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CURTIS COLLECTION 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY 
 THE JOHN G. CURTIS LIBRARY 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2010 witii funding from 
 
 Open Knowledge Commons 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/anatomyofhumanboOOches 
 
THE 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 BY 
 
 W C H E S E L D EN, 
 Surgeon toliis Mnjelty5iiV«'{^V^//j*5^\57v/^//nr Chex sea^ 
 
 Edl()Vr()t' flu^XoTAX, 8 (yciE T Y^ 
 
 AiulMembtTOf - 
 
 ' Iff 
 
 THE XI EDITION 
 
 ' ' ' ■ ■ * 
 
 L o :n^ D O K. 
 
 m 
 ■■■.if* 
 
 Printed for J.r.Sr,C.i?iTington JJ> ocblev, T. Caaell, 
 K.Baldwia,l\LoArjides and W.NicolI . ^ 
 
 — 177S 
 
-f-"^-' m 
 
 -*^_,^ 
 
 
 ^'; 
 
 /. nj 
 
T O 
 
 Dr. RICHARD MEAD, 
 
 PHYSICIAN TO THE KING, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE 
 V COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS 
 
 IN LONDON, 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 ROYAL SOCIE'TY, 
 
 S I R, 
 
 EVERY part of PHYSIC may 
 juftly prefume on Your protedlion, 
 to whom it owes fo much improvement. 
 ANATOMY^ in particular has re- 
 ceived fuch advantage from Your Lec- 
 tures, that it w^ere a kind of injuftice 
 not to dedicate all endeavours in that way 
 to You; in mx, indeed, it would be un- 
 pardonable not to offer the fruits of thofe 
 
 fludies, 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 ftudiesj which at firft began, and have 
 ftill been carried on with Your encou- 
 [ ragement. The kind reception my in- 
 duftry has met with, is owing to You, 
 the authority of whofe opinion has in 
 every place fecured me fo much favour ; 
 efpecially in that feat of learning, which 
 with diftinguifhed honours re^'arded 
 Your merit, I am. 
 
 S I R, 
 
 Xour mojl obliged and 
 
 Ohedie?tt hiimhle Servant. 
 
 William Cheselden. 
 
I iii ] 
 
 E F A C E. 
 
 nr^HE ftudy ^Anatomy, as it leads to the ^ 
 kitowkdge of nature and the art of healing, 
 needs not many tedious defer iptions nor minute dif- 
 feSlions ; what is moft worth knowing is fooneft 
 learned, and leaf the fubjeB of difputes , while dt^ 
 viding and defcribing the parts, more than the 
 knowledge of their ufes requires, perplexes the learn^ 
 er, and makes thefcience dry and difficult. 
 
 'THIS edition is a tenth part larger than the for- 
 mer 3 not encreafed by ■ defcriptions, but by obfernja- 
 tions upon the ifes and mechanifji of the parts, with 
 operations and cafes in fiirgery. 
 
 THE plates are more in ?iiimber, larger, better 
 defigned, and better executed than thofe which were 
 in the former editions, which has unavoidably en- 
 hanced the price of this, 
 
 THE fro72tifpiece reprefents the Jlory ofHivvo- 
 CRAT-E^ going to cure Democritus of madnefs -, 
 but finding hi?n dij/ecfing, to difcover the feat of the 
 Bile^ he pronounced him the wifeft man in Abdera, 
 
 THE print in the title-page reprefents a perfon 
 drawing in a camera obfcura, fucb a one as was tfed 
 hi this work. 
 
 az OON- 
 
[ iv ] 
 
 TENTS. 
 
 BOOK 
 
 cjr'HE general introduBion 
 
 page I 
 
 IntroduSiion to the bones 4 
 
 Chap. I. Of the futures and bones of the cranium i \ 
 Chap. II. Of the bones of the face, &c, 17 
 
 Chap. III. Of the bones of the trunk 21 
 
 Chap. IV. Of the bones of the upper limbs 29 
 
 Chap. V. Of the bones of the lower limbs 3-4, 
 
 Chap. VI. Of the cartilages 41 
 
 Chap. VII. Of the ligaments ibid. 
 
 Chap. VIII. Of the lubricating glands of the 
 
 joints 47 
 
 BOOK 
 
 II. 
 
 Chap. 1. TNtroduBionto the nnfcles p^ge 6t 
 
 Chap. II. Of the mufcles 
 
 BOOK 
 
 67 
 
 III. 
 
 Chap. I. f^F the external parts, and common 
 
 integuments P^g^ ^33 
 
 Chap. II. Of the membranes in general ■^41 
 
 Chap. III. Of the falivary glands' 143 
 
 10 Chap. 
 
CONTENTS. V 
 
 Chap. IV. Of the Feritonceuniy Omentum, Duc^ 
 
 tus Aliment alls y and Mef enter y Ia8 
 
 Chap. V. Of the liver , gall-bladder , pancreas, and 
 
 fpleen l6i 
 
 Chap. VI. Of the Vafa LaBea l68 
 
 Chap. VII. Of the Pleura, Mediajlinum, Lungs, 
 
 Pericardium and Heart 172 
 
 Chap . VIII. Of the arteries and veins 183 
 
 Qh^.-^^y^. Of the lymphcedu6ls 209 
 
 Chap. XI. Of the lymphatic glands 21Z 
 
 Chap. XII. Of the courfe of the aliinent abfiraSied 
 
 from the foregoing chapters 21 6 
 
 Chap. XIII. Of the Dura Mater, andPia Mater 
 
 218 
 Chap. XIV. Of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla. 
 
 Oblongata, and Medulla Spinalis 224 
 
 Chap. XV, Of the nerves 225 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 Chap. I. r\F the urinary and genital parts of 
 men, together with the Glandules 
 Renales P^-ge 2 cq 
 
 C hap . II. of the genital parts of women 272 
 
 Chap. III. Of the Fcetus in Utero 278 
 
 Chap. IV. Of the eye 290 
 
 Chap. V. Of the ear ^04 
 
 Chap, yi. Of thefenfes offmelling, tafing, and 
 
 feeling 310 
 
 Chap, VII . Of cutting for the flon€ 325 
 
 Adver- 
 
' Advertifement. 
 
 'UNCE the laft Edition of this book, I have 
 publifhed fome obfervations and cafes in fur- 
 gery, with prints of operations and a fet of chi- 
 rurgical inftruments. Thefe are annexed to a 
 tranflation of Le Dran's Operations by Mr. 
 Gataker ; and as fome of them relate to my 
 Anatomy, I thought it proper to take notice of 
 them here : at the fame time, in juflice to, the me- 
 rit of Mr. Le Dr an, I would recommend a care- 
 ful perufal of his book to all praditioners in fur- 
 
 gery. 
 
 V/. CHESELDEN. 
 
.THE 
 
 AN A T X) M Y 
 
 O F THE 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION, 
 
 IT is a received opinion, that an animal body is 
 a compages of velTels, varioully difpofed, to 
 form parts of different figures, for different 
 ufes. The antients fuppofed that the heart and 
 brain were firft formed, and that the other parts 
 proceeded from them, and that the membranes 
 were derived from the dura mater, or pia mater 
 of the brain. They diftinguiflied all the parts 
 into fpermatic and fanguineous ; the former of 
 which they derived from the brain, and the lat- 
 ter from the heart; and frequently engaged in 
 difputes about the derivation of parts ; with many 
 other things of the like nature, confequences of 
 their hypothefes. But the moderns, by the affift- 
 
 A ance 
 
2 GENEP.AL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ance of glaffes, having made more accurate obfer- 
 vations, conclude, that all the parts exift in minia- 
 ture, from the firfl formation of the foetus ; and 
 that their increafe is only the extenfion and thick- 
 ningof their veffels, and that no part owes its ex- 
 iflence to another. Thus much I thought ne- 
 cefTary to premife, that the reader might fee for 
 what reafon no notice is taken, in this treatife, of 
 fbme diflind:ions and divifions of parts, ufed by 
 ancient anatomiils, and thofe who have copied 
 after them. 
 
 The conftituent parts of the animal body, are, 
 fibres, membranes,' arteries, veins, lymphaedu6ls, 
 nerves, glands, excretory vefiels, mufcles, te ndns, 
 ligaments, cartilages, and bones ; to thefe may be 
 added, the hair and nails* 
 
 Fibres, as they appear to the naked eye, are 
 limple threads of the minuteft blood veffels or 
 nerves, or both. 
 
 Membranes are compages of fibres, expanded 
 to cover, or line, any other part. 
 
 Arteries are tubes that arife from the ventri- 
 cles of the heart, and thence dividing into branches, 
 diftribute the blood to every part of the body. 
 
 Veins are tubes to colled: and return the blood 
 from the extremities of the arteries to the heart. 
 
 Lymphj^ducts are fine pellucid tubes, tb 
 carry lymph from all parts, efpecially the glands, 
 which they difcharge into the larger veins, and 
 -into the vafa ladrea. 
 
 9 Nerved 
 
<JENERAL INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 Nerves are fafciculi of cylindrical fibres, 
 which arife from the medulla oblongata of the 
 brain, and the medulla fpinalis, and terminate in 
 all the fenfitive parts. They are the immediate 
 organs of fenfation. 
 
 A Gland fecretory^ is compofed of an artery. 
 Vein, lymphatic, excretory dud:, and nerve. The 
 ufe of glands is to fecrete fluids from the blood, 
 for divers ufes. 
 
 Excretory vessels are either tube^ fronl 
 glands to convey the fecreted fluids to their re- 
 fpedlive places; or vefl^els from the fmall guts^ to 
 carry the chyle to the blood vefliels ; thefe lafl: are 
 called vafa ladlea. 
 
 Muscles are difl:in(a: portions of flefhj which 
 by contra(5tilig, perform the motions of the body* 
 
 Tendons are the fame fibres of which the 
 mufcles are compofed ; but more clofely conned:* 
 ed, that they may pofl!efs lefs fpace in a limb^ alid 
 be inferted in lefs room into a bone. 
 
 Ligaments are fl:rong membranes, or bodies 
 ©f fibres clofely United, either to bind down the 
 tendons, or give origin to the mufcles, or tie toge- 
 ther fuch bones as have motion. 
 
 Cartilages are hard, elafl:ic bodies, fmooth 
 arid infenfible : Their ufe is to cover the ends of 
 the bones that have motion, to prevent their at- 
 trition, &c. -^ 
 
 Bones are'Sm parts to fuftain, and give Jthape- 
 to the body, 6cc. 
 
 A 2 - IN- 
 
( 4 ) 
 I N T R O D U C T I ON 
 
 T O THE 
 
 BON E S. 
 
 TH E ufe of the bones is to give fhape and 
 firmnefs to the body, to be leveirs for the 
 mufcles to ad: upon, and to defend thofe parts: 
 from external injuries that are of greatefi: confe- 
 quence to be preferved ;, as the brain,, fpinal mar- 
 row, heart, &c. Their fibres, when firfl: formed 
 like the ihells and ftones of fruits, are very i^ft^- 
 lintil by the addition of a matter, which is fecreted 
 into them, they grow by degrees to the hardnefs. 
 of a cartilage, and then perfect bone^: But this- 
 change is neither made in a very fhort time, noi*- 
 begun in all the parts of the fame bone at once. 
 Flat bones that have their fibres direded to all fides, 
 begin to offify in or near a middle point ; but the 
 cylindrical bones, and all others whofe fibres are 
 .nearly parallel, begin about the middle of each 
 fibre, and thence Ihoot forth to their extremities i 
 not always in continued lines, but frequently begin- 
 ning newofiifications, v/hich foon join the former |. 
 and by the continual addition of this ofiifying mat- 
 ter, the bones intpreafe till their hardnefs refiils a 
 farther extenfion y and their hardnefs always increa- 
 fmg while they are growing, the increafe of their 
 growth becomes Hower and flower, until they ceafev 
 
 a to 
 
INTRODUCTION, &c. 5 
 
 to grow at all. in old and confumptive perfons, 
 and Sometimes in difeafed or wounded limbs, they 
 decreafe as well as the flefhy parts, though not fo 
 fail, becaufe of their hardnefs. Sometimes the of- 
 iifying matter fl-ows cut of the bones, and forms 
 bony excrefceixes j and frequently in very old men 
 it fixes on the arteries, and makes them grow bo- 
 ny, and when this happens to a degree, the arte- 
 ries lofe their power to propel the blood, until the 
 .extreme parts mortify. And though the cartilages 
 and arteries are moft fubje6t to thefe changes, yet 
 jio part is fecure from them j for I have fcen a 
 -large part of the mufcular fibres of the heart itfelf 
 perfedly offiiied. I have known one inflance of 
 a deficiency of this offifying matter, in the lower 
 jaw of an adult body; where all that part on one 
 iide, v/hich is beyond the teeth, was of a fubilance 
 ■between that of a cartilage and a ligament. In chil- 
 dren that have died of the rickets, I have found 
 the nodes on the bones foft, fpongy, and bloody, 
 and in one fubjed: feveral of them as limber as lea- 
 ther, and the perioflasum in fome places many 
 times its natural thicknefs ; but the cartilages and 
 cartilaginous epiphyfes had no apparent alteration 
 in their texture, though fome were fweiled to 
 more than twice their natural diameters. 
 
 Every cylindrical bone has a large middle 
 
 cavity, which contains an oily marrow, and a 
 
 great numher of leder cells towards their extre- 
 
 fiiities, w"hich contain a bloody marrow. The , 
 
 A A3 bloody 
 
6 INTRODUCTION 
 
 bloody marrow is alfb found in all fpongy cells of 
 bones. The ufe of the firfl kind of marrow, I 
 imagine is to foften, and render lefs brittle, the 
 harder fibres of bones near which it is feated; 
 and that the other marrow is of the fame ufe to 
 the lefs compact fibres, which the more oily mar- 
 row might have made too foft ; and that for this 
 reafon there is lefs of the oily marrow, and more 
 of the bloody, in young bones than in old ones.- 
 Every one of thefe cells is lined with a fine mem^ 
 brane, and the rnarrow in the larger cells is alfa 
 contained in thin membraneous veficles ; in which 
 membranes the vefiels are fpread, which enter 
 obliquely, about the middle of the cylindrical 
 bones, from fome of whofe branches the marrow 
 is fecreted, while others of them enter the internal 
 fubftance of the bones for their nourishment -, and 
 the reafon why they enter obliquely is, that they 
 niay not weaken the bones by dividing too many 
 fibres in the fame place. If the bones had been 
 formed of the farne quantity of matter without any 
 .cavities, they would, if they were ftraight, be able 
 to fudain the fame weight : But being made hollow, 
 their ftrength to refift breaking tranfverlly is en- 
 creafed as much as their diameters are encreafed, 
 without encreafing their v/eights ; which mecha- 
 nifm being yet more convenient for birds, the bones 
 of their wings, and for the fame reafon their quills, 
 have very large cavities. But the bones in the legs 
 of all animals are more folid, being formed to fup- 
 
 porl 
 
T o THE B O N E S. 7 
 
 port weight; and mens bodies being fuppofted by 
 two limbs, the bones of thofe limbs are therefore 
 made more folid than thofe of quadrupeds. In- 
 fedls, and moil; of the fmalleft animals, have {hells 
 inftead of bones, like lobflers, which ferve them alfo 
 for defence ; and the mufcles, being inferted into 
 the llielis at a greater diftance from the center of 
 motion of each joint than in animals that have 
 bones, their motions are neceilarily flower, ftronger 
 and more fimple. Therefore in this fort of animals, 
 quicknefs of motion, where it is wanted, is pro- 
 cured by a number of joints, as may be feen in the 
 legs of a flea ; and variety of motions by joints 
 with different direcflions, as may be obferved in a. 
 lobfler. In a fractured bone, in which the fame 
 kind of matter that oflified the bones at firll: is 
 thrown out from the broken ends of a bone, there 
 is formed a mafs of callous matter, of ^qual foli- 
 dity with any part of the bone, and of equal or 
 greater diameter, which will make the flirength 
 of the bone in that place greater than it was be^ 
 fore; which is very convenient; for bones, when 
 broke, are feldona or never fet in fo good a direc- 
 tion as that in which they were iirft formed, and 
 therefore they would be more liable to be broke 
 in the fame place again, ar^d would be reunited 
 with greater difficulty, and fometimes not at all, 
 becaufe the callus, being lefs vafcular than a bone, 
 it does not fo eafily adrnit the oflific matter to flow 
 through it to form a new callus, 
 
 A 4 Bones 
 
8 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Bones that are without motion, as thofe of the 
 fcull, the offa innominata, &c. alfo bones with 
 their epiphyfes, when they meet, prefs into each 
 other, and form futures, which foon difappear in 
 thofe that join, while their offific matter is foft; 
 but thofe that grow harder before they meet, prefs 
 more rudely into each other, and make more un- 
 even futures, fome of which in the fcull endure to 
 the greateft age : And fometimes while a bone is~ 
 oflifying from its center, a diftant part begins a nevr 
 offification, and forms a diftincfl bone, which may 
 happen to be of any figure. Thefe bones are often-, 
 eft found in the lambdoidal future, and. are there 
 called olfa triquetra. But the ends or fides of bones 
 that are intended for motion, are hindered from- 
 uniting, by the cartilages which cover them j for- 
 when thefe cartilages are eroded, the bones very 
 readily unite, and form an ancylofis. 
 
 The ends of all the bones that are articulated 
 for very manifefl motions, or that are not placed 
 againfl other bones -, are tipped with epiphyfes 
 or additional bones ^ which in fome meafure de- 
 termine their growth and figure ; for if they had 
 nothing to give bounds to them, they would fhoot 
 out like the callus from the broken ends of a bone 
 that is ill fet, and grow as ragged as the edges of 
 bones which are joined by futures ; and fometimes 
 epiphyfes are made ufe of to raife procefles upon 
 bones for the infertion of mufcles, as the trochan-- 
 ters of the thigh bones, where it would weaken 
 
 the 
 
TO THE BONES. 9 
 
 the bones too much to have procelTes raifed out 
 of their fubflance. 
 
 The fibres of bones, for aught that we can dif- 
 cover from experiments or microfcopical obferva- 
 tions, appear to be connected to each other by the 
 fame means that the parts of a fibre are connected, 
 that is, by the ftrong attraction which belongs to 
 particles of matter in contact: but this cohefion 
 of fibre to fibre is not equal to that in the parts of 
 a fibre, though very nearly. Indeed if it was, a 
 bone would not be a flru6ture of fibres, but one 
 uniform maf^, like that of any pure metal, the co- 
 hefion of th^ parts of which are every where alike. 
 Nor are the parts of bones difpofed into vifible la- 
 melljE, fi:ratum fuper flratum, as many have paint- 
 ed : for though young bones may in fome places 
 be fplit into lamellae, yet they not only appear one 
 folid uniform mafs to the naked eye, but even with 
 a microfcope, till we come to their inner fpongy 
 texture, which alfo appears uniform. Their tex- 
 ture, when firfl: formed, is every where loofe and 
 fpongy : but as they increafe, they become in ma- 
 ny places very compad; and denfe, which refults in 
 great meafure from the prefiiire of the bellies of 
 the mufcles, and other incumbent parts j as ap- 
 pears from the impreflions they make on the fur- 
 faces of the bones, and the rough fpines that rife 
 on the bones in the interftices of the mufcles, which . 
 are very, remarkable in men who have been bred 
 up in hard labour. In thofe parts of the flat bones 
 
 that 
 
10 INTRODUCTION, &c. 
 that receive but little prefrure> the outer kminse 
 only become compadt and denfe, while the mid- 
 dle part remains fpongy; but where the preflure 
 is greater, as on the fcapula and the middle of 
 the ilium, they become, in an adult, one denfe 
 body or table, and are ufually thinner in thofe 
 places than in a child before it is born. The cy- 
 lindrical or round bones, being prefTed moft in 
 their middles, become there very hard and ftrong, 
 while their extremities remain fpongy, and dilate 
 into large heads, which make flronger joints, and 
 givQ more room for the origins and infertions of 
 the mufcles; and increafe the power of the muf- 
 cles, hy removing their axis farther from the 
 centre of motion of any joint they moye; 
 
 All the bones, except fo much of the teeth 
 as are out of the fockets, and thofe parts of other 
 Bones, which are covered with cartilages, or 
 where mufcles or ligaments, arife or are infertcd, 
 are covered with a fine membrane, which upoa 
 the fcull is called pericranium, elfewhere peri* 
 oiiiaeum. It ferves for the mufcles to Aide eafy 
 upon, and to hinder them from being lacerated by 
 the roughnefs and hardnefs of the bones. It is 
 every where full of fmall blood veffels, which en^ 
 ter the bones for their nourifhment^ but the in- 
 ternal fubftance of the larger bones is nourifhed 
 hj the veiTels, ^\hich enter obliquely through 
 their middles, as has been before obferved, 
 
 C H A Pv 
 
( II ) 
 
 C H A P T E R I, 
 
 Sutures and bones of the cranium. 
 
 A SUTURE is made by the mutual inden- 
 tation of one bone with another. Thofc 
 which have proper names are here defcribedi 
 thofe which have not, derive their names from the 
 bones they furround, and are known by them. 
 
 SuTUR A coRON ALis ruus acrofs the fcull, from 
 one upper edge of the fphenoidal bone to the 
 other, and joins the parietal bones to the frontal* 
 
 SuTURA sAGiTTALis joins the parietal bones^ 
 begins at the os occipitis, and is continued to thd 
 OS frontis, in children down to the nofe; the os 
 frontis in them being two bones, and fometimes 
 fo in adult bodies. 
 
 SuTURA LAMBDoiDALis joins the back part 
 of the ofTa bregmatis, or parietal bones, to the up- 
 per part of the occipital : In this future are fre- 
 quently obferved fmall bones called olTa triquetra, 
 and fometimes in other futures. 
 
 SuTURA SQUAMOSA is made by the upper 
 part of the temporal and fpenoidal bones wrap- 
 ping over the lower edges of the parietal bones. 
 
 SuTURA TRANSvERSALis ruus acrofs the face, 
 through the bottoms of the orbits of the eyes j it 
 Joins the lower edge of the frontal bone to the os 
 fpenoides, maxillae fuperioris, olTa nali, ungues 
 plana, pakti, and jugali^, or malarum. 
 
 The 
 
12 suturesand bones 
 
 The fcull being divided into many bones. Is 
 neither fo fuhjeO: to fractures, nor to Ikave frad:ures 
 fo far extended, as it would have been were it 
 compofed of one bone only. This ilrudiure is alfo 
 convenient for the ofTification of the boneSy as h,as 
 been already fhcwn, and for the birth j becaufe 
 thefe- bones not being perfedt at that time, may 
 be preiTed together, and make the head lefs. 
 
 Ten of the bones of the head compofe the 
 cranium, to contain the brain and defend it from 
 external injuries. 
 
 OssA PARiETALiAjOrsREGMATis aTc t WO large 
 bones which compofe the fuperior and lateral parts 
 of* the fcull 5 on the inlide they are reimrkably 
 imprinted by the arteries of the dura mater. 
 
 OsFRONTis makes the upper and. fore part of the 
 cranium; its lower parts compofe the upper parts 
 of the orbits of the eyes, where on its infides arc 
 impreifed the volvuli of the brain, which uneven- 
 nefles help to keep that part of the brain Heady. 
 In its middle above the os ethmoides ufually arifes 
 a thin fpine, which, flrengthens that part of- the 
 bone, it being otherwife weak from its Eatnefs. In 
 ibme fculls this fpine is wanting ; but then the 
 bone is ufually thicker in that place, and from its 
 , middle, externally, goes a procefs which fupports 
 the bones of the nofe. Immediately above the qs 
 ethmoides in this bone is a fmall blind hole, thro' 
 which runs a vm into the beginning of the longi^ 
 tudinal linus of tHedura mater 3 and on the upper 
 
 edge 
 
OF THE C R A N I U M. 13 
 
 edge of each orbit, a fmall perforation, or a notch, 
 through which nerves and an artery pafs fecure to 
 the forehead; it has alfo a fmall hole in each orbit> 
 near the os planum, through which paiTes a branch 
 of the fifth pair of nerves. In the fubflance of 
 this bone nearirhe nofe are two, three, four, and 
 fometimes five fmufes, which open into the nofe^ 
 they differ very much in different perfons, and are 
 very rarely found in children. Thefe finufes,. and 
 the fpine in this bone, make it very dangerous, if 
 not impradticable, to apply a trephine on the mid- 
 dle and lower part of the forehead. 
 
 Os- ESTHMOiDEs^. or cRiBRiFORME, is a fmall 
 bonCj-i^out two inches in circumference, feated in 
 the anterior part of the bafis of the fcull, being al- 
 mdfl furrounded by the lafl defcribed bone. It is 
 full of holes, like a fieve, through which, it is faid, 
 the olfactory nerves pafs, which I could never dif- 
 cover. In its middle arifes a large procefs named 
 crifiagaili: and oppofite to this a thin one which 
 in part divides the nofe.. " The greater part of the 
 lamins fpongiofas in the nole belong to this bone. 
 
 Os SPHENOIDES is of a very irregular figure; it 
 is feated in the middle of the bafis of the fcull, 
 bounded by the os frontis,-ethmoides, vomer, occi- 
 pitis, maxillae fuperioris, offa parietalia, palati, ma- 
 larum, temporum, and. petrofa, which are parts of 
 the former bones. In its infide next the brain is a 
 cavity named fella turcica, which is bounded by four 
 proceffes called clinoides *. under the two foremofl 
 
 of 
 
14 SUTURES AND BONES 
 of which pafs the internal carotid arteries, and from 
 their outfides are continued two thin long proceiTes 
 upon that part of the frontal bone, which feparates 
 the anterior lobes of the brain from the pofterior; 
 cppoiite to the fella turcica is a procefs which makes 
 part of the feptum narium. On the outiide of the 
 icuU adjoining to the upper jaw, are two procefTes 
 of this bone on each lide, named pterygoides, from 
 which arife one on each lide near the palate, which 
 have no name. Over thefd pafs the tendons of the 
 pterygoftaphilini externi mufclesj and nearer to- 
 wards the occiput, between thefe and the flyloid 
 proceiles of the ofTa pctroia, arife two more fmall 
 rugged procefles; and under the fella turcica, in 
 this bone, is a fmus or two, for the mofl part, in 
 adults, but in children only fuch a fpongyfubftance 
 as is feen in the ends of fome of the bones. Dr* 
 Nichols obferves, this finus belongs properly to 
 the OS ethmoides. At the infide of the bafis of the 
 two anterior clinoid procelfes are two round holes, 
 which are the lirft foramina of the fcull j through 
 thefe the optic ner-ves pafs j almofl: under t}\efe, to- 
 wards the {ides of the fcull, are two irregular flits, 
 named foramina lacera, or the fecond foramina of 
 the fcull, through which pafs nerves and blood 
 velTels into the orbits of the eyes; and under thefe,. 
 towards the occiput, are two round holes, which are 
 the third foramina, through which pafs nerves to 
 the face; about half an inch nearer the occiput ar&„ 
 two more, of an oyal figure, which are the fourth 
 
 fora-* 
 
OF THE CR ANIU M. 15 
 
 foramina, through which pafs the largefl branches 
 of the fifth pair of nerves; andaftraw's breadth 
 farther two very fmall ones, called the fifth fora- 
 mina, through which thofe branches of the carotid 
 arteries enter that are beftowed upon the dura" 
 mater. Between this laft defcribed bone and the 
 ofla petrofa are two large rough holes, in which 
 I have feen large veins ; and from thefe holes, 
 through part of the os fphenoides, under the pte- 
 rygoid procefiTes, are fmall holes, through which 
 pafs arteries to the back part of the nofe, 
 
 OssA TEMPORUM are fituated below the parie- 
 tal bones, at the middle and lower parts of the fides 
 of the fcull ; they have each at their back parts 
 one large fpongy procefs, called mammiliaris, or 
 malloideus, and from the lower and middle parte 
 of each a procefs which joins the ofla malarum, 
 Ramed jugalis or zygomaticus* 
 
 , OssA PET ROSA He between the former bones 
 and the occipital bones, or are truly portions of the 
 former bones, being never found feparate in adult 
 bodies-*^ They have each on their outfides one long 
 ilender procefs called ftyliformis, and near the fide 
 of this procefs a foramen, which runs obliquely 
 forwards into the fcull, through which the carotid 
 arteries pafs to the brain; thefe are thefixth fora- 
 mina, and one .foramen in the infide of the fcull 
 leading to the organs of hearing, which are the fe- 
 yenth foramina. The ridge on the upper parts of 
 ^ach^f thefe bones helps to keep the brain fteady, 
 
 anid 
 
i6 SUTURESandBONES 
 and are ftrong. fupports to the thin and flat parts 
 of the fcull, which elfe would be exceeding weak. 
 What remains of this bone belongs properly to a 
 difcourfe on the organs of jiearing. 
 
 Between the lafl; defcribed bones and the fol- 
 lowing bone are two large holes, which are the 
 eighth foramina. Though thefe holes pafs the 
 eighth pair of nerves and lateral linufes -, fome- 
 times they are two on each fide, one for the nerve 
 and one for the linus. To thefe we may add ano- 
 ther very fmall one on each lide, through which 
 pafs the portiones duras of the auditory nerves; 
 and fometimes there is another for an artery. 
 
 Os occiPiTis makes all the back part of the 
 fcull : It is bounded by the fphenoidal, temporal, 
 petrofal, and parietal bones j it has two fmall apo- 
 phyfes, by which it is articulated to the fpine> 
 near thofe apophyfes are two fmall foramina, which 
 are the ninth of the fcull ; through thefe pafs the 
 ninth pair of nerves; and between thefe is the 
 great or tenth foramen, thVough which the me- 
 dulla oblongata defcends into the fpine, the cervi- 
 cal arteries enter, and the cervical veins pafs out. 
 In the infide of this bone is a crucial fpine im- 
 preffed by the longitudinal and lateral finufes; 
 and on the outiide, oppofite to the middle of this 
 fpine, in fome bodies, is an apophyfis, and from 
 that down to the great foramen a fmall thin fpine. 
 The fpines in this bone are of the fame ufe with 
 thofe in the OS frontis,&c. viz^toftrengthenit. The 
 
 thinner 
 
OF TH£ C RANIU M. ij 
 
 J)?irts of this bone are alfo defended by the mufcles 
 that cover them ; which provifionis very necelTary, 
 becaufe we can leaft defend this part, and blows 
 here are of worfe confequence than on any other 
 part of the fcull, becaufe wounds in the cerebel- 
 lum, which is underneath, are mortal. There 
 are in mofl fculls a foramen behind each apophy- 
 iis of the occipital bonej through which pafs 
 linufes from the lateral linufes to the external cer- 
 vical veins : By means of thefe communications, 
 as in all other communications of the finufes, the 
 blood palTes from thofe that happen to be fur- 
 charged by any pofture of the head, into thofe 
 that from the fame pofture would have been al- 
 moft empty: Such fculls as want thefe foramina 
 have two linufes for the fame purpofe. 
 
 C H A P. 11. 
 
 Of the bones of the face ) &c. 
 
 OSSA NASI make the upper part of the nofe ; 
 they form that kind of arch which is fitteft 
 to fuftain fuch injuries as the nofe is moft expofed 
 to. 
 
 OssA M ALARUM, Tlicfc boucs compofe the 
 
 * anterior, lower, and outer parts of the orbits of the 
 
 eyes 5 they have each a Ihort procefs, which pro- 
 
 cefs joins the proceffus jugales of the temporal 
 
 B bones. 
 
j8 O f t h e B O N E S 
 
 bones, and form arches which have been called 
 
 oflajugalia. 
 
 O s s A u N G u E s are feated immediately below the 
 OS frontis towards the nofe in the orbits of the 
 eyes -, whofe anterior and inner parts they help to 
 compofe ; and between each of them and the up- 
 per jaw is a foramin as large as a goofe quill, into 
 which the pun6la lacrymalia lead, to carry off any 
 fuperfiuous moifture from the eyes into the nofe. 
 
 Oss A PLANA are feated immediately beyond 
 the foregoing bones, in the orbits of the eyes, and 
 are near thrice as big. They are rather fmooth 
 furfaces of the cs fpongiofum, than diaind bones, 
 and are very often imperfedt. 
 
 Maxilla superior is always defcribed fmgle, 
 though it is manifeflly divided by a future which 
 is fcarce ever obliterated 5 it has two procefles, 
 which join the OS frontis, and make part of the 
 nofe; and another, which joins to the cartilage of 
 the feptum nafi. Its upper and outward parts make 
 the lower parts of the orbits of the eyes ; its lower 
 -fide, all that part of the face under the cheeks, 
 eyes, and nofe to the mouth, and two thirds of the 
 roof of the mouth. A little below the orbits of the 
 eyes, in this bone, are two holes, and behind the 
 dentes incifores one more, which divides into two, 
 as it opens into the nofe, on each fide of the fep- 
 tum nafi. Between the poilerior grindmg-tceth 
 and the orbits of the eyes are two great finufes, 
 dialled antra maxilla fuperioris, which open m the 
 
 upper 
 
oftheFACE. 19 
 
 upper part of the nofe. And in the lower edge of 
 this jaw are the alveoli, or fockets for the teeth. 
 Part of the fides of thefe cavities, that lie next the 
 nofe, are only membranes which make the cavities 
 like drums, perhaps to give a grave found to the 
 voice when we let part of it through the nofe ; 
 but brutes not needing fuch variety of founds, have 
 thefe cavities open to the nofe, and filled with la- 
 mellas, which are covered with membranes, in 
 which the olfactory nerves terminate, for a more 
 exquilite fenk of fmelling than is necelTary for 
 men. Impofthumations fometimes happen in 
 thefe cavities : The figns of this difeafe are, great 
 pain about the part, matter in the nofe on the lide 
 difeafed, ftinking breath, and rotten teeth. Mr. 
 CowPER firft defcribed this cafe, and the cure; 
 which is performed by drav/ing out the lafl tooth 
 but one, or two, or more if rotten; and through 
 their fockets making a perforation into the antrum; 
 or if drawing a tooth makes a perforation, which 
 fometimes happens, and perhaps gave the iirft hint 
 of this cure, then that opening mufl be enlarged, 
 if it is not fufficient to difcharge the matter. 
 
 OssA Palati are two fmall bones that make 
 the back part of the roof of the mouth, and a fmall 
 part of the bottom of each orbit. Between the olla 
 palati and os maxillare near the pteiygoid proceiles 
 of the fphenoidal bone, are tv^^o fmall foramina, 
 through which arteries and nerves pafs to tlie pa- 
 late. 
 
 B 2 Os 
 
So Of the bo N E S 
 
 Os Vomer is feated between the bones of the 
 palate, and the fphenoidal bone. It is alfo joined to 
 the procefs of the ethmoides, and part of the lower 
 jaw. Its fore-part is fpongy, and is continued to 
 the middle cartilage of the nofe. This bone and 
 cartilage are the feptum nafi. 
 
 Os SPONGIOSUM is ufually treated as a diflind 
 bone, though it is only the fpongy laminae in the 
 nofe, of the os ethmoides and olTa plana, but chiefly 
 of the OS ethmoides, to which it always adheres. 
 In confiderino; thefe lamellae as a diflinft bone, we 
 follow the ancients, who did not diftinguifh the 
 bones of the fcull only, as they are divided by fu- 
 tures, but according to the differences of their tex- 
 ture, figure, fituation, or ufe. Thus they called 
 thefe parts os fpongiofum^ a procefs of the tempo- 
 ral bone, joined to the os mals, os jugale, &c. 
 
 Maxilla inferior is articulated with loofe 
 cartilages to the temporal bones, by two procelTes, 
 named condyloides. Near thefe arife two more,, 
 called coronales, and at the infide of the chin a 
 fmall rough procelfus innominatus. In the inlide 
 of this bone, under each proceifus coronalis, is a 
 large foramen, which runs under the teeth, and 
 pafies out near the chin. In this foramen, the vef- 
 fels pafs that belong to the teeth ; and in the upper 
 edge of this jaw are the fockets for the teeth, which 
 feldom exceed fixteen in each jaw; the four firft 
 in -each are called incifores, the two next canini, 
 the reft molares ; the four laft of thefe are named 
 
 dentqs 
 
oftheFACE. 21 
 
 dentes fapientiiE, becaufe they do not appear till 
 men arrive at years of difcretion . The incilbres and 
 canini have only one fingle root, but the molares 
 more ; the eight firil, two -, and the reft, fome three, 
 fome four, efpecially in the upper jaw; where alfo 
 they are fpread wider, becaufe that jaw being more 
 ipongy than the other, the teeth need more fpace 
 to fix them. Each of thefe roots has a foramen, 
 through which pafs an artery, vein, and nerve, 
 which are expanded in a line membrane that lines 
 the cavity in each tooth. Thefe yelTels and mem- 
 brane are the feat of the tooth-ach. The teeth of 
 children caft oiF while they are growing ; but the 
 fucceeding teeth arife in new fockets, deeper and 
 larger than the former, for the jaws increaiing fafter 
 than the teeth, muft otherwife have left chafms 
 between them, fuch as are in the mouths of brutes ; 
 but where teeth are drav/n in adult bodies, the 
 fockets clofe, and new ones very rarely fucceed. 
 
 T 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the bones of the trunk. 
 
 HE bones of the trunk are thofe which com- 
 pofe the fpine or chain of bones from the 
 head dow^n to the rump, the ribs and fternum, to 
 which may juftly be added the olia innominata. 
 
 The fpine is compofed of twenty- four vertebra 
 (each of which in a young child is three bones) 
 
 . B 3 be- 
 
22 OftheBONES 
 
 befides thofe of the os facrum and coccygis ) iGven 
 belong to the neck, the firfl of which is called 
 atlas, becaufe it immediately fupports the head j its 
 upper fide has two cavities, into which the apo- 
 phyfes of the os occjpitis are received ; but thefe 
 two cavities together, unlike all other joints, are 
 laterally portions of concentric circles, by which 
 means they are but as one joint, and fo fuffer the 
 head to move eafily fide- ways, v/hich otherv^ife it 
 could no more do than the knee, which alfo has 
 two heads and two cavities. The under fide of 
 this bone has a very flat articulation with the next, 
 which fits it for a rotatory motion. The fecond 
 vertebra is called dentata, or axis, from a procefs 
 which pafies thro' the former bone, and is the axis 
 upon which it turns -, never thelefs all the verte- 
 brae of the neck contribute fomething to the rota- 
 tory motion of the head. The proceffus dentatus 
 is fi:rongly tied to the os occipitis, and to the atlas 
 by ligaments, to prevent its hurting the fpinal 
 marrow. Twelve of which belong to the back, 
 five to the loins. The os facrum is fometimes five, 
 fometimes fix: bones, and the os occygis four. If 
 this chain had been compofed of fewer bones, 
 they mufi: have either not been capable of bending 
 fo much a^ they do, or have bent more in each 
 joint, v,^hich would have prefied the fpinal mar- 
 row, the ill confequences of which are fufficiently 
 feen in perfons grown crooked^ or who h^-ve had 
 diilorUQUS fropri external accidents. 
 
 Ttis 
 
OF THE TRUNK. 23 . 
 
 The uppemiofi: vertebni; of the neck being 
 fixed behind the center o£ gravity of the head, the 
 neck is therefore fo fiir bent forward, as that the 
 lafl of thefe vertebra (which has a firm bearing 
 upon thofe of the thorax) may be exad:ly under 
 the center of gravity. Thofe of the thorax are 
 bent backwards, behind the center of motion, to 
 make room for the parts contained In the thorax .; 
 and that they might not be made too weak by the 
 ftrudture, they are formed for lefs motion than 
 other vertebras; and thofe in particular, which are 
 bent fartheft from the center of gravity have the 
 leafl- motion. The middle vertebrae of the loins 
 are again bent forwards under the center of gra- 
 vity, or near it ; and from thence they go back- 
 wards to the OS facrum, where being fixed to the 
 oiTa innominata behind the center of gravity, the 
 articulation is therefore fir4ii and without motion, 
 and from thence the ofia innominata are fo form- 
 ed, as that their fockets, into which the thieh 
 bones are fixed, where there is a free motion, are 
 exadily under the center of gravity. In brutes 
 the fpine is differently formed, according to the 
 ad:ions for which they are defigned. 
 
 In all thefe vertebra, except the firil, in a mid- 
 dle anterior fpongy body, by which they are firmly 
 articulated with a very ftrong intervening liga- 
 ment ; and from the middle of the hind part of 
 each, except the firll:, fbands a procefs named fpi- 
 nalis, and from every one a procefs on each fide, 
 
 B i, called 
 
24 Of t h e B O N E S 
 
 called tranfverfalis, and two fuperior, and two in- 
 ferior fliort ones ^ by which the back parts of the 
 vertebras are articulated, named obliqui, fuperi-^ 
 ores, and inferiores. 
 
 The fore part of the feven vertebrae of the. 
 neck, and two upper of the back, are flat for- 
 wards, to make room for the afpera arteria an- 
 gula : The third and fourth of the back acute, to 
 give way to the veffels of the lungs and heart, and 
 bent to the right fide for the better fituation of. 
 the heart, which makes that fide of the breaft 
 more convex than the other, and therefore ftrong- 
 er^ which feems advantageous to the right arm, 
 its motions depending upon the fupport it receives 
 from the breaft. Hence, I think, it feems, that 
 the almofl univerfal preference of that arm is not 
 an arbitrary thing, but founded upon obfervation, 
 that it is capable of more perfed; ad:ions than the 
 other. 
 
 The fpinal procefTes of the fecond, third, fourth, 
 ^nd fifth vertebras of the neck are forked, the two 
 lafl long and horizontal, the three or four upper 
 ones of the back like them, only a little declining, 
 the middle ones of the back run obliquely down-: 
 wards, and the procefles of the remaining vertebrs 
 become fucceflively thicker, ftronger, and lefs de- 
 clining ; thofe of the loins being horizoqtal, like 
 the iaft of the neck. The mufcles, that are inferted 
 into the fpinal procefles of the vertebrje of the neck 
 and loins will a6t with more ftrength than thofe of 
 
 6 the 
 
OF THE TRUNK, 25 
 
 the back, becaufe their prqcelTes being perpendipu-r 
 lar to the fpine, they are longer leavers : belides, 
 thofeof the backahnoft touch one another, to pre- 
 vent much rnotion, becaufe it vvould interrupt re-^ 
 ipiration -, but more rriotion being neceflary in the 
 neck and loins, their procefles are made fit for it. 
 
 The tranfverfe procefles of the vertebras of the 
 neck are perforated, for the adm.jffion of the cer- 
 vical blood vefTels, and bowed downv^ards, and 
 hollov^ed, for the palTages of the cervical nerves. 
 The eight or nine upper or^es of the baqk receive 
 the upper ribs; and the reft, v^^ith thofe of the 
 loins, ferve only for origins and infertions of muf- 
 cles, 
 
 Os SACRUM has two upper oblique procefles, 
 fome fmall fpinal procelTes, and two foramina in 
 eachinterfticeof the bones it is compofed of, both 
 before and behind, Ofl"a coccvgis have none of 
 thefe parts. 
 
 Through every bone of the fpine, the oflvi 
 coccygis excepted, is a large foramen, which toge- 
 ther make a channel through the fpine, in v/hich 
 is contained the medulla fpinalisj and in each 
 fpace between the vertebrae are two large holes for 
 the nerves to pafs out. 
 
 It is worth confide ring the provifion which h 
 made to prevent luxations in this chain of bones, 
 fuch luxations being worfe than any other, becaufe 
 of the fpinal marrow which is contained within thefe 
 bones. The bodies of the vertebrae are all in the 
 
 fame 
 
26 Of the B on E S 
 
 fame manner conne^ed by flrong intervening liga- 
 ments or cartilages. In the neck the oblique pro- 
 celTes of the received bone are v^^rapped over thofe 
 of the receiving bone, which forbids their luxating 
 forwards. The tranfverfe proceiTes, with a fmall 
 apophysis of the body of the fame bone, in like 
 manner, fecure them from flipping backwards; 
 and an apophyiis on each fide of the body of the 
 receiving bone, hinders them from flipping to either 
 fide. The vertebras of the back are hindered from 
 diflocating forwards by the fame provjfion with 
 thofe of the neck ; and from luxating backwards, 
 by the ribs which are faflened to the tranfverfe pro- 
 ceiTes of the inferior vertebrae, and againfl: the back 
 part of the body of the next fuperior: they alfo 
 hinder them from diflocating to either fide; but 
 the lafl ribs are not fixed to the tranfverfe procelfes 
 of the vertebrs of the back, and therefore it is 
 that luxations are moil frequently feen in this part^ 
 but the vertebrae of the loins are received into deep 
 cavities, and are tied with much flronger ligaments 
 for their fecurity. Each joint of the vertebra, ex- 
 cept the two uppermoft, has two centers of mo- 
 tion, one upon the bodies of the vertebrae, when 
 the trunk is bowed forward ; and the other at the 
 articulations of the oblique procefles, when the 
 body is bowed backwards; from which flrudure 
 the extenfors will have about twice the leaver to 
 2.3: with, and confequently twice the power to raife 
 the trunk into an ered pofiure, that they have to 
 
 carry 
 
o F T H E T R U N K. 27 
 
 carry it beyond that pofture; for then the oblique 
 procelTes begin to be the centre of motion, and give 
 a like advantage to the benders. Without this con- 
 trivance it would be more difficult to keep the body 
 ered:, or to recover an ercd; poilure with conii- 
 derable ilrength after a bend of the body. 
 
 The ribs are twelve in number on each fide; 
 the feven uppermoft are called true ribs, becaufe 
 their cartilages reach the flernum; and the iive 
 loweft are called baftard ribs. They are articulated 
 to the bodies of the twelve vertebra of the back, 
 and all, except the two or three laft, are articu- 
 lated to their tranfverfe proceiTes, and the under 
 fide of the middle ribs are hollowed for the paflage 
 of the intercofi:al veflels. They defend the parts 
 contained in the breafi:, and when they are drawn 
 tipwards, the cavity of the breail is enlarged for 
 infpiration, and fo the contrary. In two children, 
 which I have difiedted, I found the ribs broke in- 
 wards, and on the outfide a very plain print of a 
 thumb and lingers, occafioned by their nurfes tak- 
 M'^g hold of their breafi:s, and hoifiiing them up on 
 one hand, which being often repeated, had broke 
 the ribs inwards like a green flick, without feparat- 
 ing the broken ends of them. I have alfo very fre- 
 quently {cen the fiiape of children s breafls quite 
 fpoiled by fuch tricks, which have occafioned weak- 
 nefs of body, crookednefs, and other difeafes. 
 
 Sternum, or breafi:-bone, is generally made 
 up of three fpongy bones, Ibmetime? mere.; to this 
 
 the 
 
28 OftheBONES 
 
 the two ribs are articulated by their cartilages, 
 which fometimes in robuft men have moveable 
 joints, fuch as are feen in oxen and other quadrupeds , 
 At the end of the fternum is the cartilago enfifor- 
 mis, fo called from its fhape, but it very often is 
 double 5 there is alfo frequently found variety in 
 the form of the cartilages, which join the ribs and 
 flernumj fometimes one cartilage ferving two ribs, 
 and fometimes a cartilage not joined to any rib; 
 frequently in old perfons we find parts of them of- 
 iified, and I have twice found them totally offified 
 in men between forty and fifty years of age, both 
 of which died with a great difficulty of breathing i 
 and befides, one had a jaundice, and the other 4 
 dropfy, but the lungs in both were very found. 
 
 There are fe.ldom found fewer than four and 
 twenty vertebrae in the fpine, beiides the os facrum, 
 but often more; fometimes thirteen of the back, 
 with as many ribs of a lide: and fometimes fix in 
 the loins, and in fome bodies two ribs from the 
 firfi: vertebra of the loins, but then it has wanted 
 tranfverfe procefies. 
 
 Os iNNOMiNATUMisin young perfons com^ 
 pofed of three bones j the upper is named iliumj^ 
 the lower and pofiierior os ifchii, and the anterior 
 OS bubis: the upper edge of the ilium is called its 
 ipine, the anterior pirt of the fpine its apex, and a 
 little lower is the proceffus innominatus. Ilium 
 has two procefles, the one named the obtufe pro- 
 cefs, and the other the acute ^ in the centre of 
 
 thefe' 
 
OF THE T RUNK. 29 
 
 thefe bones is the acetabulum or focket for the 
 thigh bone -, in the bottom of which focket is an- 
 other cavity, in which lies the lubricating gland of 
 this joint. When impoilumations happen in this 
 joint they ufually caufe a great fwellingand lame- 
 nefs in the hip, which, in time, makes a colledlion 
 of matter in the external part of the hip 3 how- 
 ever, this is not the only way it proceeds, for I 
 have twice feen the matter in the joint make way 
 thro' the bottom of the acetabulum into the pelvis 
 of the abdomen ; in thefe cafes, when the patient 
 went to ilool, the matter, by ftraining, was prefTed 
 out through the external wound. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Bones of the upper limh, 
 
 CLAVICULA is connedtedat one end to the 
 fternum v/ith a loofe cartilage, and at the 
 other to the procefTus acromion of the fcapula; its 
 chief ufe is to keep thefcapulaa fufficient diftance 
 from the breaft, by which means the fhoulders 
 are hindered from coming near together, as they 
 do in thofe quadrupeds which ufe their fore limbs 
 pnly to walk on, and not as men do their hands. 
 Scapula is fixed to the flernum by theclavi- 
 cula, but its chief conned;ion is to the ribs and 
 
 fpine. 
 
30 B O N E S o p T H E 
 
 fpine, by thofe mufcles which are made alfo for its 
 •various motions ; and in fuch quadrupeds as have 
 no clavicles it is fixed only by mufcles, v^^hofe 
 adions give to this bone a great deal of that mo- 
 tion which feems to be in the joiht of the fhoulder. 
 The under fide of this bone is a little concave, 
 partly to fit to the outer furface of the ribs on 
 which it moves, and partly to give room for the 
 fub-fcapularis mufcle. On the outfide arifes a 
 large fpine; the forepart of which is called the 
 procefius acromion, to which the clavicula is fixed. 
 In men and fuch quadrupeds as have clavicles, and 
 uie their fore limbs like arms, this procefs and 
 ipine are much larger and more prominent, not 
 only for the better fixing the clavicle, but alfo to 
 remove the mufcles farther from the center of 
 motion, whereby they are able to move a greater 
 weight. Near this procefs is another called cora- 
 coides, from whofe extremity, with like advan- 
 tage, arife two mufcles of the arm ; this procefj^ 
 with the former and a flat ligament between them 
 both, hinder the os humeri from being diflocated 
 upwards. The fide oppofite to the focket is called 
 the bafis of the fcapula, and the lower edge cofta 
 inferior from its figure, which is thick, and like a 
 rib to the fcapula; but its upper edge being very 
 thin, is improperly fo called in the human fkele- 
 ton, though not fo in many quadrupeds. At the 
 fore part of this edge, clofe to the coracoid pro- 
 cefs, is a femicircular nich for the pafiage of blood 
 
 vejflels, 
 
U P P E R L I M B. ^1 
 
 veflels, which nich is joined at top with a liga- 
 ment, and fometimes with bone. 
 
 Os humeri: its upper end or head, where it 
 is joined to the fcapula, is fomewhat flat, and much 
 larger than the focket which receives it. At the 
 upper part are two procelTes for the infertions of 
 mufcles of the arms; between thefe procefles is a 
 long channel, in which lies a tendon of the bifeps 
 cubiti. At the lower end are two conliderable 
 procefles, both formed to give origins to mufcles 
 of the wrifl: and fingers -, and the flexors of thefc 
 joints being much more conliderable than the ex- 
 tenfors, the inner procefs from which the flexors 
 arife is therefore much larger than the outer, from 
 which the extenfors take their origins: between 
 thefe proceflTes is the joint. That part to which 
 the upper end of the radius is fixed, is fitted not 
 only for the motion of the elbow, but alfo for the 
 rotatory motion of the radius; the reft of this 
 joint is made of portions of unequal, but concen- 
 tric, circles, like the flianks of quadrupeds; which 
 inequality prevents the ulna from diflocating fide- 
 ways, which fo fmall a joint with fo much motion 
 would be very fubjedl to. Of a like ufe is the little 
 finus on the fore part of the humerus, and the large 
 one behind; the firft of which receives a procefs^ 
 of the ulna when the arm is bent, and the other, 
 the olecranon, when the arm is extended. 
 
 Ulna: at the upper end it has one large pro-- 
 cefs called olecranon, and a fmall procefs on the 
 
 fare 
 
32 'BO NE S OF TUt 
 
 fore parti and on one fide between thefe is alid 
 a fmall cavity, which receives the upper end o£ 
 the radius for its rotatory motion j and down the 
 fide of this bone, next the radius, is a fharp edge^ 
 from which the ligament arifes, which connects 
 thofe bones together* At the lower end is a pro-* 
 cefs, called ftyliformis, and a round head, which 
 is received into the radius for the rotatory motion 
 of the cubit. 
 
 •Radius: its upper end is received into the 
 ulna, and joined to the humerus, in a manner 
 chiefly fitted for its rotatory motion, for the 
 flrength of the elbow joint receives but little ad- 
 vantage from the union of thefe two bones, A 
 little below thib head is a large tubercle, into 
 which the biceps mufcle is inferted, which by the 
 advantage of this infertion turns the cubit fupine, 
 as well as bends it. At the lower end, which is 
 thicker, is a focket to receive the carpus, and at 
 the fide next the ulna a fmall one to receive that 
 bone, and a thin edge, into which the tranfverfe 
 ligament, which arifes from the ulna, is inferted. 
 This ligament ties thefe bones conveniently and 
 firmly together: for the ulna being chiefly arti- 
 culated to the OS humeri, and the radius to the 
 carpus, a weight at the hand, without this liga- 
 ment, would be liable to pull thefe bones afunder. 
 Of the bones of the hand : Carpus is compofed 
 of eight bones of very irregular forms, undoubted- 
 ly the properefl that can be; yet why in thefe 
 
 forms 
 
UPPER LIMB. 33 
 
 forms, rather than any other, no one has been 
 able to £hew.. They have all obfcure motions one 
 with another, and with thofe of the metacarpus ; 
 but the motion of thofe of the firft rank, or or- 
 der, with thofe of the fecond is more conliderable, 
 and are moved by the fame mufcles which move 
 the carpus on the radius. The metacarpus con- 
 iifls of four bones which fuftain the fingers ', that 
 of the fore-iinger having the leafl: motion, and 
 that of the little one the moil : the other ends of 
 thefe bones have round heads for the articulations 
 of the fingers 3 but the other joints of the fingers 
 double heads and fockets. The thumb is fliorter 
 and ftronger than any of the fingers, becaufe in its 
 ad:ions it is to refift them all. The firfl joint 
 is very fingular, each bone receiving and being 
 equally received. The bones of the fingers on 
 the infide are flat and a little hollow, v/liicli is ne- 
 cefTary to make room for the flexors of the fingers^ 
 and to render their fhape proper for grafping 5 
 but this lelTening their diameters, and confequent- 
 ly weakening them in the diredion in which they 
 are mofl liable to be broke, fuch inconvenience 
 is provided againfl by a larger fubflance. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
34 B O N E S o F T H E 
 
 C H A P. V. 
 
 Bones of the lower limb. 
 
 S Fe MORIS at its upper end has a round head' 
 which is received into the focket of the os 
 innominatum. In moil: quadrupeds this head is 
 oblong,, and makes a firmer articulation; but that 
 Ihape will not allow of fo much motion as a round- 
 er head. The two procefTes near the head are cal- 
 led the greater and lefler trochanters, which are 
 evidently formed for the infertion of mufcles, as 
 the neck which lies between thefe and the head, is 
 formed to make room for that neceifary quantity of 
 mufcles which/ are feated on the infide of the 
 thigh, and alfo by projed;ing outwards to make 
 ■ long levers for the mufcles, which are inferted 
 . into its upper and external parts. Between the 
 great trochanter and the neck is a large linus, into 
 which mufcles are inferted : between the two tro- 
 chanters is a remarkable roughnefsfor the fame ufe, 
 . from which begins the linea afpera. The middle 
 of this bone, for the conveniency of the mufcles, 
 is bent forwards, v/hich would make it fubjed: to 
 break backwards, if there was not a ilrong ridge 
 on the back iide, v/hich ftrengthens it fufficiently, 
 "and ferves alfo for advantageous infertions for fe- 
 veral mufcles -, this ridge is called the linea afpera. 
 
 At ^\Q lower end of this bone are two large heads, 
 
 called- 
 
LOWER LIM B. ^^ 
 
 Called the outer and inner apophyfes : thefe are fo 
 contrived, partly from being projeded backwards, 
 and partly from their lliapes, as to remove the cen- 
 ter of motion very far behind the axis of the bone, 
 which gives great power to the mufcles that ex- 
 tend this joint to raife the whole weight of the 
 body, though it lellens the pov/er of the benders 
 which move the leg only ; between thefe procelfes- 
 the' large velTcls defcend fecurely to the leg, 
 ■ Patella is feated on the forepart of the kneei 
 its firft appearance is in the center of the tendon, 
 through which it foon extends, until the tendinous 
 fibres are loft, and appear to be converted into 
 bone ; however, v/lien this bone is broke, the ori- 
 ginal tendinous fibres feem to prevail, feeing the 
 broken parts, unlike all other bones when frac- 
 tured, unite with a tendon-like fubftance, which 
 is rarely converted into bone, and efpecially in 
 thofe cafes where the joint redoyers with mofl 
 motion : its ufe is to fecure the extenfors of the 
 tibia, left, paiTmg over the joint, they might be: 
 too much expofed to external injuries i it^alfo in- 
 ereafes the advanta:ge (mentioned in the laft para- 
 graph) of removing the common axis of the extQn- 
 fors of the tibia farther from the center of motion,- 
 and is a moft convenient medium for thofe mufclesf 
 to unite in, to perform one common adiion. 
 
 Tibia, the fliin bone, is large at its upper end, 
 where are two fhallow fockets which receive the 
 thigh bone -, betv/een thefe is a rough procefs,, to 
 
 C 2 vv'hich- 
 
55 BONESoFTHE 
 
 which the crofs ligaments of this joint are con- 
 nected. Near the upper end is a procefs, into 
 which the ligament or tendon of the patella is in- 
 ferted, and at the lower end is the procefs,. which 
 makes the inner ancle, and fecures this, bone from 
 diflocating outwards. Towards the upper end 
 this bone is triangular, and even concave on the 
 fide next the mufcles to make room for them; 
 but lower, as the mufcles grow lefs and tendinous^ 
 the bone grows rounder; that being upon the 
 whole a ftronger form; yet it is not made fo 
 ilrong as the thigh bone, though it bears a greater 
 weight, which it is able to do by being ftraighter,, 
 fhorter, and bearing the weight of the body in a 
 more perpendicular diredlion^ 
 
 Fibula is feated on the outude of the tibia; 
 its upper end is joined to that bone below the joint 
 of the knee, and its lower end is received into a 
 ihallow finus of the fame bone, and below that 
 makes the external ancle ; which procefs, with the 
 procefs of the tibia, ftrengthens the ancle joint, 
 which, neverthelefs, being fo fmall, v/ould have 
 been not ilrong enough, if it had been made for 
 more motion. It is doubtful to me, whether or 
 not this bone contributes to the fupport of the bo- 
 dy ; but itTgfeat ufe is for the origin of mufcles^ 
 and even its lliape is fuited to theirs. 
 
 Of the bones of the foot : Tarfus is compofed 
 of feven bones, the firft of v/hich, called aftraga- 
 l\is^ fupports the tibia, and is fupported by the os- 
 
 calcis. 
 
LOWER LIMB. 37 
 
 calcls, which being proje6ted backwards, makes a 
 long lever for the mufcles to ad: with, that extend 
 the ancle and raife the body upon the toes. Thefe 
 two bones have a confiderable motion between 
 themfelves, and the aitragalus alfo with the os na- 
 viculare, and all the reft an obfcure motion one 
 wdth another, and with the bones of the metatarfus, 
 the greateft part of thefe motions being towards 
 the great toe, where is the greateft ftrefs of adion : 
 thefe bones thus giving way are lefs liable to be 
 broke, and, as a fpring under the leg, make the mo- 
 tion of the body in walking more eafy and grace- 
 ful, and the bones which are fupported by them 
 lefs fubjed to be fradured in violent adions. To 
 thefe join five others, called the metatarfal bones ; 
 that which fupports the great toe is much the lar- 
 geft, there being the greateft ftrefs in walking ; 
 under the end of this lie the two fefamoid bones, 
 which are of the fame ufe as the patella; the great 
 toe has two bones, the lefler three each, the two^ 
 laft of the leaft toes frequently grow together. 
 
 Children are fometimes born with their feet 
 turned inwards, fo that the bottom of the foot is 
 upwards : in this cafe the bones of the tarfus, like 
 the vertebrae of^the back in crooked perfons, arc 
 faftiioned to the deformity. The fir ft knowledge 
 had of a cure of this difeafe was from Mr. Pres- 
 GRovE, a profefled bone-fetter, then living in 
 Weftminfter. I recommended the patient to him, 
 not knowing how to cure him myfelf. His way was 
 
 3 hy 
 
 
^g BONES OF THE 
 
 by holding the foot as near the natural poflure as 
 he could, and then rolling it up with flraps of 
 flicking plafter, which he repeated from time tq 
 time, as he faw occaiion, until the limb was re- 
 ilored to a natural poiition, but not without fome 
 imperfedion, the bandage wafting the leg, and 
 making the top of the foot fv/ell and grow larger. 
 After this, having another cafe of this- kind under 
 my care, I thought of a much better bandage, which 
 I had learnt from Mr. Cowper, a bone-fetter at 
 Leicefter, v/ho fet and cured a fracflure of my 
 own cubit when I was a boy at fchool. His way 
 was, after putting the limb in a proper pofture, to 
 wrap it up in rags dipped in the whites of eggs, 
 and a little wheat flower mixed ; this drying, grew 
 iliif, and kept the limb in a good pofture. And I 
 think there is no way better than this in fractures, 
 for it preferves the poiition of the limb without 
 ftrid: bandage, v^^hich is the common caufe of 
 mifchief in fradures. When I ufed this method 
 to the crooked foot, I v/rapt up the limb almoft 
 from the knee to the toes, and caufed the limb to 
 be held in the beft pofture till the bandage grew 
 ftiif, and repeated the bandage once a fortnight. , 
 The bones are fubjecSt to difeafes from all the 
 fame caufes that the other parts are, but either from 
 their hardnefs, infenlibility, or other caufes, they 
 aieither are fo frequently difeafed, "nor do their dif*- 
 eafes appear fo various; and it is generally of more 
 confequence what texture the difeafed bone, or part 
 
 » of 
 
L O V/ E R L I M B. 39 
 
 of the bone Is of, than from what caufe that difeafe 
 proceeded ; for when difeafes happen upon the 
 ilirfaces of the hard bones, they ufually admit a 
 cure by exfohation j but when matter is made in 
 the fpongy ends of the cyhndrical bones, or in the 
 bodies of other fpongy bones, the matter, what- 
 ever was the firfl caufe, iniinuates itfelf through 
 thofe fpongy cells, fwelling the bone, and making 
 generally an incurable caries ; but if the matter is 
 eorrolive, it often ulcerates thefe parts ; and ufually 
 makes fo large a difcharge as to deftroy the patient 
 where the part difeafed cannot be extirpated, which 
 is often the cafe when matter is made in the bones 
 in fcrophulous habits. 
 
