ANB THE INDIANS -1917 1 ^^^\#i^ .^V^^^ Columbia (Hnitiet^ftp THE LIBRARIES Bequest of Frederic Bancroft 1860-1945 GENERAL LIBRARY THOMAS WISTAR, 2d. A MODERN APOSTLE TO THE INDIANS. CALLED BY THEM WITH-A-TEAR-IN-HIS-EYE. " SEE P. 164, NOTE. THE-MAN- FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS 1655 - 1917 BY RAYNER WICKERSHAM KELSEY, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History in Haverford College Author of "The United States Consulate in California" " The proceedings of the Society of Friends are no doubt pre- served as a part of history for future generations. If the Indian finds this history his heart will throb with gratitude when he learns that the Society of Friends has stood by the Red Man of the forest in all times of difficulty and trouble, to advise and assist him." — A Seneca Indian PUBLISHED BY The Associated Executive Committee OF Friends on Indian Affairs PHII ADELPIIIA 1917 PRESS OF The new Era printing compant Lancaster. Pa. Copyright, 191 7. by Rayner Wickersham Kelsey TO THE MEMORY OF SARAH ATWATER KELSEY MY MOTHER PREFACE This little volume is presented with the misgivings that always come when one arises from a literary task that has involved merciless condensation. To those who find some parts of the following account too brief for their purposes I may say that in preparing it my surprise at finding the subject so widely ramified in time and space has been equalled only by my difficulty in compressing it into the confines of so small a book. Some of the subject matter, especially for the earlier period, has been largely and fairly dealt with by other writers. In such cases I have made use of reliable secondary accounts, although I think not in any case without careful consideration of the chief source ma- terials upon which the account rested. For the period from 1795 to the present time much of the story has not been told before in connected form and I have drawn it almost entirely from the manuscript or printed sources. The materials used are indicated in footnotes and occasional bibliographical notes. The attention of those interested in religious history is directed espe- cially to the General Note on Bibliography at the close of the volume which may be of some service as a guide to the location of Quaker records. For advice or active help in this study I wish to thank Edward M. Wistar, Isaac Sharpless, Amelia Mott Gummere, Jonathan M. Steere and Florence Trueblood Steere, Mary S. Kimber, Albert Cook VI PREFACE. Myers, my brother W. Irving Kelsey, and my former students George Montgomery and Harrison H. Arnold. My especial thanks are due to Norman Penney, London, England, for his interest in my labors and his valuable help in supplying notes from materials in the Friends' Library, Devonshire House, London. As ever, my greatest obligation is to my wife for encouragement and active help at every stage of the work. Rayner W. Kelsey. Haverford, Pennsylvania, September, 1917. CONTENTS. Preface v-vi. Chapter I. The Indians, the Government, and THE Church. Indian population and distribution, 1-3. The government and the Indians, 3-7. Christian missions, 7-14. The place of Friends in the Indian work, 14-15. Bibliographical note, 15-18. Chapter II. Preaching. George Fox and the Indians, 19-23. Josiah Coale, Thomas Thurston, John Taylor, 23-24. William Penn, 24-26. Various early Friends, 26-29. John Woolman, 29-32. Later efforts, 32- 37. Bibliographical note, 37. Chapter III. Practice. The Quaker policy idealized and criticized, 38-40. Kindly relations early established, 40-43. Purchasing Indian lands, 43- 53. Protecting the Indian from liquor dealers and unscrupulous traders, 53-55. Civil disputes, Indian slavery, miscellaneous, 55- 59. Bibliographical note, 59. Chapter IV. The Quaker Peace. In New Jersey and New England, 60-62. Pennsylvania, 62-70. North Carolina, 70-72. Preservation of Friends from Indian depredations, 72-y7. Conclusion, 77-79. The historians Park- man, Fiske and Hanna on the Quaker policy, 79-83. Bibliograph- ical note, 83-88. Chapter V. Tunesassa. Reawakened interest, 1 793-1 795, 89-92. Appointment and early work of the Committee, 92-94. Work among the Oneidas, 94-96. At Cornplanter's and Old Town, 96-97. Work established at Tunesassa, 97-98. Joseph Elkinton, Robert Scotton, Ebenezer Worth, 98-99. Boarding School established, 99-100. Indian progress, 100-104. Help for Cattaraugus, 104-105. Miscellaneous activities, 105-106. Recent progress and problems, 106-108. Conclusion, 108-109. Bibliographical note, no. ▼il Vm CONTENTS Chapter VI. Further Work in the East. Work of New England Yearly Meeting, 111-114. New York Yearly Meeting, 114-117. Liberal Friends at Onondaga and Cattaraugus, 118-119. The Senecas and the Ogden Land Com- pany, 11 9-1 25. Aid for Indian women, 125-127. Indian progress, 127-129. Close of the work, 129-131. Bibliographical note, 131. Chapter VII. Work Established in the West. Early efforts of Baltimore Yearly Meeting, 132-134. Work near Fort Wayne, Indiana, 134-137. Mission at Wapakoneta, Ohio, 137-140. Removal of Shawnees to Kansas and establish- ment of mission school for them near Kansas City, 140-145. Aid from various Yearly Meetings, 145-147. Journey of John D. Lang and Samuel Taylor, Jr., 147-150. The Shawnee mission in 1850, 150-151. Later years to close of mission in 1869, 151- 159. Bibliographical note, 159-161. Chapter VIII. Grant's Peace Policy. Indian wars and Friendly activities, 162-164. Genesis of Grant's Policy, 164-170. Central Superintendency under Ortho- dox Friends, 170. The field of service and the preparations to enter it: origin of Associated Executive Committee, 170-173. Pacifying the wilder tribes, 173—174. Eastern Friends visit the field, 174-175. Duties of Indian Agents, 175-176. Activities and developments, 176-182. Religious efforts, 182-184. Close of the work of Orthodox Friends, 184-187, Northern Superin- tendency under Liberal Friends, 187. Condition of various tribes, 187-190. Eastern Friends visit the field, 190-191. Activities and developments, 191-194. Progress of the Indians, 194-195. Close of the work of Liberal Friends: summary of results, 196-198. Conclusion, 198-199. Bibliographical note, 199-200. Chapter IX. The Oklahoma Missions. Scope and origin, 201-204. Distribution of early efforts, 204- 206. Experiences among the Indians, 206-208. The Modocs, 208-210. Status and methods in 1885, 210-21 1. Administration of Charles W. Kirk, 211-219. Administration of George N. Hartley, 220-225. Administration of William P. Haworth, 225- 229. Recent developments and problems, 229-232. Bibliograph- ical note, 232-233, CONTENTS IX Chapter X. Many Works in Many Fields. White's Institutes, Indiana and Iowa, 234-241. The Eastern Cherokees, North Carolina, 241-245. Southeastern Alaska, 245- 253. Northern Alaska, 253-256. Various activities, 257-259. English Friends and the Indian work, 260-261. General conclu- sion, 261-263. Bibliographical note, 263. General Bibliographical Note, 264-266. Index, 267-291. ILLUSTRATIONS Thomas Wistar, 2d Frontispiece William Savery facing Tunesassa Boarding School Philip E. Thomas John D. Lang Scar-faced Charley Lucy Winney Birdie Spoon and Family Modoc Meeting-House 90 100 124 148 210 216 224 228 XI CHAPTER I. THE INDIANS, THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CHURCH. The history of the American Indians is a tragic drama of mighty proportions and fast changing scenes. No part of it can be comprehended without some un- derstanding of the whole. The work of Friends for the American Indians north of Mexico is a Httle but a worthy part of the story, better told after the whole has been sketched in outline. In the territory to-day comprehended by the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Alaska, there were, according to careful estimates, about 1,150,000 Indians when the white men came to these shores at the close of the fifteenth century. Now there are about 403,000. The difference represents a decrease of sixty-five per cent. Of the earlier number there were perhaps about 846,000 within the present bounds of the United States proper, exclusive of Alaska, as against 265,683 in 1910, the number having increased slowly in recent decades. The territorial possessions of the Indians within the United States proper show even more striking changes. The whole imperial domain, although never actually occupied by them in its entirety, was at the first poten- tially theirs. To-day their broken tribes can claim but 52,013,010 acres, distributed in 161 reservations, scat- tered in more than a score of states. On a map of the United States showing the original distribution of the 1 2 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Indian linguistic families, the great Algonquian, Iro- quoian, Muskhogean, Siouan, and Shoshonean branches occupy vast tracts, each equal to many states. To-day the lands of any of these show as a dot or strip within a single commonwealth. The story of such change in the fortunes of a once free and haughty race is sad at the best, while at the worst it is not wholly darkened with loss nor unlight- ened by deeds of honorable statecraft and Christian charity. The chief causes for the decrease in numbers are traceable to the white man, though some of them were wrought unwittingly. Small-pox, fever, tuberculosis, sexual diseases, drunkenness, starvation, and war, — these make up the category, almost all of them intro- duced and the remaining ones aggravated by the com- ing of the whites. Terrible small-pox epidemics in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries reduced the northern Plains tribes by about one half. Fever ravages wrought sim- ilar destruction in California and nearly exterminated the Chinookan stock in the Northwest. There was almost constant warfare among the Indian tribes before the white men came, but the introduction of fire-arms increased the work of destruction. In the early New England wars (the Pequot War of 1637, and King Philip's War of 1675-1676) whole tribes were practically exterminated, and similar destruction was at times wrought in the south and west. The ravages of fever in California have been mentioned, yet the appalling decrease of the Indian population there, from 250,000 to less than 17,000, must be as- signed largely to dissipation introduced by the whites INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 3 End to the wholesale murder and massacre carried on by the miners and early settlers. Similarly the Aleu- tian branch of the Eskimauan family in Alaska was almost exterminated by the early Russian intruders. Frenchman in the north and Spaniard in the south wrote each his chapter in the story of destruction. So the white man ruled and the Indian died. It was inevitable that the vast area of America should cease to be occupied by a scattered people in the roving, hunter stage of life. It was indeed of the greatest importance that the Indians should be led into the higher stages of life, wherein the earth, intensively cultivated by settled communities, could support thou- sands in the place of hundreds. So arose the neces- sity for the extinction of Indian land claims and the compression of the tribes within narrower limits. The tragedy of the transaction lies in the stupidity and selfishness with which the work was often done by the representatives of Christian nations. The early land policy of Great Britain, France, Spain and other nations that occupied land in the new world was essentially the same. They assumed that discovery and exploration gave them the right of ownership to distant, heathen lands. The earliest Eng- lish charters, in the late sixteenth and early seven- teenth centuries, make no mention of the rights of natives to the soil. However, it soon came to be the general policy of governors and colonists who came to America to make some bargain with the Indians for their land. They had to deal with the practical prob- lem of getting along with the natives, and wisdom as well as justice dictated an amicable policy where pos- sible. 4 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Roger \\'illiams, when he first came to New Eng- land, addressed an argument to the governor and coun- cil of Plymouth in which he asserted that any just title to the land of the new world must be acquired from the Indians and not from the grant of the crown. Following this principle, from a sense of justice or ex- pediency, the English colonists or proprietors, espe- cially in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England, sought as a rule to acquire their land by purchase from the Indians. From this practice of the colonists the home governments of the various countries came to pay more regard to Indian titles in the later period. Yet the method of making purchases, by defrauding the Indians as to price or establishing fraudulent boundaries, often tells a shameful story. Indeed it was in the method and spirit of such deal- ings, rather than in the mere fact of purchase, that the vast difference lies in the history of various colonies. Based upon the experience of the colonial period the United States inaugurated a policy that was de- signed to secure justice for the Indians. When the Ordinance of 1787 was passed for the organization of the great territory north-west of the Ohio the follow- ing clause was inserted : " The utmost good faith shall always be observ^ed toward the Indians ; their land and property shall never be taken from them without their consent." This statement was reenacted in 17S9 under the present constitution and also in the organizing acts for as many as sixteen states and territories. Such a statement undoubtedly represents the best attitude of the people of the United States and the government. Yet designing white settlers and venal government officers have all too often combined to defeat such a INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 5 benign purpose. So the Indians have been ejected from their favorite sections and in some cases located upon arid or semi-arid reservations. This latter crime has not only entailed immediate misery and death, but has helped to defeat the ultimate purpose of changing the Indian from the hunting to the agricultural stage of civilization. One of the most important features of government policy has been the reservation plan. This plan was followed in Canada by both French and English, and was also tried somewhat by the colonies before the Revolution. It was inaugurated by the United States as early as 1786 and is best exemplified perhaps by the striking experiment of removing the Eastern Indians to the territory west of the Mississippi River. This latter plan was broached as early as 1804 and was thoroughly outlined by President Monroe in a report to the Senate in 1825. In carrying out this plan the present Oklahoma and much of what is now Kansas were constituted the " Indian Territory." To this Territory by the close of 1840 most of the great Eastern tribes had been removed. Later the Kansas portion of the grant was detached and most of the tribes within that portion were removed to the part of the Territory south of the present Kansas line. The nucleus of the present state of Oklahoma was an un- occupied tract near the center of the Indian Territory which was opened to white settlers in 1889. The next year the whole western part of the Indian Territory was erected into the territory of Oklahoma, and when this territory became a state in 1907 the whole of the remaining Indian Territory was included within its borders. 6 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. There are also large reservations in Arizona and South Dakota while smaller ones in other states bring the total number up to i6i reservations. The most important act of recent years with regard to Indian land tenure is the severalty act of 1887. " This act provided for the allotment to each man, woman, and child of a certain portion of the tribal land and the issuance of a patent by which the United States holds the allotment in trust, free of taxation and encumbrance, for 25 years, when the allottee is entitled to a patent in fee simple. On the approval of their allotments by the Secretary of the Interior the Indians become citizens of the United States and sub- ject to its laws." By the close of 191 5 there had been made 115,949 allotments involving a total of 19,398,927 acres of land. Under an Act of 1906 and certain subsequent acts for granting patents in fee, there have been granted 9,894 patents in fee, covering 1,114,878 acres of land. In a " Declaration of Policy " under date of April 17, 191 7, Cato Sells, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, said: "Broadly speaking, a policy of greater liberalism will henceforth prevail in Indian administration to the end that every Indian, as soon as he has been deter- mined to be as competent to transact his business as the average white man, shall be given full control of his property and have all his lands and moneys turned over to him, after which he will no longer be a ward of the Government. . . . This is a new and far-reach- ing declaration of policy. It means the dawn of a new era in Indian administration. It means that the com- INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 7 petent Indian will no longer be treated as half ward and half citizen. It means reduced appropriations by the Government and more self-respect and independ- ence for the Indian. It means the ultimate absorption of the Indian race into the body politic of the Nation. It means, in short, the beginning of the end of the In- dian problem." So winds the path by which the American Indian has come from his primitive, roving life, in possession of a mighty continent, to a guarded tribal existence on government reservations, and thence to the rights and privileges, the restrictions and responsibilities of pri- vate land-holding and citizenship. And the path has been more rugged than ever foot-sore Indian followed in his native forest. The brighter colors of the picture show chiefly in the efforts of the government, the churches, and various voluntary organizations, to educate and uplift the Indian. Every nation having New World colonies showed at some time in some way a feeling of its responsibility for the Indian. Many of the earliest charters con- tained clauses calling for the civilization and Chris- tianization of the natives. The Russians founded In- dian schools in Alaska, the Spanish government co- operated in maintaining the great mission establish- ments, the French government at one time tried to pro- hibit the sale of liquor to the Indians, and at least two persons were driven out of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam for supplying the natives with in- toxicants. Many of the English colonies tried at various times to prevent the sale of liquor and fire- arms to the Indians and to secure justice to the natives 8 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. in their general trading relations with the whites. Such attempts were usually sporadic and often ineffectual, but the difficulty of circumventing the greed of white traders was great and it is cheering to know at least that some attempt was made. The obligation to educate the Indian was early recog- nized. Harvard, Dartmouth, and the College of Wil- liam and Mary were founded with the purpose wholly or partially in view of educating Indian youth, al- though their graduates of Indian blood have been very few. At the outbreak of the Revolution the Con- tinental Congress appointed a committee on Indian affairs and shortly thereafter money was voted to sup- port Indian students at Dartmouth and Princeton col- leges. In 1 819 the United States made its first general ap- propriation, of ten thousand dollars, for Indian edu- cation, but until 1873 most of the government funds for this purpose were expended in cooperation with the mission schools of various denominations. Since 1873 government schools proper have been established, and aid has been gradually withdrawn, especially since 1900, from schools under the care of religious societies. The Canadian government to-day maintains a splendid system of industrial, boarding and day-schools. The United States Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1916 reported 162 boarding and 238 day schools with an average attendance of 20,083 ^^^ 5j220, re- spectively. With nearly 30,000 in the public schools of various states, and about 5,000 in mission and private schools, there were altogether 61,243 Indian children attending school in 1916. The annual appropriation by Congress for Indian INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 9 schools has increased from $20,000 in 1877 to $4,- 701,905 in 1917. The record of the white man's deahng with the In- dian would be fairer if this obligation had been more adequately met at an earlier period. Yet the best spirit of the American nation is no doubt manifest in the official declaration made in 1792 to some Indians near Lake Erie: "That the United States are highly desirous of imparting to all the Indian tribes the bless- ings of civilization, as the only means of perpetuating them on the earth ; that we are willing to be at the ex- pense of teaching them to read and write, to plow and to sow in order to raise their own bread and meat with certainty as the white people do." The work of Christian missions and missionaries for the civilization and Christianization of the In- dians writes the truly heroic part of the whole story. With Spain and France this work was from the first a governmental concern and " the missionary was fre- quently the pioneer explorer and diplomatic ambas- sador." With the English the spiritual welfare of the natives was more largely left to the zeal of indi- viduals or of religious societies. As to priority of missionary work among the In- dians a competent authority makes the following state- ment : " First in chronologic order, historic importance, number of estabhshments, and population come the Catholic missions, conducted in the earlier period chiefly by Jesuits among the French and by Francis- cans among the Spanish colonies." As the intrepid old sea-captains and explorers of Castile were first to sail the western seas and open paths through the newly found lands, so were her spiritual pioneers in 10 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. the van of conquest in carrying the message of the cross to the savage races. The first missionaries to labor within the present bounds of the United States were the Spanish Franciscan Fathers, Padilla, Juan de la Cruz, and Descalona, who marched from Mexico with Coronado into the great southwest of this coun- try only fifty years after Columbus landed on San Salvador. Three years later (1545) Father Olmos began a work among the tribes of Texas. Thus the dark chapter of cruelty practiced by Spanish soldiers and explorers was lightened by the heroic deeds of the mission fathers, almost a century before the Prot- estant work for the natives began in New England under Williams, Mayhew, and EHot. The story of the Spanish missionaries and missions in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, and Florida is well matched by that of the French Fathers laboring along the vast reaches of the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and down through the Illinois coun- try to the mouth of the Mississippi. Even as the early apostles these men counted not their lives dear. The Dominican, Louis Cancer, was murdered by the Flor- ida Indians ; three Franciscans gave their lives at one time among the Texas tribes ; seven Spanish Jesuits were massacred about 1570 in the vicinity of the James River in Virginia. The heroic French Jesuit, Father Jogues, died a martyr's death among the Mohawks of New York, Father Rale died at his post in Maine, while Father Brebeuf and Father Lalement, laboring among the Hurons, suffered horrible tortures and final death at the hands of invading Iroquois. These are a few cases of many that could be cited of the early Catholic missionaries who enacted deeds as heroic as INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 11 are recorded anywhere in the annals of the Christian church. The first and some of the finest Protestant mission- ary efforts among the Indians were begun by the Con- gregationaHsts in New England. When Roger Wil- liams (later a Baptist) fled from the authorities of Massachusetts early in 1636 and found a refuge from wintry storms among the friendly Wampanoags and Narragansetts southwest of Plymouth, the Protestant effort to carry the Gospel to the natives may be said to have fairly begun. Seven years later Thomas May- hew, Jr., began his famous work among the Indians of Martha's Vineyard, a work continued for four gen- erations by the same family. This work was so suc- cessful that the Indians of the island, although they outnumbered the whites ten to one, remained friendly during the terrible years of King Philip's War, 1675- 1676. Near Boston, among some Massachusetts Indians, John Eliot began his remarkable work in 1646. Owing to the success of EHot and Mayhew there was formed in England the " Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Indians in New England," and this body continued for more than a century to aid in the mission work. In 1674 there were 14 villages con- taining over 1,000 "praying Indians" as a result of the labors of Eliot and his friend, Samuel Danforth. About the same time the Christian Indians of south- eastern Massachusetts, including Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, under John Cotton and Richard Bourne, numbered about 2,500. Most of the main- land towns of " praying Indians " were broken up by King Philip's War, 1 675-1 676, but Eliot labored 12 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. among the remaining ones until his death in 1690 at the advanced age of 86 years. A permanent monu- ment to his memory was his translation of the Bible into the Natick tongue. The famous missionary effort with the Stockbridge Indians followed the tribes as they were pushed west- ward by the advance of white population. Gradually the work in New England dwindled as the Indians became fewer and more scattered, and it was con- tinued in a small way in the nineteenth century only by the aid of government appropriations. The splendid work of the Congregationalists has been referred to at some length because it was the be- ginning and fairly typical of the work of Protestant denominations. The efforts of other denominations, the spread of the work among the various colonies of the Atlantic seaboard, the missionary invasion of the territory between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River, cannot be followed in this treatise. One great fact should, however, be borne in the mind of the reader. That is, the fact of the removal of the Indian tribes, especially those of the eastern states, and their consolidation west of the Mississippi in the Indian Territory. This was accomplished largely in the decade between 1830 and 1840, and in the history of Indian missions this event marks a great crisis. Old mission establishments were broken up ; some followed the tribes in their migration, and many new ones were set up in the western territory. The following statistics, for the year 1914, give some idea of the missionary effort now maintained among the Indians by several of the Christian denom- inations : INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 13 Missions Missionaries Church Mis- and and Members sion Denomination. Churches. Helpers. Native. Schools. Baptist, Northern 123 127 5408 5 Congregational 34 26 1331 4 Friends 10 22 550 i Mennonite 17 18 250 Methodist Episcopal 92 57 2500 6 Methodist Episcopal, South no 37 2875 Moravian 36 20 875 Presbyterian, Northern 249 194 §955 i3 Presbyterian, Southern 20 12 500 i Protestant Episcopal 127 170 6982 18 Reformed Church in America.. 13 22 1500 Roman Catholic 238 610 63,000 63 The story of these missions and those of the earlier period is eloquent of a long succession of as heroic deeds as could be mustered from the history of any country in any age. To be sure, many of the missions that were established came to a speedy end. Some of them, on the other hand, continued long in the field but seemed to work little permanent change in the life of the Indian. Some historians have written much of the apparent failure of certain Indian missions, and little of others that showed immediate and permanent success. A mature judgment on this question is ex- pressed by Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of American Ethnology : " In the four centuries of American history there is no more inspiring chapter of heroism, self-sacrifice, and devotion to high ideals than that offered by the Indian missions. Some of the missionaries were of noble blood and had renounced titles and estates to engage in the work; most of them were of finished scholarship and refined habit, and nearly all were of such exceptional ability as to have commanded atten- tion in any community and to have possessed them- 14 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. selves of wealth and reputation, had they so chosen ; yet they deliberately faced poverty and sufferings, exile and oblivion, ingratitude, torture, and death itself in the hope that some portion of the darkened world might be made better through their effort. To the stu- dent who knows what infinite forms of cruelty, bru- tishness, and filthiness belonged to savagery, from Florida to Alaska, it is beyond question that, in spite of sectarian limitations and shortcomings of indi- viduals, the missionaries have fought a good fight. Where they have failed to accomplish large results the reason lies in the irrepressible selfishness of the white man, or in the innate incompetence and unworthiness of the people for whom they labored." It is a task of the slow centuries to undo the work of ages and re-make the savage children of the forest. Some will always scoff as the hard task drags and clogs along its way. Others will toil and faint not. And when the story of saving the American Indian is at last told in history, the highest place in the great honor roll will go, even as in the saving of our Anglo- Saxon ancestors from savagery, to the Christian mis- sionaries and missions. In the light of the foregoing sketch of Indian his- tory and Indian missions, the work of the Society of Friends may be seen against a proper background. Until about the close of the eighteenth century the efforts of Friends for the Indians were confined to the following points : The development of kindly rela- tions with the Indians, protecting them from the vices and injustice of the white men, and the preaching of the Gospel to them by Friends who felt called to do so by an individual "concern." It was perhaps the INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 15 feeling cherished by Friends that everything in the nature of rehgious effort should be the result of indi- vidual leading that postponed to so late a date the cor- porate efforts of various yearly meetings along mis- sion Hnes. About 1795 the corporate phase of Friends' efforts for the Indians began, and from that time forward various yearly meetings have fostered worthy mission- ary efforts, in which the teaching of useful industrial arts has had a large place. Perhaps the most interesting part taken by Friends in the Indian work was the leading part assigned to them by President Grant in carrying out his famous peace policy, beginning in 1869. From this time dates the work of the Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs. A final phase, worthy of consideration, is the influ- ence and labors of Friends in various philanthropic organizations devoted to the welfare of the Indians. To a description of these various lines of effort the remaining chapters of this study are devoted. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. At convenient division points in this study will be found bibliographical notes referring to the principal source materials or secondary works used by the author, and to other works that may be of value to readers in carrying on further reading along the lines treated briefly in this text. See also General Note on Bibliography at end of volume. Board of Indian Commissioners, Annual Reports. Washington, D. C. Contain valuable material on special problems con- nected with the Indian Service. 16 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports. Published annually by the United States Government. These reports are the great store-house of informa- tion on the work of the government for the Indian. Dennis, J. S., and others. World Atlas of Christian Missions. Student Volunteer Movement. New York. 1911. Contains useful maps showing location of Indian missions in the United States, Canada, and Alaska. Eastman, Charles A. (Ohiyesa). The Indian Today. New York. 191 5. A discussion of the Indian problem by a Sioux Indian. Encyclopedia articles. There is a splendid brief account of the American Indians in the New International En- cyclopedia, and a longer one in the nth edition of the Britannica. In the latter is an especially valuable table in which each Indian tribe and linguistic family is given, with the following headings of information after each: Stock, Situation, Population, Degree of Inter- mixture, Condition, Progress, Authorities {i. e., citation of books on the particular tribe). Farrand, Livingston. Basis of American History. (Vol. I of American Nation series.) Harper and Bros. 1904. The larger part of this volume deals with the Amer- ican Indians, their history, customs, and present condi- tions. It is the best brief narrative treatise and is thoroughly reliable. See bibliography at close of volume for list of works on American Indians. Fletcher, Alice C. Indian Education and Civilisation. Government Printing Office. 1888. This work is now rather old but it contains much in- formation that is still valuable and interesting. Hodge, Frederick Webb (editor). Handbook of Amer- ican Indians North of Mexico. 2 vols. Government Printing Office. 1907-1910. INDIANS, GOVERNMENT AND CHURCH. 17 This is the best general reference work now avail- able and everyone interested in Indian history should have it. It is a government publication and can some- times be secured gratis through a Congressman. The above chapter is based largely on information contained in these volumes. See especially the articles on Missions, Education, Governmental Policy, English Influence, French Influence, Spanish Influence, etc. A most valuable feature of these volumes is the cita- tion of the best authorities on various phases of Indian history, given at the close of the more important arti- cles. See the fine large map at the close of volume I, show- ing the early distribution of Indian linguistic famiHes. Indian Laws, Codification, Annotation, and Revision of. Prepared by W. K. Watkins. Government Printing Office. Washington. 1917. Indian Population in the United States and Alaska. Bu- reau of Census. Washington. 191 5. A splendid compilation with tables, maps and charts. Based on U. S. Census of 1910. Leupp, Francis E. In Red Man's Land. New York. 1914. A small handbook on the Indian problem by a for- mer Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Contains a sup- plemental chapter by A. F. Beard on Christian missions among the Indians. Another and fuller discussion by Mr. Leupp is The Indian and His Problem. New York. 1910. MoFFETT, Thomas C. The American Indian on the New Trail. New York. 191 4. A valuable contribution from the standpoint of Chris- tian missions. RoYCE, Charles C. Indian Land Cessions in the United States. Government Printing Office. 1899. This is also a government publication and is Part 2 18 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. of the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The introduction by Cyrus Thomas gives much valu- able information on the policy of the early colonizing nations, of the various English colonies, and of the United States toward Indian land claims. The body of the volume contains a tabular schedule of the successive Indian land cessions arranged chrono- logically; also a series of graphic, colored maps showing the various cessions in the different states. CHAPTER II. PREACHING. The founding by Friends of permanent mission es- tablishments among the Indians did not occur until the last decade of the eighteenth century. Prior to that time individual Friends, under a " concern," preached the Gospel to the savages, and Friends in general sought to cultivate kindly relations with them and pro- tect them from the injustice and the vices of unprin- cipled white men. This preaching and practice of the Christian virtues among the Indians during the first century and a half of Quakerism form suitable divi- sions of this study and a fitting introduction to the later work of Friends in regular mission establish- ments. The early preaching of Friends among the In- dians will be described in this chapter, and practice in the two following chapters. It was a " weighty concern " of the first generations of Friends that the Gospel should be preached to the American Indians, and the story of this early ministry is suitably opened by the words and acts of the founder of the Society of Friends. George Fox, shortly after the beginning of his ministry in England, admonished Friends in America (1667) to "go and discourse with some of the Heathen Kings, desiring them to gather their Council and People together, that you may de- clare God's Everlasting Truth, and his Everlasting Way of Life and Salvation to them, knowing that 19 20 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Christ is the promise of God to them, a Covenant of Light to the Gentiles."^ A few years later (1671-1672) Fox had the op- portunity to put his own suggestion into practice during his sojourn in America, and he was not recreant. From Rhode Island to the Carolinas the founder of Quakerism traveled and whenever opportunity offered he preached the Gospel to the Gentiles. The picture of this rugged apostle of Truth ministering to the rude savages in their forest haunts is simply but vividly pic- tured in his own words : " I had a Meetinge at Shelter Island amonge the Indians, and the King and his Coun- cell with about 100 more Indians were with him, and they sate about two hours and I spoke to them by an Interpreter, . . . and they appeared very Loveinge, and they saide all was truth, and did make a confes- sion after the Meetinge of it ; and soe I have set up a meetinge amonge them once a fortnight and a friende Joseph Silvister is to reade the Scriptures to them." Again, on Fox's return from New England to Mary- land, he describes a large meeting of white people with a few Indians present: "And an Indian Emperour, and one of his great men, and another great man of another Nation of the Indians, and they stayed all the Meetinge, and I had a good speech with them the night before, . . . and they Received the truth, and was very Loveinge and the Emperour saide hee did beleeve that I was a very honest man, blessed be the Lord his truth doth spreade." Some idea of Fox's teaching to the Indians may be gathered from his de- scription of a meeting with them in North Carolina : " I went amonge the Indians . . . and shewed them 1 Fox, Epistles (edn. 1698), 254. PREACHING. 21 that God made all things in six dayes, and made but one man and a woman and how that God did drowne the old world, because of their wickedness, and soe alonge to Christ, and how that hee did dye for all and for their sinns, and did inlighten them, and if they did doe evill hee would burne them, and if they did well, they should not bee burned."^ It is difficult to say how much the untutored natives profited by this doctrine, which was happily succeeded by the teaching of industrial arts in the later mission period. But the interest and good-will of the savages may be attested to the modern reader as to Fox him- self by the fact that they stayed through his rather pro- longed discourses and were well disposed toward him afterward.^ The zeal of the Quaker apostle and the kindliness of the Indians show unmistakably in the typical entries of the Journal : " Wee declared the day of the Lord to them,'' and " They was very Loveinge." Nor did George Fox forget his dusky hosts of the American forests after his return to England. Writ- ing to Virginia Friends in 1673 ^^ says: "If you go over again to Carolina, you may enquire of Capt. Batts, the Old Governor, with whom I left a Paper to be read to the Emperor, and his Thirty Kings under 2 For this and the preceding quotations see Fox, Journal (Camb. edn. 1911), 2: 224, 229, 236. For further references on Indians see Index of the Journal. It has seemed proper in this treatise to modernize somewhat the spelling and punctuation of the original journal for the sake of clearness, yet not so com- pletely as to destroy entirely the quaintness of the original style. — See also " The American Journey of George Fox " in Journal of Friends' Historical Society (London), 9 ^,1912) : 4-52. 3 John Burnyeat tells of a meeting which he attended in Mary- land at which George Fox preached for nearly five hours to the Indians. — Writings of John Burnyeat (1691), 60. 3 22 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. him of the Tusrowres (Tuscaroras), who were to come to treat for peace with the People of CaroHna."* Again in 1679 he wrote to " Friends in America " urging that they teach the Indians the universaHty of Christ's redemption, who "tasted Death for every Man, . . . and is the Propitiation not for the Sins of Christians only, but for the Sins of the whole World." Two years later he sent a similar message to the Friends of Carolina, and in 1682 in "An Epistle to all Planters, and Such Who are Transporting Themselves into Foreign Plantations in America," he says : " And in all places where you do outwardly live and settle, invite all the Indians and their Kings, and have Meet- ings with them, or they with you." So to the Friends of West Jersey and Pennsylvania in 1687 and to Friends in all the American colonies in 1689 George Fox wrote urging them to be true to their duty of carrying the Gospel to the Indians. His life was now drawing to its close but his passion for the sal- vation of the American savages burned without falter. In 1690, only a few months before his death, he wrote: " Dear Friends and Brethren, Ministers, Exhorters, and Admonishers, that are gone into America and the islands thereaway. Stir up the gift of God in you, and the pure mind, and improve your talents, that ye may be the light of the world, a city set upon a hill, that cannot be hid. Let your light shine among the In- dians, the Blacks and the Whites, that ye may answer the truth in them, and bring them to the standard and ensign, that God hath set up, Christ Jesus. . . . And Friends, . . . have meetings with the Indian kings, and their councils and subjects everywhere, and with * Fox, Epistles (edn. 1698), 336. PREACHING. 23 others. Bring them all to the baptizing and circum- cising Spirit, by which they may know God, and serve and worship Him." Such is the urgent plea made by the founder of Quakerism in the last days of his life, a plea to which all later efforts of Friends on behalf of the Indians make answer.^ Many other early Friends felt the call to speak to the spiritual need of the savages, and it is worth the effort to follow a few of them in their arduous jour- neyings. More than a decade before George Fox visited America there were Quaker apostles to the Indians. In 1658 Josiah Coale and Thomas Thurston made their remarkable journey from Virginia to Long Island through the Indian country, as will be related in the following chapter.^ The former Friend continued the journey to New England and preached to the natives at various places. The earliest Quaker ministry to the Indians of which a contemporary description has been found is recounted in the following excerpt from a letter of Josiah Coale written at this time: "I was moved to goe to a serten Island (in New England) caled Martens [Marthas] Vineyard to visit som In- dians ther amongst whom I had felt desires to know the Lord, and I had A meeting amongst them, and they were very Loving to mee, and tould mee they much desired to know God, and afterwards at Another place 5 For the epistles quoted or referred to above see Fox, Epistles (edn. 1698), 426-427, 463, 477, 553. And Journal of George Fox (Bicent. edn., 1901), 2: 493, 502. 6 See below, p. 41. Besides this early incident it is almost cer- tain that in 1657 Christopher Holder and John Copeland preached to the friendly Indians who entertained them for three days on Martha's Vineyard, but the fact is not mentioned in the account in Norton's Ensigne. See below, p. 41. 24 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Neare plimouth Coleney I was amongst the Indians amongst whom was true Breathings after the Knowl- edg of God."^ The following year, 1659, John Taylor, a Friend of York, England, traveled in America and came in touch with the Indians on Long Island. His Journal tells the story of his message to them : " And so when I had an opportunity to declare the Truth to them, and to turn them from Darkness to the Light of Christ Jesus, in their own Hearts, which would teach them, and give them the Knowledge of God that made them. And they heard me soberly and did Confess to the Truth I spake, by an Interpreter that was my Guide. And they were Loving and Kind afterwards to Friends."^ Prophetic of the later kindly relations be- tween Friends and the Indians is the final statement of this early Friend, who was one of the first members of the Society to carry the Gospel message to them. William Penn's benevolence to the Indians is best seen in his practical dealings with them. He felt that they could be won to Christianity most readily " hy just and lenient measures," as he expressed it in his application to the Crown for the grant of Pennsyl- vania. But he was also desirous that as much as might be they should be taught the precepts of Christianity. " My Friends : There is a great God and power that hath made the world and all things therein, to whom you and I and all people owe their being and well- being; to whom you and I must one day give an ac- count for all that we do in the world. This great God 7 Transcript of MS. letter in Devonshire House, London : Josiah Coale to George Bishop, 6 mo. 2d, 1658, Letter reprinted in Bulletin of Friends' Hist. Soc. (Phila.), 6 (1914) : 2-5. 8 John Taylor, Journal (1710), 7-8. PREACHING. 25 hath written his law in our hearts, by which we are commanded to Hve and help and do good to one an- other."^ Such was the simple, kindly message sent by the young proprietor to the Indians of Pennsylvania the year before his own first visit to his new province. The abiding interest of Penn in the spiritual welfare of the Indians is shown in a minute of Philadelphia Monthly Meeting in 1700 : " Our dear Friend and gov- ernor having laid before this meeting a concern that hath laid upon his mind for sometime concerning the Negroes and the Indians, that Friends ought to be very careful in discharging a good conscience towards ^^ them in all respects, but more especially for the good of their souls, and that they might, as frequent as may be, come to meetings upon first days ; upon consid- eration whereof, this meeting concludes to appoint a meeting for the Negroes to be kept once a month."^^ No meeting was provided for the Indians as they prob- ably could not come regularly to the city and the matter of holding meetings among them was still left to individual " concerns." The interest of William Penn is however evident, as it is also in the following account by John Richardson of his own concern for the Indians and Penn's cooperation therein. John Richardson was an English Friend traveling in Amer- ica and was present at a great meeting held between Penn and the Indians just before the former returned to England in 1701. Richardson says: "When much 9 Letter of Penn to the Indians, 18 Oct., 1681, carried to Amer- ica by William Markham, Penn's cousin and deputy. — Quoted in Sharpless, Quaker Experiment, 155-156. See Select Works of William Penn (edn, 1771), XXVIII. Reprinted in many collec- tions, 10 Quoted in Conduct of Friends (1844), 55, 56. 