, be the same as that of the engine, which, even with a high-speed engine, could hardly be over 300 R. P. M., and engines built for connecting with generators cost more than belted types. Should there be space available, a belted generator may be found more desirable, as an engine running at 300 R. P. M., may be belted onto a dynamo speeded at 900 R. P. M., and a considerable saving in the cost of the generator be thus effected, though the cost of the belt and its upkeep must also be taken into consideration. Another consideration that tells somewhat in favor of the belted type is, that, should anything go wrong with a direct-connected gen- erator, it puts the engine out of business for several days or more, while repairs are being made, but, if the trouble occurs with a belted gen- erator, another one of similar character, whether new or second-hand, can nearly always be located in the market by the active use of the telephone, and it may be got promptly on the ground and into action while the damaged one is undergoing repairs, and an expensive shut down of the plant may thus be avoided. The chances of a breakdown, however, in a well designed and properly maintained power plant, whether electric or other transmission be used, are somewhat remote. Speeds of Prime Movers. The question of the speed of the generators is closely interlocked with the speed of the prime movers. Owing to its great speed, a steam turbine lends itself well to electric transmission. On the other hand, a turbine is not economical unless it runs condensing, and, if it does, there is no exhaust steam available for the heating. For turbine work, it is most important that the highest possible vacuum for the condensers be maintained, and 28 inches, or over, should be aimed at, as the efficiency will then be much greater. Turbo-generators are coming more and more into vogue, and, when better understood, are certain to be very widely used. High speed engines are specially useful for electrical transmission and, on account of their speed, much smaller and less costly generators can be used than would be the case with the slower speed engines, such as those of the Corliss type. POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 117 The latter are generally considered to be more economical, but the writer has no fault to find with high-speed types, having used engines of this character for many years, and he has found them very satisfac- tory from every standpoint, and extremely economical in the matter of upkeep. Incompetent, lazy, or careless engineers, are generally responsible for such complaints as may be made about high-speed engines, if built by first-class concerns. Boiler Pressures. A great many boilers are in service carrying but 80 or 90 lbs. of steam, such as was formerly customary, but practically all modern fire-tube boilers will carry at least 125 to 150 lbs., with higher pressures for water-tube boilers. Engine efficiency, also, is being much increased by the use of super- heated steam. Subdivision of Power. We now come to the question of the subdivision of the power. Take a three-story mill, for instance, requiring 30 H. P. to drive it. A 30 H. P. motor on the middle floor, belting up and down to the two other floors, would have a greater efficiency, and therefore con- sume less current, than would be the case if there were a 10 H P. motor on each floor, and the combined cost of the three 10 H. P. units would be much greater than the cost of the 30 H. P. one. Nevertheless, there are many reasons in favor of the separate motor for each floor. When a separate motor is provided for each line of shafting on a floor, it can be either belted on, or mounted on the end of the shaft. In the latter case, as the motor will generally have a much greater speed than is required for the shaft, it has to be geared down to the proper speed, and it is well to have the gears run in oil to reduce noise and friction. Again, motors may be directly applied to individual machines, and these machines may be ones that are intermittently running and stopping, as in the case of looms or finishing machinery, or those of a kind that run continuously and with little or no change of load, such as spinning frames. Machines may also be driven in groups, sufficiently small that, if there, is a motor failure, there will not be many units put out of action. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Drives. We will now consider some of the advantages and disadvantages to be reckoned with in these differing installations. Statements have been made in print that, with the individual motor system, buildings could be made of lighter construction, as the weight of the shafting, etc., and the drag of the belts, would be eliminated. The writer believes, though, that no prudent owner, or builder, would desire to weaken his structure for anv such reason, nor would the ► ••■t.. If' p.' !i H! 1 in : I ii8 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS underwriters favor such a plan. In those mills, however, where an outside belt tower conveys the power from the engine to the shafting on the different floors, thus eliminating any belt holes in the floors, the cost of such a structure could have been avoided. Losses from dripping oil, falling on raw material or finished prod- uct, have been spoken of as incidental to belt driving, though none but the most slovenly management would permit such a thing. Every bear- ing should be provided with a proper cup or can for catching the drip, if there be any. In the chances of injury to workpeople the argument is in favor of the motors, as people occasionally are killed or injured by being caught in the shafting or belting, while it is very rare to hear of a death in a mill from electric shock. The labor cost of inspection and upkeep will probably average about the same, for while, on the one hand, shafting and gearing must be oiled and kept clean, and belts dressed and taken up, yet, on the other hand, the motors and their wiring will also need proper and constant surveillance if trouble is to be avoided. The heat developed and radiated off, due to frictional losses, will be much more noticeable in the case of the motors than in the case of belting, even if the waste of power was equal in both cases. A large portion of the heat due to frictional losses in a belted outfit is devel- oped in belt ways and other spaces apart from the work rooms, while the heat lost in the shafting overhead rises to the ceiling and is not felt by the workers on the floor. Motors, however, are usually on the floor, and the heat given off by them is very sensible to those who are about. By using individual motors, some space required for the storage of change pulleys and spare shafting and hangers, will be saved, as well as the space required for jack shafts, belt ways, etc., but, on the other hand, some room will be needed for storing extra gears for changing speeds, as well as spare armatures and motors. The belting employed to drive machinery circulates dust, interferes with light, obstructs movement, and necessitates fairly high ceilings. The individual motor drive eliminates these objections. Motor driven machines may be placed in any part of any building, and arranged in any angle or in any position,— an immense advantage compared with the rigidity of the conditions under which shaft-driven machinery must be operated. Value of Electric Records. Another good feature about motor driving is that, by making tests with a recording watt meter, the exact amount of power being con- sumed by each machine is ascertained. By this means, when certain machines are using too great an amount of power, as compared with POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 119 others of the same kind, due to internal friction losses or other causes, the trouble is brought to light and steps can be taken for its correc- tion. The electrical records that can be taken of each individual machine will also shew the exact number of minutes per day that it has actually run, and just when, and for how long, the different stoppages have occurred. A careful study of these records is of extreme help to the management in locating the causes of diminished production. Such records act as an ever-present reporter of the movements of the work people. The power taken by each department can also be definitely known, and each can be charged with its exact share when the overhead charges are being apportioned. Electrical Units. It may be explained here that the watt is the unit of electrical out- put, 1000 watts being expressed as i kilowatt. The volt is the unit of electro-motive force, the ampere is the unit of electric current strength, and the ohm is the unit of resistance. In direct-current motor work, the amperage multiplied by the voltage gives the output in watts, 746 watts being the equivalent of one mechanical horse power. Flexibility of Electric Power. A great advantage given by electric transmission is that each floor can be operated separately, or independently from the rest of the plant, and they can be run overtime, or at nights, or on holidays, without hav- ing any other machinery turning in the mill. Should an accident occur, or should it be desired to stop the machinery on a floor for any other reason, it can be promptly done by simply throwing the switch. Again, should any one be furnishing power to a tenant, or buying power from a landlord, the exact amount to be paid for will be shown by the meter, and all controversies on the subject will be avoided. Outside Current and Its Cost. Furthermore, should the engine not be running, and should it be desirable or necessary to run one machine, one floor, or the whole mill, from the outside or town current, it can be so arranged. Whether it pays to make large use of the outside current or not will depend on its price. Many power companies pursue the shortsighted policy of charging rates for current that make it cheaper for the manufacturer to produce his own power. Such charges, even with the maximum discount for quantity used, will, in a number of instances known to the writer, amount to a rate equivalent to $90 per H. P. per annum. In other cases, a different policy is pursued and very attractive rates —perhaps as low as $25 per H. P. per annum, are made— prices much lower than the individual could produce it for himself. r f §m 1 1 1 20 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS Here, great advantages present themselves, as not only is the power very cheap, but the capital that would otherwise be sunk in the power plant can be used as working capital or put into productive machinery. Points of Vital 'Moment. We now reach the consideration of those more vital matters which will control the decision of the manufacturer, such as cost of installa- tion and upkeep, consumption of power, and improvement in the quality and quantity of the work done, and which the writer believes will, in the last analysis, tell strongly in favor of the individual motor to drive the individual machine. Where the question is one of belting a generator onto the engine or the main jack shaft, and installing a motor in each building to drive it, in place of erecting lines of heavy shafting, carrying great pulleys and huge belts, for transmitting the power from the engine to the dif- ferent buildings, it may well be that the electrical outfit may cost no more, or perhaps may cost less, than the mechanical equipment, besides possessing the other advantages previously alluded to. In the further subdivision of the power in each building, or on each floor, by using individual motors, the case is different, as the cost of such motors, with their wiring, switchboards, etc., will probably be much in excess of the cost of the line shafts, pulleys, hangers, and belts. As there is great variation in the size, character and price of such motors, as well as great differences in shafting layouts, it is impossible here to give proper comparisons of cost, but it is safe to state that, for the minor transmission, the motor installation cost will be substantially in excess of the cost of shafting and belting. This is not to assume that the cost is in any sense prohibitive, but to emphasize the fact that, on the difference in cost, an annual allowance of 6% interest and, s^y, 7J/2 % for depreciation, must be figured on, as well as to make clear that some extra capital must be sunk for the sake of securing substantial advantages in op>erating. Where electrical distribution of power is planned in an old mill, and where heavy and costly transmission apparatus has to be abandoned in favor of generators and motors, the relative cost will seem higher than in the case of a new installation. Power Lost in Transmission. Great claims of saving in power are made by over-enthusiastic writers on this subject, and comparisons are usually made with anti- quated plants. It is well known that a very large amount of power is required to run the transmission machinery of any mill, with none of the machines in operation. According to the arrangement of the buildings, the character of the equipment, the good or ill alignment of the shafting, and the tightness of the belts, this load will generally vary from 30% to 40% of the total power used when all the machinery is running. POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 121 We will assume that this averages 35% and, as a matter of fact, this is just about what may be normally looked for. Now, how does the individual motor drive compare with this ? The generator, whether direct-connected or belted, will not have a greater efficiency than 92%, so here we have a loss of 8%. The small motors, /4» 1/3 or }i H.P. will probably not average over 70% efficiency, and may be very much less. Then there is the drop in the line, or loss of power during its transmission through the network of wires, which in such work may amount to, say, 4%. The total of these losses compute to 38%, as against, say, 35% loss in shafting and belts. It must be observed that the indicator cards taken of the transmis- sion apparatus at "no load" may be misleading as to the power con- sumed that is not actually applied to work, as frictional losses in the shafting, etc., increase with the load. In a belt-driven plant the looms will not be in operation, in most cases, more than two-thirds of the time. That is, one-third of them will be always standing from one cause or another. The shafting losses for all of them go on just the same. \yith the individual motor equipment, when the looms stand, the frictional losses of their motors, etc., stop also, so here we have a sub- stantial advantage for the motors. Requirements for Loom Motors. Again, when a motor is provided for a loom, that motor must be able to take care of the heaviest work that that loom is likely to be called on to do, and therefore the average size of the motors provided must be greater than the average loads put upon the looms, so that, as regards the work of revolving the armatures, the electrically driven looms consume more power than they otherwise would. All this shows that no saving in power cost, or power consumed, is to be expected when an electric installation is projected, the power taken being much the same in both cases. For an electrically driven silk weaving plant, there should be motors totalling 40 to 50 H. P. for each 75 to 100 broad looms. The most important question, and the dominating one, is how the production is affected. Improvements in Motors. The use of induction motors, and improved contrivances in con- nection with them, has eliminated many difficulties that formerly pre- sented themselves in the direct driving of looms by motors. The loom can be started at speed, so that the shuttle is driven properly home into its box and the danger of a "smash" is obviated; devices have been introduced to take the shock off the loom or the motor when the loom "knocks off" ; the loom builders furnish looms arranged for motors to be attached to them, and the motors are so attached to the looms that they can be adjusted up or down, in a vertical direction, so as to al- W It !; 122 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS low the introduction of a larger or smaller intermediate gear with a consequent alteration in the speed. These gears may be enclosed in a locked metal boxing, and the changing of the gears and the consequent speed of the loom may be a matter of only two or three minutes. Such change pinions as are now usually provided will alter the speed of the loom 7 picks per minute for each tooth. If a regulation as low as 4 picks could be got, it would be more desirable. Irregiilariiies of Speed. As the engine and generator speeds will be constant, so will be the speeds of the induction motors, and variations in speed will not be so liable to occur when each unit has its own motor, as would be the case with belt transmission, where considerable loads thrown on or off some part of the system may affect the speed of the whole. In well designed mills, when the engine is not overloaded, this will not be a wide varia- tion, but still it does make a difference, and its elimination will help the production not a little ; and where the cost of labor per yard is so great, a small percentage of increased product means a large' annual saving. Recent tests, made in some up-to-date English plants, have shown that, with engines running at full load, there might only be a variation of engine speed, due to the shifting loads, of 3%, while at the loom counter- shafts it would rise to as much as 20%. By attaining a constant speed, the breakages of loom parts, and the consequent loom stoppage, would be minimized, and, with the more regular strain upon the warp threads, broken ends would be much less frequent. An irregular, jerky pull on the warp threads is a potent cause of breakage. By the correction of the above difficulties, actual increases in pro- duction of 5% have been demonstrated. In belted plants, there is always a loss of speed, of a widely varying amount and generally quite unrecognized by the management, due to the varying tightness or slackness of the machine belts, and other belt- ing through the mill. This belt slippage is estimated to average from 3% to 6% over the whole range of machinery of ordinary plants. The tightness of belts is, furthermore, greatly affected by the weather. Regulation of Speed. The ability to regulate the speed of a loom by a simple and easy change of pinions is the great thing. When a loom might do better if running a bit slower, or if it might be speeded up a little to advantage, it will probably, under belted conditions, be left to run as it is (unless the change may be likely to be permanent), as to alter it would necessi- tate a troublesome change of pulleys and a mutilation of belts. The motor drive alters all this. There are many phases of this question of the change of speed of POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS 123 individual looms. If a weaver knows that his loom is to be run faster he may be afraid that it will be too fast, and his mental attitude will make the extra speed unprofitable. If, however, it could be raised, say, four picks each week, thus working him up to it, till the desired speed was reached, much good might be done. A new fabric might be put in work and a variety of speeds tried, till the most advantageous one was hit upon. When warps of extra good quality came in the looms, speeds would be raised accordingly, while, when a poor lot was causing trouble with ends breaking down, the speed would be reduced to the point where the best production was got. Each make or width of loom, each pattern or weave, each lot of ma- terial, each warp, and each weaver, has its or his own individuality, and the ability to quickl}'^, easily, and accurately adjust the speeds, so that the maximum product may always be maintained, is an advantage of the first importance. The same remarks will apply to other machinery, winders, spinners, etc., but in the weaving lies the great profit. Possible Increase in Production. It is not too much to hope that, between the constancy of speed that it is possible to maintain, and the improved results from the individual adjustment of the looms, an increase of product of at least 10% over and above the ordinary average, may be obtainable. Even if only a 5% increase were achieved, the results would be most gratifying. Thus, if a mill had an output of 2,000,000 yards a year, on which was a net profit of 3 cents a yard, and on which a figure for gen- eral expense of 7 cents a yard had to be allowed, equal to $140,000 a year, this increase of 5% would reduce the proportion of general ex- pense on the output by $7,000, while the 100,000 yards increased prod- uct at 3 cents profit per yard, would make $3,000 more, or $10,000 in all. even if the wages were not reduced to correspond with the increased output. Interest and depreciation on any additional installation cost, must properly be deducted from these figures. Cleanliness of Mill and Fire Hazard. Individual motor drives will give a somewhat cleaner mill, and this, combined with steadiness of speed, and lessened warp breakage, should lead to a greater cleanliness and perfection of the fabrics made. This greater cleanliness of mill tends slightly to reduce the fire / hazard, but, with the amount of wiring entailed by the numerous mo- tors, the fire hazard is not likely to be less, and will probably be greater, than with belt-driven plants. The whole subject of electrical transmission, and particularly of the individual motor drive, merits the most careful consideration of all pro- gressive manufacturers. r 124 POWER TRANSMISSION IN MILLS Who to Deal With. In conclusion, it may be said that persons contemplating such instal- lations should deal with no one except those first-class electrical con- cerns which have made a specialty of such work, and whose experi- ence and resources enable them to furnish an equipment which will be right and suitable in every particular. In such cases, any reasonable difference in first cost is of very little moment, so long as one has the assurance that the installation will be made right and will work right ; and in the writer's opinion, a properly laid out weaving plant, driven by individual motors, will give an appre- ciably lower manufacturing cost than a belt-driven plant, if all of its possibilities are taken full advantage of. |i M XII HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS. In the successful operating of a mill, one of the most important points is the securing of a full, steady and well made product. Any de- ficiency in this respect is a serious matter, and every intelligent manu- facturer is constantly spending much time, thought, and money in his efforts to increase his output. Percentage of Theoretical Output Obtainable. General experience has shown, in a rough sort of way, about what percentage of the theoretical product can be obtained in actual practice for different classes of goods and for mills run under various condi- tions, and every mill should be able, under normal circumstances, to come approximately near to this percentage. In very well managed mills, and under favorable conditions, this production can be largely increased, and it is towards this goal that all mill men are striving, and on their success depends largely the pros- perity of the concern. Among the many causes that combine to keep down the production below what might be expected, one of the most important is unfavora- ble atmospheric conditions. Hygroscopic Character of Textile Fibres. All textile fabrics are hygroscopic in character, that is, they have the power of absorbing moisture to a greater or less degree, and no fibre is more affected by moisture than is silk. The moisture present in textile fibres, under normal conditions, will vary from locality to locality, from season to season, and from day to day. As these variations cause changes in weight, it was long ago seen I I I ^ f t I ■' ( it '« f i ■ ■ ) '1 i - • I: i.i 126 HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS that some standard basis must be adopted to apply to commercial trans- actions in these materials. A series of standards was, in time, evolved, which are supposed to represent the average normal moisture that the materials should con- tain, and these amounts are expressed in percentages of regain. This means that, if the materials are reduced to a condition of absolute dry- ness, and the allotted percentage for the moisture is then added, the re- sults will be the standard normal weight of the material, or the "Condi- tioned Weight," as it is called. Standard Percentages of Regain. The principal allowances for natural moisture are as follows : Carded wool and wool waste i8>4% Worsted yarn 18^:4 % Wool yarn 17% Cotton, raw or in yarn 8>4 % Linen, raw or in yarn 12% Tow, raw or in yarn i2j/^ % Jute, raw or in yarn I3M% Mixed yarn of wool and cotton 10% Mixed yarn of wool and silk 16% Spun silk, or schappe, and carded silk 11% Raw-silk, and thrown silk 11% The Bradford Conditioning House allows a regain for worsted tops, combed in oil, of 19%, while, if combed without oil, they allow the standard figure of i8J4%. The explanation is, that there was an old 'Trade Custom" allowance of 19% in the district, which was continued for the local trade, which customarily uses tops combed in oil. The great bulk of the exported tops are combed without oil and the allowance on these is iSl4%. Tests Made at the Arlington Mills. At the Arlington Mills, at Lawrence. Mass., some most interesting data were obtained on the fluctuations of atmospheric moisture. A skein of worsted yarn was left exposed for a full year in an open shed, where no artificial heat ever came, and from which wind, sun, and rain were excluded, but which was otherwise exposed to the out- side influence of the atmosphere. From May ist, 1895, to May ist. i8()6, accurate weighings were taken ten times a day, at approximately the same hours, for every day in the year except Sundays and holidays. The great variations observed in the weight of this skein of yarn were remarkable. The moisture in it ranged from about 7% to as high as 35% of its total weight, often with a variation of 15 to 20% in 24 hours. The greatest absorption was in the early morning hours, and the HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS 127 least was between three and four o'clock in the afternoon, the average difference being about 2%. The following monthly averages of the moisture recorded are of interest : Greatest change in 24 hours. May, 1895 14.86% 8.2% June, " 16.87% 10.0% July, " 18.05% 9.1% \ August. " 17-31% 8.7% September, " 17.29% 12.1% October, " 16.76% 1 1-3% November, " .22.02% 19.1% December, " 19.28% 16. i % January, 1896 17.40% 151% February, '* 17.21% i7-3% March, " 17.21% 16.4% April, " 14-15% 12.2% Average for year 17.45% Further information on this interesting subject can be found in "Tops," published by the Arlington Mills, 1898. Elasticity of Yarns Largely Dependent Upon Moisture. When yarns are reasonably moist, they exhibit a proper elasticity, and, as they get dryer, they lose much of this property, very dry yarns being extremely deficient in this respect and therefore giving very un- satisfactory results in work. When such a very hygrosc6pic material as silk is subject to such changes in atmospheric moisture as are detailed above, the importance of some means to keep it always in a properly moist condition is ap- parent. Advantage of Damp Localities for Textile Manufacturing. From time immemorial textile machinery has been operated in damp places. Mills have been located along water courses not only on ac- count of the uses of the water for power and other purposes^ but be- cause such locations were damp, while sites on dry, wind swept uplands have been avoided. Great textile centres have grown up in favorably damp localities, such as Lancashire, New Bedford, and Bombay. In many cases, mills have been built into hillsides, where water trickling down the walls has supplied the required humidity, and hand looms for ages have been operated in basements and cellars. All this goes to show that the necessity of conducting textile opera- tions in a moist atmosphere has always been recognized, but in the great growth of industry in modern days, locations have had to be selected I" 128 HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS from other considerations, and many are the mills that are built in dry, and even in extremely dry, localities. Effect of Humidity on Mill Operations. When the atmosphere, and consequently the textile fibre, is properly moist, every department of the mill, be it carding, spinning, winding, warping, or. weaving, works at its utmost efficiency, and should turn out a full and perfect product. Observe the difference when cold, dry, brisk days come, and when the moisture in the air is at a minimum. Then we find threads breaking and snapping in all directions, machinery stopping, trouble everywhere, and bad temper prevalent. When there is plenty of moisture present, the rapidly moving silk is also not so susceptible to electrical influences, but, when dry, it is quickly electrified, and loose ends are flying in all directions, getting caught together, and becoming a regular nuisance. How Production and Costs Are Affected. In most localities where there are textile mills, the majority of the days in the year will be reasonably moist, some will be too much so, and a considerable number will be too dry, to a greater or less extent, and these dry days cut down the production seriously and are consequently very expensive for the mill. Consider what this means in money. A 500-loom mill may be turn- ing off 7,000 yards a day, on which is an earning of 6 cents a yard for expenses and 4 cents for profit, amounting to $700 in all. If, now, on an extra-dry, cold day, the production falls off 20 per cent., and it easily may, it means a loss of $140 to the mill, which could be entirely saved if the air could be kept damp, and this is a loss that may occur on very many days in the year. It is obvious that no pains or money should be spared to diminish such an evil as this. Not all the rooms in a mill will be equally dry, and the conditions in weave sheds, which are often partly sunk in the ground, are generally more satisfactory than in the higher stories of a mill. Mr. Edward At- kinson, if my recollection serves me, in one of his published works, writes of a cotton mill where, for the same goods, and under exactly the same conditions, the production for a period of ten years averaged 15 per cent, more in the weave shed than in floors higher up. Part of this, no doubt, was due to the more solid and level foundations for the looms in the shed, but the greater part must unquestionably be attrib- uted to moisture. Difficulties During Damp or Dry Hot Weather Some trouble is experienced in very damp days, particularly those days in summer when the humidity is excessive, warps and harnesses are sticking, and everything feels damp. Hot and all as it is, it may be necessary, in default of any better means, to close the windows and turn HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS 129 on the steam in the heating coils so as to dry things out, but this is not so severe on the workers as it would seem, for, the air being dryer, there is more evaporation from the surface of the body, and, as this is a cooling process, it tends to equalize matters. Many hot days are also very dry, and it would then require a great deal of moisture to put the air in a satisfactory condition. If means for cooling the air were provided, it could be much more easily got into a properly moist state. The greatest trouble is, however, occasioned by the dry days, and it is for the purpose of obviating this trouble that humidifyers have been introduced. Humidifyers and Their Attributes. A humidifyer is an apparatus for keeping the air in a room in a properly moist condition, and, to be satisfactory, should fulfill the fol- lowing conditions : Rapid and perfect distribution of moisture in the form of the finest vapor ; a minimum amount of water to be used for the quantity vapor- ized ; the power required for operating to be small ; the apparatus to be simple and not liable to get out of order, and to be easily understood and taken care of ; adjustment and regulation to be accurate and easy ; easy to open up and keep clean, and free from any liability to clog up ; a minimum of space to be occupied ; low cost of upkeep ; the smallest possible amount of machinery; and a reasonably low first cost. It should also be possible to keep the system in proper order if looked after by the ordinary mill help, and it should be so simple as to make it unnecessary ever to call in expert advice in connection with it. There are a number of meritorious humidifying systems on the mar- ket, and it is not the purpose of this article to recommend one or other of their methods. Apparatus Required. The apparatus used, according to the system, consists generally of such features as pumps, fans, air-pressure tanks, humidifyer heads, atomizer nozzles, revolving discs, strainers, water and steam piping] motors, etc., etc., some of which features give more or less trouble after having been run for a while. It is a considerable advantage to have a style of humidifyer, where the cost of installing an individual head is not much greater than what the unit cost would be where a number are put in together, as there are often particular places remote from one another, where air moistening might be useful and where one head would suffice. Amount of Water Vaporized, and Power Required. The percentage of the water passing through the apparatus, that can be vaporized, will probably run between the limits of 3 per cent and 25 per cent., so some styles of humidifyers will obviously take care of a greater area than others. I30 HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS There is a style of humidifyer, also, which simply atomizes all of the water supplied to it, just as an ordinary atomizer would do. There is much difference, too, in the power required for operation, and when power is expensive this point should be carefully considered. Where only a small percentage of water is vaporized, and when water has to be paid for, the waste water can be pumped back into the system, but at the expense of some extra power. When hot dry days occur, the power used in connection with the moistening is considerable, as a large amount of moisture must be supplied. Those systems which also keep the temperature down to a comfortable point, will use much less power at such times, as the cooler air requires less moisture. The cost of power, in any event, cannot weigh with the benefits to be attained. The vaporization of the water should be so complete that it cannot fall like dew or rain on the goods or on the machinery, doing damage and creating rust. Use of Steam, and Other Methods of Air Moistening. Many manufacturers have put into use moistening devices of their own contriving, as by allowing exhaust steam to enter the air ducts, when mills are heated by hot air, and so distributing the moisture through the buildings, or by blowing steam directly into the rooms. This direct use of steam is carried at times to such an extent that I have seen in the spinning rooms of linen mills in Belfast, where fine yarns such as 200-1 were being spun, the atmosphere thick with steam and everything warm and dripping wet. The operatives wore clothes at their work different from those they went home in, and were barefooted, and the floors were made of large, smooth tiles. This use of steam has been much condemned in many quarters, and claims have been made that such conditions were unhealthful, but this does not seem at all to have been proved. Anyway, there are better methods. The keeping of the floors wet with water has ever been a common and not ineffective device, and for the storage and "conditioning" of yarn, special floors have been arranged, grooved with many channels, or miniature canals, all filled with water, and which made the atmos- phere sufficiently moist for the purpose. Value of HumidHication Immediately Apparent. Let humidifyers once be introduced in a mill and their value at once becomes apparent. When a dry day comes, and there is trouble all along the line, everything will be running as smoothly as ever within a few minutes after the humidifyers have been turned on, and, if they are shut off, under such circumstances, the trouble promptly reappears. Again, if a poor lot of silk or other yarn is passing through the ma- HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS 131 chinery, which may be deficient in strength or elasticity, or "twitty," much improvement can be made, even on a day of normal humidity, by moistening the air to an extra degree. Whether the system be introduced in the weave room, in the throw- ing mill, or for the preparatory work, the good effects are alike appar- ent, and a marked increase in both quantity and quality of product is soon noticeable. It is safe to say that no one who has installed a good moistening sys- tem has ever discontinued its use, and a constantly extending use is the rule. Reduction of Wastage, As increase of product means decrease of waste, it follows that a great saving of waste is one of the advantages of humidification. Serious waste is often encountered in weaving cop yams, when, owing to the drying out of the yarn on the tubes, the cops become loose and are knocked off their tubes while weaving, and the same is true of tram that has been standing for some time, when wound on quills. This can be avoided by having humidifyers in the stock rooms and store rooms, by the use of which the yarn is prevented from drying out, and the air should be kept moistened wherever the silk on quills is stored. It is in these directions that systems in which single heads can be operated separately, have a marked advantage. In cold weather, the moistening of the air not only improves the work, but makes the operatives feel warmer and more comfortable, for, owing to the diminished evaporation from the skin, a person will feei warmer in a moist air of 70 degrees than in a very dry air of 80 degrees. Hygrometers and Humidity. To know what the moisture present in the air is, hygrometers should be placed in the various rooms and it is well to have plenty of them, as, even in the same room, the humidity will vary from place to place. These hygrometers should be of the best character if good results are to be had, and many cheap hygrometers are worse than useless, for they are apt to be seriously misleading. The standard of humidity to be set will vary according to the na- ture of the work in the department, the material that is being used and the experience gained by the management in practice. Temperature and humidity are closely related. In a very hot at- mosphere, the moisture that can be taken up by the air is very great and the saturation point is high. On a very cold, frosty day the reverse will be the case. It is stated that in 1,000 grains of atmospheric air the moisture will range from a minimum of 4 to a maximum of 16 grains. (Chambers* Encyclopaedia.) i i' 132 HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS The weight of a cubic foot of atmospheric air at 32° F., and under a tension of i atmosphere, is 527 grains. Diagram of Saturation, A "Diagram of Saturation" is here presented, the curve which has been plotted showing the maximum moisture, in grains, which the air will absorb at temperatures from 40° to 100® F. DIAGRAM OF SATURATION. TEMPERATURE - FAHRENHEIT •40 -Sft -aO-ZS-SO-lS-in -5 10 15 2U U 30 35 40 46 60 6.t 60 65 70 76 80 8S M 96 100 g 19 5 1«) I " O '^ •^ 14 u 6 18 O 12 £S 11 / / r / / , / r — / . > r^ z y i / / / / / 4 y ^ X ^ __ — . — -^ * Maintaining the Proper Humidity. A fair normal average of heat and moisture conditions might be stated as a temperature of 70° F., and a humidity of 70 per cent. This may afford a good basis to work on, though, as it is well to keep on the safe side of the moisture, the writer would suggest 75 per cent, as a good standard. Before starting time in the morning, the person to whose care this matter is committed should visit each room, observe the hygrometers, and put the humidifyers into action where necessary. In the winter time, this person can also regulate the heating if desired. During the day, the foreman in charge of the floor should see that the proper moisture is maintained at those times when artificial humidi- fication has to be resorted to. It may be well to set limits such as to HUMIDIFICATION IN TEXTILE MILLS 133 turn on moisture at 72° hygrometer readings, and shut it off at yy**. It is needless to say that at such times the windows should be kept closed, as it is no part of the scheme to try to moisten all out of doors. In systems having automatic regulation all this trouble is avoided. Other Advantages to be Gained, This ability to constantly maintain certain standards of humidity also assists in other ways, as there is then no undue stretching of belt- ing or strapping, no shuttles too loose in their boxes, no excessively dried-out Jacquard cards, or harnesses, to break or wear out speedily, etc., etc. A careful consideration of the foregoing should convince any manufacturer that here is a matter of real importance, and, if he be not already using humidifyers, he should take early steps to equip himself in this direction with, at least, an experimental installation. It is not too much to hope that the total annual output of many mills might be increased from 5 to 10 per cent, by the regular and intelligent use of these facilities, and such a prospective gain as this would warrant installations of a far more expensive character than any humidifyer system. Those who have yarns for sale, and who are often subject to much loss of weight while it is lying in stock, can thus protect themselves against loss. Unscrupulous persons also can, and no doubt do, use this means to unduly moisten their goods, and thus make their customers pay for water instead of yam. By the use of the facilities offered by the condi- tioning houses for ascertaining the moisture in textiles, these abuses, however, can be readily kept in check. m I* XIII THE TESTING, OR CONDITIONING, OF SILK AND OTHER FIBRES. Much has been written and spoken about silk conditioning, and the subject is a very old one. It might be supposed that no silk manu- facturer could fail to be thoroughly informed on this important matter but quite the reverse is the case. Surprisingly few of the men who are constantly paying out large sums of money for silk seem to take much interest in the question, and while many manufacturers talk glibly about conditioning, as if they knew all about it, one does not have to go much below the surface to find how little they do know. Ignorance Regarding Conditioning. This ignorance is due to a lack of appreciation of the importance to them, in money, of this testing. The subject is a technical one, and there are many manufacturers who pride themselves on being "practi- cal,'* and sneer at anything that may be termed theoretical, and condi- tioning with them comes under this head. Others will not take the trouble to inform themselves, and others, again, appear to be mentally unable to grasp the facts when laid before them. However, just let them once thoroughly understand that a failure to make use of the test- ing facilities within their reach is costing every mother's son of them hard cash, and a lot of it, every year, and they will waken up to the fact that they have not been so "practical*' as they supposed, and will probably then take a lively interest in the subject. There are, of course, many manufacturers who are exceptions, but they are in the great minority. Opportunities of Loss. A purchaser of a lot of silk at $4.00 a pound will be very careful to see that he is not charged $4.05 or $4.10 a pound for it ; and, if he were, TESTING OR CONDITIONING 135 the bill would promptly go back for correction. He would not even consent to a charge of one-tenth of one per cent, more than he has agreed to pay. At the same time, he complacently accepts, in many cases, a less quantity of silk than he should get for his $4.cx), and the fact that he may only be getting $3.90 worth, more or less, seems to have entirely escaped him. What would be thought of the business sanity of a butcher, or a grocer, who would habitually and cheerfully accept one or two pounds short weight on every hundred that he bought? And yet this is what lots of manufacturers of silk are doing, simply because, owing to the peculiar nature of silk, the loss is not apparent, and what they cannot see they do not believe. Is it not as important to verify the weight as it is to check the price ? Again, if a manufacturer buys a certain size of silk for his goods, it is most important that he should be sure that it is within the comrner- cial limits of that size. If heavier, he will be getting too much silk into his goods, and, once thrown, it cannot be returned to the silk merchant and has got to be swallowed. Proper determinations, made in advance by the Conditioning House, will give him a close approximation of the size ; and, if finer or coarser than contracted for, he can demand a sub- stitution of the proper size. Meaning of "Conditioning.'' It is unfortunate that the word "conditioning" has been used in this country to describe the operations we are referring to. Few people understand just what it means, and the terms "Conditioning House" and "conditioned weight" are too often meaningless names, while names like "Testing House" or "certified weight" would be understood. Anyway, conditioning is simply the making of carefully devised tests for ascertaining the actual weight, under accepted conditions, of the substance tested. In silk, tests are made for weight, for size, and for boil-off, and, less frequently, for tenacity (breaking strength), and for elasticity. Twist is also determined and length of skeins measured. Tests that may Profitably be Made. It is equally important in the woolen and worsted industries that proper tests should be made, but in this country such testing, except in a few rare instances, is almost unknown. On the Continent and in England, however, free use is made by these trades of testing facilities. Cotton and cotton yarn, absorbing moisture from the air less freely, and being of lower cost, have not invited such careful checking off; but, none the less, if all sales were based on conditioned weight, many abuses would be corrected. A testing house may also have a laboratory equipped to make chem- ical and physical tests of all sorts of substances. Such a commodity as soap is largely used by silk mills. Good and very dry white olive oil « ^M •:>J ; it &■ M 136 TESTING OR CONDITIONING fn^^T.t r /i,'''/^'*'''"' ^^'*' ""^^^ ^y ^^^ ^^^ter, a moisture averag- ing H'Afo, the different tests coming very near to each other. A sam- ^cJ'Tr, f'^fP ^''''"' ^''°]^^^ '"^^^^^ ^^^^& tested, showed a loss of nf ^''ni^i ^ i!^ "^^-t '?''\ """"^V^^ '^^"'P- S^^P ^s "ot silk, yet a difference of ioy2%, where it is largely used, is important. Oils may be tested to determine the amount of fatty acids or other undesirable constituents in them, or to see if they contain admixtures of torei^ matter which would make them undesirable for use, and also to find out the percentage of fatty matter, or olein, contained in the oil, for, of course, the richer it is the less of it will need to be used. Other determinations that might be useful would be tests on paper tor moisture, thickness and strength ; on coal to show its calorific value: on harness twine for strength and other properties; on leather and leather belting, and on many other things. Very important, too, for dyers and printers, is the determining of the purity of chemicals and the strength of dye-stuffs and coloring matters, a branch of investigation that does not receive anything like the attention that its importance demands. Tests to show character and purity of water are also of importance. The number of directions in which the aid of the chemical and physi- ca facilities of a well-equipped testing house may be of great money value to any manufacturer is obvious. At any rate, no textile mill can alford to neglect the conditioning of its raw materials, be they cotton yarns, raw-silk, wool or what not ; and as most excellent testing facili- ties for t^tiles in the shape of an admirably equipped Conditioning and testing House, have been furnished in New York by public-spirited g;entlemen it would seem to be the duty, as well as the interest, of all silk manufacturers to make free use of such services The neglect of these opportunities in the past has been doubtless due to the Ignorance of manufacturers, who, unable to visibly see that their ^I^^ u T^? incorrect, did not believe that they might be. On the other hand, they visibly did see that they were parting with real money tor getting tests made, and so they concluded that this was an unneces- sary expense, and they cut it out, and, when short-weight silk, but moister than It should be, was delivered to them, they paid for it with- out a thought of loss. The penny was so near to their eye that they were unable to see the dollar just beyond. ^ Experiences as to the Profit of Conditioning. The writer^s experience in the testing of silk, purchasing only good grades and from the best houses, is that errors in the weights of As- iatic silks were sufficiently numerous that the reclamations that could properly be made on the sellers paid for the conditioning charges twice over, and this on a basis of testing one bale out of every three On poor-grade silks, and with houses that were not very careful, the amount to be claimed would certainly not be less. TESTING OR CONDITIONING 137 On the Continent of Europe, business people do not make expendi- tures that add to the expenses of their business as freely as do Ameri- cans. In fact, we take pride in our liberal expenditures, and rather look down upon the parsimonious methods of other peoples. Having in view this national trait, one would expect to find in the United States, if anywhere, the freest expenditure for every legitimate object, and surely the ascertaining of the correct weight of the silk one is called on to pay for is a legitimate object. But what are the facts? The economical Europeans find that they can afford to pay for the conditioning of nearly 55,000,000 pounds of raw and thrown silk in a single year (1907). The manufacturers of the United States, using about two-thirds as much silk as Europe, with all their boasted liber- ality can only point to the pitiful total of about 400,000 pounds tested in the same period. (It is pleasant to note here that the campaign of education on the subject of Conditioning has been so successful that, by the year 1912, the weight conditioned had risen to 2,678,037 pounds, placing New York fourth among the conditioning houses of the world in the amount of testing done.) The fact is that in Europe they have learned by experience that the only safe and satisfactory way, for both the buyer and the seller, is to have the weight of the silk checked off every time it changes hands, and that it is money in their pockets to pay for and have made the necessary tests. The sooner that we on this side of the water take the same lesson to heart, the better. Conditions under which Tests are Made, There is no need here to go into a description of the exact methods employed in the conditioning houses, or the bases upon which they make their tests. Suffice it to say that entire secrecy is observed, inside as well as outside, as to the ownership of the various lots ; that the best- built and most accurate machinery and apparatus that can be devised are employed in the work ; that great care is taken to insure, as far as possible, that the samples selected for testing shall fairly represent the average of the lots ; and that the gentlemen in charge of such estab- lishments are selected with special reference to their expert knowledge, as well as for their character and ability. To this it may be added that many able and experienced silk manufacturers, of large technical knowledge, are constantly giving much time and thought to the prob- lems involved in the various kinds of tests, and from time to time im- proved methods have been, and in the future will be, evolved. Any one interested in learning the nature of the tests upon which the conditioning houses base their conclusions, can procure from them printed matter on the subject, in which the methods employed are fully set forth. A manufacturer, when giving instructions to a raw-silk merchant !li^ 138 TESTING OR CONDITIONING as to the shipping of his silk, may order two bales out of each five, or, better still, all of them, sent to the Conditioning House for tests. The testing may take two or three days, and then they follow along to the throwster after the others. The tests made are principally for weight, size, and boil-off. From these tests the percentage of loss or gain in weight over the invoice weight is arrived at for the whole of the shipment. Terms and Conditions of Raw-silk Trading. The manufacturer should familiarize himself with the terms and conditions on which raw-silk is sold on the New York market, so as to know exactly what he is entitled to, and the tests he has made will then prove to him whether he is getting all that he is paying for, or not. Certain "Rules and Regulations to govern transactions in the Silk Trade of the United States" have been approved by the Silk Associa- tion of America, and these Rules, as amended August 9th, 191 1, I have here transcribed, as much of the matter contained therein has a close connection with the subject in hand. The first section of these Rules applies to dealings in raw-silk, and the second section deals with transactions in the throwing of silk. A list of classification names for raw-silks is also appended. RAW SILK RULES AND REGULATIONS To Govern Transactions Between Buyers and Sellers in THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Approved by the Board of Managers of the Silk Association of America, May 22, 1908, and amended August 9, 1911. RULES NOTE.— It is understood that nothing in the followmg rules shall be construed as waiving the right in individual transactions to make any special or distinct contrary agreement, but that the rules shall govern only in cases where no special or specific con- tract exists. SALES OF SPECIFIED OR IDENTIFIABLE LOTS OF SILK from stock, or to arrive, for prompt, or future delivery (as for instance, of a lot giving marks and numbers, or a specified lot of a specified chop or grade, or in any other manner identifiable and distinct from other silks), are cancelled (unless contract calls for replace- ment) by destruction of such silks by fire, flood, marine disaster, or other unavoidable casualty prior to delivery dates as called for by contract; or by the insolvency of reeler, or by damage to, or destruction of, the producing factory prior to delivery by the reeler. NOTE.— The Buyer can protect himself by taking out addi- tional marine and/or fire insurance. SALES OF AN UNSPECIFIED LOT OF A GIVEN QUALITY. GRADE, CLASS AND SIZE OF SILK (as for instance, a sale of 100 bales Japan Filatures No. 1 at a given price and delivery), cannot be voided except by mutual consent of Buyer and Seller. Delay in actual transit, damage, or destruction of an unspecified lot of silk, where a similar lot is not obtainable on the New York market, gives the Seller a reasonable period (to be determined by arbitration in case of dispute) in which to replace. TESTING OR CONDITIONING 139 DELIVERIES. Sales for delivery on a given date, demand delivery or readiness for delivery on the date specified. Sales jfor! delivery on arrival on or about a given date, give Seller the right of delivery 15 days earlier or later than the date specified. Sales for delivery within a given period, give Seller the right of delivery at any time within the period specified, unless the con- tract calls for specific deliveries during said period. Where more than one month is named without other specifica- tion, delivery is understood as approximately equal portions during each month. Seller should notify Buyer of readiness to deliver in accordance with contract terms of delivery, and Buyer is under equal obliga- tion to call for silk when due him, but inadvertent failure of either party to tender or call for delivery, shall not void contract where readiness to deliver can be proved. Delivery by Seller to common carrier, or agent of Buyer in compliance with oral or written instructions of Buyer, or party ordering shipment, is at the risk of said Buyer, or party ordering shipment. SHIPMENTS FROM ABROAD. Sales for shipment on or before a given date, demand shipment on or before the date specified. Sales for shipment on or about a given date, give Seller the right of shipment 15 days earlier or later than the date specified. Sales for shipment within a given period, give Seller the right of shipment at any time within the period specified, unless the contract calls for specific shipments during said period. Date of bill of lading shall be construed as giving date of shipment. DEFERRED DELIVERIES (except by request of Seller), if billed but not shipped, or not billed because of Buyer's request, are at the risk of Buyer, who shall pay interest, storage and fire insurance. Seller shall exercise due care and diligence in the storing, handling and insuring of such silk, shall insure it at market value as prop- erty sold but not delivered, but shall not be liable for any other matter or thing occurring during the period of the deferred de- livery. Total or partial loss by fire shall constitute a good delivery of such silks, destoyed or damaged, and the amount owing Seller shall thereupon become due and payable in accordance with terms of contract, but Seller shall credit or refund Buyer with whatever amount may be received from the underwriters on silk so destroyed or damaged. It shall be the duty of the Seller to diligently enforce the collection of any claim covered by the policies of fire insurance, and expenses incurred in so doing shall be deducted from the amount recovered. WEIGHTS— Actual Weight and Tare is weight as taken at the time of delivery, or billing date (if delivery is deferred), less actual tare of bags, papers and strings. Invoice Weight is net weight as invoiced by Seller or Seller's agent at point from which originally shipped. Conditioned Weight of silk is the absolute dry weight plus 11 per cent. To ascertain conditioned weight of a lot of Asiatic silks sold conditioned weight, at least two bales out of every five bales (or less) of a lot shall be tested at Conditioning House in New York. The average of all tests must be accepted as the basis for the m 140 TESTING OR CONDITIONING entire lot, and expense of conditioning divided equally between Buyer and Seller. Questions Over Actual and/or Invoice Weight must be ad- justed by Buyer notifying Seller that he wishes the lot rebilled to him conditioned weight plus the customary 2 per cent, for Japan Silks, China Steam Filatures and Canton Filatures, and plus 2^ per cent, for China Rereels and Canton Rereels, and Buyer must then send at least two original bales out of every five bales (or less) of the lot, to be conditioned at Conditioning House in New York, in accordance with the rule for "Conditioned Weight." Result shall be accepted by Buyer and Seller, whether to their benefit or loss, and conditioning costs borne by losing party. Unless false or fraudulent weights can be shown, conditioning tests by Buyer, or his agent, before notifying Seller that conditioned weight will be accepted, cancels Buyer's claim to weight adjustment, and evidence that such prior conditioning tests have not been made must be furnished, if desired. Japan Silks, China Steam Filatures, Canton Filatures are sold New York conditioned weight plus 2 per cent., or actual weight, or invoice weight, or conditioned weight. China Rereels, Canton Rereels are sold New York conditioned weight plus 2y2 per cent., or actual weight, or invoice weight, or conditioned weight. European Silks are sold conditioned weight, and European Con- ditioning House tests must be accepted, unless Buyer chooses, at his own expense, to have the silk reconditioned in New York. Should the result be % of one per cent, less than European con- ditioned weights, Seller must accept the New York conditioned weights and pay costs of the reconditioning; each bale to be treated individually. Tussahs are sold invoice weights, or actual weights carrying no guarantee of loss in weight by conditioning. Spun and Schappe Silks are sold Seller's invoice weights, but such weight shall not exceed conditioned weight. Bale Weights. A contract calls for the delivery of a number of bales or pounds varying on the average not more than 5 per cent, from the following usual bale weights: Europeans 220 pounds net Japans 135 Shanghais 135 Tussahs 135 Cantons 106% Variation in weight beyond the allowed 5 per cent., shall not be cause for cancellation of contract, but may be adjusted with Seller at market rates at the time of delivery. ADULTERATION. Shanghai Rereels and Native Filatures are guaran- teed by Seller not to lose more than 22 per cent, by boil-off at Conditioning House in New York. Buyer and Seller may have as many tests made as they see fit, at their own expense, and the average of all such tests shall govern. VARIATION OF SIZE. The average size under contract shall not vary more than given below for different classes and grades of silk. In cases of dispute, Buyer and Seller shall arrange to have sizing tests made at the Conditioning House in New York, computed on the conditioned weight of the sizing skeins; such tests are limited to five per bale and their average shall determine the size of the silk in the bale. For Asiatics, the average of all bales of a lot TESTING OR CONDITIONING 1 141 shall determine the average of the lot, and if more than one-third of the bales in each individual lot are of wrong size, such entire lot may be rejected; otherwise, only the incorrect bales may be rejected. European bales are treated individually. Test skeins must be drawn from the bales by the Conditioning House, and the total expense of such tests must be borne by the losing party. European Silks. European Conditioning House sizing tickets shall be final, unless demonstrated to be wrong by Conditioning House at New York. EXTRA CLASSICAL TO NO. 1 INCLU- SIVE 11/12 AND FINER shall not vary more than }i denier either way from the average given on each and every bale. From 11/13 to 15/17 }>^ denier either way is allowed From 16/18 to 19/21 H " " " " " From 20/22 to 24/26 7^ " « " " " From 25/27 to 28/30 1 " " " " " Fuller, the variation is by agreement. Japans. Seller's sizing tests, or Yokohama Conditioning House sizing tickets shall be final, unless demonstrated to be wrong by Conditioning House at New York. FANCY AND DOUBLE EX- TRA are governed by the same rule as Europeans. FILATURES AND REREELS, EXTRA TO NO. 1-1^ INCLUSIVE, AND BEST EXTRA KAKEDAS, 14/16 AND FINER, shall not vary more than ^ denier either *way for the lot, and 1 denier for each bale, from the average given. FILATURES AND REREELS NO. UA TO NO. 2 INCLUSIVE AND KAKEDAS EXTRA TO NO. 1 INCLUSIVE 14/18 AND FINER, shall not vary more than 1 denier either way for the lot, and 1^ denier for each bale, from the average given. LOWER GRADES carry no guarantee of size. SIZE 16/18 AND COARSER IN FILATURES NO. 1 AND HIGHER GRADES shall not vary more than the European allow- ances for the lot, and ^ denier additional for each bale, from the average given. COARSE SIZES below No. 1 carry no guarantee of size. China Steam Filatures. Seller's sizing tests shall be final, unless demonstrated to be wrong by Conditioning House at New York. FILATURES FIRST CATEGORY are governed by the rule for Europeans. FILATURES SECOND CATEGORY 14/16 AND FINER shall not vary more than l4 denier either way for the lot, and 1 denier for each bale, from the average given. FILATURES THIRD CATEGORY 14/16 AND FINER shall not vary more than ^ denier either way for the lot, and 1 denier for each bale, from the average given. Shanghai Rereels, Native Filatures and Tussahs carry no guar- antee of size. Canton Filatures. Seller's sizing tests shall be final, unless dem- onstrated to be wrong by Conditioning House at New York. DOUBLE EXTRA AND EXTRA 14/16 AND FINER shall not vary more than ^ denier either way for the lot, and 1% denier for each bale, from the average given. 16/20 to 28/32 shall not vary more than Ij^ denier either way for the lot, and 2 deniers for each bale, from the average given. FILATURES NO. 1—14/16 AND FINER shall not vary more than 1 denier either way for the lot, and 1% denier for each bale, from the average given. Canton Filatures No. 2 and lower, and Canton Rereels, carry no guar- antee of size. k M 1 » ii ' 142 TESTING OR CONDITIONING Spun and Schappe Silks. In case of dispute, Buyer and Seller shall arrange to have sizing tests made at the Conditioning House in New York, computed on the conditioned weight of the sizing skeins. Contracts for a given "count" or "number" of yarn require a delivery not more than 2^ per cent, over or under the specified "count" or "number." REJECTIONS AND REPLACEMENTS. Any bales or lots rejected for proper cause must be replaced by Seller and accepted by Buyer within 15 days of rejection agreed to by Seller or established by arbitration. But where a lot of contract brand or quality and size IS not obtainable on the New York market, the question shall be adjusted by arbitration. In case of a specified uninspected lot on a primary market — of which all or a portion shall prove upon; inspection not of the stipulated quality and/or size— Seller must immediately notify Buyer, who shall have the option of cancelling such incorrect portion of the contract, or of instructing Seller, to accept It with any allowance that he may be able to collect, or of giving the necessary time for replacement. CLAIMS FOR DIFFERENCE IN QUALITY AND/OR SIZE. Seller's obligations to deliver raw-silk of contract quality and size is clearly defined. Buyer is under equal obligations to examine and test silk received, or tendered for delivery under contract, and promptly pass upon its quality and size as raw-silk in the bale. This can be de- termined by testing sample skeins of the lot or one entire bale; Buyer must then accept, or immediately notify Seller of intention to reject the balance of the lot. All claims must be made within fifteen days after delivery, or original tender of delivery, in ac- cordance with terms of contract, even if the actual delivery of the silk be deferred by request of buyer. (Notice to this effect shall be inserted on contract or notice of tender of delivery.) After the above period of fifteen days, no claim shall be admissible unless false or fraudulent packing can be shown. In no case can the Seller be held as guaranteeing the working of the silk, or its suitability to produce certain results, unless by special agreement. ARBITRATION. All differences arising between Buyer and Seller must be submitted to the Arbitration Committee of the Silk Association of America. SELLING TERMS. The recognized rate of discount in the silk trade is 6 per cent.' per annum when not otherwise stated or agreed. Offers of silk when not otherwise stated imply: 6 months basis for Asiatics. 60 days basis for Europeans. Six Months* Notes, 4 Months* Notes, 3 Months* Notes, or 60 .Days* Notes. Such sales convey no right to discount. Within 30 days from date of bill, Buyer rnust give his note for the period specified, bearing same date as bill, drawn to his own order, blank endorsed and payable at discretionary points as defined by New York Clearing House. Six Months' Notes, or Cash Less 3 Per Cent, implies the right of Buyer to pay his bill within 10 days (which are not discountable) by deducting 3 per cent, from the face thereof; otherwise he must give 6 months' notes from date of bill as above provided Four months* Notes, or Cash Less 2 Per cent, are governed in principle by the above terms. TESTING OR CONDITIONING 143 Ninety Days* Notes, or Cash Less 1% Per Cent, are governed in principle by the above terms. Ninety Days, Sixty Days, or Thirty Days — requires that the bill must be paid within the time specified. Six Months* Basis, ' Payment Within 30 Days, or 60 Days or 90 Days (as written) requires payment at any time within period stated, with discount for unexpired portion of the six months. Six Months* Basis, Settlement by Note or Cash Within 30 Days, or 60 Days, or 90 Days (as written) gives Buyer the option of pay- ing (at any time within the stipulated period for settlement) in cash less discount for unexpired portion of the six months, or giving" (at any time within the stipulated period for settlement) his six months' note from date of bill. Cash Sales less a stipulated discount require immedaite pay- ment of the bill less the specified discount. Bankers* Credit Sales require the Buyer to immediately furnish approved Credits at the usance agreed upon in the transaction. For such sales the Seller takes no responsibility for arrival, damage, loss or pilferage en route. Seller's failure to demand the Letter of Credit shall not be cause for voiding the contract. F. O. B. — Free on Board, is the Shipper's invoice cost of the silk placed on board ship at port of original export; Buyer must provide and pay for marine insurance and freight. C. & F. Cost and Freight, is the Shipper's invoice cost includ-. ing freight. C. F. & I. — Cost, Freight and Insurance, is the Shipper's invoice cost including freight and marine insurance. RULES AND REGULATIONS To Govern Transactions in Throwing Silk. Approved by the Board of Managers of the Silk Association of America February 13. 1907, and amended August 14, 1907. Article I. Winding — Raw-silk is single thread as reeled from the cocoons and known as raw-silk with knotted ends. It is understood to be a continuous thread from beginning to end of the skein and as a rule this class of silk must be such that one winder can attend to one hundred swifts with a thread speed of sixty yards per minute. Article II. Soaking — Only such ingredients shall be added in soaking the silk as will boil out easily in the ordinary process of dyeing, and only such amounts as shall be necessary for the proper throwing of the silk, but not to exceed 5 per cent, gain in weight. Article III. Twist. — An average variation of 10 per cent, on organ- zine (20 test skeins) either way from the twist as ordered is permissible, (in tram two and one-half to three turns per inch, a variation of one- half turn either way may be allowed. Article IV. Size — The fineness of silk is determined by the size. The size is the number of deniers which a skein of a certain length weighs. The legal denier is a skein of silk four hundred and fifty metres long, wound in four hundred turns on a reel of one hundred and twelve and one-half centimetres in circumference and weighed by a unit of five centigrams (called denier). To establish the size of a lot of silk, ten skeins are taken from every bale and from different parts of the bale, and from each skein two test skeins are reeled off, on Japan silks, one inside and one outside skein. The weight of these test skeins is to be reduced to conditioned weight ? iEr 144 TESTING OR CONDITIONING 1' in case either of the parties to the transaction desires. On raw-silk up to twenty deniers a margin of one-half denier average, above or below, is permissible; coarser sizes are treated as special articles. The regularity (evenness) of the thread of different grades shall be such that the difference between the finest and the coarsest test skeins shall not be more than is decided by the rules of the Silk Association of America. Article V. Reeling into Skeins — An average variation of 5 per cent, shall be allowed from the number of yards per skein, as ordered for thrown silk. The minimum number of test skeins is twenty. The proce- dure is similar to that for sizing silk. Conditioning House rules to apply. Article VI. Price, Terms, Etc. — The price for throwing is net cash, final settlement to be made on the average date of the return delivery of the product. The throwster is entitled to payment on account in pro- portion to his deliveries, and on completion of work when held for orders. Weights for throwing silk shall be estimated upon invoice weights, in no case less than conditioned weight plus two (2) per cent., or upon conditioned weight, when given, plus two (2) per cent. Conditioned weight, as here used, is found by adding eleven (11) per cent, to absolute dry weight, determined from samples by customary methods. Article VII. Payment of Transportation, Etc. — The consignee pays the transportation charges on receipt of the raw-silk; the consignor pays the transportation charges on the return of the thrown silk. Article VIII. Liability for Silk — A commission throwster who ac- cepts a lot of raw-silk for the manufacture of tram or organzine or any other operation, is responsible to the owner for the full value of the silk as long as it remains in his possession. The throwster must cover by insurance the loss of silk against fire while in his immediate possession. Article IX. Determination of Loss — In order to establish a claim against a throwster for excess of loss in working, the whole parcel of raw-silk to be thrown should be sent to the Conditioning House to be tested for the conditioned weight, where skeins of the raw-silk should be retained. The entire quantity of the thrown silk should be returned to the Conditioning House to be reweighed for conditioned weight. The boil-off tests of the raw skeins so retained and the skeins of thrown silk should be tested simultaneously in the same process, and the boil-off established in this manner by the identical process; as the matter of boiling-off is involved in much uncertainty if done at different times. Five skeins of the raw-silk should be retained from each bale, and three skeins of the thrown silk from each one hundred pounds for the boiling-off test. This is the generally accepted practice in Europe and the matter of the amount of loss to be allowed in the actual working of a given silk (to be arrived at as above stated) is universally a matter of agreement between the manufacturer and the throwster. The throwster is responsible at the price agreed upon on receipt of the silk for an excess of loss above the amount agreed, and the owner is to pay the throwster at this price when any less loss is made than the amount as agreed. The manufacturer is to furnish a description of the raw-silk, giving the origin, classification and grading, and is responsible to the throwster for a proper delivery of the raw-silk as agreed upon. Duplicate tickets of all tests to be supplied to the throwster. TESTING OR CONDITIONING 145 ■f PRICES CHARGED FOR TESTING BY THE UNITED STATES CONDITIONING AND TESTING CO. New York, 1912. CONDITIONING raw or thrown silk, per bale 11.50 BOILING-OFF from 60 skeins 2.50 from 10 skeins 1.00 SIZING, REGULAR, 10 skeins, 30 tests of 450 metres each 1.00 CONDITIONED SIZE, in addition to above 0.50 SIZING, COMPOUND, from 20 skeins, 20 tests of 4,500 metres each conditioned 2.00 WINDING, 10 skeins, one hour 1.00 MEASURING: 10 skeins, 20,000 yds 1.00 15 " 15,000 " 1.00 20 " 10,000 " 1.00 (Dyed silk, one-half the above number of skeins.) ELASTICITY AND TENACITY, 10 skeins, 10 tests 0.75 TWIST, 10 skeins, 10 tests 0.75 INSPECTION TEST, 5 bales or less 5.00 COMBINATION TEST, for 5 bales (each extra bale, $3.50) 17.50 NET WEIGHING (with detailed tare) 0.75 WEIGHING, raw, in shirt 0.50 Sampling raw-silk for inspection (10 cards) per bale 0.50 Handling charge for silk withdrawn without testing, package 0.25 Reeling charge on retained boil-off samples withdrawn without test.. 0.50 Storage on bales waiting for instructions over one day, and over three days after testing, per bale and per day 0.05 Extra packing charge on European raw, Tussah raw, Bengal raw, and other loosely packed bales, per bale 1.00 Additional copies of certificates, in double 0.10 Sizing Tests for Silk. All raw-silks, particularly those not reeled with the greatest care, such as is the case with much of the Asiatic product, are subject to considerable variations in size. The ordinary sizing tests, such as have been customarily used, show very well the degree of this uneven- ness, but are not so reliable as a guide to the length, or yardage per pound, of the silk. A new sizing test, in which continuous long lengths of the silk are reeled, which has been introduced by the United States Conditioning and Testing Company, of New York, and which is known as the "Com- pound Sizing Test," has proved of great value in showing, with a very fair degree of accuracy, the real size of the silk, though it does not pre- tend to show the extremes of variation in size, as is done by the old method. Both sizing methods should, therefore, be made use of. European Conditioning House Certificates. European silks are brought into this market on a conditioned weight basis, and have the European testing house documents with them. It f 146 TESTING OR CONDITIONING ;|i is customary for manufacturers here to accept these papers as correct, without further testing. This is not to say that it would not be desira- ble to have the weights again checked off here. Conditioning and Boil-off Tests. One feature of conditioning, of the utmost importance, is that it enables a manufacturer, if he will take the proper steps, to learn ex- actly how much waste his throwster is making, and how much soap, oil, or kindred substances, he is adding to the silk. Silk, in what has been determined to be its normal condition, con- tains of moisture 1 1 per cent, more than its absolute dry weight. The conditioned weight arrived at by the Conditioning House is the dry weight plus this 11 per cent. Silk also contains a soluble gum — seri- cin — which is usually boiled out of it previous to dyeing. This gum, which, by the way, has a slightly greater affinity for moisture than the boiled-off silk itself, varies in amount in different classes of silk and in different lots of the same class, yellow silks hav- ing more than white silks. Thus, yellow Italian or Cevennes silks may lose, on the average, about 24% in boiling-off ; North China silks about 19%; Cantons about 22%; white Levantine silks about 22>4%; and Japans about 18%, while good quality Chefoo tussahs boil off about W/270. To check off the throwster's waste, careful boil-off tests are re- quired as well as conditioning tests. Waste in Throwing and its Causes. Among throwsters, as among other people, there are the good, the indifferent, and the bad. The badness of the bad may be due to inat- tention to their business, to carelessness, to ignorance, and often to the impossibility of getting a proper supply of trained help in the places where the mills are located. Some people also talk freely of the dis- honesty of throwsters, and, for that matter, of manufacturers and raw- silk men, and sometimes names are mentioned. Most people, however, desire to be honest, and most people are or try to be ; and if a manu- facturer sends his silk to be thrown to any firm of decent reputation, and does not expect a price that will show a loss to the throwster, he has little to fear from intentional dishonesty. The waste question in throwing is a vexed one. A frame or two with good help, and on first-class silk, and run under the eye of the management, can be operated with wonderfully little waste. It would not be fair to expect such results from a whole floor. Good silk will make less than poor; good help less than inexperienced help; good management and machinery less than bad. No throwster desires to make undue waste in running his customers' silk, even if, according to the custom of the trade, he does keep and sell such waste as a by- product ; yet all throwsters make at times more waste than they desire. It may not be right, but they cannot help themselves. >> TESTING OR CONDITIONING 147 Help may be scarce in their vicinity, and when help is scarce it is usually careless, indifferent, and independent, and if a girl were sharply taken to task on the waste question, she would promptly leave and get a job inside of an hour somewhere else, and then the spindles would stand until some one else could be found and broken in for the work. Thus, gross waste would go on as the least of two evils. As, however, the throwster originally located where he did to get cheap help, which was then plentiful, and has profited by it in the past, it hardly seems fair that his customer should be mulcted in the waste made later on when conditions had changed. Again, a high-class throwster, with several mills, starts a new mill where all the workers are inexperienced. It goes without saying that, during the period when they are being educated, they will make poor work and lots of waste. A certain silk that might be thrown with a waste of 2% at one of the old mills, might suffer 6% in waste in the new mill. If the customer was allowed to become aware of this, would he tolerate it ? On your life, he would not. Ignorance and indifference of foremen, poor and cheap machinery or good machinery neglected, poor bobbins and poor methods will all assist in filling the waste bags. Whether it be his fault or his misfor- tune, no throwster desires to let his customer into these little secrets. It would be too embarrassing. Mistaken Viewpoint of Manufacturers. The manufacturer, too, is often expecting the impossible. Every manufacturer tries to impress his throwster with the idea that he buys none but the very highest grades of silk, when often quite the reverse is the case. He may thus send some No. i Japan filatures to be thrown into organzine, and then profess great surprise at the poor report he gets on the working of the silk ; he says he really cannot understand it ; and then he complains because it turns out poor organzine; but he would complain more if he knew how much waste it had made. Mean- time, the cost of throwing to the throwster may be 10 to 20% more than if the lot had been proper organzine stock. Illogical Basis for Throwsters' Charges. The custom of throwing different grades of silk at the same price, only making differences in price for different sizes, is wrong. If lower prices were made on high grades, and higher prices on low grades, it would be fair to the throwster and an encouragement to the manu- facturer to buy the better qualities. This illogicality is recognized, but silks fluctuate so much in quality from season to season that classifying them into exact grades is difficult. Manufacturers' Inconsistent Demands. Some manufacturers, again, object strenuously if they do not get back just as much weight of thrown silk as they sent out in the raw, Ih 148 TESTING OR CONDITIONING or more. In fact, if a silk was run without any soaking whatever, and if the waste was held down to ij4%, so that the customer got back 985 pounds out of 1,000, he would very likely come down upon the throwster with a claim for the other 15 pounds, and would feel himself very badly used at not getting it. The Soaking Bath, and What it Covers Up, When silk is soaked in a bath containing such reasonable amount of soap and oil in the water as is required for softening the g^ms and assisting the working of the silk, it may have added to its weight in this way, say, 2 or 3%. In the throwing of such silk, if of fair quality, the waste made may run up to 2 or 3%. Thus, in practice, the one off- sets the other, and the weight of the thrown silk would be not far from the weight of the raw-silk, and this is what is looked for. When excessive waste has been made, or if some of the silk has been lost, damaged or stolen, a shortage would be apparent, and the easiest way to avoid any controversy is to add to the soaking bath such quantity of soap, oil, or other substance as will bring the weight up to the normal. This is customarily done. The customer is not getting back as much silk as he should, and he does not know it ; and the only way he can know it is by the assistance of the Conditioning House. How the Throwing Waste is Determined. To determine the exact amount of waste made by the throwster, it is necessary to ascertain four facts: the conditioned weight of the raw-silk ; the conditioned weight of the thrown silk ; the percentage of boil-off of the raw-silk ; and the percentage of boil-off of the thrown silk. All of the silk, therefore, both before and after throwing, should be tested at the Conditioning House for weight and for boil-off. After the raw-silk has been tested for weight, the Conditioning House reserves certain skeins for boil-off, and then ships the lot to the throwster. When the silk has been thrown, it is sent back to the Conditioning House, where the weight is again tested, and then samples from skeins of the thrown silk, and also from the reserved skeins of the raw-silk, are boiled-off together, and the boil-off of each is ascertained. If the boil-offs are not made together, inaccuracies may result. The boil-off report on the raw-silk will shew the percentage of gum that it contains, and the test on the thrown silk will show, in addition, the loss due to soap and oil added by the throwster. Insoluble Substances in Soaking Baths, Some unscrupulous throwsters, to conceal excessive waste which they may have made, will introduce into the soaking bath certain sub- stances for the silk to take up which will not boil out in the testing. it TESTING OR CONDITIONING 149 This is contrary to the rules of the Silk Throwsters* Association, and is a most reprehensible practice, and one which should be punishable legally. Rule for Figuring the Throwing Waste. The following Rule will show the proper method of figuring the throwing waste: From the conditioned weight of the raw-silk deduct the percentage of the boil-off in the raw, and the remainder will be the conditioned weight, boiled-off, raw-silk, (pure fibre). From the conditioned weight of the thrown silk, deduct the per- centage of the boil-off of the thrown silk, and the remainder will be the conditioned weight, boiled-off, thrown silk, {pure fibre). From the conditioned weight, boiled-off, raw-silk, deduct the con- ditioned weight, boiled-off, thrown silk, and the remainder will be the amount of the conditioned weight, boiled-off, waste made, {pure fibre). The relation that the weight of this waste bears to the weight of the conditioned weight, boiled-off, raw-silk, will be the percentage of loss made in the throwing. Regarding Claims Against Throwsters. Properly substantiated data on the above lines are absolutely neces- sary to maintain a claim for excessive waste against a throwster, and failure to supply such evidence would compel an arbitration committee to decide against a manufacturer. Most arbitrations, where manu- facturers claim damages from dyer, finisher, throwster, or raw-silk merchant, are almost uniformly decided against the manufacturer, and the fault is nearly always his; whatever the merits of his contention, he does not produce the proper evidence. Interesting Determinations Yet to be Made. There are many interesting questions in conditioning that are not yet determined, and which, it is to be hoped, the testing houses will some day arrive at. One of them is the different degree of receptive- ness to moisture of silk in its different states. It is agreed to add 11% for raw-silk. As, however, the gum seems to have the superior ab- sorbing power, a silk with heavy gum should normally have more moisture than a silk with light gum. Then, there is thrown silk, car- rying soap and oil ; silk in its boiled-off state ; when pure dyed ; when weighted (and with different weighting agents) ; when weighted and dyed ; also when dyed in souples ; all of these may have, and probably do have, different hygroscopic qualities. The amount of twist, also, in a thread will probably affect its absorbing power. Again, there is the action of moisture on cloth. We all know how much better a piece of red silk feels than a piece of gray or beige. The manner in which the dye-stuff feeds the fabric will, of course, account for some of this difference, but how much is due to the superior moist- 1 1 150 TESTING OR CONDITIONING ure absorbing power of the red, or of the mordant used in dyeing it? It would be interesting if the Conditioning House would secure from some manufacturer, say, twenty one-yard lengths of representa- tive shades of some standard fabric, and test them for the benefit of the trade to see if such an influence affected any of the colors ma- terially. In conclusion, I might say that a good maxim for all silk manu- facturers would be "Cultivate the Conditioning House habit." Important Points to Bear in Mind, I will close this with a few extracts from "The Value of Condi- tioning," published by the United States Conditioning and Testing Co., a book of which I am pleased to say that a very substantial part was written by myself. "The real value of all silk is, and must be, based on the Conditioned Weight, Boiled-Off, Thrown Silk. This is what you get, though few will compare costs to ascertain this only Real Value. VARIATION IN TESTS. "As the whole principle of conditioning is based on removing small samples from a large amount of silk, and putting these samples through various tests, a slight variation will occur, as the samples cannot be assumed to exactly represent the whole lot to be tested." "These variations in any case will be slight. Difference in condi- tioned weights should not exceed ^ of 1%, in boil-off tests ^ of 1%, and in sizing tests variation will be greater as the quality becomes lower." "Elasticity and tenacity (strength) are greatly affected by variations in moisture, nature, size, etc." "In making twisting tests, a variation may be shewn in places where spindles have been started up, or have slipped, or when there is greater stretching due to tension." "In measuring skeins the variation of the tension or stretch, etc., may make a difference of perhaps 1%." "In rainy weather, the same silk will automatically increase in weight as much as THREE per cent, over its weight in ordinary dry weather. Because of its power to absorb moisture its weight CAN be still further increased, through artificial means, as much as thirty (30) per cent." "To buy silk without having it sized at the Conditioning House means a variation of perhaps five per cent, or more in the cost of your mer-^ chandise, due to heavier or lighter goods, the requiring of more or less picks, etc." ELASTICITY AND TENACITY "The following table gives approximately, for general guidance, the Elasticity and Tenacity to be reasonably expected for the different grades of silk. Elasticity. 25% average stretch is a very good result 20% average stretch is a good result 18% to 20% average stretch is a fair result Under 18% average stretch is a poor result TESTING OR CONDITIONING 151 Tenacity (Breaking Strength). The average size in deniers multiplied by 4 is a very good result by 3J4 IS a good result yy 3 IS a. fair result Under 3 is a poor result One metre (39.37 inches) is tested: Elasticity in millimetres and Tenac- ity in grams." "Don't believe in any testing, unless made by persons properly trained, and with accurate instruments." THE VALUE OF CONDITIONING. FOR WEIGHT. You know exactly how many pounds you should pay for. FOR VARIATION IN SIZE AND FOR AVERAGE SIZE. You are shewn the regularity of the silk and the average yardage per pound. FOR ELASTICITY AND TENACITY. Enables you to select the right lots for different fabrics, thus helping production. Even the best silks, and of the same mark, vary widely. INSPECTION TEST. Is a guide in examining quality before acceptance. BOIL-OFF TEST. Shews returns and clearances from the throwing. Shews the proper amount of weighting to order from dyer. FOR TWIST. Shewing if your silk has been twisted as ordered. MEASURING TEST. Tells if your skeins are of proper length. COMBINATION TEST. Automatically keeps you posted in several im- portant directions." XIV THE COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS. There is no point more important for the manufacturer to know about than the cost of his goods, and on no question does he feel more uncertainty. In fact, it is only after the annual balance sheet has been made that he can arrive at fairly exact conclusions. Difficulties in the Way. The reasons for this are various, one of the principal ones being that the question of the volume of the product of a mill is closely inter- woven with the cost of that product, and no one can tell in advance, for reasons that will be stated hereafter, how much the output will fall short of the normal ; while, on the other hand, a maximum limit on the product is set by the number of looms operated, and the speeds at which they can be run. Again, some lines of goods, such as novelties, are sure to involve heavy losses in case of cancellations of orders; and usually, in such cases, more or less cancellations for late delivery, or defective work- manship, or because the buyer concludes he does not want them, are inevitable. Who can say what should be figured against on this score ? The fluctuations of the raw material market, the varying expenses of the mill, the percentage of seconds produced, the amount of waste made, the changes in the cost of labor, or of dyeing, or throwing, and many other causes, all of which affect the costs of the goods in proc- ess, and none of which can be determined in advance, are also reasons why it is impossible to say what the exact cost of any fabric will be. Among all the mills in the trade, it would probably be hard to find two which costed their goods in exactly the same way. The personal views taken by managers as to the best method to be pursued vary widely, and the character of the goods made, the limitations of the COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 153 plant, and the way in which the business is done, will all have their mfluence. Undercosting by Mill Managers, A factor not to be overlooked is the desire of the average mill man to nS!!l^.f T\T ^"""""F^ *° ^^""^ ^'^ employers a profit at the market price of the fabric, and fortunes may be lost in this way if his employ- A firm, whether a new concern or one turning onto new lines of goods, engages a superintendent and sends him out to their mills Thev then send him samples of various fabrics which are either on the mar- ket, or which, if brought out, would command a given price The superintendent-allowing that he be a man of experience and iaiowl- edge— calculates them properly and reports back costs that would show a loss at the market prices. More samples, and yet again more are sent him, and sti 1 no profit can be figured. His employers are uAable ^ferforTn ^t";^"' '^T^u""}^^'' ^' *° ^'^^'P'"^"* °^ '" °ther respects are mferior to those of their competitors, or they may actually know that hey are better than most of them, and they cannot understand why there should be a loss on fabrics made at their mills at prices that other ™l!!r ^^^V^ ^^^ ''"•'j,"^'' ^*- ^""& «^"^»y salesmen, and not manufacturers, it is impossible to make them believe in the reality of trZ^^Jl^ condition and of course the mill management is blamed for lack of knowledge of how to make goods as well, and as cheaply as their competitors. "^ ■'' . i/tl ^I''^ u '^^t °^ }^^ ^^^^' *^ "^^ superintendent is likely to be [f d^-^i u ^^^u^'^u^ ^™ 'I'^y *°"^''t ^^ ^^^ his business; that InH .^ ; T^'i^ ^^ ^^^^ V.'"^''^ S°°^^ ^^ <=heap'y as the other fellow ; If^ thi' ^^.'J^ fi^--" noth'ng- but a loss on everything submitted to him, they will dispense with his services and look for iome one who knows how to make a profit. Under prevailing conditions, the fear of such an outcome is ever present with the new man, and, after reporting too high a cost on a few fabrics, he feels that he must do something.^ He therefore tries hard ^i^^T^^u V°^^ ¥ *^^""^ *^' a •»*" &^ade of silk than usual w^ do the work; that he will get a larger product than he ordinarUy I^aI: ^"r A he necessary to speed his looms beyond the limits of good practice ; that he will save a little on this and on that, and finally he gets the cost where he wants it. That is, he hopes that his cost will De s or ID per cent, less than his experience would justify Some other and bolder spirit may adopt the much simpler process of deliberately undercosting the goods to the extent desired, knowing well that his principals will not know the difference, and hoping that other and profitable work may come to the mill that will cover up the losses. Even if the losses would show up at the end of the year a V <: 154 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS judicious overcosting of the stock at the mill would conceal them, and if a rising raw-silk market helped the process, and the mill was large enough, it might be two or three years, even if running largely on undercosted fabrics, before his employers (using such mill account- ings as are commonly to be found in use), would be aware of what a hole there was in their assets. They would have lost a lot of money if they had done a large business on the goods, and a large business is likely to be done on undercosted goods, and if the superintendent was in their employ at the time of the expose, he would lose his position. If able to do so, however, he would have probably secured a position with some other firm before he came to the end of his rope, the big busi- ness he was doing for the first firm being a help to him in securing the second post, and the same tactics would be repeated with them if necessity demanded. Necessity for Principals to Know How to Cost Their Goods. It is therefore of the first importance that some member of every firm, whose pocket is affected by the loss or profit at a mill, should have, or should acquire sufficient knowledge to enable him to ascertain the approximate correctness of all cost sheets. The desirability of having all manufacturers able to cost their goods properly is apparent when it is considered how seriously a whole trade can be hurt by a few mills ofTering goods at less than their real cost, and no competition is worse than that of some large, solvent, and respectable concern that is offering its goods on that basis without knowing it. Such concerns may make a profit in other directions which keeps them solvent, or they may finally fail, and when they do so it seems as if there were a dozen more to take their place, and meantime the damage to the trade has been large. Be this as it may, there is not a season passes without many lines of goods appearing on the market which the best-equipped and best-managed mills in America could not make at the price and get out whole. Desirability of Standard Cost Sheets. It would seem to he desirable if, for the various classes of silk fab- rics, some standard forms, to he followed in the making up of costs, could he worked out hy the united efforts of representative firms or dissociations, and thus new and inexperienced -firms would have the benefit of such guidance. There would, of course, be nothing altruistic about such a policy, as it ivould have for its sole object the prevention of injury to the trade by the ignorance of firms undercosting their goods. In any event, it is desirable to have a carefully printed form for filling in, covering all the items of cost, so that none can he overlooked. The Ribbon Manufacturers* Cost Sheet. NOTE.-— This article, with the foregoing suggestions, was originally COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 155 published in "Silk," in January, 1908, and the writer has since urged, in "lany ways, the necessity of a standard cost sheet. , The value of these recommendations has at last been recognized, for, in the autumn of 1912 the Silk Ribbon Division of the Silk Associktion of America found it advisable to adopt this exact policy which had been thus outlined nearly five years before. As a result, a well considered form of cost sheet (in the preparation of which the writer lent his assistance), was adopted, and the use of the same was recommended to the trade. c The necessity of this was made clear by the fact that large numbers u 1^ u'^^^" manufacturers were hopelessly ignorant of how their goods should be costed. This was demonstrated by the furnishing to a consid- erable number of them certain samples for calculation, all of the details for making the costs being stated, with the result that figures were handed in running from 30% below cost, by slow gradations, up to 32% above cost. It is very desirable that the broad silk interests should move in the matter also. What May Happen if No Form he Used. A failure to use a printed form may have a result such as in a case that I heard of, where a velvet-cap manufacturer was selling his goods so cheap that a brother manufacturer expostulated with him. He claimed, however, to be making a good profit, and volunteered to show his cost sheet, which, when produced, was found to have every item of cost carefully set down— except the velvet of which the caps were made. The Main Elements of Cost. The main elements of cost in a fabric are the raw materials and their preparation— throwing, dyeing, etc. ; the labor directly applied to the goods, such as weaving, warping, twisting, picking, etc. ; the finish- ing, or piece dyeing ; and the general expense, which item should cover interest on capital and all other interest, depreciation, all labor not di- rectly applied to the goods, rentals, power, mill expenses and supplies of every kind, salaries of partners, officers and clerks, and every other expense entailed upon the business and not specifically provided for on the cost sheet. Expenses that are Well Denned. Certain parts of the cost are quite accurately known. Thus the throwster makes a specific charge for his work (though you may be unaware of how much waste he makes), and so does the dyer, and like- wise the finisher. If these processes, or any of them, are done in the mill, the cost sheet should be charged with exactly the same price that would be paid for them if done outside, any profit made on the process going to the credit of the account of that department. The prices to be paid for the warping, beaming, twisting or draw- ing in, winding, doubling, quilling, and picking, are either fixed by the mill price lists or, if there is anything special about them, they can be figured out with fair accuracy. 