 The venereal difeafe rarely attacks any but the 
 hardefl parts of the bones, very foon raifmg large 
 tumors and caries or mortiiications ; but thefe ca-, 
 rious parts of bones from this or other caufcs are but 
 partially mortified j for, were they perfecSliy fo, the 
 found and unfound parts Vv^ould feparate, tho' the 
 integuments were not taken off; whence it happens, 
 that, where there is a good habit of body, carious 
 bones are often endured many years v/ithout much 
 inconvenience ; and v/e find from experience, that 
 fuch feparations are not to be made till the difeafed 
 part is laid bare and perfedly mortified, by being 
 expofedtothe air, &c. and then the found part un- 
 derneath feparatingfrom the unfound, there iirfb 
 granulates a fungous fleiii-like appearance, which 
 ought never to be treated with corroiive medicines, 
 
 C 4 it 
 
4© B O N E S o F T H fi 
 
 it cdnftantiy flirinking and hardening of itfelf, be- 
 ing the fame fubilance which (hoots from the ends 
 of broken bones, where aKo it foon (brinks and 
 converts into a callous to reunite^ them. 
 
 There is a caries diuind; from thefe, which I 
 have only feen in two patients who died after a. 
 long rheumatic diforder, in which the outer fur- 
 face of all the hardeft bones, as the middle of the 
 cylindrical bones, and the top of the fcull, in one 
 which I boiled, and in the other as far as I was 
 allowed to examine, I found the outer part every 
 where crumly or fcaly, falling into pieces like 
 duft or fand, with very little appearance of tumor 
 any where, and no appearance of difeafe in the 
 fpongy parts. 
 
 Sometimes matter is formed in the large me- 
 dullary cavities of thecylindrical bones, which con^ 
 ftantly xncreaiing and wanting bent, partly by cor- 
 roding and rendering the bone carious, and partly 
 by preffure, tear afunder the frrongeft bone in an 
 human body, of which I have known feveral in-» 
 ilances. In one cafe where the matter had fuffi-* 
 cient difcharge by an external caries formed jtogether 
 with the internal one, all the internal hard part of 
 the bone which contains the medulla was feparated 
 from the red -, and being drawn out through the 
 place where the external caries made a vent, the pa* 
 tient received a perfed: cure. In another cafe of this 
 kind, where the internal part which contains the 
 
 medulla was alfo feparated from the reft, and there 
 
 being 
 
LOWER LIMB. 41 
 
 being holes through which the matter was difchar- 
 ged, but none fufficient to take out the exfoliated 
 bone; the matter continued to flow in great quan- 
 tity till it deftroyed the patient 5 and poffibly, if 
 this cafe had been rightly known, the internal ex- 
 foliated part might have been taken out, and the 
 patient cured. In both thefe cafes, it feems as if 
 only fo much of the internal part of the bone was 
 become carious, as receives nourifliment from the 
 artery which enters the middle of the bone ; and 
 as a caries is a mortification of a bone, might not 
 this difeafe arife from a hurt in the veiTel which 
 nourifhes that particular part ? 
 
 C H A P. VL 
 
 Cartilages f Hga??ie?its, &c, 
 
 VERY part of a bone which is articulated 
 to another bone for motion, is covered or 
 lined with a cartilage, as far as it moves upon, or 
 i-s moved upon by another bone in any adiion 5 for 
 cartilage being fmoother and fofter than bone, it 
 renders the motions more eafy than they would 
 have been, and prevents the bones wearing each 
 other in their aftions. 
 
 In each articulation of the low^er jaw, there is a 
 loofe cartilage, upon which the condyloid procefs 
 1^10 ves on one iide^ while the jaw is moved to the 
 
 other i 
 
42 CARTILAGES, 
 
 other; and the two procefTes being thus ralfed at 
 once; the jaw is thrufc forward. Thefe cartilages 
 are alfo found in animals that chew the cud, but 
 not in beafts of prey, as far as I have examined, 
 their articulations being alfo deeper and firmer; 
 and in the otter particularly, fecftionsof thefockets, 
 which receive the condylaid proceiTes of the lower 
 jaw, are more than half circles; fo that the jaw 
 cannot be diilocated directly without breaking the 
 fockets. This ilrudiure renders the motions of the' 
 jaw more firm, as that with intervening cartilages 
 makes it more loofe and voluble. There are alfo 
 cartilages of this kind between the clavicles and 
 the ilernum. 
 
 In the joint of the knee are two loofe, almoU 
 annular cartilages, which being thick at their outer 
 edges, and thin at their inner ones, they make the 
 greateft parts of the two fockets in this joint. The 
 ufe of thefe cartilages is to make variable fockets 
 to fuit the different parts of the lower end of th§ os 
 femoris; for none but a round head and a round 
 cavity can fuit in motion, unlefs the fhape of one 
 or the other alters ; and it is plainly necelfary, that 
 this lower end of the os femoris fliould be fiattifli, 
 and proje<5led backward, to give advantage to the 
 mufcles that extend the tibia, by fetting the center. 
 of motion backward : which mechanifm, though 
 it equally leifens the power of thofe mufcles which 
 bend this joint, is yet of great fervice, becaufe the 
 extending mufcles move thisjoint under the weight 
 
 - ' of 
 
L I G A M E N T S, &c, 43 
 
 of the whole body, but the flexors only raife the 
 legs; and as no head or focket moves fo eafily as 
 round ones, here feems to be fome proviiion made 
 againft the inconvenience of a flattifh head and ca- 
 vity, by having the fri6lion made upon two fur- 
 faces, the OS femoris upon the loofe cartilap-es, and 
 the loofe cartilages upon the tibia. This contri- 
 vance is pradifed by mechanics, where the fridtion 
 of the joints of any of their machines is great, as 
 between the parts of hook-hinges of heavy gates, 
 and between the male and female fcrews of large 
 vices, where they ufually place a loofe ring. 
 
 There are other cartilages which ferve to give 
 fhape to parts. Of this fort are the ciliary carti- 
 lages at the edge of the eye-lids, the cartilages of 
 the outer ears, and thofe v/hich corapofe the lower 
 part of the nofe, which have this particular ad- 
 vantage in thefe places, that they fupportand fliape 
 the parts as well as bones do, and without being 
 liable to be broke; and to thefe might be added 
 thofe of the larynx, but they do not belong pro- 
 perly to the fkeleton. 
 
 Bones that are articulated for motion are 
 tied together by very ftrong ligaments, to pre- 
 vent their diflocating, which alib furround the 
 joints to contain their lubricating mucus. The 
 thicknefs and ftrength of thefe ligaments are pro- 
 portioned to the adions of the feveral joints, and 
 their lengths are no more than fufficient to allow a 
 proper quantity of motion; but the forms of them 
 
 are 
 
44 CARTILAGES, 
 
 are different according to the different adions of 
 the feveral joints. 
 
 The bones of the limbs that move to all fides 
 liave ligaments like purfes, which arife from or 
 near the edges of thefocketsof the receiving bones, 
 and are inferted all round the received bones a little 
 below their heads. The beginnings of thefe liga- 
 ments, from the edges of the focketsof the fcapula 
 and OS innominatum, are very hard, almofl cartila- 
 ginous, which ferves in the fcapula to make a lar- 
 ger focket, and fuch an one as will alter the figure 
 as the bone moves-, for thereafon I have mentioned 
 in the loofe cartilage of the kneej for the head of 
 the OS humeri notbeinganexait portion of a fphere, 
 requires fuch a focket, and the hard part of this liga- 
 ment of the focket of the os innominatum makes 
 the focket deeper than the femidiameter of the 
 focket, by which means the articulation is made 
 ftronger without any hindrance to motion, becaufe 
 it will give way to the neck of the osfemoris when 
 it preffes againfl it ; and the thigh bone being more 
 difpofed to be diflocated upwards than any other 
 way, the upper fide of this burfal ligament is made 
 exceeding fcrongto prevent fuch an accident. From 
 the lower edge of the acetabulum or focket of the 
 OS innominatum arifes a ligament about an inch 
 long, called teres, or rotundum, which length is 
 necefi^ary for that quantity of motion which this 
 joint has in human bodies j it alfo hinders the os 
 fem.oris from diilocatin^ upwards, but downwards 
 
 it 
 
L I G A M E N T S, &c. 45 
 
 it will fuffer it to go far out of the focket^ but in 
 brutes the head of the os femoris being oblong, 
 and the cavity fuitable, there can be only a rota- 
 tory motion, which in effed: will be very little 
 more than that kind of motion which is called 
 bending and extending; and this never removing 
 the end of the head of the bone far in the focket, 
 a fhort ligament is enough for it, and will better 
 keep the bone in its place; and therefore it is 
 that theirs is fo fhort. This ligament in men. 
 may alfo ferve to prefs the gland in the bottom 
 of the acetabulum or focket. 
 
 The ligaments of thofe joints which admit only 
 ©f flexion and extenfion, differ from the former 
 in this, that they are much fhorter and ftronger at 
 the lides of the joints, and thinner backward and 
 forward. Belides thcfe ligaments, in the middle 
 and back-part of the joint of the knee, are two very 
 ftrong ligaments, which arife from a procefs at the 
 end of the tibia. They crofs each other in fuch a 
 manner, as is beft to fecure the joint from being 
 difplaced any way; they alfo hinder the extenfors 
 of the tibia from pulling that bone too far for- 
 wards, and are fo conneded to the femilunar carti- 
 lages, as to move tliem as the joint moves; be- 
 lides thefe,in this joint is another fmall one, which 
 arifes from the os femoris, and ends in the fatty 
 membrane which it fupports. The knee, I think, 
 cannot be completely diflocated without breaking 
 the crofs ligaments : I have {ten this cafe but once, 
 
 'I the 
 
46 C A R- T I L A G E S, 
 
 the bone indeed v/as eafily rellored to its plaee; 
 but to no purpofe. 
 
 ■ Tee bones of the carpus and tarfus are tied to- 
 gether by ligaiments running promifcuoufly upon 
 their furfaces from one to another y which at the 
 under fide of the tarfus are vaftly ilrong, becaufe 
 they fupport the whole body ; thofe Hgaments to- 
 gether contain the mucus for all thofe joints. 
 There is alfo to the carpus a ftrong ligament, 
 which runs from the fifth bone to the eighth, and 
 the procefs of the fourth bone: the proper ufe of 
 this is, to bind down the tendons of the mufcles 
 that bend the fingers. 
 
 The procefTus dentatus of the fecond vertebra is 
 tied to the fcull by a ligament, and kept clofe to 
 the forepart of the firft vertebra by another in that 
 vertebra, that it may not bruife the fpinal mar- 
 row; and when either this ligament or procefs is 
 broke, it makes that fort of broken neck which is^ 
 attended with fudden death. All the bones of the 
 vertebra, and every joint that is without motion^ 
 and not joined by a future, as the olTa innommata 
 with each other, and the os facrum with the offa 
 innominata, are joined by intervening ligamems, 
 or, as they are commonly called, cartilages. Tiie 
 ©ffa innominata are alfo tied by very ftrong liga- 
 iiients which run from the back parts of the fpines 
 of the oifa ilia to the os facrum, and other liga- 
 ments which go from the os facrum and os coccyr 
 gis to the acute and obtufe procelTes of the oifa if- 
 
 fchia;- 
 
L I G A M E N T S, &c. 4^ 
 
 fchia : thefe ligaments ferve alfo for origins of muf- 
 cles. Towards the great foramen of the olTainno- 
 minata the acetabulum has a deep notch, from the 
 one fide to the other of v/hich runs a ligament 
 which completes the focket^ this ligament is 
 fometimes ofliiied : a ligament fomewhat like this 
 there is between the procefles of the capula. 
 
 From the edge of the ilium to that of the os 
 pubis, runs a ligament which is contiguous to, 
 and appears to be apart of, the tendons of the muf- 
 cles of the abdomen^ its ufe is to cover the iliac 
 vefTels as they defcend to the thigh. Under this 
 ligament, together v/ith the vefiels, I have often 
 feen a rupture of matter, and, I think, fometimes 
 of the gut, from the abdomen into the anterior 
 part of the thigh, immediately below the groin : 
 however, I dare affirm this to be a poffible cafe^ 
 
 It is generally agreed, that the ligaments are in- 
 fenlible, and the reafon affigned is, that they would 
 elfe be injured by ordinary motions. But they are 
 much better contrived; feeing none of them, not 
 even thofe which lie between the vertebrae, are fub- 
 je(5t to attrition; but the other, experience fliews, 
 are capable of very acute pains j there being not any 
 thing our patients more grievoully complain of, 
 than collediions of matter within thefe parts, or 
 fliarp medicines applied to them, when laid bare. 
 Every joint, where the bones are faced with a 
 cartilage for a Hiding motion, is furnifhed with 
 finall glands, which feparate a mucilaginous mat- 
 ter 
 
48 CARTILAGES, 
 
 terforthe lubricating of the ends of the bones, that 
 they m^y move eafily upon oile another ^ and that 
 there may be no walle of this neceffary fluid, it is 
 contained in the invefting ligaments ^ which, for 
 this very reafon, are no where divided, except to 
 communicate with the ligaments of the tendons. 
 These glands are generally feated in a little fat 
 near the infertion of the ligaments, that they may 
 be comprefled by them when the joints are in mo- 
 tion ; which is a proper time to have their fluid 
 prefled out. The moft confiderable parcel of thefe 
 glands, with their fat, are feen in the joint of the 
 knee, and the largeft gland of this fort is found in 
 the fmus at the bottom of the acetabulum of the 
 OS innominatum^ and is comprefled by the liga- 
 mentum teres. 
 
 .The difeafes of the joints either happen from 
 ulcers in the lubricating glands, which, pouring out 
 matter that cannot be difcharged, foul the ends 
 of the bones, or elfe form fwellings in the ends of 
 the refpedive bones. Either of thefe in time create 
 exceffive pain, which appears to me to be chiefly 
 in the ligaments of the joints, notwithftanding what 
 has been faid of the infenflbility of thefe parts. 
 When a joint is much fwelled and painful, with- 
 out external inflammation, it is vulgarly called a 
 white fweliing, and more properly fo than fpina 
 ventofa. It is fometimes in the beginning cured 
 by evacuations, but when the limb waftes belov/ 
 the fweliing, and the fingers or toes of the limb 
 
 g-row 
 
LIGAMENTS, Sec, 49 
 
 grow thinner at their joints, and lofe their fhape, 
 the cafe then is abfolutely irrecoverable. Some- 
 times the ends of the bones erode, then join toge- 
 ther and form an anchylofis, which, though a fe- 
 vere difeafeof itfelf, yet it is often a remedy of one 
 that is much worfe. In like manner the bones 
 of the hands and feet, when they are ulcerated, 
 fometimes unite, and are thus preferved from total 
 ruin. But there is one cafe of a white fwelliiig 
 that is amazing, where the pain is fo great that 
 we are forced to take off the limb, and yet neither 
 find upon diffediion the ligaments or glands difea- 
 fed, nor matter in the joint, nor the bones cari- 
 ous, or any difeafed appearance, except that the 
 ends of the bones are a little larger and fofter. 
 
 D TAB. 
 
 ..: . :.: ■ _.. ^ 
 
( 50 ) 
 T A B. I. 
 
 A, The fkeleton of a child twenty months old, 
 
 in which all the bones differ in fhaoe from 
 
 J. 
 
 thofe of an adult. The fcull is much larger 
 in proportion, and the bones of the limbs 
 . without thofe roughnelTes and unevennefTes 
 which afterwards appear ; their texture is , 
 every where more loofe and fpongy, and 
 their outlines what the painters call tame 
 and infipidj their extremities are feparate 
 and formed cartilaginous, which is accurate- 
 ly dillinguifhed in the plates by the manner 
 of graving. 
 
 B, The thigh bone of a man, fiwed through, in 
 
 the middle of which is feen the cavity which 
 contains the oily marrow, and at the extre- 
 mities the leffer cells, which contain the 
 bloody marrow. The white line acrofs the 
 head of this bone, beginning at the fingers 
 of the fkeleton, is the place where the epi- 
 phyfis and the bone are united. A like line, 
 acrofs the lower end of this bone, fhews 
 there the fame thing. 
 
 C, The OS bregmatis of a foetus fix months old, 
 
 which fliews the fibres ofilfying from the 
 center to the circumference. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB J. 
 
 P.^o. 
 
 
 
 c 
 
P.5/- 
 
 ^ ,/^ 
 
TAB. IL 
 
 1 Os frontis. 
 
 2 0«-bregmatis. 
 
 3 Os temporis. 
 
 4 Os occipitis. 
 
 5 Os mals* 
 
 6 Os maxIUss fuperiorls* 
 
 7 Os nali. 
 
 8 Os planum. 
 
 9 ProceiTus maftoideus. 
 lo' Procefius ftyloides. 
 
 11 ProceiTus pterygoides. 
 
 12 Dentes. 
 
 13 ProceiTus coronalis. 
 
 14 Procefius condyloides, 
 
 15 Dentes. 
 
 Dz TAB. 
 
( 52 ) 
 TAB. III. 
 
 1 Os frontis. 
 
 2 Os bregmatis. 
 
 3 Os occipitis. 
 
 4 Sella turcica. 
 
 5 A procefs of the os fphenoides, making part of 
 
 the fep turn nafi. 
 
 6 A procefs of the os ethmoides, making part of 
 
 the feptum nafi. 
 y Vomer. 
 
 8 Crifta galli, before which is feen in fhadow th& 
 
 Unus frontalis. 
 
 9 The cornua of the os fphenoides. 
 
 10 Sella turcica. 
 
 1 1 Os frontis. 
 
 12 Crifta galli and os ethmoides. 
 
 13 Sinus frontales. 
 
 14 S-ella turcica. 
 
 15 The fifth foramen. 
 
 16 Proceffus jugales. 
 
 17 Os petrofum. 
 
 18 Foramen magnum. 
 
 19 The outfide of the os occipitis. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB.irr. 
 
 A^2. 
 
 
 ^k,... ci 
 
 — / - 
 
 ^^ ^., 
 
 
TAB .IV. 
 
 ^^3- 
 
( 53 ) 
 T A B, IV. 
 
 1 The fecond vertebra of the neck. ^ .■ 
 
 2 The tranfverfe procefTes of the vertebrae of the 
 
 neck, 
 
 3 Clavicula. 
 
 4 The procelTus acromion of the fcapula. 
 
 5 Os humeri, 
 
 6 The ribs. 
 
 7 The tranfverfe procelTes of the vertebrae of the, 
 
 loins, 
 
 8 The OS facrum and os coccygis* 
 
 9 Os ileum, 
 loOsifchium. 
 J I Os pubis. 
 12 Os femoris. 
 
 D 3 TAB. 
 
( 54 ) 
 
 T A B. _ V, 
 
 1 The under fide of the firft vertebra of the neck, 
 
 2 A fide view of the fecond vertebra. 
 
 3 The procefiiis dentatus of the fecond vertebra. 
 
 4 The under fide of the oblicjue procefs. 
 
 5 The fpinal procefs. 
 
 6 The under fide of the body of the feventh ver- 
 
 tebra of the neck. 
 ■y'^The tranfverfe proceiTcs, 
 
 8 The oblique procefies. 
 
 9 The fpinal procefs. 
 
 10 The fpinal procefs of the fecond vertebra of the 
 
 back. 
 
 1 1 The under and fore fide of the body of the ver- 
 
 tebra. 
 
 12 The tranfverfe procefies. 
 
 1 3 The upper oblique procefies of the third ver- 
 
 tebra of the back. 
 14, The tranfverfe procefi'es. 
 
 15 The fpinal procefs. 
 
 1 6 The body of the third vertebra of the loins. 
 
 17 The tranfverfe procelfes. 
 
 18 The upper oblique procefies. 
 
 19 The fpinal procefs. 
 
 T A 
 
TABV. 
 
 ^.!>4. 
 
 ^ -<^ 
 
 .0y 
 
 !^^V^- 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 
 // 
 
 
TAB .VI. 
 
 P. 55' 
 
( 55) 
 
 T A B. VI. 
 
 I The head" of the os humeri, 
 z The outer extuberance. 
 ^ The inner extuberance. 
 
 4 Thot part v/hich joins with the ulna, 
 
 5 The olecranon of the ulna. 
 
 6 The lower end of the ulna which joins to the 
 
 radius. 
 y ProcelTus jftyloides. 
 8 The upper end of the radius. 
 g The tubercle. 
 lo The part of the radius which joins with the 
 
 carpus. 
 II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The eight bones 
 of the carpus. 
 
 © 4 T A ?, 
 
( 56 ) 
 
 lr A B. vii; 
 
 1 Radius. 
 
 2 Ulna 
 
 3 Carpus. 
 
 4 The three bones of the thumb. , 
 
 5 The four bones of the metacarpus, 
 
 6 The three bones of the fingers^ 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB.VTI. 
 
 P.5^. 
 
TAB.Vin. 
 
 P-57- 
 
 /o 
 
 /ft, 
 
 'JJ '}^. 
 
A 57) 
 
 N 
 
 , T A B. VIII, 
 
 1 The head of the os femoris, 
 
 2 The great trochanter. 
 
 3 The lefTer trochanter. 
 
 4 The lower end which articulates with the tibia. 
 
 5 The upper end of the tibia. 
 
 6 The lower end of the tibia. 
 
 7 The procefs which makes the inner ancle. 
 
 8 The upper end of the fibula. 
 
 9 The lower end which makes the outer ancle. 
 
 I o The outfide of the patella, 
 
 I I The infide of the patella* / 
 
 A. 
 
 TAB. 
 
( sM 
 
 TAB. tX. 
 
 r Aftragalus. 
 
 2 Os calcis. 
 
 ^ Os i\aviculare. 
 
 4 J 5> 6, OlTa cuneiformia. 
 
 y Os cuboides. 
 
 8 The five bones of the metatarfus, 
 
 9 The tswo bones of the great toe. 
 10 The three bones of the lelTer toes. 
 
 TAB, 
 
p. 38. 
 
P.30. 
 
 V""?^ 
 
(59 ) 
 
 TAB. ^, 
 
 A SKELETON of an adult put into this pofture 
 to {hew it in a greater fcale. It was thought bet- 
 ter not to figure it, all thefe bones being explained 
 in former plates, and the defign of this being to 
 fhew them together, without being defaced with 
 references. 
 
 THE 
 
( 6i ) 
 
 THE 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 OF THE 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 B O O K H. 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 / IntroduBion to the Mufcks, 
 
 THE mufcles are movin g powers, applied 
 to perform the feveral motions of the 
 body; which they do by con trading 
 their length, and thereby bringing the parts to 
 which they are fixed nearer together* The im- 
 moveable or leaft moved part any mufcle is fixed 
 to, is ufually called its origin, and the other its 
 infertion ; but mufcles that have their two ends 
 equally liable to be moved, may have either called 
 
 their origins or infertions. 
 
 Each mufcle is made up of a number of fmall 
 
 fibres. 
 
62 INTRODUCTION 
 
 fibres, which BoRELLiand others have thought 
 to be firings of bladders, and have endeavoured to 
 account for mufcular motion by an expaniion made 
 from an influx of blood and aninial fpirits into thefe 
 bladders ; but as the mufcles do not increafe their 
 bulk fenlibly in contracting, there needs no more 
 to be faid to refute this hypothefis. But another 
 great author thought that in this way the mufcles 
 might be con traded by afwelling, fcarce fenflble, 
 if the bladders were but very fmall : for, fays he, 
 fuppofing a bladder of any determined bignefs can 
 raife a weight a foot, a hundred bladders, v^hofe 
 diameters are each a hundredth part of the former, 
 will raife the weight to the fame height. But the 
 force of inflation and the fweiling of all together 
 will be ten thoufand times lefs, and it will alfo 
 raife ten thoufand times lefs weight, which he 
 has notobferved ; therefore not one fuch fl:ring of 
 bladders, but t^n thoufand, mufl: be applied to do 
 the fame' thing that the one bladder will do ; and 
 they will have the fame fweiling -, otherwife it 
 w^ould be eafy to Ihew how to make a perpetuum 
 mobile of almoil: any force. 
 
 The mufcles are of two forts, viz. re6tilineal, 
 and penniform. The former have their fibres al- 
 moft parallel, in the fame or near the fame diredion 
 with the axis of the mufcle ; and the latter have 
 their fibres joined, in an oblique dired:ion,-to a ten- 
 don pafTing in or near the axis, or on their outfide.^ 
 ' The redilineal mufcles, if their origins and in- 
 
 fertions. 
 
TO THE MUSCLES, 6i 
 
 fertions are in little compafs, are never of any con- 
 fiderable thicknefs, unlefs they arc very long, be- 
 caufe the outward fibres would comprefs the in- 
 ner ones, and make them almoft ufelefs; and 
 therefore every rectilineal mufcle, whofe inner 
 fibres are comprefied by the outer, have their in- 
 ner fibres longer than the external, that they may 
 be capable of equal quantity of contradiion. 
 
 The penniform mufcles, though they are in -a 
 manner free from the inconvenience of one fibre 
 compreffing another, and though by the obliquity 
 of their fibres, nothing is abated of their moment, 
 (for in all cafes, juftfo much more weight as redli- 
 lineal fibres will raife than oblique ones, the ob- 
 lique will move their weight with fo much greater 
 velocity than the rectilineal ; which is making their 
 foments equal : (o that in the ilruclure of an ani- 
 mal, like all mechanic engines, whatever is gained 
 in ftrengthisloftin velocity, and whatever is gain- 
 ed in velocity is loft in ftrength) yet the fibres of 
 the penniform mufcles becoming more and more 
 oblique as they contrad, their ftrength decreafes, 
 and their velocity increafes, which makes them left 
 uniform in their ad:ions than the redlilineal muf- 
 cles; wherefore it feems that nature never ufes a 
 penniform mufcle where a redilineal mufcle can 
 be ufed; and the cafes in w^hich a redlilineal muf- 
 cle cannot be ufed, are where the fhape of a muf- 
 cle is fuch as that the inward fibres would be too 
 much comprefied, or \yhere redilineal fibres could 
 
 not 
 
64 INTRODUCTION 
 
 not have a lever to ad with, fuitable to their quan- 
 tity of Gontradion, which is the cafe of all the 
 long mufcles of the fingers and toes. For every 
 mufcle muft be inferted or pafs over the center 
 of motion of the joint it- moves, at a diftance 
 fuitable to its quantity of contraction, and the 
 quantity of motion in the joint moved; for if it 
 was inferted too near, then the motion of the joint 
 would be performed before the mufcle is contract- 
 ed all that it can ; if too far off, the mufcle will 
 have done contracting before the whole motion of 
 the joint is made. And though the quicknefs and 
 quantity of motion in a mufcle will be, casteris pa- 
 ribus, as the length of its fibres ; (for if a fibre four 
 inches long will contract one inch in a given time, 
 a fibre eight inches long will contraCt two inches 
 in the fame time ; and the ftrength of a mufcle 
 or power to raife a weight, casteris paribus, will 
 be as the number of its fibres ; for if one fibre 
 will raife a grain weight, twenty fibres will raife 
 twenty grains:) neverthelefs, two mufcles of 
 equal magnitude, one long, and the other fhort, 
 will both move the fame weight with the fame ve- 
 locity when applied to a bone; becaufe the levers 
 they adt with mufi: be as their lengths, and there- 
 fore the penniform and fliort thick mufcles are 
 never applied to a bone for the fake of itrength, nor 
 long fibred mufcles for quicknefs; for whatever is 
 gained by the form of the mufcle, whether firengtli 
 or quicknefs, mull: be loft by their infertions into 
 5 the 
 
totheMUSCLES. 6^ 
 
 the bone, or elfe the mufcleS mufl not ad all they 
 can, or the bones have lefs motion than they are 
 made for. 
 
 IiNf the limbs feveral mufcles pafs over tv/o 
 joints, both of which are liable to move at once, 
 with force proportionable to the levers they acft 
 with upon each joint; but either joint beino- fixed 
 by an antagonifl mufcle, the whole force of fuch 
 mufcles will be exerted upon the ether joints 
 which in that cafe may be moved with a velocity 
 equal to what is in both joints, when thefe mufcles 
 ad: upon both at once. This mechanifm is of 
 great ufe in the limbs, as I fliall fhew in the pro- 
 per places. 
 
 That only we call the proper ufe and adion 
 of any mufcle which it has without the neceifary 
 affiftance of any other mufcle, and what that is 
 in a mufcle moving a joint we may always know 
 in any fituation, and with what force it ads, ce- 
 teris paribus, by dropping a line, from the center 
 of motion of the joint it moves, perpendicular into 
 the axis of the mufcle ; but in a joint which ad- 
 mits only of flexion ^nd extenfion, this line muft 
 alfo be perpendicular to the axis of motion in that 
 joint, and the adion of the mufcles will be in the 
 diredion of that perpendicular line, and tlie force 
 with which it ads in any fituation will be, c^eteris 
 paribus, as the length of that perpendicular line. 
 
 Each mufcle,fo f^^ras it is diftind, and is moved 
 againfl any part, is covered with a fmooth mem- 
 
 E brane 
 
66 I N T R O D U C T I O N, &c, 
 
 brane to make the fridion eafy; but where they 
 are externally tendinous, thofe tendons are often 
 fmooth enough to make fuch a covering needlefs. 
 Befidesthis membrane there is another, known by 
 theiiameoffafciatendinofa, which deferves to be 
 particularly conlidered. The ftrong one on the 
 outlide of the thigh, which belongs to the fafcialia 
 and gluteus mufcles, is of great ufe in raifmg the 
 -gluteus farther from the center of motion of the 
 joint it moves, to increafe its force: in like manner 
 the fafcia detached from the tendon of the biceps 
 cubiti alters its directions for the fame purpofe, but 
 thofe on the outfide of the tibia and cubit, &c. are 
 only flat tendons from which the fibres of the 
 mufcles arife as from the bones. There arealfo 
 in many places fuch tendons between the mufcles, 
 from which each mufcle arifes in like manner; for 
 the bones themfelves are net fufficient to give 
 origin to half the fibres of the mufcles that belon| 
 to them; befides, if all the fibres had, rife from 
 the bones, they muft have been liable to comprefs 
 one another very inconveniently. 
 
 CHAP, 
 
Of the muscles. 67 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 Of the 7j2iifc!es, 
 
 Bliquus descendens arifes flefhy from, 
 near the extremities of the eight inferior 
 ribs, the upper part of its origin being indented 
 with the ferratus major anticus, and the lower ly- 
 ing under a fmall portion of the latiffimus dorfi. 
 It is inferted flefhy into the upper part of the fpine 
 of the ilium, and by a broad fiat tendon (which 
 firmly adheres to a like tendon of the following 
 mufcle as they pafs over the rectus) into the os 
 pubis, and linea alba, which is a itrong tendinous 
 line extended from the os pubis to the fternum^ 
 between the mufculi red:i. 
 
 Obliquus ascendens arifes ?LQ{h.Y under the 
 former mufcle from the Ipine of the ilium, and is 
 inferted fleihy in the cartilages of the three lowelt 
 ribs, and by a fiat tendon into the flernum, and 
 linea alba, together with the tendon of the forego- 
 ing mufcle. The Myiq in which thefe two tendons 
 join on the outlide of the reftus mufcle, is called 
 ' fcmilunaris : and though fo much of this mufcle 
 as is inferted fleihy runs obliquely upward, yet the 
 middle and lower part is diredied tranfverfe and 
 downward; and beiide the tendon, which it unites 
 with the obliquus defcendens, it often detaches 
 another near the Hernum to be inferted with the 
 tranfverfalis under the re(f!:us. 
 
6^ O^ THE M U S C LE S. 
 
 Pyramidal IS arifes from the os pubis, and 
 is infertcd into the linea alba, about three or four 
 inches below the navel : this and its fellow are 
 often wanting. 
 
 Rectus arifes tendinous from the os pubis, but 
 flelliy when the pyramidales are wanting, and is 
 inferted into the lower part of the fiernum, near 
 the cartilago eniiformis. This niufcle is divided 
 into four or five portions by tranfverfe tendinous 
 interfe^lions, that it might conveniently bend when 
 the body is bowed forwards, though this mufclc 
 'ihould be then in adtioui and thefe interfedlions 
 are chiefly above the navel, v/here it is mofl liable 
 to be bent: belides, being thus divided, its chief 
 prefture will not be in its middle, but under the 
 feveral bellies of the mufcle, and the greatefl: below 
 the navel, where is the longefh iiefhy belly of this 
 mufcle, and where the parts in. the abdomen feem 
 to want moll to be fupported. 
 - Transversal IS arifes by a flat tendon from 
 the tranfverfe procefTes of the lumbal vertebrse, and 
 flelhy from the infide of the ribs below the dia- 
 phragm, and from the fpine of the ilium j then, 
 becoming a flat tendon, it pafTes under the rectus 
 to its infertion into the linea alba. Between this 
 tendon and the peritoneum fometlmes water is 
 found in great quantities, which diftemper is 
 called the dropfy in the duplicature of the peri- 
 toneum; which fhews this membrane has been 
 miflaken for part of the peritoneum. 
 
 These 
 
Of THE MU S C L ES. 69 
 
 These five pair of mufcles all confplre to 
 comprefs the parts contained in the abdomen. 
 The obllquus defcendens on the right fide, and 
 afcendens on the left acting together, turn the 
 upper part of the trunk of the body towards the 
 left, and vice verfa; but the trunk is chiefly 
 ,. turned upon the thighs; the redi bend the body 
 forward, and pull the fternum downv/ard in ex- 
 piration ; the two oblique mufcles and the tranf- 
 verfe on each fide near the groin, are perforated 
 to let through the proceffus vaginalis with the 
 fpermatic veflels. Thefe perforations are dillant 
 from each other, fo as to fuffer the veiTels to 
 defcend conveniently into tlie fcrotum: this way 
 the inteftines or the omentum defcend in rup^ 
 tures. 
 
 Cremaster testis is a fmall portion of 
 fibres which arifes from the ilium, and appears to 
 be part of the obliquus afcendens mufcle, till it 
 meets with the fpermatic veflels at their coming 
 out of tiie abdomen, v/here it begins to defcend 
 with them by the fide of the proceiTus vaginalis, 
 to the teilicle, over v/hich it is loofely expanded. 
 This muffle is too fmall to be plainly difcovered 
 in emaciated bodies. 
 
 Erector penis arifes from the os ifchium, 
 and is inferted into the crus penis near the os pubis. 
 ft is faid, by prefling the penis againft the os pubis 
 to comprefs the vena ipfius penis, and hinder the 
 reflux of bloody v/hereby the penis becomes ex- 
 
 E 3 tended 
 
70 Of the muscles. 
 
 tended and ereil j but it does not appear to me to 
 be well contrived for that ufe. 
 
 Accelerator urin^. This, with its fellow, 
 are but one mufcle. It arifes tendinous from the 
 ofla ifchia, and fleihy from the fphindler ani ; or, 
 according to Mr. Cowper, from the fuperior part 
 of the urethra, as it palTes under the os pubis : and 
 thence, being expanded over the bulb of the 
 urethra, it afterwards divides, and is inferted into 
 the penis. The ufe of this mufcle is not to acce- 
 lerate the urine, for that is propelled by the detrufor 
 urins, or mufcular coat of the bladder, but to pro- 
 trude the femen, which is done only by this -, and 
 it being feated oppoiite to the os pubis, it feems to 
 be much better fitted to be a relaxer of the penis, 
 by pulling it from, the os pubis, than the eredtor is 
 for the office affigned it. 
 
 Transversalis penis is that part of the for- 
 mer mufcle which arifes from the ofTa ifchia. 
 
 Sphincter vESiciE urinaria is afmall por- 
 tion of mufcular fibres, not eafily to be difrin- 
 guifhed, running round the neck of the bladder to 
 prevent the involuntary effuiion of urine. 
 
 Detrusor URIN^ is the mufcular coat of. the 
 bladder; its fibres are differently difpofed; but 
 chiefly terminating in the fphindier veiica, where- 
 by it not only preffes the urine forward, but, when 
 the bladder is full, becomes an antagonifl to the 
 fphindter, ading almoft at right angles. 
 
 Erector 
 
Of the muscle S. 71 
 
 Erector clitoridis arifes from the ifchium, 
 and is inferted into the crus clitoridis, like the 
 eredor penis in men, and is faid to caufe eredion 
 , in the fame manner. 
 
 Sphincter vaginae is an order of mufcular 
 fibres, intermixed with membranous fibres, fur- 
 rounding the vagina uteri near its orifice; it is con- 
 neded to the ofia pubis and fphinder anij its ufe 
 is to conftringe the orifice of the vagina, to prefs 
 out a Hquor from the glands of the vagina, and 
 embrace the penis in coition. 
 
 Dr. Douglas menticiis two pair of mufcles of 
 the vagina, of his own difcovering, which I have 
 never difieded, and will therefore give them in his 
 
 own words j ** The firft arifes from the inner edge 
 
 ,0 
 
 " of the OS pubis mid-way between the ifchion and 
 ^* the beginning of the crus clitoridis, is inferted 
 " into the vagina; the fecond arifes tendinous and 
 *' fiefny from the os pubis internally in common 
 *'' with the levator ani, is inferted into the upper 
 '* part of ihe vagina at the fide of the meatus uri- 
 " narius or collum vefica." 
 
 ' Sphincter ANI is a mufcie near tv/o inches in 
 breadth, furrounding the anus to clofe it, and to - 
 prevent involuntary falling out of the fsces. 
 -' Levator ani, by Dr. Douglas called t'^o 
 pair of mufcles, but" Mr. Cowper defcribes the 
 w^hole as one mufcie only, Vv^hich arifes from the 
 oifa ifchii, pubis, and facrum within the pelvis, and 
 is inferted round the lower end of the redum in- 
 teilinum. E 4 ■ Fistu- 
 
Ti Of the MUSCLE S. 
 
 Fistula in ano, that are within the mufcic, 
 generally run in the diredion of the gut, and may 
 be laid open into the gut with great fafety; but 
 thofe iiftulae, or rather abfcefTes, that are frequently 
 formed on the outfide of the fphindier, and ufually 
 furround it, all but where this mufcle is connected 
 to the penis, cannot be opened far into the gut, 
 without totally dividing the fphind:er, which, au- 
 thors fay, render the fphin(5ler ever after incapable 
 of retaining the excrement. One inftance of this 
 kind I have known j but Mr. Berbeck of York, 
 an excellent furgeon, and particularly famous for 
 this operation, has alTured me, that he has often 
 been forced to divide the fphindier, which has 
 made the patients unable to hold their excrement 
 during their cure, but the v/ounds being healed, 
 they have retained them as well as ever, 
 
 CoccYGEi arife from the acute procelfes of the 
 o Ja ifchii, and are inferted into the os coccygis, 
 which they pull forward. 
 
 OcciPiTO-FRONTALis, is a mufcle with four 
 iiefliy bellies, commonly named frontales and oc- 
 cipitales. It arifes behind each ear from the ps 
 occipitis, and foon becoming tendinous, paffes un- 
 der the hairy fcalp to the forehead, vvhere it be- 
 comes broad and fleiliy, adhering to thefkin,andis 
 infertedinto the upper part of the orbicular mufcles 
 of theeyelids, into the os front;s near the nofe, and 
 J&y two procelTes into the bones of the nofe. When 
 this mufcle ads from the back part, it pulls the 
 
 ikiii 
 
Of THE MU S C L ES. 73 
 
 Pydn of the forehead upward, and wrinkles it tranf- 
 verfe, and in fome perfons the hairy fcalp back- 
 wards 'y but when the fore part of it a6ts, it draws 
 tjie fkin with the eyebrows downward, and towards 
 the nofe when we frown . The tendon of this muf- 
 cle has been miftaken for a membrane, and been 
 called pericranium, and the true pericranium, pe- 
 riofiieum. 
 
 Elevator auricula arifes from the ten- 
 don of the occipito-frontalis, and is inferted into 
 the upper part of the ear that is connedled to the 
 head. 
 
 Retractor auricula arifes by one, two, 
 or three fmall portions from the temporal bone 
 above the mammillary procefs, and is inferted into 
 the ear to pull it backward. 
 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum furrounds the 
 eyelids on the edge of the orbit,, and is fixed to the 
 futura tranfverfalis at the great corner of the eye j 
 it fhuts the eyelids, efpecially in winking. That 
 part of this mufcle that lies under the eyebrow is 
 very much intermixed with the occipito-frontalis, 
 and under it, from the os frontis near the nofe, 
 arifes a fmall portion of diftind; fibres which end 
 in this mufcle, and, I think, are a part of it j 
 neverthelefs, from the eifed: of their adion, arc 
 not improperly called mufculus corrugator. 
 
 Ciliaris is a very fmall portion of this muf- 
 cle, next the ciliary cartilages of the eyelids. 
 
 E L E~ 
 
74 Of the MUSCLES. 
 
 Elevator palpebr^ superioris rectus 
 rifes above the optic nerve, from the perioileum 
 at the bottom of the orbit, as do aifo the five fol- 
 lov/ing mufcles, and is inferted into the v^hole 
 ciliary cartilage of the upper eyelid by a very thin 
 lat tendon. 
 
 . EleVxItor oculi arifes from the bottom of the 
 ©rbit, betv^een the optic nerve and the foregoing 
 mufcie, and is inferted in the upper part of the tu- 
 iiicafclerotis of the eye, near the cornea. 
 
 Depressor oculi arifes, and is inferted direftly 
 oppolite to the lafl defcribed mufcle. 
 
 Adductor oculi arifes from the bottom of 
 the orbit, near the optic nerve internally, and is 
 . inferted into the tunica fclerotis on the iide next 
 the nofe. 
 
 Abductor oculi has both its origin and in- 
 lertion dired:ly oppoiite to the adductor. 
 
 Obliquus superior feu trochlearis arifes 
 betv/een the elevator and addu6lor oculi at the 
 bottom of the orbit, thence afcending by the fu- 
 tura tranfverfalis, becomes a round tendon, v^hich 
 paffing through a pulley at the upper and inner 
 part of the orbit near its edge, is inferted near the 
 bottom of the globe of the eye, which it pulls, up- 
 ward and inward, and thereby direds the pupil 
 outward and downward. 
 
 Obliquus inferior arifes from the os max- 
 ills fuperioris, at the edge of the orbit; thence 
 paffing over the depreilor is inferted near the ab- 
 
 dador 
 
Of THE MUSCLES. j^ 
 
 duitor at the bottom of the eye, but not fo low 
 as the infertion of the obliquus fuperior : it turns 
 the pupil upward and outward. 
 
 These mufcles are inferted with great advan- 
 tage to move a fmall weight, and are very long, 
 that the eye may be moved with fufficient quick- 
 nefs. The two oblique mufcles are an axis to the 
 motions of the other four, and adting ftrongly 
 againfl: them, which action I take to be what is 
 vulgarly called ftraining the eye, may, I think, 
 bring the cryftalline humour nearer to the retina, 
 and poffibly may make the cryllalline humour 
 more flat to fit the eye for objects at a great dif- 
 tance. For this end it feems to me that there are 
 fix mufcles thus difpofed, when three might be 
 fufficient to turn the eye every way, if it was in a 
 proper fixed focket : and it feems alfo, that while 
 the mufcles are all thus in adiion, the fuperior ob- 
 lique in each eye fets the pupil farther from the 
 nofe, while the inferior bblique diredts it upward; 
 the firfi: of which actions is always necefi'ary, • and 
 the latter often fo, when we look with both eyes 
 at very'difi:ant objedts ; and when the two oblique 
 mufcles grow weak by age or difeafe, or ceafe to 
 adt at all, as in paralytic cafes, and death, then the 
 eye finks in the orbit. 
 
 Sphincter, or constrictor oris, furrounds 
 the mouth about three fourths of an inch broad. 
 This mufcle is very much intermixed with all the 
 mufcles that are inferted into it, 
 
 Ele- 
 
76 Of THE Muscles. 
 
 Elevator labii superioris proprius arifes 
 from the bone of the upper jaw under the anterior 
 and inferior part of the orbicularis palpebrarum, 
 and ufually taltes another fmall beginning from the 
 OS malae, which feems as if it was fent off from 
 the orbicularis palpebrarum j and paffing down by: 
 the fide of the nofe, into which it fends feme fibres, 
 is inferted into the upper part of the fphindter oris. 
 This raifes the upper lip, and helps to dilate the 
 no/ftrils. 
 
 Depressor labii superioris proprius is a 
 fmall mufcle arifmg from the upper jaw, near the 
 dentes inciiiprii, and is inferted into the upper part 
 of the lip and root of the cartilages of the nofe ; 
 hence it is alfo a depreiTor of the nofe, which aftion 
 conftrids the noftrils.. 
 
 Depressor labii inferioris proprius ari- 
 fes broad from the lov/er jaw at the chin, and is 
 foon inferted into the fphindter orisj the order of fi- 
 bres in this feems not fo confpicuous as in the 
 other mufcles of the face. 
 
 Elevator labii inferioris proprius ari- 
 fes from the lower jaw, near the dentes inciforii, 
 and is inferted into the lower part of the lip. 
 
 Elevator labiorum communis arifes from 
 a depreffed part of the fuperior maxilla under the 
 middle of the orbit, and is inferted into the fphinc- 
 ter mufcle near the corner of the mouth. 
 
 Depressor communis labiorum arifes la- 
 terally from the lower jaw near the chin, and is 
 
 in- 
 
Of THE MUSCLES. 'jy 
 
 inferted into the fphindler oppoiite to the for- 
 mer. 
 
 Zygomatic us arifes from the anterior part of 
 the OS zygoma or mala?, and frequently derives a 
 portion of fibres from the orbicularis palpebrarum, 
 thence running obliquely downwards. It is inferted 
 into the fphindier at the corner of the mouth, be- 
 twixt the elevator communis and buccinator; it 
 draws the corner of the mouth outward and upward. 
 When this mufcle grows weak, the corner of the 
 rnouth finks, as maybe obferved in old perfons. , 
 
 Buccinator arifes from the procefiiis coronae 
 of the lower jaw, and pafiing contiguous to both 
 jaws, is inferted into the fphind:er mufcle at the 
 corner of the mouth. It ferves either to force 
 breath out of the mouth, or thrufi: the aliment 
 between the teeth in mafi:ication, or to pull the 
 corner of the mouth out^vard. 
 
 Platysma myoides arifes loofely from over 
 the ped:oral and part of the deltoid mufcle, and 
 running obliquely forward, is inferted into the 
 chin, and depreflbr mufcles of the lips. This muf- 
 cle being exceeding thin, a mere membrana car- 
 ^ nofa, ferves to cover the unequal furface of the 
 fubjacent mufcles, and render the neck even ; it 
 alfo pulls down the corner of the mouth, and, 
 from its infertion at the chin, may contribute to 
 the pulling down of the lower jaw. 
 
 Retractor al^ nasi is a very fmall mufcle 
 arifing from the bone of the nofe, and is inferted 
 
 into 
 
7S Of the muscles. 
 
 into the fkin and cartilage at the fide of the 
 
 nofe. 
 
 Mylohyoideus with its fellow may be ef- 
 teemed one penniform or elfe a digaflric mufcle. 
 It arifes from the linea afpera on the inlide of the 
 lower jaw and procefTus innominatus, both iides 
 meeting at about right angles in a middle line upon 
 the following mufcles. It is inferted by a fmall 
 portion of fibres into the bafis of the os hyoides; 
 it moves the tongue upward and forward, and alfo 
 compreiTes the following mufcles, whereby they 
 raife the tongue more commodioufly, and alfo hin- 
 ders them from drawing the bafis of the os hyoi- 
 des into a right line betwixt the chin and fternum 
 at fuch times as the ftylohyoidei cannot ad;. 
 
 Geniohyoideus arifes from the procefTus in- 
 nominatus of the lower jaw, under the foregoing 
 mufcle, and is inferted into the bafis of the os Jiy- 
 oides, which it pulls upward and forward. This, 
 with its fellow, are for the mofl part but one 
 mufcle. 
 
 Stylohyqideus arifes from the procefTus flyl- 
 liformis, near its root, and paffing contiguous to 
 the horn of the os hyoides becomes inferted lateral- 
 ly into its bafis. This mufcle is fometimes perfo- 
 rated about the middle, by the tendon of the di- 
 gaftric mufcle of the lower jaw. Its ufe is to pull 
 the OS hyoides up and backward. 
 
 CoRACOHYOiDEUS arifcs from the upper cofla 
 of the fcapula, near the procefTus coracoides, and 
 
 pafiing 
 
Of the muscles. 79 
 
 paffing under the mafloideus mufcle becomes in 
 that place a round tendon ; thence paffing almoft 
 parallel to the following mufcle, is inferted toge- 
 ther with it into the bafis of the os hyoides ; this 
 draws the os hyoides downward, and a little back- 
 ward. I have once feen one of thefe mufcles 
 wanting, and the fternohyoideus ariiing from the 
 middle of the clavicle on that fide. 
 
 Sternohyoideus arifes from a ronghnefs at 
 the under part of the clavicula near the fternum, 
 and the cartilaginous part of the iirfc rib 1 and is 
 inferted into the bafis of the os hyoides^ to pull it 
 downward. 
 
 Genioglossus arifes from the procelTus inno- ' 
 minatus of the lov/er jaw, and is inferted broad 
 into the under part of the tongue, to pull it up 
 and forward, and fometimes has a'fmall infertiom 
 into the os hyoides, 
 
 Basioglossus feems a portion of the former 
 mufcle; it arifes from the bails of the os hyoides^ 
 and is inferted into the tongue nearer its tip. 
 
 Ceratoglossus arifes from the horn of ths 
 OS hyoides,. and is laterally inferted into the tongue 
 near its root, to pull it downward and forward. 
 
 Styloglossus arifes from the extremity of the 
 procefTus ftyliformis, and is inferted into the tongtic 
 near the former to pull it up and backward. I 
 have very often found another ftyloid mufcle fo 
 inferted, that I cannot tell whether to call it a 
 mufcle of the tongue or pharynx, 
 
 9 . The 
 
So Of the MUSCL E S. 
 
 The TONGUE is a mufcle made of fibres, lon- 
 gitudinal, circular, and tranfverfey fo intermixed 
 as beil to ferve its feveral motions. 
 
 Hypothyroideus or Ceratothyroideus, 
 arifes from part of the balis, and the horn of the 
 OS hyodes, and is inferted into the lower part of 
 the cartilago thyroides, to pull it forward., 
 
 Sternothyrqideus arifes from the infide of 
 the fternum, and is inferted with the former i it 
 pulls the thyroid cartilage dired:ly downward. 
 
 Cricothyroideus arifes from the anteriof 
 part of the cartilago cricoides, and running ob- 
 liquely upward and outward, is foon inferted into 
 the iniide of the cartilago thyroides, v/hich it pulls 
 towards the cartilago cricoides. Both this mufcle 
 and its fellow for the moil part appear double. 
 
 Cricoarytj&noideus posticus arifes from 
 the back part of the cartilago cricoides, and is in- 
 lerted into the arytasnoides to pull it backward. 
 
 Cricoaryt^noideus lateralis arifes la- 
 terally from the cartilago cricoides, and is infert- 
 ed laterally into the aryta^noides. This, with its 
 fellow, pull down each cartilage toward their ori- 
 gin, and thereby dilate the rimula. 
 
 Thyroaryt^noideus arifes from the fupe- 
 rior, middle, and inner part of the cartilago thy- 
 roides, and is inferted with the former into the 
 aiytcenoides cartilage to dilate the rimula. Thefe 
 two laft defcribed mufclesare not naturally divided, 
 ^d therefore ought to be accounted but one mufcle. 
 
 A]ry- 
 
Of t tiE MUSCLES. gi 
 
 Aryt^noideus is one fingle mufcle, which 
 arifes from one arytaenoidal cartilage, and is inferted 
 into the other, to draw them together, andclofethe 
 rimula. Thefe few fmall mufcles of the tongue 
 and larynx, with only orte pipe, make a greater va- 
 riety of notes and founds than can be made by ar^ 
 tiiicial inflruments, and that in a manner fo little 
 Underftood by us, and by organs fo little differing 
 from thofe in quadrupeds, that, for ought we know 
 of them, brutes might be as capable of all thefe 
 founds as men^ 
 
 Stylopharyng^us arifes from ne^f tile bot-^ 
 torn of the procelTus llyloides of the os petro- 
 fum, and running obliquely downward, is in- 
 ferted into the pharynx. This mufcle, with its 
 fellow, pulls op and dilates the pharynx to feceiv^ 
 the aliment. 
 
 Oesopiiageus arifes like a wing from feveral 
 parts of the fcull, tongue, os hyoides, the cricoid 
 and thyroid cartilages, and is inferted into tho 
 pharynx. This, with its fellow, conflringes the 
 pharynx, and preffes the aliment down the gullet. 
 
 MUSCULUS YAGINALIS GUL^ is the mufcukf' 
 
 coat of the gula. 
 
 Pterygopharyng^us is not a diflind: muf- 
 cle, but the beginning of the pharynx near the 
 proceffus pterygoides of the fphenoidal bone. ' 
 
 pTERYGOSTAPHYLINUSINTERNUSarifesfrom. 
 
 the OS fphenoides, near the iter ad palatum, of 
 euflachian tube, and is inferted into the uvula, 
 
 ^ which 
 
82 Of the muscles. 
 
 which it pulls up while we breathe through the 
 
 mouth, or fwallow. 
 
 Pterygo-staphylinus externus arifes by 
 the fide of the laft defcribed mufcle, and is alfo 
 inferted near it; but becomes its antagonift by be- 
 ing refledled on a pully, over a procefs at the 
 lower part of the pterygoidal proceffes of the fphe- 
 noidal bone. 
 
 Glosso-staphylinus is a veryfmall portion 
 of mufcular fibres, which pafs from the tongue to 
 the palate, which it pulls down when we breathe 
 throuo^h the nofe. 
 
 The palate itfelf is a fort of double mufcle, 
 whofe ad:ion feems only to fupport itfelf, and af- 
 fill; thofe iiiufcles which pull it upwards. 
 
 DiGASTRicus arifes from the fmus of the mam- 
 miliary procefs of theos temporis, and, from a flefhy 
 belly becoming a round tendon, paffes through, 
 and fometimes under, the ftylohyoideus mufcle ; 
 and dien, being tied down by a ligament to the os 
 hyoides, grows flefhy, and' is fo inferted into the 
 anterior part of the lower jaw internally. This 
 mufcle's direction being altered by its being tied to 
 the OS hyoides, where h makes an angle, and not 
 -at its pafiage through the flylohyoideus, pulls the 
 lower jaw downward with much greater force 
 than otherwlfeit could have done; and being con- 
 neded to the os hyoides, when it ad:s, it prevents 
 the action of feveral mufcles which are concerned 
 in fwallowing; whence it is that we cannot fwal- 
 low 
 
Of the muscles. 'S3 
 
 low at the fame time that we open the jaw, as 
 thofe brutes can whofe digaftric mufcles are not 
 connected to that hone. 
 
 Temporalis arifes from the os frontis, parle-^ 
 tale, fphenoides, malaej and temporis, and, paffing 
 under the two proceffes named os jugale, is infer ted 
 externally into the procefTus coronalis of the lower 
 jaw, which it pulls upward. This mufcle is co- 
 vered with a ftrong tendinous fafcia^ 
 
 Masseter arifes from the lower edge cf thfe 
 OS mals or zygoma, and the pfocefs which joins 
 this from the temporal bone, and is inferted into 
 the outer part of the angle of the lower jaw^ which 
 it pulls up and forward. Thefe two laft defcribed 
 inufcles having different direcftions, when they acffc 
 together, make a fleddy motion in the diagonal of 
 their directions « 
 
 Pterygoideus intern us arifes fr6m the 
 proceiTus pterygoideus externus, and from the fi-* 
 nus between the pterygoid procefles, and is in-^ 
 ferted internally into the angle of the lower jaWj 
 which it pulls upward. 
 
 Pterygoideus externus arifes from the os 
 maxillare and os fphenoides, near the root of the 
 external pterygoid procefs, and is inferted internally- 
 into the proceffus condyloides of the lower jav,^, 
 which it pulls to one hde, and forwards, or acting 
 with its fellow pulls the jaw direftly forward. 
 
 SuBCL Avius arifes from the fupcrior part of the 
 £ril: rib, and is inferted into more than half ths: 
 
 F 2 ynder- 
 
^4 Of the muscles. 
 
 underfide of the clavicula next the fcapukx Its. 
 ufe is to draw the clavicula towards the fternum^ 
 that they may not be fevered m the motions of 
 the fcapula. 
 
 Trapezius arifes from the as occipitis, and 
 from a linea alba colli, from the fpinal procefs of 
 the laft vertebra of the neck, and the ten upper- 
 jnofl of the back, and from a linea alba between 
 all thefe proceffes; and is inferted into one third 
 of the clavicle next the fcapula, almoil all the back 
 part of the fpine of the fcapula, and as much of 
 the procerus acromion as lies between the fpine of 
 the fcapula and the clavicle. This mufcle draw$ 
 the fcapula diredly backward. 
 
 It is generally faid by authors, that the feveral 
 parts of this mufcle adt at diiferent times, and fa 
 pull the fcapula diiferent ways, as obliquely up- 
 ward, dowiLward, or backward; but, I think, if 
 that happened, it mufi: necelTarily divide this muf- 
 cle into diftind: portions, thofe that contrad al- 
 ways feparating from thofe that do not. 
 
 Rhomboid Es arifes tendinous under the former 
 from the fpinal procefs of the inferior vertebra ©f 
 the neck, part of the linea alba colli, and from the 
 fpinal procefTes of the four or five upperm.oft ver- 
 tebra of the thorax, and is inferted into the bafis 
 of the fcapula, which it pulls up and backward. 
 The upper part of this mufcle arifmg from the 
 neck, is, in many bodies, by the motions of the 
 neck, feparated and m,ade a d.iiliiid mufcle. 
 
Of the muscles. 85 
 
 Elevator scapula arifes from the tranf- 
 verfe procelT^s of the four fuperlor vertebras of the 
 neck, and is iiiferted into the upper angle of the 
 fcapula, 
 
 Serratus minor anticus arifes under the 
 peftoralis, from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, 
 and is inferted into the procefTus coracoides fcapu- 
 las, which it pulls forward and downward. This 
 mufcle is always faid to be an elevator of the ribs, 
 though it arifes from the fcapula, which is fup- 
 ported by the ribs. 
 
 Serratus major anticus arifes from the 
 anterior part of the eight fuperior ribs, and is in- 
 ferted into the bafis of the fcapula, which it draws 
 forward, and by that means moves the focket of 
 the fcapula upward. This mufcle has been always 
 accounted an elevator coftarum, though each por- 
 tion of it is nearly parallel to the rib it rifes from. 
 
 All the mufcles inferted into the bails of the 
 fcapula are alfo inferted into one another. 
 
 Pectoralis arifes from near two thirds of the 
 clavicula, next the fternum, and all the length of 
 the OS pectoris, and from the cartilages of the ribs, 
 and is inferted into the os humeri, between the bi- 
 ceps and the infertion of the deltoides. The ufe of 
 it is to draw the arm forward. A fmall portion of 
 the lower part of this mufcle is often confounded 
 with the obliquus defcendens abdominis j and in 
 fome bodies, neither the upper part, nor its tendon,, 
 can , be eafily feparated from the deltoides ^ and in 
 
 F 3 others. 
 
86 Of the MUSCl^ES. 
 
 others, even that part of it that arifes from the 
 clavicula is a diflind: portion. Near the infertion 
 of this mufcle the fibres crofs thofe from below, 
 ending above in the arm, and thofe from above 
 belov7, that the tendon of this mufcle might not 
 lie inconveniently lov\^ between the arm and thorax, 
 as it would have done had the fibres which arife 
 lowefl from the ilernum been inferted lowefl: in the 
 arm^ but this ^roffing does not make the tendon 
 at all ilronger, as is often faid; nor can I fee how it 
 came to be thought that this tendon Ihould want 
 more ftrength in proportion than other tendpjis, 
 
 Deltoides arifes exa6lly oppofite to the infer^ 
 tion of the trapezius, from one third part of the 
 -clavicula, from the acromion and fpine of the fca- 
 pula, ^nd is iriferted tendinous near the middle of 
 the OS humeri, v;hich bone it lifts diredtly upward, 
 The outerrnofl: parts of this mufcle, when the arm 
 hangs down, lie bejow the center of motion of the 
 joint, and therefore can have no (liare in lifting the 
 humerus up, till it is raifed part of the way by the 
 other part of this mufcle, and the following mufcle j; 
 and as the outer parts of this mufcle begin to ait, 
 the following mufcle acts with lefs advantage : 
 and it feems to me, that the fole reafon why this 
 mufcle is made of {q many parts, is, that they 
 may adt independently ^ for it is demonftrable, that 
 this mufcle, v/hen the whole of it ads, cannot raife 
 the arm with fo great advantage as a right lined 
 tTiufcle of the fame magnitude would have done. 
 
 Supra- 
 
Of the muscles. ,87 
 
 SupRASPiNATUs arifes from the dorfum fca- 
 pulas above the fpine, and pafllng between the two 
 procelTes, is inferted into the upper part of the os 
 humeri, which it helps to raife until it becomes 
 parallel with the fpina fcapulse. 
 
