Institute of International Education International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. VIII The Question of the Near East By Albert Howe Lybyer, Ph.D. Professor of History, University of Illinois September, 1921 The Institute of International Education 419 West 117th Street, New York Stephen P. Duggan, Ph.D. DIRECTOR Mary L. Waite EXECUTIVE SECRETARY Telephone: Morningside 8491 Cable Address: "Intered' ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD Herman V. Ames L. H. Baekeland Marion LeRoy Burton Nicholas Murray Butler Stephen Pierce Duggan Dr. Walter B. James Alice Duer Miller Paul Monroe John Bassett Moore Henry Morgenthau Dwight W. Morrow E. H. Outerbridge Henry S. Pritchett Mary E. Woolley BUREAU DIVISIONS Europe Stephen P. Duggan Far East Paul Monroe Latin America Peter H. Goldsmith Scholarships and Fellowships Virginia Newcomb International Relations Clubs Margaret C. Alexander Institute of International Education International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. VIII The Qjjestion of the Near East By Albert Howe Lybyer, Ph.D. Professor of History, University of Illinois September, 1921 PREFACE The question of the Near East cannot be understood without glancing along the whole line of major events in the Levant from the earliest known times to the present. The lands and the peoples, current political and economic dreams and aspirations, actual religious and racial rivalries and hatreds, all are stamped with the impresses of past centuries and milleniums. For this reason the present syllabus takes up first a review in outline of the history through ancient, medieval, and modern times of the lands which have formed a part of the Ottoman Empire. It has not been thought necessary to repeat the information outlined in Syllabus No. V by Clive Day on The Question of the Balkans, though that is commonly accounted a subdivision of the question of the Near East. The matter of bibliography has been difficult, both in regard to the past, and to recent events up to the date of finishing the manuscript. For events before 1910 the student is recommended to supplement the readings specified by using freely the eleventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, with its excellent index volume. For events since 1914 no better collection of material can be found than in the Current History Magazine of the New York Times, the volumes of which from 1914 to June, 1919, are now published together as a history of the European War. Those who desire fuller information on various topics in the history of the Near East since 1914 can find with the help of a periodical index many excellent articles in standard periodicals. Recent volumes of Asia, The Near East, The New Europe, and The Contemporary Review are especially useful. The fact that the Treaty of Sevres has not yet been put into force, and that a settlement of the Near East after the Great War is still to be awaited, hinders the prepara- tion of substantial books upon recent developments in that region. Albert Howe Lybyer Urbana, Illinois, August 26, 192 1 [3 1 I PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS A. Definitions of question of Near East 1. The rivalry in all ages of the Asiatic, European, and African peoples which have lived around the eastern half of the Mediterranean Sea 2. The circumstances accompanying the decline of political energy and the shrinkage of independent territory among the peoples who profess the Mohammedan religion. (E. Driault calls this "the retreat of Islam") 3. The group of problems which grow out of the governmental weakening and territorial diminution of the Ottoman Empire. (This is the narrower and more useful definition) B. The lands of the Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent about 1680 A.D. (rapid survey) 1. In Asia: Asia Minor (the peninsula west of a line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta to the east end of the Black Sea), Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia with Babylonia, Cilicia, Syria with Palestine, Arabia (the eastern and western coasts), Georgia and Western Persia (temporary acquisitions) 2. In Europe: Thrace, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece, Albania, Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia, Moldavia with Bessarabia (Yedisan), Transylvania, Hungary (except western part), Podolia (temporarily), Crimean "Tar- tary," Kuban, Mediterranean islands (east of Malta) 3. In Africa: Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers Map: Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 124 C. Peoples of the Ottoman Empire (sketched) 1. Methods of classification a. By racial descent. Often doubtful or mixed b. By language. Increasingly important of late with growth of national spirit c. By religion. Of primary importance within the Ottoman Empire 2. Mohammedans a. Turks, Turcomans, Afshars, Tartars b. Arabs, including Syrians, Druses, Egyptians, etc. c. Kurds (Sunnite and Shiite or Kizilbash), Lazes, Circassians d. Moslem Albanians, Bulgarians (Pomaks), Greeks, Serbs (Bosniac), converted Spanish Jews (Dunmehs), etc. e. Berbers, negroes, etc. f. Converts or "renegades" from other Christian nations [5] 3- Christians a. Armenians (Gregorian) b. Nestorians, Jacobites (Assyrians) c. Greek Orthodox (Melkites) d. Roman Catholics (Chaldeans, Syrians, Armenians, Maronites, Latins, Uniats, Copts) e. European subject Christians (Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbo-Croats, Alban- ians, Vlachs or Rumanians, Hungarians, Poles, etc.) f. Copts (monophysite) g. Protestants (recent) 4. Jews, Samaritans 5. Yezidis, Ismaelians, Nosairi, etc. Map: Shepherd, 165 II THE ANCIENT BACKGROUND A. The Near East formed part of western Asian and Mediterranean empires of antiquity, and these have influenced its history and culture to the present time B. The chain of Oriental Empires (Observe progressive enlarging of area of uni- fied government. Compare each stage with Ottoman Empire about 1680 A.D.) 1. Babylonian, to 731 B.C. 2. Assyrian, to 608 B.C. 3. (Hebrew and Syrian kingdoms, with Phoenicia) 4. Chaldean or New Babylonian, to 538 B.C. 5 Old — or Medo — Persian, to 330 B.C. a. Great subsequent influence of governmental arrangements of this kingdom 6. (Macedonian, 334 to 250 B.C.) 7. Parthian, 250 B.C. to 226 A.D. 8. Middle or Sassanian Persian, 226 to 641 A.D. a. Zoroastrian religion b. Literary and general cultural development and its influence upon Sara- cens and Turks C. Greece and Rome 1. The Minoan civilization 2. (Independent Asia Minor: Hittites, Lydia, Phrygia; later Galatia, Pontus, Armenia) 3. Greece a. Territorial extension of Greek rule and penetration b. Extent of abiding influence of Greek art, science, philosophy, etc., in Near East [6] 4. Macedonian period, 338 B. C. ff. a. Break-up of Empire of Alexander into Egypt, Syria, Pergamum, Bithy- nia, Macedonia, Rhodes, etc. b. The process of "Hellenization" 5. Roman conquest 214 to 146 B.C. and dominion a. Rome ruled for longer or shorter time nearly all lands of Ottoman Empire b. Depth of Romanization east of the Adriatic Sea D. Northern Africa 1. Egypt usually independent until the Persian conquest, 525 B.C., after- wards dependent or ruled by foreigners 2. Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, etc. 3. Roman unification of North Africa, 264 to 31 B.C. Readings: Breasted, Ancient Times III ' THE EARLY MEDIEVAL BACKGROUND A. The East Roman or Byzantine Empire 1. Constantinople became new capital of Roman Empire 330 A.D., and con- tinued Roman-Greek rule and influence till 1453 A.D. 2. Barbarian invasions: Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Huns, Slavs, Avars, Bul- garians 3. Justinian, Heraclius, and after a. Rivalry with Middle Persian Empire. In fiercest struggle, 603 to 629 A.D., Persia won and lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt: part of Asia Minor b. Permanent losses to Mohammedans, 634 A.D. fif., Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Mediterranean islands. 4. Revival under Macedonian dynasty, 867 to 1057 A.D. a. Cilicia recaptured, 965 A.D. b. Balkan peninsula recovered from Bulgarians, 1015 A.D. 5. Byzantine civilization a. Greek orthodox Christianity became principal religion of southeastern and eastern Europe, by conversion of Slavs, Rumanians, etc. b. Influence of Byzantine architecture, art, administration, commercial methods, etc. Readings: Oman, Byzantine Empire B. The Saracen Empire 1. Waves of Semites across millenniums established Assyrians, Abyssinians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Aramaeans, Syrians, Arabs 2. Arabs before Mohammed 3. Mohammed's life and teachings, 570 to 632 A.D. 4. Early Caliphs at Medina, 632 to 661 A.D. 5. Omeyyad Caliphate at Damascus, 661 to 750 A.D. a. Territorial expansion in Asia, Africa, Europe [7] 6. Abbassid Caliphate at Bagdad, 750 (762) to 1258 A.D. 7. Moslem civilization: a unified system of religious belief and practice, government, law, morals, learning, business methods, etc., which over- spread the central areas of the Old World, and persists to the present 8. Religious subdivisions: Sunnites and Shiites; four great doctors of the Sunnite law — Abu Hanifa, Malik, Schafii, Ibn Hanbal; saints and dervishes — religious orders 9. Moslem world a barrier to personal intercourse between western Europe and eastern Asia. Did not hinder passage of wares of commerce: precious metals, jewels, spices, etc. ID. From the beginning, rivalry and hostility prevailed between the civiliza- tions of Islam and Christendom Readings: Oilman, The Saracens Encyclopaedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Articles, Mohammedan Insti- tutions, Law, Religion Ameer Ali, Short History of the Saracens . The coming of the Turks 1. The early Turks a. Nomads in the steppe-lands of northern Asia b. In contact with nomad Mongols and settled Chinese on the east c. From the building of the Great Wall of China, about 216 B.C., increas- ingly in contact with Persians and other Indo-Europeans on the west d. The first extensive Turkish empire, about 550 to 650 A.D., from the Chinese wall to the Black Sea e. Manners and customs, political and military organization, religious beliefs f. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries most of the Turks became Mohammedans of the Sunnite division following the law as formulated by Abu Hanifa 2. The Turks in the Saracen Empire a. First contact of Turks with Arabs after conquest of Persia, 641 A.D. Both were desert peoples b. Turks became slaves, soldiers, officers, and governors for the Arabs out- side of Arabia c. The Abbassids employed Turkish slave-soldiers who from the time of the Caliph Mutasim, 833 to 842 A.D., became a powerful Pretorian guard d. Ibn Tulun, a Turk whose father had been a slave, founded a short-lived dynasty in Egypt and Syria, 868 to 905 A.D. Another Turkish group, the Ikshids, ruled Egypt, Syria, and western Arabia, 935 to 969 A.D. 3. The Empire of the Seljuk Turks a. The ruling family came from the Ghuzz or Oghuz tribe of Turks b. The Seljuk army crossed the Oxus about 1030 A.D., and quickly overran Persia c. 1055 A.D. Toghrul Bey became Emir al Omra, Mayor of the Palace to the feeble Abbassid Caliph at Bagdad 18] d. 1071 A.D. Alp Arslan defeated the Roman Emperor at Menzikert, and the Turks occupied most of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine e. Malik Shah, the greatest Seljuk sultan, 1073 to 1092 A.D. Time of Omar Khayyam, Nizam al-Mulk, Hassan Sabbah f. Empire became divided, and torn by civil wars. The Atabegs. Turks gradually lost all portions except in northeast (Khwarizm, Western Turkestan) and northwest (Seljuks of Roum) 4. Turkish kingdoms in Afghanistan and India a. Ghaznevids, sprung from Turkish slaves, ruled from Khorassan to the Ganges, 975 to 1155 A.D. b. Ghorids ruled Afghanistan and western India, 1 155 to 1206 A.D. c. Slave-sultans of Delhi ruled 1206 to 1294 A.D. d. Turks continued to play important part in western India until Baber, more Turk than Mongol, founded Mogul Empire, 1525 to 1761 A.D. Readings: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Articles, Turks, Seljuks, Moguls, etc. IV THE LATER MEDIEVAL BACKGROUND A. The Crusades— the "World's Debate" 1. Christian pilgrimage to Palestine a. Numerous and continuous from the fourth century b. Obstacles Interposed by Moslem conquest of Palestine, 634 A.D. ff. c. Charlemagne obtained from Harun al-Rashid special "capitulations" or regulations in favor of Christian pilgrims from western Europe d. Increase of movement in eleventh century 2. An active, adventurous element was contributed to western Christendom by Northmen similar to that contributed to Islam by Turks 3. Capture of Asia Minor and Palestine by Turks about 1071 A.D. led East Roman government to appeal to Pope; and interfered with movements of pilgrims 4. First Crusade drove Turks back from western Asia Minor and probably postponed by two centuries Turkish conquest of southeastern Europe 5. Moslem revival of power, 1127 to 1193 A.D., under Zengi, Nureddin, and Saladin set up empire from Euphrates to Cyrenaica which gradually forced Crusaders out of western Asia 6. Loss of Acre, last foothold in Palestine, 1291 A.D., did not extinguish crusading spirit, which launched expeditions against Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks for 200 years thereafter 7. Crusades constituted most active period in long rivalry of Christendom and Islam. Christian attack at first largely successful, but in the end Islam recovered all losses and prepared for new advances Readings: Archer and Kingsford : The Crusades [9] B. The Mongol Invasion 1. Early history of the Mongols, eastern nomadic neighbors of the early Turks 2. Genghis Khan, 1162 to 1226 A.D., built up great empire, ruled by his descendants until 1340 A.D. 3. Mongols overran Persia and Mesopotamia, made Seljuks of Roum tribu- tary, occupied southern Russia, took Bagdad 1258 A.D., but