156 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS Estimating the Price for Weaving. Estimating the price to be paid for weaving demands careful thought, however, as it is largely dependent upon the product that can be got out. This will depend upon the quality and size of the silk that is to be used, and the care with which it is thrown, dyed, and warped; the density of the warp and how it is reeded; the character and weave of the cloth ; the width of the fabric and picks per inch ; the character and condition of the looms and their speed, or the speed at which they may be run for the goods under consideration ; the or- ganization of the mill, on which depends the having warps ready to follow on with, and the prompt putting of the same in the looms and starting them up to follow those that are run out; the length of the warps ; the continuity of work, which depends on the success of the sell- ing force ; the policy of the mill in regard to quality of work, as where certain imperfections will not pass muster at the examining table and so, if they occur in the weaving, the weaver must stop his loom and pick out his filling back to the imperfection; and lastly, the average ability and experience of the weavers themselves. It is generally desirable to fix a rate at which a weaver can earn fair wages. Any man who cannot earn such wages should be let go, for, even if he were willing to work along at a pittance, the mill would be suffering on account of his looms not turning out their proper quota of goods. If, bearing all the foregoing conditions in mind, a proper rate should have been fixed, it will be found that after the goods are well started on the looms the majority of the weavers will be making their average rate of pay, and all will be well. If, however, the product has been overestimated, the rate fixed will be found to be too low, and in a few days the weavers will demand a higher rate to bring them out where they should be. This will mean an increase of cost, both for weaving and for general expense (on account of reduced output), and that, too, after the line of goods is on the market and its price fixed. On the other hand, if the product is extra large, it is, in practice, very difficult to cut down, during the season, the rate of pay on an article once established, unless it is going to be run continuously, and so the mill suffers by paying out more for weaving than should have been necessary. Three of the main elements of cost are not fixed quantities. I refer to the amount of silk that enters into the fabric, the cost of that silk, and the proper charge for the general expense. Variation in Size of Silk from Take-up in Twist. No matter what care is used in the selection and preparation of silk, it will vary considerably in size. Also, in the throwing of the silk there is a take-up in twist, on which subject much misconception exists. The writer has heard many different opinions expressed on this matter by COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 157 supposedly competent men, in some cases this take-up being estimated as high as 7 per cent, for organzine, and in other cases belief was ex- pressed that there was no loss in length at all, as their practice was not to dry out the silk after soaking, but to wind it while damp, and, being in that state easily stretched, it gained as much in stretch, while going through the various processes, as the take-up in twist would amount to, though at the expense of the elasticity of the silk. The percentage of these take-ups will vary with the number of turns of twist, the number of threads, the size of the silk, and the tension under which it is worked, etc. After ordinary twists are exceeded, the shortening increases rap- idly, and, for the same twist, the take-up is greater in coarse sizes than in finer ones. The reverse, or second-time, twisting in organzine, or in any yarns of two or more ply, untwists the turns put into the single thread in the first-time twisting. Taking 13/15 denier silk as a basis, and allowing that it be thrown into 2-thread organzine, with 16/12 to 16/14 turns per inch, wound dry, and put through all processes under normal tension, the best opinions agree upon a take-up of from 3 to 4 per cent. This is in line with the writer's own determinations, the average of many careful tests made on 2-thread organzine, thrown from 13/15 denier silk, with 16/12 turns per inch, being 3.60 per cent. Many manufacturers believe that the take-up in twist of tram is negligible, but this is by no means so. For certain twists and sizes (not including hard twists), it may run up to 2 per cent., or again it may be as low as J^ per cent. Under ordinary conditions it might therefore be well to calculate on a take-up of 35^ per cent, for organzine and i per cent, for tram. A European method, sometimes followed in this country, is to al- low 3 per cent, on both warp and filling, but throwing is conducted under somewhat different conditions over there. When figuring the dramage of the thrown silk from the size of the raw, this increase in thickness, due to the twist, should always be al- lowed for. Modifying Construction to Compensate for Difference in Size. The number of ends that should go into the warp, and the way they should be reeded, having been carefully thought out, it would not be convenient or desirable to change this to suit any ordinary variations in the size of the silk. Still, if the warp is heavier than usual, the attempt may be made to balance it by reducing the number of picks, or by using a little finer filling than usual, and the reverse of this if the warp is on the fine side. It may well happen, and frequently does, that both warp and filling run heavy at the same time, and then the goods are almost sure to get 158 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS more material in them than calculated, and, if they are both fine, so many extra picks will be required to bring up the weight that more weaving wages may have to be paid. Also, in case of warp and filling not balancing, a remnant of one or the other will remain at the end of the work, which will have to be used up, or sold, at a loss. The Take-up in Weaving, The loom take-up, or amount that the warp shortens in weaving, must always be allowed for. It varies with different weaves and the calculation has to be modified to suit. The limits for ordinary fabrics will mostly be between the extremes of 6 per cent, for a satin duchesse, and lo per cent, for a closely woven taffeta. If I GO yards of cloth are woven on the loom at the normal tension, this amount, when rolled off loosely and handled, will be found to have crept up till it measures no more than perhaps 96 to 99 yards, accord- ing to whether it is a loose weave or a close weave. Allowance for Waste. In estimating the amount of silk required, the waste must be al- lowed for. Waste is made in all processes, but particularly in weaving. With good silk, good preparation, and good management, this item should not be large, though with the reverse conditions it may be dis- tressing. A very customary allowance to make is 4 per cent, for warp and 7 per cent, for filling, an average of 5>4 per cent, if equal quanti- ties were used. These figures, while none too high for fancies — and not high enough in certain cases — are rather large for a plain goods production in which, on close calculations, figures of 3 per cent, for warp and 5 per cent, for filling should suffice. Raw-silk warps, again, may be worked within a 2 per cent, wastage. The writer's experience has been that, on steady work, with an output of two-thirds plain fabrics and the rest fancies, using high- class silk and with skillful help, the waste actually made can be kept down to an average of 2^ per cent, right along. To this should be added something to cover the losses, made in the sale or in the working up of any remnant lots left on the bobbins. Filling Figured on Width in Reed. In calculating the filling required, the length of the picks should be taken as being the same as the width that the goods are in the reed. Careful tests show that it is very slightly in excess of this, but so lit- tle as generally to be negligible. The ends used in the selvages of the goods should be included in the warp requirements. As each of the foregoing points will affect the amount of material that must be provided for a given quantity of goods, it is evident, as COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 159 previously stated, that it is impossible to say exactly how much will be required. Raw-silk Prices. A very grave question is the price at which the silk shall be figured m at, and different mills, making the same or similar fabrics, may treat this subject so differently that their asking prices may vary consid- erably in consequence. Now, the most important costs are those of plain fabrics of large sale, on which the competition is therefore verv sharp, and on which It IS hard to secure any but the most meagre profit. When prices are once fixed for the season on such a line, and the goods well distributed It is generally impossible to secure any advance even if costs go up,' for a demand for an increased price on later orders would only result in stopping the sales, some competitor always standing ready to book business at the old figure. A failure on the part of a mill to price its goods on as low a level as the average market price made by other firms for similar goods— which perhaps, may not even be quite so good but which answer the purpose' will result in very little business being booked, and one is then con- fronted with the alternative of a great loss by the stoppage of looms, and consequent disorganization and shortage of production at the mills, (always an unknown quantity, but always very large), or a probably smaller loss by accepting business at the ruling market rate which may be less than cost. The latter alternative is frequently ac- cepted, as no house wishes to lose its customers, even for a season or to have its goods pushed out by those of its rivals, for when once 'out It IS a difficult and expensive matter to get back in the swim again. The stock of silk provided for the season's business has also got to be considered, for, if not worked up, it will lock up capital, eat up interest, and, if the market goes off, it may depreciate heavily in price. Some mills, too, are under the military necessity of keeping run- ning, as they are financially so weak that to stop 'production would mean liquidation, and liquidation would mean insolvency. They must run, as they must have the advances from their commission houses, on goods coming forward, to take care of maturing payments, and to make stock goods for advances would mean a much heavier loss when they were cleaned up than what doing an order business even at a cent or two less than cost would be. All of this emphasizes the vital importance of properly determining the raw-silk costs, and the fear of figuring the goods too high leads frequently to the giving away to customers, in the shape of too low prices, handsome profits that the mill should have reaped from large purchases of raw material made at a much lower level than the ruling market. i6o COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS I Losses Caused by Fluctuations in Raw Material Prices. This is one of the reasons why goods will be so slow to advance even when higher silk has increased the costs largely, as some mills will have a lot of cheap silk contracted for, but, owing to the pressure put on them by their customers and their own salesmen, they are bluffed out of getting the increase that they should, and take orders at old prices so long as their cheap silk lasts, not making any serious effort to get an advance till they have to go into the market for new silk. Mean- time, other houses, not so well situated in the matter of raw material, are forced to meet the old prices and to accept business on an un- profitable basis. ; If, on the other hand, the silk market falls sharply, or shows signs of great weakness, there are always some houses, short of silk, who discount the situation by offering to book orders at a lower level, trust- ing to cover themselves with silk, when it is needed, at a satisfactory price. They often profit handsomely by this policy, but those who are long of silk, or of stock goods, suffer severely by the increased depre- ciation caused by these bear tactics. Whichever way it goes, the buyer is favored, and every season, when prices fluctuate much, some or other of the mills are heavy losers. How Cancellations Affect the Manufacturers, This is entirely apart from the loss that comes home to mills when they have to buy higher priced silk than figured on to fill their orders, or the loss that falls on them by the practice of nominally respectable dry-goods, or cutting-up, houses, welching on their contracts when the market fails heavily, and to fill which contracts manufacturers have provided the silk necessary to make them. These manufacturers have got to keep their contracts to the letter with the raw-silk houses from whom they have ordered their supplies of raw materials, and, consequently, on such silk they are left to swal- low a loss of a dollar or two a pound by the disreputable and dishonest acts of those merchants who consider themselves most respectable and most honest. r ^ . In such a difficult and complicated business as silk manufacturing, in which so many unforeseen emergencies arise, every mill must suf- fer more or less from those cancellations that the buyer is quite justi- fied in making, such as for late delivery, faulty construction, inferior quality, off shades, or failure to produce goods commercially up to the sample' from which they were sold. Such cancellations are legitimate, and a part of the game, and the manufacturer must lay out his work and make his goods so as not to incur the risk of them, and for such as are unavoidable, he must grin and bear it. . ,. r The other sorts of cancellations, however, are simply an indirect form of larceny, particularly in view of the fact that, if the market for raw- silk has advanced, every buyer will demand the delivery of every piece COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS i6i bought and at the price arranged for, no matter what it costs the manu- facturer to provide the silk. These cancellations are very bitter pills, but are swallowed by the sellers as the least of two evils, as no one feels like having to sue the majority of his customers. In any other trade, a house that deliberately repudiated its contracts, because it seemed profit- ble to do so, would be kicked out of the company of its associates, and it is an interesting question how long the textile manufacturers will consent to be robbed in this way, or if they will ever organize them- selves in such an effective manner as to compel the houses ordering their goods to practice common honesty . How Should the Raw-silk he Figured f Having in mind the importance of this matter of not making any mistake in pricing the silk on the cost sheet, how should one proceed ? If the market is firm and steady the current quotations for the quality of the silk needed may be taken ; or the average cost of such suitable silk as a mill has on hand (whether bought lower or higher than the ruling price) may be averaged up with whatever quantity of new silk will be needed for the season's business ; or the view may be taken that the market is likely to be a rising one, and a guess made as to how much extra to allow to cover this contingency ; or, conversely, if the market is thought to be weak, a lower cost basis may be made in the hope of covering at lower prices. Such views as these, or perhaps other ones, may prevail, and as one or the other may best suit the interest of the various mills, there can, of course, be no concert of action in such cases, no matter how desirable it might be. The question is further complicated by the policy of the different mills, some using a Best No. i, some an Extra, and some an Extra Classical, for the same work, and by the fact that these grades vary in merit from season to season, so that one year an Extra will do the work that required an Extra Classical the year before. It may safely be said, however, that a manufacturer is seldom justified in pric- ing his silk at a less cost than he has reason to believe he can replace it at during the season. A point often lost sight of is that of the terms on which the silk is bought. Between a lo-day purchase and a 6-months' one, there is a difference of 3 per cent., and, between a silk bought on a conditioned weight basis and an Asiatic silk bought on invoice weight there may be a difference of 2 per cent. This should be allowed for. Some firms, who discount their bills, may put in the silk at the net price and other firms who take the time will figure on the gross price. Of course, if the net discounted price on the raw-silk is used, the item of general expense will be correspondingly higher, as the money used to pay the bill must bear interest, whether borrowed or not, and the interest included in the general expense will be just that much greater. i62 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS The General Expense Item. We now come to the important point of the proper figure to allot for general expenses. This is a very vexed question and hardly any two people handle it in exactly the same way. The experience of a mill as to its annual expenses (which should be carefully tabulated at the end of every year) will furnish a fairly accurate estimate as to the money that it will cost to take care of the many items of mill cost, such as power, light, heat, water, rentals, sup- plies, mechanical labor, and other labor paid for by the week and not included in the cost sheet, salaries, clerk hire, insurance, taxes, interest charges, depreciation, office expense, delivery and transportation ex- pense, etc. These costs may increase or diminish from year to year (they generally increase) but the record of each year is a guide to the next. Any rentals to be paid are known. So are the salaries of officers, or partners. The various items will amount to a large sum of money. Losses from "Seconds" Another thing not to be forgotten is an allowance to cover the losses arising from seconds. Some seconds there always will be, and their amount will depend on the class of goods made, the skill of the help, the character and methods of the management, and a certain amount of sheer luck. Losses from this cause should be accurately tabulated and included in the estimates. Figuring the Depreciation of Plant. Then comes the important item of depreciation of machinery and plant. The depreciation is a real thing. Replacements must be pro- vided for, and whatever is set aside for this purpose should be with- drawn annually from the active uses of the business, in cash, and in- vested as a sinking fund, to the end that when new equipment is needed the cash will be within reach to pay for it and not, as is com- monly the case, melted in with the general assets of the business where it cannot be reached. Various views of depreciation are taken. Some firms write oflf 10% of the original value annually, so that at the end of ten years they have no more to write off. Others write off io% on the yearly diminishing amount, till it is reduced to from 25 to 40% of the original cost, and then stop writing off, figuring that in selling the machinery as second hand it would realize that sum. Others write off 25 to 50% immediately on the installation of the machinery, and then 5 to 10% a year thereafter. On no subject are views and methods more diverse, or so often illogical. I know an owner of great cotton mill interests, who, wishing to keep the rate of dividends steady, does his writing off according to circumstances. In a good year he will write off 15 to 20% ; in a bad year, nothing. If there are enough good years to keep the average right, there is some- COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 163 thing to be said in favor of this way of charging the profits with the amount of depreciation expenses that they will stand. My own opinion is that the sum of money to be set aside an- nually, should be about 7J^% on the new cost of textile machinery, if the same is constantly kept in the best kind of repair; 2j4% on good brick buildings, well kept up, and 10% on boilers, engines, etc. Engines, properly cared for, do not wear out in practice, and boilers have a longer life than ten years, yet, if a business grows, they have to be replaced from time to time by larger units, and when removed will hardly sell for the cost of handling them. Expenditures on Interest Account. The interest paid out for loans from banks or commission houses is easily arrived at. The expense account of the business, too, is properly chargeable with legal interest on the net value of the assets, that is, the value of the capital invested in the business. This is a sum that will probably change from time to time as money is made or lost, and interest should be charged up accordingly. Here an in- teresting point comes up : "A," "B," and "C" are partners, "A" contributing the capital, say $500,000, and the others the experience. The business is charged with $30,000 a year interest due "A" for the use of his capital, and this sum has to be earned before any profits are made for the partners as a firm. Later the concern is incorporated, "A'* taking shares for his capital. He now ceases to receive his 6 per cent, interest directly, and the earnings of the concern as a corporation will appear to be $30,000 a year greater than as a private firm, and what is of real importance, this $30,000 will no longer be included in the expenses of the business and will make the item of general expenses that much less. If the mill had an output of 2,000,000 yards a year the ap- parent cost of the goods made by the corporation would be ij/^ cents a yard less than the cost of the same goods made by the firm. Designing Expenses. In the costing of figured goods, where the expense for designs and cards runs up to a large amount, or in printed and print-warp goods, where big sums are paid for designs, rollers, and sampling, the proper expressing of these expenses on the cost sheet is most difficult. The number and cost of the patterns that must be provided for the amount of business done is absurd, and the two horns of the dilemma are that if you do not offer a big collection to the trade you get but few orders, while if you base your costs with a view to being recouped for these expenses, it lands you at a price where you can do no business at all. Gentlemen from the dress-silk end of the trade, who have branched out into the neck-tie silk trade have learned something on this score. i64 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS •li' This neck-tie silk trade has huge expenses special to it, among which may be mentioned the enormous number of styles on which the busi- ness is done; the considerable stock of warps and dyed silk that has to be carried to make the short time deliveries demanded in that trade ; the very short warps and the special designs ordered, and the conse- quent great expense for the labor and material required to make them ; and among the many other difficult features may be mentioned the curse of having to make advance samples, when, for quite a period, much of the mill will be running on sample warps at great ex- pense, for which next to nothing is received. Many who have in- vaded that field have realized the truth of the saying that the cobbler should stick to his last. Partners' Salaries. Regardless of what the salaries of partners, or Corporation officers,^ actually are, the expense account should properly carry only fair charges for this item, that is, such sums as these officials might be worth if they hired themselves out elsewhere. If they are much over- paid in the shape of salary, it is an injustice to the shareholders, and,. by increasing the cost of the goods, renders the mill less able to meet competition. How to Apportion the General Expense. The annual expense being in a measure approximated, how should it be allotted to the fabrics being made? Very many people add a percentage to the total of the other items of the cost — a most mislead- ing and defective way, as it takes no account of whether the goods weave fast or slowly, and, as silk goes up or down, the allowance for expense will be raised or lowered, while really it should remain relatively constant. The truth is that the cost per yard for general expense depends upon the amount produced. The product again is a most variable quantity. The theoretical product is easily figured and proper allow- ance can be made for stoppage of looms due to changing shuttles, piecing up broken ends, putting in new warps, and what not. There are rnany elements that cannot so be gauged, which cut down the produc- tion, such as absence of weavers from sickness or other causes, engine or other breakdowns, smashes, scarcity of help, inexperienced help, very hot or cold weather, inferior silk, or silk poorly thrown or dyed, or delays in receiving silk from the throwster or dyer. These are the every-day mill troubles and are quite apart from such special drawbacks as floods, fires, strikes, or lack of orders. In plain-goods mills, 70 per cent, of the theoretical product may be regarded as very good practice, though in mills making only one or two articles and using very long warps and extra size quills, or on blacks only, or making easy weaves with high-class silk, this per- centage can be largely increased. In fancy-goods mills it will be less. COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 165 A very satisfactory way is to figure that each loom must earn its share of the annual expense. Thus, if the total annual expense for 500 looms was $120,000, it would mean that each loom must earn $240 of that sum, and dividing this by fifty loom weeks per annum it means that $4.80 a week must be earned by each loom. If, now, a certain cloth is estimated at a product of 60 yards a week, it would carry an expense of 8 cents a yard, or if 80 yards a week could be got oflP, then the expense would be only 6 cents a yard. Special circumstances may make occasional modifications necessary, but not to any extent. As the weavers* wages per yard are also based on this assumption of a given product, it follows that there is an approximate ratio be- tween such wages and the expenses per yard, and many people figure the expense by taking a percentage of the amount paid for weaving. The apportionment of expense to the looms may be varied, charg- ing diflFerent amounts to the wide or the narrow, the fancy or the plain, and this may properly be done, providing that the total of the allotments equals the expense to be met. There are other methods of handling this important question, but there is one most incorrect way of dealing with it, already noted, and that is by adding for expenses a percentage of the cost. Figures so obtained are seldom right and are often grossly wrong and mis- leading. Steadiness of Operation an Important Factor. Another important consideration is the fact that it is very rarely that a mill is kept sold up all the time, or if sold up, that nothing interferes to prevent its operation at the maximum of efficiency. The records of the experience of a mill in the matter of produc- tion must be used in figuring the general expense. Thus, if 70 per cent, of the theoretical production was being got oflF by the looms in operation, and it was shewn by the mill records that only 80 per cent, of the plant had been actually operated in past practice, then the real per cent, of the theoretical that is being pro- duced is only 70 per cent, of 80 per cent., or 56 per cent, actual, and the expense must be figured accordingly. Illustrative Cost Sheets. On the following pages are presented three forms for use in the making of cost calculations, and which were originated by the writer, one for Broad Silks, and the others for Ribbons, which are correct in principle, and which have worked well in practice. It is believed that a careful study of these forms, and of the explanations regarding them, will be of interest and profit to all silk manufacturers. In the article which follows this (Cost Sheets and Tables of Weights) another and more amplified form of cost sheet, also devised :ll til i66 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS by the writer, is presented, but the methods of costing employed in both cases are identical. If preferred, the items in these forms can be re-arranged so as to group together, first, all the costs connected with the warp, that is, the raw-silk, throwing, dyeing, winding, warping, beaming, and twisting, including provision for take-ups and wastes. In a second group would come the cost of the filling, worked out in like manner, and including the quilling. Then would follow the other items of the cost. If considered desirable, the charges for winding, doubling, and quilling can be figured on the dyed weight basis instead of the raw weight, and, in that case, what the dyed weight of warp and filling would be must be figured out, and multiplied by the prices actually paid for labor on the dyed material. Working from a raw weight basis is the better method, however. Systems of Counts for Numbering Silks. Before considering the cost sheets themselves, it may be well to state that, in figuring out the weights of silk required for warp and filling, it is necessary to clearly understand the systems employed to express the numbers, or counts, of the yarns. The following explana- tion will make this clear. The denier system of counts is used for raw-silks. The dram system of counts is commonly used, in the United States, for thrown silks. A I denier silk (there is no such thing in practice) measures 4,- 464,528 yards per pound, figuring from the length of the European metre, taken as 39.370432 inches. An 11/13 denier silk, averaging 12 deniers, will measure one-twelfth of this, or 372,044 yards per pound; a 14/16 denier size, averaging 15 deniers, will be one-fifteenth of it, and so on. A I dram silk measures 256,000 yards per pound. A 2 dram silk is one-half this, or 128,000 yards ; a 5 dram silk is one-fifth of it, and so on. Rules for Determining the Counts. From these data we derive the following rules: To -find the yardage per pound of any given denier age, divide 4,464,528 by the deniers. To and the size in deniers of any given yardage per pound, divide 4,464,528 by the yardage. To -find the yardage per pound of any given dramage, divide 256,000 by the drams. To find the size in drams of any given yardage per pound, divide 256,000 by the yardage. To reduce any given denierage to drams, divide the deniers by 17.44. COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 167 I. 2. 5. 6. To reduce any given dramage to deniers, multiply the drams by 17.44. Note. When figuring out the size, or dramage, of throzyn silk, always be careful to make due allowance for increase of weight due to the soap and oil added to it by the throwster, and for the take-up in twist in the throwing. If accurate sizing tests have been made, the size of the thrown silk may be worked out from the size of the raw, making proper allowance for take-up in twist, but paying no attention to additions to the weight made by the throwster. The following remarks will present in detail a full explanation as to how the figures are arrived at. The heavy-faced type is used to repre- sent what is written in. REMARKS CONCERNING USE OF THE COST CALCULA- TION FORM FOR BROAD SILK SHOWN HEREWITH. This form is for 100 yards finished cloth. A length of no yards of warp is assumed as enough to cover take-up in weaving, unwoven ends of warp, and headings. This can be modified for goods with more or less take-up. The size, or dramage, of organzine and tram should be figured from Conditioning House tests, and should include an average take- up in twist of about 3J^% for organzine and 1% for tram. The weight of silk for warp and filling should include waste in weaving and preparatory processes, and is here assumed as 4% for warp and 7% for filling, a very full figure if for plain goods. This can be modified according to experience but is an item that is often underestimated. Weights should be figured on Raw Conditioned basis. Figuring the Weight of the Organzine. The figures for organzine are arrived at as follows: The size of the raw-silk, in this case, has been found, by the Compound Sizing Test of the Conditioning House, to be 14.32 deniers. Doubling this, for 2-thread organzine, makes it 28.64, and adding 3^^ per cent, for take-up in twist brings it up to 29.64. Reducing this to drams, by dividing it by the constant 17.44, we get a dramage of 1.70 for the silk, soap and oil not included. Next, divide 256,000 yards — the length of i pound of a i dram silk— by this 1.70 drams, and we get a yardage of 150,588 per pound. We then multiply 6,524 ends by no yards, and find that the warp will require 717,640 yards of silk. To this we add 4 per cent, for waste, or 28,706 yards, making a total of 746,346 yards to be provided. BROAD SILK COST CALCULATION. Pattern ....... ..Quality, J. C Description, Black Taffeta. Reeding, 60/3. Date, January 1, 1998. 100 Yards .35Ji Wide. Width in Reed. 36. [I. '^arp 6416 Ends Organzine 1.70 Drams 4.95 Raw.lbs. ... 110 Yds " 2 Thd. 13/15 Den. " Ex. Jap. Fa ,.... Q $5.95 Selvages ..108=36—1 & 2. !«••«■•< $29>45 ^P« • • • « ^F* • • • • $ Total 6524 Ends fiJ-H^^^ ^ ^'^^'^s Tram 2.57 Drams 3.41 Raw lbs. 100 Yds " 1 End 3 Thd. 14/16 Jap. FiL No. 1, ...@|5.81 I19J1 4€ i Total if., I ^i1 . 88 Picks Warping 110 Yds. 6524 Twisting 6488 Ends @ 25 Weaving : i Shuttle Picking Clipping ',.".'.'.'.'.'.. Cleaning Gen. Ex $4.80 per wVek-*-'«) Yds. Pattern Expense ^ Special Harness Expense .,'. Finishing '' Piece Dyeing or Printing !!!!!*.!!!! Print Wp. Wvg. before Printing .'.'.',' " Filling for same Loom Exp. for same " " Printing — Colors ', Re-beaming Warp *' " Re-twisting Ends *.'.".*.*.*.*. Special Expense Ends @ 3 per CM. $ 1.96 per M. = 1.62 -*- 3 t .54 99 Yards @ 7 $ 6.93 99 Yards 99 Yards 99 Yards 100 Yards ^ 100 Yards @ 100 Yards @ 100 Yards " 100 Yards 110 Yards -lbs 5^... 4 5.33 IM 110 Yards 110 Yards 110 Yards @ per M. •J W ■a [h Net cost of 100 Yards tfts 77 \ygt. per 100 Yds. Raw, 7.95 lbs. Dyei'iiiV ibi.* " Organzine weighted to 24/26 oz. Tram weighted to 30/32 02. 4% is included in above weights for waste of warp 7% is included in above weights for waste of filling. 3J^% is included in above dramage for twist take-up of organzine. l7o IS mclud^d m above dramage for twist take-up of tram. PARTICULARS OF COST OF MATERIALS. ORGANZINE TRAM COTTON, ETC Raw $4.00 Throwing ...$ .70 Thr. Waste.. $ .10=2% Dyeing .....$1.00 Winding $ .15 Doubling ..,$ Quilling $ Total $5.95 $3.80 $. $ .35 $. $ .ll=2y2% $. $1.25 $. $ .15 $. $.... $. % .15 $. $5.81 CONCLUSIONS. Net Mill Cost $ 6577 Net Store Cost, 65.77-^.85.... $ .7738 Regular Selling Price $.8250 Less Com. and Discount. 15%.$ .1238 Net Estimated Returns $ .7012 Less Net Mill Cost $ 4^577 Estimated Profit $ ^35 Weekly product per Loom.. .Yds. 90 Profit per Loom per week $3,915 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 169 Divide this by the yardage per pound of the silk, 150,588, and the weight of the organzine to be provided for the warp, 4.95 pounds, is arrived at. Calculating the Tram, For the tram in this example, the size of the raw-silk has been similarly found to be 14.79 deniers, and this, in 3-thread tram will be 44.37 deniers, to which must be added I per cent, for take-up in twist, making a size of 44.81 deniers. Reducing this to drams, by dividing it by the constant 17.44, we get a dramage of 2.57. Next, divide 256,000 yards by this 2.57, and we get a yardage of 99,611 per pound. There are 88 picks per inch, each 36 inches wide in the reed, re- quiring 88 yards of filling per inch, equal to 3,168 yards per yard, and 316,800 yards for the 100 yards. To this we add 7 per cent, for waste, equal to 22,176 yards, making, in all, 338,976 yards of tram required for the filling. Divide this amount by the 99,611 yards per pound, and the weight of the tram needed for filling, 3.41 pounds, is arrived at, soap and oil not included. The Value of Warp and Filling Tables. To avoid this complicated figuring, it is a useful plan to prepare carefully worked out filling tables for one or more widths of goods, covering all the ordinary ranges of picks per inch, and warp tables for all ordinary ranges of ends per warp, all of them being calculated for 100 yards of cloth. Such tables, of my own composition, will be found elsewhere in this book. Allowances for Take-Ups and Wastes. The weights so set forth can include a standard weaving take-up of the warp of 10 per cent., an allowance for waste of warp of 4 per cent., and an allowance for waste of filling of 7 per cent., or any other percentages desired. The take-up in twist in the throwing, averaging 3j4 per cent, for organzine, and i per cent, for tram, should be included in the dram- age, or size, of the silk when figuring the same from the denier sizes as shown by the Compound Sizing Tests of the Conditioning House, so this allowance should not be included in such tables. How the Details of the Cost Are Worked Out. Continuing our remarks on the calculation before us, we note that the estimated waste in throwing is filled in under "Particulars of Cost of Silk" : it should be figured on the value of the silk plus the throw- ster's charge, instead of on the silk alone. The exact amount of the waste can be ascertained by Conditioning and Boil-off tests. The dyer's charge is made on thrown weight of silk, that is, raw weight plus soap and oil. These additions to the weight usually run k I'f- - ■• f r^» i>i< 170 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS from 2 to 4%. Therefore the figure calculated for dyeing must be the dyer's net price plus this percentage. The winding and quilling costs are figured on the raw-silk weights. The filling is calculated on the full width of the warp in the reed. The warping cost is based on a price for 100 ends of 100 metres (about no yards) length, a very common method. Mills paying on another basis can use a diflEerent factor. The length of warp will yield about 300 yards of cloth, so the twisting cost is divided by 3 to give the cost for 100 yards. In other length warps use a different divisor. Any extra drawing-in or reeding expenses should here be included. Weaving, picking, clipping, and cleaning are taken as 99 yards, be- cause this length, or less, is all that is paid for, as the goods, when relieved from the loom tension, will creep up in length at least i per cent, for a taffeta, and perhaps as much as 3 or 4 per cent, in the case of loosely bound satins. This shrinkage is recovered in the fin- ishing and is thus only a regain, and not a gain as many suppose. In figured goods, where loose threads float on the back, or in plaids where there are loose ends at the edges, which have to be clipped, the cost of this may be paid for separately, or may be included with the picking. Sometimes the weaver is required to clip the edges of plaids, with or without extra pay as the case may be. When cleaning expenses have to be made for a line of goods, experience shews what proportion of the pieces will need cleaning, and thus an average cost per yard can be arrived at. Where mills do their own throwing, dyeing, finishing, or silk print- ing, the market prices for such work should appear in the cost sheets, the profit or loss therefrom to the mill being shewn in the departmental accounts. The finishing is here charged at the market rate. "Pattern Expense" can be filled in according to the character and design of the fabric, and the mill practice. What the General Expense Should Include. "General Expense," as already stated, should include every charge upon the mill (exclusive of selling expense), that is not otherwise specifically provided for. It should cover interests on investment, bonds, and loans from banks, commission houses and others; depre- ciation on buildings, machinery, and power plant ; fire, boiler, accident and other insurances; taxes and assessments; fuel, water and other power-house expenditures ; all labor not otherwise allotted ; salaries of management; office expenses, transportation charges, supplies, inci- dentals, and, in brief, every kind of charge from watering the street to legal expenses. In apportioning this expense, the view here taken is that each loom must pay its share of the total annual expense, as previously explained, and the figure given is worked out by this method. COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS 171 Other Items of the Cost, The cost of beaming has been included in the general expense, but may be figured separately if desired. Frequently it is part of the warping charge. If piece-dyed goods lose in length, see that proper allowance is made on the cost sheet. Some tussah fabrics shrink heavily. The "Weaving before Printing" item is the weaving in of the necessary binding picks every yard or so, to preserve the pattern. In certain goods, umbrella silks, moires, grenadines, etc., there may be some special elements of cost that must be included. Weights and Weighting, The dyed weight of the 100 yards of cloth is found by deducting from the weights of the warp and filling the allowances made for waste (4% and 7%), and then reducing each to the dyed weight corresponding with its ounces of weighting. In deciding what weightings to order, boil-off Conditioning House tests should be carefully studied, so that the proportion of weighting to actual silk fibre will be neither more nor less than desired. Further Remarks. Prices of raw-silks, bought on different terms or on different bases of weights, should be reduced to a uniform basis. If desired, all cost sheets can be made on a settled basis of prices for raw materials, and additions to, or subtractions from, the costs so obtained can be made as required, according to market fluctuations. Selling cost is arrived at by dividing net mill cost by .85, experi- ence shewing the selling expenses and discounts of the average mill to approximate 15%, when goods are sold through a commission house. The heavy faced type represents the written-in calculation, the other is the printed form. The various cost figures given therein are assumed simply for the purpose of illustration, but are quite in line with customary rates. It is needless to say that preliminary calculations should always be checked back and verified by actual results. Note carefully that the principal items of cost are silk, weaving, and general expense. Therefore, the selection of proper raw-silk, wiUi the best throwing and dyeing, improves the product, increases the output, and reduces the cost. To take any chances with these important factors, for some nominal saving in cost, invites the risk of poor goods, excessive waste, in- creased labor cost, and diminished production, with correspondingly higher charges for general expense. It may further be said that, even with the most careful and con- servative figuring, it will generally be found that goods cost more and not less than the estimates. 172 COSTING OF BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS THE COSTING OF RIBBONS. The foregoing explanations and remarks will also apply to the cost calculation forms for Ribbons which follow. An arbitrary figure of $12.00 per week, per loom, has been here assumed as sufficient to cover the general expenses. One of these forms is arranged for 100 yards of single ribbon, which has the advantage in that errors in calculation are much more easily noticed. The other is made out to cover the cost of the entire loom-full of ribbons, which is the more customary way. The principles and methods, however, remain the same. Analyses of the Cost Sheets, . It is often very instructive to analyze the cost sheets, and to see just how much of the cost is made up of raw material, how much of labor, and so forth. I present here such a subdivision of the foregoing calculations of Broad Silks and of Ribbons. ANALYSIS OF BROAD SILK COST. Percentages of Cost. $ % Raw-Silk 32.76 .498 Throwing 4.66 .071 Th. Waste 87 .013 Dyeing 9.21 .140 Winding 1.25 .019 Quilling 51 .008 Warping 1.96 .029 Twisting 54 .008 Weaving 6.93 .106 Picking 75 .011 Finishing 1.00 .015 General Expense 5.33 .082 65.77 1.000 ANALYSIS OF RIBBON COST. Percentages of Cost. S % Raw-Silk 3.76 .459 Throwing 54 .066 Th. Waste 10 .012 Dyeing 88 .108 Winding 15 .018 Quilling 06 .007 Warping 23 .028 Twisting 06 .007 Weaving 99 .121 Picking 08 .010 Finishing, Blocking and Boxing 45 .055 General Expense 89 .109 8.19 1.000 RIBBON COST CALCULATION. (For 100 Yards=10 ten-yard pieces.) Date. January 1, 1908. Pattern. .......... . ••••••••• Quality. X. L 100 Yards. Width. 45 Lignes. Description. Black Taffeta. Spaces, 18. Reeding. 60/3. Width, 4 Inches. WARP UOYds 726 Ends Organzine 1.70 Drarn^ 58 Raw lbs " 2 Thd. 13/15 Den. Jap. Ex. Fil " $5.65. Selvages .. 48—24/2 Total . . 774 Ends FILLING 88 Picks Tram 2.57 Drams 38 Raw 100 Yds 'I 1 End 3 Thd. 13/15 Den. Jap. FU. No. 1. Total ., .$ 3.28 • 9 • • • • • .$ .$ lbs. $5.81 88 Picks $ 2.21 :$::.v.' Warping. 110 Yards 774 Ends @ 3 per Twisting, 7M Ends.... @ 25perM.$ Weaving. 1.80 per cut-^18 spaces-?- 10 '99 Yards @ Picking, ^ per piece 99 Yards @ f'PPi.ng 99 Yards @ Cleaning 99 Yards @ General Ex., $12.00 per week-Hi8 spaces -^75 Yds.= iOO Yards @ , Pattern Expense lOQ Yards '» bpecial Harness Expense 100 Yards Finishing. Blocking and Boxing 100 Yards Piece Dyeing, or Printing lOO Yards Print Warp, Weaving before Printing 110 Yards Filling for same lbs. m .. h^P"} Exp. for same 110 Yards ® Printing— Colors UO Yards @ S^"^*?™'"8 »"<* spacing HO Yards @ Special Expen'lrr!'"^— .^r.'^:::. 1 ^^ "^ ^ CM. $ .18-3$ .01... J$ .075.. 4 J. J. .89....$ • • • • • a > ^ . 45....$ • ■ « • • • ■ ^ • J. • • • • • • "^ • ■ ••■■• #9 • • « • • • « t^p • $. .23 .06 .99 .08. .89 .45 Net cost of 100 Yards • ata Net cost of 10 Yards t S Cost per Ligne .'!.*.*!.*!* 82^4s'lfli*S Weight per 100 Yards Raw. .91 lbs. Dyed. 1.42 lbs •••'*'•'' ••"'*' Organzine weight ed to 20/22 02. Tram w eighted to 30/32 oz. 4%. is included in above weights for waste of warp. ,?;«J*'"^'"^^? m above weights for waste of filling. 3^% IS included in above dramage for twist take-up of organzine. 1% IS included in above dramage for twist take-up of tram PARTICULARS OF COST OF MATERIALS. ORGANZINE TRAM COTTON. ETC Raw Silk ...$4.00 $3.80 $ Throwing . .$ .70 $ .35 $ Thr. Waste.. $.10=2% $.11=2^% $ Dyeing $ .70 $1.25 $. ;^^. ^ . Winding .. . .$ .15 $ .15 $...... Doubling ...$.... $.... ^ Quilling _....$.... $.15 ^ Total ......$5.65 $5.81 % CONCLUSIONS. Net mill cost per piece $ .82 Net store cost per piece, .82^.85 $ .9647 Net mill coat per ligne $ .0182 Net store cost per ligne. •0182-^.85 f!^.% J214 Regular selling price, per , piece $ HQ Less Com. & Discount. 15%.$ .*165 Net estimated return f .935 Less net mill cost .,,% |^ Estimated profit per piece. $ .US Weekly product per loom, 18 spaces X 75 yds Pieces 135 Profit per loom, per week. . $15.52 RIBBON COST CALCULATION. (For full warp.) Onality XL. Description. Btack Ttfeu Y?r"ds' 30o"^ \'^- ,. R«d.ng. 60 3. Width, 45 lijnes. Wid.h in r«d.Vinche:: T^iai wid.h.^^^n"!.,'* i^^Sf ^^^ ^'."^^ Organzine. 1.70 Drams 3132 Raw lbs rats« •^^- Yrfs "^ 2 Thd. 13/15 Den. Jap. Ex. pi " ««;„,, ^> D_:_.:__ ** 540 Pieces @ .045..$ 24.30 lbs. Special Exp Re*;i^i„"f . ':"'. ^^^'■■■■■■■■■■■■^ Hours k::: lense • K-nus @ cts. per I (n) M @. Net cost of 300 Yards per 10- Yard piece.! " per ligne Raw weight (less waste)V49.*3b" lbs." * Dy^d weight* *76 69 iA; Organzinc weighted to 20/22 oz. Tra^m w^Xd t^ si/^^^ oz. $ ..$: 4. .$. $ $. .$. .$. $442.44 $ .82 $ .0182 7% U 'rn 'r'if'li' • ^^T''' ^*^'«^h*^ f***- ^aste of warp 3?^ i. Jn "I'^^'^V" ^"1°^^ *^'«*'t« f«^ waste of Siing 1^ r '.^ '"eluded m above drainage for twist take .,n ^f « 1% IS included in above drainage^or tVi^t V.^'^.y^.l";^""''"^- PARTICULARS OF COST OF MATERIALS. 6RGANZINE TRAM COTTON. ETC Raw Silk ...$4.00 $3.80 $. Throwing ..$.70 $ J5 | Thr Waste.. $.10=2% $.11=254% | CONCLUSIONS. Wet mill cost -per pi«ce ....$ jgz Net Store cost per piece. •**^~^5 .$ .9647 Net mill cost per ligne .$ .0182 .0182-*-.85 $ .0214 Dyeing $ .70 Winding ....$ .15 Doubling ...$.... Quilling ....$.... Total ....JSS $1.25 $ .15 Jw • • •• $.15 $5.81 $. $. $. $. Regular selling price, per - piece $ 1 10 Less Com. & Discount,' i 5% ;$ *165 Net estimated return $ 935 Less net mill cost $ 'jg20 Estimated profit per piece.... $ .115 Weekly prodyct per loom, 18 spaces X 75 yds.=Pieces 135 Profit per lot>m, per week. . .$15.52 XV COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS To arrive at the cost of even the simplest piece of silk goods is quite a complicated matter, while with most of the fancy fabrics it is a very involved process, and one that no one but an expert could work out with any degree of accuracy. The number of things that have to be taken into account in a cost calculation is remarkable. There are the varying percentages of wastes, and take-ups, etc.; the careful and judicious approximating of the production, and the consequent allowance for weaving and for general expense; the question as to what kinds and qualities of raw- silk and other materials will be required, the quantities needed, and at what prices they should be figured; the cost of the various sorts of labor that have to be put upon the fabric ; the prices to be paid for processes done outside of the mill, etc., etc. The principles underlying the proper costing of fabrics have already been gone over in a previous chapter, so they need not be discussed in detail here. Amplified Cost Calculation Form. I am presenting herewith another calculation form, of my own de- vising, diifering somewhat from the one already presented in the previous chapter, in its being more amplified. On it is figured out the cost of a 24 inch, rep and ombre satin stripe, tie-silk. When cost calculations are sent to the selling office, it is par- ticularly desirable that every possible element that may affect the cost shall be clearly set forth, so that there may be no uncertainties in the matter, and, by providing blanks to be filled up for every item that may have to be considered, there will be nothing to be taken for granted, and if anything is omitted, which ordinarily is liable to hap- f y a. 176 COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS BROAD SILK COST CALCULATION FOR 100 YARDS OF FINISHEO CtOTN .IWf. Are, length Of w»rp,...a.^.9****** ■•••••■•* Filling. /3ft...pick,Traa...4'....Th4 J? Twi•t..sl'3/.Dram..^^S Weighting...^.^.»..M^Z. , Conat. ® 9. ..#.., ,.$... Total />^.r*^i_^_^^ i/4><.».. f...— ...... »./rf:.r.. ♦...— ..|... Conclusions. p„ ^^.o D|osble Single Net Mill Cost % %%^A:.9.f. Selling Cost %4A.:.9.f... -i_85 . % | ...77..?vn Regular Selling Price $ f.*^/! Less Com. and Discount, \h% % ^jJjL2j£L Of ^n- Net Estimated Return % f .T'.i .ivT. Less Net Mil] Cost % %J^.i^^ Estimated Profit % #..!?.<;./.<. Weekly Product per loom, Yds. .^ <{.<>. Loom EUrns per week | %..'9.r7.9... No. of Beams *. ^^p.^^ gmg. 1 10 Yd8..^.^-^......| f.,.f.H... Gen'l Exp. (Ip^tT^per week-f- .^.,,, Pattern Expen8e(y^«^...Voi. 0. 0.. 0....?f.<....|.. 0..~...# rr...... @..fi/4...t /..^£... &...rr::...$ zr. 0....Tr:...| .rnr: — NctCost // -^ 100 Yards t .^.9.^.^7 REMARKS: €^ tM. tJi». eU, i^ZaC ..wf^ #»^ - - >»« rr than 3 for twi.tlng. Figure throwing wa.te a. 7% tor good Organ. 3^ for good Tram. Sfi for good Canton, Sfi for good Tn..ah. i COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS 177 pen, the omission can be detected at once, even by those with but little experience. It was for the especial purpose of making it easy to imderstand and check off cost sheets at the selling department, that the more detailed form was devised. Tables of Weights and Their Uses, I am also presenting some original tables of weights for warp and filling of broad silk goods, which may be of assistance in arriving at correct calculation weights, and the use of which should save much time and labor. Certain standard allowances for waste, take-up, etc., have been introduced, these standards being about the maximimi that might have to be allowed for, but the figures shewn can be readily modified as may be desired. Working from standards insures uniformity of calculation, and, in the close figuring of the costs of fabrics to which some other factors might apply, any such modifications of the figures in the tables can be made as the circumstances may demand. To the end that every feature of this cost sheet may be made en- tirely clear, the details may be explained as follows : Allowance for Take-up in Weaving. The calculation being for 100 yards of finished goods, an allow- ance of no yards of warp is made to cover the take-up in weaving, the unwoven ends of the warp, and the headings of the pieces. In many fabrics the take-up will not be so great, but it is better to figure on a standard basis, as it will not be an exact figure, anyway, and, if 2 or 3 per cent, more warp has been allowed than is necessary, this can be borne in mind when considering the selling price, or the cal- culation can be modified to suit. Closely woven taflFetas, with many picks of full sized silk, will take up all of the 10 per cent. ; cotton-back satins, or other eight-shaft satins, may only take up 6 per cent.; messalines and other five-shaft satins may take up 7 per cent., etc., etc. Figuring the Size of the Silk. The dramage of the thrown silks should, when much exactness is desired, be figured from the size of the raw-silks as shown by the valuable Compound Sizing Test introduced by the United States Silk Conditioning and Testing Company. In this test, 20 skeins of about 5,000 yards each are sized from each bale, and the exactness of the results, when compared with actual practice, is most gratifying. On the other hand, the experience of the mill may shew that the silks customarily used by it may average up at about certain dramages. and these sizes may be used whether the silks of which the goods are to be made are running coarser or finer. y m 178 COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS When figuring the thrown size of the silk from the raw size in deniers, it is proper to add to the dramage of the organzine about y/2 per cent., and to that of the tram i per cent., to cover the take-up in twist for silks of ordinary sizes and in ordinary twists. Percentage of Waste. In addition to the 10 per cent, allowed for weaving take-up, there may also be included in the weights of the material required for warp a further allowance of 4 per cent, for waste, and, for the filling, 7 per cent, may be allowed. These standard allowances are rather high for plain goods, but for fancies, or where the product of a mill is subject to much change, they are none too great. The amount of waste made is very commonly underestimated. Low levels of waste on plain goods might be put at 3 per cent, for dyed warp, 5 per cent, for dyed filling, and 2 per cent, for raw-silk warp. Calculating the Weight of the Warp. The weight of the silk should be figured from the raw, conditioned weight, basis. The organzine is figured as follows: The compound sizing test shews the silk, in this case, to be 14.30 deniers. Doubling this for 2-thread organzine, and adding 3]^ per cent, for take-up in twist, gives us 29.60 deniers. Divide this by 17.44, to reduce it to drams, and we get 1.70 as the dramage. Divide 256,000 yards (the length per pound of I dram silk) by 1.70, and we find the yardage per pound to be 150,588. We then multiply 1,920 ends by no yards, and find that the warp will require 211,200 yards of organzine, and to this we add 4 per cent, for waste, making a total of 219,648 yards. Dividing this by 150,588 yards per pound, we get 1.45 pounds as the weight of organzine required. The cotton warp has 1,900 ends, so no yards of warp will require 209,000 yards of yarn, and with 4 per cent, for waste added, the amount will be 217,360 yards. The cotton size of 2/120 equals 1/60, and, as there are 840 yards to a number, the yardage per pound of this size will be 50,400. Dividing 217,360 yards by 50,400, we get a weight of 4.31 pounds as the amount of the cotton yam required. Calculating the Weight of the Filling. Turning to the tram, which should always be figured on the width in the reed, we find that the compound sizing test shews the size to be 14.63 deniers, which in 4-thread would be 58.54 deniers, and this, with I per cent, added for take-up in twist, is increased to 59.14 deniers. This size, divided by 17.44 to reduce it to drams, equals 3.39 drams. COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS 179 Divide, now, 256,000 yards (the length per pound of i dram silk) by 3.39, and we get a yardage per pound of 75»5i6. Multiplying next 130 picks per inch by 25 inches of width in the reed, we get 3,250 yards of tram for each yard of cloth, equal to 325,000 yards for the hundred yards. Seven per cent, for waste added to this raises the amount to 347»750- Dividing this by 75,516 yards per pound, we find that the weight of tram we require will be 4.61 pounds. Modifications Due to Soap and Oil. In these calculations the weight of soap and oil, added in the throwing, is not considered. These additions should be ascertained by proper boil-off tests, and due allowance should be made for them in calculating the weight of thrown silk that must be put in dyeing, and which can be checked off by the number and length of the skeins. Waste Made in Throwing. The waste in throwing is filled in under the "Particulars of Cost of Material," and is here assumed as 2 per cent, for organzine and 3 per cent, for tram. The throwing waste for good organzine should generally not exceed 2 per cent. ; good tram stock not over 2 to 3 per cent. ; good Cantons 4 to 5 per cent. ; and good Tussahs 5 per cent. China silks, on account of their harder gums, will usually make more waste than Japans. As the throwster's bill is based on the weight of raw-silk sent to him, and as throwing is therefore charged both on the waste made and the silk thrown, it follows that the percentage of "waste-in-throw- ing" figured should be on this cost of the silk plus the cost of the throwing of it. Dyers' Prices Based on Thrown Weights. The net price for dyeing is used, and, as the dyer's charge is based on the weight of the thrown silk, a percentage must be added equal to the percentage of soap and oil added by the throwster to the weight of the raw-silk. It is here assumed as 2 per cent., though frequently much greater. Sundry Labor and Other Expenses. Winding, doubling, and quilling should be reduced to a raw-silk basis, and so calculated. The columns for "Particulars of Cost of Material" are arranged in the form most generally useful. The warping cost is based on the price for warping 100 ends for 100 yards. Mills paying on another basis can use a different form. As the warps, in this case, are 330 yards long, to make 300 yards of cloth, the twisting cost is divided by three to get at the cost for 1 1 i« i8o COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS lOO yards. For other length warps use a different divisor. Extra drawing-in expenses can be here included. The pattern expense can be filled in according to the mill oractice and the character of the goods. Sometimes, as in this c™e ft is n! eluded in the general expense. ' * *" Special harness expense, or loom mounting, should not be over- looked, and a space is provided for this item. nf ^ weavmg picking, clipping and cleaning are based on a leneth of 99 yards, as the cloth, when relieved from the loom tension gfn- T^^rSZ fi '• V '' ' ^l "f • °^ "'°'^' '•'•^ shortening 'bffng Shrinkages in Length. Certain goods, cotton-back satins, for instance, may run uo 2 ^ or even 4 per cent., in the unfinished state ^ ^ ' ^' Mills selling such goods in the grey should be keenly alive to this As the operative's pay is always based on this contracted m^ure' the constant of 99 yards will almost always be on the conservatTvfsWe: How to Apportion Certain Costs. Derifnt^'^fn?^t.,f P-^"'" ^'a '"""r^^''' ^^^P^rience will show what ?Xlrbe° arte'dT ""' "'^''"^' ^"' ^"^"^ ^" '"^^'^^^ '°^' ^^ *!,. ^^'^I "'"s f ° *''^'.'' '''^" throwing, dyeing, finishing or printing the regiilar market prices of such work shou d appeaf on the coft ment'accou''„''^ °' '""" '° '^' """ ^"'^''^ ^^^^'"^ in the depart- The General Expense and What It Includes. The general expense item should include every charge upon the mia exclusive of the specific items here provided for. It should in! elude interest charges of every kind, depreciation and, in fact everv- thing except selling expense. Each loom should earn its share of the a™ tr?'" °* *,! '"'"' ri ^^^''"'^ ^^y *i« expense Kvided expenfe. ' * *°*^' "^^'^^ **" ^^^ should equal the total In the case before us, the loom is charged with $7 so oer week and, the production being 60 yards a week^we thus |et arLpense per yard of 12/. cents. If the production ^ere 75 yar^s a week ?he charge would be 10 cents a yard, and so on. Other Factors in the Cost. The cost of beaming is here included with the warping, but if desired, it can be figured separately if paid for separately. Should piece-dyed goods lose in length, and they often do be careful to allow for it. / =' w, oe COST SHEETS AND TABLES OF WEIGHTS 181 1 The "Weaving Before Printing" item is the weaving in of the necessary binding picks, every yard or so, to preserve the pattern. As the time of a loom is occupied in this work, the expense of it (including such profit as it should make if weaving goods) should be charged against the printed warps, so a space is provided for this. Things which Affect the Cost of Weaving, In the calculation, spaces are left, in connection with the weaving, for the number of shuttles, the number of harnesses, the number of beams, and the loom speed, all of which affect materially both the weaver's pay and the production of the loom, and consequently affect the General Expense. Additional Points of Importance, To arrive at the weight that the goods should be when finished, the increase by weighting should not only be allowed for, but the per- centages included for waste should be deducted from the weights. When schappe or spun silks, or fine cotton yams, on cops are used, about 4 per cent, should be added to their costs to cover the weight of the tubes charged for as yarn. On coarser cottons the tubes may weigh as high as 7 per cent, of the total, or even more. To decide what weightings to order, boil-off, conditioning house tests should be carefully studied, so that the proportion of weighting to actual silk fibre may be neither more nor less than desired. The "Selling Cost" might also be termed "Store Cost." It is the figure at which, after deducting discounts and selling expense, neither loss nor profit is shewn. Scope of the Tables of Weights. To avoid such complicated figuring as was shown to be necessary in determining the weights of material required, with the consequent risk of serious error, the writer has worked out the following tables for warp and filling, as already stated. These cover the ordinary range of silk sizes and the usual propor- tions of ends and picks, and other, or intermediate figures can readily be arrived at by additions or divisions of them. The filling table is for 20-inch width, from which other widths can be readily figured. It is not altogether desirable to have tables for a variety of widths, as the wrong table is very apt to be used by mistake. The width of 20 inches has been here adopted as being the most convenient for figuring from. Explanations have already been made regarding the take-up of the warp, and the percentages of waste for warp and filling that are allowed for in these tables, viz. : 4 per cent, waste of warp, 7 per cent, waste of filling, and 10 per cent, take-up in weaving. ■ 11 if' SILK WARP table'. Raw weights for 110 Yards of Warp, including 4% waste. Number Yardage Drams, and yards per pound of each. in the including ^oo,uuu ^4^,ouy d.6^,/^/ IU,W^ l\6,6i6 204,800 196,92 warp. 4% waste :. 1. .80 1.05 .84 1.10 .88 1.15 .92 1.20 .96 1.25 1.00 1.30 1,800 205,920 1.05 2,000 228,800 .89 .94 .98 1.02 1.06 1.11 1.16 2,200 251,680 .98 1.03 1.08 1.13 1.17 1.22 1.28 2,400 274,560 1.07 1.13 1.18 1.23 1.28 1.32 1.39 2,600 297,440 1.16 1.22 1.28 1.33 1.39 1.44 1.51 2,800 320,320 1.25 1.32 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.56 1.63 3,000 343,200 1.34 1.41 1.47 1.54 1.61 1.68 1.75 3,200 366,080 1.43 1.50 1.57 1.65 1.72 1.79 1.86 3,400 388,960 1.53 1.60 1.68 1.75 1.83 1.91 1.98 3,600 411,840 1.62 1.70 1.78 1.86 1.93 2.01 2.09 3,800 434,720 1.70 1.79 1.87 1.96 2.04 2.12 2.21 4,000 457,600 1.79 1.88 1.97 2.06 2.15 2.24 2.33 4,100 469,040 1.83 1.92 2.01 2.11 2.20 2.29 2.39 4,200 480,480 1.88 1.97 2.07 2.16 2.26 2.35 2.44 4,300 491,920 1.92 2.02 2.11 2.21 2.31 2.40 2.50 4,400 503,360 1.97 2.06 2.17 2.27 2.36 2.46 2.55 4,500 514,800 2.01 2.11 2.21 2.32 2.42 2.51 2.61 4,600 526,240 2.06 2.16 2.26 2.37 2.47 2.57 2.67 4,700 537,680 2.10 2.21 2.31 2.42 2.53 2.63 2.74 4,800 549,120 2.15 2.26 2M 2.47 2.58 2.69 2.79 4,900 560,560 2.19 2.30 2.41 2.52 2.63 2.74 2.85 5,000 572,000 2.23 2.34 2.45 2.56 2.68 2.79 2.90 5,100 583,440 2.28 2.39 2.50 2.61 2.73 2.85 2.96 5,200 594,880 2.32 2.44 2.55 2.66 2.78 2.90 3.02 5,300 606,320 2.37 2.49 2.60 2.72 2.84 2.96 3.08 5,400 617,760 2.41 2.53 2.65 2.77 2.89 3.01 3.14 5,500 629,200 2.46 2.58 2.70 2.82 2.95 3.07 3.20 5,600 640,640 2.50 2.63 2.75 2.87 3.00 3.13 3.25 5,700 652,080 2.55 2.68 2.80 2.93 3.06 3.19 3.31 5,800 663,520 2.59 2.72 2.85 2.98 3.11 3.24 3.37 5,900 674.960 2.64 2.77 2.90 3.03 3.16 3.30 3.43 6,000 686,400 2.68 2.82 2.95 3.08 3.22 3.35 3.49 6,200 709,280 2.77 2.91 3.05 3.19 3.33 3.46 3.60 6,400 732,160 2.86 3.01 3.15 3.29 3.43 3.57 3.72 6,600 755,040 2.95 3.10 3.25 3.39 3.54 3.69 3.84 6,800 777,920 3.04 3.19 3.34 3.49 3.65 3.80 3.95 7,000 800,800 3.13 3.29 3.44 3.60 z:76 3.91 4.07 7,200 823,680 3.22 3.38 3.54 3.70 3.86 4.03 4.19 7,400 846,560 3.31 3.48 3.64 3.80 3.97 4.14 4.32 7,600 869,440 3.40 3.57 3.74 3.91 4.08 4.25 4.43 7,800 892,320 3.49 3.67 3.84 4.01 4.19 4.36 4.54 8,000 915,200 3.58 Z16 3.94 4.11 4.29 4.47 4.65 8,200 938,080 3.66 3.85 4.03 4.21 4.39 4.58 4.77 8,400 960,960 3.75 3.94 4.13 4.31 4.50 4.69 4.88 8,600 983.080 3.84 4.03 4.22 4.41 4.60 4.80 4.99 8,800 1,006,720 3.93 4.13 4.32 4.52 4.71 4.91 5.11 9,000 1,029,600 4.02 4.22 4.42 4.62 4.82 5.02 5.23 9,200 1,052,480 4.11 4.32 4.52 4.73 4.93 5.14 5.35 9,400 1,075,360 4.20 4.41 4.62 4.83 5.04 5.25 5.46 9,600 1,098,240 4.29 4.51 4.72 4.93 5.14 5.36 5.58 9,800 1,121.110 4.38 4.60 4.82 5.03 5.25 5.47 5.69 10.000 1,144,000 4.47 4.70 4.92 5.14 5.36 5.59 5.81 SILK WARP TABLE— (Continued). Raw weights for 110 Yards of Warp, including 4% waste. Number Yardage Drams, and yards per pound of each. ^nThlf Including ^^^'^^^ ^^^'^^^ ^^^'^^^ ^^^''^^ ^^^'^^^ \(^S^ 155,152 warp. 4% waste. 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1,800 205,920 1.09 1.13 1.17 1.21 1.25 1.29 1.33 2,000 228,800 1.21 1.25 1.30 1.34 1.39 1.43 1.47 2,200 251,680 1.33 1.37 1.42 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.62 2,400 274,560 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.61 1.66 1.72 1.77 2,600 297,440 1.57 1.62 1.68 1.74 1.80 1.86 1.92 2,800 320,320 1.69 1.75 1.81 1.88 1.94 2.00 2.06 3,000 343,200 1.81 1.87 1.94 2.01 2.08 2.15 2.21 3,200 366,080 1.93 2.00 2.07 2.14 2.22 2.29 2.36 3,400 388,960 2.05 2.12 2.20 2.28 2.35 2.43 2.51 3,600 411,840 2.17 2.25 2.33 2.41 2.49 2.57 2.65 3,800 434,720 2.29 2.37 2.46 2.54 2.63 2.72 2.80 4,000 457,600 2.41 2.50 2.S9 2.68 2.77 2.86 2.95 4,100 469,040 2.48 2.57 2.66 2.75 2.84 2.93 3.02 4,200 480,480 2.54 2.63 2.72 2.82 2.91 3.00 3.09 4,300 491,920 2.59 2.69 2.79 2.88 2.97 3.07 3.16 4,400 503.360 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 3.24 4,500 514,800 2.72 2.82 2.92 3.02 3.12 3.22 3.32 4,600 526,240 2.77 2.87 2.98 3.08 3.19 3.29 3.39 4,700 537,680 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 3.25 3.36 3.46 4,800 549,120 2.90 3.00 3.11 3.22 Z.ZI 3.43 3.53 4,900 560,560 2.95 3.07 3.18 3.28 3.39 3.50 3.61 5,000 572,000 3.01 3.12 3.24 3.35 3.46 3.57 3.68 5,100 583,440 3.08 3.19 3.30 3.45 3.53 3.65 3.76 5,200 594,880 3.14 3.25 3.37 3.49 3.61 3.72 3.83 5,300 606,320 3.20 3.31 3.42 3.56 3.67 3.79 3.91 5,400 617,760 3.27 3.38 3.50 3.63 3.74 3.86 3.98 5,500 629,200 3.32 3.44 3.56 3.69 3.81 3.93 4.05 5,600 640,640 3.38 3.50 Z,(^ 3.75 3.87 4.00 4.12 5,700 652,080 3.44 3.56 3.69 3.82 3.95 4.08 4.20 5,800 663,520 3.50 3.63 3.76 3.89 4.02 4.15 427 5,900 674,960 3.56 3.69 3.82 3.95 4.09 4.22 4.34 6,000 686,400 3.62 3.75 3.89 4.02 4.15 4.29 4.42 6,200 709,280 3.74 3.88 4.02 4.16 4.30 4.43 4.57 6,400 732.160 3.86 4.00 4.15 4.29 4.43 4.58 4.72 6,600 755,040 3.98 4.13 4.28 4.42 4.57 4.72 4.86 6,800 777,920 4.10 4.25 4.40 4.56 4.71 4.86 5.01 7,000 800,800 4.22 4.37 4.53 4.69 4.85 5.01 5.16 7,200 823,680 4.35 4.51 4.67 4.83 4.99 5.15 5.31 7,400 846,560 4.46 4.62 4.79 4.96 5.13 5.29 5.45 7,600 869,440 4.58 4.75 4.92 5.09 5.26 5.43 5.60 7,800 892,320 4.71 4.87 5.04 5.23 5.40 5.58 5.75 8,000 915,200 4.83 5.00 5.18 5.36 5.54 5.72 5.89 8,200 938,080 4.95 5.13 5.31 5.50 5.68 5.86 6.04 8,400 960,960 5.07 5.25 5.44 5.63 5.82 6.01 6.19 8,600 983,080 5.18 5.37 5.57 5.76 5.96 6.15 6.34 8,800 1,006,720 5.31 5.50 5.70 5.90 6.09 6.29 6.48 9,000 1,029,600 5.43 5.63 5.83 6.03 6.24 6.44 6.64 9,200 1,052,480 5.55 5.75 5.96 6.17 6.37 6.58 6.78 9,400 1,075,360 5.67 5.88 6.09 6.30 6.51 6.72 6.92 9,600 1,098,240 5.79 6.00 6.22 6.43 6.65 6.86 7.07 9,800 1,121,110 5.91 6.13 6.35 6.57 6.79 7.01 7.22 10,000 1,144,000 6.03 6.25 6.47 6.70 6.92 7.15 i.n SILK WARP TABLE-(Continued). Raw weights for 110 Yards of Warp, including 4% waste. Number Yarclage Drams, and yards per pound of each. including ^50'5S8 146,286 142,222 138,378 134,737 131,282 128,000 of ends in the mciuding warp. 4% waste. 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200 3,400 3,600 3,800 4.000 4,100 4,200 4,300 4,400 4,500 4,600 4,700 4,800 4,900 5,000 5,100 5,200 5,300 5,400 5,500 5,600 5,700 5,800 5,900 6,000 6,200 6,400 6,600 6.800 7,000 7,200 7,400 7,600 7,800 8,000 8,200 8,400 8,600 8,800 9,000 9,200 9,400 9,600 9,800 10,000 205.920 228,800 251,680 274,560 297,440 320,320 343,200 366,080 388,960 411,840 434,720 457,600 469.040 480,480 491,920 503,360 514,800 526,240 537,680 549,120 560,560 572,000 583,440 594,880 606,320 617,760 629.200 640.640 652,080 663,520 674,960 686,400 709,280 732,160 755,040 777,920 800,800 823,680 846,560 869,440 892.320 915,200 938.080 960,960 983.080 1,006,720 1,029,600 1,052,480 1,075,360 1,098,240 1,121,110 1,144,000 1.37 1.52 1.67 1.83 1.98 2.12 2.28 2.43 2.59 2.74 2.89 3.04 3.11 3.18 3.26 3.34 3.42 3.49 3.57 3.64 3.72 3.79 3.87 3.95 4.03 4.10 4.18 4.25 4.33 4.40 4.47 4.55 4.71 4.86 5.01 5.16 5.32 5.47 5.62 5.77 5.92 6.07 6.23 6.38 6.53 6.68 6.84 6.99 7.14 7.29 7.44 7.59 1.40 1.56 1.72 1.88 2.03 2.18 2.34 2.50 2.67 2.%Z 2.97 3.13 3.20 3.27 3.36 3.44 3.52 3.59 3.67 3.75 3.83 3.90 3.98 4.06 4.15 4.22 4.30 4.38 4.45 4.53 4.60 4.68 4.80 5.00 5.16 5.31 5.47 5.68 5.78 5.94 6.09 6.25 6.41 6.57 6.72 6.88 7.04 7.19 7.35 7.50 7.66 7.81 1.45 1.49 1.61 1.65 1.77 1.82 1.94 1.99 2.09 2.15 2.25 2.31 2.41 2.48 2.57 2.64 2.75 2.82 2.92 3.00 3.06 3.15 3.22 3.31 3.29 3.38 3.37 3.47 3.46 3.55 3.54 3.63 3.62 3.71 3.70 3.80 3.78 3.89 3.86 3.97 3.94 4.05 4.02 4.13 4.10 4.22 4.18 4.30 4.27 4.39 4.35 4.47 4.43 4.55 4.51 4.63 4.58 4.71 4.66 4.79 4.74 4.87 4.82 4.95 4.99 5.12 5.15 5.29 5.31 5.46 5.47 5.62 5.63 5.89 5.80 5.96 5.95 6.12 6.11 6.28 6.27 6.44 6.43 6.61 6.60 6.78 6.76 6.95 6.92 7.11 7.08 7.28 7.24 7.44 7.40 7.61 7.56 7.77 7.72 7.94 7.88 8.10 8.04 8.26 1.53 1.57 1.70 1.75 1.87 1.92 2.04 2.09 2.20 2.26 2.37 2.44 2.54 2.61 2.71 2.79 2.90 2.98 3.08 3.16 3.23 3.32 3.40 3.49 3.47 3.58 3.56 3.66 3.65 3.75 3.73 3.83 3.80 3.91 3.90 4.00 3.99 4.09 4.07 4.18 4.16 4.27 4.24 4.36 4.33 4.45 4.41 4.53 4.50 4.62 4.59 4.71 4.67 4.80 4.76 4.88 4.83 4.96 4.92 5.05 5.00 5.14 5.09 5.23 5.26 5.40 5.43 5.58 5.60 5.75 5.77 5.92 5.94 6.10 6.12 6.28 6.28 6.45 6.45 6.62 6.62 6.80 6.79 6.97 6.96 7.15 7.13 7.32 7.30 7.50 7.47 7.67 7.64 7.84 7.81 8.02 7.98 8.19 8.15 8.37 8.32 8.54 8.49 8.72 1.61 1.79 1.97 2.15 2.32 2.50 2.68 2.86 3.06 3.24 3.40 3.58 3.66 3.75 3.84 3.93 4.02 4.11 4.20 4.29 4.38 4.47 4.56 4.65 4.74 4.83 4.92 5.01 5.09 5.18 5.27 5.36 5.54 5.72 5.90 6.08 6.26 6.44 6.61 6.79 6.97 7.15" 7.33 7.51 7.69 7.87 8.04 8.22 8.40 8.58 8.76 8.94 SILK FILLING TABLE. ' Raw weights, for waste. for 100 yards of goods — 20 inches wide- Fillings should be figured from widths -including 7% in the reed. Picks mch. Yardage required, including 7% waste. 102,400 2.50 1.26 Drams, and yards 98,462 94,815 2.60 2.70 1.30 1.35 per pound 91,429 2.80 1.40 of each. 88,276 2.90 1.45 85,333 3.00 1.50 60 128,400 62 132,680 1.30 1.34 1.39 1.44 1.50 1.56 64 136,960 1.34 1.39 1.44 1.49 1.55 1.61 66 141,240 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.54 1.60 1.66 68 145,520 1.43 1.47 1.53 1.59 1.65 1.71 70 149,800 1.47 1.52 1.58 1.64 1.70 1.76 72 154,080 1.51 1.56 1.62 1.69 1.75 1.81 74 158,360 1.55 1.60 1.67 1.74 1.80 1.86 76 162,640 1.59 1.65 1.71 1.78 1.85 1.91 78 166,920 1.63 1.69 1.76 1.83 1.90 1.96 80 171,200 1.68 1.74 1.80 1.87 1.94 2.01 82 175,480 1.72 1.78 1.85 1.92 1.99 2.06 84 179,760 1.76 1.82 1.89 1.97 2.04 2.11 86 184,040 1.80 1.87 1.94 2.02 2.09 2.16 88 188,320 1.84 1.91 1.98 2.06 2.14 2.21 90 192,600 1.88 1.95 2.03 2.11 2.19 2.26 92 196,880 1.93 2.00 2.07 2.15 2.23 2.31 94 201,160 1.97 2.04 2.12 2.20 2.28 2.36 96 205,440 2.01 2.09 2.17 2.25 2.33 2.41 98 209,720 2.05 2.13 2.21 2.30 2.38 2.46 1 100 214,000 2.09 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.43 2.51 102 218,280 2.14 2.22 2.30 2.39 2.48 2.56 104 222,560 2.18 2.26 2.34 2.43 2.52 2.61 106 226,840 2.22 2.30 2.39 2.48 2.57 2.66 108 231,120 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.53 2.62 2.71 110 235,400 2.30 2.39 2.48 2.57 2.67 2.76 112 239,680 2.34 2.43 2.52 2.62 2.72 2.81 114 243,960 2.38 2.48 2.57 2.67 2.77 2.86 116 248.240 2.43 2.52 2.62 2.72 2.82 2.91 118 252,520 2.47 2.57 2.67 2.77 2.87 2.96 120 256,800 2.51 2.61 2.71 2.81 2.91 3.01 122 261,080 2.55 2.66 2.76 2.86 2.96 3.06 124 265.360 2.59 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.01 3.11 ■■[> 1 i 'i ik I k i SILK FILLING TABLE-(Continued). ^To7wfll!f' pfir°° y^ds °Uopds-20 inches wide-including for waste. FiUmgs should be figured from widths in the ree£ 7% Picks per inch. "^ 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 Yardage required, including 7% waste. 128,400 132,680 136,960 141,240 145,520 149,800 154,080 158,360 162,640 166,920 171,200 175,480 179,760 184,040 188,320 192,600 196,880 201,160 205,440 209,720 214,000 218,280 222,560 226,840 231,120 235,400 239,680 243,960 248,240 252,520 256,800 261,080 265,360 82,581 3.10 Til 1.61 1.66 1.71 1.76 1.81 1.87 1.92 1.97 2.02 2.07 2.12 2.18 2.23 2.28 2.33 2.38 2.44 2.49 2.54 2.59 2.64 2.69 2.74 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.96 3.01 3.06 3.11 3.16 3.21 Drams, and yards per pound of each. 80,000 3.20 1.60 1.66 1.71 1.77 1.82 1.87 1.93 1.98 2.03 2.09 2.14 2.19 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.41 2.46 2.51 2.59 2.62 2.67 2.72 2.78 2.83 2.89 2.94 3.00 3.05 3.10 3.16 3.21 3.27 3.32 77,576 3.30 1.66 1.71 1.77 1.82 1.88 1.93 1.99 2.04 2.10 2.15 2.21 2.26 2.32 2.37 2.43 2.48 2.54 2.59 2.65 2.70 2.76 2.81 2.87 2.92 2.98 3.04 3.09 3.15 3.20 3.26 3.31 3.37 3.42 75,294 3.40 1.71 1.76 1.82 1.88 1.94 1.99 2.05 2.11 2.16 2.22 2.28 2.33 2.39 2.44 2.50 2.56 2.62 2.67 2.73 2.79 2.85 2.90 2.96 3.01 3.07 3.13 3.19 3.25 3.30 3.36 3.41 3.47 3.53 73,143 3.50 T76 1.81 1.87 1.93 1.99 2.05 2.11 2.17 2.22 2.28 2.34 2.39 2.45 2.51 2.57 2.63 2.69 2.75 2.81 2.87 2.93 2.99 3.04 3.10 3.16 3.22 3.28 3.34 3.39 3.45 3.51 3.57 3.63 71,111 3.60 Tsi 1.87 1.93 1.99 2.05 2.11 2.17 2.23 2.29 2.35 2.41 2.47 2.53 2.59 2.65 2.71 2.77 2.83 2.89 2.95 3.01 3.07 3.13 3.19 3.25 3.31 3.37 3.43 3.49 3.55 3.61 3.67 3.74 SILK FILLING TABLE— (Continued). Raw weights, for 100 yards of goods — 20 inches wide — including 7% for waste. Fillings should be figured from widths in the reed. Yardage Drams, and yards per pound of each. ^per^ indSding ^^'^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^'^^ ^"^'^ ^^,439 60,952 inch. 7% waste. 3.70 3.80 3.90 4.00 4.10 4.20 pi 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 128,400 132,680 136,960 141,240 145,520 149,800 154,080 158,360 162,640 166,920 171,200 175,480 179,760 184,040 188,320 192,600 196,880 201,160 205,440 209,720 214,000 218,280 222,560 226,840 231,120 235,400 239,680 243,960 248,240 252,520 256,800 261,080 265.360 1.86 1.92 1.98 2.04 2.10 2.17 2.23 2.29 2.35 2.41 2.47 2.54 2.60 2.66 2.72 2.78 2.85 2.91 2.97 3.03 3.09 3.16 3.22 3.28 3.34 3.40 3.46 3.52 3.59 3.65 3.71 3.77 3.84 1.91 1.98 2.04 2.10 2.16 2.23 2.29 2.35 2.42 2.48 2.54 2.61 2.67 2.73 2.80 2.86 2.93 2.99 3.05 3.11 3.18 3.25 3.31 3.37 3.43 3.50 3.56 3.62 3.69 3.75 3.81 3.87 3.94 1.96 2.03 2.09 2.16 2.22 2.28 2.35 2.41 2.48 2.54 2.61 2.67 2.74 2.80 2.87 2.93 3.00 3.06 3.13 3.19 3.26 3.33 3.39 3.45 3.52 3.59 3.65 3.71 3.78 3.85 3.91 3.97 4.04 2.01 2.08 2.14 2.21 2.28 2.34 2.41 2.48 2.54 2.61 2.68 2.74 2.81 2.88 2.95 3.01 3.08 3.14 3.21 3.28 3.35 3.41 3.48 3.54 3.61 3.68 3.75 3.81 3.88 3.95 4.01 4.08 4.15 2.06 2.13 2.19 2.26 2.33 2.40 2.47 2.54 2.60 2.67 2.74 2.81 2.88 2.95 3.02 3.08 3.15 3.22 3.29 3.36 3.43 3.50 3.56 3.63 3.70 3.77 3.84 3.91 3.98 4.05 4.11 4.18 4.25 2.11 2.18 2.25 2.32 2.39 2.46 2.53 2.60 2.67 2.74 2.81 2.88 2.95 3.02 3.09 3.16 3.23 3.30 3.37 3.44 3.51 3.58 3.65 3.72 3.79 3.86 3.94 4.01 4.08 4.15 4.21 4.28 4.36 ? ,1 HI i H- SILK FILLING TABLE~(Continued). Picks per inch. ^Tor'^wfiil'' Mi^,ho'M°^K^°«°^^3°>^'^^« wid^including 7% lor waste. FiUmgs should be figured from widths in the reed. Yardage '^ including 59,535 58,182 7% waste. 4.30 4.40 Drams, and yards per pound of each. 56,888 4.50 55,652 4.60 54,468 4.70 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 128,400 132,680 136,960 141,240 145,520 149,800 154,080 158,360 162,640 166,920 171,200 175,480 179,760 184.040 188,320 192,600 196,880 201,160 205,440 209,720 214,000 218,280 222,560 226,840 231,120 235,400 239,680 243,960 248,240 252,520 256,800 261,080 265,360 2.16 223 2.30 2.37 2.44 2.52 2.59 2.66 2.73 2.80 2.88 2.95 3.02 3.09 3.16 3.24 3.31 3.38 3.45 3.52 3.59 3.67 3.74 3.81 3.88 3.95 4.03 4.10 4.17 4.24 4.31 4.38 4.46 2.21 2.28 2.36 2.43 2.50 2.58 2.65 2.72 2.80 2.87 2.95 3.02 3.09 3.16 3.24 3.32 3.39 3.46 3.53 3.61 3.68 3.75 3.83 3.90 3.97 4.05 4.12 4.20 4.27 4.34 4.41 4.49 4.56 2.26 2.33 2.41 2.49 2.56 2.63 2.71 2.78 2.86 2.93 3.01 3.08 3.16 323 3.31 3.39 3.46 3.54 3.61 3.69 376 3.84 3.91 3.99 4.06 4.14 4.21 4.29 4.36 4.44 4.51 4.59 4.66 2.31 2.39 2.46 2.54 2.62 2.69 2.77 2.85 2.93 3.00 3.08 3.15 3.23 3.31 3.39 3.47 3.54 3.62 3.69 3.77 3.85 3.92 4.00 4.08 4.15 4.23 4.31 4.39 4.46 4.54 4.61 4.69 4.77 2.36 2.44 2.51 2.59 2.67 2.75 2.83 2.91 2.99 3.06 3.14 3.22 3.30 3.38 3.46 3.54 3.61 3.69 3.77 3.85 3.93 4.01 4.09 4.17 4.24 4.33 4.40 4.48 4.56 4.64 4.71 4.79 4.87 53,333 4.80 2.41 2.49 2.57 2.65 2.73 2.81 2.89 2.97 3.05 3.13 3.21 3.29 3.37 3.45 3.53 3.61 3.69 3.77 3.85 3.93 4.02 4.10 4.18 4.26 4.33 4.42 4.50 4.58 4.66 4.74 4.82 4.90 4.98 SILK FILLING TABLE— (Continued). Raw weights, for 100 yards of goods — ^20 inches wide — including 7% for waste. Fillings should be figured from widths in the reed. Yardage Drams, and yards per pound of each, ^per^ induding ^2,245 51,200 50,196 49,231 48,302 47,40; inch. 7% waste. 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.40 60 128,400 2.46 2.51 2.56 2.60 2.66 2.71 62 132,680 2.54 2.59 2.64 2.69 2.75 2.80 64 136,960 2.62 2.67 2.72 2.78 2.84 2.89 66 141,240 2.71 2.76 2.81 2.86 2.92 2.98 68 145,520 2.79 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.01 3.07 70 149,800 2.87 2.93 2.98 3.04 3.10 3.16 72 154,080 2.95 3.01 3.07 3.12 3.19 3.25 74 158,360 3.03 3.09 3.15 3.21 3.28 3.34 76 162,640 3.11 3.18 3.24 3.30 3.37 3.43 78 166,920 3.19 3.26 3.33 3.38 3.46 3.52 80 171,200 3.28 3.35 3.41 3.49 3.55 3.61 82 175,480 3.36 3.43 3.49 ' 3.56 3.63 3.70 84 179,760 3.44 3.51 3.58 3.64 3.72 3.79 86 184,040 3.52 3.59 3.66 3.73 3.81 3.88 88 188,320 3.60 3.68 3.75 3.82 3.90 3.97 90 192,600 3.68 3.76 3.84 3.91 3.99 4.06 92 196,880 3.77 3.85 3.92 4.00 4.08 4.15 94 201,160 3.85 3.93 4.01 4.09 4.16 4.24 96 205,440 3.93 4.01 4.09 4.17 425 4.33 98 209,720 4.01 4.10 4.18 4.25 4.34 4.42 100 214,000 4.10 4.18 4.26 4.35 4.43 4.51 102 218,280 4.18 4.26 4.35 4.44 4.52 4.60 104 222,560 4.26 4.35 4.43 4.52 4.61 4.69 106 226,840 4.34 4.43 4.52 4.61 4.70 4.78 108 231,120 4.42 4.51 4.60 4.70 4.78 4.87 110 235,400 4.51 4.60 4.69 4.78 4.88 4.97 112 239,680 4.59 4.68 4.77 4.87 4.96 5.05 114 243,960 4.67 4.76 4.86 4.96 5.05 5.14 116 248,240 4.75 4.85 4.94 5.04 5.14 5.23 118 252,520 4.84 4.94 5.03 5.13 5.23 5.33 120 256,800 4.92 5.02 5.12 5.22 5.32 5.42 122 261,080 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.50 124 265,360 5.08 5.18 5.28 5.39 5.49 5.59 i§' tmm m ■ I'' I' t SILK FILLING TABLE— (Continued). Raw weights, for 100 yards of goods— 20 inches wide— including 7% for waste. Fillings should be figured from widths in the reed. Yardage Drams, and yards per pound of each, ^per^ including 46.545 45,715 44,912 44,138 43.390 42.667 inch. 7% waste. 5.50 5.60 5.70 5.80 5.90 6.00 60 128,400 2.76 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 62 132,680 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.06 3.12 64 136,960 2.94 2.99 3.05 3.10 3.16 3.22 66 141,240 3.04 3.09 3.15 3.20 3.26 3.32 68 145,520 3.13 3.18 3.24 3.30 3.36 3.42 70 149,800 3.22 3.28 3.34 3.40 3.46 3.52 72 154,080 3.31 3.38 3.44 3.50 3.56 3.62 74 158,360 3.40 3.47 3.54 3.60 3.66 3.72 76 162,640 3.49 3.56 3.63 3.70 3.76 •3.82 78 166,920 3.59 3.66 3.73 3.80 3.86 3.92 80 171,200 3.68 3.75 3.82 3.89 3.96 4.02 82 175,480 3.77 3.84 3.91 3.98 4.05 4.12 84 179,760 3.86 3.94 4.01 4.08 4.15 4.22 86 184,040 3.95 4.03 4.11 4.18 4.25 4.32 88 188,320 4.05 4.12 4.20 4.28 4.35 4.42 90 192,600 4.14 4.22 4.30 4.38 4.45 4.52 92 196,880 4.23 4.31 4.39 4.47 4.55 4.62 94 201,160 4.32 4.40 4.48 4.56 4.64 4.72 96 205,440 4.41 4.50 4.58 4.66 4.74 4.82 98 209,720 4.51 4.60 4.68 4.76 4.84 4.92 100 214,000 4.60 4.69 4.77 4.86 4.94 5.02 102 218,280 4.69 4.78 4.87 4.96 5.04 5.12 104 222,560 4.78 4.87 4.96 5.05 5.14 5.22 106 226,840 4.87 4.96 5.05 5.14 5.23 5.32 108 231,120 4.97 5.06 5.15 5.24 5.33 5.42 110 235,400 5.06 5.15 5.25 5.34 5.43 5.52 112 239.680 5.15 5.24 5.34 5.44 5.53 5.62 114 243.960 5.24 5.34 5.44 5.54 5.63 5.72 116 248,240 5.33 5.43 5.53 5.64 5.73 5.82 118 252,520 5.43 5.53 5.63 5.73 5.83 5.92 120 256,800 5.52 5.62 5.72 5.82 5.92 6.02 122 261,080 5.61 5.71 5.81 5.91 6.01 6.12 124 265,360 5.70 5.80 5.90 6.00 6.11 6.22 These tables have been made with great care, and have been all carefully cross-checked, and they are believed to be entirely reliable. Should any errors be detected, the writer will be greatly obliged if they are brought to his notice. Tables may also be arranged to advantage, according to the needs of the mill, for twoply cotton warps ; two-ply and single cotton fillings ; two-ply schappe or spun silk warps, and two-ply and single fillings ; as well as for worsteds, mohairs, artificial silks, etc., etc. In fact, whenever the work would be facilitated in any direction, tables should always be worked out and used. XVI VERIFICATION OF COSTS H In a very large number of instances, those persons having the principal ownership in textile mills do not make their headquarters at the mills. They visit them, of course, more or less frequently, but for many reasons find that it suits them better to be at the selling end rather than at their manufactories. Here their time is entirely taken up by the detail work of the day, and the constant problems that are ever arising. They have to oversee the selling of their goods, the bringing forward of new qualities and styles and the fixing of the prices, the buying of raw materials, the providing of the necessary money for the conduct of their operations, and the conferring with all sorts of people on all sorts of matters. Doubt as to Returns for Money Paid Out, The costs of their fabrics have been figured out with the greatest care and judgment, and, so far as they are aware, these costs should represent the outlays really being made. At the same time, as they are, month by month, pouring out huge sums for labor, materials and expenses (amounts which do not by any means correspond with the value of the merchandise arriving from the mills), these responsible owners cannot but, at times, feel uneasy as to their position, and as to the drift of their business. The fluctuations in the costs of their materials, in the volume of their production, and in the prices being brought by their finished merchandise, not to mention a host of other causes, may be sufficiently great to profoundly affect the results of the season's business. Difficulty of Investigating. In spite of this, these principals can find little opportunity for digging into figures and into the mass of detailed expenditures, even m 192 VERIFICATION OF COSTS if they were competent to do so, and, should they attempt it, they will generally find themselves baffled by a perfect maze of complex conditions, which can only be unraveled by a great expenditure of time, patience and effort. Of course, almost all concerns have accounting systems, of more or less merit, for the purpose of keeping control over the ordinary fiscal operations of their business, but as to those classes of accounts which will show the money-making, or money-losing factors in the business, the fact is that they are too often hopelessly neglected. The principals may not have the time, or the technical ability, to organize a proper system and see that it is followed up, and their ordinary office subordinates have not the necessary manufacturing knowledge to en- able them to know what is wanted. The consequence is, that, in the case of mills whose operations are anyway large, the proprietors at stock-taking time may have no idea within tens of thousands of dollars as to the profit or loss which will be shown on the closing of their books. It is the purpose of this article to discuss the situation described, with the intention of pointing out the various factors in the problem, and suggesting means whereby they may be analyzed and recorded, and that, too, in a manner involving but little labor and which will give thoroughly reliable results. Disturbing Factors in the Situation, There are many causes at work which are constantly changing the cost, and the profit, on the goods. Some of the factors that tend to confuse the situation are as follows : First, the diflFerences in the stock at the mills, between one period and another, these dififerences being in the kinds, qualities, sizes and condition of the silks, or other ma- terials, the prices paid for the same, and their varying quantities. The manner in which they are priced at diflferent stock-takings will greatly aflfect the result. Then, there is the fluctuation in raw material prices through the season, creating cost diflFerences of large dimensions. The variation in the volume of the product from the looms, both in its aggregate amount and in the case of individual kinds or qualities of goods, will have a profound eflFect on the cost of the fabrics. Next, there are the prices realized from the sale of the goods to be considered. Certain prices are put on goods at which they are supposed to be sold, and diflferent prices may be made to retailers or others from the figures that jobbers get them at. The pressure to sell often results in the cutting of prices, or, at any rate, the making of special prices in special cases; trade discounts and extra datings are given ; seconds or irregular goods are sold at an oflF price ; and then there is always a closing out of left-over goods at a smart loss. The result is that very hazy ideas often prevail as to what actual profit VERIFICATION OF COSTS i93 is being made on a line of goods, and often the sellers are quite pleased with the prices they are getting, when, if everything was considered and allowed for, it would be found that they were doing the business at a loss. The extra dating, so often and so freely given, is not an incon- siderable item by any means, and helps to eat quite a hole in the profits. In the cost of sellmg the goods there may be great variation from year to year. The amount of business done by the selling staflf, the traveling and other expenses, the salaries, the advertising — all fluctuate. If a concern is carrying its own credits, the losses from bad debts must also be considered. The interest account, which will vary with the amount of stock that is carried, and with the prompt or slow marketing of goods, is always considerable and must be studied. Mill expenses will vary greatly, and, when looms are being changed over constantly, and many widely varying fabrics are to be made, great sums of money can disappear in harnesses, labor, impaired prod- uct, and what not. Sampling and designing are generally grossly underestimated as to their cost, and very few proprietors care to look this sampling expense fairly in the face. If they did, and if they then put into the costs of their fancy goods a proper sum to pay for the sampling, they would often find that they would have to ask a price that the goods would not bring. They, therefore, generally cover the whole sampling cost into the general expense, with the result that they overcost their plain goods and undercost their fancies. At stock-taking time, there has to be a writing-oflf from the values of many materials at the mills, and also a writing-oflf from the values of stock goods at the store, thus further complicating matters. If raw materials run extra coarse or extra fine in size, and if greater or less amounts of waste are made in the throwing, weaving, and other operations, diflFerences will result. Bad warps in the looms cause unforeseen increases in labor cost and diminished production, and inability, at times, to obtain all the trained help that may be required will be another drawback. Such calamities as fires, floods, and strikes, being in their nature exceptional, we will omit from our consideration. The proposition before us is to keep track of all these various con- ditions from the selling end, to have the record at all times in such shape as to show clearly the conditions prevailing, and to do this so that results will be shown automatically, and with but little labor, and all this without bothering the regular staflF at either the mill or the store. ?f- Jl' )L 194 VERIFICATION OF COSTS li m^ m i\ Necessary Features in a Proper System of Control. The main features of a workable scheme are to treat the mill as a separate concern, keeping ledger accounts with it covering weights and values of all materials furnished, and setting forth all moneys provided for various purposes ; the using of a standard series of basic values for all the materials entering into the goods during the period under survey, not only for the cost calculations but for the pricing of the stock of materials at the mill as well ; and the figuring of all weights and prices on a raw-silk basis and not on a weighted basis. It is really a great convenience to employ the same standard prices for all raw materials, year after year, making, at the end of each cost calculation, any correction needed to bring it in line with the prices of the day. Then, there is the treating of the sales department as another sep- arate concern, and the keeping of accounts to shew how it exceeds, or keeps within, its allotted selling expense; the keeping of an account with each quality of goods manufactured, so that every month the goods received and returned, goods sold, stock on hand, and the aver- age price realized will be presented, and also the profit or loss on the sales, as compared with the nominal profit that the regular selling price should give, will be shown. Furthermore, there must be an adjustment account to take care of the fluctuations, and consequent profits or losses, in the raw material purchases. Working Out of the System. We start with a mill stock in various stages of manufacture — raw, thrown, dyed and of various weightings, wound, warped, woven, etc. Then we have cottons, spun silks, worsteds, and all sorts of materials. According to the work and uses of the mill, it will be desirable to separate these yarns into groups, such as silk of this or that size for raw-silk weaving, organzine stock, tram stock. Canton tram stock, etc., etc. Purchases may have been made of diflFerent grades of tram stock, for instance, running from best Japan Rereels to No. i Italian, but, after all, they all go into tram, and as such may be woven indiscrimi- nately into the season's goods, and if so they may all be priced at the same figure when taking stock. The prices put on the materials should be the same as will be used on the cost sheets for the following six months, and these prices should be what it is estimated the average costs may be for the season. From these bases, the value of the stock at the mill is worked out in the usual manner, by the addition of the expenditures for labor, dyeing, throwing, etc., and we are then also able to present the mill stock in the form of so many pounds of such and such raw materials, plus so much for throwing done on it, so much for dyeing done on it. VERIFICATION OF COSTS 195 and so much for mill labor applied to it, as well as its share of the mill expense. As we work on fixed values for raw materials, and as the throw- ster's and dyer's charges may vary little, if any, it may sometimes be found more convenient to carry the raw materials, throwing, and dyeing in the one account. Standard Bases for Cost Sheets. We now have fresh cost sheets made up, on the new bases of raw material costs, for all the qualities in work at the mill, and, of course, for all new qualities as they come forward. These cost' sheets are afterwards analyzed, and subdivided on separate sheets into their sev- eral elements, as "raw material, throwing and dyeing" (giving raw weights as well as values) ; "allotted labor"; "general mill expense"; "piece dyemg, printing and finishing"; "selling expense," and cal- culated "profit," this profit being based on the assumed regular selling price of the goods. By "allotted labor" is meant the labor outlay, at so much a pound or yard, directly applied to the goods ; the unallotted labor, which in- cludes all other labor expense, being covered into the general expense. This "allotted labor" may be shewn on the cost analysis slip in its separate forms, if desired, as winding, warping, weaving, etc., etc. Afialysis of the Cost of Each Quality. I present herewith a cost analysis of the broad silk calculation shown in the chapter on the "Costing of Broad Silks and Ribbons." There is no need of making one for every calculation made, but only for those from which goods have actually been woven. Records of Sales and Price Fluctuations. We now consider the stock of goods at the store. Many of them will be taken in stock at their full value, and many (even while the prices have not been broken) at less than their nominal value and many styles, which will not be made again, at a low price as jobs. ' Part of the essence of this system consists in regarding the nominal selling price as a fixed figure at one end of the calculation, just as fixed raw material prices are used at the other end, the prices obtained for the goods, above or below this limit, showing a profit or a loss thus adjusting the profit account. ' Accounts are now opened in a special loose-leaf book—a full page or more for each— with each quality of goods in stock at the beginning of the period, and fresh ones are opened as required. All entries should be made by yards, and the number of pieces disregarded. Columns for profits and losses are provided. In these accounts are then entered the yards on hand, at the store of each kind, and, if the prices at which the goods have been taken in stock are lower than the regular asking prices, the diflFerence will appear ANALYSIS OF COST Quality..^. .i:C Width. ...h^.&. Fnce„<£i^/!L.^ ITEMS Silk Warp (Inc'l Thr'g & Sk. Dy'g) «• Filling, Schappe Warp ..... •• Filling.... Cotton Warp •* Filling Warp.... «• it it «» Filling . . • t «» Allotted Labor Mill Expense Dyeing, Printing & Finishing. Raw Lbs. per 100 yds. ^.9 'J' Cents per yd. / ^ Selling Expense . . . ]•«••••• ••* Profit • • • • • /.MO TOTAL... ?f V C O 3S 3J^ ^cti^ /2. Of I* VERIFICATION OF COSTS 197 as a profit to start with, as the nominal asking price is the basis. Thus, if one thousand yards of quality No. 200 were in stock, the asking price of which was 75 cents, and they were taken in stock at 65 cents, then there would appear in the profit column a gain of $100 — being 10 cents a yard on one thousand yards. If, subsequently, they were all sold at 75 cents, the profit so noted, over the stock-taking price, would have been realized. If they brought 70 cents, a loss of 5 cents a yard, equal to $50, would appear as an offset in the loss column, and if 65 cents was what they went for, the 10 cents a yard difference between that and the nominal price would appear as a loss, and exactly offset the gain originally figured. In this way the confusion arising from varying prices put on goods in stock is avoided. Claims and allowances are entered as a loss at their money value, no note being taken of any yard- age allowance, as it does not affect the stock. The nominal profits and losses thus shown on the different sheets are grouped together each month, and the difference is carried to the profit account in the ledger, where it stands as an offset against the nominal profit with which the mill has been credited on the shipments made. Invoices of goods are now coming forward from the mills, and sales are being made, with their accompanying claims and returns. Day by days, these receipts, etc., are tabulated on special sheets, showing quali- ties, quantities and prices at which sold. At the end of the month the additions of these are transferred to monthly detail sheets and to the book of qualities. In writing up the latter, the receipts from the mill, and any goods returned from customers, are separately added to the stock on hand at the beginning of the month, and the sales are deducted, the net stock of every quality being thus shown every month. The sales, in another column, are grouped by prices, and the average price is figured out. Thus, if the quality was an 85-cent article, of which 5,000 yards had been sold, the items might appear as 1,000 yards at 82 j^ cents; 1,000 yards at 85 cents, less i per cent. ; 2,700 yards at 85 cents ; and 300 yards at 875^ cents. In the loss column would then appear the amount of 1,000 yards at 2^/2 cents, and 1,000 yards at i per cent, of 85 cents, and in the profit column would be 300 yards at 2^^ cents. The 2,700 yards sold at 85 cents, being at the regular price, would shew in neither profit nor loss column. The price for the month would thus average 84.48 cents. Goods returned are handled in the same way. Thus, if the 1,000 yards of 85-cent goods, sold at 82]^ cents, were returned, they would show as a profit of 25^ cents a yard in the column of gains, thus off- setting the loss originally laid against the sale. Value of the Records to the Sales Manager. The value of these records as a guide to the sales management must si 111 4 ,1 198 VERIFICATION OF COSTS be apparent, as they show, month by month, just how the stock has been movmg or accumulating ; the proportion of goods returned ; the vokime of sales and at what prices ; the aVerage prices realized during the month and the average also of the sales of all the months of the period ; the amount of claims that had been allowed on each line • and above all, this information should come up automatically and in 'com- plete form by, at the latest, the third day of each month, so that these important matters are thus brought regularly to the sales manager's notice, without any investigation on his part. In addition, it draws attention sharply to which lines of goods are most profitable, and which are least so, so that the manager can govern himself accordingly. Tabulations to he Made. As has been stated, the goods that have been arriving day by day from the mills will have been tabulated, and the total yardage of each quality will, at the end of the month, be transferred to the monthly detail sheet of mill shipments. Credits for these shipments will then be given the mill in the sev- eral ledger accounts which have been opened. To properly distribute the amounts, it is necessary to subdivide the cost of each quality re- ceived according to the analysis of cost for that quality, and to work out all the qualities, received during the month, in this way on the detail sheets. Thus, if 1,000 yards of quality No. 200 were received, valued at 75 cents, gross selling price, per yard, we would turn to the analysis of that quality and, multiplying, by 1,000, each of the amounts set down for raw material, throwing and dyeing, allotted labor, general mill ex- penses, piece dyeing, printing or finishing, selling expense, and profit we would enter these amounts under their several columns, the total aggregating 1,000 times 75 cents, or $750. The raw weight of the ma- terials should also be entered in separate columns. How the Figures are Handled in the Ledger. The additions of these columns are next transferred to the ledger accounts. When, for instance, on the account for allotted labor, the mill is credited with the amount represented by that element in the month's shipments, it will, on the other hand, be charged with the money furnished for that part of its payroll which applies to such labor. It is true that the labor in the shipments received is not the same labor as just then paid for in the payroll, but it averages up as the weeks and months succeed each other. This allotted labor may be divided into its different classes, and it is desirable that this be done, as it enables exact comparisons to be made with what the payroll should have been for the goods made (as worked out from the cost sheets), and what it actually is. I V. VERIFICATION OF COSTS 199 Prompt Ascertainment of Discrepancies. This is of great importance, for, if there is a serious difference, it can be detected and stopped while there is yet time to remedy it, instead of only learning it a month or two after the books have been closed at the end of the season. An excess outlay, over the calculation figures, may be due to some temf)orary and non-recurrent cause ; or it may be some leakage, or rob- bery through the payroll, or what not, which can be investigated and stopped; or it may be, and usually is, an actual undercosting on the cost calculation sheets, which, when the errors are thus brought to light, will then be corrected to conform to the facts. It may also be that goods have been overcosted, and that business is being declined which, if the real costs were known, would be ac- cepted. The demonstration of this is also most important. Apportioning the General Expense. In the general expense account in the ledger, the mill will be like- wise credited for this item, with its proper share of the value of the goods received : on the other hand, it will be charged with outlays for unallotted labor, supplies, mill maintenance, salaries, and expenses of all kinds, together with the monthly portion of such overhead charges as insurance, taxes, depreciation of plant, interest on capital, etc. The general expense outlay can be subdivided to any extent de- sired, and the more it can be shown in detail, the more useful the rec- ord will be. Raw Materials, and Work Done on Commission. In the raw material column will appear the amounts paid out for raw-silk, cotton, etc., and with these, if desired, may be included the charges for throwing and dyeing; credits against goods received are made on the other side of the account. The throwing and dyeing accounts can also be handled separately, if preferred. The piece dyeing, printing and finishing accounts are treated in similar fashion. Claims made on the firms doing such work should also be entered up, as they form an offset to allowances which would doubt- less appear in the sales sheets against the goods so damaged, etc. Analysing the Selling Expense. The selling expense account will be charged with customer's dis- count, both regular and for any extra time allowed ; with the discount for any extra days' time that the commission house exacts, under pre- tense of time taken in making collections ; all expenses, salaries, com- missions to salesmen and to department manager ; traveling expenses ; any advertising expenses ; and any charges in addition, necessitated by the merchandising of the goods, no matter how or where incurred. A i I »l Hit 200 VERIFICATION OF COSTS Interest on Stock a Selling Expense. As all sales managers will protest that they cannot do business with empty shelves, and as the underlying stock that they seem to require may amount to one or two months' product of the mill, it follows that, as the mill has got to furnish the money to provide these stock facilities, the mterest on the average amount of unsold stock carried is properly chargeable to the sales department, and should be so apportioned. If sales managers were rigorously compelled to stand this interest charge as part of their expense, many of them would be slower about ordering goods for stock. To the credit of the selling expense account will be placed the 15 per cent., or other percentage, allowed on the calculation, as figured out on the monthly detail sheets. Losses from Bad Debts. If a mill is carrying its own credits, losses in connection with bad debts must be provided for, and this is a charge against the selling expense. Such losses and expenses may be charged to the sales department as they occur, but a preferable way is to charge on all sales, as an offset for bad debts, such a percentage as experience has shown to be rea- sonable, and to carry this to a sinking fund to make the losses good when they do occur. Calculated Profits. The profit account carries on one side the calculated profits on the monthly mill shipments, and, on the other side, the losses or gains (nearly always losses) shown by the individual quality sheets, thus showing the real profit if the cost sheets are otherwise correct. For this reason, it is apparent that the selling prices affixed to the diflFerent qualities cannot, if priced too high or too low, affect the result. If too high, and thus showing a larger nominal profit on the shipments, the profit will be cut down by whatever the goods sell below their nominal prices, as shown on the quality sheets in the form of losses on sales ; and, conversely, if the prices have been made too low. Raw Material Adjustment Accounts. Then, there is the raw material adjustment account, and pages arc provided for silk, cotton, schappe, etc. Purchases are entered here, and the amounts above or below the calculation base prices are entered in loss and gain columns. Charges for interest appearing on bills, for time silk has been carried, go into the loss column. Unfilled contracts are not entered in these accounts, but only goods which have been actually delivered. The differences between the loss and gain columns of these raw material accounts, when grouped, represents the correction to be made, I VERIFICATION OF COSTS 201 in the result of the season's manufacturing operations, for losses or gains due to market fluctuations. Excess Labor Costs Due to Poor Materials. It might also be proper to have the mill report any excess labor costs, or other losses, due to inferior raw material, and carry this as a loss into the raw material adjustment account, for, if better, and pre- sumably dearer, silk had been furnished, the losses would not have occurred, and such losses should not be melted in with the mill's ordi- nary expenses. Clearances of the Weights, The calculated raw weights of goods received are also entered to the credit of the mill, and the actual weight of each kind of material sent is charged against it, each class being kept separate. The assembling of all these figures will show, at the end of every month, the total raw weights of each sort of material that should be at the mill, being the result of adding to the stock on hand at the be- ginning of the period, the raw weights of all materials sent there since, and the deducting of the calculated raw weights of the goods received, allowing also for the standard percentages calculated for waste. If these waste allowances have been on the conservative side, the mill stock should show a little gain over the calculation. Value of Stock Always Ascertainable. There will also be shown the total value of the stock at the mill, each month, this being the value of the initial stock plus the raw material sent, the throwing and dyeing paid for, and the value of the labor applied to the same, during the month, together with the proper appor- tionment of overhead and other expenses, from which will be deducted the mill-cost value of the goods received from the mills during the period. The stock at the store, of each quality of goods, will be shown, as well as how the goods have been moving, and the average prices they have been fetching. Actual and Calculated Expenditures. Then, there will be presented the differences between the various outlays for mill account, and what they should have been if in line with the cost calculations, as figured against the goods shipped in. Other Losses, Profits, and Expenses Shotim. On raw material purchases there will be shown the losses and gains made during the period. The actual cost of selling the goods will be shown, and in detail, as compared with the percentage apportioned for this work. The proportion of the calculated profits actually realized is set forth, 202 VERIFICATION OF COSTS r , and the actual gain or loss on each of the qualities and styles can also be segregated if desired. Transfer of Records to Ledger. The various accounts can now be drawn off from the ledger, and a balance struck, which will represent the profit or loss resulting from the month's operations. Theoretically, if the cost calculations had been absolutely true, each expense made for mill or store account should, in time, be exactly bal- anced by the goods received, etc, and the profit should stand alone as the only unbalanced factor. Such, of course, could never be the case, but, by this means of pre- sentation, every profit and every loss entering into the total of the re- sults is seen at a glance, and any serious discrepancy can at once be inquired into. Full Detailed Exhibit Each Month. As this is done each and every month, anything seriously wrong will be promptly noted and rectified, while ordinarily it might have gone on unperceived for any length of time. With these figures carefully made, and all tabulations and accounts kept right up to date, it should be possible to tell at the end of each month very near to what figures the books should close at, and with- out taking stock either at the mill or in the store. Writing-off at Stock-taking. These figures will be modified, at stock-taking time, by whatever amounts the management decides to write off the values of the stock at the mill, and the goods in the store. Differences to be Adjusted, Some differences will, of course, exist, due to varying sizes of raw materials and fluctuating amounts of waste, but they should not run into large figures. Should any great differences be found, when the accounts are made up, they can be easily and accurately located by this method of analysis. Some questions of detail may arise, such as when unfinished goods are sent in by the mill, and which undergo some change in length in the finishing ; but, with a little thought, adjustments can be readily made to cover such cases. Control of Records from Sales Department. It will be observed that all of these analyses, records, and deductions can be made from the market end of the business just as well as at the mills, and made, too, without having to put a question to the mill, ex- cept when explanations of discrepancies had to be asked for. VERIFICATION OF COSTS 203 Cost of Keeping Up the System, Each mill will have its own methods and peculiarities, and most mills will, no doubt, have devised systems which seem fairly to meet their requirements. The writer, however, knows of none so good as the one here set forth. While there is quite a little preliminary work to do in getting up the forms and blanks, and starting the accounts, the labor required to keep it going is most moderate. This labor cost is small, as the tabulations, according to the size of the mill, can be made by one or two, (and, in very big mills, perhaps more) young men or women, at a cost of, perhaps, from $7.00 to $10.00 a week each. Then, the work of some one in the office, of greater experience, will be needed for two or three days at the bginning of each month, to ap- portion the expenses, work out the amounts, and post the figures into the ledger, as well as figuring out the sales, etc., on the quality sheets, and drawing off the monthly balance. Whatever the labor required, it is a very small matter when the importance of the reports that it produces is considered. I recommend this method to the careful study of anyone who is interested. 