26 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. of the Matters were gone through, I put William Penn in mind to enquire of the Interpreter, if he could find some Terms or Words that might be intelligible to them, in a religious Sense, by which he might reach the Understandings of the Natives, and inculcate into their Minds a Sense of the Principles of Truth, such as Christ's manifesting himself to the inward Senses of the Soul, by his Light, Grace or holy Spirit, with the Manner of the Operations and working thereof in the Hearts of the Children of Men, and how it did re- prove for Evil, and minister Peace and Comfort to the Soul in its Obedience and Well-doing; or, as near as he could, come to the Substance of this in their own Language. William Penn much pressed the Matter upon the Interpreter to do his best, in any Terms, that might reach their Capacities. "^^ The effort to get these thoughts interpreted to the Indians met with little suc- cess on this occasion, but later Richardson had better success when he visited some of the Pennsylvania In- dians in their own haunts. He seemed to have a more satisfactory interpreter at this time, and the meeting makes one of the finest pictures extant of the ministry of early Friends to the natives : " When I came to them, and signified that I was come from a far Coun- try with a Message from the Great Man above (as they call God) and my Message was to endeavour to persuade them that they should not be Drunkards, nor steal, nor kill one another, nor fight, nor commit Adultery, nor put away their Wives, especially for small Faults, which (as I understood) is usual with them to do; for if they did those Things, the great and good Man above would be angry with them, and would ^^ Account of the Life of John Richardson (1783), 135-136. PREACHING. 27 not prosper them, but bring Trouble on them; but if they were careful to refrain these Evils (before men- tioned) then would God love them, and prosper them, and speak Peace to them; or very near these Words. And when the Interpreter expressed these Things to them in their own Language, they wept, and Tears ran down their naked Bodies, and they smote their Hands upon their Breasts and I perceived said some- thing to the Interpreter : I asked what they said ? He told me they said, all that I had delivered to them was good, and except the great Man had sent me, I could not have told them those Things. I desired the Inter- preter to ask them, how they knew what I said to them was good? they replied, and smote their Hands on their Breasts, the good Man here (meaning in their Hearts) told them what I said was all good. They manifested much Love to me in their Way, and I be- lieve the^Love of God is to them, and all People in the Day of their Visitation. "^^ Thomas Story, traveling in America in 1699, ^^^^s interestingly of his efforts to declare spiritual things to the natives. At a meeting with some Indians in Virginia he declared : " That we did not come among them for any Hurt to them [they seemed somewhat fearful] or Gain to ourselves, but being lately arrived from England, had a desire to see them ; for we loved Indians, and had something to say to them concerning the great God, who made the Heavens, the Sun, Moon, Earth, and all that dwell therein. Englishmen, Indians, and all Nations; that he loves all good English, and good Indians, and other good People everywhere. . . . And that God had placed a Witness in the Heart of ^"^ Account of the Life of John Richardson (1783), 138-139. 28 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. every Man, which approves that which is good, and reproves that which is evil." A Httle later as Thomas Story was passing through Connecticut toward Rhode Island he found an Indian woman spinning at a wheel. "And after a while I found a Concern for her in my Mind, and made her stop her Wheel, and then spake to her of the Witness of God in her, which discovered to her Good and Evil, that dictates the former, and re- proves the latter. To which she confessed, and said, with Tears in her Eyes, that she knew better than she practiced, — and was very humble."^^ A visit of Thomas Chalkley to some Shawnee and other Indians is of interest. With thirteen companions Chalkley traveled into the back country " near Sus- quehannah, at Conestogoe," in southern Pennsylvania. " We had first a meeting with the Senecas, with which they were much ' affected ; and they called the other nation, viz., the Shawanese, and interpreted to them what we had spoke in their meeting, and the poor In- dians, particularly some of the young men and women, were under a solid exercise and concern. We had also a meeting with the other nation, and they were all very kind to us, and desired more such opportunities ; the which I hope Divine Providence will order them, if they are worthy thereof. The Gospel of Jesus Christ was preached freely to them, and faith in Christ, who was put to death in Jerusalem, by the un- believing Jews ; and that this same Jesus came to save people from their sins, and by his grace and light in the soul, shows to man his sins, and convinceth him thereof, delivering him out of them, and gives inward peace and comfort to the soul for well-doing, and ^^ Journal of Thomas Story (1747), 162, 195, PREACHING. 29 sorrow and trouble for evil doing; to all of which, as their manner is, they gave publick assents ; and to that of the light in the soul, they gave double assent, and seemed much affected with the doctrine of the truth; also the benefit of the holy Scriptures was largely opened to them."^* The reference to the readiness with which the Indians assented to the doctrine of the Inward Light is mentioned many times by early Friends from the time of Fox's discourse with the In- dians during his sojourn in America. The doctrine seemed to tally so well with the spiritual conceptions of the natives and their apprehension of the promptings of conscience that they seem readily to have attained what seemed to be common ground with Friends. John Woolman is usually and rightly thought of as the champion of the rights of negroes, but nowhere did his sweet spirit blossom in more fragrant beauty than when it opened toward the American Indians. Histories do not improve on the writing of John Wool- man and the story of his visit to the Indians of central Pennsylvania in 1763 is best told in the classic beauty and simplicity of his own Journal : " Having for many years felt love in my heart towards the natives of this land who dwell far back in the wilderness, whose an- cestors were formerly the owners and possessors of the land where we dwell, and who for a small con- sideration assigned their inheritance to us, and being at Philadelphia in the eighth month, 1761, I fell in company with some of those natives who lived on the east branch of the river Susquehanna, at an Indian town called Wehaloosing [Wyalusing], two hundred miles from Philadelphia " and thereafter " at times I ^* Journal of Thomas Chalkley (1818), 73. 30 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. felt an inward drawing towards a visit to that place." He told his " concern " to no one but his wife for some time, but finally laid it before his Monthly, Quarterly, and the General Spring Meeting (i 762-1 763) and found Friends in unity with his concern. Undeterred by the rumor of an Indian uprising on the frontier he finally set out on his perilous journey with another Friend, Benjamin Parvin, as companion, and with some Indian guides. After a long and wearisome jour- ney the Quaker apostle reached his destination. The famous Moravian missionary David Zeisberger had arrived at Wyalusing before John Woolman and had been accepted by the Indians as their regular mis- sionary. Quaker and Moravian entered however into harmonious relations and John Woolman was given full opportunity to deliver his message. Describing his feeling toward the Indians and his ministry to them he says : " Before our first meeting this morning, I was led to meditate on the manifold difficulties of these Indians, who, by the permission of the Six Na- tions, dwell in these parts. A near sympathy with them was raised in me, and, my heart being enlarged in the love of Christ, I thought that the affectionate care of a good man for his only brother in affliction does not exceed what I then felt for that people." Again he says : " In the afternoon, my heart being filled with a heavenly care for their good, I spake to them awhile by interpreters; but none of them being perfect in the work, and I feeling the current of love run strong, told the interpreters that I believed some of the people would understand me, and so I proceeded without them; and I believe the Holy Ghost wrought PREACHING. 31 on some hearts to edification where all the words were not understood." John Woolman remained some days among the Indians and thus describes his last meeting with them: "The following morning, in meeting, my heart was enlarged in pure love among them, and in short plain sentences I expressed several things that rested upon me, which one of the interpreters gave the people pretty readily. The meeting ended in sup- plication, and I had cause humbly to acknowledge the loving kindness of the Lord towards us; and then I believed that a door remained open for the faithful desciples of Jesus Christ to labour among these peo- ple. And now, feeling my mind at liberty to return, I took my leave of them in general at the conclusion of what I had said in meeting, and we then prepared to go homeward." So ended this memorable visit of John Woolman to the Pennsylvania Indians. There is a spirit over the whole narrative that cannot well be caught in a few excerpts. His universal love for the oppressed shines through all the story and in one place came to a very sun-burst of loving-kindness when on the outward journey of this mission he saw in pros- pect the long line of favorably situated English settle- ments, along the American coast, and in contrast " the difficulties attending the natives as well as the negroes in many places." Continuing, he says : " A weighty and heavenly care came over my mind, and love filled my heart towards all mankind, in which I felt a strong engagement that we might be obedient to the Lord while in tender mercy He is yet calling to us, and that we might so attend to pure universal righteousness as to give no just cause of offence to the gentiles, who do 32 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. not profess Christianity, whether they be blacks from Africa, or the native inhabitants of this continent."^^ More than a century has been covered thus far in the narrative of this chapter and in approaching the end of the period it is well to note the great change that has come in the situation of the Indians. In the days of William Penn the Delawares, with whom Friends were most closely associated in the early days, had their chief habitat along the Delaware River. Thus Friends, settled in eastern Pennsylvania I and New Jersey, came readily into association with J them. But all this had changed by the end of the eight- 1^ eenth century. White settlers, including great num- I bers of Germans and Scotch-Irish, had gradually 1 pushed the Indians westward. Roughly speaking there \ were, by the time of the Revolution, two strata of \ white population separating the Friends in the east I from the Indians in the central and western parts of I Pennsylvania. The first stratum was composed of Germans who poured into the territory just west of that occupied by Friends. The second was of Scotch- Irish, further westward, who clung to the frontier and came roughly into contact with the retreating Indians. Thus the natives of Pennsylvania had been pushed back. The Delawares removed to the Susquehanna River about 1742, then gradually moved across the Allegheny mountains, were occupying tracts in eastern ^5 Journal of John Woolman (1900), 163-181. See also E. de Schweinitz, Life and Times of David Zeisberger, 2yi. Many in- teresting details of Woolman's visit to Wyalusing will be found in the new edition of The Journal and Essays of John Woolman which is under preparation by Amelia Mott Gummere and which the present author has had the privilege of consulting in manu- script form. PREACHING. 33 Ohio about 1751, and twenty-five years later some of them were forming villages in Indiana. So it was that when the aged Friend, Zebulon Hes- ton, and his companion, John Parrish, both Friends of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, desired to make a re- ligious visit to the Delawares in 1773, it required a long, arduous journey westward. The most distant settlement visited by them was well within the present state of Ohio and nearly 500 miles from Philadelphia. The "concern" of Zebulon Heston and the unity of Friends therewith is indicated in the following extract from a letter sent to the Indians on that occasion by the Meeting for Sufferings of Philadelphia : " Brethren, — We write this to you by our beloved friend Zebulon Heston, whose mind being influenced by the love of Christ, and constrained thereby, engages him to go and visit you, being desirous, though an old man, to see you before he dies, and to express something of the love of God, which he hath known to preserve him from his youth to this day. He hath approved him- self a faithful minister of Christ, both in word and doctrine, and in life and conversation, and we hope you will receive him as our true friend and brother." The journey of Zebulon Heston and John Parrish occupied about ten weeks and satisfactory meetings were held with the Indians, as may be gathered from the following extract taken from the kindly reply of the Indians to the above epistle : " We think that as we two brothers, the Quakers and Delawares, were brought up together as the children of one man, it is our Saviour's will we should be of one religion. . . . Now you have come and opened the road. . . . We are poor and weak, and not able to judge for our- 34 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. selves, and when we think of our poor children it makes us sorry; we hope you will instruct us in the right way, both in things of this life as well as the world to come."^^ Great is the pathos to be read in those lines if the reader but remembers the proud race of Indians who treated with the first proprietor of Pennsylvania when he landed on the shores of the Delaware. One more incident, just at the end of the period covered by this chapter, may be cited as a fitting close to this portion of the narrative. William Savery, David Bacon, John Parrish, and James Emlen were appointed by the Philadelphia Meeting for Sufferings in 1794 to attend a treaty to be held between the United States and the Six Nations at Canandaigua, New York. William Savery thus describes a beautiful meeting held during the visit : " The curiosity of the white people being raised, and some coming from other motives, we had a large and good meeting, which held till near sunset; both whites and Indians were quiet and behaved decently; as many of the Indians had received some notion of the Christian religion from missionaries, and were desirous to begin the service with singing of hymns or psalms, and we not thinking it would be best to object to their wishes, they appeared very devout, and I thought that the melody and softness of their voices in the Indian language, and the sweetness and harmony that attended, ex- ceeded by far anything of the kind I had ever heard among the white people. Being in the midst of the 16 Phila. Meeting for Sufferings, Minutes, i : 388 f. Conduct of Friends (1844), 94-97. PREACHING. 35 woods, the satisfaction of hearing those poor untutored people sing, with every appearance of devotion, their Maker's praise, and the serious attention they paid to what was delivered to them, conspired to make it a solemn meeting, long to be remembered by me."^^ From Josiah Coale in 1658 to William Savery in 1794 a long line of Quaker apostles to the Indians has been followed. Other names, such as those of John Bowater, Robert Widders, James Dickenson, Samuel Bownas, Samuel Jennings, Thomas Budd, Robert Stacey, William Reckitt, Thomas Olive, Thomas Tur- ner, Roger Gill, Thomas Beales, Sarah Stephenson, and William Robinson, might have been mentioned. Each of these Friends held meetings with the Indians, or at least was companion to some ministering Friend on such occasions. Other Friends came into touch with the Indians and preached to them, although in many cases no record has been left of the fact. Some- times a record is extant of meetings appointed for the Indians with no mention of the Friends present. Yet in the early period Friends were not so zealous as some other denominations, such as the CathoHcs, Congregationalists, and Moravians, in preaching the Gospel to the Indians. Individual Friends " under a religious concern " visited the Indians from time to time and spoke to them of spiritual things, finding them especially appealed to by the doctrine of the uni- versal light of Christ in the hearts of men. But from the beginning many Friends felt and expressed doubt as to the efficacy of much preaching to the natives without some other things, notably the teaching to ^T Journal of William Savery (edn. 1863), 88-100. 36 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. them of useful industrial arts and the daily practice on the part of the whites of the Christian virtues that were preached to the Indians. The practice of Friends during the period thus far covered will be narrated in the succeeding chapter. In the later period, covered in other chapters, appear the efforts of Friends to teach the Indians useful arts in regular mission establishments. " Ruminating on the state of the Oneida Indians," writes William Savery in 1794, "who are said to be more civilized and better instructed in religion than any others, it is natural to enquire what influence it has had on their manners and morals, which, from anything I can discover, has yet been very small. . . . They have heard of Jesus Christ through their mis- sionary, and have been taught to sing psalms and hymns in their own soft and engaging language; but it appears to me that the great body of the nation have received the gospel in word only, and not in power."^® Similarly in New England more than a century before, George Fox and other Friends had found the Indians little benefited by the preaching that they re- ceived. They were ill-disposed to accept good pre- cepts from those who in practice despoiled them.^^ The method of teaching the useful, industrial arts to the Indians as a basis for spiritual influence will be illustrated in the later pages of this work. The in- creased effect that might have been wrought by the early preaching of Friends and all others, if the white i^ Journal of William Savery (edn. 1863), loi. 19 Fox, Journal (Camb. edn. 191 1), 2: 250. See also Bowden, Friends in America, i : 125. PREACHING. 37 men had practiced more consistently the Christian vir- tues, pictures itself clearly in the mind of every thoughtful student. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. For bibliography covering this chapter see Bibliograph- ical Note at close of Chapter IV. CHAPTER III. PRACTICE. When William Penn petitioned Charles II for a grant of land in America he stated that one of his objects was the conversion of the poor Indians to Christ's kingdom " by just and lenient measures'^ He evidently foresaw that the practice of the Christian virtues would be more convincing than the preaching of them. This was especially true among the Amer- ican Indians who were quick, keen judges of human nature. In the period covered in this and the preceding chap- ter, reaching from the birth of Quakerism to the close of the eighteenth century, the practical relations of Friends with the Indians form the most important and most interesting part of the story. The province of Pennsylvania looms biggest in it because there Friends had for about seventy-five years a fairly free hand to work out their ideals in practical politics. But in the Jerseys, Rhode Island, and the Carolinas they had some period of political influence, and in other colonies they found many opportunities in private life to trans- late precept into practice. The story of Friends' deal- ings with Indians in Pennsylvania during this period has been told and retold, and would easily fill a stout volume if recited in detail. To relate it in a sirlgle chapter, with the additional account of similar activi- 38 PRACTICE. 39 ties in other colonies, makes the task largely one of condensation.^ The kindly relations that existed between early Friends and the Indians have been a subject for ideal- ization. The great treaty at Shackamaxon has been immortalized by the brush of West and the pen of Voltaire as " the only treaty never sworn to and never broken." Perhaps the goodness of the early Quakers in these respects has been exaggerated in the minds of some until they have gained the impression that the action of Perm and other Friends in paying the In- dians for their lands was without precedent. Such an impression is, of course, wholly contrary to fact, as has been indicated in an earlier chapter of this treatise.^ It is hardly surprising, therefore, that some recent historians have rebelled against this idealization and in their efforts to correct false impressions have gone somewhat to the other extreme. In the eyes of such an adverse critic as Francis Parkman the admiration of men for the pacific measures of the Pennsylvania Quakers in their dealings with the Indians "will di- minish on closely viewing the circumstances of the case." The same writer goes on to produce an argu- ment which if valid would tend not only to diminish but well nigh to destroy entirely any admiration for the Quaker policy.^ Such adverse criticism has prob- ably served a useful purpose in making Friends and others more guarded in their statements of the facts and more careful to give due credit to other denomina- 1 In addition to the footnote references in this chapter see Bibliographical Note at the end of Chapter IV. 2 See pp. 3-4, above. 3 The adverse opinions of Parkman, Fiske, and Hanna are dis- cussed below, pp. 79-83. J^- 40 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. tions that have done noble work for the American natives. In reviewing the kindness and justice shown by early Friends to the Indians, the writer cannot for- get and the reader may profitably keep before his eyes the shining examples of other truly benevolent people who dealt righteously with their savage neighbors, as recounted in the opening chapter of this treatise. Yet it seems well within the bounds of truth to say that few facts are more strongly attested by historical evi- dence or more universally accepted by competent his- torians than the fact that in the matter of fair and kindly dealings with the natives. Friends hold a place unique. As compared with other sects they were tardy in setting up regular mission establishments among the Indians, a fact already noted. Their early preach- ing to the natives was only occasional because left to individual " concerns." But the practice of the Chris- tian virtues in dealing with the Indians was a very pas- sion among Friends. They seemed in this respect to seize upon the best practice of earlier communities in America, fuse with it their own vision of the ideal, and then set themselves to put the whole high con- ception into persistent, almost stubborn practice. If the virtue of Friends in this regard has been some whit overdrawn at times by artist or historian it was probably because the foundation fact of the case was fit subject for idealization in art and literature. The experience of some of the earliest Friends' ministers who traveled among the Indians has already been recounted. The treatment of such Friends by the natives was prophetic of the kindly relations that were to exist at a later period. In 1656 an old man, Nicholas Upsall, a member of PRACTICE. 41 the established church in Boston, was exiled from that place because he befriended the Quakers who were being persecuted there. He in turn was befriended by an Indian chief who remarked pointedly : " What a God have the English who deal so with one another over the worship of their God." Upsall later became a fully " convinced " member among Friends.* When Christopher Holder and John Copeland went to Martha's Vineyard in 1657 the Governor seized them and hired an Indian to carry them off the island. Fortunately the Indian had imbibed some of the spirit of Christianity, probably from the missionary efforts inaugurated in the island by Thomas Mayhew, Jr., four- teen years before. For three days the sea was too rough for a passage to the mainland, all of which time, say these Friends : " We received no small love from the Indians, the like we could not receive from the English, for what we eat we could not persuade him whom we were withall to take money for it, he saying that we was strangers, and Jehovah taught him to love strangers."^ Similarly Josiah Coale and Thomas Thurston were treated with the utmost kindness by the Indians in the course of their dangerous overland journey from Vir- ginia to New York in 1658. As they traveled north- ward from Virginia they came among the Susque- hanna Indians who received them most hospitably, entertained them in their huts, and then sent several of their number to accompany them for about two * Jones, Quakers in American Colonies, 40-41. 5 Norton, New England's Ensigne, 21-22. The above men- tioned Friends came to America with other apostles of Quaker- ism in the ship Woodhoxise. See Jones, Quakers in Amer. Cols., 63, 65. 42 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. hundred miles through the untracked wilderness. These Indian companions helped the Friends across rivers and secured for them a supply of food. " After this travel," says Josiah Coale, " we came to a place where more of them inhabited, and they also very kindly entertained us in their houses, where we re- mained about sixteen days, my fellow traveler being weak of body through sickness and lameness ; in which time these Indians shewed very much respect to us, for they gave us freely of the best they could get." A little later in New England, after Josiah Coale and John Copeland had been beaten and imprisoned by the white settlers, the former found a safe refuge among the Indians. The Indian chief sympathized with the persecuted Friend and said : " The Quakers are honest men and do no harm, and this is nO' Eng- lishman's sea or land, and Quakers shall come here and welcome." Josiah Coale was much moved by the kindness of his dusky hosts and wrote : " I do confess this to be the Lord's hand of love towards me ; through the goodness of the Lord we found these Indians more sober and Christian-like towards us than the Christians so-called."^ So it was that the natives received the blessing of the early Quaker apostles who, foot-sore, sick, and afflicted, found rest in the wigwams and comfort in the humble ministrations of the children of the forest. That the Indians too appreciated the attitude of early 6 Bowden, Friends in America, i : 123—125. Bishop, New Eng- land Judged (1703), 28-29. Bowden quotes from and no doubt Bishop used the letter cited above, p. 24, Josiah Coale to George Bishop, 6 mo. 2d, 1658. From endorsements on this letter it would seem that Thomas Chapman accompanied Coale and Thurston at least in part of their journey. PRACTICE. 43 Friends toward them can not be doubted. An early historian tells a simple but affecting story of the pres- ence of a Friend at the death-bed of an Indian chief in New Jersey. This Friend, Thomas Budd, who was one of the proprietors, spoke to the dying chieftain, of God, the future life, and the broad and narrow ways. The Indian answered : " It. is true, it is so ; . . . there are two paths, a broad and a [strait] path; the worst and the greatest number go in the broad, the best and fewest in the [strait] path." The story goes on to tell how the kindly feeling of the Friends for the old In- dian was shown after his death : " This king dying soon afterwards, was attended to his grave in the Quakers burial place in Burlington, with solemnity by the Indians in their manner, and with great respect by many of the English settlers ; to whom he had been a sure friend."^ So the friendly feeling between Quaker and Indian was early sealed in life and in death. Within a score of years after the first Friends landed in America (1656), not only had they on many occasions preached the Gospel to the Indians, as recounted in an earlier chapter, but by an interchange of kindly deeds had laid deep foundations for a permanent relation of peace and good-will. The land policy of Friends in their dealings with the Indians was of paramount importance. As has been stated already there was plenty of precedent for the practice of purchasing lands from the native oc- cupants, and since it usually required no great amount of merchandise and trinkets to satisfy the Indians, this 7 Smith, Hist, of New Jersey, 149-150. See also Journal of Friends' Historical Society, London, 9 (1912): 164-166. 44 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. policy seemed to be dictated both by justice and wis- dom. The distinguishing virtue of Friends would seem to lie in the thorough and fair manner in which they carried out this policy. Friends settled in many of the colonies long after the land had been acquired from the Indians. In West Jersey and Pennsylvania, however, they occupied large tracts for the first time and were also masters of the public policy. Friends had long wished to plant a colony in America, when by a series of fortunate events (1674-1676) a group of Quakers, including William Penn, came into control of West Nev/ Jersey. The activity of Friends in this province was in many re- spects an introduction to the broader activity in Penn- sylvania later, and Quaker history in the two places is always directly connected because from that time until the present, one yearly meeting has covered the whole field. The famous body of " Concessions and Agreements " (1676), the charter of liberties of the early settlers of West Jersey was probably in large measure the work of William Penn, and the clause relating to the pur- chase of land from the Indians was a fitting prelude to the later policy of Friends : " It is agreed, when any land is to be taken up for settlements of towns, or otherways, before it be sur- veyed, the commissioners or the major part of them, are to appoint some persons to go to the chief of the natives concerned in that land, so intended to be taken up, to acquaint the natives of their intentions, and to give the natives what present they shall agree upon, for their good will or consent ; and take a grant of the same in writing, under their hands and seals, or some PRACTICE. 45 Other pu'blick way used in those parts of the world : Which grant is to be registered in the puhHck register, allowing also the natives (if they please) a copy thereof ; and that no person or persons take up any land, but by order from the commissioners, for the time being."^ This quotation epitomizes the land policy of Friends in West Jersey. When the large company of Quaker settlers came over in the ship Kent in 1677 they put the above agreement into faithful practice. One pur- chase after another, from one creek to the next along the east shore of the Delaware River, was made from the friendly Indians, and when the supply of trading goods ran low the Friends made a partial payment on a further tract and agreed not to settle on it until the balance was paid. Friends were also in control of East New Jersey for a few years, and Robert Barclay, the great Quaker apologist, was governor of the province. Again the rights of the Indians were not forgotten and when Barclay sent Gawen Lawrie out as deputy governor to the province in 1684 there was a clause in his Instruc- tions providing for the purchase of land from the In- dians.^ The price of the early land purchases seems as noth- ing now but it was a fair price in those days in the minds of both parties. It took centuries for the white people themselves to learn the value of lands in Amer- ica, and the recent policy of conservation on the part of the United States government is merely the latest 8 N. J, Archives (ist series), i : 259-260. Smith, Hist, of N. J., 533- 9 N. J. Archives (ist series), i : 260, 461. Smith, Hist, of N. J., 94-98. Jones, Quakers in Amer. Cols., 367. X 46 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. phase of a long process of awakening to real and poten- tial values. The sum paid to Napoleon for the vast Louisiana tract, or that paid to Russia for Alaska seems fully as ridiculous to-day as the collection of merchandise and trinkets paid for Indian lands in the earlier days. Matchcoats, guns, kettles, clothing, lead, powder, knives, axes, tobacco-tongs, pipes, scissors, looking-glasses, awl-blades, fish-hooks, red paint, needles, bells, Jews-harps, and rum^*^ — these were the currency that Friends paid for New Jersey town- sites, and that other white people paid for Indian lands in various colonies in the early day, and if the bargain was fairly made the Indians returned to their wigwams satisfied. It was fitting that Friends should be present on be- half of the natives at the treaty of Easton^^ in 1758 when the Indians bartered away their last lands in New Jersey, for the sum of one thousand pounds and the further consideration that a tract of land contain- ing about 3,0(X) acres should be held in trust for their occupancy. ^2 It would seem that the idea of this trans- action had been suggested by an organization of Friends known as "The New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians," organized the year before. The preamble of the constitution of this organization set forth the kindness shown by the New Jersey Indians to the early settlers, and the first article provided, "That a tract of about Two Thousand acres of the best land that can be got, nigh or adjoining the Bar- 10 On the practice of giving rum to the Indians see below, pp. 53-54. 11 See below, p. 78. 12 This tract was probably the first Indian reservation, prop- erly so-called, within the bounds of the United States. PRACTICE. 47 rens ... be purchased as soon as conveniently may be after the subscriptions are completed," and be set aside for occupation by the Indians without charge to them. The names of nineteen members with the amount of their contributions were subscribed to the constitution, the list containing the notable name of John Woolman with a subscription of six pounds. No further records of the Association have been found and it was probably dropped by Friends because they were able to get their plan incorporated in the public policy the next year as has been described.^^ Thus Friends helped to inaugurate and carry out the Indian land policy of the province of New Jersey, than which no other American colony or common- wealth, not Pennsylvania herself, has a finer record. While a few minor troubles with the Indians occurred in New Jersey during colonial times, not an Indian war stains the pages of her history, and when the state settled the last claim of its aboriginal inhabitants in 1832 the benedictions of Heaven were invoked upon the state by the Indian representative.^* The record of land purchases in Pennsylvania is too well known to require a detailed account in this place. The success of Penn's experiment in New Jersey naturally led him to adopt the same policy in Penn- sylvania, and he also received sound advice to the same effect from the English authorities. In a letter of 1683 13 On the New Jersey Association see Allinson, Fragmentary Hist, of the New Jersey Indians, 33-36. (In Proceedings of N. J. Hist. Soc, 26. Series, 4: 33-50.) 1* This was a claim for some old fishing rights. See the af- fecting account in Allinson, Fragmentary Hist, of New Jersey Indians, 49-50. (In Proceedings of N. J. Hist. Soc, 2d Series, 4: 33-50.) 48 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. to the committee of the Privy Council having charge of foreign plantations Penn wrote : " I have followed the Bishop of London's counsel, by buying, and not taking away, the natives' land."^^ Thus the process inaugurated in New Jersey, on the eastern shore of the Delaware River, was reenacted along the west bank of the same stream. From creek to creek Penn purchased successive strips of land in the years following 1682, so that three years later he could write : " I have made seven Purchases from the Indians, and in Pay and Presents they have received at least twelve hundred pounds of me."^^ The deeds of these purchases and those of later years are pre- served in the official records of early Pennsylvania. Similarly are found notices of continued efforts to settle all land disputes between the Indians and indi- vidual settlers. Law after law was passed to prevent individual whites from making private land purchases ; of the Indians, or from encroaching on unpurchased ^ territory. Many of the official purchases had ill- I defined boundaries so that they overlapped, and por- tions of them were paid for more than once, perhaps I several times. The claims of the Iroquois in New \ York were also remembered since they were the con- 1 querors and over-lords of the Indians in eastern Penn- I sylvania. They, too, were paid for the same lands that I were purchased from the Delawares. In treaty after I treaty, in council after council, in the earlier and later years of the province the Indians referred to the early 15 This bishop was Henry Compton, himself a member of the Privy Council. He was much interested in colonial affairs and a few years later was appointed on the " Committee for Trade and Plantations." See A'^. Y. Colonial Docs., 3 : 572. 16 Myers, Narrs. of Early Penna., 276. PRACTICE. 49 land purchases and other fair deahngs of their friend " Onas " as they called William Penn, and showed to their younger generations the belts of wampum that ratified the early treaties.^^ The antithesis of William Penn's policy in land pur- chases is found in the dealings of some of the later proprietors after his death. The greatest example of this perfidy was the infamous Walking Purchase of 1737 which carried the province of William Penn far on its course toward that rupture with the natives which resulted in a frontier war less than a score of years thereafter. Thomas Penn, who left the Society of Friends, was managing proprietor of Pennsylvania at the time of the Walking Purchase and he must bear the odium of the transaction. An old deed of 1686, itself of doubt- ful authenticity, was produced which conveyed to- Wil- liam Penn certain lands in eastern Pennsylvania for the distance that a man could walk in a day and a half. In 1686 this probably would have meant about thirty miles, but in 1737 this distance was more than doubled by two young men trained for the purpose, traveling in a path that had been cleared for them. Thus the boundary of the alleged purchase was extended to in- clude some coveted lands within the fork of the Dela- ware and Lehigh rivers, then occupied by a tribe of Delaware Indians. These Indians realized the in- iquity of the proceeding and refused to move from their homes. Then, heaping insult upon injury, the executive authorities of the province, since the Quaker assembly refused funds to enforce such a bargain, called in the Iroquois masters of the Delawares. By 17 For authorities see bibliography at end of Chapter IV. 50 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. bribing and cajoling these over-lords the authorities succeeded (1742) in persuading them to order the subject tribe to abandon its old home. This the sub- missive Delawares did, but in their sullen breasts smouldered from this time forward a fire that a few years later was to sweep the Pennsylvania border. The outbreak did not occur until 1755, and it was precipitated by a crowning act of injustice of the pre- ceding year. In 1754 the sons of William Penn de- cided once for all to clear western Pennsylvania of all Indian claims. At a council held at Albany, New York, which was not fully representative of the Penn- sylvania Indians nor of the Six Nations, almost the whole western half of Pennsylvania was bargained away by the Indians present. Some of them did not understand fully the reasons for nor the extent of the treaty, and others seem to have been privately influ- enced to sign the deed. The effect of this affair on the tribes concerned was swift and decisive.^^ The outbreak of the next year, to be discussed later, was the result of a far departure from the policy of the founder of the province. His justice the savages did not forget. His memory they ever held in loving re- membrance. His policy in the purchase of lands and the effect of it on the native occupants has been tersely summed up by a historian of Pennsylvania : " What seems to have impressed the Indians was the fact that Penn insisted on purchase at the first and all subse- quent proceedings as being an act of justice, to which both parties were to give their assent voluntarily. They also felt that the price paid was ample to extin- guish their claims, and that no advantages were taken 18 For authorities see bibliography at end of Chapter IV. PRACTICE. 51 by plying them with drink or cheating them with false maps. The treaties were open and honorable con- tracts, and not characterized by sharpness or chicanery. As the Indians reflected on them at their leisure they saw nothing to repent of, and everything to admire in the conduct of Penn and his friends, and they pre- served inviolably the terms to which they had solemnly agreed. "^^ While Friends had a better opportunity in New Jersey and Pennsylvania than elsewhere to carry out their policies, there is scattering evidence extant to show that in other places they made efforts to the same end. At an early date (1738) Thomas Chalkley had urged Friends at Opequan (Hopewell), in Virginia, to purchase their lands from the Indians because " they have a natural right thereto in justice and equity; and no people . . . according to our own principle, which is according to the glorious Gospel of our dear and holy Lord Jesus Christ, ought to take away or settle on other men's land." The case of these Friends, who had settled on the western side of the mountains on lands for which the Indian title was uncertain, was agitated for over fifty years. The Philadelphia Meet- ing for Sufferings corresponded with Virginia Friends about it and the Friends at Hopewell seem to have done what they could in the matter though perhaps tardily. In 1765 Hopewell Monthly Meeting refused to give certificates of removal to its members until it was ascertained that the site to which they wished to 19 Sharpless, A Quaker Experiment, i : 159-160. For an ex- tensive account of the Walking Purchase see W. J. Buck, His- tory of the Indian Walk (1886). An interesting recent account by W. W. Dewees is in the Bulletin of Friends' Historical So- ciety (Phila.), Vol. 4 (1912): 124-132. 52 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. remove had been fairly purchased from the natives. In 1778 Friends at Hopewell raised a fund to pay the original owners of their land if they could be found, " and if not, for the benefit of such other Indians as may require brotherly compassion in the manner best Wisdom may point out." The matter was settled about sixteen years later through the agency of Phila- delphia Friends by a gift to the Tuscarora Indians, then residing in New York, although their claim to the Virginia lands was somewhat doubtful.^^ It would seem that when the Indian war broke out in Pennsylvania in 1755 the Friends of Philadelphia were aroused as never before on the subject of Indian land purchases, and by correspondence they urged their fellow members, especially in the southern states, to be true to the principles of the Society in that re- spect.^^ Probably as a result of this renewed agita- tion Friends at New Garden, North Carolina, at- tempted through a Monthly Meeting committee ap- pointed in 1764, to discover whether there could be any Indian claim against the lands on which they lived. The committee could learn only of a slight remnant of the original occupants, the Cheraws, then living with another tribe, and as the claim was uncer- tain and affairs " seemed somewhat unsettled " the matter was dropped.^^ A similar case in the south was under discussion for several years following 1787 when some Friends were 20 Chalkley, Works (edn. 1790), 317-319. Conduct of Friends, iio-iii. Weeks, Southern Quakers, 99, note. Janney, Hist, of Friends, 266, 267, 440-441. 21 The Friend, Phila., 46 (1873) : 187. 22 MS. Minutes of New Garden Mo. Mtg., 2d mo. and 4 mo., 1764. Weeks, So. Quakers, 107, note. PRACTICE. 63 under discipline in North Carolina for occupying lands in eastern Tennessee for which the title was not clear. These Friends were forbidden (apparently without effect) to hold meetings and were under discipline from their monthly and quarterly meetings and the yearly meeting in North Carolina. The pioneers claimed that their lands had been fairly purchased and finally the whole question in dispute was settled by negotiations between the Indians and the government of the United States. ^^ These examples are scattered and the records in- complete and unsatisfactory, but they may serve to show at least that efforts were made by Friends in various colonies to follow the good example of those in New Jersey and Pennsylvania in the important matter of land purchases from the Indians. Other efforts of Friends to incline the Indians to Christianity "by just and lenient measures" must be briefly summarized. In the first instance must be noticed, however, the practice of giving rum to the Indians as a part of the payment in land purchases. The only record of this being practiced by Friends is in the earliest land purchases in New Jersey and Penn- sylvania. It seems to have been discontinued when the demoralizing effect on the Indians became evident. There was practically no sentiment among Christians at that time against a moderate use of liquor, and in 1701 we find William Penn at an Indian conference distributing drink to the Indians, yet not in large quan- tities, but as a beverage to be consumed on the spot.^* 23 MS. Minutes of Western and New Garden Quarterly Meet- ings, and New Garden Mo. Mtg., 1 787-1 791, and of North Caro- lina Y. M., 1791 ; also Weeks, So. Quakers, 252. 2* Life of John Richardson (1783), 134. 5 54 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Yet throughout Pennsylvania history during the Quaker regime there were determined efforts made by the authorities to stop the rum traffic among the In- dians. During the same period there is no one phase of Indian concerns that so occupied the attention of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting as this one. Over and over again members v^ere cautioned and warned against having any part in the business of supplying liquors to the Indians. In 1687 a long and earnest minute on the subject was adopted and by way of bringing the matter home to every member the advice was closed in the following words : " We advise that this Our Testimony may be Entered in Every Monthly Meeting Book, and Every Friend belonging to the Said Meeting to Subscribe the Same."^^ Such was the attitude of Friends in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and an interesting example in another part of the country was the law passed in South Caro- lina early in the regime of the Quaker governor, John Archdale : " It is enacted that every person which shall give, or any other way dispose of any rum or brandy, or any sorte of spirrits to any Indian or Indians . . . shall forfeit for every time he shall dispose of any such liquors as aforesaid the summe of twenty pounds."^^ In Pennsylvania there was need of restricting other trade with the Indians besides that in rum, and so a supervision was kept over traders to the end that the 25 Several other extracts from Minutes given by Sharpless in Jones, Quakers in American Colonies, 499-500. For the public policy in Penna. see Sharpless, Quaker Experiment, i : 165-169, 171-172. For reference to source materials see Penna. Records and Archives (ist series), Index volume, under "Indians" and *' Rum." 26 Jones, Quakers in Amer. Cols., 247. PRACTICE. 