failed to conquer Syria (defeat at Ain Jalut, 1260) 4. They opened for 100 years after 1241 A.D. routes across the Near East north of the diminished Moslem barrier, which enabled Marco Polo, John of Piano Carpino, William of Rubruick and other merchants and missionaries to pass from Europe to the Far East 5. Mongols used many Turks in their enterprises, and drove others westward, including ancestors of Ottoman Turks 6. Mongols left in southern Russia the "Tartars," particularly those of the Khanate of the Crimea (until 1783 A. D.) 7. Timur (Tamerlane), descendant of Genghis Khan, built up empire in western Asia about 1400 A.D., able temporarily to defeat Mamelukes in Syria and Ottomans in Asia Minor Readings: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Articles, Mongols, Jenghiz Khan, Timur C. The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty in Egypt a. Founded about 1250 A.D. upon the ruins of the power of the Ayyubites (the family of Saladin) by Turkish and Circassian officers bought and educated as slaves b. A caliph of house of Abbas, escaped from Mongol conquest of Bagdad, 1258 A. D., set up at Cairo as religious figurehead c. Mameluke empire came to include Cyrenaica, Egypt, Nubia, Palestine, Syria, Western Arabia, and after the conquest of Lesser Armenia, 1375 A.D., Cilicia d. During fourteenth and fifteenth centuries chief financial support ob- tained from tariffs on the trade in spices and other wares between Europe and Asia, nearly all of which trade passed through Red Sea and Alexandria, or Persian Gulf and Beirut. This almost ceased after discovery of Cape route by Portuguese, 1498 A.D. e. Mameluke independence overthrown by Ottoman Turks, 1 516-17 A.D. Caliphate of Cairo extinguished , f. Mameluke organization, under Ottoman overlordship, continued local rule of Egypt until 181 1 A.D. Readings: Muir, The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt D. The Kingdom of Lesser Armenia 1. Armenians had long history in their highland country, independent or vassals of Persian, Parthian, Roman, East Roman, and Saracen Empires 2. Some scattered widely over Near East as merchants, bankers, politicians, and even emperors, but they remained numerous in Armenia proper until 1071 A.D. 3. Advance of Seljuk Turks in eleventh century broke up compact Armenian population. Many took refuge southwestward in and near Cilicia 4. Rhupen founded kingdom of Lesser Armenia about 1080 A.D. 5. This kingdom aided Crusaders, and served as important trade outlet during Mongol period 6. 1342 A.D. Lesser Armenia came under Lusignans, a French dynasty 7- 1375 A.D. was conquered and incorporated into Mameluke empire 8. Armenians remained a considerable percentage of the population in both Armenia proper and Cilicia, and besides were strongly represented in many cities of the Near East Readings: Asian (translated by Crabites) Armenia and the Armenians E. The Near East in the thirteenth century was in a state of comparative anarchy 1. Western Asia saw the break-up of the Bagdad Caliphate, the Crusading states, and the Seljuk Sultanate of Roum; and the appearance and decline of the Mongol power 2. Southeastern Europe experienced the appearance and break-up of the Latin Empire of Constantinople and the Bulgaro-VIach or Second Bulgarian Empire, with the fall and recovery in a scattered and enfeebled condition of the East Roman Empire 3. Northern Africa witnessed the replacement of the Ayyubid by the Mame- luke government, with feeble independent states westward along the Mediterranean shore 4. The chief accomplishment of the Ottoman Turkish power was to be the building up of territorial, economic, and political unity by the conquest and incorporation of a large number of small organizations V • THE RISE OF THE OTTOMAN TURKS A. The Seljuks of Roum 1. The Seljuk Turks entered Asia Minor after the battle of Menzikert, 1071 2. They established a sub-capital at Nicaea (Isnik) which was taken by the Crusaders in 1092, after which they made their capital at Iconium (Konieh). This kingdom was called Roum, as being part of the Roman Empire 3. They held most of Asia Minor for 200 years, during which time they developed a considerable trade and civilization 4. About the year 1300 their empire split into a number of fragments, the most vigorous being the emirate of Karaman around Konieh, and that of Osman in the northwest B. The House of Osman appears I. A band of nomadic Ghuzz Turks fled before the Mongols westward from Khorassan early in the thirteenth century, and was given by the Seljuk Sultan a place at Sugut near Brusa [II] 2. Their chief Osman received investiture about 1295 A.D. as an Emir, and became independent about 1300 A.D. 3. They captured Brusa in 1326 and this became their first capital 4. Under Orchan they regularized the recruiting of part of their forces from the Christian population by instituting the order of Janissaries (Yeni Cheri, new soldiery) 5. About 1355, after previous raids into Thrace, they obtained a first per- manent foothold in Europe at Gallipoli 6. Adrianople was captured in 1361 and became the principal capital a few years later 7. By conquest, purchase, and diplomacy the Ottoman Turkish possessions were rapidly extended both in Asia and Europe 8. Bayezid I defeated a European crusade at Nicopolis in 1396, but was defeated and captured by Timur at Angora in 1402 9. Unity and strength were restored by Mohammed I and expansion began again under Murad II The conquest of Constantinople and further advances 1. During century before conquest power of East Roman Empire very low. Only scattered fragments of territory remained 2. Turks made several unsuccessful attempts. Failed because of strength of city's position and excellent communications by land and sea 3. Mohammed II made preparations, 1452, building Castle of Europe, closing straits, making cannon 4. City captured after fifty-three days' siege. May 29, 1453 5. Mohammed II henceforth regarded himself as Emperor of Greeks (or Romans) as well as Sultan of Turks. He appointed their patriarch, granting them under him complete ecclesiastical liberty, and large measure of civil and legal autonomy 6. A similar national autonomy extended to Armenians in 1461. All non- Moslem and non-orthodox subjects of the Sultan at first included under the Armenian patriarch. In later generations a number of other ecclesias- tical nationalities or millets separated off — ^Jews, Jacobites, Protestants, etc. 7. Mohammed II enlarged empire to include nearly all of Asia Minor and Balkan peninsula, had designs on Italy, subjected the Crimean Tartars and made the Black Sea a Turkish lake 8. He extended the administration to suit the larger territory, increased the army, promoted education, organized court ceremonial Readings : Marriott, The Eastern Question, ch. 3 Lane-Poole, Story of Turkey Creasy, History of The Ottoman Empire Forbes and others. The Balkans, a history Gibbons, The Foundations of the Ottoman Empire 1 12] VI THE BRILLIANT PERIOD