4 S'-l » u- -,l. ■"( XVII ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIVE COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS. When a mill is engaged in the production of fabrics of widely differing character, the question as to what is the real cost of each of the various lines of goods is one of the greatest moment. The success of the business will be, in a great measure, dependent upon a correct solution of this problem, for, when goods are costed un- duly high, business with a profit in it may be declined, while, for such goods as are costed too low, an actual loss may be made, when all the time the manufacturer thinks he is making money on them. Different Elements of Cost. The elements of cost, entering into woven silk fabrics, are the raw materials, together with the preparation of the same— throwing, dyeing, etc.; the applied labor such as winding, warping, beam- ing, quilling, twisting, weaving, picking, cleaning, etc. ; the de- signing and pattern expenses ; the finishing, piece dyeing, or printing ; and the general expenses, which include interest, depreciation, power, light and heat, clerk hire, miscellaneous labor, expenses of manage- ment, mill supplies, taxes, insurance, and a host of other things. Many of these items are quite easily apportioned, but the proper allotment of some of them is a most difficult and puzzling matter. What makes the matter more serious is that correct estimates in these matters have to be made in advance of the manufacture and sale of the goods. A mill may be making plain or figured piece-dyes, plain yarn- dyed fabrics, ordinary simple fancies such as stripes, checks, barres, etc., or novelty goods running all the way from plaids to printed warp, tinsel filled, brocades. COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS 205 The market prices on most lines of goods of large general sale are fixed by the Quotations of big mills which specialize on them, and it may well be that a moderate sized mill, by too great a diversifica- tion of its product, may so increase the cost of all its goods that in no direction can it compete successfully. Subdivision of Expenses, In an analysis of expense, one of the first steps to take is a care- ful subdivision of the expenditures by departments. Thus, the money paid out for the winding processes will be kept separate, and this will include the foreman and assistants, bobbin carriers, etc., etc., in addition, of course, to the wages paid for the actual winding. Any transferring can be included here also. The quilling will be handled in the same manner and any doubling can be included with it. The warping and beaming can be taken together or separately, according to the practice of the mill, but the sample warping should not be here included. Into the twisting and entering department expenses will go, to- gether with the regular wages, all work done in connection with the care of the reeds and harnesses, the reeding, back-reed making, etc., etc. Work done for sampling, always a big item in this depart- ment, should be recorded separately. The harness building, French, English, or Jacquard, can be treated also as a department if desired. With the weaving outlay will go the salaries of loom fixers and foremen, shuttle fixers, etc., etc. The designing and pattern department will include the designers, card cutters, lacers, etc., and here may also be included the wages of pattern weavers, and the warping, twisting, and other expenses in- cidental to sample work. The labor in connection with the picking, clipping, and cleaning of the pieces can be also combined, and the examining, measuring, folding, recording, weighing and shipping of the goods may be treated as another department. Relation of Equipment to Labor Cost. It is well, also, to have all the expenses for supplies, repairs and maintenance, charged to the respective departments for which they have been incurred, as such expenses have a very intimate connection with the labor costs; a false economy in the upkeep of the ma- chinery, or in the quantity or character of the supplies furnished, may mean a heavy addition to the wages in many directions. These records can be written up fortnightly, or at whatever inter- vals coincide with the pay days. Then, by preparing a record of the yardage of each class of goods woven during the pay, and by figuring out for each department the 206 COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS m « ' t I N m W mi amounts called for on the cost sheets for such work, it can be seen, with approximate correctness, from period to period, whether the pay roll is exceeding the estimate in any direction, and, if so, prompt in- vestigation can be made. Departmental Costs, It is desirable to figure up against each department its proper pro- portion of the overhead expenses, such as a charge for space occupied, power, heat and light used, insurance, depreciation, superintendence, and what not. This is seldom done but it gives most valuable in- formation. For instance, if the total amount of the warping cost for such goods as were being made was arrived at in this way, and if this cost was found to be higher than what commission warpers in the vicinity were willing to do the work for, and do it well, the inference would be obvious that too much was being paid out in some direc- tions, and inquiries, looking to greater economy, would be instituted. If, however, the cost could not be reduced, then most of the work might be sent outside to be done, and the space devoted to warping could be put to some more profitable use. Apportionment of Plain and Fancy Goods Expenses. In properly dividing the expenses between the plain and fancy goods, one is confronted by the fact that their relative proportions are not constant, but are fluctuating all the time and often greatly. The records of the preceding years must therefore be consulted with a view to arriving at an average, and, if no guide is to be had, some basis must be assumed as a working hypothesis, to be cor- rected later in the light of actual experience. We will assume that a mill has 500 looms, and that 100 are run- ning on grege warp fabrics for piece dye, 200 on yarn dyed plain goods, 25 on simple stripes and checks, and 175 on Jacquard fancies. All but the Jacquard fancies we will therefore consider as the plain goods end of the business. As the plain goods are always the most competitive, having the largest sale, and earning the smallest profits, it is therefore neces- sary to find out just what they would cost to make if not intertwined with the fancies, and then to charge them with this amount only, the remainder of the expenses going on the novelties. Different Methods of Apportionment. Two view points can here be taken. The organization may be considered as two separate mills of 325 and 175 looms respectively, and the expenses can be worked out on that basis, or the expenses may be figured on the assumption that the whole 500 looms might run on plain goods, and the pro rata amount of this be assigned to the 325 looms actually so running, the fancies being charged with all of the COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS 207 difference between that and the actual expense. The latter method will make the expense on the plain goods less and on the fancies more. Proceeding on the first method, let us see what expenses are entailed upon the business that would not be if no fancies were made. Expenditures Necessitated by the Production of Fancy Goods. The organization being more complex and the manufacturing problems more difficult, it follows that the manager should be a man of unusually large experience and of exceptional judgment. Such a man will cost more money than an ordinary man. Thus, if the mill were on plain goods, a satisfactory manager might be hired for $3,000 a year, equal to $6.00 a loom. With the novelty end of the business to be looked after, a proper man might cost $5,000 a year. Hence, the 175 fancy looms should not only be charged $6.00 a year each — or $1,050.00 — on this account, but should also carry the additional $2,000 a year entailed by the necessity of a higher priced man. The manager will generally need the assistance of an expert on fabric construction — a man with taste and ingenuity — whose business it largely is to create new fabrics and evolve ideas, to direct the designing department, and to see that such designs and patterns as are brought forward are such as will weave well in the looms. In most cases the service of such a man — and he would not be a cheap man by any means — would not be required were it not for the fancy goods. Therefore these goods should carry all or most of this ex- pense. Pattern Work and Harness Expenses. The designing department entails a huge expense. There are sketches to be made, and many are purchased outside. Then, these are to be painted in on the design paper. The cards must be cut, laced and wired, and many sets have to be repeated. The necessary Jacquard harnesses have to be built in the looms, and there are constant repairs to be made to these harnesses, and changes to be made in the tie-ups, and the loss of the time that these looms are so stopped must be considered. An immense amount of pattern weaving has to be done, with its great attendant expense for warping, twisting, drawing-in, and loom mounting and fixing. The quantity of material used up in this way is also most considerable. The labor cost is further increased by the fact that a loom-fixer cannot care for more than half or two-thirds the number of fancy looms that he could of plain looms. Costs in Connection ivith Printed Warps. If printed warps are made, there is the cost of the preliminary weaving in of the binding picks every yard or so to preserve the I' & I I; m ft li 4 208 COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS 209 I ij pattern, and, apart from the cost of the process, there is the expense of these looms to be allowed for when they are taken oflf their reg- ular productive work for this purpose. This should be figured in the cost calculation, along with the other expenses attendant upon the warp printing, but is very often overlooked. Loom Stoppage, Sampling Material, and Waste. The loss from the stoppage of fancy looms for necessary changes is most serious. Jacquard looms must stand while warps are being twisted in, and the harnesses, and Jacquard machines, are always in need of some attention, and, of course, at such times the looms stand. The amount of money that has also to be spent for cords, threads, lingoes, mails, compass boards, etc., etc., is very great. Fancy sampling requires the having on hand, and the constant purchasing of, small lots of silk and other materials of a wide variety of kinds. The bulk of these lie dead in the stock afterward, eat up interest, and give constant trouble in connection with their storage, handling, and recording. The amount of waste made in fancies far exceeds the percentages on the plain goods, and the increased complications of the business make it more difficult to follow up and record all the wastes, with the consequent effect that, as less exactness of control is possible, the waste on the plain goods also has a tendency to grow to greater pro- portions than it should. Other Causes of Increased Expense. In every mill there are many general employees such as carpenters, machinists, shuttle fixers, bobbin boys and girls, sweepers, etc., etc. The pay of all those people whose employment is the direct result of the fancy business should be charged to that branch, and also the proper proportion of the other labor that would have to be employed. In getting out a novelty production there has to be much con- ference between store and mill, and if the two are at some distance apart the travelling expense account bulks up into a large item and must be taken notice of and properly apportioned. Where a lot of highly paid Jacquard weavers are weaving in the same mill as people on plain goods, the latter cannot see why they should not be allowed to earn as much as the others, and the difficulty of getting the plain goods woven at a low cost is much increased. This is an expense that can hardly be loaded on the fancies, but it is often a very real and a very large one. The orders for fancies are of a scattering nature, and many are the warps that must be made and twisted that are shorter than the average upon which the calculations are based. This additional out- lay should be examined into and allowed for, and it is by no means small. How Necessary Equipment Increases Overhead Charges. A fancy loom requires more space than a plain one. As two or more beam work is to be expected the floor space alloted must be greater, and, for Jacquards, considerable head room is needed, to- gether with the timbering to support the machmes. These things in- crease the size of the building that must be provided, and add to the cost of the goods in greater interest and depreciation charges, and more expense for heating, lighting, cleaning, etc. Much special machinery is also required, such as card cutting, lac- ing and repeating machines, etc., and these must be charged with their interest, depreciation, and upkeep. The space used by the de- signing, sampling, and card cutting departments should also be charged for, as well as the heating and lighting of the same. As the fancy looms generally require more power to run them than plain looms, and as the special machinery connected with fancy work also takes power, a reasonable amount should be charged for this added expense. , . , r t a A large amount of space is required for the storage of Jacquard cards and much labor is needed in connection with the handling of them.' See that these expenses are duly tabulated and charged for. All these things make quite a long list, and in each mill there will be still other things to provide for. Presenting the Expenses on the Cost Sheets. The annual outlay for expenses in connection with the fancy goods having been segregated, the question arises as to how it should be apportioned on the cost sheets. Some manufacturers try to determine what the expenditure tor patterns and sampling has been, and then charge on the cost sheets what they think right for this item (a very uncertain matter) and put the rest of the outlay into the general expense. Others let the general expense carry all of the pattern and sampling costs . , , . The outlay for entering, twisting, etc., in a mill, particularly in a fancy mill, always greatly exceeds the calculation figures. A con- venient method of handling this matter is to take the yardage produced in a year see how many 300 yard warps this would make (if that is the b'asis of figuring) ; culculate the average ends per warp, and then figure what this would represent in twisting. Subtract this from the amount actually paid out and carry the remainder into the general expense. ^ ^ ^ ^ Allotment of Expenses per Loom. Having ascertained the total sum of the expense for the fancy looms and experience showing the average production to be expected from them the sum to be made up may be divided among them pro rata or some differences may be made according to the width and li III 'I: ^i f 1.1 ! 210 COSTS OF PLAIN AND FANCY GOODS character of the looms, but, however allotted, the total amount figured for expense must equal the total outlay. Cancellations, Interest Charges, and Production. Not to be overlooked is the fact that fancy goods are very subject to cancellation for late delivery, or on other grounds, and seconds are plentiful, and mistakes in colors and patterns are not unknown. Very considerable losses must be expected from these causes, and the profit asked on the goods must be sufficiently liberal to oflFset them. In making goods for piece dye, as the material comes into the shape of finished merchandise much more quickly than does the skein dye, there is quite a saving of the expense for interest. Where the work runs plain and steady, shuttles with extra long cops or quills can be used, thus helping the production. This is not of so much moment with the fancies. To make all these necessary tabulations, and to keep the records posted up, takes some clerical help, but any necessary expenditure in this direction is money well spent. Daily Expense to be Borne by Each Loom. When the amount that the fancies must earn has been determined, it should be subtracted from the total expense and the remainder dis- tributed among the plain looms. According to the size of the plant, the nature of the work, and the manner in which the product is kept sold up, it will probably be found that, on a basis of running full, the daily amount that each plain loom will have to earn to pay its share of the expense will be from 45 to 75 cents, and the fancies may have to earn from $1.00 to $1.50 per Continuous full running, however, is not to be expected, and to these figures, when arrived at, should be added such reasonable per- centage as would cover the average limitation of production that must be expected. This sort of an analysis should be made year after year, and in time it will result in a very correct knowledge of what the expense of running each loom really is. If manufacturers really appreciated what an expense their fancy goods production entails upon them, there would be fewer of them making fancies and more of them making money. XVIII THE RELATIONS BETWEEN MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES. No producing industries are more complex in their organization than textile mills, and in none is a higher general average of skill re- quired, if a full production of perfect goods is to be obtained. Difficulty of Creating a Mill Organisation. To get together a first-class force in a good-sized mill will take years, during which time an endless sifting and weeding out process i^ going on in every department, involving troubles and annoyances of the most temper-trying kind, many imperfect goods, and immense waste of time, wages, and material. That such organizations are finally got together speaks volumes for the knowledge and patience of the mill superintendents, and it is largely owing to the realization of what it means to have created such a force, and the ease with which it can be broken up and scat- tered in case the mill does not have steady work and first-class ma- terials, that manufacturers are so insistent with their market repre- sentatives to supply them with advance orders at almost any price, and which leads them so frequently to manufacture goods for stock when orders cannot be had, so as to keep the people together, in spite of the fact that they fully realize the risk that they are running of heavy losses on the stock goods. Losing Good Help a Serious and Expensive Matter, Good all-round operatives of any kind, are not created in a day or a year. When, following a strike or a complete or partial shut-down, many of the old and experienced hands have drifted away and it is necessary to employ relatively inexperienced ones or to break in learn- Il 212 MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES 213 |:f • I M • i h» ers It may well be that in a few weeks or months, as the case may be these are turnmg out a moderate quantity of not very bad ffoods if the work is of a simple character. ^ ' When later on other fabrics of a distinctly different character ^!.tTu. '''" ^^°^^?^ complicated construction, the weakness of the force becomes painfully apparent. The old hands would have under- stood how to weave nearly everything that might be called for and would produce almost from the outset, their full quota of wdl made goods, while the new hands would have to painfully l^rn how to This is one of the most serious evils entailed by a protracted strike and Its ill effects may be felt for years afterward ' Tact Needed in Handling Help. nen3^ nflu^ ^^^ ^^T '^''^^^"^ ^^'^^ ^" ^ "^^^^ composed as it is of people of all ages and many nationalities and of both sexes, is a prob- lem requiring the greatest tact, judgment, and firmness on the part mav Lve „3'''''"t"'v ^^'i' ^^^^^ '' ^ ^^P^^^^e individual and Tred IJTlt Pf "^^^^^i^^^ ^f. character which have to be consid- ered. Justice to all and favoritism to none must be the foundation stone but the amount of finesse that is required to keep 3 Z crotchety, people satisfied with their jobs is immense When new styles, or different materials, are put in work there IS bound to be widespread complaint as to the characterTthe ma- terial the rate of pay etc., etc. It is true that, in a few days when they have got their hands in, everything will probably be run^^^ smoothly, and the rate of pay assigned for the work will be found to be fair and sufficient; but this is not always apparent to them at the outset and the task of their superior is to reason with and en- courage them, so as to get them to use their best and most willing efforts, but not to raise the price fixed, unless it should prove laTer on "^i^^^::^^' '' '' ^^^^ '^'' '^ -^- p4 once made Many complaints are more or less just, and when made should re- ceive proper attention and redress, but these are the small minoritv as intelligent managers always try to arrange matters in eve^y dTrec- tion so that no valid cause for complaint may exist Then, there are many unruly and disorderly workpeople who bluster and threaten, and these must be treated with a firm hand and be put promptly in their places or summarily dismissed. Anv tern porizmg with insolence or insubordination would make chaos in a mill in a week. " ^ America may or may not be for the Americans, but a textile mi 1 certainly seems to be for the foreigners, and it would require a polyglot to grapple with the names on the ordinary payroll This confusion of tongues makes it very troublesome to explain, when there is any explaining to do, and adds much to the difficulty of the situation. Beggars on Horseback. The employers who ignore elementary principles of fairness in deal- ing with their help, and many do, and who try to ride roughshod over their people, with no respect for their peculiarities, habits, or rights, will always suffer severely in the pocket, in the long run, on account of such arbitrary and ill advised methods. The explanation of their attitude may be found in the fact that such employers are generally sprung from the very lowest classes (or else their parents were), and it is proverbial that no one makes so tyran- nical a master as one who has been a servant himself. Every worker has his or her rights, both as an individual and as an employee, and a proper respect for their rights will always be shewn by every' man of sense, even under most trying circumstances.. Impossibility of Personal Acquaintance. A good deal of gratuitous advice is offered to manufacturers, as to how they should deal with their operatives, by those who little realize the conditions. They are told that they should treat them as friends and equals, take an interest in them, know them by name, etc., etc., and that then labor troubles would be very infrequent. Vain illusion! To begin with, no manufacturer conducting a mill of any size, and who has the calls on his time and thought, outside of the mill work, that all manufacturers have, can know very many of his ordi- nary operatives by name, or in many cases by sight, even if his head- quarters were at the mills, and for those stationed in New York it would be still more impossible. Furthermore, the ability to remember faces and names so well as to be able to identify scores or hundreds of people at sight, is a very rare gift, and without it no manufacturer could begin to have a personal acquaintance, to any extent, with the rank and file of his force. It is the superintendent and his foremen, by reason of their daily intimate contact with the people at their work, who alone can have a knowledge of the individuality of these people, and it is largely to them that the employer must look to see that equity is done, and peace, order, and efficiency maintained. That matters in factories go on as smoothly as they do, is a high testimonial to the faithfulness, tact, and justice of the mill super- intendents. Latent Suspicion of Operatives. Now it is sad, but true, that the habit of mind of the ordinary mill operatives towards their employers is one of latent suspicion. They seem to have inherited an idea that the man who pays them their 214 MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES wages is a potential enemy, and when any troublesome questions arise this mental attitude becomes at once apparent. Any sane and decent employer, even if under no compulsion by the law, would see to it that his people were fairly treated, and that the places and conditions of their work were clean, safe, and sanitary. Let him go beyond that, and engage, to a greater or less extent, in what IS known as "welfare work," and he will see what thanks he gets. While the benefits offered may or may not be accepted, he will be fortunate if he escapes being regarded as an enemy in consequence, and, whether it comes to his ears or not, he may be absolutely cer- tain that his motives will be discussed throughout the mill in a hostile manner, and every kind of distorted view taken of them. This, of course, should not prevent the steady pursuing of desir- able ends in such directions, but it will illustrate how little it can serve in helping to preserve industrial peace. Wages and Conditions of Living. Rates of wages, whether for day work or for piece work, will vary with the locality. The basis of all such compensation is that it shall suffice to support the operative in the condition in which others of his class in that community live. Circurnstances will vary widely. Thus, a weaver may earn $12.00 a week ; his wife may also work in the mill as weaver, warper, twister, or what not, or may do picking at home. She may earn another $12.00, and they may have a boy and a girl in the mill, earning re- spectively $5.00 and $7.00 a week, making a total for the family of $36.00 a week, or $1,800 a year, a sum sufficient to support them very comfortably. Another weaver may also earn his $12.00, but his wife may know nothing of mill work, or any money producing work, and his children may be young. In that case the family has nothing but his own wages, and the struggle for existence is a hard one, and it is impossible to save anything. Underpaid Employees Unprofitable. Intelligent employers will take care to see that their employees on piece work get oflF enough product to earn for themselves a fair average wage. If they fail to do this, it means that the machinery under their charge is not sufficiently productive, and that, in conse- quence, the expense chargeable against its output is a higher unit than it should be, and that the workman earning such very low wages must be in a state of chronic dissatisfaction, and, if there are many such, trouble may be looked for sooner or later. When, therefore, it is seen that an operative is falling much short in earnings, when others, on the same work and under the same con- ditions, are doing well, the cause must be looked for, and, if there be no cause except the lack of effort or ability on the part of the oper- MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES 215 ative, he must be told that if he cannot bring up his product to about what it should be, within a reasonable time, he will have to make room for some one who can. There are always a few workmen whose earnings will ever be well above the average, and there are others who will constantly fall below, but a low limit should be set on each class of work, and no person should be continued in employment who cannot do that, or better. It may sometimes happen that poor warps, or other materials, may get put in work, and if such things do occur, the overseer should take special pains to see that the bad work is fairly divided, and that a man does not get two bad jobs in succession. Every pay day, the manager should have before him not only the current pay roll, but a table showing the average earnings of every operative up to date. By this means the ones whose averages are too low can be accurately located. Strikes and Their Causes. It is a singular thing to see what trifling causes may provoke a strike if the situation be stupidly or arrogantly handled, and when people are once out, no matter what the cause, it is no easy matter to get them back. Most labor unions have acquired a habit of calling strikes, even when no dissatisfaction as to conditions exists, and very often just at the times when the workers are anxious to keep at work and are trying to save something. Many of the mill workers belong to unions, but far more do not, and the strikes are called by the noisy 10 per cent, of the member- ship of the unions, because the 90 per cent, of quiet people, who want to stay at work, are afraid to oppose them at the meetings — a familiar example of collective cowardice. ''Recognition of the Union.'' If a strike is for "recognition of the union" — that fatal millstone which labor agitators ever seek to hang about the necks of the em- ployers — the manufacturers must fight it to the bitter end, for no honest man has a right to abdicate his liberty and put himself under the domination of irresponsible outsiders, any more than he would have a right to sell his vote, or auction off his children as slaves. Bet- ter give up a business than conduct it under such intolerable conditions. If the demands deal with rates of wages, or with matters that may properly be the subject of bargain between employer and employee, a settlement may be more readily arrived at. The best way to avoid strikes is to treat all the people fairly and firmly, pay fair wages, give steady work, and keep the mill free from labor agitators. 2l6 MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES m w Strike Violence, and the Fear of It. It is singular to note that, when a strike is called, the non-union people usually all go out also. They explain that they are quiet peo- ple, and that if they kept at work they might be attacked and beaten, and that their wives and children and themselves would be called "scabs" and jeered at for years thereafter. This is no light penalty to pay for faithfulness to their employer, so they must not be blamed too much for their action. Where Popular Government Breaks Dozun and Freedom Ceases. It is on occasions of this kind that popular government breaks down, and the name of Freedom becomes a farce. Those who want to earn an honest living are not free to do so, but strikers are free to intimidate, maim, or kill, and of the countless number of crimes committed by strikers, what a pitiful number are punished, even in the most trivial way! The local authorities are often useless for preserving order, or worse than useless. So long as governors, sheriffs, magistrates, and other officials, whose duty it is to preserve the peace, are elective offi- cers, they will continue to refuse to deal promptly, courageously, and effectively, with the violence commonly attendant upon strikes, as, by so doing, it might be necessary to shoot some of their constituents in order to preserve the rights, the liberties, and the persons of those innocent and peaceable people who desire to work. The strikers and their friends number many votes, while the employers are a negligible quantity in that respect. The sheriflF of a county has very great powers, and any sheriff who intended at all hazards to see that the peace was kept could settle any incipient trouble in a day. Persons who brutally attack inoffen- sive workers are not usually endowed with a very high variety of courage, and when they realize that deputies, armed with rifles, are about to use them as targets, they take to cover instanter. The putting two or three ringleaders of a disturbance out of business right at the start — as should be done — would save scores of innocent people from grave injury, or death, at the hands of any ruffians among the strikers. It may be taken as axiomatic that any strike, called for the usual trivial reasons, would not have the ghost of a chance of success except for violence or the threat of violence, and this threat is, at all times, the most effective weapon that the strikers have. The manufacturers, paying heavy taxes, but not receiving the pro- tection they are entitled to under the law from the officials whose salaries they help to pay, have, therefore, a hard time of it when labor disturbances are prevalent. Necessity for Means of Defense. It may thus be a desirable thing, when new mill buildings are being ^ - ' LB L I t MILLS AND THEIR OPERATIVES 217 planned, to consider their defensive possibilities in this connection. For instance, all lower story windows could be well grated, and high and strong fencing might surround the property, with strong gates. At intervals, along the external sides of the various buildings, bays could be built out, say, about five feet wide, and extending outwardly a foot or two. These bays, on every floor, could have grated windows looking out in each direction. In them would rise the stand pipes for fire protec- tion, and the coils of hose for each floor would hang in them. Then, when strike disturbances prevailed, and rioting and breaches of the peace were taking place, the entire space about the mill could be ef- fectively cleared by the use of the hose. How Those Willing to Work Can be Protected. Again, in the centre of a square, surrounded by mill buildings, could be erected a two or three-story building, large enough to house a considerable number of people. There could be kept on hand a good supply of cots and other equipment necessary for the purpose. Then, in case of violence attendant upon a strike, people who might be engaged elsewhere, or persons from the vicinity who might wish to work, could be brought into the premises in a well-protected cov- ered motor van, their numbers 'and their persons being entirely con- cealed from hostile eyes. Once in, there would be no necessity of their leaving the mills during the continuance of the trouble. The arrangements to house, feed, and amuse them would all have been prepared for, and so they would not be exposed to violence, as would people who had to pass backward and forward to their homes twice a day. By this means, a new force could be steadily and surely assembled, for it is relatively easy to get hands when they are absolutely exempt from molestation. Right of the Individual to Defend Himself and His Dependents. As the State so signally fails to protect the manufacturer and those desirous of working for him, he must then exercise his inalienable right to protect himself and his dependents, and, to do so effectively, he must make his preparations in advance. At ordinary times this building could be used for storage, or as a club house for the employees, or it could be used for welfare work. Lessons in cooking, and dressmaking could be given to the women for a small charge, and the foreigners could be taught English, and lecture courses could be given. Employment of Minors. The employment of children in mills, and the age at which they may be permitted to work, has received much attention of late years, and deservedly so. There are many features of interest in this ques- i: M^;: 11 r ( ; ■ 1* •■nil 1 1 »|j :ni .|ii 2l8 ilf/LL^ ^A^i? 7//£//e OPERATIVES tion which I cannot discuss here, but it is quite apparent that employ- ing children, who have not come to an age where they realize what responsibility is, must mean excessive waste, and, with a material so costly as silk, it would prove a very expensive matter for the employer. Profit Sharing an Aid to Efficiency. The general efficiency of a mill organization may be greatly pro- moted by letting the more important employees share in the profits. Thus, a certain percentage of the net profits, or the dividends from certam shares of stocks, might be set aside to an extent that, when the business was doing well, would give them a bonus equal to, say, 15 to 25 per cent, of their annual salary. This could go to superintendents and their assistants, to head de- signers, head loom-fixers, chief engineers, and possibly to department foremen. It would be well to pay it only to those who had been with the concern as much as a year, and to divide it into quarterly pay- ments, as, in that way, it would have a more continuously stimulating effect. Other good plans, looking to the same result, could easily be worked out. Criticism from the Selling End. In conclusion, it may be remarked that, at the selling end, criti- cisms are at all times freely passed upon the mills and their manage- ments, and there is usually no one there to defend them. If they do not produce the qualities of goods that the salesmen want and be willing to sell them at the bottom prices quoted anywhere, and pro- duce every yard perfect and every order on time, no matter how short the time allowed for its execution, they will assuredly be blamed. The real wonder is how they ever can accomplish as much as they do. It is, however, useful to reflect that the best informed men in the trade recognize the fact, and are free to state it, that for one mill that goes to the wall on account of inferior manufacturing ability there are five or ten that are put out of business by inefficient sales- manship. XIX QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP. In order to get together a thoroughly trained staff of mill employees, a period of years is generally required. For each employee who is permanently retained, many others have been tried and found wanting. Effect on the Personnel of Continuity of Work. Continuity of work, week in and week out, and year after year, is one of the greatest helps in the upbuilding of such an organization. If it is either a feast or a famine, running overtime one month, and with half the machinery shut down the next, it is obvious that there must be a great shifting of help, old employees finding work elsewhere, when laid off, and new ones having to be hired to take their places when the mill starts up again. A large proportion of the new hands will usually prove so unsatisfactory that a weeding-out process is neces- sitated, and, by the time a fairly good force is secured, slack work comes again with a repetition of the same trouble. The effect upon both the quantity and the quality pf the output of the mill, under such conditions, is disastrous. Some Causes for the Shifting of Help. Apart from this, there is always some change in the personnel going on, for many reasons. Some will fall ill, families may move away, and some may desire to revisit, or return to, their old homes in Europe, or elsewhere ; occasionally, also, there is a not unnatural de- sire for a change of surroundings or climate on the part of some of the people; others may think that they have been unfairly or arbitrarily treated by those in authority over them, and frequently such is the case ; and then there are people who leave without notice and for no ap- parent reason, some of them, possibly, having got on the wrong side of the law in one way or another. I 220 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 221 i^i In some localities, a good deal of the female help will take flight at certain seasons of the year, whether to act as waitresses at summer hotels, to work in the canneries, to go hop picking, or what not, much to the loss and inconvenience of their regular employers. Tramp Weavers. Then there are the "tramp weavers," usually thoroughly skilled men, who may have worked in mills in every state in the Union. These move from place to place as the seasons change, or as the fancy strikes them. They may work a week, or a month or two, then drop out when a pay closes, and, without saying a word, come back on pay day to collect their pay — if they have not assigned it to some one else — and are gone. They are doubtless philosophers, who only do work enough to give them money for their modest needs, and as they travel the country they see new scenes, and can go south or north as the season dictates, just as their rich fellow citizens do. Even if, as the years roll on, they find themselves empty of pocket, they will reflect that most of their fellows who stayed at home with their noses to the grindstone are not a whit better off than what they are. Causes for Dismissal. Many workers, too, will have to be discharged. These are the in- competent, and those who are hopelessly slow ; some who are quarrel- some, some drunken, some insubordinate, and others who are trouble makers, and there may be occasional instances of dishonesty. The Problem of Securing Help. All this goes to shew that, even in those mills which have steady work at all times, the securing of needed help has always to be con- sidered, while, with those mills that run intermittently, or with those that are situated where help is scarce, it is one of the most serious prob- lems confronting the administration. Rates of Wages a Local Condition. The question is seldom one of wages. That is more or less of a local condition as regards each district, and, in fact, as regards each mill, and the cost of living in the vicinity is also a controlling factor. Sometimes the rate of wages for piece work, in two mills near to one another and running on exactly the same goods, may vary consid- erably — and properly so. One of the two may have high-class machinery that can be run at maximum speeds ; its raw material may be the best obtainable, and the preparation and dyeing of it may be done by first-class houses ; its mill organization may be superb; and it may be backed up by successful selling at the distributing end. In the other mill, the reverse of these conditions may obtain, and, with poor machinery, material, mill organization, and selling talent, the situation may be deplorable. The result, so far as the operative on piece work is concerned, will be, that, in the first mill, his annual product will be so greatly in excess of what it could be in the second mill, that even at a consid- erably lower piece-work rate, his annual earnings will be much higher. Each mill, according to its circumstances, has got to fix its rates on a basis fairly satisfactory to the help, and, within limits, these rates will vary from factory to factory. Variation of Wages and Hours in Different Localities. It is a very different matter when the prices paid for labor in one manufacturing district, and the hours that that labor works, vary ma- terially from the conditions that prevail in another district, for, under these circumstances, the district paying the highest wages and work- ing the shortest hours, finds it almost impossible to compete success- fully with its better situated competitor. Such conditions are constantly arising, and heavy and long con- tinued losses in some sections are the result, ending either in a re- adjustment of wage rates that will somewhat equalize matters, or in the industry dying out where the labor cost is too high. Meantime, such differences in rates invite strikes for higher wages or shorter hours in the districts where wages are low. The Silk Throwing Strike of ipo^. In 1907, a serious strike broke out in the silk throwing mills lo- cated in Lackawanna and Luzerne Counties, in the State of Pennsyl- vania, in which is included the important Scranton district, and which strike was settled by arbitration in December of that year. Among the data furnished to the arbitrator was the following com- parative table of wages paid for female labor, in the throwing in- dustry, in Paterson, N. J., and in Scranton, Pa. Relative Wages in Scranton and Paterson. 55 Hours, Paterson, N. J. Winders $7-50 Doublers 7.50 Tram spinners 9.00 Organ flyer hands 7.50 to $8.00 Spinners 500 to 6.00 Reelers 7-oo Lacers 4-50 Bobbin Boys 3.50 to 4.00 58^4 Hours, Scranton, Pa. ^ Winders $4.00 to 5.00 Doublers 3.00 to 4.50 ^ li I »' il m P i 'ii II 1 1 1 1 .'I 222 QUESTIO NS RELATING TO MILL HELP Tram spinners 3.50 to 4.50 Organ flyer hands 2.75 to 4.00 Spinners 2.50 to 3.50 ^^^^^s 3 00 to 3.50 ^^^Z^ • • I.2S to 2.50 Bobbin boys 2.50 to 3.25 This illustrates very well the difficulty of the competition referred to, if these figures are correct. The arbitrator decided that the mills which were parties to the arbitration should reduce their working hours to 55 per week, and should adopt the following minimum wage scale for throwing mills ; Rates Fixed by the Arbitrator. WAGES TO BE PAID IN THROWING DEPARTMENT. Minimum rate for winders, doublers and twisters (second time spinners) : Per week. Learners up to six months $2.00 After six months, to twelve months 2.50 After twelve months to eighteen months 3.00 After eighteen months to twenty-four months 3.75 After twenty-four months, at least 4.50 • Tussah workers, 50 cts. per week additional, or . . 5.00 Minimum rate for first time spinners and reelers : Learners up to six months $2.00 After six months to twelve months 2.50 After twelve months to eighteen months 3.00 After eighteen months to twenty-four months 3.50 After twenty-four months, at least 4.00 (Note.— At this writing— March, 1913— a general advance in wages of 10% has been granted in most of the throwing mills in Eastern Pennsylvania.) In this connection, some figures published in 1910 by the U S Government, shewing wages paid in the silk industry abroad, as com- pared with the average wages paid here, may be of interest. WAGES IN THE SILK TRADE. A comparison of wages in the United States and foreign countries is as follows: I QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 22^ 3.00 2.25 $1.00 to $2.50 1.60 8 to 10 1.50 .80 .50 to .90 .30 to .60 9 to II 9>4 to 12 .20 .12 .10 to .12 .06 to .09 10 to 14 10 to 14 Wages per day. Hours of labor Men. Women. per day. United States (Connecticut, New Jersey and New York) $i.50to$3.oo Average about France and Switzerland (Lyons and vicinity, Zu- rich, etc.) 75 to Italy (Como, etc.) 50 to Japan (power looms, pay includes board and lodg- ing) 15 to China (no power looms) .. .10 to WAGES IN ENGLAND. Average wages per week paid in all districts of England (Board of Trade Reports) : MEN. Foremen $6.80 Throwsters 4.50 Pickers, thrown silk 4.84 Twisters, sewing silk 6.10 Dressers, spun silk 6.34 Dressers' assistants 4.70 Dyers 5.54 Weavers 5.50 Warehousemen 6.42 Mechanics 7.78 Laborers 4.64 WOMEN. Doublers — Thrown silk 2.44 Spun silk 2.58 Throwsters 2.08 Reelers 2.44 Winders and spoolers 2.70 Preparers and carders 2.70 Spinners 2.56 Gassers 3.54 Winders, weaving department 2.46 Weavers 3.10 i 224 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP FRANCE, LYONS. Weavers $3. i6 to $3.46 Dyers S-Z^to 6.92 Printers 6.92 to 8.06 Finishers S^^to 6.34 Laborers 4.60 to 4.90 Velvet weavers 5-H to 5.90 M \t m m m. i 1 1 ^^ It) • 11 11 i' V '«'! ii \_, m W' : . J9 '■■ il^It ] II jf^H i 1 m GERMANY, crefeld. Report of United States Consul Joseph E. Haven, 1909 : "There is no recognized wage scale in force in the silk and velvet mills in this district, each manufacturer having a standard of his own. The wages vary in the different departments, according to the skill of the several workmen. In the weaving department overseers receive from $5.95 to $7.14 a week, while laborers are paid from $5.71 to $6.18. In a few factories wages are paid according to piecework. Overseers in the winding and warping departments receive from $5.95 to $7.14 weekly; the laborers from $3.57 to $4.96. The employees in these departments are generally women. In the dyeing department overseers are paid $9.52 to $10.71, skilled labor from $7.14 to $8.33, and unskilled labor from $4.76 to $5.95. The overseers in the finish- ing department receive $8.33 to $9.52, and the laborers from $4.76 to $6.18." DUSSELDORF. Report of United States Consul Peter Lieder on wages in silk in- dustry in Dusseldorf : "In spinning mills, where only women are employed, the average daily wage is from 71.4 cents to 83.3 cents. Immediately after leav- ing school, usually at fourteen years, the young girls enter the fac- tories. In two years they earn from 35.7 cents to 47.6 cents a day, and after four or five years their wages are increased to the maximum of 83.3 cents. In weaving mills the salary undergoes many fluctua- tions, reaching as high as $1.19 per day. There are also many fac- tories where workers are paid according to what they produce, and often make as much as $1.30 a day." BARMEN. Report of Special Agent Clark on wages in the silk industry in Barmen : "Wages in Barmen and the surrounding section are higher than in most other textile centres of Germany. Ordinary weavers will aver- age 60 to 80 cents a day, and weavers on special work will get as high as $1.43 or more." QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 225 Standard Wage Scales, Much effort has been spent from time to time in the attempt to establish standard price lists, for harmonizing the rates of the various mills and to afford the workers fair pay. For the reasons already set forth, such a programme can never have a very wide acceptance, as the rates necessary to give the opera- tive a fair wage under the average of manufacturing conditions — which is poor — would be absurdly high for the well managed mills with first class equipment and highest grade silk. The Paterson Broad-Silk Price List. Such a price list, for labor employed in the broad-silk trade, was, indeed, worked out and put into use in Paterson, N. J., where it found considerable acceptance, though doubtless each mill made modifications of it to suit its own conditions. I present this price list herewith, some of the items in it represent- ing rather the average of the rates than fixed figures. This was in existence in 1909/1910, but conditions in the Pater- son silk industry have been somewhat modified by strikes that have since occurred. PATERSON PRICE LIST. PIECE WORK. Winding. 14/16 Raw-Silk for single weaving. Gum loc. per lb. Winding. 13/15 Colored Organzine, 16/18 oz. dye. Gum. . 12c. per lb. Winding. 3, 4 & 5 Thread Tram, 22/24 oz. dye. Gum loc. per lb. Winding. 2/40 Dyed Cotton Yarn 5c. per lb. Winding. 2/80 Dyed Cotton Yarn 6c. per lb. Winding. 2/120 Dyed Cotton Yarn 8c. per lb. Winding. 2/200 Schappe or Spun Silk 8c. per lb. Winding. 2/250 Schappe or Spun Silk loc. per lb. Warping. 14/16 Raw-Silk, straight work. Per 1,000. . 12c. per 100 yds. Warping. 13/15 Dyed Organzine. Per 1,000 15c. per 100 yds. Warping. Cotton or Spun Silk. Per 1,000 15c. per 100 yds. Twisting. Straight .30c- per 1,000 ends. Twisting. Two or more beams. For second beam 5c. extra Twisting. Double warp 5^- extra Day Work Rates. Winders, per week $7.50 to $8.00 Warpers " " 18.00 Drawers-in" " 18.00 to 20.00 Twisters " " 18.00 Quillers " " S-Soto 6.50 Pickers " " 6.50 to 7.00 \ I ^^' I I 226 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP I! 1 ' ii ; n I [♦'I .,' «i'i ?. if T E> Jl I a^i-i Ml WEAVING PRICE LIST FOR BROAD SILKS. Standard Plain Goods. Thds. Reed. Picks. Price. Standard Jacquard Goods. Thds. Reed. Picks. Price I 6o 88 4J4 2 6o 88 sy2 3 6o 88 6^ 4 6o 88 7J^ 5 6o 88 8 6 6o 88.. .81/^ 7 6o 88 9J^ 8 6o 88 lO 2 6o 88 7 3 6o 88 8 4 6o 88 9 5 6o 88 9J4 6 6o 88 lO 7 6o 88 II 8 6o 88 IIJ4 REED SCALE, STANDARD 6o DENT. I % added to price paid per yard for each dent above standard. 1 % deducted from price paid per yard for each dent below standard. PICK SCALE, STANDARD 88 PICKS. I % added to price paid per yard for each pick above standard. 1 % deducted from price paid per yard for each pick below standard. WIDTH SCALE, STANDARD 20". Widths above 20" 2^% per inch added to price paid per yard. 15% extra to be paid for regular one loom jobs. SHUTTLE SCALE, STANDARD I. Extra Plain Goods : 2 to 4 shuttles, one cent extra ; 5 and 6, two cents extra. Seven, three cents extra. Jacquard : One cent for second shuttle and j/i cent extra for every added shuttle over two. SHAFT SCALE, STANDARD 10. j4 cent extra for every shaft above ten. BEAM SCALE, STANDARD I. Extra beams, yi cent each. Jobs on two beams with satin stripes, satin threads to be counted at only half their number, and be figured as ground threads. THREADS. Stitch and stripe threads counted as ground threads. Above 4 threads, tabby weaves, 25% extra above price list. If % cotton filling below 100 count, j/i cent extra. JACQUARD MACHINES. 1,200 fine index, yi cent extra per yard. Double 600, one cent extra per yard. Above double scale 10% pyer yard extra on price paid. QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 227 SWIVELS. Single Rack : Up to 6 spaces, i J/2 cent per yard extra. Above 6, yi cent per yard for each space extra. Double Rack: 3 times price of single. Triple Rack : 4 times price of single. GRENADINES. Plain — 100% extra above price list. Figured — 130% extra above price list. Scarfs, Two Wides, etc. — J^ cent per yard extra for every pair of doups. RULES FOR FIGURING PRICES. If reed is a different count from standard, first add or deduct the difference from standard price, which will give the different reed price ; then, if there are any differences in picks from standard, add or deduct difference from price to be paid on the different reed. This will give the list price. If the goods are any wider than standard, then add difference to price. All extras such as beams, shafts, shuttles, etc., must be now added. If one loom jobs, now add 15%. The foregoing will give a very good idea of the elements that enter into such price lists, and the manner in which they are handled. Training Country Help, When mills are established in country districts, practically all of the help has to be trained, and this means weary and discouraging work, covering months and years, during which time the percentage of imperfect goods turned out is very great. It is usually found convenient to set aside a room in the mill, or adjoining the mill, equip it with a few looms, etc., and organize a weaving school, in which learners are taught the rudiments of the art. Some staple fabric, such as a black taffeta, or satin, may be used as the article to break them in on, and the losses on the large amount of defective goods, produced by these learners, is charged to the cost of installation, or some other suitable account. Trouble of Securing Help in the Country. In getting help in a country location, the class feeling in the vicinity must be reckoned with. The daughters of the farmers, in many sec- tions, look down upon factory hands and consider mill work beneath them, and yet these same farmers' daughters may represent most of the labor that is available in the district, and, without them, labor would 228 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP V'' J m I . ■ U ■' I Si' .! Hi:' have to be brought in from a distance which would be a serious dis- advantage. How One Concern Met the Difficulty, I heard of one concern which overcame this prejudice in the fol- lowing manner. A spacious room was provided as a permanent lunch room, and was well equipped with round tables, good chairs, and suitable table equipment. A day was set for the opening of the mill. All of the machinery had been installed, the rooms were decorated, and everything was in most attractive shape. A modest sized force of skilled help was put to work at the dif- ferent machines, all of them being neatly dressed. Every family round the countryside had been specially invited to attend, and provision had been made for a dance and for a substantial supper afterward. They came, crowds of them, and when they saw the conditions of work as they were in that mill, their prejudices vanished, and num- bers of them took work in the mill as learners. This may have been an exceptional case, but it^ might be made the rule with great advantage. Understandings Between Manufacturers Regarding Help. Mills located near to one another frequently have an understanding that no operative working in one mill shall be hired away by another mill. This is a very useful arrangement, as any other course would have the effect of pitting one employer against the other in bidding up the wages of the people to an unprofitable point, and this would be especially the case in small towns where there was not help enough to go round. The result of this is often seen in those manufacturing towns, where, after all the available labor is fully employed, some new estab- lishment locates and finds to its sorrow that the only way it can se- cure hands is to tempt them away from its neighbors by offering higher pay. The help, so secured, is got back by the others by a still higher raise, and so the game continues till every one is paying more than he can afford, all along the line, and no one employer has benefited a particle. Care in the Engaging of Applicants for Work. As all manufacturers have constantly to employ new people, to a greater or less extent, it is of much importance that the most intel- ligent methods be employed in making the selection. The way ordinarily adopted is to talk to the applicant, and, if he tells a fairly straight story, to put him to work with practically no further enquiry. Of course, if he proves at the start to be thor- oughly incompetent, he is quickly discharged, having in the mean- ly !1 ■, J QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 229 time damaged more or less material, but if he seems reasonably ex- perienced he remains on the job. Later on, it may turn out that he is a strike organizer, a periodical drunkard, or undesirable for many reasons, but this is only found out by trouble arising. A system that would help to inform manufacturers regarding ap- plicants for work would be a great benefit, and would tend to give steady work to the good people, and to drive the worthless ones out of the trade. This can only be effected by a free and full interchange of in- formation between mills regarding the help, and because mills are com- petitors is no reason why a friendly co-operation might not be looked for, particularly as, in such a case, it would be a matter of self interest. There has been unfortunately too much unwarranted jealousy and mistrust shown between rival organizations, the animus being some- times displayed by the owners, sometimes by their mill superintendents and foremen, and sometimes by both. Men of one nationality are prone to express dislike or distrust of those of some other race, and much clannishness is the result. All this is bad policy, and is a hindrance to their best interests. Records Which Should be Kept, When persons apply for work, the names and addresses that they give should be written down, as well as their statements regarding their former employment, so long at this mill, so long at that, etc., the class of work that they claim experience on, and the reasons for their being out of work. A card of enquiry, with a stamped and addressed envelope for its return, should now be mailed to one or more of the firms for whom the applicant claimed to have worked. This card would have noted on it the statements that had been made, and would have blanks to be filled in, wherein the former em- ployer could note whether the workman was good, fair, poor or worth- less ; the nature of the work that he had been employed at, his ability, his experience and what his personal character was. No enquiry would be made regarding his former earnings or rates of pay. A short de- scription of the person might be given by the enquirer as regards gen- eral appearance and probable age. Even if it were thought proper to put the applicant to work at once, this information should be written for just the same. In every mill there should be kept a record book of the help, which would show the full name, the address, the previous employers and length of time with each, and the date of employment, of each em- ployee. It should also show the date of his leaving and the reason for same. In too many cases, as it is, the only available records are the old payroll books, while a record of the kind referred to would U II 230 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 231 ft: F;. I. it' "1 •li Ki I . il i 1.1 ^.5 be of most material assistance in the prompt answering of questions regarding former employees. Many manufacturers, when enquiries regarding applicants are ad- dressed to them, even with a stamped envelope for return of the en- quiry, exhibit their lack of intelligence, decency, and manners by making no reply at all. They might at least say that they did not de- sire to give the information, or that they did not know the name, or what not. It is to be hoped that such persons, even if lacking in ordi- nary civility, may at least see that their personal interest lies in the reciprocal interchange of information. Difficulty With Workpeople's Names. The different aliases under which many silk workers masquerade is a troublesome point. Much of the difficulty is due to the fact that in a number of Slavic languages, and in some others, there are letters having sounds that do not correspond with any in the English alphabet, and, therefore, with the best intentions in the world, a man may be in doubt how to express his name in writing, and may sometimes spell it one way and sometimes another. Many of the people are quite illiterate, and unable to spell at all, and others, seeing that they are not understood, let their names go down in whatever way the employer chooses to write them. This they are hardly to blame for, and much of the trouble lies in the lack of care or patience used by the mill superintendents in getting the com- plete names set down right at the outset. Signing of Employment Contracts. When new employees are taken on, a useful method is to have them sign their names in a special book, each signature being wit- nessed, the witness signing in the adjoining column. At the top of every page of this book is printed a statement of the conditions of employment; that the employee represents himself as being a skilled workman in this or that line, and undertakes to turn out good and perfect work; the length of time for notice of leaving to be given is stated; the liability to fines, and their character; the causes for summary discharge, and many other debatable points ; and, as the workman has agreed to them in writing, with his signature legally witnessed, he is thus debarred from the pleasure of "having the law on his employer" whenever he happens to be in an ugly mood over something. As each new employee signs the book, a printed copy of what he has agreed to should be given him, so that he can acquaint himself at his leisure with the conditions. A Form of Contract that Has Worked Well. The following form has been in use for years in the mills of a large worsted goods concern in Philadelphia, Pa. It is printed at the top of each page of the book in which all new employees have to sign their names, the same bemg duly witnessed as already described: WHEREAS, We, the undersigned, each of us, have accepted em' ployment from & Co. as competent and skillful operatives in the work for which we are engaged, we do hereby per- sonally covenant, promise, and agree with them, the said & Co., to comply with all future regulations, and submit to all fines and penalties for imperfect work now in force at the time of taking employment with them, and to finish in a good and workman- like manner all work which we each begin; and we each of us do hereby waive all right to set up as a defence or excuse for imperfect work either want of knowledge of the above-mentioned fines, penalties, or regulations, or imperfections or defects in the materials or ma- chinery furnished us; and if we, or any of us, quit or discontinue regu- lar work from any cause — continued sickness excepted, of which we will furnish a physician's certificate if required— we each discharge ourselves, and quit claim to re-employment and payment for any and all work we may have done, left unfinished, thereby forfeiting to the said & Co, all pay for the same. This agreement is not to be vitiated by change of style of work, by discontinuing and, recommencing, or by suspension and resumption of work; and we each hereby agree to surrender one week's pay if we each do not give that much notice previous to leaving the employ of said & Co, The remainder of each page under this heading is divided into four columns, headed, respectively— date— name of witness— name of em- ployee — work employed to do. These are filled in as occasion de- mands. I was informed that this method of control had proved very satisfactory. A Representative Set of Mill Rules. The following is a copy of the Rules and Regulations that are en- forced by one of the great New England mills: RULES AND REGULATIONS, Rule I. OVERSEERS are required to be promptly in their re- spective places before the assembling of the hands, there to remain (unless called away in the discharge of their duties), to see that these rules are maintained and obeyed, that the work of the Mill is properly conducted, and, upon the closing of the Mill, to see that all the hands are out and their apartments closed. Rule 2. ALL EMPLOYEES must be at their places and be ready to commence work on time. They must not leave their work, even to 232 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP lt^:| h; r prepare for departure, till the whistle is blown. Persons violating this rule will suffer a deduction from their wages equal to double the amount of time lost, but no such deduction will be less than a half hour's time for those on day work, or ten cents for those on piece work. Rule ?. EMPLOYEES in each department are directly respon- sible to the Overseer of their special work, and no person is allowed to go from one department to another, except in the performance of duties, nor to leave the Mill during working hours without consent of the department Overse^er, Rule 4. Any person wilfully or carelessly wasting, destroying or defacing property of the Mill will be charged with the same; and the hands are strictly forbidden to handle or interfere with machinery not directly under their charge. This prohibition applies especially to the electric lighting apparatus, the elevators, water supply and lieating's apparatus. Rule 5. EMPLOYEES commencing any work must properly complete same to be entitled to any pay. Rule 6. The following prohibitions must be absolutely observed by all OVERSEERS and EMPLOYEES of the Mill: The use of Books, Papers, or other Reading Matter during work- ing hours. The use of Profane or Improper Language, Loud Talking and all other needless noise. Smoking in or about Mill, or bringing in or carrying matches. Carrying out of the Premises any material or article whatever be- longing to the firm. Taking into the Water-Closets any Material used in the Mill, especially Wool or Waste. Wasting Time or Loitering in the Water-Closets. Rule 7. The zvhistle will blow five minutes before, the gates will be closed and the engine started one minute before the hour of work. All employees not in before the gates are closed will be considered as being late, and zvill come under the penalty provided in Rule 2. Rule 8. Wages will be paid every two weeks — always leaving six days' earnings unpaid. Hands leaving our employ are required to give one week's notice, and weavers to properly weave out their warps. A failure to comply with this provision will forfeit whatever wages may be due. Those absenting themselves from their places, without permission of the Overseer of their respective departments, will be considered as having left without notice, and will suffer the said for- feiture of wages. The only exception to this will be in case of sick- ness, when notice must be immediately sent to the office. The pro- prietors reserve the right to discharge any person without notice for inefficiency, ill conduct or a violation of these rules, and it is hereby expressly agreed and understood that these rules shall be and are 'a QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP 233 legal contract between the employer and all persons accepting em- ployment in this establishment. I i. These rules may seem rather stiff to those not accustomed to the routine of mill life, but there is more contentment, better work, and greater profit for employee and employer in mills when strict discipline is maintained than in those establishments that are run in a haphazard manner. Local Associations of Manufacturers. Local associations of manufacturers (even for a very limited num- ber of objects) will be found of much use in the sifting out of the desirable workpeople from the undesirable. When some one is dis- missed for serious cause, the other members can be advised; not that they should be obligated not to employ him, but that, should they have occasion to engage him, they would hire him with their eyes open. Blacklisting. General blacklisting is injudicious, as men who might be subjects for blacklisting may be quite prepared to turn over a new leaf and to do their best in the future. It happens, not infrequently, that men who at some time in their careers have been active leaders in strikes or other labor troubles, have subsequently come to see the folly of it all and have afterward proved to be the most trustworthy and dependable of men. Advantage of Concerted Action. The members of these local associations, at times of general strikes, may agree upon a common course of action and, meeting frequently, each will be thoroughly aware of the position of the others and how matters are going with them. Anyone who finds he can no longer act with the rest should be free to withdraw from his agreement to do so, upon giving due notice to the others, and then all will know where they stand. Friendly Co-operation in Certain Directions. Manufacturers, working together in this way, can also help each other quite a bit by giving information as to unfair treatment at the hands of certain customers, or of those from whom they buy, and such warnings (properly substantiated, of course) would be useful for the guidance of the others. Various methods that might be employed for the welfare of the employees would be proper subjects for consideration and joint action. In the transmitting of information between mills, whether on the subject of help or in other directions, it is neither expected nor de- i 234 QUESTIONS RELATING TO MILL HELP ™* sired that manufacturers should speak of matters which would reveal in any way the means that they employ for the economical production of their goods. ^ There are, of course, those in the trade who play the part of the ostrich with his head in the sand, and who are secretive to the last degree, and, never giving one any information, no matter how harm- less, naturally have little told them in return. Such is not the general rule, and it is therefore fair to hope that manufacturers generally may see that, particularly in this matter of enquiries as to help, their interest is best served by giving cheerfully and at once the fullest information that they can in reply to enquiries. it fi XX WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES. Much has been spoken and written of late years about welfare work in mills or factories, and while few people are now disposed to ques- tion the advantage of it in some directions, and to a reasonable degree, yet there is much difference of opinion as to how far it should be carried. While many persons who have earnestly studied how they could improve the condition of their employees have not been seeking any material return for their labors in doing so, yet, none the less, these efforts have often yielded a commercial reward, direct or indirect. Self-S up porting Propositions. It may, perhaps, be fairly argued that everything done in this line ought to be, as it were, self-supporting, or, at any rate, should yield to the employer some tangible benefit, sufficiently definite to warrant the expenditure on it of the necessary time or money. It is axiomatic that what costs one nothing is generally but lightly regarded, and that anything that has to be paid for is much more highly esteemed. State Legislation. Matters affecting the health of employees, of course, come into a different category, and these matters are fairly well looked after by the laws of the States. These laws, in the main, provide that the premises occupied by the workers shall be safe, sanitary, well ventilated and properly lighted; that there shall be suitable protection against the risks of fire; that overcrowding is guarded against, and the hours of labor of children or minors, and sometimes of adults, are regulated. Most of these matters would, in any event, be arranged for by I h]^ t' .^1 .w -:, I ii 1:1 / ,] 236 WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES the employers as a matter of self interest, for, unless the people have reasonably good conditions under which to work, neither the quality nor the quantity of the product will be satisfactory. There are, in addition, a number of directions in which the welfare of the employees may be promoted by the employers, some of them looking toward an increased reward for faithful work, and it is about some of these that I desire to speak. Rewards for Faithful and Long Continued Service, Thus, an employer may pride himself on his organization and on the large body of experienced and reliable men in it, men, perhaps, who are good all round weavers, able to handle any fabric that comes up, and who can also be counted on to stick by their employer in time of trouble. Compare such a force with an aggregation of unreliable and in- efficient people and the great value to the employer of the body of good help is apparent. This efficiency on their part is due to many years of experience, coupled with good habits, industry, sobriety and other qualities. What recognition does the textile manufacturer give to such men who are the mainstay of his organization ? He gives absolutely none. They are paid at the same piece work rates as all the others, and while they will doubtless average a better pay than the inefficient weavers, yet they will get not a whit more than those men, equally smart but utterly untrustworthy, and who may be constantly engaged in stirring up trouble. Those valuable qualities of character and of loyalty the employers take advantage of and make no return for. There is a meanness about this, and it is radically unfair, if not dishonest, to take that which is of value and make no return. In industries where piece work rates do not prevail, these better- class men may be given wages above the average, and something ought to be done by textile manufacturers to give an express reward to fidelity and continuity of service, and when this is done there will doubtless be more fidelity shewn than is the case now where it pays no dividend. A Method Which Might be Employed. While the piece work rates could not be changed for the benefit of certain help, yet a bonus might be paid at the year's end of so much a month, beginning to be paid after the people had been em- ployed for, say, two years, and increasing each year till a certain maximum was reached. Thus the first bonus paid might be at the rate of $1 a month, $12 being given to the operative when the payment was made. The next year he would get $24, or $2 a month, and so on, in- W ELF ARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES 2^7 creasing year to year, till a maximum of, say, $100 a year was reached, or whatever sum might be reasonable and proper. It is entirely certain that proper financial recognition of experi- ence and reliability would not be money ill spent. Sick-Benefit Societies. Another feature is an employee's sick-benefit society, which, as there is no expenditure for anything but benefits, returns the whole of the money collected to the subscribers, and is, of course, cheaper than any outside insurance could be. In organizing a society of this sort certain points must be borne well in mind. For one thing, the number of the" employees of the mill must be sufficiently large, so that if a fair proportion of them choose to join the society they will make a reasonably numerous body, in which the cases of sickness will have a chance to average up. In the next instance, care must be taken to avoid coming into con- flict with the Insurance Laws of the State. Necessary Rules for Such a Society, It is very necessary that the rules of the society contain no feature which could give the contributors a sort of vested interest in the funds, otherwise there would be all kinds of trouble with those who left the employ of the mill. Arrangements should also be made so that the funds could not be used — or misused — for other purposes, such as strike benefits, and the dues should be on a self-collecting basis. The direction should be in the hands of a committee representing both employers and employees, and provision should be made to pro- tect the society from unwarranted claims upon its funds. A Plan Which Has Worked Well. A plan which was entirely originated by the writer, and which worked very well in practice — ^the membership running from 150 to 300— ^was as follows: Three classes of benefits were arranged for. Class A embraced all whose earnings averaged $10 a week or over. Class B took in those earning from $6.50 to $10 a week. Class C was composed of those earning less than $6.50. Class A paid dues of 15 cents a week. Class B paid 10 cents, and Class C, 5 cents. For sick benefit Class A received (I think) $7 a week, Class B, $4.50, and Class C, $2.50. No benefit was paid for sickness lasting less than one week, or more than eight weeks in the year. In addition to the sick benefit there was also a provision for fu- neral expense in case of death, which was fixed at $75, $50 and $25 respectively for the three classes. I ■I t \ifl I '! I* V »■; ii ■* IB I '» ■!. 238 WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES Details of the Management. Employees had to have been working in the mill for^ at least a month to be eligible for membership and had to be in visibly good health. Arrangements were made with a local physician by which, for a very moderate charge, he would call and report on any member claim- ing to be sick, and in such instances the officers would also designate two members to act as a visiting committee. As prompt notification of illness had also to be given, these meas- ures prevented any improper leakage of the funds, and the benefits were never high enough to tempt many persons to stay at home in idleness. The direction was in the hands of a committee of five, four being mill hands elected by the society, and the fifth the mill bookkeeper, appointed by the mill, who acted as treasurer and banked the money in a special fund, and it could only be drawn on his signature, coun- tersigned by the chairman. Orders for payment of benefits had to be signed by a majority of the committee, and against these vouchers the treasurer drew cheques for the money. This control effectively prevented any misdirection of the funds. Members had to agree that dues were to be withheld from their pay, and, when the pay envelopes were being filled, printed colored tickets, serving as receipts, were enclosed to cover the dues retained. In this way the payments were always self collecting and there was no trouble with unpaid dues. It was considered judicious, in the case of employees, who had to be discharged, to return to them the two last payments that they had made, so that there could be no grumbling on that score. Mem- bership ceased with employment. After the organization of the society those entering it paid a fee of 75 cents for Class A, 50 cents for Class B, and 25 cents for Class C. Members were free to resign at any time. So long as they paid they had a current insurance, and the insurance ceased with their payments. A Constitution and By-Laws, covering the foregoing and many other points, were adopted, and were published in a small booklet for distribution. Suspicious Attitude of Employees. When a proposition, such as the above, is evolved, it is apt to be very suspiciously looked upon by the employees, who generally seem to imagine that anything new that is proposed has been devised for the purpose of taking something away from them. This feeling is doubtless the inheritance of the injustice that was so commonly prac- tised towards workingmen in times past. WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES 239 •! On this account it is not likely at first to make rapid headway, but when well established it attracts members fast and is much valued by the employees. With a sufficiently large membership, and worked on lines similar to the above, it should not only pay its way but should accumulate a nice surplus. Cooking and Dressmaking Classes. Another direction in which interest can be shown in the people is by the establishment of classes in cooking, and dressmaking, for the women. If the mill has at its command a space suitable for the purpose it can be provided with the necessary equipment, and teachers could be arranged for. The teachers might be paid, say, $3 for giving a lesson, which could be on one evening a week for the cooking, and on another evening for the dressmaking, and a charge of, say, 10 cents a lesson could be made, so that a class of thirty would pay the cost of the teacher. The use of the premises, fuel, lights, etc., would be but a trifling expense to the mill. Money Saved Almost Like Increased Pay. Now it is true that no direct return comes to the employer from introducing such teaching, yet there is a distinct indirect benefit. Mill workers, in large part, not being trained to household duties, are apt to be extremely ignorant on the subject of preparing food, and are also lacking in the knowledge of how to make clothes for themselves or their children. If, now, they were taught how to do these things they would be able to live better and on less money by knowing how to avoid waste and to make the most of the supplies and materials at their command. A dollar a week, no inconsiderable sum, might easily be saved to a family through this means, and, so far as the comfort of the worker was concerned, it would be the equivalent of an advance in pay of an equal amount, and so, without any increase in wages, the body of workers would be much more contented with the pay they were getting. Earnings of Silk Workers in Anthracite Regions. The following figures were quoted by Mr. W. J. Lauck, in an article in "Silk," May, 191 1, as being extracted from a report of the United States Government dealing with a study of the conditions prevailing among the operatives of silk mills located in the anthracite coal mining communities. f^ I If: , I r il I 240 WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES "The average earnings in the silk mills of native American men, 18 years of age or over, were $12.24 vueekly; of immigrant males of the same age, $12. jp, and of men of native birth but of foreign father, $io.pi each week. For native American women, 18 years of age or over, the average weekly earnings were only $3.32; for foreign-born women of the same age §roup, $5.57, and for women of the seconds generation or of native birth but of foreign father, $5.82. The aver- age weekly earnings of all female operatives, 18 years of age or older, were $5.71, "Information was also secured relative to the earnings of operatives who were 14 but under 18 years of age. Of the males of this age classification, the native Americans earned $4*31 weekly; the immi- grants, $4.68, and the second generation of immigrants, $4.26. The earnings of girls of the same ages were considerably less. The na- tive American girls, 14 but under 18 years of age, have average weekly earnings of $3.65, the foreign-born girls of the same age group, $3-75 ^o^h week, and girls of the second generation of immigrants, $3-77' Of all the girl employees between the ages of 14 and 18 years, only 1 2.1 per cent, earned more than $3.00, and 1.2 per cent, above $7-30 each week. (The average weekly earnings of Polish girls, I4\ but under 18 years of age, were $3.87 and about one-fourth of the en- tire number investigated had earnings each week above $3.00," Prizes for Suggestions. Another feature designed to stimulate the interest of the employees, and one which has met with much success in its application, is the offering of a series of prizes for the best suggestions for improve- ments in the business, made by the employees. Here are hundreds of pairs of eyes watching the complicated work of the mill, and if they can be induced to take an interest in observing things many a profitable suggestion will be made which otherwise would never have been elicited. It frequently happens that when an ordinary worker does have some valuable suggestion to make he puts the matter before his fore- man, and the latter may in turn put it up to the manager as being his own idea and so reaps all the credit of it. Hence, the workman is discouraged from using his observation. There are many directions in which suggestions of great value may be made. The avoidance or minimizing of waste, the arrangement of work so as to get the job done with less labor, improvements in processes, means whereby production could be increased, etc., etc. To give a concrete instance: In a business in which this system of rewards was in force, the concern used annually an immense num- ber of printed forms of a size and shape that they had used for years. One of the clerks took the trouble to compare the sizes of the various printed forms used, with the sizes of the sheets from which WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES 241 the printer cut them, and he was able to show that, by a slight modi- fication of the shape, an additional form could be cut from the saine sheet and much waste could be thereby avoided. He received a prize, of course. These prizes may be as few or as many as desired, and may range from $10 to, say, $100. They are given for such suggestions as are adopted, and anyone may make as many as he pleases, and they should be open to every one except the manager. To assure that credit be given to the proper party a suggestion box is fixed up, the only key being in the hands of the manager. Sug- gestions are made on special record slips, in duplicate, one being put in the box and the other retained by the writer as a proof of his authorship. The general experience, when this method has been applied, has been that the few hundred dollars per year paid in prizes has resulted in economies running into thousands. Plan for Eliciting Suggestions, I worked out a suitable plan for this purpose, and am presenting herewith the notice which was prepared for the occasion, and which outlines the details of the proposition. NOTICE, Prises for Suggestions, There will be awarded at the end of the present year $230.00 in prises, to be given to those of our employees who zmll make, during that time, such suggestions to the Company as will lead to economies of time, labor atui material; to an increase of production; to im- provements in the systems and methods at present in use; and to the increasing of the perfection of the manufactured goods. These prises are offered cts an inducement to our employees to help us with their ideas as to how, in every department, things may be done better, material or labor saved, and output increased and im- proved. They are open to every employee of the mills, from the lowest to the highest, and wherever any one sees hozv any improve- ment can be made, we invite an immediate suggestion to that effect. The person making the suggestion will write it out on the form provided for that purpose beside the suggestion box, and will drop the original into the box, retaining the duplicate himself. In this way the suggestion will come direct from the person making it to the office, so that every person making a suggestion will be sure to get full credit for the same. These suggestions will be carefully recorded and such as seem to have merit will be tried. At the end of the year the Company will decide as to whom the prises shall be given, and zvill make public fi * i. : * , •' f I III i 'I ■ ' * i 242 WELFARE WORK AMONG MILL OPERATIVES announcement of same, with a statement as to what the suggestions were for which the prizes were azvarded. Each person is not limited to one prize, hut may receive as many of the prizes as the usefulness of his or her suggestion may warrant. Prizes will be as follows: One first prize of $75.00, One second One third One fourth Two fifth Four sixth (f t( tt it (( tf t€ It (f « 60.00. 50.00, 25.00. 10.00. 