 The fuprafpinatus, the deltoides, and coraco- 
 brachialis afliil; in all the motions of the humerus 
 except depreffion -, it being necefTary that the arm 
 fhould be raifed and fuftained, in order to move it 
 to any lide. 
 
 Infraspinatus arifes from the dorfum fca- 
 pulse below the fpine, and is inferted, wrapping 
 over part of it, at the fide of the head of the os hu- 
 meri; it turns the arm fupine and backward; for 
 there is a prone and fupine rotatory motion of the 
 humerus of near ninety degrees* 
 
 .Teres minor is a fmall mufcle ariiing below 
 
 the former from the inferior coda fcapulac, and is 
 
 inferted together with it. It affills the former in 
 
 turning the arm fupine, but pulls it more down- 
 
 . wards. 
 
 ■ Teres major arifes from the lower angle of 
 the fcapula, and is inferted at the under part of the 
 OS humeri, about three fingers breadth from the 
 head. This draws the os humeri toward the 
 lower angle of the fcapula, and turns the arm 
 prone and backward. 
 
 Latissimus dorsi arifes by a flat tendon 
 from the fpinal procelTes of the ikvcn or eight in- 
 ferior vertebras of the back, and thofe of the loins, 
 
 F 4 facrum. 
 
88 Of the MUSCLES. 
 
 facrum, and ilium; and growing flefhy, after it has 
 paffed the extenfors of the trunk, receives another 
 fmall flefhy beginning from the ninth, tenth, and 
 eleventh ribs, and is inferted into the os humeri, 
 with the forrner, This turns the arm bacJkvirard 
 and prone, The tendon of this mufcle feryes for 
 a membrane to the extenfors of the back, and is 
 conneded to the tranfyerfe procelTes of the ver^ 
 tthrx lumboruna. 
 
 SuBSGAPULARis arifes from the hollovy fide 
 of the fcapula, which it fills up, and is inferted 
 into the head of the os humeri, wrapping fome- 
 what over it. This pulls the arm to the fide and 
 prone. 
 
 Cora COBRA CHiALis arifes from the proceflus 
 poracoides fcapulas, in common with the origin 
 of one head of the biceps, and is inferted into the 
 OS humeri internally about its middle, This raifes 
 the arm, and tuf^s it fomewhat outward. 
 
 Biceps cujbiti flexor arifes with two heads, 
 that the fibres of this mufcle niight not comprefs 
 one another, one from the procefilis coracoides fear 
 pulsg, in common with the coracobrachialis mufr 
 cle, and the other by a round tendon from the edge 
 of the acetabulum fcapulae, which paffing in a ful- 
 cus of the OS humeri, afterward becomes flefliy, 
 and joins the firil head to be inferted with it into 
 the tubercle of the radius : and fometjmes this 
 mufcle has a third head, which arifes from the 
 middle of the ps humeri. This mufcle lifts up the 
 
 ? hu- 
 
Of TH-E MU S C L E S. 89 
 
 humerus, bends the cubit, and has as great a fhare 
 as any one mufcle in turning the cubit fupine ; the 
 humerus being fixed by other mufcles, the whole 
 force of this mufcle will be exerted upon the cu- 
 bit; or the cubit being fixed by an extenfor, the 
 whole force of it will be fpent in raifing the arm, 
 and therefore ought to be always reckoned among 
 thofe that raife a weight at arms length- A punc- 
 ture of the tendinous expanfion of this mufcle is 
 fuppofed to be always attended with grievous pain 
 and inflammation, and has, if we have not mif- 
 taken the caufe, often proved mortal; yet many 
 .eminent furgeons have given inftances of larger 
 |:endons being cut and Hitched, without any bad 
 fymptoms; and we have often feen them cut, 
 torn, ulcerated, and mortified, without any more 
 fign of pain than in other parts. So that I can- 
 not fee what the great mifchief of pricking this 
 jtendinous fafcia is owing to, unlefs its lying fo 
 much upon the ftretch, v/hich may be wholly 
 avoided by bending the elbow, and turning the 
 cubit prone. Since I have confidered this cafe^ 
 I have met with one who was thus injured by 
 an injudicious blood-letter, who ordered the pa- 
 tient to keep her arm extended for fear of a con- 
 tradion, and (lie was not without the mofl; violent 
 pain for a whole fortnight; but upon bending the 
 cubit, and turning the arm prone, fhe grew pre- 
 fently eafy, and, in a few days, well. Never the- 
 }efs, I arn psrfuaded, that moll of the accidents 
 
 which 
 
 
90 • Of the muscles. 
 
 which are thought to be merely from blood-let- 
 ting, are critical difcharges of fome difeafe, and 
 from the pundture a fmall inflammation begin- 
 ning, increafes and fuppurates. But however lin- 
 gular I may be thought in this opinion, I can be 
 fure I am difinterefted in it, having never had any 
 ill accident follow blood-letting in my life. 
 
 Brachi^us internus arifes from below the 
 middle of the os humeri, and is inferted into a 
 rough place of the ulna, immediately below the 
 juncture. This alfo bends the cubit. 
 
 Supinator radii longtts arifes from the 
 lower and outer part of the os humeri, and is 
 inferted into the upper fide of the radius, near 
 the carpus. This mufcle is not a fupinator but a 
 bender of the cubit, and that with a longer le- 
 ver than either of the two former mufcles, and 
 is lefs concerned in turning the cubit fupine, 
 than either the extenfors of the carpus, fingers, 
 or thumb. 
 
 Triceps extensor cubiti commonly diftin- 
 guifhed into biceps and brachiaeus externus. The 
 firft of thefe heads arifes from the lower cofta of 
 the fc^pula near the acetabulum; the fecond from 
 the outer and back part of the os humeri -, the 
 third, lower and more internal; and are inferted 
 into the procelTus olecranon of the ulna. The 
 nrfl: of thefe heads draws the arm backward, with 
 as long a lever as it extends the cubit. 
 
 An- 
 
Of the muscles. 91 
 
 Anconeus arifes from the outward extube- 
 rance of the os humeri, and is inferted into the 
 upper part of the ulna: this is alfo an extenfor. 
 
 Palmaris longus arifes fmall from the inner 
 extuberance of the os humeri, and from a fhort 
 belly foon becomes a tendon, which is connedled 
 to the ligamentumtranfverfale carpi, and expanded 
 in the palm of the hand. This mufcle is often 
 wanting, but the expanlion in the hand never; yet 
 it being connected to the ligament of the carpus, 
 it muft bend the carpus, and cannot conftrid: the 
 palm of the hand ; and when it is wanting, the 
 flexor carpi radialis is larger. 
 
 Palmaris brevis, or caro quadrata, 
 arifes obfcurely from the lig'amentum tranfverfale 
 carpi, and feems to be inferted into the eighth bone 
 of the carpus, and the metacarpal bone of the little 
 finger. This helps to conftrid: the palm of the hand, 
 and is very different in lize in different bodies. 
 
 Flexor carpi radialis arifes from the in- 
 ner extuberance of the os humeri, and foon becom- 
 ing a ftrong tendon, paffes through a channel of 
 tlie fifth bone of the carpus, and is inferted into the 
 metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. This not only 
 bends the carpus upon the radius, butalfothe bones 
 of the fecond order upon thofe of the firfl j which 
 motion is nearly as much as that upon the radius. 
 
 Flexor carpi ulnaris arifes from the fame 
 extuberance with the former, and a faicia betwixt 
 this mufcle and the tenlbr ulnaris contiguous to the 
 
 ulna 
 
92 Of the muscle S. 
 
 ulna, and is inferted by. a Ihort tendon into the 
 
 fourth bone of the carpus ^ 
 
 Extensor carpi radialis; the firft arlfes 
 from the os humeri, immediately below the fupi- 
 nator radii longus, and is inferted into the meta- 
 carpal bone of the firft finger; the fecond arifes 
 immediately below this, from the outer extuberance 
 of the OS humeri, and is inferted into the metacar- 
 pal bone of the fecond finger. The firfl: of thefe 
 mufcles is a bender of the cubit, as well as an ex- 
 tenfor of the carpus, and is often acting with the 
 benders of the cubit while the other is not in 
 adiion, is the reafon why it is fo diftindt from it. 
 
 Extensor ulnar is arifes from the fame extu- 
 berance with the former, and half the ulna below 
 the anconeus mufcle^ then becoming a tendon, 
 runs in a fmall finus at the bottom of the ulna, 
 and is inferted into the metacarpal bone of the 
 little finger. See Ulna, p. 31, 32. The ex- 
 tenfors of the carpus being inferted into the me- 
 tacarpus, at once perform the motion between the 
 bones of the carpus, and that between the carpus 
 and radius. The flexor and tenfor ulnaris acfling 
 together turn the hand downward, the tenfor and 
 flexor radialis upv/ard. 
 
 Perforatus, or flexor secundi interno- 
 Dii digitorum, arifes from the inner tubercle of 
 the OS humeri, and from the upper part of the 
 ulna, and the middle of the radius ; then becom- 
 ing four flrong tendons, pafies under the ligamen- 
 
 tum 
 
Of the muscles, 93 
 
 turn tranfverfale carpi, and is inferted into the be- 
 ginning of the fecond bone of each finger. 
 
 Perforans, or flexor tertii internodii 
 DiGiTORUM, arifes from half the ulna, and a great 
 part of the ligament between the ulna, and radius, 
 then becoming four tendons, paiTes under the li- 
 , gamentum tranfverfale carpi, and through the ten- 
 dons of the former mufcle to their infertion into 
 the third bone of each finger. The tendons of both 
 thefe mufcles are tied down to the fingers by a 
 ftrong ligament. If thefe mufcles had not pafied 
 one through the other, the perforatus, which is 
 the lefier mufcle, mufl have gone to the lall joint 
 where the flronger mufcle is wanted; and, befides, 
 the tendons of the fecond joints would have pref- 
 fed thofe that bend the lafl, and not lain firmly 
 upon them neither. , 
 
 Lumbricales, or flexores primi inter- 
 nodii DIGITORUM, arife from the tendons of the 
 lafi: mentioned mufcle, and are inferted laterally 
 toward the thumb into the beginning of the firft 
 bone of each finger. 
 
 Extensor digitorum communis arifes from 
 the outer extuberance of the os humeri, and paffing 
 under a ligament at the wrift, is divided into four 
 tendons, which communicate upon the firft joint, 
 which keeps them from Aiding off the joints of 
 the fingers, where they are a little connedled to 
 the firft bones, and afterward are inferted into the 
 beginning of the fecond bone of each finger. 
 
 Ex- 
 
94 Of ruE MUSCLES. 
 
 Extensor auricularis, or minimi Dioif i 
 is a portion of the laft mufcle paffing under the li- 
 gament in a diftinft channel. 
 
 Extensor indicis arifes from the middle of 
 the ulna, and paffing under the ligament of the 
 carpus, is inferted with the extenfor communis in- 
 to the fore^finger. This mufcle extends the fore- 
 finger iingly. I have twice feen it wanting. 
 
 Abductor primi digiti, i nterossei, and 
 ABDUCTOR minimi DIGITI, are eight mufcles, 
 one for each lide of each finger. Ahdudlor pri- 
 mi digiti arifes from the firffc bone of the thumb,, 
 and the fide of the metacarpal bone of the firft 
 finger. The interolTei are three pair, fitly di- 
 vided into external and internal j the external 
 arife from the metacarpal bones, whofe fpaces 
 they fill up next the back of the hand; the in- 
 ternal -arife from the fame bones, in the infide of 
 the hand. Abdudor minimi digiti arifes from 
 the tranfverfe ligament, and fourth bone of the 
 carpus; thefe mufcles are inferted, two into the 
 firft joint of each finger, and then pafling; obliquely 
 over the tops of the fingers, are inferted into their 
 Tafi: bones; they bend the firfi; joints, and extend 
 the two laft, as in holding a pen, and in playing 
 upon fome mufical inftruments. The abdudors 
 of the fore and little fingers, with the fecond and 
 fifth interofiTci mufcles ading, the fingers are di- 
 varicated, and the other four ading bring them 
 together^ and thefe mufcles which divaricate the- 
 
 fingers. 
 
Of THE MU S CLE S. 95 
 
 fingers, being extenders of the fscond and third 
 joints, we never can divaricate them without ex- 
 tending them a little. 
 
 Adductor ossis metacarpiminimi digiti 
 arifes from the eighth bone and tranfverfe liga- 
 ment of the carpus, and is inferted into the meta- 
 carpal bone of the little finger, which it pulls to- 
 ward the thumb to conftrid: the palm of the hand. 
 
 Extensor primi internodii pollicis 
 arifes from the ulna below the anconeus mufcle, 
 and the ligament between the ulna and radius; 
 then becoming two, three, or four tendons, is 
 inferted into the fifth bone of the carpus, and firft 
 of the thumb. The firft of thefe infertions can 
 only affift the bending of the wrift upward, and 
 in turning the arm fupine. 
 
 Extensor secundi internodii pollicis 
 arifes immediately below the former from the ra- 
 dius and tranfverfe ligament, and is inferted by a 
 few fibres into the fecond bone of the thumb, but 
 chiefly into the third. 
 
 Extensor tertii internodii pollicis' 
 arifes immediately below the lafi: defcribed, from 
 the ulna and ligament, and pafles over the radius 
 nearer the ulna, to be inferted at the third bone of 
 the thumb. This extends the thumb more toward 
 the ulna than the former mufcle, and is very much 
 a fupinator. 
 
 Flexor primi et secundi ossis pollicis 
 ariies f|-om the fifth bone and tranfverfe ligament 
 
 of 
 
96 Of the MUSCLES. 
 
 e>f the carpus, and from the beginnings of the tw6 
 iirft metacarpal bones, and is inferted into the 
 whole length of the firft bone of the thumb, and 
 tendinous into the beginning of the fecond; the 
 fefamoid bones of the thumb in fuch bodies as 
 have them, lie in this tendon, where it pafTes over 
 the joint. 
 
 Flexor tErtiI internodii pollicis afifes 
 large from almofl all the upper part of the radius, 
 and becoming a round tendon, palTes under the 
 ligamentum tranfverfale carpi, to be inferted into 
 the third bone of the thumb. This mufcle iingly 
 ad:ing, draws the thumb tov/ards the metacarpal 
 bone of the little finger; but the laft mentioned 
 mufcle ading with it, turns it toward the fore- 
 finger. 
 
 Adductor pollicis arifes from the carpus, 
 and almoil the v/hole length of the metacarpal 
 bone of the long finger, and is inferted into the 
 beginning of the fecond bone of the thumb. This 
 rnufcle naturally enough divides into two, and 
 might better be called a flexor than addudior. 
 
 Abductor pollicis arifes from the fifth bone 
 and ligamentum tranfverfale of the carpus, and 
 is inferted laterally into the beginning of the 
 fecond bone of the thumb, to draw it toward the 
 radius . 
 
 The mufcles which bend the thumb are much 
 lefs than thofe which bend the fingers ; neverthe- 
 lefs the thumb is able to refifi all the fingers, 
 
 merely 
 
Of the muscles. ^^ 
 
 merely from the advantages that arife from the 
 thicknefs and fhortnefs of the bones of the thumb, 
 compared with thofe of the fingers; but then the 
 quicknefs of motion in the fingers will exceed 
 that of the thumb, as much as the fingers exceed 
 the thumb in length, and theii* mufcles thofe of 
 the thumb in largenefs* 
 
 Supinator radii brevis ariies from the 
 outer extuberance of the os humeri and upper 
 part of the ulna, and running half round the x^-* 
 dius, is inferted near its tubercle. 
 
 Pronator teres arifes from the inner apo^ 
 phyfis of the OS humeri, and upper and fore-part 
 of the ulna, and is inferted tendinous into the- 
 radius below the former. 
 
 Pronator quadratus arifes from the lower 
 edge of the ulna, near the carpus, and pafiing under 
 the flexors of the fingers, is inferted into the radius. 
 
 These mufcles are occafionally affifled in their 
 anions by the mufcles of the hands, the extenfors 
 afiifling the fupinators, and the fiexors the prona- 
 tors, and mofl of the extenfors of the hand take a 
 great part of their origin from the tendinous faf- 
 cia that covers them. 
 
 Mastoideus arifes tendinoiis from the fier~ 
 num near the clavicula, and by a feparate flefliy 
 portion from the clavicula, which foon unites with 
 the other beginning, and is inferted into the outer 
 part of the mammillary procefs of the temporal 
 bone. It pulls that fide of the \xt:}A it is. inferted 
 
 G iato 
 
^f Of the muscles, 
 
 into towards the fternum, and turns the face to- 
 ward the contrary Ihoulder. This, and its fellow^ 
 ,pull the head and neck toward the breaft, and a(5t 
 with a much longer lever upon each lower verte* 
 bra, than they do upon the next above, and with- 
 more power upon any of thofe joints than upoa 
 the head. This mufcle being inferted into the 
 head, beyond the center of motion* of the head 
 with the firil vertebra, has been fuppofed, by feve- 
 ral- anatomifts, to pull the head backward; but the 
 paffing beyond fignifies nothing to tliat purpofe^ 
 unlefs a line going, through its axis would pafs be- 
 low the center of motion : and it is the more to be 
 wondered how this mifbake pEevailed, if we con- 
 lider that tHs mufcle' & being added to the exten- 
 fors of the head and neck, v/ouLd make the force 
 of that action a hundred times greater than that of 
 the benders. And if this is not enough to con- 
 vince, let any one lying on his back raife his head, 
 and he will foon feel this mufcle in, a(5tioni but 
 bowing the head forward in an ere6t poilure will 
 not {he v/ this, unlefsfome refinance is made to the, 
 head, becaufe thecenter of the gravity of the head 
 lying- before the center of motion., there needs na. 
 more than a relaxation of the extenfors.,, to bring 
 the head forward in thatpofture. 
 
 Rectus iNTERNUs major arifes from the 
 anterior part of the tranfverfe proceffes of the third, 
 fourth, fifth, and fixth cervical vertebrae; and paf- 
 fing over the two fuperior, is inferted into a rough- 
 I . . nefs^ 
 
OftheMUSCLES. 99 
 
 nefs of the occipital bone near the fore-part of th» 
 great foramen. This bends the head on the two 
 firfl vertebrae of the neck. 
 
 Rectus minor internus arifes under the 
 laft mufcle, from the firfl vertebra, and is infert- 
 ed under it into the os occipitis. This bends the 
 head on the firfl vertebra. 
 
 Rectus lateralis arifes from the anterior 
 part of the tranfverfe procefs of the firfl vertebra 
 of the neck, and is inferted into the os temporis 
 and occipitis between the mammillary and ftyloid 
 procefies. This turns the head on one fide. 
 
 Splenius arifes by a thin tendon from the fpi- 
 nal procefiTes of the five fuperior vertebrs of the 
 thorax, and the lowefi: of the neck, and linea al- 
 ba colli, and is inferted into the os occipitis, the 
 upper part of the mammillary procefs of the tem- 
 poral bone, and the tranfverfe proceffes of the 
 three fuperior cervical vertebrae. This pulls the 
 head and neck backward, and to the contrary 
 fide; but both of thefe adiing together pull them 
 directly backward. 
 
 CoMPLEXUs arifes from the tranfverfe procefles 
 of the fix or feven fuperior vertebras of the thorax; 
 and fix inferior of the neck, and is inferted intcj 
 the OS occipitis, and back part of the os temporis i 
 this lafi: part is fometimes diftind: enough to be 
 accounted another mufcle. It pulls the head and 
 neck back. 
 
 G 2 Rectus 
 
loo Of the muscles. 
 
 Rectus minor posticus arifes from the f|)i- 
 nal procelTes of the fecond vertebra of the neck, 
 and is inferted broader into the os occipitis. It 
 pulls the head back on the two iirfl vertebrae . 
 
 Rectus minor posticus arifes from the back 
 part of the firil vertebra of the neck, it having no 
 fpinal procefs, and is inferted below the fornier 
 into the fame bone, to pull the head back on the 
 iirft vertebra. 
 
 Obliquus superior arifes from the tranfverfe 
 procefs of the firft vertebra, and is inferted into the 
 OS occipitis and back part of the os temporis, near 
 the redius major; either of thefe ading, affifl the 
 redus lateralis on the fame fide; but both toge- 
 ther pull the head back. 
 
 Obliquus inferior arifes from the fpinal 
 procefs of the fecond vertebra of the neck, and 
 is inferted into the tranfverfe procefs of the firft. 
 This, with its fellow, alternately ading, turns the 
 head with the firft vertebra in a rotatory manner 
 tin the fecond, whofe procellus dentatus is the 
 axis of this motion. 
 
 Jnterspinales colli are three or four pair 
 of mufcles between the bifid proceiTes of the cer^ 
 vical vertebrae, which they draw nearer each other 
 ivhen the neck is bent backward. 
 
 LoNGUS COLLI arifes laterally from the bodies 
 of the four fuperior vertebrae of the thorax, and 
 from the anteritsr part of the tranfverfe procefTes of 
 live inferior vcrtchrx of the neckj and is in- 
 
 ~ferted 
 
Of the muscles. ioi 
 
 ferted into the fore-part of the firft and fecond 
 vertebras of the neck, which it bends forward. 
 
 Intertransversales colli are portions of 
 flefh between the tranfverfe procefTes of the ver- 
 tebra of the neck, like the interfpinales, but not 
 fo diftind; ; they draw thefe procefTes together. 
 
 Spinalis colli arifes from the tranfverfe pro- 
 cefTes of the five fuperior vertebrae of the back, and 
 is inferted into the fpinal procefTes of the fecond, 
 third, fourth, and fifth vertebrae of the neck. This 
 pulls the neck backward. , 
 
 Transversal IS -colli arifes from the ob- 
 lique proceiTes of the four inferior vertebra of the 
 neck, and is inferted into the fpinal procefs of the 
 fecond vertebra of the neck. Tliis mufcle is but 
 a continuation of the tranfverfalis or femifpinalis 
 dorfi. 
 
 The mufcles of the head and neck.are rnoft of 
 them obliquely direfted, which makes them per- 
 form the oblique motions, as well as extendon and 
 flexion; which is highly convenient in this cafe, 
 becaufe the joints moved by thefe mufcles, being 
 under the weight moved, it is necelTary that the 
 head fhould be kept fleady by the extenfors, and 
 flexors too, when any great weight is upon the 
 head; and thefe mufcles, from the obliquity of 
 their direcflions, not only perform thefe two actions 
 at once, but ad:ing by pairs they move the head 
 and neck fleadily, in a diagonal dire(5lion, which 
 flrait mufcjes could not have done fo well. 
 
 G 3 ScA- 
 
J02 Of the muscles. 
 
 Scalenus arifes from the tranfverfe procefTes 
 of the fecond, third, fourth, fifth, and fixth cervi- 
 cal vertebras. It is inferted, in three parts, into 
 the tv/o uppermoft ribs, being thus divided for the 
 tranfmiffion of the fubclavian velTels. This muf- 
 cle may bend the neck; but its chief ufe is to fup- 
 port the upper ribs, which is neceffary to deter- 
 mine the contradtion of the intercoflal mufcles 
 that way, and a ligament could not have done 
 this, becaufe of the various pofitions that the neck 
 and back are liable to. 
 
 Serratus superior posticus arifes with a 
 thin tendon, infeparable from the rhomboides, 
 from the fpinal procefs of the inferior cervical ver- 
 tebra, and the three fuperior of the thorax, and is 
 inferted into the fecond, third, and fourth ribs, 
 immediately beyond their bendings; this, with 
 the fcalenus, fuilains the upper ribs, that they 
 might not be pulled downward by the depreffors 
 of the ribs in expiration, as the4ower ribs are up- 
 ward in infpiration. 
 
 Serratus INFERIOR posticus arifes with a 
 broad tendon, infeparable from that of the latiffi- 
 mus dorfi, from the fpinal procelTes of the three 
 _ fuperior vertebrse of the loins, and two inferior of 
 the thorax, and is inferted into the tenth rib, but 
 chiefly the ninth and eleventh : it pulls down the 
 ribs in exfpiration. 
 
 Intercostales are eleven pair on each fide, 
 in the interllices of the ribs ; from their fituations 
 
 di- 
 
Of the muscles. 103 
 
 »difl:inguifhed into external and interna^ they ali 
 arife from the under edge of each rih, and are in- 
 ferted into the upper edge of the rib below. The 
 •external are largeft backward, having their firil 
 beginnings from the tranfverfe proceiTes of the ver- 
 tebrae, like diflindl mufcles, which hmQ call leva- 
 tores coflarum^ The internal run all from above 
 -obliquely backward; being thickeil forward, and 
 thinneft toward the fpine. Thefe are alfo continu* 
 «d betwixt the cartilages ^f the ftef num, with fi- 
 bres perpendicialar to the cartilages 5 and between 
 the cartilages of the laweft ribs, they are infepa- 
 rable from the obliquus afcendens abdominis. 
 Thefe mufcles, by drawing the ribs nearer to each 
 other, pull them all upward, and dilate the tho- 
 rax, they being fuftained at the top by the fcaie- 
 nus and ferratus fuperior pofticus. To thefe Mr. 
 CowPER adds fome £efliy fibres, which run from 
 one rib over a fecond to a third, near the fpine, 
 which are levatores coflarum. 
 
 Triangijlaris sterni arifes internally from 
 the cartilago eniiformis, and the lower edge of the 
 OS pectoris, and is inferted into the end of the 
 third, fourth, fifth, and fixth ribs. This pulls the 
 ribs to the bone of the ilernum, and thereby bends 
 ^its cartilages in exfpiration. 
 
 Diaphragm A arifes, on the right fide, by a 
 procefs from three lumbal vertebra, and one of the 
 thorax ; and on the left, from the one fuperior of 
 the loins, and inferior of the thorax; this lafl part 
 
 O 4 being 
 
104 Of the muscles. 
 
 being lefs to give way to the great artery, and is 
 jnferted into the lower part of the fternum and the 
 five inferior ribs. The middle of this mufcle is a 
 flat tendon, from whence the fiefhy fibres begin 
 and are diflributed, like radii, froni a centre to a 
 circumference. When this mufcle ad:s alone, ■ it 
 confiirids the thorax, and pulls the ribs downward, 
 -and approaches tpward a plane j which adtion is 
 generally performed to promote the ejed:ion of the 
 fasces. In large infpirators, when the intercofi:als 
 lift up the ribs to widen the thorax, this mufcle 
 ails enough to bring itfelf tpward a plane, without 
 overcoming the force of the intercofiials, by vv^hich 
 means the breafi: is at once widened and lengthen- 
 ed: when it ads with the abdominal mufcles, it 
 draws the ribs nearer together, and confi:ri6i:s the 
 thorax, and the fuperior force of the abdominal 
 inufck-3 thrufiing the parts of the lower belly againft 
 it, it becomes at the fame time convex upward, 
 and ihortens the thorax, which occafionsthelargefl 
 exfpirations; or a6ting alternately with the abdo- 
 minal m.ufcles only, a more moderate infpiration 
 andexfpiration is made by fhortenmg and lengthen- 
 ing the thorax only, which is' what we chiefly do 
 when lying down j or adling alternately with the 
 intercoftals only, a moderate exfpiration and infpi- 
 ration is caufed, by the widening and narrowing the 
 breaft, which is what we are mofi: prone to in an 
 ereft pofition, the mufcles of the abdomen at fuch 
 times being employed in fvipporting the parts con- 
 tained 
 
Of the muscles. io^ 
 
 tained in the abdomen. And though thefe mo- 
 tions of the ribs require at any one time but very 
 little force, the air within the thorax balancing that 
 without; yet that thefe mufcles, whofe motions are 
 elTential to life, may be never weary, the infpirators 
 in mofh men have force fufficient to raife mercury 
 in a tube four or five and twenty inches in an 
 ere6t pofture, and the exfpirators fix or feven; the 
 firfl of which will require about four thoufand 
 pound force in mdft men, and the other propor- 
 tional. But I imagine, that lying down, thefe pro- 
 portions will differ by the weight of the parts con- 
 tained in the abdomen. In all the bodies I have 
 diifeded, I have found the diaphragm convex up- 
 ward, which gave me occalion to think, that all 
 animals died in exfpiration ; till the forementioned 
 experiment difcovered, that the mufcles of infpira- 
 tion were ftronger than thofe of exfpiration ; v/hich 
 led me to mal^e the following experiment. I cut 
 the wind-pipe of a dog, and having a firing ready 
 fixed, I put a cork into it, and tied it fafl infbantly, 
 after infpiration ; upon v/hich I obferved, that the 
 diaphragm, and the othermufcles of infpiration and 
 exfpiration, were alternately contrad:ed and diftend- 
 ed for fome time; but when he was dead, the ab- 
 dominal mufcles were in a flate of contracftion, 
 the ribs were elevated to dilate the thorax, and the 
 .diaphragm was convex upward. This experiment 
 alfo fliewS;, that the diaphragm is not a mufcle of 
 -etjuaj force either to the depreflbrs or elevators of 
 
 the 
 
io6 Of the muscles. 
 
 the ribs, it neither hindering the elevators from 
 railing the breaftj nor the deprellbrs from thruft- 
 ing it upward, by compreffing the parts contained 
 in the abdomen, though the breail was full of 
 air. . 
 
 Sacersacrolumbalis, longissimus dorsi, 
 and SEMIS PIN ALis, are all that portion of flefh be- 
 twixt the OS facrum and the neck, which feeing 
 there is no membrane to diftinguifh it into feveral 
 mufcles, and that it is all employed in the fame 
 adtions, I fliall give it the name of extenfor dorii 
 €t lumborum, and defcribe it all as one mufcle. 
 
 Extensor dorsi et lumborum arifes from 
 the upper part of the os facrum, the fpine of the 
 OS ilium, the back parts of the lowermoft vertebras 
 of the loins, and remarkably from thofe ftrong ten- 
 dons which appear on their outfides. That part of 
 this mufcle, which is known by the name of facro- 
 lumbalis, is inferted into all the ribs near their ar- 
 ticulations, with the tranfverfe procelTes of the ver- 
 tebra, and into the tranfverfe proceffes of the lail 
 vertebra of the neck ; befides, as this paiTes over 
 the ribs, it receives an origin from every rib, in a 
 manner that cannot well be defcribed. The por- 
 tions of this mufcle, which arife from the ribs, and 
 are inferted into the other ribs above, will necelTarily 
 draw the back part of the ribs nearer together, which 
 muft always be done as the back extends, and in- 
 dependent of other a(flions of the thorax. The next 
 portion of this mufcle, called longiffimus dorfi, 
 
 is 
 
Of the muscles. 107 
 
 is inferted into all the tranfverfe proceiTes of the 
 vertebra of the back, and partly into the ribs, and 
 the uppermofl tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebrae 
 pf the loins ; and the upper end of it is neither 
 very diilind: from the complexus of the head, nor 
 fpinalis of the neck. The reft of this mufcle, 
 known by the names of femifpinalis, facer, &c. 
 arifes alfo from all the tranfverfe and oblique pro- 
 ceffes of the loins and back ; every portion, except 
 the lowermoft, paffing over five joints, is inferted 
 into the fpinal procefs of the iixth vertebra above 
 its origin, all the way up the back, and at the 
 neck commences tranfverfalis colli. This paffing 
 of each portion of a mufcle over a few joints, di- 
 ftributes their force equally enough among all thefe 
 joints, without the fibres being diredted more ob- 
 liquely than thofe of penniform mufclesj but the 
 neck and loins not having fufficientprovifionof this 
 fort, there are fmall mufcles between their pro- 
 ceffes, which, though they are of little importance 
 for the motions of thofe parts, yet are fufficient to 
 diftribute the force of larger mufcles equally 
 among thofe joints; and, befides the ufes of the 
 extenfor dorfi et lumborum, which its name im- 
 plies, its fellow alternately raife the hips in walk- 
 ing, which any one may feel by laying his hand 
 upon his back. 
 
 Quadrat us lumborum arifes from the up- 
 per part of the fpine of the ilium, and is inferted 
 into all the tranfverfe proceffes of the four upper- 
 
 moff 
 
idS Of THE MUSCLES. 
 
 moil lumbal vertebrae. This, and its fellow, act- 
 ing alternately, affifl the laft mentioned mufcle in 
 raifing the qffa innominata in progreffion : or each 
 ad:ing iingly, while the lower limbs are not moved, 
 inclines the body to one fide. 
 
 Intertransversales lumborum are fmall 
 mufcles feated between all the tranfverfe procefles 
 of the vertebrae lumborum, to bring them nearer 
 together. 
 
 Psoas parvus arifes laterally from the body of 
 the Ri& lumbal vertebra, and the lowefl: of the 
 back, and foon becoming a fmall tendon, isinferted 
 into the os pubis, near the ilium. It either affifts 
 in bending the loins forward, or raifing the os in- 
 nominatum in progrefiive motions. This mufcle 
 is often wanting. 
 
 Psoas magnus arifes laterally from the bodies 
 tod tranfverfe procefies of the four fuperior ver- 
 tebrs of the loins, and the lafl: of the back, and is 
 inferted, with the following mufcle. Into the lefier 
 trochanter . This bends the thigh^ and when the 
 pfoas parvus is wanting, this is larger. 
 
 Iliacus in tern us arifes from the concave 
 part of the ilium, and from its lower edge, and 
 paffingover the ilium, near the os pubis, joins the 
 former mufcle, and is Inferted with it, to be em- 
 ployed In the fame action. 
 
 Pectineus arifes from the os pubis or pedllnis, 
 near the joining of that bone with its iellow, and 
 is inferted into the linea afpera of the thigh bone, 
 
 four 
 
Of the muscles. 109 
 
 four fingers breadth below the lefler trochanter. 
 This bends the thigh, and turns the toes outward. 
 
 Triceps femoris. The two lefler heads of 
 tliis mufcle arife under the pediineus, and the third 
 from the inferior edges and back part of the os 
 pubis and ifchium, and is inferred into the whole 
 length of the linea afpera and the inner apophyfis 
 of the OS femoris. This alfo bends the thigh, and 
 turns the toes outward. When the thigh bone is 
 moved in a plane, which cuts at right angles a plane 
 that pafTes through the axis of either head of the 
 laft mufcle, that head rifmg lower than the center 
 of motion of the hip joint, it will either affiil the 
 flexors or extenfors, and that moft when the 
 bone has been moved mofl; backward or forward : 
 and as either of thefe heads lie more or lefs out 
 of the faid plane, they will give greater affiflance 
 to that motion which is made on the fide of the 
 faid plane, contrary to their fituation, and lefs on 
 the fame fide. This mechanifm is frequently 
 made ufe of to make one mufcle ferve different 
 adlions ; but I have only explained it in this in- 
 ftance, becaufe it is the mofb confi.derable one that 
 I know. 
 
 Gluteus maximus arifes from the back part 
 of the fpine of the ilium, and the dorfum ilii, and 
 fide of the os coccygis and facrum, and a ligament 
 extended between thefe bones, and from a thin 
 fafcia, fpread over that part of the following 
 mufcle which this does not cover, a^id is inferted 
 
 by 
 
no Of the muscles. 
 by a ftrong tendon into the upper part of the line^ 
 alpera of the thigh bone, and alfo into the flat ten- 
 don of the fafcialis mufcle, which infertion into, 
 or connection with, that tendon, raifes this mufcle 
 farther from the center of motion, and increafes its 
 flrength. This extends the thigh, and both thefe 
 together being contracted, occalionally affift the 
 levatores ani in fupporting the anus. The breadth 
 of the origin and infertion of this mufcle is very 
 obfervable: for by that means, though it is the 
 largefl: mufcle in the body, it is neverthelefs right- 
 lined, without one fibre compreffing another any 
 more than in penniform mufcles. 
 
 Gluteus medius arifes from all the anterior 
 part of the fpina and dorfum ilii, and under part 
 of the laft mentioned mufcle, and is inferted into 
 the upper part of the great trochanter of the thigh 
 bone. ^ This extends the thigh outv/ard. 
 
 Gluteus minimus arifes entirely under the 
 former, from the dorfum ilii, and is inferted into 
 the upper and interior^part of the great trochanter 
 and neck of the thigh bone to extend the thigh. 
 
 Pyriformis arifes internally from the iniidc 
 of the OS facrum, and growing, in more than half 
 its progrefs, into a round tendon, is inferted into 
 the upper part of the fmus, at the root of the great 
 trochanter. This affiils fomewhat in extending 
 the thigh, but more in turning it outward. 
 
 QuADRATUs FEMORis arifes from the obtufe 
 procefs of the ifchium, and is inferted into the up- 
 per 
 
Of the muscles. . iii 
 per part of the linea afpera of the thigh bone, be- 
 tween the two trochanters. This draws the thigh 
 inward, and directs the toes outward. 
 
 Obturator internus or masupialis.. 
 arifes generally from a ftrong membrane^ or liga- 
 ment, which fills up the hole of the os innomina- 
 tum, and from, the circumambient bone; thence 
 paffing over a channel in the ifchium, betwixt its 
 two proceffes, it receives from them two other 
 portions, which are a fort of marfupium,^ and is 
 inferted into the fmus of the great trochanter. 
 This turns the thigh outward. 
 
 Obturator externus arifes oppofite to the 
 former, from the outfide of the os innominatum, 
 and is inferted into the fmus of the great trochan- 
 ter. This alfo turns the thigh outward. Thefe. 
 four laft mentioned mufcles a(fting with the ex- 
 tenfors, prevent their turning the toes inward, and 
 in flepping forwards are continually adting to turn 
 the toes outwards \ for though the toes are placed 
 perpendicular to the front of the body, in taking; 
 a long ftep, thefe mufcles bring them perpendi-^ 
 Gular to the fide of the body; and as thefe diredt^ 
 the fame extenfors will turn the thigh either out- 
 ward or backward, with their full force. 
 
 Fascialis,. or membranosus, arifes from the 
 fore-part of the fpine of the ilium, and in about, 
 five inches progrefs becomes a flat tendon, or faf- 
 eia, which is joined by a confiderable detach- 
 ment from the tendon of the gluteus maximus, 
 
 and 
 
112 Of the muscles. 
 
 and from the linea afpera of the thigh bone, anci 
 then covering in an efpecial manner the vaftus 
 externus, is inferted at the too of the tibia and fi-^ 
 bula, and then proceed to join the fafcia, whith 
 covers the upper part of the i^ufcles lituate on the 
 outfide of the tibia, and from \rhich a great part 
 of the fibres of thofe mufcles arifes. About the 
 middle of the leg it groves loofe, and is fo conti- 
 nued to the top of the foot, being connedied there, 
 and at the lower part of the leg, to the ligaments 
 which tie down the tendons. This tendon, where 
 it covers the vaflus externus, receives additional 
 tranfverfe fibres, which run through the thigh, 
 but are mofl: confpicuous on the outiide. This 
 draws the thigh outward, and paffing over the 
 knee forwarder than its axis of motion, it will 
 .help to extend that joint. 
 
 Gracilis arifes from the os pubis, clofe to the 
 penis, and is inferted into the tibia, four or five 
 fingers breadth below the knee. This draws 
 the thigh inward, and paffing over the knee, be- 
 hind its axis of motion, it will help to bend it. 
 
 Sartorius arifes from the fore-top of the 
 fpine of the ilium, and thence defcending ob- 
 liquely to the infide of the tibia, is there inferted 
 four or five fingers breadth below the joint. This 
 at once helps to bend both the thigh and leg^ 
 particularly the thigh, at very long levers; it di- 
 redtly helps to lift up the leg in walking up ftairSj 
 m laying the legs acrofs, like taylors. 
 
 Semi-- 
 
Of the MUSCLES; 113 
 
 tSEMiTENDiN'osus arifcs from the obtufe pro- 
 Cefs of the ifchium, and growing a round tendon 
 in fomewhat more than half its progrefs, is inferted 
 near the former mufcles into the tibia : it helps to 
 extend the thigh and bend the tibia. 
 , Semimembranosus arifes by a flat tendon 
 like a membrane from the obtufe procefs of the 
 ifchium, and being continued tendinous betwixt 
 the bellies of the laft mentioned and following 
 mufcles, and then growing flefhy, becomes agaia 
 tendinous above the joint, and is inferted nearer 
 the joint than the former mufcle for the fame ufe» 
 These two make the internal hamftring, and 
 arifing and inferting fo near together, they might 
 have been one mufcle, but their fibres v/ould have 
 been near twice as long, which would have given 
 a motion, near twice as quick, but not fo ftrong, 
 unlefs it had been inferted at a diftance from the 
 joint it moves proportionable tp its length, which 
 could not well be; therefore they are made two 
 mufcles of a number of fibres nearly equal to what 
 one could have been, and are inferted at diftances 
 from the axis of motion of the knee, proportional 
 to the different lengths of their fibres in the dir-ec- 
 tions of their axes. 
 
 Biceps TiBim, the firfl head arifes in common 
 with the two preceding mufcles, from the obtufe 
 procefs of the ifchium; the fecond from the lowei;" 
 part of the linea afpera of the, thigh bone. This 
 fgon. joins the former, and is inferted with it into 
 
 H the 
 
114. CiF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 the upper part of the fibula to bend the leg, and 
 the firfl: head alfo extends the thigh. The tendon' 
 of this mufcle makes the external hamftring, whea 
 the knee is bent; and when we fit down, the bi- 
 ceps will turn the leg and toes outward, and the- 
 femitendinofus and femimembranofus will turn 
 them inward. 
 
 PoPLiTEUS arifes from the outer apophyiis of 
 the OS femoris, and thence running obliquely in- 
 %vard, is inferted into the tibia immediately below 
 its head. This affifts the flexors, and draws the 
 tibia toward the outer apophyfis of the thigh bone. 
 
 Rectus tibiae arifes v/ith a tendon from tlm 
 upper part of the acetabulum -of the 6s innomina- 
 tum, and by another tendon, which is a fort of - 
 ligament to this, from a proccfius innominatus of 
 the ilium below its fpine forward, and is inferted, 
 top-ether with the three following mufcles, intothe 
 patella. It bends the thigh, and extends the tibia. 
 
 Vastus externus arifes from the anterior 
 part of the great trochanter and upper part of the 
 linea afperaof the thigh bone, and is inferted into 
 the upper and external part of tlVe patella. It ex- ' 
 tends the tibia. 
 
 Vastus internus arifes' from the Inner and 
 lower part of the linea afpera, and is inferted into 
 the up^er and inner part of the patella, to extend 
 the tibia ; and the fibres of this mufcle being ob- 
 Hque, it keeps the patella in its place, the other 
 mufcles lying in the diredion of the os femoris 
 
 which 
 
Of the MUS C L E S. 115 
 
 ■'which makes an obtufe angle with the tibia, they 
 would alone be liable to draw the patella outward. 
 This contrivance is moft obvious in thofe whofe 
 knees bend moft inward. 
 
 Crureus arifes between the two laft, below the 
 re(Slus, from all the convex part of the os femoris, 
 and is inferted in like manner into the patella; the 
 patella being tied down by a ftrong. ligament to the 
 tibia. Thefe three laft mufcles extend the tibia 
 only, and might very properly be called exterifor 
 tibiae triceps. » . 
 
 Gasterocnemius arifes by two fmall begin- 
 nings above the back part of the apophylis of the 
 OS femoris, which foon becoming large bellies, 
 unite, and then become a flat tendon v/hich joini 
 the following mufcles to be inferted into the os 
 calcis. The two parts of this mufcle are by fome 
 writers diftinguiflied into two mufcles. Its ufe is 
 to extend the tarfus and bend the knee. 
 
 Plantaris arifes under the outer beginning of 
 the laft named mufcle, from the external apophyfis 
 of the OS femoris, and foon becoming a fmall ten- 
 don, is fo continued betwixt the foregoing and fub- 
 fequent mufcles, and is inferted with them. It 
 bends the knee, and extends the tarfus. Authors 
 derive the tendinous expanlion on the bottom of the. 
 foot from the tendon of this mufcle: but feeinsr 
 the expanfion is much more than this tenaon could 
 make, and that this tendon can be traced no far- 
 ther than the os calcis, and that the expanfion is 
 
 H 2 aa 
 
.i-ii6 Of the M U-S C L E^S. 
 
 ..as large when the mufcle is wanting, which is hot 
 feldom, I cannot be of that opinion. 
 
 Gas.terocnemius internus arifes from the 
 upper part of the tibia, and one third of the fbu- 
 
 J^i below the popliteus, and is inferted with the 
 two foregoing mufcles by a ftrong tendon into the 
 upper and back part of the os calcis. This mufcle 
 only extends the tarfus. 
 
 Tibialis an tic us arifes from the upper and 
 exterior part of th^ tibia, and is inferted laterally 
 into the os cuneiforme majusof the tarfus, and hy 
 
 ^$L 'fmall portion of its tendon into the metacarpal 
 bone of the great toe* This bends and turns the 
 
 ;tarfus inward i 
 
 ; Tibialis posticus arifes iirft by a fmall be- 
 ginning from the upper part of the tibia between 
 that bone and the fibula, then paffing between., 
 the bones through a perforation in the tranfverfe 
 ligament which conneds thofe bones, it takes other 
 beginnings from the upper and middle part of the 
 tibia, and from the middle of the fibula, and the 
 ligament betwixt the tibia. and fibula; then grow- 
 ing a round tendon, pafTes under the inner ancles 
 
 :and is inferted into the lower part of the os navi- 
 
 jculare^ and into the os cuneiforme majus. This 
 
 ^extends and turns inv.ard the tarlus. 
 
 Peroneus longus arifes from the upper and 
 
 .outer part of the fibula, and growing a tendon to- 
 
 -ward the lower part of this bone, pailes under the 
 
 outer ancle, and the mufgles fituated on the bot- 
 tom 
 
Of the M U S C L E S. 117 
 
 • torn of the foot, and is inferted into the beginning 
 of the metatarfal bone of the great toe, and the 
 
 • OS cuneiforme next that bone. This turns the 
 
 • tarfus outward, and directs the force of the other 
 extenfors of the tarfus toward the ball of the great 
 
 • toe. 
 
 I Peroneus brevis arifes upon the middle of 
 the fibula, under part of the former, and o:iow- 
 ing tendinous, pafles under the outer ancle, and 
 is inferted into the beginning of the upper part of 
 the OS metatarfi of the little toe, and fometimes 
 
 ■ beftows a fmall tendon on the little toe. Its ufe 
 is to extend the tarfus, and turn it outward. 
 
 These two lail mufcles riding over the lowtp 
 end of the fibula, are often the caufe of a fprain 
 in the outer ancle, when they are vehemently ex- 
 
 \crted to fave a fall. 
 
 Extensor pollicis longus arifes from-the 
 
 ' upper and middle part of the fibula and the liga- 
 
 • men turn tranfverfale, and foon becoming a ftrong 
 tendon, is inferted into the lafi: bone of the great 
 
 'toe. This alfo bends the tarfus with a much 
 longer lever than it extends the toe. 
 
 Extensor pollicis brevis arifes from the 
 fore-part of the os calcis, and is inferted into the 
 •fame place with the former. 
 
 Flexor pollicis longus arifes from the 
 fibula,' oppofite to the extenfor longus, and theft 
 pafTing under the inner ancle, is inferted into the 
 uridei' iide of the lait bone of the great toe. This 
 
 H 3 ^ex* 
 
11^ Of the muscles. 
 
 extends the tarfus at a longer lever than it bends 
 the toe. 
 
 Flexor brevis and adductor pollici's are 
 the fame mufcle, arifing from the two lefler olTa 
 cuneiformia and os cuboides and calcis. They are 
 inferted into the olTa fefamoidea, which are tied 
 by a ligament to the iiril bone of the great toe, 
 reckoning only two bones to the great toe. Thefe 
 mufcles bend the great toe. 
 
 Abductor pollicis arifes pretty largely 
 from the inner and back part of the os calcis, and 
 by a fmall beginning from the os naviculare; 
 -ihence paffing forward contiguous to the os cu- 
 neiforme liiajus, paiTes by the external fefamoid 
 bone of the great toe to its infertion into the iirfi: 
 bone of the great toe. This mufcle is lefs an 
 abdudtor than a flexor policis pedis ; it alfo ver^ 
 much helps to confl:ri<5t the foot lengthways, 
 
 Transversalis pedis arifes from the lower 
 end of the metatarfal bone of the toe next the leaft, 
 and is inferted into the internal fefamoid bone. 
 This truly Is an adduftor of the great toe, and helps 
 to keep the conftridior of the bottom of the foot^ 
 
 Extensor digitorum pedis longus arifes 
 acute from the upper part of the tibia, and from 
 the upper and middle part of the fibula and liga.- 
 -ment betv/een thefe bones j then dividing into five 
 tendons, four of them are inferted into the feeond 
 bone of each lefler toe, and the fifth into the be- 
 rginning of the metatarfal bone of the leall toe, an^ 
 
 ^ fome-. 
 
Of THE MUSCLES. 119 
 
 •fometimes by a fmall tendon aifo into the little toe. 
 This laft portion for the mofl part is feparate from 
 its beginning, and may be accounted a diftinct muf- 
 cle. The four firll tendons only of this mufcle ex- 
 tend the toes, but all five bend the tarfus, and that 
 with a longer lever than any of them bend a toe. 
 
 Extensor digitorum brevis, arifes toge- 
 ther with the extenfor pollicis brevis, from the os 
 calcis, and dividing into three-fmall tendons is in- 
 ferted into the fecond joint of the three toes next 
 the great one. The long extenfors of the toes ferve 
 not only to extend th^m, but alfo to contribute to 
 the bending of the ancle, which iriotions are ufu- 
 ally performed together in progreffion j but the 
 fhort extenfors arifing below the ancle, extend the 
 toes only; and when the long extenfors are em- 
 ployed for that adion only, the extenfors of the 
 tarfus muil ad: at the fame time, to prevent the 
 bending of the ancle. This is the reafon why the 
 toes have need, though their motions are lefs, of 
 more extenfors than the fingers. 
 
 Flexor brevis or perforatus arifes from 
 the under and back part of the os calcis, thence 
 paffing toward the four lefler toes, divides into 
 four tendons, which are inferted into the beginning- 
 of the fecond bone of each of the lelier toes. Thefe 
 tendons are divided to let through the tendons of 
 the following mufcles. 
 
 Flexor longus or perforans arifes from 
 the back part of the tibia, above the infertion qf 
 
 H 4 the 
 
I20 Of the MUSC.LES^ 
 
 ^ne popliteus, and part of the fibula; thence d©» 
 fcending under the os calcis to the bottom of the 
 foot, there becomes tendinous, often crolTes, and^ 
 in moft bodies, communicates with the flexor lon^ 
 gus pollicis pedis 3 then it divides into four tendons^ 
 which pafs through thofe of the flexor b re vis, and 
 are inferted into the third bone of the four leiTer 
 toes. This mufcle alfo extends the tarfus. The 
 fecond beginning of this mufcle arifes from the^os 
 calcis, and joins \h.c tendons where they divide. 
 This portion only bends the toes; and feeing the 
 flexor longus of the toes will, when it ads alone, 
 extends the tarfus as well as bend the toes, this 
 portion, like the fhort extenfors of the toes, feem§ 
 purpofely contrived to bend the toes alone. 
 
 LuMBRicALES arife from the tendons of the 
 perforans, and ar-e inferted into the firil bone of 
 each of the leffer toes which they bend. 
 
 Abductor minimi digiti pedis arifes by 
 the perforatus from the os calcis, and being part 
 of it inferted into the metacarpal bone of the leafh 
 toe, it receives another beginning from the os cu- 
 boides, and is inferted into the firil bone of the leail 
 toe, which it bends and pulls outwfird, and very- 
 much helps to cpnftrid; the bottom of the foot. 
 
 Abdcjctqr sEcaNDus MINIMI DIGITI arifes' 
 qnder the former rnufck of the metatarfal bone, 
 and is inferted into the little toe. 
 
 Interossei are {even mufcles which lie like 
 thofe of the hands, and arife like them from the. 
 
 me- 
 
Of th|i muscles, 121 
 
 jnetatarfal bones, and are inferted like them into 
 the lall: joints of the foyr lelTer troes; and being in 
 their progrefs attached to the tendons, which ex- 
 tend the fecond joints of the toes, they will ex- 
 tend both thefe joints. Thefe rnufcles may be 
 fitly divided into external and internal ; the inter- 
 nal alfo bend the firft joints, as do all the inte|-- 
 oiTei in the hand, but here the outer ones extend 
 the firft joints; and if we conlider that the firfl: of 
 thefe rnufcles is analogous to the abdudtor indicis 
 of the hand, ^nd that the abdu(£tor minimi is alike 
 in both, we find that the rnufcles to move the 
 fingers and leiTqr toes fideways are alike in num- 
 ber, though this motion of the toes is in a manner 
 loft from t}xe ufe of (hoes. The mufcles that 
 bend or extend the laft joints of the toes will aU 
 fo move the fecond and firft, and thofe that m.ove 
 the fecond will alfo move thq firft^ as they dg m 
 $he fingers, 
 
 r A B. 
 
( 122 ) 
 
 T A B* XI. 
 
 1 Mufculus frontalis, 
 
 2 Temporalis. 
 
 3 Orbicularis. 
 
 4 The parotid gland, with its dudl, wbic^ 
 
 paffes through the buccinator. 
 ^ Mailoideus. 
 
 6 Zygomaticus. 
 
 7 Elevator labii fuperioris proprius. 
 
 8 Elevator labiorum communis. 
 
 9 DepreiTor labiorum communis. 
 
 10 Sphindter oris. 
 
 11 Depreflbr labii inferloris proprius* 
 
 12 Buccinator. 
 
 13 Sterno-hyoidei. 
 
 14 Coraco-hyoideuSi 
 
 15 Mailoideus. 
 
 16 Trapezius. 
 
 17 PedoraKs. 
 
 18 Deltoides, 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB. XI. 
 
 P. 1 22. 
 
P./2^. 
 
 TABXn. 
 
( 123 ) 
 
 TAB. XII. 
 
 1 Mufculus mafloideus. 
 
 2 Pedoralis. 
 
 3 Biceps flexor cubiti. 
 
 4 Coraco-brachialis. 
 
 5 Triceps extenfor cubiti., 
 
 6 Latiflimus dorfi. 
 
 7 Serator major anticus. 
 
 8 Obliquus defcendens abdominis. 
 
 9 Red:us abdominis. 
 
 10 Pyramidalls. 
 
 11 Satorius. 
 
 12 Fafcialis. 
 
 j^ Re(5tus femorls. 
 
 XAB. 
 
' ( 124 ) 
 
 r A B. XIII. 
 
 1 Trapezius, 
 
 2 Deltoides. 
 
 2 Infrafpinatus fcapuls,- 
 
 4 Teres major. 
 
 5 Rhomboides. 
 
 6 Latiffimus dorii* 
 y Glutei. 
 
 S Obliquus defcendcns abdominij 
 
 T''AB. 
 
TAB.Xin 
 
 p./ 2^. 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 k 
 
 m3^^^ J 
 
 ' mil' I 
 
P /23. 
 
 \ \i\ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
{ ^25 ) 
 TAB. XIV. 
 
 1 Mufculus deltoides, 
 
 2 Triceps extenfor cabiti, 
 
 3 AnconseUs, 
 
 4 Extenfor carpi radialis primus. 
 
 5 Extenfor carpi radialis fecunduj, 
 
 6 Extenfor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 7 Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 8 Deltoides. 
 
 9 Biceps flexor cubiti. 
 
 10 Brachiaeus internus. 
 
 1 1 Triceps extenfor cubiti, 
 
 12 Supinator radii longus. 
 
 13 Extenfores carpi radiales. 
 
 14 Extenfor communis digitorurri'. 
 
 15 Extenfor carpi .ulnaris^ 
 
 16 Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 17 AnconcEus. 
 
 18 Extenfor pollicis primus. 
 
 19 Extenfor pollicis fecundus. 
 
 r A B. 
 
C I2d ) 
 
 TAB. XV. 
 
 ■1 Mufculus deltoides. 
 
 2 Pedloralis. 
 
 3 Biceps flexor cubiti. 
 
 4 Triceps extenfor cubiti. 
 
 5 The fafcia tendinofa of the biceps mufcle;, 
 
 6 Supinator radii longus. 
 
 7 Flexor carpi radialis* 
 S Glutasus. 
 
 9 Vaflus externus* 
 
 10 Biceps femoris. 
 
 11 Semitendinofus. 
 
 12 Semimembranofus* 
 
 13 Gailrocnemius^ 
 
 14 Solseus* 
 
 TAB. 
 
*.^ 
 
TAB.XVl, 
 
^ { 12J ) 
 
 TAB. XVL 
 
 1 Mufculus redus femoris. 
 
 2 Vaftus externus. 
 
 3 Vaftus internus, 
 
 4 Sartorius. 
 
 5 Pedinajus. 
 
 6 The large head of the triceps, 
 
 7 Gaflrocnemius. 
 
 8 Solaeus. 
 
 9 Membranofus, 
 10 Re<Shjs femork, 
 i I Vaftus internus. 
 
 12 Vaftus externus. 
 
 13 Sartorius. 
 
 14 Pedin^us. 
 
 15 Gaftrocnemius. 
 i6 SoiaBUs. 
 
 17 Tibialis anticus* 
 
 18 Extenfores digitorum. 
 
 TAB. 
 
 \ 
 
(' 128 ) '• 
 
 TAB. XVIL; 
 
 1 Mufculus abduiftor pollicis. ^ 
 
 2 Addiidtor pollicis4 
 
 3 Flexor brevis. 
 
 4 Quadratus feu palmarls brevis. 
 
 5 The ftrong ligament of the carpus. that h'ind$ 
 
 down the tendons of the flexors of the B.nr» 
 gets. 
 
 6 Abduiftor minimi digiti. 
 
 7 A probe under the tendons of the perforatus*.^ 
 
 8 A probe under the tendons of the perforans. 
 
 9 Lumbrlcales* ^ 
 
 10 Perforatus. 
 
 11 Flexor carpi radial! s* 
 
 12 Flexar carpi uliiaris* ~^ - — ,- 
 
 TAB, 
 
TAB. XVII. 
 
 P./ 2$. 
 
 
 -A4Hrl^.. 
 
TAB. XVIII. 
 
 7?/2^. 
 
 
( 129 ) 
 TAB. XVIIL 
 
 1 Tendo achilles. 
 
 2 That part of the aftragalus which articulates 
 
 with the tibia. 
 
 3 The tendon of the tibialis anticus. 
 
 4 The tendon of the extenfor pollicis pedis 
 
 longus. 
 
 5 The tendons of the extenfor digitorum com- 
 
 munis. 
 
 6 Extenfor pollicis pedis brevis. 
 *j Extenfor digitorum brevis. 
 
 S The union of the tendons of the extenfor loa,-^ 
 ^us and the extenfor brevis. 
 
 TAB. 
 
( ^3° ) 
 T A B, XIX, 
 
 I Mufculus triceps exfeenior ctibiti. 
 ± DeltoideSo 
 
 3 Teres major. 
 
 4 Latiffimus dorii. 
 
 5 Pedoralis, 
 
 6 Obliquus defcendens abdommisv 
 
 7 Redus abdominis, 
 
 8 Sartorius, 
 
 9 Reftus femoris. 
 
 10 Vaftusexternus.. 
 
 1 1 Vaftus internus, 
 
 12 Gaftrocnemius. 
 
 13 Solaeus. 
 
 14 Tibialis anticus^ 
 
 T A B. 
 
TAB. XIX 
 
 J^/3'-- 
 
 §S\ 
 
 '-'■ ,f \ 
 
 fj li 
 
 
 " ' ' / i 
 
 
 % 
 
 i I 
 
 // '/ 
 
T.A.B.XX. 
 
 J\ /,)/. 
 
( 131 ) 
 
 T A B. XX. 
 
 This table is done after the famous ftatue of 
 Hercules and Antaeus. The mufcles here exhi* 
 bited being all explained in the other plates, the 
 figures are omitted to preferve the beauty of the 
 
 plate. 
 
 li THE 
 
{ 133 ) 
 
 THE 
 
 AN A T O M Y 
 
 O F THE 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 Of the external parts ^ and common integuments. 
 
 H E vulgar names of the external parts 
 of the human body being fufficiently 
 known for the defcription of any difeafe 
 or operation; I fhall only defcribe thoie which 
 anatomifts have given for the better underilanding 
 of the fub-contained parts. 
 
 The hollow on the middle of the thorax, un- 
 der the breads, is called fcrobiculus cordis : the 
 middle of the abdomen for about three fingers 
 
 I 3 breadth 
 
134 EXTERNAL P A R T S, &c. 
 
 breadth above and belov/ the navel, is called regio ' 
 umbilicalisj the middle part above this, epiga- 
 ftrium; on each fide of the epigaflirium, under the 
 cartilages of the lower ribs, hypocondrium ; and 
 from belovv^ the regio umbilicalis, dov^n to the olTa 
 ilia and ©fla pubis, hypogaftrium, 
 
 CuTicuLA, or SCARF-SKIN, is that thin infen- 
 fible membrane vi^hich is raifed by bliilers in living 
 bodies. It is extended over every part of the true 
 ikin, unlefs v\^here the nails are. It appears to me 
 in a microfcope a very fine fmooth membrane, only 
 unequal where the reticulum mucofum adheres 
 to it. Lewenhoeck, and others, fay it appears 
 fcaly, and compute that a grain of fand of the 
 hundredth part of an inch diameter, will cover 
 two hundred and iifty of thefe fcales, and that 
 each fcale has about five hundred pores; fo that a 
 grain of fand will cover 125,000 pores thro' which 
 we perfpire. Its ufe is to defend the true fkin that 
 it may not be expofed to pain from whatever it 
 touches 3 and alfo to preferve it from wearing : 
 it is thickeft on thofe parts of the bottom of the 
 ' foot which fuftain the body, and in hands much 
 ufed to labour, being fo contrived as to grow the 
 thicker.-the more thofe parts are ufed. In fcorbu- 
 tic giforders the cuticula v/ill fometimes become 
 fc\irfy and full of little ulcers, which are apt to 
 refnain even when the caufe is taken away, but the 
 cuticle being taken off by a blifher, the new cuti- 
 cle will be founds and though the cutis is affected 
 
 and 
 
EXTE RN A L P ART S, &c. 135 
 
 ^nd £ull of little tumors, the difcharge of the bli- 
 •■(ler will often cure them alfo. 
 