55 Indians might not be defrauded and thus cause be given for ill-will between the two races. One of the finest examples of the integrity of William Penn has come to light in this connection in a private letter written by him to a friend in 1681 : "I did refuse a great temptation last second day, which was six thou- sand pounds . . . and make the purchasers a com- pany, to have wholly to itself the Indian trade from south to north, between the Susquehannah and Dela- ware rivers, paying me two and a half per cent, ac- knowledgment or rent : but as the Lord gave it to me over all and great opposition ... I would not abuse his love, nor act unworthy of his providence, and so defile what came to me clean. "^^ In the adjustment of civil disputes between the whites and the Indians great efforts were made by Friends to secure justice for the natives. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania under the Quaker regime the experiment was tried of having mixed juries of whites and Indians, and an order to the same effect was issued in Rhode Island by the Quaker Governor, Nicholas Easton. The success of such experiments did not seem to warrant their long continuance, but they are typical of an extended list of efforts on the part of Friends to secure justice and fair play for the natives.^® 27 Letter to Robert Turner, in Memoirs of Hist. Soc. of Penna, (edn. 1864), I : 212. 28 N. J. Archives (ist series), i : 259. Jones, Quakers in Amer- ican Cols., 175, note, 402. Sharpless, Quaker Experiment, i : 158, 165, 170-172. Proud, Hist, of Penna., 2: 146—149. A more prac- tical plan was inaugurated under Governor Archdale in South Carolina, by which the Governor and one member of the Council should judge disputes between Indians or between whites and Indians. See Statutes of S. C, 2: 109. 56 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. One of the darkest pages in American colonial his- tory tells of the enslavement of the native inhabitants of the country. While the number of Indian slaves was always much smaller than that of negroes yet it was larger than readers of American history usually suppose. A report of 1708 placed the number of In- dian slaves in the Carolinas at 1,400. In 1730 the population of South Kingston, Rhode Island, included 935 whites, 333 negroes and 223 Indian slaves. These figures probably represent extreme cases but it is evi- dent from recent historical research that in all of the English colonies in America the enslavement of In- dians was practised to some extent. The system of Indian slavery existed most extensively in the South, quite largely in New England, and least of all in the middle colonies. It is to be remembered that Christian people as a rule had no scruples about slavery during the time of American colonial history. The radical sentiment among Friends that resulted in the manumission of their slaves did not develop greatly until after 1750. Yet it is evident that prior to that time there was some sentiment among Friends against the enslave- ment of Indians. Following King Philip's War (1675-1676) many Indian captives were sold into slavery. The government of Rhode Island was in the hands of Friends at this period and it is evident that the treatment of captive Indians was less severe there than in most of the other New England colonies. By a vote of the General Assembly in 1676 it was ordered that " noe Indian in this Colony be a slave, but only to pay their debts or for their bringing up, or custody PRACTICE. 67 they have received, or to performe covenant as if they had been countrymen not in warr."^^ Just what some of these exceptions meant at the time, it is difficult to say but it is apparent that the en- slavement of Indians was considerably limited. This interpretation is borne out by the action of the town of Providence a few months later in disposing of a number of Indian captives by " involuntary indenture " for a period of nine years. This would not be con- sidered slavery in the strict meaning of the word which would involve indenture for life. It was cus- tomary at the time to sell even white people into tem- porary servitude as a punishment for crime. Various other restrictions on the buying, selling or holding of Indian slaves make it appear that the Quaker influence in Rhode Island at least mitigated this crime against the native inhabitants. Throughout the early period of Pennsylvania his- tory (1681-1755) there were no Indian wars and hence no Indian captives were available for enslave- ment. It is clear, however, that Indian slaves were imported from other colonies, as the early newspapers contain accounts of their being bought and sold. As the Friendly testimony against slavery developed, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting began to take action against the trade in Indian slaves. In 1709 a clause was placed in the Discipline prohibiting members from purchasing Indian slaves. In 1719 at the close of a Minute directed against the sale of rum to the Indians the Yearly Meeting directed that "to avoid giving 29 Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plan- tations, 2: 534-535. 58 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. them Occasion of Discontent, it is desired that Friends do not buy or sell Indian Slaves. "^^ In later years as the sentiment against slavery in- creased among Friends the general testimony against the system included of course Indian slavery and the records sometimes read " negroes and other slaves. "^^ During the administration of the Quaker governor, John Archdale, in South Carolina, a tribe of Indians under his jurisdiction captured some Florida Indians and prepared to sell them into slavery. Archdale for- bade the transaction and secured the safe return of the Indians to Florida. A little later an English ship was cast away on the Florida coast among barbarous Indians, but the survivors, including two travehng Friends, Robert Barrow and Edward Wardell, were offered no harm and finally made their way to St. Augustine. Archdale attributes their escape to the kindly feeling between Carolina and Florida, and their respective Indian tribes, which was the outgrowth of his earlier act.^^ So while slavery in general was not condemned by Christian people during the early colonial period, and while Indian slavery was not widespread enough to be an outstanding evil at the time, yet it is evident that on due occasion the practice was mitigated or curtailed by those who at a later period were to lead in the crusade against negro slavery. 30 MS. Minutes of Phila. Y. M., 1709 and 1719. 31 Much of the above material on Indian slavery has been gathered from A. W. "LzvihtT, Indian Slavery in Colonial Times, 106, no, 116, 128-130, 151-152, 308. — The MmMf^j of Virginia Yearly Meeting and of the Meeting for Sufferings mention aid given to Indians, 1813 to 181 5, in securing their release, through judicial action, from a state of slavery. ^2 Hist. Collections of S. C, 2: 108. PRACTICE. 59 In the ways outlined above Friends sought in their dealings with the Indians to put the Christian pre- cepts into practice. By purchasing lands fairly from the native occupants, by restricting the sale of rum and safe-guarding other trade so as to prevent fraud, by dealing out as nearly as possible even justice to In- dians and whites in civil disputes, by raising their voices against the infamy of Indian slavery, — by such means the early Friends sought to carry out William Penn's benevolent design of converting the Indians to Christianity "by just and lenient measures." The success of this policy of peace and good-will may be next discussed as a fitting conclusion to the story of Friends' activities among the Indians in the early period. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. For bibliography covering this chapter see Bibliograph- ical Note at close of Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV. THE QUAKER PEACE. The peace principle of Friends may account for their dealings with the Indians as already narrated, or the peace may be looked upon as resultant of the kindly practice of Friends in their dealings with the Indians, or the peace policy may be regarded as one great phase of that practice. Viewed from any stand- point the policy of peace and good-will was a definite purpose of Friends from the beginning, and in it they attained a notable measure of success. In New Jersey, Rhode Island, the Carolinas, and Pennsylvania, Friends wielded political influence in varying degrees for a period of time. In all the col- onies they could use the ordinary influence of private citizens. In New Jersey, as has been narrated, they were in poHtical control for a few years, and thereafter they continued to be influential in shaping the Indian policy of the province. Thus they helped to inaugurate and carry out a policy which, before the end of the eigh- teenth century, had solved the Indian problem and saved New Jersey from the horrors of Indian war- fare.^ In Rhode Island the Quakers did not come into political influence early enough in the history of the colony to develop an Indian Policy, nor were they ever 1 See above, p. 47. 60 THE QUAKER PEACE. 61 in full control of the government. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, however, several Friends were elected to the governorship and to other high offices in the colony, and it so happened that this period of political influence covered the time of King Philip's War, 1 675-1676. This was a war between the New England colonies and the Indian confederation formed by King Philip, and the Quaker authorities of Rhode Island found themselves drawn into it much against their will. As the war was coming on, however, they made a heroic effort to avert it. John Easton, the Quaker Deputy- Governor, with four others went unarmed among the sullen savages at King Philip's camp, and proposed to the Indians that all differences between them and the whites be settled by arbitration. King Philip recited the grievances of the Indians, and the injustice of the whites, and doubted the willingness of the other New England colonies to settle the things in dispute fairly, as proposed by Easton and his companions. The Rhode Islanders pleaded all day for arbitration and although they and the Indians " sat veri friendly to- gether " the peaceful mission was unsuccessful. In the war that followed the Quakers did not con- trol the colony entirely, but their influence was great enough to develop a very halting war policy, much to the disgust of their political opponents in Rhode Island and in the other New England colonies. It was at the close of this war, when the other New England colonies were selling their Indian captives as slaves in the West Indies and Morocco, that Rhode Island passed its law limiting Indian slavery in that 62 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. colony.^ Moreover, when some of the Indian leaders were brought to Newport to be court-martialed and shot, the three Quakers who were members of the court seem to have absented themselves at that time on account of their scruples against inflicting the death penalty.^ The attitude of the Friends who held political posi- tion at this time was apparently dictated largely by their genial peace principles. They had no voice in developing the earlier Indian policy of New England and were unsuccessful in their efforts to avert the war. What the history of the Indian affairs in New England would have been if a peace policy had been consistently developed from the beginning must be left to conjecture. When Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William Penn in 1681 he gave to the proprietor the charter privilege to make war on the savages and to pursue them " even without the limits of the said province, and, by God's assistance, to vanquish and take them; and being taken, to put them to death, by the law of war, or to save them," at his pleasure. Oddly enough sounds this plenary grant of war power in the light of history. The pleasure of the great proprietor did not require that clause of the charter. It was rather ex- pressed in the first message sent by William Penn to the Indians, a year before he himself could cross the ocean to sit at their councils : " I have great love and regard towards you ; and desire to win and gain your love and friendship, by a kind, just and peaceable life ; ... I have sent my commissioners to treat with you 2 See above, p. 56. 3 Jones, Quakers in Amer. Cols., 1 81-189. THE QUAKER PEACE. 63 about land, and a firm league of peace; let me desire you to be kind to them, and the people, and receive these presents and tokens, which I have sent you, as a testimony of my good-will to you, and my resolution to live justly, peaceably and friendly with you." To describe in detail the development and effect of Penn's peace policy with the Indians would be to relate a large part of the early history of Pennsylvania. The story, however, may be succinctly and graphically told by exhibiting some brief extracts from various sources descriptive of the relations between Friends and the Indians during the seventy-five years of the Quaker regime. In describing the Great Treaty of Shackamaxon, held in 1683, Penn writes : " When the Purchase was agreed, great Promises passed between us, of Kind- ness and good Neighborhood, and that the Indians and English must live in Love as long as the Sun gave Light." And one Indian leader declared in the name of all the assembled chiefs, " that many Governors had been in the River, but that no Governor had come himself to live and stay here before; and having now such an one that had treated them well, they should never do him or his any wrong."* In 1712 some Conestoga Indians came to Phila- delphia to present some alleged grievances to the provincial Council. Their remembrance of William Penn's attitude and their readiness to continue the kindly relations are evident in their statement : " That the Proprietor, Govr. Penn had at his first Coming 4 The Great Treaty was long thought to have been held in the fall of 1682, but recently historians have argued reasonably for the later date. See F. D, Stone, Penn's Treaty, in the Penna. Mag. of Hist, and Biog., 6: 217-238. 64 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. amongst them made an agreement with them that they should always Live as friends and Brothers, and be as one Body, one heart, one mind, and as one Eye and Ear; that what the one saw the other should see, and what the one heard the other should hear, and that there should be nothing but Love and friendship be- tween them and us (the English) forever. . . . On their part they had always kept up to this Agreement, And should constantly observe it in all respects ; that if anything came to their knowledge relating to us they would always like brothers and friends acquaint us with it."^ In 1720 James Logan, Secretary of the Council and long time friend of William Penn and of the Penn- sylvania Indians, reported a remarkable interview with the natives in the Susquehanna valley. One tribe had said to him : " That William Penn made a League with them to last for three or four generations ; That he is now dead, and most of their ancients are also dead, but the League still remains, and they now take this Opportunity to renew and strengthen it with their ffriend, who has always represented William Penn to them since he left them ; One Generation may die, and another may die, but the League of Friendship con- tinues strong and shall forever continue so on their part. And this is not said on behalf of themselves, the Mingoes only, but of all the Indians on the River, And they gave another bundle of Deer Skins." Another tribe at the same council declared : " That their present Chief was once at a Council with William Penn before they removed into this province, and that since they came into it, they have always lived quiet 6 Colonial Records, 2: 553. THE QUAKER PEACE. 65 and in Peace. . . . When the Sun sets they sleep in Peace, and in Peace they rise with him, and so con- tinue while he continues his course, and think them- selves happy in their Friendship, which they shall take Care to have continued from Generation to Gen- eration." So the Indians sat in council with the friend of William Penn, throwing down a bundle of skins as a pledge with every declaration of fidelity. They had not forgotten the old bond, the old promise of the founder that he and they should be " as one Body, one Blood, one Heart, and one Head." Such were their words in another part of the same council, words fol- lowed by the declaration : " That they always remem- bered this, and should on their parts act accordingly ; That few of the old men who were at those Councils were living ; These were removed, and those who were then very young are now grown up to succeed, but they transmitted it to their Children, and they and all theirs should remember it forever."® At a council in 1727 the representatives of the Five Nations expressed similar sentiments concerning Wil- liam Penn and his followers and " the Covenant Chain and the Friendship that has long subsisted between them, and 'tis This they desire may be Kept bright and shining to the Sun, and that neither Rain nor Damps nor any Rust may affect it to deprive it of its Lustre ; And that the Governour and his People, and they and their People, and their Children and our Children may ever continue as they have hitherto been, one Body, one Heart and one Blood to all Generations."^ 6 Colonial Records, 3 : 93-94. 7 Same, 3 : 274. 66 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Unhappily for Indian and white man the old cov- enant chain was soon to corrode and break. Under the sons of William Penn avarice began to do its wonted work, Friends gradually lost control of the executive policy of the province, and outrages upon the good faith of the Indians followed one another in rapid succession. Germans and Scotch-Irish were crowding into Pennsylvania and were impatient of the Indian land claims that barred the western fron- tier. The infamous land steals that led up to the hos- tilities of 1755 have been described in the preceding chapter. The story of the troublous years that fol- lowed need be told here only as it illustrates the rela- tions between Friends and the Indians, and shows that the latter distinguished clearly between the new man- agement of the province and the party of their old friend " Onas " that had now lost control of the provincial policy. When Braddock was defeated in 1755 the die was cast and the Indians of western Pennsylvania were at one with the French, arrayed against the English. Early in 1756 the governor and council of Pennsyl- vania declared war against the Indians and offered bounties for scalps. The Quaker Peace had at last given way to war. Many Friends in public life, influenced by the war spirit and the dangers on the frontier, came to feel that a defensive war at least in this instance was jus- tifiable. But the spiritual leaders of the Society and the official utterances of the Yearly Meeting were all on the side of peace. Friends in England, always interested in the wel- fare of the Indians and in the maintenance of the THE QUAKER PEACE. 67 peace "testimony," took an active part in the delib- erations that preceded the final decision. Samuel Fothergill and other English Friends traveling in America urged the peace policy. John Hunt and Christopher Wilson brought to America the official ad- vice of London Yearly Meeting to the effect that those Friends who sat in the Pennsylvania Assembly should resign their seats if the public demanded a war policy. As their advice coincided with the decisions of Phila- delphia Yearly Meeting the leading Friends in the provincial assembly resigned their places and the peace policy of William Penn, after lasting for seventy-five years, came to an end. The influence of Friends was however merely turned into another channel. Refusing to pay the war taxes they agreed to contribute to the cause of peace " more than the heaviest taxes of a war can be expected to require," and they proceeded to make good their prom- ise through the work of the Friendly Association. The provincial authorities sometimes resented the self- appointed activities of this association, but not so the Indians. They knew the sincerity of the Friends and rightly counted on them as faithful to the covenants of the old time council fires. The Friendly Association expended about $25,000 in the work now undertaken. Its representatives gave presents to the Indians, advised them to treat for peace, were present in the interests of the Indians and of peace at various treaty councils, and finally were rewarded by seeing the savages bury their tomahawks and return to their wigwams in peace.* 8 Sharpless, Quaker Experiment, i : 179-184. For other au- thorities, including sources, see bibliographical note below, pp. 83-88. 68 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The immunity of the lives and property of Friends from Indian depredation during this war will be men- tioned in another connection. The charge that Friends in their zeal for peace were callous to the sufferings on the frontier cannot stand in the face of the follow- ing declaration of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (1756), the sincerity of which will never be doubted by a well-informed and unbiased student of history. " The melancholy afflicting Circumstances of the Settlers on the Frontier of these Provinces is a Sub- ject of deep and painful Exercise to every mind en- dued with Christian Tenderness and sympathy, and has engaged the earnest concern and prayers of many to be enabled steadily to wait for and receive a right understanding how to act in the divers methods pro- posed for their Relief, so as to manifest to the World that a desire to maintain the Testimony of Truth in- violate and to promote the spreading of the Gospell of peace is preferred by them to every temporal Con- sideration."^ The Quaker Peace Policy forever ended in Penn- sylvania in 1756 because after that time Friends never had a controlling voice in the government. One or two events subsequent to that date should, however, be mentioned in this connection. The minutes of the Friendly Association end in 1760 though its activities continued for a brief period after that time. It continued to provide material aid for the Indians and to send representatives to look after their interests when treaties were made. It apparently brought its efforts to a close in 1764 or shortly there- after. Nothing is heard of it at the Treaty of Fort 9 MS. Minutes, 1756. THE QUAKER PEACE. 69 Stanwix in 1768 when the final treaty was made that closed the Indian question until the time of the Revo- lution.^^ The so-called " Paxton Riot " is worthy of mention because at that time some of the younger and more exuberant members of the Society of Friends relaxed their peace principles and were very near to fighting for not against the Indians. In 1763 some Scotch-Irish frontiersmen of Pennsyl- vania, residing near the Susquehanna River, became incensed over some occasional Indian depredations on the frontier and murdered a small band of helpless Indians, mostly women and children, who lived peace- ably within the white settl^ements in Lancaster County. A little later a similar group of frontiersmen, several hundred in number, marched toward Philadelphia to visit like vengeance upon some Christian Moravian In- dians sheltered there, and incidentally upon any Quaker who might attempt to block the enterprise. The raiders were met near Philadelphia and induced to turn back by a deputation from the provincial gov- ernment, but not until many young Friends had armed themselves and joined the provisional militia raised in Philadelphia to ward off the threatened raid. The spectacle of armed members of the Society of Friends, taking refuge from the wintry cold within the meet- ing house, and stacking their arms in the gallery on this strange occasion, is an anomalous picture of Quaker devotion to the Indians and infidelity to the Friendly principle of peace. Some of the members involved in this affair later acknowledged their offence 10 Parrish, Friendly Assoc, 117-118. Sharpless, Quaker Ex- periment, 2 : 38. 6 70 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. and others were labored with by the Monthly Meeting of Philadelphia, apparently with not too great harsh- ness.^^ While the Friendly policy of peace with the Indians was worked out to best advantage in Pennsylvania, there is scattering evidence to show that southern Friends were not unmindful of the same testimony. John Archdale, the Quaker governor of the Caro- linas, made a treaty of peace and friendship with a coast tribe of Indians who had earlier practiced " bar- barous Cruelty on Men Castaway on their Coast," but who subsequent to the treaty astounded by their civility and kindness a company of shipwrecked whites who fell into their hands. A little later Archdale urgently advised against all wars and animosities among Christians who wished to influence the Indians rightly, for by such actions, he argues, the Christians discard " the essential Badge of Christianity, and so can never be Instruments to propa- gate the Gospel amongst the Heathen, who will never be won to the Gospel of Peace by the Banner [of] War."i2 In the Indian war, 1711-1713, Friends of North Carolina had to meet a difficult situation similar to the one faced by Pennsylvania Friends during the French and Indian War. In 1712 the Yearly Meeting of North Carolina, held at Perquimmans, aj>pointed a committee to attend the provincial assembly on ac- count of the Indian war and the consequent " distress and trouble which is Like to come upon Friends." 11 Sharpless, Quaker Experiment, 2 : 42-63. Same, in Jones, Quakers in Amer. Cols., 505-508. ^^ Hist. Collections of S. C, 2: 108-109, 117. THE QUAKER PEACE. 71 There is no further record on the subject and the above minute is rather obscure. It is probable, how- ever, that Friends wanted to influence the Assembly toward a speedy peace with the Indians, and to protest against compulsory military service. In the latter con- nection it is evident that Friends were troubled with some of their members, as were Friends of Philadel- phia half a century later. In 171 3 Eastern Quarterly Meeting expressed regret that some of its members had neglected the caution and advice of Friends and had obeyed " a law made in this country to oblige all free men between sixteen and sixty years of age to go to the Indian war or otherwise to forfeit five pounds." The available records are incomplete and do not show what punishment was meted out to the disobedient Friends, but the temper of the meeting is shown in the concluding portion of the same minute : "Yet we [do regret] nevertheless some have gone contrary to the command of Christ and the advice of their friends and brethren in the truth and sore dis- honoured their Head, themselves, their profession be- sides bringing of a burden upon others of the same profession in complying with the said law. Some see- ing and knowing this to be done do advise that those be dealt with in true love to make them sensible if it be in their power, of the wrong they have done them- selves and the church they do belong to and for them to give it satisfaction, as such an offence justly re- quires that the reproach may be removed and they received into unity."^^ After the Indian troubles at this period and the re- 13 MS. Minutes of respective meetings, 1712 and 4 mo. 27, 1713. 72 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. moval of the war-like Tuscaroras to New York, south- ern Friends enjoyed comparative immunity from the vexing problems entailed by Indian hostilities. How- ever, at the time of the American Revolution, there Is a minute of New Garden Monthly Meeting to show that the old peace testimony was not forgotten: "Abraham Potter offered a paper to this meeting condemning his misconduct of taking up arms to de- fend himself against the Indians which was read and accepted."^* Such was the Indian Peace Policy advocated by Friends as opportunity offered in public or private life in several of the American colonies north and south. One result of such advocacy, the preservation of Friends from Indian depredations, deserves more than passing mention. The fact is picturesque enough to invite over-empha- sis in history and probably too much has been made of it in the past. Probably more Friends suffered in Indian wars than is generally known. There were certainly more than Dymond cited in his Essay on War. It is probable that the present author has compiled an incomplete list and that historical investigation will discover further examples from time to time. Yet in order to arrive as nearly as possible at the truth of the matter it will be worth while to mention briefly the chief examples that have been recorded of the suf- ferings of Friends at the hands of the Indians. The earliest event of the kind discovered occurred in New England during the Indian disturbances of Queen Anne's War. Thomas Story was traveling in 1* MS. Minutes, New Garden Mo. Mtg., 9 mo., 1775. THE QUAKER PEACE. 73 New England at the time and tells of a man with whom he talked who had engaged in conversation with some Indians who declared they would never injure the peaceable Quakers. Three Friends, however, about 1704, in Massachusetts, two men and a woman, were killed by the Indians. Friends in general had re- frained entirely from carrying weapons or from taking refuge in garrisons. The two men in question broke away from this practice and carried guns, and the woman took refuge in a garrison. Whereupon the Indians, classing them with other militant whites, killed them in cold blood.^^ Again, about 1725, there was evidently some suf- fering by Friends at the hands of the Indians, for in that year and for one or two years following there are records in the minutes of Philadelphia Yearly Meet- ing of a collection of nearly a thousand dollars taken up for John Hanson, " of the eastern part of New England, whose wife, four children and a servant were carried off by the Indians and he had to ransom them at a great price."^^ Just prior to the Revolutionary War the Quaker frontier in Georgia began to waver somewhat on ac- count of the Indian troubles and meetings were held irregularly. The climax of the trouble came when Tamar Kirk Mendenhall and her eldest son were killed by the Indians and the youngest son held in captivity for about two years. It is probable, however, in this case also that these Friends did not uphold the usual Quaker testimony of fearlessness and trust, as they 15 Chalkley, Journal (1818 edn.), 58-65. Life of Thos. Story (1786 edn.), 187-190. 16 MS. Minutes of Phila. Y. M., 1 725-1 727. 74 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. had retreated from their homestead earHer in the year and had returned to gather the ripened grain when the tragedy occurred. It would seem from both of the above accounts that the safety of Friends lay in the consistent attitude of peace that set them apart in the eyes of the savages from all other white settlers. ^^ The above instances, of five persons killed and mem- bers of two families taken captive, all occurred in New England or the southern colonies where Friends had had no controlling voice in shaping the Indian policy. It is probable also that Friends suffered some- what, at least in property, at the time of King Philip's War in New England. In New Jersey, on the other hand, there never occurred an Indian war, and in Pennsylvania when the Quaker Peace Policy was finally overthrown by the non-Friendly authorities, the preservation of the lives and property of Friends was remarkable. The Indian hostilities that broke out on the Penn- sylvania border in 1755 came to an end, except for sporadic outbreaks, in 1757. The immunity of Friends during the war was beyond the faith of the Society. It is clear at the beginning of the war that Friends believed they would have to suffer along with others, the innocent with the guilty. It has been stated often, and, for the most part truly, that the Scotch-Irish and some Germans lived on the frontier, while Friends held the older settlements of Pennsylvania near the coast. On this account some critics have railed upon Friends because in their comparative security they were not willing to provide military defense for the 17 Weeks, So, Quakers, 1 18-120. See also The Magazine of History, Aug., 191 1, 17-23. THE QUAKER PEACE. . 75 exposed frontier. It has even been intimated that because of the safety of their own position they were the readier to avoid mihtary taxation.^^ Yet it seems very clear from the records that at the opening of the war there were Friends in the outlying settlements exposed to the Indians, and that the Society faced the possibilty and probability that they would suffer. In- deed, one of the land-mark events in the organization of the Yearly Meeeting came at this time and on this account. In 1756 the Meeting for Sufferings was es- tablished, chiefly because of the disturbances on the" frontier, and its first duty was " to Hear and Consider the Cases of any Friends under Sufferings, especially such as suffer from the Indians or other Enemies." In 1757 Friends of Philadelphia in their epistle to London Yearly Meeting said : " We can inform you with Thankfulness that the Losses and Sufferings of our Brethren on the Frontiers from the Indian En- emies have not been so great as we had cause to ap- prehend, the last year none being killed or taken Cap- tives that we have heard of."^^ While in a few instances aid was extended to Friends who suffered property loss, yet at the close of the Indian hostilities of this period, Israel Pember- ton, a leading Friend of Philadelphia and a prominent worker in the Friendly Association, could write in a personal letter : " Is it not a consideration worthy of thankful remembrance, that in all the desolation on our frontiers, not one Friend we have heard of, has been slain or carried captive, and we have reason to 18 For a general consideration of this and similar criticisms see General Note below, pp. 79-83. 19 MS. Minutes of Phila. Y, M., 1756. 76 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. think, both from their conduct in places where Friends were as much exposed as others and from their dec- larations to us, they would never hurt Friends if they knew us to be such."^^ In 1780, many years after the Quaker peace had come to an end, and when the Indians were inflamed by the ravages of a raiding army, occurred the famous captivity of the Gilbert family. During the preceding year General Sullivan of the American revolutionary army had swept from northeastern Pennsylvania into central New York, burning villages, destroying veg- etable and grain crops, girdling fruit trees, and leaving a wide path of desolation where had been the fruitful country of the Five Nations. During the following year broken bands of Indians took savage vengeance on the frontier settlements and plied the torch and tomahawk along the borders of New York and Penn- sylvania. Benjamin Gilbert and family, members of Richland Monthly Meeting, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, were residing at this time on Mahoning Creek, not far from the later city of Mauch Chunk. Their situation was quite exposed to frontier attacks and in the spring of 1780 the immediate family and a few others were taken captive by a roving band of Indian warriors. They were taken on a painful, heart-breaking march across central New York to Fort Niagara, often in ap- parent danger of death at the hands of their cruel captors. At Fort Niagara the English officers secured the release of Benjamin Gilbert and part of his family by purchase from the Indians. The other members of 20 Letter of 12 mo. 2nd, 1758, reprinted in The Friend, Phila., 46 (1873): 187. THE QUAKER PEACE. 77 the family eventually obtained their liberty and all re- turned to Pennsylvania, excepting Benjamin Gilbert who died shortly after his release by the Indians.^^ Such are the chief exceptions that seem to empha- size the rule that Friends were largely immune from Indian attacks because of their well known policy of peace and good-will toward the natives. That the In- dians did as a rule make a distinction between Friends and others can scarcely be denied. At a later date the Shawnee Indians, a tribe engaged in this war, stated explicitly in a message to Friends that in former days they knew members of the Society from the people of the world " by the simplicity of [their] appearance which in times of war had been a preservation to [them]. "22 An outgrowth of the Quaker Peace Policy that should be mentioned in conclusion was the custom practiced by Friends of attending treaties in order to safeguard the rights of the Indians. In 1701 William Penn had promised the Indians that he would give them counsel from time to time to promote their in- terests. Following this principle, when Friends lost 21 The Captivity and Sufferings of Benjamin Gilbert and His Family (edn. 1904), 25, ff. — There were at this period other scattering cases of Friends who suffered property loss as a result of Indian raids, and English Friends contributed to help make good such losses. — Notes of Norman Penney from MS. vols. " Letters to and from Phila." in Devonshire House, London. 22 Weeks, Southern Quakers, 131. — How early Friends counted on immunity from Indian attacks is quaintly told by William Edmundson. In a journey from Virginia to North Carolina, made against the advice of others, he passed unharmed through a dangerous Indian country. He had a distinct impression that if he refrained from the journey he would lose his life but if he went his way the Indians would not harm him. — Journal of William Edmundson (edn. 1820), 122-123. Also in Friends' Library, 2 : 123. 78 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. control of the executive branch of the Pennsylvania government and hence could not be represented offi- cially at treaties, they developed the custom of sending unofficial representatives. Sometimes the provincial authorities objected to this custom which seemed im- pertinent to them, but the Indians were glad to have Friends present, and in 1757 the great Delaware chief, Tedyuskung, refused to negotiate a treaty unless the Quakers were present.^^ This practice of attending treaties was continued by Friends during the nine- teenth century and became one of the typical methods by which the followers of William Penn showed their lasting desire to aid the American natives. So it was that the Quaker Peace Policy was carried out in Pennsylvania and exemplified in several other colonies. So it was broken down in the province of William Penn when his policy of justice and fair play came to an end. And so when the evil days came and the tomahawk was bared for its deadly work, the warring savages remembered and spared the children of " Onas." No more fitting conclusion to this part of the story could be written than the statement of Philadelphia Friends regarding Indian relations in 1717. Then, in the closing days of William Penn's life, his Peace Policy was yielding its best fruits. The happy situ- ation depicted and the desire expressed for the future Indian policy of the country speak with simple elo- quence and touching pathos in the light of later history. "As to . . . our conduct towards the Heathen, near or among whom it hath pleased God to cast our lot. We can truly say as it has been the care of Friends, 23 Proud, Hist, of Penna., 2: 61, Appendix. THE QUAKER PEACE. 79 even from their first settlement to behave with a godly and prudent Carriage towards them, in which our worthy friend William Penn, when here always set a noble and good example by his love, Justice, and tenderness towards the Indians, so that his memory is dear to them, and they love to speak of and hear his name. So it is the care of Friends in their several stations, and places what in them lies to continue the same, and we could heartily desire, that as the coun- try increases, all that come in among us, and the suc- ceeding Generations may not slacken in that respect. But look back on the great and remarkable Blessing, preservation and peace, which the hand of the Al- mighty has vouchsafed unto these Countrys as a con- tinual engagement upon the Inhabitants thereof." GENERAL NOTE. Adverse comment on the Quaker Indian policy in Penn- sylvania is to be found in the following works: Francis Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac (2 vol. edns.), i : 80-85. John Fiske, Beginnings of New England, 205-206. Same, Dutch and Quaker Colonies, 2: 160-167. Only the first named requires examination as Fiske merely gives a para- phrased restatement of Parkman's argument. Parkman makes two points. In the first place he as- serts that the Quaker policy was the only prudent policy under the circumstances : " It required no great benevo- lence to urge the Quakers to deal kindly with their savage neighbors. They were bound in common sense to pro- pitiate them; since by incurring their resentment, they would involve themselves in the dilemma of submitting their necks to the tomahawks, or wielding the carnal weapon, in glaring defiance of their pacific principles." It is hard to escape the conclusion that in this passage 80 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Parkman's renowned flow of rhythmic English carried him out of the course of good reason. To choose a policy consistent with one's principles has been only sel- dom regarded as cause for reproach. On the other hand, the prudence of the policy of justice and peace with the Indians was ever urged by Friends from their first settle- ment until now. The strange thing in the light of history is that so many communities for so long a period of time chose the other alternative of " submitting their necks to the tomahawk." It may be wondered whether some future hisrtorian will seek to strip the laurels from present day advocates of international peace because their oft iterated claim that peace is the most prudent policy shall be veri- fied by experience. Parkman's other point is that the Delaware Indians who treated with Penn were subject to the Iroquois and so dared not fight the Quakers. He says : " The humble Delawares were but too happy to receive the hand extended to them [by Penn], and dwell in friendship with their pacific neighbors; since to have lifted the hatchet would have brought upon their heads the vengeance of their conquerors, whose good-will Penn had taken pains to secure." Parkman makes much of this point, as does Fiske, both agreeing in the statement of the former that on this ac- count, "the position of the colony [Pennsylvania] was a most fortunate one." Yet to many it will be hard to understand why it was fortunate for the policy of Friends that they had two claimants to satisfy instead of one. Parkman tells us only in an inconspicuous footnote the method by which Penn " had taken pains " to secure the good-will of the Five Nations: "He paid twice for his lands: once to the Iroquois, who claimed them by right of conquest, and once to their occupants, the Delawares." The fact is that historians have pointed out again and again that while many white settlers in various colonies purchased lands from the Indians, Penn and the early THE QUAKER PEACE. 81 Friends went so far as to pay for lands twice if necessary, satisfying all reasonable claimants, and indulging in no sharp bargains that would cause chagrin to the Indians upon after consideration. If Friends were not sincere in proclaiming their ideal of peace and justice, if Penn "had taken pains" to secure the good-will of the Five Nations in order to take advan- tage of the " fortunate position " of his colony among the subjugated Delawares, why did he trouble himself to pay the latter for their lands? Why did he not use his influ- ence with the Iroquois to brow-beat and defraud the poor Delawares? This is exactly what happened when a pro- prietor succeeded who wished to profit by the " fortunate position" of the colony. Parkman tells the incident of the infamous Walking Purchase of 1737 (see above, p. 49) but neglects to say that the managing proprietor at that time was not a Friend and that the wrong then done to the Delawares was execrated by Friends at that time as it has been ever since. It would seem, therefore, that the " fortunate position " of Pennsylvania could redound to the selfish interest of the proprietors only when the policy of justice and fair play had been abandoned. For William Penn it only complicated the task and put his benevolent theories to the greater test. He must win the friendship of two groups of savages and satisfy double claims to his lands. A recent work (1911) by Charles A. Hanna, entitled the Wilderness Trail, is very bitter in its denunciation of the Quaker Peace poHcy with the Indians. The writer sympathizes entirely with the Scotch-Irish frontiersmen of Pennsylvania who suffered in the Indian wars. He advances the usual arguments against the Friends for failing to protect the people on the frontier. However, his bitter invective against the Quakers removes that por- tion of his work from the class of serious history. An example of his spirit is the following (i: 25): "These 82 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. men (the Paxtang Boys) and their neighbors are subject to another serious reproach. At least, if not a reproach, it is a matter of great wonder that these Scotch-Irish of the Pennsylvania frontier did not organize themselves into a lynching party nine years before the Conestoga massacre, . . . march to Philadelphia and forever destroy the Quaker government — a government which as early as 1751 had forfeited its right to existence by coolly inviting the sacrifice of the lives and fortunes of hun- dreds of its subjects, in order that the safely protected and over-righteous members of its own little clique might escape taxation for military purposes, and better the sup- posed chances for the salvation of their own tiny, pinched, and self-magnified souls." For criticisms of Hanna's anti-Quaker bias see the fol- lowing reviews: Nation, N. Y., 93 (1911) : 242-243. Athenaeum, London (July i, 191 1) : 7-8. From the latter may be quoted the following pertinent suggestions con- cerning the views of Parkman and his followers, includ- ing Hanna. "What was in 1755 a violent party view, with little force outside the coteries of a locality, received after the lapse of more than a century a new lease of life in the picturesque pages of Parkman, who is obsequiously fol- lowed (when not merely paraphrased and exaggerated) by all British writers on the subject and most American ones. But Parkman was by temperament, character, and choice of subject antipathetic towards the Quaker, pacific, or even political type of man; and so in regard to what was indeed a difficult question, with rights and wrongs on both sides, he did not even take the trouble to inform himself fully of the facts. That his * school ' should do so was not to be expected ; but Mr. Hanna has enough knowl- edge to be his own master. Yet among expressions of the Parkman view — expressions which heighten in tone at every repetition — none has pleased us so much as the additions here made. For instance, the ' Paxtang Boys,' THE QUAKER PEACE. 83 who in 1763 butchered some harmless Indian neighbors (mostly old people and children), are to blame for that excess, but also because they did not rather * march to Philadelphia and overthrow and forever destroy the Quaker government' (etc. as quoted above). . . . Now this is the very voice of Lancaster County, not to say of Paxtang Township. . . . The voice of truth on that mat- ter, we think, would sound less ringingly, and may yet be heard." Aside from the points mentioned above it has been asserted by Parkman and others that the Delaware In- dians were not a warlike tribe. To deduce this from the fact that for a period they were under subjection to the powerful Five Nations is loose reasoning. On account of their admitted priority of political rank the Delawares from early times were accorded the respectful title of " Grandfather " by all the Algonquian tribes and were called " Wolves " by the French. During the wars in the latter half of the eighteenth century these same Dela- wares threw off the Iroquois yoke, terrified the western frontier with their ferocity, and, according to one of the besrt modern authorities, "up to the treaty of Greenville in 1795 showed themselves the most determined opponents of the advancing whites." (Handbook of Amer. Indians, 1 : 385.) Even Parkman admits that at this time the Delawares " stood in high repute for bravery " and proved themselves " a race of formidable warriors." (Conspiracy of Pontiac, i : 31.) BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES FOR CHAPTERS II, III AND IV. Allinson, Samuel. Fragmentary History of the New Jersey Indians. 