OF SELIM I AND SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT, 1512-1566 1. The reign of Bayezid II one of consolidation rather than advance 2. Expansion had led to contact with new enemies: in Europe, Hungary and Austria (soon to be united under Hapsburgs) and Poland, and in Asia, the Mamelukes 3. Shah Ismail founded about 1500 A.D. the third Persian Empire, which be- came not only a political but a religious rival of the Ottoman Empire, on the basis of Shiite Mohammedanism 4. Selim I defeated Persians 1514 A.D. and annexed Kurdistan ; drove Mame- lukes from Syria 1516 A.D.; and subdued them in Egypt 1517A.D.; became Protector of the Holy Cities, Mecca and Medina; took over position of Caliph, involving claim to headship of whole Moslem world 5. Suleiman took Belgrade 1521, and Rhodes 1522; subjected Hungary 1526, and incorporated it 1541; besieged Vienna 1529; captured Bagdad 1534 and annexed Mesopotamia as far as the Persian Gulf; with the help of Khaireddin Barbarossa acquired north Africa from Egypt west to border of Morocco; made Austria tributary 1547 6. He furthered the building of many mosques, tombs, etc., which still stand; organized Mohammedan ecclesiastical system of the empire; codified and expanded civil and administrative law 7. Down to about 1650 A.D. the greatest strength of the Ottoman govern- ment was in the Janissary and page system, which took the ablest young men of the subject Christians, especially in Europe, and trained them to fight and govern 8. Tenacity and durability were given to the Ottoman Empire by the Mo- hammedan religious organization, recruited from Moslem-born youth, with long carefully organized educational process, preparing for careers in teaching, religious leadership, law, and justice Readings: Marriott, Eastern Question, ch. 4 Lane-Poole, Story of Turkey Creasy, History of Ottoman Empire Lybyer, Government of Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Mag- nificent VII FULLER SURVEY OF LANDS OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE AT ITS MAXIMUM A. General view 1. Extent: Russian steppes to Indian Ocean, Caspian Sea to Morocco 2. Variety of land formation a. Mountains: Taurus, Caucasus, Amanus, Lebanon, Balkan, Pindus, Carpathian [13] b. Highlands and plateaus: Armenian, Kurdish, Anatolian, Arabian, Barkan, Algerian c. Plains: Mesopotamian, Hungarian, Rumanian, South Russian d. Deserts: Anatolian, Arabian, Syrian, Libyan, Saharan e. River valleys: Halys, Tigris, Euphrates, Maritza, Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, Nile f. Forests, swamps, lakes, oases, etc. 3. Two groups of connecting seas a. Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmora, Black, Azoff, Adriatic b. Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf 4. Products: of temperate and tropical climates, making a nearly self- sufficient area 5. Principal cities, at suitable places for local supply and distant trade: in fertile districts, near passes, along trade routes and rivers, beside ports 6. Principal roads: Constantinople to Erzerum, Aleppo, Bagdad, Damascus, Mecca, Bucharest, Budapest, Durazzo, Athens, Cairo, Algiers B. Lands in Asia 1. Anatolia (coastlands and interior) 2. Armenia and Kurdistan (no clear separation) 3. Caucasus and northern Persia (subdivisions) 4. Cilicia, Svria, Palestine, Sinai Peninsula 5. Mesopotamia and Babylonia (ruined state of irrigation system) 6. Arabia: sandy and stony deserts, oases, wadis, caravan routes 7. Neighboring lands: Daghestan, Russian Turkestan, Persia, Independent Arabia C. Lands in Europe (For all matters connected with the geography, economics, and population of the Balkan peninsula, see the fuller outline in Syllabus No. V, The Ques- tion of the Balkans, by Clive Day) 1. The Balkan areas: Thrace, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece, Albania, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina 2. Hungary with Croatia, Transylvania 3. Rumania with Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia (Yedisan) 4. Southern Russia with Crimea, Kuban, (and Podolia from southern Poland) 5. Neighboring lands: Austrian provinces, Poland, Russia, (Venetian and Genoese possessions) D. In Africa 1. Egypt (Delta, Nile valley, Nubia) 2. Barka, Tripoli, and Fezzan 3. Tunisia 4. Algeria 5. Neighboring lands: Abyssinia, Sudan, Sahara desert, Morocco, Spain E. Islands of the Mediterranean 1. Rhodes 2. Cyprus 3. Crete [14] 4- Greek archipelago (with the Dodecanese) 5. Malta, Jerba, etc. Readings: Hogarth, The Nearer East Map: Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 3 VIII MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PEOPLES OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE A. Relations of the peoples I. Distinguished by religion, language, and supposed racial descent a. Usually these characteristics were in agreement, but sometimes they overlapped b. Most of the peoples had areas where they lived in majority, but there was great residential intermingling c. Turks and other Mohammedans were accounted superior to other peoples d. Non-Mohammedans wherever they might reside were organized in millets or national groups. "Personality of law" prevailed B. Mohammedans 1. Turks (those who spoke Turkish and were Mohammedans) a. Ruling classes (1) . Native Turks (2) . Renegades (including pages, janissaries, etc.) b. Common people . (i). Sedentary (2). Nomadic Turcomans, Afshars, Yuruks c. "Tartars" of South Russia (with autonomy under their Khan) 2. Arabs (Arabic language and Mohammedan religion) a. Subject (mostly sedentary) (1) . Arabs proper (2) . Syrians (3) . Egyptians (4) . North Africans b. Independent or nearly so (mostly nomadic) 3. Kurds a. Sunnite or orthodox b. Shiite or Kizilbash c. Divided also as sedentary and nomadic 4. Lazes, Circassians, etc. 5. Convert groups: Albanians, Bulgarians (Pomaks), Greeks, Serbs, Spanish Jews (Dunmehs), etc, I15I 6. Small Syrian groups: Druses, Ismailians (Assassins), Nosairi (Ansariyeh), Metawalis 7. Berbers, negroes, etc. C. Christian subjects 1. Armenians 2. Monophysites (Jacobites, Copts) 3. Nestorians 4. Greek orthodox (Melkites, Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, Albanians, Vlachs or Rumanians) 5. Roman Catholic (Chaldeans, Syrians, Armenians, Maronites, Latins, Uniats, Copts, Hungarians, Poles, etc.) D. Jews 1. Spanish 2. Other groups (Karaite, Polish, etc.) 3. (Samaritans) E. Yezidis or devil worshippers Readings: Eliot, Turkey in Europe Pears, Turkey and its Peoples IX THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AMONG THE NATIONS A. Diplomatic relations with European and Asiatic states 1. Attitude at first of haughty superiority; descending to equality about 1600 A.D.; and to a measure of deference later 2. Early transactions with Ragusa, Russia, Venice, France, Hungary, Em- peror, England, etc. 3. From early date Venetian representatives (bailos) resided in Constan- tinople and other ambassadors later. No Turkish diplomats abroad in permanent residence before