5-00. Every suggestion, no matter by whom made, will receive careful consideration. Should the winner of a prize have left the mills before its award it will be forwarded to him, and should he die his family will receive it. (Signed) THE SILK MILLS. Profit Sharing. Again, it is a very useful thing to interest the important mill peo- ple in the profits of the business in some manner. There are a good many people in every manufacturing organization whose intelligent in- terest and conscientious efforts have much to do with its ability to earn dividends. Such people would be the superintendent, and the assistant super- intendent, the head designer, the head bookkeeper, the chief engineer, the loom boss or head loom fixer, as well as the other loom fixers, the foremen of the warping, winding, quilling, and others. If, now, a certain fixed per cent, of the net earnings can annually be set aside as a bonification for these people it has a marked effect upon their attitude toward the business. Its interest is now their in- terest and the results are soon apparent. When a mill is making good earnings this sum might properly amount to, say, 25 per cent, of their annual compensation, and being paid semi-annually would be an immense stimulant. Many other things will sugg;est themselves to the minds of all who give the subject attention, but it is to be remembered that eflForts to benefit others are more often met with suspicion and criticism than with thanks, so we must not look for much appreciation of our pains. THE RELATIONS BETWEEN MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES i- If V. XXI ! ' :i The commission-house system, as it exists in this country in its various forms, is the outgrowth of peculiar conditions, and, like all other institutions, its methods and practice change somewhat from time to time. In this article it is my intention to discuss, for the benefit of manufacturers, certain features of the relationship existing between the mills and these selling houses. High Class of Men Engaged in the Business. The gentlemen engaged in the dry-goods commission business stand second to none in point of integrity and ability, and in pointing out customs that are currently accepted as proper practices I do not desire to be understood as criticising the personal fairness of these gentlemen, or their desire to do right — as they understand it. Functions of a Commission House. A commission house performs for its mills the functions of banker, adviser as to styles and fabrics, selling agent, guarantor of credits, etc. The employment of a commission house is due to the lack of sufficient capital on the part of a mill to carry its own credits, and to the inability of many mills to properly handle their own goods. The capital that a mill will require to finance its own accounts will largely depend on the terms current in the trade. Silks and dress goods are sold on about 70 days' time, cottons on 2 to 4 months, men's wear and cloakings on about six months, and overcoatings even longer, as much as 10 to 13 months having been given at times. I I ■i ,-^ !)l 1 li 244 MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES To these lengths of time must be added the period that they aro carried in stock, after manufacture, till their delivery date, and during all this time the mill would be out of pocket the full cost of such pro- duction, except for such bills as were discounted. Relation Between Capital and Turnover, The capital required to run a textile mill is very great, and most mills will not turn their capital more than one-and-a-half to one-and- two-third times each year, and if they turn it twice they are doing exceptionally well. Thus, a mill employing a capital of $600,000 — owned, borrowed, or owed for materials, etc. — should not, to be safe, have an out-turn of more than $900,000 to $1,200,000 net, a year. If, in addition, it carried all its own credits to maturity, the capital re- quired would be greater, and, if it discounted its raw material bills, greater still. By financing through a commission house, the unduly enlarged fa- cilities given in the way of advances and cashing of sales, enables overtrading to be done to such an extent as to constantly keep mills, accepting the full limit of these facilities, in a dangerously spread-out condition, and, in this event, they are ever at the mercy of their factors. If business had to be done within the limitations of their own capital, they would not be able to grant extended credit to their cus- tomers, and terms would be on a saner basis. As it is now, the long credit that is given by the mill, or its factors, to the clothing manufacturer, for instance, is passed on by him to the retailer, and thus the latter is doing business on the manu- facturer's capital without cost to himself. The Old Basis of Note Settlement, Prior to the Civil War, note settlement for purchases was the general rule, and if this were the case to-day financing a mill would be much easier, and a man would then have some paper to take to his bank for discount, while, as it is, he has only his ledger accounts to show. If the banking system were differently organized here, manufac- turers could, no doubt, get the proper assistance in handling their accounts from regular bankers. As it is, the only mills which can get from banks what they need are those who are so rich that they could own a bank or two themselves if they wished. Facilities for Discount Afforded by English and Canadian Banks. When an English or Canadian bank accepts a customer's account, it usually agrees to discount, on presentation, all commercial paper received by the customer, without question. The argument is that the customer would not take a note unless he felt sure it was good, and as he has to stand back of it himself, the chance of loss to the bank is negligible. This is in addition to giving the customer very MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES 245 liberal lines of discount on his own paper. Therefore, where notes are accepted by banks, as checks would be, people both take and give them freely, as the notes coming in .will take care of those ma- turing, and thus business, in effect, is very nearly on a cash basis, because there the banker fulfils his proper function as an intermediary in the exchange of commodities. A friend of mine, who has large lumber mill interests in Ottawa, Canada, and in Albany, N. Y., told me that he was able to do four times the business in Canada that he could do in New York on the same capital, owing to the banking arrangements there. In recent years some banks here, and other financial mstitutions, have supplied facilities to manufacturers for financing their own af- fairs by advancing certain amounts on their open accounts, and making collections of the bills when due ; but not very many mills have been able to avail themselves of these facilities, and there are some draw- backs to this method. IVhy the Commission House has Come into Being. As the banks, therefore, fail to afford to manufacturers the sup- port required, the commission house has come into being, and were it not that it provides banking facilities it would not exist. In addition to cashing the sales made, one of its great functions is that of a money lender in making advances on manufactured goods sent to it for sale. Serious Drawbacks to the System. While called into being to perform these necessary services for the mills, services, be it remarked, of great value and which should be properly paid for, it is much to be deplored that, in certain direc- tions, its development has been such that it leads to practices of a kind distinctly injurious to the trade. It aids small and weak people to embark in manufacturing on a scale utterly incommensurate with their capital; it conduces to the general acceptance of cancellations, claims, and return of goods, that would not be acquiesced in by mills independently situated; to the imposing of charges and losses on the mills which should not equitably be placed on them, but which they are powerless to resist; to the temptation offered to mills to make goods for advances, with a subse- quent slaughtering of them at heavy loss; to the conflict of the in- terests of various accounts when handled under one roof; and in many other ways. The General Unprofitableness of Textile Manufacturing. In witness of this it may be pointed out that in no industry is there more ability or experience required than in the management of textile mill interests ; or more technical skill on the part of the work- ers ; or more improved machinery ; or greater specializing and or^ni- zation at the producing end; or a more complex system of distribu- t! I: li 246 MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES it:'< E'l! ji. •^\ 1'; i I'. ■11 •■3 tion ; or a greater amount of capital employed. Yet what do we see year by year? Why, in the last twenty-five years the failures in the textile manufacturing trades have been appalling, both in number and size; and how many mills make real money, that is, money that can be withdrawn from the business? Who are the gentlemen who can buy expensive yachts, and pur- chase New York city property, improved or unimproved; who buy large interests in banks, railways, mines, or what not ? Are the names of silk or woolen manufacturers conspicuous among them? To ask the question answers it. Manufacturers, as a class, are not fools, and there is something wrong with underlying causes when a great industry has to be conducted without adequate profit. The Good Work of Some Commission Houses. It is quite true that some commission houses, owing to the excellent judgment and ability of their partners and department men, have done admirably for their mills — far better than many of the mills could have done for themselves. They have kept them sold up most of the time on profitable goods, have advised them well, assisted them in the pur- chase of raw materials and what not; and have generally taken care of them. On the other hand, I will cite two instances that occurred a number of years ago. Two Interesting Incidents. A gentleman of my acquaintance went into a large commission house, which, among other goods, carried a line of fancy cloakings, and he was waiting to see one of the partners who was engaged in laying out work with the owner of the cloaking mill. He was so near that everything they said could be heard, and, after the partner had mapped out orders for 800 pieces of extreme styles, and the cloaking manufacturer had gone, my friend, who was familiar with the trade, asked him why on earth he was allowing those goods to be made, remarking that there would probably be a smart loss on every yard. The reply was that everything that came in there earned interest and commissions for the house, no matter what price it brought, and if one mill failed they knew where there were plenty of others. It is interesting to recall that when this mill did fail, not long after, with a huge stock of unsold goods, the price that they realized was so extremely low that the commission men suffered a tremendous loss on the advances they had made, though they thought they were amply secured. The other was the case of a woolen commission house, which, being in a tight comer for money to meet some notes, took a large line of quite salable goods and sold them for cash, at about 30 per cent, less than their value, so as to raise funds. They then wrote the mill that as these goods had been advanced on, and the season was getting late, MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES 247 they had thought it best for all parties to accept an offer made them, etc., etc. The mill did not, of course, know the facts and had to swallow it. These were probably very unusual cases, but they were the outcome of the system, and they occurred absolutely as stated. Necessity of Comprehensive Written Agreements. Many mills send their goods to commission houses for sale without a proper written agreement covering all points, and many questions crop up on which, in default of express agreement, "the custom of the trade" will be binding, and this custom is generally favorable to the selling agent. Furthermore, the seller is the agent of the mill, and, within certain limits, his acts bind the mill unless they contravene the written terms of the agreement. The practice of the domestic commission houses, whose businesses are centred in the Worth Street district, and the so-called foreign importing and commission houses which are located in the Fourth Avenue section, differs materially. The forms of the contracts of different commission houses differ, and the arrangements that they make with their various mills differ also. It is a case of get all you can. Large mills, whose business is of great value, and consequently sought after, are in a position to debate with the commission house the terms that they will agree to; but the smaller men have to sign whatever sort of contract is given them, or go elsewhere to meet the same conditions, and they suffer in many ways in consequence. The view of selling agents seems to be that no loss of any sort should fall on them, except bad debts that they have guaranteed against, and they will say that if they should be required to stand certain losses to which I will refer later (caused largely by their own action or inaction), that their commission should be higher. This by no means follows. They should protect not only themselves, but their manu- facturers, against avoidable losses. How Mushroom Concerns are Encouraged to Start. Selling agents are generally seeking new business, and their de- partment men are always eagerly searching for new accounts that they can attach to themselves. They, therefore, are led to encourage those who ought never to start in business, to start. Most mill employees think (as do most salesmen in the market, for that matter) that as long as wheels are turning in a mill lots of money is being made, and many of them are looking for a chance to start for themselves. A boss weaver and a warper foreman may each have saved some money, and between them may have, say, $5,000. They put their heads together and conclude to see what they can do. One of them knows some salesman, and they ask him what are the prospects at the selling end. He jumps at the chance of securing an I I' 248 MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES If' , account, and tells them that prospects are splendid; that he can put them on most profitable goods right oflF, and sell every yard they can make. Perhaps he introduces them to one of the heads of his house, and he, in turn, gives them a ''hot-air" talk, deals in generalities, tells them that his firm will be glad to handle the account, will give them every facility for sale, and will make liberal advances on their goods, and so sends them away with great hopes. They then arrange to rent a loft with power, buy some second-hand preparatory machinery at a low price, and order about fifty looms. The loom builder will fur- nish them at, say lo per cent, cash and lo per cent, a month till paid for, title not to pass till last payment is made. They get credit for a few bales of silk from one of the houses which cater to such trade, and in a short time start up. Here, then, is a mill of fifty looms started on a capital of $5,000, which^ is just enough to properly run 5 looms, or, even through a commission house (if on a safe basis), 10 looms at the most. The output of such a mill will be about $100,000 a year, and the concern is consequently tied up, neck and heels, with the selling agent, and is absolutely dependent on the weekly advances to take care of necessary payments. They cannot stop, as stoppage would mean liquidation, and liquidation would mean failure. They are therefore often forced to consent to sales at prices and terms which, if they were untrammeled, they would not accept, and the damage that is caused to the market prices of all goods, with which they and their numerous fellows com- pete, is incalculable. As a matter of fact, they generally find, after they are started, that the best they can do is to get a new dollar for an old one, and so they struggle along, most of them failing after a run of but a very few years, others simply existing, while of course, here and there, one succeeds. Where the Interests of the Mill and its Factors are at Variance. Some commission houses encourage these mushroom growths, as what they are after is commissions on sales, and they care little if the mills do not make money, though, of course, they do not want them to lose too much and fail, as then they would stop producing goods. Thus, a quick, easy sale of a lot of goods at fifty cents a yard would suit the agents much better than the slow and laborious peddling of them out at sixty cents, as all that they would lose would be their commission on the difference, while the diflFerence in the price obtained would be a matter of life or death to the mill. Points of View of Loom Builder and Ra^v-silk Dealer. The^ loom builder helps, also, because it is for his interest to do so, for it is reasonably certain that the first few payments will be met, and if he has then to take back his looms and repaint and resell thern he will make no loss. On the other hand, if the mill grows it will MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES 249 f! 1 . follow on with installations of the same kind of looms, and will be a steady customer of that builder. The raw-silk or thrown-silk merchants who give credit argue in a similar manner, and if the mill does well they will continue to supply it with much of the silk needed. Representation of Undercapitalized Looms Should be Refused If commission houses would resolutely decline to sell for, or make advances to, any mills, large or small, that were not supplied with proper working capital for the loomage operated, very few of them would come into being, and the trade would be saved from many evils due to this cause. Most of the men, too, who start up in this way, would give their eye teeth if they could get out of it with their money as soon as they find by experience the conditions they have to meet, but it is then too late; they must sink or swim. To prevent them from ever starting up would keep them from wasting their savings, and becoming factors in trade demoralization. There are some selling agents, of course, who will not handle such accounts, just as there are those who strenuously urge their mills not to make goods for stock, for stock goods, as a rule, make heavy losses for mills. One merchant of my acquaintance has often told me that he would as soon see a live rattlesnake come into his store as a case of goods that was not sold. When trade is dull, however, many agents are not unwilling to see stock goods made, as, whatever the price they go at, they will get their commission, while, if looms stand, there will be just so much less to sell, and the volume of their sales will suffer accordingly. Commissions Charged, and What They Include. I will now refer to some of the points about which questions may arise, and which should in all cases be clearly understood by both parties, and the agreements arrived at should be put into writing and signed. The commission charged by a selling agent is intended to provide for such expenses as rent for space occupied, salaries of manager and salesmen, porterage, trucking, packing and delivery expense, clerical force in counting house, general expense, fire insurance, storage, guar- antee of credits, and profit to the house. For the above services, and according to the character of the goods, varying commissions are charged, ranging from 4 per cent., or even lower, for cottons, up to 7 per cent, for woolens, dress goods, silks, etc., and some unfortunates are charged as much as 7^ per cent., or maybe higher. Seven per cent, on the net returns of the goods is generally regarded as full commission. There are instances where houses, having undertaken to sell goods at 7 per cent, commission, have charged it on the gross sales instead of the net, a most inde- i^ ' sSl^^v ir'a'' "i f i .r 250 MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES fensible practice, and one which, unless specifically understood by the manufacturer, and so specified in the agreement, should be firmly resisted. The 7 per cent, commission is supposed to be made up of approx- imately I per cent, for fire insurance and sundry expenses, 3 per cent, for selling expenses proper, and 3 per cent, for guarantee of credits and profit. As a matter of fact, the experience of well-managed credit offices, in the distributing of silks and ribbons, which generally go to a very good class of trade, is that on the average the annual loss from this source will not be more than }^ per cent., certainly i per cent, would cover it most liberally. The remainder of this 3 per cent, may therefore be set down as the main part of the agent's profit. Of course, large houses get their business handled at a better rate than smaller ones, and this is only reasonable. Various Methods of Handling Accounts. The account may be managed in various ways. Thus, the goods may be thrown into a general department and sold in common with other similar goods by the one manager and staflF of salesmen, employed directly by the commission house. Or, an individual, or a firm, may conduct a special department un- der the roof of a commission house, and may have the selling of the goods of one or more mills, the commission merchant doing only the fiscal part of the business, that is, the passing on and guaranteeing the credits, making advances, cashing sales, and making collections. When the business is done in this way, the commission house makes such allowance from the gross commission charged as would seem reasonable, as an offset against the expenses of this sub-department. Or, if the mill is of good size, a special department may be cre- ated for it, all of the salaries and expense being met by the house. Or the mill may employ its own manager and salesmen, getting a suitable reduction in commission in consequence. Or the mill may hire a store outside, and maintain an entire selling and office force, and simply use the commission house as a banker, to cash its sales, collect and guarantee its accounts, and make advances on merchandise when called on to do so. The commission paid for these purely fiscal services is relatively small. In fact, the commission house will make any deal by which it will get a satisfactory profit with little or no risk, and its money advances are always protected by a lien on the goods. In its contract, the commission house may limit the total amount of advances it may be called on to make, regardless of the quantity of goods that may be sent in, and it may well do so, as the furnishing 4 ' 11 MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES 251 on demand of the large sums required to keep mills running is no easy task. Profit on the Interest Account. The earnings on the interest account are generally a source of large profit to the commission houses, as they usually borrow their money at 4 or 5 per cent, and lend it to the mills at 6 per cent. Sometimes, interest rates will remain high for quite a period, and at such times the profit from this source is curtailed, and the com- mission houses then limit all they can the demands that may be made upon them by their mills for money. Commission the Same Under Varying Conditions. Some goods, from their nature, are more troublesome and expen- sive to sell than others, but this does not always aflfect the commission. In the same way, the risk in guaranteeing such goods as go to the cutting-up trade is greater than for such goods as go to dry-goods jobbers and retailers, but yet this does not alter the commission either. Losses Entailed on Manufacturers by the Credit Office. A direction in which mills suflfer seriously, and unjustly, and which is a direct result of the commission-house system, is as follows: A merchant, in good standing, places an order with the silk department of a commission house, for ten thousand yards of novelty silks, at a dollar a yard. The goods are to be made to his own colorings, and the styles are extreme ones. Before the order is transmitted to the mill, it is sent to the credit office to pass the approval of the credit man. The buyer has been given a line of credit of, say, $50,000, and, as he only owes, say, $15,000 at the time, the sales memorandum is marked "O. K." and the order goes to the mill and is put in work. A couple of months later the goods are ready for delivery at the contract time, but meantime the customer has bought other goods in one or more of the various departments of the house — ^velvets, wool- ens, hosiery, or what not — and his line of credit is full up. The commission house notifies him that they have $10,000 worth of silks ready for delivery to him under his contract, and that, as he is already at the limit of his credit, they would be glad if he would discount an equal amount of his bills so that they can send the silks in. This may not be a convenient thing for the customer to do at the time, or he may have concluded that he made a mistake in ordering the goods, or the color situation may have developed so that he sees the shades he has had them made in may be undesirable, or he may know where he can get equally good goods at a lower price. He therefore says that he cannot discount any bills, as requested, and that if the goods are not delivered forthwith, as per contract, please to consider the order cancelled. The mill knows nothing of all this, and, when weeks or months afterwards they learn that the goods are still on Ill . i r' ..■* ■'I n. n ; »■ I 252 M/LLS" AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES hand, there is nothing to be done but to swear. Then, after a consid- erable loss of time and interest, the goods are finally sold at somewhere from 50 to 70 cents a yard, and the mill is mulcted in a sum of some thousands of dollars. This is an every-day occurrence, and is thoroughly inequitable and unjustifiable. What has the mill to do with purchases that the cus- tomer makes in other departments (purchases largely made after the taking of his order), or with the line of credit given by the commis- sion house? If the credit office feels the necessity of making a hard- and-fast limit of credit then the value of all orders in work at mills for each customer should be memorandumed against him, and no other order should be taken, or goods sold from stock, which would put the account into such shape as stated above. If, on the other hand, this course should present difficulties, and it does, the commission house should be in duty bound to deliver all such orders. As it is, the salesmen of the house sell the goods and the credit office approves the sale. What more can the mill know? Then the goods are made up to sample and delivered on time, and the result is that the agent, to whom is committed the care of the mill's interests, pursues, for his own selfish ends and according to his own narrow views, a course that may impose upon his client very severe losses. Such a state of affairs imperatively demands a change of policy. Mills Should Have a -Chance to Protect Themselves. Meantime, while conditions remain as they are, mills should ar- range that in such cases they be given the right to order the delivery of the goods, as per contract, and that they can themselves assume the credit risk, with a proper reduction in the percentage of commis- sion charged on such sales. No manufacturer would hesitate for an instant (except in the case of some particularly discredited customer) in deciding to take any reasonable credit risk, rather than accept the certainty of a heavy loss in the reselling of a lot of goods, made on some one else's judgment, and well along in the season. Every sales agent should see to it that this option is presented to his client, and that, too, before the day for the delivery of the goods has gone past. Some selling agents have tried to guard against this situation by requiring customers, when a line of credit is granted, to enter into an agreement to discount existing bills when their line is full and other orders of theirs are coming forward for delivery, and, in the event of not being able to do so, that any orders so made for them will noti be subject to cancellation if held till such time as they have sufficiently reduced their account. This is all right in theory, but, judging from the disinclination of commission houses to make a real fight against the general cancellation of orders, when customers feel like it, it is not worth much in practice. MILLS AND THEIR COMMISSION HOUSES 253 Adverse Influence of Sales by Other Departments. Another way in which this matter of handling credits hiirts a mill is that it cuts down the number of its possible customers, for, if the line of credit given to a perfectly good house is filled up by what it has brought in the other departments, that house will have to pass by all other goods presented to it by mills selling through such commis- sion agent, no matter how much it might desire to purchase. It will be seen, of course, that such conditions are most apt to occur in very large houses, particularly in those which have many depart- ments and many different classes of goods, as scattering purchases of a variety of merchandise would soon fill up a buyer's line of credit. In placing his business, the manufacturer may well consider if it would not be better, so long as methods continue as they are, to give his ac- count to some agent of modest size, particularly to one who does not conduct an establishment akin to a modern department store. Dodging the Guarantee Which Has Been Paid For. Similarly, when goods are ready for delivery and anything has occurred since the checking of the order to impair the confidence of the credit office in the stability of the buyer — anything, in fact, from slowness of payment to actual bankruptcy — the selling agent re- fuses to deliver the goods except for cash, which, of course, is rarely forthcoming, and again the goods lie in stock, and again a loss is thrown on the manufacturer in their final sale. This is a gross wrong. The manufacturer may have no knowledge of whom the goods are made for. He did not sell them, he did not check the account, his skirts are absolutely clear. In fact, to protect himself against bad credits, he is annually paying his agent a sub- stantial sum, in the commission charged, as a credit guarantee. It is to be presumed, in view of the large annual amount of money that this guarantee charge amounts to, that the selling agent is as- suming some real risk, for if each customer were an Arnold, Con- stable & Co., or a Marshall Field & Co., no mill would agree to pay a cent for guaranteeing accounts, but would carry the risk themselves. The Equitable Course. As the sales agent declines to deliver the goods, and so invites the loss on their resale, for the sake of protecting his own pocket in the event of the possible difficulties of the customer, and as he has, before the goods were made, approved the credit of that customer and or- dered the mill to make them for him, and as in the commission that would be charged the mill, on that and other sales, is a sum of money to guarantee them against loss on just such risks, the equities of the case would demand that, where the agent felt that the risk of delivery would be too great, he should take the goods over to his own account and shoulder himself the loss that would follow. II .Mm i$M (:' :^ I ! i. ! '^j':i ';, K' i^-cent grade, as represented by the customer. This disbelief in their merchandise, and the consequent looking for reasons why it will not sell freely, becomes a fixed habit with many salesmen, so that they become really adverse factors in the business instead of a help to it ; so it is no wonder that their principals at times feel so bitterly towards them, as a class, as they do. Mill Experience a Help, Some experience at the mills might well help to correct this tend- ency. Salesmen would then gain the personal knowledge that no one has any patent on the making of good and cheap merchandise; that, when everything is taken into account, the New Jersey mill may do as well as its Pennsylvania competitor ; that, between large mills, work- ing on the same or similar fabrics, there can be but little difference in their costs, outside of their luck in purchasing raw-silk, which is as likely to favor one mill as the other; and, finally, that each of these competing mills is no more able or willing to do business without profit, or at a loss, than the other. Knowing, then, the ability of their own mill to get out its goods cheaply and right in all respects, and knowing that the prices have been fixed on a very close basis, the stiffness of the backbone of the selling force would be wonderfully different from what it usually is, and their faith in their goods would be absolute. Difficulties Entailed by Distributers' Methods. The efforts of even the best salesmen are much thwarted by the conditions under which the retail dry goods business is at present conducted. Large houses have been adding more and more depart- ments to their establishments, even so diverse from dry goods as meats and sporting goods. The profits from many of these new activities have been so satisfactory that they have been encouraged to add still more of them, and this spreading out has been done to a great extent without a corresponding increase in capital. The result has been that the purely dry goods departments are often starved for lack of working capital, and each one is held down to the narrowest limits of purchase by the financial management working through the so-called merchandise man. The buyer may need goods badly for his stock, and be as anxious to purchase them as the seller is to sell them, but he is not permitted to buy. 274 MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN I ■^^'411 t^, 'lib I LoTihcost Production and Low-priced Salesmen. Finding that the retaining of high-priced salesmen does not result in their getting a better price for their merchandise, some mills pursue another course. A mill of large size, we will say, that caters to the cutting-up trade, will run its looms fast on low qualities of goods, and make split-edge goods largely, and confine itself to a very few fabrics. It will have an output, therefore, of large volume, made at small expense, of low cost per inch, and designed for a trade that uses a lot of stuff and is hungry for good values. If but a close working profit is put on such goods, they will sell freely on their merits, and without argument, to such trade. An output such as this should cost but little to sell, and it may be handled by one man of experience, to assist the manager, and as many clean, active young gentlemen, on very small salaries, as may be necessary to run around with samples and keep in touch with the trade. In this case it is the value offered that is counted on to sell the goods, not the men. Inducements to Work for Profits, Returning to the question of how to get salesmen to work for profits, it is first necessary to have a system that will show just what the profits and losses are on the sales that each man makes. A system could be arranged by which a confidential man in the oflRce would be furnished with the fair, actual cost of all the fabrics, and would figure out and pencil in the net loss or profit on each sale in the salesbook. Of course, in the case of old, defective, or real job goods, a proper allowance in costs would have to be arranged. The profit or loss so shown would then be posted both to the salesman's account and to that of his customer. By posting to the customer's account the management can tell, on looking over the sea- son's figures, just what houses, or classes of trade, they have made Imoney by and what houses they have lost by, or not profited by. The unprofitable trade, no matter how large the individual kouses or accounts, they may find it wise to let alone in the future, and soj concentrate their efforts in the directions where most profit is to be reaped. The salesmen's accounts, in like manner, will not only show just what volume of goods they have sold, but what has been made or lost on the sales, and when the question of fixing salaries comes up the management will be pretty well informed as to the real worth to the house of each of the men. If a salesman realized that the profit made by him would be a factor in determining his next year's salary there would be fewer low offers for goods reported. The quiet, hard- working fellow, who really did make profits, would be brought to the front in this way. MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN 275 Interests of Mill and Sales Office the Same. In regard to this question of costs and profits, the welfare of the mill and of its selling staff should be one and indivisible. There is no such thing as a separation of their interests without loss to both, and whatever profit-sharing is arranged for must be on the net results of the business as a whole. Manufacturers must not try to be "smart" with their people and figure against them so as to cut down their returns, nor must salesmen imagine that, just because a mill is running at full blast, money is being made. If, however, salesmen's salaries were fixed on some profit-sharing basis by the mills, active employ- ment of machinery would then generally mean that profits were being made, which is by no means the case at present. Value of the P. M. System. If the P. M., or premium, system, much employed by retail shops, were judiciously used by manufacturers, or their agents, it would be a great help in moving old or undesirable goods, and in avoiding losses. If the season were advancing and a lot of fancies at $1.00 a yard were dragging, a P. M. of 10 cents a yard would insure their being shown and pushed by the whole selling force, and a probable subsequent loss of 25 or 50 cents a yard on their final sale might be avoided. This interesting of the salesmen in minimizing prospective losses is a very proper way of profit saving. Complaints Based on Ignorance, A lack of understanding of the processes of manufacture leads to the voicing of many complaints by salesmen that otherwise would not be made. They cannot understand why each piece of goods of the same kind is not an exact duplicate of each other piece in weight, finish, texture and color; why defective places should be found in goods; why deliveries are so slow; and why, when some special color is wanted, the half of the mill cannot be run on it forthwith. They do not realize that months of preparation lie back of the output of each loom; that when many colors are offered for sale (and where is the salesman who does not say that a large line is a necessity?) there must be fewer looms devoted to each color, and, as the demand cannot be foreseen, assortments will always be slow of completion; that when orders come late for delivery it is often be- cause proper time has not been allowed for their manufacture, the buyer having fought for short time and the sales office having granted it. This is a usual custom for buyers to pursue, as it leaves them in a position to decline the goods if they are late for delivery in case they find later on that they would as soon not have them. Salesman's Courage Should be Fortified. Salesmen, of course, are not mill men and cannot be expected to have any intimate knowledge of that end of the business. Many 276 MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN manufacturers regard it as very undesirable that they should have any knowledge of it at all, but this view I believe to be a mistake. Consider how strong the faith of a salesman would be in his merchandise, and how great his consequent courage in standing out for a price, if he had been either employed in the mills or had been much in and about them, where he would have seen a great organ- ization working with the best machinery, materials, and methods, and operated in the ablest and most economical manner; a place where every energy was directed to the making of the most perfect merchan- dise at the minimum of cost. Such a man does not have to be told that his goods are right and his values as good as any one's. He knows it, and the firmness of his knowledge and belief impresses others. When his bottom price for a fabric is 52^ cents and a customer throws out at him an article, apparently as good, that he claims to be buying at 42^^ cents, such a thing does not shake his courage and belief in his goods. He knows the adverse quotation has something back of it, a closing-out price, some bad colors, a lot of seconds, or a lie, and he could seldom have this real, as opposed to expressed, belief in his stuff if he had not had the mill experience. The salesman who has not been so fortified, cannot be expected to have that ingrained belief in his goods that is necessary to keep up his nerve and fortitude in the face of lower prices and adverse criticisms, and, like Bob Acres, he finds his courage oozing out of the tips of his fingers, and so, lacking the entire faith in his wares, he becomes mentally unable to put up the fight that would result in the selling of his goods at the prices asked. Method Employed by One House. This matter of fortifying the courage of the salesman is so im- portant that I knew of one large domestic commission house (and no doubt others do it) which used to call in its men from the road — even those travelling far afield — at regular intervals, and it took a good deal of money, as well as of the salesmen's time, to do so. They argued that, from the time the salesman started on his trip, he had been encountering nothing but criticism of his goods, and had been bombarded with low adverse quotations, with a consequent weak- ening of his belief in the merit and value of his goods. By calling him home he would see for himself the heavy trade daily being done, the full prices that were being got, and how the mlills were being sold up. Then in a few days, with renewed confidence and vigor, the sales- man would set forth once more. This they called "repainting their salesmen." f* MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN 277 Value of Letting Salesmen Know More About the Mills. If the relationship between a mill and its salesmen were of a more permanent character, and if, in that event, each salesman could spend some weeks every year at the mills, there would be a much stronger body of salesmen, a proper appreciation on their part of what a mill should be expected to do, and a much better understanding all around. The National Cash Register Co., whose success has been most re- markable, graduates its salesmen largely from the factory force, and, in addition, instructs them in salesmanship. These salesmen never weaken on their goods or lose faith in them. Trouble Caused by Haphazard Sampling. The random sampling of goods by salesmen, without consultation with the heads of the departments, is a source of much trouble and leads to practical misrepresentation of the goods. All textile fabrics, owing to unavoidable natural causes, are sub- ject to more or less difference in weight, touch, etc., and while part of this difference is counteracted in the finishing process some of it will remain. Owing to the effect of the dyestuffs on the fibre, the different colors in a line may feel quite differently, though made alike in all other respects. Thus, a piece of cardinal taffeta can usually be counted on to feel far superior to a piece of light gray, or beige, of the same quality. Again, even in the same line of goods, there may be manufacturing differences existing between pieces apparently the same. The manu- facturer is striving to get out goods that are perfect and well-finished merchandise, and that will be regular in every respect. He has, how- ever, to deal with a very irregular material, and has in addition the trouble caused by the unavoidable variations in the weightings put on his silk by the dyer. In the making. of his goods, therefore, he will find that, owing to these causes, some of his lots come extra light and some extra heavy. Wherever possible he will balance heavy warp with light filling, or vice versa. Where both warp and filling run light or heavy, he may have to modify the construction by putting in more, or fewer, warp and filling threads to the inch, as the case may be, and so he produces a cloth of different construction from the rest of the goods in the line, but which, as a piece of finished merchandise, is practically the same as the others. There are other causes that will compel a manufacturer, in occasional instances, to deviate from his regular methods of construction, his aim in most of such cases being to get his goods right, without consideration of the little differences in the costs. It is obvious that such exceptional pieces, which differ in con- struction, weight, dye, size of silk, etc., from the line they are in, f 278 MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN if*' It f|'»'' l:i should never be used as types of the cloth, as they do not properly represent the goods. A salesman, however, wanting to show a swatch of the goods to a customer, when trying for an order, will open up a lot of pieces and, after examining and feeling them all, will pick out the one that seems heaviest and best and take a cut from that. This practice leads to all kinds of trouble. The customer keeps part of the sample and expects all the goods delivered to equal it, and, as the piece it was cut from will naturally be an extra-good one, very few of them will be equal to it, and the buyer will be dissatisfied and return what he will describe as the light pieces. The piece sam- pled may also just happen to be an odd one, and may have five or ten per cent, more picks or ends than usual, and here again, if the customer counts them, he may claim that the goods delivered are dif- ferent from the sample from which he ordered, and he is quite within his rights in doing so. No piece of goods should ever be used as a sample, or type piece, until the number has been reported to the mill and they have looked up its record as to construction, weighting, finished weight, etc., and word has come back that it is regular, and such report should be confirmed in writing to avoid future controversy. This matter of having all type pieces approved is a simple thing, but of great im- portance, though very seldom done. When neglected, it always seems to happen that, somehow or another, an irregular piece is selected to sample from. A good manager of a sales office can do much to minimize mis- understandings with the mill. Color Matching and Its Limitations. Take, for instance, the matter of matching colors, always a fruit- ful source of complaint. Dyeing is not an exact science and no dyer will guarantee to exactly match a color, though he will come so close to it as to match it commercially. He may come a shade on the dark or on the light side. Should the warp be dark and the filling light, or vice versa, an exact match in the fabric may be had, but if both warp and filling are on the dark or light side the shade will be a little oflF, and, anyway, matching colors in the skein, either at the dyehouse or at the mill, is a puzzling matter and requires much skill and judgment, and it is hard to say just how the shade of the goods will come out when woven. As, therefore, a variation may be looked for, it is most important that the samples for color, furnished the mill by the sales office, should neither be the very lightest nor very darkest tones that will answer, but such medium tones as will allow of a little variation on either side without getting off the shade. How common it is to hear a bitter cry raised that here are thirty pieces of navy, and five or more different shades among them when MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN 279 they should all match. Some of this trouble can be avoided by taking care not to have odd pieces of different dye lots lying back, but to work off in sequence the different orders as they come in. Should exactness of match be a sine qua non, it can be had by dyeing up the whole order for the color, perhaps hundreds of pieces, at one time. With orders running from fifty to five hundred pieces of a color such a policy would lock up far too much capital in dyed silk, and, if a change in taste required that a lot of the looms be switched onto other fabrics or colors, it would leave a stock of dyed silk on hand that could never be woven up in the season it was dyed for, and great loss might be entailed thereby in interest, deterioration of silk, and passe colors. The dyeing should be done in reasonable sized lots, neither too small nor too large, and great care should be used to match samples, and, when the unavoidable differences arise, the goods should be de- livered in due course just as they come. Salesmen with a mill ex^ perience would understand this and would not complain at not being able to get the impossible. Mills Left in the Dark as to Probable Requirements. A mill has to buy its raw material long ahead of its orders for goods, and has to secure such sizes and qualities, and in such quan- tities, as are likely to be needed. When consulted as to probable needs, sales managers are very shy of expressing an opinion, fearing lest if, for instance, they should say that they would likely want a lot of crepes, and the mill should buy Cantons to make them, and they should later on find it injudicious to bring out crepes, that they would be blamed for having induced the mill to provide silk for them. Even when salesroom opinions are freely given they are often wide of the mark, and in these, and many other important matters, the mill has to grope its way the best it can. What is of real importance to a mill, however, is a daily report from the salesroom of the sales, returns, and cancellations. Advance order business, and current sales from stock, should be noted sep- arately, and the reasons for the returns or cancellations should be stated. A careful study of this data will give the man at the mill a good idea of the direction of the demand, and when he sees the sale of cer- tain lines of goods lagging, or of other lines picking up, he will gov- ern kis raw-silk purchases and his loom dispositions accordingly, and will thus make proper arrangements before it is too late. Should there be any signs of a different class of fabrics being wanted, the mill should be informed at the earliest moment. It is no light matter for a mill to have to arrange for different loom equip- ment, special qualities, sizes and twists of silk, and the rearrangement of orders already laid out for. It is seldom good policy to alter much w- M> f 280 MILLS AND THEIR SALESMEN the production arranged for at the beginning of a season, on the prin- ciple that a team of horses will not make fast time if they are pulled up on their haunches at each cross-road. Changes of product m the middle of a season lock up extra capital to a frightful extent. Short Warps of Undesirable Colors. Sales managers understand that mills like to make no short warps, and when they round up a lot of plain goods orders they bulk them together, and fill out the quantities to full-length warps. In such cases the pieces actually sold, and those unsold, should be marked sep- arately, so that the mill, if it wished, could go to the extra trouble and expense of making short warps rather than make excess pieces ot hazardous or undesirable colors. Sampling in Unprofitable Directions. From time to time a mill is called on to sample on fabrics that previous experience has shown to be money losers, and yet nothing will convince the selling force to that effect. Chameleon taffeta is one such fabric. A perfect piece of chameleon, of good quality, could be made to sell at a figure that would mean a retail price of $2.00. An imperfect cloth (as to irregular color) of fair quality could be made to retail at $1.00. After a lot of sampling, and making of sample pieces and trifling orders, it all comes back to the same old story-- the buyer wants the perfection of the $2.00 article in the $1.00 cloth, and he does not and cannot get it, so he drops the cloth. Louisine is another fabric on which much effort is wasted, lo OTve the same apparent value as a 52}^-cent taffeta, in a louisine would mean a price of 62j^ cents. The buyers, in the end, are found to want the 621^-cent cloth at the 52j4-cent price, and not getting it they lose interest. . . , , 1 • • A mill might properly say, when invited to sample on louisines, chameleons, hair-lines, swivel-figured taffetas, and other money losers, "We regret to say that we are not equipped for making these fabrics, and not allow themselves to be led into the wasting of money on them. There are, on doubt, exceptional cases where it pays to make them, but I would let the other fellow take the chance. Avoid Friction and Base Salesman's Reward on Profits. It will be seen from the foregoing how many causes of discord there are between mills and their salesmen, but with care and patience and a good system many of them can be avoided, and, at any rate, a good understanding of them will remove much ill feeling. The great problem is how to make the compensation of the selling force dependent in large measure upon their success in making profits for the mill, and until this is done the best results will never be attained. \i XXIII REGARDING THE COST OF SAMPLE COLLECTIONS A heavy item of expense in manufacturing, but which is frequently disregarded when figuring on the cost of a line of goods, is the outlay for sampling. No one who has not given this subject close attention can begin to realize what it means in dollars and cents to a mill making fancy goods to any extent. Qualifications of the Man in Charge. In charge of this important work must be a man with a thorough knowledge of the construction of fabrics, so that any cloths laid out can be relied on to weave properly in the looms, and to be well- balanced commercial fabrics, free from undesirable features. He must also be a man of great good taste, and have an ingenious mind and an observing eye. Such a man, when one is so fortunate as to find him, cannot be hired cheap. Expenses Entailed by Fancy Goods. Under him may be one or more designers making sketches, or painting in the designs, as the case may be. Then, there are collections of foreign samples to be subscribed for each season, and the purchase, from time to time, of good designs offered for sale by outside designers. It is usually found expedient to equip a sample department in which will be mounted a number of looms and some preparatory ma- chinery. There is, therefore, the space so occupied to be charged for, together with interest and depreciation on the machinery and the ex- pense attendant on same. Numerous sample blankets have then to be made, and, later, com- plete ranges of samples in the styles selected. The quantity of ma- terial so used up is extraordinary, and the labor cost is heavy, cover- 'i I{> II!' ir^ 282 THE COST OF SAMPLE COLLECTIONS ing, as it does, wages of pattern weavers, loom fixers, warpers, etc. The drawing-in and twisting expenses of the numberless pattern warps that are needed is, in itself, very large. Yarns Needed for Sampling Purposes. Small quantities of all sorts of yarns have to be purchased for sampling purposes, and in every fancy-goods mill one will find no end of such materials, all the way from jute to tinsel, in little lots of from one to ten pounds. Such sample parcels lock up quite a lot of money and have but trifling commercial value. Heavy Cost of Jacquard Work. For Jacquard work, the cutting of the cards is a great expense, and their storage requires much room. On this class of work there is also the heavy cost incurred in changing the tie-up of the looms from time to time; the repairs and alterations of the harnesses; and the building of new harnesses, either to replace those wearing out, or for the bringing out of patterns that require a different tie-up. The protracted stoppage of looms for these necessary purposes adds considerably to the cost. It must not be forgotten, either, that Jacquard warps have to be drawn in, or twisted in, in the loom, so that, outside of the labor paid for the work done, there is also to be reckoned the extra cost for this stoppage, which is much greater than would be the case with harness looms. Other Outlays to be Met. At the salesrooms, a considerable yardage is cut oflF the pieces in stock there, for use in making sample cards and as types, etc., and the cost of making up sample cards is not small. If warp or surface prints are being made, there is also the en- graving of the rollers, and on warp prints there is the weaving in of the crossings on the warps before printing, and the extra amount paid the weaver for removing same when the goods are being woven, and many other expenses incident to such goods. Sample pieces of the various fabrics have to be made, and in the final closing out of such pieces a smart loss is generally taken. When all these various items of expense are searched out and brought together, it will usually be found that they amount to a sum far in excess of what any one dreamed of. Fancy Goods Expenses Should be Kept Separate. Many mills make some plain goods and some fancies, the fancies generally being the small end. It is, however, a very common prac- tice to figure the sampling and special fancy-goods expenses in with the general expenses of the mill, instead of charging all, or nearly all, of it to the fancy goods, as should be done. THE COST OF SAMPLE COLLECTIONS 283 Business on Fancies Often Done at a Loss. If this latter course were pursued, I believe that many concerns which think they are making some profit on their fancies would find that, if they took the sampling cost into consideration, they are making a loss. It seems to be agreed that, if one is offering fancy goods for sale, a good-sized collection is necessary to enlist the attention of the buyer. If this is the case it is equally certain that, with the large cost of get- ting up such a collection, on any business of restricted size there wUl be nothing but an "Irish dividend" left for the mill. Large Initial Profits Necessary. The application of all this is, that if a fancy-goods business of con- siderable proportions cannot be achieved it is better to let it alone altogether; and in view of the losses that such lines are subject to from cancellations, and from loss on stock pieces, there is no use in the ordinary mills pricing such goods on the basis of a small profit If they do not figure at the outset on a liberal profit they will find they have made none at all. 282 THE COST OF SAMPLE COLLECTIONS 11 't ]l ; It; ing, as it does, wages of pattern weavers, loom fixers, warpers, etc. The drawing-in and twisting expenses of the numberless pattern warps that are needed is, in itself, very large. Yarns Needed for Sampling Purposes. Small quantities of all sorts of yarns have to be purchased for sampling purposes, and in every fancy-goods mill one will find no end of such materials, all the way from jute to tinsel, in little lots of from one to ten pounds. Such sample parcels lock up quite a lot of money and have but trifling commercial value. Heavy Cost of Jacquard Work. For Jacquard work, the cutting of the cards is a great expense, and their storage requires much room. On this class of work there is also the heavy cost incurred in changing the tie-up of the looms from time to time; the repairs and alterations of the harnesses; and the building of new harnesses, either to replace those wearing out, or for the bringing out of patterns that require a different tie-up. The protracted stoppage of looms for these necessary purposes adds considerably to the cost. It must not be forgotten, either, that Jacquard warps have to be drawn in, or twisted in, in the loom, so that, outside of the labor paid for the work done, there is also to be reckoned the extra cost for this stoppage, which is much greater than would be the case with harness looms. Other Outlays to be Met. At the salesrooms, a considerable yardage is cut off the pieces in stock there, for use in making sample cards and as types, etc., and the cost of making up sample cards is not small. If warp or surface prints are being made, there is also the en- graving of the rollers, and on warp prints there is the weaving in of the crossings on the warps before printing, and the extra amount paid the weaver for removing same when the goods are being woven, and many other expenses incident to such goods. Sample pieces of the various fabrics have to be made, and in the final closing out of such pieces a smart loss is generally taken. When all these various items of expense are searched out and brought together, it will usually be found that they amount to a sum far in excess of what any one dreamed of. Fancy Goods Expenses Should be Kept Separate. Many mills make some plain goods and some fancies, the fancies generally being the small end. It is, however, a very common prac- tice to figure the sampling and special fancy-goods expenses in with the general expenses of the mill, instead of charging all, or nearly all, of it to the fancy goods, as should be done. THE COST OF SAMPLE COLLECTIONS 2^3 Business on Fancies Often Done at a Loss. If this latter course were pursued, I believe that many concerns which think they are making some profit on their fancies would find that, if they took the sampling cost into consideration, they are making a loss. It seems to be agreed that, if one is offering fancy goods for sale, a good-sized collection is necessary to enlist the attention of the buyer. If this is the case it is equally certain that, with the large cost of get- ting up such a collection, on any business of restricted size there will be nothing but an "Irish dividend" left for the mill. Large Initial Pro£ts Necessary. The application of all this is, that if a fancy-goods business of con- siderable proportions cannot be achieved it is better to let it alone altogether; and in view of the losses that such lines are subject to from cancellations, and from loss on stock pieces, there is no use in the ordinary mills pricing such goods on the basis of a small profit. If they do not figure at the outset on a liberal profit they will find they have made none at all. !!•! ill ii' i' } XXIV CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS For some years past, profound changes have been taking place in the methods of distributing the production of our textile mills, and still the transition process continues. These changes which have taken place have been anything but beneficial for the mills, and the silk trade has been one of the greatest sufferers. Time was when the jobbers ordered largely in advance and paid a fair price for their goods, but the great growth in size of the re- .tailers, all over the country, made them such large consumers that the mills, compelled to do so by severe competition, concluded that only by passing by the jobbers, and offering goods to the retailers direct, could they find a living profit. The jobbers were sometimes protected by being given prices enough below those quoted to the retailers to enable them also to market the good on the same basis, but it was seldom that the margin of profit in the goods would allow of this, so that in large part they were unpro- tected. Present Position of the Jobber. Being thus left out, the number of jobbers dwindled away, those remaining becoming, in large measure, distributers of job lots of goods, very big lots, at times, but still jobs. Sometimes they have special grades made for them, which are not offered for sale elsewhere, and on these lines they can do business. They also reach the smaller retailers that it does not pay the mills to go after, and by also selling cut lengths they find channels for dis- tributing substantial quantities of goods. Selling to Retailers and Attendant Difficulties. At first, this selling direct to retailers seemed easy and profitable, CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS 285 but very soon the keen competition among sellers lowered prices in this channel also, to a level that left no more profit in them than jobbers' prices had formerly allowed, and with this very serious drawback, that the times when the mills needed orders for their looms were not the times when it suited the retailers to place them. When the mills protected the jobbers, and had both jobbing and retailing customers, the jobbers would place orders in April for July- August delivery, and, as they had to have the goods on their counters at the latter dates, it was imperative that the orders be placed in time to allow of their being made, and as goods for the retailers would be running off the looms about April the jobbing orders came in just when needed. For the autumn trade, goods are not needed on the counters before September-October, and, even if made on order, can be contracted for in July-August, so there is little necessity for the buyers to place orders before then, with the result that, every summer, the dress-silk mills face an interregnum of some three months, when they must either shut down most of their looms or run wholly or in great part for stock. It is at this juncture that the few large jobbers in the field get their innings, as many mills, to bridge over the slack period and avoid either of the alternatives mentioned, will take their orders at prices not only without profit but frequently at a material loss, considering this less of an evil than to shut down their machinery and permit their or- ganizations to be broken up and their help scattered. Disinclination of Jobbers to Carry Stock, Recently, another phase of jobbing distribution has arisen, which is shown in a disinclination to carry any reasonable stock and in trying to throw that burden on the manufacturers. A big silk jobbing house may send over several times in one day, to a commission agent, for one piece each time of black of a staple line that they are carrying. The advance orders from them have dwindled to miserable proportions, and many orders are not for much more than a few sample pieces, coupled with requests or demands for scores or hundreds of sample cards, free of charge. On these samples and cards they do their busi- ness, and send in orders months later for such goods as they have sold, and which orders, coming so late, are of little value to the mills. Thus does the jobber play the game of "heads I win, tails you lose,*' taking no chances himself and letting the mills sweat. This practice is not confined to silk departments, but is general in other textiles, and houses that formerly bought hundreds, or thousands, of pieces of a style are now, in many instances, buying just a few yards to make sample cards with. To such an extent has this proceeded that a number of the largest and most important mill agents, in dress goods, cottons, etc., are seriously considering the discontinuance of any ; 286 CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS protection to the jobber, and of putting him on exactly the same price level as the retailer. There is little doubt that a continuance or extension of such policies on the part of jobbing interests will be prejudicial to their wellbeing, for if they cease to be either useful, convenient, or profitable channels for mills to distribute goods through, just so surely will they be done without. The Cutter-up and His Methods, The cutter-up is another party who has long operated on the manu- facturer's capital, and who takes few chances himself. He does not need goods to cut up for his spring trade until January, and for his autumn business in July, and in October and March he buys his sample pieces, that is, he orders only samples at a time when he should be placing his real business, and these sample pieces are for delivery as soon as possible. Of course, he picks a few styles from this house, and a few from that, and in each case he is likely to make a point of speaking enthusi- astically of their goods, and of the quantity that he expects to use. Naturally, it is a fair inference that he thinks well of Uie styles, or he would not have ordered them, but his principal aim is to encourage the manufacturer to make up advance stock at his own risk, so that he, the cutter, can have ample stock to draw from if he should sell the styles, and, if not, it is the maker who will stand the loss on the unsalable stock. After the sample pieces are ordered, the mills, having no business of any amount booked, must either stop or run on stock. Being all pretty "easy marks," they play the cutter's game by banking up goods at their own cost and risk, to use as a stock for him to select from — or to reject. They are guided as to the styles and quantities to make by the number and kind of sample pieces that have been placed, and soon the looms are turning off goods in quantity, and at prices leaving next to no profit, even if sold. Meantime, nothing has been heard from the cutters, who have made their sample garments and have sent out their men on the road. About the beginning of January, or July, in come the cutters and want so many pieces of tiiis, that, and the other thing for immediate delivery, and if the manufacturer has not the stock on hand they profess great indignation. They will refer to what they told him as to their probable requirements, to the fact that they bought sample pieces of the goods, and will ask what kind of a way that is to handle their trade, and in general will behave like very ill-used men, when really what they deserve is two swift kicks properly placed. Losses Attendant Upon Business With Cutters. On the other hand, when the manufacturer presses upon their atten- tion any styles that he has made in anticipation of their wants, but CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS 2S7 which they do not happen to have done business on, they will not take them at any price, for their ill-success with them on the road has demonstrated to them that they will not sell. Thus, in addition to stocking up goods for these gentry, with all the cost and drawbacks entailed thereby, the manufacturers suffer most cruel losses in the final marketing of their unsalable lines, owing to their rejection by the special trade for which they were made, and their unsuitability in other directions. In consequence, this is a most treacherous trade, and, owing to the unresisting characteristics of the selling agents of the mills, it is enabled to do business largely on their capital and to shift the risk of mistakes of judgment onto their shoulders. If the attendant losses had to be paid out of the pockets of the selling agents and salesmen, it is no guesswork to say that this business would be conducted on very different principles. The Retailers' Ideas of Profits. Then, there are the retailers, those distributers who can say blandly to the producers that they will handle nothing that will not show them about 40 per cent, profit, and that they must have this or that to retail at such and such a price. Their organizations are thoroughly perfected mediimis for the purpose of squeezing the last fraction of a cent from the producer, and of getting from the consumers prices that occasion enquiries into the high cost of living. Here are the swollen profits. Compare the weaver, hardly making interest on his capital, or the jobber with his 10 or 15 per cent, profit, with the 30, 40, or 50 per cent, gross profit regularly taken in by the retailer. Poorer Goods at Higher Prices. Year by year, greater retail profits are looked for. Let anyone who recollects the quality of the 19-inch taffetas that were regularly retailed at 75 cents a few years ago, observe the quality of the mer- chandise which is now handed over the counter at that figure, and by the best houses. It is very inferior, and yet silks, at first hands, have long ruled at lower levels than they did then. This charging of higher prices, and giving poorer goods, has an effect seriously detrimental to the trade as a whole, as it not only tends to diminish the consumption but makes customers dissatisfied with what they do buy. Restrictions Placed Upon Retail Buyers. The retail buyers are held strictly down to certain limits of capital by their principals, and even with a growth in business they find it hard to get permission to use more money. Meantime, however, the increas- ing diversity of the stock that has to be carried becomes a grave problem. Fashion papers reach every corner of the land, and requests I ■'-: i I II '■ ii k 288 CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS for new fabrics, styles, and colors are made at local counters of remote towns, almost before the goods have been shown in New York. Makers of advertised and branded goods also push their wares far afield, and create a widespread demand for their specialties. The result is, that the retail buyer must carry many more styles and colors, and as his working capital remains the same he must spread his stock thinner, first limiting himself to a piece of a color, and then to half a piece of a color, with perhaps full pieces of black and white. Before long, perhaps, we may see only dress patterns put in stock. The stocking of c^oods in such diminutive quantities makes it im- perative that, somewhere in the market, there must exist stocks which can be drawn on instanter. If the purchasing were entirely from jobbers this might be all right, but as they go direct to the rnills for their supplies it follows that not only are they not in a position to give advance orders, but they expect the mills to carry stock for them also. The Merchandise Man, The much decried merchandise man, inimical as his office is to proper merchandising in the true sense of the word, has done his part in bringing about the present state of affairs, with which his employers have no reason to complain, no matter how disastrous it has been to the manufacturers. These latter may talk till they are black in the face, but till they do something the merchandise man will keep his extin- guisher over them. Illustrations of How Manufacturers are Expected to Carry Stock, To show how the carrying of stocks is everywhere shouldered off upon the mills, I quote these items from the New York Journal of Commerce, of November 14, 191 1 : "The cool weather lent a snap to trade in retail channels, and in different quarters of the market there was a hurried looking around for any available lots of spot merchandise in heavy weights." "The cold wave which arrived yesterday caused clothiers who are short of overcoatings to scurry around the market for additional supplies.'* "In the underwear houses where heavy weights are handled buyers zvere on the ground early to renew offers for any quick shipment garments that were available.** Here we see concerns leaving themselves almost bare of seasonable heavy weights up to the middle of November, and then, when a cold day comes, having to rush round to find some goods to sell. Risks and Expenses Unloaded Upon the Mills, We now perceive that we have arrived at a point where the mills receive no advance orders worth mentioning from either jobbers, cut- ters, or retailers, but are expected to carry stock for all of them, stock paid for by money borrowed from commission houses at full rates of interest, and financed also by unduly long raw-silk credits. CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS 289 The carrying of stock not only locks up capital, eats up interest, and other carrying expenses, but styles and colors quickly become passe, and, if carried long, weighted silks may diminish in strength. Then who is to say what should be made amongst the multiplicity of styles, fabrics, and colors? Let a mill make four lines of goods that are wanted, to one that is not, and the loss on the latter will usually exceed the profit on all the former, a fact that would stand out more boldly if every house made a semi-annual clean up, either by auction or private sale, thus knowing exactly where it stood. Most sales managers refer to plain weaves, made for stock, as "staple goods," or "bread-and-butter stuff,'* but the fact is that just as heavy losses can be made, and often are made, on the so-called staple goods as are made in the closing out of most fancies. Necessary Pro/its are Not Got. It should be apparent that, if the mills are distributing goods in diminutive quantities, with all the attendant expense, and are making and carrying stock with the fearful risk attached, and in general are performing the entire function of jobbers, they should receive a job- ber's profit, in addition to a mill profit, to compensate them for what they have to do, and to offset the heavy losses necessarily entailed. Unfortunately they do not, partly because they do not ask it, and partly because many competing producers figure the profit considered necessary on the same basis they did when conditions were essentially different. If, to-day, a mill decides only to run on orders, it will run very few looms as it will not get the orders, and then, when the spot business comes, it will have no goods to sell, and if it runs on stock it can get no profit sufficient to offset the certain losses. Curtailment of Mill Credits, Apart from any under-consumption, due to restricted dress require- ments, we normally have a chronic over-production, largely caused by the too great financing facilities oflFered by commission houses, and the too long credits on which raw-silk is sold. If mill credits could be curtailed in these directions, it would force many manufacturers to take a stand for such proper business methods as would prevent the buying element from constantly dominating and trampling upon the producers as they now do. The Future Outlook and the Present Conditions. Should these conditions continue unchecked, what is there to look forward to? Nothing but the retirement from the business of certain firms, the failure of others, and the dividing the business (but on the same abnormal basis) among the rest, and, after a new crop of manu- facturers grows up, a repetition of the process. Either that or the 41 I f i. J.V- ' 1;^ 290 CHANGES IN MERCHANDISING METHODS prompt advancing of prices to levels far beyond the wildest dreams of what any experienced person now considers possible. Consider what the silk industry of America represents, with its enormous investments, its immense and costly mechanical equipment, and the great technical skill and knowledge required by its personnel. How is it that this great industry has been allowed to sink down into this chronic miserable state, making it, and its members, a joke and a laughing stock among men engaged in other businesses? The Causes of Inaction, Are there not trade associations in the industry, long established, and men of sense and experience at the head of the different mills, yet why is it that the collective and individual intelligences of the trade have allowed their interests to be sacrificed and the condition of their businesses brought to such an evil pass, and with no prospect of relief? It looks as if it were caused by indifference, laziness, timidity, and fear. Indifference to the evil that may be befalling a competitor ; lazi- ness that deters some from moving in any matter not obligatory upon them; timidity on the part of others in asserting their rights; and fear, of one sort or another, on the part of nearly all. When situations arise requiring concerted and effective action, some are afraid that it will cost them a little money, and that their pocket- book-nerve will be affected ; others are afraid of coming into the open for fear they may not be thought "conservative," that fetish which appeals to timid souls ; others are afraid to trust, within reason, their associates, thinking they may prove false; and others are fearful of antagonizing customers, creditors, or what not. Therefore, we have had a condition of drift and inaction, and are now paying the penalty. Necessity of Leadership. There are times when situations require drastic remedies, and real war should be made upon the causes responsible for these intolerable conditions, no matter whose interests may have to be attacked. "Ome- lettes cannot be made without breaking some eggs." At such times it behooves those who are leaders to justify their claims to leadership by leading. Who are the leaders of the silk in- dustry? Where are they? If any there be, let them lead, and they will find more followers than they dream of, and success will attend upon their efforts. ^ XXV SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION One of the most troublesome and important questions that con- fronts the management of a mill is what to make, and a question of even greater importance, and one that very often receives little intelli- gent consideration, is what not to make. The projectors of a mill, when starting it, usually have in mind the intention to cater to a certain trade, and they beg^n work along those lines, but, unless business comes to them very readily, it is not long before they are sampling in all sorts of directions. Necessity of a Definite Policy, The selection of a definite policy in this respect is a necessity, and then, after the most careful and sober consideration of every phase of the subject and the final determining upon a line of action, this policy should be steadily pursued to the end, and no ephemeral fashion oV condition of business should be allowed to interfere with it till it either be carried to success or be proved to be unprofitable. Questions Which Will Influence the Decision. What, then, are the factors which will influence the decision as to what policy to adopt, and what are the policies that are generally available ? Some of the dominating features in the case will be the nimiber of looms operated by the mill ; the location of the plant, which has much to do with whether skilled labor will be available or not ; the amount of experience possessed by the mill superintendent in the construction of various classes of goods ; the standing of the sales department with the buyers and the ability of the selling stafiF to reach the desired trade ; the degree of taste and the knowledge of fabrics possessed by the sales management; the fabric requirements of the day; and the finan- (.( , 292 SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION III I k cial resources of the concern which may control its action in certain cases. The Frittering Away of Energies, Some will start out on the assumption that they can easily sell up their mills by making a little of this, that, and the other thing. This is a fatal mistake, particularly in an age of specialization such as this is, when so many lines of goods, manufactured on a large scale, are sold on a basis of profit not much better than a brokerage. With a too greatly diversified product, costs will be so high that profits will be rare, assortments of colors and patterns cannot be com- pleted on time, the selling expense will be absurdly large, the produc- tion of the mill will be far short of what it should be, the concern will not be headquarters for anything, and its goods will be held in small esteem by the trade, if not totally neglected. The result will be accumulations of odds and ends of stock, from sample pieces to cancelled orders, a heavy loss in the closing out of these broken lots of goods, a frittering away of energies, and a shrink- age of capital. In such cases, the tail will always eat the head off the dog, as the saying is. Those Who Copy Instead of Originating, Some others will argue that the proper plan to get quickly into the swim is to go out and see what fabrics others are doing well on and then copy them, cheapening them if possible, and in this way find a quick sale for their goods. It is but fair to state that, of the many houses which pursue this questionable policy as a regular practice, some have been successful, owing generally to their technical ability in copying goods and repro- ducing the desired effects on a much cheaper scale ; but, had they used their unquestioned talent and spent an equal effort in originating styles and fabrics, they mi^ht have reaped a still larger reward. The copyists, however, are nearly always tail-en ders, for, to get the business away from those who have it, one has to offer apparently the same goods at lower prices, or give better values for the same money, and the joint competition of the throng of copyists often pre- vents any of them from making a cent, and simply spoils the market for those whose intelligent foresight entitles them to the business that their efforts have created. Delusions of Salesmen. Salesmen are always speaking of the "land-office business" that this or that firm is doing on certain goods, and the huge profits they are making, and are urging their mills to copy the cloth, and, of course, at a lower price if possible. Distant fields are always green, and it generally happens that neither the business nor the profits are any- thing unusual, and, anyway, if there was any special profit in the goods, the original producer would not allow his business to be taken from SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION 293 him and would cut his prices in turn, so that the purchasers' confidence in the goods would be demoralized by the breaking prices and nothmg but harm and loss would result. , . , ... The truth is, that, having to find our business exclusively withm the boundaries of this country alone, we are all in the same boat, and if the business that one man is doing is cut in upon, he must take some business away from some one else in another direction in order to employ his looms. The originator always has the best of it, for he gets a reputation for having new things and can get a profit on what he sells, as he has then but little competition. When to Stop Making Goods, While it is very important to get onto the right goods early, it is equally important to get off them in ample season. It is frequently, and perhaps usuallv, true that the time to stop taking orders on a line, and to begin to take serious steps to close out every piece made or making, is when the demand for the goods is at a white heat, particu- larly if the goods in any way come into the fancy category. When sales are in full swing, this cleaning-up process can be ac- complished with little or no loss, and a handsome net profit will be the result of the business already done, whereas, if the demand should fall off (and it can change completely over night), the cleaning-up process may be attended with such heavy losses that there may be no profit left in spite of all the work done. The loss on one piece, sold on a closing-out basis, will generally wipe out the profit of five to ten pieces sold at the regular price. Specialising Along Narrow Lines, Specialization is the order of the day, and the best success is most likely to be attained by concentrating activities along the narrowest possible lines, and then pushing the production and sale of those spe- cialties to the limit. The manner in which too diverse a product, in a mill of ordinary size, will waste the money and paralyze the energies of the concern is appalling. The complications that a call for the manufacture of too many different things will make are legion. It may entail the use of Jacquard machines of varying scope, and with all sorts of different tie-ups for their harnesses ; fancy shaft harnesses, cumbrous and costly, and with all sorts of spacings ; plain harnesses of all kinds and widths, French, English, etc. ; different constructions of cloths ; a wide variety of all the materials under heaven; different twists to the yarns; different widths ; different classes of colors ; different weightings ; different sizes of silks; untold quantities of designs; various finishes; samples for different classes of goods wanted at all sorts of times, and samplings i< •i i i I 294 SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION much increased ; different construction requirements to be met, accord- ing to the uses of the fabrics; different selling conditions, etc., etc. A very great mill, with an established connection, can permit these complications, for it has so much machinery that in each of many di- verse directions it is able to operate enough looms to make a respect- able business of it and to have special salesmen for each branch of the work. With small or moderate-sized mills the case is essentially different. Policies of Production. Leaving aside these examples of opportunism that we have been discussing, what directions are there in which a broad silk mill can work which could be properly designated as policies? In answer to this it may be suggested that a mill may specialize on one or more staple fabrics or on one division of staple fabrics, such as blacks, or exclusively cater to one trade, such as making plain or fancy dress silks, necktie silks, etc., or it can exploit one or more trade- marked fabrics, either as an exclusive business, or in connection with other goods. A mill desiring to specialize on a staple cloth has many to choose from. It may make umbrella silks, chiffons, crepes de chine, Shantungs, foulards, taffetas, cotton-back satins, liberty satins, wash silks, lining silks, tailoring silks, etc., etc. If the mill manager knows his business, and if the sales department can market the product at the full market price, a mill, employing, say, two hundred looms steadily on one of these fabrics, ought to do very well during most seasons, as the unit cost of both production and dis- tribution should be so low that at any fair market price there should be a reasonable profit in them. Add to this the fact that the output in yards would be so re- spectable that the mill would have some standing in the market as a producer of that article, and buyers would then make it a point to look at its goods when in the market. Again, a mill may specialize in the same way on blacks — nothing but blacks — be they satin, taffeta, peau de soie or what not. In this, as in the previous case, great economies of production re- sult from the simplification of the work, as but few kinds and sizes of silk or other materials are used, few different sorts of weightings, a uniform kind of machinery, and a minimum of superintendence and other labor. A concern may also cater to one trade exclusively, and may make, say, plain dress silks, covering only the ordinary weaves, widths, and colors ; and this may be further specialized on as by working only for the jobbing trade, or the retailers, or the cutting-up trade. Without going too deeply into novelties there may be a field in the fancy goods trade, checks, stripes, plaids, print warps, printed foulards, figured satins, etc., etc. These articles are naturally much SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION 295 more hazardous than plain goods and persons undertakmg this trade must be very well qualified for it at every end of the busmess. In each of these lines, some of the goods may be skem-dyed and some piece-dyed. In the piece-dyed branch, also, is another field for specialization. Some Considerations Affecting Piece Dyes. Its advantages are a simplification of the kinds of raw material used ; the elimination, in large part, of the paying out of much money for throwing or dyeing in advance of the production of the goods ; the quick conversion of raw materials into finished goods ; the relatively low cost of piece-dyed goods and their consequent larger sale ; and the fact that they can be dyed up as needed into the colors most m demand at the time. ^ , . , There are times in the year, of course, when these piece-dyes may have to be stocked heavily, entailing the locking up of much capital, with interest charges, and, even when made on advance orders, buyers are unwilling to give dye orders until close to the time when they will require the delivery of the goods. There is then difficulty in getting large quantities of goods through the dye-house in reasonable time and, with the rush of orders that the dyer has to contend with, much un- satisfactory work is produced. , * *i. It may also happen, owing to some oversight or bad work at the mill, or some unsuitable lot of material getting into use, that, when the accumulations of goods that have been stacked up begin to come through the dyeing, serious unsuspected imperfections and damages may appear, and which, owing to the large number of pieces m which they may occur, will entail heavy losses. It is the part of prudence, therefore, to keep dyeing up, right along, representative pieces of the lots coming through, so that if any- thing about the goods is wrong it may be discovered and checked before it has reached large proportions. The Production of High Novelties. Another direction in which a mill may w^ork is in the manufactur- ing of high novelties. , • ,.^ r ^ v This branch of the business cannot be got into over night, tor to be really successful at it, a mill must build up its reputation gradually and over quite a period. During that time the trade has become ac- customed to look to it for novelties, and to expect that such ideas as it brings out will be good and profitable things for them to handle. This prestige is hard to acquire, but when once gained it is a great help to the mill in placing its product, season after season, as con- fidence plays a large part in transactions in novelties, and the mere fact of a successful fancy-goods house presenting its styles is an argument with the buyer in favor of purchasing them. To do this business well requires qualities of no common order, and li I 296 SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION 297 ''™! *' \ \S^^^^ ■^'BJi' ,f -■ , ) 1 i < 'P ■■ 1 i -it t ii j ■' *ll i ,1 1 i' 1 -•-» t Im. _^^ very serious risks have also to be faced, for the price that fancies will bring when they are not wanted bears little relation to their cost. The management, both at the store and at the mill, should have originality of ideas, educated taste, and much ingenuity in the con- struction of fabrics and employment of materials. Their sources of information as to the drift of taste both at home and abroad, and as to what is new in styles, colors, cloths and fashions, should be many and accurate. It is necessary to sample very far ahead and on a wide scale, and, to a greater or less degree, to gamble on the market and to have on hand assortments of novelties at the time they are needed by the trade. If the firm understands its business and attends to it keenly and closely, a fine and profitable trade may be built up, but very few peo- ple, even with the best equipped plants, have the talent necessary to do it. ^ Losses Entailed by Fancy Goods, While the nominal profits in fancies look large, it is very seldom that they really are so, for the drawbacks are so many that, unless a large margin of nominal profit was figured on, there would be no real profit at all. The cost of sampling, with all the collateral outlay that it entails, directly and indirectly, is a colossal expense; many goods are sure to be late and subject to cancellation, so what with returned goods, left over goods, and seconds, there is always a very large percentage of stufiF to close out at a heavy loss ; the production of the mill is greatly cut down by the everlasting changes necessitated by the rapidly passing fashions, and then there is the chance that in making goods ahead the demand may be misjudged— and this happens not infrequently— and there may in that case be a big line of goods to throw overboard at the best price obtainable. Creating a Demand by Advertising. Another policy, coming more and more into vogue, is to make one or more sound, serviceable fabrics, of a kind that should have a wide and general use, and create a demand for them by advertising. Unless advertised, even a trade marked fabric comes very slowly into use, and the question is not whether to advertise the cloth, but how to do it, and how much money to spend on it. If not advertised, the most meritorious goods will rarely see the retail counter, for what the distributers want are low prices, and low prices are not often commensurate with good merchandise. The distributer has really grown to be a barrier between the manu- facturer who desires to make honest goods and the customer who wishes to buy them, and the manufacturer is thus compelled to go over the head of the retailer, appeal by advertisement to the consumer, and so create such a demand for the goods that the retailers will find it both necessary to carry them in stock and to pay the manufacturer a fair price for them. When advertising has to be done, it is a great problem how to properly spend the necessary money, for in no direction can money be so absolutely thrown away as in this, if not intelligently expended. Protecting One's Trade Marks, After an advertised cloth has come into prominence, it will not only be widely copied, but its trade mark is sure to be pirated, and the manufacturer must be prepared to begin legal proceedings against all infringers, big or little, far or near, and so compel the trade to re- spect the brands that so much money and effort have been spent in developing. This is not so expensive a process as it would appear to be, for merchants do not like to have to defend lawsuits, and when those gentlemen with piratical proclivities see that a house is determined to protect its brands at any cost, they let the marks of that firm severely alone. Good trade-marked fabrics, well advertised and introduced, will find a steady sale year after year, and always at a profit. Considerations Governing the Policy to be Pursued. There are, no doubt, many other methods of directing the produc- tion and distribution of merchandise that are both sound and profit- able, but the foregoing will show the desirability of adopting some well settled policy. What this policy will be each must determine for himself, and ac- cording to the circumstances. Fancy goods production should not be undertaken in localities where skilled labor is scare, and where, if help gets scattered owing to slack work, it is difficult or next to impossible to get them back again. Country mills, therefore, should generally aim to make plain, or rea- sonably simple goods. The number of looms and their character will be another limiting feature, as it is well to make what a mill is best equipped for, and the character of the goods that its selling force is best able to dispose of is of much importance. Whatever is made, there should be enough looms devoted to it to give it a proper standing in the market, and to per- mit the proper selling staff to be employed. The knowledge and abilities of the partners, the demands of the day, all will influence the determination. Shaping a Course and Following It. Even established concerns, doing a good and fairly profitable trade, will often find themselves largely in pocket by a careful analysis of every part of the business that they are doing, and the rigorous elimi- nation of every article that they are not headquarters on. 298 SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION SPECIALIZATION IN PRODUCTION 299 it «;t. Every mill, in fact, after patient investigation, should frame a law for its guidance and allow nothing to deviate it from that path. Our mistakes are generally made not because we really do not know better, but because we allow ourselves to be talked into believing that it will be different this time. Goods Should he Sold the Season Made. One feature of any policy that may be adopted should be always to sell goods during the season for which they were made, be the price good or bad. They rarely will bring more, and, if carried, will usually bring less, besides locking up capital and entailing interest charges. This fixed determination to sell is well illustrated by the familiar figure which is here reproduced, and regarding which I quote from "Dry Goods" as follows: "Sell and Repent." One of the most familiar trademarks in the dry goods world is the portly old gentleman whose portrait is herewith reproduced. He has a history handed down to posterity through generations of good goods and persistent advertising. His strength of mind and body is typical of the house he so strongly represents. comparatively modern. Prior to their erection the site was occupied by private residences with gardens in the rear. In one of these lived John Preston, one of the first woolstaplers in Bradford, and one of the original shareholders in the Low Moor Ironworks, established in 1788. In the early rate-books John Preston is described as being assessed at £60 per annum, an item large enough to clearly establish his position as a leading man in the trade. The figure of the old woolstapler, attired in knee breeches, thick hosen, a coat reaching to his heels, and with his hands deeply thrust into his plush waistcoat pockets, would form an interesting feature could it be more vividly reproduced. John, despite his homely garb, could hold his own at a bargain. At any rate, he must have felt assured of his position before making use of his usual phrase, Til sell if I repent.' " 1 This symbol has been used by the present house of Fred. Butter- field & Company for upwards of sixty years. Below we print a reference to him issued by the firm in Bradford, England, May 24, 1895: "In referring to the property lying between Mrs. Newby's shop and the comer of Cheapside, we have to note the erection of buildings ADVERTISED FABRICS 301 XXVI ADVERTISED FABRICS The question of whether to advertise textile fabrics or not, and, if they are to be advertised, the question of the best method of dealing with this important problem, is a matter of much concern to many houses from time to time. The destructive and unrestrained competition in the silk trade elimi- nates the possibility of making more than a brokerage on a vast volume of the standard fabrics consumed by the country, and, too often, even this cannot be made, and manufacturers, whether they like it or not, are more and more being forced to adopt methods that will give their goods distinctiveness and remove them from the influence of price-cut- ting. The Demands of the Distributers. The necessity, or the greed, of the distributers leads them to de- mand lower and still lower prices from the manufacturers for standard goods to retail at standard prices, and this even when goods are cost- ing more to make owing to increased raw material or other costs. The dictum is calmly laid down by these middlemen that, in addi- tion to the 7 per cent, cash discount, they cannot handle anything that does not show them a profit of, say, 40 per cent, or upwards. Manufacturers Try to Do the Impossible. The manufacturers supinely submit to this pretension, and move heaven and earth to accomplish the impossible, growing poorer as their customers are growing richer, and, incidentally, being compelled by the necessities of the case to produce fabrics of seeming worth, but so grossly overweighted that they greatly injure the esteem of silk goods with the consuming public. The distributers of merchandise are a necessary link in the chain between the producer and the consumer, and, as such, they are entitled to a reasonable return on their business, but the intolerably one-sided condition of affairs that exists at present calls for a fundamental change. Necessity of Appealing to the Public Direct. This change is now being brought about in part, and will be more and more as time goes on, by the action of manufacturers in going over the heads of the distributers and, by various methods of advertising, presenting meritorious goods to the ultimate consumers, and thus, by creating a demand on the retailers for these special fabrics, compel the latter to buy goods from the maker at prices fixed by him and not by them, and perhaps, to sell them at prices fixed by him also. Most retailers are apprehensive of the effect that the general hand- \ ling of trade-marked cloths would have on their profits, and many of them are bitterly opposed to carrying them, but sooner or later they will all have to take their medicine and to a far greater extent that they now dream of. Margins of Profit. In fixing the relation between the wholesale and retail prices of their products, most of the makers aim to allow the dealers a fairly liberal margin of profit, for, in exploiting their brands, they desire as little hostility at the counter as possible. Later on, when their trade- marks have become household words, they may have it in their power to cut the retailer's profit to a point commensurate with the greater ease of marketing the goods, brought about by the advertising done by the manufacturer. Different Views Regarding Advertising. Great diversity of opinion has existed among manufacturers about this question of advertising. Some have thought it entirely unneces- sary, in fact have sneered at the idea; others have thought that the money thus spent would so increase the cost of the goods that they would be no better off even if they should create a market for them ; some imagine that a fortune is required for such work, and, not hav- ing much money to spend, they do nothing ; others think that business so reached is, at the best, limited in extent and can only be kept up by heavy expenditures; and no doubt there are some who think that so many are already in the field that they would be too late to accomplish much even if they tried. There is, however, really no reason why the great bulk of the products of the silk looms should not be sold in this way, just as they are now sold without being branded. In other branches of trade, all goods of decent quality (and large quantities that are not), from hats to machinery or from carriages to stationery, are marked with the maker's name, and the sooner this comes to be the custom, instead of the exception, in the silk business, the better it will be for all concerned. 302 ADVERTISED FABRICS ADVERTISED FABRICS 303 i I ; vertising and entrust the laying out of it to some specialist in that line, who will advise as to the best methods to adopt. It is well to try and arrange it so that the results from each kind of publicity can be identified, with a view to pushing those that have proved most suc- cessful and eliminating the others. Certain methods may prove best in the great cities, others in the country towns. If, for instance, it was desired to reach the dress- makers in the big cities, and two or more methods were under con- sideration, one of them could be tried out in one city, and the others in other cities, with a view to finding out by actual test which was the better. When it is known that you are advertising, the people who want your money for such service flock round you in swarms, each one pro- testing, and apparently proving, that by his medium alone shall you be saved. You must, therefore, as before stated, enlist an experienced and reliable man for this service, allot your money, plan carefully your campaign, be it large or small, and — stick to your text. Different Mediums for Publicity, Among the mediums that will afford you publicity, there are the trade papers, particularly those that have a fashion side; the fashion papers— weekly or monthly ; the widely circulated weeklies, particularly those catering to women ; the ordinary monthly magazines ; the daily papers; theatre programmes; street car, subway, or elevated railway advertising; wall display; posters at railway stations; signs alongside the railway lines ; and a host of other ways. Then, there are circulars, letters, and samples to be sent to dis- tributers and to dressmakers, notices by fashion writers to be arranged for, display costumes to be got into the show rooms of those who dis- play advance models to the dressmaking interests, the inducing of cus- tomers, who have bought the goods, to make a special display of them in their windows for a week or so, and the arranging to have gowns, made of your materials, worn by stage celebrities and then have them cleverly written up. Judicious advertising can even be done in Paris, and, by getting in return favorable notices about your fabrics from the fashion papers of that city, it has a reflex eflFect on the buying public here. All of these and many other methods will come up for discussion, but only a few of them can be followed. It should always be borne in mind that it is extremely easy to waste money in this branch of the busi- ness, and money so misused is gone, never to return. In fact, it is probably safe to say that more than half .of all the money spent in all kinds of advertising, and applied to all kinds of merchandise, is abso- lutely wasted. Great discrimination, coupled with fair liberality, is necessary. The Value of an Established Brand. When a brand is once thoroughly established, it is a fortune to its possessor. The owners of some great textile trade-marks do not own or operate a loom, but have all their goods made for them on contract, they reaping a large profit, while the manufacturer, who weaves the goods for them on commission, may be hardly getting his cost back. Time Needed to Produce Results. One should not be discouraged if returns seem slow in coming. They will come in time, and the slower they come the surer they are. A year's careful trial, and perhaps less, should be sufficient to show if the right path is being followed, and if so, and if the returns are encouraging, the scope of operations could be increased. As the sales of the advertised articles grow, the least desirable parts of the other product of the mills could be weeded out, and eventually the greater part of the output would be the specialties. Other Important Points. It may be necessary for the advertiser to carry a fairly good stock of his branded goods, so as to be able always to promptly supply the people whose trade he is soliciting. He has also got to be careful not to allow his customers to over-buy themselves, particularly on questionable colors, for, if they cannot sell them, and as they are not allowed to cut the price, they may have to be taken back, and he will suffer. Sometimes they may be successfully redyed, at the customer's cost, of course, but it is much the best to feed out the goods, a few at a time, and then, at the season's end, the distributer has a clean stock, has made money on his purchases, is pleased with you and with your goods, and is ready to buy more the following season. In fixing the prices, it is well to try to arrange them at figures that will permit the paying of a price for raw materials rather above the average cost, as it is very undesirable to have to disturb established prices on account of raw material fluctuations. In this way, if raw materials were very high, there would be a little profit— at any rate, no loss ; if at medium prices, a fair return ; and, if low, a large profit. Let Consumers Know Who Manufactures Their Goods. Those manufacturers who have reason to be dissatisfied with the returns from their business, may do well to consider the matters herein set forth, and each with his own fabrics, and each in his own way, should go over the head of every intermediary and explain their merits to his real customer — ^the woman who wears them. XXVII THE QUESTION OF MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK I' '!: :, it It i^ ', Theoretically speaking, a mill is not supposed to carry any stock goods at all ; that is, goods made at its own risk, to be sold either at the time when they are being made or subsequently. Its sales agents are also supposed to be clever enough to foresee what sort of goods, and at what prices, the market is going to require and then, from the samples that they cause the mill to get up, they are to book sufficient advance orders to keep it fully employed, so that all goods coming in will be sold to arrive, and not a piece of stock ^oods will have been manufactured. This policy is always difficult, and generally impossible, to carry out in practice and for many reasons stock goods will, and do, accumu- late, and the well being of a concern is in a great measure dependent upon how closely it keeps these accumulations sold up. Some of the causes that lead to the piling up of unsold goods may be briefly referred to here. How Stock Goods Accumulate, There are the type-pieces made for the purpose of properly dis- playing the goods. Some of these are necessary, but many of them are ordered with but little thought, pieces being called for when a short sample length would do as well. Full pieces will be ordered when demi-pieces would answer all purposes, and many are made without any sufficient reason. These sample pieces, trifling in amount as they may seem, accumu- late quite fast, and lock up considerable money, and, as they are all odd pieces, when they are cleaned up they seldom bring as much as fifty cents on the dollar. Then, there are imperfect goods, or seconds, sent in from the mill and some of them must always be looked for, in addition to those pieces 1^ MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK 2>o7 that are fairly merchantable but are erroneously considered not good enough to send out by the salesmen, and so are held back in the stock. To these should be added those pieces that are made as the result of mistakes, whether on the part of the sales office by carelessness in transmitting the orders, or on the part of the mill in executing them A heavy accumulation comes from^the cancellation of orders by the buyers greater, of course, in bad seasons than in good ones, and naturally entailing at such times a loss to the mill of an unusually aggravated character. Rejections of goods by buyers on the ground of imperfections, or for not being up to sample, are frequent and in many cases are without substantial foundation. Another important class is that of goods cancelled on account of late deliveries, and late goods there always will be, so long as the custom obtains of allowing the mill insufficient time in which to make them, which is the rule rather than the exception. The production of goods requires the correlation of so many various activities, the bringing together of so many different materials, and the loyal service and conscientious work of so many skilled operatives, that, if there is any delay or trouble in any one direction, late goods will be the result, and late goods are generally stock goods. , Again, there will accumulate at the mill, from time to time, odd lots of material that are not just in the direction of work, and which are practically dead. When business is slack, these lots are frequently worked up into such fabrics as may seem fairly salable— and thus a few scores or hundreds of pieces come into being. Then there are pieces made to fill out warps. Mills generally desire to make full warps, say 300 yards, and in some of the colors of a line only three or four pieces may have been ordered, and full warps of these colors will be put in work in the expectation that the odd pieces over will be readily sold. These odd pieces are generally not easily sold, and help to swell the stock, and the consequent loss when they are marketed. To make one 60-yard piece of plain goods will probably cost 15 per cent, more per yard than it would if 300 yards had been made, and yet in the long run it pays better to make the short warp at a loss rather than to suffer the heavier loss on the stock The foregoing instances will show to what an extent stock goods can accumulate on the shelves of any mill, even of those doing a strictly order business, and the necessity of a well thought out and vigorous policy to keep such stock always at a low limit. Inducements to Manufacture Stock Goods, We will now consider the more serious and important phases of this problem— namely, the questions of whether it is necessary that there should be an underlying stock to do business on ; the making of quanti- ties of goods so as to have a full stock of desirable goods on hand P 308 MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK ready for the buyers when they want them; the making of stock for the purpose of obtainmg money advances for the financing of the busi- ness ; and the weavmg of goods to keep machinery employed and Srdlrc i ^^' ""/^Kf'?