17 pp. 1875. Contains interesting facts about the New Jersey As- sociation for helping the Indians. 84 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Printed in Proceedings of N. /. Hist. Soc. (2d series) 4: 33-50- Applegarth, Albert C. The Quakers in Pennsylvania. In Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, vol. 10. Bait. 1892. In pp. 50-66 the author describes " The Attitude of Quakers towards Indians." BowDEN, James. History of the Society of Friends in America. 2 vols. London. 1 850-1 854. Contains many references to Indians, based upon source materials. Its usefulness lessened by lack of an index. Captivity and Sufferings of Benjamin Gilbert and His Family. Cleveland. 1904. Reprinted from an edition of 1784 with biographical data drawn in part from a re-written edition of 1848. Conduct of Friends towards the Indian Tribes. London. 1844. This little volume published by the Meeting for Suf- ferings of London Yearly- Meeting contains much valu- able information for the period prior to the time of its publication. Pages 19 to 113 tell much about the early preaching of Friends to the Indians, in most instances giving considerable quotations from early Journals, etc. For a list of other valuable publications on Indian affairs by the London Meeting for Sufferings see inside of title page to the above work. Fox, George. Journal. Cambridge edition. Edited by Norman Penney. 2 vols. 1911. This recent edition contains many passages omitted in former editions and omits other portions that never were a part of the Journal proper. On these accounts and because it is reprinted verbatim et literatim (as earlier editions were not) it should be the basis for any careful study. — See also " The American Journey of George Fox" in The Journal of The Friends' His- THE QUAKER PEACE. 85 torical Society, London, 9 (1912) : 4-52. From a MS. in the Bodleian Library. Friends' Library. 14 vols. Philadelphia. 1 837-1 850. Contains the journals and memoirs of several early Friends who visited the Indians. Jones, Rufus M., and others. The Quakers in the Amer- ican Colonies. 191 1. Now the standard work on Friends in America dur- ing the colonial period. To be continued to cover later periods. The part relating to New Jersey was written by Amelia Mott Gummere, and that relating to Pennsylva- nia by Isaac Sharpless. Journals and Lives of various Friends. See Friends' Library listed above and Smith's Cata- logue below. Lauber, a. W. Indian Slavery in Colonial Times. Vol. 54, No. 3, Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Columbia University. New York. 191 3. Minutes of yearly and other meetings of Friends. Where MS. minutes are cited they have been ex- amined by the author. The date is sufficient for finding any passage and where that is given in the text a foot- note citation is sometimes omitted. For the present location of the records of the various yearly meetings, see General Note on Bibliography at end of volume. New Jersey Archives (ist series). Vols. i-io. Newark, N. J. 1 880-1 886. These volumes (the first ten of a large series) con- tain reprints of official documents. See " Indians " in General Index. Norton, Humphrey, and others. New England's En- signe. 1659. Brief reference to relations of some early Friends with New England Indians. 86 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Parrish, Samuel. Some Chapters in the History of the Friendly Association. Philadelphia. 1877. Based upon the "Minute Book" of the Association and other valuable papers. The most complete work on the subject. Penn, William. Works. London. 1771. And other editions. This old collection contains little on Penn's Indian policy. The collection of Penn's Works now being prepared by Albert Cook Myers, Moylan, Pa., will be standard. Further letters and papers of William Penn are to be found in the following works: Hist. Soc. of Penna., Memoirs, vols, i, 2, 3, 9, 10. Vols. 9 and 10 contain the Penn-Logan correspondence. Hazard, Annals of Penna., 1850. Hazard, Register of Penna., 16 vols., 1828-1834. Penna. Records and Archives. See below. Proud, Hist, of Penna. See below. Penna. Magazine of Hist, and Biography. Especially vol. 10. Watson, Annals of Phila. 1830. Many of Penn's letters and papers will also be found in the biographies of him, especially that by Janney. Among the following biographies and memoirs of Penn those by Janney, Clarkson, and Dixon are the best: Belknap, Clarkson, Dixon, Eggleston, Ellis, Fisher, Janney. A thoroughly satisfactory life of William Penn is yet to be written. Pennsylvania Records, 16 vols. Archives (ist series), 12 vols. Philadelphia, Harrisburg. 1 852-1 856. These volumes form the standard collection of source materials on early Penna. history. There is a General Index that leads the reader to voluminous official rec- ords of Indian relations. THE QUAKER PEACE. 87 See also Votes of the Assembly, 1662-1/^6. 6 vols. 1 752-1 776. Charters and Laws, 1879. Statutes at Large, vols. 2-7, 1899. Proud, Robert. History of Pennsylvania. 2 vols. Phila- delphia. 1 797-1 798. A rare, old work, still very valuable. Contains many reprints of William Penn's letters and papers, and other original documents. Quaker Biographies. 5 vols. Philadelphia. 1909-1914. In vol. 3, pp. 1 10-139, are accounts of various visits to the Indians, especially by William Savery and Thomas Wistar. Sharpless, Isaac. A Quaker Experiment in Govern- ment. 2 vols. Philadelphia. 1 898-1 899. This work, of which several editions have been printed, is the standard work on Friends in Pennsyl- vania. The relations of Friends with the Indians are cov- ered quite fully in the following chapters : The Indians, Military Matters, Last Days of Quaker Control of the Assembly, The Friendly Association, The Paxton Riot. Smith, Joseph. Descriptive Catalogue of Friends* Books. 2 vols. London. 1867. A very full list of official and private publications by Friends. There is also a supplement published in 1893. Smith, Samuel. History of New Jersey. 1765. An old work but still invaluable for early New Jer- sey history. Contains much information on Friends and the Indians, including reprints of source material. Thomas, A. C, and R. H. A History of Friends in America. Revised and enlarged edition. Philadelphia. 1905. The standard one volume work on the subject. Thomson, Charles. Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawnese Indians. Philadelphia. 1759. Reprinted, 1867. 88 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Published anonymously. A careful and valuable contemporary examination of the injustice in land transactions, etc., practiced upon the Indians by the later proprietors and their agents, which led finally to the Indian war in Pennsylvania. Walton, Joseph S. Conrad Weiser. Philadelphia. 1900. This volume written by a Friend contains interesting facts illustrating the Quaker attitude toward the Indians. Weeks, Stephen B. Southern Quakers and Slavery. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. 1896. This standard work is based on primary materials, MS. Minutes of meetings, etc. It follows the migra- tions of Friends to the South and thence to the west, with frequent references to their relations with the Indians. CHAPTER V. TUNESASSA. In 1789 George Washington was inducted into office as the first President of the United States under the Constitution. One of the first and gravest problems with which he had to deal was the question of how to pacify the western Indians who were greatly agitated by the advance of white settlers across the Ohio. The administration decided to use a strong hand in bring- ing the Indians to terms and after six years of inter- mittent war and bloodshed a permanent peace was ar- ranged at Greenville (Ohio) in the summer of 1795. It was the Indian trouble of these years that led Friends to renewed activity in their efforts on behalf of the Indians. Individual Friends visited the In- dians in their homes and committees of Friends at- tended their treaty councils. The most important result of this renewed interest was however an advance from the earlier conception that all missionary efforts for the Indians must be the result of individual leading. Transition was made to the corporate "concern." In the years following 1795 various yearly meetings in their corporate capacity established mission stations among the Indians. The principal work of this kind carried on by Phila- delphia Friends and the only one supported officially by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting was among the Six Nations of Iroquois in southwestern New York. As 89 90 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. the national capital was located in Philadelphia during the decade 1 790-1 800 Friends had many opportunities for conferences with deputations of Indians that came to present their grievances and appeals to the Presi- dent and Congress. On occasion the Meeting for Suf- ferings drew up petitions to the national government on behalf of the Indians and thus, as the interest grew, Friends of Philadelphia entered upon a new era of activity in this field of service.^ Mention has heen made in an earlier chapter^ of the custom developed among Friends of the eighteenth century of attending Indian treaties. Pursuant to this custom a deputation of Friends, at the urgent request of the Indians, made a journey in 1793 to attend a treaty conference to be held at Sandusky, Ohio. Al- though little progress was made by the government at this time toward securing a general treaty yet the representative Friends had opportunity for consid- erable friendly intercourse with the Indians.^ Again the following year a treaty conference was held by the government with representative chiefs of the Six Nations at Canandaigua, New York, and a committee of Friends again attended.* An address prepared by the Meeting for Sufferings seemed to be much appreciated by the assembled Indians as was also the gift of various presents brought by the delegated Friends. The Indians made speeches to the Friends 1 For the chief sources of this chapter see Bibliographical Note at close of chapter. 2 See above, p. TJ. 3 Wm, Savery, John Parrish, John Elliott, Jacob Lindley, Joseph Moore and Wm. Hartshorne were the Friends who made this journey. See Phila. Y. M. Meeting for Sufferings, MS. Minutes, 3: 22(i ff. Also Conduct of Friends (1844), 101-106. 4 Wm. Savery, David Bacon, John Parrish and James Emlen. WILLIAM SAVERY (1750-1804) TUNESASSA. 91 and requested advice from them as difficulties arose during the progress of the negotiations for the treaty. It may be safely said that it was the impressions gained by the Friends present at this treaty that led to the permanent work of Philadelphia Friends among the Six Nations and their allied tribes. There amidst the rugged surroundings of an undeveloped country, encircled by the encamped representatives of the once powerful Six Nations a " weighty concern " settled upon the minds and spirits of the Friends present. " This evening Friends being quietly together," writes William Savery in his Journal, " our minds were se- riously turned to consider the present state of these six nations; and a lively prospect presented, that a mode could be adopted by which Friends and other humane people might be made useful to them in a greater degree than has ever yet been effected ; at least for the cause of humanity and justice, and for the sake of this poor declining people, we are induced to hope so. The prospect and feelings of our minds were such as will not be forgotten, if we are favoured to return home."^ True to the impression made upon them at this time the Friends made a stirring appeal in their report to the Meeting for Sufferings. After mentioning that the Indians still kept bright the memory of William Penn and reposed great confidence in the " children of Onas," the report continued : " Many are the dif- ficulties and sufferings to which the Indians are sub- jected, and their present Situation appears loudly to claim the Sympathy and Attention of the members of our religous Society and others who have grown 5 Wm. Savery, Journal (edn. 1844), p. 75, 92 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. numerous and opulent on the former Inheritence of these poor dedining People; we cannot but believe some mode may be fallen upon of rendering them more essential Service than has yet been adopted."^ It was this appeal that stirred the Meeting for Suf- ferings to propose further action to the following Yearly Meeting, held in 1795, and from that time until the present the Indian Committee of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting has been active in its field of service. The Yearly Meeting of 1795 at first appointed a large committee of forty-three members to give pre- liminary consideration to the subject and upon a favorable report by this committee, made while the Yearly Meeting was still in session, the first standing committee on Indian affairs was appointed. ''' The line of action to be pursued by the committee had been rather clearly marked out in advance. The need of the Indians for schools and for practical train- ing in agriculture and the mechanical arts was ap- parent. The great Seneca Chief Corn Planter had requested as early as 1791 that Friends take some Indian boys to the vicinity of Philadelphia to educate 6 Phila. Y. M. Meeting for Sufferings, MS. Minutes, 3 : 274- 275. 7 This latter Comm. was composed of 29 Friends as follows : John Parrish, John Elliott, John Spencer, jun., Anthony Johnson, John Stapler, Oliver Paxson, Joseph Trimble, James Emlen, Isaac Coates, Amos Harvey, Warner Mifflin, Samuel Howell, John Smith, Benjamin Clark, Benjamin Swett, John Hunt (of Evesham), James Cooper, Mark Miller, Wm. Hartshorne, Rich- ard Hartshorne, Thos. Wistar, Joseph Sansom, Wm. Savery, John Biddle, Thomas Harrison, Henry Drinker, Joseph Sloan, John Pierce, John Hunt (of Darby). This committee met Oct. 4, 1795, the day after its appointment, and organized with Thomas Wistar as Clerk and John Elliott as Treasurer. Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 3. TUNESASSA. 93 them, and a beginning- of this type of service had al- ready been made.® Other Indians had requested at various times that they be helped to provide schooling for their children and training for themselves in the arts of civilized life. During the treaty conference at Canandaigua in 1794 Sakarissa, a Tuscarora chief, had even made the concrete suggestion that Friends should send some of their young men among the Indians as teachers. Acting upon such suggestions the Committee pre- pared subscription blanks for the collection of funds, prefaced by an Epistle directed to the various Quar- terly and Monthly meetings and by extracts from various speeches and letters of appeal addressed to Friends by prominent Indians during the preceding years. The definite objective of the Committee in its initial plan is set forth in the following paragraph from this Epistle of 11/3/1795: "It is hoped that some sober well qualified friends will be drawn to unite with the Concern so far as to go among them for the purpose of instructing them in husbandry, and useful trades ; and teaching their children necessary learning that they may be acquainted with the Scriptures of truth, improve in the principles of Christianity, and become qualified to manage temporal concerns ; and it is ex- pected that the Committee will find it expedient to erect Grist and Saw Mills, Smith's shops and other necessary improvements in some of their villages. For the support of those who may be disposed to under- 8 About this period several Indian children received training in the homes of Friends in Pennsylvania. For the correspond- ence with Corn Planter see Phila. Y. M. for Sufferings, MS. Minutes, 3: 159, 161-163, 193. Also Conduct of Friends, 98-99. 94 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. take the performance of these services, due provision is intended to be made ; and any proposals from con- cerned friends will be received by Thomas Wistar of Philadelphia, our clerk, and laid before the Committee for consideration."^ This plan of blending religious and practical instruction is fairly typical of the work of the Philadelphia Committee. Before following these Friends to the permanent field of their labors among the Indians of New York, it may be remarked that the Philadelphia Committee has done a great deal, especially during the earlier years of its activity, for various tribes of Indians in many parts of the United States. Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws from the south ; Shawnees, Delawares, Miamis, Wyandots, Potawatomies, Ot- tawas, and Chippewas from the west ; all of these and others have received help. Often the representatives of these tribes laid their needs before the Committee in Philadelphia and secured the influence of Friends in their negotiations with the national government. Often they carried back to their distant homes letters of greeting and advice, or funds for use in an emer- gency, or tools and implements of husbandry. Many Friends of Philadelphia were encouraged by the Com- mittee to make journeys for religious or other service among distant tribes. Thus in various ways and at all times have the Friends of Philadelphia shown that their interest in the Indians was not circumscribed by the bounds of their special field of activity. Before entering upon the work for the Indians of New York the members of the Committee notified President Washington and other high officials of the 8 Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 5-6. TUNESASSA. 95 plans about to be put into operation. From these officials Friends received the most cordial encourage- ment and Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State, wrote a letter to the Six Nations heartily recommend- ing to them the motives and plans of Friends. The first settled missionary work of the Committee was among the Oneidas. After sending a circular letter to the various settlements of the Six Nations informing them of the desire to help them and after a visit of inspection and inquiry made by several Friends it seemed that the Oneida Indians offered the most open field of service for the time. Consequently in 1796 three Friends settled among these Indians and began the experiment of teaching them the ways of civilized life. A little later other Friends were en- gaged at the same station, among them a blacksmith fully provided with the tools of his trade. Other tools and implements of general husbandry were also pro- vided for the instruction of the Indians, and the women Friends who resided at the mission home made progress in training the Indian women in the arts of house-keeping. Premiums were offered with good effect to excite competition among the Indian men in the raising of crops and among the women for the weaving of woolen cloth. Schools were also main- tained for a time with the support of Friends among the Oneidas and also among the Stockbridges who were settled on the Oneida reservation. The work at this place lasted for three years. Toward the end of that period Friends began to feel that the Oneidas had been instructed sufficiently to enable them to improve rapidly if they would but apply themselves. Some of the Indians too had be- 96 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. come suspicious that Friends would ultimately bring claims against them for the services rendered and it was thought that such suspicions could best be allayed by withdrawing presently from the field. Moreover the Yearly Meeting of New York was becoming inter- ested in the Indians of that vicinity and Philadelphia Friends were already extending their interest to the Seneca tribe farther west in the same state. Therefore the station among the Oneidas was closed in 1799. The blacksmith's tools and various implements of hus- bandry were given as presents to the Indians and after mutual expressions of good-will the resident Friends took leave of the Oneidas.^^ As heretofore mentioned, Friends had already been interested for some time in the Seneca Indians. The Seneca Chief Corn Planter lived on the Allegheny River in northwestern Pennsylvania about five miles south of the New York line.^^ Other villages of Senecas were located farther up the Allegheny River and in adjacent parts of western New York. Early in 1797 Friends were considering what their duty might be toward these Indians^^ and about the middle of the following year several Friends made their way into that country. The first settlement of Friends among the Senecas was made at Genesanguhta, now Old Town, a few miles north of Corn Planter's village and within the state of New York. Three young Friends, Joel 10 The Friends engaged at Oneida station at various times were : Jacob Taylor, Henry Simmons, Jr., Josiah Rowland, Jona- than Thomas, Wm. Gregory and wife, Enoch Walker, and Han- nah Jackson. 11 See above, p. 92. 12 Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 50. TUNESASSA. 97 Swaine, Henry Simmons, Jr., and Halliday Jackson were the first workers in this field,^^ and were accom- panied on their journey by Joshua Sharpless and John Pierce. It is said that Cattaraugus County, New York, within which they settled had never before had a white inhabitant. At all events it was an arduous journey made by these Friends to Pittsburgh and thence up the Allegheny River. At Corn Planter's vil- lage they accepted the friendly hospitality offered by the great chieftain and enjoyed some friendly inter- course with the Indians, even if the meal cakes dipped in bear's fat did not appeal greatly to their appetites. The location at Old Town was finally settled upon and the two older Friends returned to Philadelphia by way of the mission station among the Oneidas.^* The work at Old Town continued through a period of six years. As at the Oneida mission effort was made to teach the Indians the ways of civilized life and at the same time to influence them religiously. Pre- miums were offered for progress in agriculture and by precept and practice the resident Friends tried to draw the Indians from the careless, improvident ways of the hunter's life. As Friends became more familiar with the situation it became apparent that a more favorable location could be selected and in 1804 the mission station was removed further up the Allegheny River. " On view- ing a creek called Tunesassah," report the prospecting Friends who were seeking a new location, " which falls 13 Other workers later engaged at Old Town were John Pen- nock, Jacob Taylor, Jonathan Thomas and Vincent Wiley. 14 A large part of the Journal kept by Joshua Sharpless during this journey is to be found in The Friend (Phila.), 21 (1847): 14 ff. 98 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. into the Allegheny River on the East Side about two miles above Genesinguhta (Old Town), we found sufficient water to work a saw mill and a convenient situation to build one, about half a mile from the In- dian reservation, and navigable for Canoes to and from the River at many seasons. "^^ Here at Tune- sassa the new station was located and this vicinity has been the special field of labor of the Philadelphia Com- mittee since that time. It is not possible within the scope of this treatise to give a detailed history of the work at Tunesassa. Only some of the landmark events can be noticed in passing. A tract of almost 700 acres was purchased of the Holland Land Company and early in 1805 a saw and a grist mill were in operation. Workers came and went, delegations from the committee in Philadelphia journeyed to the far away station to study the work at first hand, and gradually the Indians became familiar with the methods of civilized life and the aspirations of the Christian faith. It was Joseph Elkinton who established the school for Indian boys at Tunesassa. Although there was much opposition at first on the part of some Indians the school finally became a permanent part of the mis- sion work. At first Joseph Elkinton tried to hold the school on the Indian reservation as it would there be nearer to the homes of the children. The opposition of the conservative party among the Indians was how- ever too great and in 1822 the school was established on the mission grounds.^^ Three years later Mary* 15 Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 189-190. 16 Joseph Elkinton taught a school at Cold Spring as early as 1816. — Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 18. TUNESASSA. 99 Nutt, afterward the wife of Joseph Elkinton, estab- lished a school for girls. These schools were not greatly appreciated by the Indians and often had very few scholars, the boys' school even being entirely with- out attenders at some periods. In the period just following 1830 the Indians were much disturbed by the plans of the government for removing various tribes beyond the Mississippi River and the situation at Tunesassa became so discouraging that all mission work was suspended for a period of five years beginning in 1831. During this period various Friends visited the In- dians in the vicinity and kept in touch with the situ- ation, with the result that conditions seemed favorable for reopening the work in 1836. In 1843 Robert Scotton who for a long period was active and zealous in the Indian work ended a period of service at Tunesassa and his place was taken by Ebenezer Worth who was sometimes referred to as the John Woolman of his day. Under the regime of Ebenezer Worth schools were maintained at Horse- shoe Bend and at Corn Planter's village while he per- sonally taught one at Cold Spring. About 1850 Friends began to feel distinctly the dis- advantages of a day school, that had to depend on the caprice of the Indian children and their parents for attendance. Consequently in 1852 a Boarding School was opened at Tunesassa which accommodated six girls as boarders besides about thirty other Indian chil- dren who attended as day scholars. Thus began a type of work which has been enlarged and improved and which has been without doubt the most successful method developed at the mission station. The school 100 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. plant has been changed and enlarged on several occa- sions and after it was burned down in 1886^^ a com- modious two story building was erected at a cost of something more than twelve thousand dollars. This building too has been improved and enlarged until it offers accommodations at the present time for about fifty-five scholars aside from the apartments devoted to teachers and helpers. The work at Tunesassa has now entered well upon the second century of its history but even yet it is im- possible to measure its value with a proper perspective. The work has been slow and at times discouraging as all mission work among the Indians has been. Yet some idea of the progress may be gained from reports of the work at various stages in its history. Some glimpse of the life of the Indians when Friends first went among them may form a background for viewing their later improvement. John Phillips, with Isaac Bonsall and Halliday Jackson, visited the In- dians near the mission in 1806 and wrote as follows of their situation : " Many of their houses have earthen floors with some boards along each side, with some deer skins spread over them, which serve for beds and seats to sit on. When they eat they set a dirty looking bowl made of bark in the middle of the floor ; each one comes and cuts a piece and takes it in his hands and sits down again with the pigs and dogs (of which they have abundance) running about the floor. . . . Here and there as we travelled about we saw and were in divers of their old bark cabins. It is wonderful to 17 This fire occurred just at the close of the service of Aaron P. and Eunice Dewees who served the mission long and accept- ably as Superintendent and Matron. TUNESASSA BOARDING SCHOOL TUNESASSA. 101 think how anybody could live in them through the winter without being frozen. "^^ That such conditions rapidly yielded to the ways of civilized life is indicated by a letter addressed to the Philadelphia Committee by some of the Chiefs in 1816. Robert Clendenon and his wife and daughter who had been residing at Tunesassa were leaving at that time and the letter was written in part to express the regret of the Indians at their departure. The Chiefs ex- pressed sorrow that they and their people were so slow to learn and so quick to depart from the right way even after it had been pointed out to them. Yet they made it clear that some progress was being made : " It is in- deed a long time, almost twice ten years, since you first held out your hand to assist us, and though we have not improved so fast as you might have expected ; yet your labor has not all been lost. When your friends first sat down among us, we had not one comfortable shelter to accommodate them with ; now, we have many warm and pleasant, and some spacious and even elegant dwellings ; many of our women can spin and have wheels in their houses, and a number of us have good shelter and provender for cattle, besides corn, potatoes, and many other useful vegetables in abun- dance."^^ The manifold attempts and the resourceful methods employed to interest and instruct the Indians cannot be more than illustrated here. The devotion of Robert Scotton was shown in his patient attempts to instruct the Indian boys in the use of tools, especially those of 18 Phila. Y. M. Iiidn. Comm., Filing Case, Misc. Papers, 1803- 1815. ^0 The Friend (Phila.), 78 (1904): 91. 8 102 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. the wheelwright. The vision of Joseph Elkinton was great enough to move him to the attempt, not per- manently successful, of founding as early as 1825 an "Aboriginal Agricultural Society" among the Indians. The Indian women too received a full share of in- struction and encouragement especially from the women Friends who visited at the mission station or resided there for some period. Spinning, weaving, knitting, cooking and general house work were the arts taught to the Indian women. Thomazine Valentine was one of the most devoted of the women Friends engaged in this work and one of her letters of 1866 portrays the progress that had been made at that period : " I have felt comforted in visiting the Indians this time, and feel there is cause of thankfulness, that the Lord has opened the hearts of the Indian women so generally to attend to what has been told them in regard to keeping better houses, and not taking of- fense. When I first saw them, there were only a few right clean houses — now the clean ones quite outnum- ber the dirty ones. It used to be a very usual thing to find their houses wuth the dishes not washed; beds not made, nor houses swept. I think I have not found more than two of that kind this time, and the women were in poor health in both cases. "-^ The improvement of the children in the elements of learning and of some of the older Indians in the prac- tical duties of life are both illustrated in the following extract from a well written essay of the year 1879 ^Y Lydia Jackson who was a scholar at Tunesassa and later a teacher among the Indians. Speaking of the progress of her people in agriculture she cites the fol- 20 Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, 4: 159. TUNESASSA. 103 lowing examples : " Thomas Jemison of Cattaraugus Reservation who raises annually a thousand bushels of wheat, John Mt. Pleasant of Tuscarora Reservation who raised last year fifteen hundred bushels of oats and sixteen hundred bushels of wheat, five hundred barrels of apples, three hundred barrels of peaches and beside other fruits in abundance, he has a beautiful farm of two hundred acres. He owns two reapers, one mowing machine and two threshing machines. His wife who is a Seneca woman keeps the house neat and in order. They milk ten cows."-^ While the above illustrations of successful farming were not taken from Allegheny Reservation yet they serve to illustrate the general progress of the New York Indians in which the mission at Tunesassa was having a worthy part. In religious matters the advancement of the Indians was also slow but apparently sure. While Friends were giving practical instruction in agriculture and the mechanical arts they always had as their ultimate ob- ject the religious development of their wards. The Indian boys and girls in the schools read the Scriptures and memorized portions of them. It is said that the Indian girl Lydia Jackson, mentioned above, at one time committed to memory in about two hours a chap- ter of the New Testament containing forty-two verses. After the Boarding School was opened in 1852 there was greater opportunity to influence the children in a religious way by precept and example, in the class room, in the meeting for worship, and in the daily round of work about the mission buildings and farm. While many of the Indians thus influenced become 21 The Friend (Phila.), 78 (1905) : 406-407, 104 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. only nominal Christians yet there are numerous ex- amples of those who have become truly devout in pro- fession and life and have developed a profound ap- preciation of spiritual values. One such Indian woman became a member of the Society of Friends in 1882 and many others in their lives and in their deaths have manifested a genuine Christian faith. ^^ The work of Friends for the Seneca Indians was not confined to those who lived in the immediate vicinity of Tunesassa. As early as 1799 some of the same tribe living on the Cattaraugus River about forty miles northwest of Tunesassa, applied for help in set- ting up a saw mill. This request was promptly com- plied with by the Committee and in the following years a growing interest was manifested in the Cattaraugus Indians. In 1803 the Friends who selected the mission site at Tunesassa continued their journey and visited some of the Senecas farther north. ^^ As a result of this visit some help was extended to the Senecas at Tonawanda, and a considerable work was begun for the Cattaraugus Indians at Clear Creek. At the latter place about 500 acres of land were purchased in 1808 and the next year, a house having been built, several Friends went to occupy it and aid the Indians in their attempt to adopt a settled agricultural life.^* Saw and grist mills were erected on the property for the use of the Indians and care was taken to instruct the Indian women in the arts of domestic life. At times in the early years the Indians at Cattaraugus became sus- 22 Lives and Happy Deaths of Some Indians Deceased, 19-32. 23 Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 196 f. 24 Benj. Coope, Jacob Taylor, Stephen Twining and Hannah Jackson arrived at Clear Creek in 1809. Phila. Y. M. Indian Comm., MS. Minutes, i : 301. TUNESASSA. 105 picious for fear Friends would at some time bring a claim against them for services rendered but by send- ing written assurances to the contrary the Committee was able to quiet these fears. In 1815 a part of the land held by the Committee was sold to Jacob Taylor, one of the Friends who had been stationed at the mission. The land sold contained the mills and these were thenceforth operated as private property although it was provided in the terms of sale that the Indians should have their grist ground for one year free of toll. Jacob Taylor continued his in- terest in the welfare of the Indians and for several years after the extensive service of the Committee at Cattaraugus was ended (in 181 5) he continued as agent and correspondent for the Committee. For a short time the Committee supplied a teacher for the Cattaraugus Indians but the attempt was dis- continued because the Indians were not united in sup- port of the school. In 1821 even the agency of Jacob Taylor was dis- continued and although the balance of the land owned by the Committee was not disposed of for about thirty years thereafter, the active efforts of the Committee in that section were discontinued. Thus far this account of the work done by the Phila- delphia Committee for the Seneca Indians has been largely confined to the history of the mission establish- ments at Tunesassa and Cattaraugus. Yet that is only part of the story. No phase of the Indian's life and interests was without the pale of Friendly interest and no corresponding opportunity to aid the Indians was lost. At Corn Planter's village, Tunesassa, Clear Creek, Tonawanda, Buffalo Creek, indeed wherever the 106 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Indians were in need, they found the Quakers ready to aid them with advice, money, tools, or influence with officers of the government. In rehgious matters the influence of those regularly in charge at the mission was supplemented by efforts of visiting Friends and by letters of advice and ad- monition sent by the Committee at Philadelphia. Dur- ing the war of 1812 Friends used every endeavor to dissuade the Indians from taking part in the hostilities. Another subject of vital concern to Friends was the use of alcoholic liquors by the Indians. In season and out of season were the natives admonished to abstain from this evil. Against punishments for witchcraft and against laxity in observance of marital bonds Friends constantly used their influence. In the early years of the Committee many Indian children were trained in the homes of Friends and at all periods the Committee was ready to aid the Indians in securing fair treatment in their dealings with the white man and the white man's government.^^ This brief account of the work of the Philadelphia Committee may be appropriately closed by a consid- eration of the present status and problems of the mis- sion at Tunesassa. The work is still carried on under the direction and by the support of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting al- though during the past forty years most of the super- intendents and helpers at the mission have come from western states, notably Ohio. 25 In the years 1838-1842 the Phila. Comm, had a part in try- ing to protect the Senecas in the possession of their New York lands. This work was chiefly done however by Liberal Friends. See below, pp. 1 19-124. TUNESASSA. 107 The regular expenses for maintaining the school during the year 1916-1917 amounted to about $8,000. Of this sum $3,500 was appropriated by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting and the balance was met largely by the income from permanent investments, and the profits from the operation of the mission farm. Aside from regular expenses the sum of $1,516.25 was ex- pended for a new electric light plant. One of the interesting activities at the mission in recent years has been the development of a splendid herd of cattle with attention given to modern methods of feeding and the care of the milk. A butter making business is carried on and this serves as a useful object- lesson not only to the pupils but also to the older In- dians who visit the school. Various improvements have been made from time to time in the general equipment of the establishment. The attendance is usually about fifty, quite equally divided between boys and girls, and in recent years the applications for admission have at times exceeded the capacity of the school. Most of the pupils come from the Allegheny and Cattaraugus reservations. A problem has developed with the extension of the public school system among the Indians. The tendency has arisen to send the older children to the public day schools in order to have them at home outside of school hours. As a result it is largely the younger children that are sent to the Friends' boarding school. Such pupils are not so well able to help in the daily work of the farm and mission home as were the older pupils of an earlier period. Nor do their parents usually leave them in the school long enough for them to receive the full influence for good that is desired by Friends. 108 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. One of the latest tendencies in the management of the school has been to extend and systematize the in- struction in the useful industrial arts. Manual train- ing for the hoys and practical domestic science for the girls have proved useful as well as popular studies for the pupils. A recent superintendent writes, " The boys scarcely can wait for their turn in the shop." In the case of the girls the training in domestic science is at least partially overcoming the difficulty mentioned above by holding them in the school longer than they would otherwise remain. So the modern move toward Industrial training is being promptly adopted by the Indian school at Tune- sassa and other contemplated improvements promise to hold the instruction there abreast of the times.^^ Such is the story, briefly told, of the work done since 1795 by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting through its " Committee for Promoting the Improvement and Gradual CiviHzation of the Indian Natives." This work, be it remembered, has been done at all periods in the face of the great discouragements always incidental to such a task. The object of this sketch has been to record the things accomplished. Yet the Friends who did the work were often well nigh overwhelmed by a realization of what they failed to accomplish. Often the Indians were too lazy or too prejudiced to desire the ways of civilized life. At times during the first three or four decades of the work the old conservative pagan faction among the Indians seemed determined and well nigh able to checkmate all efforts toward civil- 26 The above sketch of the recent developments at Tunesassa has been compiled from the annual Reports of the Phila. Indian Comm., printed in the Extracts from the Minutes of Phila. Yearly Meeting. TUNESASSA. 109 ization and Christianity. Again individual Indians who had received training at the school or helpful ad- vice in the community v^ould lapse hopelessly into the old shiftless savage life. Yet on the whole it is im- possible to read the description of the situation as it was found in 1798 and know the Indians as they are to-day without realizing that Friends have builded well in their work among the Allegheny Senecas. Within the Committee of Philadelphia Yearly Meet- ing during the past few years there has developed a desire to foster more actively the religious and spir- itual life of the Indian children in the school and of the adult Indians and their families generally. This desire has had cordial response from the workers at Tunesassa several of whom in the more recent period have been members of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. The following quotation may serve as a fitting close to the story of this work. It is the expression of the first generation of those who undertook the task. It shows that they understood the difficulties confronting them and that their perseverance and faith were not unequal to the task : "In the Prosecution of a Work like this, subject to Impediments thro' the Prejudice of long established Habits and the common Disinclination of the Natives to Industry, the Progress may seem slow and its Ef- fects but little, yet patient Perseverance being abode in, an unshaken Hope is at Times vouchsafed, that as the Concern did not originate in the devices of human Wisdom, He that hath begun it will, as we are subject to the Leadings of his holy Spirit, be pleased to carry it on and bless it to that People. "^'^ 27 Phila. Y. M. for Sufferings, MS. Minutes, 4: 155, In an epistle of 1809 to the London Mtg. for Sufferings. 110 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. The chief manuscript materials for the field covered in this chapter are: the Minutes (1795 following) of the Indian Committee of Phila. Yearly Meeting; the Minutes (especially for the period 1790-1795) of the Meeting for Sufferings of Phila. Yearly Meeting; several filing cases of misc. papers of Indian Comm. of Phila. Y. M.; Indian Records 1 502-187 s, 9 vols., being MS. transcripts of misc. papers prepared by Joseph S. Elkinton. — These manuscripts are preserved in a vault on the Yearly Meeting grounds at Fourth and Arch Sts., Philadelphia. The printed materials that have been useful are: The Conduct of Friends (1844), see Bibliographical Note at close of Chapter IV above; occasional pamphlets pub- lished by Phila. Y. M. descriptive of its work for the Indians, as listed in Smith, Catalogue of Friends' Books, vol. I, pp. 783-785 ; also an account by George J. Scatter- good printed in The Friend, Phila., vol. yy (May 21, 1904) to vol. 79 (Aug. 12, 1905) ; a briefer account by Joseph Elkinton in The Friend, Phila., vol. 87 (1914), p. 458 ff. ; see also Buffalo Hist. Soc. Publications, 18: 169-189; various short biographies and other treatises at the Friends' Book Store, 304 Arch St., Philadelphia. CHAPTER VL FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. When the Friends of Philadelphia were aroused to further efforts for the Indians in 1793 they communi- cated their " concern " through their Meeting for Suf- ferings to other Yearly Meetings. So it came about that Friends in other parts had their interest in the In- dians renewed and by 1795 a general advance move- ment of the work of Friends for the Indians was under way. The result of this new movement in the establish- ment of a work among the Indians of Ohio and other parts of the west will be described in subsequent chap- ters. The further work in the east was that under- taken by New England Yearly Meeting on behalf of certain New England tribes, and by New York Friends for some of the tribes of that state other than those under the special care of the Philadelphia Committee. The desire to aid the Indians who were in need arose in New England Yearly Meeting in 1795, and for six years thereafter the matter received the atten- tion of New England Friends. The Meeting for Suf- ferings^ gathered information about the condition and needs of the Indians in New England but no plan was evolved for a permanent work among them.^ 1 The Meeting for Sufferings was the administrative com- mittee that handled the affairs of the Yearly Meeting in the in- tervals between the annual sessions. 2 However, a special committee of the Meeting for Sufferings 111 112 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. During the first two decades of the nineteenth cen- tury Friends of New England gave their special at- tention to the matter of establishing a school for the education of their own children. Yet they were not entirely forgetful of the Indian question and in 1818 promptly accepted a suggestion from Baltimore Friends and prepared accordingly a memorial to the federal government calling attention to the needs and rights of the Indians.^ The most important work of New England Friends for the eastern Indians was for the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes of the state of Maine.* The attention of the Yearly Meeting was turned to the Penobscot Indians^ in 1820 at the suggestion of the Governor of Maine and a work was begun with the co- reported (Jan. 1801) having expended $189.55 to help five fami- lies of Narraganset Indians remove to some lands provided for them among the Oneidas in New York. — This special committee seems to have been the first Indian Comm. of New Engd. Y. M. and was composed of Wm. Knowles, Thos. Wilber, and Thos, Howland. 