nineteenth century B. Feared for its military and naval power I. "Turkish fear" strong in central and western Europe in sixteenth century, diminished after battle of Lepanto 1571, extinguished after failure to take Vienna 1683 C. Isolated by its religion and civilization 1. Except in one or two cases with small neighbors in fourteenth century, no intermarriage of ruling family with other royal houses 2. Turkey not considered member of family of European nations before Congress of Paris 1856 D. Development of trade relations with neighbors, etc. : Russia, Austria, France, Italian states, Spain, England, Holland, Persia, India [16] E, Relationship to through trade of eastern Asia with western Europe 1. Effect of Portuguese discovery of the route around Africa to Asia a. This discovery was not caused by the advance of the Turks. They did not acquire Syria and Egypt until after the turning of the Cape, and so did not block the trade-routes b. They made many attempts to counteract its effects by reviving trade through Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt 2. Turkey relatively isolated on commercial side after 1498 Readings: Lybyer: The Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade, English Historical Review, Sept. 1915; Annual Report of the Amer. Hist. Assoc. 1914 X THE DECLINE OF TURKEY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (For amplification on the European side see Syllabus No. V) A. Causes of decline: 1. Unprogressive influence of Mohammedan religion and civilization 2. Force of established custom in Turkish tradition 3. Breakdown of renegade or Janissary system, which checked entrance of new blood 4. After Suleiman the sultans ceased to retain active leadership 5. Growth in military power and imperial ambition of neighbors, Russia and Austria B. Period of comparative equilibrium, 1566 to 1683 1. A series of wars with Persia, 1578 to 1693, balanced losses and gains 2. Peace of Sitvatorok, 1606, and Treaty of Vasvar, 1664, ended wars against Austria with the territorial status quo, Austria ceasing to pay tribute 3. War with Venice, 1644 to 1669, ended with acquisition of Crete 4. The appearance of the Kiuprili family as Grand Viziers, 1656 to 1676 and after, interrupted decline C. Period of losses especially to Austria, 1683 to 1740 1. Second attempt to take Vienna failed, 1683 2. War against Austria, Russia, Venice, etc., ended 1699 with heavy terri- torial losses (Peace of Karlovitz) 3. War of i7i5to 1718 against Austria brought further losses (Peace of Passa- rovitz) 4. War of 1736 to 1739 against Austria and Russia regained some territory from Austria (Peace of Belgrade) 5. Gains in northern Persia after 1714 lost in 1736 6. New capitulations signed with France, establishing status of foreigners in Turkey, 1740 [17] D. Period of losses especially to Russia, 1740 to 1792 1. War of 1768 to 1774 ended with territorial cession, loss of Crimean Tartary, and special rights granted Russia within Ottoman territory (Treaty of Kuchuk-kainarji) a. Catherine the Great's "Greek project" b. Further advances of Russia registered by Convention of Constantinople, 1784 2. War of 1787 to 1792 with Russia and Austria ended with further loss of territory to Russia (Treaty of Jassy) 3. The Wahhabis, a puritanical Moslem sect, developed power in Arabia a. Founder Ibn Abdul Wahhab, 1691 to 1791 (?) b. Followers captured Kerbela and Mecca, 1801, and Medina, 1804 c. Subdued by Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali of Egypt, 1818 d. Sect continues to present time 4. Tendency of local governors toward independence about 1800 Examples: a. Ahmed Pasha of Bagdad and successors b. Jezzar Pasha of Acre c. Pasvan Oghlu of Vidin d. Ali Pasha of Yanina 5. France, England, Holland, Genoa, Barcelona, etc., maintained constant trade relations. Venice, Austria, and Russia likewise in times of peace Readings: Lane-Poole, Story of Turkey Creasy, History of the Ottoman Empire Marriott, Eastern Question, ch. 6 XI PROBLEMS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, I 792-1 878 A. Sultan Selim IIPs reforms, 1789 to 1807 1. First of series of attempted reforms by sultans and statesmen of Turkey 2. Measures designed to reconstruct army, navy, administration, education 3. Mostly defeated by strong resistance of Janissaries, officials, and religious chiefs B. Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt, 1798-9 1 . French attempt to restore short route between east and west 2. Drew attention of other western European powers toward Egypt C. Rise of Mehemet Ali 1. Albanian by descent 2. Became Pasha of Egypt, 1805 3 Came to control also Nubia, Arabia, Cyrenaica, Crete, Syria, Cilicia 4. Invited by Sultan to put down Greek revolution, 1822, came near suc- ceeding, was defeated by European intervention (battle of Navarino, 1827) I18I 5. Made war on Turkey, 1831 to 1833, 1839 a. European intervention twice prevented his conquest of Constantinople b. France supported him diplomatically throughout c. Russia protected Sultan 1833. Obtained as reward (Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 1833) closing of Straits (Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles) to warships of all foreign nations save her own d. Russia separated England from France 1839, by agreeing to close Straits to all warships (Straits Convention, 1841). General European war narrowly averted e. Mehemet Ali lost governorship of all territories except Egypt and Nubia. These, however, made hereditary in his family f . Title Vali or governor for ruler of Egypt advanced to Khedive or Viceroy, 1867 D. Reforms of Mohammed II, 1808 to 1839 1. Destroyed Janissaries, 1826 2. Accomplished some improvements in military, naval, and social organiza- tion 3. Was hindered by revolts and wars E. Beginnings of the Balkan states (See Syllabus No. V for amplification) 1. Montenegrin independence formally recognized, 1799 2. The Serbian revolt, 1804. Independence, 1878 3. The war of Greek independence, 1821 to 1829 4. Autonomy of the Danubian principalities, 1829. Independence of Rumania, 1878 5. Bulgarian educational movement began 1835. Autonomy granted 1878. Independence, 1908 Readings: Forbes and others. The Balkans, a History Miller, The Balkans F. Russian wars 1. 1828 to 1829. Treaty of Adrianople 2. Crimean War, 1853 to 1856. France, England, and Sardinia took the part of Turkey. Congress and Treaty of Paris 3. 