^^!!?'' ^'^"^ disintegrating, at times when adWnce orders are not obtamable. Salesmen Insistent Upon Carrying Stock. of ^""a^ salesmen will strenuously contend that a reasonable amount of goods, of each Ime shown, must be carried in stock, so as to make a proper display to customers and so assist sales, and they also point to the fact that by havmg some goods in stock pieces can be furnSied to those buyers who must have immediate deliveries, and who otherwise would have to seek elsewhere, and that the volume of these spot sales is by no means mconsiderable. ^ As the salesmen have to sell the goods, and are thus closer in touch with their customers than are the manufacturers, their opinion regarding all such matters should receive careful attention and full consideration. fi, ^^ ^^^ ]^^'^^' ^"^ ""f ^ ^^^V bosses they can be, that always attend the final closing out of such lines of stock merchandise, do not fall upon the salesmen, it becomes pertinent to consider what would be their views on this question if their own pockets had to stand a liberal share of the losses. Would they then think it was necessary to provide a Ime of stock goods, at their own risk, for the sake of enabling the buyers to keep out of the market till they were exactly sure of what they would need, and who then would come in at the last moment and find that the manufacturer had accommodatingly anticipated their wants? Enjphatically, no! And yet this they desire the manufacturer to do And would the trade, so catered to, feel in the least obligated to interest themselves m those other fabrics and other colors, also pro- vided for their convenience, and which they had not thoueht of buy- ing? By no means. ^ Bare Shelves 'Mean Larger Profits. From the salesman's standpoint, an underlying stock facilitates sales, and sales are supposed to be made for the purpose of securing a profit ; but if owing to the heavy losses in the final closing out of this stock the total profit will be heavily cut into, it follows that, by avoid- ing the making of stock, a much larger net profit may be secured by a much smaller volume of sales. * u ujr * A mill does not make a jobbing profit, though in a large measure, selling pieces and demi-pieces, it is compelled to do a jobber's business : but It, on the top of this, it is to be expected to carry a jobber's stock Its chances of making money are very remote. ' When salesmen, therefore, insist that to' have a liberal stock on hand is a requirement of the business, and that, as the saying is it is necessary to gamble on the goods, it is well to remember that they MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK 309 want the gambling to be done at their principal's risk and not at their own, and the value of their advice can be measured accordingly. Difficulty of Getting Full Price for Goods on Hand, The truth of the matter is, that, very frequently, the haying of goods on hand militates against their sale. Buyers are not so likely to place advance orders if they feel they can buy what they need from stock. Salesmen lose faith in the values of goods lying in stock and not moving rapidly, and do not have the same heart to make a fight for a full price against the attacks of the buyers as they would have if they knew the goods had to be made, and that, therefore, lower prices would not be considered. The buyer, also, except for very desirable goods, would never dream of paying full prices for any decent sized lot of stuff if he knew it was in stock. That this is the case is evidenced by the fact that many sagacious sales agents find it advantageous to keep all their stock out of sight, except a few pieces of each line, and, no matter how much they may have, never profess to be able to deliver more than a piece or two, alleging that they will have to get more in from the mill before they can complete the quantity needed. It is axiomatic in this, as in other affairs of life, that what is diffi- cult to get, and what has to be waited for, is valued, and that which can be had for the asking is held in small esteem. In presenting a line of goods to the trade, suitable type-pieces must be shown, and it is no doubt well to show them in a number of different colors, so as to make the best impression possible, but half-a-dozen pieces of a line should be ample for all ordinary purposes. Let us now consider the matter of the policy of doing the business largely on a stock basis, the taking of advance orders being somewhat incidental. Stock Required for a Novelty Business. In certain directions, this is more or less of a necessity. Thus, a house making high novelties and bringing forward new things contin- ually, must, to be successful, be able very accurately to forecast the de- mand, for in such articles it is difficult to get customers to commit themselves to orders long in advance. A concern with the necessary prestige, engaged in this business, may find it to its interest to have the proper stock on hand at the time the buyers are ready for it, and if they can judge the market correctly four times out of five, and demand and get a sufficient profit, all will be well. On novelties, in fact, many manufacturers are shy of an advance or- der business, for, with the many cancellations that may be expected, they may find themselves with a considerable amount of very ill as- sorted goods on hand, made on the other fellow's judgment, and which they would have never woven if at their own risk. I M b. : 11 if I •:] ' .! 310 MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK What Is Necessary When Handling Advertised Fabrics, Then there are the advertised goods, carrying trade marks and spe- cially branded. If the advertising is well done, such lines should grad- ually increase in sale, so that a demand considerably in excess of the advance business booked could be reasonably looked for. Further- more, if, after leading people by your advertisements to demand your goods, you should not be able to supply the demands for your merchan- dise in reasonable time and in reasonable quantity, you would give real grounds for serious dissatisfaction. In such cases it is obvious that a stock, sufficient in amount to meet the demand fairly to be ex- pected, must be prepared in advance. How Certain Staple Goods Are Distributed. On certain goods, again, of a staple character, the business is largely done from stock, or at any rate the orders are not placed far in ad- vance. People making black taffetas, cotton-back satins, foulards, and other goods of a plain character, must either weave the most of their goods in advance of orders, or do relatively little business on them. On those lines in which the trade is practically a one-season business, the goods so accumulated may have to be held for a long time before the season for selling comes, and the consequent locking up of capital is very embarrassing. Making Stock for Commission House Advances. Now comes the very serious evil of the making of stock for the purpose of obtaining advances of money on it from the commission house which clears the goods. This practice is very common under the prevailing system of mill financing — in fact it is created and fos- tered by it — and no practice is more demoralizing to the market than this. The commission-house system has come into being from the fact that the banks of the country cannot, or will not, furnish to the mills the funds necessary to finance them, in transacting their business along the lines on which it is necessary to do it. The facilities that the commission houses oflFer, in the shape of ad- vances on goods sent to them for sale, are such as to enable mills to operate much more machinery on a given capital than they otherwise could, or should. This is a gain to the commission house, as it thus has more goods to sell and consequently receives more commission, and the manu- facturer likewise has a basis for larger profits, both benefiting— if business is good and all goes well. Whenever business is bad or slack, and orders are not to be had, the mill, with its too limited capital for the business it is doing, finds that it has no orders to go on with and that it must let its looms run out, while its capital is all locked up in plant and machinery or tied up MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK 311 in equities in undelivered order goods, or stock goods, in the hands of its factors. Meantime, raw-silk bills and notes, and other obligations, will be falling due in a constant succession, and how are they to be met if there is no product coming forward? Either orders may be got under pressure at prices below the cost of manufacture, or stock goods must be made for advances. The commission-house people do not feel justified in advancing funds beyond the limits which their experience has shown them to be safe, and at such times it is most difficult to sell the stock goods and thus release the equities in them. In fact, if the stock goods were forced to a sale, a price so low would probably be realized that all the equity in them would be wiped out. ^ Under such circumstances, no matter how much he may dislike to do it, and no matter how his business judgment may rebel against it, the weak manufacturer is forced into making stock goods as his only chance of avoiding disaster. The same cause, acting in many quar- ters at once, burdens the market with such an excessive stock of mer- chandise, and at a time when fewer goods are needed, that the effect upon prices is most disastrous and the whole trade suffers. So long as the system continues which creates those conditions, there is but little use in quarreling with the effect. Just so long as manufacturers are forced by imperious financial necessity into adopt- ing this course, just so long will it be done. Stock Goods Mean Commissions for Factors. While commission houses seldom encourage their mills, at such times, to make unsold goods, it may fairly be pointed out that the prac- tice is of distinct advantage to them so long as they can keep their ad- vances properly protected. It is evident that if rnills produce no goods there will be no sales, and consequently no commissions, and a full pro- duction of goods, no matter at what price finally sold, is very much to the interest of the selling agent. Stoppage of Production Is Disastrous. The heavy general expense attendant upon the operation of a mill makes a full production obligatory, if the costs are to be kept at a properly low figure, and competition with other concerns thus made possible. When order business is unobtainable, most manufacturers prefer to make more or less stock, rather than stop their looms, so long as they do not bank up goods to an excessive extent. If a mill lets a lot of machinery run out, it takes a long time to get it all going again after the orders come. Meantime, the valuable skilled help gets scattered; the organization becomes badly disinte- grated; and raw materials provided for the mill remain unused, with loss of interest, a locking up of capital, and probably, also, with rapidly M :< 1 312 MAKING GOODS FOR STOCK declining values. The mill expense is not much diminished, and the cost per unit on the output that is left is greatly increased. To avoid these evils, it may often be better to risk the stocking of such goods as would fairly seem to be soon marketable, and, even if they had to be sold at a low price, it might be better for the mill than if the looms had been idle, in which event neither the mill expense or the sell- ing expense on the goods so produced would have been earned. Piece-dye and Yarn-dye Costs. In such cases it is generally safer to bank up piece-dye goods than yam dyes, as on the latter the difficulty of knowing what colors tb make is obvious, and wrong colors are fatal. Most piece-dye goods are made of material that does not have to be thrown, and of course they are kept undyed till wanted, so these charges are not then incurred. On the other hand, schappe and cotton yarns are sold almost on a cash basis, and silk for single-weaving on a relatively short time, so that there may not be such a great diflFerence in the financing of a piece-dyed product as compared with a yam-dyed one. Importance of Preventing Stock Accumulations. With all of these factors operating to cause the accumulation of stock, it is evident that the problem that faces every mill as to how to deal with the matter is one of first-class importance. Generally speaking, all goods should be forced to a sale during the season they have been made for, as they will rarely bring a better price than what can then be obtained. The thing is — and too often it is neg- lected — ^to force the sale while buyers are still to be had. If goods that have recently come in are not moving, it is hard for the one who ordered them made to admit his error even to himself, and, instead of facing the mistake and taking the medicine, he maintains the price in the hope of still placing them, and so lets the season go past, entailing a locking up of money, a loss of interest, and a worse price later on. Odd lots of stock goods, if in any quantity, bother the salesmen and paralyze their efforts, and take much of their attention off the getting of the order business that is so necessary. Enlisting the Auctioneer's Services. Some big houses used to have a cleaning-up sale in the auction room every year, into which sale went everything of a questionable or undesir- able character, with often enough new and desirable goods to help to attract a good company of buyers to the sale. This policy had much to commend it. In conclusion, it may be stated that nothing is of more importance than an aggressive, well considered, and closely followed up policy for the prompt marketing, at the best price obtainable, of each and every lot of these constantly accumulating odd lots of stock goods. XXVIII REGARDING AUCTION SALES It is a surprising thing that so few of the selling agents who repre- sent textile mills are in the habit of making sales at auction, and that often those who do so dislike to have their names known in connection therewith. In fact, this valuable means of marketing goods is seriously neglected, though most houses could regularly use the auction-room facilities to great advantage. Yet the reasons for making forced sales of this kind are recur- ring semi-annually, or annually, and are very potent. How Stock Will Accumulate. In spite of good management and good salesmanship stock will accumulate to a greater or less degree. There are goods cancelled, rejected, and returned; goods late for delivery; others made wrong in color, design, or weave, from mistakes at the store or mill ; lots made to work up parcels of raw material that otherwise would lie unused in stock; some goods made here and there to fill gaps between the running out of warps in the looms and the mounting of other warps for goods wanted for orders; and then, of course, there is the unsold portion of lines of goods, purposely made for stock, when it is the policy of the mill to put goods in work in advance of orders. Most selling agents consider it desirable, or necessary, to have a reasonable underlying stock of goods as a basis on which to trans- act business, and such a stock will seldom be less than an amount equal to one month's production of the mill, and may be much more. While some of this basic stock goes out all the time, much of it moves sluggishly, and much always remains unsold, and in the regular course, day by day, becomes more passe, while it is essential to have it fresh, new, and constantly changing. rf' ! 314 REGARDING AUCTION SALES REGARDING AUCTION SALES 315 I Perplexities of the Sales Manager. With these accumulations occurring, season after season, the sales manager has ever a difficult and perplexing problem. He does not wish to sacrifice values, to break the prices of regular goods, or to dis- credit himself, yet sell them in some way he must. To market these goods in the regular way and at fairly full prices is, in practice, impossible but that is what many houses fatuously try to do. The result is that the efforts and energies of managers and salesmen are paralyzed by the constant struggle to work down the stock, and the time and thought that should be given to the produc- tion and marketing of new fabrics cannot be sufficiently applied to that important work. The dead weight of the stock lies like an incubus upon the department. Losses Incurred by Carrying Stock. Then there is interest constantly piling up on the slow stock, as well as the large insurance that must be carried, and, as many goods will lie unsold year after year, the accumulated interest and expenses eaten up by these old lots is appalling. Much money and time is lost in the constant sampling of stock lots, and when taking stock, and at other times the recording and checking off of them is no incon- siderable task. Then styles and colors become obsolete and many weighted fabrics become tender or rotten. To avoid such a condition of affairs it would be necessary to force the sale of them in some way, either by private sale at a known, but very low, figure, or at public sale, taking all the chances that attend such a manner of selling. Low Prices Made at Private Sale. Of late years, clearance by private sale has been the fashion, but I believe that it is rare that goods, so sold, will yield as much as they would under the hammer. They have to be sold in large lots either to jobbers or big retailers, and these distributers will not touch them ex- cept at prices so extremely low that, when they resell them, they can offer them at bargain prices to their customers. Such sales entail absurdly heavy losses. The general method is to attempt to peddle them out as occasion offers, but the expense and time that this involves, the interest, and interest on interest — ever accumulating, and the constantly diminish- ing value of the merchandise, makes the aggregate loss entailed by this policy generally much greater than that entailed by the quick clean-up of the auction room. What is it, then, that makes men with heavy stocks that are worry- ing them afraid to auction them, for unquestionably most sellers are afraid of the auction room? Even when an auctioneer suggests to some loaded-up manufacturer that he try a sale, the answer will prob- ably be that he has no unsold stock on hand worth talking about, athough the next week he may let out some thousands of pieces through a jobber at about 60% of their cost. Why Sales Agents Are Against Auctioning. There are a number of causes that may affect the seller's feelings in this matter. Prominent among them is his amour propre. It seems to him a confession of weak management if he has to ask the public to name the prices on his product, and he fears the criticism of his manufacturer and the remarks of his competitors. By selling the goods even cheaper at private sale he may incur a bigger loss, but he "saves his face" before the trade. This is a false sensitiveness. Then, if goods have only recently been made, he finds it hard to admit, even to himself, that he has committed an error of judgment in making them, and so holds on to them too long in an attempt to realize the regular price. They are thus carried past the time when they can be sold and lie over till the next season, locking up capital, eating up interest and expenses, and bringing an even lower price in the end. Goods will rarely bring more than they will during the season for which they have been made. If t^e manufacturer's financial standing is not of the best, he may fear that it might have an adverse effect upon his credit, and certainly it would be apt to cause inquiry. He may be afraid that customers who had bought lines of goods at regular prices, and which lines would be represented in the sale, might be provoked, and would be disinclined to trade with him in the future unless he guaranteed his prices. By carrying the stock, and peddling the goods out, the financial statement of the firm might show up better than if the inevitable loss were faced at once and a sale made, with the consequent shrinkage of assets that the books would then show. Again, if the merchandise had been advanced on to the limit, and most concerns taking advances generally call for all they can get, the commission merchant might not sanction selling the goods at auction, fearing that the sale might go badly and that the equity of the manufacturer in the stock might not only be wiped out, but that there might be a substantial deficit for which he would be unprotected. A broader point of view on the part of the commission merchant might save heavy losses to the manufacturer, and perhaps to himself, later on. If the dead or inactive goods will not net the amount of the ad- vances on them under the hammer they are hardly likely to do at private sale, and keeping them in stock to look at will not make them any better. It il 316 REGARDING AUCTION SALES REGARDING AUCTION SALES 317 |U [! They should be auctioned, but if there is a shortage it should not be charged to the goods then coming in from the mill — ^the advances on which may be imperatively needed for current requirements — ^but should be carried along, and substantial time given to the manufac- turer to make it up. If this was the custom, manufacturers would be less inclined to try and bolster up the value of a stock that was rapidly declining in value, fearing that if a sale was forced on it their money supplies from their factors would be cut off until the deficit was made up. Some sellers, too, may be afraid that, after having made one or two large sales, customers would not place advance orders with them but would say that they preferred to wait for the auction. While all these objections must be well considered, yet a careful analysis of them will show that they are largely unsound, and they should not be allowed to stand in the way of a rational policy. Limitations of the Use of the Auction Room. In the employment of the auction room, as an agency for keeping the decks clear of accumulated stock, it must be clearly understood that this does not imply the regular manufacturing of goods to be sold in this manner. Under some circumstances such a policy might possibly prove profitable, but with the conditions that usually prevail in the silk trade it would probably be a losing business. The auction- ing should be distinctly regarded as merely a cleaning-up process, which would take place as regularly as the seasons came around. Conditions Incident to a Successful Sale. To have a sale successful, that is, to have it yield the maximum that the trade can be made to give for the goods at the time, certain conditions are essential. The quantity of goods offered must be large enough to attract the buyers from every house, and the merchandise must be sold without reserve ; the date of the sale must be at a time when buyers are in the market for goods; the manner of putting up the pieces into lots and assortments must be such as to facilitate buy- ing; the sale must be well advertised and well catalogued; and, finally, the auctioning of the goods must be entrusted to some first-class house which can sell them in the best manner. Under these conditions it may fairly be said that, taking the sale as a whole and with all collateral circumstances considered, in nine cases out of ten the prices got will be better than could be obtained in any other way, and often very much better. Even in the occasional instances where the returns from sales have been a bitter disappointment, one rarely or never finds a seller who, two or three months later, would wish his goods back on his shelves again at the price for which he parted with them. Quantity of Goods to he Marketed. The quantity of goods that one would have to prepare to auction annually should be somewhat proportionate to the output of the mill. Five per cent, of the output might frequently cover it, fifteen per cent, certainly should. The number of pieces that might have to be brought mto a sale to insure the presence of a good company would be pretty large. Probably from seven thousand pieces upwards would give the best results. It would be well, therefore, for those mills whose accumulations would not be so great, to make an arrangement with one or more friendly competitors to combine in a joint sale, so that it would then be of large proportions, the names of the sellers being made public also. Advance Preparation to be Made. These sales should be prepared for long in advance, so that, by a date previously determined upon, all will be ready. Such preparation will be the working up into finished merchandise of odd lots of dyed or other silks, at the mills, which have been side- tracked for one reason or another, or not in the way of any immediate use. Then there will be a few goods made to piece out the assortment of important lines which may have been broken. Lastly there is the deliberate making of some new and desirable goods to ^'sweeten" the sale These goods should be of some popular market fabric, made in the most desirable width, of a quality low in cost but not trashy, and should be divided among as few colors as possible, but all of them good. It would probably be judicious to make them to the extent of perhaps 10 or 15% of the quantity of the goods to be sold. It is true that they may not bring cost, though any loss will likely be small, but they will help the sale very much. It is evident that preparations such as are here referred to must be begun months in advance. When to Sell, and What to Sell. Suppose, now, that such dates as February first in the Spring, and September first in the Autumn, are recognized as times when the buyers for the distributing houses are open for spot goods, then sales to take place on or about such dates should be determined upon and prepared for. . . , In these clean-ups it is not intended to sell everythmg m sight. Active lines of seasonable goods would not go in, nor would advertised fabrics with protected prices. Fancy goods, also, must be carefully judged, as, for the sake of moving perhaps only a few pieces of some '= ■r.l] . > 'I IP. If 1 L I > l\ 318 REGARDING AUCTION SALES REGARDING AUCTION SALES 319 novelty that are left over, it would be injudicious to invite the breaking of the prices in the sale while customers had many of the goods still unsold on their shelves, and which, in fact, might have just been delivered to them. It is very necessary that the lots be judiciously made up, both as to assortments of colors and as to the number of pieces in the lots. The sequence in which the different lines of goods in the sale are to be catalogued requires careful consideration. All Buyers on the Same Footing. When a large company is gathered at an important sale the indi- vidual buyers find themselves at an unaccustomed disadvantage. Here they cannot play one house or one lot of goods against another. Any kind of finesse is out of the question. They must make up their minds in advance as to what they want, what they would like to get them for, and what is the most they will give, and when the goods are cried they must act in a hurry and either pass them or buy them. Relation of Prices to Values, The excitement of the sale will also frequently cause buyers to pay distinctly more than they would have done at private sale and in their cooler moments. The prices realized at a well conducted and well ar- ranged for sale are a fair measure of the real value of the goods at the time. Here and there a line will sell much too low, or perhaps too high, owing to some whim of the moment, but it is the average figure obtained that must be considered. If prices are very bad, it will generally foreshadow a heavy fall in market values, so that the bad price of to-day may be a good price six weeks later. Sometimes very handsome figures are realized, and comparisons of sales, averaged over a period, will usually leave little to complain of. Terms of Sale. The cost of selling must not be overlooked. The regular auction rate for silks sold on a credit of four months, the auctioneer carrying the credit risks, is 8%, and the customer gets the full amount of the sum realized by the sale, less this 8%, in ten days or sooner. For large sales, special selling rates may be arranged with the auctioneers, and these rates will depend on the size of the sale, the character and condition of the goods, the condition of business, the state of the money market, and other considerations. When goods are sold at private sale the customer gets 7% off, or more, and then there is the entire sales expense to come off. Auction figures are therefore much better than the corresponding prices for regular sales, a fact which is very often overlooked. Clean Stocks and Profit Making. Apart from any question of profit or loss on the goods disposed of under the hammer as here described, it is obvious that the concerns adopting this policy will always have clean stocks at mills and at sales offices ; that what goods they have will be fresh, new, and attractive, and that the efforts of the entire staff can always be concentrated on the live present and not be tied to the dead past. Any profits that are to be had must be got from new goods and not from old, and a policy which automatically eliminates old goods from the stock, with a minimum of loss, is a sound one. FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS 321 1^' 1^ XXIX FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS FOR SILKS. In view of the fact that it seems to be absolutely necessary to have a very considerable tariff protection, to enable us to meet the compe- tition of foreign silks in our home markets, it may sound chimerical to suggest the possibility of working up an export trade in such goods, and competing on even terms with European made fabrics. Neverthe- less, this matter is one that has been engaging the serious thought of many far seeing men, and when we see what has been done in the cotton cloth trade it does not seem to be quite such an impossible matter. Exports of Cotton to Asia. The export of plain cotton fabrics to China, and elsewhere, has reached really large proportions, not a few mills running exclusively for this trade, and the business has been secured in spite of the compe- tition of goods made in England, Germany and elsewhere, where wages are much lower. Necessity of Wide and Accurate Information. It is much to be desired that a large body of accurate information and statistics should be secured, which would throw light on the ques- tion of the possibilities of an export trade in silks. The really important questions, of course, are whether there is a market of reasonable size in this or that country, what kinds of goods are required, and whether we can make any or all of such goods in an open competition with other countries. The information to be gathered should be of the fullest and most accurate character, and it should be got by persons thoroughly famil- iar with both the producing and distributing ends of the silk business, if it is to be of real service. Its value would be as great, or greater. if the conclusions to be drawn would show that certain lines of mer- chandise could not be exported profitably, as when it would point out paths of prospective profit. Markets With Which Business Might he Done. Among the countries with which the working up of an export trade might be considered, would be Canada, Mexico, most of the South American states, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, India, China, etc. Possibly, also, some of the European countries might be reached, and the great English market, where goods enter duty free, should be especially considered. China, though a silk pro- ducing country, imports more or less silk merchandise from Europe. No two of these countries will be found to do their business just alike, and the conditions to be met with in each one will require a special study. Conditions Which Must he Inquired Into. How many yards of different kinds of silk, per annum, and of what value, does each country import, and what is the extent of its home manufacture, if any? How are the goods bought and sold? Do commercial travelers have to visit each town to get the orders, and at what times of the year is the buying done ? Do jobbing houses distribute the goods or do manufacturers' agents, or importers, sell direct to the retailers? Are firm orders taken from samples, or is it necessary to send out, on consignment, stocks of merchandise, and sell goods from stock? Then there are the questions regarding the fiscal aspects of the business. Is it necessary to do business on time credits, and for how long? How is the credit of the merchants to be ascertained? Are time accounts left open, or are they closed by note payments? What facilities will the bankers on the ground afford for financing the busi- ness ? How are collections made, and what percentage of loss by bad debts may reasonably be looked for? The political and financial stability of the country must be reck- oned with in considering the risks of the business. Then, it is of interest to know just about what is the lowest per- centage of profit that the European shipper is willing to do the busi- ness on, and to consider how that will affect prices, and if we would be satisfied with the same profit or not. We should also know what margins of profit the importers, job- bers, and retailers customarily expect, and what are the ordinary retail prices that the consumers look for on the different goods that they buy. Full information should be had regarding the custom-house duties in each place, and as to the nature and amounts of any other imposts or taxes that would fall upon the goods, as well as the amount of ordinary costs and charges that would have to be met when import- It I: fcv: i I n il 1 ! f 1^ i: 11 1 ■ ■ i VM I 322 FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS ing merchandise. Data regarding preferential tariffs should also be The question of transportation facilities is not a light one. It is of material importance that freight should be transported cheaply, regularly, safely, and quickly. Deficiencies in this regard constitute a considerable handicap. Special Requirements of Trade. Again, the manner in which goods should be put up and shipped is of vital interest. Every locality has its own requirements, its own customs, and its own prejudices. None of them must be disreg;arded, for often the merest apparent trifle, left unconsidered, may entail fail- ure. As an example, it may be stated that in some of the mountainous states of South America, Peru for instance, much of the merchandise for villages and towns in the interior has to be transported on pack mules. These mules will carry panniers of a standard size, and which, when filled, constitute an average load. r a For such transportation it is obligatory that pieces of goods should be, say, double- folded, and of a length, width, and weight that will not exceed certain limitations, or otherwise they could not be conveniently packed. If, therefore, the maximum length of the wrapped up pieces should not be in excess of, say, 20 inches, and that goods of 38, and 40 inches, double folded, were being used by this trade, it would follow that a manufacturer sending out goods 42 or 44 inches wide, even when double folded, would find himself en- tirely out of the game. American Manufacturers Neglect Important Details. American manufacturers are notorious as paying scant heed to these local conditions, and for sending goods abroad for sale of a width weight and character that may be quite unsuitable, simply be- cause they do not go to the pains and expense necessary to properly inform themselves, and thus, with really better values, they find them- selves often quite out of the market. The widths of goods, the thicknesses, weights, and weaves that are suitable for the climate and conditions, the colorings, the lengths of the pieces, and the manner in which they are put up, are matters of prime moment, as are also the brands and the tickets. Precautions to be Observed in the Packing of Goods. Goods must arrive at their ultimate destination in good condition and with unblemished appearance. In the ship there is the chance of damage from sea water, and when goods have been discharged at their port of debarkation the cases may, perhaps, be left lying ex- posed to the tropical sun and rains, and they may also be handled in the roughest and most careless way. 323 It is therefore necessary that individual pieces of goods be ex- tremely well wrapped; that cases be thoroughly well lined with wa- terproof material; that the cases be made of a size and weight not too large for convenient handling; and that they be stout and well made, and well hooped or strapped. The lids of cases should be, preferably, screwed on, so that, when opened for inspection in the foreign custom house, they will not be wrecked or damaged by careless workmen. The names and addresses, or other markings, on the cases should be stenciled on in the lan- guage of the country to which they are going, and the side that is to be opened — that is, the top — should be so marked. Collection of Full Information a Formidable Task. When it is considered that all such information as has been out- lined should be collected for each of the regions that we might wish to trade with, it will be seen that it is a formidable task, and the question will naturally be raised as to whether the game is worth the candle. Overproduction and the Home Market. We, practically, have our home market to ourselves at present, but we have only it. If manufacturers install productive machiner>' at a greater pace than our normal increase of consumption will take care of— and they generally do— this surplus production, or potential production, hangs like a weight over the market, and at the best of times compels the manufacturer to accept business on the most meagre basis of profit, while, at other times, the slaughtering of goods de- moralizes prices everywhere, and, perhaps for seasons together, com- pels the whole trade to run at a loss or without profit. A reasonable foreign outlet would do much to mitigate this state of affairs, and it is greatly to be desired that some initial movement in this direction should be made. Going After Business in a Businesslike Way. Foreigners, when going after trade abroad, usually send out a responsible and able man to take charge of the business, and who takes up his residence in the place. Living there, he is, of course, in the best possible position to give proper advice to his home con- cern, and a business, so undertaken, is patiently and intelligently nursed till it begins to pay. When it is not possible to have one's own man continuouslv on the ground, good introductions should be got to the best houses doing an import trade in the locality, and suitable arrangements made with one of them. In such cases, the standing and reputation of the local house means everything. 324 FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS FINDING FOREIGN MARKETS 325 If'! > III) I n : i i ! l! U y I'M I 1 ; ' ' 1 Einls of Intermittent Efforts. American manufacturers are much criticized by foreign agents for the intermittent way in which they do things. Trade here will be bad, and a manufacturer will look for trade abroad, get a good agent, make the necessary samples and send out some goods. After a year or two of effort, a nice trade is being established, and the agent looks forward to doing a really large business in the near future. Then comes a very active demand for goods here, the mill can sell more than it can make, and at a better profit here than abroad, and, the first thing that the foreign agent knows, he can get no goods for his trade. That trade, being unsupplied with goods from here, buys elsewhere, and the foreign made goods again hold the field. Then, when more export business is wanted by the mill, the whole work has to be done over again. Manufacturers, therefore, who wish to exploit the foreign markets, must be prepared to furnish their agents there with such reasonable quantities of goods as they can sell, even if a temporarily larger profit might be made by selling them at home. Conditions Which Affect Our Ability to Compete, What position, now, are we in to compete with other nations in exporting silks? Of course, the cost of labor varies everywhere, and in America just as it does in Europe. Some silk producing centres pay higher wages than do others, but still there may be compensations in other directions. We need not therefore necessarily assume that it is the cheapest labor centre that would do the exporting, either here or abroad. Raw-silk costs practically the same everywhere. Europe has lower cost mill labor, lower salaries, lower interest, less depreciation (as ma- chinery costs less), and lower cost of throwing. Skein dyeing is dearer there, piece dyeing in many cases is cheaper, while printing will vary. Coal is cheaper here, and, as to supplies, some cost more — others less. In those articles into which labor enters most largely we are visibly outclassed, and particularly so in those directions where the business is made up of small quantities of each of a large number of different fancy patterns. Plain Goods the Most Promising, With plain goods, made on a very large scale, the unit of labor cost is much decreased. Where a mill is running many hundreds of looms on the same fabric— three or four looms to the weaver, and at high speeds— both the weaving cost and the general expense item fall to a really low figure, and it is in these directions that we must look. There are many fabrics such as liberty satins, cotton-back satins, crepes de chine, taffetas, etc., etc., that have been so specialized on here as to encourage the belief that their cost is so low that an export busi- ness might be done on them, but, first of all, exact information about the foreigpn conditions must be had. The First Steps to Take. If the Silk Association of America, or some other representative body, should draw the attention of the Government to the importance of this matter, no doubt steps would be taken to secure, through the medium of the Consular Service, much preliminary data along the lines required. . . This would indicate what fields seemed the most promismg, and then arrangements might be made to send a specially qualified repre- sentative to such places to procure the fullest information possible. With this to work on, manufacturers here would be able to direct their efforts intelligently when seeking to find an outlet abroad for their goods. COTTON MILL COMPETITION 327 1 » lllh li !' i XXX COTTON MILL COMPETITION. For several years past, silk manufacturers have been aware of an adverse undercurrent due to the invasion of their field by cotton mills which had ventured out into the realms of silk. Occasionally, some special circumstance has brought the serious nature of this competition sharply to their notice, but many manufacturers do not realize its ex- tent or importance. It is, however, one of the great causes that underlie the chronic state of insufficient business that many mills have had cause to com- plain of during recent years. Immense Scope of the Competition. To show the importance of this conflicting element, it may be stated that at this writing, (February, 1913), some eighteen mills, nearly all of them in the New England States, are recorded as operating on cot- ton and silk fabrics, and that these mills represent a total of 42,000 looms. It is true that many of the looms in certain of these mills run regu- larly on all-cotton fabrics, and that others are at times employed on all-cotton goods, and at other times on silk-mixed goods, according to the state of the trade. A careful consideration of the status of the different mills in this respect would lead one to believe that, as constant or as potential pro- ducers of silk goods, one-half of these looms are constantly in the field competing for business in silk-mixed fabrics. These figures, more- over, do not include those mills specializing on grege warp, cotton- back satins, as these goods are more nearly a silk-mill product than that of a cotton mill. These cotton mills run their looms far faster than do the silk mills, the average speed being probably between 152 picks and 172 picks a minute. Let us assume an average of 160 picks. What the Annual Production May Amount to. From the fact that the cotton-mill organization, owing to the staple nature of the goods produced and the continuity of operation, has achieved a much higher actual production, compared with the theoreti- cal than what the usual silk-mill organization has been able to effect, it has followed that a similar large production has been found pos- sible in silk-filled goods also, particularly as they are nearly always woven in the grey. . , , r ^ ^ a A conservative estimate of the production might therefore be stated as being about 80% of the theoretical. If the running hours averaged 58 per week, there would be pro- duced on this basis, with 100 picks to the inch, a weekly output of about 124 yards, or about 6,300 yards for a year of 51 weeks, an out- turn probably 20% or more in excess of what a silk mill, making the same goods, could accomplish, per loom. This would give the 21,000 competing looms an effectiveness, meas- ured by silk standards, of 25,200 looms, and would give a potential out- put of about 159,000,000 yards a year, or nearly 2,650,000 pieces of 60 yards each. As the regular broad silk looms in the country are at present figured at about 75,000, the effect of this outside competition is to throw on the market, if all these cotton-mill looms were running full, a volume of part-silk merchandise which, if made in the silk mills, would employ about one-third of the entire silk loomage of the country. Some of the cotton mills have run looms, on some of these fabrics, night and day, with double shifts, thus further cheapening their cost, and increasing the yardage produced. How the Low-grade Silks Have Been Displaced. The cheap end of the silk trade has been hit the hardest. What de- mand is there to-day, compared with a few years past, for narrow width, heavily-weighted silks, either plain or fancy, fast-edge or split- edge^ Low-grade crepes, cheap foulards, cheap Shantungs and a number of other lines have equally suffered. The business has largely gone, and much of what remains is going fast. It must be observed, however, that all of these cotton-mill goods do not necessarily displace silks. Some of them displace cottons, and others probably create a market of their own, but all of them have a profound effect on the prices of low quality silks, on account of the immensely greater values given. What chance has a silk mill to compete with 24-inch, light- weight, cotton-warp, silk-filled, reed ombre stripes, sold in the grey at 9 cents a yard, terms, 10 days net, or with 26-inch cotton-warp, tus- 1; i ii UM &^' n 328 COTTON MILL COMPETITION COTTON MILL COMPETITION 3^9 sah-mied Shantungs, of good heavy quality, and delivered, boiled-off and finished, at 21 cents regular. Wide Variety of Attractive Goods Made. The variety of goods naw made by these cotton mills is surprising. Marquisettes, aeoliennes, foulards, Shantungs, surahs, stripes, bro- cades crepes and a host of others. These are dyed in solid colors, cross-dyed for glaces, printed and treated in a variety of ways. i^ast blacks or fast colors, of cotton, may be used for stripings in warps so that they will stand dyeing in the piece, and very attractive striped fancies can thus be made. How the Production is Marketed, Some houses in this trade prepare and market their entire product themselves, or through their regular selling agents. Others sell only m the grey, and to all comers, doing much business through brokers, and dealing principally with those houses that make a specialty of con- verting. This trade is done on a basis of cash, ten days, and for that reason appeals strongly to the manufacturer. These converters, however, are keen traders and generally hammer the manufacturer's prices down to a point where his profit is merely a brokerage, and then, by clever dyeing, printing and finishing of the goods they are able to sell them at what appear to be very low prices, but which include an exceedingly handsome profit for themselves. borne of the houses dealing in these mixed fabrics prepare their lines of goods in a manner deserving of the highest admiration— beau- tiful, novel and tasteful prints, superb dyeing— plain or cross-dyes— and with a finish on all that leaves nothing to be desired. The goods so treated, are soft, brilliant and silky in apearance, and, in weave, de- sign and color, they measure up to the most exacting standards. True, they are part cotton ; but they neither look cottony, nor ex- cept in a quite minor degree, do they feel cottony. Average Range of Prices. The average range of prices for such fabrics, dyed and finished, will probably run from about 14 cents to 25 cents, regular, with some special goods perhaps as high as 375^ cents. They will mostly retail at prices ranging from 25 to 50 cents a yard. Usual Materials Employed in Construction. The makers of these fabrics use principally single cottons for warps, while, for fillings, raw, spun, or thrown silks are employed, the goods being dyed, or printed in the piece. Canton is a favorite silk on account of its lustre, and is used in doubled singles or in two-thread tram of 14/16 denier size, or in 20/22 deniers—or coarser— used in the single. Tsatlees have been largely used also, on account of whiteness, nerve and brilliancy, but they are somewhat neglected now because of their extreme irregularity. The cheaper grades of yellow Europeans find some sale for filling purposes, while tussah silks — raw or in tram, tussah spun-silks, and the lower grades of Japans are freely used as occasion requires. Conditions Attaching to Sales of Silk and Cotton Mixtures. The following details of how this business is done may be of interest. Contracts are largely placed for these goods in the grey through the medium of brokers, who get their commissions from the mills for whom they effect sales. The general conditions of such contracts are that the customer must deliver his silk, properly wound on suitable shuttle bobbins or quills, f . o. b. at the railway station of the town where the mill is. When woven, the weaver makes delivery to the railroad, and after that his responsibility ceases. Both the freight on the filling and the freight on the goods is paid by the buyer. If any delay occurs in the delivery of the filling, and looms are stopped in consequence, a charge is made to cover the expense of the standing looms, a common figure being 50 cents a day per loom. A percentage of "tailings" is provided for, say 10% in excess of the order, if made, so as to allow for a clean-up of the material. For seconds a limit is also set, and a customary amount to allow is 5%. The reduction in price for these defective goods is, however, very slight, often not more than 5% being allowed from the price charged for the regular goods. Remnants are sent in, too, but on them the allowance, of course, is larger and 33 J^ % may be deducted for them. Times of delivery are carefully arranged for, and terms are usually net 10 days, and options for additional quantities are often given. It is considered desirable to have the goods woven in double cuts — no to 120 yards — as it enables the purchasers to cut them into either 40- or 60-yard lengths as may be needed. Yams Used and Usual Widths of Goods. The yams used for warps are generally 1/40 or 1/60 combed peeler cotton, and may run from, say, 72 to 100 ends per inch. The filling, be it Canton, tsatlee, tussah, or what not, may run from, say, 68 to 100 picks per inch. Customary widths are 23 to 24 inch, 26 to 27 inch, and wider widths also, as 36, 42, or even 46 inch. What the Cotton Mill Provides. The weaving concern provides the warp yam and the entire mill labor, with all of the attendant expenses. . '•«, 330 COTTON MILL COMPETITION COTTON MILL COMPETITION 331 Prices at Which the Mills Make Sales. The prices charged by these cotton mills for their fabrics look startlingly low to silk weavers. With the price of "middling" cotton ruling at about 1 1 cents a pound, such figures as the following might be expected. Plain goods of fine construction, in widths of 23 to 24 inches, about 4>^ cents. Dobby figured goods, of coarser construction, about 5 cents, and Jacquards about 5>^ cents. Dobbv figured goods, of fine construction, about 6 cents, and Jacquards about 6^^ cents. Small diflferences are allowed for variation in picks, ends, and widths, and fancy stripings in the warp can be had at a most trifling additional charge. Thus, instead of a coarser 23- to 24-inch Jacquard cloth at 5J4 cents, one in 26 inches might be had, made from i/60's cotton, and with 96 ends per inch, and 96 picks per inch, at 6j4 cents, while the same cloth in 28 inch would be furnished at 7 cents. Competition Among the Weavers. These low prices are doubtless accentuated bv stress of competition among the cotton mills bidding for this business, and must leave little enough of profit for them, but the ^lightest consideration of them will serve to show the impossibility of silk manufacturers attempting to compete in this line of work. Prices Charged to Distributers. Such fabrics, with fillings of unthrown Cantons or tussahs, after bemg dyed and finished, or printed, will sell to the distributers at prices averaging between 15 and 25 cents a yard, regular. Silk Filling Provided by the Converters. The actual weight, and cost, of the silk used per yard in mawy of these fabrics is, and must be, very trifling, yet it shows up wonder- fully in the goods when finished. A large amount of the business done by the cotton mills is based upon the requirement that the buyers provide the silk filling on suit- able quills or bobbins for their shuttles, so that they have nothing to do with it but to weave it in as they would cotton. Troubles Entailed by the Procedure. This method of having the silk for filling supplied by the buyers leads at times to friction between them and the mills on the question of whether the right quantity of goods has been produced from it or not. The weavers may make undue waste, or silk may be stolen or lost while in their possession, or they may put more picks in the goods than what were ordered, by mistake. On the other hand, the silk may be coarser than the buyers thought it was, or excessive waste (covered up by the free use of soap and oil) may have been made by the concerns which wound and quilled it, or some of it may have been lost or stolen while in their possession, or, in some rare instances, perhaps stolen by themselves. If these differences run into large figures, very serious trouble between the parties may arise. Another Way of Handling the Matter. Some of the mills, therefore, insist on handling the silk part of it themselves. They will furnish any kind of silk for filling that their clients desire, and as they can buy it as cheaply, or cheaper, and are in a much better position to get it manipulated with a minimum of wast- age and expense, they find it more profitable and less troublesome to avoid the complication of a divided interest in the ownership of the raw material entering into the goods. Silk-warp Goods Made in Cotton Mills. Some silk-warp goods, with cotton fillings, are occasionally made by these cotton mills. For instance, four looms will be run by one weaver on a 24-inch Jacquard foulard, the ground being a well-covered eight-shaft satin, and the filling a fine mercerized cotton. These goods, beautifully printed, and having a splendid appearance and touch, may sell for 371^ cents, regular, and one house handling them distributed over 100,000 pieces in one season. All-silk goods of similar character, made in a silk mill, would hardly find the retail counter at less than $1.00 a yard, while these could retail at 50 cents. No wonder that it is found hard to move foulards, when a slump comes, except at prices that would enable them to be sold in competition with these. Mill Conditions. In cotton mills there will be usually run eight looms to the weaver on cotton warps, and they will be run at high speeds. Their winding and warping arrangements are such that very low unit costs are obtain- able. Owing to their large and steady output the general expenses are also low. The dyeing and printing are done by the silk dyers usually, and must be paid for at silk rates, but the immense lots of each fabric processed enables substantial concessions in prices to be often obtained. Wages in the Cotton Mills. Cotton weavers, on the other hand, demand higher weekly wages than silk workers do. A minimum of $12.00 a week, and from that up to $16.00 is largely expected. Some other branches of labor are also more highly paid in cotton mills than in silk mills. '|: 332 COTTON MILL COMPETITION i if It '1 Where the Silk Mill Has the Advantage. It is this higher weekly wage that makes cotton mills unable to compete with silk mills in making skein-dyed goods. On such cloths the cotton weavers cannot, or will not, operate more than two looms each. They do not understand well how to make silk knots and pro- duction suffers, and methods of warping are materially different. The fineness of the silk thread is also a serious trouble to the cotton operative. In the skein-dyed field of silk, the cotton mill is not a competitor except as it displaces trashy, over-weighted goods, by cotton-mixed stuffs. Merit of the Cotton-warp Fabrics, This competition from the cotton mills, distressing as it is, must be fairly faced and properly judged. In its last analysis it is right, logical and beneficial for the public. The goods so produced are sound, honest merchandise, with excellent appearance, and relatively very low in price, and so far as durability and wearing qualities are concerned they are infinitely superior to the over-weighted trash that they have displaced. As one of the most prominent market handlers of these cotton mill products stated, in substance, to the writer, "The low end of the silk manufacturing business is gone from the regular silk mills forever, and the sooner they awaken up to the fact the better for them." Cotton Mills Also Have Their Troubles. The cotton-and-silk goods producers have troubles of their own. So long as they were taking business away from silk mills, and there was plenty of it to go round, it was profitable and the sailing was smooth. When, however, the amount of the trade that could be got away from the silk manufacturers was getting near to its limit, and when, at the same time, there was a great increase in the cotton-and-silk loom- age, trouble began to appear. Goods would no longer sell themselves and the buyers — principally converters — play the producers of gray goods against each other till they can hardly find any profit in their transactions. The Clever Man Can Always Find a Pro/it. Here, as ever, those handlers or converters who have taste, ex- perience and commercial courage, by means of cleverly got up patterns, colors and styles, and suitable perparation of goods for the trade, will continue to do a good business at a handsome profit, while others will not know which way to turn. Lost Business that can Never be Regained. What, now, can the silk manufacturers do to regain this lost trade? Practically nothing. To try to place cotton looms and cotton weavers COTTON MILL COMPETITION 333 in their silk mills would disorganize both branches. They might start mills of their own, in the East, but these would be new mills, requiring their own organizations and capital, and would have strong competi- tion to meet, and, as newcomers in the trade, much expensive experi- ence would have to be gone through with, and, anyway, it would not help, but would only make harder the running of the standing silk mill looms. There is nothing to do but to say good-by to the lost trade and face about in the direction of better goods, goods that are really silks and not shams, and to try not to copy the ideas of one's neighbors but to build up business on original lines. ^1 ^ ? i ■ li! !i* i 9tf I XXXI DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A TEXTILE MILL A heavy responsibility rests on the shoulders of the man who under- takes to determine what lines of goods a textile mill should make No branch of the work requires such knowledge, good judgment, up-to- date information, experience, caution, honesty of purpose, and business sanity as this. Knowledge and Intuition Both Needed. To have the gift of prophecy can hardly be expected of man, and yet this gift, or something akin to it, seems to be necessary if one is to be a successful sales agent. The knowledge, care, and keen observation that some agents bring- to the work enables them to guide their course so well that it seems almost as if they were endowed with a special intuition, but this insight into the market requirements is really the result of unremitting pa- tience, observation, inquiry and work. Very Few Who Measure Up to the Situation, Unfortunately, there are few, very few, who reach or ever could reach the standard demanded by such an exacting position whether the fault lies in their lack of proper training, their mental limitations or in an indolence of mind that leads them to guess at things and' generally, to allow their decisions to be largely governed by chance ' The result is that, as these properly-trained and highly-qualified nien are so scarce in number, it follows that but few mills enjoy the advan- tage of such direction, and the great majority of manufacturers are compelled to place their interests in the hands of representatives who are at the best but fairly good and are too often hopelessly incompetent. How to get the right man is the problem, and season after season DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL 335 a manufacturer will see his efforts thwarted, much of his machinery idle his goods butchered, and his assets diminishing. He may change representatives and may find that he has only gone from bad to worse, and his life becomes one of ever deferred hope. Requisites Which a Sales Manager should possess. To be properly equipped for such a task, a man should have a good working familiarity with the processes of a mill and its machin- fry This is necessary, so that in considering fabrics on which he might desire to sample he will be able to appreciate which ones it should be practicable for the mill to undertake, considering its ma- chinerv and conditions. , .. . He must also well understand to what extent the cost of manufac- ture or the difficulty of the work will be influenced by the different •^'"nrm^LtS J'^t in addition, guide him aright in keeping clear of fabrics of a kind that are difficult to produce so as to be mer- chantablv perfect. He must also thoroughly understand merchan- dise Save a sound idea both of costs of production and commerc.al values, and of the requirements that have to be met for each class of goods, for the different seasons, and for each branch of the trade. ^ Then, his practical experience as a salesman must have been con- siderable both on the road and at home, and he should possess a large acquaintance and a friendly standing among die buyers^ His knowledge about the conditions of wholesale and retail distri- bution must also be extensive and accurate. . AH of the foregoing accomplishments can be acquired m time by intelligent men who art willing to concentrate their whole mmds and '^°Then'°he*'Irfkelds in which relatively few are able to achieve success ' Good taste in style and design, a keen eye or color 1^^ monies, a power to accurately observe and note the rise o' decline of the demand for various fabrics, and the ability to size up the market situation are not always to be attained. . ^„^ .„ „f „. Added to all this, there must be an underiying honesty of pur- pose for, when an agent wants a quantity of goods made for stock Ft must not be forgotten that such an operation is in every sense a Sle and there are many agents who w 11 ightly run such risks whrthe chance of loss falls upon their principals, but who would never dream of taking the risk if the loss, or part of it, that might result, would have to be paid from their own pw:kets. L^tly the sales manager must have that firmness of character which will enable him to withstand both the unjust exactions of his customers, and the undue pressure of his salesmen on their behalf, and he must also have that quiet determination which will cause him to adhere patiently, steadily, and unfalteringly to the lines of a sane I I I M'l 33(^ DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL 337 4 ifc policy, carefully mapped out, and which, if followed up, must insure success. There are, doubtless, many men who, with proper opportunities would measure up to these standards, but, somehow or another, ex- tremely few of them seem to have found their vocation. The Usual Training of the Sales Manager, What, then, is the usual training of many of the sales managers whcwe misdirected activities spell loss or ruin to the manufacturer? A boy from school finds a place as office boy, or stock boy, in a wholesale silk department. He is bright, clean, and industrious, and IS well liked He keeps the stock in order, folds up pieces, cuts sam- ^ ^x^r5! "^^^^^ sample cards, and is generally useful. When salesmen are busy, or out, he sometimes gets a chance to wait on a customer and may do so acceptably. After a while he is allowed to go out and see what trade, not already covered by the other salesmen, he can drum up in the city, and in time he builds up a connection. ^ XT ^^^^' ^^^J^ ^^y. ^ ^ vacancy on the road over a good territory. Ne^v York State, the Middle West, or wherever it miy be, and he is given a chance and does well at it, and perhaps becomes a widely known, popular, and well-paid salesman with a good following A vacancy now occurs in the management of the department or some other mill needs a sales manager, and he is offered the position and accepts it without the slightest doubt as to his entire fitness for tne post. . Is he fit? Compare the knowledge and experience that his train- ing could have given him with the qualifications that he should brine to the task, and the question answers itself. Profit Making, and Volume of Sales. The function of a sales manager is to keep a mill sold up on profitable goods, and to do so he must select constructions, styles and ^IfiV^'^K wu ^^""i^^ marketed at good prices, and at satisfactory profits, but the making of profits is a matter entirely foreign to the ordinary salesman's experience. ^ Volume of sales is his aim, and he is prone to believe that there IS a profit, and a good one, on all the goods that he sells, and that every offer—so long as he can persuade his superiors to accent it- is a good offer. ^ Then when he takes charge of the production, he cannot under- stand why the mill costs appear so high, considers them ridiculous in fact, and. in private conversation, probably reflects severely on the ability of the manufacturer and the equipment of his plant He assumes that if a mill cannot find a satisfactory profit in its goods at a price as low as the lowest the fault lies with it, and tlwt to li expect him to get the price that the manufacturer insists is neces- sary to leave him any profit at all, if that price is higher than any one else's quotation, is to expect the impossible. A Common Type of Department Manager. The half-baked, cock-sure, untrained, sales department manager is the bane of the market and the ruin of many a manufacturer, and there are those who believe that a specially warm place is reserved for him in the next world. Organizing to Sell the Mill's Production. In mapping out a programme for the disposal of a mill's product many points must be well considered. The first thing to look into is the character of the mill machinery and equipment, the number of its looms, the character and supply of the labor in its vicinity, and the capital available for operation. The great bulk of the goods that annually go into consumption are plain fabrics, and these goods are made on a large scale by the big mills. Such must always be the case, for, while a small or moderate- sized mill may employ most, or all, of its looms on specialties, nov- elties, or goods away from the beaten track, yet no great production can be distributed along these lines. Costs Affected by the Size of the Output. In a large mill, operating, say, a thousand looms or upward, the general mill expense, and the selling expense, per yard, would be distinctly lower than would be the corresponding expenses of a mill of one-third of this size, and, therefore, on goods on which the com- petition was particularly fierce, and the prices cut in consequence to the lowest possible figure, there would be no use in the smaller mill attempting to compete with the larger. Of course, if business were active, and a fair profit obtainable all along the line, it might be possible for the sm^U mill to make the goods at a small profit while the larger one was selling its production at the same price, but with a better margin. What Competition Necessitates. To compete effectively on staple goods of a kind largely used, it is necessary to have employed on them a considerable amount of loomage ; to have these looms of such a type, and mounted with warps of such a good quality of silk, that they can be run at maximum speeds ; and to have the width of the cloth in each loom the greatest that is commercially possible. Added to this, the labor cost, if not low, must not be high, and the product will then probably be suffi- ciently low in cost that, at almost any reasonable price, there will be a profit in it. rl III ! i ' 'I, i , 111 ; I '( HI 338 DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL Should the mill that is to be directed possess such advantages as these, it can be safely employed in making plain goods of large gen- eral use. On the other hand, and as is usually the case, no such decisive ad- vantages are to be looked for, and some other course must be pursued. Determining Upon a Selling Policy. After weighing all the pros and cons, bearing in mind not only the character of the mill's equipment, but also its standing in the market as a maker of one or other classes of goods, as well as the acquaintance of the sales manager with the branches of the trade under consideration, a definite decision must be arrived at as to the direction in which the selling activities shall be pushed. In a small or modest-sized mill, it is rarely judicious to cater to more than one class of trade, and usually not to make more than one general class of goods. To do otherwise would mean a frittering away of effort, an extra heavy sampling expense, an accumulation of odd lots of goods, diffi- culty in making deliveries, and no chance of ever being regarded as headquarters on anything. The question of whether piece dyes or skein dyes shall be featured is of interest. With piece dyes, the preparatory expense for throw- ing and skein dyeing are largely diminished, and raw materials are turned into manufactured goods in very short time. On this account it simplifies matters somewhat for firms working on a limited capital, although the advantage is somewhat offset by the fact that the cotton and schappe, filling that is largely used is sold on very short time, and the terms on the high-class European silk used in the warps are by no means long. The character of the trade that it is desired to secure will have much to do with the methods that are employed to get it. Advance Orders and Stock Goods. It is, of course, very desirable to do business strictly on an order basis, but this can hardly ever be done in practice. Some underlying stock or assortment of goods seems to be a necessity as a basis for trading, but even if no such foundation be intentionally provided it has a wonderful way of accumulating of itself. Sample pieces, goods late for delivery, seconds, cancelled or returned goods, goods made for customers whose poor credit prevents their delivery, and what not, all help to make an accumulation of stock. In many branches of the trade, both in plain and in fancy goods, some advance preparation of stock is customary, and a manufacturer is often practically compelled to carry a jobber's stock, on which, in- ftiiiii DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL 339 stead of a jobber's profit, he only makes a brokerage, and if he has made any considerable mistake in his preparation he is certain to come out seriously to leeward. At the same time, undue accumulations of stock argue a distinct lack of capacity on the part of the sales man- agement. . r o L Dealing With Accumulations of Stock. All stock accumulations should be courageously dealt with each season, and merchandise should nearly always be forced to a sale in the season it was made for, as it will rarely bring more, and if car- ried over will nearly always bring less and will eat up interest m addition. , . ., i. This pushing of goods to a sale must be done early and while the trade is still active, but selling agents, in the hope of being able to do better than current offers, are apt to hold on to the goods too long and so overstay their market. When the accumulations are so large that it is clear that they cannot all be marketed at private sale, at any prices in reason, they should be sold in the auction-room and without reserve. Auction- room prices sometimes appear to be unpalatable, but it is rare to find any one who regrets having made such a sale. Sales Policy Must Conform to Equipment. The equipment of a mill with regard to Jacquards and other ap- pliances for producing fancy goods, box looms, doup or grenadine harnesses,' facilities for silk printing, high-speed looms, extra-wide looms, etc., etc., will have much weight in determining the selling policy to be pursued, but a settled policy there must be and it should be courageously lived up to. Should the mechanical equipment be far from what is desired for the needs of the day, and for the directions in which business appears to be shaping, it is well to arrange to change over or renew a fixed amount of it, say ten per cent., each year, so that in a measurable time the equipment will be raised to a state of productiveness second to none. Laying Out the Work. In the laying out of work, the sales manager will learn from his customers, salesmen and others what fabrics and colorings seem to be in active request. Through the medium of trade journals and fashion papers he will then try to inform himself as to the directions in which the fashions abroad are leaning. The next thing should be a careful consideration of the styles and shapes of garments that are likely to be wanted for women's wear, and a consideration of the suitability of various fabrics as applied to them. If skirts and sleeves are to flare out, a crepe de chine will 340 DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL 341 [tt > I 1 1 li'' \ % i. 1,1 certainly be unsuitable, while, if costumes are to be soft and clinging, taffetas will be at a discount. Careful consideration along these lines will lead to a district nar- rowing down of the number of fabrics to be reckoned with, and if certain of those that remain are receiving favor abroad, and if it be known that any large people on this side are sampling on them, it would fairly indicate that in this direction some business might be reasonably looked for. Opinions of Distributers Are Valueless. There is no use asking distributers of goods, or any other friends in the market, as to what is likely to be good. Their opinion is valueless, and the effect of such consultations is generally to per- suade you to drop some promising thing on their say-so, and which, later on, brought out by some other house, scores a big success. The sales manager must absolutely rely on his own taste and his own judgment, and, if he knows his business, he will see that his cloths are of the proper widths, weights, assortments of colors and pat- terns, and of sound construction, and that the only remaining ques- tions will be as to whether the customer likes the styles and will pay the prices. Goods Should he Priced at What They Will Bring. Unless fabrics are being made akin to commonplace market arti- cles, with which comparison can be easily made by any one, the proper method of fixing the prices is to determine the figure at which the goods could be sold reasonably freely over the retail counter, and then make the prices to retailer and to jobber accordingly. If these prices do not then afford at least a working profit, the fabrics must be either re-constructed on a less costly basis or abandoned. Fabrics and Colors Which Are Dead or Dying. One thing of value can be learned from the distributers, and that is, what fabrics and colors are either dead or appear to be dying, and this negative information in helping to guide one as to what not to make, is of very real importance. The selecting of colors is to be treated in the same way as tlhe selection of fabrics, in that there is a weeding out of colors that are passe, and of such others as are distinctly unavailable, and then con- sidering which of the remaining classes of colors seem to be having a vogue abroad. Foreign Sample Collections. The foreign sample collections often contain many good ideas, but it must not be supposed by any means that all of the patterns con- tained therein have been in evidence in the Continental markets. Many of them are made solely for the purposes of the houses purveying the samples, and have never been on the market at all. In studying these foreign sample collections, excellent ideas can be got from collections provided for entirely different lines of business. Getting Up the Samples and Fixing Prices. Having formed some general views as to what will likely be salable, the sales manager consults with the manufacturer who proceeds to get up samples of various kinds and qualities, but in the general directions indicated. Here good taste and good designing, coupled with high-class constructive skill are prime necessities. Comparatively slight changes in the proportions of warp and filling, and in their arrangement and method of interlacing, will make all the difference in the world as to their desirability, and what are known as "invisible values" must be carefully avoided. This is the task of the mill, and it must be properly done if the selling end is to be successful. The sample blankets now come forward, and critical judgment is here necessary. Questions of prices, widths, finishes, patterns and col- ors must be decided and complete and comprehensive sample ranges laid out. When the ideas are novel, and not likely to be found in competi- tors* collections, an effort should be made to get some really large profit, for, on a new article, not even an expert can tell, off-hand, within 10 to 20% of the cost. In such cases, and possibly in most cases, it is highly undesirable that the salesmen should know the real cost of the goods, as very few have the moral courage to stand out for a profit — and get it. Assortment of Colors Should he Limited. It is well to limit the number of colors in a range to the minimum, in spite of opinions to the contrary. Too many colors means too much stock, and difficulty in delivering assortments on tune. Few colors, but the right ones, should be the aim. Color Harmonies and Discords. In combining colors when laying out fancy goods, color harmonies should be studied and carefully worked out, and color discords must be avoided. The effect of various colors upon each other is not as well im- derstood as it should be, and, even when already known, is apt to be forgotten. It is a useful thing to have a chart made out for use in the sam- ple room which will indicate, in a general way, the colors which contrast well or ill. lUi 342 DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL 343 An Interesting Color Chart. Such a chart for haberdashery has been worked out and printed by The Haberdasher Company, and I present it herewith to illus- trate the method that might be employed in making them up for other colors and for other lines of business. Heavy Expense of Sample Collections. In bringing out a collection of fancies a great deal of money has to be spent, particularly for Jacquards and prints, and this expense should bear some reasonable relation to the business to be effected, but it rarely does. The expense is always grossly in excess of a proper pro rata expense per yard, and the effect is seen in the com- paratively small profit cleaned up on a fancy goods business, which, considering the risk, should by rights pay handsomely. Copying Competitors' Ideas. Some sales agents adopt the apparently simple course of copying the fabrics that their competitors are making. Their salesmen come running in and tell of the "land-office business" that Smith or Jones is doing on this or that fabric, and how much they themselves could do if the same cloth, or what would answer for it, could be got out to sell at 2>2 cents a yard less, etc. The effect of listening to such everyday silly talk is the under- takmg of an ever fruitless task, for the profit on most goods of large sale is so close that, to get the business away from those who are domg it can only be accomplished by selling on a basis of no profit at all, and frequently even that cannot be secured, while the firm that tries to do it becomes visibly a tail-ender and all pretensions to leadership must be abandoned. Chronic copyists may save in experi- menting and sampling expenses, and their brains are not liable to wear out from overwork, but they are a contemptible, though un- fortunately very numerous, class. Difficulties Attending the Making of Printed Goods. People sampling on warp or surface prints must well consider that m busy print seasons, when the market printers and others are rushed to death, they are more than likely to be very late in the delivery of many of their orders and samples, which will entail cancellations of serious extent, involving heavy losses. Other Points of Importance. It is also to be remarked that the time to stop making a line otf goods, and to take active steps to run through and clean up all that have been made, is at the moment when thev are in red-hot request If this is done, the profit already made will be secured, and losses that always come when the market falls off will be avoided. 344 DIRECTING THE PRODUCTION OF A MILL The question of marketing the product of a mill by means of an advertising campaign on trade-marked fabrics is one of special in- terest, but it is so broad that it cannot be treated of here. The foregoing remarks will serve to shew both the difficulty of properly directing the production of a textile mill, the great impor- tance of the subject, and the manifest lack of the proper qualifications on the part of many persons who have such work in their charge. Perhaps, if sales managers were more generally graduated from those having had experience at the mill end, than from those brought up at the selling end, some improvement might result. i ill It • i Hi 111 'Jl it' 1: Ki! ! 1 n \ !■;•'! ! ; iii|t! 4 i * •1 .^' t^ Ij ! W ' i 1 1 n j i Wt ^! Iff ^ ii • i XXXII IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS To those engaged in the handling of textiles it often seems as if the goods they are buying or selling are very imperfect, and remarks are freely made at such times reflecting severely on the care or knowl- edge of the manufacturer. These criticisms, while no doubt frequently justified, are more often the result of ignorance on the part of those making them as all goods, accordmg to their nature, are liable to certain imperfec- tions, some showing one class of defects more clearly, and some an- other. Absolutely Perfect Goods an Impossibility. It may, I think, be truthfully stated that an absolutely perfect piece of goods--perfect in material, in construction, in dye, and in hnish— IS impossible of production, and perfection in merchandise is therefore a matter of degree. The true test is whether a piece is commercially perfect, that is whether it can be used, without loss, for the purpose for which it is intended; and there are comparatively few of the goods that are stigmatized as being "seconds,*' or "unmerchantable," that could not be used without loss if a fair effort was made. Then, again, a piece may be defective for one use while satisfac- toiy for another, as in the case of certain fabrics that slip very easily and which, while quite unsuitable on that account, say, for dress pur-^ poses, might not be at all objectionable for millinery uses. Claims, Unjust and Just, There are many things that cannot be classed as imperfections which subject goods to claims and allowances, and many purchasers particularly those in the cutting-up and other manufacturing trades l!i m 'f'- *M I' \ 346 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTUR ED GOODS make such exorbitant claims, and often on such flimsy pretexts, that, plainly stated, they are simply dishonest, but, for reasons of policy (though the soundness of the policy is more than questionable), they are generally allowed. * i. u a In the case of certain purchasers it is notorious that, be the goods bad or good, their claims will be so made as to never average less than a certain percentage on the business done, and most of the claims so made and allowed are simply money extorted from the seller under the threat of the return of the goods, and the consequent greater loss that would have to be faced in marketing the lot elsewhere No examiner of goods in a cutting-up establishment could hold his place if the claims he made did not greatly exceed his salary and, therefore, no matter how perfect the goods, he has got to find pre- texts for claims. * 1 1 If a cutter-up makes a claim and gets an allowance he rarely loses that. It is generally a clear profit to him, as his cutters have got to work the imperfect places into the goods somehow, and if a retailer gets an allowance the goods go on the counter at the same price that they would if he had not. While certain claims are thoroughly equitable and not open to any objection, they are in the great minority, and the unfair or dispro- portionate ones form a very serious expense to the manufacturers, and an unwarranted one. The fierce competition among sellers has brought the protit on goods down to practically a brokerage, in which profit there is no margin to offset heavy claims; in fact, goods are priced on the as- sumption that they will all come perfect, and yet the claims are made and allowed just the same. Remarkable Perfection Attained. The more one knows about manufacturing, the greater is the won- der that goods can be made as perfectly as they are. While men and women have their limitations as to skill, accuracy, or what not, yet the same people performing the same work, year in and year out, become marvellously skillful at it. Thus it is that mills running steadily on staples produce very per- fect goods, while those making novelties, or shifting constantly from one fabric to another, must make many seconds. It takes some time for the weaver to get his hand in on a new job, and during that time he will make more or less imperfect work. The most skillful billiard player in the world, if compelled to play nothing but pool for a year, would make but a sorry hand at billiards, at first, when he would return to it. So it is with a weaver. The manufacturing of a piece of woven merchandise is a most complex and technical matter— even for the simplest cloth— while for high-class fancies it is kaleidoscopic in its difficulties. IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS 347 The Manufacturer's Load of Care, Manufacturers as a rule are the most careful and painstaking of men, as their responsibility lies heavily upon them and the detail of the work is a crushing load. The wealth of care that has to be used in the selection and preparation of the material, and in the laying out of the work and the following up of it through all the numerous proc- esses, is no child's play, and with the many adverse elements that have to be contended with, both human and mechanical, in addition to those things not within the control of the mill, it is wonderful how such a good average of perfection is got. How Damages Might be Classified. Damages, or things causing losses on goods, fall into certain groups. They might be roughly classified as follows : defects in the raw material used ; defective preparation — ^throwing, dyeing, etc. ; dam- ages caused in the weaving or preparatory processes; injuries during the piece dyeing, printing, or finishing; and mistakes or miscalcula- tions in laying out the work. Every Thread has Its Allotted Place. Let it be clearly understood that the threads composing the warp and filling of a fabric do not occur at random. Ever>^ warp thread, from the time it is unwound from the bobbin, has its allotted place in the warp, its special heddle on a particular shaft of the harness, and its special dent in the reed. Let a single end out of the thou- sands in a warp be missing, or wrongly drawn in, or crossed, or wrongly reeded, or of a different twist, or of a different tension, or be of a wrong color, or thickness, or material, and you have a piece of goods that is a bad second. Every pick, too, has its allotted place in the weave, and every thread must interlace with every other in the prearranged manner. Think what this means. We will now consider some (though by no means all) of the draw- backs and damages that are incident to the manufacture of silk tex- tiles, and possibly the recital of them may help to make some of the critics more lenient. Trouble Arising from the Raw Material. Trouble with raw material may begin with its variation in size or twist, which makes streaky warps and irregfular weft; with its color, which, if uneven, will make shady silk, which is particularly noticeable in the filling; with its strength or elasticity, which, if poor, makes many broken ends with consequently increased weaving im- perfections — knots, and ends missing for a greater or less length; or with its cleanliness, which, if inferior, may introduce into the goods many slugs, nibs, etc. With other yarns, cotton, for instance, their hardness or softness i .'llil* ! !' liii III I i fl ! n 111 *' , fl ♦' .1 J, I ' I ■ i 11 1 1 348 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS I 'I are important factors ; they should not be hairy, and their evenness, cleanness, and twist should be regular and good, or else inferior goods will be the result. How the Throwster Can Make Damages. The throwster can injure silk by injudicious soaking which opens up the fibre; by stretching it unduly or unevenly; by irregular twist and imperfect doubling, producing "corkscrew" and other objection- able effects ; by allowing the silk to get scratched or cut on worn-out guides or flyers; or he may mix one kind of silk with another, and do damage in many other ways. Bad Work by the Skein-Dyer and Piece-Dyer. The skein-dyer, by carelessness, can so process the silk that it will become rotten in short order ; he can mix up the silk ; he may match the colors badly, and the silk may be irregularly weighted or colored, shady or lustreless, or subject to "cockling," or "lousiness." The piece-dyer may make bad matches; shady goods; goods spotted, streaked, or scorched; he may run them in too narrow, or stretch them out too wide, or allow them to run up unduly in length ; they may have chafe marks, damaged selvages, or be so handled that the warp threads spread apart, as it were, making a crude, streaky effect; the goods may have an oily or other objectionable smell; the color may crock or rub off; they may not be properly boiled off and so may lack in lustre; and they may be so treated as to have an un- desirable touch. Damages the Printer is Responsible For. The silk-printer may not fix or set his colors properly, so that they may crock; if his rollers are out of true, or badly aligned, the pres- sure will vary and the depth of the colors will be irregular in places in consequence; the different rollers may not register exactly; the white of the ground may not be pure, but may be tinged with color; many colors or color combinations may be tarnished; streaks called "doctor-marks" are common; the goods may be damaged in strength by the injudicious use of acids or other agents ; and there will be mis- prints, spots, and other defects. In warp prints, threads may be badly stuck together, or may be broken — causing damages in printing and trouble in the looms later on. How the Finisher Makes Trouble. The finisher may get goods too soft or too hard ; he may use too much heat and so fade or alter the colors; the spray used may not be well controlled and spotted or mottled goods will result; fabrics that are to be sized on the back may have the dressing squeezed through to the face; the singeing machine may scorch the goods; in separating split-edge goods, the edges may be damaged; defective or IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS 349 wrong buttons on the breaker may make streaks through the pieces; the calender or press may nip, or cut, or scorch the goods ; cylindering machines may soil them, and they may be burned on the tentering frames, as well as being damaged in many other ways. Defects in the Warp and Their Causes. Let us now consider some of the bad appearances produced in the goods, and the causes of the same. A fabric may appear streaky in the warp. If the streaks come in broad bands, of a regular width, they may be due to section-marks, caused by irregularity in the tension of the different sections of which the warp is composed. Bad streakiness may result from the use together of two different dye lots, even of the same color of silk, unless great care has been used in the regular alternation of the ends. Any tight ends in the warp will show up as streaks, and so will any threads that have more or less twist than the others. At every loom, bobbins called "piecing bobbins" are hung up, and material for piecing up broken threads is drawn off them. If they are of a different dye from the body of the warp they will probably show as streaks where they are used. On print warps, where it is not practicable to have exactly suitable printed threads for the pur- pose, this trouble cannot be prevented. Silk that was originally of irregular color, or silk irregularly dyed, may also give a striped appearance. So will silk that shows great variation in size in the raw, or when different sizes of the same color of silk get mixed. If the warp is passed through too coarse a reed it will show reed marks throughout, and reed marks will show locally where there are any dents too wide or too narrow, due to injury to the reed, and, if it is rough or cut, it will then scratch and fray the silk, and, if dirty, will soil it. The warp may also be chafed by the heddle eyes in the harness if they are cut, and harnesses, or ends in Jacquard harnesses, work- ing irregularly or out of time, will produce what are known as har- ness skips — places where the warp ends skip over more filling picks than they should. Many goods are woven wrong side up, when by so doing it will entail less effort upon the loom, and in such cases harness skips are very hard to detect. In many piece-dyed fabrics, also, it is very diffi- cult to observe them till after the goods have been dyed. Too many broken warp ends make a multiplicity of knots, and when a smash has occurred — a place where a shuttle has got jammed into the warp and which takes many hours of weary work to piece up — a bad place will be caused by the hundreds of knots that are tied in there. WA ii! ill B' f 350 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS ,. I ^ '.i "A' li! ;" I With hair-line patterns, a specky or mottled appearance is not un- common, caused by extra fine or extra heavy places in the warp threads falling together, which to the eye appear like lig-ht or dark spots. Ends that are missing, those that are drawn in through the wrong heddles or through the wrot^ dents of the reed, and extra ends, all make very noticeable stripes. The warp may be all right at the start, but as ends break down from time to time as the weaving proceeds it is very easy for the weaver, in replacing them, to get them into the wrong places. • Where very fine reeds, with the dents made of very thin wire, are used, the wires will spring considerably as the lay beats up, and bad effects are sometimes produced in this way. Also, when a filling stop motion is used, placed in the centre of the loom, the feeler wires may make a streak where they work up and down through the warp. In goods with cords, the cotton filling of the cords may "grin" through the silk covering, particularly if it be of a strongly contrast- ing color, and Milanaise or sling-cord effects are not only trouble- some to weave, but are very hard to get perfect, as any irregularity in the working of the doups, or breakages of the thread, will leave the rib uncovered in places, or make a bad appearance where it is bound at the edges, and if the cord be stuffed too full it will make trouble. Print warps, when the attempt is made to weave them without having had crossing picks first woven into them (to be afterwards picked out as the regular weaving proceeds), will "chine" badly, pro- ducing a very uncertain appearance in the pattern, owing to the ir- regular stretching of the threads. Filling Damages, and How They Occur. Bad effects, filling ways, are seen in silk that was of irregular color in the raw, or that has been unevenly dyed, which makes a cross-over effect. Mixed bobbins from other dyeings of the same color will pro- duce a very bad "rowy" appearance. A damage known as "rusty silk," where very fine, faint, brownish streaks are seen scattered through the filling on white or light shade goods, is due to stained cocoons having been reeled into the raw-silk. This trouble is not uncommon with low grade silks, and cannot be detected till the goods are woven. Irregularities in the size of the silk, also, make very visible differ- ences in its apparent shade, and poor spinning of schappe or cotton yarns gives a similar result. Material of irregular size, when used in figured patterns, gives trouble due to the very fine places not suffi- ciently covering the figures, which then have an open or "hungry" look, and, as the size varies from thick to thin, the pattern will be more or less distorted. Tsatlee silks are particularly troublesome in this respect. A faulty working of the take-up motion will cause the cloth to be ym IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS 351 woven with thick and thin places, and when tne loom is started up, after the cloth has been loosened for any purpose, it requires much skill on the part of the weaver to avoid having a thin place, or a heavy bar across the piece; or there may be two picks in the same shed, or a shed may be left empty, if the weaver is careless. The shuttles may be mixed, and in patterns where a cotton pick works on the back, and a silk pick floats over the figure on the face, the materials may be reversed, the cotton appearing on the face. In crepes, too, where right-hand and left-hand hard twists are woven in alternately, any mixing of the shuttles or quills will produce bad puckered places across the cloth. If anything interferes to prevent one or more of the harnesses from rising or falling in its prearranged sequence, we have harness- skips, where the threads do not properly interlace, and there appears a row of skipping warp threads across the piece. There are mispicks, also, when the filling thread gets in the wrong shed, making a bad cross-over defect. Then there are floats, where the pick floats over warp threads when it should be under them. If two threads are accidentally wound on the quill together, or if the filling drags in double in any way, we will have a double pick, and if the thread in the shuttle runs entirely out, or the thread breaks, we get a missing pick or a broken pick. Cockling and Its Cause. Cockling is a most serious trouble at times, the genuine cockling lying largely at the door of the dyer. Silk in certain sizes and weight- ings is more susceptible to it than other lots. Cockling effects may be produced in a variety of ways, such as by uneven doubling in the throwing, or of the dyed silk, uneven shuttle tension, etc., etc. The cloth may also be puckered from various causes, such as tight selvages or ribs. ^'Lousiness*' in Silk. Some silk is very subject to "lousiness," shewing a specky appear- ance in the finished goods, and careless boiling-off by the dyer will promote this defect. Cotton yarns, too, carry more or less speck or leaf, or bits of broken cotton-seed hulls, in them, and for any goods that are to be dyed in whites, or light colors, very specially selected cotton must be used to avoid these specks, and the yam must be double combed. Difficulties With Chameleons. Chameleon effects, where two colors are used in the filling, are quite impossible to get perfect in the cheap or moderate-priced grades, for, in these qualities, the two colors must either be doubled together, or two quills of the different colors must be put in the same shuttle, and, owing to the silk twisting itself more or less as it is laid in the shed, a "raye" appearance from the sides is certain to result. I ,.' IHI I I I f ' I i i ,i i ii Vtfl i;i ' 352 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS Other Troubles in the Filling. Wrongly built box-chains may also cause box-work patterns, plaids, etc., to come out most incorrectly. The filling may show slugs, knots, loops, or bunches of thread, and loose threads may be dragged in with the picks. Good picking will correct much of this. Then, lint from the weaving threads may be beaten in, and when black stripes, whether schappe, cotton, or silk of a hairy nature, are woven upon white or light grounds, the black hair or lint is apt to get mixed in with the light ground, giving it a very dirty or blackish appearance, resulting in a bad damage and one that cannot be rectified. Dirty harnesses, particularly those that have previously been weaving on black or dark warps, and which have not been thoroughly cleaned, will produce the same effect Soiling of Goods. Soiled places in the goods may be due to simple contact with dirt in various ways, or to the dropping into, or onto, the goods of dirt from overhead. There may be finger marks, and grease, oil, or water spots. Where stains have been removed with benzine or turpentine an "aureole" may be shown — a noticeable outline at the limits to which the fluid has floated the particles of dirt. Dirty or rusty reeds will streak the warp, and dirty shuttles will make marks filling ways. The injudicious use of paraffin wax, when weaving certain warps, may make waxy streaks. Iron-rust stains may come from drips in the finishing room, or come similarly on hard-twist silk when it is being steamed, or on print warps or surface prints when the color is being developed in the steaming kier. Clean Goods, and What It Entails. To attain perfectly clean goods, for whites, etc., it is necessary to use the greatest precautions. New harnesses, reeds, and shuttles are needed, the spools or bobbins are wrapped in white tissue paper, the quills are kept in boxes with white chalk, and the weaver's hands must be cleanliness itself. The warp, and the woven cloth, must be kept well covered with paper, and the head motion, or Jacquard, must also be protected by cloths or paper to prevent it from throwing any oil or dirt down into the weaving warp. The extra cost of making whites, or very light shades, particularly in very wide goods, is ob- vious, and yet buyers are unwilling to pay more for them. Perspiration Stains, and Other Soiling. Perspiration stains are due to the falling of it on the goods from the person of the weaver, picker, or other operative, and the contact with the weaver's hands when replacing or adjusting warp threads. Perspiration affects colors, and tin-weighted silk, most injuriously, but the effects are often not developed till weeks or months afterwards. Silk may be dirtied in the throwing, and cotton in the spinnings IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS 353 m such a way that, when dyed, the stains will still remain. If the throwster uses any mineral oil in the soaking it is sure to make trou- ble in the dyeing process. Trouble With Selvages. In woven goods, much trouble is often found in the edges or selvages. They may be woven too tight, or too slack ; if split edge, the binding may be insufficient, and at the cut the threads may pull off; they may be cut or torn off in the finishing, or may have been orig- inally woven in an open and ragged manner; and, if moired, they may have been cut or pinched. Faulty Designing. Faulty designing may be responsible for irregular tensions in the cloth, causing puckering, or other troubles ; for the design appearing to "stripe" ; for poor binding and consequently for loose places where the figures in patterns occur, and for sleazy cloths ; for lack of bal- ance to the fabric, or injudicious proportioning of the materials in it; for imperfect repeating of the pattern, or for distorted patterns; for designing two or more weaves to be worked from one warp, when they should be made in separate warps on account of their different take-ups ; for making the filling or warp threads to float injudiciously far, and for a host of other troubles. System At the Mill. In laying out and following up the goods at the mill, any careless- ness, or lack of system, will entail all sorts of expensive mistakes. Wrong sets in the warps, or wrong numbers of picks in the fillings ; irregular lengths in the pieces (which in necktie sets is an expensive matter) ; wrong weaves, and wrong Jacquard patterns ; wrong warp stripings, or box effects; bad color matches and mistakes in colors or qualities ; and laying the goods too wide or too narrow, are only a few of the mischances possible. Damages to the Woven Merchandise. Damage in the merchandise may be due to holes, as when a weaver cuts his cloth with the point of his shuttle ; chafing or scratching of the face from friction against the sand-paper roller; friction marks running end ways, from contact with anything that would rub against the cloth ; streaks caused by irregularities in the buttons of the breaker in finishing ; gum spots, which drip down in the spray room, and mot- tled appearances due to badly managed spray. If silk that is to be bleached with peroxides, such as tussah, has been affected by contact with rusty iron, the threads so impregnated may be entirely eaten up in the bleaching. 