3 This memorial, dated 10/9/ 18 18, was drawn up by Wm. Rotch, Jr., Abm. Shearman, Jr., and Thos. Arnold, and was signed by Saml. Rodman, Clerk of the Mtg. for Sufferings. — There is almost classic beauty in the spirit and words of the memorial as witness the closing statement : " And it is our fervent desire and prayer to Almighty God, the father and preserver of the whole human family, that he would enlighten the minds of our Rulers, clearly to see, and inspire their hearts with a disposition to pursue that perfect rule of justice and charity, which would preserve the character of our own Country pure and unsullied by any imputation of unjust or ambitious motives." 4 Work for the Indians west of the Mississippi River claimed the attention of New England Yearly Meeting from the year 1837 onward. See below. 5 The Penobscot and Passamaquoddy Indians are the most im- portant tribes within the State of Maine. The U. S. Census of 1910 gives their numbers as 253 for the Penobscot and 381 for the Passamaquoddy tribe. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 113 operation of two Friends, Samuel F. Hussey and Jackson Davis, who were Indian Agents of that state. At that time the hunting and fishing pursuits of the Penobscot Indians were faihng to produce a Hvehhood and Friends by various means encouraged the In- dians to take up a settled life of agricultural pursuits. Members of the Yearly Meeting Committee visited the Indians at proper seasons to help them in seeding and to instruct them in the care of crops. In one of the early years a present of windows and nails was made to a progressive Indian family engaged in building a frame dwelling house.^ The Indians were also in- structed and encouraged in their religious life although the work of Friends in this direction was somewhat limited by the fact that the Penobscots and Passama- quoddies adhered largely to the Catholic faith. Ear- nest efforts were however made by Friends to dissuade the Indians from the use of liquor which in Maine as elsewhere was the ever present curse of the natives. The interest which was aroused for the Passama- quoddy tribe about 1838 continued unabated although members of the committee could not often visit them on account of their distant location on the far eastern borders of Maine. In the last two decades of the work in the field the committee was especially interested in visiting the In- dian schools and encouraging that phase of the work in every possible way. Finally, however, the opportuni- ties for usefulness seemed to be more and more limited and in 1879 the committee at its own request was re- leased from further service."^ 6 Report of 1825. 7 Stephen Jones and John D. Lang were active members of the committee through all the later years of this work. A number of Women Friends were added to the Committee in 1875, 114 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. While no regular mission station or school was established by Friends among the Indians of Maine there is little doubt that the visits and counsel of the representatives of New England Friends were of real help to the Indians in the critical stage of their tran- sition to the settled habits and activities of civilized Hfe.« New York Yearly Meeting. The other and greater field of Friends' missionary activity for the eastern Indians was among those of New York state. Here to the war famed tribes of the Six Nations came the Friends of New York and Phila- delphia on their errands of peace and good will.^ Philadelphia Friends did their permanent work among the Senecas in the western part of the state, as de- scribed in the preceding chapter. New York Friends labored among the tribes farther east. The attention of New York Friends was directed to the Indian situation in 1793 by a letter from the Meet- ing for Sufferings of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. The way did not seem open for any service at that time but two years later the Yearly Meeting took up the " concern " by appointing a committee to cooperate with the Meeting for Sufferings in dealing with the subject.^^ In order to get the needful information a few 8 Authorities consulted for the above sketch of the work of New England Y. M. : MS. Records of the Yearly Meeting and the Meeting for Sufferings down to 1846; after that the printed Minutes of the Yearly Meeting. 8 For the work of New York and Phila. Friends for the west- ern Indians see below, p. 147 and chapters VIII and IX. 10 New York Yearly Meeting, MS. Minutes, i : 351. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 115 Friends made an extended tour of the Indian settle- ments in the state and made a full report of conditions as they found them.^^ In the years immediately fol- lowing this visit, members of the Indian Committee and other Friends made frequent visits among the Indians, encouraging them in their efforts for religious and economic advancement and studying their situ- ation with a view to a more definite work among them. This more definite work was begun in 1807 when a Friend, John Dean, and his family were secured by the Committee to reside among the Brotherton In- dians. This policy of having some Friends reside among the Indians proved very helpful and was there- after adopted by the committee whenever finances and other conditions warranted it.^^ The decade following 1807 was the period of great- est prosperity for the work of New York Friends for the Indians of that state. Friends became interested especially in the Oneida, Onondaga, Stockbridge, and Brotherton Indians.^^ 11 For report of this committee see N. Y. Yearly Meeting, MS. Minutes, i : 342-349. See also Friends Review^ 5 (1852) : 778 ff. 12 Other Friends who resided among the Indians at various periods were : Absalom and Ruth Hatfield, Charles Willetts, and Adin T. Cory and family. The MS. Minutes refer to others with- out mentioning their names. 13 The Brotherton and Stockbridge bands were Algonquian Indians from New England settled on Oneida lands at the invita- tion of the latter nation. The Oneidas and Onondagas were Iro- quoian and members of the Confederacy of the Six Nations. Mention was made in the preceding chapter, p. 96, of how Friends of Phila. transferred their work from the Oneidas to the Senecas when New York Friends became interested in the for- mer nation. During this period (in 1826 and 1827) Thomas Shillitoe, an English Friend, visited and preached to several of the Indian tribes in New York and Canada. — See Friends' Li- brary, 3 : 364-383. 116 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Various were the activities of Friends among these tribes. At times a school was taught by a Friend or the committee would aid in the support of a school taught by an educated Indian. Much instruction was given to the Indians in methods of agriculture and farming implements were furnished on occasion. "Brothers," wrote the Onondagas in 1811, "we are in want of cattle, chains, ploughs, and all kinds of farm- ing utensils, ... we have opened our eyes — we now see that we must work. We are willing to work; we begin to raise wheat and will do more if we can get help." To this appeal Friends responded in goodly measure. Oxen and tools were supplied in this in- stance, and at another time sheep were purchased and loaned to various Indian families in succession until each could get started in sheep husbandry. A black- smith was sent out to teach the Indians his trade. At the same time women Friends devoted them- selves to the instruction of the Indian women who were taught to sew, spin, weave, cook, and carry on the various concerns of the household. At one time two Indian girls were taken by the committee to be educated in the vicinity of New York and several girls were at one time placed for training in the homes of various Friends. The variety of the services rendered by Friends may be further illustrated by the fact that at one time about one thousand Oneida and Stockbridge Indians were vaccinated through the efforts of Friends on ac- count of a small-pox epidemic. Moreover, again and again were the Indians counseled and exhorted to stop the ravages of alcohol among themselves by turn- ing their backs upon that ever present curse of the Red Man. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 117 Nor were the efforts of Friends confined entirely to the tribes mentioned above. The Montauk and Shinne- cock Indians on Long Island, the Tonawandas and other branches of the Seneca nation in western New York, received advice or material assistance as occa- sion required. Of all the Indians aided by New York Friends the Onondagas seemed to respond most encouragingly to the efforts of the committee. Over and over again the committee reported the good results obtained among this nation of the Iroquois, especially mention- ing the almost total absence of intemperance among them. It was among these Indians that Adin T. Cory and his family did a splendid work during the later years of the committee's efforts. In 1825 some repre- sentatives of the committee visited these Indians and reported that considerable quantities of grain had been sold by this nation over and above the amount needed for their own consumption. The Indian girls were also showing much progress in spinning, weaving, and other domestic industries.^* About 1820 there began to be great unsettlement among the Indians of New York on account of the pressure being brought to bear upon them to move with other Indian tribes to lands in the western states and territories. This agitation soon began to interfere with the work of Friends among them and by 1830 most of the Indians among whom the Friends of New York had so long labored had left their old homes and followed the westward trail.^^ 1* N. Y. Yearly Meeting, MS. Minutes, 3: 41, 15 The principal source materials used in the foregoing ac- count were the manuscript Minutes of New York Yearly Meeting and of the Indian Committee of the same Yearly Meeting. 9 118 friends and the indians. Efforts of Liberal Friends. At the same time that the Indians were becoming unsettled by the westward movement the Society of Friends was divided into two opposing factions by the unhappy separation of 1828. In New York Yearly Meeting the Liberal branch of Friends received the funds of the Indian Committee and continued to labor among those Indians that did not migrate to the west.^^ In the decade following 1830 the chief interest of New York Friends (Liberal) was gradually trans- ferred from the Onondag^. nation to that branch of the Seneca nation dwelling at Cattaraugus. It was felt that the Onondagas had received sufficient help and instruction to enable them to make due progress without the special aid of Friends. Therefore, al- though the committee kept in friendly touch with them at all times, the greater effort was exerted among the Senecas at Cattaraugus, where a Friend's family was soon established and a school opened (1833).^^ The work thus begun at Cattaraugus was similar to the work done among other New York tribes as de- scribed earlier in this chapter. It is not necessary therefore to follow it in detail especially since it was 16 New York Friends had received $6000 from a fund of money provided about 1807 by English Friends for the work of American Friends among the Indians. The Treasurer of this fund and Adin T. Cory, the Friend residing among the Onon- dagas, adhered to the Liberal branch. As a result the Indian Committee of N. Y. Orthodox Friends was released in 1832 and the Indian work of that branch ceased for a few years. 17 Griffith M. Cooper and family took charge of this work in 1836. About the same time the work was placed under the direct care of the newly established Genessee Yearly Meeting which was in closer proximity to the Indians. New York Yearly Meet- ing continued however its support of the effort. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 119 soon overshadowed by the great and splendid effort of various Yearly Meetings to protect the Seneca In- dians in the ownership of their lands. A preemptive right to the lands of the Seneca na- tion had been long held by an organization known as the Ogden Land Company .^^ This preemptive claim merely gave to the company the exclusive right to purchase the Indian lands when the Indians should choose to sell. According to treaty right the Senecas could not be compelled to part with their lands. Yet the Ogden Land Company was greatly interested in encouraging the Indians to sell, and at the period under consideration it had become the settled policy of the United States Government to encourage or compel the various Indian tribes of the east to remove beyond the Mississippi River. Consequently any move supported by the Ogden Land Company to secure the removal of the Seneca nation was likely to get con- siderable support from the executive and legislative branches of the government at Washington. It is impossible within the scope of this chapter to give the details of the struggle that took place between the years 1838 and 1842 over the question of the re- moval of the Senecas to the west, and the efforts of Friends to help these Indians retain their New York lands. The basis for the struggle was laid in a Council held 18 This claim had been purchased of former owners in 1810 by David A. Ogden who later formed the Ogden Land Co. The meaning and extent of this " preemptive claim " has been and is still a much controverted subject but at the period under dis- cussion the company was trying merely to exercise the right of first purchaser when the Indians could be induced to sell. For a recent investigation of this case see U. S. 63d Cong., 3d Sess., House Doc. No. 1590. 120 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. with the Senecas in 1838 near the city of Buffalo at which some of the Seneca Chiefs signed a treaty- agreeing to cede their New York lands. When this matter came to the attention of Friends they had reason to believe the treaty had been secured by fraud and so they undertook to protect the Indians in their right to the lands in question. In this effort the Indian Com- mittees of Genessee, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore Yearly Meetings (Liberal) united.^^ The Indian custom of setthng tribal matters by a Council of Chiefs was open to those dangers of bribery and corruption that have menaced all governments of every age in which great power is concentrated in the hands of a few people. The opportunity was clearly present in this case for the Ogden Land Company to secure thousands of acres of very valuable land at a nominal cost by trading on the venality of a few In- dian Chiefs. That such corruption had been practiced the mem- bers of the Joint Committee soon convinced them- selves. They gathered evidence supported by affi- davits to prove that the grossest forms of fraud and bribery had been practiced. It appeared that various Indian Chiefs had been paid large sums of money to sign the treaty and to favor it among their friends ; that some who had never been duly elected Chiefs had signed the document; that the names of others ap- peared on the treaty without their knowledge or au- thorization ; that less than half of the names appended to the treaty had been secured " in open Council " as 10 Orthodox Friends of New York, Phila., and Baltimore also made some representations to the government at the beginning of the trouble but the chief effort was put forth by Liberal Friends. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 121 the United States Senate had stipulated. Most flagrant of all the abuses seemed to be this, that some of the Chiefs had received not only money but a promise of large tracts of land in the reservation to be deeded to them in fee simple. Thus the so-called "emigra- tion Chief " v^ould sign away the reservation lands and compel his people to emigrate while he and his heirs would be permitted to live and die on their native ground. So convincing was the evidence presented that President Van Buren transmitted the treaty to the Senate stating in his message that the conditions for receiving the assent of the Senecas had not been properly fulfilled and that there was good reason to believe " improper means " had been employed to in- fluence the Seneca Chiefs. The Joint Committee of Friends now felt that their arduous labors were about to be rewarded and they sent a memorial to the Senate presenting the same facts that they had previously laid before the President. What then was their surprise and grief to see the Senate, by a bare majority that included the casting vote of the Vice-President, ratify the treaty by which it was alleged the Seneca Indians had fairly alienated all of their New York lands to the Ogden Land Com- pany. Friends immediately returned tO' President Van Buren to strengthen his hands in refusing the treaty when their disappointment was changed to despair by hearing from him that, since the Senate with all the facts before it had ratified the treaty, he could not feel justified in rejecting it. Little has been said in the account thus far of the 122 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. various and laborious duties required of the Joint Committee of Friends or its representatives in cham- pioning the cause of the Senecas. The long journeys to the Seneca reservations, the conferences with the Indians in their homes or their Councils, the quest for evidence and the taking of affidavits, the strenuous days and weeks at Washington seeking interviews with those in authority, — these were items in the cost to the children of Onas of this new effort to protect their Red Brothers. For a considerable time after the ratification of the treaty it seemed that nothing further could be done to prevent the expatriation of the Senecas from their New York homes. Various expedients were discussed but nothing seemed feasible. The best legal opinion obtainable declared that no further proof of fraud could avail since the treaty had been ratified. Ap- parently the consummation of the treaty had vested in the Ogden Land Company the right to the land in question and they could not be divested of their title except by their own consent. One tribunal however remained open to the case, and that was the supreme court of public opinion. The case of the Senecas had been getting a hearing in this court for some time. Friends and others had pub- lished various pamphlets stating the case and the evi- dence of bribery and fraud was freely aired in the public press. As a result a storm of protest began to go up from many influential sources and the defense offered by the Ogden Land Company and its friends availed little to quiet the storm. By the treaty the Indians were given five years in which to remove from their lands and long before FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 123 those years had run the Ogden Land Company was ready to make concessions in order to rehabiUtate itself in the eyes of the pubHc. As a consequence of this situation a conference was held early in 1842 between the Secretary of War, — who at that period had charge of Indian affairs, — the Agents of the Ogden Land Company, and a delega- tion of Friends on behalf of the four Yearly Meetings of Genessee, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore. The result of this conference was that the Ogden Land Company agreed to a supplemental treaty. Ac- cording to this treaty the Company was to retain its title to the Tonawanda and Buffalo reservations while the Indians were to receive back their title to the reservations at Cattaraugus and Allegheny. This com- promise offer was duly laid before the Indians by Friends and was gladly accepted as the basis for the settlement of the unfortunate and disgraceful trans- action.^^ Largely as a result of the difficulties experienced by the Indians during these years and their consequent distrust of their Chiefs, the Senecas in 1845 took from their chiefs the power of alienating tribal lands and in 1848 completed this political reform by establishing a thoroughgoing republican form of government. 21 20 The Senecas soon concentrated their population on the two reservations thus secured to them, save that the Tonawandas refused to leave their reservation and a few years later (1857) purchased the title to it from the Ogden Land Company. 21 This account from the beginning of the land trouble in 1838 is taken largely from the following publications : Proceedings of the Joint Committee. Bait., 1847. Further Proceedings of the Joint Comni. Bait., 1850. The Case of the Seneca Indians. Phila., 1840. Appeal to the Christian Community. N. Y., 1841. Further Illustration of the Case of the Seneca Indians. Bait., 1841. 124 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. In all of these changes the Indians freely sought and freely received the help of Friends although the latter were always careful not to take a partisan atti- tude in political agitations unless it was a clear case of right and wrong. The fickleness of the Indians in their decisions made the task of Friends much more serious. A simple minded people untrained in grappling with complex problems, yet withal full of suspicion because of the fraud and deceit so often practised upon them, the Indians would suddenly become agitated and almost panic stricken. Perhaps they would surmise they had been tricked into making some recent decision. Or perhaps they would be fearful that some treaty or agreement had not been made firm or binding enough, and they would want further guarantees of its ful- filment. The pathos of their unsettled state of mind caused by the sore experience of generations of their people will not escape the reader, — and it did not escape Friends of that day. After the two reservations of Allegheny and Catta- raugus had been secured to the Senecas in 1S42 the Indians seemed to have settled in the negative the question of going west. Yet the agitation of a few discontented " emigrationists " did not cease and finally a small party went west in 1846. These soon found themselves in want and they appealed to their tribes- men in New York who in turn appealed as ever to Friends : " We see no other resource but to look again to those kind hearted friends, who have done so much already to relieve us in our distress," wrote the Catta- raugus Senecas to Philip E. Thomas,^^ of Baltimore, 22 Philip E. Thomas was for many years (1803-1861) an PHILIP E. THOMAS A LEADER IN THE INDIAN WORK OF LIBERAL FRIENDS. CALLED BY THE INDIANS "tHE BENEVOLENT." FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 126 in 1847. " Our obligations are already very great, and we cherish deep feelings of gratitude for past favors. We would not willingly burden your kindness now, were it not for the peculiarly difficult and perplexing condition of things just at the present time. But we feel that humanity towards our own people, demands of us to make this application in their behalf."^^ To such appeals Friends never turned a deaf ear, and the above instance is cited merely as an example of many similar ones that cannot be included in this brief sketch. Toward the close of the decade (i 839-1 849) of the active service of Liberal Friends for the Senecas a great desire was felt especially by women Friends that some more definite service might be done for the In- dian women. The Indians had been urged many times to with- draw their women from the fields for the domestic duties of the household. A woman Friend, a member of the Committee, spoke as follows at a Council with the Indians in 1846: "To mothers, properly belongs the care and management of the education of their children. ... It is in early infancy that lasting im- pressions are made upon children, and we cannot begin active member and the Clerk of the Indian Committee of Balti- more Y. M. (Liberal after 1828) and was a member of the Joint Comm. of the four Yearly Meetings. He was highly respected and greatly beloved by the Senecas. In 1845 they made him an adopted (or honorary) member of their nation, giving him the name Sagaoh (or Sagonan), "The Benevolent." In 1848 when the Senecas changed to a republican form of government they changed the name of Philip E. Thomas to Hai-wa-noh, " Am- bassador." The significance of this was that he was to be their special representative in their communications with the govern- ment at Washington. 2^ Proceedings of Joint Comm, (1847), 184. 126 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. too early to instil into their young and tender minds, the principles of virtue. . . . Thus as they advance in age, they will become a blessing to their parents, and useful to the community." In the same Council an Indian woman, Gua-na-ea spoke as follows : " I am one of the females appointed to come here and listen to what our friends might have to say. This is the first time any opportunity has been offered for one of my sex to be heard in any of the deliberations of our Nation. We feel thankful for this favor, and congratulate ourselves that we have been permitted to meet our female friends here in Council, and trust, a new and better prospect is about opening before us. I am instructed by the women now pres- ent to say, that we fully approve the propositions that have been made in reference to the education of our children, and that it is our earnest desire they may be instructed in the manner represented. We will do all in our power to cooperate in and promote so good a work."2* As a result of the deliberations of this Council a Female Manual Labor School was opened. The opera- tions of this School may be judged by the following description given by the Joint Committee : " This school was held in the dwelling erected for the use of Friends, at Cattaraugus. The average number of pupils was about twenty-eight, generally under twenty years of age. They were boarded in the family at the expense of the Committee, and were taught to card and spin wool, knit stockings, cut out and make gar- ments, etc. A part of their number was admitted daily into the family of the Superintendent, where they were 2i Proceedings of Joint Comni. (1847), 1 71-172. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 127 taught to wash and iron clothes, etc., make bread, do plain cooking, and every other branch of good house- wifery, pertaining to a country life. Into this depart- ment all were admitted by turns, generally four at a time, and continued until the necessary proficiency was attained. As such left the school others took their places, by which arrangement a large number of young women became qualified to take charge of families, and extend to succeeding generations the comforts and blessings of domestic life."^^ In contrast with the civilized life and pursuits being taught to the Cattaraugus Senecas there stood out in the minds of the Committee the situation of the same Indians a short decade before : " In the years 1839, 1840, during the contest about their lands, the Indian men were seen in groups round the Council House, some in the old Indian costume, — their blankets girded round them, — the tomahawk and scalping knife hang- ing at their belt, — their faces painted in glaring colors, — ^brilliant feathers in their head dress, — ear rings dangling in their ears, and broad silver bracelets on their arms ; whilst a few others, principally young men, were dressed in fine broad cloth, made up in the Euro- pean fashion : the whole presenting a motley group, and giving ocular evidence of the tenacity with which an Indian clings to the customs and habits of his an- cestors, and to the ease and indolence of savage life." "At this period the women appeared uniformly in their old dress. A female was seldom or never seen without her blanket. If they wore anything on the head, it was a fur hat, such as are worn by the men, and generally having a broad band round the crown, 25 Further Proceedings of Joint Comm. (1850), 43. 128 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. made of silver or some ornamental work. They gen- erally wore leggings, richly ornamented with bead work, or coloured porcupine quills." ... "A very large portion of the Indians lived in wigwams, or poor log huts, — covered with bark, boards, or other materials, hardly sufficient to shield them from the weather. Many of them had earth floors, on which they slept in buffalo skins or blankets. They set no table, — had no regular meals, — used no plates, nor knives and forks. An iron pot was generally found placed over a fire, into which they put beans and hom- iny, and a piece of some kind of meat, — either pork or venison. When any one of the family was hungry, he helped himself to what he wanted, putting it in a small wooden vessel, and feeding himself with a wooden or iron spoon. The interior of their dwellings generally presented to the eye a spectacle by no means calculated to warm the imagination in favour of In- dian life. The truth is, that savage custom had driven woman from her proper sphere, and domestic happi- ness could not enter the dwelling in her absence."^^ 2^ Further Proceedings of Joint Comm. (1850), 41-43. — Some idea of the progress of the Senecas may be had by comparing the above description with the following, taken from the report of a joint delegation of Baltimore and New York Friends who visited the Allegheny and Cattaraugus reservations in 1862: " The Indians appear to have entirely discarded the use of the blanket as an article of dress, and adopted the dress of the Whites. The Delegation saw no blankets worn, except as shawls, thrown over their other dresses. In a ride of some six miles in one direction, on the Cattaraugus Reservation, there were well improved farms on both sides of the road, throughout the whole distance, with good houses, barns and other out-buildings, and in many instances well cultivated gardens, and yards planted with flowers, ornamental trees and shrubbery. There were greater and more wide-spread evidences of progress in agriculture, and FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 129 In leading the Indians away from their old customs and into the modes of civilized life it is important to notice that liberal Friends did not emphasize any re- ligious teaching. Their ideas in this respect were well expressed in an address to the Indians early in 1849: "With your religious concerns we have studiously avoided to interfere, not because we have deemed Re- ligion an unimportant subject, but because we have not been called upon by our position or sent among you to teach it, — and because we most assuredly believe, that if you faithfully conform to the Will of God, so far as he is pleased to make it known to you, it will place you in the best state for the attainment of Religious knowledge. It will teach you to be practical Chris- tians; — it will make you honest, merciful, benevolent, holy, humble, — in a word, it will make you pure in heart, and thus prepare you for the society of just men made perfect in the kingdom of Heaven. It is not the extent of our theological instruction, but our fidelity in the performance of manifest duty, that is the measure of our acceptance in the Divine Sight."^^ In 1848 it was coming to be more and more the opinion of the Joint Committee that Friends should soon withdraw from the work at Cattaraugus and leave the Indians to work out in practice the things they had learned in the years during which Friends labored among them. Consequently, early in 1848, Joseph S. Walton and family went to Cattaraugus to take charge of the Friends' establishment there. His in civilization with its healthful attendants, morality, industry and taste than we had been at all prepared to expect." — Report of Indian Committee in Baltimore Yearly Meeting (Liberal) printed Minutes (1862), 9, 27 Further Proceedings of Joint Comm, (1850), 57-58. 130 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. especial aim was to continue the work of the Female Manual Labor School and put the farm in proper order to hand over to the Indians when Friends should withdraw. These objects having been sufficiently ac- complished in the year 1849 the farm lease was re- turned to the Indians and the active work of Liberal Friends for the Seneca Nation came to a close.^^ The genuine sorrow of the Indians at the with- drawal of Friends from active service among them was given expression in an official letter addressed to the Joint Committee of the four Yearly Meetings of Genessee, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore by a Committee of the Council of the Seneca Nation : " Brothers, — " It is with much pain and sorrow we learn that you are to close your labors among us. When we turn our faces backward, and look over the histories of the past, we find that more than fifty winters have gone by, since the Iroquois, or * The Six Nations of Indians,' first selected the Ho-di-wi-yus-doh [Society of Friends] as their friends upon whom they could repose confidence, without fear of being betrayed." After enumerating the specific charities of Friends for them they continued : " Brothers, — " We have, as associates, passed through many dangers, and severe trials and hardships. — In all these you have ever stood by us and been our support, — have counseled us in our troubles, — consoled us in our misfortunes, — 28 Friends, however, especially those of Bait, and New York Yearly Meetings, remained in friendly touch with the Cattaraugus Indians for more than a decade after 1849 assisting them occa- sionally with advice and influence or, as in the case of a small- pox epidemic of 1862, with financial aid. FURTHER WORK IN THE EAST. 131 Strengthened us when feeble, and often relieved our neces- sities: — all — all of these kind offices have endeared you to us. — To part, are words too severe for our ears." " Brothers, — "We hope that you may teach your children to love and pity the red man, s-o that when the Master of Life and Light shall call you hence, your red brothers may still have friends like you, and the good understanding now existing between us, be forever perpetuated and cherished between your posterity and ours."29 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. New England Yearly Meeting, Orthodox. The chief source materials for the Indian work of New England Yearly Meeting are listed in note 8, p. 14, above. See also Conduct of Friends (1844), pp. 211-217, for brief secondary account, with quotations from sources'. Listed in Bibliographical Note at end of Chapter IV. New York Yearly Meeting, Orthodox. The principal sources are the manuscript Minutes of New York Yearly Meeting and of the Indian Committee of the same Yearly Meeting. See also Conduct of Friends (as above), pp. 155-210. Liberal Friends. The manuscript materials consist chiefly of Yearly Meeting Minutes, and Minutes and other records of the Indian Committees. The principal printed sources are the printed Minutes or Extracts of the various Yearly Meetings and the works cited in note 21, p. 123, above. For location of manuscript and printed sources see Gen- eral Note on Bibliography at end of volume. 29 Further Proceedings of Joint Comm. (1850), 60-65. I* should be added that as a memorial to Friends the Indians con- verted the school-house and farm so long occupied by Friends into an orphan asylum for Indian children. CHAPTER VII. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. The earliest missionary effort undertaken by Friends for the western Indians was the result of an interest awakened in Baltimore Yearly Meeting in 1795. The first mission established was in Indiana; within a few years it was closed and a similar mission was opened in western Ohio ; thence the Friendly apostles followed the Indians in their move westward into Kansas ; there the work was continued for more than three decades, until the Shawnee Indians for whom it was established in Ohio and Kansas had removed to the present state of Oklahoma.^ Although Baltimore Yearly Meeting appointed an Indian Committee in 1795 and entered with great zeal into its effort to aid the Indians, no settlement was made among the natives for almost ten years. During that time several journeys were made into the Indian country of Ohio in order to investigate the condition and needs of the various tribes then inhabiting that part of the country. In 1798 the Delaware Indians on the Muskingum River were given some tools and imple- ments of husbandry. In 1799 an invitation was re- ceived from the famous Chief Tarhe of the Wyandot tribe inviting Friends to visit him at Upper Sandusky and be present at a Grand Council Fire. The Friends 1 The later mission work of Friends in Oklahoma was not directly an outgrowth of the above mentioned work. See Chap- ters VIII and IX. 132 WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 133 sent out by the Committee in response to this invita- tion arrived too early for the Grand Council and, not finding it convenient to remain for any length of time, had to content themselves with a conference with Tarhe and other chiefs who could be readily called to- gether from the vicinity. A most friendly intercourse was held at this conference but the Friends returned to Baltimore greatly depressed 'by the terrible havoc which they saw was being wrought among the Indians by the use of spirituous liquors. Unless this evil could be checked it was felt that little progress would be made in any effort to lead the Indians into the higher planes of civilized life. In 1802 several chiefs of the Miami and Pota- watomi tribes were passing through Baltimore and members of the Committee had an opportunity to meet with them and point out clearly the baneful effects of the use of liquor. They found the Indians not blind to the situation. The famous Chief, Little Turtle, of the Miamis, replied pointedly: "When our forefathers first met on this island, your Red Brethren were very numerous. But since the introduction amongst us, of what you call spirituous liquors, and what we think may justly be called Poison, our num- bers are greatly diminished. ... It is not an evil of our own making. We have not placed it amongst our- selves. It is an evil placed amongst us by the white people. We look to them to remove it out of our country. "2 "^Proceedings of Bait. Conim. (1806), 18-19. The first com- mittee of Bait. Y. M. to have charge of Indian matters consisted of the following, appointed in 1795 : John Wilson, John M'Kim, John Branen, Evan Thomas, Allan Farquhar, John Love, Caleb Kirk, Jonathan Wright (of Monallen), Thos. Matthews, Joseph 10 134 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Stirred by the pathetic and incisive words of Little Turtle and t>y the increasing gravity of the situation Friends prepared a memorial to Congress. This memorial and the subject introduced by it received favorable consideration and a law was passed which greatly reduced the evil in question. So marked were the results of this legislation that the government In- dian Agent at Fort Wayne, Indiana, expressed the opinion in 1803 " that the suppression of spirituous liquors in that country, is the most beneficial thing which was ever done for them [the Indians] by the United States."^ The way seemed opened by this beneficent legisla- tion for a greater and more permanent work among the Indians. Such a work was undertaken in 1804 near Fort Wayne, Indiana. At the solicitation of two Indian Chiefs, Little Turtle and Five Medals, a deputation of Friends was sent out from Baltimore consisting of George Ellicott and Gerard T. Hopkins. With them went Philip Dennis who was ready to remain for some months among the Indians and teach them some of the ele- ments of agriculture. They reached the Indian coun- try in 1804 and after a time of most friendly inter- course and counsel it was decided, with the hearty approbation of the Indians, that Philip Dennis should remain among them for some time as had been planned. Thus was established the first mission settlement of Friends among the western Indians. A plot of fertile land was selected on the Wabash Bond, Joseph Beeson, John Butcher, Benjamin Walker, Israel Janney, David Branen, Gouldsmith Chandlee, Moses Dillon, Elias Ellicott, Nathan Heald, David Greane. ^Proceedings of Bait. Comm, (1806), 22. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 135 River at a place called Boat-yard a'bout thirty-two miles southwest of Fort Wayne and there Philip Dennis gave to the Indians a demonstration of prac- tical and successful agriculture. He remained during most of the year and on his return home reported that his relations with the Indians had been most cordial. " He raised about 400 bushels of corn, besides a quan- tity of turnips, potatoes, cucumbers, watermelons, pumpkins, beans, parsnips, and other garden-veg- etables; which he directed to be divided amongst the Inidans on their return from their hunting camps ; and left with the family of Indians with whom he had re- sided, upon the farm he had cultivated, 23 hogs and pigs, seven of which were in good order to kill, and which he expected would weigh 1,500 lb. . . . With some assistance, which he obtained from Fort Wayne, he cleared and enclosed under a substantial fence twenty acres of ground, and built a house, thirty-two feet long and seventeen feet wide, a story and a half high, with floors and partition." It required some effort to dissuade the industrious young Indian women from assuming the burden of cultivating the fields, but Philip Dennis finally persuaded them to study the art of spinning and knitting under the direction of a white woman at Fort Wayne and before he left the Indian settlement he had the satisfaction of seeing the Indian women knitting the yarn of their own spinning.* Such was the practical and auspicious beginning of the work on the Wabash River in Indiana. The Eel River and the Wea Indians, branches of the Miami * Proceedings of Bait. Comm. (1806), 38-40. For the journey to Indiana and the establishment of the work on the Wabash River see the Journal kept by Gerard T. Hopkins, published in the Maryland Historical Magazine, March, 1909. 136 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. tribe, were chiefly influenced by this work but others saw or heard about the experiment and were influ- enced by it. In 1805, at the request of Baltimore Friends, the government agent at Fort Wayne employed a man to carry on the work begun by Philip Dennis the year before. After that two young men were sent out by the committee and they remained in the work for sev- eral years. The success of the effort was apparent from the start and continued so for about five years. In 1809 difficulty was again encountered from the sale of liquor to the Indians but an appeal to the government by the Indians themselves, backed by the good offices and in- fluence of Baltimore Friends, accomplished some abatement of this evil for a season. A greater difficulty, that could not be thus con- trolled, soon arose and in a short time brought the work in Indiana to a sudden termination. This was the unrest caused among the Indians by the influence of the famous Shawnee " Prophet," Tenskwatawn, and his twin brother Tecumseh. These men stirred the Indians with a rehgious fervor to oppose the white man with all his customs. The agitation led to the dis- astrous defeat of the Indians by General William Henry Harrison at Tippecanoe, Indiana, in November, 181 1. The Indian war then blended into the war be- tween Great Britain and the United States which began the following year. As early as 1810 the agitation of the " Prophet " had begun to hinder the work on the Wabash River and in 181 1 the Baltimore Committee reported that the work had been suspended for the time. As the fortunes of WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 137 the situation turned it was suspended for all time. Early in the War of 1812 the establishment on the Wabash River was destroyed and when Friends again estabHshed a work for the western Indians a more auspicious opening was found in the state of Ohio.^ So ended the first work in the west. Begun under favorable conditions, it flourished as long as conditions remained favorable, and ended abruptly with the crisis that could not be foreseen nor avoided. It was the only mission work of Friends ever destroyed in an Indian war. The work in Indiana did not turn the minds of Friends from the Indians of Ohio. The Delawares on the Muskingum River who had received tools and im- plements from the Baltimore Committee as early as 1798 continued to receive similar aid in 1810 and for one or two succeeding years. A young man was also employed for some months to show them how to use their tools and plant their crops. In 181 o also the Baltimore Committee reported to the Yearly Meeting that a request had been received from that portion of the Shawnee tribe residing at Wapakoneta on the Auglaize River in western Ohio that Friends should extend a benevolent interest to them.^ This invitation was accepted and a grist mill was erected at Wapakoneta the following year. A little later some tools were supplied to a mixed settle- ment of Iroquois, Shawnees, and other Indians settled a few miles southeast of Wapakoneta near the present Lewistown, Ohio. B MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth. Copy), 6-14. 6 It should be remembered that Indian tribes were often split up into various divisions that lived in widely separated localities. This is notably true in the history of the Shawnees. 138 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The help extended to these Indians in western Ohio was much interrupted by tfie War of 1812. The mill at Wapakoneta was dismantled, the Indians were driven from their homes, and this new work of Friends came to a stand-still. Yet the way was being blazed to a greater activity. The door closed in In- diana by the war was being opened in western Ohio even during the same war. In 181 5, at the renewed soHcitation of the Indians and with the approbation of the national government, Friends prepared to enter the newly opened door in Ohio. It was in this year that Ohio Yearly Meeting appointed its first Indian Committee and in the fol- lowing year a deputation representing the Baltimore and Ohio Committees visited the Indians at Wapa- koneta and Lewistown."^ The Friends who made this journey were received most cordially by the Indians to whom they gave wholesome advice as to the necessity of abstaining from liquor and developing industrious and steady habits in their agricultural pursuits. The Indians re- plied in kindly and earnest words through their Chief Black Hoof at Wapakoneta and Captain Lewis at Lewistown.^ This was the beginning of a considerable and an important work among the Indians of these two settle- ments in western Ohio. The grist mill at Wapa- koneta was at once rebuilt and a saw mill was soon added to the equipment of the community. A family 7 Ohio Yearly Meeting was organized at Mt. Pleasant in 1813. For the appointment of the first Indian Comm. see MS. Minutes, Aug. 23, 1815, and following days. ^Report of the joint deputation, i-i6; also MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth. Copy), 20-37. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 139 of Friends was located at each of the two settlements to superintend the work undertaken and to teach the Indians by precept and example the manners and methods of civilized life,^ The principal work was at Wapakoneta. The open- ing there among the Shawnees seemed especially in- viting and as early as 1819 plans were in process for the estabhshmnt of a school for the Indian children at that place. Encouraged by a donation of £150 from Friends in Ireland the Committee of Ohio Yearly Meeting, which by this time had taken over the active management of the work, proceeded with this plan and in 1822 the school was opened. The school building and a dwelling house for the Superintendent had been erected on a tract of two hundred and fourteen acres bought for the purpose and adjoining the reservation of Wapakoneta. 10 9 Among the men, usually with their families, who aided in the work at Wapakoneta and Lewistown as superintendents, teachers, or otherwise, during this period (until 1832) the fol- lowing are mentioned in various reports : John Paxon, Jacob Taylor, Jesse Baldwin, Isaac Harvey, Asa Pound, Robert Green, Simon Harvey, and Henry Harvey. — It was Isaac Harvey who saved an Indian woman at Wapakoneta from probable execution by the Indians on a charge of witchcraft and thus helped to break up the witchcraft superstition among the tribes of that vicinity. For an account of this incident see Harvey, Shawnee Indians, 170-182. 