 Between this and the true fldn is a fmall 
 quantity of flimy matter, v/hich was fuppofed by 
 Malpighi and athers^ to be\:ontained in proper 
 vefTels, intenvoven with one another, and there- 
 fore by them nanied reticulum mucofum. It is 
 moft confiderable where the cuticula is thickeft, 
 and is black, white., or dufky, fuch as is the com- 
 plexion; the colour of this and the cuticula being 
 the only difference between Europeans and Afri- 
 cans or Indians., the fibres of the true Ikin being 
 white in all men;^ bu.t the florid colour of the 
 cheeks is owing to the blood in the minute vefTels 
 of the fkin, as that in the lips to the veiTels in the 
 mufcular flefh; for the cuticula being made o£ 
 £xcrementitious matter, has no blood velTels., 
 
 Cutis, or true skin, is a very compafV, 
 ?ftrong, and fenfible membrane^ extended over all 
 ■the other parts af the body, having nerves termi- 
 nating fo plentifully in all its fuperficies, for the 
 ienfe of touching, that the finefb pointed inftru^ 
 nient can prick no where without touching fome 
 of thern. Thefe nerves are faid by Malpighi 
 and others, who have examined them carefully, to 
 terminate in fmall pyramidal papilla; nevcrthelefs, 
 it feems, that a plain fuperficies of the ikin is much 
 fitter and more agreeable to what we expeiience of 
 this fenfation; for a plain fuperficies expofing all 
 - the nerves alike, I think, would give a more equal 
 
 1 4 fen-i. 
 
136 EXTERNAL PARTS, Sec. 
 
 fenfation, wKile nerves ending in a pyramidal pa- 
 pilla would be exceeding fenlible at the vertex of 
 that papilla 3 and thofe at the fides and round the 
 bafe, which would be far the greateft part, would 
 be the leafl ufeful. Immediately under the fkin 
 upon the fhin bone, I have twice feen little tumors, 
 lefs than a pea, round and exceeding hard, and fo 
 painful that both cafes were judged to be cancerous; 
 ' they were cured by extirpating the tumor : but 
 what was more extraordinary, was a tumor of this 
 kind, under the fkin of the buttock, fmall as a 
 pin's head, yet fo painful that the leaft touch 
 was infupportable, and the fkin for half an inch 
 round was emaciated; this too I extirpated, with 
 fo much of the fkin as was emaciated, and fome 
 fat. The patient, who before the operation could 
 not endure to fet his leg to the ground, nor turn 
 in his bed without exquifite pain, grew immedi- 
 Jiteiy eafy, walked to his bed without any com- 
 plaint, and was foon cured. 
 
 Glandules miliares are fmall bodies like 
 millet feeds, feated immediately under the fkin in 
 the axillas ; and are faid to have been found under 
 ail other parts of the fkin, where they have been 
 looked for with micro fcopes. Thefe glands are 
 fuppofed to feparate fweat ; which fluid was thought 
 to be only the materia perfpirabilis flowing in a 
 greater quantity, and condenfed, till Sanctoriu^ 
 aiTured us that it is not fo, and that more of the 
 materia perfpirabilis is feparated in equal times than 
 
 of 
 
EXTERNAL PARTS, &c. 1.57 
 
 of fweat; of the former, he fays, ufually fifty two 
 ounces a day in Italy, where his experiments were 
 made, and of the latter not near fo much in the 
 moft profufe fweats; which feems to favour the 
 opinion of the exigence of thefe glands : but who- 
 ever reads Mr. H a l e's experiments will find, 
 ^ that what Sanctorius accounted for by an 
 imaginary infenfible infpiration, different from 
 that which in the greateil degree produces fweat, 
 is really made by the lungs in refpiration, and is 
 ten times more than all the ordinary perfpiration 
 through the cutis, aitd feems to be but the fame 
 kind of fluid difcharged both ways; for whenever 
 it is interrupted through the ikin in cold weather, 
 then the lungs are overcharged, which occafions 
 coughing to get rid of it, which in a greater 
 degree is an ailhma. Hence too it is that thofc 
 who perfpire moft in the fummer are moft fub* 
 ]ed: to afthmatic diforders in the winter : and moll 
 of all fo, when the air they breathe is fulleft of 
 vapour, and therefore leaft capable of conveying 
 this matter from the lungs. That this kind of 
 perfpiration is very great, is fufficiently ftiewn by 
 breathing upon glafs, or any thing that is fmooth 
 and cold. 
 
 Membrana adiposa is all that membrane 
 immediately under the fkin, which contains the 
 fat in cells; it is thickeft on the abdomen and but- 
 tocks, and thinneft near the extremities ; and 
 where the mnfclcs adhere to the iliin, and on the 
 
 penis. 
 
138 EXTERNAL PARTS, &c. 
 penis /little or none. It contributes to keep the in- 
 ner parts warm, and by iiUing the interilices of 
 the mufcles, renders the furface of the body fmooth 
 ^.nd beautiful, and may ferve to lubricate their fur- 
 ikces. Whether the decreafe of fat, which often 
 follows labour or iicknefs, proceeds from its being 
 re-alTumed into the blood velTels, or whether it is 
 conftaatly perfpiring through the fkin, and the 
 leffening of its quantity is from the want of a fup- 
 ply equal to its confamption, is with me a matter 
 of doubtj though the former opinion, I know, ge- 
 nerally prevails. The cells of this membrane com- 
 municate throughout the whole body fo much, 
 that from any one part the whole may be filled 
 "with air, I have leen two cafes where the wind- 
 pipe being cut, and the external wounds being 
 cjofely ftitched by injudicious furgeons, the air 
 that efcaped at the wound of the wind-pipe get- 
 ting into the ceils of the membrana adipofi, blew 
 np the upper part of the body like a bladder. 
 The like accident I have feen from a broken rib, 
 where, I fuppofe, the end of the rib had pricked 
 the lungs ; all thefe perfons died. In thefe cells 
 the water is contained in an anafacra, which from 
 its weight, firfl fills the depending parts, as the 
 air in the former cafes did the upper parts; and 
 when thefe cells are very full, the water frequently 
 paffes from them into the abdomen, and after 
 tapping, though the limbs were ever fo full, 
 the J will almoft empty themfeives in one night's 
 ^ time. 
 
EXTERNAL PARTS, &c. 139 
 
 time. This membnme is l-laQ.ufual feat of im- 
 poftumations and boils, in both which tuture, 
 uninterrupted, always corrodes a hole in the ikiii; 
 from whence we may learn, that ihe beft v/ay of 
 opening any impollumation is by a hole, and that 
 too, as near the time of its breaking naturally a§ 
 may be, that nature may make the utmofl ad- 
 vantage of the difcharge. There is fometimes a 
 large kind of boil or carbuncle in this membrane, 
 which iirft makes a large ilough and a number of 
 fmall holes through the fkin which in time mor- 
 tifies and cafts off, but the longer the Hough is 
 fuffered to remain, the more it difcharges, and the 
 more advantage to the patient; at the latter end of 
 which cafe the matter has a bloody tind;ure, and a 
 bilious fmeil, exadly like what comes from ulcers 
 in the liver; and both thefe cafes are attended 
 with fweet urine, as in a diabetes. 
 
 Mamm^, the BREASTS, feem to be of the 
 fame ftrudure in both fexes, but largeil in women. 
 Each breaft is a conglomerate gland to feparate 
 milk, with its excretory duds ; which are capable 
 of very great diftention, tending toward the nipple, 
 which as they approach, they unite, and make but 
 a few duds at their exit. There are to be met 
 with in authors inftances attelled of men giving 
 fuck, when they have been excited by a vehement 
 defire of doing it : and it is a common obfervation, 
 that milk will flow out of the breafls of new-born 
 
 children, both male and female. 
 
 The 
 
140 EXTERNAL PARTS,&c. 
 
 The breafts and uterus in women, the tongue, 
 mcuth, and penis in men, and the eyes in chil- 
 dren, are the parts moft fubjedt to cancers; yet 
 there is no part where this difeafe has not fome- 
 times fixed. It is a matter of difpute among fome 
 furgeons, whether cancerous tumors fhould ever be 
 extirpated or not, though it is certain none of thefe 
 ever were cured without, and being extirpated, 
 there have been many. The objection againft ex- 
 tirpation is this, that the operation often provokes 
 the part, which otherwife might lie quiet : but I 
 do not think this is true ; in defoerate cafes, where 
 we cannot extirpate, we find the beft remedy is 
 plentiful bleeding (which alfo is nature's laflrefort) 
 gentle conftant evacuations by flool, and a vegeta- 
 ble diet, and though phyfic never cures while the 
 tumor remains, yet after extirpation it is highly 
 ufeful, and even the worfl conilitutions have fome- 
 times been brought to their primitive ftate. An 
 eminent furgeon in the city, having a patient with 
 a cancerated breaft, extremely large, and fo much 
 ulcerated that the fbench of it was infupportable ; 
 fhe infifted upon the extirpation, againft all advice, 
 v/ith no other hopes but to be delivered from the 
 offenfive fmell. Some time after the operation the 
 wound looking extremely fordid, he fprinkled it 
 all over with red mercury precipitate, which put 
 the patient into a high falivation, upon which the 
 breaft grew clean and healed^ the patient recover- 
 ed, and, contrary to all expectation, lived many 
 
 years 
 
MEMBRANES in General. 141 
 years in good health. From this accident I learnt 
 the ufefulnefs of falivating, after extirpating can- 
 cerous tumors, though nothing is more hurtful be- 
 ,fore. In the extirpation of a breaft, and all other 
 tumors, as much lliin as is poffible fhould be faved; 
 for the lofs of a great deal of fkin is fufficient to 
 make an incurable ulcer in the moft healthful 
 
 % and much niore in fo bad a conftitution. 
 
 CHAP, IL 
 
 Of the membranes in general. 
 
 EVERY difl:in<5t part of the body is covered, 
 and every cavity is lined with a iingle mem- 
 brane, vi^hofe thicknefs and ftrength is as the bulk 
 of the part it belongs to, and as the fridtion to 
 which it is naturally expofed. 
 
 Those membranes that contain diilind: parts, 
 keep the parts they contain together, and render 
 their furfaces fmooth, and lefs fubjed: to be lace- 
 rated by the ad:ions of the body ; and thofe which 
 line cavities ferve to render the cavities fmooth, 
 and fit for the parts they contain to move againft. 
 
 The membranes of all the cavities that contain 
 folid parts, are iiudded with glands, or are provided 
 with veiTels, which feparate a mucus, to make the 
 parts contained move glibly againil one another, 
 and not grow together ^ and thofe cavities which 
 are expofed to the air, as the nofe, ears, mouth, 
 
 8 -^w^ 
 
14^ SALIVARY GLANDS. 
 
 and trachea arteria, have their membranes befet 
 with glands which feparate matter to defend them 
 from the outer air. Thofe membranes that have 
 proper names ^ and deferve a particular defcription, 
 will be treated of in their proper places. 
 
 CHAP. in. . 
 
 Of the falivary glands, , 
 
 AROTIS, or maxillaris superior is the 
 largeft of the falivary glands-; it is lituate be- 
 hind the lower jaw, under the ear; its excretory 
 dud: palTes over the upper part of the maffeter 
 mufcle, and enters the inouth through the bucci- 
 nator. This gland has its faliva promoted by the 
 motions of the lower jaw. Its du6t pafTes over the 
 tendinous part of the maffeter mufcle, that it may 
 not be compreffed by that mufcle, which would 
 obftrudL the faliva in it, though it is frequently faid 
 that it paffes over that mufcle that it may be com- 
 preffed by it, to promote the faliva. In fheep^ 
 horfes, &c. whofe jaws are long, this mufcle is in- 
 ferted far from the center of motion, that the ^w^ 
 of the jaw may be moved with fufficient ftrength, 
 and that diffant infertion requiring a greater length > 
 of mufcle, that its motion may be quick enough,' 
 no part of this mufcle could be allowed to be ten- 
 dinous; therefore, it feems, to avoid the inconve- 
 nience 
 
SALlVAkY GLANDS. 143 
 
 nience of comprelTion from th^ mufcle, the dud in 
 thofe animals goes quite round the lower end of it* 
 When this du6l is divided by an external wouiidj, 
 the faliva will f.ow out on the cheek, unlefs a con- 
 venient perforation be made into the mouth, and 
 then the external wound may be healed. 1 have 
 {een patients with this gland ulcerated, from which 
 there was a conftant eiFufion of faliva, till the 
 greatefl part of the gland was confumed with red 
 mercury precipitate; and then they healed with 
 little trouble. Hildanus mentions the fame cafe, 
 which for two years had been under the care of a 
 furgeon without fuccefs > and was at laft cured by 
 the application of an adiual cautery. 
 
 Maxillaris INFERIOR is fituate betv/eeh the 
 lower Jaw and the tendom of the digailric mufcle. 
 Its du(ft paffes under the mufculus mylohyoideus, 
 and enters the month under the tongue, near the 
 dentes incilbrii. I was at the opening of a woman 
 who was fuffocated by a tumor which begun in 
 this gland, and extended itfelf from the fternum 
 to the parotid gland on one fide in fix weeks time, 
 and in nine weeks killed her ; it was a true fcirrhus, 
 and weighed twenty-fix ounces. In a man which 
 I difi^edied, I found a quantity of pus near this 
 gland, and a bundle of matter not unlike hair, as 
 large as a hen's egg, 
 
 SuBLiNGUALus is a fmall gland fituated under 
 the tongue, between the jaw and the ceratoglolTus 
 mufcle. In a calf I found feveral duds of this 
 
 gland 
 
144 SALIVARY GLANDS. 
 
 gland filled by an injecStion into the dud of the 
 fjbmaxillary gland; but Morgagni and others 
 {hew, that the duds of this gland enter the mouth 
 directly from the gland in feveral places near the 
 grinding teeth, 
 
 ToNSiLLA is a globular gland, about the bignefs 
 of a hazel nut, fituate upon the ptergoideus in- 
 ternus mufcle, betv/een the root of the tongue and 
 the uvula. It has no dud continued from it, but 
 empties all its fmall duds into a finus of its own, 
 which finus, when the gland is inflamed, may ea- 
 fily be miftaken for an ulcer. This gland with its 
 fellow dired the mafiiicated aliment into the pha- 
 rynx, and alfo ferve for the uvula to fhut down 
 upon when we breathe through the nofe. They 
 are comprefled by the tongue and the aliment, when 
 the former raifes the latter over its root, and there- 
 by opportunely emit their faliva to lubricate the 
 food for its eafi^r deicent through the pharynx. A 
 fcirrhous tumour of either of thefe glands is a com- 
 mon difeafe, and it admits of no remedy but ex- 
 tirpation. The befl way of extirpating them, is, 
 I think, by ligature : if the gland is fmall at its 
 bafis, the ligature may be tied round it, which I 
 have often performed by fixing the ligature to the 
 end of a probe bent, and fo drew it round the 
 gland, and tied it; and in a few days the glands 
 dropped off; but meeting with other cafes of this 
 kind, where the bafis of the gland was too large to 
 tie, I contrived an infi:rument like a crooked needle 
 
 fet 
 
SALIVARY GLANDS, 145 
 
 fet in a handle, with an eye near the point ; I 
 thruil this inflrument, with a ligature into it thro* 
 the bottom of the gland, and then taking hold 
 of the ligature with a hook, I drew back the in- 
 strument; then drawing the double ligature for- 
 wards, I divided it, and tied one part above and 
 the other below, in the fame manner that I did- 
 to extirpate part of the omentum in the cure of 
 an hernia, and this fucceeded as well as the former : 
 See the plate at the latter end of this book. 
 
 Pressure upon the furface of a gland very 
 much promoting the fecretion that is made in it, 
 thefe glands are fo feated as to be prefTed by the 
 lower jaw, and its mufcles, which will be chiefly 
 at the time when the fluid is wanted; and the 
 force with which the jaw muft be moved, being 
 as the drinefs and hardnefs of the food mafticated, 
 the fecretion of the glands depending very much 
 upon that force ; it will alfo be in proportion to the 
 drinefs and hardnefs of that food which is necelTary; 
 for all food, being to be reduced to a pulp, by be-» 
 ing broke and mixed with faliva before it can be 
 fwallowed fit for digeilion, the drier and harder 
 foods needing more of this matter, will from this 
 mechanifm be fupplied with more than moifter 
 foods in about that proportion in which they are 
 drier and harder; and the drier foods needing more 
 faliva than moifter, is the reafon why we can eat 
 lefs and dis^efl lefs of thefe than thofe. What 
 quantity of faliva thefe glands can feparate from 
 
 K the 
 
146 SALIVARY GLANDS. 
 the blood, in a given time, will be hard to deter- 
 mine, but in eating of dry bread it cannot be lefs 
 than the weight of the bread; and many men, 
 in a little time, can eat more dry bread than twice 
 the lize of all thefe glands ; and fome, that are not 
 ufed to fmoaking, can fpit half a pint in the fmoak- 
 ing one pipe of tobacco ; and fome men in a fali- 
 vation, have fpit, for days or weeks together, a 
 gallon in four and twenty hours j and yet, I be- 
 lieve, all thefe glands put together, do not weigh 
 more than four ounces. 
 
 The membrane which lines the mouth and pa- 
 late, and covers the tongue, is every where befet 
 with fmall glands, to afford faliva in all parts of 
 the mouth to keep it moifl; for thofe more remote 
 are chiefly concerned in time of maftication. Thefe 
 fmall glands have names given them according to 
 their refpecftive fituations, as buccales, labiales, lin-. 
 guales, fauciales, palatinae, gingivarum, and uvu- 
 lares. 
 
 A Gland is chiefly compofed of a convolu- 
 tion of one or more arteries of a coniiderable length, 
 from whofe iides arife a vaft number of excretory 
 duds, as the lad:eals arife from the guts, to receive 
 in each gland their proper juices, as the ladleals do 
 the chyle; and though the larger fecretions are made 
 by vilible glands, yet unconvolved arteries may alfo 
 have excretory du6ts for the fame purpofe. And 
 this way, I imagine, fecretions are made from all 
 the membranes that line cavities, and fome others. 
 10 There 
 
SALIVARY GLANDS. 147 
 
 There alfo arife from thefe arteries lymphatic vef- 
 fels, whofe ufe feems to be to take off the thinneft 
 part of the blood, where a thick fluid is to be fe- 
 creted, feeing they are found in greateft plenty in 
 fuch glands as feparate the thickefc fluids, as in 
 the tefticles and liver ; and it is obfervable that 
 where the thickefl fecretions are made, the velocity 
 of the blood is the leafl, as if it was contrived to 
 give thofe feemingly more tenacious parts more 
 time to feparate from the blood. The arteries that 
 compofe different glands are convolved in different 
 manners; but whether or no their different fecre- 
 tions depend at all upon that, I doubt will be dif- 
 ficult to difcover. The excretory ducfts arife from 
 the arteries, and unite in their progrefs, as the roots 
 of trees do from the earth ; and as diflferent trees, 
 plants, fruits, and even different minerals, in their 
 growing, often derive their diflind:, proper, nu- 
 tritious juices from the fame kind of earth; fo the 
 excretory dudls, in different glands, feparate from 
 the fame mafs of blood their different juices : but 
 whut thefe difl^erent fecretions depend upon, whe- 
 ther the flrudure of the parts, or different attrac- 
 tions, or what elfe, we have no certainty about, tho* 
 this fubjed; has employed feveral ingenious writers. 
 For my own part, from the great fimplicity and 
 uniformity ufually feen in nature's works, I am 
 mofl inclined to think different fecretions arife 
 from different attrad:ions, feeing that in plants and 
 minerals there feems to be no other way, 
 
 K 2 CHAP. 
 
I4S PERITONEUM* 
 
 CHAP. IV, 
 
 Of the peritonaum, omentumy dudlus altmentatis^ 
 and mefenteryi. 
 
 ERITONEUM is a membrane wliich 
 lines the whole cavity of the abdomen. It 
 contains the liver, fpleen, omentum,, ftomach, guts, 
 and meientery, w^ith all their veiTels and glands^ 
 the upper part of it is no other than the proper 
 membrane of the diaphragm, for there is no more 
 reafon to call that, part of the peritonaeum, than 
 there is for calling the membrane on the other lide 
 of the diaphragm, part of the pleura or mediafti- 
 iium. The fore-part next the mufcles of the ab- 
 domen, and their tendons, may be divided into two 
 laminjE, yef, I think, anatomifts in defcribing the 
 duplicature or lamina of the peritonaeum have not 
 always meant this divilion, but have taken the ten- 
 dons of the tranfverfe mufcles for the-outer lamina,, 
 and confidered the other as one membrane, feeing 
 that it is between thefe tendons and the peritonaeum 
 that the water is found in that kind of dropfy which 
 is called the dropfy in the duplicature of the peri- 
 toneum. Upon the loins the inner furface only is 
 fmooth, and the outer part a fort of loofe mem- 
 brana adipofa, in which are contained the aorta, 
 vena cava, vaia fpermatica, and pancreas, with 
 other parts of lefs note. The middle of the peri- 
 tonsum upon the loins is joined to the mefentery 
 
 in 
 
OMENTUM, &c. 149 
 
 in fuch a manner, as makes fome account It a pro- 
 dudlion of the peritonaeum, and fome part of the 
 external membrane of the duodenum, becoming 
 one membrane with the inner or fmooth lamina of 
 the peritonaeum, and part of the retftum is covered 
 in the fame manner 5 but the kidneys and bladder 
 of urine are contained in a diftind: duplicature of 
 this membrane. The dropfy of the peritpnasum 
 may be diftinguiflied by being leaft prominent 
 about the navel, for there the tendons and the 
 peritonasum will not feparate ; and the water in 
 thofe that I have diffedted, had made the parts 
 where it was contained as foul as any ulcerj; 
 therefore none of them, I prefume, could have 
 -been cured by operation. 
 
 For the umbilical veflels, fee chap. Of the foe- 
 tus. For the procefTus vaginalis, chap. Of the 
 parts of generation in men. 
 
 Omentum, or cawl, is a fine membrane, 
 l-arded with fat, fomewhat like net-work: It is 
 fituated on the furface of the fmall guts, and re- 
 fembles an apron tucked up; its outer or upper 
 part, named ala fuperior, is connedied to the bot- 
 tom (^ the ftomach, the fpleen, and part of the 
 inteftinum duodenum: and thence defcendin? a 
 little lower than the navel, is reflected and tied to 
 the inteftinum colon, the fpleen, and part of the duo- 
 denum; this lailpart is called ala inferior; and the 
 fpace between the olx is named burfa. This ca- 
 vity is very diftin^H: in moft brutes, but feldom fo in 
 
 K 3 men* 
 
150 DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 
 
 men. Sometimes both alae are tied to the liver, 
 and, in difeafed bodies, to the peritoneum. Its ufe 
 is to lubricate the guts, that they may the better 
 perform the periftaltic motion. Malpighj de- 
 fcribes adipofe ducflsin this membrane to carry the 
 fat from the cells into the vena portas, and thinks 
 it a neceiTary ingredient in the bile. In dropiies of 
 the abdomen, and in perfons who from any other 
 caufe have died tabid, it is generally rotten aad de- 
 cayed; and fometimes the guts in thefe cafes adhere 
 to one another; but whether thefe adhefions pro-, 
 ceed from the omentum's ceafing to perform its- 
 office, or from the periftaltic motion of the guts 
 being long difcontinued through abftinence, ar 
 both, I cannot determine. 
 
 Ductus alimentalis, is the oefophagusj, 
 flomach, and guts^^ viz. duodenum, jejunum, 
 ileum, colon, c^cum pr appendicula vermiformis, 
 and redum. 
 
 Oesophagus, or gullet, is the beginning of the 
 alimentary dudl; its upper part is wide and open, 
 fpread behind the tongue to receive the mafticated 
 aliment; it begins from the bafis of the fcull, near 
 the proceiTus pterygoides of the fphenoidal bone, 
 then defcending becomes round, and is called va- 
 ginalis gulae; it runs from the tongue clofe to the 
 fpine, under the left fubclavian blood veflels, into 
 and thro' the thorax on the left fide, then piercing 
 .the diaphragm, it immediately enters the flomach. 
 It is compofed of a thin outer coat, which is no 
 
 more 
 
DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 151 
 
 more than a proper membrane to the middle or 
 mufcular coat. The middle coat is compofed of 
 longitudinal and cireular mufcular fibres, but chiefly 
 circular, abundantly thicker than the fame coat 
 in the guts; becaufe this has no foreign power to 
 affifl: it, as the guts have, and becaufe it is necef- 
 fary the foqd fhould make a Ihorter flay here than 
 there. The inner coat is a pretty fmooth mem- 
 brane, befet with many glands, which fecrete a 
 mucilaginou* matter, to defend this membrane, 
 and render the defcent of the aliment eafy. 
 
 Ventriculus, the ftomacji, is fituated under 
 the left fide of the diaphragm, its left fide touch- 
 ing the fpleen, and its right is covered by the thin 
 edge of the liver; its figure nearly refembles the 
 pouch of a bag-pipe, its left end being mofi: capa- 
 cious, the upper fide concave, and the lower con- 
 vex : it has two orifices, both on its upper part ; 
 the left through which the aliment pafles into the 
 ftomach, is named cardia; and the right through 
 which it is conveyed out of the fiomach into the 
 duodenum, is named pylorus; where there is a 
 circular valve which hinders a^return of aliment 
 out of the gut, but does not at all times hinder 
 the gall from flowing into the fi:omach. 
 
 The coats of the ftomach are three; the ex- 
 ternal membranous, the middle mufcular, whofe 
 fibres are chiefly longitudinal and circular, the in- 
 ner membranous, and befet with glands, which 
 feparate a mucus. This lafi: coat is again divided 
 
 K4 by 
 
152 DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS, 
 
 by anatomifls into a fourth, which they call viilofa. 
 As the mufcular coat of the ftomach contracts, the 
 inner coat falls into folds, which increafe as the fto- 
 jnach leiTens, and confequently retard the aliment 
 iTioft when the ftomach is neareft being empty. 
 
 The manner in which digcilion is performed 
 has been matter of great controverfy. The ancients 
 generally fuppofed the food concoded by a fermen- 
 tation in the ftomach^ but the moderns more ge- 
 nerally attribute it to the mufcular force of the fto-. 
 machi which Dr. Pitcairne has computed to 
 be equal to a hundred and feventeen thoufand and 
 eighty eight pounds weighty to which being added 
 the abfolute force of the diaphragm and abdominal 
 niufcles (but for what reafon I am at a lofs to con- 
 ceive, when fo fmall a part of that force can be ex- 
 erted this way) the fum then will be more than 
 twice as much ; a force indeed ^qual to the end for 
 which he affigns it. Now this force of the mufcu- 
 lar coat of the ftomach is near forty times greater 
 than what Borelli has affigned to the heart, 
 which is much ftronger^ and Dr. Keil has under- 
 taken to prove, thafsthe force which the heart exerts 
 is not thrice as many ounces as BpR^LLi computes 
 it to be thoufand pounds weight, Yet this is as 
 certain, as that adion and reaction are the fame ; 
 that the abdominal mufcles and the diaphragm 
 comprefs the ftomach with no greater force than 
 they do the liver and all other parts contained in the 
 abdomen 3 and that the fcetus in utero, and all the 
 2 vifcera 
 
DUCTUS ALIMENT A LIS. 153 
 
 vifcera in the abdomen, receive much more of this 
 force, during the time of geilation ; and yet nei-' 
 ther the foetus, nor any other contained part, is di- 
 gefted by that force; and for the force with which 
 the flomach itfelf ac^s, it will be juft the fame with 
 the rea(5tion of the food upon it, and therefore 
 fhould be as much more liable to be digefled by 
 this and the other force, than the food, as it oftener 
 feels thefe forces than that (only that living bodies 
 are not fo liable to digeftion as dead ones :) belides, 
 it may be demonftrated, that the force with which 
 the ftomach comprefles any part of its contents, is 
 not greater than what is given to equal parts of the 
 contents in the fmall guts 3 for if the moment of a 
 mufcle is as its weight, and if the mufcular coat of 
 the ftomach does not bear a greater proportion to 
 the mulcular coat of a fmall gut, than their diame- 
 ters bear; a fed:ion of the ilomach having fo many 
 more equal parts to prefs than a like fection of a 
 gut, it will require juft fo much more force to give 
 each part the fame prefTure. Dr. Drake has fup- 
 pofed, that digeftion is performed in the ilomach, 
 as in Papin's Digefter; in which hypothelis are 
 containedall the abfurdities of that of Pit CAIRN E, 
 with this addition, that the ftomach muft be as ir- 
 refiftible to diftention at that time, as his iron pot, 
 and the orifices as forcibly fecured; but then in- 
 deed it fhews how bits of bones, which dogs fwal- 
 low, may be retained in the ilomach without tear- 
 ing it; which difficulty, in my opinion. Dr. Pit- 
 
 CAIRNE 
 
154 DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 
 
 CAiRNE has not fufficiently accounted for, though 
 it is none of the leaft in his hypothecs. In gra- 
 nivorous birds, where digeflion is made by mufcu- 
 lar force, their fecond ftomach is plainly contrived 
 for comminuting or digefting their food that way; 
 for beiides that it is one of the ftrongefl: mufcles in 
 their bodies, its infide is defended with a hard and 
 {trong membrane that it may not be torn; and 
 thefe birds always eat with their grain the rougheffc 
 and hardeft little ftones they can find, which are 
 necelTary for grinding their food, notwithftanding 
 it is firft foaked in another flomach, and is alfo 
 food of very eafy digeflion. In ferpents, fome birds, 
 and feveral kinds of fifh, which fwallow whole 
 animals, and retain them long in their flomachs, 
 digeflion feems to be performed by a menftruum; 
 for we frequently find in their flomachs animals fp 
 totally digefled, before their form is dellroyed, that 
 their very bones are made foft. In horfes and oxen» 
 digeflion is but little more than extradiing a tinc- 
 ture; for in their excrements when voided, we fee 
 the textureof their food is not totally deflroyed, tho' 
 grafs, in particular, feems to be as eafily divided 
 as any food whatever, and the corn they eat is often 
 voided entire ; and in the excrements of rnen^ 
 are often fQcn the fkins of fruits undigelled, and 
 fmall fruits fuchas currants, unbroke, and worms 
 alfocontiiTue unhurt, both in the flomach and guts. 
 Therefore, by comparing our flomachs with thofc 
 here mentioned, it appears tome, that our digeflion 
 
 ^ is 
 
DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 155 
 
 is performed by a menftruum, which is chiefly 
 faliva, gently aflifted by the adtion of the ilomach, 
 and the abdominal mufcles, and by that principle 
 of corruption which is in all dead bodies. For di- 
 geflion is no other than corruption or putrefadion 
 of our food ; therefore meats preferved from cor- 
 ruption by fait or fpirits, are hard of digeflion and 
 unwholfome. Neverthelefs, when this digefting 
 menftruum of the ftomach is too crude, the fame 
 falts or fpirits, moderately ufed, become a remedy; 
 and though meat long falted is fo very un wholes 
 fome, it feems not to be from the fait itfelf, but 
 the meat made undigeftibie by being long falted |- 
 for thofe who eat the greateft quantily of fait at 
 their meals are not fubjeded thereby to the fame 
 .diftempers. And this digefting menftruum, when 
 the ftpmach is empty, exciting that uneafmefs 
 which we pall hunger, our appetites and our di- 
 geftion are thereby neceftarily fuited both as to 
 time and quantity. 
 
 Duodenum is the firft of the three fmali guts; 
 it begins from the pylorus of tt^e ftomach, and is 
 thence reflected downward; it firft palTes by the 
 gall bladder, and then under the following gut and 
 mefentery, and coming in ftght again in the left 
 hypochondrium, it there commences jejunum^ 
 which is the fecond of the fmall guts ; but the 
 place where this ends a!)d the othef begins is not 
 precifely determined. 
 
 JE- 
 
156 DUCTUS A LIMENTALIS. 
 
 Jejunum is fo called from its being found, 
 for the mod part, empty; it is fituated in the regio 
 umbilicalis, and makes fomewhat more than a 
 third part of the fmall guts. It is diftinguifhed 
 from the following gut by its coats, which are a 
 fmall matter thinner and lefs pale. 
 
 Ileum is the continuation of the former, fitu-, 
 ated in the hypogaftrium, and very often fome 
 part of it in the pelvis of the abdomen, upon the 
 bladder of urine, efpecially in women ; it enters 
 the colon on the right fide, near the upper edge 
 of the OS ilium. This great length of the fmall 
 guts is evidently for the convenience of a greater 
 number of ladeals, that the chyle which milTes 
 their orifices in one place may not efcape them in 
 another 3 but thofe animals which fwallow their 
 food whole, and have it a long time in their fto- 
 mach and guts, have ihorter guts and fewer ladeals. 
 
 Colon is the firfl of the great guts; it begins 
 a:t the upper edge of the right os ilium; thence 
 afcending palTes under fome part of the liver, and 
 the bottom of the ftomach, from the right hypo- 
 chondrium to the left, and thence defcends to the 
 pelvis of the abdomen. 
 
 C^CUM, or APPENDICULA VERMIFORMIS, is 
 
 fituated on the beginning of the colon: it is lefs 
 than an earth-worm, with a fmall orifice opening 
 into the colon: this gut has feldom any thing 
 in it. In men it is called one of the large guts, 
 though it is the fmalleft by far 5 but the miftake 
 
 arifes 
 
DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 157 
 arifes from copying the antients, whofe defcriptions 
 of all the parts contained in the abdomen, feem to 
 be taken from dogs ; for in them, and in many other 
 animals, it is very large : and fome fifli have them 
 in great numbers, but very fmall; I have counted 
 in a mackarel above one hundred and fifty. 
 
 Rectum is the continuation of the colon thro* 
 the pelvis to the anus. The lower end of this gut 
 is the feat of the true fiftula in ano, which ufually 
 runs betwixt the mufcular coat and the inner coat; 
 it is cured by opening it the whole length into 
 the cavity of the gut; it is yet better, if it can be 
 done, to extirpate all that is fiftulous and fchirrhous, 
 for that is a fure way to make one operation perfect 
 the cure. The other kind of fiftula, improperly fo 
 called, is an abfcefs running round the outfide of 
 the fphind:er, in the fliape of a horfe-fhoe, being a 
 circle all but where this mufcle unites with thofe 
 of the penis; this is beft cured by opening and re- 
 moving part of the outer ils:in. The firft of thefe 
 * cafes happens ofteneftinfull habits, proceeding fre- 
 quently from the piles ; the laft is generally a criti- 
 cal difcharge, and one of nature's laft efforts in con- 
 fumptive and fcorbutic habits of body. The inver- 
 fion and Aiding down of this gut is called prolapfus 
 ani, a difeafe common in children, efpecially thofe 
 who are afflided with the ftone, and of not much 
 confequence; in men it is more rare and more 
 dangerous, being generally attended with a flux of 
 humours. This cafe I have cured by takin? awava 
 
 piece 
 
158 DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 
 piece of the prolapfed gut Xvith a cauftic, lengtli-= 
 ways of the gut; the wound difcharged the flux of 
 humours, upon which the gut was eafily reduced,^ 
 and cicatrifing in that ftate it never more fell down. 
 
 I HAVE icen a cafe, where a bold Unthinking 
 furgeon having cut oif the prolapfed part, the ci- 
 catrix was fo hard and contracfled that the patient 
 could never after go to flool without a elyfter, and 
 then not v/ithout great mifeiy. 
 
 Oftentimes the piles occalion large tumours 
 at the lower end of this gnt; thefe are always 
 befl: extirpated by ligature ; for if they are cut, 
 they v/ill fometimes bleed exceffively, and it is 
 no eafy matter to apply any thing to flop a flux of 
 blood in that part- 
 
 The guts have the fame coats with the ilomach j 
 the fibres of their middle or mufcular coat are cir- 
 cular, or fpiral, and longitudinal ; of the latter, but 
 vefy few. The antagonifts to thefe mufcular fibres 
 c* the fliomach and guts, are their contents prefled 
 from one place to another, and the mufcles of the 
 abdomen, for thefe preffing upon them alter their 
 form into one lefs capacious ^ which necelfarily 
 extends their circular fibres. The great guts have 
 three fnembranes,or ligaments on the outfide, run- 
 ning their whole length, andfupportingthe facculi, 
 into which thofe guts are divided. The lefler guts 
 have,, at very fmalldiftances, femilunar valves placed 
 oppofite to the interfliices of each other, to prevent 
 the aliment from pacing too fpcedily through the 
 
 guts ; 
 
DUCTUS ALIMENTALIS. 159 
 
 guts; and the better to anfwer that end, they are 
 larger and more numerous near the ftomach, where 
 the food is thinner, than they are towards the colon, 
 where the food is continually made thicker in its 
 progrefs, by a difcharge of part of the chyle. This 
 contrivance, fo neceiiary to men, becaufe of their 
 cred pofture, when they are obliged, by (icknefs 
 or accident, to lie along, becomes a great inconve- 
 nience, and calls for the help of clyfters and purges. 
 But brutes have not thefe valves, becaufe they are 
 not convenient in an horizontal pofture. At the 
 entrance of the ileum into the colon, are two very 
 ^arge valves, which effectually hinder the regrefs of 
 the foEces into the ileum. But clyfters have been 
 frequently known to pafs them, and be vomited 
 up; tho' the excrement that is fometimes vomited 
 up, I am inclined to think, is fuch as had not paf- 
 fed into the great guts. The other valves in the 
 colon are placed oppofite, but not in the fame 
 plane, to each other, and make, with their ante- 
 rior edges, an equilateral triangle; but as the gut 
 approaches the anus, they become lefs remarka- 
 ble, and fewer in number. 
 
 All the guts have in their inner membrane an 
 almofl infinite number of very fmall glands : thefe 
 glands will, efpeciaiiy fome of them in the large 
 guts, appear to the naked ey^ when they are dif- 
 eafed ; they are called glanduiae pyerians. 
 
 The length of the guts to that of the body is 
 as five to one in a middle-fized man : in taller men 
 
 tha 
 
i6o MESENTERY. 
 
 the proportion is ufually lefs, and in fhort meit 
 .greater. 
 
 Mesentery is a membrane beginning loofely 
 upon the loins, and is thence produced to all the 
 guts : it preferves the jejunum and ileum from 
 twifting in their periftaltic or vermicular motion, 
 and confines the refl to their places. It fuftains all 
 the vefTels going to and from the guts, viz. arteries, 
 veins, lymphaedud;s, ladieals, and nerves, and alfo 
 contains many glands, called, from their fituation, 
 mefentericse. The beginning of this membrane 
 from the loins, is about three or four inches broad> 
 but next the guts of the fame length with the fide of 
 .the guts they adhere to, which is in the fmall guts, 
 about a fourth part fhorter than the other lide; but 
 when this membrane is feparated from the fmall 
 guts, it fhrinks, and meafures about two thirds lefs. 
 
 I OPENED a boy, about twelve years old, that 
 died of the iliac paffion, vulgarly called the twift- 
 ing of the guts; the guts, ftomach, duodenum, 
 and jejunum w^ere diftended, with vapour and air, 
 to near ten times their natural capacity, which fo 
 comprefTed the inteftinum ileum, that nothing could 
 pafs through it. The relations of this boy could 
 give no other account of the caufe of this difeafe, 
 than that of his having eaten a large quantity of ' 
 raw young carrots. This cafe happens very fre- 
 quently to lambs that have been houfed, and turned 
 out early in the fpring to grafs, when the grafs is 
 very rank and fucculent ; and alfo to horfes,. oxen, 
 
 and 
 
LIVER- i6i 
 
 and fheep, when they happen to feed, by any acci- 
 dent, upon young beans or peas, or rich clover 
 grafs, which are very apt to ferment in their fto- 
 machs. In thefe animals this cafe is commonly 
 cured by running a knife into their guts j fome in- 
 ftances of which I have feen, and have heard a 
 great many reported; but this cafe happening very 
 rarely to rrien, I believe that pradiice has never yet 
 been ufed; though the inftrument which is ufed 
 for tapping in a dropfy of the abdomen, might do 
 it with great eafe and fafety. Some anatomifls, 
 who have conlidered the impoffibility of a twift- 
 ing of the guts, which is the vulgar name of this 
 difeafe, have imagined that it proceeds from one 
 gut being involved in another. Thefe involutions 
 are found frequently in bodies that die a natural 
 death, and without any inflammation, or any 
 other fymptom of pain. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Of the liver, gall-bladder, pancreas, and ffleen. 
 
 TH E liver is the largefl gland in the body; 
 of a dufky red colour. It is lituated imme- 
 diately under the diaphragm in the right hypochon- 
 drium; its exterior lide is convex, and interior con- 
 cave; backward towards the ribs it is thick, and 
 thin on its fore-part, where it covers the upper lide 
 
 L of 
 
102 LIVE It. 
 
 of the flomacli, and fome of the guts 3 the uppe^ 
 fide of it adheres to the diaphragm, and is alfo tied 
 to it and the fternum by a thin ligament, which is-- 
 defcribed commonly as twoj: the upper part called 
 fufpenforium, and the anterior latum -^ but- either 
 of thefenames-isfufficient for it alL It is alfo tied 
 to the navel by a ro-ujid. ligament called teres or 
 mnbilicale, which is the umbelical vein degenerated 
 into a ligament; it is inferted into the liver at a 
 fmall fiilure in its lower edge,.. The ligamentum. 
 latum,. or fufpenforium,-:fuftains the liver in an etedr 
 poflurey or rather fixes it in its fituation, while it 
 is fupported by the other vifcera,, they being com- 
 prefTed by the abdominal mufcles; in lying down 
 the teres prevents itfrompreffingon the diaphragm; 
 and in lying on the back, they both together fuf- 
 pend it, that it may not comprefs and obflirud: the 
 afcending vena cava. Itis nourifhed by the branches 
 of the celiac and mefenteric arteries in the liver,, 
 called arteriae hepaticse,. but its. blood vefTels that- 
 - compofe it as a gland, are the branches of the vena- 
 ports, which- enters the liver, anddiflributes its^ 
 blood like an artery, to have the bile fecreted from. 
 it; and the branches of the cava in the liver which 
 return the redundant blocd into tlie cava afcendens %. 
 It has alfo feveral branches of nerves, and a great 
 nmnber of lymphatics: of which I fhall treat in.^ 
 their refped:ive places. Dogs and cats, and other- 
 animal.^, that have a great deal of motion in their ^ 
 backs, have their livers divided into many, diflind: 
 
 2 lo- 
 
GALL-BLADDER. 163 
 
 jfobiiles; which, by moving one again ft another, 
 comply with thofe motions, which elfe would 
 break their livers to pieces. 
 
 The gall-bladder is a receptacle of bile, feated 
 in the hollow iide of the liver; it is compofed of 
 one denfe coat fomewhat mufcular, v/hich is co- 
 vered with a membrane like that of the liver; and 
 is alfo lined with another, that cannot eafily be fe- 
 parated* Modern anatomifts have defcribed a num- 
 ber of fmall dud:s leading from the liver to the gall* 
 bladder, by which they fuppofe the gall-bladder is 
 filled; and thefe I thought I had feen in a human 
 body that died of a jaundice, when I was a very 
 young anatomift; but never being able to fee any 
 iince in any animal, though I have made very di- 
 ligent enquiry by experiments and diffeftion, I am 
 now periuaded that there are no fuch dud:s ; for if 
 they are too little to be feen or filled by inje6tione, 
 I think they are too little for the end for which 
 thev are afli9:ned. As to the arg-ument for the ex- 
 iilence of fuch du6i:s, which is fetched froin the 
 difficulty of the gall-bladder's being filled through 
 the ductus cyfticus from the duftus hepaticus, I 
 thinkit i« of little weight, feeing; the veficula^ femi- 
 nalesare filled with a thicker fluid through, a lefs di- 
 rect paiTage. From the gall-bladder tovv'ards the du- 
 odenum runs a du(5l called cyflicus; and from the 
 liver to this dudl one called hepaticus, Vv'hich car- 
 ries piF the gall this way, when the gall-bladder 
 i? full}* then the dudus cyfbigus and hepaticus 
 
 L 2 being 
 
i64 GAL L-B LADDER. 
 
 being united, commence dudlus communis chole- 
 dochus, which enters the duodenum obliquely 
 about four inches below its beginning. The ori- 
 iice of this dud in the gut is fomewhat eminent^ 
 but has no caruncle, as is commonly faid. As the 
 liver, from its Htuation in the fame cavity with 
 the ftomach, will be mofh preUed, and confequent- 
 ly feparate moft gall v/hen the -flomach is fulleflr, 
 which is the time when it is moft wanted; fo the 
 gall-bladder^ being feated againft the duodenum^ 
 it will have its fluid preiTed out by the aliment 
 pafiing through that gut, and confequently at a 
 right time and in due proportion j becaufe the 
 greater that quantity of aliment is, the greater 
 will be the compreffion; and lb the contrary. 
 
 1 KNOW noway of computing, with any exad- 
 nefs, the quantity of bile that is ufually fecreted by 
 the liver in a given time; but if it is four times as 
 much as all the falivary glands fecrete, it may be 
 twenty four ounces for every meal: to which be- 
 ing added fix ounces of faliva. Vv^hich, from what 
 is obferved in the chapter of the falivary glands, I 
 think will appear a moderate computation : and 
 fuppofing the pancreas in the lame time fecretes 
 three ounces, there will thtn be thirty three 
 ounces of fluids feparated for the digeftion of one 
 meal j and that thefe neceilary fluids may not be 
 wafl:ed in fuch quantities, they pafs into the blood 
 with the chyle, and may be foon feparated again for 
 the lame uic; and very likely, fome of the fame bile 
 ID . , may 
 
PANCREAS. roj 
 
 may be employed more than once, for digefling 
 part of the fame meal : and as the liver exceeds all 
 the glands in the body in magnitude, and its excre- 
 tory dud:s ending in the duodenum, it feems to me 
 to be much more capable of making thofe large fe- 
 parations from the blood, which are procured by 
 cathartics, than thefcarce vifible glands of the guts. 
 The liver ordinarily weighs, in a middle-iized man, 
 about three pounds twelve ounces, the pancreas 
 three ounces, and the fpleen fourteen ounces. I 
 have {ten a difeafed liver in a man that weighed 
 fourteen pounds four ounces : and in a boy but nine 
 years old, that died hydropic, the liver full of hy- 
 datids, and cyfls of hydatids adhering to it, which 
 together weighed feven pounds one ounce and a 
 half, though feveral pints of water had been let out 
 of it before. The fpleen in the fame boy, together 
 with the hydatids contained in its membrane, 
 weighed^ three pounds. In a man I found a difeafed 
 fpleen, weighing five pounds two ounces^ and in 
 an old m.an, fix foot high, 1 found a found liver 
 v/eigl^ing no more than twenty eight ounces, and 
 the fpleen but ten ounces : and in a man that had 
 been cured of a dropfy I found a polypus very folid, 
 almofl filling the large branches of the porta in the 
 liver, and a ftone between the liver and gall-blad- 
 der, larger than a nutmeg. 
 
 Pancreas, the fweet-bread, is a large gland 
 of the falivary kind, lying a-crofs the upper and 
 back part of th? abdomen, near the duodenum; it 
 
 L 3 has 
 
i66 PANCREAS. 
 
 has a {bort excretory dudt, about half as large as a 
 crow quill, though it is commonly painted as large 
 as the du6lus communis choledocus : it always en- 
 ters the duodenum together with the bile dudl; but 
 in dogs fome diflance from it j and, I think, al- 
 v/ays in two duds diflant from one another. The 
 juice of this gland, together with the bile, helps to 
 eompleat the digeftion of the aliment, and renders 
 it fit to enter the ladeal vefTels. In a man that died 
 of a jaundice, I found the duftus communis chole- 
 dochus conftridied by a fchirrhous pancreas, the 
 gall-bladder extended to the lize of a goole e^gg^ 
 and all the dud:s to twice their natural bignefs. 
 This is the cafe in which I thought I had fo plainly 
 feen the cyflihepatlc duds : I once faw the dudus 
 cyilicus obftruded, without the gall-bladder be- 
 ing difcended, which, I think, furnifhes us with 
 a very probable argument againft the exiftence of 
 cyilihepatic duds. In thofe who die of the jaun- 
 dice, for the moil part are found in the gall-bladder 
 and the biliary duds concretions of bile fo light as 
 to fwim in water, yet are called gall-flones : thefe 
 caufe the jaundice, by obftruding the duds ^ many 
 of thofe who have been cured of this difeafe, have 
 had great numbers of thefe flones found in their ex- 
 crements. A patient of mine who had voided by 
 ftool feveral of thefe flones, had afterwards two of 
 half an inch diameter, which made their way thro' 
 the integuments of the abdomen, and was cured 
 without much pain. Oxen, as the fame gentleman 
 
 in- 
 
SPLEEN. i'd7 
 
 Informed jne, who have been long fed upon dry- 
 meat, abound with them; while others, fed with 
 them, and afterwards turned to grafs, when killed, 
 are found without them. This gentleman could 
 jnever eat any herbs. He alfo informed me of a 
 phyiician in France, that with great reputation 
 cured the jaundice by giving his^ patients large 
 quantities of the juice of herbs. 
 
 The fpleen is ieated in the left hypochondrium., 
 immediately under the diaphragm, and above the 
 kidney, between the ilomach and the ribs^ it is 
 fupported by the fub-contained parts, and fixed to 
 its place by an adheiion to the peritonaeum and dia- 
 phragm j it is alfo connected to the omentum, as 
 has been obferved. The figure of it is a fort of a de- 
 prelTed oval, near twice as lon^ as broad, and almoil 
 twice as broad as thick. Sometimes it is divided into 
 lobules, but for the mofi: part has only one or two 
 fmali fifiures on its edge, and fometimes none; in 
 its colour it refembles cafl iron. The inner texture, 
 in brutes, is veficular, like the penis. j in which 
 veficles are found grumous blood, and fmall bodies 
 like glands: but Ruysch denie-s that the human 
 fpleen is of the lame texture. The fpleen I have 
 feen taken out of a dog, without any remarkable 
 inconvenience to him, I have twice, in a human 
 fcody, fcen three fpleen s, tv/ice two, and once four; 
 fome of thefe were very fmall, others nearly equal, 
 but altogether in any of thefe bodies were not lar- 
 ger than the one wiiich is ufually found. 
 
 L 4 CHAP. 
 
i68 VASA LACTEA. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of the vafa la£iea. 
 
 VASA LACTEA are the vens lad:2e, recepta- 
 culain chyli, and du(5tus thoracicus. 
 
 Venje LACTEA, &c. are a vaft number of very 
 fine pellucid tubes, beginning from the fmall guts, 
 and proceeding thence through the mefentery; 
 they frequently unite, and form fewer and larger 
 veiTels, which firil pafs through the mefenteric 
 glands, and then into the receptaculum chyli. Thefe 
 veffels ere they arrive at the mefentric glands, or 
 in dogs the pancreas afellii, which is thefe glands 
 collected, are called venas ladteas primi generis 3 and 
 thence to their entrance into the receptaculum chy- 
 li, vens kdteae fecundi generis. The office of thefe 
 veins is to receive the fluid part of the digeiled ali- 
 ment, which is called chyle, and convey it to the 
 receptaculum chyli; that it may be thence carried, 
 thro' the dud:us thoracicus into the blood vefl'els. 
 
 For the following excellent defcription, thus 
 marked, " of the receptaculum chyli, and ductus 
 "'* thoracicus," I am obliged to Mr. Monro, 
 
 ** Receptaculum chyli Pecqueti, or 
 ." sACCUs lacteus Van Horne, is a membra- 
 *^* nous fomewhat pyriform bag, two thirds of an 
 *' inch long, one third of an inch over in its largeft 
 '' part,when collapfed^ fituated on the firfl vertebra 
 *' iumborum, to the right of theaorta, alittlehigher 
 
 ** than 
 
VASA LACTEA. 169 
 
 ** than the arteria emulgens dextra, under the right 
 " inferior mufcle of the diaphragm. It is formed 
 ** by the union of three tubes j one from under 
 ** the aorta, the fecond from the interflice of the 
 '' aortaand cava, the third from under the emulgents 
 " of the right fide. The facchus chyliferus at its 
 " fuperiorpart becoming gradually fmaller, is con- 
 *' tradted into a ilender membranous pipe of about 
 ** a line diameter, well known by the name of 
 
 ** Ductus thoracius. This paffes betwixt 
 ** the appendices mufculofae diaphragmatis, on 
 *' the right of, and fomewhat behind the aorta, 
 ** then lodged in the cellular fubflance under the 
 ** pleura; it mounts between this artery and vena 
 *' fine pari, or azygos, as far as the fifth vertebra 
 *' thoracis, where it is hid by the azygos, as this 
 ** vein rifes forward to join the cava defcendehs ; 
 *' after which the dud: pafles obliquely over to the 
 '* left fide under the oefophagus, aorta defcendens, 
 " and great curvature of the aorta, until it reaches 
 " the left carotid, ftretching farther towards the 
 *^ left internal jugular, by a circular turn, whofe 
 " convex part is uppermofi: : at the top of this arch 
 ** it fplits into two for one half line, the fuperior 
 " branch receiving into it a large lymphatic from 
 ** the cervical glands. This lymphatic appears, by 
 '* blowing and injections, to have two valves; 
 ** when the two branches are united, the dud: con- 
 ** tinues its courfe to the internal jugular, behind 
 ** which it defcends, and immediately at the left 
 
 *' fide 
 
lyo V A S A L A C T E A, 
 
 ** fide of the infertion of this vein, enters the fa- 
 ** perior and pofterior part of the left fubclavian, 
 <* whofe internal membrane duplicated forms afe- 
 ** milunar external convex valve that covers, two 
 ** thirds of the orifice of the dud:. Immediately 
 ^* below this orifice a cervical vein from the muf- 
 *** culi fcaleni enters the fubclavian. The thin coat 
 ** and valves, com-monly ten or twelve, of this du(5V, 
 *' are fo generally known, I beed not mention them. 
 *^ In. my notes I find little variation m the recepta- 
 ^« culum, only its difterent capacities in different 
 ** fubjeds, and fometimes more duds concurring 
 '*' in the formation of it. The diameter of the du(Sk 
 ** varies in mofl bodies, and in the fame fubjed: is 
 "*' uniform, but frequently fudden enlai-geinents or 
 ** facculi of it are obfervable. The divifions which 
 " authors mention of this dud within the thorax 
 " are very uncertain : In a woman I diifeded laft 
 *'* fummer, at the eighth vertebra thoracis, one 
 ^' branch climbed over the aorta, and about the 
 *■* fifth vertebra flipped back again under that artery 
 ** to the other branch, which continued in the or- 
 ^* dinary courfe. Laft winter I found this dud of 
 ** a man difcharging itfelf entirely into the right 
 *^ fubclavian vein. The precife vertebra, where it 
 ^' begins to turn towards the left, is alfo uncertain. 
 ^* Frequently it does not fplit at its fuperior arch ; 
 ^* in which cafe a large faccus is found near its aper- 
 ** ture into the fubclavian vein. Generally it has 
 '* but one orifice, though I have {qqh two in one 
 
 *' body. 
 
ft 
 
 VASA LACTEA. 171 
 
 *' body, and three in another; nay, fometimes 
 ** it divides into two under the curvature of the 
 great ^rtery; one goes to the right, another to 
 the left fubclavian; this however is very rare. 
 " The lymphatic, v^hich enters the fuperior arch, 
 '* is often fent from the thyroid gland." 
 
 Supposing there ordinaHly pafTes five pounds 
 of chyle in a day through ike lad:eals, and that 
 four ounces of this only are added to the blood 
 (though it may be any other quantity for aught I 
 know) and that a man neither decreafes or increa- 
 fes during this time, then all the feparations from 
 the fmids and folids muft bejuft five pounds; four 
 ounces of which muft be thofe fluids and parti- 
 cles of folids, which are become unprofitable ^ 
 and the remaining four pounds twelve ounces 
 will ferve as a vehicle to carry the four ounces oiF: 
 fo that we fee for what reafon more fluids are car- 
 ried into the blood than are to be retained there, 
 and how the body is by the fame means both nou-r 
 rifiied and preferved in health. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
\^i PLEURA, MEDIASTINUM, 
 
 C H A P. VIL 
 
 Of the Fleurayinediajlinum, lungs , pericardium, and 
 
 heart. 
 
 LEURA is a fine membrane which lines 
 the whole cavity of the thorax, except on 
 the diaphragm, which is covered with no other 
 than its own proper membrane. The back part 
 of it is extended over the great velTels, like the 
 peritonaeum^ and in regard this membrane pafles 
 partly under thefe veiTels, as the peritonaeum does 
 In the abdomen, they may be faid to lie in a du- 
 plicature of it; it ferves to make the infide of 
 the thorax fmooth and equal. 
 
 Mediastinum divides the thorax lengthways, 
 from the fternum to the pericardium and pleura, 
 which, is a very fliort fpace, but in many brutes 
 very coniiderable. It divides into two in men, but 
 in brutes it is lingle^ it divides the thorax not ex- 
 actly in the middle, but towards the left fide, and 
 is fo difpofed, that the two cavities, into which it 
 divides the thorax, do not end toward this mem- 
 brane in an angle, but a fegment of a circle ; it 
 hinders one lobe of the lungs from incommoding 
 the other, as in lying on one fide the uppermoft 
 might do; and prevents the diforders of one lobe 
 of the lungs from afieding the other. 
 
 The lungs are compofed of two lobes, one feated 
 on each fide of the mediafiinum ; each of which 
 
 lobes 
 
AND LUNGS. 173 
 
 lobes are fubdivided into two or three lobules, which 
 qire moft diftindly divided in fuch animals as have 
 moft motion in their backs, for the fame end that 
 the liver is in the fame animals . They are each com- 
 pofed of very fmall cells, which are the extremi- 
 ties of the afpera arteria or bronchos. The figure 
 of thefe cells is irregular; yet they are fitted to each 
 other fo as to have common fides, and leave no void 
 fpace. Into thefe cells the blood vefi^els difcharge 
 a large quantity of lymph, or materia peripirabilis, 
 which at once keeps them from being dried biy 
 the air, and makes a large and neceifary difcharge 
 from the blood, as has already been obferved upon 
 thefubjedt of perfpiration through the fkin. Dr. 
 Willis has given a very particular defcription of 
 the inner texture of the lungs, but it is only ima- 
 ginary and falfe, as he, and they who have copied 
 his cuts and defcriptions, could not buthave known, 
 if they had ever made the leafl: enquiry into the lungs 
 of any animal ; nor is his account of the lympha- 
 tics on the furface of the lungs, at all more true 
 than that of their texture. In the membranes 
 of thefe cells are diflributed the branches of the 
 pulmonary artery and vein. The known ufes of 
 the air's entering the lungs, are to be inftrumen'tal 
 in fpeech, and to convey effluvia into the nofe, as 
 it pafles for the fenfe of fmelling ; but the great 
 ufe of it, by which life is preferved, I think we 
 do not underfland. By fome the force of the air is 
 thought to feparate the globuli of the blood that 
 
 have 
 
174 LUNGS. 
 
 have cohefcid in the flow circulation through thd 
 veins : and this opinion feems to be favoured by 
 the many inllances of polypufes, which are large 
 concretions of the globuli of the blood, found in 
 the veins near the hearty and in the right auricle 
 and ventricle of the hearty and their being fofeldom 
 found in the pulmonary veins, or in the left auricle 
 or ventricle of the heart, or in any of the arteries f 
 but if it is true that, while the blood pafTes through 
 the lungs, many cohering globuli are feparated, yet 
 it remains to be proved that thefe feparations are 
 made by the force of the air. Dr. Keil has com- 
 puted the force of the air in the fl:rongefl: exfpira- 
 tions againft the fides of all the velicles, to be equal 
 to fifty thoufand pound weight; which though we 
 fhould grant, we fhall fliil find the moment of the 
 air in the lungs exceeding fmall in any fmall fpace'. 
 For the velocity with which the air moves in the 
 lungs is as much lefs than that with which it moves 
 in the wind-pipe, as the fquare of a fecSion of the _ 
 cells in the lungs is' greater than the fquare of a fee- 
 tion of the wind-pipe; and therefore if the fquare 
 of all the extreme blood-veflels in the lungs do not 
 bear a greater proportion to the fquare of the large 
 pulmonary vefTels than the fquare of the cells do to 
 the wind-pipe, and if the blood in thefe large vei^els^ 
 moves as fafl as the air in the wind-pipe, then the 
 blood moving in the fmallefl veffels of the lungS 
 with a velocity equal to that of the air of the cells> . 
 the blood vs^ill have a.? much more attrition from 
 
 the 
 
LUNGS. 17-^ 
 
 tlie power that moves it in its own veiTels, than the- 
 air can give upon them, as blood is heavier than 
 air., Befides, air preffing equally to- all fides, and 
 the globuli of the blood fwimming in a fluid; this, 
 prefTure, be it what it will, I think, can be of lit- 
 tle ufe to make fuch feparations. Indeed it may 
 be objected that the greateil prelTure is in exfpira- 
 tion, yet that furely cannot be very great, while 
 the air has fo-free a palTage out of them. Others 
 have thought, that the air enters the blood-velTels 
 from the cells in the lungs, and mixes with thei 
 blood ; but this opinion, hov/ever probable,, wants 
 fufficient experiments to prove it; air being found 
 in the blood,, as it certainly is, is no proof of its. 
 entering this way,, becaufe it may enter with the. 
 chyle : nor is the impaffibility which has beer^ 
 urged of its entering at the lungs without the blood 
 being liable to come out the fame way into the ve- 
 ficles of the lungs, a good argument to the contra- 
 ry ; for if a pliable dud; pafles between the mem- 
 branes of a velTel, thoagh a fpace greater than; 
 the fquare of its orifice, no fluid can return, becaufe. 
 the preifure which fhould force it back will be 
 greater againfl the fides of tliat dud than its orifice;: 
 which is the cafe of the bile-dud entering the duo- 
 denum,, and the ureters entering the bladder. I 
 think the moil probable argument for the air's en- 
 tering inta the blood- by the lungs, or rather fome 
 particular part of the air, may be fetched from a 
 known: experiment of each man in a diving bell 
 
 want- 
 
176 LUNGS. 
 
 wanting near a gallon of frefh air in a minute ; and 
 if prellure only was wanted in this cafe, they often 
 defcend, till the prefTure of the air is three or four 
 times what it is upon the furface of the earth, with- 
 out any advantage from thatpreffure; and animals 
 dying fo foon in air that has been burnt, and their 
 being fo ealily intoxicated by breathing air much 
 impregnated with fpirituous liquors, are alfo argu- 
 ments of a paiTage this way into the blood. Beiides, 
 if prefTure of the air in the cells of the lungs is the 
 only ufe of it, I do not fee but enough of that may 
 be had while a man is hanging, if the mufcles 
 of the thorax do but ad; upon the air which was 
 left in the thorax when the rope was firfl fixed, 
 and yet death is brought about by hanging no other 
 way than by interrupting of the breath, as I have 
 found by certain experiments. Dr. Drake has 
 endeavoured to fliew, that the ufe of refpiration is 
 to afTifl the fyftole of the heart: but this ufe re- 
 quires that the fyftole and diaftole of the heart 
 jQiould keep time with exfpiration and infpiration, 
 which is contrary to experience. The lungs of ani- 
 mals, before they have been dilated with air, are 
 fpecifically heavier than water; but upon inflation 
 they become fpecifically lighter, and fwim in wa- 
 ter ; which experiment may be made to difcover 
 whether a dead child was ilill born, or not ; but if 
 the child has breathed but a little, and the experi- 
 ment is made long after, the lungs may be coUapfed 
 and grow heavier than water, as I have experiment- 
 
 ed. 
 