354 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS 355 1 1 I t ■ II!!;: fli' '«' Troubles That Occur in Finishing and Printing. The colors may be faded, regularly or irregularly, in the finishing due to too great heat ; moires may be badly executed, and cuttmg ot goods is frequent in moireing, as it also is in embossmg; goo^s may be scorched, or, when they have been singed, the black ends of the singed hairs may give a bad appearance ; chafe marks may also ap- pear on the piece-dyed goods. , , . j -^u 1 On prints, the white grounds may be unduly tmged with color, or the solid colors may be mottled, and the density of the colors may not be uniform from repeat to repeat, or from side to side. Additional Defects. Fabrics may slip ; they may have "pinholes" in them which as for umbrella silks, may have to be corrected ; they may lack in lustre, due to quality of silk or cotton, or to the dyeing, or finishing ; they may be badly folded, making creases and distorting the lay of the pattern; they may have been so handled in dyeing as to be full of "crows feet ; and, lastly, they may be rotten or tender. Things the Dyer is Responsible For. After dyeing, goods may have an oily or soapy touch, as well as a similar smell, and they may also smell strongly of logwood or other dyeing agents, and prints may smell of acetic acid The color of the blacks miy be rusty, or greyish, and blacks and other ful colors, bo^ in dyed and printed goods and in print warps, may crock or rub oH. The finish, too, may be too glazy and of the stove-polish order. The touch of the goods may be boardy, hard, or stiff ; it may be papery or soft and mushy, or it may have a harsh or coarse feeling. When goods are dyed in the piece, the color may collect more at one end or at one side, so that these will be of different shades. Fin- ishing on a tenter frame or on a can dryer will give different results. The matching of colors, too, is no exact science, and approximate matches are all that a dyer can promise, so that each dip will prob- ably vary in shade from the preceding one. If the amount of boiling- off given the piece is too little, it will lack in lustre, and the nature of the silk used will also greatly affect the brilliancy. If goods are too hairy, they may be singed, but this is a process to be avoided if possible. Hairiness is much increased by the electncity produced in the weaving and other processes. Imperfect Goods Must be Stopped. Silks being generally dry finished, it follows that any defects that occur in them are there to stay, and everything shows up in them. In well-managed mills, therefore, when a damage is detected during the weaving, the weaver is obliged to stop his loom, loosen his cloth, and pick out all the filling back to the defect, and then weave it over again This is expensive in time, labor, production, and material. Requirements for a Cloth Examiner. A good cloth examiner is necessary, and they are not easy to find. He must thoroughly understand weaving, and know exactly the cause of each defect, so as to be able to explain to the weavers what the trouble is. He must be severe on those needlessly making bad work, but if too exacting, and demanding impossible perfection, the good weavers will get disgusted and leave. Weavers soon learn just how good their pieces must be to pass the examiner without criticism. Troubles of Various Kinds, Schappe or spun silks are liable to have sundry black hairs in them, that, so far as possible, must be picked out, and certain stock is in- jured by the presence of odd cotton fibres. Many defects are very obscure, and much skill, knowledge, and patient effort are required to ascertain how they occur. Some fibres, such as certain tussahs, will shrink considerably, and, if this is not well understood and allowed for, serious differences in width and length, and consequent cost, will result. The apparent color is often much affected by the twist of the ma- terial, and the dyer is frequently blamed for what is really the fault of the spinner. Ill judged color combinations may make the shades objectionable to the eye. In the piece dyeing of cotton-filled fabrics, the dyer not infre- quently gets the cotton of a distinctly different shade from the silk, thus giving the goods a raw and coarse appearance. This cannot be guaranteed against, and, anyway, the same color on different kinds of fibre, or on different twists of the same fibre, will look different owing to the varying play of light. Heavy and Light Goods. In even the most carefully made lines of goods, a respectable per- centage will be heavier than the average, and others will be lighter than they were designed to be. Salesmen are prone to cut type sam- ples from the best and heaviest pieces they can find, thus leading the customers to expect goods better than they will get, and which gives them ground for rejecting the deliveries. Customers, to whom extra heavy pieces have been delivered, will often hold cuttings of them, and claim that subsequent deliveries should be up to that standard. Salesmen never like to have the lighter pieces delivered to their own special customers, and so the light pieces are often laid aside until, at the end of the season, a fine job lot of light pieces of all kinds, colors, and quantities will have been accumulated, to be sold later on at sixty cents on the dollar. The only way to do, is to keep shipping out the light pieces, and, though return express charges may often have to be paid, the expense on this score is trifling, as compared with having the goods left in stock. If 10 per cent, of the goods are '■ t ■i I ill if:"'^ ■J* I !^l I H 11 I IS I fi I ■ : m %/4 ^iii'i 356 IMPERFECTIONS IN MANUFACTURED GOODS light send out one light piece in every ten, and similarly with the heavy pieces. The buyer thus gets his fair average, and that is all he is entitled to. If the buyer needs the color in which the light piece is, when he gets it, he will keep it, and if he does not need a color he will find some pretext for sending it back, even if it was a piece regu- lar in every respect All Mills Make Some Imperfect Goods. When department men and salesmen are angry and disconcerted over merchandise imperfections, let them reflect that every other dis- tributer is in exactly the same position, and that they are better off in that respect than many others; and let them feel that a certain amount of imperfection must be discounted, and that similar troubles exist in the goods delivered by every one of their competitors. Let the buyers learn this, too, and, by being decent and reasonable, avoid forcing absolutely unnecessary losses upon the manufacturers. XXXIII CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS Some of the most serious abuses connected with the business of manufacturing and distributing textile merchandise, may be grouped under the heading of Claims, Cancellations and Returns. In fact, were it not for these drains upon the profits of the business, the making of money in the manufacture of fabrics would be a far simpler affair than it now is. . 1. t It is, of course, to the more or less unjustifiable claims, etc., that I refer, for it must not be forgotten that buyers have also rights, and were they not free to claim, reject, and cancel, when the circumstances fully warranted it, there would be no limit to what they might be called on to endure in the way of imperfect goods or late deliveries. What Has the Buyer a Right to Expect f Taking up, first, the matter of claims, we are at once confronted with the question as to what the buyer has a right to expect in refer- ence to the perfection of the merchandise. It is true that every order that is accepted implies the delivery of perfect goods in the filling of it, but was there ever a piece made of absolutely perfect goods? Possibly so, but such perfection is so rare as to be negligible, and the best that we can ask for, or promise, is that a piece of goods shall be commercially perfect. This presupposes that some minor defects may exist and must be expected, and that their presence should not be made the basis for a claim. Were everything to be claimed on, the deductions thus made would be so considerable as to eliminate any possible ^hance of profit in the goods, and, in truth, this is frequently the case. It should not be forgotten, either, that the prices made on goods, and the extremely narrow margins of profit on which they are sold, ignore entirely the element of losses from claims, cancellations and m It il 1 358 CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS gi returns, and that, if these chances of loss should be discounted the average of prices would have to be on a distinctly higher plane. ' True Test of Reasonableness of Claims. The true test for determining whether claims are reasonable or not is whether the buyer is likely to suffer any loss, or serious inconve- nience, in using or marketing the merchandise claimed upon. If this test be applied, it will be seen how few allowances would have to be made as compared with the present practice. Cutters-up claim on all sorts of trifling things, and then compel their cutters to so arrange their patterns as to cut them into the garment without loss, thus making a profit of the amount claimed. Many allowances are made to retailers, and the goods go on the counters and are dis- tributed without the consumers getting a fraction of concession in price, or being a bit the wiser. Such claims are just so much addi- tional profit for the buyer, and have in practice become a regular "graft." ^ In a previous article, I discussed in detail the very numerous im- perfections to which silk goods are liable, and the causes of them, so it is not necessary again to traverse that ground. Different Causes Entailing Claims. Claims fall into a few general groups, such as claims for short length, narrow width, spots or holes, manufacturing imperfections, slipping of the threads, streaks or shadiness in warp or weft, uneven- ness or cloudiness in the dye, inferiority of quality, chafe marks ten- derness, etc. Some goods, from their nature, always invite trouble, and sellers should carefully draw the attention of buyers to such matters when business is being booked. Thus, goods with markedly disproportion- ate amounts of warp and filling will often slip easily; if too little material, of too much weighting, be used they may be tender ; chame- leon taffetas have a strong tendency to streak in from the edges; black- and-white hair-lines and fine pin-checks, show specky, etc. Manufacturers should guard carefully against ever putting fabrics on the market that are not good merchandise, such as cloths that are too tender, or that slip too much for the purpose for which they are intended, etc. If they do so, they have only themselves to blame if trouble follows, for they must remember that retailers of reputation cannot be expected to put goods on their counters that are grossly de- fective in character. Piece-dyed goods that are very unevenly colored can properly be rejected by the buyer. One side, or one end, of the piece may be darker than the other, making it impossible, almost, for the dress- maker to use it. Chafe marks in pieces cannot always be avoided by the dyer, and •n'liiiljniiiiB CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS 359 he will give no guarantee on the subject and as they are inddent to the process, it is not fair that claims should be made on the maker on this score unless the defects are excessive in amo^t To subiect eoods to claims for narrowness, the difference m wiuui cl, JiH be matfi^l In the cases of fabrics of an elastic character, :Sas c^S cJr crej^nl it is hard to say what the width really is; within limits, it is almost a matter of opinion. Similar remarks will apply to the length of tije Peces and rt is easv to give a piece an undue stretch. Probably the ia>restjvay to determine the length is the method largely used m the w^J^^ m_ dustrv that of drawing the goods over a long table, and measunng A^^when so drawn out, as it is in that shape, and at that stretch, that they will be finally cut up for garments. Allowances Should be Kept at a Minimum. While all claims should be received and investigated with an open mind and a desire to be fair, all sdlers ^houW figl^^^^jj ^ilL wS these losses to their proper proportions. Badly managed m.Us wUl have manv defective goods, and well managed mills may nave lew, Eut. wTth^e beTt of 4nagement. imperfections must and will occur. Selling Agents Expect Impossible Perfection. Much of the trouble that now exists, in the large amount of claims that every business is called on to stand, has arisen from the fact that the people at the selling end often expect t'O"' *"' ™"^^f ,"^ possible ^rfection. and, not being well enough «>fo™ed themselv^ to judge what claims should be contested and what should not, they have flllen into the habit of making allowances on practically every- thing claimed on. „ „ ^ Cancellations a Heavy Burden. The cancellation of orders, given to a mfll for exeaition, is a custom that outrages both business sense and honesty, and is a tear- ful burden on the manufacturers. ,11 „,.;„„, They spend time and money in getting up their sample collections and then pay the salaries and traveling expenses of the salesmen to secure the business. Having booked the orders, they must then as- sume binding contracts for the raw material with which to m^e them, and must proceed to mount looms and spend much money in the vari- ous processes of manufacture as the goods are being brought forward When made, the orders must also be held ready for delivery till the stated time has arrived. i a u i;i,.i« At any time during this period, all, or part, of any order is likely to be cancelled, and with probably no truthful reason given. Motives for Cancellations. The motives for the cancellations may be various. There may have been a change of buyers ; or too much stock has been bought ; or the S; ^1 i'; ' 9, ''[I 360 CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS buyer wishes to increase his line in other directions, so has to de- crease in this ; or prices have fallen and he can buy cheaper elsewhere ; or he may find he has misjudged his styles or colors; or there may be some personal reason, or what not. Perhaps as common a reason as any is that he may have instructions from his financial superiors to cancel everything that he can, on account of office reasons. Not one of these reasons is a justifiable cause. How the Manufacturer is Hurt. Meantime, the manufacturer has committed himself to an expen- sive preparation of fabrics, patterns and colors, made at his customer's selection, many of which styles he would never have dreamed of mak- ing if he were stocking them at his own risk. If the raw-silk market has fallen, he may also suffer heavy loss in that way, and orders are cancelled freely on a falling market and infrequently on a rising one. Contract Breakers Should be Sued. The seller may or may not have a signed contract, or it may be a well drawn one or a loosely drawn one, but there would rarely be any difficulty in proving that the goods had been duly ordered by the properly accredited buyer of the house. In such a case, the rational and proper course would be to refuse to accept the cancellation, and, by due process of law, if necessary, compel the buyer to live up to his contract. How often is this done ? Occasionally, it may be, with some house regarding whose business indifference is felt, but with important cus- tomers a real fight is rarely made; sham fights, if any, are the rule. Responsibility of the Selling Agents. When raw-silk prices crumble, and values of goods fall correspond- ingly, as will happen during times of panic, the bulk of nearly every- thing on order will be cancelled by the buyers, and this cancelling has, in the past, been generally allowed by the selling agents, causing the mills to suffer untold losses, and being the real cause of the bank- ruptcy of many of them. Manufacturers have to deliver what they sell, and can in no wise advance the price of goods once sold, nor are they permitted to back out of their raw material engagements. Why should they continue to allow themselves to be thus held between the upper and the nether millstone till their existence is crushed out? If, before an order has been put in work, a buyer wished to modify it, or even cancel it for some reasonable cause, although it might be somewhat of a hardship, there would be little trouble in so arranging it, but, after it has once been put in process, no change should be allowed. Underhand Methods Employed. Some houses practice a peculiarly mean trick, in that they have CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS 361 copies of orders, given by their buyers to the travelers who have called on them, sent on to their New York representatives to see if they can buy them there any cheaper. Many of these city buyers, to show their superior smartness, will then try, by hook or by crook, by lies or promises, to get concessions from the stated prices. In this way, the purchaser plays his buyers one against the other, in the hope of profit- ing somewhere. Withholding Assortments on Orders. Another way of cancelling goods is to withhold assortments. A buyer contracts for a quantity of goods ; color assortment for all, or part, to be given later, sometimes at a stated date. If the goods arc to be skein dyed, and the giving of the instructions as to colors is delayed, the manufacturer cannot proceed with the order, which is then of practically no use to him. If the goods are to be dyed in the piece, he can prepare them, but is unable to get them dyed up for delivery. The buyer has contracted for the goods to take advantage of a low market or an attractive price. If he has had occasion to reverse his judgment, he will never give his delayed assortment if he can possibly help it. Others, who only want 50 pieces of goods, will order 250 pieces, if a lower price can be got thereby, giving assortments for the 50 pieces at the start, and will never taike, or intend to take, the remain- ing 200. Orders of Cutters Are a Joke. With the cutting-up trade, orders are not even seriously regarded. They are almost a joke. The most that can be said of them is that they show an expression of interest on the part of the buyer in the qualities ordered. Should the market rise sharply, however, these same buyers expect to have their orders filled, and they do have them filled. Cancellations for Late Delivery. Many cancellations for late delivery, while technically right, are only so because sufficient time has not been given the makers to bring forward the orders, and it is a contant study with buyers to fight for the minimum of time, so that, as the chances are that the delivery in whole or in part will be a little late, they will then be in a position to decline the goods should they so desire. Then, if they wish, they may consent to accept the goods at a substantial concession in price. Sellers who have been finessed against in this way ought to be very careful never again to concede dangerously short delivery time to the offending house. Better pass the business than take the risk. United Action Required. To grapple with such a serious evil, united action by all the sell- ing offices is urgently needed, and there should be a well-defined pol- |i I 1^1 V, s li' I*- 4 I, IS 362 CLAIMS, CANCELLATIONS AND RETURNS icy agreed upon, having for its aim the immediate bringing about of a state of affairs which would exempt no one from the obligation of keeping a contract. Credit men have their associations and discuss the standing of the various houses, and their manner of doing busi- ness, and the sales managers could do the same. Side Lights on the Situation. At the present time, houses that have every disposition to enforce their contracts are restrained from doing so, because other large com- peting houses permit their customers to break theirs. During a recent panic, when prices were breaking heavily, cases like the following arose. A mill, selling direct, refuses to allow Smith, a retailer in a large Western city, to cancel. Smith says he would not want to cancel, but that his competitors— Jones, Brown, and Robinson — had been allowed to cancel by the houses from whom they bought ; that, if forced to do so, he would take the goods he ordered, paying, of course, more for them -than what his competitors could then buy them at, but that he feels that if he is not to be in as good a position regarding cancelling as those who had bought elsewhere, he, in turn, would in future have to buy elsewhere himself. He was permitted to cancel. Standard Sales Contracts and Their Enforcement. It is, as stated, much to be desired that sellers would come to- gether to take united action in the premises, and that a standard form of contract of sale, comprehensive in its nature, covering every pos- sible debatable point, and legally enforceable, should be adopted. Then, a policy of contract enforcing should be judiciously entered upon and firmly pushed to its logical end. If, at the same time, steps could be taken for the formation of a commercial textile court, or tribunal, for the prompt settlement of disputes over merchandise, a great step forward would have been taken. XXXIV THE QUESTION OF PRICES TO USE IN STOCK-TAKING When the annual balance sheet is being made for a mill, one of the most important preliminaries is the stock-taking, or the record- ing of the amounts and the values of the various classes of stock on hand. For this purpose it is a fundamental necessity that a proper valuation be put on the raw material. Objects of Stock Taking. The objects to be attained by this periodic tabulation of assets and liabilities are both to know the exact financial status of the con- cern, and to determine the amount of profit or loss made since the previous stock-taking. It is needless to say that a mathematically exact result is much to be desired, but this can never be, as the values put on the assets must always be a question which must be decided according to in- dividual views and opinions. The opinions, too, that are held on this subject may often be in- terested ones, consciously or unconsciously; great ignorance of cor- rect methods is frequently displayed, and hap-hazard pricings of stock are very common. The pricing of the stock may be done by a partner or principal of a business, and partners may disagree; or it may be left to the judgment of a superintendent or trusted subordinate. Kinds of Goods to he Enumerated. In a silk mill, the stock to be recorded, outside of mill, machinery, supplies, etc., — resolves itself into a number of broad groups. These may be as follows : — contracts for silk not yet due for delivery ; con- tracts due but undelivered, being held on call by the raw-silk' mer- chants, subject to interest; raw-silk on hand; thrown silk, and silk in I li 364 PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING 365 T I process of throwing; silk in process of dyeing; dyed silk of various weightings, sizes, colors, etc. ; silk wound and in winding ; silk on quills and in quilling; silk in warping and beaming; warps made; warps drawn in or twisted; warps in the looms; woven cloth on looms; unfinished goods; goods finished, etc., etc. Apportioning the Costs. As the silk advances from one process to another its value in- creases, and the collective costs of the processes, together with an allowance for the wastes made in them, and their proper share of the overhead charges, must be added to the cost of the raw-silk when figuring out its value. . When silks have been weighted, due allowance must be made tor this increase. Thus, if there were 22 oz. dyed tram in bundles, and if the silk were priced at $4.00 net, the throwing 35 cents waste in throwing 10 cents, and dyeing 80 cents, making a total of $5.25, the price put on it should be 5.25 x i6-^22=$3.82 per pound, plus its share of the general expenses. , ^ r ^ • ^u This is the ordinary and well understood method of figuring the value of silk in its dyed condition, and there should be no trouble in arriving at the proper proportionate value if any reasonable care is used, but it is not in regard to these things that the real questions arise. The difficult problem to solve is what basic prices should be put on the raw materials, and what values should be attached to silks in a partially manufactured condition that are not in the direction of current requirements. How Personal Interests May Affect Matters, A fair and logical determination of these points is further com- plicated by the way in which various interests in the organization may be affected by them, and apparently good arguments may be advanced for quite diflFerent methods of treating them. The persons whose interests may be affected in this matter will be partners or stockholders, and mill managers or others, whose com- pensation is made up, in part, of a percentage of the profits of the business. Those who have specially to do with the mill will also be anxious to have a good showing made by the returns. These different interests may be by no means identical. If the season's business has been profitable, the owners, or repre- sentatives of the shareholders, may desire to scale down the value of the stock so as to cut down the amounts that would come to some of the subordinates who were entitled to a percentage of the profits. They would argue that, as these latter do not pay in a percentage when an actual loss is made, they would be only casting an anchor to the windward in case the next season should prove unprofitable. Again, if the business had done extremely well, the managers, in case it were a stock company, might dislike to have the books show just how much profit had been made, as the shareholders would then demand a bigger dividend, while they, the managers, would like to pay just the regular dividend and keep the remainder for the active uses of the concern, or as a reserve against the lean years that com- monly follow the fat ones. By taking the goods at the store and the materials at the mill on a sufficiently low basis, all these extra profits could be covered up. If the concern had not been doing well, and there was fear that its credit might be questioned, those in charge might think it judi- cious to put very full values on the stock, so that the books would show a healthy trend of affairs, and they would thus be enabled to make a satisfactory statement to their raw-silk friends and to the mercantile agencies. When the active managers of the business do not hold the finan- cial control, they might fear that a bad showing would cost them their official positions, and, therefore, whenever it might seem necessary, they would be interested in boosting up the values. This is fre- quently the case with mill superintendents, and, as the valuing of mill assets is often left to these men by those who feel that they do not have sufficient technical knowledge to properly appraise them themselves, such prices as are applied should be subjected to careful scrutiny. Sales managers, and others at the selling end, who are interested in the profits or who are desirous that a good showing should be made, are equally liable to overvalue the manufactured goods. Sometimes corporation officers, when business has been profitable, will scale down the assets so as to show no profit, or even a loss, not only for the purpose of euchreing participants out of their share of the profits, but to cause a decline in the value of the stock, and so to enable themselves and their friends to buy it in at a price far below its real value as demonstrated to them by the earnings of the mill. Necessity of a Settled Policy. In view of these many and conflicting interests, and of the chang- ing circumstances that may sometimes cause a desire to unduly over- value the stock, and at other times to under-value it, it is of real importance that some settled policy be adopted for the pricing of the stock, both at the mill and at the store, which will be a continuous one. Thus, whether the method be the best or not, it will at all events be freed from outside bias, and the result of the operations during the period under review will be fairly shown. A knowledge of the stock-taking policy of the house, as well as the methods employed in figuring the annual depreciation of plant, is of first-class importance to each one connected with the business whose compensation is derived in whole or in part from the profits, and it I i I 366 PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING 3^7 3i f i: is a matter on which he should have the right to require information. When such percentage arrangements are being entered into, these questions are very pertinent ones to ask. Defrauding Subordinates of Their Profits. It is notorious, in all lines of business, that many employers who have promised a certain share of profits to employees, cannot bear to see them earn more than the most modest amounts, and, therefore, when business has been good and their share of profits would be sub- stantial, they often cheat them out of the bulk of what they are en- titled to by under-valuing the assets. Skepticism When Losses Have Been Made. Employees, on the other hand, who are entitled to share in the returns, oan seldom be made to understand that the business has been run at a loss instead of at a profit, and, therefore, after bad seasons, when they are told that there is nothing coming to them, they are often not slow to express their opinion in private that the firm has gouged them out of profits that they should rightfully have had. It is therefore desirable that, so far as may be, there should be left but little room for controversy on this important subject. Basic Costs for Different Silks. In pricing the mill assets, it is a proper method to take a basic cost for each class of silk— Italians— Japans— Chinas— Tsatlees— Cantons — Tussahs— etc., etc., and from these work out the values of the dit- ferent lots in their various stages of manufacture. , , - , . To get the proper basic prices is the rub, for the method of valumg may be most varied. Methods of Valuing the Raw-Silk. The actual cost of the raw-silk in each individual lot, old or new, may be used ; or the costs of all the regular silks on hand (French Italians, Japans, Chinas, etc.) may be averaged up for each class and taken. This digging out of the raw costs of all the dyed lots is a very tedious matter. Then a price may be taken for each class which represents the market of the day ; or, if the market be a rising one or a falling one, what it is likely may be the market level in the immediate future. These may be, or may not be, averaged up with the undelivered con- tracts There is frequently a handsome profit or a smart loss in such contracts, and these may be included or excluded from the accounting as interest dictates. Many people never include contracts, even when due for delivery and being carried by the raw-silk people, arguing that the future must take care of them, and, as they do not appear in the ledger, that the stock-taking should not be burdened with them. There is the qU*«stion of prices for the various grades of silks of the same nature. Thus, a mill may have booked orders for a full season's business on a line of fabrics requiring, say, an Extra Japan Filature for warp, and a fair No. i Japan Filature for filling ; at the same time, there may be on hand more or less Double Extra and Best No I Filatures, and best Re-reels, all of a suitable size, and which it is more than likely will be worked up into the goods sold rather than be allowed to remain in stock eating up interest. Should these be taken at the values dictated by their use, or values based upon their quality ." This question is often answered by mills, whose grades of silk are not very diverse, by putting one price on all Japan tram stock, one on all Japan organzine stock, and similarly for silk of other natures. Then comes another question. A mill, in the autumn, has bought and contracted ahead heavily for raw-silk at an average price say of $4.00 a pound, and has sold its production up to the end of April on that basis. When January first arrives, there will be large quantities of this silk on hand, and much on contract, and the market then may be $5.00 a pound. If the silk was costed at current market value the effect would be to throw a dollar a pound profit, on all the silk of this lot into the period just closing, and to make a corresponding loss appear in the period just beginning, whereas, if taken at its purchase price it would neither inflate the one or diminish the other. Again, a mill may be only partially supplied with silk for the season, and it will have to estimate how much it may have to pay for the additional supplies required, and so it arrives at an estimated general average for the cost of the season's silk. It may then scale the silk on hand up or down to correspond with such average, as it is on this that it will base the costs of its goods. In other cases, the prices ruling for goods may be far lower than the parity of the raw-silk, and there may be no prospect of any advance in the goods price. A manufacturer may then argue that he had better take his silk in stock at a low enough price to let him out whole, when it is worked up into goods at the market price, and to let the loss on the raw-silk go into the previous year's account. Many other factors will complicate the views that can be taken, but enough has been said to indicate what great differences in the valuation of stock may be caused by these differing points of view. The manner in which the increase or decrease in values of the current stock of silk carried by a mill, if figured at market rates, will affect the apparent profits of a season, is a very baffling one. Difficulty of Recommending a Course to Pursue. The writer has much hesitancy in recommending any specific method of stock taking as being applicable to all cases. Bearing in mind that the most important function of the periodic accountings 368 PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING If m is to show the loss or gain during the intervening periods, there are some general propositions that may be considered reasonably sound. General Propositions that are Sound. If, for instance, actual loss, or profit has been made, that loss or gain should appear in the records of the period during which it oc- curred. Thus, if there are undelivered contracts on which the market has fallen or has advanced, this loss or profit should be made apparent in the records, though not necessarily included in the balance sheet. Again, if, as in the instance previously cited, the market has advanced sharply and the silk bought at $4.00, and sold in the form of goods on that basis, has advanced to $5.00, such portion as is needed to fill the orders should be figured at only $4.00, though any overplus, not contracted against, may be put down at the higher value. The use to which materials are to be put, and which of course controls what will be received for them in the shape of goods, should be kept well in mind. Thus, if better quality raw-silks, which cannot readily be re-sold, are likely to be used up in goods in which lower qualities would answer equally well, a potential loss is at once appar- ent, and they should be figured on the basis of the lower cost silks. Odd lots of stuff on hand should be carefully judged on their merits. All mills have more or less dyed and undyed material side- tracked, and many other small, and often large, lots accumulate. Such lots eat up interest, cause expense for handling, storing, and sampling, become passe in color and shop worn, and often deteriorate in strength. In many cases, if they were worked up into the best fabric they would make, the price they would fetch would hardly pay for the labor put on them. According to the conditions prevailing in each mill, such lots may be made into rough classifications, gov- erned by their quantity, character, and condition, and certain specified percentages marked off them. Apart from such silks as are needed to fill orders on the books, it is safe to say that silk should be taken in stock at its fair cost of replacement, unless, at the time of the stock-taking, there should be some fictitious rise of the raw material market. Fluctuating Stock Values Confuse Matters. Another thing of importance to consider is, how the apparent an- nual profit or loss is affected by the rise or fall, in quotable value, of the underlying stock of silk that a mill must always have on hand when running. While this stock, of course, is constantly being re- placed, it has much the character of a dead stock, as the mill has to be making constant purchases on the top of it to take care of its current requirements, and at the end of the year this underlying stock is then just as large as ever. A mill using 100,000 lbs. of silk a year, may be carrying a stock, PRICES TO USE IN STOCK TAKING 369 on the average, of from 25,000 to 50,000 lbs., on a raw basis. If this stock should one year be up $1.00 a pound and the next year be down $1 GO, there would be no loss or gain, but the balance sheets of the period would be greatly affected. When the stock is taken each year. It is very desirable to figure out the raw pounds represented by each class of stock and, by comparing the stock of one year with the other, it will show, in great measure, how much the apparent proht or loss has been affected by this. How Shall Goods be Priced? At the selling end, just as nice judgment and just as well thought out methods are needed. . -..-^^ Shall goods be taken at mill cost, or at selling price less commission and discount? How shall slow sale goods be priced compared with quick sale goods of the same cost? What allowance shall be made to provide for the cleaning up losses that are generally to be looked for? Shall unsold goods on hand be priced at the same figures as those sold and awaiting time of delivery? If not, what prmciple shall be applied in pricing them? There are lots of questions. Decide on a Policy and Stick to it. To sum up the situation, it is very necessary for the responsible heads of a concern to go carefully over all the details of these matters and then to decide on a standard policy to pursue in the pricing ot each class of stock. This decision should be put in writing so that it will act as a guide from year to year, and so msure contmuity of policy. Each year's record of the basic prices used for the different classes of silk should also be preserved. , . , ,• *u If this is done with care, good judgment, and without bias the results of the business, as set forth by the annual balance sheet, should be fairly correct. .1 1 V\ ' ! ' DEPRECIATION OF PLAN! 371 !■ V'. -A 1 ; *»■■ I i - ! t ■1 II XXXV WHAT TO FIGURE FOR DEPRECIATION OF PLANT There is no question regarding the fact that machinery and other things in a mill do wear out and do depreciate in value, and that a time must come when renewals will have to be made. What- ever this depreciation may be on the individual units in a plant, the SiggTegBie amount is always considerable, and a proper sum should annually be set aside for a replacement fund. As this expense is not one that forces itself on the attention, it is often overlooked, or tmderestimated, and not infrequently disregarded altogether. Depreciation a Matter of First-rate Importance, This matter, however, is one of first-rate importance, so much so that it visibly affects the cost of goods. Thus, if the machinery and power plant in a mill of 500 looms represented a cost of $150,000, and if 10% was considered a proper amount to write off annually for depreciation, the amount so set aside would be $15,000. If, now, the product of this mill was 2,000,000 yards a year, the expense, on this account, would be J4 cents per yard, not a negligible matter, by any means. Keeping Machinery at Highest Efficiency, Any mill, intelligently run, will have every machine kept in the most perfect condition, and in a state of the highest efficiency. This is a necessity if a proper product is to be looked for. All expenses for new castings, repair parts, and general up-keep are properly covered into the ordinary general expense of the mill. Improvements Compel Replacements. Allowing that all the machinery is kept in fine condition, the time comes, nevertheless, when its usefulness is at an end, and it has to be discarded. The consequent replacement is forced on the manufacturer by the numerous small improvements that have been brought out as the years passed, making the later types of machines more productive, or less costly to operate, than the older types. It may also happen that some machine of a revolutionary character, such as the Northrop loom, comes on the market, and, for certain lines of goods, puts every- thing else into the background. Again, the price of machinery may have changed, and the cost of replacing may be other than had to be paid originally, and thus the ratio of depreciation is altered. The various classes of machinery do not deteriorate in the same proportion, and in some sorts of machinery improvements are few and far between. How Speeds Affect Rate of Depreciation. The speeds at which they are run materially affects the question. Thus, spinning frames running at 12,000 R. P. M., night and day, will have a much shorter life than the same frames running 8,000 R. P. M. on day run only. It is frequently good practice to drive machinery to the very limit of its endurance, regardless of how much it may shorten its life, if by that means a material amount of labor can be saved without lower- ing the quality of the product, as this saving would amply justify the renewal of the machinery at comparatively short periods. This policy is much pursued in the metal working trades where tools, that with easy duty would do good work for a lifetime, are so driven that, in three or four years, they have developed so much lost motion that very accurate work can no more be had from them, and they are then sold to less particular people and new ones are bought. Wide Divergence of Views Regarding Renewals, Taking, however, textile mills as they are ordinarily operated, we come now to the question as to what we should figure for replace- ment account, and on this subject hardly any two people agree, and the views of most manufacturers are hazy in the extreme. The first question that arises is what it is intended to do with the discarded machinery. Some very intelligent managers make it a point to break up into scrap everything that they displace, arguing that the selling of such machinery only puts it, at a low figure, on the market, where it will sooner or later be bought by some one starting in business as a competitor, and who, if he could not buy such low-priced machinery, would not have money enough to start at all. I have heard of a manufacturer who, when replacing a section of looms and desiring to scrap the old ones, had them put on the elevators and run up to the top story of the mill, from whence thev w 372 DEPRECIATION OE PLANT DEPRECIATION OF PLANT 373 were hurled to the ground below, thus saving most of the labor needed to break them up. His neighbors thought he had gone mad, but in this madness there was much method. Few people think that they can afford to take this far-sighted view, and so they sell their old looms or frames for the best price they can get for them, which, if they have been well kept up, may be perhaps from 25 to 40% of their new cost. Let us, therefore, assume 25% as a safe figure. Methods of Figuring Depreciation. Here are some different methods of figuring depreciation that have come to the writer's notice: A. Nothing at all. B. 5, 7J^, or 10% of the original amount per year till all is written off. C. 10% a year on the diminishing amount. By this method about 75% is marked off in thirteen years. D. 10 to 15% on first cost till one-third is written off, and 5% thereafter. E. 5, 7>^, or 10% till reduced to 25%, and then kept at that figure. F. The same as "E," but brought to a stationary level at only 40%. In this case the assumption was that 40% could be realized from the sale of the old machinery. G. Mark- ing off 50% of the value of the machinery on installation, and 5% per annum thereafter. H. Marking off 25% on installation and 10% per annum thereafter. I. Writing off varying percentages, from 5 to 15% per annum, on the different classes of machinery according to their estimated wear and tear. J. Writing off from nothing to 20% a year, on the original cost, according to whether the earnings of the year had been large or small. This method is pursued in order that dividends may be paid with regularity, which the writing off of depreciation in lean years might otherwise interfere with. No doubt there are many other methods in use, but the foregoing list well illustrates how widely divergent is the practice in this im- portant matter. Let us now see which would appear to be the fairest way. Difference in Wear-and-tear of Machines. It is evident that the wear and tear of all machinery is not the same, but to make nice distinctions between the various sorts would lead to much complication and invite many errors, so it may be best to take a figure that will represent the average. We will omit, also, the somewhat remote chance of machinery being made obsolete by the invention of radically different types, or the chance that the renewal cost of it may fall, or advance, heavily. Life of Machinery. As the machines will be constantly kept in first-class effective shape, undergoing as it were a continuous prodess of rebuilding (the repairs of course being charged to expenses), it is evident that they might last interminably. In twenty years' time they would still be running as well as ever iMit theTwould then probably be considerably outclassed by the latest "Vhe^^^ yea^rs old they might still be able to compe^^^ effectivelv or they might even then be out of date. They should frtaVnlv however, be able to produce on an economical basis for at L^TSyeXand we will.tLefore -ume that prov^^^^^^^^^ be made for replacement within that period, and, if they are gooa for a longer period, so much the better. What to Write Off on Machinery. Having regard to the customary practice of selling the old ma- chinery, and estimating its value as 25%, we have remammg 75% to be written off in ten years, or 7/2% annually on the new cost. This will be a safe and conservative method for use m most cases. If the old machinery is to be broken up mstead of sold then, of course, the whole of the value has to be provided for m ten years and 10% per annum of the original cost will be the figure. The annual additions to, and extensions of the plant must have their own depreciations figured out and included m the general total. The shafting, pulleys, and other power transmission appliances^ if properly installed, should depreciate very little and on this part of the plant 5% annual allowance should be enough. Power-plant Depreciation. The power plant presents somewhat different features from ordi- nary machinery. Engines, kept in good repair, are hardly ever worn out in service, and they do not usually become obsolete as soon as producing machinery. Boilers wear out in time, but, with re-tubmg a couple of times, a boiler should be good for twenty years or more. The setting of the boiler should also be figured on, as weU fc the boiler itself, as a new boiler requires a new setting. Mills however, seldom remain stationary as to their manufacturing equipment. If they are unsuccessful and fail, it matters littie what depreciation may have been figured on. If, on the other hand, they do well, their plant is generally increased as the demand for their goods increases, and this means more motive power. An increase m ttus direction often takes the form of the entire discardmg of the older and smaller units and their replacement by larger ones. It would be only fair to assume that such periodic enlargements m a flourishing mill might have to be made at intervals of about ten years and, as very little is realized from the sale of old engines and boilers, it will be proper to figure an annual charge of a full 10% of the entire new installation cost of the power outfit, exclusive of the building and stack. 374 DEPRECIATION OF PLANT DEPRECIATION OF PLANT 375 »'*' '*i B ! ' J! I V, Depreciation on Buildings. The depreciation on buildings is a thing seldom allowed for, but it goes on just the same. Good brick buildings, kept in proper repair, will endure (or a great period. In time, however, buildings have to be demolished, as, owing to the changing needs of business, and increas- ing size of machines, they become inconvenient and uncommercial. A fair allowance for the useful life of such a building might be forty years, so an annual depreciation of 2>^% on the cost of replacement should be provided for. Increasing Land Values, Some people argue that the land on which the buildings stand increases in value faster than the buildings depreciate, and therefore that nothing should be written off on this account. Such is by no means always the case, but, even were it so, it does not alter the situation. The mill buildings must, in time, be replaced, but the land cannot be sold unless the whole business be moved, a thing that is rarely done save under very exceptional circumstances. Increased price for the land may look well on the financial state- ment, but instead of its being a help in manufacturing, it is the reverse, and makes the goods cost more, as the increased valuation means heavier taxes. Diminished Value of Special Equipment. There is a class of equipment, such as Jacquard machines, dobbies, battons for swivel looms, battons for ribbon looms, etc., of which a mill may have a great amount on hand, in reserve, in addition to what is actually in use on the looms and other machines. It does not take many years to accumulate a good deal of such stuff; much of it is seldom used; much of it, too, gets obsolete very fast owing to its being provided for special work, which, with the change of fashion, may no longer be required. Each manufacturer will be best able to judge for himself how likely to be useful such parts of his equipment are, and large sums of money are often locked up in it. Considering its nature, it would not seem unreasonable to write off 20% of the cost of such apparatus annually. Such items in the outfit as clocks, scales, furniture, shelving, etc., are so moderate in total value and so enduring in character that their depreciation need hardly be considered, though, if desired to do so, an annual allowance of 5% should suffice. The annual loss in the small equipment, bobbins, shuttles, swifts, quills and what not is made good by the annual purchases, which are charged to the expense account. Effect Entailed by Changing Fashions. One thing that may greatly affect the value of machinery in a plant is such a change in fashion as will compel a mill that has been equipped to make one class of goods to turn onto some other class, for whicn its looms may be quite unsuitable, and thus entail heavy expenses for new looms long before the old ones would ordmanly have out- lived their usefulness. Such an event is somewhat unusual, and is one of those things that need hardly be allowed for when estimating the amount of annual depreciation. When Machinery Should be Discarded. When the cost of, say, a loom has been written off until it stands at 25% of its replacement value, the question arises as to when it should be discarded in favor of a new loom. This can be answered by figuring out whether the increased pro- ductiveness of the new loom would pay for the expense of the chan&re. Thus, if the replacement cost was $160, and if the old loom woiild sell for $40, there would be a net expense of $120, chargeable with 6% interest and 7J^% depreciation annually, or $16.20 a year. If, now, on the goods being produced, the charge for general ex- pense was 7 cents a yard, and if a profit of 3 cents a yard was obtainable, a total of 10 cents a yard, an increased production on the part of the new loom of 162 yards a year, or about 3 yards a week, would even this up. There would be no use in making the change, and locking up more capital in looms, unless some substantial amount in excess of this should be obtainable. With an increase of 4 yards a week, it should be worth while. If, with the increased output, the weaving rate could be lowered to correspond — not by any means such an easy matter — ^then a smaller increase in production would warrant the substitution. The same reasoning can be applied to other kinds of machinery. Standard Percentages of Depreciation. Reviewing what has already been stated, it would appear that, in American silk mills, it would not be far from the truth to allow for annual depreciation such sums as follows : on the regular machin- ery plant, 7J^% of the new cost till it stands at 25%, and none thereafter; on the transmission machinery, 5% of the new cost of installation; on the power plant, 10%, and on Jacquards and other special equipment held in reserve, 20%. till the whole amounts are written off; then, on the buildings, 2>^% of the cost of the replace- ment of an equal area of floor space. 1 'fti I 111 37^ DEPRECIATION OF PLANT How the Books Should be Kept, Having now considered what amount it is proper to set aside, the next thing is how it should be expressed on the books of account. Some owners, in taking their inventory, mark the individual ma- chines at a less and less cost each year. Others deduct from the total of the inventory the total amount to be taken off. Others again simply enter the amount on the debit side of their machinery, and other accounts, in the ledger. A proper plan is to have a special "renewal account" in the ledger, to which is annually added the amounts written off, thus leaving the machinery and other accounts, and the inventory value, undisturbed. Apart from its showing clearly just what has been set aside, this method has certain advantages. Thus, if the other policy of deducting these sums from the machinery account has been followed, and if the value of the plant had been written down till it stood at only 25% of replacement cost, then, in case the mill were destroyed by fire, the owner would have the time of his life convincing the insurance companies that they should pay him for his machinery four times the value at which he carried it on his books. Again, should he be applying for bank accommodation, and be called on to make a statement of his condition, if he had written off 75% of the value of his plant and stated its then book value to be $50,000, a bank official would estimate that item as worth about $17,000 — or a third of the book value. If he used a separate ac- count in which to enter the writings-off for renewals, he would then be able to give the book value of his machinery as the full $200,000, and this the bank official would consider as worth $67,000. What the Inventory Should Include. The inventory value of machinery should include the entire cost of setting up the plant in running order. In addition to what was paid for the machines themselves, it should cover the freight, cartage, handling, setting up, and tuning up, all of which expenses would have to be incurred in the replacing of the plant. When a fire loss occurs you are not then put at a disadvantage, and your inventory figures display then the proper and real replacement cost. Whichever method is adopted, it should be consistently followed on the same lines, from year to year, so that the results of the business, as shown by the books, will not be affected by arbitrary changes in the handling of this account. Jacquard Cards and Fire Insurance. In connection with depreciation, attention should be called to the Jacquard cards, of which most fancy goods mills have a great accu- mulation. Some of these sets of cards are of patterns so old that they are unlikely to be wanted again; others are used but infre- DEPRECIATION OF PLANT 377 quently; others again are in more or less constant use; and the stock also is being continually added to. When putting a value on them, no one ever thinks of inventorying them at what it cost to provide them, any more than they would be likely to put a value, in the same manner, on the designs from which they had been cut. A somewhat customary way is to put down a lump sum, generally a small one, such as $1,000, to cover the stock of cards, the designs, etc. Now, when a fire loss occurs, the insurance companies are quite within their technical rights in claiming that, in the total insurable value, the replacement cost of such cards and designs is properly to be included. If a mill has on hand a good stock of such cards, etc., this addition may reduce the insurance that has been carried below the 80% limit, and the mill may be held as a co-insurer, and so receive from the companies a much less sum than the loss incurred. I knew of an instance where a metal working concern had a lot of old dies that were treated in this fashion, and when the factory was burned the owners were held to be co-insurers, and only received $60,000 against an $80,000 loss. Mills carrying stock of this character, and all sorts of dead and semi-dead stock — old bobbins, rollers, castings, etc., etc. — which are considered as having little value, (though their new cost might have been heavy), should consult their fire insurance brokers and see that such things are specifically excluded from the stock covered by their regular policies. If it is desired to insure them for something, they can be covered by separate policies. Withdraw Renewal Money from the Business. When depreciation has been earned and written off, it is a very useful plan to have the amount withdrawn in cash from the active uses of the business, and invested in some interest-bearing security of a safe and easily convertible character. By so doing, when re- newals should be made the funds are on hand for the purpose and are not melted in, in the form of goods and materials, with the general assets of the mill, as is usually the case where the amounts set aside simply appear as entries in the books. As the managers are then aware that a certain sum of cash must be provided for depreciation by a certain date, just as provision has to be made for dividend payments or interest charges, they will start in time to run down their stock of materials, so as to get the assets in a sufficiently liquid shape to enable them to squeeze out the amounts required. Some English Experience. The following table, compiled from the general practice and expe- rience of a large number of textile manufacturers in England and li ■:\t V: : i 378 DEPRECIATION OF PLANT Scotland, and which was prepared by Mr. G. P. Norton, of Hudders- iield, England, may be of interest here: ''Rates of Depreciation on Diminishing Values. Warehouses, Offices and Cottages 2j4 to 4% Mills, including both Buildings and Motive Power 3/^ to 6% Mill buildings, exclusive of motive power 2j4 to 5% Motive plant, i.e.. Engines, Boilers, Gearing, etc 5 to 7>^% Plant and machinery, viz. : Carding, scribbling and condensing About 5% Combing and spinning About7J^% Weaving About 10% Dyeing and finishing About 5% Miscellaneous 5 to 10% Furniture and fixtures 7J4 to 10% These figures are based upon the probable working life and the residual value, if any, when worn out." Mill policies and methods in America are so different from those that are pursued in Europe that probably the above figures would not properly represent the depreciation to be figured on here. A point that must not be lost sight of is that the sums set aside for depreciation, whether used in the business or invested in outside securities, should be credited with interest. Such funds should earn at least 4%, and, as this interest will be compounding as the years go by, it will add very substantially to the amount available for re- placements. XXXVI CAPITAL REQUIRED IN SILK MANUFACTURING The question of capital requirements for a mill is of the greatest importance, and one which should receive the most careful considera- tion before a new concern is started, or before an increase of pro- ducing machinery is determined upon by an old one. Unfortunately, new concerns do not realize how much money is actually required to finance a business, and so they get started with hopelessly inadequate fimds, and, once started, they have to sink or swim. Precarious Condition of Undercapitalized Firms, A firm with insufficient funds to enable it to pursue a safe and sane policy, may at any moment find itself in a most precarious condition. If a slump in business occurs, so that goods made or making cannot be delivered, such a mill cannot stop its looms as its capital is all tied up in equities in the goods on hand, and it must be run in order to get ad- vances on new goods coming forward, so that its bills can be met. Stoppage means liquidation, and liquidation would be financial death. It must run or perish; and so, just when every dictate of prudence and experience would point to a sharp reduction in product, this finan- cial necessity may compel it to run full, to the serious damage of its own interests and of those of the whole market. These conditions are ever present and have much to do with the unsatisfactory position of the industry. Money Requirements of Manufacturers. Let us now consider the money requirements of a mill engaged in the manufacture of broad-silks. At the top of the scale we may find a concern with most ample funds, which owns a fine plant, unmortgaged, and which may also ii 1 s, il tf i 1 380 CAPITAL REQUIRED IN MANUFACTURING possess the auxiliary facilities for throwing, dyeing, printing and fin- ishing. It may pay cash for all its raw-silk, yarns and supplies, and may keep an ample stock of them. A considerable stock of finished merchandise may also be carried, and no money be borrowed from banks or other sources ; no advances on merchandise be taken, and it may carry all its own credits and not have any one cash its sales. The Employment of Surplus Money. It is very easy for a concern, placed in such an enviable situation, to have far too much capital locked up in its business for its own good. In the operations cited above much of its capital is being employed in earning a simple 6% per annum. Money invested in manufacturing should bring in more return than that ; and it is frequently better to borrow for a respectable part of one's requirements (if the proportion be not unduly large), and so leave more of the funds free for the active prosecution of the manufacturing side of the business. Of course, when any concern finds itself with an imdue amount of cash on hand, which may not be needed for a while, it can employ this surplus at a return of perhaps 5 per cent, in the purchase of high-class short-time commercial paper. Too ample a supply of funds is apt to lead to carelessness in their use, and it is wonderful how money will get locked up in silk at the mill and in goods at the store under such conditions, while, if necessity had compelled a stricter policy, probably not more than one-half the amount need have been melted into the stock in this manner. Limits of Capital for Mill Departments. As a matter of fact, silk mills should take a lesson from the de- partment stores, in which a definite and limited amount of capital is allowed for each department, and the buyers are compelled to keep within it. Now, if each department of a mill were so treated, with proper allowance for the number of looms that were running, it would compel the mill management to exercise special care to see that undue amounts of money did not get locked up here and there in the stock, and which in the aggregate would often amount to a huge sum. It does not do to starve any department of a mill ; but, beyond the absolutely needed provision, there should not be tied up an unnecessary dollar. The constant aim must be to keep the capital in the largest degree liquid. DesirabUity of Keeping Capital Liquid. For this reason many prudent manufacturers, when building their mills, will procure the largest possible mortgages upon the realty, or will arrange to have buildings suitable for their requirements erected on the basis of an annual rental charge. When favorable terms can be had, mills, not under commission-house roofs, may also arrange to CAPITAL REQUIRED IN MANUFACTURING 381 have their sales cashed by one or other of the banking concerns un- dertaking such work, and so release substantial sums, and some rea- sonable period of credit will also be taken on bills for raw materials. Working With Insufficient Funds. Considering next those mills at the bottom of the scale, we may find them with mortgaged plants, or located in rented premises, and sometimes with chattel mortgages on their machinery, or with looms bought on credit and only partially paid for. They buy their raw materials on the longest possible time ; let their other bills drag as long as they prudently can ; get such bank or other loans as they can pro- cure; take full advances on their goods, and have their sales cashed. These are the mills that cannot stop. Such conditions do not make a very sound basis for raw-silk credits, but by a judicious arrangement and padding of their statements, credit is often obtained that otherwise would be withheld. Figuring the Annual Mill Production. Let us now get down to figures and consider a broad silk mill with 200 looms, running full and steadily on 36-inch goods at 72^^ cents a yard. Let the weekly run be 55 hours, and the looms be speeded to 134 picks a minute, with 90 picks per inch in the cloth. A production of 70% of the theoretical would yield us 95 H yards a week, which, at the price above stated, would give a gross output of $69.25 per week per loom. Deducting 15 per cent, from this for the selling expense, leaves $58.86, and, if we allow the profit in it to be about 5 per cent., we get a figure of $56.00 as the net mill cost of the cloth produced weekly on each loom. Multiplying this figure by 51, for the number of working weeks in the year, and by 200 for the number of looms, we get an annual output, on a cost basis, of $571,200. or $47,600. per month. Details of the Monthly Expenditure. Now, let us assume that, in the cost of the fabric produced, 50% is represented by raw-silk, costing $23,800. a month; 25% is wages, amounting to $11,900. a month; 15% goes outside for throwing,dyeing and finishing, and totals up $7,140. a month; 6% is applied to general expenses and salaries, with a figure of $2,856. a month; while the re- maining 4% covers interest and depreciation, amounting to $1,904. a month. Investment in 'Plant. We will suppose that $200. a loom is invested in land and buildings, and $300. a loom in machinery and equipment, so we must figure $40,000. for the one and $60,000. for the other, a total investment in the plant of $100,000. or $500. a loom. 1 382 CAPITAL REQUIRED IN MANUFACTURING CAPITAL REQUIRED IN MANUFACTURING 3^3 i, ! Amount and Value of Materials in Process. Taking the minimum amount of materials on which a going con- cern could economically conduct its work, we may presume that there should be at the throwster's, under throwing order, a supply of raw- silk sufficient for three weeks. This would have a value of $i8,ooo. Then, at the dyer's, there should be another three weeks' supply of thrown silk, raised in value by the throwing to a total of $2i,ocx).; and, in various processes at the mill, a stock of silk equivalent to a four weeks' supply, which with the throwing and dyeing costs, and with the labor and other charges expended on it, would have a value of, say, $38,(XX)., making a total mill stock of $77,000. It nearly always happens that odd lots of materials accumulate at a mill to a serious extent, and in practice much money is generally locked up in such forms, and should be figured on ; but to make our figures clear we will take no account of this here. Merchandise Stock and Open Accounts, At the salesrooms, it will usually be considered necessary to have a reasonable amount of manufactured goods on hand as a basis on which to transact business, and this underlying stock may be esti- mated at one month's output, having a net mill cost of $47,600. In addition to this there may be, on the average, a quantity of goods in stock, sold, but which are being held for the time of delivery to arrive; and this may be put at two months' output, amounting to $95,200., making a total manufactured stock on hand at the salesrooms of $142,800. net mill cost. ^ If the terms of sale to the trade are on the usual basis of 6% off for payment in 10 days, and with 60 days' dating, then it would follow that there might usually be on the books open accounts to the extent of two months' output, or $95,200. net mill cost. Capital Actually Employed, ** Recapitulating these figures, we have in the plant $100,000. ; in mill stock, $77,000. ; in merchandise stock, $142,800. and in accounts on the books, $95,200.— a total of $4i5»ooo- or $2,075. per loom of capital actually employed, and that, too, on a most conservative lay out. For a concern that pays cash for everything, never borrows, and which carries its own credits, it is evident that a capital of $2,000. a loom is none too much ; and, if it has its own facilities for throwing, dyeing, printing and finishing, it would probably need to employ $500. a loom additional. Overtrading, Carried to Absurd Lengths. Next, let us see with how little capital the same business might be conducted. We will figure that a mortgage for $50,000. has been effected on the mill realty and machinery, and that the net investment there is brought down to $50,000., so the sum needed will now stand at $^65,000. , , , , r The liabilities might be as follows : For 6 months' supply of raw- silk, bought on notes of 6 months', an amount equal to $i42,50?- ^^ would doubtless be difficult to secure such a large supply of sUk on credit, on such a limited amount of net capital, but excessive credit is by no means unknown in the trade. Then, there would be an average of one week s wages due at the mills $3*000.; one month's expenses due for supplies, salaries, etc., $3,000., and one month's bills for throwing, dyeing and finishing, ag- gregating $7,000., making a total floating debt at the mills of $i55-500- In addition, there would be commission house advances on the unsold three months' stock of goods, amounting to $7^'^-^°^^ selling value, and advances of 60 per cent, on this would be $100,000. The two months' sales of goods, sold on 60 days credit, and amounting to $117,700. gross, could also be cashed, yielding about $99,500. ; but advances of 60% on the gross amount would have been taken, amounting to $70,600., so that there would only be $28,900. ot equity remaining if everything brought full price. The total floating liabilities then will be : $I55,500. of mill accounts $106,000. advances on unsold goods, and $70,600. advances on sold goods, making a sum of $332,100. , jj- Subtracting from, our figure of $365,000. this $332,100., and adding in $5,000. profit on the goods sold, we have remaining only $37,900 as the entire capital of this 200 loom mill, or but $190. a loom ; so that instead of having some reasonable amount of cash working capital, in addition to the investment in the mill properties, it has no working capital at all, and in addition there are debts amounting to about three- fifths of the value of the plant— a pitiable exhibition. When it is considered that the three months' output of goods, on hand at the salesrooms, represents a net mill cost of $47,600. X 3 = $142,800., on which commission house advances of $106,000. have been taken, leaving an equity in the stock of $36,800., it will be seen that practically the entire mill capital is tied up in this form ; and, if there should be a falling goods market, all of this equity might be easily wiped out, and the concern left without a dollar of its own. On the $2,000. a loom basis, this $37,900. capital would properly operate about 19 looms, instead of 200, and this deplorable state of affairs would only be possible by the unduly long terms on which raw- silk is sold, and the too great freedom with which credit is granted, together with the pawn broking facilities, in the shape of advances on goods, incident to the commission house system. Mills Should be Able to Shut Down. The most important fact to bear in mind in considering the capital ±n i\ 384 CAPITAL REQUIRED IN MANUFACTURING question is that the business should always be kept in such a shape that, if the exigencies of the times demanded the shutting down of 20 looms, or of 200, the maturing obligations could be taken care of without de- pending upon a fresh output of the looms for that purpose. When one is tempted to increase his plant, he should do some sober figuring along these lines, and, if he finds any kind of doubt existing as to how he would be fixed in this respect, he should defer his expan- sion until he has accumulated a proper sum of money for financing it. Requirements of Mills Differ. The above figiires are only based upon the operations of a small mill running on plain goods; and, of course, every mill, large or small, plain or fancy, will have its own special conditions to meet, and in which the capital required may differ widely from the foregoing. Fancy goods mills, in particular, will lock up much more money in ma- chinery and materials at the mills, and much more money in stock at the salesrooms. The underlying principles, however, are just the same, and they de- serve the closest scrutiny and the most careful study and consideration. Weak Concerns Are the Bane of the Industry. Under capitalized concerns are the bane of the industry, and their weakness is the cause of serious hardships not only to themselves, but to the entire trade. New concerns starting are very rarely anything like so well supplied with money as they should be, to have a proper chance of success ; but, unfortunately, they only become aware of this after they are started, and the mischief is then done. It is a pity that none of our silk organizations is in a position to furnish free expert advice, along these and other lines, to all persons who might contemplate embarking in the manufacture of silk. It might help to keep many of them out of the trade. XXXVII THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS Note. — This paper was originally published in October, 191 1, dur- ing a period of severe depression in the silk industry. In rewriting the article, the outline of the conditions then prevailing has been allowed to stand, for the causes of the trade evils here set forth are always with us, be the local circumstances what they may. J • ^» In times of severe trade depression there is always much talk in a general way of how this, that, and the other thing should be done to improve conditions in the industry, and to correct admitted evils. I think it was Artemus Ward, who, in speaking upon the unwilling- ness of the public to make the least personal effort looking toward the reform of any prevailing evils, made a remark, in substance, as fol- lows : "Now, for instance, take the matter of the weather ; people talk, and talk, and yet nothing is done." In the silk trade, too, there is talk and talk, and yet little or nothing is done, largely because very many people believe that the evils before us can no more be corrected than can the weather. Where so many potent outside causes are apparent as having a dis- astrous effect upon the industry, there is doubtless a tendency also to overlook certain very serious underlying influences, influences that are present with us all the time, helping to diminish the prosperity of good times, and making doubly severe the disasters of bad times. The Evil of Chronic Overproduction. The principal evil which is apparent is a chronic state of overpro- duction at all times, with accentuated volume during periods of de- pression, periods when a sharply restricted output is imperatively de- manded. It is this overproduction that has been going on in the face hi I ^"1 u U- .. ;ii; ^^ 386 THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS of the great under-consumption of silk merchandise, due to the pre- vailing fashions in women's dress, that has largely assisted in creatmg the present demoralization in the trade. Current Adverse Conditions. Let us admit all of the many adverse conditions that prevail ; the restricted yardage needed for costumes; the unsettled conditions in financial circles, largely due to the attitude of the government toward big corporate enterprises; the proposed downward revision of the tariff; the change of party control in Congress and the approaching Presidential election ; the high cost of living ; the unrest of labor both here and abroad ; the threat of war in Europe, due to the dispute over Morocco; the rebellion in Mexico; the disturbed political situation in England, Portugal, Spain, Cuba, and elsewhere ; the uprising in China ; the changed conditions in costume requirements brought about by the enormous use of automobiles ; the huge amount of wealth withdrawn from other channels and sunk in the purchase and upkeep of motor cars- the increasing national, state, and city expenditures, including the Panama Canal, the New York State barge canal, and other extraor- dinary expenses; the excessive losses from fire and the destructive forest fires ; the demolition of endless city buildings to make room for public improvements, railway stations, bridges and their approaches, hotels, and huge loft and office buildings, etc., in which great sums of money are locked up, changed in this way from liquid capital to fixed capital; the endless investigating, and consequent unsettling, of all sorts of business and political affairs, that is being undertaken by state and nation; the injurious domination of great monopolies in many branches of industry ; the competition of the cotton mills ; the restric- tions put on buyers by the "merchandise men," and the hand-to-mouth policy of purchasing that seems now to have become the fashion ; the after-effects of the panic that are still felt ; and many other contribut- ing causes than can doubtless be marshalled up, and which fully ac- count for the caution and conservatism everywhere apparent. , Favorable Factors in the Situation. Admitting, I say, all these, yet considering as an offset the large totals of our crop yields, year by year, and the handsome prices that they have commanded, which means that the nation, as a whole, has a real purchasing power; that silks are highly favored by fashion, and that the prices at which they can be produced and sold, owing to cheap raw-silk and to manufacturing skill and specialization, are so low as to give them a wider field than ever before; that labor throughout the country has been very fairly employed, and at good wages ; and many other favorable factors, it would have been impossible for the trade to have sunk into the pitiable condition that it has were it not for an THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS 387 unwarranted and blind manufacture of goods in excess of visible re- quirements. Overstocked Market Entailing Heavy Losses. No more goods, if as many, are taken than would have been the case with a market bare of stock, while with few goods on the shelves, and fewer in work, some profit could have been exacted on sales. As it is, we entered a season certain to be poor with a heavily overstocked market, and thus enabled the buyers to absolutely dominate and tram- ple upon the producers. The business done could not have been a full one in any event, but some money might have been made on what was done. Now, less business than ever is done, and the losses both on stock and order goods are killing. Might we not, therefore, have been spared much of this agony, if some rational measures looking to curtailments had been worked out in the past, and may not some steps be now taken that may prove of service in the future? Inability of Weak Concerns to Stop. One of the most potent causes in bringing about an overproduction during periods of slack trade, or depression, is the inability of weak concerns to stop. Firms which are overtrading usually have much or all of their quick capital locked up in equities in goods, which have been advanced on by their commission agents. When a stoppage of buying occurs, there is no stoppage of the times at which liabilities must be met. Money to take care of maturing obligations must be had at any cost. It cannot be got from the release of the equities in the stock goods, for, if forced to a sale at a time when goods were not wanted they would seldom bring more than enough to cover the advances, if as much. The commission merchants will not and cannot go beyond certain limits in their advances. Bank loans could rarely be secured on such statements as these concerns would have to present. The only means remaining to stave off a collapse is to make stock goods for ad- vances, and as the advances on them, when made, are less than the money put into them, it follows that the new obligations are of an in- creasing character, and the further stock to be made to take care of these in turn must be of an increased amount also. This process con- tinues till the market improves or the mill fails. Booking Order Business at a Loss. Some manufacturers, knowing full well the cruel losses that stock goods entail, and possibly influenced also by the knowledge that their factors would be unwilling to advance as liberally on stock goods on a weak market as on order goods, take the bull by the horns and boldly bid for order business at a loss, and in so doing they are adopt- THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS 389 .? .:i 388 THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS ing a far safer plan, though dreadfully expensive, than those who are banking up merchandise. Production Increases When it Should Contract, To talk to these gentlemen about the desirability or necessity of curtailing production at such times is to talk to the wind. They know it as well as any one, and they would be overjoyed to be in a position to do so, but they cannot. Plunge ahead they must, sink or swim. We therefore see that at the very time that restriction of output is needed, it is thus largely increased, and at the same time prices are broken in every direction by these weak interests. Those strong and sane manufacturers who keep their output within proper bounds, while they need not be loaded with stock, yet see the prices broken on such goods as they have on their shelves, and market figures established that make the getting of a proper profit on order goods almost an im- possibility. In spite of their own strength and ability they suffer m common with the rest. Temporary Depressions Become Continuing Ones. In every trade there are temporary or slight depressions, or ces- sation of active purchasing, as distinguished from those severe and far-reaching collapses that take place at longer intervals. These mod- erate reactions would have but a very short duration if the supply of goods was kept in reasonable harmony with the demand. Owing to the conditions that exist in the silk trade, each of these minor depres- sions is accentuated into a long continued period of bad business, and the control of the market is thus ever surrendered to the buyers. Cycles of Good and Bad Years. The writer has observed elsewhere that there seems to occur in this industry cycles of about five years, in which one year is good, one indifferent, two bad, and one very bad. It certainly appears to be so. Where the Blame Lies. The principal causes that enable concerns without sufficient funds to start and to continue in business, appear to be the long time credit that is often afforded by machinery builders, the extended terms given on raw-silk, and the pawn-broking facilities afforded by the comniis- sion houses in their cash advances upon merchandise sent them for sale together with their discounting of all sales made. Without this commission house assistance, these concerns could never do business, but, as the commission house system seems to have arisen from the inability of the banking system of the country to sup- nlv the textile producers with sufficient funds for their needs, we shall doubtless have it with us for a long time to come. It has notable con- veniences and advantages in certain ways, though the mills have to pay roundly for them, but unfortunately it affords too great facilities, and thus keeps alive a lot of very weak mills which make little or no profit for themselves, and it constantly assists in bringing into being mills which never should start on the scale that they do. How a Mushroom Concern Starts. A concern with five or six thousand dollars, by taking rented prem- ises, buying much of its machinery on extended time, and the rest from second-hand dealers, getting six months' credit for its silk, and get- tine full advances on its goods, with sales cashed, will start with, say, fifty looms, while that capital, even if the mill had reasonable com- mission house assistance, should not properly be counted upon to finance more than about ten looms. ^ There should be no criticism about the mere size of any concern. The man with four looms is as much entitled to proportionate credit for his four as the man with four hundred is for his. The great thing is that, be the mill large or be it small, there should be proper capital behind each loom operated. Extended Time of Machinery Sales. Taking the builders of machinery, we find that it is not unusual for loom builders and others to install plants on the basis, say, of lOVo cash, and 10% per month thereafter, the title to the machmery not to pass until the payments are completed. The builder is quite sate in doing this, for it is practically certain that at least the first three or four payments will be met, and if he then has to take back his machinery he can repaint and resell it as new, and the money he has already received will recoup him for his expenses and profit. If on the other hand, the buyer completes his payments, and sub- sequently requires more machinery, he will generally buy the same types for the sake of uniformity, and he will have a very friendly feel- ing for the seller on account of the liberal terms originally accorded ^"rhis policy naturally locks up a lot of the builder's capital, but he finds it a valuable help toward inducing the manufacturer to start with his machinery, and, once started, he is pretty sure to contmue using it. Long Credit Given on Asiatic Silks. In the raw-silk trade, all Asiatic silks are sold on a basis of 6 months' terms, and Europeans usually on a credit of 60 or 90 days. Notes may, or may not, be given in settlement of accounts. The longer time accorded to buyers of Asiatic silks gives these silks a great advantage over Europeans in the favor of those houses with limited capital. Carrying of Silk and Forward Selling. In addition to the terms of credit, the raw-silk houses customarily carry silk after the due date of delivery until such time as the buyer 390 THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS 391 ii ' I chooses to call it in, which may not be for several months. For this carrying, a charge is made on the bill at the rate of 6% per annum on the value of the silk for the time it has been carried. One per cent, of this practically covers the storage and insurance, while 5% represents the real interest charge. If a raw-silk house should sell silk for forward delivery, to be de- livered, say, in two, three, four, and five months' time from date of contract, and if the last delivery were carried for four months, and the terms were six months from that date, it would then be fifteen months, on the last delivery, from the time that the raw-silk sellers obligated themselves till they saw the color of their money. This makes an un- duly extended obligation. Were it not, however, for this selling for forward delivery, and for the carrying privilege, the buyers could not begin to operate with the same freedom that they now do, and as such buying is of great advan- tage to the sellers the custom seems to be mutually beneficial, though the load on the raw silk dealers at times must be very heavy, and it invites speculation in silk on the part of manufacturers. Commission House Facilities, The commission houses advance, usually, from 60% to 75% on the gross value of the goods sent them for sale ; perhaps 70% would be the average rate. They will also discount all sales as soon as they are charged on the books. They feel under some compulsion to do fully as much as they safely can in the matter of advances so as not to dis- courage business from coming to them, knowing that if others can do materially better in this respect they will be favored by the manufac- turers. Where Reforms Should Begin. Now, as in these three directions, undue facilities are furnished to very weak concerns, and by this assistance they are brought into being and kept alive, though generally in a very unsound condition, and as it is the weakness of these houses that is responsible to a considerable de- gree, as shown, for the continuous demoralization of the market, the question arises whether steps could not be taken by each of these in- terests to curtail the manufacturer's credit facilities, and thus compel him either to put more capital into his business or to conduct his opera- tions on a smaller and safer scale. This pressure must be put on the producers from the outside; there can be no reform from within in a case like this, for obvious reasons. Curtailing. Raw-silk Credits. Taking raw-silk credits, what should be the maximum time al- lowed? After silk is received, say for use in skein-dyed fabrics, it may be a month at the throwster's, two to four weeks at the dyer's, and three to six weeks in process at the mill. From the time it has been charged up it should, barring undue delays, come forward as fin- ished merchandise, upon which advances can be got, m about three months. , . .. This time, therefore, might be decided on as the maximum time on which any raw-silk should be sold. If a manufacturer used 250 pounds of silk a year per loom, valued at $4. a pound, equal to $1,000., and bought on six months terms, the restricting of the credit by three months, or one-quarter of a year, would cut him out of $250. a loom of credit, which would have to be replaced with cash from somewhere. Weak mills would then have to strengthen themselves or greatly curtail their operations. ^ , . , A step of this kind would have to be brought about by the fairly collective action of the raw-silk houses, and it should not be very ditti- cult to reach such an agreement as they are very severe sufferers from bad debts, aggravated by the present too extended credits. Pressure from banking interests would assist. , , „ ^1 This contraction would have to be enforced gradually so as to al- low reasonable time for re-adjustment. For instance, notice could be given that, on a stated date six months distant, the time would be re- duced to 5 months, six months thereafter to 4 months, and again, after another half year, to 3 months. ^ , u 1 „fo^ The sanity of such a step would be obvious to the whole manufac- turing interest, and would be welcomed by the major part of it. Quotations on Asiatics would then be on the basis of 3 months, less i>^%. Discriminating Against Commission-house Mills. The raw-silk houses should, logically, make a great difference in the amount of the credit they grant, and the length of time for payment, between those houses which finance themselves and those which pawn their goods for advances to the commission houses. ^ If a self financed concern fails, the raw-silk people get an equitable share of the assets, but, if a mill under a commission house roof comes to grief, the pawnbroker's lien of the factors, and the hens of throw- ster, dyer and finisher, upon the goods in their hands, absorb almost all of the assets and leave but a sorry dividend for those houses which have provided the silk that is in the goods under pledge. The raw-silk merchants, therefore, should sharply discriminate be- tween the two, as their risk is infinitely greater in the latter case than in the former. Pawning Goods Should Restrict Raw-silk Credits. Should such a course prevail, the manufacturers, who would be operating more looms than their finances warranted, would find that for every thousand dollars of advances they accepted on their mer- chandise they would be cutting off a thousand dollars of raw-silk m^KJXL ^faKT Ul frfli^ 392 THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS credit, and they might thus (under pressure) see the wisdom of run- ning fewer looms but on a much sounder basis. Putting Pressure on Machine Builders. The machinery builders, in their turn, could be approached by com- mittees representing their important customers, or through the medium of the trade associations, and strong representations could be made to them as to the pernicious effects of such methods as have been re- ferred to. As, in the long run, the abolishing of this deferred payment practice would probably have little or no effect on the average annual sales of machinery, the builders would probably bow to the opinion of the trade if reasonable pressure were applied. What the Commission Houses Could Do. We must now inquire what could be done by the commission house interests towards getting weak mills into a safe and sane condition, the crux of the situation being that they should be got into a position where they would always be able to curtail production, and perhaps stop producing entirely, when a receding market demanded it. So long as the present unsatisfactory conditions are stimulated and continued by undue commission house assistance, it would certainly be only reasonable to expect these interests to concern themselves in the matter. It is not to be expected that any branch of the trade can be led into taking action which would appear to be seriously prejudicial to its own interests. The curtailing of financial assistance to mills may, however, have a beneficial effect, rather than the reverse, on those interests. Sources of Commission House Profits. A commission house looks for its principal income to commissions on sales of merchandise, and the largest possible sales are consequently desired, and whether the mills make a profit, no profit, or a loss on the turnover (so long as they remain solvent), is a matter of only secondary interest to the factors. For the same reason that large sales are wanted, a large loomage is desired, for if the looms run the goods must eventually be sold, and commissions will be earned on them in due course. The interest account is a material source of profit also, and there- fore a desire generally exists to lend as much as possible in advances, so long as the margin of safety in the collateral is unquestionable. The volume of sales made, and the character of the collateral behind the loans are the matters of primary interest to the factors, who rarely concern themselves much regarding the financial affairs of their con- signors, and in fact might feel that it would be regarded as an imperti- nence were they to do so. I THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS 393 They, also, are bidders for the business of the mills, and they have no desire to antagonize them in any way, as it might result in drivmg business into the hands of their competitors. Good Intentions but Bad System. In every way, their intentions are the best, and they desire by all means to avert trouble and promote prosperity, but unfortunately the system, to a great extent, works the other way, and, incidentally, dur- ing times of poor business puts much financial worry on their shoul- ders, as weak mills unceasingly plead for more money. Compensations for Refusing Weak Accounts. Wherein, now, can a commission house find an advantage that will compensate it for discouraging the bringing into existence of new but weak mills, the preventing the extension of old ones, and the reduction of loomage in others, for this policy would appear to mean diminished The answer is to be found in the fact that, with a normal relation between production and consumption, the numerous periods of gr^t depression would be minimized in number and extent, and that all the looms properly capitalized would then have a much greater prospect of continuous profitable employment than could now be the case. If the yardage actually woven by each mill were to be tabulated over a series of years, and compared with what could have been pro- duced on the same looms by continuous operation, the difference will be found to be enormous, so that the same yardage could have been produced by a much smaller number of looms, running steadily. The amount of merchandise consumed by the country, and the con- sequent sales, and commissions earned thereon, would not be widely different if made by fewer looms running full, or more looms running intermittently, but it means everything to the well-being of the in- dustry. In the former case a profit would be obtainable, in the latter it generally would not. ^i.- j r -^^ In fact, if the average mill was compelled to stop one-third of its machinery, even if its distributing and mill expenses remained the same, it would be much more likely to make a profit thanit ordinarily would be, besides being in better credit and in far safer financial con- dition. , . , ^ J Not only this, but tHe houses that are relatively strong, yet under commission house roofs, suffer seriously in sales during these unneces- sarily prolonged depressions, and the commission on their lost sales is a direct loss to the factor's pocket. • , ^u Again, conditions that tend towards constant depression keep the average of prices lower, and thus lower the commissions earned on a given yardage sold. ..,«•• * These considerations should have weight as a visible offset against the apparent loss in sales that reduced loomage should mean. 394 THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS l|t !l!!