10 MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth. Copy), 58-59; Conduct of Friends, 228. Aside from the above mentioned gift of Irish Friends was the generous donation of English Friends (see note 16, p. 118). This latter fund had been invested in bank stock in Baltimore city and the income from it was the main support of the work in Ohio. This fund was retained by the larger (Liberal) body of Baltimore after 1828 and was the cause of much un-Friendly dispute. See MS, Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth.), for the years 1834 and 1841. — The total sum subscribed by English Friends (i 806-1 807) was about $31,500. Of this sum 140 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The school was a success as long as conditions were favorable. The Indian children showed good ability in mastering the elements of learning and their parents, in some cases though not in all, took a lively interest in their progress. The children, aside from their reg- ular studies, learned to turn their hands to useful labor, the boys working on the farm and the girls learning to spin and perform other domestic tasks. There seems to have been an average of from ten to fifteen children in attendance most of the time. The unfavorable condition that militated against the school, causing it to be suspended several times for short periods, was the agitation among the Indians over the subject of their removal west of the Mis- sissippi River.^^ This agitation began to stir the In- dians at Wapakoneta as early as 1820 and it w^as con- tinued at intervals until the last of the Indians at that .place began their journey westward in the fall of 1832. During this period of more than a decade the Indians were thrown into an excited state of mind at intervals and great discord often arose among them on account of their differences of opinion on the advisability of changing their place of residence.^^ The removal was inevitable. The government had adopted the plan of Indian consolidation as a settled $6000 was apportioned to New York Friends for their Indian work and the balance, about $25,500, seems to have been divided equally between Philadelphia and Baltimore Yearly Meetings. It would appear that when the separation occurred in 1828 Liberal Friends retained the New York and Baltimore funds, and Ortho- dox Friends the Philadelphia fund. 11 See above, p. 5. 12 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes^ for the years 1821 to 1833; Indiana Y. M. MS. Indian book, 20—70, passim; Harvey, Shawnee Indians, 185-233; Conduct of Friends, 228—234. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 141 policy and thus the Friends of Baltimore, Ohio, and Indiana saw their work for the Shawnees in Ohio gradually drawing to a close/^ In 1825 Captain Lewis removed with a large num'ber of the Lewistown In- dians to a tract granted to them in Kansas and from that time onward it was evident that the westward movement of the Indians was sure to take place. The subject continued to be agitated at intervals and finally in 1 83 1 the Shawnees entered into a treaty for the sale of their lands at Wapakoneta. During the next two years the remaining Indians with whom Friends had labored at Wapakoneta and vicinity took their journey toward a new and unknown home beyond the Father of Waters.^* The Friend in charge at Wapakoneta has told how all the Indians stopped to say farewell as they passed the mission home at the beginning of their long jour- ney. Even these stolid children of the forest wept bitterly as they took leave of their long time friends, the Quakers. " We have been brothers together with you the Quakers for a long time," said some of the Chiefs before their departure. " You took us by the 13 Indiana Y. M. was organized in 182 1 and at once entered into active co-operation with Ohio and Baltimore Yearly Meet- ings in their Indian work. The following were the members of the first " Active Committee " on Indian concerns of Indiana Y. M. : Isaac Harvey, Aaron Brown, Jno. Wright, Caleb Harvey, Robert Furnas, William Stanton, Caleb Wickersham, Thomas Frazier, Henry Pickeral, William Hadley, Patience Whitacre, Jane Smith, Agatha Harvey. — Indiana Y. M. MS. Indian book, p. 3. 1* The aid extended to the Indians by Henry Harvey, the Friend in charge at Wapakoneta, in protecting them from fraud in the treaty of sale for their Ohio lands, and in securing food for them in time of need, is told in Harvey, Shawnee Indians, 190—229. 142 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. hand and you held us fast. We have held you fast too. And although we are going far away from you, we do not want you to forsake us. . . . Through all we have found that by holding to the Friends we have done best, so we hope always to be in your hands." These poor wanderers were soon to discover that how- ever far the avarice of the white man or the exigencies of advancing civilization might drive them, the hands of the Quakers would still reach out to them and con- tinue to " hold them f ast."^^ Steps were soon taken that led to a renewal of the missionary work of Friends among the Shawnees in their new home. In 1833, lesS' than a year after the removal of the Indians from Wapakoneta, a deputa- tion of three Friends^^ was sent out by the Indian Committee of Indiana Yearly Meeting to visit the In- dians on their new reservation in Kansas. The dele- gation went out with the approval of Ohio and Balti- more Friends and with a cordial letter of introduction written by Lewis Cass, Secreary of War, and directed to the Indian Agents and other officers of the govern- ment with whom the traveling Friends might come in contact. These Friends found the Shawnees located just west of the Missouri River, only a few miles from the pres- ent Kansas City. The Indians had not been idle in their new home : " Since their arrival in that country IB Harvey, Shawnee Indians, 231 ; MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth. Copy), 118. 16 The three Friends were Henry Harvey, Simon Hadley, and Solomon Hadden. Henry Harvey had been in charge of the mission station at Wapakoneta when the Indians migrated west- ward the year before. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 143 last fall they have, as well as we are able to judge, made upwards of thirty thousand rails, and laid most of them up. They have settled on the timbered land and have cleared, some two, some four to six and some eight acres, and are engaged in planting corn. They have planted considerable of potatoes and the like in order for subsistence the ensuing year. They have purchased some milch cows ; and some of them have a few hogs." Such is the picture as seen by the visiting Friends whose hearts were warmed with the belief that the long years of effort in the mission at Wapa- koneta had done its part in developing habits of thrift and industry among the Indians, Nor was there any lack in the welcome extended by the Indians to their old friends. The chief who made the formal address of welcome recalled what Friends had told the Indians before they migrated from Ohio : " Our brothers the Quakers told us that we were going far to the west, but they said that the arms of our brothers the Quakers would still be able to reach and assist us. . . . This is what our brothers told us and now it appears they have not forgotten us."^^ Encouraged by what they heard and saw the three Friends reported to the Committee of Indiana Yearly Meeting that the way seemed to be open and the op- portunity great for a further work among their former wards. The suggestion was passed on eastward to Friends of Ohio and Baltimore and received by them with cordial approbation. It was agreed that the three Yearly Meetings should cooperate in the work as 17 Full report of deputation in MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth.), 141-145 ; see also Harvey, Shazunee Indians, 234-236. 144 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. formerly but that the active duties entailed should de- volve upon the committee of Indiana Yearly Meeting.^^ Plans were put into operation promptly. A location was selected for the mission establishment, suitable buildings were erected, superintendents and a teacher engaged, and in 1837 the work of Friends for the Shawnees in Kansas was in operation.^^ When Friends first began to work among the Shaw- nees in Ohio their principal effort was directed toward 18 MS. Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth.), 160. The three Yearly Meetings that carried on the work in Kansas were of the Ortho- dox branch. For the work of Liberal Friends after 1828, see above, p. 118 ff. 19 The following is a list of those who had a part in the work at the mission, some for only a very short time, others for more extended periods. The list has been compiled from the printed Minutes of Indiana Y. M. and the various names are here given only under the date when first mentioned in the Minutes: 1837, Moses Pearson and wife; Mary H. Stanton; Elias Newby. 1840, Henry and Ann Harvey and family; David Jones. 1841, Thomas and Hannah Wells, teachers. 1842, Thomas and Esther French ; Thomas and Mary Stanley ; John Stewart and Mary Crew. 1844, John M. Macy, 1845, Zeri and Miriam Hough; Thomas and Hannah Wells, Superintendents. 1846, Al- fred Johnson; Ann Stanton; Eli Hadley. 1847, Jesse and Eliza- beth Harvey; William F. and Sarah Harvey; Richard Menden- hall ; Thomas Harvey; Sarah Ann Nixon; Rachel P. Hall. 1849, James Stanton. 1850, Jonathan Brown; Edith Lewis and Matilda Smith. 1 85 1, Wilson and Zelinda Hobbs ; Edward Y. Teas; and Theresa Arnett. Cornelius and Phebe Douglass ; Rebecca Jenks. 1852, William Horniday ; Eleanor Horniday. 1854, Davis W. Thayer and wife; Elizabeth M. Thayer; Cyrus Rodgers. 1856, Jeremiah A. Hadley and wife; Martha Townsend; John Denny and wife. 1857, Simon D. and Mary H. Harvey; John Pool; Caleb and Rebecca Harvey. 1858, Mary J. Harvey. 1859, Maria Hussey ; Simon and Mary J. Hadley. i860, James and Rachel Stanley. 1861, Lydia M. Butler; Mary Brock. 1863, Henry and Anna M. Thorndike. 1864, Frank Coggeshall. 1865, Elisha Parker and wife; Mary E. Hill. 1866, William and Penelope Gardner. 1867, John and Achsa Carter; Nerena Carter. 1868, Joel W. and Elizabeth Willis. 1869, Eli and Jemima Vestal. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 145 teaching the adult Indians the elements of practical agriculture. That stage had passed by the time the work was begun in Kansas and the principal work cen- tered in the school for the Indian children.^^ This work consisted of teaching them the elements of a ht- erary education and training them outside of school hours in the practical duties of life. At this time too, as in the later years of the work in Ohio, more and more stress was laid upon teaching the Indian children the doctrines of evangelical Christianity. One of the early reports shows the routine of work for the school children : " The children have been kept at their books five or six hours in each day, five days in each week ; they are allowed an hour or more recess each day, and the remainder of the day they are kept at work, and bid fair to be very helpful. The boys have gathered a considerable quantity of fodder, while we were engaged at other work ; they were helpful in harvest and at many other kinds of work. The girls can all knit stockings except one or two, who have not been long with us ; several of them can make their own dresses, they are helpful in the kitchen, and seem in- tent to learn all they can."^^ By means of the help of the Indian boys and other help engaged for the purpose the mission farm was cultivated to good advantage and at times it helped materially in the support of the work. The Christian instruction of the Indians was made a primary object. When Friends of England subscribed 20 To-day another stage has been reached at the Friends' mis- sions in Oklahoma. The government looks after the schooling of Indian children and the missions confine themselves strictly to religious and social work. 21 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1840, p. 17. 146 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. to the work at its inception in Kansas they specified that "their [the Indians'] Christian instruction is the primary object which the subscribers have in view." The acting committees of Ohio and Indiana heartily concurred in this desire and did their best to carry it out. The children in the mission school were taught the principles of the Christian religion and they com- mitted to memory suitable portions of Scripture. Re- ligious meetings after the manner of Friends were held regularly at the mission and the Indians young and old were invited to attend. One of the interesting re- sults of this religious effort was that an Indian by the name of Kiko (or Caco) in 1852 joined the Society of Friends, becoming a regular member of Miami Monthly Meeting, of Indiana Yearly Meeting.^^ The annual donations for the support of the work came usually from Friends of Indiana, Ohio, and Bal- timore, although aid often came from other sources. Friends of London, Philadelphia, New York, New England, Western and Iowa Yearly Meetings con- tributed generously at various times during the period from 1833 to 1871. Aside from the support of the mission work proper, supplies of food and clothing were provided for the Indians on several occasions when they were in need on account of crop failures or for other reasons.^^ 22 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1834, p. 15 ; same, 1852, p. 36; same, 1862, p. 38. Provision was made in 1850 for Indians to join Friends, see Minutes, 1850, p. 29. 23 In 1847 Indiana Y. M. appropriated $653.49 to the work, Ohio Y. M. $307,00, and Baltimore $140.00. This was about the usual proportion although Indiana Y. M. gave as high as $1000 or $1200 some years. For gifts from other Yearly Meetings see Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes for 1833, 1834, 1838, 1845, 1850, 1851, 1859, 1864. For the gift of Dr. John Unthank see MS. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 147 The interest and cooperation of New York and New England Yearly Meetings is worthy of particular men- tion. It has been stated already in this narrative that the work of New York Friends for the Indians of that state was broken up about 1830 by the removal of the natives westward.^* These Friends were not satis- fied however to lay aside all responsibility for the In- dians and in 1837 ^ P^^^ matured for inquiring into the condition of the Indians residing west of the Mis- sissippi River. In that year a communication was ad- dressed to several other American Yearly Meetings inviting them to cooperate with New York Friends in securing information about the needs of the Indians in the west. As most of the Yearly Meetings were already carrying on extensive missionary enterprises among the Indians only New England seems to have entered heartily into the project. There a committee was appointed and the two Yearly Meetings began an active correspondence with regard to plans for getting information and entering into united service for the Indians. ^^ John D. Lang and Samuel Taylor, Jr., ministers of New England Yearly Meeting, offered to visit the western Indians and were appointed to that service Minutes of Bait. Comm. (Orth.), Dec. 17, 1835; same, 1832- 1842, for bequest of Sarah Zane and efforts to collect it from her estate. 24 See above, p. 117. 25 In planning for united action by several Yearly Meetings the New York Comm. in 1839 proposed "that the committees of the several Yearly Meetings adopting the measure, shall have an agent, or agents, as their pecuniary means may admit, resid- ing at the central seat of Indian government." — See Conduct of Friends, 172. This plan foreshadowed the Associated Executive Committee established about three decades later. 148 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. by the committees of the two Yearly Meetings. Hav- ing secured the approbation of the United States Com- missioner of Indian Affairs and the Secretary of War they set out in August, 1842, on a journey which was to occupy them until about the close of that year. They first visited the Winnebago Indians in northeastern Iowa and then gradually worked southward to the present state of Oklahoma. They visited the Winnebagoes, Sacs and Foxes, Shawnees, Kickapoos, Delawares, Kansas, Potawatomies, Osages, Senecas, Cherokees, Creeks, and Choctaws, and came somewhat into touch with various other tribes. During the journey the hearts of the traveling Friends were occasionally uplifted by incidents tending to assure them that the earlier work of Friends had not been in vain. They met a Stockbridge woman who as a girl was educated in a Friends' school on Long Island. Her ease and grace of bearing and the splendid condition of her family and household affairs testified to the benefits of her early training. The tradition of William Penn's kindness to the In- dians and of the Great Treaty at Shackamaxon was still alive among the Delaware Indians. One of the principal men of the Munsees (a division of the Dela- ware tribe) spoke feelingly, even tearfully, of the long time kindness of Friends to the Indians : " Brothers, your fathers, William Penn and others of your old men, and our old men the Munsees, lived in peace like brothers, and made the treaty under the elm tree, and the Quakers and the Munsees have always been friends, and my heart is glad you still think about your poor Indian brethren, and come and see them ; for it JOHN D. LANG (1799-1879) WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 149 makes poor Indian's heart glad when they see their Quaker brothers."^^ The visit to the Friends' mission among the Shaw- nees in Kansas was the most important part of the journey as far as direct and permanent results were concerned. The traveling Friends found twenty-three boys and fourteen girls in the school. They seemed to be well cared for and well trained. They were pro- ficient in their various lines of study and could answer readily the questions put to them with regard to the Scriptures. The Friends held councils with the chiefs and head men of the Shawnees at which the usual as- surances of friendship and good- will were inter- changed. The report of John D. Lang and Samuel Taylor, Jr., to New York and New England Yearly Meetings con- tained many practical suggestions on the Indian policy of the United States government and these suggestions were embodied in a joint memorial forwarded by those yearly meetings to the government.^^ The part of the report that described the work of the Friends' mission among the Shawnees was also 26 Conduct of Friends, 192, 198. A sketch of the life and work of John D. Lang with portrait is in The American Friend, New Series, 4 (1916) : 1017-1018. The tradition of Penn's kind- ness and the Great Treaty may not have been continuous but several considerations favor the belief that it was : the usual vitality of such traditions ; the fact that Friends had aided a portion of the Delaware tribe located in Ohio in 1798 and in the early 19th century (see above, p. 132 ff.), and had labored among other tribes in Ohio and Indiana with whom the Delawares were closely associated. This missionary activity, talked about among the Indians, would help keep alive the old tradition which must have been well known by the older Indians at the close of the 1 8th century. 27 Copy of this memorial in Conduct of Friends, 209-210. See also New England Yearly Meetings MS. Minutes, 1844. 11 150 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. productive of results and induced the two Yearly Meetings to give to the mission substantial aid in a financial way during the succeeding years. The Shawnee mission was at the high tide of its prosperity at the time the two Friends visited it, and remained in a very prosperous condition for a few years following their visit. During the first two or three years of the school there had been only about fifteen pupils in attendance but this number was more than doubled by 1842 and six years later the average attendance for the year was about forty-two scholars. The year 1850 is a suitable time to see the work of the mission in detail for soon after that date the period of change and decline came on. The Report for that year of the Committee on Indian Concerns of Indiana Yearly Meeting describes the work of the year as fol- lows: "By the reports received from our Superintendent we are informed that 56 Indian youth, of both sexes, have received literary and religious instruction in the Institu- tion the past year; 30 of whom can read the Scriptures, and seem more interested in reading these writings than of any other book. Most of this class can write and cypher, and are acquainted with the use of maps; 20 read and spell in easy lessons, and 6 are in the alphabet. The school has been composed of Shawnees, except three, most of them orphans, between the ages of 4 and 18. The larger boys have been employed in splitting rails and other work. There was one beef, and 7,000 pounds of pork, salted last year on the farm. Upwards of 60 acres in corn and garden vegetables have been cultivated. The corn has suffered some for the want of rain. There is up- wards of 4 tons of hay in the mow. About 30 acres have WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 151 been sown in clover and other grass seeds, and more than 100 fruit trees set out. 40 acres of wheat, and 28 of oats have been harvested; about 600 bushels of wheat and oats threshed out; 25 acres of prairie sod broke up, and 60 cleared of brush; 550 rods of fence new and re- set; and 30 acres s'own in wheat this fall. This season there has been about 500 lbs. of butter, and 600 lbs. of cheese made; 84 lbs. of wool spun; 42 yds. of linsey woven for blankets, and 32 yds. of rag carpet, and a piece of linsey is being made for dresses this fall; upwards of 50 pairs of socks and stockings have been knit; 130 gar- ments for the girls made up, and upwards of 100 for the boys; 50 sheets, towels, etc., for house use; besides coats, pants and vests taken in and made for Indian and white men." Aside from the above activities of school, farm, and household, it was reported that the Meeting for Wor- ship and the First-day School had been regularly kept up and in the latter the children had been exercised faithfully in Scripture Questions and Barclay's Cate- chism.^® Such were the activities, religious and secular, of the Friends' mission among the Shawnees of north- eastern Kansas when the work there was at the height of its prosperity. The changes that set in shortly after this time were varied and rapid. One of the notable facts was that the mission for a time ceased to be strictly a mission for the Shawnees. In the above report for 1850 it was stated that all of the scholars except three were Shawnees. Very soon this changed. In 185 1 there 28 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1850, pp. 25-26. See reports of mission Supts., Thomas and Hannah Wells, in Indiana Y. M. MS. Indian book, pp. 239-250. 152 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. were five tribes represented in the school and the next year six. This tendency continued until in 1861 the report of the school showed that of the scholars in at- tendance eleven were Shawnees, ten Ottawas, four Senecas, two Wyandots, one Brotherton, and one Stockbridge. This tendency in itself would not have been discour- aging but for the fact that it meant that Friends were having to receive any Indian children they could get to fill up the school. The children were almost all orphans sent from various tribes and bands of Indians in the vicinity because the boarding school was a con- venient home in which to locate orphan children. To be sure there was evidence, even as this period of decline began, that the work of Friends had borne good fruit. The Committee in its report of 1855 told of the good work of a Friend who had recently visited the mission and the Indians in that vicinity. This Friend had visited a number of homes among the Shawnees and in these homes had met many Indians who had been educated at the Friends* School. The good results were very evident especially in the women. The neatness of their dress, the order, cleanliness and comfortable appearance of their dwellings, and the strict propriety of their deportment brought satisfac- tion and encouragement to the heart of the visiting Friend.^* Yet a series of untoward events and conditions mili- 29 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1855, p. 43. A few years later, in 1858, two English Friends, Robert and Sarah Lindsey, visited the mission; a copy of Sarah Lindsey 's journal is in Devonshire House, London ; see copy in Haverford College Li- brary, vol. I, p. 178 ff. ; copious excerpts in British Friend: 45 (1887), 7 ff. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 153 tated against the school. In 1854 the Shawnees sold a large part of their land in Kansas to the United States and this sale caused difference of opinion and unsettle- ment among the Indians. Such a situation always hampered missionary and educational efforts. The following year there was a scourge of cholera that caused the death of three scholars and made nec- essary the suspension of the school for a time. There was trouble also at this time on account of the slavery question. The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed in 1854 opened Kansas to the test of popular sovereignty and soon the battle was waged between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. The attitude of Friends on slavery was well known and the mission, situated near the Missouri line, was exposed to the fury of the extreme pro-slavery advocates who crossed over from that state to help settle the Kansas question. A ghmpse of those days in "bleeding Kansas" is contained in the report of the mission work for 1856: " The school continued in a prosperous condition until the 20th of the Eighth month last, when a body of armed men, eighteen in number, came to the Establish- ment, took all the horses and saddles on the premises, and the Superintendent going out, asked them to leave him one of the horses to send to Westport (a village about six miles from the mission) to obtain a physician for his wife who was lying sick in the house, when the captain of the band gave utterance to profane and abusive language, and presenting his gun at him, in that threatening attitude told him, this was only a beginning of what he might look for, if he did not leave the place. "^^ 30 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1856, p. 33. 154 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The result of this attack was that the school was again closed, the Superintendent and other helpers went to their homes in Indiana, and the property was left in the care of a hired man and his wife. A little later William H. Coffin, who then resided in Kansas, went to the mission to look into the status of affairs. He found that no further depredations had been com- mitted and consequently provision was made to have the crops and premises cared for during the winter preparatory to reopening the establishment again in the spring. Early in 1857 Simon D. Harvey and his wife Mary H. Harvey with helpers went out and reopened the school. The attendance was fairly good for a time but soon began to dwindle again, so that in 1861 the average attendance was only twenty-three, less than half of what it had been in 1848. It should be stated however that while the small attendance was in some years due to unfavorable conditions among the In- dians it was also due to the fact that the mission was not securing adequate financial support part of the time. In the year 1861 a special committee appointed the year before to examine into the situation made an elaborate report to Indiana Yearly Meeting on the con- dition, needs, and prospects of the mission establish- ment. This committee, referring to the adult Indians, pointed out the fact so often noted by careful observers in that day and this that the annuities paid to the In- dians by the government, " instead of inciting them to industry, economy and spirited improvement, would appear to have had a contrary effect, by enabling them to live in indolence, and contract habits of vice and drunkenness, leading to degeneracy." WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 155 The general reasons assigned for the decline of the school were that district day schools open to Indian children had been organized and that, however great the opportunities, there was among the Indians that "natural carelessness usually prevailing in ignorant and uncivilized communities as to education itself." Aside from these things the committee pointed out frankly and specifically certain failings on the part of the supporters and the management of the mission: " (i) A lack of sufficient funds to prosecute the con- cern to the best advantage; (2) Overtaxing those we employ with more services than they are able to per- form with profit; (3) Too frequent changes in Super- intendents and teachers (for these should be devoted persons of much Christian endurance and patience, who can remain in their positions for years together) ; (4) A want of that Missionary spirit and those Chris- tian gifts which are necessary to success, in the Super- intendent, Teachers and others employed in the con- cern." Having delivered itself plainly of these observations the committee referred by way of contrast to the mis- sion of another denomination in the vicinity (probably that of the Methodists) which, " having not sufifered for want of sufficient means, but which has had one persevering and devoted Superintendent for 24 years, has in it more than 60 students of the tribe in which it is located, and is in prosperous and profitable prog- ress."2i The special committee went on to suggest the pos- sibility of changing the field of operations and opening 31 Report of special committee in Indiana Y. M. printed Min- utes, 1 86 1, pp. 25-30. 156 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. up in a suitable location a boarding school for Indian orphans irrespective of tribe. It was also suggested, since many Friends had gone to reside in Kansas, that a new Indian Committee be appointed with Friends resident in Kansas constituting a majority of its mem- bership. This new committee was appointed the fol- lowing year and also a correspondent from each Quar- terly Meeting to keep in touch with the work and co- operate with the committee. Although the new committee was instructed to carry out the suggestions made by the special committee in 1861 if the way opened properly, the proposed new Boarding School for Indian orphans was not estab- lished. In 1862 the mission school was closed and the teacher was allowed to return to her home. An in- ventory was made of all property at the establishment and Friends prepared to close up their work among the Shawnees. But the following year a new turn of affairs made possible the continuation of the work for a few more years. When the Shawnee chiefs saw that Friends were about to close up their work they became desirous that a home and school might still be provided for the orphan children of the tribe. Consequently they of- fered to pay the expenses of such an establishment by an appropriation from their school fund which was ample for the purpose. On that basis a contract was concluded according to which Friends were to take a number of children not to exceed fifty and receive eighty dollars per annum to cover the expense of board, clothing, tuition and medical care for each child. The committee then concluded a contract with James and WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 157 Rachel Stanley to manage the establishment at the rate of seventy-five dollars for each child. This amount was to cover board, clothing and tuition, the committee retaining five dollars for medical attendance on the children and incidental expenses. On account of the rise of prices toward the close of the Civil War a new contract had to be arranged with the Shawnee chiefs by which they agreed to pay $31.25 per child for each quarter of the school year.^^ Under this contract system the school flourished again and for several years the average attendance was about forty scholars. Finances were in better shape than ever before. The farm produced good crops and supplied the establishment with much that otherwise would have had to be purchased at high prices. In the report of 1867 there is noted a gain of over one thousand dollars in favor of the establishment in one year.^^ Yet the work for this branch of the Shawnee nation was drawing rapidly to its close. For some years Friends had been trying to get a title in fee simple to the land which constituted the mission farm and which had been assigned to them for their use. The effort to get a permanent title to this property caused dis- satisfaction among some of the Indians and in 1868 the chiefs announced their desire to terminate the con- tract under which the school was maintained. The school was therefore closed for a time although a few of the orphan children who remained were still cared for in the mission home. Early in 1869 the school was opened again at the request of the Indians on the same 32 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1863, p. 37; same, 1865, p. 54- 33 Same, 1867, p. 34. 158 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. terms of contract as before. Again however the In- dians changed their minds and about the first of April, 1869, the mission school was finally closed. Even then Friends kept the mission home open for some months for the reception of any orphan children that might return. The end of the work had however come. By the time the committee reported in 1870 nearly all the Shawnees in that part of Kansas had removed southward to the present state of Oklahoma and had been incorporated with the Cherokees with the full privilege of the schools and school funds of the latter nation. ^ By the close of the following year Friends had closed up the business affairs of the mission by sale of the buildings and personal property. The proceeds amounting to $7,634.60, were ready to be used for the work of the newly organized Associated Executive Committee on Indian Affairs.^* So ended the work for this branch of the. Shawnees, a work begun by Baltimore Yearly Meeting about sixty years before when the Indians were residing at Wapa- koneta, in western Ohio. With the growth of new yearly meetings of Friends in the west and with the removal of the Indians westward the active manage- ment of the mission had passed naturally into the hands first of Ohio and then of Indiana Yearly Meet- ing. The prelude to this work was the work done for a few years near Fort Wayne, Indiana, for various tribes of Indians, and the end of the story came when this branch of the Shawnees removed from Kansas and became incorporated with the Cherokee nation. The work had been highly successful at times and 34 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1871, pp. 43-44. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 159 again had met great discouragement. So must go the story of all similar efforts for a half civilized people, of fast changing habitation and condition. Other work was done by Friends for the Indians of the west during this period. Efforts were made fre- quently by various Yearly Meetings to influence the national government by memorials and otherwise to safeguard more closely the material and moral wel- fare of the Indians. Moreover, toward the close of the period just covered other mission work began to be projected and carried out in the west. These things however belong to later divisions of this story. The work done in Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas, as described in this chapter, covering the period from 1804 to 1869, represents the beginnings of Friends' missionary ef- forts for the Indians in the west. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. Conduct of Friends. London, 1844 (see above, p. 84). This little volume gives much interesting informa- tion on the work in the west prior to 1844, often giving considerable quotations from reports and other source material. Fletcher, Alice C. Indian Education and Civilization. 1888. Pp. 685-686. A brief account of the work among the Shawnees prepared by Esther Pugh. Friends' Review. Philadelphia. This weekly paper which began publication in 1847 contains many reports of the Indian committees of various Yearly Meetings, observations of Friends traveling among the Indians, etc. It is the most valu- able of the Friends' papers after 1847 for the work in the west. Harvey, Henry. History of the Shawnee Indians. Cin- cinnati, 1855. 160 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The most valuable part of this book is the author's reminiscences of his work at the Friends' mission among the Shawnee Indians for several years. London Meeting for Sufferings, Publications of. 12 num- bers. 1 838-1 846. These publications are listed in Smith, Catalogue, i : 737. (See above, p. 87.) The most important number of the series is Conduct of Friends, listed above, p. 84. Yearly Meetings, Records of. For the location of the records of various yearly meetings, see General Note on Bibliography at end of volume. For the period 1795-1848 the MS. Minutes of the Committee on Indian Concerns of Baltimore Yearly Meeting (Orthodox) is invaluable. This book con- tains only transcripts and summaries of the minutes from 1796 to 1826 for which period the original minute book is in the care of Liberal Friends, Baltimore. After the division of 1828 however the Liberal Friends had no part in the work described in the above chapter. Ohio Yearly Meeting was organized in 1813 and be- ginning with 1 81 5 the Yearly Meeting Minutes a.TQ valu- able for the reports of the Committee on Indian Con- cerns. No minute book of this committee has been found. After 1821 the Minutes of Indiana Yearly Meeting are valuable and printed copies are available from the beginning. After 1833 Indiana Y. M. had almost full charge of the work (in Kansas) and hence the reports to be found in the Minutes form the most valuable ma- terial for study. There is preserved at the Yearly Meet- ing House, East Main St., Richmond, Ind., a somewhat fragmentary manuscript copy of the Minutes of the Indian Committee and of other matter connected with the Indian work from 1821 to about 1850. It is more complete for the earlier years. WORK ESTABLISHED IN THE WEST. 161 Pamphlets were printed from time to time summing up the work done for the Indians by the various yearly meetings. These accounts have not been used much in this study because the original records from which they were drawn have been available. A list of these printed accounts will be found in Smith, Catalogue, i : 783-785. For the beginning of the work by Baltimore Friends see especially A Brief Account of the Proceedings of the Committee Appointed by the Yearly Meeting of Friends Held in Baltimore for Promoting the Improve- vent and Civilization of the Indian Natives. Bait. 1805; similarly Proceedings of Bait. Committee, Bait. 1806; also A Quaker Pilgrimage (in the Maryland His- torical Magazine, March, 1909), being the Journal kept by Gerard T. Hopkins on the journey to the Indians of Indiana in 1804; also contains other miscellaneous material on the early work of Baltimore Friends for the Indians. CHAPTER VIII. GRANT'S PEACE POLICY. The inauguration of the " Peace Policy " by Pres- ident U. S. Grant in 1869 was in a sense a vindication and culmination of the peace policy so successfully fol- lowed by William Penn and the philanthropic efforts so faithfully continued by the later generations of Friends. In the years immediately following 1850 it became very clear even to many military men that the war policy was not successful in dealing with the Indians. The system of removing the tribes, often by force, to the established reservations, the constant pressure of white gold-seekers, traders and farmers upon the In- dian's hunting grounds, and the building of the Pacific Railroad (1865-1869) conspired to stir up constant turmoil and frequent wars on the frontier. These wars were costly not only in lives but in money. The Sioux war of 1852-54, the Cheyenne of 1864, the Navajo, the second Sioux of 1866, and the second Cheyenne of 1867 cost upwards of one hundred mil- lion dollars. It was estimated at the time that in the Cheyenne War of 1864 the cost was more than a miUion dollars for every Indian killed. Against this background of pillage, massacre and waste there stood out in clear relief the efforts of the peace loving Friends for the Indians. The missionary and philanthropic efforts of Philadelphia Yearly Meet- 162 grant's peace policy. 163 ing (Orthodox) for the Allegheny Senecas of New York ; the largely successful effort of the various east- ern Yearly Meetings (Liberal) to protect the Seneca Nation in its landed rights and the succeeding philan- thropic efforts for the Senecas at Cattaraugus; the missionary efforts of the various- Yearly Meetings (Orthodox) among the western Indians, as exemplified by the mission establishment among the Shawnees in Kansas and one carried on among the Kaws of the same state by Western Yearly Meeting^ for several years following 1863 ; the frequent pilgrimages of in- dividual Friends among the Indians for religious or philanthropic service; the proverbial and outstanding friendly attitude of the Indians toward Friends; — all of these things united to emphasize the contrast between the Friendly method and the war method of dealing with the natives. Moreover, the government officials were especially familiar with the work of Friends. William G. Coffin had ably managed the Southern Indian Superintend- ency during the administration of President Lincoln. In connection with the land troubles of the New York Senecas the Indian Office had frequently cooperated 1 In the year of its organization (1858) Western Yearly Meet- ing appointed a Committee on Indian Concerns and attention was at once directed to the needs of the Kaw Indians in Kansas. The school for Indian children was maintained from 1863 to 1866, the expenses being paid by the Government out of the school funds of the Kaw Indians. The following Friends were engaged at various times as superintendents or teachers in the school : Mahlon and Rachel Stubbs, Martha A. Townsend, John Woodard, Samuel J. Spray, Thomas H. Stanley and wife. For several years before 1863 Thomas H. Stanley and James Stan- ley, early settlers in Kansas, had interested themselves in the welfare of various Indian tribes. — See Western Yearly Meeting Minutes, 1 858-1 868. 164 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. with Friends in their efforts. Memorials were often received from various Yearly Meetings, and these were frequently presented by delegations of Friends sent to Washington for the purpose. In 1849 Thomas Wistar had 'been sent by the gov- ernment as a special commissioner to distribute $40,000 among the mixed Menominees at Green Bay, Wiscon- sin. In i860 he and Samuel Bettle, Jr., had distributed supplies provided largely by Philadelphia Friends among some destitute Oneida Indians near Green Bay, Wisconsin. On two other occasions (1865 and 1866) Thomas Wistar had been a member of special commis- sions sent out by the government to treat with various tribes of western Indians, on the former occasion hav- ing another Philadelphia Friend, John B. Garrett, asso- ciated with him.2 For several years prominent statesmen had been suggesting on occasion that a milder and more philan- thropic attitude toward the Indians might succeed better than a policy of coercion. On September 14, 2 Thomas Wistar, 2nd, dedicated a large part of his time from youth to old age to the Indian work. His father, Thomas Wis- tar, 1st, had been a prominent member of the Indian Committee of Phila. Y. M. (Orth,), Thomas Wistar, 2nd, made frequent journeys among the Indians of New York and the west, and was often present in Washington, D. C, to lend his influence when Indian affairs of importance were pending. His emotions were at times so deeply stirred by the sufferings of the natives that they came to love him intensely and called him " The-man-with- a-tear-in-his-eye." He was an active and efficient member of the Associated Executive Committee in its early years. He died early in 1876. — The author has gained much valuable information from six manuscript volumes of his letters and memoirs, kindly loaned by his grandson Edward M. Wistar, of Philadelphia, who has been Chairman of the Associated Exec. Comm. for many years and prominently connected with other associations for the help of the Indians. grant's peace policy. 165 1867, the Weekly Chronicle of Washington, D. C, made a more definite suggestion as follows : " The treaties made by Wm. Penn were always respected by both parties, and the peaceful sect of which he was a distinguished member have been traditional friends of the aborigines, and always kindly regarded by them. We have often thought that if the Society of Friends, who so successfully colonized and civilized the Senecas in western New York, and with such judgment and benevolence managed their affairs with the Govern- ment, could be induced to take charge of the subject of colonizing the Indian territory, and instructing the Indians, they might prepare them for the inevitable future."^ The year 1867 had been a troublous one, with mas- sacre and bloodshed on the Indian frontier. Even General W. T. Sherman had despaired of subduing the Indians permanently by military force and had de- clared that fifty Indians could checkmate three thou- sand soldiers. He advised peaceful negotiations and as a result the government appointed a commission composed of four army men and four civilians to treat with the belligerent tribes. The negotiations were not entirely successful, however, and the next year (1868) there were still more serious outbreaks by the Indians and more extensive military efforts by the government to quell them.* In the fall of 1867 there was a Friends' conference on Indian concerns held in Baltimore and participated in by the Yearly Meetings (Liberal) of Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Genessee, Ohio and Indiana. 3 Quoted in Friends' Intelligencer, 24 (1867): 514. * Amer. Annual Cyclopedia, 7 (1867) : 402, 8 (1868) : 382. 12 166 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. At this conference it was reported that prominent statesmen connected with the government had ex- pressed the wish that Friends might be intrusted with the care and civiHzation of the Indians and Friends were urged to be prepared for any service that might open before them A memorial on behalf of the In- dians was addressed to the government, at the close of which Friends expressed their wilHngness to enter unselfishly and without compensation upon any service that might redound to the benefit of the Indians.^ The Indian troubles of 1867 also stirred Friends of Iowa Yearly Meeting (Orthodox) to action and the subject was taken up by the Representative Meeting in September of that year. A Committee on Indian Concerns was appointed and the cooperation of other Yearly Meetings invited. This resulted in the forma- tion of a joint committee of Iowa, Indiana, Western, and Ohio Yearly Meetings (Orthodox) and elicited also the active interest of Baltimore, New York, and New England Yearly Meetings. The above agencies were very active during 1868 on behalf of the Indians and in favor of a more peaceful and philanthropic Indian policy. One point urged upon the government is worthy of especial notice. In a memorial dated January 18, 1868, the four western Yearly Meetings urged, "that in the appointment of officers and agents, to have charge of their (the In- dians) interests, care should be taken to select men of unquestioned integrity and purity of character."^ The ultimate and most effective result of the effort 6 Friends' Intelligencer, 24 (1867) : 580. 6 This memorial was signed by Enoch Hoag for Iowa Yearly Meeting, Parvin Wright for Ohio, Luke Woodard for Indiana, and Robert W. Hodson for Western. grant's peace policy. 