PERICARDIUM and HEART. 177 
 
 , ed, which may fometimes lead a man to give a 
 wrong judgment in a court of judicature, but then 
 it will be on the charitable fide of the queflion. 
 Adhefions of the lungs to the pleura ar& in meri 
 fo common, that I know not how to call it a dif- 
 eafe ; they being found fo more or lefs in mofl: 
 adult perfons, and without any inconvenience, if 
 the lungs are not rotten. 
 
 Pericardium, or heart-purse, is an Ex- 
 ceeding ilrong membrane which covers the heart ; 
 its fide riext the great veffels is partly conneded- 
 to them, and partly to the bails of the heart, but, 
 I think hot properly perforated by thofe vefTels ; 
 tind its lower fide is infeparable from the tendinous 
 part of the diaphragm> but not fo iri brutes, iii 
 fome of which there is a membranous bag between 
 it and the diaphragm, w^hich contains a lobule of 
 the lungs* It inclofes all the heart to its bafis ; 
 its ufes are to keep the heart iri its place; Without 
 interrupting its office,' to keep it from having any 
 fridion with the lungs^ and to contain a liquor to 
 lubricate the furface of the heart, and abate itS' 
 
 . friction again ft the pericardium. 
 
 The heart is a rhufcle of a conic figure, with 
 two cavities or ventricles ; its balls is fixed by the 
 vefiTels going to and from it, upon the fourth and. 
 firft vertebra of the thorax; its apex^ or pointy 
 is inclined dow^n ward and to the kft fide, where 
 h is received in a cavity of the kft lobe of the 
 lungs, as may beobferved, the lungs being extended 
 
 M with?- 
 
178 HEART. 
 
 with air. This incumbrance on the left lobe of the 
 lungs, I imagine, is the caufe of that fide's being 
 mofl: fubjeit to thofe pains which are ufually call- 
 ed pleuritic, which I have ever found upon difTedl- 
 ing of them to be inflammations in the lungs. 
 
 At the bafis of the heart, on each fide, are fitu- 
 ated the two auricles to receive the bloody the right 
 from the two vense cavae, and the left from the pul- 
 monary veins : in the right, at the meeting of the. 
 cavse, is an eminence called tuberculum Loweri, 
 which directs the blood into the auricle; immedi- 
 ately below this tubercule, in the ending of the cava 
 afcendens, is the vefligium of the foramen ovale 
 (vid. chap. Of the fcetus^) and near this, in the 
 auricle, is the mouth of the coronary veins'. Both 
 auricles are ftrengthenedbymufcular columna2,like 
 the ventricles. The left is muchlefs than the right; 
 but the difference is fupplied by a large mufcular 
 cavity, which the veins from the lungs afford in that 
 place. The fides of this mufcular cavity are thicker 
 than the fides of the right auricle, in about that 
 proportion, in which the left ventricle of the heart 
 is ffronger than the right ; their ufes being to re- 
 ceive blood from the veins that lead to the heart, 
 and prefs it into the ventricles, aftrength jn each au- 
 ricle proportionable to the ftrength of the ventricle 
 that it is to iill v/ith blood, feems neceffary : and 
 this different thicknefs of the coats of the auricles 
 makes the blood in the left, which is thickeft, ap^ 
 pear through it of a paler red ; but when it is let 
 6 out 
 
HEART. 179 
 
 out of the auricles, it appears alike from both ; which 
 they would do well to examine, who affirm the 
 blood returns from the lungs of a more florid co^ 
 lour than it Went in; and offer it us as an argument 
 of the blood's being mixed with air in the lungs. 
 The ventricles or cavities in the heart which receive 
 the blood, are hollow mufcles, or tv/o cavities in 
 one mufcle, whofe fibres interfed: one another, fo 
 as to make the preffure of the heart upon the blood 
 more equal and effectual, and are alfo lefs liable to 
 be feparated than they would have been, if they had 
 lain in one dirediion. Both thefe cavities receiv- 
 ing the fame quantities of blood in the fame times, 
 and always acting together, muft be equal in fize> 
 if they equally difcharge what they contain at every 
 fyftole, as I doubt not but they do; neverthelefs 
 the left appears lefs than the right, it being found 
 empty in dead bodies, and the right ufually full of 
 blood; v/hich made the antients think the veins 
 and the right ventricle only were for the blood to 
 move in, and that the left and the arteries con- 
 tained only animal fpirits. The left ventricle is 
 much the thickefl and ftrongeft, its office being to 
 drive the blood through the whole body, while the 
 right propels it through the lungs only. Over the 
 entrance of the auricles in 'each ventricle, are placed 
 valves to hinder the return of blood while the heart 
 contradis, Thofe in the right ventricle are named 
 tricufpides, thofe in the left mitrales. One of thefe 
 laft feems to do further fervice, by covering' the 
 
 M 2 mouth 
 
,s::j Ti B A R T. 
 
 mouth of the aorta while the ventricle fills ^ which 
 fuftering none of the blood to pafs out of this ven- 
 tricle into the aorta before the ventricle adls, it will 
 be abk to give greater force to the blood than it 
 ptherwife might havedsne j becanfe a greater quan- 
 tity of blood more folly diftending the ventricle, 
 and making the greater reiiftance, it will be capa- 
 ,ble of receiving the greater impreffed force from 
 the ventricle; and if the blood is mo way hindered 
 in the right ventricle from getting into the pulmo- 
 jaary artery, while the ventricle dilates,, as it is in the. 
 -left, the left then may be fomewhat bigger than 
 the right, if they both empty themfelves alike in 
 every fyilole. Though the. auricles of the heart 
 are equal to- each other,, and the two ventricles alfo 
 equal or nearly equal, yet the auricles are not fet 
 large as the ventricles ^ fOT" the ventricles con taint 
 not only all the blood which flowed, from the veins.- 
 into the auricles, during the coatradtionof theheart,.. 
 but alfo that which flows (which will be directly 
 into the heart) while the auricles contrad:, and the 
 ventricles dilate; which leads us to the exad; know- 
 lege of the ufe of the auricles. If the fyftole and 
 diaftole of the heart are performed in equal times,, 
 then the auricles muft be half the lize of the ven-^ 
 tricles ;. or whatever proportion the fpace of time 
 of the fyftole of the heart bears to the fpace in- 
 which the fyftole and diaftoleare both performed,> 
 that proportioET will the cavities of the auricles 
 bear to the cavities of the ventricles. The inner 
 I fiWea 
 
HEART. 181 
 
 fibresof each ventricle are difpofed into fmall cords, 
 which are called columnse: from fomc of thefe 
 ftand fmall portions of flefh called papilla; thefe 
 papillae are tied to the valves by {lender fibres, 
 whereby they keep the valves from being preiTed 
 into the auricles by the adion of the blood againi^ 
 them in the fyftole of the heart ^ and when that 
 is over, the blood flowing in between them opens 
 them, as the preffure of blood on the other fide 
 fhuts them in the fyftoie. For the courfe of the 
 blood through this part, vid. Chap. Of the courfe 
 of the aliment and fluids. In the beginning of 
 each artery from the heart are placed three valves, 
 which look forward, and clofe together to hinder 
 a regrefs of blood into the ventricles. Thofe in 
 the pulmonary artery are named iigmoidales, thofe 
 in the aorta, femilunares. For the canalis arteri- 
 ofus, vid. chap. Of the fcetus. * 
 
 In a boy I found a great quantity of pus in the 
 pericardium, and the bafis of the heart ulcerated. 
 In perfons that have died of a dropfy, I have ufu- 
 ally obferved the heart large, its fibres lax, and the 
 vefTels about it immoderately dillended, and poly- 
 pufes fometimes in both auricles and ventricles, 
 and in the large veins 5 but more frequently in 
 the right auricle and ventricle. Mr, Pile* has 
 prepared a heart thus difeafed, whofe circumfe- 
 rence from the vertex round the bafe of the auri- 
 cles meafures tvi^cnty-four inches and a quarter, 
 .and round the bale of the ventricles feventeen 
 
 M 3 inches 
 
>82 HEART. 
 
 inches and a half. I dillecSted a man that died 
 tabid, in whom the pericardium univerfally ad- 
 hered to the heart, and a portion of the mufcular 
 part of the heart was oltified as large as a fix- 
 pence. The beginning of the aorta is frequently 
 feen offiijed, efpecially in aged perfons. In a wo- 
 man that died of a dropfy, I found the valves of 
 the aorta quite covered with chalk-ftones, which 
 not fuifering the valves to do their office, the left 
 ventricle of the heart was conftantly overcharged 
 with blood, and diftended to above twice its na- 
 tural bignefs, which, I imagine, dellroyed the 
 CEConomy of the body, and occafioned the dropfy. 
 
 Upon opening the body of a perfon, who died 
 with exceffive palpitations of the heart and un- 
 even pulfe, which began after very hard drinking, 
 in extreme hot weather, fome years before, I found 
 about ten inches of the aorta neareft the heart 
 difterjded three times its natural diameter ; and in 
 'a man one hundred and three years old, I found 
 the fame part of the aorta extended twice its natu-- 
 ral capacity, without any fymptom of fuch a dif-. 
 prder when Jiving, 
 
 CHAP. 
 
ARTERIES AND VEIxVS. 183 
 
 C HA P. VIII, 
 
 Of the arteries and veins, 
 
 FROM the right ventricle of the heart arifes 
 the pulmonary artery, which foon divides into 
 two branches, one to each lobe of the lungs 3 then 
 they fubdivide into fmaller and fmaller branches, 
 until they are diflributed through every part of the 
 lungs. From the extreme branches of the pulmo-^ 
 nary artery arife the fmall branches of the pulmo- 
 nary veins ; which, as they approach the left auri- 
 cle of the heart, unite in fuch a manner as the pul- 
 rnonary artery divides going from the heart, only 
 that the veins enter the niufcular appendix of the 
 left auricle in feveral branches, and the blood being 
 brought back from the lungs by thefe vefTels to the 
 left auricle and ventricle of the heart, it is from the 
 left ventricle of the heart thrown into the aorta. 
 
 Aqrta, or great artery, arifes from the 
 left ventricle of the heart, and deals out branches 
 to every part of the body. The firft part of this 
 vefTel is called aorta afcendensj it paffes over the 
 left pulmonary artery, and veins^ and branch of the 
 afperaarteria, and being refle(5ted under the left lobe 
 of the lungs, it commences aortadefcendens; which 
 name it keeps through the thorax and abdomen, 
 where it pafTes on the left fide of the fpine, till its 
 
 M 4 divi-r 
 
184 ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 divifion into iliac arteries between the third anj 
 fourth vertebrae of the loins. 
 
 From under two of the femilunar valves of the 
 aorta, which is ere it leaves the heart, arife two 
 branches (fometimes but one) which are beilov/ed 
 upon the heart, and are called coronaris cordis^ 
 From the curved part of the aorta, which is about 
 two or three inches above the heart, arife the fub- 
 clavian and carotid arteries ; the right fubclavian 
 and carotid in one trunk, but the left fingle. By 
 Ibme authors thefe veffels have been defcribed in 
 a different manner ; but I believe their defcrip- 
 tions were, for v/ant of human bodies, taken froni 
 brutes ; for I have never yet feen any variety in 
 thefe vglTels in human bodies, - though I have in 
 the veins nearer the l^eart : and indeed there feems 
 to me to be a mechanical reafon for their going 
 off in the manner here defcribgd, in human bo- 
 dies ; for the right fubclavian and carotid arteries 
 necelTarily going off from the aorta at a much 
 larger angle than the left, the blood would move 
 more freely into the left than the right, if the 
 right did not go off in one trunk, which give& lefs" 
 friction to the blood than two branches equal in 
 capacity to that one : fq that the advantage the 
 left have by going off from the aorta at much' 
 acufer angles than the right, is made up to the 
 right by their going off' at iirft in but one bi^nch, 
 . The carotid arteries run on both fides the la^ 
 rynx to the lixth. foramifia of the fquH^ through 
 
 which 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 185 
 which they enter to the brain; but as they pafs 
 through the neck, they detach branches to every 
 part about them, which branches are called by the 
 names of the parts they are beftowed uponj as, 
 laryngesE, thyroideas, pharyngeae, linguales, tem- 
 porales,occipitales,faciales, 6cc. but juft before they 
 enter the lixth foramina of the fcull, they each 
 fend a fmall branch through the fifth fbramina 
 to that part of the dura mater which contains 
 the cerebrum. It is thefe arteries which make 
 thofe impreffions which are conftantly obferved on 
 the inljde of the oiTa bregmatis : thefe branches, 
 Mr. Monro obferves, oftenerarife from the tempo- 
 ral arterieSp The internal carotids fend two branches 
 to the back part of the nofe, and feveral branches 
 through the firfl and fecond foramina of the fcull 
 to the face and parts contained v/ithin the orbits of 
 the eyes, a^d then piercing the dura mater, they 
 each divide into two branches, one of v=/hich they 
 fend under the falx of the dura mater, between the 
 two hemifpheres of the brain, and the other be- 
 tween the anterior and poilerior lobes. Thefe 
 branches take a great many turns, and divide into 
 %^ery fmall branches in the pia mater before they en- 
 ter the brain, as if the pulfe of larger arteries would 
 make too violent an imprelTion on fo tender and 
 delicate a part. And perhaps it m^ay be from an 
 increafe of the impulfe of the arteries in the brain, - 
 which ftrong liquors produce, tha: the nerves are 
 ^0 much interrupted in their i)fes throughout the- 
 
 '^^hole, 
 
i86 ARTERIES AND VEINS, 
 whole body, when a man is intoxicated with drink- 
 ing i and may it not alfo be from a like caufe that 
 men are delirious in fevers ? Befides thefe two ar-^ 
 teries, viz. the carotids, the brain has two more, 
 called cervicales, which arife from the fubclavian 
 arteries, and afcend to the head through the fora- 
 mina in the tranfverfe procefles of the cervical 
 vertebrae, and into the fcull through the tenth or 
 great foramen. Thefe two arteries uniting foon 
 after their entrance, they give off branches to the 
 cerebellum, and then paffing forward, divide and 
 communicate with the carotids; and the carotid 
 arteries communicating with each other, there is 
 an entire communication between them all; and 
 thefe communicant branches are fo Urge that eve^ 
 ry one of thefe four great veiTels, with all their 
 branches, may be eafily filled with wax through 
 any one of them. 
 
 The fubclavian arteries are each continued to 
 the cubit in one trunk, which is called axillaris as 
 it paffes the arm-pits, and humeralis as it pafTes by 
 the infide of the os humeri, between the mulcles 
 that bend and extend the cubit. From the fub- 
 clavian s within the breafl: arife the arterias mamma- 
 ris, which run on the inlide of the fternum, and 
 lower than the cartilago enfiformis. Soon after the 
 arteria humeralis has paiTed the joint of the cubit, 
 it divides into two branches, called cubitalis fuperi-. 
 OF,andcubitalis inferior ^ which latter foon fends oft' 
 a branch, called cubitalis njedia, v/hich is beftowed 
 
 upon 
 
ART E RIE S AND VE I N S. 187 
 
 upon the mulcles feated about the cubit. The 
 cubitalis fuperior pafTes near the radius, and round 
 the root of the thumb, and gives one branch to 
 the back of the hand, and two to the thumb; one 
 to the firfl finger, and a branch to communicate 
 with the cubitaUs inferior. The cubitalis inferior 
 pafTes near the uhia to the palm of the hand, where 
 it takes a turn, and fends one branch to the outiide 
 of the little finger, another between that and the 
 next finger dividing to both, another in the fame 
 manner to the two middle-fingers, and another to 
 the two fore-fingers. Thefe branches which are 
 bellowed on the fingers run one on each fide of 
 each finger internally to the top, where they have 
 fmall communications, and very often there is a 
 branch of communication between the humeral 
 and inferior cubital arteries. This communicant 
 branch is fometimes very large, and liable to be 
 pricked by carelefs or injudicious blood-letters, in 
 bleeding in the bafilic vein, immediately under 
 which, as far as I have been able to obferve, this 
 branch always lies. Mr. Monro has found the 
 fubclavian artery divided, in one fubjed:, into two, 
 the exterior of which fornied the cubitalis fuperi- 
 or, and theinner artery, the cubitalis inferior; from 
 which ilrudbure he accounts for the fuccefs in the 
 operation of the aneurifm fometimes performed 
 above the cubit. When the operation for an 
 aneurifm is made upon this communicant branch, 
 it is found necefi^ary to tie it on both fide^ of tjie 
 
 ori- 
 
i88 ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 orifice, becanfe the blood is liable to flow freely 
 into it either way. 
 
 From the defcending aorta on each fide is fent 
 a branch under every rib, called intercoftalis, and 
 jaJ>out the fourth vertebra of the back it fends off 
 two branches to the lungs, called bronchiales, which 
 are fometimes both given off from the aorta, fome- 
 times one of them from the intercoilalof the fourth 
 rib on the right fide ; and as the aoi:ta paffes under 
 the diaphragm, it fends two branches into the dia- 
 phragm, called arteri^ phrenicse, which fome- 
 times rife in one trunk from the aorta, and fome- 
 times from the cceliaca ; but oftener the right from 
 the aorta, and the left from the coeliaca. Immedi- 
 ately below the diaphragin arifes the coeliac artery 
 from the aorta ; it foon divides into feveral branch- 
 es, which are befi:owed upon the liver, pancreas, 
 fpleen, ftomach, omentiim, and duodenum. Thefe 
 branches ajre named from the parts they are beftow- 
 ed on, except two that are beftowed upon the flo- 
 mach, v/hich are called coronaria fuperior and infe- 
 rior, and the branch beftowecj upon the duodenum, 
 which is named inteftinalis, At a very fmall diilanco 
 below the arteria coeliaca from the aorta arifes the 
 mefenterica fuperior, whofe branches are beflowed 
 upon all the intefliinum jejunum and ilium^^ part of 
 the colon, and fometimes one branch upon the liver, 
 A little lower than the fuperior mefenteric artery 
 arife the emulgents, which are the arteries of the kid-- 
 neys. And a little lower than the emulgents, for-» 
 
 w^rd 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. i% 
 ward from the aorta, arife the arteriae fpermaticae; 
 for which, vid. chap. Of the parts of generation 
 in men. Lower laterally the aorta fends branches 
 to the loins, called lumbales ; and one forward, to 
 the lower part of the colon and the red:um, called 
 mefenterica inferior. Between the arteria cceli- 
 aca, mefenterica fuperior and inferior, and the 
 branches of each near the guts, there are large 
 communicant branches to convey the blood from 
 one to another, when they are either compreiTed 
 by excrements, or from any other caufe. 
 
 As foon as the aorta divides upon the loins, it 
 fends off an artery into the pelvis upon the os fa- 
 crum, called arteria facra, and the branches the 
 aorta divides into are callecTiliac^, which in about 
 two inches fpace divide into external and internal. 
 The iliac^ interna firfl fend oiFthe umbilical ar- 
 teries, which are dried up in adult bodies, except at 
 their beginnings, which are kept open for the col- 
 lateral branches on each fide, one to the bladder, 
 and one to the penis in men, and in women the 
 uterus : the reft of thefe branches are beftowed 
 upon the buttocks and uppsr parts of the thighs. 
 The iliacas externa^ run over the offa pubis into 
 the thighs ; and as they pafs out of the abdomen 
 they fend off branches, called epigaftrics, to the 
 fore-part of the integuments of the abdomen un- 
 der the Ye6ti mufcles. And the epigailric arte- 
 ries fend each a branch into the pelvis, and through 
 the foramina of the oifa innominata to the mufcles 
 
 there- 
 
I90 ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 thereabouts. As foon as the iliac artery is paiTed 
 out of the abdomen into the groin it is called in- 
 guinalis, and in the thigh cruralis, where it fends 
 a large branch to the back part of the thigh; but 
 the great trunk is continued internally between 
 the flexors and extenfors of the thigh, and pafling 
 through the infertlon of the triceps mufcleinto the 
 ham, it is there called poplitea; then below the 
 pint it divides into two branches, one of which is- 
 called tibialis antica; it paiTes between the tibia 
 and fibula to the fore-part of the leg, and is be- 
 -ftowed upon the great toe, and one brahch to the 
 next toe to the great one, and another between 
 thefe toes, to communicate with the tibialis pofti- 
 ca; which artery, foon after it is divided from the 
 antica, fends off the tibialis media, which is be- 
 ftowed upon the mufcles of the legs ; the tibialis 
 poftica goes to the bottom of the foot and all the 
 ieffer toes. The tibialis antica is difpofed like the 
 cubitalis fuperior; the poftica like the^ubitalis in- 
 ferior; and the medic-B in each have alfo like ufes. 
 Thefe arteries which I have defcribed, are uniform 
 in mofl: bodies, but the leffer branches are difliri- 
 buted like the branches of trees, in fo different a 
 manner in one body from another, that it is highly 
 probable no two bodies are exactly alike, nor the 
 two fides in ciny. one body. 
 
 I HAVE once {ten a rupture of matter, and once 
 of blood and matter, which flowed out of the ab- 
 domen into the fore-part of the thigh, through the 
 
 fame 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 191 
 
 fame palTage at which the iliac artery goes out of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 The veins arife from the extremities of the ar- 
 teries, and make up trunks which accompany the 
 arteries in ahnoft every part of the body, and have 
 the fame names in the feveral places which the ar- 
 teries have, which they accompany. The veins of 
 the brain unload themfelves into the iinufes (vid. 
 chap. Of the dura and pia mater) and the fmufes 
 into the internal jugulars and cervicals; and the 
 internal jugulars and cervicals into the fubclavians, 
 which joining, make the cava defcendens. The 
 internal jugulars are feated by the carotid arteries, 
 and receive the blood from all the parts which th«e 
 carotids ferve, except the hairy fcalp and part of 
 the neck, whofe veins enter into the external ju-* 
 gulars, which run immediately under the mufcu- 
 lus quadratus genas, often two on each fide. The 
 cervical veins defcend two through the foramina 
 in the tranfverfe procelTes of the cervical vertebrae, 
 and two through the great foramen of the fpine, 
 and one on each fide the fpinal marrow; thefe join 
 at the loweft vertebra of the neck, and then empty 
 into the fubclavians, and. at the interftices of all 
 the vertebra3 communicate with one another. 
 
 The veins of the limbs are more than double 
 the number of the arteries, there being one on each, 
 fide each artery, even to the fmalleft branches that 
 we can trace, befides the veins which lie immedi- 
 ately under the ikin. Thofe which accompany the 
 
 arte- 
 
192 ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 arteries, have the fame name with the arteries j thofe 
 which run immediately under the fkin on the back 
 of the hand, have no proper names > they run from 
 thence to the bend of the elbow, where the upper- 
 moft is called cephalicaythe next mediaria, the next 
 bafilica. Thefe all communicate near the joint of 
 the elbow, and then fend one branch which is 
 more diredtly from the' cephalica, and bears that 
 name until it enters the fubclavian veinj it palTes 
 immediately under the fkin, in moil bodies be-' 
 tween the flexors and extenfors of the cubit, on the- 
 upper fide of the arm. The other branches joining. 
 and receiving thofe which accompany Ihe arteries- 
 of the cubit, tbey pafs with them by the artery 
 of the arm into the fubclavian vein. The external: 
 veins have frequent communications with the in- 
 ternal, and are always fullefl when- we ufe the' 
 moll exercifcy becaufe the blood being expanded 
 by the heat which exercife produces, it requires the 
 veflels to be diftended,- and the inner velfels being' 
 Gompreffed by the acflions of the mufcies, they 
 eannot dilate enough > but thefe velTels being leated 
 on the outfides of the mufcles' are capable of be- 
 in^ much dilated : and this feems to me to^ be the 
 
 o 
 
 chief ufe of thefe external veffels. The cephalic 
 vein, as it runs up the arm, is very vifible in moH 
 men, but in children is rarely to be feen; there- 
 fore great care fhould be taken not to wound it in 
 the cutting of ilTues in children's arms j and I knov/ 
 no way to b^ fure- of avoiding it,. but by cutting the-' 
 
 i-iTae- 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 193 
 iiTue more externally than is ufual in men, which 
 may be done without any inconvenience. 
 
 In the thorax, befides the two cavs, there is a 
 vein called azygos, or vena line pari ; it is made up 
 of the intercoftal, phrenic, and bronchial veins, 
 and enters the defcending cava near the auricle, 
 as if its ufe was to divert the defcending blood 
 from falling too diredHy upon the blood in the 
 afcending cava, and diredt the blood of the de- 
 fcending cava into the auricle. 
 
 In the abdomen (belides the cava afcendens and 
 the veins which are named like the arteries, viz. 
 the emulgents from the kidneys, the lumbal and 
 ipermatic veins, the facra, iliac, and hypogaftric 
 veins) there is one large one called vena ports, 
 whofe branches arife from all the branches of the 
 coeliac and two mefenteric arteries, except thofe 
 branches of the coeliac and fuperior mefenteric, 
 which are bellowed on the liver, and uniting in 
 one trunk enters the liver, and is there again di- 
 ftributed like an artery, and has its blood collected 
 and brought into the cava by the branches of the 
 cava in the liver j this vein being made ufe of in- 
 {lead of an artery to carry blood to the' liver, for 
 the feparation of bile. It moves here about eight 
 times flower than in the arteries hereabouts; and 
 this flow circulation being fuppofed neceffary, I 
 think, there feems no other v/ay fo fit to procure 
 it; for if an artery had been employed for this ufe, 
 and been thus much dilated in fo fhort a pafTage, 
 
 N the 
 
194 ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 the blood would not have moved fo uniformly in 
 it, but failer through its axis than near its lides ; 
 and befides it is very probable that the blood in 
 this vein, having been firft employed in nourifh- 
 ing feveral parts, and having through a long fpace 
 moved flov^l)^ m?.y be made thereby fitter for the 
 reparation oRbile, than blood carried by an artery 
 dilated to procure a circulation of the fame velo- 
 city with that in this vein. 
 
 In the leg the veins accompany the arteries in 
 the fame manner as in the arm, the external veins 
 of the foot being on the upper fide, and from them 
 is derived one called faphena, which is continued 
 on the infide of the lim.b its whole length, and 
 has feveral names given it from the feveral places 
 through which it pafTes, 
 
 The arteries have three coats ; a middle muf- 
 cular, and an external and internal membranous. 
 The veins are faid to have the fame ; the internal 
 coat of an artery may be pretty eafily feparated, but 
 not the external ; and though the veins have muA 
 dular fibres, yet I could never feparate any one di- 
 fi:ind:ly into three coats; and in the infide of the 
 veins there are many valves, efpecially in the lower 
 limbs, to hinder any reflux of the venal blood, 
 which otherwife would have happened from the 
 frequent ailions of the mufcles on the outfides of 
 the veins; and both the arteries and veins, as they 
 run in the infide of the limb, or as they are dif- 
 perfed in parts that fufFer great extenfions, as the 
 
 ilomach. 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 19^ 
 
 ftomach, guts, and uterus, they are curved fo 
 much as that when thefe parts come to be diftend- 
 ed, they may comply with thofe diflenfions by only 
 being ftraightened, and fo preferved from being 
 flretched, which would leflen their diameters. The 
 fmall arteries near the heart go off from the large 
 trunks at obtufe angles, farther at lefs 6b tufe angles, 
 then at right angles, farther ftill at acute angles, 
 and near the extremities at very acute angles, be- 
 caufe the blood in the velTels far frorii the heart 
 , moving with lefs velocity than the blood in the 
 velTels near the heart, the blood in the collateral 
 branches more remote from the heart wants the 
 advantage of a direcftcr courfe; and becaufe a very 
 large branch ariiing out of another, might weakea 
 too much the lides of the veiTel it would arife from, 
 that inconvenience is prevented by increafmg the 
 number, and fo leffening the lize of the collateral 
 branches, where otherwife one large branch would 
 have ferved better; as in the going ofFof thefub- 
 ^lavian and carotid arteries, which might have gone 
 off for fome fpace in one trunk 5 but this mecha- 
 nifm is more evident in the going off of the arteria 
 coeiiaca and mefenterica fuperior. And the irnall 
 arteries always divide fo as that the leffer branch 
 may lie leafl: in the diredion of the blood flowing 
 into them, which makes the blood flow mofl: freely 
 into that branch that hath fartheil to carry it 3 and 
 the fmaller branches arife more or lefs obliquely 
 from the fides of other arteries, according to the 
 
 N 2 P^'<3-^ 
 
196 ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 
 proportion they bear to the arteries they arife from, 
 becaufe an artery comparatively large arifing ob- 
 liquely from the fide of another would make an 
 orifice in that it arifes from too large, and weaken 
 it. And both thefe ends are at once brought about, 
 by making the arteries, that give off the branches, 
 bend more or lefs toward the branches they give 
 off, according to the comparative magnitude of the 
 branches given off. 
 
 BoRELLi has computed the force which the 
 heart exerts at every fyflole, to be equal to three 
 thoufand pounds weight, and the force which all 
 the arteries exert at every fyftole, to be equal to 
 fixteen thoufand pounds weight, and that they to- 
 gether overcome a force equal to an hundred and 
 thirty-fix thoufand pounds weight; and Dr. Keil 
 has computed that the heart in every fyftole exerts 
 a force not exceeding eight ounces. The firil com- 
 putation was made by comparing the heart with 
 other mufcles, wliofe power to fuftain a weight could 
 be bell determined ; and the latter was made from 
 the velocity of the blood moving in an artery : 
 therefore, if we confider that Borelli's way of 
 computing led him to find out the abfolute force of 
 th^ heart, andDr.KEiL's the force which the heart 
 ufually exerts, perhaps thefe very different compu- 
 tations may be accounted for ; for if the force of 
 the heart, which is conftantly exerted, Ihould, com- 
 pared with any other mufcle, be but in a reciprocal 
 proportion to the frequency of their adions, and 
 
 the 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 197 
 the importance of their ufes; may not the heart 
 very fitly have a force vaftly greater than ufiially it 
 exerts, becaufe it is always in acflion, and muft be 
 able to exert a certain force in the lowefl llate of 
 health ? What force the heart ever exerts in a grown 
 man, I cannot fay^ but it muft be lefs in each ven- 
 tricle than is fufficienj: to burft the valves, which 
 hinder the blood fro;r. returning into the auricles 
 out of the ventricles, or than is fuiScient to break 
 thofe threads by v/hich thefe valves are tied to the 
 papilla?. In a dog, I found the force which the 
 heart v^^ould exert, w"ould not raife to one foot per- 
 pendicular height a column of blood through the 
 aorta afcendens. And vv^hen I injedS the arteries of 
 a child, I find a force exceeding little v/ill throv/ 
 water through all the velTels, with a velocity equal 
 to that with which the blood moves in thofe vef- 
 fels when living. And if the heart, like other 
 mufcles, can perform the iirft part of its contrac- 
 tion with moft eafe, are not the quick actions of 
 the heart in he(ftic fevers owing; to its not beinor 
 able to empty the ventricles every fyfcole, which, I 
 think, will oblige it to adt, caeteris paribus, fo much 
 the oftener ? For the following ingenious attempt 
 to account for the fyftole and diaftole of the heart, 
 and the reciprocal anions of the auricles and ven- 
 tricleSj lam obliged to Mr. Monro. 
 
 " PosTULATA, that the adtion of the mufcles 
 •* depends on the influx of blood and liquidum 
 ** iiervofum into the mufcukr fibres^, and therefore, 
 
 .N 3 ** when* 
 
ipS ARTERIES and VEINS, 
 "^whenever the mufcles are deprived of either or 
 *' both thele fluids, their adion ceafes^ this a great 
 ** many authors have fully proved by tying and. 
 "cutting the nerves and arteries that ferve any. 
 *' mufcle. That all mufcles are in a conftant ftate 
 ** of contradiion as long as the blood and liquidum 
 *' nervofum are freely fupplied to them, which 
 ** feems evident from the fphinder ani and vefics, 
 ** and from the continued contradion of fuch muf- 
 ** cles, whofe antagonifls are cut afunder, or pa- 
 ** ralytic. That the nerves of the heart run to it 
 *' between the auricles and arteries, and that the 
 *' arterise coronarise rife from the aorta behind the 
 ^* valvule femilunares, both which are evident from 
 *^ diifedions. If then both auricles and ventricles 
 ^* are ready, upon the firil communication of mo- 
 *' tion, to contract at the fame time^ the ventricles, 
 ^* as Dr. Keil well obferves, being ftronger, will 
 *' hrfi: contrad:, and hinder the gontradion of the. 
 *^ auricles, which muft be in the mean time much. 
 **' dilated by the influx of blood from the veins, 
 *' while the arteries are alfo diftended by the blood 
 ** thrown out of the ventricles ; therefore the car- 
 '* diac nerves lying between the two will be com- 
 ** prelTedjand the courfe of the liquids in them flop- 
 " ped; at the fame time the blood that rulhes out; 
 " of the left ventricle into the aorta, puihes the 
 " valves of that artery upon the orifices of the ar-; 
 "' teris coronarias, fo that no blood can enter into 
 ^' tXiO. fubftance of the heart j thus both caufes of 
 
 9 
 
 ♦* con- 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 199 
 *' contradion failing, this mufcle mufl: become pa- 
 *' ralytic. The refiflance then to the contradion of 
 ** the auricles being now removed, they will throw 
 " their blood into the ventricles j and the impullion 
 *' of blood into the arteries from the. heart now alfo- 
 *' ccafing, the two great arteries will be conftrid:- 
 ** ed : the nerves are therefore now again free from 
 ** comprefTion, and the valves of the aorta being 
 *' thruft back upon the mouth of the ventricle, the 
 ** blood enters thearterlaecoronariae; iince the ven- 
 ** tricles are again fupplied with both the liquids 
 ** on which their contradion depends, they mufl 
 ** again ad. And thus as long as thefe caufes con- 
 " tinue, their effeds muft follow, i. e. as long as 
 *' the creature lives, the heart muft have an al- 
 *^ ternate fyftole and diaftole, and the auricles and 
 ** ventricles have reciprocal adions." 
 
 If the arteries contrad, fuppofe, a fourth part 
 of the fquares of their diivmeters at every fyftole, and 
 if the heart does not throw out a quantity at every 
 fyftole, equal to the fourth part of the folid con- 
 tents of all the arteries when dilated, it is evident 
 the heart does not throw the blood through the 
 whole arterial fyftem, but into fo much of the ar- 
 teries neareft the heart, as will contain four times 
 as much as is thrown out of the left ventricle at 
 once : and then this portion of arteries throws the 
 blood forwards and dilates the arteries that lie next, 
 and fo on: but if the capacities of all the arteries 
 taken together in their utmoft dilatations, exceed 
 
 N 4 their 
 
200 ARTERIES and VEINS, 
 their capacities in their utmofl contractions, juflfo 
 much as the quantity of blood amounts to, which 
 is thro-vvn out of the left ventricle of the heart at 
 every fyftole, which I believe is the cafe, then every 
 contraftion of the heart propels the blood through 
 the whole arterial iyftem, which may be the reafon 
 why the largeft animals, caeteris paribus, have the 
 flowed: pulfes and leaft vigour in their motions, and 
 perhaps too for the fame reafon require a lefs pro- 
 portion of food. The fedtions of all the remoter 
 veiTels being greater than a fedlion of the aorta, 
 the blood will move fo much flower in the lefler 
 veflels than in the greater, as the feitions of the 
 Jefler veflels taken together exceed the fedtion of 
 the greater veflel or veflels. The flrength of the 
 coat of the arteries, if the blood prcfled equally 
 againfl: the fldes of them all, caeteris paribus, ought 
 to be one to another as their circumferences, be- 
 caufe fo much as the circumference of one artery 
 is greater than another, fo much greater preflure 
 its fides muft fuflain > but the arteries neareft the 
 heart, fuflaining the re-a£tion of all the arterial 
 blood, they mufl: have a fl:rength yet greater than 
 in that proportion : and the veflels, both arteries 
 and veins, the more diftant they are from the 
 head, the greater proportional flrength their coats 
 muft have, becaufe the arterial and venal blood 
 communicating, they will prefs upon the lower 
 veflels, with a force proportional to the perpendi- 
 eular altitude of blood aboye^ which will he that of 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. ^oi 
 the perpendicular altitude of the whole body^ for 
 though theafcending blood of the arteries may be 
 faid not to prefs upon the defcending, becaufe it 
 moves another way, neverthelefs it being thrown 
 from the heart into one common velTel, which af- 
 terwards divides, the blood moving both ways com- 
 municates, and that force which is necelTary to' 
 overcome the natural inclination of the afcending 
 blood to defcend, will be imprefled alfo upon the 
 defcending blood, which is jufi; the fame with the 
 weight of the afcending bloody and the veins both 
 from above and below communicating at the right 
 auricle, the preiTure in them will alfo be as the 
 perpendicular altitude of the body. So that the 
 blood in all the veins and arteries may be compared 
 to a fluid in a curved tube, in which that part in 
 one leg exadly balances that in the other, and both 
 preffing moft upon thofe parts which are neareft 
 the center of the earth. Accordingly we find by 
 experience, that humours are moft apt to flow to 
 the lowefl parts, and that by laying thofe parts upon 
 a level with the whole body, this inconvenience is 
 remedied -, but laying a leg only on a chair does it 
 but in part, jufI: fo much as the perpendicular alti- 
 tude of the body from that part is fliortened. There 
 is alfo to be confidere4 concerning the thicknefs 
 of the coats of the veiTels, that the blood moving 
 flower in the fmall veflTels than in the great, the mo- 
 ment of the blood againfl: the fldes of a fmall vefl^el 
 will be as much lefs than the moment of the blood 
 
 ^gainll 
 
202 ARTERIES anb VEINS, 
 againfl equal parts of a great one^ as the velocity o£ 
 the blood in a fmall vefTel is lefs than that in a great 
 one; and therefore their coats may alfo differ from 
 the former proportion, as the velocity of the blood 
 differs. Moft of the fmall velTels in the limbs ly- 
 ing againil one another are a mutual fupport, and 
 therefore lefs liable to be dilated or buril than ca- 
 pillaries which lie in the thin membranes of cavi- 
 ties, fuch as in the nofe. Hence thefe, I fappofe, 
 are mofl fubjedt to haemorrhages. And if hj^mor- 
 jhages of blood do frequently arife from obftruc^ 
 tions in the minutell: veffels, does it not appear how 
 opium and the bark, if they thin the blood inwardly 
 taken (as they do mofl: powerfully when mixed 
 with it) come to be fo often eifedtual remedies in 
 that cafe ? And the coats of the lefTer veffels being 
 proportioriably weaker than the great ones, accord- 
 ing to the decreafe of the velocity of the blood, 
 wbich lefTens the moment with which it moves in 
 them^ whenever the blood begins to move in them 
 with an equal velocity, or greater, as it happens 
 after an amputation, when the larger veffels are tied, 
 the force of the blood fometimes overcomes the 
 ilrength of the coats of the fmaller veffels, and di- 
 lates them fo, that thofe veffels, which fcarce bled 
 during the operation, will fometimes bleed after- 
 wards. And this conflant effort of the blood to 
 dilate veffels upon the obftrudions of others may 
 caufe thofe throbbing pains which are felt in 
 wounds when the bleeding is flopped, and in all 
 
 violent 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 203 
 violent inflammations, until the collateral branches 
 are dilated, or the tenlion of the parts otherwife 
 taken oiF. 
 
 The extreme branches both of the arteries and 
 veins have very numerous communications, like 
 thofe in the ftamina of the leaves of plants, by 
 w^hich communications the blood that is obflru(5l-. 
 ed in any veffels may pafs off by other velTels that 
 are not obflrudied; and the moment of the blood 
 in the veffels leffening, and the fri6lion from the 
 veflels increasing as it approaches the extremities j 
 and as many of the leffer veffels are more expofed 
 to preffure than any of the large ones, thofe com- 
 munications in the leffer veffels are therefore made 
 more numerous. By means of thefe communica- 
 tions, the blood circulates in a limb that has had 
 part amputated, and into any veffels that have 
 been feparated from the trunks that fupplied 
 them, which otherwife mud have mortified for 
 want of nourilhment, and with them, for the 
 fame reafon, all the branches that arife from fuch 
 feparated veffels; and I can difcern no other way 
 than by thefe communications, that the fluids 
 contained in a large inflammation can fuppurate 
 into one cavity. 
 
 If we injed: by the arteries a large quantity of a 
 coloured fluid, we And all the large veins full of 
 that liquor before any of the folid parts are much 
 coloured with it; and upon frequent repetitions all 
 of them much lefs coloured than, I think, might be 
 
zo4r' ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 €xpe(fled^ if it had gone into all the velTels of the 
 "body ; and I have often thrown wax or tallow, 
 coloured with vermillion or verdigreafe, through 
 all the arteries, and back again through the veins, 
 eyen to the heart, every where filling veffels that 
 cannot be difcerned without a microfcope; and all 
 this without filling or much difcolouring any one 
 entire part. In viewing with a microfcope the cir- 
 culation of the blood in the tail of a hih, the eye 
 ealily traces arteries to their extremities, and their 
 return in veins : yet all the veffels we can fee make 
 but a Ihiall part of the whole of what we fee ; 
 though we are taught that the whole animal body 
 is a compages of veffels, fuch as we fee: but if it 
 were fo, I think, we could not well diflinguifh any ^ 
 and if the fiim of the diameters of all the vefl'els 
 we can fee, are to that of the breadths and thick- 
 neffes of all the refl of the parts, which we fee at 
 the iame time, taken together, but as one to five, 
 thefe veffels then are no more than the twenty- 
 fifth part of what we fee with them. What then 
 :ffiall we fuppofe the refl of the tail, and thofe parts 
 which were fo little tinged, and thofe w^hich were 
 not filled with wax, in the foregoing experiments, 
 compofed of ? Are they not compofed of veflels 
 which arife from the arteries, as excretory dudis do 
 in a gland, but terminate in the veins ? And thefe 
 veffels being only to convey the nutritious juices, 
 ^nd what elfe may be a proper vehicle for them, 
 is it not fit the circulation in them fhould be ex- 
 ceeding 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS, 205 
 
 ceeding flow, that the nutritious particles may ad- 
 here the eafier to the fibres of the vellels, which 
 they are to augment or repair ? Befides, if any 
 whole part was made up of blood-veffels, or any 
 other veffels with fluids moving fwiftly in them, it 
 feems to me impofllble, that one part of a limb can 
 be very cold while another partis hot, if the warmth 
 of the parts is owing to the fluids they contain* 
 And if there are fueh veflels as thefe, the velocity 
 of the motion of their fluids will not depend upon 
 any proportion they bear to the veflels they arifc 
 from, but upon the velocity with which their fluids 
 are feparated from the arteries into them, and the 
 proportion of the fedlions of all their orifices to 
 the fum of their own fedions^ at any difl:ance 
 where we would compare the velocity of their 
 fluids. And the fl:rength of the coats of thefe vef- 
 fels may not only be as much lefs than the flrength 
 of the coats of an artery, as their diameters are 
 lefs, but alfo lefs in that proportion in which the 
 velocity of their fluids is lefs, and the motions more 
 uniform, than the velocity and motion of the blood 
 in an artery. 
 
 The coats of the veins are much thinner than 
 thofe of the arteries, comparing vefl^els whofe {ec^ 
 tions are equal, becaufe the blood moving flower 
 in the veins than in the arteries, it prefl'es with lefs 
 moment againfl: their fides : and befides, the blood 
 in the veins has nearly an equal uniform motion, 
 hnt in the arteries a very unequal one ; and that 
 
 will 
 
2o6 ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 will require a farther difFerence in the ftrength of 
 their coats ^ for thofe of the arteries muft be equal 
 to the greateft natural preffure j and if the arterial 
 blood propels the venal, that is a farther reafon 
 for the different llrength of their coats. 
 
 All thefe things being confidered, it appears to 
 be a difficult thing to determine nearly, what pro- 
 portion the fluids of an animal body bear to the 
 folids, or what proportion the fum of all the mi- 
 nuted arteries bear to the aorta, without which, I 
 think, we can neither determine the comparative 
 velocity of the blood moving in the different vefTels, 
 nor the quantity of blood in any animal body, nor 
 the time in which the whole mafs o£ blood, or a 
 quantity equal to the whole mafs, is flowing thro* 
 the heart. But if each ventricle of the heart holds 
 five ounces of blood, and they are filled and emp- 
 tied every fyfl:ole and diafliole, which, I think, is 
 true, and if eighty pulfes in a minute be allowed 
 to be a common number, there then flows twenty- 
 five pounds of blood through each ventricle of the 
 heart in a minute. Dr. Keil has fhewn that the 
 fum of all the fluids in a man exceed' the fum of 
 all the folids, and yet the quantity of blood which 
 all the vifible arteries of a man will contain, is lefs 
 than four pounds j and if we may fuppofe all the 
 vifible veins, including the vena portae, hold four 
 times as much, the whole then that the vifible vef- 
 fels can contain is not twenty pounds j but the whole 
 ^at they do contain is but V'ery little more than the 
 
 veins 
 
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 207 
 
 \^eins can contain, feeing the arteries ar6 always 
 found almoft empty in dead bodies ; but how much 
 the invifible arteries and veins contain, I meanthofe 
 which contain fueh a compound fluid as is found 
 in the larger vefTels, I know no way to judge, un- 
 lefs we knew what proportion thefe veflels bear to 
 thofe that carry the nutritious juices and ferum (if 
 there are fuch) without the globuli of the blood. 
 CiEteris paribus, is not the velocity of the blood in 
 all animals proportionable to their quantity of 
 adion 'y and their neceility of food alfo in propor- 
 tion to their quantity of acftion? If fo, it appears 
 how thofe animals which ufeno exercife, and whofe 
 blood moves extremely flow in the winter, can fub- 
 iiil without any frefh fupply of food: while others 
 that ufe a little more exercife, require a little more 
 food; and thofe who ufe equal exercife winter and 
 fummer, require equal quantities of food at all 
 times i the end of eating and drinking being to re- 
 pair what exercife and the motion of the blood has 
 deftroyed or made ufelefs^ and is not the lefs velo- 
 city of the blood in fome animals than in others, 
 the reafon why wounds and bruifes in thofe ani- 
 mals do jiot fo foon defl;roy life, as they do in 
 animals whofe blood moves fwifter ? 
 
 I HAD a patient, whofe mufcles on the inflde 
 of the thigh was torn to pieces with the cramp, 
 from whence was a vaft effuflon of blood among 
 the mufcles. The tumor being opened, it was 
 judged neceflfary to take off the limb. The pa- 
 tient. 
 
to^ ARTERIES and VEINS. 
 
 tient, having a great diicharge from the wound;,' 
 was eafy for about ten days ; but the cramp then 
 returned into the flump with fuch exceffive tor- 
 ment that he died foon after. I have never heard 
 but of one other cafe of this kind, which ended 
 in the fame manner. 
 
 When any of the vefTels are lacerated by bruifes, 
 flrains, or otherwife, without any external wound, 
 purging (which is of more ufe than one can well 
 account for) and cooling applications are always 
 proper to prevent as much as may be extravafations 
 of blood or ferum ; but the lacerations once healed, 
 which may be in eight or ten days, and the pain 
 quite gone, then warm medicines may be applied, 
 with opium, or fp. cornu cervi (which powerfully 
 feparate coagulated fluids) to help to attenuate and 
 thereby diflipate the extravafated juices. 
 
 When the blood- velTels become unable to pre- 
 fcrve the circulation in the extreme parts, whether 
 from particular weaknefs in the vefTels, or any 
 other decay, I have always obferved it to be hurtful* 
 to fcarify. It lets out the juices that fliould afiifb 
 nature to make a feparation of the mortified part; 
 nor can it be known in what place we may fafely 
 amputate till fuch a feparation, which teaches us 
 where it can be fupported, and in any place fhort 
 of that an operation will be both ufelefs and mif- 
 chievous. I have known many fucceed well who 
 have been thus left to feparate, but very few that 
 were otherwife treated^ nay, have known fome 
 
 ex* 
 
L Y M P H iE D U C T S. 209 
 
 extraordinary inflances of fuccefs where the pa-* 
 tienthad the happinefs to have no one about theni 
 to interrupt the kind afTiftance of nature. 
 
 C H A P. X. 
 
 Of the lymphcediiBs. 
 
 LYMPH.EDUCTS are fmall pellucid cylin- 
 drical tubes, which arife i.nvifible from the 
 extremities of the arteries throughout the whole 
 body, but more plentifully in glands than other parts, 
 and in greatefl number from fuch glands as feparate 
 the moft vifcid fluids, as may be difcerned in the liver 
 and teiles. They cannot be obferved in a natural 
 flate to have more than one coat> and that exceed- 
 ing thin, having valves at fmall and uncertain di- 
 ftances, to prevent the regrefs of their fluid. They 
 have frequent communications like the veins, but 
 do not unite fo often; the larger trunks are in many 
 places attended with fmall glands, through which 
 they run, and at the fame time fend communicant 
 branches over them, that they might be fecured 
 againfl: obilrudions from difeafes in thofe glands. 
 They all terminate in the vafaladlea, or in the large 
 veins. All that rife in the abdomen empty into the 
 vense ladies fecundi generis and receptaculum chyli; 
 thofe in the cavity of the thorax into the du<5tus 
 thoracicus and the fubclavian veins. Their ufes ^re 
 
 O to 
 
^10 LYMPHiEDUCTS, 
 
 to carry lymph to dilute the chyle, to make It in- 
 corporate more readily with the blood (but not to 
 make it flow the better in the ladteals, as appears 
 fufficiently from their not entering into the minutefl 
 ia(fteals) and to carry off fo much lymph as is 
 necefTary to leave the blood in fit temper to flow 
 through the veins -, for it is always obferved that in 
 fuch perfons as have their blood too thin, the glo- 
 buli cohere and form molecular, or polypufes, 
 which I imagine may arife from the globuli of the 
 blood not rubbing often enough, and with fuflicient 
 force one againft another to difunite them as fafl 
 as they cohere. Thefe polypufes are frequently 
 found in all the large veins, and in the right au- 
 ricle and ventricle of the heart, efpecially in fuch 
 bodies as die hydropic or of any chronic difeafes. 
 
 Authors have defcribed and painted thefe vef- 
 fels as they appear when injed:ed with mercury ; 
 in which cafe the coat of thefe veffels being exceed- 
 ing thin, it is not able anywhere between the valves 
 to refiftthe mercury's attracting itfelf into globules : 
 and the fame appearance alfo happens when they 
 are vaftly diftended ; becaufe the valves hindering 
 a diilention where they are feated, the fpaces be- 
 tween them approach to a fpherical figure from the 
 equal preiTure of the fluid, according to the degree 
 of their dillention : but in a natural fiate, -when 
 they are filled with lymph, or when they are mo- 
 derately injeded with air or water, they appear as 
 cylindrical as the veins. Any of thefe velTels being 
 I burfl. 
 
L YMPH^DUCTS. 211 
 
 burfi, they caufe a dropfy in the cavity into which 
 they open, which is oftener in the abdomen than the 
 thorax. This kind of dropfy is fometimes cured by 
 tapping, and I believe the reafon v^hy it no oftener 
 fucceeds is, that it generally takes its rifefrdmadif- 
 eafed liver. FOrmefly in this operation only part of 
 the^\^ater was dravV^n off at a time, and the tap fome- 
 times left in the woilnd to draxv off more, which 
 was exceeding painful, and fometimes brought on 
 a mortification 3 arid if they drew oif much water 
 at one time the patient was in great pain, and ge- 
 nerally fainted^ which was thought to proceed from 
 the lofs of too miich of the liquor at once; But 
 Dr. Mead, obferving that thefefymptoms could not 
 proceed from the lofs of an extravafated fluid, 
 foon found the true caufe, which was the fudden 
 want of the preflure of the abdominal mufcles 
 agairift the parts contained in the abdomen ; and 
 in the year 1705, being then phyfician to St. 
 Thomas's hofpital, ordered it to be tried there in 
 the following manner: he directed the abdomen 
 to be prelTed by the hands of aiTiftants while the 
 water was running out, and afterwards kept rolled 
 till the mufcles recovered force to do their office, 
 and fo took out all the water at once^ without any 
 inconvenience, which has made this operation not . 
 very painful, fometimes fuccefsful, and never dan^ 
 gerous* I preferved one woman, by fixteen ope- 
 rations, from" the iifty-lixth year of her age to eigh- 
 ty ; another, fix years by fixty-fix tappings : it 
 
 O 2 muit 
 
2X2 LYMPHATIC GLANDS, 
 niuft be confelTed, that few cafes fucceed like 
 thefe, and Y&ty few recovei*. 
 
 I OPENED a woman, who died of a dropfy in 
 the liver, in which I found the gibbous part en- 
 tirely wafted, and the coat of the liver, about a 
 quarter of an inch thick, which contained about 
 five gallons of a grofs yellov/ifh iluid, in which 
 were many hydatids about the ilzeof goo fe berries, 
 and fome pieces of matter of as bright a red as ver- 
 milion. At about fourteen years of age (lie ^v^ 
 began to feel pain in this part, which returBcd 
 monthly, but in time grew continual, her belly 
 conftantly increafmg till {he died, which was in 
 the twenty-eighth year of her age, without ever 
 having had her menfes. All the other vifcera both 
 in the thorax and abdomen were perfectly found, 
 nor was there the leafl iign of the dropfy in any 
 of the limbs, or yellownefs in the ikin, which is 
 frequent in difeafes of the liver. 
 
 C H A P. XL 
 Of the lymphatic glands, 
 
 HE glands acconipanj'-ing the iymphatics 
 are Jituated in the three cavities, in the in- 
 terilices of the mufcles, where the lymphatics lie 
 with the large blood- veilels, and in the four emunc- 
 tories^ viz. the arm-pits and groins. In the brain 
 
 is 
 
LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 213 
 is feated .the glandula pinealis, which I judge to 
 
 be of this fort, having often fctn large lymphiedu<fts 
 running into it from the plexus choroides; and at 
 the balls of the brain in the cella turcica is the glan-- 
 dula pitiiitaria, into which enters a large lymphatic, 
 as I imagine, named infundibulum (vid, chap. Of 
 the brain,) In the neck are lituated a great many 
 of thefe, by the fides of the carotid arteries and in* 
 ternal jugulaf veins, and two, or a fort of double 
 one, upon the larynx, immediately below the thy- 
 roid cartilage, from which iituation they derive the 
 name of thyrioidse ; and jufl v/ithin the thorax is 
 feated another, called thymus. In very young chil- 
 dren the thymus is as large, or larger, than the thy- 
 roid glands 3 but in men thefe glands are very large, 
 and the thymus very fmall, the former having in- 
 creafed in about a double proportion of any other 
 gland of this kind, and the latter having rather di- 
 minifhed than increafed; but in brutes, fuch as 
 have fallen under my obfervation, it is juil the con- 
 trary. From which obfervations I am inclined to 
 conclude, that they both belong to the very fame 
 lymphatics, and that either of them increaling as 
 much as both ought to do if both increafed, an- 
 fv/ers the fame end as if both did^ and that the 
 reafon why the thymus increafes rather than the 
 thyroid glands in brutes, is becaufe the fliape of 
 their thorax affords convenient room for it to lodge 
 in 5 and that in men the thyroid glands increafe 
 :^o much, bscaufe there is no room in that part of 
 
 O 3 the 
 
214 LYMPHATIC GLANDS, 
 
 the thorax where the thymus is feated for a large 
 giand to be lodged. In dogs, a porpoife, and fome 
 other animals, I have feen the lymphatics in the 
 thymus, and between the thymus and dudus tho- 
 racicus, full of chyle, and fo in many other lym- 
 phatics near the yafa ladea. Under the bafis of the 
 heart, and at the fides of the lungs, where the great 
 vefTels enter, are many of thefe glands, from the lize 
 of a pea to that of a hazel nut. In the abdomen, 
 upon the loins, near the kidneys, and by the fides of 
 the iliac velTels, are many of thefe glands, which are 
 called lumbales; and there are fome at the hollovv^ 
 fide of the liver named hepatic^: the mefentery 
 alfo is full of glands of a like appearance ^ but thefe 
 feem to belong only to the ladeal veins, unlefs fome 
 of them, which are feated at the bafis of the mcr 
 fentery, among the venae ladeae fecundi generis, 
 belong to the lymphatics that come from the liver, 
 where the hepatic lymphatics paft in their way to 
 the receptaculum chyli. The glands which accom- 
 pany the blood-veffels in the limbs are few, and 
 diftributed in no certain orders except thofe in the 
 ibur emundories, i. e^in the arm-pits and groins^ 
 named axillares and inguinales. 
 
 Brutes have one large one in the thigh, comr 
 monly called the pope's eye ; this is feated about 
 the great velTels in the thigh, where they pafs 
 through the triceps mufcle. From this fitua- 
 t:ion, and not from any thing extraordinary in this 
 gland, it is that wounds are there fo dangerous. 
 ■ ' The 
 
LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 215 
 The lymphatic glands are faid by NucK, and 
 others after him, to be compofed of velicles, and 
 not of vefTels like other glands j and that thefe ve- 
 iicles are repolitories of lymph: but from their 
 appearance in a natural ftate, which is very corn- 
 pad; and uniform, there feems to me to be but little 
 reafoii for fuch a conjediure. Some have thought 
 their ufe to be by contracting to accelerate the mo- 
 tion of the fluids in the lymphatics ; but that does 
 not feem very probable, becaufe a mufcular coat 
 would have been the readied means to produce that 
 effed: ; befides, thefe vellels feldom enter any of 
 them without detaching a branch over at the fame 
 time, perhaps to prevent obflrudions. And if thefe 
 glands were endued with a contrad:ingpo'.ver, which 
 is only prefumed without any proof, it would flill 
 be difficult to conceive how fuch a power, applied 
 at uncertain fpaces, fliould not rather obftrud thaa 
 accelerate the motion of lymph in the lymphatics, 
 unlefs there were valves to prevent a reflux -, and 
 even then, if this were a convenient piece of me- 
 chanifm, it would be ftrange it fhould no where 
 elfe in the body be made ufe of. 
 
 These lymphatic glands being difeafed, are apt 
 to obftrudt and occafion the burfting of the lym- 
 phatics that pafs through them; which, if in the 
 breaft, caufes an incurable hydrops pectoris j if in 
 the abdomen, the true afcites, attended with a 
 wafting of the limbs, which is never cured, but 
 may be relieved by tapping. 
 
 O4 CHAP. 
 
i?i6 COURSE OF THE 
 
 CHAP, XII. 
 
 Of ths courfe of the aliment and fluids ^ abflj-aBed 
 frem the foregoing chapters. 
 
 THE aliment being received into the rnouth, 
 is there mafticated, and impregnated with 
 faliva, which is prefTed out of the falivary glands 
 by the motions of the jaw and the mufcles that 
 jnove it and the tongue. Then it defcends through 
 the pharynx into the ilomach, where it is digefted 
 hy the juices of the ftomach (which are what is 
 thrown out of the glands of its inmoft coat, and 
 faliva out of the mouth) and a moderate warmth 
 and attrition. Then it is thrown through thepy- 
 loris or right orifice of the flomach into the duo- 
 denum, where it is mixed with bile from the galU 
 bladder and liver, and the pancreatic juice from 
 the pancreatic gland. Thefe fluids ferve farther to. 
 attenuate and dilute the digefted aliment, and pro- 
 bably, to make the fluid part feparate better from 
 the fsces. After this it is continually moved by 
 the periftaltic motion of the guts, and the com- 
 preflion of the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles, 
 by which forces the fluid parts are preffed into the 
 ladeals^ and the grofs parts through the guts to 
 the anus. 
 
 The chyle, or thin and milky part of the ali- 
 
 X^tnt, being received into the k<5teals from all the 
 
 9 fi^4^ 
 
ALIMENT AND FLUIDS. 217 
 imall guts, they carry it into the receptaculum 
 chyli, and from thence the dudius thoracicus car- 
 ries it into the left fubclavian vein, where it mixes 
 with the blood, and paiTes with it to the heart- 
 
 All the veins being emptied into two branches, 
 viz. the afcending and defc ending cava, they empty 
 into the right auricle of the heart ; the right auri- 
 cle unloads into the right ventricle, which throws 
 the blood through the pulmonary artery into the 
 lungs; from the lungs the blood is brought by the 
 pulmonary veins into the kft auricle, and from 
 that into the left ventricle, by which it is thrown 
 into the aorta^ and diftributed through the body. 
 From the extremities of the arteries, arife the veins 
 and lymphatics; the veins to colled: the blood and 
 bring it back to the heart; and the lymphatics to 
 return the lymph, or thinner part of the blood, 
 from the arteries to the veins and the vafa ladea, 
 where it mixes with the chyle, and then paiTes 
 with it into the left fubclavian vein and to the 
 heart. 
 