|i I'll Collective Action Necessary. Action, to be effective, would have to be taken collectively, by the dozen or more large commission houses which clear for the silk trade, and as the managers of these concerns are all gentlemen of large ex- perience and much intelligence, it should not be difficult to secure uni- formity of action along such lines as might be considered workable ; at any rate it would be well worth an effort. Ascertaining Proper Minimum of Capital. The important basic fact to ascertain is, for each line of business or class of trade catered to, what would be the smallest amount of quick assets per loom that a concern, clearing through a commission house and entitled to certain advances, and which had its sales cashed, should possess, and the having of which would enable it to conduct its affairs on a sound basis, and to curtail production when such a course was ad- visable. How Such Figures Could be Arrived At. In determining such figures there would be no intention of arriving at anything but the cold facts, and conferences between the factors and experienced manufacturers, both those selling direct and those sell- ing otherwise, should enable decisions of fair accuracy to be arrived at. Under present conditions, a concern carrying its own credits can- not well get along with less than $i,ooo. quick capital per loom, and even then it may have to borrow considerably. In fact $1,250. would be nearer right. How much of this is now supplied by the commission houses when a concern is doing a full and steady business ? Suppose that a loom turns off goods to the value of $200., gross, per month, and that the stock at the selling office averages three months' output, being made up of one month's production as an under- lying stock, and two months' product held for delivery against orders, and that another two months' product is charged on the books. This would mean a merchandise stock of $600. per loom, and open accounts of a further $400. Advances of 70% on the $600. would yield $420., and cashing the sales, less 15% would give $340. more, a total of $760. per loom, under normal business conditions, supplied by the factors. To bring this up to the $1,250. mark would require about $500. more. Suppose, now, that the result of the conferences was a decision that the sum of active capital required for each loom operated, say, on skein-dyed dress silk fabrics, should not be less than $500., and that the collective body of commission agents agreed not to finance on any other basis. How would this be put into effect? Putting Reforms Into Effect. In the first place, new concerns, without proper capital, would be THE CURTAILMENT OF MILL CREDITS 395 absolutely shut off from embarking in business on too large a scale, and so the crop of mushroom manufacturers that always springs mto being after any period of activity in the trade, would be effectively re- stricted. Next, the factors would decline to finance any additions to the ex- isting loomage under their roofs, unless each new loom started was backed by its proper quota of money. This would prevent too fast ex- pansion by growing concerns. Then, those undercapitalized concerns, which had started too weak, or which had lost money, or which had been expanding too fast, would be invited to cut down their loomage to within the limits of their quick capital, so soon as their contracts expired. Thus, a mill of 500 looms, whose statement showed, in addition to the plant, assets of $150,000. would be asked to put $100,000. more into its business, or reduce its output to a 300 loom basis, ample time and every facility, of course, being given to assist in the conse- quent liquidation and re-adjustment. Different Requirements for Different Trades. Figures as to capital needed could be worked out for each branch of the trade, dress silks, linings, tie silks, goods made for sale in the grey, etc., with a proper distinction between wide and narrow, and plain and fancy looms, as the money requirements for the different lines may vary considerably. Manufacturers Would Approve. I believe that most manufacturers could be brought to see that this would make for their welfare in the long run, and would acquiesce in it, but those who did not could not get financed elsewhere by the other parties to the agreement, and would either have to try and clear through some obscure or weak houses, or get sufficient money into their business to enable them to sell direct, a very difficult matter. The restricting of raw-silk credits would assist in this compulsory adjustment between loomage and capital, so that the whole brunt of the re-adjustment would not fall upon the commission houses. Reforms That Would Really Reform. I believe that well (considered, conservative, and concerted action, along lines similar to what are here set forth, should be feasible, and I am thoroughly convinced that reforms, instituted along these lines, would go far towards making the great silk industry a business in which proper returns would be possible for the capital invested and for the skill, knowledge, and ability that is required in it. it PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION 397 'I'f; i 1- XXXVIII PLAN FOR THE CREATION OF A GREAT SILK CORPORATION. The question of uniting a number of mills, representing a large broad-silk loomage, into one great company is one that has received careful thought from many experienced men during the last decade. Plans have been made in the past for accomplishing this result, but, whether from the times or circumstances not being propitious, or from the plans being faulty or incomplete, the project has never taken shape. Lack of Interest During Good Times. When business is fairly good, little interest seems to be displayed in the subject, but, in the times of extreme depression into which the industry is periodically plunged, many manufacturers of standing will state their belief that the organization of a great combination would be of inestimable value to the whole trade. It is my desire here to discuss the various phases of such a prop- osition, to the end that the different points that must be considered in connection with it may be made clear. Businesses, Successful and Unsuccessful. As is the case in all businesses, the concerns engaged in silk manu- facturing have met with widely varying degrees of prosperity. A few have made notable successes; quite a number have done very satis- factorily; some have lost money; but by far the largest number have made but little, in very many cases merely getting a new dollar for an old one, while all the time their plants and their own lives have been steadily wearing out. In discussing such a proposition, it is not unusual to hear some successful manufacturer decry the project, and, in declining to in- terest himself in it, ask why he should be expected to pull the other fellow's chestnuts out of the fire; that he can see no reason for his bothering about it; and that, if the other fellow cannot make goods at a profit, he should stew in his own juice. This is a not uncommon point of view, but it is none the less the case that it is greatly to the interest of every manufacturer, large or small, successful or unsuccessful, to have such an enterprise carried through, on a thoroughly sound basis, whether he himself elects to enter it or not. Every concern in the trade would benefit by it, but, properly managed, the insiders would fare the best. Ends to he Attained. The ends to be attained would be the supplying of adequate capital to such looms as lack it, to effect enormous savings in the manufacture and distribution of goods, to make material savings in the purchase of raw materials and supplies, to cut down the interest charges, and to steady the market prices for staple merchandise, thereby assuring a better average profit, not only to themselves, but to the whole trade. Broad-silk Loomage of the Country. The broad-silk looms in the United States to-day number, ap- proximately, 75,000. Of these a considerable number— let us say 10,000 — are chronically idle except when business is unusually active. Others, again, work on fabrics rather outside of the regular lines, whether upholstery goods, shoe tops, hat linings, or what not. The remainder, 60,000 or upwards, are engaged in producing a wide range of goods from dress silks to linings, or from casket-cloths to neckwear. Reasons for a Large Combination. In order to accomplish the ends aimed at, the company would have to be so large that practically every one would have to trade with it to a greater or lesser degree. It must be a force to be reckoned with, and whose prices on staple goods, when fixed as they would be on the basis of a close working profit, would practically become the standard prices for the market for the season. Outside competitors would be interested in trying to get the same prices, not in underselling them, and the prices would bfe publicly quoted just as are those of other great corporations. An aggregation of so few as, say, 5,000 looms would be powerless to accomplish this purpose. Looms to that number could be wiped out of existence and would never be missed. In the writer's opinion, about 15,000 looms would be necessary, a very moderate number, when it is considered that it would represent only one-fifth of the present loomage of the country. 1 "t'- V 398 PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION Difficult to Make Profit on Staples. The main difficulty which confronts the industry all the time, is the impossibility of making any proper profit on plain or standard fabrics, owing to the fierce competition and the manner in which the buyers dominate the market. Every one is afraid of letting business — even when unprofitable — get past him, for fear that if he does not take it his looms may stand idle while their heavy expenses go on. In dull or bad seasons it is too often a case of "who will take the biggest loss?" not of "who will take the least profit?" The price cutting is further intensified by the fact that numerous mills do not know with any accuracy what their costs are (and correct costs are not easily arrived at), and they sometimes sell at a loss when they think they are making a profit. Temporary Prosperity Often Due to Chance. Many mills, too, that have done quite handsomely, are indebted largely to chance for their good fortune in getting onto profitable fabrics, and, with the changing conditions of the market, they may any time find themselves in as difficult a position as their less fortunate brethren. Compelled to Run When Business is Bad. It is a notorious fact that much of the evil of price cutting is due to the inability of many mills to stop running when business is bad, owing to lack of a proper amount of working capital. To stop means liquidation, and it is impossible for them to liquidate, spread out as they are. They must run either for stock or for order, and orders taken at a small loss are less of a calamity than the accumulation of heavy stocks to eat up interest and then to be forced on an unwilling market at a heavy sacrifice. Let us now see how such a proposition might be worked out. Providing Undercapitalised Mills With Funds. In the first place, it should be noted that it is of more importance to bring together the undercapitalized mills, and provide them with proper funds, than the rich mills. It is the former who are forced by stress of necessity to pursue courses injurious to the market, and it is for the benefit of all that they be put on a better basis. The fact that they have not made money should not weigh too heavily, for we see, every day, mills that have been losers being taken over by powerful concerns and put forthwith upon a profitable basis. The great thing is that, so far as their plants, equipment, and lo- cations are concerned, they should be properly fitted for producing goods economically. PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION 399 Company Must he Organized From Within. Then, the concern must be organized from within and not from without, that is, it must be the uniting of manufacturers for their com- mon welfare on a basis equitable to all, and not the sellmg out of their businesses to some outside promoter. Corporation Should Acquire the Mills Absolutely. This can best be done by the formation of a corporation which would take over absolutely the entire assets of the combined mills, issuing its own shares to them in exchange. In thus uniting, and surrendering their individual businesses and authority, whatever securities they receive in exchange must be se- curities in the truest sense of that much abused word. Assets Which Must be Acquired. What are the things which a manufacturer is thus called on to sur- First, there is his plant, covering land, buildings, machinery and equipment ; then, his quick assets, including cash and receivables, book accounts, equities in goods advanced on, goods manufactured and m process, raw-silk, and materials of all kinds ; then, any trade-marks or patents of value; then, the employment it gives him for his own services; and, lastly, the demonstrated profit-earning capacity of his business— averaged over the preceding five or ten years— and which in- cludes the name and the good will of the concern. The owner may also feel a natural pride in the reputation that he has built up for his products and for his name, and may have sons whom he wishes to succeed him in the business. What Owners Will Require in Exchange. To warrant him in giving up possessions of such a valuable kind in exchange for the shares of the company, certain things are essential. Shares Issued Against Liquid Assets. If shares, say, first-preferred cumulative shares — ^bearing 6% or 7% interest— are to be issued to him for his quick assets, no one should get a single share on better terms, and subscribers of new cash required to properly capitalize the company would have to pay the same. This stock would have first claim on the assets in the event of dissolution. Shares Issued Against Mill Properties. Against the mill assets— properly inventoried— 6% non-cumulative, second-preferred stock could be issued, and of this stock also no shares should be issued except for the same values, and to the associated manufacturers only. This stock would have second claim on the assets. I II . M U ; I !1 400 PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION 401 How Earning Power is Provided For. Then, the demonstrated earning power could be capitalized on a 6% basis, and a common stock issued against this, and the value of trade- marks could be included also. As this common stock would be only intended to provide a dividend equal to the former earning capacity, and not to enjoy a larger return from the savings to be effected, the shares, so issued, might be limited to the 6% dividend. Issue of Additional Common Stock. Additional common stock would be issued to the mills, proportionate to their loomage, for which the large savings to be effected would pro- vide the dividend. Avoidance of Bond Obligations, While any bonds or mortgages lying against any of the properties might be taken over, no new bonds should be issued. Bonds are obli- gations of a kind to be kept clear of, and, by not having any, the credit of the Company would be much higher, and its borrowing capacity greater. . Inventorying the Mill Properties. A joint committee of the manufacturers would assess the values of the various mill assets, from the standpoint of their worth as pro- ductive going concerns, and not from the standpoint of the actual cost of replacement. .. t , . -u In this way, obsolete or worn out machinery, or unsuitable build- ings, would not be over-valued. Retaining the Personnel of the Mills. No business should be taken over without practically its entire personnel, managers and subordinates, and the important people should be made to agree to stay with the concern for a term of years. The identity of the various mills need not be sunk, and the names, when of value, should always be retained. ,. . , , r Buildings and machinery alone have but a very Imiited value, for a business is nothing without its people, and these, when possible, should always be retained, so that affairs would run along smoothly and without any interregnum. New Capital to be Provided by bankers. A quick capital of not less than $1,000., and perhaps up to $1,500., a loom over and above the values invested in plant and equipment, is essential if the Company is to be in the position that it should, and new cash would have to be provided by bankers underwriting the enterprise to an extent that would bring up the quick capital from the figures actually possessed by the mills to the above level. This would doubtless be a huge sum of money, probably $10,000,000 or more, and the providing of it would have to be paid for in the usual ^^^* Advantages to be Realised. * With proper capitalization, the Company could conduct all of its affairs wLo^ut outside assistance, . except reasonable bankmg^^^^^^^^ modation at certain seasons, carry its own credits, do ^H its own ^^^^^ iliary work, throwing, dyeing, finishing, printing, etc., and transact its 'TtTsTfe%"say t\"at re^'sul^^^^^^^^ of selling goods through com- mison-hSe channels is not far from 7/2%; only a mof ^ P™ of this is actually profit to the commission-house, the rest being ab- sorbed in expenses, and it is a heavy drain. u * • « *^ Here are scores of mills, of smaller or larger size, each trying to cover the country with its own salesmen; each sampling along sinnlar ^nes to an absurd extent; each largely in the dark as to what can be S for the goods it is making, and very few of them making mone>^ ^ Working^ as one concern,%ll this endless duphcatmg of expense would be avoided, and the present selling cost would be more than cut ^^ 's1m"i[aViratr^^^^^ to-day endless complication entailed by the 4ide variety of goods that each mill makes, and the intermmab le samS that goes on. Consider the saving if one mill was put solely on H^k skein-dyed goods, another on tie-silks, another on cotton- bLk satins, and so on. The general expense there might likewise be Owiilg to the new cash subscribed, the interest usually paid out on loans would be correspondingly eliminated; the ability o purchase silk d°rectTn Asia and Europe would have advantages ; the large volume of the general purchases for the mills would insure lower prices; and the fonducting of the auxiliary branches would also yield substantial ^'°Another advantage would be that, as each mill has found by ex- periVnce how to make one or other fabric better or cheaper than most K competitors, this combined experience of all the mills would be at the service of the Corporation. , , , , ^ v.,,. Thus if thirty mills united, and each of them made five qualities of peau'de cygne-one hundred and fifty in all. the best eight or ten of them might be selected as the line to be shown by the new "^""xhe benefits to be derived from this joint trading are fully ap- parent. Benefits Accruing to the Manufacturer. The manufacturer would, therefore, enjoy much larger and steadier orofits than would otherwise be possible, and he would not lose either his identity, his occupation, or his salary, but would get rid of a great i »' 402 PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION 403 \\ m tysii i : 1 11(11* ill I deal of the worry that now oppresses him, or, one might almost say, that often overwhelms him. Shares Could he Sold on the Stock Exchange. As the shares would be listed and dealt in on the New York Stock Exchange, and would consequently have a quoted market value, any one desiring to dispose of his holdings, in whole or in part, could at any time do so and at their full value, though it would probably be wise to put some restriction on the sale of the shares issued to the mills, perhaps requiring that the major portion of them be held for a couple of years or so. At present, any one wanting to get out of the trade must make heavy sacrifices to do so. Some will say that any business showing a good balance sheet can be readily sold, but every one knows that it is the individuality of the men in the management that has made the success, and with them out the business might be worthless, and any prospective buyer would know this. Selecting a Head for the Enterprise, Much has been said about the difficulty of getting a suitable man to head such an enterprise. That, however, is an unwarranted fear. Every new business of large size is directed by some man who never had just that same previous experience. Any really good man, assisted as he would be by the advice of so many of the best mill and market experts in the trade, could be trusted to lead it success- fully. Comprehensive Plans Worked Out by the Writer. There are a great many other points, of more or less importance, that will occur to any one giving consideration to the project, but one and all of them are susceptible of practical and equitable adjustment. The writer has worked out in full detail a complete plan for the organization and management of such an enterprise, and every moot point has been thoroughly considered and a suitable and practicable method of dealing with it has been found. Laws Relating to Combinations. While the laws prohibit the forming of so-called trusts, or dominat- ing combinations, there can never be any restriction on one concern actually buying out another and the proposed method of uniting is free from any such objections, besides which is the fact of the very modest percentage of the looms in the industry that would be in- cluded in it. Taking in the Ribbon Departments. The ribbon departments, of such of the united mills as had them, could also be included, and other ribbon mills could be drawn into the combination. Causes of Disaster in Other Instances. It has been urged against such a project that numerous large com- binations, in various branches of industry, have ended m lamentable disaster. The slightest inquiry will show, however, that nearly all ot these businesses were organized, not from the inside by the manu- facturers themselves, but by outside promoters who stripped the busi- nesses of their assets, to their own enrichment, and then left the or- ganizations to shift for themselves as they might. ^ , ,. r This plundering process is usually accompanied by the loading ot heavy bond obligations upon the unfortunate concerns, and the free issue of large amounts of preferential shares which, in great part, represent anything but assets. u 1 • o^ In addition to this, the vital necessity of ample cash working cap- ital is generally brushed aside, for these promoters are bent upon get- tine cash out of the enterprise, not upon putting it in. Such concerns could not succeed, but amalgamations, such as the one here proposed, organized and directed from the mside, have scored notable successes. Acquiring Other Mills. Provision should also be made looking towards the taking in from time to time of additional mills as occasion might offer, for there is no reason why good plants should not be admitted whenever it can be arranged. ^ . . T-n- ^ j Reforms and Economies to be hjjectea. Such a company would be a great factor in helping to minimize and combat the unjust cancellations, returns, and claims that have grown to be such a serious evil, sapping the vitality of every house in the market. . , , , , t • r It should be strongly borne in mind that only by such a union ot interests can there be made possible the enormous economies to be derived from the joint manufacturing and merchandising of their products, and which forms the surest foundation for the continuous earning of dividends. Trade may improve, or appear to, but any one who thinks that the silk manufacturing business can enjoy steady pros- perity under existing conditions is simply shutting his eyes to the facts. Nothing Stable in the Present Situation. A turn in the wheel of fashion may change any present prosperity that a firm may enjoy into a condition the reverse of happy, and that, too, in a very short time. A comparison of the present earnings of many mills with what they were a few years ago would be most illuminating. Benefit to the Trade of Such a Corporation. With good business conditions, there will probably be a tendency iii-i. 404 PLAN FOR A GREAT SILK CORPORATION w j B J • ; ) , 'S^B^ui,. to forget, in a measure, the evils that the trade has suffered from, and to take less interest in proposals for relief. None the less, it should be the policy of every mill to help forward the realization of such a project, if based upon sound and comprehensive foundations, and that, too, without regard to whether they desire to get into it or stay out of it. Just so long as there is wanting the steadying influence of a great corporation will the silk trade remain in the very unsatisfactory state which has come to be its normal condition. XXXIX THE DENIER SYSTEM OF SILK MEASURE AND ITS ORIGIN. rOririnally published in the Scientific American Supplement, ^ ^ June 8th, 1912.) To explain the origin of this system of counts, it is nec^sanr to turn back to the weights and measures used by the people of France in the times preceding the French Revolution. Difficulty of Introducing New Standards. It is a singular and significant illustration of the difficulty of ch^g- inK *e teSand mea^res which a nation has been accustomed to S^l and of the tenacity with which people will persist m usmg Aeir old'stendards that, after the lapse of about a century and a quarter, mid after maAyvfeorous and persistent efforts, backed by severe laws ^ the part o^f succeeding French govermnents, to. compel the oc- clusive use of the metric system, it has been found impossible to get fhTse engaged in the silk industry to consent to number their yams by the standard metric method of so many metres per gramme. ^ After repeated conferences and congresses held to consider th« subject, for the purpose of trying to induce the silk men to depart from their ancient standards, the best that could be accompl^hed has been to secure their acquiescence in some slight modifications of the lengths and weights used, so as to make the standard more adapted to decimal figuring. ■• . , j .v,-. -.i,,., mam I ■ ■■ 1 of this sizing must not be finer than 13.50 deniers, or coarser than 14.50. By dividing the yardage per pound of a i denier silk by the denier- age of any given size, the result will be the yardage per pound of that silk. Difference Between Old and New Standards. The difference between the revised standard and the old one amounts to less than 0.0043 per cent., or about one two-hundred- and-thirty-third, and this is a most trifling difference. A silk that formerly sized as 14 deniers would now be 14.06 deniers. Testing Silk for Size. As one test only of the size of a silk would be wholly insufficient to properly show the yardage per pound of such a variable material, the accepted method is to draw ten skeins from different parts of the bale, and make three reelings from each, or thirty in all. The average size of these is stated as the denierage of the silk, while the sizes of the individual reelings show fairly well the degree of irregu- larity of the material. This variation, or "spring," is called by the French "ecart." The Valuable Compound Sizing Test. The Conditioning House in New York makes a further excellent test of 20 reelings of 4,500 metres each, for showing more surely the average size, as these long reelings over-run the varying inequalities in size, and this new test (the Compound Sizing Test) is much more dependable where length per pound is wanted. The old test shows the variableness of the size much better, so the use of both of them is valuable. Modified Denier System Accepted Generally. In view of the fact that the new system is now firmly established in all the silk-producing countries, it may properly be regarded as permanent. mn, ItiBUI') 1 . XL EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING (Originally published in the American Silk Journal, April, 191 1.) During the last few years the public attention has been strongly directed toward efficiency in manufacture. The remarkable work that has been done by Harrington Emerson, Frederick W. Taylor, H. L. Gantt Frank B. Gilbreth, and others, in standardizmg mechanical oper- ations and, by minute analysis and careful experiment, enormously raising the efficiency of the worker, is at last beginning to receive the attention that it deserves. Wastefulness of Present Methods. In perusing the writings of these investigators one is profoundly impressed with the facts set forth. They show that, of the labor ex- pended in most trades, probably from one-third upwards is absolutely wasted, and that losses in production, from the lack of a proper provi- sion of standardized materials and appliances, are appalling. Each of us is apt to think that such things might occur in the other fellow^s business, but not in ours, but the conclusion cannot be escaped from that all lines of trade have been following the rule-of-thumb methods in which they have grown up, and with an annual waste that is colossal. Extraordinary Results of Scientific Methods. Two illustrations will show what can be done. Bricks, for instance, have been laid much in the same way for thousands of years. Bricklayers are supposed to be highly skilled craftsmen, and, of course, would scoff at the idea of anyone teaching them anything about their trade, particularly some one who was not a working mason. Uti V'M I ^ ' . 412 EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING Mr. Gilbreth, who had read of Mr. Taylor's work in the steel in- dustry, attacked the problem, and by a careful analysis of the brick- layer's motions, and some rearrangement of the methods of supply- ing the materials to the workman, he was able to cut down the neces- sary motions from 18 to 4j^. By exact and scientifically correct methods, he was able also to increase the daily work done per bricklayer, on a given job, from 1,000 to 3,500 bricks laid, and that, too, with less fatigue to the workman. Needless to say that the bricklayers earned materially more money and the job cost the employers vastly less. The other instance deals with the loading of 92-pound pigs of iron onto freight cars — work done by a low class of day laborers, and which would seem to be about as unpromising a direction for the application of scientific principles as could be imagined. This was one of Mr. Taylor's investigations, and the observations made and records kept, over a period of months, led to the framing of a standard practice for handling the work which raised the daily weight of pig iron loaded by each man from I2j^ tons to 47 >^ tons. Such improved methods could never have been devised by any workman, or set of workmen, for themselves. They would have had neither the opportunity, the time, the knowledge, nor the scientific training necessary for the task. Every Manufacturer Should Investigate. Therefore, let not the old and experienced silk-mill manager put on a superior smile when it is suggested that proper inquiry into our present methods may result in a similar revolution. If he feels like sneering, let him read what the gentlemen above quoted have written, and unless he be an imbecile he will promptly sit up and take notice. Basic Principles of Scientific Efficiency. The fundamental principles of such methods are that the efforts of the workman must be so put forth as to incur a minimum of both bodily and mental fatigue, so that at the end of the day he will be any- thing but exhausted, and that there be no suggestion of "speeding him up" in the proceedings; that every unnecessary motion or part of a motion be avoided ; that any work which could be done by low-priced labor should not be done by high-priced labor; that the arrangement of machines, materials, or appliances be so planned as to avoid giving the worker an unnecessary pound to lift or an unnecessary inch to stretch; in having all machinery and accessories of the most perfect kind and in the very best condition ; in having all materials and their preparation kept at a high standard; in having exact and comprehen- sive standards worked out for every operation and for every material thing used; and, finally, the seeing that the workpeople shall share liberally in the economies so effected. EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING 413 Time and Patience Required. Everything cannot be done in a week or a month, and in such a complicated business as silk manufacturing a long period of patient tabulating, investigating, and experimenting, by trained observers would have to be gone through with before a comprehensive body of standard practice could be evolved. , . . • None the less, a beginning can be made and each in his own way can observe and accurately record the details of the operations passing daily before his eyes. A stop watch to time each movement is a neces- sity, and the observer will at first find the making of records to be anything but easy. . , , j Besides this, the natural hostility of the workers to any new de- parture must be reckoned with, but when they understand that the ultimate aim is one which will bring them increased earnings their objections will probably melt away. Beginning With the Weaving. As the most important work of the mill is the weaving, and as upon the full output of that department depends greatly the prosperity of the mill, it would be well to make the first attack there. In every mill there are a few workmen whose output is always far in excess of the average, just as there are some whose production is always at the bottom of the list. These men who get out so many yards do not seem to be working harder than the others but yet they get more yards off. , j , 1 The fact is they are not working harder, nor as hard, but they are making fewer unnecessary motions, and those that they do make are more effective. They have unconsciously travelled part of the way along the road to "efficiency." , • , • Suppose that we select one of these men and for the time being consider him as our standard, or as 100 per cent., those that get off less goods being of correspondingly lower percentage of efficiency. Analysing Motions, and Causes of Stoppages. Every one of the necessary movements that this man makes in the course of his work must be accurately timed and tabulated, and the average time of each worked out. Such motions will be the changing of shuttles, putting quills in shuttles and threading them, finding the pick, stopping and starting the loom, loosening and tightening the warp, picking back for defects, finding broken warp ends, piecing up and passing end through heddle and reed, cutting off piece and unrolling it, etc. Then the causes that require the movements must be recorded, the breakage of warp ends, filling picks, and so forth, as well as any other factors that would have a bearing on the case, whether belt trou- bles, irregularity of engine speed, temperature of room, or what not. V ' ■;il ' ; V 414 EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING Unnecessary motions or parts of motions, whether with hands or feet, are likewise to be observed. , , r .u- <: ^ In this way a body of facts regardmg the methods of this tirst- class weaver is accumulated, which, for the time bemg, is to be re- garded as the best practice. We now begin an analysis of the work done by the ordinary weavers, and by the poor weavers, on the same goods and under the same conditions, and we soon find by comparison with our standard wherein their methods are inferior, and so can instruct them how to ^"^^The good weaver, in turn, should be shown the tabulations of his movements, and which of them appeared to be unnecessary and there- fore a waste of effort, and he should be collaborated with in the direc- tion of their elimination. By giving the weavers under observation some extra pay while ex- periments were being tried out, and tabulations were being made, their co-operation could, no doubt, be readily enlisted. Increased Pay a Great Stimulant. Some manufacturer will say, "That is all very fine, but you could never get the hands in our mill to agree to be regulated in that way. This would usually be the case, at first, but there could be got one or two, or half a dozen to try it, and when the others saw that, week by week, these men were earning 25% to 50% more than the rest, it would not be long till the majority of the help would be anxious to fall in line also. Investigating the Mechanical Equipment. In considering the time, and the amount of effort required to make each necessary motion, great attention must be given to the question as to whether any changes in the arrangement of the machinery or ap- pliances would facilitate the work. . ^^ 1 Is the machine too high for convenience? Has the weaver an undue distance to stretch at any time? Can the distance he has to walk to get back of his loom be reduced? Does the belt interfere with him^ Could the harness be simplified? Has he undue work to do in adjusting the weights on his warp, or would some mechanical device enable him to do it quicker and with less effort ? Has his shuttle the best tension and threading devices? Is his belt in good shape and does it slip? Is the power steady? Etc. . r u The question of such things as the character and preparation of the warp and filling, the temperature and moisture of the room, etc., be- longs in another category. High-Priced Labor on Low-Priced Work. Then, there is no use in a $12. weaver doing things that can be attended'to by a $4. boy. If he wants filling he should not leave his EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING 415 loom to go after it ; it should be brought to him. When he takes off a cut, a boy should take it to the rack for him. Toilet rooms should be centrally located, and everything should be so arranged that the weaver would not need to be away from his loom an unnecessary moment. Furnishing Appliances to the Workers. If, by having the use of a stool, the fatigue of the worker would be less, and allowing that the use of it would not interfere with his work, then he should have a stool. If it be found that the tools used by the workers, and commonly provided by themselves, are frequently far from what they should be for the best work, then it will be economy on the part of the manage- ment to supply all workers with the highesj: grade of tools free of charge. Hozv Belting Matters Should be Handled. The belts in a mill should all be in charge of one man who should be held responsible for their condition and for any belt failures. No weaver or other machine operative should ever touch a belt, and it would generally be well if the ordinary fixer were also forbidden to do so. The very best grade of belting should be adopted as the standard, and nothing below that should be either ordered or accepted. Then, this belt man should be required to see that all belts were constantly kept in first-class order, neither too tight nor too loose, and properly dressed when they required it, any changes being made after hours. There would then be no loss of product from belt failures, or from stopping of looms to tighten up belts ; no waste of power from unduly tight belts, and no diminished speed of looms from belt slippage, a factor which few people take proper account of. Standardising Mill Supplies. The highest standards should also be adopted for all supplies, har- nesses, twines, reeds, shuttles, paper, bobbins, quills and everything that could possibly be a factor in production. The best should not only be bought but everything in use should be kept in prime condition. Individuality of the Loom. The peculiarities of the individual looms must not be overlooked. The work got off by each weaver is carefully recorded, but little or no attention seems to be paid to the machine itself, unless it is work- ing so badly as to attract notice. Nevertheless, each loom has its own individuality and it should be studied. Certain weavers, kept on the same grade of goods, may be shifted around at intervals to a succession of other looms, and their 4i6 EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN MANUFACTURING 417 ' ,r-' ''!'' m (l;l' relative output compared. In this way some approximate data might be collected and those looms on which the weavers had the poorest results could be investigated and got into better trim. Character, Widths, and Speeds of Looms. In considering makes or types of looms, also, those ones which impose the least effort or fatigue upon the operatives should, all other things being equal, be accorded the preference. The width of looms is of more importance than many, people imagine. They should be sufficiently wide for the goods they are to be regularly used for and not an inch wider. Each additional inch makes a higher initial cost, uses more power, occupies more space, makes a greater call upon the weaver's strength, lessens the speed of running, and gives the operative farther to go in passing round his loom. The cumulative effect of these drawbacks in a year is far from being negligible. Speeds of looms are largely governed by what the warps will stand. For this reason the best silk is the cheapest, and if the highest and best quality is adopted as the standard, and if the best of work is secured in the throwing, dyeing, warping, beaming, drawing-in, and mounting, it will follow that loom stoppages for broken ends, even when running at high speeds, will be greatly reduced, and cost of weaving and expense will be correspondingly low. Evolving Tables for Maximum Weaving Speeds. Again, the maximum speed that would be practicable will depend not only on the silk, but on the width of the goods, the character of the weave, number of harnesses, count of the reed, number of shuttles, picks per inch, etc. Just the same, if a certain standard of silk be adhered to, and if the loom be all that it should, it ought to be possible eventually to work out tables in which maximum speeds would be noted for given fabrics, of given widths, counts, etc., just as in machine-shop work, in which tables have been evolved giving the speeds, depths of cuts, etc., which can best be employed for different metals and for different tools. . , These constants would be based upon the use of silks of the highest market qualities regularly procurable, and persons using lower qualities would then understand that slower speeds would probably be necessary. Usual Loom Output. In the manufacture of plain, or simply constructed, broad silks, an output of 65% to 70% of the theoretical production is considered good practice, the theoretical production being the number of picks that the loom could beat in a given time if running without stop. Let us see now how much of this 30% to 35% loss is absolutely unavoidable. Details of Loom Output, and Necessary Stoppages. We will assume the warps to be 300 yards long, for while longer ones can often be profitably run, yet they are then much less responsive to the changing needs of the market, lock up an undue amount of capital, and are inconvenient in other ways. The loom must stop for each change of shuttle, for each time a cut is taken off, and, when the warp is woveif down, while a new one is being mounted. Now, let us suppose that our cloth is 36 inches in the reed, with 100 picks per inch, and pieces cut at 60 yards. Then, we run our loom at 150 picks per minute, and our quills give us 1,500 yards of filling eacn. Next, allow 10 seconds for each change of shuttle (which is two or three times what would probably be necessary), 10 minutes for making each cut, unrolling piece, and starting up again, and i hour for removing the woven out warp and starting up a fresh one all of which should be quite practicable with the proper arrangements Three hundred yards is 10,800 inches, and, with the picks and speed stated, V/z inches will be woven per minute, taking 7,200 min- utes to weave out the warp. Each quill will weave 10 inches, so there will be 1,080 shuttle changes in addition to 10 extra ones for the 10 headings, or 1,090 in all which at 10 seconds each, would require 182 minutes for the warp Five cuts at 10 minutes each, and the change of warp at 60 minutes add no to this, making a total time required for weaving out the waip of 7,492 minutes, and the 7,200 minutes that the loom is actually beating in 96.10% of this. ^ ^ This per cent, is what is theoretically obtainable, and in whatever degree we fall short of this our efficiency is diminished. Determining the Causes of Lost Production. Having worked out the ultimate possibility on lines similar to the above we must then find out with absolute precision what are the fac- tors which make up this additional loss of product amounting to 25^0 If each one of them is determined, its cause ascertained, and a standard practice adopted which will eliminate the drawbacks in whole or in part, we will begin at last to make a near approach to the pos- sible maximum. ^ fh'SV''''''^' irregularity of orders, changes of styles, and many other things, exercise a profound effect upon the production, but they would do so in any event, whether such methods in the direction of scientific efhciency were employed or not. ^^ciuiul Is .',1 ' ) If I'"*!, 'lit' ill* f ii'iali!>«t. KOa. Qy^y^v pRncellations and returns. ?f;7-??R2. Acceptance of, 257-258. Claims, just and unjust, 345-346. What has the buyer a right to expect? 357-358. True test of rea- sonableness of claims, 358. Dif- ferent causes entailing claims, 358-359. Allowances should be kept at a minimum, 359. Great corporation could resist them, 403. Selling agents expect impossible perfection, 359. Cancellations a heavy burden, 359. Motives for cancellations, 359-360. How the manufacturer is hurt, 360. Con- tract breakers should be sued, 360. Responsibility of the selling agents, 360. Underhand methods employed, 360-361. Withholding assortments on orders, 361. Or- ders of cutters are a joke, 361. Cancellations for late delivery, 361. United action required, 361- 362. Side lights on the situation, 362. Standard sales contracts and their enforcement, 362. Claims on raw-silk, 142. Claims on firms doing commission work, 199. Classifications of raw silk, 15. Can- ton Filatures, 34a-36a. China silks, 18a. China Steam Filatures, 20a-22a. Haineen Improved Reel, 26a. Haineen Filature, Crossed, 26a. Japan Filatures, standard chops, 40a. Japan Rereels. stan- dard chops, 42a. Unsatisfactory Japanese classifications, 25-26. Tsatlee, Improved Reel, 24a. Tsat- lee Filature, Crossed, 26a. Fila- ture Tussahs, 30a-32a. Clearances of weights, 201. Proce- dure to determine waste made on thrown silks, 51. Coal, calorific value, 113. Cockling, its causes, 351. Colby, Arthur H., Steam CoalH, 81a. Color matching, in the dye house, 103-104. Limitations of the dyer, 278-279. Combination Test, for raw and thrown silk, 52-53. Forms to use, 53-56. Commission Houses, Dry Goods, Re- lation between mills and their. 243-265. High class of men in the business, 243. Functions of a commission house, 243-244. Rela- tions between capital and turn- over, 244. Steps towards prevent- ing overtrading, 392. Old basis of note settlement, 244. Facilities for discount afforded by English and Canadian banks. 244-245. Why the commission house has come into being, 245. Serious drawbacks to the system, 245. Too great financing facilities af- forded, 388-389. Stock goods made for advances, 310-311. Stock goods mean commissions for factors, 31f. General unprofitableness of textile manufacturing, 245-246. Good work of some commission houses, 246. Two interesting Inci- dents. 246-247. Written agree- ments, 247. How mushroom con- cerns are started. 247-248. In- terests of mill and factors at var- iance, 248. Attitude of loom build- ers and raw-silk dealers. 248-249. Good intentions but bad system, 393. Refusing to sell for weak concerns, 249. Compensations for refusing weak accounts. 393. As- certaining proper minimum of capital. 394. Commissions charged pnd what thev include, 250-251. Methods of handling accounts, 250-251. Sources of commission house profits, 392-393. Profit on the interest account, 251. Same commission under varying condi- tions, 251. Loses entailed by credit oflSce methods, 251-252. Giving mills a chance to protect themselves, 252. Confiicting de- partmental interests, 253. Dodging the guarantee which has been paid for, 253. The equitable course, 253-254. Revaluing stock goods, 254. Reasons for the re- valuing, 254. A pawnbroking parallel, 254. Forcing manufac- turers into bankruptcy, 255. How sales are hindered, 255. Fiction of the time for collection of ac- counts, 255-256. Transfer com- missions, 256-257. Acceptance of claims, cancellations and returns, 257-258. Acquiescence in cancel- lations by commission houses, 258- 259. Manufacturers held by con- tracts, customers are not, 259. Marketing goods at auction, 259. Attitude toward auction sales, 315-316. Allowance of special dis- counts, 259. Confiicting interests in the same department, 260. Favoritism may be shown, 260. Commission house orders, 260-261. A Continental method of financing mills, 261. Faulty banking sys- tem necessitates the commission house, 262. Raw-silk houses might finance mills, 262. Goods hypothecated made from silk un- paid for, 262. Creditors who are protected by liens, 262. Advances made, 390. Funds required for ad- vances to mills, 262. Effect on the sales of raw-silk houses finan- cing mills, 262-263. Mills could procure silk at best prices, 263. Restriction of speculation, 263. No specified dates for maturitv of raw silk bills, 263. Assets which the mill owner should have, 263. Great benefits of such a svstem, 263-264. Joint Interests of manu- facturer and raw-silk dealer, 264. Manufacturers should study their contracts, 264. Nominal commis- sion less than the actual expense, 264. Increased cost of merchan- dising, 264-265. Agents with- drawing from actual work of selling. 265. Limitations of sales managers, 265. Functions re- tained by commission houses, 265. All should be interested in the mill profits, 265. Collective action necessary, 394. Puttings reforms into effect, 394-395. Competition on staple goods, re- quirements, 337-338. Compound sizing test, its value, 410. Conditioning, or testing, of silk and others fibres. 134-151. Scientific and unscientific tests, 52. Igno- rance of how to use tests made, 52. General ignorance respecting conditioning. 134. Opportunities of loss. 134-135. Meaning of con- ditioTiing, 135. What a condition- ing house is, 52. Tests that may profitably be made. 135-136. Ex- periences as to profit of condi- tioning, 136-137. European and .American points of view. 43, 137. Conditions under which tests are made, 137-1 ?,s. Tprms and c^-n. ditions of raw-silk trading, 138- 143. Rules of the silk throwing trade, 143-144. Price list of the U. S. Conditioning and Testing Co., 145. Sizing tests for raw silk, 145. European certificates, 145- 146. Loss on Japanese raw silks, 22-23. Conditioning and boil-off tests, 146. Combination Test for raw and thrown silk, 52-53. Waste in throwing, 146-147. Fool- ish views of some manufacturers, 147. Illogical basis for throw- sters' charges, 147. Manufac- turers' inconsistent demands, 147- 148. The soaking bath, and what it covers up, 148. Determining the throwing waste, 148. Insol- uble substances used in soaking: baths, 148. Rule for figuring throwing waste, 149. Claims against throwsters, 149. Neces- sity for systematic tests. 43, 51. Determinations yet to be made. 149-150. Important points. 150. Variation in tests, 150. Effect of moisture on silk, 150. Elasticity and tenacity, 150-151. The value of conditioning, 151. Conditioning house tests, forms for use, 53-56. Construction of fabrics, modifying, 157-158. Copper printing rollers and their cost, 81-82. Cop yarn, allowance for tubes. 65. Copying competitors' ideas. 343. Cost sheets and tables of weights, 175-190. Amplified cost calcula- tion form, 175-177. Broad silk cost calculation, 176. Tables of weights and their uses, 177. Take-up in weaving, 177. Figur- ing the size of the silk, 177-178. Percentage of waste, 178. Cal- culating weight of warp, 178. Calculating weight of filling, 178- 179. Modifications due to soap and oil, 179. Waste in throwing, 179. Dyers' prices based on thrown weights, 179. Sundry labor and expenses. 179-180. Shrinkage in length, 180. How to apportion certain costs. 180. What the general expense in- cludes, 180. Other factors in the cost, 180-181. Things which af- fect weaving cost, 181. Illustra- tive examples, 165-166. Analysis of broad silk cost calculation, 195-196. Another broad silk cost calculation, 168. Analysis of same, 172. Ribbon cost calcula- tions, 173-174. Analysis of same, 172. Additional points of importance, 181. Scope of the tables of weights. 181. Silk warp tables, 182-184. Silk filling tables. 185-190. Working from standard bases, 195. Costing of broad silks and ribbons. 152-174. Difficulties of cost de- termination, 152-153. Undercosting by mill managers, 153. Principals must understand costing. 154. Use of standard forms, 154-155. Rib- bon manufacturers' cost sheet, 154-155. ^Vhat may happen if no form is used, 155. Main elements of cost, 155. Expenses that are well defined, 155. Estimating weaving rate, 156. Variation in size of silk from twist, 156-157. Adjusting construction to suit varying sizes of silk. 157-158. Take-up in weaving. 158. Allow- ance for waste, 158. Filling fig- 422 INDEX INDEX 423 11 K I' ' i^' ured on reed width, 158-159. Raw- silk price, 159. Fluctuations in raw material prices, and losses entailed, 160. Losses from can- cellations, 160-161. How should raw-silk be figured? 161. The greneral expense item, 162. Losses from "seconds," 162. Plant de- preciation. 162-163. Interest ex- pense. 163. Cost of designing. 163-164. Sample collections, 281- 283. Partners' salaries, 164. How to apportion the general expense, 164-165. Importance of steady operation, 165. Illustrative cost sheets, 165-166. Numbering of silks, 166. Rules for determining counts, 166-167. Remarks on the cost calculation form, 167. Broad silk cost calculation, 168. Weight of the organzine, 167. Weight of the tram, 169. Value of warp and filling tables, 169. Take-ups, and wastes, 169. Working out details, 169-170. What general expense should include, 170. Plant depreci- ation, 370. Piece dye and yarn dye costs, 312. Costs affected by size of output, 337. Other items of the cost, 171. Weights and weightings, 171. Further re- marks, 171. The costing of rib- bons, 172. Ribbon cost calcula- tions, 173-174. Analyses of the costs, 172. Errors brought to light, 199. Costs of plain and fancy goods, analyses of the relative, 204-210. Different elements of cost, 204- 205. Subdivision of expenses. 205. Relation of equipment to labor cost, 205-206. Departmental costs, 206. Apportionment of plain and fancy goods expenses, 206. Different methods of appor- tionment, 206-207. Fancy goods expenses, 207. Pattern work and harness expense, 207. Costs in connection with printed warps, 207-208. Loom stoppages, sam- pling materials, and waste, 20S. Other cause.«« of increased ex- pense, 208. How necessary equip- ment increases overhead charges. 209. Presenting the expenses on the cost sheets. 209. Allotment of expense per loom, 209-210. Cancellations, interest charges, and production, 210. Daily ex- pense to be borne by each loom. 210. Cotton, classification of raw, 63-65. American, 63-65. Sea Island, 65. White Egyptian. 65. Barbados. 65. Length and diameter of staple. 66. Regain of moisture, 126, 98a, 100a. Cotton mill competition, 326-333. Immense scope of the competi- tion. 326-327. What the annual production may amount to, 327. How low grade silks have been displaced. 327-328. AVide varietv of attractive goods made, 328. How the production is marketed, 328. Average range of prices, 328. Usual materials used, 328- 329. Conditions attaching to sales of silk and cotton mixtures, 329. Yarns employed and usual widths of goods, 329. What the cotton mill provides, 329. Prices at which the mills sell. 330. Com- petition among the weavers, 330. Prices charged to converters, 330. Filling furnished by converters, 330. DifHculties encountered, 330- 331. Another way of operating, 331. Silk warp goods made in cot- ton mills, 331. Mill conditions, 331. Wages in cotton mills, 331. Where the silk mill has the ad- vantage, 332. Merit of cotton warp fabrics, 332. Cotton mills also have their troubles, 332. Clever men can always find a profit, 332. Lost business that can never be regained, 332-333. Cottons exported to Asia, 320. Cotton varus and their use in silk manufacture, 57-66. Value of the yarn dealer's advice, 57-58. Proper vardage, 58. Twists used in cot- ton spinning, 58. How twists af- fect lengths, 58-59. Table of com- parative lengths and twists, 59. Yarn for moires, 60. Reverse twists, 60. Testing the counts, 60-61. Table for numbering cot- ton yarn, 104a. Causes of too coarse counts, 61. Deception re- garding counts of fine sizes, 61. Twist and length of harness twines, 61-62. Care In ordering, 62. Counts modified by merceriz- ing, and gassing, 62. Effect of dyeing on weight, 62. Under- standings as to accuracy of spin- ning, 62-63. Twists employed in spinning. 58. English rules as to counts. 63. Yardage per pound, 58. Raw cotton classifications, 63-65. New York differences in grade, 63-65. Sea Island cotton, 65. Specks in the yarn, 351. Im- perfections in goods, 347-348. Al- lowances for tubes, 65. Regain of moisture, 126, 98a, 100a. Moist storage for cops. 65. Lengths and diameters of the cotton staple, 66. Counts of yarns, testing, 60-61. De- ception regarding fine sizes, 61. Causes of unduly coarse counts, 61. Principles of the various varn counts, 106a. Customs pre- vailing in the English yarn trade, 112a. Manchester yarn contract rules, 120a. Table for finding counts of cotton -yarns, 104a. How silks are numbered, 166. Rules for ascertaining counts, 166-167. Credits, curtailment of mill, 385- 395, 289. Evils of chronic over- production, 385-386. Current ad- verse conditions, 386. Favorable factors in the situation, 386-387. Inabilitv of weak concerns to stop. 387. Losses from overstocked markets, 387. Booking order business at a loss, 387-388. Pro- duction increases when it should contract, 388. Temporary depres- sions become continuing ones, 388. Cycles of good and bad years, 388. Where the blame lies, 388. How a mushroom concern starts. 389. 247-248. Extended time of machinery sales, 389, 248- 249. Long credit given on Asiatic raw-silk, 389, 248-249. Carrying of silk and forward selling, 389- 390. Commission house facilities, 390. Where reforms should be- gin, 390. Curtailing raw-silk credits. 390-391. Discriminating against commission house mills. 391. Considerations affecting the granting of raw-silk credit, 391- 392. Pawning goods should re- strict raw-silk credit. 391-392. Putting pressure on builders, 392. What the sion houses could do, of commission house 393. Good intentions tern, 393. Collective machine commis- 392. Sources profits, 392- but bad sys- action neces- sary, 394. Ascertaining proper minimum of capital, 394. How such figures could be arrived at, 394 Putting reforms into effect, 394-395. Different requirements for different trades, 395. Manu- facturers would approve. Reforms that would really reform, 395. Crew's Silk Finishing and Piece Dye Works, 61a. Groeker-Wheeler Co., Electrical Ap- paratus, 121a. Curtailment of mill credits, 289, 385, 395. Customs of the cotton yarn trade, 62-63, 121a. Cutter-up and his methods, 286. Losses attendant upon business with cutters, 286-287. Df'flacleux, Claude, Jacquard Card Cutter, 99a. Degumming, severe treatment in- jures silk, 21. Dc Long, Joseph J., Cotton Yarns, 31a. Denier system of silk measure and it origin, 405-410. Difficulty of introducing new standards, 405. The Denier-Aune system, 406. Value and weight of the denier, 406. Weight of the Paris grain, 406. Italian weights formerly used, 406. French and Italian deniers, 406. The aune, or ell, and its meaning, 407. Difficulty of determining equivalents, 407. Length of the metre, 407. Length of the aune, 407. How silk was formerly sized, 407-408. Improved method of M. Matley, 408. Met-ric system did not dislodge the denier, 408. Metric equivalent of the aune, 408. Metric equivalent of the denier, 408. Former length of a 1 denier silk, 408-409. Paris congress of 1900, 409. Modifica- tions proposed and accepted, 409. Weight of the gramme, 409. New length per pound of a 1 denier silk, 409-410. Difference between the old and new standards, 410. Testing silk for size, 410. The valuable Compound Sizing Test, 410. Modified denier system gen- erally accepted, 410. Depreciation of plant, what to figure for, 370-378. Depreciation' a matter of first rate impor- tance. 370. Keeping machinery at highest eflficiency, 376. Improve- ments compel replacements, 370- 371. How speeds affect rate of depreciation, 370. Wide diver- gence of views regarding re- newals, 371-372. Methods of figur- ing depreciation, 372. Differences in wear and tear. 372. Life of machinery, 372-373. What to write off on machinery, 373. Powl^ar plant depreciation, 373. Depreciation on buildings, 374. Increasing land values, 374. Di- minished value of special equip- ment. 374. Effect entailed by changing fashions, 375. When machinery should be discarded, 375. Standard percentages of de- preciation. 162-163, 375. How the books should be kept, 376, What the inventory should include, 3ib. Jacquard cards and fire insurance, 376-377. Withdrawing money for renewals from the business, 377. Some English experience, 377-37S. Funds set aside should earn in- terest, 378. ^ ^^^ ,^^ Designing, figuring costs of, 163-164. Cost of designing and sampling usually underestimated, 193. De- partmental labor, 205. Depart- mental expenses, 207. Artists sketches, 81. Faulty designing cause of imperfections, 353. Directing the production of a textile mill, 334-344. Knowledge and in- tuition both needed, 334. Very few measure up to the situation, 334-335. Requisites which a sales manager should possess, 335-336. Usual training of a sales man- ager, 336. Profit making a^s against volume of sales, 356-337. A common type of department manager, 337. Organizing to sell the mill's production, 337. Cost affected by the size of the output, 337. What competition necessi- tates, 337-338. Determining upon a selling policy, 338. Advance orders and stock goods, 338-339. Mills left too much in the dark. 279-280. Risks and expenses un- loaded on mills, 288-289. Dealing with accumulations of stock, 399. Sales policy must conform to equipment. 339. Laying out the work, 339-340. Valueless opin- ions of distributers, 340. Pricing goods at what they will bring, 340. Dead, or dying, fabrics and colors, 340. Foreign sample col- lections, 340-341. Getting up samples and fixing prices, 341. Sampling in unprofitable direc- tions, 280. Assortment of colors should be limited, 341. Short warps of undesirable colors, 280. Color harmonies and discords, 341. Color harmony chart, 341-343. Color matching and its limita- tions, 278-279. Heavy expense of sample collections, 343. Copying competitors' ideas, 343. DiflScul- ties with printed goods, 343. Trouble from haphazard sam- pling, 277-278. Other points of importance, 343-344. Distributers of silks, to blame for overweighting, 36. Valueless opin- ions, 340. Doherty Silk Co., Henry, Silk Mfrs. 9a. Drills, speeds for carbon steel drills, 128a. Dyeing, should a mill do its own? 95-108. What a manufacturer ex- pects to gain, 95-96. Volume of his dyeing bills, 96. Customary discounts, 96. Dyers* charges, 34- 35. Price lists, 43, 96-98, 106-108. Charges based on thrown weight of silk. 179. Charging by the ounce, 43-44. Weighting furnish- ed against orders, 41-43. Weight- ing as affected by boil-off, 53. Costs as affected by boil-off. 44- 45. How the dyer may be mulct- ed, 46-47. Table showing how soap and water may be used to dvers' detriment. 47. Value of boil-off tests, 49. Percentage basis for weighting charges. 44. Reasonable sized lots, 279. Loca- tion for a dye house, 98. Impor- 424 INDEX INDEX 4^5 ;' m\. il ■••■'■I U tance of water supply, 98-99. Im- purities in water, 99. Necessary land, buildings, etc., 99. Power and steam required, 99-100. Oper- ations of skein dyeing, 100. Vari- ous weighting agents, 100-101. Loading the silk, 101-102. Special operations, 102. Coloring and fin- ishing, 103. Bleaching, 103. Dye house equipment, 103. Sewerage difficulties, 103. Color matching, and lighting, 103-104. Dyers' ability to match colors, 278-279. Other facilities needed, 104. How soap is handled, 104. Recovery of tin, 104. Special machines used. 104. Methods of water ex- traction, 104-105. Piece dyeing, and equipment needed, 105. Other things necessary, 105-106. Water requirements, 106. Risks and drawbacks, 106. Damage caused in the dyeing, 354. Damages to goods, 348. Poor cross-dyeing, 355. Dyed weight of cotton yarn, 62. What exr»erience teaches, 106. Piece dyers' price lists, 106-108. «Dry Good*/' Textile Trade Journal. 92a. Eastwood Co., Benjamin, Machinery, ]»0a. Efficiency standards in manufactur- ing, 411-418. Wastefulness of present methods, 411. Extraordi- nary results of scientific methods, 411-412. Every manufacturer should investigate, 412. Basic principles of scientific eifflciency. 412. Effect upon wage rates. 220- 221. Underpaid employees, and unproductive machinery, 214-215. Profit sharing a help, 218. Time and patience required, 413. Begin- ning with the weaving, 413. Ana- lyzing motions and causes of stop- pages, 413-414. Increased pay a great stimulant. 414. Investigat- ing the mechanical equipment, 414. High priced labor on low priced work. 414-415. Furnishing tools to the workers, 415. How- belting matters could be handled. 415. Standardizing mill supplies, 415. Individuality of the loom. 415-416. Character, widths, and speeds of looms, 416. Evolving tables for 'maximum weaving speeds, 416. Usual loom output. 416. Details of loom employment and necessary stoppages, 417. Determining the causes of lost production, 417. Result of gen- eral application of principles, 417- Elast'lclty of raw-silk, 150. Electric power transmission, 109- 124. Danger from electric shock. 115. Electrical records, 118-119. Electrical units, 119. Embossing and molr6lng, 88. iSmerson Company, Efficiency En- grineers, 70a. Emerson, Harrington, his work in the field of standardization and efficiency, 411. Emmerlch-Dolflon Co., Thrown Silk, 4&a. Employment contracts, 230-231. England, wages in, 223. English customs regarding cotton yarn counts. 63. Equipment controlling sales policy, 145-146. European conditioning house cer- tificates. 145-146. European silk, classifications, 15. Terms and conditions of sale, 22. Raw-silk rules, 138-143. Used in connection with cotton warps, 329. European practice In silk throwingr. 144. Fabric construction, Judicious use of material, 11-12. Fancy goods, expenses should be kept separate, 282. Business often done at a loss, 283. Losses en- tailed by fancies, 296. Farbwerlce, Hoechat Co., Colors and Chemlcala, 101a. Ferffuaon Co., John !¥., Mill Archi- tects, 77a. Figuring the throwing waste, 51. Filling tables for silk, 185-190. Financing, capital employed In mill operations, 382-383. Capital per loom required, 394. Why the com- mission house has come into being, 245. Serious drawbacks to the system. 245. Making stock for advances, 310-311. Starting mushroom concerns, 247-248. In- ability of weak mills to stop. 387. Effect on credit of auction sales, 315. Manufacturers forced Into bankruptcy, 255. Old basis of note settlement. 244. Discount facilities of English and Canadian banks, 244-245. Advances required by mills, 262. A Continental method of finance, 261. Mill creditors who are protected, 262. Raw-silk houses might finance mills, 262. Raw-silk bills payable when goods are sold, 263. Pro- viding undercapitalized mills with funds, 398. Financial plan for a great silk corporation, 399-401. Finding foreign markets for silk, 320-326. Finishing, should a mill do Its own? 84-94. Lack of knowledge of the processes, 84. Advantages of out- side finishing. 84-85. Objects aimed at in the finishing. 85. Ma- chinery and processes employed, 85-88. Molr^ing and embossing. 88. Supplies required. 88. Analy- sis Of cost of supplies. 89. Floor space and power, needed, 89-90. Necessary equipment and Its cost, 90. Kind of foreman needed. 90. Overhead charges. 91. Damaged goods, 348-349, 354. Advantages over the commission finisher. 91. Other benefits in mill finishing, 91. Charajcter of finish and its importance, 92. Let the specialist do the finishing, 92. Price lists, 92-94. Fire hazard, with relation to the electric drive, 123. Fire Insurance on Jacquard cards and designs, 376-377. Foreign markets for silks, finding. 320-325. Exports of cottons to Asia, 320. Necessity of wide and accurate information, 320-321. Markets where business might be done, 321. Conditions which must be inquired into, 321-322. Ameri- can manufacturers neglect impor- tant details, 322. Special require- ments of trade, 322. Packing of goods for foreign shipment. 322- 323. Collection of full Information a formidable task, 323. Overpro- duction and the home market. 323. Going after business in a busi- nesslike way, 323. Evils of in- termittent efforts, 324. Our abil- ity to compete. 324. Plain goods the most promising, 324-325. The first steps to take, 325. Foreign sample collections, 340-341. Forms used in connection with tests, 53-56. Fraudulent representations of goods, 32. France, wages in, 223-224. French silks, boil-off, 20. Frost & Son, George T., Bobbins, Bandingr, etc., 85a. Gantt, H. L., his work in the field of standardization and efficiency, 411. Gassing, makes yarns lighter, 62. Gear transmission, 111-112. General Electric Co., Electrical Ap- paratus, 123a. General expense, what it includes, 162. 170, 180. Apportioning the cost, 164-165. Proper subdivision, 199. Allotment for plain and fancy goods, 210. Germany, wages In, 224. Gilbert Co., William A., Throwsters, 4«a. Gllbreth, Frank B., his work In the field of standardization and effi- ciency, 411. Gradings of raw silk, 13. Great Silk Corporation, plans for the creation of a, 396-404. Unit- ing a large silk loomage, 396. Lack of Interest during good times, 396. Businesses, successful ' and unsuccessful, 396-397. Ends to be attained, 397. Broad silk loomage of the U. S., 397. Rea- sons for a large combination, 397. Difficult to make profit on sta- ples, 398. Temporary prosperity often due to chance, 398. Having to run when business is bad, 398. Providing undercapitalized mills with funds, 398. Concern must be organized from within, 399. Cor- poration should acquire mills out- right, 399. Assets which must be taken over, 399. What owners will require in exchange, 399. Shares issued against liquid as- sets, 399. Shares Issued against mill properties, 399. How earning power is provided for, 400. Issue of additional common stock, 400. Avoidance of bond obligations, 400. Inventorying the mill prop- erties, 400. Retaining the person- nel of the mills, 400. New capi- tal to be provided by bankers, 400-401. Advantages to be re- alized, 401. Benefits accruing to the manufacturers, 401. Shares listed on the Stock Exchange, 402. Selecting a head for the enter- prise, 402. Comprehensive plans worked out by the writer, 402. Laws regarding combinations, 402. Taking in the ribbon de- partments, 402. Causes of disas- ter In other flotations, 403. Ac- quiring additional mills. 403. Re- forms and economies to be effected, 403. JsTothing stable In the pres- ent situation. 403. Benefit to the trade of such a corporation, 403- 404. Hall & Co., I. A., Reeds and Har- nesses, 83a. Harness twines, twists and counts, 61-62. Hartley Silk Mfgr. Co., Silk Mfrs., 14a. Hartman, F. (i.. Inc., Throv«'Mters, 43a. Hofer & Co., H. F., Thrown Silk, 37a. Holbrook Mfgr. Co., Textile Soapa, 120a.^ Home Bleach & Dye Works, lac^ Cotton Yarn Dyers, 55a. Hours of operation permitted by State laws, 5. For throwing mills. 71-72. Hygroscopic character of textile fibres, 125-126. Humidlficatlon In textile mills, 125- 133. Percentage of theoretical output obtainable, 125. Hygro- scopic character of textile fibres. 125-126. Standard "regains" of textile fibres. 126. Curves show- ing regains for cotton, wool, and silk. 98a. Regain table for cotton yarn, 100a. Regain table for worsted yarn, 102a. Tests with worsted yarn at Arlington Mills, 126-127. Yarn elasticity depend- ent on moisture, 127. Advantage of damp localities for textile manufacturing, 127. Effect of hu- midity on mill operations. 128. How production and costs are af- fected, 128. Difficulties during damp and dry weather, 128-129. Humidlfyers and their attributes, 129. Apparatus required, 129. Amount of water vaporized and power required, 129-130. Use of steam, and other methods of air moistening, 130. Value of hu- midlficatlon immediately apparent, 180-131. Reduction of wastage. 131. Storage of con yarn, 65. Hy- grometers and humidity, 131-132. Diagram of saturation, 132. Main- taining the proper humidity. 132- 133. Other advantages, 133. Imperfections in manufactured goods, 345-356. Criticisms made in ignorance, 345. Salesmen's complaints, 275. Absolutely per- fect goods an impossibilltv, 345. Claims, unjust and just 345-346. Remarkable perfection attained. 346. The manufacturer's load of care, 347. How damages might be classified, 347. Every thread has its allotted place, 347. Trou- ble arising from the raw mate- rial, 347-348. How the throwster can make damage. 348. Bad work by skein dyer and piece dyer, 348. Damages the printer is respon- sible for, 348. How the finisher makes trouble, 348-349. Defects in the warp and their causes. 349- 350. "Rusty" silk, 350. Filling damages, and how they occur. 350-351. "Cockling" and its causes, 351. "Lousiness" in silk. 351. Difficulties with chameleons. 351. Other troubles In the filling. 352. Soiling of "oods, 352. Clean goods, and what It entails. 352. Perspiration stains and other soil- ing. 352-353. Trouble with sel- vages, 353. Faulty designing. 353. System at the mill. 353. Damaeres to the woven goods. 353. Finishing and printing troubles. 354. Additional defects. 354. The dyer's responsibility. 354. Weav- ing of imperfect goods must be halted. 354-355. Reouirements for a cloth examiner, 355. Troubles of various kinds, 355. Heavv and 426 INDEX INDEX 427 Ik,) i^ii; I) light pieces, 355-356. All mills make some imperfect goods, 356. Increase in output by humidifica- tion, 133. Inducements offered to mills to lo- cate, 6. Interest, figuring for cost sheets, 163. Account must be studied, 193. Commission-house profit, 251. 392. Charges for carrying raw silk, 389-390. Irregularity of Japanese silks, 25. Italian silks, boil-off, 20, 48, 146. Italy, wages in, 223. Jacquard cards and designs, fire in- surance, 376-377. Jacquard work, its heavy cost, 282. Japanese weights and measures, 48a. Japan, wages in, 223. Japanese raw silk, characteristics of, 19-29. Good features of, 19. Where deficient, 20. Percentage of boil-off, 20-21, 48, 146. Silks for single weaving, 21. Use with cotton warps, 329. Color, strength, elasticity, brilliancy, 21-22. How packed, 22. Terms and conditions of sale, 22-23. Raw-silk rules, 138-143. Loss in conditioning, 22- 23. Speculative attitude of reel- ers, 23-24. Price fluctuations hurt manufacturers, 24. Irregularity of size, 25. Classifications, 15. Un- satisfactory classifications, 25, 26. Relative cost of rereels, 26. Ta- ble of rereels, 26-27. Inaccurate crop information, 28. Unreliabil- ity of chops, 28. Private chops, 28-29. Manufacturers suffer when silk is wrong, 29. No assurance of quality, 29. Jealousy between mills, 229. Kayiier & Co., Julius, Silk Knit Goods Mtrn,, 15a. Kearns A Carroll Silk Dyeinsr Co., Skein Dyers, 54a. Klipstein & Co., A., Colors and Chemicals, lO.'ta. Klots Throivingr Co., Throwsters, 47a. Knapp, Charles H., Machinery, 110a. ♦♦Knit Goods," Textile Trade Jour- nal, 98a. Labor, wage rates a local condi- tion, 220-221. Variation of wages and hours of wor^i, 221. Differ- ences in labor cost, 324. Wages in silk trade in U. S. and Eu- rope. 222-224. Throwing wages in Scranton and Paterson, 221- 222. Earnings in the Anthracite Regions. 239-240. Standard wage scales. 225. Paterson price list, 225-227. Labor cost on fancy goods, 207. Labor cost with re- lation to equipment, 205-206. High-priced labor and low-priced work, 414-415. Rewards for faith- ful service, 236. Method of re- warding fidelity, 236-237. Increas- ing efllciency and lessening fa- tigue, 412. Most efl^cient work no harder than the least, 413. Prob- lem of securing help. 220. Train- ing country help, 227. Securing country help, 227-228. Weeding- out process, 219. Causes for dis- missal, 220. Shifting of help, 219- 220. Losing good help a serious matter, 211. Tact needed in handling help, 212-213. Improper treatment, 213. Tramp weavers, 22. Care in engaging applicants, 228-229. Record of names and ad- dresses, 229-230. Difllculty with names, 230. Employment con- tracts, 230-231. Understandings between manufacturers, 228. In- formation about bad characters, 233. Blacklisting, 233. A set of mill rules, 231-233. Throwing- mill labor, 69-70. Printing-depart- ment help, 80-81. Subdividing the outlays, 205. With reference to mill location, 2-4. State laws, 4, 235-236. Effect of steam humidi- fying on health of operatives, 130. Suspicious attitude of employees, 238-239. Money saved to help by household-work training, 239. Cooking and dressmaking classes, 239. Prizes for suggestions, 240- 242. Unions, strikes, "Recogni- tion of the Union," 215. Habit of calling strike, 215. Violence at- tendant upon strikes, 216. Means of defense, 216-217. Protecting the workers, 217. Land, investment in, 381. Increas- ing land values, 374. Land, build- ings and power plant required for a dye works, 99. For a throwing- mill, 70-71. How land values af- fect costs, 6. Laws relating to combinations, 402. Regarding factory operatives, 235- 236. Respecting corporations, 5. Leather Belting Price List, 118a. Lengths per pound of silk dram- ages, 82a. Levantine silks, boil-off. Liens protecting certain creditors,. 262. Lighting, dyehouse requirements,^ 103-104. Voltages of electric cur- rent, 151. Linen, tow and jute "regains," 126. Location for a mill, selecting a, 1- 10. Location for a throwing-mill, 69. For a dyehouse, 98. Loom builders, extended credit, 248- 249. Losses from overstocked market, 387. Incurred by carrying stock, 314. Entailed by fancy goods, 296. In closing out stock, 293, 308. Booking orders at a loss, 387-388. Skepticism of interested employees when losses have been made, 366. Entailed on manu- facturers by credit office, 251-252. Caused by ignorance of boil-offs, LiOth & Co., Joseph, Ribbon Mfrs., 12a. "Lousiness" in silk, 351. Accent- uated by severe degumming, 21, 41. Lyons Conditioning House Reports, 20-48. Machinerv, for throwinrr-mills, 71- 72. ©ififerent types, 72.' For silk printing. 77. For silk finishing, 85-88. Special dyeing machinery, 104. Depreciation of plant, 162- 163. 373. Keeping machinery at highest efficiency, 370. Deprecia- tion affected by speeds, 371. Speeds of cuts for machine tools, 126a. Breaking up old machin- ery. 371-372. Differences in wear and tear, 372. Life of machinery, 372-373. When it should be dis- carded, 375. What inventory should include, 376. English fig- ures as to depreciation, 377-378. Extended credit given by machin- ery builders, 389. Abolishing: de- ferred payments, 392. Making goods for stock, the ques- tion of, 306-312. Manchester yarn contract rules, 116a. ,. . Manufacturing policies governing raw-silk purchases, 16-19. Materials, judicious use of, 11-12. Considerations affecting their use, 11-12. Amount of materials or- dinarily in process at a mill, 382. Mercantile Warehouse Co., Storag^e, 75a. Mercerizing, effect upon count of •yarn, 62. .^ ^ ^. Merchandising methods, changes in, 284-290. Present position of the jobber, 284. Selling to retailers, and drawbacks, 284-285. Disin- clination of jobbers to carry stock, 285-286. The cutter-up and his methods, 286. Losses attend- ant upon business with cutters, 286-287. The retailer's ideas of profits, 287. Poorer goods at higher prices, 287. Restrictions placed upon retail buyers, 287- 288. Retailers need more varied stocks, 288. The mercandise man, 288. How manufacturers are expected to carry stock, 288. Risks and expenses unloaded upon the mills, 288-289. Neces- sary profits are not got, 289. Cur- tailment of mill credits, 289. Fu- ture outlook and present condi- ' tions, 289-290. The causes of in- action, 290. Necessity of leader- ship, 290. Metric standards, refusal of silk trade to use them, 405. Mills and their commission-houses, relations between, 243-265. Mills and their salesmen, relations between, 266-280. Mill help, questions relating to, 219- 234. Effect on the operations of continuity of work, 219. Causes for shifting of help. 219-220. Tramp weavers, 220. Causes for dismissal, 220. The problem of securing help, 220. Rates of wages a local condition, 220-221. Wages and hours in different lo- calities, 221. The silk-throwing strike of 1907, 221. Throwing wages in Scranton and Paterson, 221-222. Rates fixed by the arbi- trator. 222. Wages in the silk trade in the U. S. and in Europe, 222-224. Standard wage scales, 225. Paterson broad silk price , list, 225-227. Training country help, 227. Trouble of securing help in the country, 227-228. How one concern met the difficulty, 228. Understanding between manufacturers regarding help, 228. Care in engaging applicants for work, 228-229. Records which should be kept, 229-230. Difficulty with workers' names, 230. Sign- ing of employment contracts, 230. A form of contract that has worked well, 230-231. Represen- tative mUl rules, 231-233. Local associations of manufacturers, 233. Blacklisting, 233. Advan- tage of concerted action, 233. Friendly co-operation in certain directions. 233-234. Mill location, selecting a, 1-10. Points to be considered. 1. Ideal conditions. 2. Importance of la- bor question, 2-4. State labor laws. 4. Hours of operation, 5. Corporation laws, 5. Child labor, 5. Local inducements offered, 6. Land values, 6. Other questions. 6-7. Building costs, 7. Distance from market, 7. Transportation expenses, 8. Local conditions. 8. Cost of power, 9-10. Water sup- ply, 10. Summary, 10. Mills and their operatives, relations between, 211-218. Difficulty of creating a mill organization, 211. Loss of good help a serious mat- ter, 211-212. Tact needed in handling help, 212-213. Arbitrary employers like beggars on horse- back. 213. Impossibility of per- sonal acquaintance, 213. Welfare work, 235-242. Latent suspicion of operatives, 213-214. Wages and conditions of living, 214. Under- paid employees unprofitable, 214- 215. Strikes and their causes, 215. "Recognition of the Union, 215. Strike violence and the fear of it, 216. When popular govern- ment breaks down and freedom ceases, 216. Necessity for means of defense, 216-217. Protecting the workers, 217. Right of the individual to defend himself and his dependents. 217. Employment of minors, 217-218. Profit-sharing an aid to efficiency, 218. _ Mills and their operatives, criticism from the selling end, 21S. Mitsui & Co.. Raw Silk, 31a. Moir^ing and embossing, 88. Moires, cotton yarns for, 60. Moisture, effect upon silk. 150. Morimura, Aral & Co., Raw Silk, 19a. Names of workpeople, 229-230. National Silk Dyeing Co., Dyers and Printers, 57a. New York Watering Co., Printing, Embossing, etc., «3a. Oberly & Newell, Sample Cards, S»a. Organzine, spinning necessary, 68- 69. Throwing prices, 75. Oriental Silk Printing Co., Silk Printers, 65a. . ^^ Ounce method of ordering weight- ings, 40-41, 43-44. Table of va- riations, 45. How the dyer may be mulcted, 46-47. Examples shewing variable costs, 49-51. Overweighting, due to unknown. but large, boil-off, 53. Paclllc Bank, of New York, 16a. Pelgram & Meyer, Silk Mfrs., 7a. Percentages and costs of weight- ings, 40-56. . ^ ^ . Percentage basis for dyeing charges, 44. Perspiration, effect upon tin- weighted silk. 352. Phoenix Silk Mfg. Co., Silk Mfrs., 4a. Piece dye silks, weighting of. 38- 39. Dyeing equipment needed. 105. Price lists, 106-108. Relative costs of piece and yarn dyes, 312. Questions regarding same. 338. Some considerations affecting piece dyes, 295. Damages to goods, 348. 358-359. Piedmont silks, boil-off, 20. Plan for the creation of a Great Silk Corporation, 396-404. Plant, what to figure for deprecia- tion of, 370-378. P. M. system and its value. 275. T*olines of production. 294-295. Power transmission in textile mills. 109-124. Electric transmission. 428 INDEX INDEX 429 'm^.U III' Mi '. 4- 109. Methods of generating power, 109-110. Advantages and disadvantages of electric drive, 110. Rope-driving, 111. Compari- son of rope and belt drives, 111. Gear transmission, 111-112. Cost of power, 112. Advantages of forced draught, 112-113. Tests of coal, 113. Questions affecting electrical installations, 113-114. Alternating or direct currents, 114. Printing-machine require- ments, 114. Kinds of currents, 114-115. Voltage for lighting, 115. Danger from electrical shock, 115. Speeds of generators and mo- tors, 115-116. Direct-connected or belted generators, 116. Speeds of prime movers, 116-117. Turbo- generators, 116. Boiler pressures, 117. Subdivision of power, 117. Flexibility of electric power, 119. Advantages and drawbacks of dif- ferent drives, 117-118. Value of electrical records, 118-119. Elec- trical units, 119. Outside current and its cost, 119-120. Points of vital moment, 120. Cost of instal- lation, 120. Power-plant depre- ciation, 373. Power-cost consid- erations, 9-10. Consumption of power, 120-121. Power lost In transmission, 120-121. Power needed for loom motors, 121. Power for throwing mills, 70-71. Power consumed in silk spinning, 72. Power needed for finishing- plant, 89-90. Power and steam re- quired for dyeing, 99-100. Print- ing requirements, 114. Amount taken by humidifiers, 129-130. Improvements in motors, 121-122. Irregular speeds. 122. Regulation of speed, 122-123. Possible in- creases in production, 123. Clean- liness of mill, and fire hazard, 123. Dealing with high-class con- cerns, 124. PreHcott & Way^rellt IVarplnnr and Wlndtngr, 71a. Price fluctuations of raw-silk hurt manufacturers. 24. Price regulation, fixed retail prices, 302-303. Prices based on raw ma- terial costs, 305. Prices to use in stock-taking, ques- tion of, 363-369. Printing, should a mill do Its own silk? 76-83. Delay In deliveries, 76. Damages to be allowed for, 76-77. Damages to goods, 348, 354. Equipment required, 77. Cost of equipment, 78. Storage of roll- ers and chemicals. 78. Water, sewerage and steam supply, 78. Power requirements, 114. Nature of the operations. 78-80. Resist printing, 79. Extract printing. 79. Direct printing. 79-80. The steam- ing process. 80. Employees re- quired, 80-81. Block printing fa- cilities, 81. Copper rollers and their cost, 81-82. Capital re- quired. 82. Risks of the business. 82. Difllculties with samples and deliveries. 343. Printers' price lists. 82-83. Prices for surface and warp printing, 83. Prices for waterproofing. 83. Private chops of raw silk. 14. 28-29. Production and costs as affected by humidity, 128. Specialization In production. 291-299. Stoppage of production disastrous. 311-312. Directing the production of a tex- tile mill. 334-344. Figuring the annual production, 381. Profits, no extra profit on weighted silks, 36. Profit looked for by re- tailers. 37, 287. Restricting the distributer's profit, 39. Prospec- tive profits in throwing, 73-75. Profits from individual loom drive, 123. Calculated profit on goods, 195, 200. Profits and losses on sales, 197. Profits, losses and ex- penses shown, 201-202. Separately shown, 202. Profit-sharing an aid to efficiency, 218. All should be interested in mill profits, 265. Primary object of sales, 267. Nec- €'ssary profits are not got, 289. Salesmen and profit-making, 271- 272. Profit-making and volume of sales, 336-337. Salaries not based upon profits made, 270. Inducing salesmen to work for profits, 274. Large profits necessary on fan- cies, 283. Profits on advertised fabrics, 301. Bare shelves mean larger profits, 308-309. Profits on foreign business, 321. Clean stocks and profit-making, 319. Clever men always find a profit, 332. No chance of profit for small mills on competitive goods. 337. Jobbing risks, but mill profits on a brokerage basis, 339. Defraud- ing subordinates of profits, 366. Hard to make profit on staples, 398. Profits from a combination of mills, 397. Pulleys, rules for size and speed, 122a. I*urchasing raw silks for a mill, 11-18. Pure dye silks, retailer a barrier to their sale, 38. Questions relating to mill help, 219- 234. Question of making goods for stock, 306-312. Que.stion of prices to use in stock- taking, 363-369. Raw cotton, classifications, 63-65. Length and diameter of staple, 66. Raw material, standardized prices, 194. Using fixed constants, 195. Manner of recording purchases, 199. Adjustment accounts. 200- 201. Poor qualities increase labor costs, 201. Clearances of weights, 201. Raw-silks, purchasing for a mill. 11-18. Judgment In selecting suitable silks, 11-12. Methods of manufacture, 12. Buying ahead, 12-13. Carrying of silk and for- ward selling, 389-390. How grad- ed, 13.' Characteristics of Japan- ese raw-silks. 19-29. Good feat- ures, 19. Deficiencies, 20. Jap- anese raw-silks for single weav- ing, 21. Color, strength, elastic- ity and brilliancy, 21-22. How packed, 22. Meaning of chops, 13. Private chops. 14, 28-29. Reliabil- ity of qualities. 13-14. Silks not up to specification, 15, 29. Unre- liability of Japanese chops, 28. Unsatisfactory classifications, 25- 26. No real assurance of quality, 29. Inaccurate Japanese crop In- formation. 28. Defects causing Imoerfections in goods. 347. 349- 350. Drawbacks to certain silks, 18. Raw-silk classifications. 15. The denier system, 405-410. Gain in ^velght from atmospheric mois- ture. 48. Regain of moisture. 126. Boil-offs of different silks, 20, 48. Sizing tests, 145. Irregu- larity in size of Japanese silks, 25. The combination sizing test, 52- 53. Figuring the thrown silk, 177-178. Scientific and unscien- tific tests, 52. Necessity for sys- tematic tests, 43. Terms and con- ditions of sale. 22-23. Deal with best houses, 14-15. Manufactur- ing policies, 15-16. Cheap silk and low production, 16. Good silk and high production, 16-17. The policy of opportunism, 17-18. Con- ditioned weight, and other bases for sale, 22-23. Rules and regu- lations for transactions, 23, 138- 143. Prices to use on cost sheets, 159, 161. Averaging prices, 194. Relative prices of Japan filatures and rereels, 26. Japan rereel ta- ble, 26-27. How price fluctuations hurt manufacturers, 24, 160. Basic cost prices for stock-taking, 3G6. Valuing the raw-.silk stock, 366- 367. Sound propositions regard- ing pricing, 368. Manner of re- cording outlays, 199. Adherence to policy in buying, 18. Undue credit extended by raw-silk deal- ers, 249, 388, 389. Raw-silk cred- itors of failed firms out in the cold, 262. Raw-silk houses might finance mills, 262. Raising the necessary funds, 262. Manufactur- ers could buy advantageously, 263. Restriction of speculation, 263. Time for maturity of bills, 263. Joint interests of raw-silk dealer and manufacturer, 264. Curtailing raw-silk credits, 390- 391. Sellers should favor self- financed mills. 391-392. Assistance given toward credit restriction, 395. Read & Lovatt Mfg. Co.; Throwsters, 35a. "Recognition of the Union," 215. Refusing to overweight goods, 37- 38. "Regain" of moisture in textile fi- bres, 126. Regarding auction sales, 313-319. Regarding the cost of sample col- lections, 281-283. Relations between mills and their commission-houses, 243-265. Relations between mills and their operatives, 211-218. Relations between mills and their salesmen, 266-280. Relative employment of spindles and looms, 67. Relative weights of fibre and adul- terant, 41. Rereels and their relative cost, 26. Retailers' misleading advertise- ments, 36-37. Increasing ex- penses, 36-37. Margin of profit, 37, 287. Retailer barrier to the sale of honeart merchandise, 38. Returns, clairns and cancellations, 357-362. Reverse twists In cotton yarns for moires, 60. Ribbons, the coating of. 152-154, 172. Manufacturers' cost sheets, 154-155. Cost calculations, 173, 174. Analysis of same, 172. Rloe, Barton & Fales Machine and Iron Co., Machinery, 127a. Rueers & Thompson, Inc., SUk Mfrs., 11a. Rope-driving, 111. Royle & Sons, John, Mach'y, 113a. Rubber goods, adulteration* of, 30-31. Rule for figuring the throwing waste, 149. "Rusty" silk, causes of the dam- age, 350. Salaries of partners, 164. Salesmen, relation between mills and their, 266-280. Good under- standing should exist, 266. Re- quisites of salesmanship, 266-267. Houses should back up their men^ 267. Sales manager's qualifica- tion, 335-336. Some seem to have special intuition, 334. Limita- tions of others, 265. What train- ing does the sales manager get? 267-268, 336. Volume of sales his aim, 336-337. Profit making should be the primary object, 267. A common type, 337. Delusions of salesmen. 292-293. Criticism of the mills, 218. Impossible perfec- tion expected, 359. Salesmen pick best pieces for their customers, 355-356. "Bread and butter stuff," 289. Justifiable discontent of em- ployers, 268-269. Where employers are at fault, 269. Salesmen com- pelled to consider their own in- terests, 269-270. European meth- ods are different, 270. Salaries predicated on sales instead of profits, 270. A French method of compensation, 270. Good men often underrated, 271. Commis- sion basis and its difficulties. 271. Records of value, 197-198. Hard to get men to work for profits, 271-272. Posting mills as to re- quirements, 279-280. Keeping stock out of sight, 309. Salesmen want stock carried, 308. Basic stock considered necessary, 313. Stock goods held in small esteem, 272. Dealing with stock accumu- lations, 314. Opposition to auc- tion sales, 315-316. Deciding on a selling policy, 338. Policy must conform to equipment, 339. Sales- men's confidence weakened by buyers' tactics, 272-273. Mill ex- perience a help, 273. DiflBculties due to distributers' methods, 273. Low cost production and low priced salesmen, 274. Induce- ments to work for profits, 274. Value of the P. M. system. 275. Complaints based on ignorance. 275. Salesmen's courage should be fortified, 275-276. Methods em- ployed by one house. 276. Value of familiarizing salesmen with the mills, 277. Haphazard sam- pling, 277-278. Color matching and its limitations, 278-279. Mills kept in dark as to requirements. 279-280. Undesirable colors in short warps, 280. Sampling in unprofitable directions. 280. Re- sponsibility for cancellations, 360. Managers anxious to make good showing, 365. Interests of mill and sales office should be the same. 275. Base salesmen's re- ward on profits, 280. Sell and re- pent. 298-299. Different methods of handling accounts. 250-251. Agents giving up general depart- ments, 265. Sample collections, regarding the cost of. 281-283. Qualifications of the man in charge. 281. Getting up samples, 341. Foreign sample col- lections, 340-341. Color harmonies m f ; 430 INDEX INDEX 431 m. ^^-ii ■, »• ani discords, 341. Color harmony chart, 341-343. Color assortments should be limited, 341. Difficulties with printed goods, 343. Copying competitors* ideas, 343. Sampling far ahead for novelties, 296. Heavy expense of sample collec- tions, 343. Expenses entailed by fancy goods, 281. Yarns for sampling purposes, 282. Heavy cost of Jacquard work, 282. Losses on sample pieces, 306. Other outlays to be met, 282. Keeping fancy goods expenses separate. 282. Much business on fancies done at a loss, 283. Large initial profits necessary, 283. Saner, Nicholas, ReedM and Har- nesoeH, H4a. Saturation, diagram of, 132. Sehleren Co., Charles A., Leather UeltinKT. ]l»a. Sehv%arxenbach, Hnber & Co., Silk M f rs., 8a. Scranton Silk Machine Co., Ma- chinery, 115a. Sea Island cotton, 65. "Seconds." losses from, 162. Cotton mill allowances, 329. Secretiveness of manufacturers, 57- 58. Security Silk Storage Co., 73a. Selecting a location for a mill, 1-10. Selling expense, analyzing the cost, 199. Interest on stock, 200. Losses from bad debts, 200. Actual expenditures, 201. Nominal and actual commission, 264. In- creased cost of merchandising, 264-265. Selling cost of a great silk corporation, 103. Sewerage difficulties of dyers, 103. Shafting, horse power of steel shafting, 124a. List prices and weights of same, 124a. Shoddy and woolens, 31. Should a mill do its own dyeing? 95-108. Should a mill do its own finishing? 84-94. Should a mill do its own silk print- ing? 76-88. Should a mill do its own throw- ing? 67-75. Sick benefit society, rules, and a workable plan of management, 237-239. *'Silk,** Textile Trade Jonrnal, 94a. Silk Association of America, raw- silk rules and regulations, 23, 138- 143. Throwsters' rules, 143-144. Suggested action regarding for- eign markets, 325. Silk Finishingr Co. of America, Fin- isherii, 67a. Silk goods, adulteration of, 30-39. Silk lot combination test record, 54- 55. Silk spinning, power needed, 72. Silk throwing machinery, different types. 72. Simon, R. & H., Silk Mtm., 6a. Single weaving, silks reeled for, 21. Sizing, combination test for raw and thrown silk, 52-53. The denier- aune system, 405-410. The valu- able compound sizing test, 410. Skein dyers' price list. 96-98. Skein dyeing, operations of, 100. Damages to goods from careless work. 348. Skinner A SOna, IPI^illiam, Silk Mfra., 2a. Smith A Bros. Typewriter Co., L. C, 06a. Smith & IJhiler, Inc., FiniHher.<«, <;9a. Soap, dye house metnods of han- dling, 104. Soap and oil, percentage added in throwing, 48. Allowance for same when calculating costs, 179. Soap and water, dyeing charges lowered by their free use, 46-47. Spanish silks, boil-off, 20. Specialization in production, 291- 299. What to make, 291. Neces- sity of a definite policy, 291. Questions which will influence the decision, 291-292. Frittering away of energies, 292. Those who copy instead of originating, 292. De- lusions of salesmen, 292-293. When to stop making goods, 293. Specializing along narrow lines, 293-294. Policies of production, 294-295. Considerations affecting piece dyes, 295. The production of high novelties, 295-296. Losses entailed by fancy goods, 296. Creating a demand by advertis- ing, 296-297. Protecting trade marks, 297. Policy to be pursued, 297. Shaping a course and fol- lowing it, 297-298. Goods should be sold the season made, 298. "Sell and Repent," 298. Speculation in raw silk, invited by carrying facilities, 390. Speculative attitude of Japanese Reelers, 23-24. Speeds of throwing machinery, 72. Spinning cotton yarns, accuracy in, 58-59, 62-63. Spinning necessary for organzine, 68-69. Spinning of silk, power needed, 72. Spun silk, or schappe, regain of moisture, 126. Raw-silk rules, 140. Liable to contain black hairs, 355. Standard percentages of "regain" for t<^xtile fibres, 126. Standard Silk Dyeing: Co., Skein Dyers, 5!Sa. State legislation for factory work, 4, 235-236. Stehli & Co., Silk Mfrs., Sa. Sternberg & Co., Fred, Yarns, S.'la. Stock, the question of making goods for, 306-312. Advance orders and stock goods, 338-339. How manu- facturers are expected to carry stock. 288. How stock goods ac- cumulate. 306-307, 313. Stock in- creased when it should be re- duced, 388. Inducements to make stock goods, 307-308. Salesmen insistent upon carrying stock, 308. Same goods held in small esteem, 272. Bare shelves mean larger proflts,»308-309. Difflculty of get- ting full price for goods on hand, 309. Losses incurred by carrying stock, 314. Losses from over- stocked market, 387. Stock re- quired for a novelty business, 309. Carrying a quantity of advertised fabrics, 305. Necessary course when handling advertised fabrics. 310. How certain staple goods are distributed, 310. Making goods for commission house ad- vances, 310-311. Stock goods mean commission for factors, 311. Commission house revaluations, 254. Stoppage of production dis- astrous. 311-312. Costs of piece dyes and skein dyes. 312. Impor- tance of preventing stock ac- cumulations, 312. Dealing with stock accumulations, 339. Enlist- ing the auctioneer's services, 312. Stock taking, question of prices to use in, 363-369. Objects of stock taking, 363. Kinds of goods to be enumerated, 363-364. Apportion- ing the costs, 364. Writing-off, 202. How personal interest may affect matters, 364-365. Value of a settled policy, 365-366. Defraud- ing subordinates of their profits, 366. Skepticism when losses have been made, 366. Basic costs for different silks. 366. Methods of valuing the raw silk, 366-367. Difflculty of recommending a course, 367-368. General proposi- tions that are sound, 368. Fluctu- ating stock values confuse mat- ters, 368-369. How shall goods be priced? 369. Decide on a policy and adhere to it, 369. Stock value alwavs ascertainable, 201. Strikes, and their causes, 215. Losses caused by broken up or- ganization, 211-212. "Recognition of the Union," 215. Violence at- tendant upon strikes, 216. Where popular government breaks down, 216. Mill defenses, 216-217. Pro- tecting the workers, 217. The silk throwing strike of 1907, 221. Concerted action by manufac- turers, 233. Preventing sick- benefit funds from being im- propeily diverted, 237. Supplies used in taffeta finishing, 89 ISussex Print Works, Pee. Dyeing:, Ptg., and Finishing, 62a. Suter, Alfred, Machinery and Test- ingr Apparatus, 72a. Switzerland, wages in, 223. Syrian silks, boil-off. Table of Japan rereels, 26-27. Tables of weights, and cost sheets, 175-190. Tables of weights, and their uses, 177. Tables of weights of silk warp, 182- 184. Tables of weights of silk filling, 185-190. Taffeta finishing, supplies required, 89. Take-ups, figures to use in costing, 169. Take-up in twist, 156-157. In weaving, 158, 177. Tata Sons & Co., Raw-Silk, 23a. Taylor, Frederick W., his work in the field of standardization and efficiency, 411. Tenacity of raw-silk, 151. Testing, or conditioning, of silk and other fibres, 134-15L Testing house, 52. Testing the counts of yarns, 60-61. Tests, scientific and unscientific, 52. Textile Finishing Machinery Co., Ilia. "Textile WorK Record,»» Textile Trade Journal, 95a. "The Value of Conditioning," 49, 52. Thro-vvn silk, tables of proportionate values at different boil-offs, 86a, 88a. Thrown silk sizing tables, 2 thread, 53a, 56a. Thrown silk sizing tables, 3 thread, 58a, 62a, 64a, 66a. Thrown silk sizing tables, 4 thread, 68a, 70a, 74a. Thrown silk sizing table, 5 thread, 78a. Throwing, should a mill do its own? 67-75. Advantages hoped for, 67. Respective employment of spindles and looms, 67-68. Opera- tions of throwing, 68. Spinning necessary for organzine, 68-69. Take-up in twist, 156, 157. Waste made, 146-147, 179. How to figure throwing waste, 51, 148-149. Manufacturers* views regarding waste, 147. Inconsistent demands. 147-148. Weight added in soak- ing bath, 148. Percentage of soap and oil used, 46,48. Insoluble substances added in soaking, 14S- 149. Mineral oil makes trouble for dyer, 353. Throwing mill lo- cation, 69. Labor considerations, 69-70. The throwing strike of 1907, 221. Wages in Scranton and Paterson, 221-222. Prices charged for the work, 75. Same prices for different quality silks, 18. Il- logical basis for charges, 147. Land, buildings and power needed, 70-71. Other matters of moment. 71. Machinery and hours of oper- ation, 71-72. Machine speeds, 72. Power taken in spinning, 72. Dif- ferent types of machines, 72. Other equipment needed, 73. Capital invested and operating costs, 73. Conditions necessary for profitable operation. 73-74. Serious risks to be taken, 74. :Market prices for throwing, 74- 75. Damages caused to goods, 348. Claims against throwsters, 149. Wastages in throwing, 75. Rules for throwing transactions. 143-144. Transportation expenses between mill and store, 8. Transmission of power in textile mills. 109-124. Trade-marks, protecting, 297. Trade-marking, goods suitable for. 302. Tsatlee silks, disadvantages of, 18. Their use with cotton warps. 328- 329. Irregular size makes trouble, 350. Tubes, allowance for weight of, 65. Turner, A. G., Throwster, 44a. Tussah silks, raw silk rules. 138- 143. Boil-off. 146. Use with cot- ton warps, 329. Twists employed in cotton spinning. 58. Effect on length of yarns. 58- 59. Table showing changes in lengths of cotton yarns. 59. United Piece Dye AVorks, Piece Dye- ing: and Finishingr, 59a. United States Conditioning and Testing: Co., 17a. United States Conditioning and Testing Co., "The Value of Condi- tioning," 49, 52. Forms for use with combination test, 54-55. The compound sizing test, 145. Price list, 145. Universal Textile Co., Inc., Yaras. 29a. Universal Throwing: Co., Inc^ Throwsters, 3Sa. Universal Winding: Co., Machinery, 117a. Value of boil-off tests In dveing, 49. Value of conditioning, 151." Variation of boil-off tests. 48. Variations in weighting. 41-43. Verification of costs. 191-203. Mis- givings as to returns against ex- penditures, 191. Difl^icultv of in- vestigating. 191-192. Fluctuations in prices, 192. Disturbing factors ,• I Ml 432 INDEX li! i h ! ' -< ! ' :■ 11; '? If" if I9b' |||! *i! 111 It in the situation. 192-193. Neces- sary features of a proper system of control, 194. The working: out of the system, 194-195. Standard bases for cost sheets, 195. Analy- sis of broad silk cost sheet, 195- 196. Fixed figures for selling prices and raw material costs, 195. Records of sales and of price fluctuations, 195-196. Value of the records to the sales manager, 197-198. Tabulations to be made, 198. How the figures are han- dled in the ledger, 198. Prompt ascertainment of discrepancies, 199. Apportioning the general expense, 199. Raw materials and work done on commission, 199. Analyzing the selling expense, 199. Interest on stock a selling expense, 200. Losses from bad debts, 200. Calculated profits, 200. Raw material adjustment ac- counts, 200-201. Excess labor costs due to poor materials, 201. Clearances of the weights, 201. Value of stock always ascertain- able, 201. Other losses, profits, and expenses shown, 201-202. Actual and calculated expendi- tures, 201. Transfer of records to ledger, 202. Full detailed exhibit each month, 202. Writing-off at stocktaking, 202. Differences to be adjusted, 202. Control of rec- ords from sales departments, 202. Cost of keeping up the system, 203. Victoria Silk Co., Throwsters, 4Sa. Villa & Bros., A. P., Raw and Thrown Silks, 2.