167 inaugurated by Friends of Iowa was a conference held at Baltimore in January, 1869, with representa- tives present from the Yearly Meetings (Orthodox) of Baltimore, New York, New England, Ohio, In- diana, Western, and Iowa. After much serious de- liberation a memorial to the government was drawn up and the conference went in a body to Washington to present the memorial and confer with various officials influential in Indian Affairs. On January 25th an audience was secured with Gen- eral U. S. Grant, the President-elect, and before him was laid the great " concern " of Friends for a more peaceful and Christian policy toward the Indians.'^ In the meantime the Friends of Philadelphia had also been stirred by the Indian situation in the west and on January 26th a committee representing the Meeting for Sufferings was in Washington to present a memorial and visit various influential government officials. They also had an interview with President- elect Grant, and the concern of Friends was earnestly and feelingly presented by Thomas Wistar.^ Both of the above committees of Friends, visiting General Grant on consecutive days, were impressed with his cordial, sympathetic attitude toward them, and his apparently earnest desire to inaugurate a more peaceful and humane policy in dealing with the In- dians. The formal announcement of Grant's Peace Policy 7 For the above account of the efforts initiated by Iowa Friends see MS. Minutes of Representative Meeting of Iowa Yearly Meeting, Sept. 3, 5, and 7, 1867; Sept. 8, 1868; Sept. 7, 1869. See also Friends' Review, 22 (1869) : 362, 378, 380, 389, 392, 424, 440, 456, 552-553- 8 T. Wistar, MS. Memoirs, 2: 193-194. 168 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. came less than a month later, when on February 15, 1869, Ely Samuel Parker, an Aid to General Grant, directed identical letters, as follows, to representatives of the various bodies of Friends, Orthodox and Lib- eral: " Headquarters Army of the United States, "Washington, D. C, February 15, 1869 "Sir: General Grant, the President elect, desirous of inaugurating some policy to protect the Indians in their just rights and enforce integrity in the administration of their affairs, as well as to improve their general condi- tion, and appreciating fully the friendship and interest which your Society has ever maintained in their behalf, directs me to request that you will send him a list of names, members of your Society, whom your Society will endorse as suitable persons for Indian agents. "Also, to assure you that any attempt which may or can be made by your society for the improvement, educa- tion, and Christianization of the Indians under such agencies will receive from him, as President, all the en- couragement and protection which the laws of the United States will warrant him in giving. " Very respectfully, your obedient servant, "(Signed) E. S. Parker "Brev. Brig. Gen., U. S. A. and A. D. C"^ After serious consideration on the part of Friends and much consultation with the authorities at Wash- ington it was decided that Orthodox Friends should take charge of the Central Superintendency, embracing the tribes of Kansas together with the Kiowas, Co- 9 Alice C. Fletcher, Indian Education and Civilization, 682. E. S. Parker was a Seneca Indian of the Tonawanda band, N. Y. He was later Commissioner of Indian Affairs for a short time under President Grant. grant's peace policy. 169 manches and other tribes in the Indian Territory, while Liberal Friends should be responsible for the North- em Superintendency, embracing the various tribes resident in the state of Nebraska. In each of these two great divisions of the Indian service, in the heart of the Indian country. Friends were to nominate mem- bers of their Society to occupy the post of Superin- tendent and the various Agents within each Superin- tendency. This was the beginning of President Grant's famous Peace Policy which was soon (1870) extended by the grant of other Superintendencies to various Protestant bodies and to the Roman Catholic Church.^" It is difficult to say what was the chief or deciding factor in leading Grant to devise this policy, and to call upon Friends to initiate the work. Probably it was no single one of the various events mentioned above, but many or all of them put together. The troublous years of Indian warfare following 1850 fur- nished an immediate motive. The various activities of Friends on behalf of the Indians at the same period, and the long tradition of friendship between Friends and the Indians from the days of William Penn, marked the Society of Friends as a fit agency to initiate 10 Another important phase of the peace policy was the appoint- ment in 1869 of a Board of Indian Commissioners made up of men " eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy to serve without pecuniary compensation." This Board had power to inspect and advise the Indian Office. It made a hard and win- ning fight against the graft of the " Indian Ring " and proposed many of the most enlightened and progressive measures that have been incorporated into the Indian policy of the United States. Several prominent Friends have belonged to this Board, including John D. Lang, Albert K. Smiley, B. Rush Roberts, Philip C. Garrett, and Daniel Smiley. George Vaux, Jr., of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox) is Chairman of the Board (1917). 170 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. a policy of peace and good will between the white man and his red brother. In his first annual message to Congress (Dec. 6, 1869) President Grant, referring to the Indians, made the following statement : " I have attempted a new policy toward these wards of the nation. . . . The Society of Friends is well known as having succeeded in living in peace with the Indians in the early settle- ment of Pennsylvania, while their white neighbors of other sects in other sections were constantly embroiled. They are also known for their opposition to all strife, violence, and war, and are generally noted for their strict integrity and fair dealings. These considerations induced me to give the management of a few reserva- tions of Indians to them and to throw the burden of the selection of agents upon the society itself. The result has proven most satisfactory."^^ Central Superintendency Orthodox Friends. When the new Administration decided to assign the entire Central Superintendency to the care of Ortho- dox Friends, the latter at once set about perfecting an organization that could cope with the new and great responsibility. The central executive committee that had earlier cared for the Indian concerns of the four western Yearly Meetings furnished the pattern for the greater Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs, which was organized at Damascus, Ohio, in June, 1869.^^ Representatives from the seven 11 Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 7 : 38. 12 A previous Conference had been held at Indianapolis, Mar. 31 and April i, 1869, where a committee was appointed to make grant's peace policy. 171 Yearly Meetings of New England, New York, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, Ohio, Indiana and Western were present at this meeting. A representative appointed by Iowa Friends was not able to be present, and North Carolina Yearly Meeting had not yet appointed dele- gates although it did so in the course of a few months. In Philadelphia an Indian Aid Association was formed in April, 1869, and it is this Association that has cooperated with the Associated Executive Com- mittee ever since that time.^^ Enoch Hoag, a pioneer in the Indian concerns of Iowa Yearly Meeting was appointed by President Grant as Superintendent of the Central Superintend- ency. The territory over which he was to preside em- braced all the area of Kansas and the Indian Ter- ritory, about 144,000 square miles in all. It was a wild country in those days, much of it unsettled, and untraversed by wagon roads or railways. Most of the streams were unprovided with bridges or ferries and in rainy periods it was a difficult and dangerous task to ford them. The civilized tribes, the Cherokees, Creeks, Semi- noles, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, in the eastern part of the Indian Territory were only indirectly under the care of Superintendent Hoag, and their religious and educational interests were largely in charge of reli- gious denominations other than Friends. These In- dians numbered about 45,000. plans for the permanent organization. For the various steps in the organization of the Assoc. Exec. Comm. see Friends' Review, 22 (1869) : 529-530, 721-724; 23 (1870) : 422; 24 (1870) : 59. _ -^^ Friends' Review, 22 (1869): 552, 585. Indian Aid Associa- tions were also formed later by the women Friends of Phila. and Germantown, the latter being still in existence (19 17) and rendering valuable service. 172 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The remainder of the Indians, many of them wild and war-like, numbered about 19,000. These Indians were scattered from northeastern Kansas to south- western Indian Territory and were under the imme- diate care of nine Agents, members of the Society of Friends. Each Agency was under the supervision of Superintendent Hoag and of the Commissioner of In- dian Affairs at Washington. Included among the tribes under the care of Friends were the Kickapoos, Shawnees, Potawatomies, Kansas (or Kaws), Osages, Quapaws, Sacs and Foxes, Chey- ennes, Arapahoes, Wichitas, Kiowas, Comanches, and Apaches.^* In order to keep in touch with this vast field of operations the Associated Executive Committee ap- pointed Dr. William Nicholson, of North Carolina, as its General Agent.^^ His duty was to spend most of his time in the Indian country as the direct represen- tative of the Committee, to which he frequently re- ported by letter or in person. A sub-comm.ittee of '^'i Friends' Review, 2s (1871) : 65-102, passim. Also Commis- sioner of Indian Affairs, Report, 1869, 356-387, 460. 15 The General Agent was paid by the Assoc. Exec. Comm. while Supt. Hoag and the Indian Agents under him were of course under pay from the Government. Dr. Nicholson became Superintendent of the Central Superintendency in 1876 in place of Enoch Hoag who resigned after 7 years of faithful and suc- cessful service. In 1878 Dr. Nicholson again became General Agent of the Associated Committee after the office of Central Superintendent had been abolished by the government. Among those who acted as Indian Agents during the regime of Orthodox Friends were the following: John D. Miles, Reuben L. Roberts, Mahlon Stubbs, James Stanley, Brinton Darlington, Lawrie Tatum, Joel H. Morris, John Hadley, Hiram W. Jones, Isaac T. Gibson, Jonathan Richards, Thomas Miller, B. W. Miles, John H. Pickering, J. M. Haworth, M. H. Newlin, Cyrus Beede, Levi Woodard, A. C. Williams, Laban J. Miles, Jacob V. Carter. grant's peace policy. 173 Friends living in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, represented the Associated Committee in its inter- course with the government. With such a vast field of operations spread out before it and with its working force thus duly or- ganized, the Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs laid hold devoutly and resolutely upon the greatest single undertaking that Friends have ever attempted for the American In- dians. One of the first and most important services of the Friends who became Indian Agents was to help quiet some of the tribes and persuade them to cooperate in making the peace policy a success. Some of the wilder tribes of the southwestern agencies such as the Kiowas, Comanches, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes had been re- cently on the war-path or at least engaged in raids and other depredations. The life of Agent James M. Haworth seemed to be in danger when he first went among the wild Kiowas and Comanches, but by quiet and firm methods and refusal to call on the military to enforce a peace poHcy, the first crisis was passed.^^ 16 Agent James M. Haworth tells one of his experiences as follows : " After I took charge [of the Agency] Lone Wolf, who is regarded as a very dangerous man, came to see me. In ac- cordance with the [former] rule, though there was no soldier about, he took off his arms and left them outside. After he had taken his seat, I went out and brought them in, and, handing them to him, told him to put them on, that I was not afraid of him ; I had come a long distance to live with them, was their friend, and one should not be afraid of his friend. He got up, and laying both hands upon me, said it made him feel happy ; said the Indians were all talking what a good Father Washington had sent them, and he had come to see me, and was ready to lay his heart at my feet, and do whatever I told him. I believe it was a victory over his wild nature, for he has treated me with the greatest respect each time he has been in." — Friends' Re- view, 26 (1873) : 651. 174 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Agent Brinton Darlington had notable success in quiet- ing the war-like Cheyennes and Arapahoes. Superin- tendent Enoch Hoag also did notable work in securing the release of two Kiowa chiefs from prison in Texas on condition that their tribe would remain peaceful thereafter. When the work was first inaugurated the Asso- ciated Committee appointed Thomas Wistar, Achilles Pugh, and John Butler to visit the various tribes in the Central Superintendency. These Friends all visited the agencies in Kansas and Achilles Pugh and John Butler went on to the wilder tribes in the Indian Ter- ritory near the Texas border. At the Wichita and Co- manche Agency they found Agent Lawrie Tatum deal- ing courageously with his various difficult problems and among many other tasks getting a good acreage of corn under cultivation as an object lesson to the In- dians. The visiting Friends consulted with the various tribes, giving them friendly advice and above all seek- ing to encourage them to adopt a peaceable, civilized mode of life. It was on this journey, however, that Achilles Pugh departed from the peace policy suf- ficiently to frighten two bold and threatening young braves nearly to death by removing his plate of false teeth suddenly and holding it out toward them.^^ Another notable journey was that made by Thomas Wistar, James E. Rhoads, and Marmaduke C. Cope to the Indian country in 1874. They held conferences with various restless tribes in order to get them to restrain certain lawless members, especially young "^T Friends' Review, 23 (1869): 161-163. Achilles Pugh, MS. Journal. Comsnr. Indian Affairs, Report, 1869: 121-124. A lit- tle later Joseph D. Hoag and Edward Earle made visits to the Indian country. grant's peace policy. 175 men, who seemed bent upon continuing a career of raiding. To the Comanches and Apaches Thomas Wistar and James Rhoads spoke so plainly that the Indians were almost incensed. James M. Haworth, Cyrus Beede and Marmaduke C. Cope also spoke, the last named more soothingly. Thus, wrote James Rhoads, the Indians were enabled to take the strong "medicine," because they knew it came from their friends.^^ It was often necessary for the Agents to settle dif- ficulties among the Indians themselves. Thus in 1873 a lawless band of Osages wantonly murdered the head chief of the Wichitas. Immediately the Kiowas, Co- manches, Cheyennes and Arapahoes were raUied by the Wichitas to help them take vengeance on the guilty Osages. It was only by the most tactful management on the part of Jonathan Richards, Agent for the Wichitas, aided by other Friends, that the aggrieved Indians were persuaded to meet in peaceable council with the Osages and after much diplomatic maneu- vering to accept an indemnity of money, ponies and goods instead of demanding blood for blood as was the usual custom among the Indians.^'^ Aside from the routine duties of distributing rations and annuities, instructing the Indians in agriculture and the various modes of civiHzed life, and counseling them in their great and petty difficulties, one of the all- important tasks of the Agents was to oversee the es- tablishment of the system of government schools. 18 FnVwrfj' Review, 27 (1874): 573. Battey, A Quaker Among the Indians, 263-272. Tatum, Our Red Brothers, 182-187. 19 Comnsr. Indian Affairs, Report, 1873, p. 225. B. Wetherill, I. T. Gibson and Cyrus Beede also helped in resolving this dif- ficult situation. See Friends' Review, 26 (1873) : 762-763. 176 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. When Orthodox Friends took charge of the Central Superintendency in 1869 there had been only about four schools in operation among the Indian tribes of that, region. By the aid of government appropriations and some additional help from various Yearly Meetings this number was soon increased to fifteen, about four- fifths of which were boarding schools and one-fifth day schools. During the decade (i 869-1 879) in which Orthodox Friends were most actively engaged in this work the number of Indian children enrolled in these schools increased from 150 to about 1,000. As Friends were allowed to nominate the principal employees in each agency these schools were largely conducted by Friends.^*^ A clear picture of the work done in a school among the wilder tribes is given by Stanley Pumphrey, an English Friend who visited the various agencies in 1876. He says : " The Indians under the care of the Agency at Fort Sill are those of the wildest tribes, the Kiowas, the Comanches and the Apaches. They num- ber in all about 3,000. The Friends spent Fourth-day afternoon and evening at the school, where about 70 children are boarded, lodged and brought under the care of an English Friend, Alfred J. Standing, and his wife. The school has been in operation rather more than twelve months. Of course the difficulty of teaching Indian children, who did not know a word of English, by a teacher who was equally ignorant of their language, was great. But A. J. S. has mastered 20 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1879, p. 45. — In 1873 the Assoc. Comm. assigned each Indian school to the special care of a particular Yearly Meeting. In this way the schools often re- ceived supplies of books, papers, or even financial aid from the various Yearly Meetings. grant's peace policy. 177 it very successfully. He began with numbers, and went on with pictures. He makes large use of the black-board and of a very simple and excellent child's reading book. They learn quickly, considering the circumstances ; read monosyllabic narratives about black dogs and white cats, with tolerable fluency; spelled words of four letters, getting nine to eleven right in a dozen, and worked short addition sums on their slates. Their writing seemed even better than their other exercises. They behaved well, and were fully as tractable as white children, and less disposed to quarrel. The Friends saw them demoUshing their supper of bread and meat with great vigor. They also visited the boys in bed. They sleep in a little draughty shed that has been lately added to the building, and are so short of room that they have two rows of berths, one over another, ship-board fashion. Both boys and girls are clothed in ordinary dress, but their features are unmistakably Indian. Long black hair is universal, and many have necklaces, bracelets and rings. A very favorite bracelet is a brass wire ring filed a little and kept bright. Over forty of these dubious ornaments were counted on the wrist of one girl." The same Friend gave a still more favorable report of the school work among the Caddoes, of the Wichita Agency: "They are much farther advanced than the Kiowas, reading, spelling and addition, all creditable. They had a fair grounding in grammar, were well posted in the main features of the geography of the United States and Europe; their writing was good, and the drawing also. They answered Scripture ques- tions and repeated fairly."^^ 2^ Friends' Review, 30 (1876): 244, 261. 178 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Aside from the regular class-room work the boys of suitable age were usually trained in various kinds of out-door work such as the care of stock, cutting wood, and the use of various tools, while the girls received a similar training in the common household industries. In this way a training in the peaceful arts became an important part of the great peace policy. The various services to the Indians performed by the Agents and other officials in the field and by inter- ested Friends at home can be mentioned in part only. Literary and temperance societies were formed among the Indians and the latter especially seemed to work a great moral uplift. Improvements in the Indian serv- ice were urged upon the government, often success- fully. Several captive white children were delivered up by the Kiowas and Comanches to Agent Lawrie Tatum.^^ At the same time Friends of the various Yearly Meetings contributed regularly to the work. Annually the Yearly Meetings gave several thousand dollars to the work of the Associated Committee and other monies were collected and disbursed through various channels. In 1879 it was estimated that the expend- iture of Orthodox Friends for the Indian work of the preceding year had been $6,450. In 1877 the Women's Aid Committee of the Phila- delphia Indian Aid Association reported having sup- plied to the various Indian stations during the pre- ceding year clothing, shoes, blankets, cloth, toys, books and pictures to the value of more than $1,500. Aside 22 Friends' Review, 26 (1872): 37, 188. grant's peace policy. 179 from this the salary of an assistant teacher at the Wyandot Mission had been paid for four months. ^^ Very naturally the religious efforts on behalf of the Indians were of supreme interest to the religious body that fostered the work. That the various Agents and other employees nominated by Friends should be truly religious and have the real missionary spirit, was a point greatly emphasized throughout the period. It was a new experience for most of the Indian tribes to have " praying " Agents come among them. When Agent Mahlon Stubbs took charge of the Kaw or Kansas tribe they were mostly blanket Indians and full of superstitious ideas but he held religious meet- ings with them on Sunday afternoons and found them willing to hear the Christian message. Agent I. T. Gibson usually held two religious meetings every Sun- day at the Osage Agency and found even the full blood Indians becoming gradually interested in Christianity. He mentions in his report of 1874 that four ministers and four elders of the Society of Friends besides sev- eral other members were employed on the reservation and eight Friends had recently made religious visits among the Indians.^* The Kansas State Record in the fall of 1869 re- marked upon the fact that the new Quaker Agent (Joel H. Morris) to the Potawatomies knelt in prayer among them after his first conference with the tribe. The paper said : " This is decidedly a new feature in Indian Councils. It has generally been understood that Indian agents are always ready to prey, but we 23 Board of Indian Commissioners, Report, 1879, p. 71. Friends' Review, 30 (1877): 604. ^^ Friends' Review, 28 (1874) '• 125. 180 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. venture that there are not many, if any, persons now living in Kansas, who ever saw an Indian Agent kneel in the midst of his charge, and ask for the blessing of Heaven to rest upon them."^^ An impression of the regular round of religious ex- ercises may be gained from the report of the Asso- ciated Executive Committee for 1876 at which time the work of Friends in the Central Superintendency was at high tide. This report says : " Meetings for worship on First-day mornings are held regularly at ten places in the different agencies, and are attended by the agents, their families, most of the employees, some traders and their clerks, and the Indian school children and some adult Indians. At least 475 persons have attended these meetings, including Indian chil- dren and adults. Meetings on First-day evenings are also held at nearly all these places for select reading and devotional exercises. Beside these, on week days, devotional meetings are held at four places. There are 11 Scripture schools, attended by 617 persons. Religious instruction is given daily in all the schools, consisting of Scripture readings, Bible lessons, repeat- ing texts, singing hymns and reading religious tracts, varied according to the judgment of those having them in charge. In all of the agencies there is some ad- vance in Christianizing the Indians. "^^ Mention has been made above of Friends from various Yearly Meetings who visited the Indian coun- try under a sense of religious duty to preach to the Indians or to study the Indian problem at first hand 27 25 Quoted in Friends' Review, 23 (1869) : 184. 26 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1876, pp. 53-54. 27 Among the many Friends who visited the Indian country grant's peace policy. 181 One of the most interesting of these journeys was the one already mentioned, made by Stanley Pumphrey, a well known English Friend of the day, accompanied by Enoch Hoag, of Iowa, formerly Superintendent of the Central Superintendency. The difficulties and dangers often attending a journey through the Indian country in those days are depicted in the following narrative by Stanley Pumphrey : " On Second-day, Eleventh mo. 13th, [1876] they started at day-break for the Pawnee Agency, sixty miles distant. They had had such beautiful weather, and it was so like summer that, although it rained, they little suspected what was before them. The rain grew heavier and being less protected than sometimes, and in an open vehicle, their wraps were soon saturated. Then the wind blew strongly from the north right in their faces, and their outer clothing was frozen stiff, and the rain changed to hail and snow. It was too late to turn back, and they pressed on. About half way they crossed the Cimarron, or Salt Fork of the Arkansas, the waters of which are brackish. On the opposite side they rested and took dinner, jumping about to keep from freezing. At 4 P. M. they were still ten miles from their destination, and on a road which neither of them had traveled before, and the faint tracks of which grew fainter from falling snow; and during this period were the following : Thomas Wistar, John But- ler, Achilles Pugh, James E. Rhoads, Edward Earle, Joseph D. Hoag, Marmaduke C. Cope, Anna C. Allen, Jennie Gordon, Isaiah Worth and wife, Amasa Chase and wife, Timothy Widdifield, Edwin Andrews, John Bull, Abby Steer, Thomas H. Stanley, Elkanah and Irene Beard, Lawrie Tatum and wife, Asa and Emeline Tuttle, Jeremiah Hubbard, Elwood Weesner, Andrew Wooten, Abel Bond. Several of these remained to do mis- sionary work. U- 13 182 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. darkness was settling over them. There is not a soli- tary [settler's] house for fifty miles, so there was no chance for shelter. Though nothing was said, they all began to fear they might have to stay out all night, and realized more than a little the perils of the wilder- ness. They kept on their way very slowly, sometimes getting out to walk; the mules were tired and the driver suffered severely. Never scarcely were poor travelers more thankful to see a light, and to learn that they had not missed their way. There was a river to cross, which they were afraid to venture in the dark. An Indian offered to show them over for a dol- lar, which was gladly accepted, and they were soon under the hospitable roof of Agent [William] Burgess. He was out, but his wife, a kind-hearted, motherly woman, did all for them that they needed, and they were soon at rest."^^ The results of the religious efforts of visiting Friends and of those employed on the reservations were not rapid but were visible after a few years. In 1876 Agent J. M. Haworth, of the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, said in his annual report to the government: " Besides our regular morning meeting, which many Indians attend, it has been our custom to have one meeting each Sabbath for religious instruction, espe- cially for the benefit of the adult Indians, in which they have manifested very great interest, both in at- tendance and attention ; and, instead of fleeing from fright or trembling with superstitious fear, as they did a few years ago, when the guidance and blessings of 2S Friends' Review, 30 (1876): 293. For account of S. Pum- phrey's travels among the Indians see Friends' Review, 30 (1876— 1877) : 188-310, passim; also British Friend, 34 (1876) : 322 to 35 U^77) ' 59, passim. grant's peace policy. 183 the Great Spirit were invoked, either in their own lan- guage or in ours, they now bow their heads in reverence and in some instances respond with deep feehng."^^ To understand the significance of such a report it is necessary to bear in mind that it refers to two of the wildest, most warlike tribes with which the govern- ment has had to deal. In 1879 Dr. Charles W. Kirk reported that at the close of one of the meetings at the Wyandot Mission, Quapaw Agency, after a sermon on " Gospel Tem- perance " eleven Indians, all nearly adult in age, were converted and made profession of the Christian faith. A mission church was organized on the spot and the new converts were given the right hand of fellowship.^*^ The following year Elkanah Beard wrote from the Cheyenne Agency of how many of the older Indians could not keep the tears from welling up in their eyes at times during the religious services. That they really wanted to hear the Gospel was witnessed by the fact that many of them walked several miles in the face of a cold wind, some of them carrying papooses, in order to be present at what they called " the Jesus medicine." During the ten years (1869-1879) of the most active service of Friends under the government there were 29 Comsnr. Indian Affairs, Report, 1876, p. 51. 30 Dr. Charles W. Kirk and his wife Rachel Hollingsworth Kirk entered the Indian work in 1878, when they took charge of the Wyandotte Government School in northeastern Okla. In 1885 they took up mission work at Shawnee under the Associated Executive Comm. of Friends. Shortly thereafter Dr. Kirk was made General Supt. of all the mission work of the Comm. in Okla. which position he filled most efficiently until his death in 1893. Rachel Kirk remained in the Indian work until 1915 when failing strength made it necessary for her to retire from active service. — See biog. sketch by E. K. Calvert in Friends' Missionary Advocate, Sept., 1916, p. 14. 184 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. hundreds of Indians who professed conversion and many died with calm and joyful confidence in the Christian faith.^^ Aside from the work accomplished during this period the way was being opened for the permanent missionary effort sustained ever since by the Asso- ciated Executive Committee. Several Friends em- ployed by the government and others who came into the Indian country on exclusively religious errands laid the foundations for this more permanent work which will be described in a later chapter.^^ During the two terms of President Grant's admin- istration the work of Friends went forward smoothly and the relations with the government were most pleasant. After President Hayes was inaugurated in 1877 several members of the Associated Executive Committee waited on him to find out his attitude toward the continuance of Friends in their official con- nection with the Indian work. He expressed himself as well satisfied with the existing situation and as de- siring no change at that time. Difficulties soon began to develop however making it appear that the new administration was not in great sympathy with the plan worked out by President Grant. A new Commissioner of Indian Affairs took office in the fall of 1877 and at once showed his antipathy to the work of Friends. He gave the Associated Com- mittee to understand that he considered many of the Friends employed in the Central Superintendency as inefficient and some of them dishonest. Very soon 31 For the above items on religious results see Friends' Review, 33 (1879): 249; same, 34 (1880): 206; Indiana Y. M, Minutes, 1879, p. 40. 32 See below, p. 201 ff. grant's peace policy. 185 Friends were deprived of several Agencies and the office of Central Superintendent was abolished. Mem- bers of the Associated Committee visited President Hayes and tried to come to an agreement with him upon a basis for continuing the work. The agreement however was disregarded by the Commissioner of In- dian Affairs and to Friends it seemed evident that political considerations were being allowed to thwart them in their efforts to aid the Indians. Therefore in May, 1879, the Associated Committee, in a formal note to President Hayes, resigned all further responsibility to the Government for the management of the Indians, whether by the nomination of Agents or otherwise.^^ Several Friends already employed as Agents, teach- ers, or in other capacities in the Indian country con- tinued in office for some years after this time and in 1882 the Associated Committee even consented to nominate, at the request of the Indian Commissioner, an Agent for the Sac and Fox Agency. During the years from 1879 to 1885 the educational work in the government schools had a very prominent place in the interests of the Associated Committee. The schools in the agencies still under the care of Friends and the Wyandot School in the Quapaw Agency were largely in charge of officers and teachers who were Friends. The same was true of a few other government schools especially in agencies formerly held by Friends. The extent and nature of the educational work 33 Associated Exec. Comm., Reports, 1^77-79. It should be said that the Commissioner of Indian Affairs who assailed the ability and integrity of Friends was peremptorily removed from his position early in 1880 while under charges of gross mal- feasance in office. 186 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. during this period may best be learned from the fol- lowing excerpts from the report of the Associated Ex- ecutive Committee for 1885 : " Six Government Board- ing Schools and three Day Schools have been mostly supplied with teachers and officers who were Friends. These have had an enrollment of 585 pupils. There have been besides these 129 pupils in the two White's Institutes of Indiana and Iowa/* making over 700 pupils. There have been 54 Friends employed as Superintendents, Matrons, and Teachers, during the year. Two Indian girls have been educated at Earl- ham, one of whom now teaches at the Wyandot School. One boy has been educated in the Maryville Normal Institute, Tennessee, at the cost of the Philadelphia Committee. The Forest Grove U. S. Indian School, Oregon, has been under the care of Dr. H. J. Minthorn a part of the year, and is now in charge of Dr. W. V. Coffin. The school has been managed with efficiency, and the results have been excellent."^^ So it came about that while the principal period of Friends' activities under the " Peace Policy " extended only through one decade, 1 869-1 879, yet a considerable work, especially in the government schools, was con- tinued six years longer. In 1884 John D. Miles, who had served as an Indian Agent from the beginning of Grant's policy, resigned from the Cheyenne and Ara- pahoe Agency. The next year Laban J. Miles, the only remaining Orthodox Friends' Indian Agent, re- signed from the Osage Agency. At the same time 3* These two Institutes were not managed by the Associated Committee and will be considered in a later chapter, p. 234 ff. 35 Indiana Y. M. Minutes, 1885, p. 18. — The Forest Grove School, while under the care of Dr. Coffin was moved to the out- skirts of Salem, Oregon, and was given by him the name " Chem- awa," which it still bears. grant's peace policy. 187 Friends were dropped from their positions in the gov- ernment Indian schools. After this time there were a very few instances of the appointment of Friends to positions as Indian Agents or in the Indian schools, but such appointment did not again become a " policy " of the government. The Northern Superintendency Liberal Friends. The Northern Superintendency, in the state of Ne- braska, comprising six agencies with an Indian popu- lation of about 6,000, was given by President Grant into the charge of Liberal Friends. The various Yearly Meetings entered with vigor and enthusiasm into the new work and throughout the period general conferences attended by delegates from all the Yearly Meetings were held to consider the various problems relating to Indian welfare. A small Central Executive Committee looked after the details of the work in the intervals between the general conferences. Samuel M. Janney^® was placed in charge as Super- intendent, and entered upon the duties of his office at Omaha, Nebraska, in the latter part of May, 1869. As soon as possible after taking office he visited the various agencies under his charge and in September was able to report to the Commissioner of Indian Af- fairs the general conditions among the Indian tribes. The Winnebagoes, under the care of Agent Howard White, were in a poor condition physically and mor- ally. They lived in uncleanly, ill-ventilated lodges, 36 Samuel M. Janney was born in Loudoun County, Virginia, in 1801 and died there in 1880. He was author of a Life of IVm. Penn and a History of the Society of Friends and other works. See Memoirs of Samuel M. Janney, 1881. 188 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. suffered from diseases of a scrofulous nature, and were addicted to drinking, gambling and other vices. There were about 1,300 Indians in this Agency. The Omahas numbered about 1,000 and were under the charge of Dr. Edward Painter. These Indians en- joyed the unusual privilege of dwelling upon their own ancestral lands. They were orderly, progressive and provident and seldom required rations from the gov- ernment for subsistence. Most members of the tribe realized the need of turning to the pursuit of agricul- ture and in general to the ways of civilized life. Their freedom from the use of intoxicating liquors was notable. The Santee Agency contained nearly 1,000 Santee Sioux Indians and was under the care of Agent Asa M. Janney, a brother of the Superintendent. These Indians had been greatly helped by Episcopal and Presbyterian missionaries and many of them were pro- fessing Christians. They lived usually in log houses which though rudely built were much more com- fortable and healthful than the lodges and wigwams occupied by most of the Indians of the superintend- ency. The largest tribe and the most warlike under the care of Liberal Friends was the Pawnee. Jacob M. Troth accepted this Agency and found it to contain about 2,400 Indians, nearly twice as many as the next largest tribe in the superintendency. The members of this tribe were generally backward in their civilization but some of them seemed anxious to adopt a more progressive mode of life. They lived in miserable, ill- ventilated earth lodges and consequently suffered much from disease. grant's peace policy. 189 The Otoe Agency contained about 440 Otoes and Missourias and was in charge of Agent Albert L. Greene. These Indians lived in squalid, damp lodges and were great sufferers from scrofula and other dis- eases. They were extremely ignorant and supersti- tious but seemed amiable and willing to learn. Finally there was the Great Nehama Agency under the care of Agent Thomas Lightfoot. These Indians were few in number and had been on the decline for some years. There were about 228 lowas and 84 Sac and Fox Indians living on two adjoining reservations. They were addicted to the use of liquor, and although very poor were quite averse to any laborious employ- ment. They depended largely on their annuity for subsistence and clothing. Such were the conditions found by Superintendent Janney in the several agencies under his charge. In summing up the situation and needs of his wards he wrote as follows : " Experience has shown that the In- dian can be civilized, and that under favorable circum- stances he will accept the benign principles of Chris- tianity — ^the only means whereby a nation can be ad- vanced to the highest grade of refinement, and secured in the possession of permanent prosperity. " To accomplish this great work in the shortest time possible, the Indians now living on reservations should have allotments of land in severalty secured to them by patent ; they should be assisted in building comfortable houses and furnished with implements of agriculture and live stock ; well conducted schools should be main- tained among them, and above all, they should be placed under the care of good and enlightened men and women whose kindly and familiar intercourse with 190 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. them would secure their confidence, win them from their savage ways, and lead them in the path of peace."^^ In the summer of 1869 a delegation of Friends from the eastern Yearly Meetings journeyed to the Indian country and made a tour of the Nebraska agencies. In this delegation were Benjamin HallowelP^ of Balti- more Yearly Meeting, .Franklin Haines of New York Yearly Meeting, and John H. Dudley and Joseph Powell of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. The ex- periences and observations of these Friends, related in a full report on their return, gave to Friends of their several constituencies a vivid picture of life among the Indians. The delegation of Friends held religious meetings among the Indians when opportunity offered and to these meetings came Indians, some of them fearfully painted, with feathers in their head-dress, and bones, bears' claws, and beads around their necks. The In- dian children, many of the women, and some of the men sat on the floor and seemed to sit with a peculiar ease and grace. At the Winnebago Agency the visiting Friends saw the Indians just after Agent Howard White had distributed the annuity goods. The Indians passed 87 Commissioner of Indian Affairs Report, 1869, pp. 332-356. — Other Indian Agents who served during the regime of Liberal Friends were: Joseph Webster, William Burgess, Jesse W. Griest, C. H. Roberts, T. T. Gillingham, Taylor Bradley, Mahlon B. Kent, Charles H. Searing, Jacob Vore, Augustus Brosius, Isaiah Lightner, Charles Hill. 38 Benjamin Hallowell was born at Abington, Pa., in 1799 and died at Sandy Spring, Md., in 1877. He was for many years a recognized leader of the Indian work among Liberal Friends. See Autobiography of Benjamin Hallowell, 1883. grant's peace policy. 191 in procession, with the goods carried sometimes on the back of a pony, sometimes on the back of a squaw. The men were on foot, on ponies, in wagons, with tomahawks, pipes, war clubs, sabres and battle-axes. The procession extended for three miles and was visible for two miles as it passed over the undulating prairie and along the hillsides. Another typical picture of Indian life that appealed strongly to the visiting Friends was among the wild Pawnees. The impression made upon the Friends is best given in their own words : " The evening was beautiful, and hundreds of Indians, with their bright red blankets, could be seen wandering or riding over the broad prairie in all directions, giving a life and pic- turesqueness to the scene, and awakening much thought, which would be tinctured with sadness ! What is to be the result? How can we get hold of them so as to give beneficial direction to their wan- derings ? "^^ In seeking to answer this great question rightly, the Friends of the seven Yearly Meetings (including Illi- nois Yearly Meeting organized in 1875) labored ear- nestly and diligently to meet the many great needs of their red brothers. Many delegations and many indi- vidual Friends visited the Indian country in the fol- lowing years to study the problems at first hand. On their return home they reported their observations and conclusions to the various committees and conferences having the work in charge. Each Yearly Meeting in- terested itself in one particular Agency and furnished funds and supplies to the Indians there. At the same time the Superintendent and Agents in the field, feel- S9 Friends' Intelligencer, 26 (1869-1870) : 580. 192 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. ing a responsibility not only to their Indian wards and to the government, but also to their meetings and friends at home, labored diligently and effectively to advance the interests and civilization of the Indians. They at once began to establish and build up a govern- ment school system, they carried out the allotment of land in severalty among some of the tribes, they en- couraged the Indians in the settled pursuit of agri- culture and in the building of comfortable homes, they distributed the annuity goods and settled tribal and inter-tribal disputes, and finally reported all their activities to the government and made recommenda- tions conducive to the further progress of the tribes under their care. Many and varied were the exigencies faced by the Agents in dealing with factions and parties within the several tribes. Howard White has related personally to the author how he changed the chiefs and estab- lished an elective system among the Winnebagoes. Early in his service as Agent for this tribe he found the tribal government dominated by a group of old conservative chiefs who were utterly incompetent and strongly adverse to all civilizing influences. These men were opposed by many of the younger Indians and half-breeds who believed that their only salvation as a people was to adopt the ways of white men and become civilized. Consequently Agent White stepped in and deposed all the old chiefs and appointed younger and more progressive men in their places. After a period of time he allowed an election for chiefs to be held and the result was that progressive men were largely chosen. His story of the election shows how hard it is for a grant's peace policy. 193 primitive people to become inured to the ways of mod- ern democracy. He announced the hours during which the polls would be open. At the close of the time the ballots were counted and the result announced. At once a defeated candidate rode off at full speed on his pony and in due time returned with enough of his Indian friends who had not voted to turn the tide of election in his favor. The Agent explained to him that the polls were closed and the election over. Such stringent regulations were too much for the Indian to under- stand and he went away sorrowful, protesting against the gross injustice of the white man's ways of gov- ernment. Later on Agent White found it more satisfactory to the Indians to hold the elections along a road way, and merely allow the voters to line up on opposite sides of the road in company with their respective candidates. Thus any dissatisfied partisan could pass down the line and verify the count. To the suspicious mind of the Indian the simplicity and openness of this system were far preferable to the intricacies and secrecy of the white man's vaunted Australian ballot. Superintendent Samuel M. Janney retired from the Northern Superintendency in the fall of 1871, having served most efficiently for something over two years. During that time much had been accomplished for the advancement of the Indians under his charge. Lands in severalty had been allotted to the Omahas, Winne- bagoes, and Santee Sioux. Much land had been broken and improved for agriculture. The more progressive Indians had built houses, and had been supplied with wagons, plows, mowing machines and other agricul- tural implements. Above all several schools had been 194 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. built and a generation of Indian children started in the paths of knowledge.