 All the fluids that pafs into the flomach and 
 guts being carried into the blood-veflels, the great- 
 eft part of them are feparated and carried off by 
 proper veffels, viz. urine from the kidneys, bile 
 from the liver, &c. and thefe juices carry along 
 with them whatever might be injurious to the 
 animal ceconomy. 
 
 CHAP, 
 
2i8 DURA MAT E R. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Of the dtira mater and pia mater, 
 
 URA MATER is a very compaft ilrong 
 membrane, lining the infide of the fcull, 
 firmly adhering at its balls, and but lightly at the 
 uoper part, except at the rjtures. It has three 
 proceffes; the firft, named falx, begins at the 
 crilla galii, and runs backwards under the futura 
 fagittalis to the cerebellum, dividing the cerebrum 
 into two hemifpheres. Its ufe is faid to be to fup- 
 port one fide of the cerebrum from preffing on the 
 otheF when the head is inclined to one fide. But 
 I think it is evident that this is not the ufe, becaufe 
 there would be more need of fuch a procefs from 
 one fide of the fcull to the other, than this way; 
 and it would alfo be very necefTary that it fhould 
 run through the brain, to anfwer that end. The 
 principal ufe appears to me to be, to divide the brain 
 into fuch portions as are leaft liable to be moved 
 in the fcull, by any violent motions of the head, 
 which is better done this way than it would the 
 other; and the other fide of the brain is kept fteady 
 by the inequalities of the bafis of the fcull, which 
 the brain is exactly fitted to. In brutes the falx 
 is always very fmall, therefore in thofe whofe 
 brains are of the larger fize, as oxen, fheep, horfes, 
 &;c. the upper part of the fcull is made uneven, 
 exadly to fit the folds of the brain, which fecures 
 
 the 
 
D U R A M A T E R, 219 
 
 the upper parts of their brains from concuflions, in 
 the fame manner that the lower parts are fecured. 
 The fecond procefs runs from the lower and back 
 part of the former to the upper edge of each os 
 petrofum, and fuftains the pofterior lobes of the 
 cerebrum, that they might not comprefs the cere- 
 bellum. In fuch rapacious animals as I have diit 
 fedled, this procefs is bone. The third is very 
 fmall ; it runs from the laft defcribed procefs down 
 towards the great foramen of the fcull, andpoffefTes 
 the fmall fpace in the cerebellum, between the 
 proceffus vermiformis. Thefe procefles of the 
 (dura mater alfo ferve to keep the brain fteady. 
 
 The dura mater has in it feveral linufes, which 
 are large veins to receive the blood from the leiTer 
 veins of the brain : their number is uncertain, and 
 thofe that are conftant are not defcribed in the 
 fame order by writers, The firfl that prefents itfelf 
 is the longitudinalis fuperior, running from a blind 
 hole a little above the crift^i galli all along the 
 upper edge of the falx, A tranfverfe fe6tion of 
 this veflel is not circular, like other vefTels, but a 
 triangle, whofe lides are arches of a circle j the 
 upper fide convex outwards, and the two lower 
 convex inwards. The figure of this vefTel is pre- 
 ferved by fmall ligaments running acrofs in the in- 
 fide, that it might not become conical, or cylindri- 
 cal, like other veflels, from the equal preiTure of 
 the contained blood, and thereby incommode the 
 upper edges of eaph Jieniifphere of the cerebrum. 
 
22a D tl R- A MATER. 
 
 On tlie lower edge of this procefs is generally aii- 
 othef very fmall one, called longitudinalis inferior^ 
 this runs into the reftus, and when wanting is 
 fupplied by a vein, the reftus runs between the two 
 fipft proceffes of the dura mater, and unloads with 
 the linus longitudinalis fuperior into the two late- 
 lal fiaufes y but for the mod part the longitudinal 
 finus goes more directly into one of the lateral £>- 
 mifes, and the ftraight fmus into the other. There; 
 ^ fometimes a fmall one in the third procefs, which 
 empties in' the fame place with the former. From 
 the endings of the longitudinal andflraight fmufes^t 
 begin the two lateral iinufes, which, when they 
 €ome to the os petrofum, dip dov*^n and pafs thro' 
 the eighth foramina into the internal jugular veins. 
 There is another named ci-rqularis ; it runs round 
 the fore-part onl^ of the fella turcica; the two 
 emds of this empty into four linufeS;, one on the 
 top of each os petrofum, which pafs into the iinu& 
 lateralis,, and one at the under iides of the fame 
 bones, which pafs indiiferently into both the late-* 
 Faiand cervical finufes; thefe two lafl linufes have 
 always communicant branches. The cervical fi- 
 nufes run from the bafis of the fcull through the 
 great foramen on both fides of the medulla fpi- 
 Balis colli, and through the tranfverfe proceffes of 
 the eervical vertebras ;. the laft of thefe have many 
 times proper foramina running from the'eighth 
 foramina to the back part 6f the apophyfes of the 
 ©ccipital bone. There are alfo two more of thefe 
 
 veflels. 
 
P I A MATER. 221 
 
 Tc-fTels, which ran from the circular finusl>etweenL 
 the OS fphenoides and fore-part of the os petro- 
 lum diredily into the internal jugular veins. 
 
 Pi A MATER is an exceeding fine membrane 
 immediately invefting the brain, even between its 
 iobes, hemifpheres, and folds. It ferves to contain 
 the brain, and fupport its bloDd-velTels, which run 
 here in great numbers, for the arteries to divide 
 into fmall branches upoDj that the blood may not 
 enter- the brain too impetuouily: and for the veins 
 to unite on, that they may enter the fmufes in 
 fewer ^id larger branches. Between the dura 
 and pia mater, is defcribed, by feveral anatomifls, 
 a membrane called arachnoides, which may eaiilj 
 jbe ihewn at the back part of the cerebrum, upon 
 the ^-cerebellum and back part of the medulla 
 fpiaalis. 
 
 I H/ivE feen a large part of the dura mater, 
 and once part of the pia mater oiliiied. 
 
 e H A p, 
 
iiz CEREBRUM. 
 
 C H A P. XIV. 
 
 Of the cerebrumi terebellums medulla oblongatat 
 and medulla fpinalis, 
 
 CEREBRtJM is that part of the tram 
 which poflelTes all the upper and fore part 
 of the cranium, being feparated from the cerebel- 
 lum by the fecond procefs of the dura mater. Its 
 upper fide is divided into two hemifpheres, and its 
 lower fide into four lobes, two anterior and twc^ 
 pofterior, Which latter are much the largeJfl:. At 
 the meetifig of the four lobes appears the infundi- 
 bulum, which feems to be a lymphatiCy running 
 from the ventricles of the brain into the glandula 
 pituitaria: this gland is feated in the fella turcica. 
 Immediately behind the infandibulum appear two 
 fiiiall bodies, named protuberantise duse albee pone 
 infundibulurri.' Between the two hemifpheres of 
 the cerebrum, lower than the circumvolutions,* 
 appears a white body, named corpus Gallofum- 
 Under the corpus callofum appear the two lateral 
 or fuperior ventricles, which are divided into right 
 and left by a very thin membrane, named feptum 
 iucidum, which is extended between the corpus- 
 callofum and fornix. The fornix is a medul-' 
 lary body, beginning from the fore part of thefe, 
 ventricles, with two fmall roots which foon unite x, 
 and running towards the back part, where they 
 divide into parts, called crura fornicis. In the 
 
 bafis 
 
CEREBELLUM. 223 
 
 bafis of thefe two ventricles are four prominences : 
 The two anterior are called (from their inner tex- 
 ture) corpora llriata; the other two are named 
 thalami nervorum opticorum. Beyond thefe are 
 two more procefTes, called nates; and under them, 
 nearer the cerebellum, two called teftes. Above 
 the nates is iituated the glandula pinealis, famous 
 for being fuppofed, by Des Cartes, the feat of 
 the foul. And upon the thalami nervorum opti- 
 corum are a number of blood-veffels, glands, and 
 lymphaeduds , called plexus choroides, Uhder the 
 beginning of the fornix is a fmall hole, called fo- 
 ramen ad radices fornices, or iter ad infundibulum; 
 and under the middle of the fornix, one called fo- 
 ramen pofterius, which is covered with a valve 
 named membrana, orvalvula major; and thefpacc 
 under the two anterior ventricles between the fora- 
 mina and the cerebellum is the third ventricle. 
 
 Cerebellum is fituated under the fecond pro- 
 cefs of the dura mater. By dividing this part of 
 the brain length-ways we difcover more plainly ths 
 fourth ventricle, whofe extremity is called calamus 
 fcriptorius; here alfo appear two medullary bo- 
 dies called pedunculi, which are the balls of the 
 cerebellum. The medullary part in the cerebellum, 
 though it is inmoft, as in the cerebrum, yet is^of a 
 different fhape, being branched out like a plant. 
 
 The fubftance of the brain is diftinguifhed in- 
 to outer and inner: the former is called cortica- 
 lis, cinerea, or glandulofa; the latter medullaris, 
 alba, or nervea. Me- 
 
224 MEDULLA OBLONGATA, &c. 
 
 Medulla 'oblongata is a medullary con- 
 tinuation of the under part of the cerebrum and 
 cerebellum. It firft appears in two bodies from 
 the anterior part of the pofterior lobes of the ce- 
 rebrum, called crura medullae obiongatse. The uni- 
 on of thefe crura between the cerebrum and cere- 
 bellum is called ifthmus 3 and immediately beyond 
 this is an eminence named proceflus annularis. 
 
 Medulla spinalis is a produftion of the 
 medulla oblongata through the great foramen of 
 the fcull, and through the channel of the fpine: 
 it enlarges about the lafi: vertebras of the back and 
 firft of the neck, where the large nerves are given 
 oiF to the arms : it again enlarges in the loins, 
 where the crural nerves begin ; and the lower end 
 of it, with thofe and other nerves, is called from 
 its refemblance cauda equina. The coats of this 
 part are the fame with thofe of the brain ^ but the 
 membrane here, which is analogous to the dura- 
 mater, is thinner and more conneded to the bones, 
 and the tunica arachnoides more confpicuous. 
 
 Wounds in the cerebrum, though very dange- 
 rous, are not mortal ; but in the cerebellum and 
 medulla oblongata caufe fudden deaths and in the 
 medulla fpinalis, lofs of fenfe in all the parts which 
 receive nerves from below the wound. In perfons 
 that have died lethargic, I have always found the 
 brain full of water;, and in children, the brain is 
 always very foft and moiil;. In a man, that died 
 of an apoplexy, I found all the vefTels of the brain 
 
 im- 
 
NERVES. 225 
 
 immoderately diftended with blood, and the ven- 
 tricles and the fubfliance of the brain full of 
 lymph, the pia mater very much thickened, and 
 adhering fo very loofely that the greateft part of 
 it was feparated without breaking. 
 
 I HAVE twice feen in the cerebrum a fchirrous 
 tumor as large as a pullet's egg ; and in another 
 body, impofthumations which poiTefTed near two 
 thirds of the whole cerebrum. And in a perfon 
 that died with a gutta ferena, I found all the 
 ventricles of the brain full of lymph ; and the 
 thalami nervorum opticorum and the optic nerves, 
 ere they went out of the fcull, made flat with the 
 preimre. And in an old man I found the right 
 optic nerve wailed and black. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Cff the Ne?'ves^ 
 
 ROM the medullary part of the cere- 
 brum, cerebellum, and medulla fpinalis a 
 " vaft number of fmall medullary white fibres are 
 " fent out, which, at their firft egrefs, feem eafily 
 " to feparate, but as they pafs forward are 'fome- 
 " what more, but ftill loofely connected, by the 
 *•' coat which they obtain from the pia mater, and 
 " at laft piercing the dura mater, are ftraitly braced 
 '* by that membrane which covers them in their 
 '^ progrefs ; whence they become white, firm, 
 
 P \ ** flron^ 
 
226 N E R V E S. 
 
 ** ilrong cords, and fo, are well known by the 
 ** name of nerves. To thefe coats an infinite num- 
 /* ber of veffels, both arteries and veins, are diftri- 
 '** buted .; fo that after a nice lucky injedtion thc: 
 ^' whole cord is tinged v/ith the colour of the in- 
 ** jecled liquor ; but when the fibrils are examined, 
 ** even v/ith tlie befl microfcope, they appear only 
 ** like fo many fn:iall diPcind: threads running pa- 
 ■** raiiel, without any cavity obfervable in them, 
 '* though fome incautious obfcrvers, miilaking tbe 
 ** cut orifices of the arterious and venous vefTels, 
 .*^ juft P.ow mentioned, for nervous tubes, have af- 
 *^ firmed their cavities to be vifible. The nerves, 
 ■*' which if all joined hardly make a cord of an inch 
 *' diameter, v/ould feern, from their exerting them- 
 ** feives every v/here, to be diftributed to each, even 
 *' the fmallell part of the body. In their courfe 
 ** to the places for which they are deilined they 
 ** generally run as flraight as the part over which 
 " they are to pafs, and their ov/n fafety from exter- 
 '' nal injuries, will allow, fending off their bran- 
 ** ches at very acute angles, and confequently run- 
 *^ nine more parallel than the blood- velTels. Their 
 ^' diftribution is feldom different in the oppofite 
 *' fides of the fam.e fubjed:, nor indeed in any 
 ** two fubiefls is there confiderable variety found, 
 ** Frequently nerves which come out diftindt or 
 *' feparate, afterwards conjoin into one fafciculus, 
 *' under the fame common covering; and though 
 ^* the iitrvous fibrils probably do not com-municate 
 
 '' (the 
 
NERVES; 227 
 
 *' (the reafon of which opinion fliall immediately 
 ** be given) yet becaufe the coats at the conjoined 
 ** part are common, and thefe ftrong coats may 
 ** have great effeds on the foft pulpy nerves, it is 
 ** evident all fuch w^ill have a confiderable fympa- 
 ** thy with one another, whereof feveral exam- 
 '* pies in pra(ftice iliall be inftanced when the par- - 
 ^* ticular nerves are defcribed. In fome parts 
 ^* where there are fuch conjund'ions, the bulk of 
 ** the nerves feems much increafed, and thefe 
 '* knotty oval bodies, called by Fallopius cor- 
 ** pora olivaria, and generally now named gang- 
 ** lions, are formed. The coats of thefe knots 
 ** are ilronger, thicker, and more mufcular than 
 *' the whole nerves which enter into them would 
 *' feem to conftitute, while the nervous fibrils 
 ** pafs through without any great alteration or 
 " change. I do not think any author has yet 
 ^^made a probable conjecture of the ufe or delign 
 ** of thefe ganglions^ whether they imagine them 
 *^ corculaexpcllentia, refervoirs, or elaboratories, 
 •^^ neither can I give an account of their ufe the 
 ^* leaft fatisfa6tory to myfclf. 
 
 ** From undeniably evident experiments, all 
 ** anatomifts are now convinced that to the nerves 
 " we owe all our fenfation and motion, of which 
 '*• they are the proper organs ; and the fenfations 
 " in the minuteft parts being very diiliindt, there- 
 *' fore the inflruments of fuch fenfations muil have 
 '^^ diflindt origins and courfc to each part. Though 
 
 V '^ *' all 
 
228 NERVE S. 
 
 ' all are agreed as to the effect, yet a hot difpute 
 ' has arifen about the manner how it is produced, 
 
 * viz. whether fenfation and motion are occafioned 
 
 * by avibration communicated to the nerves, which 
 ' thefe gentlemen fuppofe entirely folid and tenfe, 
 
 * or by a liquid contained and moved in them. 
 
 * The lafl: of th-efe opinions I rather incline to, for 
 
 * thefe reafons, becaufe the nerves proceeding from 
 
 * the brain bear a great analogy to the excretory 
 
 * ducts of other glands. Then they are far from 
 
 * being ftretched and tenfe in order to vibrate. 
 
 * And what brings the exiftence of a liquid in their 
 
 * cavities next to a demonitrationis the experiment 
 
 * iirll: made by Bellini, and related by Bohn 
 ' and PiTCAiRN, which I have often done with 
 
 * exad: good fuccefs ; it is this : after opening the 
 
 * thorax of a living dog, catch hold of and comprefs 
 
 * the phrenic nerve, immediately the diaphragm 
 
 * ceafes toai5t; remove the comprefTmg force, that 
 
 * mufcle again contracts; gripe the nerve with one 
 ' hand fome way above the diaphragm, that fep- 
 
 * turn is inadive ; then with tlie other hand ftrip 
 
 * down the nerve from the firfl hand to the dia- 
 
 * phragm, this mufcle again contracts; after once 
 
 * or twice having itripped the nerve thus down 
 
 * or exhausted the liquid contained in it, themuf- 
 ' cle no more ads, fqueeze as you v\^ill, till the 
 
 * firfl hand is taken away or removed higher, and 
 ^ the nerve flripped, i. e. the liquids in the fupe- 
 
 * rior part of the nerve have free accefs to the dia- 
 
 *' phragm. 
 
NERVES. 229 
 
 *' phragm, or are forced down to it, when it again 
 " will move. Now if this liquid fliould be granted 
 " us, I am afraid we fliall be flill as much at a 
 " lofs to account for fenfation and motion as ever^ 
 ** and therefore all I fliall alTume is what is found- 
 " ed on experiments, that thefe two adions do de- 
 *' pend on the nerves; that fenfations are pleafant 
 " as long as the nerves are only gently affec^ted 
 '' without any violence offered them -, but as foon 
 *' as any force applied goes beyond this, and 
 *' threatens a folution of union, it creates that 
 *' uneafy fenfation, pain : > the nerves, their fource 
 ** or their coats being vitiated, either convulfion 
 ** orpalfy of the mufcles may enfue. 
 
 '* The nerves are diftinguiihedinto two clafTes, 
 ■ * of the encephalon and m.eduila fpinalis j of the 
 " firft there are generally ten pair reckoned, of 
 *' the lafl: thirty. 1 {hall defcribe the nerves in 
 ** the fame order in which they are generally 
 " ranked, though it is not ooiiible to profecute the 
 '' diiTed:ion of them after the fame manner; but 
 " to fupply this, I fliall mention alfo the order 
 '* wherein they may be all demonftrated on one 
 " fubjed:. When I affign the origin of any nerve 
 " from any particular part, I defire it maybe un- 
 *' derftood of that part of the furface of the me- 
 *< duila where the nerve iiril appears ; for by this 
 " m.ethod we (hall (bun any difpute with thofe au- 
 ** thors who trace their rife too minutely, and per- 
 ** haps be lefs liable to miliake or to deceive our 
 
 P 3 *' readers ^ 
 
?3<^ NERVES. 
 
 '^readers. Nor (hall I be over anxious about the 
 ** terminations of the minims fibrillae, lince it is 
 " not poffible to trace them ad ultimos fines, nor 
 *' do I think it very rieceffary for explaining any 
 *' phasnomena, w^hile very often in a multiplicity 
 " of vv^ords the whole defcription comes to be ob- 
 ** fcure or unintelligible. 
 
 " Of the ten pair proceeding from the encepha- 
 " Ibn, the firil is the olfactory, which in brutes, 
 '* juflly enough, has the name of proceifus ma- 
 *^ millares befcOv/ed on'them, being large and hol- 
 ** low, and are indeed evidently the two anterior 
 *' ventricles of the brain produced; which ftru^lure 
 *' and the lymph confhmtly found in them, induced 
 *' the ancients to believe that they ferved as emun- 
 *' d:ories to convey the fuberabundant mucus from 
 " the cold moift brain to the nofe ; but in man 
 " they are fmall, long, and without any cavity, 
 ** rifing from that part of the brain where the ca- 
 ** rotid arteries are about to enter, and running un- 
 ** der the anterior lobes of the brain become a little 
 '^ larger, till they reach the os cribriforme, into 
 *' the foramina of which the fmall filaments infi- 
 **" iiuate themfelves, as upon gently pulling thole 
 " nerves, or after having cut them very near the 
 ** bone, is evident, and are immediately fpread on 
 *' the membrana narium. Their tender ftrudture 
 '^ and fudden expanfion on fuch a large furface, 
 *' make it irnpoffible to trace them on the mem- 
 * * brane of the noilrils, which has given fome handle 
 
 S . " to 
 
N E Pv V E S. zyi 
 
 **^ to feveral authors to deny them jthe ilru<fture or 
 ** ufe of nerves, 
 
 *' The fecond or the optic, which arife iingle 
 *' from the thalami nervorum opticorum, and then 
 ** uniting at the fore part of the cella turcica, they 
 ** feem to be pretty much blended; afterwards they 
 *' divide, and running obliquely forv/ards, pafs out 
 ** at their proper hole of the fphenoid bone, and 
 *' enter the globe of the eye to be expanded into 
 *' the membrana retina. From this conjundion of 
 ** thefe nerves, authors generally endeavour to ac- 
 *' count for our feeing objects fmgle, whereas we 
 *' have reafon to believe fiihes, the chameleon, &c. 
 ** whofe optic nerves fim^plycrofs one another v/ith- 
 ** out any fuch union, do fee objedis alfo iingle, 
 ** lince they fo exactly ru(h on their prey; where^ 
 "as if thofe authors affertions were true, they 
 " would oftener catch at the (liadow than thefub- 
 ** ftance. The blood-velTels running through the 
 ** middle of thefe nerves, and the ramifications of 
 '* the retina are very obfervable, whence we may 
 " deduce the reafon of Pi card's experiment of 
 '* fuch objects as fallen the entry of the optic nerve 
 ** being lofh to us ; and hence alfo an account may 
 ** be given of an amaurolis or gutta ferena. 
 
 ** The third pair of nerves firft appear at the 
 
 ", anterior part of the procefTus annularis, and gc-» 
 
 " ingout at the foramen lacerum. are difrributed to 
 
 *' the globe of the eye ; mufculus recT;us Failopii, 
 
 ^^- attollens,adducens, deprimens, aadobliquusmi- 
 
 P 4 *■* nors 
 
232 NERVES. 
 
 ' nor; therefore this pair has juftly got the name 
 
 * of rriotores oculi. 
 
 " The fourth pair, which are the fmalleft of 
 
 * any, derive their origins from the anterior lateral 
 
 * part of the procefTus annularis, and go out at the 
 ' foramina lacera to be intirely fpent on the muf- 
 ' culi trochleares, or obliqui majores oeulorum, 
 ' to which rnufcles chiefly the rotatory motion 
 ^ of the eyes in ogling, and the advance of the 
 ' eyes forward in flaring and fury, is owing ; for 
 ' v/hich resJon anatomifls have called thefe nerves 
 
 * pathetici. 
 
 " The fifth pair arife from the fides of the an- 
 ^ nular procefs, and after piercing the dura mater 
 
 * divide into three branches; the firft of which is 
 
 * the ophthalmic, which as it is about to enter 
 ^ the. orbit by the foramen lacerum, fends off a 
 ' fmall twig that affifts in the formation of the 
 
 * intercofbal, and then the nerye is dillributed to 
 ' theglandulalacrymalis, fat, membranes, andpal- 
 
 * pebr£ of the eye, while it fends one coniiderable 
 
 * branch through the orbiter internus anterior hole 
 ^ to be loft in the membrana narium, and a fecond 
 ' paiTes the foramen and fupercilia to fupply the 
 
 * rnufcles and teguments of the forehead. Hence 
 ' we eafiiy difcover what part is affeded in that 
 
 * painful difeafe the megrim, when the eye-ball 
 ' and forehead are racked, and fucli a heat is felt 
 ' v/ithin the nofe. Hence alfo we may learn how 
 
 ^* the mufcles of refpiration come to be fo much 
 
 Q ** affeded 
 
NERVES. 233 
 
 afFe(5ted on the application of any acrid irritating 
 fubflance to the membrana narium, as to pro- 
 duce that violent convulfive motion, fneezing. 
 The fecond branch of the fifth pair, which may 
 be called maxillaris fuperior, pafles out through 
 the foramen rotundum offis fphenoidis, and im- 
 diately gives nerves to the fat under the cro- 
 taphite mufcle, and to the palate, finus fphenoi- 
 dalis, andnoftrils. The remaining trunk inlinu- 
 ating itfelf into the channel on the top of the 
 antrum Highmorianum, to which cavity and to 
 the teeth of the upper jaw it gives fmall twigs, 
 at lafl comes out at the orbiter externus hole, 
 and is fpent on the mufculus orbicularis palpebra- 
 rum, nofe, and upper lip, where fome branches 
 of the feventh pair feem to unite themfelves to 
 the twigs of this. The third branch, or max- 
 illaris inferior, goes out at the foramen ovale, or 
 fourth hole of the wedge-like bone, and foon 
 fplitting into a great many branches, is diftri- 
 buted to the mufculus crotaphites, malTeter, pte- 
 rygoides, digaftricus, buccinator, mylohyoideus, 
 geniohyoideus, genio-glofTus, and balio-gloffus, 
 glandula fublingualls, maxillaris inferior, and 
 parotis, to the external ear, where it feems to join 
 the portio dura to the fubftance of the tongue, 
 in which it is pretty much confounded with the 
 ninth pair : from the root of this lafl branch the 
 chorda tympani is reflefted. The laft ramifi- 
 cation of this branch which I fhall mention, is 
 
 '' that 
 
234. NERVES. 
 
 that which enters into the canal of the lower jaw, 
 furnifhes the teeth there, and comes out at the 
 chin, on which and the lower lip it is bellowed j 
 at this place it is again conjoined to the feventh 
 pair. From this fhort flcetch of the large fifth 
 pair of nerves, and by obferving feveral phaeno- 
 mena which happen to thofe parts to which they 
 are diftributed, we might have a much farther 
 confirmation of the general dodrine of nerves 
 delivered, and fee, at leaf!:, the way pathed to a 
 rational account of thefe phenomena, forreafon- 
 ing on which we fhould not otherwife have the 
 leail: ground. We can, for example, from the 
 chorda tympani and the nerves of the teeth, be- 
 ing derived from the fame common trunk, un- 
 derftand hov/ the found of any vibrating body 
 held between our teeth is fenfible to us, when 
 another cannot poflibly hear the leaf}: on't. By 
 the like rule we know w^hy in a violent tooth- 
 ach the mufcles of the face are fometimes con- 
 vulfed; nor ihall we be furprized to hear one 
 plagued with the ach in his upper teeth, com- 
 plain of a gnawing pain deep feated in the bones 
 of his face, or to fee his eye-lids rnuch fvvelled, 
 or the tears trickling dow^n in great abundance; 
 whereas the lower teeth aching, the ear is pain- 
 ed, and the faliva flows in great quantities. Vy'^e 
 may have fome diflant vie^ys of fome foundation 
 in reafon for the cure of the tocth-ach, by flrong 
 comprefiion of the chin, or by applying blifters 
 
 *' behind 
 
NERVES. 225 
 
 ** behind the ears, or by burning behind or on the 
 *' ear. Among a great many inftances of the good 
 ** efFedt of the ad:ual cautery in fuch a cafe, I fhall 
 *' give one which feems to me remarkable: J. M. 
 *' was feized with the tooth-ach, a convulfion of 
 " that whole lide of his face followed whenever 
 ** the pain became acute, or he attempted to 
 ** fpeakj after he had undergone bleeding, purg- 
 ** ing, falivation, fetona, &c. without any benefit, 
 *' he was cured by applying a fmall cauterifing 
 ** iron to the antihelix. 
 
 *^ The lixth pair of nerves ariiing from the fore 
 *' part of the corpora pyramidalia, after piercing- 
 *' through the dura mater, give off a branch, 
 ^* which, joined with the refieded twig of the oph- 
 *' thalmic branch of the fifth pair, forms the origi- 
 ^' nal of the intercoftal, paffes through the fora- 
 *' men lacerum to be fpent entirely on the muf- 
 ** cuius abdudior oculi: fuppoling this nerve to 
 ** fupply ever fo little lefs than a due proportion 
 *' of liquidum nervofum, an involuntary ftrabif- 
 " mus will be occaiioned. 
 
 " Though the fifth and fixth pair of nerves 
 ** form entirely the beginning of the intercoftal 
 " before it goes out of the fcull, yet becaufe fe- 
 ^* veral other nerves contribute towards the for^j- 
 ** mation of its trunk before it fends off any 
 ** branches, I jfhall fuperfede the defcription of it 
 '^ till the original nerves are fpoke to. 
 
 *' Th5 
 
236 N E R V E S. 
 
 " The feventh pair appears coming out from 
 " the fide of the root of the annular procefs, and 
 «* entering the meatus auditorius internus, and 
 ** immediately dividing, one part foon lofes its 
 " firm coats, and is expanded on the inmoft ca- 
 ** mera of the ear, while the other paffing through 
 *' the aqu23du6tus Fallopii com.es out of the fcull 
 ** involved in all its coats betvi^een the ftyloideand 
 <* mafloide proceiTes; whence we fee the reafon of 
 *' the firfl being named portio mxollis, and the 
 '^ other dura : this laft after its exit fupplies the 
 *' mufcali obliqui capitis ftylohyoidei, Ifylogloffi, 
 " and ftylopharyngaei, and platyfma myoides, on 
 *' which, and to the ikin of the neck, a great num- 
 *' her of its fmall filaments run, which are fome- 
 ** times cut in opening the jugular vein, whence 
 ** pain at firfi:, and a little numbnefs afterward. 
 ** The fuperior branches of it fupply the parotid 
 " gland, external ear, and v/hole fide of the face 
 ** as far forwards as the chin. It is faid to com- 
 ** municate thrice with the fifth pair, and tv/ice 
 ** with the fecond vertebra. Whether may not we 
 ^* hence fee fome reafon v/hy the head is fo foon 
 *' moved by the imprefiion of found on our ear ? 
 
 " The eighth pair of nerves derive their origin 
 " from the fide of the bafis of the corpora olivaria, 
 ^^ where their loofe filamentous texture is very con- 
 '^ fpicuous j then running to the hole common to 
 *' the ofi^a temporum and occipitis, they are there 
 *' joined by the acccfforius Willifii, which has its 
 
 ** beginning 
 
NERVES. 237 
 
 *■* beginning from the two or three fuperlor nerves 
 *' of the medulla fpinalis, and mounts upwards 
 '* thither, to pafs out with the eighth pair, at that 
 *' common foramen juft now mentioned: Very 
 ** foon after they, wrapped up in the fame coat, 
 ** have got out of the cranium, the accellbrius fe- 
 " parates from its companion; and after paffing 
 " through the middle of the mufculus maftoideus; 
 ** is loft in the mufculus trapezius and rhomboides 
 " fcapulas; while the large trunk, which, from the 
 ** great number of branches it fends off, obtains 
 " the name of vagus, runs ftraight down the neck, 
 *' near the carotid artery, in its courfe giving feve- 
 '* ral branches to the larynx: When entered the 
 **^ thorax, it fplits into two; the anterior ferves the 
 " pericardium, fends branches to join with thofe 
 -*' of the intercoflal that go to the heart, and then 
 ** on the right fide turns round the fubclavian, and 
 ''^ on the left round the dud:us arteriofus, to mount 
 " again upwards at the fide of the Gsfophagus to 
 " be loft in the larynx. This recurrent branch it 
 ** is that we are earneflly cautioned to avoid in 
 *' bronchotomy, though by reafon of its deep fitu- 
 " ation we are in no hazard of it. If both thefe 
 ** nerves were cut, it is probable the voice w^ould 
 ** not be entirely loft as long as the fuperior branches 
 ** ftill fupply the larynx. The pofterior branch of 
 *' the eighth pair goes along with the oefophagus, 
 ** and fupplies the lungs, the gula, and ftomach, 
 " very plentifuJly : and as all the nerves beftowed 
 
 '' on 
 
238 NERVE S. 
 
 *' on this vifcus enter at the fuperior orifice of it^ 
 ** the fenfation here muft be very acute; whence 
 ** He L MONT imagined the mouth of the ftomach 
 '* to be the feat of the foul. What remains of 
 ** this par vagum is adjoined to the intercoflal im-~ 
 ** mediately below the diaphragm. 
 
 ^' The ninth pair appear firft at the inferior 
 *' part of the corpora pyramidalia, and march out 
 ** at their proper holes of the occipitis, and after 
 *^ fending oif fome nerves to the glandula thyroi- 
 ** dea, and mufculi fterno-hyoidei, and fterno- 
 *' thyroidei, are lofl in the fabftance of the tongue. 
 ^*^ Authors have difputed v/hether this ninth or 
 ** "the fifth is the guftatory nerve j the old opinion 
 ** in favour of the ninth is to me mofl: probable, 
 ** becaufe the fifth is no where elfe employed as 
 ** an organ of fenfation, becaufe the ninth feems to 
 ■'^ penetrate the fubftance of the tongue more, 
 *' while the fifth is fpent on the mufcles. 
 
 '* The tenth pair comes out from the beginning 
 *' of the medulla fpinalis, betwixt the os occipitis 
 ■*' and firft vertebra colli, and is all, except what 
 ^' goes to the ganglion of the intercoflal, fpent on 
 *"* the mufculi obliqui, and extenfores capitis. 
 
 '* The only nerves proceeding from the cnct- 
 ** plialon not defcribed, are the refleded branches 
 *' of the fifth and fixth, which indeed are fo fmall 
 *^ and pappy, and hid by the carotid artery as they go 
 :■- *' out v/ith it in its crooked canal, as not to beeafily 
 **" trac'ed; but whenever they have efcaped from the 
 
 " OS 
 
NERVES. 239 
 
 *' OS petrofum, they are joined by branches frora 
 •* the eighth, ninth, tenth, and firfl and fecond 
 *' fpinal, and the largeft ganglion of the body is 
 ** formed, from which the nerve named now in- 
 ** tercoftal, goes out to defcend down the neck 
 *' with the carotid, fupplying in its coui*fe the muf- 
 ** culi flexores of the head and neck, and commu- 
 *^ nicating with the cervical nerves. As the inter- 
 *^ coftal is about to enter the thorax, it again forms 
 ** a ganglion, from which the nerves to the trachea 
 " arteria and the heart arefupplied,v/hich join with 
 " the branches of the eighth, and pafs between the 
 *' two large arteries and auricles to the fubftance 
 *' of that mufcle. Now let any one confider the 
 ** egrefs of the intercofial, and clofe courfe of it 
 ** and the eighth with the carotid artery, and this 
 '* manner of entry of the cardiac nerves, furely 
 ** the alternate conftridion and relaxation of the 
 *' heart will appear neceifarily depending on the 
 *' difpofition of thefe organs of motion, the nerves. 
 *' The intercoftal after this runs dov/n on the fide 
 ** of the vertebrs thoracis, having additional nerves 
 *' conflantly fent to it from between thefe verte- 
 " bras, till it pafs through its own proper hole of 
 *' the diaphragm; whence it again forms another 
 *' ganglion clofe by the glanduls rcnales, into 
 " which the eighth pair enter. From fuch a knot 
 ** on each lide, the nerves of the guts, liver, fpleen, 
 '* pancreas, and kidneys are derived ^ say the qx- 
 " tremity of this nerve is fent down to the pelvis 
 
 '' to 
 
240 NERVES.' 
 
 *' to fupply the parts thercw Hence the great fym- 
 *' pathy of thefe parts may be eafily deducedj and 
 ** a reafon may be given of the violent vomiting 
 ** that commonly attends a nephritis, and of the 
 " belching, colics, and ftomach-achs, v^hich often 
 *' enfue on the obflruftions of the menilrua. 
 
 '^Before I proceed to the fpinal nerves, I 
 *' Ihall fet down the order in w^hich thefe nerves 
 " already defcribed, are to be diffeded, in order 
 ** to demonftrate them all in one fubje6t, but to 
 ^' them muft affume the three firft cervical nerves, 
 ** the reafon of which will be evident afterwards. 
 
 "PoRTio DURA SEPTiMi, frontalis quinti, 
 *' facialis quinti, mentalis quinti, fpinalisfecundus, 
 " fpinalis primus, olfad:orius, ophthalmicus quin- 
 *' ti, motorius oculi, patheticus fextus, opticus, 
 " maxillaris inferior quinti, maxillaris fuperior 
 *^ quinti, acceiTorius Willifii, nonus, decimus, oc- 
 ^'^ tavus intercoftalis, portio mollis feptimi. 
 
 " The thirty pair of nerves proceeding from 
 *' the medulla fpinalis are generally divided into 
 *' four fpeciesj of the neck feven, of the back 
 " twelve, of the loins five, and of the os facrum 
 ** lix. Now as the medulla fpinalis has none of 
 ** thefe inequalities fo obfervable on the medulla 
 ** oblongata encephali, the rife of the nerves is not 
 *'^ fo accurately defcribed, being only determiined 
 *' by the bones through which they pafs. 
 
 **.The firft cervical goes out between the firft 
 ** and fecondvertebra,and,after fending oft'"branches 
 
 *' that 
 
NERVES. 241 
 
 " that communicate with the tenth and fecond , 
 " vertebrale, is fpent on the mufculus flexus colli, 
 ** fplenibs, complexus, and teguments of the oc- 
 *' ciput. 
 
 ** The fecond cervical communicates with the 
 " ninth, and with the firft and third of the neck,,. 
 *' and then is diftributed to the teguments of the 
 " neck and fide of the head, and to the glandula. 
 *' parotis and external ear, where it joins with 
 ** the portio dura. 
 
 "The third of the neck paiTes out between the 
 '* third and fourth vertebra, foon communicating 
 ** with the fecond, and fending down a large 
 " branch, which being joined by another from 
 " the fourth forms the phrenic nerve that runs 
 " along the pericardium to be loft in the dia- 
 " phragm. In this courfe the right phrenic is ob- 
 ** liged tomakeafmall turn round that part of the , 
 '' pericardium which covers the ape^i: of the heart. 
 ** Hence it is that fuch as have ftrong palpitati- , 
 " ons of the heart feel a pungent acute pain im- 
 " mediately above the right orifice of the fcomach. 
 " The other branches of this third cervical are 
 " diftributed to the mufculus trapezius and del- 
 " toides, and to'the teguments on the top of the 
 ** fhoulder; which, with the defcription of the 
 " eighth pair, leads us evidently to the reafons of 
 " the divine Hippocrates 's obfervation, that 
 *' an inflammation of the liver is generally attend- 
 ^* ed with a hiccough, and a fuppuration of that 
 
 Q^ ' ** vifcus. 
 
242 NERVES. 
 
 ** vifcus, with a violent pain on the top of the 
 ** fhoulder. However, we are not hence to con- 
 ** elude fo generally, as I have obferved phyficians 
 " frequently do, that if the hypochondria are af- 
 ** fedted, and this pain of the fhoulderis felt, there- 
 ** fore the liver is fuppurated -, for any other caufe 
 ** Simulating or ftretching the nerves, fuch as in- 
 ** flammation, wounds, fchirrous or fteatomatous 
 *' tumours, &g. may produce the fame eifedt. 
 
 ** The fourth cervical, after fending oif that 
 *' branch which joins with the third to form the 
 *' phrenic, runs ftraight to the axilla, where it 
 ** meets with the fifth, fixth, and feventh cervicals, 
 " and firfl: dorfal that efcape in the interftices of the 
 ** mufculi fcaleni ; and all of them are fo often 
 ** conjoined and blended, after they have given oif 
 " nerves to the mufcles of the neck, fcapula, arm, 
 *' and thorax, and to the teguments, that when the 
 ** feveral ramifications go off in the axilla to the 
 ** different parts of the fuperior extremity, it is im- 
 " poflible to determine which of them the branches. 
 *' belong to. The confiderable branches into which 
 ** they are divided, are fix; thefe I fliall prefume to 
 ** give proper diftinguifhing names to, by which 
 " the defcription will be lefs confufed, and the 
 *^ young anatomrft's memory better aififted to re- 
 ** tain what is fo difficult to reprefent in words. 
 
 " I. CuTANEUs runs down the fore-part of 
 *' the arm, and fcrves the teguments, as far as the 
 «* palm of the hand and fingers. 
 
 2 ** 2. Musculo- 
 
NERVE S. 24j 
 
 *' 2. MtJSCULO-CUTANEUS, Or PERFORANS 
 
 CAssERii, pafTes through the mufculus coraco- 
 brachialis, and after fupplying the biceps and 
 ' brachiaeus internus, is fpent on the teguments 
 
 * of the back of the cubitus and hand. 
 
 ."3. Muscular IS, that runs down the fore- 
 ' part of the arm to be lofl in the mufculi fiex-' 
 
 * ores cacpi, digitorum, &c. 
 
 ** 4. Ulnar IS, which fupplies the extenfores 
 
 * cubiti, arid teguments 6f the elbow, and then 
 ' pafling through the finuofity at the back of the 
 ^ external condyle of the humerus, runs along the 
 ^ ulna, where it gives twigs to the teguments and 
 ' neighbouring mufclesj at length is lofl: in the 
 
 * back of the hand, mufculi interolTei, and lumbri- 
 ' cales in the little finger, and fide of the ring- 
 
 * finger next to this. The courfe of this nerve is 
 
 * fufiiciently felt when we lean on our elbow, by- 
 
 * the infenlibility and prickling pain in the' parts 
 
 * to which it is diflributed. 
 
 *' 5* Radialis goes down the fore^part of the 
 ' arm, near the radius, beflowing branches in its 
 ' progrefs on the circumjacent mufcles, and at the 
 Vligamentum annulare carpi fplitting, is/ent to 
 
 * the thumbj fore-finger, middle-finger, and half 
 ** the ring-finger, and to the back of the hand. 
 
 ** 6. Articularis runs almofl round the top 
 ** of the OS humeri, and ferves the mufculi exten« 
 *' fores cubiti, retraiftores, and elevatores humeri. 
 
 Qj>. " By 
 
2-44' N E, P. V E S; 
 
 " By aflrong and continued prefTure. on thefc 
 " nerves, by (?jutches or any fuch hard fubftance, 
 ** a palfy and atrophy of the arm may be occa- 
 ** fioned. 
 
 ** The twelve dorfal nerves all communicate^ 
 *- with one another j as foon as they make their 
 '■ way out betwixt the vertebras, each of them 
 '* ^ives a poflerior branch to the mufcuU ere6tores 
 *' trunci corporis; the firil:, after having fent off 
 *' the brachial nerve, already defcribed, is, after the 
 ** fame manner with the fucceeding eight, be- 
 *' Itowed on the pleura and intercoftal mufcles; the 
 *f tenth and eleventh are moil of them fent to the 
 *f- abdominal mufcles; the twelfth communicates 
 " with the iiril lumbar, and is beftowed on the mui*- 
 *'- cuius quadratus lumbalis and iliacus internus. 
 
 ** The fifth lumbar alfo communicates and gives 
 ** pofteriorbranchesj the firfl fends feveral branches 
 ** to the abdominal mufcles, and pfoas, and iliacus, 
 ** while others go from it to the teguments and 
 *' mufcles on the fuperior and anterior part of the 
 ** thigh, and the main trunk of it is loft in the 
 •*• crural. The fecond paffes through the pfoas 
 *' mufcle, and is diftributed much as the former. 
 *^The third is loft in the mufculus pedineus. 
 ** Branches proceeding from the firft, fecond, and 
 ** third, make up one trunk, which runs along the 
 *'- anterior part of the pelvis, and flipping through a 
 ** fmall finuofity in the anterior part of the foramen 
 ** .magnum offis ifchii, is fpent in the mufculus 
 5 ** triceps. 
 
N E R V E S. 24.5 
 
 '•^ triceps. This nerve is commonly known by 
 *' the name of obturator, or pofierior crural nei-ve; 
 ** By the union of branches from the firfl, fecond; 
 ** third, and fourth lumbar nerves, the anterior 
 " crural nerve is formed, which running along the 
 *' mufculus pfoas, efcapes with the large blood- 
 ** veflels out of the abdomen below the tendinous 
 " arcade of its mufcles, and is diflributed to the 
 ** mufcles and teguments on the fore-part of the 
 ** thigh : One branch of this crural nerve accom- 
 ** panics the vena faphena as far as the ancle. Novv" 
 '* let us imagine the fituation of the kidney upon^ 
 ** and the courfe of the ureter over thefe nerves, 
 *' and we Ihall not be furprized, that in a nephritis 
 *' the trunk of the body cannot be raifed erecft 
 *' without great pain; that the thigh lofes of its 
 " fenlibility, and that it is drawn forv/ards. The 
 *' remainder of the fourth and the fifth lumbar 
 ** nerves join with the firil:, fecond, and third that 
 ** proceed from the os facrum: thefe five, when 
 ** united, conRitute the largefl nerve of the body; 
 *' fo well known by the name of the fciatic, or 
 " ifchiatic nerve,, which feems to be bigger, in 
 " proportion to the part for the ufe of which it is; 
 ** than the nerves of any other part are; the de^- 
 " lign of which may be to afford futEcient ftrength 
 " to the mufcles of the lower extremity, for ex- 
 ** erting a force fuperior to what is required in any 
 ** other part of the body. When this nerve is any 
 ** way obilruded, we fee how unable we are to 
 
 Q^ 3 ** fupport 
 
246 NERVES. 
 
 '* fupport ourfelves, or to walk. The fciatic nerve 
 f then goes out at the large hollow, behind the 
 ** great tubercle of the os ifchium, and paffing 
 *'^wer the quadrigemini mufcles, runs down the 
 '* poflerior part of the thigh, giving^ off, every 
 ** where as it goes, nerves to the teguments and 
 *' mufcles of the thigh and leg. At the ham it 
 " fplits into two; the fmaller mounts over the ii- 
 *' bula, and ferving the mufculi perpnei, flexores 
 '* pedis, and extenfores digitorum, i^ continued to 
 '* the toes along the broad of the foot, while the 
 ^* larger tjunk fmks under the mufcdi gemelli, 
 "and then divides 5 one is fpent in the mufcles 
 ** at the back of the leg and .teguments, while 
 " the other is continued by the inner ancle to the 
 ** foot, and then fubdivides; one branch is di- 
 <* ftributed after the fame manner as the ulnaris, 
 ** and the other as the radialis in the hand. 
 
 <* The other nerves that come out of the os 
 <* facrum, are fent to the organs of generation, 
 <* mufculi levatoies ani, and obturatores. 
 
 *' These nerves of the medulla fpinalis may 
 <* all be diffeded and dtmonftrated in the fame 
 ** order in which they are defcribed." For this 
 accurate defcription of the nerve§ I am obliged 
 to Mr. PvloNRo. 
 
 The nerves fcem, when examined with a mi- 
 crofcope, to be bundles of ftrait fibres not commu- 
 nicating with one another : and I am inclined to 
 think; that every the minuteft nerve, terminating 
 
 in. 
 
NERVES. 247 
 
 in any part, is a diflind: cord from its origin in the 
 brain or fpinal marrow j or elfe I do not fee how 
 they could produce di{lin<5l fenfations in every part; 
 and the diftind: points of fenfatlon throughout the 
 body are fo numerous, that the whole body of 
 nerves (which taken together would not make a 
 cord of an inch diameter) muft be divided into fuch 
 a number, to afford one for every part that has a 
 diftindt fenfation, that furely fuch a nerve would 
 be too fmall to be {een by the befl microfcope. 
 They all pafs in as dired: courfes to the places they 
 ferve, as is poiTible, never feparating nor joining 
 with one another but at very acute angles, unlefs 
 where they unite in thofe knots which are called 
 ganglions, the ufe of which I do ilot pretend to 
 know ; they make what appears to bq a commit- 
 nication of moft of the nerves on the fame fide, 
 but never join nerves on oppolite iides. 
 
 That the nerves are inftruments of fenfation, 
 is clearly proved from experiments, but how they 
 convey thofe fenfations to the brain, is matter of 
 - difpute. The moll: general opinion is ; that they 
 are tubes to contain animal fpirits, by whofe mo- 
 tions thefe fenfations are conveyed : and diligent 
 enquiry has been made to difcover their cavities, 
 but hitherto in vain ; and if each nerve is diftind: 
 from its origin, as I have endeavoured to fhew, and 
 too fmall to be the objed of the heU microfcope, I 
 do not Xee how fuch cavities are like to be difco- 
 
 0^4 -vered. 
 
248 N E R V E S. 
 
 . vered. Neverthelefs nerves may be tubes, and 
 poflibly a fluid, whofe coheflon is very little, and 
 whofe parts, no finer than light, may move freely 
 in them. Thofe v/ho deny animal fpirits in the 
 jierves, fuppofe that the fenfation is conveyed by a 
 vibration. To which it is objeded, that they are 
 flack, moifl:, and furrounded v^ith foft parts, and 
 are therefore unfit for vibrations, as indeed they 
 are for fuch as are made on the ftrings of a muii- 
 cal inflrument -, but the minutefl vibrations, fuch 
 as they cannot be v^ithout, may, for aught we 
 know, be as fufhcient for this end, as the impulfe 
 of light upon the retina is for the fenfe of feeing. 
 So that perhaps fenfations may be conveyed ei- 
 ther, or both ways. However, it being ufually 
 taken for granted, that it muft be one of thefe 
 ways at leafl, the advocates for each have rather 
 endeavoured to fupport their opinions by argu- 
 ments againfl the probability of the other, than 
 hj reafons offered for their own. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB, XXI. 
 
 P.24p. 
 
( 249 ) 
 TAB. XXI. 
 
 1 Larynx. 
 
 2 The internal jugular vein. 
 
 3 The fubclavian vein. 
 
 4 Cava defcendens. 
 
 5 The right auricle of the heart, 
 
 6 The right ventricle. 
 
 7 Part of the left ventricle. 
 
 8 Aorta afcendens. 
 
 9 Arteria pulmonalis. 
 
 10 The right lobe of the lungs, part of which is 
 
 cut oiF to {hew the great blood-velTels, 
 
 1 1 The left lobe of the lungs. 
 
 12 The diaphragm, ■ ■ . 
 
 13 The liver. 
 
 14 The ligamentum rotundum. 
 
 15 The gall-bladder. 
 
 16 The ftomach, prefTed by the liver towards the 
 
 left-fide. 
 
 17 The fmall guts. 
 J 8 The fpleen. 
 
 TAB, 
 
( 250 ) 
 
 r A B. XXII. 
 
 1 The under fide of the liver. 
 
 2 Ligamentum rotundum. 
 
 3 The gall-bladder. 
 
 4 The pancreas. 
 
 5 The fpleen. 
 
 6 The kidney. - 
 
 7 Aorta«cendens. 
 
 8 Vena cava afcendcns. 
 
 9 The emulgent vein. 
 
 io A "probe under the fpermatic velTels and the 
 arteria mefenterica inferior, and over the 
 ureters. 
 
 1 1 The ureter. 
 
 12 The iliac veiTels. 
 
 1 3 The redum inteflinum. 
 
 14 The bladder of urine^ 
 
 TAB* 
 
TAB. XXII. 
 
 P. 2:^0. 
 
T.AB. XXIII. 
 
 P.2:^/. 
 
1 251 ) 
 
 TAB. XXIII, 
 
 1 Part of the intellinum jejunum. 
 
 2 The valvule conniveqtes, as they appear in a 
 
 4ried preparation, 
 
 3 The venae ladeagarifing from the gut, and paf- 
 
 fmg through part of the mefentery. 
 
 4 Part of the defcending aorta. 
 J Arteria coeliaca. 
 
 6 Mefenterica luperior, 
 
 7 Emulgentes. 
 
 8 Spermaticae, 
 
 9 3ome of the branches of the mefenterica infe^ 
 
 rior that are beftowed upon the guts. 
 
 4r AB, 
 
{ 2si ) 
 TAB. XXIV. 
 
 1 Extreme branches of the vena porta, as they 
 
 arife from the guts. 
 
 2 All the branches of the vena porta, united be- 
 
 fore it enters the liver. 
 
 3 The branches of the vena porta, as they are- 
 
 diilributed in the liver. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB. XXI v: 
 
 J^.23^. 
 
TAB. XXV. 
 
 ^■•^53- 
 
 
 
 
 IvvJ V V 
 
 
 7//////'//' •-.: ' ^=. - /I 1)1,1. 
 
 ; ,<=^-''- ''''■/"ft 
 
 / \- 
 
( 253 ) ^ 
 TAB. XXV,. 
 
 1 Branches of the vena, cava in the liver. 
 
 2 Part of the vena cava afcendens. 
 
 3 Part of the right auricle. 
 
 4 Ciftis hepatica. 
 
 5 Duftus fiflicus. 
 
 6 Ductus pancreaticus. 
 
 7 Dudtus pancreaticus. 
 
 8 The entrance of the du(5lus communis into the 
 
 duodenum. 
 
 TAB. 
 
xAB.xxvn. 
 
 P-2^5- 
 
 mm 
 
 ' ill ' 
 
 
 
( ^S5 ) 
 
 T A B. xxvir. 
 
 1 The humeral artery, 
 
 2 Cubitalis fuperior, 
 
 3 Cubitalis inferior, which ends in the hand and 
 
 the fingers, and communicates with the 
 cubitalis fuperior, under the mufcles of the 
 thumb. 
 
 4 The ' place where the cubitalis media is given 
 
 off. 
 
 5 The fuperior cubital nerve, 
 
 6 The inferior cubital nerve, which palTes un* 
 
 der the inner extuberance of theos humepj 
 both thefe nerves give off branches as they 
 pafs, and end in the thumb and fingers. 
 
 TAB, 
 
( 256 ) 
 T A B. XXVHL 
 
 1 Part of the biceps flexor cubiti. 
 
 2 The fafcia tendinofa from that mufcle, v/hich 
 
 ■ is liable to be pricked in bleeding in the ba- 
 filic vein. 
 
 ^ The humeral artery, on each fide of which is 
 . a large vein. 
 
 4 Vena cephalica. 
 
 ^ Mediana. - 
 
 6 Balilica. 
 
 J A tumor formed in the centre of the cubital 
 nerve, a little above the bend of the arm ; it 
 was of the ciilic kind, but contained a tranf- 
 parent jelly ; ' the filaments of the nerve were 
 divided and ran over its furface. This tu- 
 mor occafioned a great numbnefs in all the 
 parts that nerve leads to, and exceffive pain 
 upon the leaft touch or motion. This ope- 
 ration was done but a few weeks fince, the 
 pain is entirely ceafed, the numbnefs a little 
 increafed, and the limb, as yet, not wafted. 
 
 --i 
 
 T A B. 
 
TAB.XXVIII. 
 
 P.23<f- 
 
 
TAB. XXIX. 
 
 P257- 
 
 2^^> 
 
( '^^1 ) 
 
 TAB. XXIX. 
 
 1 The medulla fplnalis, from whence arife the 
 
 nerves that pafs out between the vertebrae, 
 
 2 The brachial nerves. 
 
 3 The beginning of the cauda equina. 
 
 4 The anterior crural nerves, 
 r The pdfterior crural nerves. 
 
 6 The defcending intercoftal. 
 
 7 Nerves of the neck. 
 % The brachial nerves. 
 
 9 A ganglion in the defcending intercoflal nerve. 
 
 10 Branches from the intercoflal nerve to the 
 
 vifcera. 
 
 1 1 A probe paffed under fome of the intercoflal 
 
 nerves that pafs out between the ribs. 
 
 12 The anterior crural nerves. 
 
 R TAB. 
 
( 25S ) 
 
 TAB. XXX, 
 
 1 The animalculas in femlne mafculino, as they 
 
 appear in a microfcope, in a fpace as fmalt 
 as a pin's head. 
 
 2 The circulation of the blood in a fifh'^s tail, as 
 
 it appeared in a microfcope. 
 
 3 An artery, as it is fpread in a membrane. 
 
 4 A vein, as it is fpread in a membrane. 
 
 THE 
 
TAB. XXX. 
 
 P. 238 ■ 
 
 ^■'•«%, 
 
 ^<.- 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 %ini^ 
 
 .^ 
 
( 259 ) 
 
 THE 
 
 . N A T O M 
 
 OF THE 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Of the urinary and genital parts of tnen, together 
 with the glandula renales, 
 
 THE urinary parts are the kidneys^ with 
 their velTels and bladder of urine. 
 The kidneys of men are like thofe of hogs; 
 the two weigh about twelve ounces j they are 
 feated towards the upper part of the loins upon 
 the two laft ribs ; the right under the liver, and a 
 litter lower than the other, and the left under the 
 fpleen. Their ufe is to feparate the urine from the 
 blood, which is brought thither for that purpofe 
 
 R a. by 
 
26o URINAP>iY AND GENITAL 
 
 by the emulgent arteries ; and what remains from 
 the fecretion, is returned by the emulgent- veins, 
 v/hile the urine fecreted is carried oiF through the 
 ureters to the bladder. I have, in three different 
 fubjeds, taken ftones out of the loins, which had 
 made their way from the kidneys through the muf- 
 cies to the common integuments, where, upon 
 opening the fkin only, the ftones appeared with a 
 quantity of matter and urine. We have heard of 
 operators who have cut for the ftonein the kidneys; 
 but I will venture to affirm, that thofe cafes were 
 no other than thefe, though unfairly related. 
 
 The ureters are tubes about the bignefs of goofe- 
 quills, and about a foot long; theyarife from the 
 hollow fide of the kidneys, and end in the bladder 
 hear its neck, running obliquely for the fpace of 
 an inch between its coats > which manner of enter- 
 ing is to them as valves. The beginning of the 
 ureters in the kidneys are the tubuli urinarii, which 
 joining form the pelvis in each kidney. Between 
 the tubuli urinarii, authors have remarked fmall 
 papillas; and the parts which are diflinguiflied by 
 a clearer colour they call glandulae^ 
 
 The bladder of urine is feated in a duplicature 
 of the peritonaeum in the lower part of the pelvis 
 of the abdomen ; its fhape is orbicular, and its 
 coats are the fame with thofe of the guts and other 
 hollow mufcles already defcribed; viz. an external 
 membranous, a middle mufcular, which is the muf- 
 culus detrufor urinse, and an inner membranous 
 
 coat. 
 
PARTS OF MEN. 261 
 
 coat, exceeding fenlible, as is fully lliewn in the 
 cafes of the ftone and gravel. The ufe of this 
 nice fenfe is to make it capable of that uneafinefs 
 which excites animals to exclude their water, when 
 the bladder is extended. This fenfe is fo delicate, 
 that no fluid but natural urine can be long endured, 
 even pale urine, or urine with matter in it, in a 
 degree excite the fymptoms of the ftone, and force 
 the perfon to void the urine. Sometimes much 
 matterfrom ih^ kidneys will excite vehement fymp- 
 toms j and this being found in the urine, and the 
 pain being obferved in the bladder only, the kidneys 
 having little fenfe of pain, it is ufually accounted 
 for from ulcers in the bladder, vt^hich I have never 
 found oneinftance of in all the numbers that I have 
 opened in this cafe. Indeed the bladder is fometimes 
 ulcerated, but that deftroying part of the inner coat, 
 the others ftretch and ulcerate till the urine burfls 
 ■through into the cellular membrane of the perito- 
 naeum, and caufe a moft miferable death. This cafe 
 is very rare in men, and much more fo in women. 
 I have feen cancerous ulcers open the bladder into 
 the uterus, but thefe, I think, have begun in the 
 iTterus,. All thefe cafes have fymptoms like the 
 il:one5 and not thefe only, but ail difeafes of the 
 uterus which difburb the bladder, and even impo- 
 flumatiofns or tumors that prefs upon the bladder, 
 all give the fame fymptom.s v/ith the ilone ; except 
 that of a needlefs difpolition to fco'ol at the time of 
 ' making water. Some anatomifts, not think-ixig how 
 
 R 3 ibon 
 
2,62 URINARY AND GENITAL 
 
 ibon fluids taken into the ftomach, and not retained 
 there by being mixed with folids, may pafs into the 
 blood, as the eiFed:s from drinking ftrong Hqiiors or 
 laudanum, or drinking without eating when we are 
 hot, fufficiently fhew^ and alfo not confidering the 
 iliormefs of the courfe from the ftomach to the kid- 
 neys this way, together with the fize of the emul- 
 gent arteries, and the velocity of the blood in them, 
 have imagined and affirmed, that there muft be fome 
 more immediate courfe from the ftomach or guts to 
 the bladder^ and not coniidering either how fuch a 
 courfe would have interrupted one great end in the 
 animal oeconomy, or that velfels fit to fill the blad- 
 der fafter than the ureters, muft have been too large 
 to be concealed; nor, which proves it beyond con- 
 tradiction, that the bladder is empty when the kid- 
 neys ceafe to do their office ; which is frequently 
 taken for a fuppreffion of urine in the bladder. 
 If in this laft cafe, upon making a preilure on the 
 region of the bladder, the patient does not feel great 
 pain, it is fcarce worth while to pafs a catheter to 
 fearch for urine. In fuppreffions of urine, whe- 
 ther merely inflammatory, or from the gout, or 
 from an inflamed ftridiure in the urethra, I have 
 found nothing fo effedual as bleeding, and purging. 
 In a fanguine large man, where the penis was too 
 much inflamed to fuffer the catheter to pafs., I took 
 away three times twenty-four ounces of blood, and 
 gave a purging clyfter, and two fl:rong purges, all 
 within the fpace of twenty hours, which faved 
 
 the 
 
PARTS OF MEN. 263 
 
 the patient, and delivered him from exceffive tor- 
 ment. Such pradice may feem very fevere, but 
 in this cafe no time is to be loft , if the urine can 
 he drawn off, the method of cure is ftill the fame, 
 but to be pra6tifed in a gentler manner. 
 