%a. Villa, Stearns Co., Raw and Thrown Silks, 47a. Wages, variation according to con- ditions, 214. Wage rates a local condition, 220-221. Mill wages fairly constant, 155. Variation of wages and hours of work, 221. Underpaid employees unprofitable, 214-215. Rates in various textile mills, 3. Wages in cotton mills, 331. Things that affect weaving wages, 181. Figuring the price for weaving, 156. Jacquard weav- ing and plain goods, 208. Rela- tion of weaving wages to ex- pense, 165. Standard wage scales, 225. Paterson price list. 225-227. Low wages In the throwing branch, 69. Throwing wages in Scranton and Paterson, 221-222. Earnings in the anthracite re- gions, 239-240. Wages in the silk industry. U. S. and Europe, 222- 224. Mill rules regarding pay- ment of wages, 232-233. Relation of cost calculation to actual pay, 205-206. Checking the amounts paid, 199. Money saved is like increase of pay, 239. Profit shar- ing. 242. Warp tables for silk. 182-184. Waste in manufacturing, allowance for, 158. Percentages to figure on cost sheets. 169-178. Throw- ing waste, 75, 179. How to figure throwing waste, 51. 148. 149. Fancy goods waste. 208. Waste of silk filling made by cotton mills, 330-331. Wastage reduced by humldlfication, 131. Water supply, requirements. 10. Importance to dvers, 98-99. Dye- house requirements, 106. Impuri- ties, 99. Water for silk printing. weighting, fiable, 30. sumer, 35. 33, 100-101. 78. Methods of extraction of water, 104-105. Humidifier re- quirements, 129-130. Watering can, how its use affects dyeing costs, 49. \%>b«ter & Co., IVarren, Steam Heatln«r System, 105a. Weldmann Silk Dyeing Co., Skein Dyers, 50a. Weighting of silks, percentages and costs of, 40-56. Reasons for 32-33. When justi- Advantage to con- Materials employed, Processes, 33, 101-102. How weightings are ordered, 40- 41. Dyeing charges, 34-35. Dyers' price lists, 43-44. Dyeing charged for by the owner*. 43-44. Charging on a percentage basis, 44. Rela- tion of fibre to adulterant, 34, 41. Blue-black dyeing, 102. Limits of weighting, 33-34. Manufac- turers ignorant of percentage of adulteration, 34, 41. Figuring dyed weight of cloth, 171. Varia- tions in weighting, 41-43. Differ- ences between lots, 48-49. Varia- tion of boil-off. 48. How boil-oflf affects weighting cost, 44-45. Boil-off table, 45. How the dyer may be mulcted, 46-47. Table of cost reduction by use of soap and water, 47. How the watering can affects dyeing costs, 49. Value of boil-oflf tests, 49-51. Figuring the throwing waste, 51. Scientific and unscientific tests, 52. Neces- sity for systematic tests, 43. The value of conditioning. 52. The combination test, 52-53. Forms used in connection with tests. 53- 56. Difficulties with weighted silks. 35-36. Injury to the fabrics, 35-36. Weighting of piece dyes, 38-39. Who is to blame for over- weighting? 36. Distributers' lying descriptions. 36-37. Manufacturers suffer by refusal to overweight, 37-38. A suggested remedy, 39. Welfare work among mill opera- tives. 235-242. Self-supporting propositions. 235. State legisla- tion, 235-236. Rewards for long and faithful service, 236. A method which might be emploved, 236-237. Sick-benefit societies, 237. Necessary rules, 237. A plan which has worked well, 237-239. Details of the management. 238. Suspicious attitude of employees. 213-214. 238-239. Building for club room, and for class room for help. 217. Cooking and dressmaking classes. 239. Assisting emplovees in saving. 239. Earnings of silk workers in the antl\racite region, o5S"H12- P^'zf's for suggestions, 240-242. Profit sharing, 242. What to figure for depreciation of plant. 370-378. White silks, boil-oflf. 20. IVilmerdinic. Morris A Mitchell, Anc- tloneern, Tfla. Wool and worsted, regain of mois- ture. 126. Wool, annual per canita supply, 32. Woolens, and shoddy admixtures, 1. Tarn dealers' advice, value of. 57- 58. Tarns needed for sampling, 282. Tellow silks, boil-off. 20. Yonnic A Co.. Charles W., Textile Soaps, Rack CoTer. la Advertising Section rpHE Advertisements of the Leading Houses in the different branches of the industry are here presented TOGETHER WITH Many valuable Reference Tables for the use of Manufacturers. I ir . 1 r:i. 2a 3a lit- ;l' WILUAM SKINNBt & SONS 1848 ^ .^ M ' ^'^'fNAMt\^' MILLS — Holyoke, Mass. SALESROOMS— New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, etc. Manufacturers of Skinners Satin Used by all CLOTHING MANUFACTURERS FUR MANUFACTURERS • CLOAK MANUFACTURERS FOR SALE IN ALL DRY GOODS HOUSES Always measure up to the very highest quality- standard because of more than seventy years' experience in the manufacture of all kinds of silk and unequalled manufacturing facilities. There are Cheney Silk Yarns for every possible requirement. To be had spun and reeled ; doubles and singles; trams and organzines. Delivered as customer prefers — on spools or cones, warped or in the hank ; in the gray or dyed. By reason of a policy that constantly seeks perfection in the manufacture of silks for all purposes, Cheney Silks have attained a position recognized by all as the standard of silk excellence. The following silk products have made Cheney Silks a world-wide name: Cheney Dress and Lining Silks, Foulards, "Shower-Proof* Foulards, Millinery and Knitting Silks, Satins, Velvets, Plushes, Silk and Velvet Ribbons, Wash and Underwear Ribbons, Cravats, Decorative and Upholstery Goods. CHENEY BROTHERS Silk Manufacturers 4th Ave. and 1 8th St., New York f ! ;l: hi' I* 1^' .:*•,. iith Ml mi Ml! '"'iiii 4* Phoenix Silk Manufacturing Co. 334-4th Ave., NEW YORK CITY Manufacturer* of All Grade* and Weaves of Dress Silks, Linings and Ribbons PLAIN AND FANCY mvff *»amj^w nn — MmniMflniiiiiffc'Wiii S3=r TRADE MARK INCORPORATED 1824 nti! ^— "I DRESS SILKS, RIBBONS, SILKS, LININGS TIE SILKS Complete lines of plain and fancy Tie Silks in all up-to-date weaves and patterns* TUBULAR AND PHOENIX WOVEN NECKWEAR Wc carry a largfc stock of Tobulars and the famous Phoenix Woven Neckwear* We also solicit loom orders on special designs on the above, and also on Dc Joinvilles* 5a STEHLI & CO. NEW YORK ZURICH LONDON PARIS BERLIN MILAN io4'Ti2 East 25th Street Near 4th Avenue NEW YORK ^-v^^feS MAKERS and DIRECT SELLERS OF WORim STANDARD FOR ALL TRADES AND PURPOSES. American flills European Millji LANCASTER, PA. SWITZERLAND HIGH POINT. N. C. GERMANY ITALY {' 'I ** 6a 7a in! m w u ^ u is R. & H. SIMON MANUFACTURERS OF Broad Silks of Every Description^ Ribbons and Pile Fabrics ? ■ Up-to-Date weaves in up-to-date colors for the fine Retail and Manufacturing trades 254 FOURTH AVENUE lifll . UNION HILL, N. J. C^\^^^^^^^^. 254 FOURTl Mills: EASTON, PA. oaiesrooms: new york ^ pelgram ^ and MEYER MANUFACTURERS OF Silks — Ribbons Velvet Ribbons Cotton Back Satins 395 FOURTH AVENUE CORNER 28th STREET NEW YORK FACTORIES : Pat«rson, N. J. Boonton, N. J. ilarrisburg^, Pa. U .' 9a 8a i !»l!; h. ' J§. f h i:''|r w Schwarzenbachy Huber and Company 470-8 Fourth Avenue New York Broad Silks DISTRIBUTERS FOR The Schwarzenbach Huber Co., West Hoboken, N. J Robt, Schwarzenbach & Co., Thalwil, Switzerland. Boussieu and La Tour du Pin, France, Hiiningen and Konstanz, Germany. Flli. Schwarzenbach & Co. San Pietro-Seveso, Italy. 4 . ^ loa iia BLOOMSBURQ SILK MILL nANUFACTURERS OF BROAD SILK5 Always the Latest Fabrics Always the Most Desirable Weaves WE MAKE SPECIAL PROVISION FOR THE WANTS OF JOBBERS, RETAILERS, CUTTING-UP TRADES IF YOU ARE LOOKING FOR STYLE — QUALITY — VALUE CALL AND SEE US FACTORIES BLOOMSBURG, PENN. LOCKHAVEN, PENN. SALESROOns WITH FLEITMANN & CO. 46 EAST 26th STREET NEW YORK Rogers & Thompson INC. SILKS. 357 Fourth Avenue at Twenty-sixth St., New York ^t all times we promise to show you The Ultra Fashions in Silks gour iitfiipettian is; miJiteb. ki I2a 1 • V I / .1 I* ii |, ' i M ANDREAE SILK CO. NORFOLK, VIRGINIA « Specialists in the manufacture of HIGH GRADE SILK FABRICS Brocades, Fancies and Plain Weaves for the Dress and Manufacturing Trades NECKWEAR SILKS OF THE BETTER QUALITIES Sole manufacturers of the genuine "Peau de Crepe" "Servisilk" **Crepe de Luxe" "Norsico Fabrics" All Trade Marked and Registered Equipped for the Making of WIDE and EXTRA WIDE Fabrics Joseph Loth & Co. 117 East 23rd Street, New York City Mills: NORWALK, CONN. MANUFACTURERS OF Ribbons. Plain and Jacquard, all grades. Hat Bands. Blacks, colors and fancy. Cravats. Tubular. Specialties Belting, Webbing, Labels, Narrow woven fabrics, yam and piece dye. ^3a ilMK 143 iSa !♦• HARTLEY SILK MANUFACTURING COMPANY BROAD SILKS AND RIBBONS niLLS TOWANDA, PA. TRUMANSBURQ, N.V. TOPTON, PA. SIDNEY, N.V, PITTSTON, PA. WAVERLY, N.Y, Hartley Building. 377 Fourth Ave. New York Silk Gloves Thread Silk Hosiery Italian Silk Underwear Swiss Ribbed Underwear Italian Silk Hosiery bear today, as they have for three generations, that mark of assurance of quality and relia- bility — the name of the maker. The generally acknowledged supremacy of the "KATSER" Merchandise is not the work of a day or a year, but the cumulative result of many years leader- ship which compels gradual recognition and emulation on the part of others in the same field. "KATSER" products are the "standard" by which others are measured. JULIUS KAYSER ^ CO. Largest Silk Glove Manufacturers of the World 45 EAST 17th STREET NEW YORK, N. Y. i6a 17a w^ Travelers' Checks Letters of Credit Cable Transfers Foreign Exchange Capital and Surplus $1,450,000.00 Charter Member of New York Clearing House PACIFIC BANK ESTABLISHED 1850 To carry out the purpose for which this Bank was established over sixty years ago, namely to supply banking facilities to reli- able merchants, we solicit your business. H. B. BRUNDRETT, Chairman of Board O. H. CHENEY, President WILLIAM SKINNER, Vice President • S. C. MERWIN, Cashier J. C. LAWRENCE, Ass't Cashier No. 470 Broadway TWO OFFICES Madison Ave. and 28th St H. D. KLOTS, President E. J STEHLI, Treasurer K. VON BRIESEN, Vice President PvAMSAY PEUGNET, Secretary Wi)t Unttei ^tate0 Conliitionma anb testing Co. OFFICES AND LABORATORIES: 340-344 Hudson St., cor. Charlton St New York City, N. Y. D. E. DOUTY, Manager F. G. BOYE, Superintendent K. B. LAMB, Chemical Engineer The laboratories of the United States Con- ditioning and Testing Co. are the largest and most completely equipped of any in America for the general testing and investigation of raw materials and manufactured products of silk, cotton, wool, and other textile fibers. Conditioning, weighing, boiling-off of silk and scouring of wool ; testing of yarns for count, uni- formity, strength, elasticity, twist, length of staple, etc. ; the analysis of fabrics for fiber, weave, loading, etc., and tests of color are promptly re- ported. Chemical analyses of materials and the inves- tigation of technical chemical problems are under- taken. Expert advice and assistance in the develop- ment of industrial processes will be furnished. i8a li . .« i-l fe^ fJK m \ii CLASSIFICATION OF CHINA SILKS. The principal silks from North China are either those reeled in establishments equipped and conducted after the European methods, which are known as "Steam Filatures," or those reeled by the natives in a primitive fashion, and which are known as "Tsatlees." There are also the Tussahs, both filature reels and native reels. The reeling of the Tsatlees is conducted without the killing of the chrysalides, and so has to be completed within a week or two after the cocoons have been spun and before the moths have had time to emerge. As the great bulk of the crop is reeled in this hasty way, and every available person is engaged at it, it follows that the silk produced— while of the greatest natural brilliancy— is coarse in size and ex- tremely irregular, and the skeins are of a sort that are troublesome for the throwster to handle, and were all formerly reeled without being crossed. "Crossed reels" are now furnished, and silks, originally straight reeled, are re-reeled into crossed reels, and are known as Improved reels." The Haineen silks— called after the district where produced— are sometimes quoted separately, being much favored by some users. Chinas, Japans, and filature tussahs are packed in picul bales of about 1331^ lbs. The term "Chinas" is not understood to include Canton silks, though these come from South China. They are entirely different in nature from the North China silks, and are generally reeled in the size of ifie deniers. They are packed in bales of 80 catties=l()6% lbs. The following classifications have been carefully prepared by Messrs, Arnhold, Karberg & Co., of China, and are for the season of | They show the classifications, and the different selections in which each is offered, together with the equivalent prices in taels, which— for the first grades — were the approximate market values at the be- ginning of the season, and the other prices are given to show the relative values of the various grades. The tael (of Shanghai) is a weight of silver of li^ oz., and, as its value fluctuates with the cost of the silver metal, the quotations of Chinese silks are also affected as bar silver goes up or down. The quotations given are for picul bales of about 133% lbs. net, delivered in Shanghai. The 1% oz. weight of the tael. is in avoirdupois ounces of 437^ grains. The quotations of bar silver are in Troy ounces of 480 grains. Thus, if silver was quoted at 25d. (50 cents) an ounce, the net value of the tael would be 60^ cents, and a price of 880 taels for a 133^ lb. bale of "Soy Lun" would figure out a silver cost of 14.01 per pound. To arrive at the cost, landed in New York, there would have to be added to the above figures the expense of the buying, inspection, weighing, brokerages, transportation, insurance, exchange, interest, and other charges, to figure which accurately is a complex matter. In figuring on China silks in New York, it is customary to estimate the value of the tael as 70 cents when bar silver is at 26d. (52 cents), and proportionately for other prices. Canton silks are quoted in Asia in Mexican dollars, which are worth about 50 cents in gold. Japanese silks are quoted in "yen," which are also worth about 50 cents, gold. 19a r ^ WS^< f» %^ J. ^' ^- ,,^^. » lI^^SSI -mW J Morimura, Arai & Co. 19 Madison Ave., New York Branch of Yokohama Ki-ito Gomel Kwaisha (Yokohama Raw Silk Co.) Yokohama, - - J^P^^ RAW SILK I. ♦•♦••^ r : _r.-a 2ia 2oa i ill 1! I!! ill- II I' !■■ • CLASSIFICATION OF CHINA STEAM FILATURES. Extra-Best Chops Soy Lun Sinchongr E. Woo Best Chops Yang Silk Filat. Lun Hwa M. Denegri Tongr Yue Jinchong Yah Sun Chongr Chun Tsiang Woo Tsze King- M. Denegri Fair Best Chops Sun Kee Wei Lung Ze Jing Yung Sin Kong Yung Tai Yah Wo Yah Zun Chong Wu Tsze Kee Jeay Khong Yah Yuen Ching Wah M. Denegri Wai Lung Yah Kee Yung Lung Yah Woo Sin Foo L. Amidani C. Bedoni Yuen Chong China St. Filat do Soy Dzun Good Chops Dah Lun Hun Yeh Dar Kin Tsun Woo Wah Sung Yih Cheong Yue Khong Hah Hih Hoh Jeay Lung Tung Wei Yue Woo Chue Zen Sun Dah Yung Kee L. Amidani Shing Wah Sung Kee Pao Woo Sun Woo Tsun Nih L. Amidani Class 1 Class 2 Class 1 «« « Class 2 Class 1 Class 2 Anchor Factory E W P Rayon d'Or Gold Dble Dragon M. D. Evergreen Gold Crown Billiken Flying Lizards W. T. K. Teh Lih Centaure Stag Ze Jing Yung Griffon Gold Dble Deer Gold Clock Gold Watch Jockey Sans Pareil Gold Dollar Double Cock Rose Airship Horseshoe Columbia Soleil Sphinx Dble Peach Crysanthdme Lily (jeianium Easle Globe Eagle Stork H. Y. Double Phoenix Spider & Web Lafayette Gold Sycee Camelia Two Gods Nine Dragons Flying Unicorn Comet Diamond Iris Gold Rat Eiffel-Tower Dble Fish & Dragon Flying Stork P. W. Good Boy Gold Dble Eagle Bulldog Price Taels Ex. 1. 2 880 Ex. 1. 2 870 Best 1. 2 850 Ex. 1 2 1. 2 3 Ex. 1 2 Ex. 1 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. ]. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 1. 2. 3 1. 2. 3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 840 825 << 815 << << << << 805 800 MITSUI & CO., Ltd. (MITSUI BUSSAN KAISHA, LTD.) 25 Madison Avenue, N. Y. CABLE ADDRESS "MITSUI' TELEPHONE 10010 MAD. SQ. RAW SILK JAPAN, CANTON. TUSSAH. CHINA FILATURE, TSATLEE IMPORTERS AND EXPORTERS CAMPHOR, COAI,, COPPER, LUMBER. BEAN OIL, TEA, COTTON, MACHINERY, RAILROAD EQUIPMENTvS, ETC. MAIN office: tokio, japan YOKOHOMA LONDON HAMBURG SAN FRANCISCO PORTLAND DALLAS VLADIVOSTOCK HARBIN BOMBAY CALCUTTA BANGKOK SINGAPORE SYDNEY SOURABAIA MANILA RANGOON KABAFUTO BRANCH OFFICES: SHANGHAI CANTON HONGKONG AMOY FOO CHOW HANKOW TSINGTAU PEKING TIENSTIN NEWCHANG CHEFOO DALNY MUKDEN TIBLING CHOSHUN GIRIN ANTOHKEN OSAKA KOBE NAGASAKI MOJI NAGOYA YOKOSUKA KUCHINOTZU NIIGATA TSURUGA MIIKE WAKAMATSU KARATSU KURE KISHIMA SASEBO LYONS MAIZURU MURORAN AVVOMORI SUNAGAWA OTARU SAPPORO TAI P EH TAINAN TAIHOKU TAKAW SHOKA KAGI SEOUL FUSAN CHEMULPO 22a 23a ^^^^^^■^■H t CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM FILATURES (Continued). Good Secondary Chops Price '< ' , .x> 1 Taels [ ; i Hung Kee Class 1 Tiger 1.2.3 785 Yung Tai Gold Globe 1. 2. 3 " ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^^H ! Wai Lun Gold Elephant 1.2.3 " Yuen Lung ** Dragon 1.2.3 " ^^^^^^^^^K ■ Hung Shing " Jeanne d'Arc Ex. 1. 2 " ^^^^^B 1 Dong Yah Dzang Sea Pagoda Ex. 1.2 " ' ' ^ ii Zun Woo W. S. Ex. 1. 2 " Yue Chong Snow Hill & Pagoda 1. 2. 3 " Shanghai St. filat. " Carnation Ex. 1. 3 " Tcheng Lun Class 2 Gold Flying Tiger Ex. 1.2 775 ^^^^^^^^^^^H ^ A. Riva Gold Star Ex. 1.2 " Yue Kong Wong Poo Tong 1. 2. 3 " it i Yah Lun Trois Etoiles 1.2.3 " 1 ^ Yuen Chong " Star & Dragon 1. 2. 3 " ^^^^^^^^H 1 1 Sun Meu Medaille 1.2.3 " Chang Lun " Tramcar 1. 2. 3 " 1 Pao Woo •• Lighthouse 1. 2. 3 " ^^Ht M Lee Chee Sea Lion Ex. 1. 2 " ^^■i^- Kung Yih Mowtai Peony Ex. 1. 2 " i Zee Lun ** Parrot Ex. 1. 2 " P Zih Luen Flag & Globe Ex. 1. 2 " * Yung Lee Three Sheeps 1. 2. 3 " ' Tsun Nee Flower Boat Ex. 1.2 " ^^H*^ Gee Kee Mulberry Tree & Web 1.2.3 " t Zee Tsun Moon & Fish Ex. 1. 2 " i Shing Tze Lion 1. 2. 3 " Shanghai St. filat. " Deer & Stork 1.2.3 " Ting Tze Kee T. T. Ex. 1.2 " S. M. Yun Minerve 1. 2. 3 " i 1 Zee Lung " Gold Swan Ex. 1.2 " Secondary Chops I'. Lun Chong Flying Horse Ex. 1.2 760 |J ^. -J'TIM^^^HHl life.' ' Ching Wah Worm Leaf & Cocoons 1. 2. 3 " Gee Zun Excelsior 1.2.3 " Dah Lun Jinkee Gold Pagoda Ex. 1.2 " (''"^^■■Il 1 Keechong K C S F in cross 1. 2. 3 " ' f I^^HIi Lei Woo Gold Cash Ex. 1. 2 " ">,<■ "fl^^^H^HJ 1 Gee Fong Monkey & Wasp 1. 2. 3 " ''^H^B t. Jeay Shing Whai San 1. 2. 3 " t ^^^B^^H • Zee Lung Flag 1. 2. 3 " Lun Hwa Single Dragon 1.2.3 " fr ;I^H|H|^i| i .; » Wei Lung Old Man 1. 2. 3 " 'i ■J^Bw^S,- 1 Dai King Double Cat 1.2.3 " f Yung Tai Moon & Rabbit 1. 2. 3 " Yue Khong Lily Flower Ex. 1. 2 " Yue Woo Saturn Ex. 1. 2 " '->; p|||Hb|^, Sin Dah Flying Girl 1. 2. 3 " /- i ' Sh! Nee Chong Gold Bell 1. 2. 3 " 9 B ^ Yue Woo Rainbow Ex. 1. 2 " 1 . ^ »!! ' ^^ Fil. a I'Europeenne Wheelbarrow Ex. 1. 2 " , jit j Dong Yah Dzang Dirigeable Ex. 1. 2 " 1' - Tata Sons ® Co. RAW SILK 450 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK .HI 'Mi SI ! iii:. 24a CLASSIFICATION OF TSATLEE, IMPROVED REEL. Extra Best Chops Price for 1st grade Taels Gold Eagle Globe Ex. 1. 2. 3 635 Silver do. Gold Eagle Bell Silver do. Blue Dragon Flying Horse Gold Zdbra Silver do. 1.2.3 Ex. 1. 2 1.2.3 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1.2 Ex. 1. 2 Ex. 1. 2 Best Chops ' Gold Dollar Ex. 1.2 Fountain Ex. 1. 2 Red Almond Fl'r Ex. 1.2 Green do. Ex. 1.2 Five Lions Ex. 1.2 Leopard Ex. 1. 2 Flying Eagle 1.2.3 Horse 1. 2. 3 Alm'd Fl'r & M'n Ex. 1.2 do. &St'ne 1.2.3 Cloud & Lion Ex. 1.2 Flying Stork 1. 2. 3 Gold Motorcar Ex. 1.2 Silver do. Ex. 1.2 Gold Dble Eagle Ex. 1.2 Silver do. Ex. 1.2 Gold H in star Ex. 1.2 Silver H in star Ex. 1.2 Star & Stripes 1.2.3 Red Indian 1.2.3 Gold Peacock Ex. 1.2 Silver do. Ex. 1.2 Gold Fish Ex. 1.2 Silver Fish Ex. 1. 2 ^Sphinx Ex. 1.2 / Sphinx & Lion Ex. 1. 2 j Lion & Scale 1. 2. 3 Sheep & Flag 1.2.3 Solstice ABC Globe ABC Gold Elephant Ex. 1.2 Silver Elephant Ex. 1.2 Blue Fl'g W'm'n Ex. 1. 2 Black Fl'gW'm'n Ex. 1.2 Yuen Shi Kai Ex. 1.2 , Republican Flag Ex. 1. 2 Blue Eagle & Bell 1.2.3 ' Gold Dble Swal's 1. 2. 3 Silver Dble Swal's 1.2.3 Gold Riding Horse 1.2.3 Silver Riding Horse 1. 2. 3 G'd Sycee & Boy Ex. 1.2 9'r Sycee & Boy Ex. 1.2 « 620 « 600 It :t if CLASSIFICATION OF TSATLEE FILATURE, CROSSED. Price for 1st grade Taels Extra-Best Chops I Blue Dragon Ex. 1.2 ( Flying Horse Ex. 1. 2 i Blue Monster Ex. 1. 2 ( Race Horse Ex. 1. 2 {Fighting Cock ABC 1 Cock & Centipede 1. 2. 3 J Gold Butterfly 1. 2. 3 ] Butterfly & [ Almond Flower 1.2.3 I Old Man Ex. 1.2 ( Two Men 1. 2. 3 { Cloud & Stork Ex. 1. 2 (Blue Lion 1.2.3 Best Chops Gold Flying Dragon 610 i< 605 600 !?■ CLASSIFICATION OF Extra Best Chops Price Taels. Spinning Girls No. 1 225 White Dble Elephant No. 1 222}^ Sun Pagoda No. 1 Japanese Woman No. 1.. Black Pagoda No. 1...... " Yifong Gold Dble Dragon No. 1 " Gold Bell " Black Monkey No. 1 Gold Bat No. 1 220 Black Dble Magpie No. 1 " Black Cowboy No. 1 Black Fish Bowl No. 1 " Mowtai Peony No. 1 Gold Flying Fish No. 1.. 217^ Black Leopard No. 1 American & Chinese Flag No. 1 " Black Pony No. 1 " Boy & Umbrella No. 1 " Eighteen Boys No. 1 215 Seven Stars & Dragon No. 1 " Double Horse No. 1 " Three Stars No. 1 " Airship No. 1 Gold Unicorn No. 1 Sun No. 1 " Commercial Flag Mitsui Bussan Kaisha No. 1 " FILATURE TUSSAHS. Best Chops Spinning Girls No. 2 205 White Dble Elephant No 2 202^ Sun Pagoda No. 2 "^ Japanese Woman No. 2... Black Pagoda No. 2 " Yifong Gold Dble Dragon N0.2 " Silver Bell ^ Black Monkey No. 2 Gold Bat No. 2 200 Black Dble Magpie No. 2 ]| Black Cowboy No. 2 Black Fish Bowl No. 2.. " Mowtai Peony No. 2 Gold Flying Fish No. 2.. 197j^ Black Leopard No. 2.... American & Chinese Flag No. 2 " Black Pony No. 2 " Boy & Umbrella No. 2... " Eighteen Boys No. 2 195 Seven Stars & Dragon No. 2 ;; Double Horse No. 2 Three Stars No. 2 " Gold Unicorn No. 2 Airship No. 2 Gold Toad " Sun No. 2 " Mitsui Bussen Kaisha No. 2 " Gold Woman 192J4 Wong Lei Soo Dble Men & Globe ]] Mandarin Horse Gold Ostrich " Spider Gold Single Cock Gold House Willow & Dble Swallows. " Gold Stork ]] Gold Heron Black Dble Swallows " Dble Mandarin Duck " Fighting Quail Pluck Cocoons Black Single Deer 192^ Black Single Goat '] Black Zebra Gold Water Lily " IMPORTED AND DOMESTIC COTTON YARNS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION For Immediate Delivery Cop Yarns -Carded and Combed Two-ply Egyptian and Sea Island Yam for Tie Silk and Fancy goods. Three-ply Special Twist Yam for Moires. Gassed Egyptian Warp Twist Skeins. Filling Yams for Bengalines, All-overs etc. Polished Yarns on Tubes. Double-spun Single Yarns— Tubes and Skeins. Gassed and prepared Lace Yams. Velvet Yarns in Skeins and Warps. SPECIALTY 'New Process*' Mercerized Yams guaranteed against streaky dyeing. CDI7/^IAI TTY ^^^ Shuttle-Cops; Imported and •5* Cj^*ALi 1 I Domestic. AU Standard Numbers. JOS. J. DE LONG Eagle Building 265 Fourth Avenue Cor. 21st Street New York N '■ i 33a kg '' , * ] I i;l 32a ll-. l-i » ^1 i ill CLASSIFICATION OF FILATURE TUSSAHS (Continued). Good No. 1 Chops Gold Single Man 1875^ Camelia „ Gold Eagle Gold Snake No. 1 185 Black Dble Lion Green Parrot Black Flying Horse Policeman Black Elephant Boy Fair 1 Chops Silver Eagle l^JJ^ Gold Mars Black Buffalo Silver Ostrich Balloon No. 1 Black Cat Black Dragon & Tiger... Dragon & Globe 1/ p Silver Woman Gold Pine & Stork Silver Single Cock Silver House Silver Stork Citron Gold Horse Gold Mountain Gold Single Peach Black Riding Horse Black Seven Stars Red Dble Wild Geese.. Black Fir-tree Silver Water Lily Boy & Ladder Black Flying Dragon... Silver Incense «t 44 « U U « «l 40 • • • • • •»i««7\/ • • • • • 41.88 16.15 2.41 42.00 17.00 • • • • • *iiv«4M • • • • • 42.16 17.01 2 4^ 42 32 17.02 • • • • • ••«• A L • • • • • 42.48 17.03 O AK 42.64 17.04 • • • • • •4<^**t' ' • • • • • 42 94 17.06 • • • • • m^»^ #••••• 43.10 17.07 9 4.R 43 26 17.08 • • • • • »A»^^ ■ • • • • 43.42 17.09 k • • • • •mf*^y\j m • • • • 43.58 17.10 1 • • • ••4v«vX • • • • • 43.74 17.11 • • ■ ••^•0^» • • •>• .....43.90 17.12 9. >^9 44.05 17.13 • • • • •M«vO • • • • • 44.20 17.14 • • • • VWkV jT • • • • • 44.35 17.15 9 *:>% 44.49 18.00 • • • • •w*wO • • • • • 44.60 18.01 • • • • *4&*0 •••••• 44.75 18.02 • • • ••^•wO« • • • • 44.90 18.03 • • • • •^•0«f • • • • • 45.05 18.04 4&.OU • • • • • 45.20 18.05 • • • • •4V«WV • • • • • 45.35 18.06 • • • • a^bOX • • • • • 45.50 Lbs. Ozs. Drams Deniers 18.07 . . . . .w.Om. . . • ) 45.65 18.08 9 AQ • • • ••*«^«VlJ • • • • 45.80 18.09 • • • • ^•04 • ■ • • « 45.95 18.10 • • • « m^m^O • • • • 46.10 JS.ll . • . .2.66. . . . < 46.25 18.12...... • • • • afc^tOD • • • • « 46.40 18.13 • • • ••<6*Ol • • • • « 46.56 18.14 • • • • ^>Oo • • • • « 46.72 18.15 • • • • ^.o«i • • • • • 46.86 19.00 • •••^••Vl«*««* 47.03 19.01 • • • • ^« 1 L • • • • • 47.18 19.02 • • • • dtjl^ . . • • ■ 47.33 19.03 2 7^ 47.50 19.04 • • • • w* 1 TS • • • • • 47.65 19.05 • • • • bW* 1 V • • • • • 47.80 19.06 * • • • vM^a fl O • • • • • 48.05 19.07 • • • • A, !*••••• 48.20 19.08 2 7ft 48.35 19.09 • ••••J&>l«7* • • • • 48.50 19.10 • • • • i^.oU • * • • • 48.65 19.11 i • • • .^.oU • • • • • 48.80 19.12 9 fil 48.95 19.13 49.10 19.14 • • • a^aOO • • • • • 49.20 19.15 • • • » ^.o4 49.30 20.00 • • • • ^.8o • • • • • 49.46 20.01 • • • • M«oo • • • • • 49.61 20.02 • • • • MaO #••••• 49.82 20.04 • • • • ^ a.O «/••••• 49.97 20.05 • • • • £t%l3\3 • • • • • 50.14 20.06 • • • • i6««f w • • • • • 50.30 20.07 • • • • £t» '3 X • • • • • 50.45 20.08 • • • •^•«J^* • • • • ......50.60 20.09 • * • s^VcwO • • • • • 50.75 20.10 2.94 50.90 20.11 • • • v^aVD • • • • • 51.06 20.12 > • • • ^.Vu • • • • • 51.22 20.13 • • • •^•«f !••••• 51.38 20.14 • » • • W«4f O • • • • • 51.55 20.15 9 QQ 51.72 21.00 1 • • • o«uU • • • • • 51.89 Table prepared by Mr. H. F, Hofer. QU 52 0) (A *s CO Q M O O £ (d eo a o z o I z z o u I I i a CO P Pi W o H H « O n piS o Q Q O W W P «ii 62a 63a •■f ■ I' I ir ^W"f X LU 00 cr OJ CO Z -T3 1 ^ ^ :^ uj in 00 UJ O U. o CO o t! UJ 7L -o t/) ctf O c CO c 00 c Qu c Q UJ Qu > o o O X 00 >- < O UJ a. CO < z Z Ou Qu < The New York Watering Company NEW YORK CITY J. SULZBACH, Prop. ORIGINATOR OF THE RIBBON PRINTING MACHINE AND SINGLE BEAM WARP PRINTING FOR RIBBONS WE ARE SPECIAUSTS IN THE Dyeing Finishing Printing Embossing Moireing Shirring OF Ribbons Chiffons Beltings Silks Elastic Leather Goods Velvets Laces Nets, etc Surface and Warp Printing ALWAYS A STEP AHEAD \ ■#!' i M<" ilil^ m M iiiif 64a 3-Thread 300 Skeins 7,500 Yards Lbs.Ozs, Drams Deniers 1940 2J83 38.89 19.11 • • • • •^•^^ • • • • • 39.02 19.12 • • • ••^•^^a • • • • 39.13 19.13 9 91C 39 25 19.14 • • • • vMs^O • • • • • 39.37 19.15 1 • • ••M«^0» • • • • 39.50 20.00 > • • • • W« ^ ( • • • • • 39.62 20.01 • • • «M*^c5 • • • • • 39.74 20.02 • • • *^»dtO • • • • • 39.86 20.03 • p • •^•M«l • • • • • 39.98 20.04 • • ••^•Ol/» • • • • 40.11 20.05 • • ■ •^•OX • • • • • 40.23 20.06 2 ^1 40.35 20.07 • • • vl^.Ojj • • • • • 40.47 20.08 • • ••^•00« • • • • 40.59 20.09 • • ••^•Om« • • • • 40.72 20.10 2 ^4. 40.84 20.11 • • • a^vOv • • • • • 40.96 20.12 • • • •i&voO • • • • • 41.08 20.13 41.20 20.14 . • • .^.0 1 .... • 41.33 20.15 ... .M.t5o . • • • • .....41.45 21.00 9^R 41.57 21.01 ... .M.O" ..... 41.69 21.02 41.81 21.03 • • • •w«4U •••••< .... 41."4 21.04 • • • VWV^X • 9 • • • 1 ....42.06 21.05 • • ••w«4w» • • • • 42.18 21.06 • • • •4&*'k^ •••••< 42.30 21.07 • • • a^tt^O ■••••! 42.42 21.08 • • • a^s^^ • • • • • « 42.55 21.09 9 1«S .... 42.67 21.10 • • * •Wb40 • • • • • 42.79 21.11 • • • •w«TkO •••••« 42.91 21.12 • • • cMa^ *••»••! ....43.03 21.13 • • • •^•Tt !•••••« . . . .43.16 Lbs. Ozs. Drams Deniers 21.14 2.48 43.28 21.15 2.49 43.40 22.00 2.49 43.52 22.01 2.50 43.64 22.02 2.51 43.77 22.03. 2.52 43.89 22.04 2.52 44.01 22.05 2.53 44.13 22.06 ..2.54 44.25 22.07 2.54 44.50 22.08 2.55 44.50 22.09 2.56 44.62 22.10 2.57 44.74 22.11 2.58 44.86 22.12 2.59 44.99 22.13 2.60 45.11 22.14 2.60 .45.23 22.15 2.61 45.35 23.00 2.62 45.85 23.01 2.63 45.60 23.02 2.63 45.72 23.03 2.64 45.84 23.04 2.65 45.96 23.05 2.65 46.08 23.06 2.66 46.21 23.07. 2.67 46.33 23.08 2.67 46.45 23.09 2.68 46.57 23.10 2.69 46.69 23.11 2.70 46.82 23.12 2.70 46.94 23.13 2.71 47.106 23.14 2.72 47.18 23.15 2.72 47.30 24.00 2.73 47.43 Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. 65a Oriental r Silk Printing Company HALEDON, (Paterson) N. J. Warp and Surface Printing for Dress Silks, Ribbons and all classes of Silk and mixed goods. Converting plain fabrics to the most beautiful Artistic Effects. PIECE DTEING, Full information, Samples, Designs, latest foreign ideas, etc., at their NEW YORK OFFICE EMMET BUILDING 95 MADISON AVE., Cor. 29th St. New York Telephone, Mad. Sq. 9434 Haledon Telephone, Paterson 3 171 « ■» h ' 662L ill if!' I fi- ll ir k") » 3-Thread Skeins Per Bundle 240 360...... 480 Yards Per Skein.. lO.OOO 7,500 5,000 Lbs. Osa. Drams Deniers .2.24 39.02 .2.24 39.13 39.25 39.36 39.48 39.59 39.71 21.00 21.01 21.02 2.25 21.03 2.26 21.04 2.26 21.05 2.27 21.06 2.28 21.07 2.28 39.82 21.08 2.29 39.93 40.04 40.16 40.27 40.39 40.50 40.62 21.09 2.30, 21.10 2.30. 21.11 2.31. 21.12 2.31. 21.13 2.32. 21.15, 22.00 2.34. 22.01 2.35.. 22.02 2.35.. 22.03 2.36.. 22.04 2.37.. 22.05 2.37.. 22.06 2.38.. 22.07 2.39.. 22.08 2.39.. 22.09 2.40.. 22.10 2.41.! 22.11 2.41.. 22.12. 2.42.. 22.13 2.43.. 22.14 2.43.. 22.15 2.44.. 23.00 2.45.. 23.01 2.46.. 23.02 2.46.. 23.03 2.47.. 23.04 2.48.. 23.05 2.48.. 23.06 2.49 . 23.07 2.50..! 23.08. 2.50.. 23.09 2.51.., 23.10 2.52... 23.11 2.52. .2.33 40.74 .40.85 .40.96 .41.07 .41.19 .41.42 .41.53 .41.53 .41.65 .41.76 .41.88 .41.99 .42.10 42.21 ,42.33 42.44 42.56 42.67 42.79 42.90 43.02 43.14 43.25 43.37 43.48 43.60 43.71 43.83 43.95 23.12 2.53 4t.07 23.13 2.63 44.05 2314 2.54... 44.30 23.15 2.55 44.41 24.00 2.56 44.50 24.01 2.56 44.64 24.02 2.57 44 76 24.03 2.57 44.87 24.04 2.58 45.00 24.05 2.58 45.12 ^4.06 2.59 45^ 24.07 2.59 4.5 36 24.08 2.60 45 47 Lbs. Ozs. Drams 24.09 2.60.. 24.10 2.61.. 24.11 2.62.. 24.12 2.62.. 24.13 2.62.., 24.14 2.64.., 24.15 2.65... 25.00 2.66... 25.01 2.66... 25.02 2.67... 25.03 2.68... 25.04 2.68... 25.05 2.69... 25.06 2.70... 25.07 2.70... 25.08 2.71... 25.09 2.72... 25.10 2.72. . 25.11 2.73... 25.12 2 74 . 25.13 2.75..! 25.14 2.75... 25;i5 2.76... 26.00 2.77... 26.01 2.77! 26.02. 2.78... 26.03 2.79... 26 04 2.79... 26.05 2.80... 26.06 2.81... 26.07 2.81... 26.08 2.82... 2fi.09 2.83... 26.10 2.84... 26.11 2.84... 26.12 2.85... 26.13 2.86... 26.14 2.87..., 26.15 2.87.... 27.00. 2.88.... 27.01 2.88.... 27.02 2.89.... 27.03 2.8».... 27.04 2.90.... 27.05 2.91.... 27.06 2.92 27.07 2.92..!! 27.08 2.93.... 27.09 2.94.... 27.10 2.94 27.11 2.95.... •^7.12 2.96.... 27.13 2.97..,. 27.14 2.97 27.15 2.98.... S8.00 2.99 28.01 3.00.... Deniers ...45.59 ...45.70 ...45.82 ...45.93 ...46.05 ...46.16 ...46.28 ...46.39 ...46.50 ...46.62 ...46.73 . . .46.85 ..46.97 ...47.08 . .47.20 . .47.31 . .47.43 ..47.55 ..47.67 ..47.78 ..47.90 ..43.00 ..48.12 ..48.24 ..48.35 ..4S.47 ..4.S.58 ..48.69 ..43.82 ..48.93 ..49.05 ..49.17 ..49.28 ..49.40 ..49.51 ..49.63 ..49.74 ..49.86 ..49.97 ..50.08 ..50:20 .50.32 .50.44 .50.55 . .50.67 .50.78 .50.90 .50.02 .51.1.3 .51.24 .51.36 .51.43 .51.60 .51.72 .51.33 .51.94 .52.06 67a Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. t H. W. BOETTGER, President ROBERT WYDER, Treat. RUDOLF WYDER, Jr., Vice-Pres. ROBT. BOEHGER, Secy. Silk Finishing C ompany of America i Finishers of all kinds of Broad Silks and Cotton-back Satins y/// Sty/es of Moires Main Office: 137 Madison Avenue New York M 68a 69a i;iii n 4-Thread 150 Skeins.. ,. . .10,060 Yards 200 Skeirtff. 7,500 Yards or 300 Skeins 5,000 Yards Lbs. Ozs. Drams Diniers 17.08 2.98 52.02 17.09 2.99 52.51 17.10 3.00 52.40 17.11... 3.01 52.59 17.12. 3.03 52.78 17.13 3.04 52.97 17.14 3.05 53.16 17.15 3.06 5.3.34 18.00 3.07 53.53 18.01 3.08 53.72 18.08 3.09 53.91 18.03 3.10 54.10 18.04 3.11 54.29 18.05 3.12 54.48 18.06 3.13 54.67 18.07 3.14 54.86 18.08 3.16/. 55.05 18.09 3.17 55.23 18.10 3.18 55.42 18.11 3.19 55.61 18.12 3.20 55.80 55.99 56.18 56.37 56.56 56.75 56.94 57.12 57w31 18.13 3.21 18.14 3.22 18.15 3.23 19.00 3.24 19.01 3.25 19.02... 3.26 19.03 .3.28 19.04 3,29 19.05 ..3.30 57.50 19.06 3.31 57.69 19.07...... 3.32 57.88 19.08 3.33 58.07 19.09 3.34 58.26 19.10 3.35 58.45 19.11 3.36 58.64 19.12 3.37 58.83 19.13 3.38 59.02 19.14.. 3.39 59.20 19.15 3.41 59.39 20.00 3.42 59.58 20.01 3.43 59.77 20.02 3.44. 20.0s 3.45. 20.04 3.46. 20.05 3.47. 20.06 3.48. 20.07 .3.49. 20.08 3.50. 20.09 3.51. 20.10 3.53. 20.11 3.54. 20.12 3.55. .59.96 .60.15 .60.34 .60.53 .60.72 .60.91 .61.09 .61.28 .61.47 .61.66 .61.85 Lbs. Ozs. Drams Deniers 20.13 3.56 62.04 20.14 3.57 62.23 20.15 3.58 62.42 21.00 3.59 62.61 21.01 3.60 62.80 21.02 3.61 62.98 2L03 3.62. 63.17 2L04 3.63 63.36 2L05 3.64 63.55 21.06 3.66 63.74 21.07 3.67 63.93 21.08 3.68 64.12 2L09 3.69 64.31 2L10 3.70.. 64.50 2L11 3.71 64.69 21.12 3.72 64.87 2L13 3.73 65.02 21.14 3.74 65.21 21.15 3.75 65.40 22.00 3.76 6.5.58 22.01 3.78 65.77 22.02 3.79 65.95 22.03 3.80 66.14 22.04 3.81 66.32 22.05 3.82 66.51 22.06 3.83 66.70 22.07 3.84 66.88 22.08 3.85 67.07 22.09 3.86 67.25 22.10 3.87 67.44 22.11 3.88 67.62 22.12 3.89 67.81 22.13 3.91 68.00 22.14 3,92 68.18 22.15 3.93 ,.68.37 23.00 3.94. 23.01 3.95. 23.02 3.96. 23.03 3.97. 23.04 3.98. 23.05 3.99. 23.06 4.00. 23.07 4.01. 23.08 4.02 23.09 4.03. 23.10 4.04. 23.11 4.05. 23,12 4.06. 23.13 4.07. 23.14 4.08. 23.15 4.09. 24.00 4.10. .68.55 .68.74 .68.92 .69.11 .69.29 .69.48 .69.67 .69.85 .70.04 .70.22 .70.41 .70.60 .70.79 .70.98 .7L16 .7L34 .71.51 The largest and most modern INDEPENDENT SILK FINISHING PLANT Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. m AMERICA {7560) 7561 V Chelsea 7562 J Gu8 H. Uhlig, Jr. Carl H. Hausmann T. J. Fitzpatrick SMITH & UHLIG INCORPORATED SILK FINISHERS 515-519 W. 26th St New York Finishers of all kinds of Broad Silks and Cotton-back Satins AO Goods Insured Against Loss By Fire Toa I i H B. ll|i| i1- ■ il>i|>^ 4-Thread 160 Skeins 10,000 Yards 320 Skeins 5,000 Yards Lbs. Ozs. Drams Deniers 1S.08 2.96 51.56 1S.09 ..2.97 51.72 18.10 2.98 51.90 18.11 2.99 52.03 18.12 3.00 52.26 18.13 3.01 .52.4a 18.14 3.02 52.60 18.15. 3.03 52.78 19.00 3.04 52.94 19.01 3.05 53.12 19.02 3.06 53.30 19.03 3.07 53.46 19.04 .3.08 53.64 19.05 3.09 53.82 19.06 3.10 54.00 19.07 3.11 54.16 19.08 3.12 54.34 19.09 3.13 54.52 19.10 3.14 54.68 19.11 3.15 54.86 19.12 3.16 55.04 19.13 3.17 55.22 19.14 3.18 55.38 19.15 3.19 55.56 20.00 3.20 55.64 20.01 3.21 55.90 20.02 3.22 56.08 20.03 3.23 56.26 20.04 3.24. 56.44 20.05 3.25 56.60 20.06 3.26 56.78 20.07 3.27 56.96 20.08 3.28 57.12 20.09 ,.3.29 57.30 20.10 3.30 57.48 20.11 ..3.31 57.66 20.12 3.32 57.82 20.13 3.33 58.00 20.14 3.34 58.18 20.15 3.35 58.34 21.00 3.36 58.52 21.01 3.37 58.70 21.02 3.38 58.86 21.03 3.39 59.04 21.04 3.40 59.22 Lbs. Ozs. Drains Deniers 21.05 3.41 59.40 21.06 3.42 59.56 21.07 3.43 59.74 21.08 3.44 59.92 21.09 3.45 60.08 21.10 3.46 60.26 21.11 3.47 60.44 21.12 3.48 60.62 21.13 3.49 60.78 21.14 3.50 60.96 21.15 3.51 61.14 22.00 3.52 61.30 22.01 3.53 61.48 22.02 3.54 61.70 22.03 3.55 61.84 22.04 3.56 62.00 22.05 3.57 62.18 22.06 3.58 62.36 22.07 ..3.59 62.52 22:08 3.60 62.70 22.09 .3.61 62.88 22.10 3.62 63.06 22.11 3.63. 63.22 22.12 a.64 63.40 22.13 3.65 63.58 22.14 3.66 63.74 22.15 3.67 63.92 23.00 3.68 64.10 23.01 3.69 64.26 23.02 3.70 64 44 23.03 3.71 64.62 23.04 3.72 64.80 23.05 3.73 64.96 23.06 3.74 65.14 23.07 .3.75 65.32 23.08 3.76 65.48 23.09 ..3.77 65.66 23.10 3.78 65.84 23.11 3.79 66.02 23.12 3.80 66.18 23.13 3.81 66.36 23.14 3.82 66.54 23.15 3.83 66.70 24.00 3.84 66.88 Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. 71a WINDING WARPING QUILLING PRESCOTT & WAYWELL 443 MARKET ST, PATERSON, N. J. 11 WE INVITE INQUIRIES. WE KEEP ALL GOODS FULLY INSURED Preparatory ttPork of ei^ery sort on Commissioti* All kinds of Warping, on Dyed, Raw, or Spun Silks Warps prepared for Printing, and crossings woven in Olarps perfectly made ana tborougMy cleanea. Warps of Elxtra Length Supplied. Winding and Quilling arrangements of the very best. The Quality of our Work is of the Highest. Our Customers are Houses of the Best Class. Our Business has been i,ong Established. Our Prices are Most Moderate. LET US FIGURE ON YOUR REQUIREMENTS 72a ALFRED SUTER M&l^ 200 FIFTH AVE., NEW YORK it ' 1% • J;' IMPORTER OF BAER'S YARN AND CLOTH TESTING APPARATUS SUCH AS Direct Yam Numbering Scales — Reels — Evenness Tester s — Twist Testers — Strength Testers — Conditioning Ovens : : : REED ENTERING MACHINES Schappe Yarns of the Fil- ature Lyonnaise de Schappe J. Villard & Co., Lyons. AUTOMATIC STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY TESTER FOR YARN Skein, Broad Silk, Ribbon Dyeing and Finishing Machines of Maison Dussud, Lyons Gebruder Briem, Crefeld Tillm. Gerber, Crefeld and the Schmid Brothers' Silk Skein and Piece Degum- ming Machine. NEW TWIST TESTER WITH TAKE-UP REGISTER AND MAGNIFYING GLASS '0 73a STORAGE OF SILK AND SILK PRODUCTS The only Warehouse in New York built es- pecially for and handling Raw Silk and Silk Products exclusively. Lowest Base Rate of Insurance. Our staff includes Experts in the Silk trade and in Warehouse management. STORAGE SAMPLING WEIGHING CAR TAGE Security Silk Storage Co. 212-214-216 SPRING STREET NEW YORK PHONE, SPRING 2164-216S ROBERT L. HOQUET, Pr«t. JAS. W. HORTON, Secy-Tre«. W. M. P. TAYLOR, A»t. Secy-Treai. it I ill. m' , 74a 'Mil . 1< 4-Thread 18§ Skeins. 24a Skeins. 360 Skeins. Lbs. Ozs. Drams 10,000 Yards 7,500 Yards 5,000 Yards Deniers 21.00 2.98 21.01 2.99. 21.02 3.00. 21.03 3.01. 21.05 3.03. 21.06 3.04. 21.07 3.05. 21.08 3.06. 21.09 3.07. *■'•••*•■'■ • • •.3.08 . 21.12 3.09.. 21.13 3.K).. 21.14 3.11.. 21.15 3.12.. 22.01 3.13.. 22.02 3.14.. ^2.03. 3.16.. 22.04 3.17.. 22.05 3.18.. 22.07 3.19.. 22.08 3.20.. 22.09 3.21.. 22.10 3.22.. 22.11 3.23.. 22.13 3.24.., 22.14 3.25... 22.15 3.26... 23.00 3.28... 23.01... 3.29.. 23.03 3.30... 23.04 3.31... 23.05 3 32 23.06 3.33.'.'.* 23.07 3.34. . 23.09 3.35... 23.10 3.36.. 23.11 3.37... 23.12 3.38... 23.13 3.39.. 23.15 3.41. 24.00 3 42 24.01 3.43.'." 24.02 3,44. 24.03 3.45..., 24.05 3.46.... 24.06 3.47... 24.07 3.48.... 24.08 3.49... 24.09 3.50.... 24.11 3.51,... 24.12 3.53... 24.13 3.54.. 24.14 3.55.... ....52.02 ....52.21 52.40 52.59 ....52.78 ....52.97 ....53.16 ...53.34 ...53.53 ...53.91 ...54.10 ...54.29 ...54.48 ...54.67 ...54.86 ...55.05 ...55.23 ...55.42 ...55.61 . . .55.80 ...55.99 ...56.18 ..56.37 ..56.56 ..56.75 ..56.94 ..57.12 ..57.31 ..57.50 ..57.69 ..57.88 ..58.07 ..58.26 ..58.45 ..58.64 ..58.83 ..59.02 .59.20 .59.39 .59.58 .59.77 .59.96 .60.15 .60.34 .60.53 .60.72 .60.91 .61.09 .61.28 .61.47 .61.66 .61.85 Lbs-Oza. Drams 24.15 ......3.56.. 25.01 3.57.. 25.02... \ 3.58... 25.03 3.59... 25.04 3.60... 25.05 3.61... 25.07 3.62... 25.08 3.63... 25.09 3.64.. 25.10 3.66...' 25.11 3.67... 25.13 3.68... 25.14 3.69... 25.15 3.70... 26.00 3.71. 26.01 3.72... 26.03 3.73..., 26.04 3.74.. 26.05 3.75... 26.06 3.76. 26.07 3.78...! 26.09 379 26.10 '.siso!'.!' 26.11 3.81.... 26.12.. 4 :.3.82... 26.13 3.83.... 26.15 3.84.... 27.00 3.85.. 27.01 3.86....' 27.02 3.87.... 27.03 3.88.... 27.05 3.80.... 27.06 3.91.... 27.07 3.92.. 27.08 3.93...." 27.09 3.94.. 27.11 3.95...;; 27.12 3.96..... 27.13 3.97.. 27.14 3.98... 27.15 3.99.. 28.01 4.00...;* 28.02 4 01 28.03 4.02 28.04 4.03.;;** 28.05 4 04 28.07 4.05;;;;; 28.08 4.06 28.09 4 07 28.10 4.08;;;;;! 28.11 4.09.... 28.13 4.10....;; Deniers ....62.04 62.23 62.42 ....62.61 62.80 ...62.98 ...63.17 ...63.36 ...63.55 ...63.70 ...63.93 . . .64.12 ...64.31 . . .64.50 ...64.69 ...64.87 ...65.02 ...65.21 . . .65.40 ...65.58 ...65.77 ...65.95 ...66.14 ..66.32 ..66.51 ..66.70 ..66.88 ..67.07 ..67.25 ..67.44 -.67.62 ..67.81 ..68.00 ..68.18 ..68.37 ..68.55 ..68.74 .68.92 .69.11 .69.29 .69.48 .69.67 .69.85 .70.04 .70.22 .70.41 .70.60 .70.79 .70.98 .71.16 .71.34 .71.51 Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. MERCANTILE WAREHOUSE GO. Fire Proof Silk Storage Raw Si Ik Insurance $1.1^ per $1,000 per Year 421^27 GREENWICH STREET Automatic Sprinklers Total Supervision Fireproof Warehouses 15 Vestry Street 36 Laight Street 59-65 Laight Street 12-18 Hubert Street 415-427 Greenwich Street Contract Dept. 421 GREENWICH ST. NEW YORK Weighing — Forwmrding 75a h illil lit! X » 1^) mi f« 'flili I u l!» hit|:>l j i l« J 76a AUCTION t Wilmerding, * Morris ^ and j^ Mitchell AUCTIONEERS 488-490-492 BROADWAY NEW YORK CITYI Sales of 'AH Kinds of SILKS ® RIBBONS etc., etc. Every Wednesday 77a JOHN W. FERGUSON CO- ENGINEERS and BUILDING CONTRACTORS United Bank Building 253 Broadway PATERSON, N. J. ^ew York SPECIALISTS IN THE Construction and Equipment of Buildings For Manufacturing and Industrial purposes. Submit your construction problems to us and get the benefit of an extensive and successful experience. I ! Pi i #1 ttil M m li* J 78a 5-Thread 150 Skeins 10,000 Yards 200 Skeins 7,500 Yards or 300 Skeins 5,000 Yards Lbs. Ozs. Drams Deniers 21.14 3.73 65.02 22.00 3.75 65.40 22.02 3.77 65.77 22.03 3.78 65.95 22.04 3.79 66.14 22.05 3.80 66.32 22.06 3.81 66.51 22.07 3.82 66.70 22.08 3.83 66.88 22.09 3.85 67.07 22.10 3.86 67.25 22.11 3.87 67.44 22.12 3.88 67.62 22.13 3.89., 67.81 22.14 3.90 68.00 22.15 3.91 68.18 23.00 3.92 68.37 23.01 3.93 68.55 23.02 3.94 68.74 23.03 3.95 .68.92 23.04 3.96 69.11 23.05 3.97 69.29 23.06 3.98 69.48 23.07 3.09 69.67 Lbs. Ozs. Drams Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. 79a Deniers 23.08 4.01 69.85 23.09 4.02 70.04 23.10. 4.03 70.22 23.11. 4.04 70.41 23.12 4.05 70.60 23.13 4.06 70.79 23.14. 4.07 70.98 23.15 4.08 71.16 24.00 4.10 71.35 24.01 4.11 71.53 24.02. 4.12 71.72 24.03 4.13 71.90 24.04. 4.14 72.09 24.05 4.15 72.28 24.06 4.16 72.46 24.07 4.17 72.65 24.08 4.19 72.83 24.09 4.20 73.02 ^ *••*•>'. ..••.... ..4.,4 20 40,325 6.20 6.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26. 6.27, 5.28: 6.29. 6.80. 5.81. 5.32. 6.33. 6.34. 6.85. 6.86. 6.87. 6.88. 6.39. 6.40. 6.41. 6.42. 6.48. 6.44. 5.45. . 5.46. 6.47. 6.48. 5.49. 6.50. 6.61. 6.62. 5.68. 6.64. 6.65. 6.66. 6.67. 6.58. 5.69. 6.60. 6.61. 6.62. 5.63. 5.64. 6.65. 5.66. 5.67. 5.68. 5.69. 5.70. 6.71. 6.72- 6.78. 6.74. 6.75. 6.76. 6.77. 6.78. 6.79. 6.80. 6.81. 6.82. 5.83. 5.84. 6.85., 6.86.. 6.87.. 5.88.. 5.89.. 5.90.. 6.91.. 6.92.. 5.98.. 5.94. 5.95. 5.96. 5.97. 5.98. 5.99. :i ! Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. ..49.239 ..49,136 ..49.042 ..48.948 ..48,854 .48,761 .48,669 .48,569 .48,484 .48,412 .48.801 .48.210 .48,120 . 48.080 .47,940 .47.850 .47.760 .47,672 .47,583 .47,496 .47,407 .47,819 .47.232 ,47,145 .47,058 .46,972 .46,866 .46,800 .46,716 .46,680 .46.546 .46,460 .46,876 .46,296 .46,209 .46,126 .46,048 .45,960 .45,878 .45,796 .45,714 .45,632 . 45,561 .45,470 .45,390 .45,309 .45,229 .45,149 .45,070 .44,991 .44,912 .44.883 .44,786 .44,677 .44.606 .44.621 .44,444 .44,367 .44,290 .44,214 .44,137 .44,061 .48,986 .43,910 .43,885 .43.760 .43,686 .43,611 .48,637 48,468 43.889 ,43,318 43,248 43,170 48,097 43,036 42,952 42,881 42,812 42,788 83a I. A. Hall &. Co., Paterson, N. J. Allentown Reed, Harness & Mill Supply Co. AUentown, Pa. Manufacturers and Importers of REEDS, HARNESS, SHUTTLES, QUILLS, TWISTED WIRE HEDDLES, WIRE FALSE REEDS, LINGOES (countersunk heads), BAKED HARNESS, "CAN'T SLIP" COP SPINDLES, and General Silk Mill Supplies. (PATERSON MILL) (ALLENTOWN MILL) Sole American Agents for the Imported Grob Flat Steel Heddles. Large stock of sizes and styles always on hand. All kinds of frames for Flat Steel and Twisted Wire Heddles. Also for Baked and Wire False Reeds. Jacquard Harness Building a Specialty. f H ■«■ ! ii N iff! i: li^"' 11 }■ tl WM' m ! \ 84a NICHOLAS SANER 534-538 West 58th Street NEW YORK Telephone 1641 Columbus Manufacturer of All Kinds of REEDS AND SHAFT HARNESSES FOR RIBBONS AND BROAD SILKS Special Mail Harnesses for Raw Silk, Soft Silk and for Plain and Fancy Weaves Reeds for Ribbons Broad Silks Neckties Warping Beads and for All Passementerie Specialties, with Re- movable Dents, in Different Patterns. COPPER WIRE for the MILLINERY TRADE in any thickness, width or temper, made to order at short notice Only the Very Best Materials, Regardless of Cost, Are Used in Making the Above Articles Established 1886 GEO. T. FROST & SON SILK MANUFAQURERS' SUPPLIES. WOOD TURNINGS of every description. Having purchased the business of Messrs. J. Alkmson & Co., we are prepared to make all kinds of WOOD WORK for the textile trade in the best manner and at low prices. WINDER BOBBINS, ANCHOR BOBBINS, QUILLS, WARP ROLLS, SWIFTS, SWIFT STICKS. BRAIDED BANDINGS. We manufacture all kinds of Braided Banding— higfc grade Egyptian and Sea Island for SPINDLES. No. 80. 64 and 48 for BUNDLING, and all sizes for CARD LACING. HOOK BANDS. Hard and Soft Twist Bands in diameters, for transmission purposes. LACING YARNS. all lengths and All sizes for Throwsters and Dyers-Natural, Mercerized, Bleached, Peeler, Spun Silk, etc. FLYERS and WIRE WORK. We make all styles of Flyers, also cut Flyers Rewired; Guide Wires, Automatic Tension Wires, etc. SUPPLIES. Harness Scraps, Loom Cords^ Winder Spindles^ Swift BraceSy Safety Gasoline CanSy Lease Cordy Twincy etc, PROMPT SERVICE. LOW PRICES. 563-577 E. 23d, St., PATERSON, N. J. 85a I % I 'f m ! *i 86a ■m ! I If Value Proportions for Thrown Silk at Various Rates of Boil-off WRONG calculations in comparing the values of a certain quality of throvv-n silk at different rates of boil-off are apt to cause unpleasant 1A« ^^'Pu^V- /°'' ^"Stance, a dealer in thrown silk will offer a buyer iff.?.''?!? ' ^°*^"k^ ^^ Pu^"" *'^"*" ^^ '^y' $*-^0 per pound. Another dealer rfnf it t.'o?"^ x^y^i; *^^ '.^"'^ ^"^^'*y ^^ t^»-ow" silk, boiling off 18 per cent., at $5.^1. 1 he buyer in comparing these two prices would naturally be inclined to buy the $4.70 silk if be is not well posted regarding the s^nff^reH ^''[-S^ I/the last dealer inquires what the boil-off is on he tiL • ^Sr^ *^^ ^"Z '^^^^^'' *^^ ^"y^*" ^o"'d generally reply that while there is a difference of 8 per cent, in the rate of boil-off, even so the price of the second dealer compares unfavorably with that of the first dealer boil off 1Lhh?J^ "I'lf''^ •^""^^ ^i^^}^ ^ P«^ «"^- fo'- the difference in boil-off IS added to the price o^ the thrown silk offered by the first dealer. tht .eJon7S"^? '''^\ ^' ^^''r^ ^''/'^^ ^t a less price than that offered by $5 07 imtetd nf l'.'s>^ """w^^^?"^! ^^ P^^l"^ ^'''^ P^^^ 8 per cent., or ;|)o.07 instead of $5.21, as offered by the second dealer nnrl i^r^ ""'fJjV^^ * number of buyers of thrown silk figuring this way, ir^o n?r "^""^^^ ^-^ '^'"'"f' ^ '"^ ^°">"« off 26 per cent and selling a Mf.J^f fc!-?'"']? ^ *M,^ u "^r ''^^^^ proportions for thrown silks at various rates _of boil-off will be found valuable in making calculations of this Comparative Value in Dollars of One Pound of Silk at Various Rates of Boil-off Rcpnnied from American Silk Journal. February 1, 1910. m 8.00 SMVi 3.05 S.07J4 3.10 3.12 $4 3.15 8.17J4 3.20 8.22}^ 3.25 3.30 3.32 J4 3.35 3.37^i 3.40 ZAZYj 3.45 8.47^ 3.50 Z.bZYa 3.65 3.67J4 3.60 8.62^ 3.65 8.67J4 8.70 8.72 J4 3.75 8.77 J^ 8.80 8.82^ 3.85 8.87 J4 8.90 3.95 3.97J4 4.00 #«( 2.96 1.9854 8.01 8.035^ 3.06 3.0854 8.11 8.185^ 8.16 3.1854 3.21 3.2354 3.26 3.2854 3.31 3.8354 3.36 3.38 3.4054 8.4354 3.4554 3.48 3.51 3.53 3.5554 3.58 3.605$ 3.63 3.6554 3.68 3.7054 8.78 8.7654 8.78 3.80 3.8254 8.85 3.8754 3.90 3.92 5i 8.95 2.93 2.95 2.98 3.00 3.03 8.05 3.08 3.10 3.13 3.15 3.18 3.20 3.23 3.25 3.28 8.30 3.33 3.35 3.38 8.40 3.42 3.45 3.^S 8.50 3.52 3.64 3.36 8.58 3.60 3.62 3.66 3.69 3.71 8.73 3.76 3.78 3.81 3.83 3.8« 3.8S 3.90 *2i1i 2.90 2.92 2.95 2.97 3.00 3.02 3.05 3.07 3.10 3.12 3.15 3.17 3.20 3.22 3.25 3.27 3.30 3.82 3.85 S.37 3.89 3.42 3.45 3.47 3.4^, 8.5l! 3.58 3.55 3.57 3.60 3.63 3.66 3.68 3.70 3.72 3.7f 8.7i 3.77 3.80 3.82 8.85 RATES OF BOIL-OFF. 22i 2.85 2.87 2.90 2.92 2.95 2.97 3.00 3.02 3.05 3.07 3.10 3.12 3.15 3.17 3.20 3.22 3.25 8.87 8.29 8.81 3.83 8.36 3.39 8.41 8.43 3.45 3.47 8.49 8.51 8.54 3.67 8.60 S.62 8.64 8.66 8.68 8.70 3.72 3.76 8.77 3.80 2. 2. 2. 2. 3. 3. 23i 2.81 2.83 2.86 2.88 .90 .93 .95 .98 .01 .03 3.06 3.08 3.11 3.13 3.16 8.18 8.S1 3.23 3.25 3.27 S.2J9 8.82 3.35 8.37 8.39 8.41 3.43 8.45 3.47 8.50 3.53 3.56 3.58 3.60 3.61 3.63 3.66 3.67 3.70 3.72 3.75 -?^ 2.78 2.80 2.83 2.85 2<«8 2.90 2.93 2.95 2.98 3.00 3.02 3.04 3.07 3.09 3.12 3.14 3.17 3.19 3.21 3.23 3.25 3.28 3.31 2.33 3.35 3.37 3.39 3.^-2 3.44 3.47 3.49 3.51 3.53 3.55 3.57 3.59 3.61 3.63 3.67 3.70 25-^ 2.74 2.76 2.79 2.81 2.84 2.86 2.89 2.91 2.94 2.96 2.98 3.00 3.03 3.05 3.08 3.10 3.13 3.15 3.17 3.19 3.21 3.23 3.26 3.28 3.30 3.32 3.34 3.37 3.39 3.42 3.44 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.52 3.54 3.56 3.58 .?.f!0 3.62 3.65 2&^ 2.71 2.73 2.76 2.78 2.81 2.83 2.86 2.88 2.91 2.98 2.95 2.97 2.99 3.01 3.02 3.06 3.09 8.11 3.18 3.16 8.17 3.19 d<22 3.24 3.25 3.27 3.29 3.32 3.34 3.37 3.39 3.41 3.43 3.45 3.47 3.49 3.61 3.53 .'J .SS 3.57 3.60 271^ 2.67 *2.69 2.72 2.74 2.77 2.79 2.8e 2.84 2.87 2.89 2.91 2.93 2.95 2.97 3.00 3.02 3.04 3.06 1% 3.12 3.14 3.17 3.19 3.20 3.22 3.24 3.27 3.29 3.32 3.34 3.36 3.38 3.40 3.42 3.44 3.46 3.48 .'^..'JO 3.52 3.55 28^ 2.64 2.66 2.69 2.71 2.74 2.76 2.79 2.81 2.84 2.86 2.88 2.90 2.92 2.95 2.98 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.10 3.13 3.15 3.16 3.18 3.20 3.23 8.25 3.28 8.30 8.32 3.34 3.36 3.38 3.40 •3.42 3.44 .^46 3.48 3.50 f Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. 29ii, 2.60 2.62 2.65 2.67 2.70 2.72 2.75 2.77 2.80 2.82 p.84 2.86 2.88 2.91 2.93 2.95 2v97 2.98 2.99 3.01 3.03 3.05 5.08 3.10 8.13 3.15 3.16 3.18 3.20 3.23 8.25 8.27 3.29 3.31 3.33 3.35 8.37 3.39 .3.4^ 8.48 8.45 (Over) J0^ 2.5« 2.58 2.61 2.63 2.66 2.68 2.71 2.73 2.76 2.78 2.80 2.82 2.84 2.87 2.89 2.91 2.93 2.94 2.96 2.99 3.01 3.03 3.05 3.97 3.06 8.10 3.12 3.15 3.17 3.20 3.1^2 3.24 8.26 3.28 3.80 3.32 8.34 3.36 337 8.89 8.a m I 87a TEXTILE OILS. 4 r LOOM OILS. * 'Paragon" brands. Furnished in every consistency and gfradct f i*om the su- perb 'Klrystal,^ which is colorless and odorless, to the cheaper grades for general use« SPINDLE OILS. Specially prepared for Spinners and Silk Throwsters. A grade to suit every kind of spinning machinery. ENGINE OILS. Highest grade CYLINDER, CRANK CASE and other Engine Oils. LUBRICATING OILS and GREASES. All kinds of high grade Lubricating Oils and Greases, for every sort of mechanical equipment. I 4 I If you have any Lubricating Troubles, consult us. We are specialists in this line and will gladly advise you. Borne^ Scrymser Company ESTABLISHED J874 80 South Street Claremont, Jersey City, New York N. J. AL50 Philadelphia, Pa.. 437 Chestnut St. Boston, Mass., 36 Central Wharf Fall River, Mass., 160 Third Street B ^■"' I * V J 1' ii I; 1 88a ■ i , f (Continued) f f RATES OF BOIL-OFF. m m 20i 2iii 22i 23i 2^ ^^ 2&^ 27i, 28$ 291, m i 122^ 5SI 8.98 8.87 3.82 3.77 3.72 3.67 3.62 3.57 3.52 8.47 8.48 4.06 4.00 3.96 3.90 3.85 3.80 8.75 8.70 3.66 8.60 3.54 3./49 %.45 i 4.07 J4 4.08 8.98 3.92 3.87 3.82 3.77 8.72 3.67 3.62 8.56 8.51 3.47 1 4.10 4.05 4.01 3.95 8.90 8.85 3.80 3.75 8.70 3.65 8.59 8.54 8.50 4.15 $4 4,07 4.08 8.97 3.92 3.87 3.82 3.77 3.72 3.67 3.61 3.56 3.52 4.16 4.10 4.06 4.00 3.95 3.90 3.86 3.80 8.76 8.70 8.64 8.69 8.55 4.17J4 4.12 4.08 4.02 4.97 3.92 3.87 3.82 3.77 3.72 3.67 8.68 3.58 4.20 4.15 4.11 4.06 4.00 3.94 8.90 3.85 8.79 8.74 8.69 8.64 3.60 4.22 J4 4.17 4.13 4.07 4.02 8.96 3.92 3.87 8.81 3.76 3.72 8.67 3.63 4.26 4.20 4.16 4.10 4.05 4.00 3.94 8.90 8.84 8.79 8.74 8.69 8.65 i 4.87H 4.22 4.18 4.18 4.07 4.02 3.96 8.92 3.86 3.81 3.76 3.71 3.67 i_ 4.80 4.26 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.04 3.99 3.95 3.89 8.83 8.78 3.78 8.69 !' 4.82^ 4.87 4.23 4.17 4.12 4.06 4.01 3.97 3.91 3.85 3.80 3.75 8.71 4.86 4.89 4.25 4.20 4.14 4.08 4.03 3.99 8.93 3.87 3.82 3.77 3.78 4.87}^ 4.81 4.27 4.22 4.16 4.10 4.05 4.01 3.95 3.90 3.85 3.80 8.76 , 4.40 4.84 4.30 4.25 4.19 4.13 4.07 4.03 3.97 3.92 3.87 3.82 3.78 4.48 J^ 4.86 4.82 4.27 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.05 8.99 3.94 3.90 3.85 3.81 4.46 4.89 4.85 4.30 4.24 4.18 4.12 4.07 4.01 8.97 8.92 8.87 8.83 ■' 4.47^ 4.41 4.37 4.32 4.26 4.26 4.15 4.10 4.03 8.99 3.95 3.89 3.86 4.60 4.44 4.40 4.35 4.89 4.28 4.17 4.12 4.05 4.00 3.96 8.91 8.88 4.62^ 4.46 4.42 4.37 4.81 4.25 4.20 4.15 4.08 4.02 3.98 3.98 3.90 1 4.55 4.49 4.45 4.40 4.84 4.27 4.23 4.17 4.10 4.04 4.00 8.95 8.92 1 4.67H 4.51 4.47 4.42 4.86 4.29 4.25 4.20 4.18 4.07 4.02 8.97 3.94 4.60 4.54 4.50 4.45 4.39 4.32 4.27 4.22 4.16 4.10 4.05 4.00 8.96 4.62 1'^ 4.56 4.62 4.47 4.41 4.34 4.30 4.25 4.19 4.18 4.07 4.02 8.98 4.65 4.59 4.55 4.50 4.44- 4.37 4.32 4.27 4.21 4.15 4.09 4.04 4.00 4.67J4 4.61 4.67 4.52 4.46 4.39 4.34 4.29 4.23 4.17 4.11 4.06 4.02 4.70 4.64 4.60 4.55 4.49 4.42 4.37 4.82 4.26 4.20 4.13 4.08 4.04 4.72^ 4.66 4.62 4.57 4.51 4.44 4.89 4.34 4.28 4.28 4.15 4.10 4.06 4.75 4.69 4.65 4.59 4.53 4.46 4.41 4.36 4.29 4.28 4.17 4.18 4.07 4.77J4 4,71 4.67 4.61 4.55 4.48 4.43 4.88 4.31 4.85 4.19 4.18 4.09 4.80 4.74 4.70 4.63 4.67 4.50 4.45 4.40 4.33 4.87 4.21 4.15 4.10 4,82^ 4.77 4.72 4.65 4.59 4.53 4.47 4.42 4.35 4.80 4.24 4.17 4.12 4.85 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 4.50 4.44 4.38 4.83 4.27 4.20 4.15 4.87^ 4.82 4.77 4.71 4.65 4.59 4.53 4.47 4.41 4.86 4.30 4.23 4.18 4.90 4.85 4.79 4.73 4.67 4.61 4.55 4.49 4.43 4.88 4.32 4.25 4.20 4.92 J4 4.87 4.81 4.75 4.69 4.63 4.67 4.51 4.45 4.40 4.84 4.27 4.22 4.95 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.72 4.66 4.60 4.54 4.48 4.48 4.87 4.80 4.25 4.97^ 4.98 4.86 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 .4.50 4.45 4.39 4.32 4.27 6.00 4.95 4.89 4.83 4.77 4.71 4.65 4.59 '4.53 4.48 4.42 4.85 4.80 6.02 H 4.97 4.91 4.85 4.79 4.73 4.67 4.61 4.55 4.60 4.44 4.37 4.32 6.05 5.00 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.76 4.70 4.64 4.58 4.62 4.46 4.89 4^84 6.07 V4 5.02 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.72 4.66 4.60 4.54 4.48 4.41 4.36 «.10 6.05 4.98 4.92 4.86 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 4.50 4.43 4.3S 6.12 J4 5.07 6.01 4.95 4.89 4.83 4.76 4.71 4.65 4.59 4.53 4.46 4.40 6.15 5.10 5.04 4.98 4.92 4.86 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 4.49 ° 4.48 5.17J4 5.11 5.05 5.00 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.76 4.70 4.64 4.58 4.51 4.45 5.20 5.14 6.08 5.04 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.72 4.66 4.60 4.68 4.47 6.22^ 5.16 5.10 5.06 4.98 4.92 4.86 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.55 4.49 6.25 5.19 5.18 5.08 5.00 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.76 4.70 4.64 4.57 4.51 6.27 J4 5.21 5.16 5.11 5.02 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.72 4.66 4.59 4.58 6.80 5.24 5.18 5.18 5.05 4.08 4.02 4.86 4.80 4.74 4.68 4.61 4.56 6.82H 5.26 5.20 6.15 5.07 5.00 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.76 4.70 4.63 4.57 6.85 5.29 5.22 5.18 5.09 5.02 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.72 4.65 4.59 6.87 J4 5.31 5.25 5.20 5.12 5.05 4.99 4.92 .4.86 4.80 4.74 4.67 4.61 6.40 5.34 6.87 5.23 5.14 5.07 5.01 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.76 4.69 4.68 6.42J4 5.37 6.80 5.25 5.17 5.10 5.03 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.78 4.71 4.65 6.45 5.39 6.38 5.27 5.10 5.12 5.05 4.98 4.92 4.86 4.60 4.73 4.67 6.47H 5.41 6.35 .5.30 5.21 5.14 5.07 6.00 4.94 4.88 4.82 4.75 4.69 6.50 5.44 5.88 5.33 5.23 5.16 6.09 6.02 4.96 4.90 4.84 4.77 4.71 5.62J4 5.47 6;40 5.85 5.26 5.19 6.12 6.05 4.98 4.92 4.86 4.79 4 78 6.65 5.49 6.42 5.38 5.88 6.21 6.14 6.07 5.00 4.94 4.88 4.81 4 75 6.57 J4 5.62 6.46 5.40 5.81 5.24 5.17 6.10 5.08 4.96 4.90 4.83 4.77 6.60 5.54 6.47 5.42 6.88 6.26 6.19 6.12 5.04 4.98 4.92 4.85 4 70 6.62J4 5.56 6.49 5.44 5.85 5.28 5.21 6.14 5.06 5.00 4.94 4.87 7* ff V 4.81 5.65 5.58 5.52 5.46 5.37 6.29 5.22 6.16 5.08 5.02 4.96 4.89 4.83 6.67^ 5.61 6.54 6.48 5.39 6.31 5.24 6.18 5.10 5.04 4.98 4.91 4 85 6.70 5.63 5.56 5.51 5.41 6.83 5.26 5.20 5.12 6.06 5.00 4.93 4 87 5.72 J4 5.66 6.69 5.54 5.44 5.36 6.89 5.23 5.15 5.08 5.02 4.95 4.89 ' 6.76 5.68 6.62 5.66 5.47 5.89 6.88 5.26 5.18 6.10 5.04 4.97 4 01 5.77^ 5.71 6.64 6.67 5.49 5.41 5.84 5.28 5.20 6.12 5.06 4.99 4 93 5.80 6.73 6.65 5.59 5.50 5.42 5.35 5.29 5.22 5.14 5.08 6.01 4 05 6.82 J4 6.75 6.67 5.62 5.62 5.44 5.87 5.81 5.24 5.16 6.10 5.03 4 97 e.a.l 6.77 6.70 5.64 6.66 5.46 5.40 5.34 5.26 5.18 5.12 5.05 4 90 6.87^ 6.80 6.78 6.67 6.67 5.49 5.48 5.36 5.28 6.20 5.14 6.07 5 00 6.90 6.82 5.75 6.70 6.60 5.62 5.46 5.89 5.31 6.28 5.16 6.08 5 02 6.92^ 6.85 6.77 6.72 6.68 5.55 5;48 5.42 5.33 6.24 6.18 6.10 5.04 5.95 5.88 6.80 6.75 5. 65 5.67 5.50 5.44 5.36 6?7 5.21 5.12 5.07 5 9754 6.90 6.83 6.78 5.68 5.60 5.53 5.47 5.89 5.80 5.24 6.16 6.09 6.00 5.98 5.86 5.79 6.71 5.63 5.56 6.50 6.42 5.84 5.27 5.20 6.12 - Table prepared by Mr. H. F. Hofer. 89a i BERLY & Newell Sample Card M Printers I 'AND ithographers. ^Makers. 1 DRY GOODS WORK A SPECIALTY [ Labeling, Mounting and Booking Samples of every description for the Silky Dress Goods, Cotton, Woolen and TaUor Trimming Trade •••••• Designing, Lithographing, Printing, Stamping and Embossing Labels, Tags, Bands, Gum Tickets, Fasteners, Etc. • ... We will make and carry your Tickets, Bands, Cards and Covers in stock, making immediate delivery as called for. 540 Pearl Street, New York Telephone, 5241 Worth M' i i IN I « • ' i' 90a IF your form letters and circulars lack the "punch" that brings results ^^CALL US IN— ^ We have the finest and most up-to- date power plant in the city. >0«0« We do fac-simile and piultigraphing letters — typewriting, addressing fold- ing, etc. etc. In the Metropolitan Building six years. METROPOLITAN LETTER COMPANY 1 Madison Avenue, New York City Phone 2844 Qramercy 91a -# ^ AMERICAN SILK- JOURNAL THE ONLY JOURNAL OF THE SILK TRADE WITH AN UNBROKEN EXISTENCE OF THIRTY-TWO YEARS. A progressive illustrated monthly devoted exclusively to all branches of the silk industry. Authoritatively reflects the progress of silk manufacturing and merchandising here and abroad. It carries the largest amount of silk merchandise and mill supply advertising, having the greatest circulation In the silk field. Men who buy, read it. Men who sell, advertise in it. Subscription $2.00 per annum. Foreign $^.00 CLIFFORD & LAWTON, PUBUSHERS,|;1 E.p28th ST., NEW YORK ESTABLISHED 1882 li ill « f 92a i|ij M .1. ¥. ^< aocts ''The Voice of the Dry Goods Trade ' ' Edited by MAX JAGERHUBER It is the greatest authority on European and American fashions and fabrics. It covers the New York dry goods markets with thoroughness and accuracy. It is a forum where employer and employe meet upon a common ground for the discussion of selling plans, store management, advertising problems, operating expenses and the thousand and one things that confront the dry goods mer- chant in every day life. It is a necessary adjunct to the dry goods business because it stimulates thought, stirs im- agination and helps to sell more goods. Published monthly by the Dry Goods Publishing Company 120 West 32nd Street New York iH!! * ■ {*■'■[ L:-a»; 93a "T^H E remarkable development of the knit goods industry in the United States during the past few years accounts, according to a recent report of the Silk Association of America, for some of the increased consumption of raw silk which had been noted from year to year, even in years when what is generally spoken of as the silk industry was languishing. The preference of women for silk hosiery and gloves, and to a less marked degree for silk underwear, has, in fact, created a new and important branch of the silk industry.'' Knit Goods Is the Only Trade Journal Pub- lished exclusively in the Interests of the Knitting Industry. ADVERTISING RATES AND SAMPLE COPIES SENT ON APPUCATION McCready Publishing Compy 118 East Twenty-eighth St., New York i t 94a 95a l^^"^"^^^"^^^^^ I",- ■ u With which is incorporated the SILK REPORTER Established in 1877 An Illustrated Magazine Published Monthly in the Interests of the Producer and the Buyer H. S. VORHIS, Managing Editor SILK is a monthly magazine devoted to the inter- ests of the silk manufacturing industry and all of its branches. Technical articles each month represent- ing the latest progress in textile manufacture and mill management at home and abroad. Latest Paris fash- ions from our special representative. Subscription $2.00 per annum Foreign Subscription $3.00 SILK PUBLISHING COMPANY 122 EAST 25th STREET, NEW YORK U"^^ 4^<1^ Cfie textile l©orlb CtecorJi The Magazine for the Mill Trade prints more valuable articles bearing on the various branches and different processes of the art of textile manufacturing than all other American textile publications combined. The principal manufacturers, mill officials, superintendents, and overseers of departments are regular subscribers because it appeals to intelligent mill men. It treats, in a practical way, all subjects connected with the products and processes of textile manufacture. To quote the late Senator Dolliver's remark on the floor of the Senate: **It is the most important textile trade journal in America." And it covers all departments of the industry comprehensively. Among the departments of great interest to all textile manufacturers are those devoted to: Monthly Comment; Technical Articles (Exclusive Matter); Correspondence and Notes; Questions and Answers; Knit- ting; Bleaching, Dying and Finishing; New Machinery and Processes; Mill News and Personals; Industrial Notes; Etc. Of Special Interest to Silk Manufacturers Are The <<5ilk Market," ''Artificial 5ilk Market." and ''5ilk Mill News." Although not devoted entirely to the silk branch of the textile industry, many silk manufacturers subscribe to this Magazine, to keep in close touch with general conditions and changes. Several leading manufacturers of Silk Yarns, Tinsels, Noils, Ramie, Organzine and Tram are included in our 400 regular advertisers, because they know this Journal reaches the responsible men in the mills to which their products must be sold. SAMPLE COPY ON REQUEST Subscription price $2.00 a year; Combination price, with Official American Textile Directory, $3.00 a year. 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Branches In all 'Principal Cities New York City Branch, 311 Broadway 97a Q THIS BOOK WAS PRINTED BY THE BARNES PRINTING CO 36 East 22nd Street New York City High Class Printing of Every Kind Attractive Trade Booklets Produced Office Stationery Designed Illustrating, Color Printing, Engraving and Book Binding of Every Description High Class Work Reasonable Prices 99a 98a Curves showing Regain of Cotton, Sillc and Wool, under varying conditions, as worked out by Schloesing nr 20 ^ 10 Moisture for 100 parts of Dry Material 30 iOOj— r — re/ ?< rai yhe ; V\ c. 5^ L^ ~ ^ 2 - - - — — tT2 n^ ^ 50 — '"■ « is2 ^ j^ •S ^^ _ _^_ c< ^ g ^ 7 / _ ^ so — ? 7//jy 77 _ 1 ^ " ■ ' ~^7 22 S y r _ — — ^ 4« — ^^^ <^Y/ r jy r" > / ■51 ,>, ~~ ^ ]b^ ^ > 7^ _ ^^^ —■ — V: io — \ y« f/vt 1* >/ r^ 1 - p\ m^ y «^ _ •< 20— y £_ "~ _ _ 2' ^ — _ ^^ _^ ^^ 10 — 7' ^ti - _ _ ^^__ — ~ ^1- i— "^ V 0*^ $ i ^0 /is/ *fc r/ QQ / pa. 5- r/i <7^ ■/?i rjri 2 tet V^i r ^ 5 io C. Deflacieux Jacquard Card Cutter (LISEUR) FOR ALL TEXTILE FABRICS REPEATING French and Fine Index FIRST-CLASS WORK 6 Mill Street, Paterson, N. J TELEPHONE CONNECTION li I ' icxDa IB-'' If 1 » Table of Cotton Reg:ain For Various Temperatures and Percentages of Humidity DEGREES FAHRENHEIT % 40 Hmdty. ^" 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 15 2.93 2.91 2.90 2.87 2.84 2.81 2.79 2.73 2.68 2.63 2.57 2.50 2.40 20 3.63 3.61 3.60 3.58 3.54 3.50 3.45 3.40 3.35 3.30 3.21 3.10 3.00 25 4.30 4.27 4.24 4.20 4.16 4.12 4.06 4.00 3.92 3.85 3.75 3.64 3.50 30 4.89 4.87 4.84 4.80 4.75 4.70 4.65 4.60 4.50 4.40 4.30 4.20 4.06 35 5.42 5.40 5.37 5.32 5.27 5.21 5.15 5.09 4.99 4.89 4.78 4.67 4.56 40 5.95 5.93 5.90 5.83 5.79 5.72 5.65 5.58 5.47 5.37 5.25 5.14 5.05 42 6.15 6.13 6.10 6.03 5.99 5.92 5.85 5.78 5.67 5.57 5.44 5.32 5.21 44 6.35 6.33 6.30 6.23 6.19 6.12 6.04 5.97 5.86 5.76 5.62 5.50 5.37 46 6.55 6.53 6.50 6.43 6.38 6.31 6.24 6.16 6.06 5.96 5.81 5.68 5.54 48 6.75 6.72 6.69 6.63 6.58 6.51 6.43 6.35 6.25 6.15 5.99 5.86 5.70 50 6.95 6.92 6.89 6.83 6.78 6.71 6.63 6.55 6.45 6.35 6.18 6.04 5.86 52 7.18 7.15 7.11 7.05 7.00 6.93 6.84 6.75 6.65 6.54 6.37 6.23 6.05 54 7.41 7.38 7.33 7.27 7.22 7.14 7.05 6.96 6.85 6.73 6.56 6.42 6.24 56 7.65 7.60 7.56 7.49 7.43 7.36 7.27 7.16 7.04 6.92 6.75 6.61 6.42 58 7.88 7.83 7.78 7.71 7.65 7.57 7.48 7.37 7.24 7.11 6.94 6.80 6.61 60 8.11 8.06 8.00 7.93 7.87 7.79 7.69 7.57 7.44 7.30 7.13 6.98 6.80 62 8.34 8.29 8.23 8.16 8.10 8.01 7.91 7.79 7.67 7.53 7.37 7.22 7.05 64 8.57 8.52 8.46 8.39 8.32 8.23 8.13 8.02 7.90 7.76 7.61 7.47 7.30 66 8.79 8.74 8.68 8.62 8.55 8.45 8.35 8.24 8.12 7.98 7.84 7.71 7.55 68 9.02 8.97 8.91 8.85 8.77 8.67 8.57 8.47 8.35 8.21 8.08 7.96 7.80 70 9.25 9.20 9.14 9.08 9.00 3.89 8.79 8.69 8.58 8.44 8.32 8.20 8.05 72 9.54 9.49 9.43 9.36 9.28 9.18 9.08 8.97 8.85 8.72 8.60 8.49 8.36 74 9.83 9.77 9.72 9.65 9.57 9.47 9.37 9.25 9.13 9.00 8.87 8.78 8.67 76 10.12 10.06 10.00 9.93 9.85 9.75 9.65 9.54 9.40 9.27 9.15 9.06 8.98 78 10.41 10.34 10.29 10.22 10.14 10.04 9.94 9.82 9.68 9.55 9.42 9.35 9.29 80 10.70 10.63 10.58 10.50 10.42 10.33 10.23 10.10 9.95 9.83 9.70 9.64 9.60 82 11.04 10.97 10.92 10.84 10.76 10.66 10.55 10.42 10.27 10.16 10.05 10.01 10.05 84 11.38 11.31 11.26 11.18 11.09 10.99 10.88 10.74 10.59 10.48 10.39 10.38 10.50 86 11.71 11.65 11.60 11.52 11.43 11.32 11.20 11.06 10.92 10.81 10.74 10.76 10.95 88 12.05 11.99 11.94 11.86 11.76 11.65 11.53 11.38 11.24 11.13 11.08 11.13 11.40 90 12.39 12.33 12.28 12.20 12.10 11.08 11.85 11.70 11.56 11.46 11.43 11.50 11.85 92 12.75 12.70 12.65 12.58 12.48 12.36 12.24 12.10 11.98 11.90 11.88 12.00 12.38 94 13.12 13.07 13.02 12.95 12.86 12.75 12.63 12.50 12.40 12.34 12.34 12.50 12.91 96 13.48 13.44 13.38 13.33 13.24 13.13 1*3.02 12.90 12.81 12J7 12.79 13.00 13.44 98 13.85 13.81 13.75 13.70 13.62 13.52 13.41 13.30 13.23 13.21 13.25 13.50 13.97 100 14.21 14.18 14.12 14.08 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70 13.65 13.65 13.70 14.00 14.50 loia Fast Colors for 5ilk Helindone Colors Aniline Colors Alizarine Colors Dianil Colors Specialties for Si lie Printing Farbwerke - Hoechst Company FORMERLY H. A. METZ & CO. Sole Agents in the United States and Canada tor the Tarbwerke vorm. Meister, Lucius and Bruening New York, BOSTON PHILADELPHIA - PROVIDENCE CHICAGO - CHARLOTTE - SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA MONTREAL - 122 Hudson St 140-142 Oliver Street 104 Chestnut Street 23 S. Main Street - 317 N. Clark Street 210 S. Tryon Street 20-22 Natoma Street - 1418 Empire Building 30 St. Francois Xavier Street i .si 102a 103a % Hiiulty. Table of Worsted Retrain For Various Temperatures and Percentages of Humidity DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 15 7.7 7.7 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.2 7.1 6.9 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.2 6.0 5.7 20 9.1 9.1 8.9 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.4 8.2 8.0 7.8 7.5 7.3 7.1 6.9 25 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.7 9.5 9.3 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.4 8.1 7.8 30 11.4 11.3 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.7 10.5 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.5 9.2 8.9 8.7 35 12.4 12.2 12.1 119 11.7 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.6 10.3 10.2 9.8 9.5 40 13.3 13.2 13.0 12.8 12.6 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.7' 11.5 11.2 10.9 10.7 10.4 42 13.7 13.5 13.4 13.2 13.0 12.8 12.6 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.7 44 14.1 13.9 13.8 13.6 13.4 13.2 12.9 12.7 12.4 12.2 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.1 46 14.5 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.7 13.5 13.3 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.2 11.9 11.7 11.4 48 14.8 14.7 14.5 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.6 13.4 13.1 12.8 12.6 12.3 12.0 11.8 50 15.2 15.1 14.9 14.7 14.5 14.3 14.0 13.8 13.5 13.2 12.9 12.6 12.3 12.1 52 15.6 15.5 15.3 15.1 14.9 14.6 14.4 14.1 13.8 13.5 13.3 13.0 12.7 12.4 54 16.0 15.9 15.7 15.5 15.3 15.0 14.7 14.5 14.2 13.9 13.6 13.3 13.0 12.8 56 16.5 16.3 16.1 15.9 15.6 15.4 15.1 14.8 14.5 14.2 14.0 13.7 13.4 13.1 58 16.9 16.7 16.5 16.3 16.0 15.7 15.5 15.2 14.9 14.6 14.3 14.0 13.7 13.5 60 17.3 17.1 16.9 16.7 16.4 16.1 15.9 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.7 14.4 14.1 13.8 62 17.7 17.5 17.3 17.1 16.8 16.5 16.2 15.9 15.6 15.3 15.1 14.8 14.5 14.2 64 18.1 17.9 17.7 17.5 17.2 16.9 16.6 16.3 16.0 15.7 15.4 15.1 14.8 14.5 66 18.6 18.4 18.1 17.9 17.6 17.3 16.9 16.7 16.3 16.1 15.8 15.5 15.2 14.9 68 19.0 18.8 18.5 18.3 18.0 17.6 17.3 17.0 16.7 16.4 16.1 15.9 15.6 15.2 70 19.4 19.2 18.9 18.7 18.3 18.0 17.7 17.4 17.1 16.8 16.5 16.2 15.9 15.6 72 19.9 19.7 19.4 19.1 18.8 18.4 18.1 17.8 17.5 17.2 16.9 16.6 16.3 16.0 74 20.4 20.1 19.9 19.6 19.2 18.9 18.5 18.2 17.9 17.6 17.3 17.0 16.7 16.5 76 20.8 20.6 20.4 20.0 19.7 19.3 18.9 18.6 18.3 17.9 17.6 17.4 17.1 16.9 78 21.3 21.1 20.9 20.5 20.1 19.7 19.4 19.0 18.7 18.3 18.0 17.8 17.5 17.3 80 21.8 21.5 21.3 20.9 20.6 20.2 19.8 19.4 19.1 18.7 18.4 18.2 17.9 17.7 82 22.3 22.1 21.8 21.4 21.0 20.6 20.2 19.8 19.5 19.1 18.9 18.7 18.5 18.3 84 22.9 22.6 22.4 22.0 21.5 21.1 20.7 20.2 19.9 19.6 19.3 19.2 19.1 18.9 86 23.4 23.2 22.9 22.5 22.0 21.6 21.1 20.7 20.4 20.1 19.8 19.7 19.6 19.5 88 24.0 23.7 23.4 23.0 22.6 22.1 21.7 21.3 20.9 20.6 20.4 20.3 20.2 20.2 90 24.5 24.2 23.9 23.5 23.1 22.7 22.2 21.8 21.4 21.1 20.9 20.9 20.8 20.8 92 25.2 24.9 24.6 24.2 23.7 23.3 22.8 22.4 22.1 21.7 21.6 21.5 21.6 21.5 94 25.9 25.6 25.3 24.9 24.4 23.9 23.4 23.0 22.8 22.4 22.3 22.2 22.3 22.3 96 26.6 26.3 26.0 25.6 25.1 24.6 24.1 23.7 23.5 23.1 23.0 23.0 23.1 23.1 98 27.4 27.1 26.7 26.3 25.9 25.4 24.9 24.5 24.2 24.0 23.8 23.8 23.9 23.8 00 28.2 27.8 27.5 27.1 26.7 26.2 25.8 25.4 25.0 24.8 24.7 24.7 24.6 24.6 A. KLIPSTEIN, Pres. E. C. KLIPSTEIN. TREAS. W. H. JACKSON. VICE PRES. A. KLIPSTEIN & CO. ESTABLISHED 1872 MAIN OFFICE 644=654 GREENWICH STREET NEW YORK BRANCHES Represented it Canada By A. KLIPSTEIN & CO^ Limited Montreal* 12 St. Peter St. Boston, 283-285 Congress St. Philadelphia, 50-52 N. Front St. Providence, U Pine St. Chicago, J45-U7W.KinzieSt. Charlotte. N.C J7 East 4th St.^*: Dycstuffs, Oiemicals and Finishing Materials Caustic Potash, Formic Acid, Carbon Tetrachloride Chrome Chloride [Soluble Oils, Gums, Glycerine, Potato Starch Wheat Starch and Finishing Compounds Rhodamine, Chinoline Yellow, Violet Crystals and All the Coal Tar Dyes Made by the SOCIETY OF CHEHICAL INDUSTRY Basle, Switzerland rianufacturers of the Celebrated CIBA and CIBANON FAST VAT DYES 104a lo^a i *: i'1*. ■' TABLE FOR NUMBERING COTTON YARN AND SPUN SILK BY WEIGHT IN GRAINS OF J20 YARDS. Num- 120 yards Num- 120 yards Num- 120 yards Num- 120 yards ber of Weight ber of Weight ber of Weight l>erof Weight Yam. in Grains. Yam. in Grains. Yam. in Grains. Yarn, i:i Grains. I 1000.00 51 19.61 101 9.90 151 6.62 2 500.00 52 19.23 102 9.80 152 6.58 3 333.33 53 18.87 103 9.71 153 6.54 4 250.00 51 18.52 104 9.62 154 6.49 5 200.00 55 18.18 105 9.52 155 6.45 6 166.67 56 17.86 106 9.43 156 6.41 7 142.86 57 17 55 107 9.35 157 6.37 8 125.00 53 17.24 108 9.26 158 6.33 9 111.11 59 16.95 109 9.17 159 6.29 10 100.00 60 16.67 110 9.09 160 6.25 11 90.91 61 16.39 111 9.0; 161 6.21 12 83.33 62 16.13 112 8.93 162 6.17 13 76.92 63 15.87 113 8.85 163 6.13 14 71.43 64 15.62 114 8.77 164 6.10 15 66.67 65 15.38 115 8.70 165 6.06 16 62.50 66 15.15 116 8 62 166 6.02 17 58.82 67 14.93 117 8.55 167 5.99 18 55.56 68 14.71 lis 8.47 168 5.95 19 52.63 69 14.49 119 iB.40 169 5.92 20 50.00 70 14.29 120 8.33 170 5.88 21 47.62 71 14.08 121 8.26 171 5.85 22 45.45 72 13.89 122 8.20 172 5.81 23 43.48 73 13.70 123 8.13 173 5.78 24 41.67 74 13.51 124 8.06 174 5.75 25 40.00 75 13.33^- -«5 8.00 175 5.71 26 38.46 76 13.16 126 7.94 176 5.68 27 37.04 77 12.99 127 7.87 177 5.65 28 35.71 78 12.82 123 7.81 178 5.62 29 34.48 79 12.66 129 7.75 179 5.59 30 33.33 80 12.50 130 7.69 180 5.56 31 32.26 81 12.35 131 7.63 181 5.52 32 31.25 82 12.20 132 7.58 182 5.49 33 30.30 83 12.05 133 7.52 183 5.46 34 29.41 84 11.90 134 1 7.46 184 5.43 35 28.57 85 11.76 135 7.41 185 5.41 36 27.78 86 11.63 136 7.35 186 5.38 37 27.03 87 11.49 137 7.30 187 5.35 38 26.32 88 11.36 138 7.25 188 5.32 39 25.64 89 11.24 139 7.19 189 5.29 40 25.00 90 11.11 140 7.14 190 5.26 41 24.39 91 10.99 141 7.09 191 5.24 42 23.81 92 10.87 142 7.04 192 5.21 43 23.26 93 10.75 143 6.99 193 5.18 44 22.73 94 10.64 144 6.94 194 5.15 45 22.22 95 10.53 145 6.90 195 5.13 46 21.74 96 10.42 146 6.85 196 5.10 47 21.28 97 10.31 147 6.80 197 ,5.08 48 20.83 98 10.20 148 6.76 198 5.05 49 20.41 99 10.10 149 6.71 199 5.03 50 20.00 100 10.00 150 6.67 200 5.00 THE Webster Vacuum System OF Steam Heating Has been installed in many of the largest SILK and other TEXTILE MANUFACTURING PLANTS in this country. The Simplicity of Construction, the Efficiency in Operation, and the Economy in Fuel Consumption have proven the wisdom of the selection of the WEBSTER SYSTEM for installation in the mills following: CHENEY BROS., - - - ROGERS & THOMPSON, GIVERNAUD BROS., GIVERNAUD BROS., - r GIVERNAUD BROS., GIVERNAUD BROS., - GIVERNAUD BROS., SCHWARZENBACH, HUBER CO , SCHWARZENBACH, HUBER CO , SCHWARZENBACH, HUBER CO., BELDING BROS. CO., ALLENTOWN SILK MILLS, R. & H. SIMON, SILK MILLS, R. & H. SIMON, SILK MILLS, - SAUQUOIT SILK MFG. CO., - BAER SILK MILLS, . - - BAER SILK MILLS, So. Manchester, Conn. West New York, N. Y. Norwich, Conn. Hackensack, N.J. Homestead, N. J. West Hoboken, N. J. AUentown, Pa. W. Hoboken, N. J. Altoona, Pa. Bayonne, N. J. - Notthampton, Mass. AUentown, Pa. - Union Hill, N. J. - East on. Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Berwick, Pa. Lehighton, Pa. Warren Webster & Company CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY Established 1888 ATLANTA BOSTON CHICAGO CINCINNATI CHARLOTTE CLEVELAND DENVER INDIANAPOLIS KANSAS CITY LOS ANGELES MINNEAPOLIS NEW ORLEANS NEW YORK PITTSBURGH SALT LAKE CITY SAN FRANCISCO SEATTLE ST. LOUIS WASHINGTON WILKES-BARRE HOUSTON io6a 107a V f w. m. PRINCIPLES OF THE VARIOUS YARN COUNTS. The Denier Scale for Raw-silk. The standard measure is a skein of 450 metres, weighed with weights of 5 centigrams. The number of these that it takes to balance the weight of the skein is the size or denierage of the silk. In the United States, the denier scale is used for raw-silk only. On the Continent, both raw and thrown silks are figured in deniers. A 1 denier silk (there is none so fine in practice) figures out 4,464,528 yards per lb.; a 14 denier silk is one-fourteenth of this yardage, and so on. Of these 5 centigram weights — called deniers — 566.99 make 1 oz avoirdupois. To reduce deniers to drams, divide the d«niers by 17.44. Cotton Yam Scale. The hank is 840 yards, and the number of hanks in a pound gives the count. Thus, number 20 will have 20 times 840 yards per pound. In ply yarns, %o is equal to ^0. and %o would be the same. English Spun-silk Scale. This count is the same as the cotton yarn scale, except that the ply yarns are stated differently. In cotton, a %o*s is composed of two ends of ^20's doubled and twisted, equalling a Mo. In spun silk, a %o's is a 2-ply yarn counting 20's in the 2 ply state. Continental Scale for Spun Yarns (Schappe). In this, the count represents the number of thousand metres per kilogramme. The length of the metre is 39.370432 inches. The weight of the kilogramme is 2.2046 lbs. In this count, Hoo measures 49.619 yards per pound. %oo counts the same as ^oo- Linen Yarn Scale. The hank, or lea, is 300 yards, and the number of hanks in a pound gives the count. A two-ply yarn is half the count of the single. Thus, %oo equals Ho» with 15,000 yards to the pound. Philadelphia Woolen Yarn Scale. This is the same as the linen scale, except that the size is expressed in "cuts." A 30 cut yarn measures 9,000 yards per pound. New England Woolen Yam Scale. This is based on the "run" of 1,600 yards per pound. A 5 run yarn will be 8,000 yards per pound. Worsted Yarn Scale. The hank is 560 yards, and the number of hanks to the pound is the count. A Ho measures 22,400 yards per lb.; a %o is half that, or 11,200 yards. The Dram Scale for Thrown Silks. This is the English net silk scale, and thrown silks are sized by it in the United States. The hank is 1,000 yards, and the number of drams that such a hank weighs is the count of the yarn. There are 256 drams in a pound, so a 1 dram silk, representing one hank of 1,000 yards would run 256.000 yards to the pound. A 1.70 dram would be 256,000-^1.70=150,588 yards. To reduce drams to deniers mul- tiply the drams by 17.44. Artificial silks are sized in deniers. Mohair and camels' hair yarns take worsted sizings. Harness twines, and other special hard-twisted yarns, are short- ened by their take-up in twist below their nominal counts. Novelty yarns, tinsels, chenilles, etc., are sold at their stated yard- age per pound, whatever it may be. SPINNING SPINDLES DRIVEN BY PERFORA TED STE EL BANDS Every Spinner of Texile Material Desires The highest possible Spindle Speed (increasing production and lowering cost) Absolute Constancy of Spindle Speed (reducing breakage and giving larger product) Unvanring Uniformity of Twist (increasing the value of every yam spun) Minimum Consumption of Power (^allowing more spindles to be driven per H. P.) Low Cost of Upkeep (ensuring economy of operation) Impossibility of Accident (providing for the safety of operation) Ease of Adjustment, Inspection, Oiling and Cleaning (permitting of great saving in labor) Unquestioned Reliability under all Circumstances ^^^ THE ONLY DRIVE MEETING ALL OF THESE REQUIREMENTS IS THE PERFORATED STEEL BAND POSITIVE DRIVE For Silk For Cotton For Worsted Throwsters Spinners Spinners THE BROWN SPIN-WRIGHT CO. 32 Union Square, New York To see this improvement is to realize its importance io8a B'^: TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE LENGTHS OF AUNES AND YARDS (BROAD SILKS ARE PUT UP IN FOLDS OF 1 1-4 YARDS EQUAL 1 AUNE) Aya»» 4: 5 61 V«( o e'8 3/8 5,8 O'H 7'8 1 1-g 1-3 J-4 1-6 1-7 I 8-1 s-a »-6 «-« 8-7 3-1 8-8 3-S S-4 8-« »-7 4 4-1 4-8 4-4 4-6 4-fl 6 4-1 6-8 6-3 6-6 6-e 6-7 e 0-8 a-s 6-4 6-6 8-7 7 7-1 7-8 7-4 7-6 7-e 7-7 8-1 8-8 8-3 AufWS 10: Hi 12: 13: 14: 16: Y8*. 16: 8: 8-fl 8-7 e-1 8-3 8-4 8-6 10 lO-l 10-8 10-8 lO-S 10-e 10-7 11 11-8 u-s 11-4 11-6 11-7 IS 18-1 le-e 17: 18: 19: 2-4 8-6 2-6 8-7 3-1 3-8 S-3 3-4 3-« 3-7 4 4-1 4-3 ,4-4 4-6 4-a s 6-1 6-8 6-8 6-6 a-« 6-7 s Auiwa 20: 21 Yds 26 86-1 86-8 88-3 86-6 86-6 86-7 86 22: a-8 e-s 6-4 a-6 a- 7 7 7-1 7-8 7-4 7 6 7 6 7-7 8-1 8-8 8 3 8-4 8 -a 8-7 9-1 »-3 8-4 8-6 8-a 80 80-1 20-8 20-8 80-6 80-0 80-7 SI 81-8 81-8 81-4 81-6 21-7 82 28-1 88-8 88-4 28-6 82-e 22-7 23-1 83-e 23-3 23-4 23 -t) 23 7 84 24-1 24 3 84-4 24 & 24-6 23: 24: 25: 26: 27: 86-2 8a- 3 sa-4 36-8 86-7 87 87-1 87-8 87-4 87-8 87-6 87-7 88-1 88-8 88-3 88-4 88 a 88-^ 80 88-1 88-8 8«-4 S9-B 88-6 30 30-1 30-2 30~3 SO 6 SO 6 30-7 31 30: 31: 32: 33: 34: 31-8 31-3 31-4 31-8 31 7 32 38-1 32-8 32-4 32 S 3!!-« 32 7 33-1 33 8 33-3 33-4 33-8 33-7 34 34-1 34-3 34 4 34-8 34-6 28 29: 36 35 1 3i-a 36 3 3S-». 35 -a' 35-7 38 3« 2 3b- 3 3«-4 3«-6 30-7 37 37-1 37-2 Y«* 37 4 37 5 37 -a 37-7 38-1 38-2 38-3 38-4 38 a S8-7 30 39-1 39 S 80-4 30-8 39 6 40 40 1 40 8 40-S 40-6 40-a 40-7 41 41-8 41-8 41-4 41-6 41-7 48 41-1 4S-t 4S-4 35: 36: 37: 38: 39: 48-6 42-a 42-7 43-1 43 2 43-8 43-4 Aunas 40: 41: 42: 43: 44: 4S-« 48-7 44-S 44-6 44-6 46 45-1 45 8 48-3 48-6 46-8 46-7 46 46-8 3 46-4 48-6 40 7 47 47-1 47-8 47-4 47-5 47-6 47 7 48 1 48 2 3 4 48-8 48^ 49 49- 1 49 3 49 4 49-6 a JL Yda. 60 50-1 50-8 80-3 50 5 80-6 50-7 51 51-8 61-3 51-4 51-5 61-7 68 88-1 62-8 68-4 62-6 68-6 88-r 63-1 63-8 63-8 88-4 50: 51: 52 63-e 68^ 64 54-1 64-8 64-4 64-6 64-6 66 66-1 66-8 66-3 66-6 66-e 66-7 64 45: 46: 47: 48: 49: 66-1 ea-s 66-4 6a-e 66-7 67 67-1 67-8 67-4 87 6 57-6 57-7 58-1 58-8 68-3 58-4 48-8 58-7 50 59-1 59-3 5M-4 69-6 59-6 00 60-1 00 2 «0 3 (»-5 80-6 80-7 ai 81-2 81-3 61-4 I -a 81-7 02 88-1 62-2 Yd* 82-4 88 8 88 6 82 7 63 1 83 2 83-3 83-4 as -a 83-7 84 64-1 64-8 04-4 64-6 64-8 53: 54: 55: 56: 57: 58: 59: 66 68-1 66-8 66-3 66-6 aa-a 86-7 64 66-8 68-8 8«-4 ee-6 68-7 67 67-1 «7-t 87-4 87-6 87-6 67 7 as-i as-8 60: 61: 62: 63: 64 88-7 69 ao-1 60-3 80-4 60-6 89-6 70 70-1 70-8 70-3 70-8 70-6 70-7 71 71-8 71-3 71-4 71-8 71-7 78 78-1 78-8 72-4 72-6 72-a 72 7 73-1 7S-8 73^-3 73-4 73-6 73-7 74 74 1 74 8 74-4 74-8 74-a Yds 75 75-1 75 2 75 3 75 5 75 a 78 7 78 78-8 78-3 76-4 76 5 78 7 77 77-1 77-8 77-4 77-6 77-6 77-7 78-1 78-8 78-8 78-4 70: 71: 72: 78-6 78-7 79 79-1 79-8 70-4 78-6 78-6 65! 66i 67: 68: 69: 80 80-1 80-8 80-8 80-6 80 8 •0-7 •1 81-8 81-8 81-4 81-6 81-7 88 88-1 88-8 88-6 88-6 88 7 83-1 83-8 83-8 83-4 83-6 83 7 84 84-1 84-3 84-4 84-6 84-6 85 85-1 85-- 2 85 3 88 6 S6-a 88-7 sa 88-2 86-3 86-4 86 5 86-7 87 87-1 87 S 73) 74: 75 Yd*. 87-4 87 6 87-6 87-7 88-1 88-8 88-3 88-4 88-6 88-7 89 89-1 89 8 89-4 89-6 89-6 90 90-1 eo-8 90 8 90-6 eo 6 80-7 91 01 8 81-8 01-4 01-6 01-7 08 •8-1 98-2 08-4 08-6 0C-a 98-7 1 98-8 98-3 •S-4 76i 77: 78: 79: 04-1 04-8 04-6 04-6 80: 81: 82: 83: 84: Yd*. lOO 100-1 100-8 100-3 100-6 loo-a 100-7 101 101-2 101-3 lot 4 101-6 101-7 108 108-1 108-2 108-4 108 6 108-6 108-7 108-1 103 8 103 3 103-4 108-8 108-7 104 104-1 104-8 104-4 104-6 104-6 90: 91 Yd*. 112 4 118 6 1 1 8-6 118-7 US-l 113-8 113 3 113-4 92: 106 106-1 106-8 106-3 106-6 104-8 106-7 10« 85! 96- 96-1 96-8 96-3 06-8 06-6 06-7 06 96-2 96-8 96-4 06 6 96-7 97 07 1 •7-8 07-4 97-6 97 a 97-7 98-1 88-8 98 3 98-4 98 8 08-7 99 99-1 96 3 99 4 99 5 99-6 86: 87: 88: 89: 106-8 100-8 100-4 106 6 106-7 107 107-1 107-8 107-4 107-6 107-6 107 7 108-1 108-8 108-8 108-4 108-6 108-7 100 109-1 109-3 109-4 100-6 100-6 110 110-1 110-2 110-8 110-6 110-6 110-7 111 111-8 111-3 111-4 111-6 111-7 118 118-1 118-8 93: 94: 95: 96: 97: 98: 99 118-6 lis 7 114 114-1 114-8 114 4 114-6 114 6 118 116-1 118-8 118-3 116-6 118-6 118-7 116 116-8 116-8 116-4 116-6 116-7 117 117-t 117-8 117-4 117-6 117-6 117-7 118-1 18-8 118-8 118-4 118-8 118-7 110 U0-1 110-3 110-4 ll»-6 119-6 180 180-1 180 8 180-8 120-6 180 6 180-7 181 181-8 181-8 181-4 181-8 181-7 188 188-1 188-8 188-4 -6 122-6 188-7 188-1 lSS-8 188-» 188-4 183-6 1 188-7 8 3 184-1 4 184-3 6 184-4 a 1184-6 7 184-6 J 109a A. W. Buhlmann Textile- Engineer ^^^AO^S^ 200 Fifth Avenue New York Silk Finishing Machinery for skein and piece-dyed fabrics, chiffons, mousselines, voiles, crepes and tulle de soie; Velvets and Plushes L,atest Creations in Dyeing Machinery for Skein and Piece Installation of Complete Finishing Plants Consult me 3' ' W h iioa IMPROVED REEL FOR SILK, COTTON, AND WORSTED MADE 36, 45 AND 54 INCHES Machines for finding twist, and contraction of the thread caused by twist. Machines for finding strength and elasticity of yam-cloth-paper:- capacity 400 lbs. Direct warpers for narrow goods, ribbons, tapes, galloons, etc. Ribbon blocking machines. Spool winding machines for narrow fabrics. Warper creels, largest number of spools in smallest floor space, with equalization of tension. Special machines designed and built. CHARLES H. KNAPP Wait and Rye Streets, Patcrson, N. J. Ilia The Textile-Finishing Machinery Company Providence, R. I. New York Office, 30 Church St., 'Phone 4962 Cortlandt 3 Roll Friction Calender Machinery FOR Dyeing, Drying, Printing AND Finishing Silk and Cotton Goods « 4-.. » ! t IT 2a 113a CUSTOMS PREVAILING IN THE ENGLISH YARN TRADE. Understanding presumed to exist between buyers and sellers of yarn in the absence of any special stipulations: Size or Count. It being impossible to spin and reel cotton or other textile fibres with mathematical accuracy, that is to say to in- sure that any given size shall contain the precise number of yards or metres the size calls for, it is generally understood that the spinner shall supply the full yardage called for by the size, irrespective of weight, whether he delivers in bundle, warp or otherwise. The limits within which spinners are expected to hold their yarns are 2j4 per cent, either way. That is to say, in the case of — say a No. 100— -a spinner is considered to have spun with as great accuracy as can be reasonably expected, if the yarn does not average beloW 97^ or above 1023^. If a yarn tendered exceeds these limits in either direction it is usually optional with the buyer to accept the yarn with an al- lowance for any excess over the 2^4 per cent, latitude, or to reject ihe yarn on account of unreasonable irregularity. Scale Weight. This is the weight as registered by an ordinary weighing-scale. As all textile fibres contain a proportion of moisture, which varies according to the humidity of the atmosphere, the scale weight of a perfectly intact bundle will alter from one day to another. Consequently selling by scale weight, although the simplest method, is a fruitful source of discussion between buyer and seller. Calculation Weight. This is the theoretical weight any given num- ber of yards of a size should weigh. Thus, No. 100 Cotton should contain 100 skeins of 840 yards, or 84,000 per 1 lb. Consequently when selling No. 100 by calculation weight, a spinner must charge for 1 lb. for every 84,000 yards he delivers. If the yarn is spun on the coarse side he will have to give rather more than 1 lb. scale weight to make a "calculation lb." and vice-versa. This method of selling is fairer to both parties than scale weight, as it insures the buyer obtain- ing the full length he requires, while the latitude being limited to 2j^ per cent, either way, prevents any possibility of abuse. Condition Weight. This is the most accurate and fair weight, be- ing determined by an impartial establishment termed a Conditioning House. By means of precise and special apparatus, the weight is reduced to that which the yarns, etc., should have when containing the standard amounts of humidity, normal to the various materials which are the following: Silk, in its normal condition, contains humidity 9.9099% Wool, " " " " " 15.4334% Cotton, " " " " " 7.8341% Linen, " " " " " 10.7143% N. B. — In general it will be found most satisfactory to refer all discussions as to weight, accuracy of spinning, elasticity, amount of gum in silk, etc., to the Conditioning Works, where the special appa- ratus put up for these purposes ensures absolute accuracy, such as cannot be obtained by other means. EVERYTHING in card^utting machinery for jacquard cards, A Power Piano Machine that increases output 255^ over older methods in cutting from the design. An Automatic Lacer with output of about 18,000 cards per day of ten hours. A Power Repeater that duplicates about a, 000 cards per hour. Send sample card for quotations JOHN ROYLE & SONS PATERSON, N. J. i I r -I 114a ' «. Plain and Friction Calender for Ribbons John j. Cavagnaro Engineer and Machinist HARRISON, N. J. SPECIALTY OF SIUC AND COTTON FINISHING AND EMBOSSING MACHINERY SINCE 1881 New York Office and Shop : 255-5 7 CENTRE STREET 115a SGRANTON SILK MACHINE GO. BUILDERS OF SILK THROWING MACHINERY SCRANTON, PENNSYLVANIA ■|^™^^SEr5T^M ■ W"^^^ Sii" V f *', -«s (^»** ,■ #" SSs=r-:ltf i^ ■ \\\^ *^ .^^MJlBB-^SiMllfc 1 E^iRT^jJi^] 1 1 III rf^TZi^i * jiSsfe Sw§5?r^I. [^^3 533^1^^^^ tf^^^L i^^ll^^^'^^^^:!:?^ " 1 »I»IN«E« WITH auICK TWISTCHAXae MICMAH.SM (PATINT JlPPufCO rOR- 1 BIJIlT by tCliAHTOK 9tLK WACHINt CO ■ SECTIONAL REEL •QUICK TWIST change" SPINNER HARD AND SOFT SILK WINDERS JACK AND HIGH SPEED DOUBLERS SPINNERS AND TWISTERS ACCURATE POWER REELS REEL MILLS STEAM BUNDLING PRESSES Write for information — you will be interested I Tv / ii6a MANCHESTER YARN CONTRACT RULE5. Rule i.— The actual weight of cop yarn shall be Invoiced, including tubes if .the yarn be ordered on tubes. Rule 2.— (a) When warps or backbeams are sold on the basis of scale weight and the counts are coarse, the seller may not invoice In excess of one per cent, over the c.ilculation weight, (b) When sold by calculation weight any deficiency ex- ceeding one per cent, shall be allowed to the buyer. Rule 3.— For bundle yarns a pressed 10 lb. bundle must contain not less than a lbs. 14 oz., and a pressed 5 lb. bundle not less than 4 lbs. 15 oz. of yarn. This rule does not apply to long bundles. Rule 4.— The number of hanks in a bundle, taking 840 yards to the hank, must indicate the counts of the yarn, "sewings" and "fancy yarns*' excepted. Rule 5. In case of dispute as to counts, length, weight, or condition, the yarn shall be tested by and according to the rules of the Manchester Testing House, and its certificate shall be binding on both parties, who, however, shall have the right to be represented when the samples to be tested are drawn. Rule 6 —Either buyer or seller has the right to ask the Manchester Testing House to repeat the test, and in that case the average result of the tests shall be taken as final and binding on both parties. Rule 7.— The seller has a right to replace rejected yarn if he offers to do so within the original time of delivery^ and free of all expense to the buyer. Rule S.—If "delivery as required" is specified, or if no time is specified, the contract must be completed in six months, and particulars furnished accordingly. Rule 9.— "Delivery to follow" shall be held to mean at the same rate of delivery as that of the last preceding contract for the same description and quality of yarn. Rule 10.— If a contract is entered for delivery at specified dates, the cancelment of any portion shall not affect thej-emainder of the contract* each portion being deemed a separate contract. Rule h.— Payment of an overdue account shall be a condition precedent to further delivery. Delivery may be suspended by the seller whenever any payment is in arrear for accepted delivery, or for any delivery respecting which formal notice of rejection or claim has not been given by the buyer. Rule i2.--In case of a strike, lock«out, break-down, fire, or other unavoidable occurence, the party affected shall give written notice of his inability to make or accept delivery (as the case may be), and it shall then be at the option of the other side,«the aggrieved party, either to agree to the postponement of delivery or within ten days to give notice to dose the contract, and to pay or receive the difference in price, such difference to be fixed by the tribunal of arbitration. Contracts for yarn for shipment to foreign countries are excepted from this rule. Rule 13.— In default of delivery by the seller at the rate or within the time specified in the contract, of any quantity of yarn bought from him, the buyer may purchase such quantity of similar quality in the open market, charging to .the seller the excess, if any, over the contract price which he may have had to pay in making such purchase. If default of acceptance of delivery by. the buyer at the rate or within the time specified in the contract of any quantity of yarn sold to him, the seller may dispose of such quantity in the open market, charging to the buyer the deficiency, if any, as between the contract price and the price realized by such sale. In either case three clear days' notice in writing shall be given of the inten- tion either to buy or sell and the quantity of yarn bought or sold shall be deducted from the contract. Rule 14.— In case of dispute the decision whether a delivery may or may not be rejected, and what damages shall be paid for breach of contract, shall be left to the tribunal of arbitration. 1 17a Proper treatment ot silk necessitates the fineness of design, material and work- manship embodied in Universal Winding Machines. ii8a 119a ■^'k if PRICE LIST OF SINGLE LEATHER BELTING (Discounts of from, appoximately, 45% to 60% are given, according to quality) 1 6 I i 1 I* li 1* 2I 2f 3 H 3i 3f 4 5 54 6 61 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 s •.••••• • • • • • inch. . .$0.12 15 18 21 24 .30 .36 .42 .48 .54 .60 .66 .72 .78 .84 .90 .96 1.08 1.20 1.32 1.44 1.56 1.68 1.92 2.16 2.40 2.64 2.88 3.12 3.36 3.60 • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• 3.84 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 60 64 66 72 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • « • • inch. . .$ 4.08 4.32 4.56 4.80 5.04 5.28 5.52 5.76 6.00 6.24 6.48 6.72 6.96 7.20 7.68 8.16 8.64 9.12 9.60 10.08 10.56 11.04 11.52 12.00 12.48 12.96 13.44 14.40 15.36 16.32 17.28 • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • « • • • PATENT ROUND \ inch... .38 ct8 48ct8 60 ct8 80 cts 1 •v**«96ct8 5 \ 7 5" 1 IS 8 1 ? 5 3 T I I TWIST. inch. ... 8 cts ...12 cts ...17 cts ... 22 cts ... 27 cts ... 38 cts ... 48 cts ... 60 cts ...80 cts ... 96 cts CUT LACING. Per Bundle of too feet inch. .. .$1.25 1.50 i 5 1.75 2.00 2.25 3.00 3.75 Try Schieren's Duxbak Spindle Belts ■ Satisfaction Guaranteed or money refunded TRADE MARK. i Tanners Belt Manufacturers Cable Address, "SCHIEREN— NEW YORK' NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON - PHILADELPHIA PITTSBURG DENVER BROOKLYN, N. Y. HAMBURG, GERMANY OAK LEATHER TANNERIES - 30-38 Ferry St. - 128 W. Kinzie St. 641-643 Atlantic Ave. 226 North 3d St. 205 Wood St. 1752 Arapahoe St. Cor. 13th St. & 3d Ave. Auf dem Sande i Bristol, Tenn. I ' t|: U: I2ia i2oa \-i 1 22a 123a PRACTICAL RULES FOR DETERMINING SIZE AND SPEED OF PULLEYS AND GEARS To Determine the Diameter of Driving Pulley. Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by its number of revolutions per minute, and divide this product by the number of revolutions of the driver. To Determine the Diameter of Driven Pulley. Multiply the diameter of the driver pulley by its number of revo- lutions per minute, and divide this product by the number of revo- lutions of the driven. To Determine the Speed of Driving Pulley. Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by its number of revo- lutions per minute, and divide this product by the diameter of the driver. To Determine the Speed of Driven Pulley. Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions per minute, and divide this product by the diameter of the driven. To Determine the Size and Speed of Gears. Substitute the number of teeth in the gear for the diameter of pulley. GOOD BELTING PRACTICE. To Find the Length of a Belt. Add the diameters of the two pulleys together; multiply by 3%; divide the product by two; add to the quotient twice the difference between the centres of the shafts. The product will be the required length. To Calculate the Power of a Belt. Multiply its speed in feet per minute by its width, and divide by 1,000 for single and by 700 for double belts. The quotient will be the horsepower. To Find the Approximate Belt-speed. Divide the diameter in inches of one of the pulleys by 4, and mul- tiply the result by the number of revolutions of the pulley per min- ute. The result will be the approximate belt-speed in feet per minute. A belt that slips, producing a bright or worn pulley, reduces your output. A properly designed Belt Tightener for main drives will add 40 per cent, to the life of a belt. This is particularly true if the belt is overloaded. Use 24-ounce belts on 10-inch diameter, 28-ounce on 14-inch, 30- ounce on 20-inch. As belts increase in width make them thicker — 90 per cent, of swaying belts can be cured by increasing their thickness. Make them narrower if you do not need the horse power. Make all quarter or full twist narrow and as heavy as your pulleys will allow. Belts should be cleaned^nd greased every six months. Broad Silk Loom. driTon by toUlly enclo.ed. continuou. runaing type, altematin, c«fr«»t motor. Electric Individual Drive Is Economical The difference in first cost, between individual motor drive and mechanical group drive. » so slight dJ^tUuTorat all comparable with the advantages secured The owner of one large mai btd thit crsidering the cost of mill construction in each case, the mdmdual dnve for looms costs only $14.00 per loom more than a modern group drive with overhead shatte. In replacing an old mechanical group drive, with individual motor drive, the cost will at fim aooea^exSe but the gain, by such a change, in the increase in production together with other Eag^rong which'theklwing mus^ be considered, will soon convmce the up-to-date mill man that the new form of drive has paid for itself m dollars and cents. A few advantages of individual drive vs. mechanical group drive : Uniformity of speed-better "beat up" on looms- > less wear and tear on machinery. Increase in production-higher average speed of driven machinery. Better quality of product-due to unifonnity of speed. Better light— absence of belts from overhead Aafts. Up-keep low -small repair cost for motors— fewer breakages of machinery Cleanlineaa— no dust, oily lint or cA thrown on Soods as in the case of belts and overhead shafting— prelerabie to operator. Safety— no belts to catch operators' clothing— no ho*** ij> floor, as in the case of underdrive. to increase fire hazard. Flexibility— offers greater latitude b locating machinery Economy— More efficient than any group drive on ac- count of the high efficiency of the individual motoc— cheaper cost of power for overtime work — minimae* losses due to breakdowns. reauiges or maciiuicijr. The power expert in our nearest office will be glad to study your problems and show you how an electric drive will pay you. General Electric Company Largest Electrical Manufacturer in the World General Office: Schenectady, N.Y. Mill Power Dept.: Boston, Mas*. New York Chicago Sales Offices in Forty Eight Cities Textile SpecialisU Located in Boston Buffalo New Haven Cincinnati Philadelphia Chattanooga Schenectady Atlanta Syracuse Baltimore 3890 124a t I. HORSE POWER OF STEEL SHAFTING FOR LINE SHAFT SERVICE Shaft Size* REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTB Ma>. Dill. Between Beirintt Inchel 100 1 125 150 175 4.3 7.4 200 225 250 6.1 IO.5 300 350 400 ^^ 2.4 4.3 3.1 5.3 3.7 6.4 4.9 85 5.5 9.5 7.3 12.7 8.5 14.8 9.7 16.9 1^ 6.8" 1 - 6.7 8.4 10.1 11.7 13.4 15.1 16.7 20.1 23.4 26.8 7 2" If 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 8.2" 2A 14.3 17.8 21.4 24.9 28.5 32.1 35.6 42.7 49.8 57.0 8.9" 2>n 19.5 24.4 29.3 34.1 39.0 44 1 48.7 58.5 68.2 78.0 9.6" 2i 26.0 32.5 39.0 43.5 52.0 58.5 65.0 78.0 87.0 1040 10.2" 2| 33.8 42.2 50.6 59.1 67.5 75.9 84.4 101.3 118.2 135.0 10.8" 3A 43.0 53 6 64.4 75.1 85.8 96.6 107.3 128.7 150.3 174.6 11.4" 3A 53.6 67.0 79.4 93.8 107.2 120.1 134.0 158.8 187.6 214.4 12 0" 3i 65.9 82.4 97.9 115.4 121.8 148.3 164.8 195.7 230.7 243.6 12.5" 3 J 80.0 113.9 156.3 100.0 143.4 195.3 120.0 1708 234.4 140.0 199.3 273.4 160.0 227.8 312.5 180.0 256.2 351.5 200.0 284.7 390.6 240.0 341.7 468.7 280.0 398 6 546.8 320 455 6 625.0 4 1 5k 207.9 270.0 343.3 428.8 640.0 260.0 337.5 429.0 800.0 311.9 405.0 514.9 643.1 960.0 363.9 472.5 600.7 750.3 1126.0 415.9 459.9 540.0 607.5 686.5 772.4 847.5 964.7 1280.0 1440.0 520.0 675.0 858.0 1071.9 1600.9 623.9 810.0 1029.0 1286.0 1920.0 727.9 945.0 aio.o 1080.0 6 e^ 1201.0 1372.0 7 1500.0 1695.0 2240.0 2560.0 8 _., . _ - 1 1 COLD ROLLED STEEL SHAFTING WEIGHTS PER FOOT AND I,1ST PRICES 43 brC 8.16 8.78 9.39 10.00 10.65 11.15 12.07 12.79 13,49 14.28 15.07 15.83 16.68 17.55 18.32 19 31 20.18 21.15 22.09 22.96 24.06 25.07 26.09 27.16 28.24 Price per pound • 35/le 4> .JS .J ' 29.40 3% 30.48 3-/1 6 31.50 3K 32.64 39/16 33.84 3^ 35.20 3iVi6 36.40 m 37.45 3% 39.85 31%6 41.40 [►5c 4 42.50 me 47.40 4M 48.26 4^e 52.62 ^% 54.11 m 60.88 4iyi6 65.50 5 67.50 5M 73.58 5T/ie 78,89 '^H. 80.72 5% 88.24 •6Mc 51%6 6 94.12 96.25 •-So CLi ao. 5Mc 5^c 60 6i^c 7c 8c (Discounts of approximntely 50 per cent are allowed from the list prices) 125a BLEACHING, DRYING, DYEING AND FINISHING MACHINERY FOR TEXTILE FABRICS TWO BURNER GAS SINGE (TULPIN STYLE) H. W. BUTTERWORTH & SONS CO. PHILADELPHIA, PA. 1 26a SPEED OF CUTS FOR MACHINE TOOLS. Brass : Use high speeds, about the same as for wood. Bronze: 6 to i8 ft. per minute, according to alloy used. Cast or wrought iron : 20 ft. per minute is a good average for all machines except millers ; 30 is about the maximum. Machinery steel : 15 ft. on planers, shapers, and slotters ; 20 to 45 on turret lathes, according to cut. Tool steel : 8 to 10 feet. Milling Cutters. Gun metal, 80 ft. per minute; cast iron, 30; wrought iron, 35 to 40 ; machinery steel, 30. These are good speeds to adopt, with a view to economy, time required for regrinding, etc. Twist Drills. The best results are obtained when the rates of speed of twist drills are as given in the following table : Diam. of Rev. per Min. drills He % ^4 %6 % Vm % % % % I Steel 940 460 310 230 190 150 130 115 no 95 85 75 70 65 62 58 Iron 1280 660 420 320 260 220 i8s 160 140 130 105 90 85 80 Brass 1560 785 540 400 320 260 230 200 180 160 145 130 120 115 no 100 Diam. of Rev. per ^ lin. drills Steel I ron Brass iKe 54 75 95 i'A 52 70 90 I%6 49 66 85 1V4 46 62 80 I%6 44 60 75 1% 42 58 72 I%6 40 56 69 i'A 39 54 66 I%6 37 51 63 1% 36 49 60 11^6 34 47 58 1% 33 45 56 1% 32 43 54 1% 31 41 52 1% 30 40 51 2 29 39 49 The following are recommended as the best rates of speed for twist drills: ^, ^, „ .. Diameter of drill: Vie to H % to ^ % to VA Number of rev. per in. . ^ , . depth of hole : 125 120 to 140 i m. feed per mm. (From "Mechanics' Pocket Memoranda," Pub. by Int. Cor. Schools, Scranton, Pa.) Note. — Faster speeds than some of those given above have become common since these figures were first published. Speeds for high-speed steel tools are also very much greater. 127a RICE, BARTON & FALES MACHINE AND IRON COnPANY WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS SINCE 1837 BUILDERS OF TEXTILE PRINTING MACHINERY For over three quarters of a century we have been specialists in the building of TEXTILE PRINTING MACHINERY, and build machines for printing from one to fourteen colors, on any width of goods. We build patented machines for doing DUPLEX and INTERMITTENT prihting. Our Electrical Engineer U a specialist in MOTOR DRIVES for printing machinery. Our equipment, exper- ience and organization are at your service. 1 a ' 1 28a I (TABLE PUBLISHED By THE CLEVELAND TWIST DRILL CO.) THE SPEED OF CARBON STEEL DRILLS A feed per revolution of .004 to .007 incB for drills K ioch and smaller, and from .007 to .016 inch for larger is about all that should be required. This feed is based on a peripheral speed of a drill equal to : 30 feet per minute for steel; 36 feet per minute for iron ; .* 60 feet per minute for brass. It may also be found advisable to vary the speed somewhat according as the material to be drilled is more or less refractory. We believe that these speeds should not be exceeded under ordinary curcum- stances. TABLE OF CUTTING SPEEDS Ft. per Minute 15' 20' 26' 30' 36' 40* 46' 60' 60' 70' 80' DIAM- ETER REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE I'ein. 917. L223. L628. 1834. 2140. 2446. 2761. 3057. 3668. 4280. 4891. Vs 469. 611. 764. 917. 1070. 1222. 1376. 1628. 1834. 2139. 2445. ^ 306. 408. 609. 611. 713. 816. 917. 1019. 1222. 1426. 1630. H 229. 306. 382. 468. 636. 611. 688. 764. 917. 1070. 1222. A 183. 246. 306. 367. 428. 489. 660. 611. 733. 856. 978. Vs 163. 204. 266. 306. 367. 408. 468. 609. 611. 713. 816. /s 131. 176. 218. 262. 306. 349. 393. 437. 624. 611. 699. H 116. 163. 191. 229. 268. 306. 344. 382. 459. 636. 611. Vs 91.8 123. 163. 184. 214. 246. 276. 306. 367. 428. 489. H 76.3 102. 127. 163. 178. 203. 229. 264. 306. 367. 408. Vs 66.6 87.3 109. 131. 163. 176. 1%. 219. 262. 306. 349. 1 67.3 76.4 96.6 116. 134. 163. 172. 191. 229. 267. 306. IVs 61.0 68.0 86.0 102. 119. 136. 163. 170. 204. 238. 272. IH 46.8 61.2 76.3 91.8 107. 123. 137. 163. 183. 214. 245. m 41.7 66.6 69.6 83.3 97.2 111. 125. 139. 167. 196. 222. VA 38.2 60.8 63.7 76.3 89.2 102. 116. 127. 163. 178. 204. IVs 36.0 47.0 68.8 70.6 82.2 93.9 106. 117. 141. 166. 188. IH 32.7 43.6 64.6 66.6 76.4 87.3 98.2 109. 131. 153. 175. IK 30.6 40.7 60.9 61.1 71.3 81.6 91.9 102. 122. 143. 163. 2 28.7 38.2 47.8 67.3 66.9 76.4 86.0 95.6 116. 134. 163. 2H 26.4 34.0 42.4 61.0 69.4 68.0 76.2 86.0 102. 119. 136. 2y2 22.9 30.6 38.2 46.8 63.6 61.2 68.8 76.3 91.7 107. 122. m 20.8 27.8 34.7 41.7 48.6 66.6 62.5 69.6 a?.4 97.2 111. 3 19.1 26.6 31.8 38.2 44.6 61.0 67.3 63.7 76.4 89.1 102. " THE BEST IS GOOD ENOUGH - Silk Soap 129a '^^^ ^'^'^can SUk Industry ha, ^nr ^ X -V. tkese famous JarlZlj/'"^ ^'^^"^'^^ '«*^j iisea/orty years. ssa 11 ll ^^ \ W-i- I *?».*,»' fe^fa,-^ ^A\ >-.%«ns'; OPFICE AND /-» 1 "ACTOKv, Coles and 18th Streets JERSEY CITY. N. J. Patrons west of the Hudson P.T ** *" ""» »'""• JER5E V TEteWN^ 4^V^^'t^^ »- THE HOLBROOK MFG. CO. i3oa BENJ. EASTWOOD CO. Paterson, N. J. SILK MACHINERY For Every Process c {Looms I (Winders for * ' hard & soft sill L iWarpers K IQUILLERS • • We Design Transmission Equipments for Silk Mills WRITE US for DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULARS .41 m COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 0041447689 ■■•: V ,. 1)^^ O YY C \ce h^c I 1 3Cv laiH oSUOo Mn 1 il3)fj OCT? «» rf-.J<». .1- ■^ Ui -."7^IWr»"l. . . ..|>.,^'«J-U...- «.Mi.l..<~"-^---,^-r-r^-' -!:--m-.;^,;-,.t» ;r,~c»-.T-i;jT;CTj.»,JJ^»f .^t- 'f \:;l! END OF TITLE