1877 and 1878. Congress and Treaty of Berlin 4. Turkish affairs considered to be under control by the "Concert of Europe", 1815 to 1914 5. Russia gained in 1829, was checked in 1856, gained in both Europe and Asia in 1878 G. The French in North Africa 1. Barbary states (except Morocco) nominally a part of Ottoman Empire 2. France took Algeria after 1830, Tunisia 1882, (Morocco 1904-1912) H. The Lebanon 1. French claim to very old relationships and interests in the Lebanon 2. War of Maronites and Druses, 1840 to 1845. In general, French supported Maronites and English supported Druses [19] 3. French intervention, i860 4. Special regime established 1864 (Christian governor) Readings: Bell, The Desert and tJie Sown K. Reforms under Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz 1. of Gulkhaneh, 1839 2. Some reforms accomplished 1839 to 1856 3. Haiti humayun, 1856 4. Turkey's improved status after the Congress of Paris 5. Law of Vilayets, etc., 1867 L. Bankruptcy and war 1. Borrowings of Turkish and Egyptian governments, 1856 to 1873 2. Effect of financial stringency, 1873-6 3. Revolt of Bosnia, 1875, and Bulgaria, 1876 4. Conference of Constantinople, 1876 5. Proclamation of Constitution 6. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8 M. Gains and aims of European powers, 1878 1. Russia added part of Bessarabia and Armenia. Stopped in Europe by Balkan states, ambitious to advance in Asiatic Turkey and Persia 2. England gained control of Cyprus. By Cyprus Convention looked to over- sight of Turkish Armenia. Jointly with France controlled Egypt from 1876 3. Austria obtained control of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novibazar. Aimed to reach Aegean at Salonica 4. Italy interested in Montenegro and Albania. Planned to take Tripoli in Africa 5. France having been defeated in 1870 received little consideration, except promise of Tunis Readings: Marriott, Eastern Question, chs, 7 to 12 Miller, Ottoman Empire, 1801 to 1913, especially chs. i, 2, 7, 13, 18 Abbott, Turkey, Greece, and the Great Powers, Part I XII THE RULE OF ABDUL HAMID II, 1878-1908 A. Method of rule 1. Suspended constitution 2. Used councils, ministers, etc., to conceal personal control through Cama- rilla 3. Encouraged differences between subject peoples and rivalries of European powers 4. Promoted Pan-Islamic idea [20] 5. Used espionage and terror 6. Succeeded in retaining for thirty years most of territory remaining to Turkey after 1878 B. The Egyptian question 1. Suez Canal built by De Lesseps with French and Egyptian capital, 1854 to 1869 2. Egyptian government borrowed heavily, wasted, and became insolvent 3. Dual Control by England and France established, 1876 4. England bought Khedive's shares in canal, and acquired control, 1876 5. Revolt of Egyptians under Arabi Pasha, 1881 6. France declined to intervene, and England put down rebellion 7. English substituted for Dual Control, 1882 8. Character of the "temporary occupation" 9. Rise of Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer 10. England's position in Egypt recognized by France, in exchange for English recognition of France's position in Morocco, 1904 Readings: Weigall, Events in Egypt, 17 q8 to 1Q14 C. The Persian Gulf 1. British interests began in the seventeenth century 2. General F. R. Chesney's projects for a Euphrates Valley railroad to Kuwet, 1830 to 1850 3. Turkey tried to take possession of Kuwet, 1898. British established formal protectorate, 1899 4. Russian ambitions to reach the Persian Gulf D. The German Empire and the Near East 1. Slender relations of Turkey and Germany before 1888. Bismarck's atti- tude negative 2. Emperor William II visited Sultan 1889 3. Second visit of Kaiser, 1898 4. Bagdad Railway and other concessions obtained 5. Influence of Baron Marschall von Bieberstein 6. German ambitions in the Near East E. Crete 1. Bad government and revolts, 1669 to 1824 2. Egyptian occupation, 1824 to 1840 3. Revolts, 1856, 1866 4. Organic Statute, 1868 5. Revolts, 1878, 1889, 1896 6. Turco-Greek war and foreign intervention, 1897 7. International control, 1898 to 1909 8. Appearance of M. Venizelos 9. Annexation to Greece, 19 13 F. 1 "he Armenian question I. The Armenians under the Turks, organized as Gregorian, Catholic, and Protestant communities or millets [21] 2. Constitution granted the Gregorians, 1862 3. Promise of reforms in Asia Minor a. Proposed to be under Russian supervision by Treaty of San Stefano, 1878 b. Supervision by European concert substituted in Treaty of Berlin c. Special British influence arranged for by Cyprus Convention, 1876, dropped after Egyptian crisis, 1882 4. Development of Armenian nationalist movements a. Dashnak party worked for good treatment of Armenians in Turkey b. Hunchak party strove for revolution, believed in provoking massacre, etc. 5. Massacres of 1894 to 1896 a. Causes: primarily the movement for political independence; seconda- rily, religious opposition and economic rivalry b. Localities c. Resistance of Zeitun 6. Relative quiet for thirteen years Readings: Eliot, Turkey in Europe, ch. 10 G. Problems of Kurds, Arabs, Albanians 1. Kurds a. Under little control 1514 to 1829 b. Subdued in 1834 and 1843 (Bedr Khan) c. Attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah at independence, 1 880-1 d. Hamidieh cavalry organized 1881 e. Kurds aided in massacring Armenians 2. Arabs a. Hejaz yielded by Mehemet Ali to the Turks, 1845 b. Yemen brought under control, 1872 c. Turkish authority weak d. Revolts in Yemen, 1892, 1904 3. Albanians a. Formed Albanian League, 1878, to resist parts of Treaty of Berlin b. Insurrection in 1903 H. Balkan developments (See Syllabus No. V) 1. Cessions of territory to Greece, 1881 2. Union of eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria, 1885 3. Macedonia a. Schools for national propaganda, by Bulgarians, Serbians, Greeks, Rumanians b. Committees and brigand bands in nationalist interests, 1895 fif. c. Austria and Russia agreed to work in common to preserve the status quo, 1897 to 1907 d. Revolt of 1903 suppressed e. Austro-Russian Miirzsteg program of reforms f. Anglo-Russian Reval program, 1908 [22] K. Railway concessions in Asiatic Turkey 1. These were held to indicate spheres of influence 2. Smyrna-Aidin, British 3. Smyrna-Cassaba, French 4. Constantinople-Ismid, German 5. Eastern Anatolian, Russian; planned to be built by French companies 6. Bagdad Railway, German a. Negotiations, 1898 to 1902 b. Conventions, 1902 to 1903 c. Difficulties with Britain over section, Bagdad to Persian Gulf d. Potsdam convention with Russia over extension Bagdad to Teheran, 1911 7. Hejaz railway a. Object, strategic and to facilitate pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca b. Built by Turkish capital 8. Attempts of Admiral Chester to get American concessions in Central Asia Minor: blocked by Germans, Russians, and French L. European relationships 1. Triple Alliance formed by Germany, Austria, Italy, 1879 to 1882 2. Dual Alliance of France and Russia formed 1891 to 1894 3. Anglo-French Entente; 1904 4. Anglo-Russian Convention, 1907, completed the triangle of the Triple Entente, England, France, Russia: united three of the powers whose rivalries had sheltered Turkey previously 5. Abdul Hamid leaned increasingly upon support of Triple Alliance Readings: Pears, Abdul Hamid, and Turkey and Its Peoples Davey, The Sultan and His Subjects Dorys, Private Life of the Sultan Gibbons, New Map of Europe, chs, 2 to 5 Marriott, Eastern Question, chs, 13 to 15 Jastrow, War and Bagdad Railway, ch. 3 Barton, Daybreak in