 Glandul^e renales are two glands feated 
 immediately above the kidneys, of no certain fi- 
 gure, nor do we know their ufe; but always paint 
 and defcribe them with the urinary parts, becaufe 
 of their fituation : in a very young fcetus they are 
 larger than the kidneys, and in an adult but a little 
 larger than in a foetus. They receive a great many 
 fmall arteries, and return each of them one or two 
 veins. In their infide is a fmall finus, tindlured 
 with a footy-coloured liquor. 
 ^ The teftes are feated in the fcrotum; their 
 office is to feparate the feed from the blood; they 
 are faid to ;have four coats, two common, and 
 two proper. The common are the outer ikin and 
 a loofe membrane immediately underneath, called 
 dartos. The firft of the proper is the procefTus va- 
 ginalis; it is continued from the peritoneum to the 
 tefticle, which it enclofes with all its vefTels, but is 
 divided by a fept um, or an adhefion immediately 
 above the tefticle, fo that no liquor can pafs out of 
 that part of this membrane, which enclofes the fper- 
 matic velfels, into that which inclofes the tefticle. 
 Large quantities of water are fometimes found in 
 either or both of thefe cavities, which difeafe is 
 ,€afily remedied by a pundture with a lancet; but 
 
 R 4 rarely 
 
^64 URINARY and GENITAL 
 
 rarely cured without opening the cavity where the 
 water is contained, as in iinuous ulcers. This I 
 have done, and feen done feveral times, but never 
 thought the cure worth the trouble and pain the 
 patient underwent. The true hernia aquofa is from 
 the abdomen, which either extends the peritonaeum 
 into the fcrotum, or breaks it, and then forms a 
 |iew membrane wjiich thickens as it extends, as in - 
 aneurifms .and atheromatous tumors. This may 
 be decided by an injedion, v/hich v/ill fliew by the 
 arteries that nouriih it, whether it is a produdtion 
 from the peritonaeum, or a new membranous bag 
 formed in the fcrotum: however, the dropfy in 
 this cift, for fuch it properly is, rarely admits of 
 more than a palliative cure by puncture or tapping, 
 like the dropfy of the abdomen, and this with fome 
 difficulty, becaufs the omentum ufually, and fome- 
 ■^ircies /the guts, defcqnd^ with it. The other proper 
 coat is the albuginea, which is very ftrpn^, imme- 
 diately incloling the tellicles. The tefticles of a rat 
 may bs unravelled into diilindl. velTels 5 and the tex- 
 ture of the tefticles of pther anim.als appear to be 
 the fame, but their veiTels are too tender, or co- 
 here tQ0 much to be fo feparated. The tefticles 
 r^eive eac-h one artery from thp aorta, a little be- 
 low the emulgents, which, unlike sjl other arte- 
 r]e?., arife fmall, and dilate in their progrefs, that 
 tjie velocity of the blood may be fufficiently abated 
 fprthefecretion of fo vifcida fluid as the feed. The 
 right tefticle returns its vein into the cava, and the 
 
 ief t 
 
P A R T S OF M E N. 26s 
 
 left into the emulgent vein on the fame iide, both 
 becaufe it is the readieft courfe, and becaufe, as au- 
 thors fay, this fpermatic vein would have been ob- 
 itru(5led by the pulfe of the aorta, if it had crofTed 
 that velTel to go to the cava. 
 
 A GENTLEMAN, whom I caftrated many years 
 iince, v^ho trailed too much to his own refolution, 
 and rrefufing to have any one prefent to hold him, 
 except my affiftant, during the operation, moved 
 fomuch, that the ligature which tied all the vefTels 
 with the procefs together, flipt, and only tied the 
 procefs over the ends of the vefTels : which being 
 perceived fbon after the operation, I cut the liga- 
 ture, and took out the extravafated blood, and tied 
 the artery alone, which gave but little pain, and it 
 digefled oi? in a week''s time, and the wound being 
 afterwards Hitched, though the teflicle weighed a 
 pound, it was perfectly well in five weeks; which 
 is in lefs time than the ligature fometimes requires 
 to be digefled off, when the procefs and all the 
 veflels are tied together. However, if this cafe is 
 not fufficient to recommend doing this operation 
 by tying the artery only, it may be fufficient to 
 recommend extraordinary care in doing of it the 
 ufual way; 'for if the blood had found an eafy , 
 paffageinto the abdomen, the patient might have 
 bled to death. 
 
 On the upper part of the tefticles, are hard 
 bodies called epididymij which are evidently the 
 beginning of the vafa deferentia. I have unra- 
 velled 
 
266 URINARY and GENITAL 
 veiled them backward, in lingle veflels, and 
 then into more and fmaller, like the excretory 
 veffels of other glands. 
 
 V A SADEFT^RENTIA are excfetory du(fls to carry 
 the elaborated feed into the veficuls feminales. 
 They pafs from the epididymi of the teflicles, 
 together with the blood- veflels, till they have 
 entered the mufcles of the abdomen, and then 
 they pafs under the peritonaeum, diredtly through 
 the pelvis, to the veficulae feminales. 
 
 Vesicul^ seminales are two bodies that 
 appear like veficles; they are feated under the 
 bladder of urine, near its neck ; they may be each 
 of them unfolded into one lingle dudt, which 
 difcharges into the urethra, by the fides of the 
 roftrum gallinaginis, which is an eminence in the 
 under fide of the urethra near the neck of the 
 bladder. In thefe veficles, or du6ts, the feed is 
 repofited againfi: the time of coition; but in dogs 
 there are no fuch veficles, therefore nature has 
 contrived a large bulb in their penis, which keeps 
 them coupled, feemingly againfi; their inclinations, 
 till the feed can arrive from the tefiicles. The feed 
 pafi^es from thefe veficles in men, and even from 
 the vafa deferentia, in time of coition, through 
 the profiiate glands into the urethra, as in thofe 
 animals that have no veficuls feminales; for when 
 the du(3:s into the urethra are difiended, that is 
 the dired: courfe from the vafa deferentia, as well 
 as from the veficulae feminales. 
 
 Prostatas 
 
P A R T S o F M E N. 267 
 
 Prostatje are two glands, or rather one, 
 about the fize of a nutmeg : they lie between 
 the veficulae feniinales and penis, under the ofTa 
 pubis, almoft within the pelvis of the abdomen. 
 They feparate a limpid glutinous humour which 
 is carried into the urethra by feveral duds, which 
 enter near thofe of the proflatas. This liquor feems 
 to be defigned to be mixed with the feed in the 
 urethra, in the time of coition, to make it flow 
 more eafily. If the venereal infe^Sion reaches the 
 proftate glands, it will fometimes make large ab- 
 fceffes, which are apt to form fmufes, and even 
 make a palTage into the bladder. Upon the firft 
 attack of this difeafe, I have prevented all this 
 mifchief, by taking off the external ikin by in- 
 cilion, as far as the hardnefs of the tumour ex- 
 tended, which draining very plentifully, the tu- 
 mour has fubfided, and the patient been eafily 
 cured ; but this cafe once becoming fiftulous, is 
 very difficult indeed. It often is cured by open- 
 ing the fmufes and confuming the difeafed parts 
 by efcarotics ; but a much better and eafier way, 
 which I have often done, is to cut out all the fi- 
 ftulous and difeafed parts at once. 
 
 Penis ; its fhape, fituation, and ufe, need no 
 defcription. It begins with two bodies named 
 crura, from the oiia ifchia, which unite under 
 the oiTa pubis, and are there flrongly conne6ted 
 by a ligament. In its under part is the urethra, 
 through which both the feed and urine pafs ; its 
 
 fore- 
 
26S URINARY and GENITAL 
 
 fore-part is called glans, the loofe fkin which co- 
 vers it, praeputium, and the flrait part, of that fkin 
 on the under fide, frsenum. The urethra is lined 
 with a membrane filled with Imall glands that 
 feparate a mucus, that defends it from the acri- 
 mony of the urine. Thefe glands are largefl: neareft 
 the bladder. Mr. Cowper defcribes three large 
 glands of the urethra, which he difcovered ; two 
 of which are feated on the fides of the urethra, 
 near the ends of the crura penis ; to which he 
 adds a third, lefs than the other, feated almofi: in 
 the urethra, a little nearer the glans than the for- 
 mer. Ail thefe glands have excretory du(5ls into 
 fhe urethra, and from them are fecreted all the 
 matter which flows from the urethra in a gonor- 
 rhoea, whether venereal or not. In the venerea! 
 Jnfedtion, the urethra and .the glands are firft in- 
 flamed by the contagious matter, that caufes a heat 
 of urine, which abates as foon as the glands begin 
 to difcharge freely 3 but if by chance this difeafe 
 continues till any part of the urethra is ulcerated, 
 the ulcer never heals without a cicatrix, which 
 conftricts the urethra, and makes that difeafe 
 which is vulgarly called a caruncle. The inner 
 texture of the penis is fpongy, like the inner tex- 
 ture of the fpl:en, or the ends of the great bones. 
 It is ufually difi:inguifhed into corpus cavernofum 
 penis, glandis, and urethrs. The firfi: of thefe 
 makes part of the glans, and is divided its whole 
 length by a feptum,- the other two are compofed 
 
 of 
 
P A R T S OF M E N. 26-9 
 
 of fmaller cells, and are but one body. On the 
 upper fide of the penis are two arteries, and one 
 vein called vena ipfius penis. The arteries are de- 
 rived from the beginnings of the umbilical arteries, 
 which parts never dry up, and the vein runs back 
 to the iliac veins. The vena ipfius penis, being 
 obflru^led, the blood that comes by the arteries, 
 diflends the cells of the whole penis, and makes 
 it ered: ; but to prevent mifchief from this mecha- 
 iiifm, there are fmall collateral veinrS on the fur- 
 face of the penis, that carry back fome blood all 
 the time the penis is ered; but by what power 
 the vena ipfius penis is obftrucSted to ered: the 
 penis, I cannot conceive, unlefs fmall mufcular 
 fibres conflridt it. Some think the mufculi erec- 
 tores penis do it, by thrufting the penis againfl 
 the OS pubis; but they feem not feated conveni- 
 ently for fuch an office ; befides, if a prefTure 
 from the lower fide of the penis is fufficient, an 
 artificial prefTure, which may be much greater, 
 fhould, I think, produce the fame effecSi:* 
 
 In the feed of men, and of other male animals, 
 Lewenhoeck, by the help of microfcopes, dis- 
 covered an infinite number of animals like tad- 
 poles, which he and others fuppofe to be men in 
 miniature, and that one of thefe being entered 
 into an egg in one of the ovaria (fee the next 
 chapter) conception is performed. But though 
 fcarce any one, that has made due enquiry, has 
 ever doubted of the exiftence of thefe animals, 
 8 yet, 
 
270 URINARY and GENITAL 
 
 yet there are many who objed againft this hypo- 
 theiis ; and though I am inchned to think it true, 
 yet I will endeavour impartially to lay down the 
 principal objedtions and anfwers, that the reader 
 may judge for himfelf. The firfl and ftrongeft 
 objedion, is raifed from the feveral inftances that 
 have happened of mixed generation, where the 
 animal produced always appears to partake of both 
 kinds, as in the common cafe of a mule> which 
 is begot by an afs upon a mare ; when, according 
 to that hypothelis, they expert the animal pro- 
 duced from mixed generation fhould be entirely 
 of the fame fpecies with the male animal; as the 
 feeds of plants, whatever earth they grow in, al- 
 ways produce plants of the fame kind. Never- 
 thelefs, if we confider what influence womens 
 fears or longings frequently have upon their chil- 
 dren in utero, and how great a change caftration 
 makes in the fhape of any animal, we cannot 
 then wonder if the mother's blood, to which the 
 animal owes its nourifhment and increafe, from 
 the time of impregnation to the time of its birth, 
 fhould be thought a fufficient caufe of refemblancc 
 between thefe animals and their mothers. An- 
 other objection is that nature ihould provide fuch 
 a multiplicity of thefe animals, when fo few can 
 ever be of ufe. To which it has been anfwered, 
 that in plants a very few of the whole that arc 
 produced, fall into the earth, and produce plants j 
 and as in plants the greatell part of their feeds 
 
 are 
 
P A R T S OF M E N. 271 
 
 are the food of animals, fo the greateft part of 
 the animalculiE may as well live a time to enjoy 
 their own exigence, as any other animal of as low 
 an order. The laft objed:ion is their fliape, which 
 I think, will appear to have no great weight, 
 when we conlider how the eggs of flies produce 
 maggots, which grow up into flies; and the tad- 
 pole, produced from the egg of a frog, grows into 
 a form as different from a tadpole as the form of 
 a man : and if thefe animals had produced fo few 
 at a time, as that their young might have under- 
 gone this change in utero, it is highly probable, 
 that we fhould not fo much as have fufpedted thefe 
 analogous changes. But how the animalculcB 
 themfelves are produced, is a difficult quefbio:!, 
 unlefs by equivocal generation, feeing none of 
 them appear to be in a ftate of increafe, but all 
 of a fize. 
 
 In a boy that died of the ftone, I found a 
 double ureter, each part being dilated to an inch 
 diameter 3 the pelvis in each kidney to twice its 
 natural bignefs, and the tubuli urinarii, each a* 
 large as the pelvis. 
 
 In a man that had never been cut for the ftone, 
 I found the ureters dilated in fome places to four 
 inches circumference, and in others but little di- 
 lated, and a flone that I found in the bladder was 
 lefs than a nutmeg, which mufl have fallen in fe- 
 veral pieces, or both ureters could not have been 
 dilated. From this, and other like obfervations, 
 
 2 I think 
 
272 GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN. 
 
 I think it appears, that the great fize to which 
 the ureters are ufually extended, in people who 
 are troubled with the ftone, is owing to fmall 
 flones which ftick at the entrance into the blad- 
 der, until the obftrudted urine, which dilates the 
 ureters, can force them into the bladder. 
 
 I HAVE in feveral fubje(5ls found one kidney 
 almoll confumed, and once a man with but one 
 kidney; and I haveTeen lymphatics in a difeafed 
 tellicle, as large as a crow-quilL 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the genital parts of women. 
 
 * \^ H E external parts are the mons veneris, 
 JL which is that rifing of fat covered with 
 hair above the rima magna upon the os pubisj the 
 great doubling of the fkin on each fide the rimj£ 
 called labia, and within thefe a lefler doubling 
 named nymphas. Thefe help to clofe up the ori- 
 fice of the vagina. The nymphs are ufually faid 
 to ferve to defend the labia from the urine -, but I 
 do not fee how the labia ftand more in need of 
 fuch a defence, than the nymphae themfelves. 
 
 Clitoris is a fmall fpongy body, bearing 
 feme analogy to the penis in men, but has no 
 urethra. It begins with two crura from the ofla 
 ifchia, which uniting under the olTa pubis, it 
 
 . proceeds 
 
GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN. 273 
 
 proceeds to the upper part of the nymphce, where 
 it ends underafmall doubling of fkin, called prx- 
 putiumj and the end which is thus covered is 
 called glans. This is faid to be the chief feat of 
 pleafure in coition, in women, as the glans is in 
 men. 
 
 A LITTLE lower than this, juft withiti the Va- 
 ' gina, is the exit of the meatus urinarius. 
 
 Vagina is feated between the bladder of 
 urine and the inteilinum re6lum. The texture 
 of it is membranous, and its orifice is contracted 
 with a fphind:er (vid. mufc. fphindier vaginae) but 
 the farther part is capacious enough to contain the 
 penis without dilating. Near the beginning of 
 the vagina, immediately behind the orifice of the 
 meatus urinarius, is conftantly found in children 
 a valve called hymen, which, looking towards the 
 orifice of the vagina, clofes it; but as children 
 grow up, and the fphin(^er vaginae grows Urong 
 enough to contract and clofe the orifice of the 
 Vagina, this valve becoming ufelefs, ceafes to en- 
 creafe, and is then known by the name of carun- 
 culse myrtiformes. There have been a few iniiari- 
 ces in v^hich the edges of this growing together, 
 it continued unperforate, until it has been necefiTa- 
 ry to make an incifion to let out the menfes. The 
 inner part of the vagina is formed into rugae, 
 which are largeft in thofe who have not ufed co- 
 pulation ', and leafi: in thofe who have had many 
 children. Under thefe rug?e are fmall glands, 
 
 S whofe 
 
274 GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN. 
 
 whofe excretory dudls are called lacunse: thele 
 glands feparate a mucilaginous matter to lubricate 
 the vagina, efpecially in coition -j and are the feat 
 of a gonorrhoea in this fex, as the glands in the 
 . urethra are in the male. 
 
 Uterus is feated at the end of the vagina j 
 it is about one inch thick, two broad, and large 
 enough to contain the kernel of a hazel nutj but 
 in w^omen that have had children, a little larger. 
 Its orifice into the vagina is called os tincae, from 
 the refemblance it bears to a tench's mouth. It 
 has two round ligaments which go from the fides 
 of it to the groins through the oblique and tranf- 
 Verfe mufcles of the abdomen, in the fame man- 
 ner as do the feminal veiTels in men. This way 
 the gut paiTes in a hernia inteftinalis in women 
 (vid. mufculi abdominis.) Some authors mention 
 ligamenta lata^, which are nothing but a part of 
 the peritonaeum; Near the fides of the uterus lie 
 two bodies called ovaria; they are of a depreffed 
 oval figure, about half the fize of m.en's teflicles, 
 and have fpermatic velTels^ they contain fmall pel- 
 lucid eggs, from which they have their name. 
 There are two arteries and two veins, which pafs 
 to and from the ovaries or teflesj in the fame 
 manner that they do in menj but make more 
 windings, and the arteries dilate more fuddenly, 
 in proportion as they are. fhorter. Thefe arteries 
 and veins, detach branches into the uterus and fal- 
 lopiai]i tubes, and not only make communications 
 
 betwixt 
 
GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN. 275 
 betwixt the artery and vein on one fide and thofe 
 of the other, but alfo with the proper velfels of the 
 uterus, which are detached from the internal iliac 
 arteries and veins. From thefe veffels in the in- 
 lide of the uterus, the menftrual purgations are 
 made in women, and fomething of the fame kind 
 in brutes, as often as they defire coition. One ufe 
 of thefe purgations is, to open the vellels of the 
 uterus, for the veiTels of the placenta to join to 
 them. Many authors have imagined, that there 
 muil be fome evacuations analogous to this, in 
 men, which I cannot fee the neceffity of; but 
 on the contrary, I believe that mens not having 
 fuch evacuations, is the true reafon why their bo- 
 dies grow larger and ftronger than womens : and 
 their continuing to grow longer before they are fit 
 for marriage, I alfo take to be the true reafon 
 why there are more males born than females, in 
 about the proportion of thirteen to twelve; for 
 women being fooner fit for marriage than men, 
 fewer will die before that time, than of men. 
 
 Near the fides of the ovaria are feated the 
 tubaD fallopianae, one end of which is connected to 
 the uterus, and the fide of the ovarium by a 
 membrane, the other end is Ioofe> and being jagged 
 is called morfus diaboli. Among thefe jaggs is a 
 fi[nall orifice which leads into the tube, which 
 near this end is about a quarter of an inch diame- 
 ter, and thence, growing gradually fmaller, pafi!es 
 to the uterus, and enters there with an orifice 
 
 S 2 about 
 
276 GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN, 
 about the iize of a hog's briftle. The ufe of thefe 
 tubes is to convey the male feed from the uterus to 
 the ovaria, to impregnate the eggs for conceptions ^ 
 yet they appear fo ill adapted to this end, that 
 many have fuppofed there muft be fome other 
 paffage from the uterus to the ovaria ^ but when 
 we confider the cafe of conceptions found in thefe 
 tubes, and the exad: analogy between thefe and, 
 the tubes of birds, where we have the moft un- 
 deniable proofs of the feed going through the 
 tube, and of the eggs being impregnated that 
 way, and of the eggs coming from the ovarium 
 through the tube, and feemingly with much great- 
 er difficulty than in women; and belides, how 
 frequently a matter like the male feed (which 1 
 fuppofe is feed) is found In the fallopian tubes of 
 women, as I have found in executed bodies, and 
 in a common whore that died fuddenly, it appears. 
 to me almoll: certain, that the feed goes through, 
 the fallopian tubes to the ovaria to impregnate, 
 eggs, and comes back through the fame tubes to 
 the uterus. I have feen in a woman both the fal- 
 lopian tubes unperforated, which, upon the fore-, 
 going hypothelis, mufl have caufed barrennefs, 
 and feed lodged in thefe tubes may have the fame 
 effedt; v/hich I take to be often the cafe of com- 
 mon whores, and women that ufe coition too fre- 
 quently/ and perhaps the fat in the membrane 
 that connects the ovaria to the tubes, may in very 
 fat women fo keep thefe tubes from the ovaria as . 
 
 to 
 
GENITAL PARTS of WOMEN. 277 
 
 to interrupt impregnations; and befides thefe 
 cafes, too much or too little of the menfes may 
 deftroy or interrupt conceptions; but the latter 
 cafe, efpecially in young women, is very rare. 
 From fuch caufes as thefe, and not fromimbecil- 
 lity, I imagine it is that barren nefs oftener pro- 
 ceeds from women than men; and though women 
 do not propagate to fo great an age as men, it is 
 not, I believe, for want of being impregnated, 
 but from their menfes ceafmg, and thofe veffels 
 being clofed which fhould nourifli the foetus after 
 the impregnation, as if on purpofe to prevent the 
 propagation of a feeble and infirm fpecies. And 
 from this confideration, one cannot but think that 
 the perfeftion of the foetus, notwithflanding it is 
 firft formed in the male feed, depends more upon 
 the female than the male, or elfe that nature 
 would, for the fake of the fpecies, have been care- 
 ful to hinder men as well as women from propa-f 
 gating in a declining age. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
( 278 ) 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the fcetus in utero, 
 
 THE foetus in utero is involved in two coats, 
 viz. chorion, which is external, and amnion 
 •which immediately inclofes the foetus. They con- 
 tain a quantity of liquor, which is a proper me- 
 dium for fo tender a being as the foetus to refl in, 
 and partly fecures it from external injuries, as the 
 aqueous humour does the ehryftalline in the eye ; 
 and when the membranes burft at the time of 
 produdion, this humour lubricates the vagina 
 uteri, to render the birth lefs difficult. And feeing 
 the ftomach of a foetus in utero is always full of 
 a fluid, like what is contained in the amnion, and 
 the guts not without excrements : we may fuppofe 
 tlmt this fluid is frequently, during the time of 
 geftation, fwallowed by the foetus, if not for nou- 
 rifhment, at leail to keep thefe parts in ufe, and 
 to flow through the ladteals, as a quantity of blood 
 from the right ventricle of the heart flows 
 through the lungs before the birth to keep open 
 thofe pafl^ages till the birth, there being after that 
 time no other way of receiving nourifhment, 
 and that the faeces found in the guts of a foetus 
 are thofe parts cf this fluid that were taken in at 
 the mouth, arid were too grofs to enter the ladeals. 
 Yet I pwn it takes off very much from the proba^ 
 l^ility of the opinion of the foetus's imbibing this 
 
 lig^uor 
 
FOETUS IN UTERO. 279 
 
 liquor, that, if I am rightly informed, fome who 
 have been born with mouths and noflrils unper- 
 forate, have had fuch fluids and excrements in the 
 inteftines that other foetus have, which mujfl be 
 confefled, may be derived from the faHvary glands 
 and from the liver, &c. The following curious 
 pafTage was fent me by Mr. Monro. ** This li- 
 ** quor contributes nothing to the nouriihment of 
 *' the foetus, for thefe reafons; firft, becaufe, as 
 '' you have well obferved, vaft numbers of in^ 
 '* ilances might be produced, where no paflage 
 ** was to be found for it: I fhall give you one I 
 /* faw myfelf in the Hotel de Dieu at Paris in 
 " 1718. 
 
 ** Mary Guerlin brought forth two children, 
 ** one a complete girl, the other had neither head, 
 " neck, arms, heart, lungs, flomach, fmall guts, 
 " liver, fpleen, or pancreas, yet the great guts, 
 " the organs of urine and generation of a female, 
 " and lower extremities were perfe6t, and of a na- 
 '* tural growth J the umbilical vein, after entering 
 ** the abdomen, fplit into a great many branches, 
 ** which were diftributed to the feveral parts ia 
 ** its abdomen. Though it is true that foon af- 
 ** ter conception, the liquor in the amnion, an(J 
 *' that in the ilomach of the fcetus refemble oae 
 ^* another pretty near, yet afterward they differ 
 ** exceedingly; for the liquor in the ftomach is 
 ^' ilill gelatinous, thick, and without acrimony, 
 *^ while the other becomes thinner and more acrid; 
 
 S 4 ** whereas. 
 
28o FOETUS IN UTERO. 
 
 '* whereas, had the fcEtus conilaiitly fwallowed 
 " this liquor, the cafe would have been quite op- 
 " polite 3 nay, often it has happened that thefe 
 ** waters (as they are commonly called) have been 
 ** found quite corrupted, ftrongly fetid, and ex- 
 ** tremely iharp, v/hile the foetus, except the in- 
 ^' juries v/hich the external parts received, was 
 ** well and found ^ witnefs the example mentioned 
 *Vby Bellinger, of a woman who was cured 
 ** of a virulent gonorrhcea during her going with 
 ** child. And farther, by Malpighius's delinea- 
 *' tions of the pullus in ovo, it appears to be evi- 
 ** dent that the alitellus ferves the fame purpofe as 
 *' the placenta does in viviparous animals, to con- 
 " vey the albumen attenuated by incubation into 
 '* the blood-veflels of the chick, and that none of 
 *' the albumen does pafs through the faccus col- 
 *' liquamenti." 
 
 Besides thefe coats, in a cow and many other 
 animals, we find a membrane called alantois; it 
 is inclofed by the chorion together with the am- 
 nion, and contains a quantity of water which it 
 receives from the bladder of urine by the urachus. 
 Its ufe feems to be to contain the urine, that it 
 might not by the common pafiage be emptied into 
 the liquor of the amnion, of w^hich the foetus, I 
 am inclined to think, is frequently drinking. 
 
 Whether an aiantois is to be found with a hu- 
 man foetus or no, anatomifts are not agreed ; and 
 I cannot give my opinion, having never had a 
 
 fufficient'^ 
 
F OETUS IN UTE RO. 281 
 
 fufficient opportunity to enquire. But furely chil- 
 dren having an urachus, one cannot well doubt of 
 an alantois : I have been informed by a gentleman, 
 whofe probity I can fufficiently rely on, that he 
 had feen a child that had no external genital parts, 
 and made water through the navel. At Henly 
 upon Thames, there is now living a bargeman's 
 child about ten years old, of which I had the like 
 ■account ; but upon examination I found the un- 
 perforated glans with its fraenum immediately be- 
 low the place of the navel, and the urine iffued 
 out by drops between this and the belly, in the 
 place which I fuppofe was the navel, but it was 
 fo much excoriated, that I could make no certain 
 judgment about it. In the uterus of a cow with 
 two calves, I found they had but one chorion, 
 but each an amnion and alantois diftind: ; but the 
 cotyledons, which are analogous to the placenta 
 of the human foetus, were pretty much in com- 
 mon to the umbilical blood- veiTels of both. 
 
 The placenta, or v/omb-liver is a mafs of 
 blood-veifels feated on the outfide of the chorion, 
 being compofed of the extreme branches of the 
 umbilical vein and arteries, which are, for the 
 compoiition of this part, divided into exceeding 
 fmall branches, to join a like number of the men- 
 ilrual veflels of the uterus -, which vefTels of the 
 uterus are made numerous rather than large, that 
 the feparation of the placenta from them may not 
 })e attended with a flux of blood fatal to the mo- 
 ther : 
 
282 F O E T U S I N U T E R O. 
 
 ther ; for the -fides of little veffels foon collapfc 
 and elofe, and they are more eaiiiy flopped, being 
 compreiTed by the uterus itfelf as it Oirinks, which 
 it begins to do from the time of the birth ; but 
 when the placenta is feparated before the delivery, 
 whether untimely or not, thefe vefTels bleed until 
 the uterus is difcharged of the foetus. The figure 
 of the placenta is circular, and at its greatefl 
 growth about two inches thick/ and fix or fevers 
 in diameter. 
 
 The arteries and veins of the uterus of the mo- 
 ther, by which the menftrual purgations are made, 
 are joined to the umbilical arteries and veins in the 
 placenta of the foetus, the arteries of the uterus to 
 the veins in the placenta, and the veins in the 
 uterus to the arteries of the placenta : by thefe 
 vellels a large quantity of blood is continually 
 flowing from the mother to the foetus and back 
 again 5 but for what end fuch a quantity flows 
 continually, and back again, I cannot conceive, 
 iinlefs it is that the foetus not breathing for itCelf, 
 it is neceffary that as much blood of the mother 
 ihould flow continually to the foetus, as can leave 
 enough of air, or whatever our blood receives, in 
 the lungs, for the foetus ; and perhaps v/hat nutri- 
 tious juices the foetus receives, require a great deal 
 of blood to convey them, they being but a fmall 
 part of the blood. And though the. blood pafles 
 fo plentifully between the mother and the fcetus, 
 yet the communications are not fo obvious as they 
 
 are 
 
FOETUS IN tJTERO. 283 
 
 are between the arteries and veins in the fame 
 body ; which makes fome think the communica- 
 tion is not made by inofculationsof veflels, butthat 
 the foetus is nourished from the placenta in a ve- 
 getable manner; but, I own, I am not of this opi- 
 nion. The navel-ftring or umbilical blood-veflels, 
 between the placenta and the navel, are about two 
 feet long, that the foetus may have room to move 
 without tearing the placenta from the uterus, 
 which being done too foon, from whatever caufe, 
 OGcaijons a mifcarriage. Thefe vefTels, viz. two 
 arteries and one vein, twifl about each other, par- 
 ticularly the arteries about the vein, and are con- 
 tained in one common coat together with a velTel 
 called urachus, which arifes from the top of the 
 bladder of urine, and ends in the membrana alan- 
 tois ; the umbilical vein goes from the navel di- 
 rectly into the liver, and there enters the great 
 trunk of the vena portae. Near which entrance, 
 there goes out the duftus venofus to the great 
 trunk of the cava, which carries part of the blood, 
 that is brought by the umbilical vein, that way 
 into the cava,v while the reft circulates with the 
 blood in the porta, the whole of it not paffing 
 through the dud:us venofus, as is generally believed, 
 but a great part of it into branches of the porta, 
 in the liver, otherwife there need be no commu- 
 nication between the umbilical vein and the porta. 
 When the umbilical vein is ftopped, it becomes 
 a ligament, and the dudus venofus foon fhrinks 
 
 and 
 
284 FOETUS IN U T E R O. 
 
 and almoft difappears, having no longer any blood 
 flowing through it ; and even the porta itfelf 
 within the liver, from whence only blood could 
 pafs after the birth into the du6tus venofus, has 
 lefs blood flowing through it for fome time than 
 it had before the birth, it receiving much blood 
 before the birth from the umbilical vein. The 
 blood which flows from the mother to the fcetus 
 by the umbilical vein, is returned, all but a fmall 
 quantity which is referred for nutrition by the 
 two umbilical arteries, which arife from the in- 
 ternal iliac arteries, and pafling by the outfides 
 of the bladder go directly to the navel, and pla- 
 centa 'j thefe with the urachus being ilirunk up 
 after the birth, lofe much of their appearance, 
 cfpecially near the navel, where they are feme- 
 times not to be difliinguiihed. 
 
 Part of the blood before the birth, and not 
 th« whole quantity, as is generally thought, which 
 is brought by the afcending cava to the right auri- 
 cle, palTes at once through the foramen ovale into 
 the left auricle, and the reft flows i to the right 
 ventricle v/ith the blood of the defcending cava, 
 and thence into the pulmonary artery, where about 
 one half flows into the lungs, and the other half 
 direcftly into the aorta by the dudlus arteriofus, 
 which Hes between the pulmonary artery^ and the 
 aorta, which after the birth is called du'ftus ar- 
 teriofus in llgamentum verfus. The better to ex- 
 plain this contrivance, I will call the quantity of 
 
 blood 
 
FOETUS IN U T E R O. 285 
 
 blood flowing through the afcending cava in a 
 given time, four 3 and that which flows through 
 the defcending cava, two : then let two of the 
 quantity in the afcending cava flow into the right 
 auricle, it will then with the two received from 
 the defcending cava have the quantity four; which 
 being thrown from the right ventricle into the 
 pulmonary artery, the quantity two is thrown into 
 the aorta by the du6tus arteriofus, and the fame 
 quantity intothelungs by the pulmonary branches; 
 then the quantity returning from t\).e lungs to 
 the left auricle, will be two in the fame given , 
 time, which being added to the two which flowed 
 through the foramen ovale, in the fame time 
 there will be con flan tly the fame proportions re- 
 ceived into each ventricle, at every diafl:ole of the 
 ventricles, as after the birth. Now if the blood, 
 flowing through the afcending cava joined by that 
 from the umbilical vein, was but equal to that 
 flowing through the defcending, let each of them 
 be called two, and let all the blood of the afcend- 
 ing cava go through the foramen ovale ; then the 
 blood which the left ventricle would receive, 
 would exceed that which flows into the right, by 
 the whole quantity which flows from the hmgs 
 in the fame time ; but the afcending cava convey- 
 ing more blood than the defcending cava, the ex- 
 cefs in the left ventricle would be yet greater. If 
 the proportions, which I have taken for the eafier 
 computing, were perfedly right, as I am fure 
 
 they 
 
286 FOETUS IN UTERO. 
 
 they are nearly, then the quantity flowing into the 
 left ventricle, would be to that flowing into the 
 right at the fame time as five to two, if all theaf- 
 eending blood went through the foramen ovale. 
 
 . And though after the birth the left ventricle of 
 the heart is only employed in throwing blood into 
 the aorta, and the right wholly employed in cir- 
 culating the blood through the lungs -, yet before 
 the birth all the blood thrown out by the left 
 ventricle, and about half the blood thrown out of 
 the right ventricle, being thrown into the aorta, 
 and the other part only through the lungs, it fol- 
 lows, that the virhole force exerted by the left 
 ventricle, with about half that of the right, is 
 employed in throwing blood into the aorta, while 
 that diftributes blood through the whole fcEtus 
 and to the mother : but after the birth, when the 
 blood is to be no longer carried from the fcetusr 
 to the mother, the left ventricle becomes fufficient 
 for the circulation through the foetus, and a 
 new occalion immediately arifes for that addi- 
 tional power, which before was necefl^arily em-» 
 ployed in throwing blood into the aorta ; for the 
 whole mafs of blood now being to be circulated 
 thro' the lungs, the ductus arte riofus cloies,andthe 
 right ventricle mufl: throw all the blood it receives 
 into the lungs, there being no longer any paflage 
 into the aorta. It is fuppofed that the inflation of 
 the lungs at the birth, prefently alters the pofltion 
 of the dudus arteriofus, fo as to obftrudl it; which 
 5 account 
 
FOETUS IN UTERO. 287 
 
 account is indeed mechanical, but, I think, not 
 true, becaufe I can neither difcern that the pofition 
 of this veflel is altered, nor its furface comprefTed : 
 but I rather think that immediately upon the 
 birth, there being no blood carried off from the 
 fcEtus to the mother, and the left ventricle being 
 fufficient to fill the aorta and its branches with 
 blood, as I have fliewn before, there is no longer 
 room for any blood from the right ventricle; 
 wherefore the blood from the right ventricle will 
 be forced into the lungs, where the pafTage is 
 now made eafy, as I imagine, by their being in- 
 flated ', and the dudus arteriofus,. having the blood 
 no longer forced into it, fhrinks, and in time al- 
 moft difappears. This du(5t being flopped, the 
 valve of the foramen ovale foon flops that pafTage, 
 it being on the fide of the left auricle (or that 
 mufcular bag, which is the largefl part of that 
 auricle) which being much the ftrongefl, the valve 
 mufl be preiTed more on that fide than the other, 
 by the blood, in the time of the fyfiole of the au- 
 ricle; and it is as evident, that in the diaflole of 
 the auricle, there mufl be more prefTure to open 
 that than the right, it being a flronger mufcle, 
 or elfe there could have been no reafon for having 
 the left auricle flronger than the right, in propor- 
 tion to their ventricles. Sometimes this valve does 
 not quite cover the foramen, in which cafe a fmall 
 quantity of the blood may pofTibly flow from the 
 left auricle to the right, and fo circulate twice 
 
 through 
 
288 FOETUS IN UTERO. 
 
 through the lungs to once through the body, but 
 none could flow from the right to the left and ef- 
 cape the lungs, which might be of bad confe- 
 quence. Some have imagined, that meii, who 
 have this paiTage open, cannot be drowned : but 
 though this palTage is fometimes found open, no 
 man has been yet feen, that we have ever heard of, 
 that couid not be drowned. I have feen the fo- 
 ramen open in a man that was hanged, to whom 
 one might juftly expedl it fhould have been as ufe- 
 ful as in the cafe of fubmerfion in water. Many 
 writers have fuppofed, that this foramen is open 
 in amphibious animals, and in fuch fiflies as have 
 two auricles, tv/o ventricles, and lungs like land 
 animals, without gills, v/hich in other fifli are 
 analogous to lungs. I hcve dilTedred a porpoife, 
 which is of this kind, and found this foramen 
 clofed, but the great veins are vaflly large in pro- 
 portion to the bulk of the animal -, whence I con- 
 jedured, their blood was accumulated in their 
 veins, while they kept under water, and by that 
 means the lungs efcaped being opprefled with 
 blood; which conjedlure feemed to me the more 
 probable, lince all animals of this kind are able to 
 abide the leail: time under water, when their blood 
 is mofl expanded with heat. But upon the dif- 
 fe6tion of an otter, whofe foramen ovale was alfo 
 clofed, I found the veins nothing differing from 
 thofe of other animals. In a water-tortoife, which 
 I had an opportunity of examining, with that 
 
 N moft 
 
FOETUS IN UTE R O. 289 
 
 mofl dextrous and indefatigable anatomift Dr. 
 Douglas, I found the two ventricles of the 
 heart but half divided by a feptum, and in the 
 beginning of the pulmonary artery feveral ftrong 
 mufcular rings, a little diflance from each other, 
 each of which, by contracting, would be capable 
 of refifting a part of that blood, v/hich otherwife 
 would have been thrown into the lungs, when 
 they were under water; and this blood fo ob- 
 ilrudted muft necelTarily be thrown into the aorta, 
 the two ventricles being in a manner one com- 
 mon cavity; and when they are out of the water, 
 this communication of ventricles will fuffer but 
 little confufion of the blood which flows into the 
 ventricles, becaufe each ventricle receiving and 
 difcharging the fame quantity of blood, at the fame 
 time, they will balance each other, and thereby 
 fuch a mixture will be very much prevented. 
 Mr. Monro obferves, that the water-tortoife has 
 very large lungs, coniifling of larger velicles than 
 land animals, and that they receive a greater quan- 
 tity of air to furnilh that je ne f9ai quoi fo necef- 
 faryfor the life of animals: the fame thing Ihave 
 obferved in frogs. 
 
 As to the reafon of womens bringing forth at 
 the ufual time ; it has been faid, that at that time 
 the head of the child begins to be fpecifically hea- 
 vier than -the reft of the body, and therefore muft 
 fall loweft in the fluid it lies in, Vv^hich being an 
 uneafy pofture, makes the child ftruggle, and 
 
 T bring 
 
290 Of the eye. 
 
 bring on the labour. But it is not true,, that the 
 head then alters its fpeciiic gravity 3 or, if it did, 
 there is feidom fluid enough in the amnion for this 
 purpofe; and befides, this could only happen right 
 in one pofture, and would ufualJy happen wrong 
 in brutes. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 0/ the Eye. 
 
 THE figure, iituation, and ufe of the eyes^ 
 together with the eye-brows, eye-Iafhes, 
 and eye-lids, being well known, I need only de- 
 fcribe what is ufualiy iliewn hj differing. Th» 
 orbit of the eye, or cavity in which it is contained, 
 is in all the vacant places filled wdth a loofe fat,^ 
 which is a proper medium for the eye to rell in, 
 and ferves as a focket for it to be moved in. In 
 the upper and outer part of the orbit, is feated the 
 lacrymal gland. Its ufe is to furniih at all times 
 water eiiough to waih oiF duft, and to keep the 
 outer furface of the eye moift, without which 
 the tunica cornea Vi^ould he lefs pellucid, and the 
 rays of light would be difturbed in their paiTagev; 
 and that this liquor may be rightly difpofed of, we 
 frequently clofe the eye-lids to fpread it equally, 
 even when we are not confcious of doing it. At 
 the inner corner of the eye, between tlie eye-lids, 
 
 fbnds 
 
Of the eye. 291 
 
 ftands a caruncle, which feems to be placed to 
 keep that corner of the eye-lids from being totally 
 clofed, that any tears or gummy matter may flow 
 from under the eye-lids, when we fleep, or into 
 the pund:a lacrymalia, which are little holes, one 
 in each eye-lid, near this corner, to carry off into 
 the ducftus ad nafum, any fuperfluous tears. 
 
 The firft membrane of the eye is called con- 
 junctiva j it covers fo much of the eye as is called 
 the white, and being refledied all round, it lines 
 the two eye-lids ; it being thus returned from the 
 eye to the inlide of the eye-lids, it effedlually hin- 
 ders any extraneous bodies from getting behind the 
 eye into the orbit, and fmooths the parts it co-' 
 vers, which makes the fridlion lefs between the eye 
 and the eye-lids. This coat is very full of blood- 
 vefTels, as appears upon any inflammation. 
 
 Tunica sclerotis, and cornea, make to- 
 gether one firm cafe of a proper form, for the 
 ufe of the other coats and humours. The fore 
 part of this ftrong coat being tranfparent, and like 
 horn, is called cornea, and the reft fclerotis. Un- 
 der the cornea lies the iris, which is an opake 
 membrane, like the tunica choroides, but of dif- 
 ferent colours in different eyes, fuch as the eye 
 appears, as grey, black, or hazel ; for being feat- 
 ed under the tunica cornea, it gives fuch an ap- 
 pearance to that as it has'itfelf. The middle of 
 it is perforated for the admiflion of the rays of 
 light, and is called the pupil. Immediately under- 
 
 T 2 the 
 
2r92 Of the EYE. 
 
 the iris lie the proceffus ciliares, like radial lines 
 from a leiTer circle to a greater. When thefe pro- 
 celTes contrad, they dilate the pupil to fuiFer more 
 rays of light to enter into the eye^ and the con- 
 trary is done by the circular fibres of the iris, 
 which ad: as a fphincSter mufcle : but thefe changes 
 are not made with great quicknefs, as appears 
 from the eyes being oppreffed with a ftrong light 
 for fome time, after we come out of a dark place, 
 and from the contrary effed in going fuddenly 
 from a light place to a dark one. And as the pu- 
 pil always dilates in darker places, to receive more 
 rays of light, fo when any difeafe makes fome of 
 thofe rays ineifedual, v/hich pafs through the 
 pupil, it dilates as in dark places to admit mors 
 light ; therefore a dilated pupil Is a certain fign of 
 a bad eye, and this may be difcerned ufually fooner 
 than the patient difcerns any defed in vifion. In 
 men the pupil is round, which fits them ta fee 
 every way alike ; it is alfo round in animals that 
 are the prey both of birds and beads. But gra- 
 minivorous brutes, that are too lar^e to be the prey 
 of birds, have it oblong horizontally, which fits 
 them to vievv^ a large fpace upon the earth ^ while 
 animals of the c^t kind, v/ho climb trees and prey 
 indifferently on birds or animals that hide in the 
 earth, have their pupils oblong the contrary way, 
 which fits them beft to look upward and down- 
 ward at once. Befides thefe there are other ani- 
 mals whofe pupils are in thefe forms, but in lefs 
 
 proportions. 
 
Of THE EYE. 293 
 
 proportions, fo as beft to fit their ways of life. 
 Immediately under the fclerotis, is a membrane 
 of little firmnefs, called choroides. In men it is 
 of a rufty dark colour, fuch as will bury almoft all 
 the rays of light, that pafs through the tunica 
 retina, which if it were of a brighter colour, 
 would refled: many of the rays upon the retina, 
 and make a fecond image upon the firft fomewhat 
 lefs, and lefs diftind:, but both together ftronger; 
 which is the cafe of brutes of prey, where a great 
 part of this coat is perfedly white, which makes 
 them fee bodies of all colours in the night better 
 than men, for white reflects all colours : but 
 brutes that feed only on grafs,have the fame parts 
 of this membrane of a bright green, which enables 
 them alfo to fee with lefs light, and makes grafs 
 an objed that they can difcern with greatefl 
 ftrength. But thefe advantages in brutes necella- 
 rily deftroy great accuracy in viiion, which is of 
 little or no ufe to them, but to men of great 
 confequence. This green part of the tunica cho- 
 roides in animals that graze, may properly be 
 called membrana uvea, from its refemblance in 
 colour to an unripe grape. But in mens eyes only 
 a white circle round the backfide of the choroides 
 near the cornea, is called uvea. 
 
 Immediately under the tunica choroides, 
 lies the tunica retina, which is the optic nerve 
 expai>ded and co-extended with the choroides. 
 Rays of light ftriking upon this membrane, the 
 
 T 3 fcnfixtion 
 
294 O F T H E EYE. 
 
 fenfation is conveyed by the optic nerves, to the 
 common fenforium the brain. Thefe nerves do not 
 enter at the middle of the bottom of the eyes, 
 but nearer the nofe ; for thofe rays of light being 
 ineffectual for viiion that fall upon the entrance of 
 the optic nerves, it is fit they fhould fo enter, as 
 that the fame objed:, or part of any objedt, fliould 
 not be unperceived in both eyes, as would have 
 been the cafe, had they been otherwife inferted ; 
 which appears from a common experiment of part 
 of an objed: being loft to one eye, when we are 
 looking towards it with the other fhut. I know 
 a gentleman, who having loft one eye by the fmall- 
 pox, and going through a hedge, a thorn unfeen 
 (probably from this caufe) ftruck the other and 
 put it out. The two optic nerves, foon after they 
 arife out of the brain, join, and feem perfe<5lly 
 united -, yet from the following cafe I am not 
 without fafpicion of their fibres being preferved 
 diftind, and that the nerve of each eye arifes 
 wholly from the oppofite fide of the brain, or 
 elfe that the other nerves throughout the body arife 
 fi-om the brain, and medulla oblongata, on the 
 fides oppofite to thofe they come out of. A fol- 
 dier, who was my patient in the hofpital about 
 five years fince, had, by a puih with a broad 
 fword, his left eye raifed in the orbit, which I 
 replaced with my fingers ; it was prefently follow- 
 ed with exceffive pain in the right fide of the 
 head only ; and a lofs of the fenfe of feeling and 
 
 motion 
 
Of the eye. 295 
 
 motion in both the right limbs ; the fenfe of feel- 
 ing he recovered by degrees in about a month, and 
 foon after began to recover their motion, but was 
 twelve months before he could walk, and lift up 
 his hand to the head ; and in about two years re- 
 covered all but the light of the wounded eye, 
 which indeed did not appear perfect. In iifii 
 thefe nerves arife diftindt from the oppolite fides 
 of the brain, and crofs without uniting ; but as 
 thefe animals have their eyes fo placed, as not to 
 fee the fame objed: with both eyes at once, where- 
 as animals, whofe optic nerves feem to unite, do 
 fee the fame object with both eyes at once, one 
 would fufped: that in one they were joined to 
 make the objed; not appear double, and in the 
 other diftind:, to make their two eyes (as they are 
 to view different obje(fts at the fame time) inde- 
 pendent on each other : And yet from the follow- 
 ing cafes, the feeing objedis fingle feems not to 
 depend upon any fuch union, nor from the light 
 ilriking upon correfponding fi^bres of the nerves, 
 as others have believed, but upon a judgment from 
 experience, all objects appearing fmgle to both 
 eyes in the manner we are moft ufed to obferve 
 them, but in other cafes double j for though we 
 have a diftinft image from each eye fent to the 
 brain, yet while both thefe images are of an ob- 
 jed: feen in one and the fame place, we conceive 
 of them as one ; fo when one image appears to 
 the eyes (when they are diftorted or wrong di- 
 
 T 4 reded) 
 
296 O f T H E EYE. 
 
 redied) in two different places, it gives the idea 
 of twoj and when two bodies are feen in one place, 
 as two candles rightly placed, through one hole 
 in a board, they appear one. Bnt cafes of this 
 kind being too numerous, I will conclude with 
 one very remarkable, and, I think, much in favour 
 of this opinion. A gentleman, who from a blow 
 on the head, had one eye diftorted, found every 
 obje(fl appear double, but by degrees the moft fa- 
 miliar ones became iingle,.and in time, all objects 
 became fo, without any amendment of the diftor- 
 tion. 
 
 The iniide of the eye is filled with three hu- 
 mours, called aqueous, cryflalline, and vitreous. 
 The aqueous lies foremoft, and feems chiefly of 
 ufe to prevent the cryflalline from being eafily 
 bruifed by rubbing, or a blow 3 and perhaps it 
 ferves for the cryftalline humour to move forward 
 in while we view near obje<5ls, and backward for 
 remoter objedts ; without which mechanifm, or, 
 in the place of it, a greater convexity in the cry- 
 ftalline humour in the former cafe, and a lefs con- 
 vexity in the latter, I do not imagine, according 
 to the laws of optics, how we could fo diflindtly 
 fee objects at different diflances. Hov/ever it is in 
 land-animals, I think, we may plainly fee, that 
 filli move their cryflalline humour nearer the bot- 
 tom of the eye when they are out of water, and 
 the contrary way in watery becaufe light is lefs 
 refra(5ted from water through the cryftalline hu- 
 mour 
 
Of THE EYE. 297 
 
 mour than from air. Some have faid, that am- 
 phibious animals have a membrane like the mem- 
 brana niditans of birds, which ferves them as a 
 lens in the water. I have examined the eye of a 
 crocodile, which Sir Hans Sloan kept in fpi- 
 rits, and I found this membrane equally thick 
 and denfe, and confequently unfit for this pur- 
 pofe, or, I believe, any other, except that obvious 
 one, of defending the eye from the water. Next 
 behind the aqueous humour lies the cryflalline ; 
 its fhape is a deprefled fpheroid, it is diftindly 
 contained in a very fine membrane called aranea. 
 The ufe of this humour is to refradl the rays of 
 light which pafs through, it, fo that each pencil of 
 rays from the fame point of any objed:, may be 
 united upon the retina, as in a camera obfcura, 
 to make the ftronger impreflion ; and though by 
 this union of the rays, a pivSure inverted is made 
 upon the retina, yet furely it is the impulfe only 
 of the rays upon the retina, that is the caufe of 
 vifion ; for had the colour of the retina been black, 
 and confequently unfit to receive fuch a pid:ure, 
 would not the impulfe of light upon it have been 
 fafficient for vifion ? or would fuch a pidure, if 
 it could have been made without any impulfe, 
 have ever conveyed any fenfation to the brain ^ 
 Then if the impulfe of light upon the retina, and 
 not the image upon the retina, is the caufe of vi- 
 fion J when we enquire why an image inverted 
 in the eye appears otherwife to the mind, might 
 
 we 
 
zgS Of THE EYE. 
 
 we not cxped; to find the true caufe from confi- 
 dering the dirediions in which the rays ftrike the 
 retina, as we judge o£ above and below from a 
 like experience, when any thing ftrikes upon any 
 part of our bodies ? Neverthelefs, in viewing an 
 objed: through a lens, we conceive of it as in- 
 verted ; when as in receiving the irnpulfes of light 
 in the fame manner, and having the picture on 
 the retina in the fame attitude, when we ftand 
 <>n our heads without the lens, we have not 
 the famCj but the contrary idea of the pofition of 
 the objed. Though I have confidered this hu- 
 mour only as a refra(^or of light, yet the firft and 
 «5Teatefl refraction is undoubtedly made in the cor- 
 nea ; but it being concavo-convex^ like glafles of 
 that kind, while one fide makes the rays of light 
 converge, the other diverges them again. The 
 fame thing alfo may be obferved of the aqueous 
 humour, which is indeed more concave than con- 
 vex ; but v/hen the cryftalline humour is i emoved 
 in the couching a cataradt, the aqueous pofTeffes its 
 place and becomes a lens j but that refrad:ing light 
 lefs than the cryftalline, whofe place and fhape it 
 partly takes, the patient needs a convex glafs to 
 fee accurately. In fome eyes, either this humour 
 beinp- too convex or too diftant from the retina, 
 the rays unite too foon, unlefs the objedl is held 
 veiT near to the eye, which fault is remediable 
 by a concave glafs ; as the contrary fault common 
 to old perfons, is by a convex glafs. If the eye 
 
 had 
 
Of the eye. 299 
 
 had been formed for a nearer view, the obje(ft 
 would often obilrud the light ; if it had been 
 much farther, light enough would not commonly 
 have been produced from the object to the eye. 
 In fiih the cryflalline humour feems a perfect 
 fphere, which is neceifary for them, becaufe light 
 being lefs refradted from water through the cry- 
 ilalline humour than from air, that defedl is com- 
 penfated by a more convex lens. The vitreous 
 humour lies behind the cryftalline, and fills up the 
 greateil part of the eye : Its fore fide is concave 
 for the cryflalline humour to lodge in, and its 
 back fide being convex, the tunica retina is fpread 
 over it; it ferves as a medium to keep the cryflal- 
 line humour and the retina at a due diflance. 
 
 The larger animals having larger eyes, their 
 organs of vifion, like a microfcope with a large 
 lens, are fit to take in a greater view, but in that 
 view things are not fo much magnified ; in lefTer 
 animals a fmall fpace is difcerned, fuch as is their 
 fphere of adion, but that greatly magnified, not 
 really fo in either cafe, but comparatively, for 
 vifion fhews not the real magnitude of objects, 
 but their proportions one to another. Fifh have 
 their eyes, and particularly their pupils, larger 
 than land animals, becaufe there is lefs light, and 
 that not fo far diflributed in water as in the air. 
 In all inflammations in the eye, the utmofl hafle 
 fhould be made by bleeding, purging, abflinence, 
 fe. to get rid of the inflammation, becaufe a con- 
 tinued 
 
2bo Of the EYE. 
 
 tinned Inflammation feldom fails to make white 
 opake fears in the cornea, which caufe dimnefs 
 if not blindnefs -, and no eye-water with powders 
 in it {hould ever be put upon the eye, becaufe 
 none can be made fine enous:h. 
 
 'iD' 
 
 An account of obfervations made by a young gentle- 
 man who was horn blinds or loji his Jight Jo early 
 that he had no remembrance of ever having feen^ 
 and was couched between thirteen and fourteen 
 years of age, 
 
 'HO' we fay of this gentleman that he was 
 blind, as we do of all people who have ripe 
 cataracts, yet they are never fo blind from that 
 caufe but that they can difcern day from night, 
 and for the moil part in a ftrong light, diftinguifh 
 black, white, and fcarlet ; but they cannot per- 
 ceive the fhape of any thing ; for the light by 
 which thefe perceptions are made, being let in ob- 
 liquely through the aqueous hum.our, or the ante- 
 rior furface of the cryftalline, by which the rays 
 cannot be brought into a focus upon the retina, 
 they can difcern in no other manner, than a found 
 eye can through a glafs of broken jelly, where a 
 great variety of furfaces fo differently refradt the 
 Jight, that the feveral diftind; pencils of rays can- 
 not be colleded by the eye into their proper foci ; 
 wherefore the fhape of an object in fuch a cafe 
 cannot be at all difcerned, though the colour may: 
 
 10 And 
 
O F T H E EYE. 3ot 
 
 And thus it was with this young gentleman, who, 
 though he knew thefe colours afunder in a good 
 light, yet when he faw them after he was 
 couched, the faint ideas he had of them before, 
 were not fufficient for him to know them by after- 
 wards, and therefore he did not think them the 
 fame which he had before known by thofe names. 
 Now fcarlet he thought the moil beautiful of all 
 colours, and of others the mofl gay were the moft 
 pleafing j whereas the firft time he faw black it 
 gave him great uneaiinefs, yet after a little time he 
 was reconciled to it ; but fome months after, fee- 
 ing by accident a negro woman, he was ilruck 
 with great horror at the fight. 
 
 When he firft faw, he was fo far from making 
 any judgment about diftances, that he thought 
 all objedts whatever t-ouched his eyes (as he ex- 
 preffed it) as what he felt did his fkin, and thought 
 no objedts fo agreeable as thofe which were fmooth 
 and regular, though he could form no judgment 
 of their fhape, or guefs what it was in any objed: 
 that was pleafing to him : He knew not the {hape 
 lof any thing, nor any one thing from another, 
 however different in fhape or magnitude ; but 
 upon being told what things were, whofe form 
 he before knew from feeling, he would carefully 
 obferve, that he might know them again ^ but 
 having too many objeds to learn at once, he for- 
 got many of them ; and (as he faid) at firfl he 
 learned to knoWj and again forgot a thoufand 
 
 things 
 
302 Of the eye. 
 
 things in a day. One particular only, though it 
 may appear trifling, I will relate : Having often 
 forgot which was the cat, and which the dog, he 
 was afliamed to afk ; but catching the cat, which 
 he knew by feeling, he v/as obferved to look at 
 her ftedfaftly, and then, fetting her down, faid. 
 So, pufs, I fliall know you another time. He was 
 very much furprized, that thofe things which he 
 had liked beft, did not appear moft agreeable to 
 his eyes, expeifling thofe perfons would appear 
 moft beautiful that he loved mod, and fuch things 
 to be moil agreeable to his fight, that were fo to 
 his tafte. We thought he foon knew what pic- 
 tures reprefented, which were fhewed to him, 
 but we found afterwards we were milliaken ; for 
 about two months after he was couched, he dif- 
 eovered at once they reprefented folid bodies, 
 when to that time he coniidered them only as 
 party-coloured planes, or furfaces diverliiied with 
 variety of paint ; but even then he was no lefs 
 furprized, expecting the pid:ures would feel like 
 the things they reprefented, and was amazed 
 when he found thofe parts, which by their light 
 and fliadow appeared now round and uneven, felt 
 only flat like the reft, and aflced which was the 
 lying fenfe, feeling, or feeing ? 
 
 Being fliewn his father's pidare in a locket 
 at his mother's watch, and told what it was, he 
 acknowledged a likenefs, but was vafl:ly furprized ; 
 alking, how it could be, that a large face couM 
 
 be 
 
Of the E Y ©. 303 
 
 be exprejffed in fo little room, iaying, it iliould 
 have feemed as impoflible to him, as to put a 
 buihel of any thing into a pint. 
 
 At firft, he could bear but very little light, and 
 the things he faw, he thought extremely large'; 
 but upon feeing things larger, thofe firfl leen he 
 conceived lefs, never being able to imagine any 
 lines beyond the bounds he f2.w ; the room he 
 was in, he laid, he knew to be but part of the 
 lioufe, yet he could not conceive that the whole 
 lioufe could look bigger. Before he was couched, 
 he expected little advantage from feeing, worth 
 undergoing an operation for, except reading and 
 wi'iting I for he faid, he thought he could have 
 no more pleafure in walking abroad than he liad 
 in the garden^ which he could do fafely and rea- 
 dily. And even blindnefs, he obferved, had this 
 advantage, that he could go any where in the dark, 
 much better than thofe who can fee ; and after 
 he had feen, he did not foon lofe this quality, nor 
 delire a light to go about the houfe in the night. 
 He faid, every newobjed: was a new delight; and 
 the pleafure was fo great, that he wanted words to 
 exprefs it ; but his gratitude to his operator he- 
 could not conceal, never feeing him for fome time 
 without tears of joy in his eyes, and other marks 
 of affection : And if he did not happen to come 
 at any time when he was expefted, he would be 
 fo grieved, that he could not forbear crying at his 
 difappointment. A year after firil feeing, being 
 " carried 
 
304 O F T H E E A R. 
 
 carried upon Epfom Downs, and obferving a large 
 profpedt, he was exceedingly delighted with it, 
 and called it a new kind of feeing. And now 
 being lately couched of his other eye, he fays, 
 that obje(fls at firfl appeared large to this eye, but 
 not fo large as they did at firft to the other ; and 
 looking upon the fame objed: with both eyes, he 
 thought it looked about twice as large as with the 
 firft couched eye only, but not double, that we 
 can any ways difcover. 
 
 I HAVE couched feveral others who were born 
 blind, whofe obfervations were of the fame kind 5 
 but they being younger, none of them gave fo 
 full an account as this gentleman. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Of the Ear. 
 