Turkey (work of American missionaries) XIII THE RULE OF THE YOUNG TURK, 1908-1914 A. The Revolutions 1. Formation of the Young Turkish organization 2. The Revolution of July, 1908 a. Began in Turkish army in Macedonia b. Constitution of 1876 put into force c. Election of Parliament and its operation 3. The counter-revolution of April 13, 1908 [23] 4- The Third Revolution, April 24, 1908 a. Capture of Constantinople by Young Turks b. Deposition of Abdul Hamid II 5. Settlements a. Austria withdrew from Novibazar, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina b. Bulgaria proclaimed independence B. Fresh internal troubles 1 . Albanians demanded autonomy 2. Oppression and brigandage recommenced in Macedonia 3. Arabs revolted in Yemen 4. Young Arabs founded societies for Arab independence in Syria and Meso- potamia 5. Kurds were restive C. The Italian War, 191 1 to 1912 1. Italians seized Tripoli 2. They occupied Rhodes and neighboring islands 3. Treaty of Lausanne ceded Tripoli D. First Balkan War, 1912 to 1913 (See Syllabus No. V) 1 . Unexpected weakness of Turkish army 2. Loss of European territory to Enos-Midia line, and islands of Aegean Sea 3. Increased financial burden 4. Precise disposition of Aegean Islands and distribution of debts left to be arranged internationally E. Second Balkan War, 1913 I. Turkey regained Adrianople district from Bulgaria F. The international situation 1. Germans outplayed by Entente in Moroccan question, 1905 to 191 1 2. Austria and Russia near war over Balkan situation, 1912 to 1913 3. Persia in process of occupation by Russia and Britain, 1907 ff. 4. Italy turning from Triple Alliance and toward the Entente 5. Turkey continuing in close relationship to Triple Alliance 6. After 1903, Serbia inclining toward Russia, and Bulgaria toward Austria 7. After 1913, Greece and Rumania inclining towards Entente, though Rumania had treaties with Triple Alliance 8. In 19 14, Britain and Germany near an understanding in regard to the Bagdad Railway Readings : Marriott, Eastern Question, ch. 16 Gibbons, New Map of Europe, chs. 10 to 17 Ibid., New Map of Asia, ch. 9 Woods, Cradle of the War, ch. i McCullagh, Fall of Abdul Hamid Abbott, Turkey in Transition [24] XIV TURKEY AND THE GREAT WAR TO 1918 A. Why Turkey joined Germany 1. Reaction from Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 2. Continuance after fall of Abdul Hamid of close relations with Central Powers 3. Influence of Bieberstein and Wangenheim 4. Characters of Enver, Talaat, Jemal and other Young Turkish leaders 5. Ideas of Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turanism 6. Appropriation by British government of two dreadnoughts which were being built in British shipyards for Turkey 7. Loan by Germany of war vessels Goeben and Breslau B. Circumstances of actual entrance into war C. Defense of the Dardanelles, 191 5 1. Naval attack 2. Combined naval and military attack 3. Landing at Suvia Bay 4. Entente withdrawal D. Attempts on Suez Canal and Egypt E. War in Mesopotamia 1. British land at head of Persian Gulf 2. Advance to Ctesiphon 3. Siege and capture by Turks of Kut el-Amara F. Struggle with Russia in Armenia 1. Period of successful defence 2. Russian invasion, winter of 1915 G. Deportation and massacres of Armenians 1. Causes a. Assistance of some Armenians to Russians b. Desire to end difficulties over Armenia by drastic action 2. Relief work in Near East a. American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief (Name changed to "American Committee for Relief in the Near East") b. British, German, and other attempts at relief H. German influence 1. In Constantinople 2. With the armies K. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk I. Soviet Russian government cedes territories in Russian Armenia I25] L. Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 1 . Turkey receives a share in northern Dobruja 2. Effort to exchange this with Bulgaria for western Thrace Readings: Woods, Cradle of the War, chs. 3, 9, 11, 12 Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau's Story New York Times Current History, 1914 to 1918, various articles Stuermer, Two War Years in Constantinople Savic, South Eastern Europe DIPLOMACY AND THE NEAR EAST DURING THE WAR A. On side of Triple Entente 1. Negotiations with Turkey before her entrance 2. Sykes-Picot agreement between England and France 3. Promises to Russia 4. Promises to Italy 5. Offers to Greece 6. Promises to the Arabs ^ 7. Balfour declaration in favor of Jewish Zionism 8. Hopes held out to Armenians B. On side of Central Powers 1. German promises to Turkey 2. Negotiations and promises to bring Bulgaria into the War 3. Intrigues in Persia 4. Plans for disposition of Serbian and Albanian territory Readings: Gibbons, New Map of Asia, ch. 10 New York Times, Current History, 19 14 to 1920, passim Jabotinsky, Turkey and the War Cheradame, Pan-Germanism Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau' s Story XV XVI THE COLLAPSE OF TURKEY IN 1918 A. Difficulties with Bulgarians and Germans B. Financial entanglements C. Wastage of men. Desertions I26I D. Defeats in Palestine. Loss of Jerusalem E. Defeats in Mesopotamia. Loss of Bagdad F. Negotiations for Armistice G. Terms of Armistice Readings: New York Times Current History, October to December, 19 17 (Terms of Armistice, pp. 399, 400) XVII TURKEY AFTER THE ARMISTICE TO MIDSUMMER, 1920 A. Occupation of Constantinople B. Occupation of Palestine and Syria 1. Declaration of England and France as to purpose 2. Four zones arranged 3. Prince Feisal at Damascus 4. Native unrest C. Occupation of Mesopotamia D. Italians at Adalia E. Greeks at Smyrna F. "Wilsonian Party" among Turks G. Rise of Nationalists under Mustapha Kemal H. Negotiations with Bolshevik Russia K. Nationalist agitation in Egypt Readings : New York Times Current History, 1919, 1920, passim XVIII TURKEY AND THE PEACE CONFERENCE A. Representation in Paris of Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Arabs, Jews, etc.. but not of Turks B Emergence of principle of mandates I27] C. American Commission on Mandates in Turkey D. The Treaty of Sevres 1. Cession of Thrace to Greece 2. Creation of Zone of the Straits 3. Disposition of Smyrna 4. Rhodes and the Twelve Islands (Dodecanese) 5. Armenia 6. Relinquishment of regions of Arab speech 7. Recognition of French and Italian spheres of influence in the parts remain- ing 8. Economic provisions of the Treaty 9. Supplementary agreement of England, France, and Italy E. Applications of the mandatory scheme 1. England in Mesopotamia 2. England in Palestine 3. France in Syria 4. Attempts to find a Mandatory for Armenia a. United States b. League of Nations, etc. 5. Relation of mandates and "Spheres of Influence" to the Sykes-Picot and other war-time secret agreements 6. Question whether European powers desire sincerely to apply the manda- tory scheme, or purpose to use it to cover imperialistic annexations Readings: Bass: The Peace Tangle, ch. 15 Haskins and