 THE figure and fituation of the outer ear 
 needs no defcription : Its inner- fubftance is 
 cartilage, which preferves its form without being 
 liable to break : Its ufe is to colledl founds, and di- 
 reft them into the meatus auditorius, which is the 
 paliage that leads to the drum : this pafTage is lined 
 with a glandular membrane, in which alfo is fome 
 hair; the cerumen which is feparated by thefe 
 glands, being fpread all over this membrane, and 
 its hairs, ferve to defend the membrane from the 
 
 outer 
 
Of' the ear. 305 
 
 outer air, and to entangle any infedt that might 
 otherwife gtt into the ear. Sometimes this wax 
 being feparated in too great quantity, it fills up 
 the pafTage and caufes deafnefs ^ and thofe great 
 difcharges of matter from the meatus auditorlus, 
 which are commonly called impofthumes in the 
 ear, I think, can be nothing elfe but ulcerations, or 
 great fecretions from thefe glands. At the farther 
 end of the meatus auditorius lies the membrana tym- 
 pani, which is extended upon a bony ridge almofb 
 circular : Its fituation in men and brutes is nearly- 
 horizontal, inclined towards the meatus auditorius, 
 which is the bell pofition to receive founds ; a great 
 part of them being ordinarily reverberated from 
 the earth. In men and brutes it is concave out- 
 ward, but in birds it is convex outward, fo as to . 
 make the upper fide of it nearly perpendicular to 
 the horizon, which feems fitter to hear each other's 
 founds when they are high in the air, where they 
 can receive but little reverberated found. This 
 membrane does not entirely clofe the pafi^age, but 
 has on one fide a fmall aperture covered with a 
 valve. I found it once half open in a man that I 
 difledted, who had not been deaf; and I have fcen. 
 a man fmoak a whole pipe of tobacco out through 
 his ears, which mufi: go from the mouth through 
 the euftachian tube, and through the tympanum ; 
 yet this man heard perfedly well. Thefe cafes oc- 
 cafioned me to break the tympanum in both pars 
 of a dog, and it did not deftroy his hearing, but for 
 
 U feme 
 
3o6 Of the ear. 
 
 fome time he received ftrong founds with great 
 horror. Mr. St. Andre has affured me, that a 
 patient of his had the tympanum deftroyed by an 
 ulcer, and the auditory bones call: out, without de- 
 ftroying his hearing. From thefe, and other like 
 cafes, it may be concluded, that the membrana tym- 
 pani, though ufeful in hearing, is not the feat of 
 that fenfe; and if any difeafe in that membrane 
 fhould obftrudt the palTage of founds to the inter- 
 nal parts of the ear, which are the feat of that 
 fenfe, an artificial paiTage through that membrane 
 might recover hearing, as the removing the cryflal- 
 line humour, when that obftrudls the light, reco- 
 vers fight. Some years fmce a malefadlor was par- 
 doned on condition that he fuffered this experiment, 
 but he falling ill of a fever the operation was de- 
 ' f erred, during which time there was fo great a 
 public clamour raifed againll it thatit was afterwards 
 thought fit to be forbid. In very young children 
 I have always found this n:iembrane covered with 
 mucus, which feems neceilkry to prevent founds 
 from afi'e*5ling them too m.uch, there being no pro- 
 vifion to fliut the ears, as there is for the eyes. A 
 -gentleman well known in this city, having had 
 .four children born deaf, was advifed to lay bliflers 
 upon the heads of the next children he might have, 
 which he did to three which were born afterward, 
 and every one. of them heard well. It feems not 
 unreafonable to fappofe that too great a quantity of 
 this mucus upon the drum might be the caufe of 
 
 deafnefs 
 
Of the ear. 307 
 
 deafnefs In the four children, and that the difcharge 
 made by the bliders in the latter cafes was the 
 caufe of their efcaping the fame misfortune. 
 ■ Into the middle of the tympanum is extended 
 a fmall bone called malleus, whofe other end is 
 articulated to a bone called incus, which is alfoar- 
 ticulated by the intervention of an exceeding fmall 
 one, called orbiculare, to a fourth bone called ila- 
 pes. Thefe bones are contained in that cavity be- 
 hind the tympanum, which is called the barrel of 
 the ear; but fome anatomills call the barrel only 
 tympanum, and the membrane membrana tympa- 
 ni. The malleus being moved inward by the muf- 
 culus obliquus internus, or trochlearis, it extends 
 the tympanum that it may be the more affedted by 
 impulfe of founds when they are too weak. This 
 mufcle rifes from the cartilaginous part of the eu- 
 ftachian tube, and paffing from thence in a proper 
 groove, it is, reflecfted under a fmall procefs, and 
 thence paffes on perpendicular to the tympanum, 
 to be i'nferted into the handle of the malleus, 
 fometimes with a double tendon. Parallel to this 
 mufcle lies another extenfor of the tympanum, 
 called obliquus externus -, it arifes from the outer 
 and upper part of the euftachian tube, and paffing 
 through the fame hole with the chorda tympani, 
 which is a branch of the fifth pair of nerves, it is 
 inferted into a long procefs of the malleus : This 
 is not fo obvioully an extenfor as to be known 
 to be fo v/itliout an experiment. The mufcle 
 
 U 2 which 
 
5o8 ' Or THE EAR. 
 
 i^^hich relaxes this membrane is called externus 
 tympani ; it arifes from the upper part of the au- 
 ditory paiTage, under the membrane which lines 
 that pafiage, and is inferted into the upper procefs 
 of the malleus. The relaxation of the tympanum 
 is made by this mufcle, without our knowledge, 
 when founds are too ftrong ; and as the pupil of 
 the eye is contraded when v/e have too much 
 light, and dilated when there is too little, from 
 what caufe foever, fo when founds are too low, 
 or the fenfe of hearing imperfedl, from whatever 
 caufe, the extenfors of the tympanum ftretch it to 
 make the impulfe of founds more eifedual upon 
 it, juft as in the cafe of the common drum, and 
 the chords of any mufical inftrument. From the 
 cavity behind the tympanum, which is called the 
 barrel of the ear, goes the euftachlan tube, or 
 iter ad palatum j it ends cartilaginous behind the 
 palate. This paiTage feems to be exacflly of the 
 fame ufe with the hole in the lide of the common 
 drum, that is, to let the air pafs in and out from 
 the barrel of the ear to make the membrane vibrate 
 the better, and perhaps in the ear, which is clofer 
 than a common drum, to let air in or out as it 
 alters in denfityj and if any fluid fhould be fepa- 
 rated in the barrel of the ear, to give it a paffage 
 out. This paflage being obfl:ru6led^ as it is fome- 
 times, by a large polypus behind the uvula, it 
 caufes great difficulty of hearing, and fometimes, 
 when the ra^eatus auditorius is obftruded, a man 
 
 opening 
 
Of the ear. 309 
 
 opening his mouth wicle, will hear pretty well 
 through this paffage, which is often fo open, as 
 that fyringing water through the nofe, it fhall pafs 
 through into the barrel of the ear, and caufe deaf- 
 nefs for fome time. If any one would try how 
 he can hear this way, let him flop his ears, and 
 take between his teeth the end of a wire, or chord 
 that will vibrate well, and holding the other end, 
 ftrike it, and the found that he hears will be 
 through this paffage. To the ftapes there is one 
 mufcle called mufculus ftapedis j it lies in a long 
 channel, and ending in the ftapes, it ferves to pull 
 the ftapes off of the feneflra ovalis, which other- 
 wife it covers. Befides the feneflra ovalis, there 
 is another near it fomewhat lefs, called rotunda ; 
 thefe two holes lead to a cavity called veftibulum, 
 which leads into other cavities aptly called cochlea, 
 and three femicircular canals, or altogether the 
 labyrinth, in which are fpread the auditory nerves, 
 to receive and convey the impulfe of founds to 
 the common fenforium the brain ; and furely the 
 chorda tympani, which is a branch of tjhe fifth 
 pair of nerves, may alfo convey thefe fenfations 
 to the brain. The two holes, called feneffra ovalis 
 and rotunda, are clofed with a fine membrane, like 
 the membrane called the drum, and the larger be- 
 ing occaiionally covered and uncovered by the 
 flapes, founds are thereby made to influence more 
 or lefs, as befl ferves for hearing : and this advan- 
 tage being added to that of a lax or tQn{Q tympa- 
 
 U 3 num. 
 
3IO SENSES OP SMELLING, 
 num, the effedt of founds may be greatly encreafed 
 or lelTened upon the auditory nerves, expanded ii\ 
 the labyrinth. In theftrongeft founds, the tympa- 
 num maybe lax, and the feneftra ovalis covered^ 
 and for the lowefl:, the tympatnum tenfe and the 
 feneftra uncovered. If founds propagated in the air 
 were heard lefs, we rnight often be in danger be- 
 fore we were apprized of it : and if the organs of 
 hearing were much more perfect, unlefs our un- 
 derftandings were fo too, we fhould commonly hear 
 more things at once than we could attend to. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of the fenfes of fmelUng^ tajiing, and feeling. 
 
 THE fenfe of finelling is made by the effluvia^ 
 which are conveyed by the air to the nerves, 
 ending in the membranes which line the nofe and 
 its lamellae. In men thefe lamellse are few, and 
 the palTage through the nofe not difficult; hence 
 fewer effluvia will ilrike the nerves, than in ani- 
 mals of more exquiiite fmell, whofe nofes being 
 full of lamella, and the paffage for the air narrow 
 and crooked, few of the effluvia efcape one place 
 or another ; beiides, their olfactory nerves may be 
 more fenfible. Fifh, though they have no nofes, 
 yet in their mouths they may taite effluvia in the 
 water, as furely thofe fifh do, who feek their prey 
 
 6 in 
 
TASTING AND FEELING. 311 
 
 in the darkefl nights, and in great depths of water, 
 there being more nerves dilpofed in their mouths, 
 than through their whole bodies befide, the optic 
 excepted ; and it feems as if it was done for this 
 purpofe ; for the mere fenfe of tailiing is ordina- 
 rily lefs curious in them, than in land animals ; 
 in baiting eel-bafkets, if the bait has lain long in 
 water, it is feldom followed ; but upon fcarifying 
 it afrefh, which will make it emit new effluvia, 
 it ferves as a fre(h bait. The fenfe of tailing is 
 made in the like manner upon the nerves which 
 line the mouth, as is that of feeling upon the nerves 
 diftributed throughout the body ; of which I 
 fhould fpeak more in this place, if I had not done 
 it already in the chapter of the nerves. 
 
 U 4 TAB, 
 
( 312 ) 
 
 TAB. XXXI. 
 
 1 The under fide of the bladder, 
 ^ The ureters. 
 
 3 Vafa deferentia. 
 
 4 Veficulae feminales. 
 
 5 The proftate gland, 
 
 6 Meatus urinarius. 
 
 7 A tranfverfe fedtion of the corpora cayernofa 
 
 penis. 
 
 8 Corpus cavernofum urethras. 
 
 9 Urethra. 
 
 10 Septum penis. 
 
 1 1 The feptum between the corpus cavernofum 
 
 urethras, and that of the penis. 
 
 12 The corpora cavernofa penis divided by the 
 
 feptum. 
 
 13 Corpus cavernofum glandis. 
 
 TAB. 
 
T-AB.XXXr. 
 
 P.31-2. 
 
TAB .XXXII. 
 
 ^3/3- 
 
 f0^^ ; 
 
( 3^3 ) 
 TAB. XXXII. 
 
 1 That fide of the uterus which is next the gut. 
 
 2 The fallopian tubes. 
 
 3 The fimbriae. 
 
 4 Ovaria. 
 
 5 The mouth of the uterus. 
 
 6 Ligamenta rotunda. 
 
 7 The infide of the vagina. 
 
 8 The orifice of the meatus urinarius. 
 
 9 The glans clitoridis. 
 
 lo The external labia of the vagina. 
 J I The nymphse, which are continued from the 
 praeputium clitoridis. 
 
 TAB. 
 
( 3H ) 
 
 T A B. XXXIII. 
 
 The parts of an hermaphrodite negro, which was 
 neither fex perfect, but a wonderful mixture of 
 both. This perfon was twenty-fix years of 
 ag«, and in ihape perfeftly male. 
 
 1 A clitoris, when ereded, almoft as large as a 
 
 penis. 
 
 2 The glans of the clitoris.. 
 
 2 Labia, or a divided fcrotum ; in which were 
 perfed: teflicles with all the vefTels. 
 
 A Nymphae. 
 
 '^ The ^entrance into the vagina, where were 
 carunculae myrtiformes. 
 
 6 Furca virginis. 
 
 The lower figure reprefents another herma- 
 phrodite, whofe fhape was rather female than 
 piale, but too young to have female breafts^ 
 or a beard, like a male, upon the face, 
 
 7 The glans clitoridis, 
 
 8 Nymphse, 
 
 g Labia with teilicles in them, divaricated to 
 ihew the parts between, but in their natural 
 fituation very like the other, as the other 
 when divari«cated refembled this, 
 
 10 The entrance into the vagina. 
 
 i I Furca virginis. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAV..XXKUI. 
 
 P 314 
 
TAB. XX XIV. 
 
 P-3^3. 
 
T A B. XXXIV. 
 
 1 The right ventricle of a fcetus diflended with 
 
 wax. 
 
 2 The right auricle. 
 
 3 The left auricle. 
 
 4 Branches of the pulmonary veins of the right 
 
 lobe of the lungs, thofe of the left being 
 cut off fhort. 
 
 5 The arteries of the left lobe of the lungs, 
 
 6 The vena cava defcendens. 
 f Aorta afcendens. 
 
 8 Arteria pulmonalis. 
 
 9 Dudtus arteriofus- 
 
 10 The under fide of a heart of a younger foetus. 
 
 11 The right auricle cut open. 
 
 12 The cava defcendens cut open. 
 
 13 Tuberculum Loweri. 
 
 14 The foranien ovale clofed with its valve. 
 
 1 5 The mouth of the coronary veins. 
 
 16 The umbilical vein. 
 
 17 Branches of the vena porta in the liver. 
 
 18 Dudtus venofus. 
 
 19 Branches of the cava iii the liver. 
 
 20 Vena cava. 
 
 TAB. 
 
( 3i6 ) 
 TAB. XXXV. 
 
 1 A crofs for an objedt. 
 
 2 The objed reprefented on the retina at the bot- 
 
 tom of each eye. 
 
 3 The entrance of the optic nerves^ in which ^ 
 
 place no objedis reprefented. 
 
 4 Cones, within which all objeds placed are dark 
 
 to each eye, the rays from thence falling 
 upon the entrance of the optic nerves -, but 
 that which falls upon the entrance of the 
 optic nerve in one eye, can never fall uppn 
 the optic nerve in the other. 
 
 5 Pencils of rays from points of the objed paf- 
 
 fmg through the cryllaliine humour, v/here 
 they converge, to meet in a point ou the 
 retina to form vilion. 
 
 TAB. 
 
TAB. XXXV. 
 
 P. }U\_ 
 
 ^% 
 
 %3 
 
 ^ ::. 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
TAB.XXXVI. 
 
 P.'},'?- 
 
 '\ \ T 
 
 
 
( 3^7 ) 
 
 T A B, XXXVI.. 
 
 1 A knife pafled through the tunica fclerotis, un- 
 der the cornea before the iris, in order to cut 
 an artificial pupil where the natural one is 
 clofed. This operation I have performed 
 feveral times, with good fuccefs ; indeed it 
 cannot fail when the operation is well done 
 and the eye no otherwife difeafed, which is 
 more than can be faid for couching a catara(ft. 
 In this operation great care mull be taken to 
 hold open the eyelids without preffing upon 
 the eye, for if the aqueous humour is fqueez- 
 ed out before the incifion is made in the iris, 
 the eye grows flaccid, and renders the ope- 
 ration difficult. 
 
 2t A crooked needle pafled through a proptofis 
 of the cornea ; the black line in the cornea 
 inclofes a piece to be cut out with a knife. 
 The operation being thus done, the cryfl:al- 
 line humour immediately falls out ; and in a 
 few days the lips of the wound unite. This 
 operation is very ufeful, and attended with 
 but little pain. I have done the fame thing 
 when the whole eye has been fo enlarged 
 that the eyelids could not be clofed, which 
 has funk the eye in the head -, but this ope- 
 ration was attended with fuch violent pain 
 that I cannot n"vuch recommend it. 
 
 5 3 Shews 
 
( 3^M 
 
 3 shews liow an opake fear upbii tlie cornea^ 
 
 by obftruding part of eacH pencil of rays, 
 makes a dimnefs of fight without a total 
 lofs. 
 
 4 Shews how a catarad: or obfi:ru6tion of the 
 
 cryftalline humour. Will obftrud: the light 
 which is before it. And how fome fide- 
 light may pafs to the retina through the 
 aqueous humour, but not being brought 
 into a focus gives only a fenfe of light with- 
 out vifion. 
 
 -.i-A 
 
 TAB, 
 
TAB.XXXVn. 
 
 P-Zip. 
 
 f .^, 
 
 2. A 
 
 
{ 3^9 ) 
 TAB. XXXVII. 
 
 I A bone taken out from the iirfl procefs of the 
 dura mater not far from the crifta galli. 
 
 2. A bone taken out of the mufcular part of the 
 heart of a man. 
 
 3 The under fide of a bone taken ont of a frac- 
 
 tured fkull. 
 
 4 The upper fide of a bone from the fame fkull, 
 
 where the operation of the trepan had been 
 thrice made. This girl was brought into 
 the hofpital a week after the accident, I im- 
 mediately opened the fcalp^ and let out about 
 two ounces of grumous blood, and laid the 
 ikull bare about four inches one way, and 
 three the oth^r, and tied the blood-vefi'els, 
 that I might make the operation without 
 much difficulty foon after. The fradlure 
 extended acrofs the os bregmatis from the 
 fagittal future to the temporal bone ^ that 
 part next the os frontis was depreffed equal 
 to its thicknefs, and a great deal of extrava- 
 fated blood, and fome matter lay under the 
 other part of the fame bone. I made two 
 perforations with the trephine, clofe to the 
 fradure, that I might raife it up fi:eadily 
 through both, and have more room, for the 
 extravafated blood to difcharge from under 
 the ficull,^ which had difcharged before in 
 great quantity thraugh the fradure. But 
 
 never- 
 
( 320 ) 
 
 neverthelefs ten days after the former opera- 
 tion I was obliged to make another perfora- 
 tion to difcharge the matter more freely j for, 
 during a month, the matter ran through all 
 her dreffings down her face twice every day, 
 and was exceedingly fetid, and for the fpace 
 of three months the matter decreafed very 
 little in quantity, but grew lefs and lefs of- 
 fenfive. September the thirteenth, the leaft 
 of the bones was taken out ; and on Sep- 
 tember the twenty-ninth, the large one^ 
 after which time the matter was good and 
 not too much in quantity. Each of thefe 
 bones is through both tables, for the motion 
 in the brain was {Qcn, only fome little parts 
 of the leifer bone remaining, a callus was 
 formed from them ; but where the great 
 one came away there was no callus, only a 
 common cicatrix -, and befides thefe, many 
 little bits of bone came away in the dref- 
 fings : She was foon after cured, and has 
 remained well many years. 
 
 TAB, 
 
TAB.XXXVIII. 
 
 P.2>2/. 
 
( 321 ) 
 
 TAB. XXXVIIT. 
 
 The figure of Samuel Wood, a miller, wliofe 
 arm with the fcapula was torn off from his 
 body, by a rope winding round it, the other 
 end being faftened to the coggs of a mill. 
 This happened in the year 1737. The velTels 
 being thus ftretched bled very little, the arte- 
 ries and nerves were drawn out of the arm ; 
 the furgeon who was firfl called placed them 
 within the wound, and drefled it fuperiicially. 
 The next day he was put under Mr. Ferne's 
 care, at St. Thomas's hofpital, but he did not 
 remove the dreffings for feme days : The pa- 
 tient had no fevere fymptoms, and the wound 
 was cured by fuperficial dreffings only, the na- 
 tural fkin being left almoft fufficient to cover 
 it ; which fhould in all cafes be done as much 
 as may be : Above twenty years lince I intro- 
 duced the method of amputating, by firft di- 
 viding the flcin and membrana adipofa, lower 
 than the place where the operation was to be 
 finifhed, the advantages of which are now fuf- 
 ficiently known. 
 
 1 The end of the clavicle. 
 
 2 The cicatrix. 
 
 3 The fubfcapularis mufcle. 
 
 4 The cubit broke in two places. 
 
 X TAB. 
 
( 322 ) 
 
 TAB. XXXIX. 
 
 Represents the cafe of John Heysham, whoj 
 the Friday before Eafter, in the year 1721, by 
 overilraining himfelf at work, had a rupture 
 of the inteftincs into the fcrotun:i, which could 
 by no means be reduced. He was brought 
 into St. Thomas's hofpital the Monday follow- 
 ing, and I would have performed the operation 
 immediately, but he refuling to fubmit, it was 
 deferred till Tuefday morning, when, he be- 
 ing willing, I performed the operation, and 
 making a large wound in the bottom of the 
 abdomen, the inteftines were eafily reduced, 
 and near a quart of water was difcharged put 
 of the fcrotum at the fame time. There had 
 been a rupture of the omentum before, which 
 being united to the fcrotum and fpermatic vef- 
 fels, I pafTed a needle with a double ligature 
 (as is exprelTed in the plate) under that, part 
 of the omentum that adhered, fo as not to 
 hurt the fpermatic veffels ; then cutting out 
 the needle, I tied one of the firings over the 
 upper part of the omentum, and the other 
 over the lov/er, and then cut off as much of 
 ijt as was in the way. My reafon for tying in 
 this manner w^as to fecure the blood- vefTels, 
 which, I think, could not be done fo well 
 with ons ligature, becaufe of the largenefs of 
 ^ the 
 
TAB .XXXIX. 
 
 Ryzi. 
 
 if ^ JiE 
 
( 323 ) 
 
 the adhefion and the texture of the omentum^ 
 which renders It too liable to be torn by fuch 
 a bandage. Three days after the operation an 
 cryiipelas began in his legs, and fpread all over 
 his body, the cuticle every where peeling off; 
 yet he recovered, and continues in a good flate 
 of health. After he was cured, at firjft he 
 wore a fmall trufs, but left it off in a fhort 
 time, and now feels no inconvenience from it, 
 though he lives by hard labour. 
 
 Xa TAB. 
 
( SH ) 
 
 TAB. XL. 
 
 The cafe of Margaret White, the wife of 
 John White, a penfioner in the Fishmongers 
 alms-houfes at Newington in Surry. In the 
 fiftieth year of her age, {he had a rupture at 
 her navel, which continued till her feventy- 
 third year, when, after a fit of the cholic, it 
 mortified, and ihe being prefently after taken 
 with a vomiting, it buril:, I went to her, and 
 found her in this condition, with about fix and 
 twenty inches and a half of the gut hanging 
 out, mortified. I took away what was morti- 
 fied, and left the end of the found gut hanging 
 out at the navel, to which it afterwards ad- 
 hered ; file recovered, and lived many years 
 after, voiding the excrements through the in- 
 tefi:ine at the navel ; and though the ulcer was 
 fo large, after the mortification feparated, that 
 the breadth of two guts was feen ; yet they 
 rjever at any time protruded out at the wound, 
 though fhe wa§ taken out of her bed, and fafc 
 up every day. 
 
 I The gut. 
 
 z The cicatrix of the wound. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
TAB. XL. 
 
 P-324. 
 
( 3^5 ) 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 A Poor t hijlorical account of cutting for ihefione, 
 
 HE moil ancient way of cutting for the 
 flone is that defcribed by CelsUs, which 
 was indeed cutting upon the gripe, but in a very 
 different manner from that operation in later ages, 
 for he directs a lunated incifion with the horns 
 towards the coccyges, v/hich was plainly that the 
 gut might be prelTed downwards to avoid wound- 
 ing it, and then a tranfverfe incifion upon the 
 ftone might be made fafely, but not in very young 
 children, for want of room, nor after puberty, 
 for then the proftatae are too large to allow of 
 this operation -, therefore they did not ufually cut 
 any younger than nine years, nor older than four- 
 teen : Afterwards, but when we know not, this 
 operation was improved by cutting lower, and on 
 one fide, which is the operation now called cut- 
 ting on the gripe, or with the leiTer apparatus. 
 
 In the year J 524, Marianus publifhed the 
 method of cutting by the greater apparatus, now 
 commonly called the old way, but he owns it was 
 invented by his Mafler Johannes de Romanis. 
 
 In the year 1697, Frere Jacques came to 
 Paris, full of reputation for the fuccefs of his new 
 operation for the ftone ; he foon obtained leave to 
 cut in the hofpitals, where great numbers of his 
 
 X 3 patients 
 
326 CUTTING for the STONE. 
 patients dying, and being difleded, they were 
 found with their bladders cut through, guts 
 wounded, &c. which brought the operation into 
 difgrace, as Mery and Dionis have related, who 
 faw thefe things. They fay he performed the ope- 
 ration without any diredion, and without any 
 knowledge of the parts he was to cut ; a thing not 
 to be mentioned without horror ! But of late his 
 charader has been fet in a very different lights 
 and though 'tis more than probable he himfelf 
 knew not what he did, yet there are now, who pre- 
 tend to tell us exadly; though if their teftimonies 
 are to be regarded, who faw him operate, there is 
 no place that he did not cut one time or other, and 
 therefore he may have a fort of right to be called 
 the inventor of any operation for the ftone that can 
 ever be performed in thefe parts. It is alfo owned 
 that he fometimes had great fuccefs, which v/as 
 enough to put others of that nation upon trying 
 of it in a more judicious manner; but if there 
 were fuchy failing of fuccefs , they have concealed 
 their experiments. 
 
 Mr. Rau of Amilerdam, who faw F. Jaccvues 
 operate, profeffed to do his operation v/ith the ne- 
 ceffary improvement of a grooved ftaff, which if 
 Jacques ever ufed, he furely learned that of 
 Rau. He fucceeded wonderfully j and if he, who 
 was an excellent anatomift, may be allowed to 
 underfland his own operation, "it v/as diredly into 
 the bladder, without wounding either the urethra 
 
 or 
 
CUTTING FOR THE STONE. 327 
 
 or the proflates : befides this, other competent 
 judges, who were witnefles to his operations, have 
 bore the fame teftimony. 
 
 In the year 1717-18, Doftor James Doug- 
 lass, in a paper prefented to the Royal Society, 
 demonftrated, from the anatomy of the parts, that 
 the high operation for the ftone might be prac- 
 tifed; which had been once performed by Franco 
 injudicioully, and by him difrecommended, though 
 his patient recovered; and afterwards flrongly re- 
 commended, but not pra6lifed by Rosset. Yet 
 no one undertook it, till his brother Mr. John 
 Douglass, about three years after, performed it, 
 and with great appiaufe, his two firfi: patients re- 
 covering. Soon after, a furgeon of St. Thomas's 
 hofpital cut tv/o, who both recovered j but the 
 fame gentleman afterwards cutting two, who mif- 
 carried by the cutting or burlling of the peritonse- 
 um, fo that the guts appeared, this way imme- 
 diately became as much decried as it was before 
 commended -, upon which the furgeons of St. Bar- 
 tholomew's hofpital, who had prepared to perform 
 this operation, altered their refolution, and went 
 on in the old way. The next feafon, it being my 
 turn in St. Thomas's, I refumed the high way, 
 and cutting nine with fuccefs, it came again in 
 vogue j after that every lithotomift of both hof- 
 pitals pra6lifed it; but the peritonaeum being 
 often cut or burl!:, twice in my pradice, though 
 Ibme of thefe recovered, and fometimes the 
 
 X 4 bladder 
 
328 CUTTING for the STONE. 
 
 bladder itfelf was burft, from injeding too much 
 water, which generally proved fatal in a day or 
 two. Another inconvenience attended every ope- 
 ration of this kind, which was, that the urine's 
 lying continually in the wound retarded the cure, 
 but then it was never followed with an inconti- 
 nence of urine. What the fuccefs of the feveral 
 operators was, I will not take the liberty to pub- 
 liili J but for my own, exclu(ive of the two before 
 mentioned, I loft no more than one in feven, 
 which is more than any one elfe that I know of 
 could fay ; whereas in the old way, even at Paris, 
 from a fair calculation of above 800 patients, it 
 appears that near two in five died. And though 
 this operation came into univerfal difcredit, I muft 
 declare it my opinion, that it is much better than 
 the old way, to which they all returned, except 
 myfelf, who would not have left the high way 
 but for the hopes I had of a better ; being well 
 afTured, that it might hereafter be pradtifed with 
 greater fuccefs ; thefe fatal accidents having pret- 
 ty well fhewn how much water might be inject- 
 ed, and how large the wound might fafely be 
 made. But hearing of the great fuccefs of Mr, 
 Rau, profelTor of anatomy at Leyden, I deter- 
 mined to try, though not in his manner, to cut 
 diredily into the bladder j and as his operation was 
 an improvement of Friar Jacques, I endeavoured 
 to improve upon him, by filling the bladder, as 
 DpUGLAS had done in the high way, with water, 
 
 leaving 
 
CUTTING FOR THE STONE. 329 
 
 leaving the catheter in, and then cutting on the 
 outfide of the catheter into the bladder, in the 
 fame place as upon the gripe, which I could do 
 very readily, and take out a ftone of any fize with 
 more eafe than in any other way. My patients 
 for fome days after the operation feemed out of 
 danger; but the urine which came out of the 
 bladder continually lodging upon the cellular 
 membrane on the outfide of the redtum, made 
 fcetid ulcers, attended with a vaft difcharge of 
 ftinking matter ; and from this caufe I loft four 
 patients out of ten. The cafe of one which efcaped 
 was very remarkable ; a few days after he was 
 cut, he was feized with a great pain in his back 
 and legs, with very little power to move them ; 
 uoon which he turned upon his face, and refted 
 almoft conftantly upon his knees and elbows above 
 a fortnight together, having no eafe in any other 
 pofture all that while 3 at length his urine coming 
 all the right way, his wound foon healed, and he 
 recovered the ufe of his back and limbs. I think 
 all thefe fevere fymptoms could proceed from no 
 other caufe than the urine and matter fomehow 
 offending the great nerves -, which come out of 
 the OS facrum to go to the lower limbs. I then 
 tried to cut into the bladder, in the fame manner 
 that Mr. Rau was commonly reported to do, but 
 there had the fame inconvenience from the urine's 
 lodging upon the cellular membrane on the out- 
 fide of the inteftinum redum. Upon thefe dif- 
 
 appointments. 
 
330 CUTTING for the STONE. 
 
 appointments, I contrived the manner of cutting, 
 which is now called the lateral way. This ope- 
 ration I do in the following manner : I tie the 
 patient as for the greater apparatus, but lay him 
 upon a blanket feveral doubles upon an horizontal 
 table three feet high, with his head only raifed. 
 I firft make as long an incifion as I can, beginning 
 near the place where the old operation ends, and 
 cutting dov/n between the mufculus accelerator 
 urinse, and eredor penis, and by the fide of the 
 inteftinum redum : I then feel for the ftafF, 
 holding down the gut all the while v/ith one ©r 
 two fingers of my left hand, and cut upon it in 
 that part of the urethra which lies beyond the 
 corpora cavernofa urethrse, and in the proftatc 
 .gland, cutting from below upwards, to avoid 
 wounding the gut ; and then palling the gorget 
 very carefully in the groove of the fhaff into the 
 bladder, bear the point of the gorget hard againfl 
 the ftaff, obferving all the v/hile that they do 
 not feparate, and let the gorget flip to the out- 
 lide of the bladder ; then I pafs the forceps into 
 the right fide of the bladder, the w^mnd being 
 on the left fide of the perinasum ; and as they 
 pafs, carefully attend to their entering the blad- 
 der, which is knov/n by their overcoming a ft rait - 
 nefs which there will be in the place of the wound; 
 then taking care to pufli them no farther, that 
 the bladder may not be hurt, I firft feel for the 
 flone with the end of them, which having felt, 
 
 I open 
 
CUTTING FOR THE STONE. 331 
 
 I open the forceps and Aide one blade underneath 
 it, and the other at top ; and if I apprehend the 
 flone is not in the right place of the forceps, I 
 fhift it before I offer to extrad:, and then extraft 
 it very deliberately, that it may not flip fuddenly 
 out of the forceps, and that the parts of the 
 wound may have time to ftretch, taking great 
 care not to gripe it fo hard as to break it, and if 
 I find the ftone very large, I again cut upon it as 
 it is held in the forceps. Here I muft take notice, 
 it is very convenient to have the bladder empty 
 of urine before the operation, for if there is any 
 quantity to flow out of the bladder at the paffing 
 in of the gorget, the bladder does not contradt 
 but coUapfe into folds, v/hich makes it difficult to 
 lay hold of the ftone v^ithout hurting the blad- 
 der ; but if the bladder is contracted, it is fo eaiy 
 to lay hold of it, that I have never been delayed 
 one moment, unlefs the ftone was very fmalL 
 Laftly, I tie the blood- vefTels by the help of a 
 crooked needle, and ufe no other dreffing than a 
 little bit of lint befmeared with blood, that it may 
 not ftick too long in the wound, and all the dref- 
 fmgs during the cure are very flight, almoft fuper- 
 flcial, and without any bandage to retain them.; 
 becaufe that will be v/etted with urine, and gall 
 theflcin. At firft I keep the patient very cool to 
 prevent bleeding, and fometimes apply a rag dipt 
 in cold water, to the wound, and to the genital 
 parts, which I have found very ufeful in hot 
 
 weather 
 
532 CUTTING FOR THE STONE. 
 
 weather particularly. In children it is often alone 
 fufHcient to flop the bleeding, and always helpful 
 in men. The day before the operation I give a 
 purge to empty the guts, and never negled: to 
 give fome laxative medicine or clyiler a few days 
 after, if the belly is at all tenfe, or if they have 
 not a natural ftool. What moved me to try this 
 way^ if I may be allowed to know my own 
 thoughts, was the confideration of women fcarce 
 ever dying of this operation ; from which I con- 
 cluded, that if I could cut into the urethra, be- 
 yond the corpora cavernofa urethra, the operation 
 would be nearly as fafe in men as women. 
 
 What fuccefs I have had in my private prac- 
 tice I have kept no account of, becaufe I had no 
 intention to publidi it, that not being fufficiently 
 witnelTed. Publicly in St. Thomas's hofpital I have 
 cut two hundred and thirteen ; of the firft fifty 
 only three died ^ of the fecond fifty, three ; of the 
 third fifty, eight ; and of the lafl fixty-three, fix. 
 Several of thefe patients had the fmall-pox during 
 their cure, fome of whom died, but I think not 
 more in proportion than what ufually die of that 
 dillemper; thefe are not reckoned among thofe 
 who died of the operation. The reafon why fo 
 fev/ died in the two firft fifties was, at that time 
 few very bad cafes offered ; in the third, the ope- 
 ration being in high requeft, even the mofl; aged 
 and mofi: miferable cafes expedted to be faved by 
 it 3 befides, at that time, I made the operation 
 
 lower. 
 
CUTTING FOR THE STONE. 333 
 
 lower, in hopes of improving it, but found I 
 was miftaken. But what is of moil; confe- 
 quence to be known is the ages of thofe who re- 
 covered, and thofe who died. Of thefe, under 
 ten years of age one hundred and five were cut, 
 three died; between ten and twenty, fixty-two 
 cut, four died ; twenty and thirty, twelve cut, , 
 three died; thirty and forty, ten cut, two died ; 
 forty and fifty, ten cut, two died ; fifty and 
 fixty, {even cut, four died 3 fixty and feventy, 
 five cut, one died -, between feventy and eighty, 
 two cut, one died. Of thofe who recovered the 
 three biggefi: fiones were i xii, x^, and viii, and 
 the greatefl number of ftones in any one perfon 
 was thirty-three. One of the three that died out 
 of the hundred and five, was very ill with a 
 whooping cough ; another bled to death by an 
 artery into the bladder, it being very hot weather 
 at that time : But this accident taught me after- 
 wards, whenever a vefiel bled that I could not 
 find, to dilate the wound with a knife, till I 
 could fee it. Now if Jacques or others, who 
 ^f late have been faid to have performed this 
 Operation, whether by defign or chance, did not 
 take care to fecure the blood- vefiels, which as 
 yet has not been fuppofed, whatever their dexte- 
 rity in operating might be, their fuccefs at leail 
 can be no fecret, for many of their children and 
 moil of their men patients muH have bled to 
 death. If I have any reputation in this way, 
 10 I have 
 
334 CUTTING for the STONE. 
 I have earned it dearly, for no one ever endured 
 more anxiety and iicknefs before an operation, yet 
 from the time I began to operate, all uneafmefs 
 ceafed; and if I have had better fuccefs than fome 
 others, I do not impute it to more knowledge, but 
 to the happinefs of a mind that v^as never ruffled 
 or difconcerted, and a hand that never trembled 
 during any operation^ 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 L.^4m-- 
 
I N 
 
 ADIPOSE membrane -^ 137 
 — its difeafes — 138 
 
 Alantois » 280 
 
 Amnion^ . ■ — 278 
 
 does its liquor ferve as nourifliment ? 
 
 Amputation, how is the circulation kept up after it ? 
 
 203 
 
 occafioned, and proving fatal from the cramp 
 
 207 
 
 — in mortifications ought to fucceed the feparation 
 
 208 
 
 An afar c a ' • 130 
 
 Anchylofis^ how formed . ~— — > g 
 
 Aneurifm -~ — 187 
 
 Animal body, what — — j 
 
 ics conftituent parts — — 2 
 
 Animals, why larger have flower pulfes, and lefs vigor 
 in motion 200 
 
 why inaflive ones require lels food, and are not 
 
 fo fuddenly deftroyed by wounds 207 
 
 Antra. Vide Sinus maxilla fup. 
 Aorta^ frequently oflified near the heart 182 
 
 — its valves covered with chalk ibid. 
 
 — preternaturally diftended — ^ ibid. 
 
 — traced . . 183 
 
 Aqueous humour of the eye — 29§ 
 
 Arm, right, why niore ufed than the left 24 
 
 Artery, coronary — « . 184 
 
 — carotids, why rifing differently — ibid. 
 
 Artery, 
 
 »3»*--: 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Artery, cervical — -«• __ — i26 
 
 -^ fubclavian, axillary, &€. • - — ibid. 
 
 — intcrcoftal, &c. — — — i§8 
 
 — phrenic, &c. ■ ibid. 
 
 — iliac -^ — — . 189 
 
 — inguinal, &c. — _ 1^0 
 
 — pulmonary — • — - — 183 
 Arteries, what — — 2 
 
 — become bony — ,— ^ 
 
 — coats — — — I94j 200 
 — - the angles and laws of ramification 195 
 -^ the force of their contradlions 196 
 -*- motion of the blood in them and in the veins 
 
 199, &c. 
 
 ^r^f/^^fy/V^/ of the brain . — 221 
 
 Atlas ^ ov firjl vertebra •— ■«— » 22 
 
 Barrennefs of women — 276 
 
 Bile, in what quantity — 164 
 
 — concreting, forms ilones — 1 66 
 
 Biliary duds — — — 163 
 
 obftruded — — . 166 
 
 Bladder of urine - — - — — - 260 
 
 feldom ulcerated • 261 
 
 Blood, quantity, celerity of its motion, &c. 206 
 
 — extravafated, requires firft purging, and then warm 
 
 attenuant — — 208 
 
 Blood-letting — — 89 
 
 — ^- what artery in danger — — 187 
 
 Bones what — — 3 
 
 ufe — — — 4 
 
 —,— . fibres — — — 4, 9 
 
 how offify and grow — -— 4 
 
 * — — fometimes decreafe or walle — • 5 
 
 . 1. • why hollow — — -»- 5 
 
 ■■ their place fupplied by Ihells in fmall animals 7 
 
 broken, how united by the callus ibid. 
 
 ^- — have not vifible lamelU 9 
 
 —- — ^ their compact and fpongy fubftance ibid. - 
 
 Bones, 
 
Index. 
 
 Bones, diftorted or fradured, cured by an indurating 
 
 pafte — — 37 
 
 . their difeafes, particularly f^r/Vj ^^ 
 
 ——of the cranium — — ii 
 
 trunk — — 21 
 
 upper limb — * — 29 
 
 lower limb — • -—34 
 
 internal ear ■ 307 
 
 Bony excrefcences — — 5 
 
 Brain — — * — 222 
 
 — — full of water in a lethargy — - 224 
 
 — its (tare in an apoplexy — ibid. 
 
 fchirrhous humours in the cerehrum 225 
 
 • impofthumations of the cerehrum ibid. 
 
 Bread and its cancer — —> 140 
 
 Ctecum, or appendix vermiforms 156 
 
 Callus, unites fradured bones — - — • 7 
 
 "Canalis arteriofus ,— — 284 
 
 Cancer — — i — - 140 
 
 C^nVj of bones ^ -— — ,39 
 
 Carpus, bones of — — 32 
 
 Cartilages, what — — 3 
 
 fubjed: to offification — 5 
 
 ■—■■ — fwelleid in rickets - — ibid. 
 — — prevent contiguous moveable bones from uniting 
 
 8 
 
 eroded, occafion anchylojis — ibid. 
 
 ■ ' where placed and ufe — 41, &c« 
 
 — — moveable in the joint of the jaw — - 41 
 
 femilunar in the knee — 42 
 
 Cartilago enfiformis — ~ - — 28- 
 
 Caruncula lachrymalis — -— ape 
 
 Caruncul^ myrti formes — — 273 
 
 — urethr<e -^ — — 268 
 
 Caftration, how to fecure the velTels — 265 
 
 Catemenia «— • — '— 275 
 
 y Cataradir, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Cataraft, why the patient does not difcern objeds, though 
 
 fenfible of light and colours 300 
 
 ■Cerehsllum — — 223 
 
 its wounds caufe fudden death 224 
 
 Cerebrum — — 222 
 
 ' — its wounds not mortal — 224 
 
 Chorion — - — - — - 278 
 
 Ch oroides oculi — •— 293 
 
 Circulation, the complete revolution 217 
 
 — — in fmall veflels, and in living animals 204 
 
 Clavicula -_ — _ — 29 
 
 Clitoris — — -^ — ■ 272 
 
 Colon — — ' — 156 
 Conception — — . 269, 276 
 
 ConjunSiiva oculi — ■ — 291 
 
 Cornea oculi — — — ibid. 
 
 ^- . — a great refradtor of light 298 
 
 Couching, not fo much refradlion in the eye after the ope- 
 ration — ibid. 
 
 hiftory of a young gentleman 300 
 
 Cowper, Mr. his operation on the antrum 19 
 
 Cramp, occafioning firft amputation, and then death 207 
 
 Cranium^ why compofed of feveral bones 12 
 
 Cryllalline humour — — ■ 297 
 
 '■ a lens for refra6lion 297, 298, 299 
 
 Cuticula — — 134 
 
 — its difeafes — — ibid. 
 
 Cutis — — — — 135 
 
 fmall painful tumors under it — 136 
 
 Chylification — — -— 216 
 
 Deafnefs caufed by redundant cerumen 305 
 
 — — ' in fome cales, perhaps, might be cured by perfo- 
 rating the membrana tyrapani 306 
 
 — — in three cafes, probably, prevented by bliftering 
 immediately after birth ib^d.. 
 
 *— . — cauied by the polypus of the nofe compreffing the 
 Euftachian tube — - — . 308 
 
 Denies. 
 
I N D E X. 
 
 Denies. Vide Teeth. — 
 
 Digeftion of the aliment -— 152, 2 i6 
 
 DiQocation of the thigh -^ — 4^ 
 
 Dropfy and tapping — — 211 
 
 — of the liver — — 212 
 
 ■ — true afciies never cured — 215 
 ' in the dupHcature of the peritorkeum 148, 149 
 
 Du5lu5 arteriofus — — — 284 
 
 — — — how clofcd *— 287 
 
 — — — thoracicus — —— 169 
 
 'uenofus -— — 28^ 
 
 Duodenum — ' - ■^ - ■ 155 
 
 Dura mater — — 218 
 
 its finufes — — 219 
 
 oflified 
 
 221, 319 
 
 Ear, external •— • -1-. 304 
 
 — — impofthumes of _ v ^05 
 
 ' ' memhrana tympani — — i ibid. 
 
 _ — — naturally perforated ibid. 
 
 [ " broke in a dog, without caufing 
 
 deafnefs ibid. 
 
 " ' ' — — deftroyed by ulcer, and the fmall 
 
 bones thrown our, without deaf- 
 nefs ' — ibid. 
 
 — — ' I its perforation propofed 306 
 
 fmall bones, with mufcles of the malleus 307 
 
 Euftachian tube — — 308 
 
 Ear, 7?<g5p^j with its mufcle — 309 
 
 labyrinth — - ~ ibid, 
 
 Emphyfema — . — 138 
 
 Epididymis — — 265 
 
 Epiphyfis of bones — . «_ g 
 
 Epigafirium — — 234 
 
 Ereftionofthe^mj — — 269 
 
 Excretory velTci ■ — — g 
 
 Exfoliation of bones ■— ^^-^ 39? 4Q 
 Extravafation. Vtds Blood 
 
 y 2 Eye 
 
INDEX. 
 
 -— tunica conjtmSfiva — - 
 
 .__ fcler Otis et cornea — 
 
 — /w, procejfus ciliares — • — 
 ■'— timka choro'ides — — 
 
 — hiirrours of — -»_ 
 
 — inflammations of, require immediate 
 
 ■290 
 
 291 
 
 — ' ibid. 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 ibid. 
 296 
 alTiflance _ 
 299 
 
 , memhrana ni^ilans, in amphibious animals, not for 
 
 refradioq 
 
 peeling, the fenfe of — 
 
 Females, why fewer born than males 
 Fibres what — - 
 
 Fibula — ' — 
 
 Figures of the bones — - 
 
 The.llieleton of a child twenty months old 
 The thigh bone of a man fawed through 
 The OS brcgmatis of a fcstus of fix months 
 
 2. The head with the lower jaw — 
 
 3. A fe6lion of the fcull and upper jaw 
 The osfphenoides — 
 The infide of the bafe of the fcull 
 
 4. The trunk — — — 
 
 5. The vertebra — — 
 
 6. Bones of the arm, .fore-arm, and carpus ' 
 y. The hand — -— 
 
 8. The thigh and leg of the ikeleton 
 
 9. The foot of the fkeleton — 
 
 I. 
 
 1 
 } 
 
 10. The adult ikeleton 
 Figures of the mufcles 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 14. 
 
 15- 
 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 
 A mufcular bulto — 
 
 The fare view of a mufcular trunk 
 The back view of the fame 
 Two mufcular arms — 
 
 A mufcular arm and leg 
 
 Two mufcular legs ■ 
 
 A mufcular hand ' ■ 
 
 297 
 
 311 
 
 275 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 122 
 123 
 
 124 
 125 
 126 
 127 
 
 128 
 
 Figures 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Fi<^ni'es of the mufcles 
 
 1 8. A mulcular foot — •— - 129 
 
 19. A complete miifcular figure — 130 
 
 20. The mufcillar figures of Hercules and Antaus 
 
 131 
 Figures of the vifcera. 
 
 21. Vifcera of the abdomen and thorax in fitu ' 249 
 
 22. The liver, pancreas^ fpleen, and kidneys, with 
 the large vefiels of the abdomen^ and contents of 
 the pelvis — ' — 250 
 
 23. The ladrealspf theyif/Z:;;?^;;^ — 1 
 
 The origin and diftribution of the fupe- r 251 
 rior mefenteric artery . ■ ^—^ 
 
 24. A full view of the w;?.'? /'^r/i^n/;;^ 252 
 
 25. Tht vena hepaticr£ — i ^ -_ 
 The biliary and pancreatic du6ls % ^^ 
 
 26. Receptaculum chyli et du5liis thoracicus 254 
 
 27. The fuperior and inferior cubital nerves 1 
 Courfe and diftribution of humeral artery 3 '-^^ 
 
 28. The parts concerned in ^. 5. ^ra(:M 7 y- 
 A tumor extirpated from the cubital nerve 3 
 
 29. The medulla fpinalis I ^ 
 The intercoftal nerve ^ "^^ 
 
 -JO. The animalcules infeirJne 1 
 
 The circulation in a fifh's tail > 258 
 
 A fmall artery and a vein fpread On a mem- J 
 brane 
 Figures of the Organs of Generation. 
 
 31. The bladder, with proftrate i;^^^/<«?y^»ii- 
 nales 
 
 A tranfverfe feclion of the penis 
 A longitudinal le(5i:ion of the penis 
 
 32. The female organs of generation 
 2^. The parts of two different hermaphrodites 
 
 Figures of the Fcetus. 
 
 34. The heart, with its large vefTels 
 The heart with the foramen ovale 
 The venal fyftem of the liver 
 
 Y3 
 
i N t) ex: 
 
 "Figures of the Eye, and Cafes of Surgery. 
 
 35. A diagram to illuftrate vifion, and the? ^ 
 
 dark or infenfible point of the eye y ^ 
 
 ^6. The operation of imperforated iris '\ 
 
 The operation for proftofis cornea | 
 
 A diagram, whence dimnefs of fight from \ 
 
 an opacity of the cornea r 3 7 
 
 A diagram, whence the fenfe of light in | 
 a catarad:oiis eye J 
 
 An olTification in the dura mater 
 in the heart 
 
 37 
 
 
 Two exfoliations of both tables of the f 3 9 
 fcuU 
 
 38. Wood, the miller — , ^21 
 
 39. The BuifOKocele performed on Heyjham 322 
 
 40. ^i?i/^'j exomphalos — 324 
 Fingers, bones of -r- — . — 33 
 Fifiulainano — - — T^>'^S1 
 
 « ^ — perinao ^— ^-^ 267 
 
 Flea, why numerous joints in its legs — - 7 
 
 Fluids, their propornon to the folids - — 206 
 
 Fcetus, it is nourifhed by che mouth •'-^ 7.yS 
 
 — -. — receives red blood from the mother * 282 
 
 — — circulation of its blood — 284 
 
 Foramen ovale --^ •^-^ ibid. 
 
 * . — • how clofed -^ — * 287 
 
 not open in water-animals — - 288 
 
 Frafture, how united by callus ■ -" ■ ■-■■ 7 
 
 —r- how bound up with a pafte $7 
 
 ' ■- — -ofthefcull ' — — 319 
 
 Funis umhilicalis r— — r 283 
 
 Gallbladder -— — 16^ 
 
 Qanglion of nerwt^ -^-^ '— ' < ^^7 
 
 Gland, what — ^ -^ 3 
 
 T-r — ftrud^re -- - — - 146 
 
 • lacrymal • » 290 
 
 - — • — lymphatic ^^ '. — 212 
 
 -— ^ — miliary t-^ —^ 136 
 
 «g^rr- rnycih^inous, of joints. ^«- 47 
 
 Gland, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Gland, pineal . — 2i^,iij 
 
 pituitary — — 213, 222 
 
 — falivary — — 142 
 
 ceconomy _-« 145 
 
 thymus ■ — 213 
 
 ■ thyroide ■— — ibid. 
 
 GlanduU renales — — 263 
 
 Gonorrhcea — -— — 268 
 
 Gutta ferena^2iit of the brain and optic nerves 225 
 
 HcCmorrhage, why commonly on furfaces 202 
 
 Hsemorrhoides, how extirpated — — • 158 
 
 Hanging kills by interrupting refpiration 176 
 
 Heart, — — — 177 
 
 oflification of its mufcular fibres 5, 182, 319 
 
 — — its bafis ulcerated, with pus in the pericar- 
 dium 
 
 large, lax, and filled with polypi in fatal drop- 
 
 fies — — ibid. 
 
 ' — its force — — 196 
 
 fyfiole and diajiole, why reciprocal 197 
 
 — throws the blood along the whole arterial ly- 
 
 fteni — . — 200 
 Hernia, Vide Rupture,, 
 
 aquofa — — . — 264 
 
 Hydrocele -— — — 263 
 
 Hymen — — . . _ 273 
 
 '' imperforated — — ibid. 
 
 Hypochondrium — — — 134 
 
 Hypogajirium — — . ibid. 
 
 Jaundice — — — i65 
 
 Jaw, lower, not offified — . — 5 
 
 Jejunum — — ' — -156 
 
 Ileum intejiinum — — ibid. 
 
 Iliac pafiion — — ^ — . 160 
 
 Impofthumations, their feat 129 
 
 Injedion through the arteries into the veins » 203 
 
 Intellines — — 155 — 1^8 
 
 -«— why fuch a length of .-, i^^ 
 
 Y 4 Joint 
 
I N D E X. 
 
 ■ ..Int f the thigh impoflhumated 29 
 difeafes of, — «^ _^§ 
 
 Iris ■"" . "~ — — 291 
 
 — a(5LS as afphindlermLifcle — ^ 292 
 Kidneys — — _, 295 
 — — - — tuhuU, papilla, glands, and pelvis 260 
 ■ one frequently almolt confunaed 272 
 
 — . fometimes but one — . — ibid. 
 
 Labia pudendi — — ►— * 272 
 
 Labour, child-bearing, why at the ufual time 289 
 
 Lafteals . — . — 168 
 
 Ligannent, what — —, ^ 
 
 '—• where placed, and ufes > — 43, &c. 
 
 Ugamentum uteri rotundum — — — 274 
 
 Lithotomy, an account of ■ 325 
 
 Liver — -^ — 161 
 
 »— — difeafed — — 165 
 
 — — dropfical — ^ — 212 
 
 Lobfter, its fhells and joints — 7 
 
 Lungs — — -^ 172 
 Luxations of the fpine moft commonly at the lower 
 
 dorfal vertebrae — ^ — 26 
 
 Lymph^duds -— __. 2, 206, 
 
 Males, why more born than females — 275 
 
 Mamm^ — — — . i^p 
 
 . cancerous — — 140 
 
 Marrow, oily — — — 5 
 
 J3loody — __ ^_ ibid. 
 
 ' — -— cells, veflcles, &c. — — - 6 
 
 Maxillary gland — — — 143 
 
 «— — — fchirrous, proving fatal in nine weeks 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Mediajlinum — • — • — • 172 
 
 Medulla oblongata — — 224 
 
 • — - wounded, caufes fudden death ibid. 
 
 ■' fpinalis '— • — - ibid. 
 
 • - Membrand: 
 
I N D EX, 
 
 Membrana oMongaia Its -wounds —7 -224; 
 
 Membrana adipofa — -> — - ^37 
 
 its difeafes ^— • . 13^ 
 
 tympani. Vide Ear. 
 
 ni^itans. Vide Eye 
 
 Membrane what — . • --^ -— 2, 5r 
 
 — containing, invefting, &:c. - — » 141 
 
 Mefentery — -^ — 160 
 
 Metacarpus — •^— 33 
 
 MetatarfuSy bones of ^— — » 37 
 
 Miller, hiftory of the lofs of htsarni — 321 
 
 M.ons Veneris — - — 272 
 
 Mortification, fhould feparate, before we amputate 208 
 Mufcies, what — -^3 
 
 — their fibres fuppofed veficular '— 62 
 
 reflilineal, pennaeform, ufe — 6i^Ziz, 
 
 . — : of the abdomen -— 67 
 
 --— of the genitals and anus — 6^ 
 
 — of the fcalp, ear, eye, lips, and nofe 72 
 
 ', — of the OS hyoides, tongue, larynx, pharynx, and 
 
 uvula — — ' , 78 
 
 — ^ — - — of the lower jaw — $2 
 
 *— I- of the clavicula dindfcapula ■ *— ' " 83 
 
 - — of the OS humeri — • — 2^ 
 
 '. of the fore arm and hand — 88 
 
 • of the head and neck — — gy 
 
 -— of refpiration, fpine, and^f/wV — - 102 
 
 •*— of the thigh and leg — 108 
 
 of the foot and toes — u^ 
 
 — of the ojjicula aiiditus — 307, 309 
 
 Nephrotomy, what paffes for that operation 260 
 
 Nerves, what — ^ — 2, 225, 246 
 
 ganglions — ^ — 227, 247 
 
 inftruments of fenfation and of motion ibid. 
 
 r—r whether vibrating cords or tradudory tubes 
 
 228, 247 
 
 feem to decuffate — 294 
 
 — the order of difleifting them ' — ■-2d.o 
 
 •—.«-. — , of encephalo'n and medulla fpinalis 229 
 
 8 Nerves, 
 
I N D E x; 
 
 Kaves, firft pair —. -— 230 
 
 — fecond pair — — 231 
 
 „_ — — ,^ probably deculTate 294 
 
 third pair — — 231 
 
 fourth ^- — . 232 
 
 fifth '^ — ibid. 
 
 — ~ — fixth — — 235 
 
 — feventh — — 236 
 
 eighth — — ibid. 
 
 ninth — — 238 
 
 — tenth — ,— ibid. 
 
 ■ ' ' • of the medulla Jpiftalis — 240 
 
 ■' ■ — firft cervical — = — ibid. 
 
 fecond — — 241 
 
 ' ' — third — — ibid, 
 ' — fourth, fifth, fixth, and feventh cervical, with 
 
 the firft dorfal — — 242 
 
 ■ the twelve dorfal — 244 
 
 — — — the five lumber -— ibid. 
 
 ' ■ the facral — — ■ — 245 
 
 J<!ichoUs, Dr.. his opinion of the fphenoidal finufes 14 
 
 Nyntpha ^ — — — 272 
 
 Oefophagus — — — * 150 
 
 Omentum — — — 149 
 
 Os tinea — -— — 274 
 
 Os eethmoides — - — 13 
 
 " — coccygis "^ — , 22, 25 
 
 ^—'femoris — -—34 
 
 "—frontis > — 12 
 
 — humeri — . — — 31 
 
 — innominatum »— -— 28 
 
 — mala < — — — 17 
 
 — maxilla infer ioris •— — 20 
 
 — — fuperioris — — iS 
 
 — najt — — --^ 17 
 
 — occipitis — — J 6 
 
 — Palati . — p— — 19 
 
 — parietale — -« 12 
 
INDEX, 
 
 Cspetrofum — • •— « ij 
 
 •—planum — — . i8 
 — facrum — — 22, 25 
 
 •^- fphenoides — , — 12 
 
 "— fpongiofum — — ^^ 20 
 
 •— temporis «—• — . -«. j^ 
 
 — vomer '— — . 20 
 
 O^ etiquetra — • . ■ » ■ 8, il 
 
 OJficula auditus — — — 007 
 
 Offification in the dura mater — 310 
 
 ^ heart ibid. 
 
 Offifying matter, deficient in a lower jaw, and in the 
 
 rickets — — 5 
 
 Ovaria •— -s— — — 274 
 
 Pancreas ■— — - — , 165 
 
 Paracentejis . — ■ ^-. jjj 
 
 Par Otis ^ gland — — — 142 
 
 gland, its duft wounded — 14^ 
 
 ulcerated — . ibid. 
 
 Patella — — 2 5 
 
 _ how united when broken ibid. 
 
 Penis — - — *=^ 26jr 
 
 Pericardium — « — . 177 
 
 — containing pus ——1 i g i 
 
 ~ ' adhering to the heart — . ibid. 
 
 Pericranium — ^ — ■ — 10 
 
 Periofiaum — -^ — , ibid. 
 
 < thickened in rickets — 5 
 
 Peritoneum -^ »— . 148 
 
 Pia mater > , 221 
 
 oflified — — ibid. 
 
 Placenta -— — — 281 
 its vefiels anaftomofe with thofe of the uterus 
 
 282 
 
 Pleura — »_ _ j*72 
 Pleuritic pains, why more commonly in the left fide 178 
 
 Polypus oi h\ood — — 210 
 
 Pope's eye, in brutes »— 214 
 
 Procejfus 
 
i N D E X. ^ 
 
 procejftis ciliares- «-* — 292 
 
 procidentia am - — .^- i^y 
 
 Projlat^ ' ■ — . 266 
 
 ^ difeafed .— . »_ ibid. 
 
 Pupilla — - -!-= ' — . 291 
 
 Ti how contra(^ed and opened" ? 292 
 
 — why round and oval in different animals ibid. 
 
 Radius — ' — ^ — 32 
 
 Hecepfaadttm chyli — - — 168 
 
 ReBum intefiinum ■— — 157 
 
 Kegio umhiUcalis — •— 133 
 Refpiration, motions — — J04, &;c. 
 
 life o ■ — 173 
 
 Reticulum mueofum — — i35 
 
 Retina ■— . — — 293 
 
 Ribs, fradlured, or diftorted by carelefs nurfes 27 
 
 Rupture of matter, and probabiy of the gut, under 
 
 ■ F^//(?pz/^/s ligament — 47 
 
 — of matter, and of blood andcnatr.er into the fore 
 
 part of the thigh '190 
 
 . — of water — — 264 
 
 . — C2ik oi He^Jham — — 322 
 
 _, White '— ' — 324 
 
 Sanguification — • — ^ '~-« 217 
 
 Sclerotis tumca ocult — — 291 
 
 Scapula — • — -»-, 27 
 
 Scarifications, when hurtful .-_ 20!^ 
 
 Scrohiculis cordis — — 133 
 
 Scurvy, how aff'etEts thecuticula — 134 
 Scull. Vide Cranium. 
 
 .^ fraftured — • — — 319 
 
 Secretion, how performed — - — 147 
 
 Seed, the nature of its animalcules —— 269 
 
 Sella turcica — ' — 13 
 
 Sinus, frontal , -^ — iKk^. 
 
 -— - — oi iht OS Jphenoides — - 14 
 
 — ; — of the maxillary bone ■ — ^9 
 
 » - - .-~=u_.— , -fometihies impoilhii mated ibid. 
 
 kiii 
 
 o 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Skin — , »_ — t2^ 
 
 Smelling, the fenfe of — ■ — 310 
 
 Solids, their proportion to fluids — 206 
 
 Spine, bones of — — 21 
 
 .*^_-. why compofed of fo many bones 22 
 
 — — final cavifes of its different curvatures 23 
 
 Spleen — — — 167 
 
 Sternum -— — — 27 
 
 Stomach — — — 151 
 
 Stones, extracted from the loins — - 260 
 
 Stone, fymptoms of, equivocal — 261 
 
 account of the operation ■ 325 
 
 Sublingual gland — — * 143 
 
 SupprefTion of urine, in the kidneys and in the bladder, 
 
 different . -«=^ — 262 
 
 •^ how to be treated — ^ ibid. 
 
 Sutures, how formed, — —•8 
 
 -i what — — — . 311 
 
 - — ' particular ones — •— ibid. 
 
 Tapping for the dropfy — --* 2ii 
 
 ^arfuSj bones of — • """ 3^ 
 
 Tailing, the fenfe of — - — - 311 
 
 Teeth — -— ■ 20 
 
 fhed . — . 21 
 
 Tendons, what — — *. g 
 
 — pricked in bleeding — 89 
 
 TefieSy — ««, 263 
 
 Thymus, gland — — 213 
 
 'TonJllU glandule f— » < — > 144 
 
 ■ — ' how extirpated — ibid. 
 
 Tooth-ach, its feat — —1 2 r 
 
 Trepan, not applicable at the frontal finus ic 
 
 Tuh^e Fallopanie — — 275 
 
 Tumours, fmall ones under the fkin giving exquifite 
 
 pain — — 136 
 
 Vagina — . — 273 
 
 Vafa defer mtia — »— 2 66 
 
 Vein, what -- . »,c^ 2 
 
 Vein 
 
^ N D E X, 
 
 Vet- c;o it^ ^ -~- "^ _ *94> ^05 
 
 «_ — why curved in its courfe -r- 194 
 
 , why cutaneous on the arm ' — « 192 
 
 cava, with its branches — — . 191 
 
 . cephalic, how avoided in cutting iffues 192 
 
 — — -port arum —-> — 19^ 
 
 ■ — in the f^elus — - 283 
 
 — — — pulmonary ►— 183 
 
 Ven^e la5fe<e — -— i68 
 
 Vertebra •— ■— 21 
 
 their clafles — — -^ 22 
 
 — — bodies, procefTes — ■ 23 
 
 — fupernumerary •— 28 
 
 VeJiculiC feminales — — 266 
 Vifion, the retina the organ of — — - 294 
 caufed by an impulfe on the retina 297 
 
 ■ how carried on after couching —• 298 
 
 — why do objefls appear fingle 295 
 
 why do not objefts appear inverted 297 
 
 obfervations from a young gentleman, who never 
 
 faw till couched — — 300 
 
 Vitreous humour — ■ — 299 
 
 Ulna — — 31 
 
 Ureters — — • 260 
 
 diftended in calculous patients 271 
 
 Urethra ^- — r* **— 268 
 
 — its glands — — ibid. 
 
 ftridures — — , \ ibid. 
 
 — in women — — 273 
 
 Urine paffes only by the Ureters -i* 262 
 
 Uterus — •— — ; ^73 
 
 White fwelling — »— % 4iS 
 
 FINIS. 
 

 ,.■_./ ^.- ,; ..,.,.',..1.- '>-i-j\i: 
 
 ' ' 'f'-'l t'. 'i* ■ .' l' «■■ *'' !•''-"