Lord, Some Problems of the Peace Conference, ch. 8 Jastrow, The Eastern Question and Its Solution XIX THE SITUATION SINCE MIDSUMMER OF 1920 A. Relations of Turkish government at Constantinople' with Mustapha Kemal's Nationalist government at Angora B. Relations of Mustapha Kemal with the Bolsheviki I. Effect of defeat of General Wrangel C. The fate of Armenia 1. Organization and recognition of Armenian Republic 2. President Wilson agreed to prepare boundaries for Armenia 3. President Wilson undertook to arbitrate between the government of the Armenian Republic and that of Mustapha Kemal 4. Armenia's fighting with her neighbors 5. The Armenian government turned Bolshevik [28] 6. Prospects for resumption of situation of 1914, with Armenian territory divided between Turkey and Russia D. The French in Syria and Cilicia 1. The British withdrew from French and Arab areas of occupation, Novem- ber I, 1919 2. The French advanced their lines into the Arab area 3. The French defeated the forces of Prince Feisal and occupied Damascus, Aleppo, etc. 4. Fighting between French, using mainly African and Armenian troops, and Turkish Nationalists in the Cilician region E. The British in Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Egypt 1. The aspirations of the Zionists a. Appointment of Sir Herbert Samuel as British High Commissioner in Palestine b. Plans to make Palestine a national home for the Jews 2. Preparations for governing Mesopotamia a. Suppression of Arab and Kurdish restiveness b. Change of policy to one of cooperation. Appointment of a Council of natives c. Partial withdrawal of British undertaken d. Coronation of Feisul as King of Mesopotamia at Bagdad, August 23, 1921 3. Relations to independent Arabia a. The Kingdom of the Hejaz b. The government of Ibn Saud 4. New regulations for Egypt a. Continuation of Nationalist agitation b. Lord Milner's Commission (1) . Appointment (2) . Visit to Egypt (3) . Conference with Nationalist Egyptians (4) . Plan for government of Egypt Readings: Gibbons, New Map of Asia, chs. 11, 12 Rihbany, America Save the Near East F. Greece and Turkey I. The Anglo-French policy of aggrandizing Greece a. Greece maintained neutrality until June, 191 7, when on the basis of maintaining Constitutional government King Constantine was forced from the throne, his son Alexander was made king, and M. Venizelos was installed as premier and practical dictator b. The Greek army was organized on the new basis in time to take part in the last fighting on the Salonika front, September, 1918 c. M. Venizelos agreed to use the Greek army in post-armistice work in the Near East d. The French and British agreed at first to recognize largely the Greek claims in Thrace and Asia Minor I29] e. After the British had secured predominance at Constantinople the French incHned against the extension of Greek influence. The British sustained it strongly, using Greek troops against the Nationalist Turks at Brusa, Nicomedia, etc. 2. The fall of M. Venizelos a. The death of King Alexander, from blood poisoning following the bite of a monkey b. M. Venizelos lost the election. Causes: (1) . Greek resentment against the deposition of Constantine and main- tenance of Venizelos in power by foreign interference (2) . Greek objection to maintenance of large army through two years after the armistice (3) . Desire of party opposed to Venizelos to obtain offices held by his friends and alleged to be abused by them (4) . Increasing complication of Greek financial situation due to Venize- list policy of expansion 3. The recall of King Constantine and its consequences a. A plebiscite went almost unanimously for him b. Attitude of British and French governments c. Discussion of revision of the Treaty of Sevres d. The London Conference of February, 192 1 e. Renewal of war by Greece on Turkey Readings: New York Times Current History, 1920, 1921, passim Jastrow, The Eastern Question and its Solution Gibbons, Venezelos l30] PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS 1919 Announcement of Founding of Institute. 1920 Bulletin No. i. First Annual Report of the Director. Bulletin No. 2. For Administrative Authorities of Universities and Colleges. Bulletin No. 3. Observations on Higher Education in Europe. Opportunities for Higher Education in France. Opportunities for Graduate Study in the British Isles. I921 Bulletin No. i. Second Annual Report of the Director. Bulletin No. 2. Opportunities for Higher Education in Italy. Bulletin No. 3. Serials of an International Character (Tentative List for Libraries) Bulletin No. 4. Educational Facilities in the United States for South African Students. Bulletin No. 5. Guide Book for Foreign Students in the United States. Bulletin No. 6. See Syllabus No. VII. For the International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. I. Outline of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Syllabus No. II. The Past, Present and Future of the Monroe Doctrine. Syllabus No. III. The History of Russia from Earliest Times. Syllabus No. IV. The Russian Revolution. Syllabus No. V. The Question of the Balkans. Syllabus No. VI. Modern Mexican History. Syllabus No. VII. Hispanic- American History. Syllabus No. VIII. The Question of the Near East. I31] ADVISORY COUNCIL Addams, Jane Alderman, President Edwin Ames, Dean Herman V. Andrews, Fanny Fern Biggs, Dr. Herman Blakeslee, Professor G. H. Brookings, Robert S. Bru^re, Henry- Bull, Dr. Carroll G. Burton, President M. L. Byrne, James Coolidge, Professor Archibald Cravath, Paul D. Cunliffe, Professor J. W. Davis, Katherine B. Downer, Professor Charles A. Ely, Professor Richard T. Filene, A. Lincoln Finley, Dr. John H. Fosdick, Dr. Harry E. Gilbert, Cass Gildersleeve, Dean V. C. Goodnow, President F. J. Hadley, Dr. A. T. Hale, Dr. George E. Harrington, Governor E. C. Hazen, Professor Charles D. Hibben, President J. G. Howe, Professor Henry M. Hughes, Hon. Charles E. Jenks, Professor Jeremiah Judson, President H. P. Keppel, Frederick P. Keyser, Professor C. J. Lovett, President Edgar Lowell, President A. L. MacCracken, President H. N. Woolley, Prej M^i, Pierre Main, President J. H. T. Mannes, David Marling, Alfred E. Meiklejohn, President A. Milliken, Professor R. A. Moore, Professor E. H. Morg?in, William Fellowes Neilson, President W. A. Noyes, Professor Arthur A. Payne, President Bruce R^ Pendleton, President Ellen T. Pupin, Professor Michael L Putnam, Herbert Richardson, Dr. E. C. Robinson, Dr. Edward Sachs, Professor Julius Salmon, Dr. Thomas W. Schwedtman, Ferdinand C. Severance, Mrs. C. A. Shanklin, President W. A. Shorey, Professor Paul Shotwell, Professor J. T. Showerman, Professor Grant Stimson, Henry L. Stokes, Dr. Anson Phelps Storey, Professor Thomas A. Suzzallo, President Henry Thomas, President M. Carey Todd, Professor Henry A. Townsend, Hon. John G. Vincent, Dr. George E. Wald, Lillian D. White, Professor Henry C. Wilkins, Professor Ernest H. Wilson, Professor George G. Woodbridge, Dean F. J. E. dent Mary E.