^^ Samuel M. Janney was succeeded in the Central Superintendency by Barclay White of New Jersey, a Friend who had been for some time actively interested in the Indian work of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Under him the work so well begun was carried for- ward with vigor and ability. New day schools and some industrial boarding schools were built, and the Indians were encouraged in various ways to the further development of agricultural pursuits. Various meas- ures for the help of the Indians were annually urged upon the government at Washington. In harmony with suggestions repeatedly made by Samuel M. Jan- ney and Barclay White a field matron, supported by Friends, was sent out to the Santee Sioux. She visited the Indian homes and instructed the women and chil- dren in the various domestic arts of civilized life. As an example of the advancement made by the more progressive tribes the following excerpt from Superintendent Barclay White's report of 1873 on the Winnebagoes is in point: "At the time of his (Agent Howard White's) taking charge (four years pre- viously) they were a rebellious, turbulent people, with chiefs adverse to the adoption of civilized habits and customs, and but few improvements had been made on the reservation. Now this beautiful tract of country is dotted over with substantially built cottages, which have been built upon farms that have been allotted in severalty. These farmers own their wagons, horses, harness, and furniture of their houses, dress in civi- *o Annual Reports o£ Supt. Janney in Reports of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1869, 1870, 1871. grant's peace policy. 195 lized costume, raise crops and take them to market for sale. Surely they are on the high road to civiliza- tion."*i In his report of 1875, referring to the general situ- ation of all the tribes in the Superintendency, Barclay White wrote : " During the six years the Santee Sioux, Winnebagoes, Omahas, Pawnees, Otoes and Mis- sourias, lowas, and Sacs and Foxes of Missouri have been under the care of the Society of Friends they have made marked advancement and improvement in civilization and industrial pursuits. No murder of a white person has been charged upon them for four years, and although several Indians have been killed by whites during that time, for which crime the mur- derers were not punished, no attempt at retaliation has been made by the Indians. As a rule, these Indians are honest and temperate in regard to strong drink ; in these respects being probably above the average of the same number of white persons in the State in which they reside. The majority of the Winnebagoes, Santee Sioux, and lowas have given up the chase as a means of subsistence, and are devoting their attention to agriculture. The disposition and intention of all the tribes is good and tending towards the arts of civi- lization. With just treatment, the adults are easily controlled, and the children are apt scholars in most branches of school-learning. "Were it possible for the Nebraska Indian to re- ceive from his white neighbor the treatment and respect due to a man, and from the Government equal rights with the white man before the law, he would soon stand as his peer, and become as valuable a citizen."*^ 41 Comsnr. of Indian Affairs Report, 1873, p. 185. 42 Same, 1875, p. 314. 196 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The above report was made just one year before the Northern Superintendency was closed. Early in June, 1876, Barclay White received orders from the Com- missioner of Indian Affairs to close his office on the 30th of that month. He complied promptly and there- after the various Friends who were Indian Agents in Nebraska reported directly to the Commissioner in Washington. This was near the close of Grant's sec- ond term. When the Hayes administration came into power it soon became evident to Liberal Friends, as it did to Orthodox Friends laboring in the Central Superintendency, that the old order was changing. Year by year the work was made more difficult by the increase of various poHtical influences. The efforts of the Indian Agents were nullified by hostile orders from the Commissioner or by the defiant attitude of Agency employees forced upon the Agents contrary to their desire. One by one the various agencies were given up until after 1880 only the Great Nehama and the Santee Sioux were left under the care of Friends' Agents. The former was held until 1882 and the latter until 1885. In the latter year when Isaiah Lightner withdrew, the experiment inaugurated by President Grant came to an end with Liberal Friends as it did in the same year with Orthodox Friends. Although a Friend, Charles Hill, was appointed to the Agency after a short interim and served for about five years, it was understood that " with the retirement of Agent Lightner, the official connection of the Society of Friends with the United States Government in the care of the Indians ceased."*^ During the ten years 1 869-1 879 when Liberal *3 Baltimore Y. M. Minutes, 1886, p. 31. grant's peace policy. 197 Friends were having a large place in the Peace Policy it is estimated that more than $60,000 was donated by the various yearly meetings for supplies, clothing, and various kinds of help for the Indians. The results of this and of the efforts of Superin- tendents, Agents, school-teachers and other officers in the field were highly encouraging with most of the tribes. The small band of Sacs and Foxes and the Otoes and Missourias made rather slow progress on account of untoward conditions within the jtribes. The wild Pawnees were constantly harassed by the roving bands of Sioux but made commendable prog- ress up to the time of their removal to the Indian Territory. Among the remaining tribes the success of Friends was scarcely less than remarkable. The Santee Sioux, Winnebago, Omaha, and Iowa Indians, at the close of the official service of Friends for them, were living for the most part upon their own home- steads, with comfortable houses, and modern farming implements. They had ample school facilities and in short were well on the way to become educated, self- supporting American citizens.** Nor did Liberal Friends forget their former wards when the official service came to an end. The early suggestions of Samuel M. Janney and Barclay White as to the desirability of sending white women among the Indians were put vigorously into practice about 1890. The function of the field matron was to go into the Indian homes and instruct the women and children in the arts of household economy as practiced among civilized peoples. The experiment, supported at first ** Barclay White, The Friends and the Indians, 1886, pp. 11-15. 14 198 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. by Friends, was soon adopted by the government, and was successful to a marked degree. In this way and by various other methods Friends for many years kept in touch with some of the tribes formerly under their charge and were always ready to aid them or any other Indians that needed the help of a friendly hand.*^ Conclusion. Such was the work done by Orthodox Friends in the Central Superintendency and by Liberal Friends in the Northern Superintendency. Other denomina- tions did similar work in various places but the part taken by Friends was conspicuous because they were selected to inaugurate the new " Peace Policy." It was essentially President Grant's policy and it hardly outlived his administrations. It was begun in 1869, largely curtailed by Hayes about a decade later, and was brought to a final close about 1885 at the begin- ning of Cleveland's first administration. That the policy was a success will probably never be seriously questioned. There were faults in the whole Indian system that militated against it. There 45 In 1898 Baltimore, Phila., and New York Yearly Meetings were still engaged somewhat in Indian work. See Proceedings of Friends' General Conference, Richmond, Ind., 1898, pp. 113- 114. — In 191 1 the Indian Committee of Bait. Y. M. reported " very little activity. ... In fact, during the past decade, the standard of effort has been gradually lowering among all the Yearly Meetings, until at this time hardly any reference is made to the subject in any but ours, and very few and circumscribed are the channels of usefulness left open to us." The Bait. Committee however continued to make contributions to various efforts on behalf of the Indians. Friends' Intelligencer, 68 (1911): 786-787. grant's peace policy. 199 were faults In the work done by Friends. Yet on the whole the effort was crowned with a fine success. The Indians, many of them wild and warlike, or filthy and debased, made remarkable progress toward civi- lization, especially in the early years when Friends were unhampered by adverse political influences. The establishment of a school system, the instruction in agriculture, the training of the Indian women in do- mestic arts, the teaching by precept and example of the benign principles of Christianity, — these were the outstanding features and these wrought the prime suc- cesses of the work of Friends. And before all, and above all, the "Peace Policy" brought peace. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. Associated Executive Committee of Fjriends on Indian Affairs, Annual Reports. These reports, which began with the formation of the Committee in 1869, form the chief source of infor- mation for the activities of Orthodox Friends during the period. They were published separately and also, during long periods, in the annual Minutes of Indiana, Iowa, Western, and other Yearly Meetings. Copious extracts also printed in Friends' Review. Battey, Thomas C. A Quaker Among the Indians. Bos- ton. 1875. Experiences among some of the wildest tribes during the early years of the " peace policy." Biographical and other miscellaneous materials are men- tioned in footnotes of the above chapter. Board of Indian Commissioners, Annual Reports. Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. These reports contain much important data on the situation in the various agencies. 200 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. Central Executive Committee on the Indian Con- cern, Annual Reports. These reports cover the work of Liberal Friends. Nothing approaching a complete file of them has been found but copious extracts v^ere printed in the Friends' Intelligencer. A manuscript Minute Book (1869-1878) of the annual Convention of Delegates, to v^hich the Central Executive Comm. reported, is in the vault of the Meeting House at Fifteenth and Race Sts., Phila. ; also the Minute Book No. 2 (1871-1884) of the Comm. on Indian Affairs of Phila. Yearly Meeting. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Annual Reports. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. These volumes contain the annual reports to the gov- ernment of the Superintendents and Agents in the field. These reports together with the annual reports of the Associated Executive Committee and the Central Ex- ecutive Committee, mentioned above, form the main fund of source material on the subject of this chapter. Friends' Intelligencer^ Philadelphia. This weekly publication of Liberal Friends contains reports of various committees and delegations, letters from agents in the field and other important material. Friends' Review. Philadelphia. This weekly publication contains reports of various committees and delegations, letters from agents in the field, and other important material on the work of Orthodox Friends. Tatum, Lawrie. Our Red Brothers. Philadelphia. 1899. Much valuable and highly interesting material on experiences of Orthodox Friends by one who was for some time an Indian Agent. CHAPTER IX. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. The most extensive system of Indian missions ever maintained by Friends is that maintained during re- cent years among the tribes now resident within the state of Oklahoma. In northeastern Oklahoma, close to the Missouri line, are the Wyandotte and Seneca missions. In the central part of the state are the missions to the Kicka- poos and Shawnees, and somewhat further south one to the Big Jim band of Shawnees. Further north are three stations, among the Otoes, lowas and Osages, respectively. Other stations, maintained until re- cently, have been discontinued on account of a scat- tering of the Indian population, the influx of whites into the vicinity, or because it seemed best to relin- quish the field to the missionary efforts of other re- ligious bodies. At each one of the stations a missionary and his family reside, and at each mission excepting the one at Hominy among the Osages there is a meeting house in which religious services are held. Bible schools are maintained for the instruction of young and old, and house to house visitation by the missionaries is a prominent part of the work. At Wyandotte, Otoe and Shawnee there are government Indian schools and a considerable work is done among the pupils in these schools. The missionary resident at Shawnee 201 202 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. besides having charge of the local work at that mis- sion has a general oversight, as superintendent, over all the stations in Oklahoma. This extensive system of missions is under the care of the Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs and is the legacy that was left to that committee when the official duties assigned to them in 1869 by President Grant were laid down. When it became certain, as described in the pre- ceding chapter,^ that the administration of President Hayes was not in sympathy with the work being done by Friends in an official capacity, it became more and more evident that a door was nevertheless opening for a missionary effort in the field that had become so familiar and so appealing during the preceding years. In reality the missionary effort began as early as 1869 because many of the first Indian Agents ap- pointed by President Grant were zealous in their efforts to Christianize the Indians under their charge. The same may be said of many Friends who took positions in the government Indian schools, and of others who early entered the field on purely religious errands.^ Thus, while the official activities of Friends were gradually drawing to a close during the years 1879 to 1885, the missionary effort was growing apace. In 1880 four Friends with their wives were devoting themselves to the religious instruction of the Indians. Asa C. and Emeline H. Tuttle,^ who had been re- 1 See p. 184 ff., above. 2 See p. 182 ff. for evangelizing activities of Indian Agents and others. Several of the Friends mentioned in note 27, pp. 1 80-1 81. who visited the Indian country remained to do missionary work. s Asa C. and Emeline H. Tuttle entered the Indian work in 1870 under the auspices of the Associated Executive Committee, THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 203 leased by the government from the charge of the Modoc and Quapaw Boarding School, were continued for religious work in the same field by the Associated Committee. Elkanah and Irene Beard were doing missionary work among the Cheyennes, Jonathan Ozbun and wife among the Kaws and Osages, Frank- lin Elliott among the Shawnees, while Jeremiah Hub- bard'' made visits twice a month to the Senecas. Realizing the meaning of the transition that was taking place the Associated Committee wrote in 1880: " The committee having fully examined the work con- ducted under its supervision, considered what should be its future action. Having been providentially re- lieved from responsibility to the government, and thus withdrawn from the complications which this mixed responsibility involved, it was felt that never before was the Lord's blessing so manifest in our labors. With gratitude we recognize that He seems to have placed before us an open door for teaching the In- dians a knowledge of the saving truths of Christian- They opened a school among the Ottawa Indians and received Indian orphans as boarding scholars. Their work expanded rapidly and was soon adopted and supported by the government. They were later transferred to the Quapaw mission, and did a wonderful work for the Modocs, as mentioned below, p. 208 f. They retired from the Indian service in 1881. Asa C, Tuttle died Nov. II, 1898. Emeline H. Tuttle is still living, 19 16, * Jeremiah Hubbard (" Uncle Jerry ") was born in Indiana in 1837 and died at Miami, Okla., in 1915. He began religious work among the Indians in the winter of 1879-80 and for many years labored faithfully and efficiently among the Wyandots, Senecas, Ottawas, Modocs and other Indians in northeastern Oklahoma. Perhaps no other missionary to the Indians was so widely known among Friends of the United States. An interest- ing though sketchy autobiography is his Forty Years Among the Indians, Miami, Okla., 1913- See also memorial sketch in Amer- ican Friend, 22 (1915) : 335. 204 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. ity ; and for aiding them in literary and industrial edu- cation."^ Into this open door of service Friends now entered under the leadership of their Associated Executive Committee. While the most outstanding develop- ments during the following six years, 1 879-1 885, as narrated in the preceding chapter,^ were connected with the agencies and government schools where Friends still held official positions, yet there was a considerable development in the purely missionary effort. This work gradually became established in two principal districts that have remained as permanent centers for the activities of the Associated Committee. The work, mentioned above, that was being carried on in 1880 by Franklin Elliott among the Absentee Shaw- nees in the Sac and Fox Agency became the nucleus about which several mission stations sprang up, and this part of the field may be termed the central dis- trict. The mission at Shawnee became a few years later the seat of the general superintendent of all the Friends' mission in the Indian Territory. The other center, of what may be called the north- eastern district, was at Ottawa in the Quapaw Agency, where Asa and Emeline Tuttle by years of devoted labor had built up a splendid religious work. The missionary effort of Friends at this early period was more extensive in the northeastern district and in this district was organized in 1881 a Monthly Meet- ing of Friends among the Indians. Asa and Emeline Tuttle had done missionary work for many years 5 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1880, p. 82. 6 See p. 185, above. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 205 among the Ottawas, Quapaws, and Modocs in this dis- trict, and Jeremiah Hubbard, John M. Watson, Thomas Stanley and others about 1880-1881 had made good progress in holding meetings among them and among the near-by Senecas. At the request of Jeremiah Hubbard about ninety Indians of the above mentioned tribes were received into membership by Timbered Hills Monthly Meeting, Kansas. It was then decided to establish under the authority of Spring River Quarterly Meeting four Preparative Meetings among the Ottawas, Senecas, Modocs and Wyandots respectively, and of these four meetings was composed Grand River Monthly Meeting, set up September 3, 1881.'^ In the central district the work under Franklin Elliott at Shawneetown had been continued success- fully under the especial care of New York Yearly Meeting. In the period 1881-1884 this field of service had opened new opportunities and was transferred by New York Friends to the care of the Associated Com- mittee. Among the intractable Mexican Kickapoos a few miles away a new work was being slowly and labo- riously built up by John Clinton and wife. With a vision of the future possibilities in this vicinity Friends decided to build permanently upon the foun- dations thus laid and in 1884 a Monthly Meeting was established at Shawnee with a membership of about 40 Indians. The following year a meeting house was built. About the same time John F. Mardock was seeking to interest the Kaws of the Osage Agency in the truths 7 J. Hubbard, Grand River Monthly Meeting, 4-25. 206 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. of Christianity, and he and James K. Osbun were trying to reach some of the Osages and Cherokees. The above narrative indicates fairly the extent and organization of the missionary work that was built up during the six years following 1879, and that served as a foundation for the purely missionary effort that was to be continued by the Associated Committee after the last official duty under the United States govern- ment was relinquished in 1885. In that year the Com- mittee could report twelve places where religious meetings were held, one Indian, Frank Modoc, who had been recorded a minister, and two monthly meet- ings with a combined membership of 168 Indians. The experiences of the workers in the field during this period rival in human and historic interest those of the days of Penn or Savery. Jeremiah Hubbard tells of a birthday dinner held in the Ottawa Friends' meeting house in 1881 for old Grandma King of the Ottawa nation. Nearly all the members of the tribe were present and after a good dinner there came the usual flow of speech. " Grandma " was said to be 113 years old, and she could speak three languages, Ottawa, French and English. Her memory seemed to be perfectly clear and in jovial reminiscence she told the assembled company how the young braves had come to see her about one hundred years before. The type of religious and evangelistic effort carried on among the Indians at this time is fairly represented by the following incidents involving the Wyandot Indian, Frank Whitewing. Jeremiah Hubbard tells how he with Alpheus Townsend and Nicholas Cotter attended the funeral of Frank's sister. When the coffin was lowered into the grave Whitewing dropped THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 207 on his knees and gave voice to a powerful and moving prayer in the Wyandot tongue. The Friends pres- ent were much stirred by the impressive and solemn scene there in the valley of Sycamore Creek, down deep in the timber, with snow lying on the ground, and red men and white standing in the presence of the dead voicing their common faith in a life that does not end with the grave. " We returned back to the mission," writes Jere- miah Hubbard in his journal, " and several of the In- dians coming in, we had a good meeting ; found John M. Watson there at meeting this evening. John read one of the Psalms and spoke and prayed powerfully to the Master for us all. I then spoke awhile; some ten or twelve persons arose to be prayed for. Our meeting was much favored of the Lord and unto Him be all the praise." Frank Whitewing had been In former years one of the wildest Indians in the neighborhood but after his conversion to Christianity led an exemplary life. Even after his body had been weakened by tubercu- losis he often rode many miles to attend meeting. When he was unable to leave home and had been ab- sent from meeting several times Jeremiah Hubbard went to see him : " I knocked. Some one said. Come. I opened the door. There lay Frank, and his wife was standing by the fire. I shook hands with his wife, and then went to him. He said : * I glad you come. I know you come.' I said, ' How did thee know I come ? ' He said, * I ask the Lord to send you and I knowed he would, for I ask Him to.' " It then de- veloped that he was in destitute circumstances and his friend's coming was the means of relieving his want. 208 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. His absolute faith in prayer was typical of the simple trust that was manifested by the Indians who made profession of Christianity through the work of the missions.^ Perhaps the most strikingly successful missionary effort in the history of Friends' work with the Indians was that accomplished among the Modoc Indians. This work was begun by Asa and Emeline Tuttle im- mediately after the Modocs were brought as prisoners of war from Oregon to the Quapaw Agency after the terrible Modoc War. The story of how many of the scarred and hardened warriors who had fought with unexampled fierceness in the lava beds of southern Oregon became humble, peace-loving, self-sacrificing followers of the Christ, would perhaps nearly equal any story in the whole history of Christian missions. One of the early converts was Frank Modoc, " Steamboat Frank." His little girl came under the influence of Friends at school and thus carried the Christian influence into her home. She told her father the things she learned. She gave thanks at meal time and in the evening sang and prayed. After a time a fatal illness came upon her and just before her death she placed her hand in her father's and said to him, " Father, shake hands and promise you will meet me in heaven." His dying child's appeal was the means of his conversion. He confessed himself a great sin- ner and from the time of his daughter's death walked, as he called it, " straight and solid." If anyone asked him about his former life as a warrior he would dis- miss the subject saying, "I leave that way back long time ago." He was a devoted Christian and he and 8 J. Hubbard, Grand River Monthly Meeting, i6, 56 flf. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 209 his wife often walked a distance of about fourteen miles to attend the mission service. He became a recognized minister among Friends and was of great influence in his tribe, even visiting the remnant of his people in Oregon to carry the Christian message to them. Feeling his lack of education he journeyed to Friends' Oak Grove Seminary at Vassalboro, Maine, but there his health gave way and he died in 1886 at the home of his devoted friends John and Myra E. Frye, in Portland, Maine. ° As a result of his example and of the earnest efforts of the mission workers, the Modoc meeting became the largest and in many ways the best meeting of Friends among the Indians. Isaac Sharp, a prominent English Friend, visited several of the missions in 1883 and was greatly im- pressed with the meeting among the Modocs. In his account he mentioned especially the vigorous singing of hymns, and an impressive prayer by " Steamboat " Frank. Henry Stanley Newman describes one of the meet- ings during his visit as follows: "The 12th of Janu- ary 1890 was Sabbath day. A fierce blizzard was raging, and the white man's church was empty. The snow beat into our faces as we drove along in the in- tense cold to the Friends' Meeting House in the Modoc 9 J. Hubbard, Grand River Monthly Meeting, 5. Indiana Y. M. Minutes, 1882, p. 45 ; 1884, p. 25 ; 1885, p. 24. H. S. Newman, MS. Narrative of Sojourn among the Indians, pp. 13-14. Mahlon H. Stubbs, Jesse Hobson, Levi M. Gilbert and others later visited the Modocs in Oregon and witnessed the good results of Frank Modoc's work there. Indiana Y. M. Minutes, 1886, p. 22; 1890, p. 72; 1891, p. 14. Levi M. Gilbert did religious work and was for a time at the head of the government school at the Klamath Agency. See Christian Worker, 21 (1891) : 213-214. 210 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. camp, where John and JuHa Hall work as mission- aries. As we drew near we saw the Modocs coming from various directions through the storm. There were sixty of them present! Moses Kyst, a Modoc warrior, was the first to 'bow in lowly prayer. Scar- faced Charley, one of the old chiefs from the lava beds, also spoke. Faithful WiUiam, Robin Hood, Qinton, and other of their heroes were present. The Modoc meeting is a marvellous testimony to the mi- raculous and conquering power of the Gospel of Christ."^« The general lines of missionary effort to be fol- lowed by Friends in the Oklahoma field had been clearly laid in 1885 when the official work under the government was reHnquished. The chief element in all activities was to be the preaching of the gospel message and the building up of mission churches among the Indians. The missioniaries were also to lay great emphasis upon house to house visitation, comforting and helping the needy in every possible way, material and spiritual. Bible Schools were to be organized in which Indian children and adults might learn the truths of Christianity as recorded in the Scriptures. Special attention was to be given to the children in government schools that were in proximity to any of the missions. As it transpired Friends were occasionally appointed after 1885 to teach in the gov- ernment schools, although not to such an extent as formerly. In such cases a very great influence was exercised over the school children. Such schools were 10 H. S. Newman, MS. Narrative of Sojourn among the In- dians, pp. 14-15. Isaac Sharp's account in British Friend, 42 (1884): 6-9; The Friend (London), 24 (1884): 13-16. SCAR-FACED CHARLEY A MODOC, ONCE A FIERCE WARRIOR LATER A MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 211 sometimes aided 'by Friends through gifts of equip- ment or added support for the teacher, and in a few instances private schools were supported by Friends, a sHght tuition being charged to aid in the main- tenance. Such was to be the type of work done and it has not been altered in any considerable way during the thirty years of its development. To be sure all effort to maintain private schools has ceased since the public school system has been largely extended, and few Friends have been appointed in recent years to teach in government schools. Aside from these changes however the chief developments to be recorded are those connected with the growth or decline of the work as a whole and in various localities, the opening of new mission stations and the closing of old ones, and the changing conditions of Indian life that have af- fected the whole mission situation. Chronologically the period may be divided roughly into three sub-periods of about one decade each, repre- senting approximately the length of time spent in the field by each Superintendent until 1914. Dr. Charles W. Kirk took charge of the mission at Shawnee in 1885, was appointed Superintendent of the whole field in 1888, and served until his death in 1893. His wife then acted as Superintendent until the following year. The period of nearly a decade, from 1885 to 1894, may be thought of then as about representing the ad- ministration of the first Superintendent, Dr. Kirk. George N. and L. Ella Hartley were appointed Super- intendents in 1894 and served until 1904, while Wil- liam P. and Abigail C. Haworth served in the same capacity from 1904 to 1914. 212 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The first of these three periods was a time of vig- orous growth and expansion. The work was new and inspiring, the Indians were living in fairly com- pact groups with few white people settled among them, and Friends had some splendid starting points for mission work in the localities where some of their number had served as Indian Agents or in the gov- ernment schools. As a result the work expanded rapidly between 1885 and 1894. In the latter year four Monthly Meet- ings were reported, new ones having been organized during the period at Blue Jacket in the Cherokee coun- try, and among the lowas. A Quarterly Meeting, called Grand River, had been established consisting of these Monthly Meetings and one across the Kansas line. The four Monthly Meetings in the Indian and Oklahoma Territories comprised thirteen Preparative Meetings and twenty-three meetings for worship be- sides several out-stations where meetings were held occasionally. The Indian membership of the meet- ings had grown during the nine years from 168 to 426. In the latter year there were fifteen Bible Schools with an enrollment of 807 pupils and an average attendance of 469.^^ Several new meeting houses were built among the Indians at this time and so extensive and successful did the work appear that during the period grants of land were made by the government to several of the mission stations, with the consent or at the request of the Indians. A notable development during the period was the fact that so many white people had joined the meet- 11 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes^ 1894, pp. 18-19. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 213 ing-s. In 1894 there were two meetings composed of whites only and all told there were 567 white members as against 426 Indians. This seemed to be due partly to the fact that so many whites were settling in the Indian country and partly because the white people seemed to be more susceptible than the Indians to the evangelizing efforts of the missionaries. For a time the Associated Committee was quite favorable to the work among the whites because of its indirect influence upon the Indians. By 1894 however the number of white adherents was growing so rapidly that the Com- mittee began to remind the missionaries that the In- dians were to be the chief and immediate objects of their labor.^^ One of the notable successes of this period was the work estabhshed among the lowas in the central mis- sion district. Meetings were held among them about 1887 by Charles W. Frazier and others and very soon a permanent work was built up. A day school was established which was taught at various times by Elizabeth Test, Mary Sherman, Rachel Kirk, Lina B. Lunt and others. Various Friends visited the station and did religious work among the Indians. John F. Mardock labored faithfully and efficiently at this sta- tion and much of the success achieved during the period was due to his devoted service. The day school was largely supported by the Philadelphia Indian Aid Association and the mission work proper by New England Friends in the early years and later by Friends of Baltimore Monthly Meeting. Before the close of the period under discussion a Monthly Meet- ing had been established among the lowas and the sta- 12 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1894, p. 19. 15 214 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. tion was giving great promise of permanent useful- ness." Another work, built up more slowly and labori- ously, but destined to be more permanent, was that among the Mexican Kickapoos about twelve miles away from the mission at Shawnee, in the central mission district. Mention has been made above of the work begun among the Kickapoos by John Clin- ton and his wife about 1883. It was a difficult and discouraging work and almost no impression could be made on the Indians for several years. Some of the leading Kickapoos declared that if they took up the white man's learning and religion the Great Spirit would kill them. Consequently they decided to kill any missionary who attempted to convert them. About 1886, however, Elizabeth Test began her work among these Indians. She had been employed for some years as a teacher in the government Indian schools but the passion of her life was to aid in carry^ ing the Christian message to the Indians. When she first began her work among the Kickapoos she lived in a bark hut among them. The way to the hearts of the Indians seemed however to be entirely closed at this time and for a period she taught a day school and did religious work among the lowas. In 1890 a few of the Kickapoos asked her to teach them and she has- tened to open a school in a tent to receive the nine pupils that awaited her. The door was at last open but the way was still to be long and rugged that reached to the hearts of these Indians. Space does 13 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1887, pp. 16-17; 1889, pp. 17-18; 1890, pp. 73-74;- 1892, pp. 26, 29; 1893, pp. 15-16. For the sudden decline of the work among the lowas at a later period see pp. 228-229, below. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 215 not permit to recount the great discouragements, the little, hard-won victories and the utter sacrifices by which a success was at last attained that would be hard to surpass in the history of Friends' work for the Indians. A typical sacrifice was the giving by Elizabeth Test of $i,ooo of her own money for a building to house the mission home and school. A well-earned reward was the grant by a Kickapoo Chief of the land upon which the building might be erected. Ably assisted through many years by Rachel Kirk and Lina B. Lunt, Elizabeth Test succeeded at last in gaining the entire confidence of the Indians and building up a work that stands as a shining example of Christian devotion and self-sacrifice. She is known as " Teacher " among Indians and white people far and near, and her life work has ennobled the title.^* Perhaps the most successful school carried on or aided by Friends in this period was the one at Skia- took (later called Hillside) taught by Eva Watson, assisted part of the time by Olive Chamberlain. Eva Watson had had a notable success in the Modoc School before going to Skiatook. At the latter place she soon built up a splendid school, which in 1890 had an en- rollment of sixty-nine. Many pupils boarded in the families near the school, some of them in the mission which was maintained at this time by Eva Watson's parents, John M. and Eliza Watson. In 1890 the Associated Committee said of this school : " It appears 1* Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1887, p. 16; 1890, pp. 73-74; 1891, p. 16; 1892, p. 27; 1893, p. 17; 1894, p. 22. Elizabeth Test is still at the Kickapoo station (1917), the veteran worker in the Oklahoma field. For a sketch of the work of Elizabeth Test written by Myra Esther Frye, one of her Indian pupils, see Friends' Missionary Advocate, Sept., 1916. 216 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. to be the best school within the radius of twenty-five miles, and the pupils crowd the houses around it so as to be near the school The classes range from those in the alphabet chart to those studying higher arith- metic. All are taught some Bible truths daily; they have learned the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, the ist and 23d Psalms, and the golden text for the year. The school is a powerful agency for good."i5 The teaching of religious truth in connection with the regular school studies was practiced in other schools that were taught or aided by Friends during this period, such as those among the Kickapoos, lowas, Modocs, Ottawas, Senecas, Miamis, and Cherokees. One of the sucessful teachers of the period was Ari- zona Jackson, a Wyandot Indian girl who had been educated at Earlham College, Indiana. While space does not permit to describe the work of many devoted missionaries and teachers^^ of this period a brief mention should be made of some of the Indian workers who labored devotedly among their people at this time, supplementing the work of their white friends who had first taught them the message 15 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1887, p. 14; 1889, p. 16; 1890, p. 74; 1891, p. 16; 1893, p. 17. 16 Other regular workers or assistants at this time, most of them married and ably assisted by their wives, were : Jesse Stan- ley, John W. Hall, John B. Bishop, Charles W. Frazier, Robert K. Quiggan, Charles W. Goddard, Amos Davis, Robert W. Hod- son, William Neal, William L. George, Thomas W. Alford, Charles E. Pearson, John F. Sherman. During this period Ben- jamin S. Coppock served ably for some years as Supt. of the Chilocco Indian Training School, a post held by Dr. H. J. Min- thorn at an earlier period (1884-1885). This of course was not a missionary work but it opened the way for much religious influence among the pupils. LUCY WINNEY A CHRISTIAN INDIAN WOMAN, AN ELDER OF THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS. SEE P. 217 THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 217 that they passed on to their fellows. John and Lucy Winney, the former a Seneca and the latter a Wyan- dot, were perhaps the most widely known, as they traveled somewhat among Friends outside of the In- dian Territory. These consecrated Christian Indians were for long years faithful workers among the Senecas and largely by their own labors built up a flourishing meeting at Cayuga. They were Elders in Seneca Meeting and were held in highest esteem by all who knew them. The present writer had the priv- ilege of meeting Lucy Winney in 191 3, a short time before her death, and can testify personally to the grace of her beautiful Christian character. The Modoc Indians reached a remarkable degree of spiritual development, many of them taking a ready part in religious activities. After attending one of their meetings Dr. Kirk wrote: "It has rarely been our privilege to attend a meeting giving more evidence of true spirituality than that of the Modocs on the oc- casion of a recent visit."^^ Henry Stanley Newman and his wife Mary Anna Newman, Friends from England, visited the Okla- homa missions during this period, in the winter of 1889-1890, and their relation of personal experiences paints vivid pictures of the Indian life and the mission work at that time. H. S. Newman describes a meet- ing that they attended at the home of Jane Alsop, a Wyandot Indian woman : " They sang, ' Come ye sinners, poor and needy,' and every member present gave a testimony in a few words, some in English, others in their own language. They speak with very little emotion, in fact the Indians seem to have been 17 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1893, p. 16. 218 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. trained for generations to hide their emotions. Yet these Wyandot Friends are very tender spirited, and the tears quietly trickled down their faces before they were aware, and they have a singular reverence for and perception of the Divine Presence." Mary Anna Newman describes a Monthly Meeting which she attended among the Senecas : " I sat beside Smith NichoUs and John Winney both of whom are Indians. Not much more than a year ago the former was a terrible, bad man, but one night when Jeremiah Hubbard was speaking about Christ, he stood and lis- tened outside, and the words touched his heart, and then and there he was converted. It was a wondrous change that was wrought in him. He has been re- ceived into membership with Friends, and now holds meetings himself, while his altered life preaches still more eloquently than his words. . . . The Indians are a stoical, solemn-looking people, who apparently make a point of concealing their feelings, but I think they were interested as I spoke to them. After I sat down Lucy Winney got up and told the people in Wyandot what I had been saying, and I think she must have enlarged on it a good bit. We had prayer in Wyandot from a rough looking Indian, and one or two hymns were afterwards sung in that language. There were some very fine looking Indian women present. They wrap themselves in brilliant plaid shawls, which suit their dark complexions admirably. The business of the meeting consisted chiefly in long reports from each of the five or six congregations that send their representatives to it, and the consideration of various applications for membership, and the In- THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 219 dians evidently took an intelligent interest in all that went on."^^ Just at the beginning of the next period the work suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Dr. James E. Rhoads. The Associated Committee at its annual meeting in 1895 set forth the seriousness of this blow in the following minute : " We meet this year under a feeling of the great, loss which we and the work of the Associated Executive Committee have sustained in the sudden death of our dear friend, Dr. James E. Rhoads. He was a member of the Committee during the 26 years of its existence; and for many years was its presiding officer. He had a knowledge of the work amongst the Indians and of the workers in the field possessed by no other of the members of the Com- mittee. His broad Christian charity and devotion to the cause, added to an unusually sympathetic nature, brought him into close and loving relations with the individual missionaries and made him a great support and help to them in their work. We ask the continued aid and sympathy of Friends everywhere, that the im- portant interest committed to us may be successfully carried on, and crave that the blessing of our Heavenly Father may rest upon it."^^ In 1894 the Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs had been in existence 25 years and from the viewpoint of the present (1917)' that year was just about the mid-point of its history. 18 H. S, Newman, MS. Narrative of Sojourn Among the In- dians, p. 7. For account of H. S. and M, A. Newman's experi- ences in the Indian country see also The Friend (London), 30 (1890) : 41-42, 65-67, 88-89. Also Friends' Quarterly Examiner, 25 (1891) : 553-566. 10 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1893, p. 16. 220 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. The sub-period of a decade following 1894 is that cov- ered by the administration of George N. and L. Ella Hartley as Superintendents. Perhaps the most out- standing development during this time was the estab- lishment of two new mission stations, one among the Otoes and one among the Big Jim band of Absentee Shawnees. The Otoe Indians were settled in close proximity to the lowas and there was much social intercourse between the two tribes. As a result of this the Friends who were laboring among the lowas formed a desire to reach the neighboring Otoes. Women Friends of Indiana Yearly Meeting became especially interested in this pioneer work and they formed an Indian Aid Society in 1897 which was in existence about five years and was largely instrumental, under the over- sight of the Associated Committee, in founding and building up the mission among the Otoes. As a result of these efforts D. Amos Outland and his wife Rhoda M. Outland arrived among the Otoes in the spring of 1898 and with the aid of Superintendent George N. Hartley began the new work. The mission buildings were erected on a tract of 40 acres allotted by the gov- ernment for the purpose, a short distance from the government school. The early progress and the type of the work among the Otoes may be judged from the following excerpt from a report made by D. A. and Rhoda M. Outland in 1899, after they had been in the field about a year and a half: "We have known the blessing of God on us, and our labor here, manifested in His immediate care of us, and, in His giving us greater influence with the Otoe Indians. We have kept up our Sabbath THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 221 school and other services in the Government school, with the encouragement of government officials, and have spent a great part of the remaining time with the older Indians, in their homes and camps, visiting the sick, burying the dead, and, in everything endeavoring to show them a better way. We receive from them many expressions of tenderness and appreciation of us and our work with them. "While visiting famiUes yesterday, I called on an aged man, who was sick. When I entered the room, he gave me one hand and raised the other, and began praying. Understanding his wish, I knelt beside him and he prayed at length. When he mentioned the name of Jesus Christ his voice broke, and, for the moment failed, overcome by emotion. After a time of pleasant talk, I left him to find another, who can speak and read EngHsh. He too had a lingering fever. I found his Bible on his bed, and he was eager to talk of Jesus."2o So the work among the Otoes was established and along lines as described above it developed. Early in 1902 the school buildings of the government were burned and this caused some discouragement to the missionaries on account of the importance of the serv- ices held with the school children. But the buildings were soon rebuilt and the mission work continued to develop as before. The mission among the Big Jim band of Absentee Shawnees was established in 1897 by the Maine Branch of the Women's National Indian Association. Buildings were erected, an orchard planted and sev- eral acres of land put under cultivation. The above 20 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1899, p. 30. 222 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. named organization was for pioneer work only and its policy was to transfer its established stations, as occasion offered, to religious organizations already at work in the vicinity. As the station at Big Jim was only twenty miles south of the Friends' mission and superintendency at Shawnee, and as various Friends, members of the Maine Branch, had been directly charged with planting and caring for the Big Jim mis- sion, it was decided to offer this station to the Asso- ciated Executive Committee. This was done in 1898 and after careful consideration the Committee took charge the following year. The devoted workers, Philander and Caroline Blackledge were for a time in charge of this mission. They were followed by John F. and Mary Mardock, veteran workers who had done much pioneer work among various tribes. However, although a great deal of faithful labor was expended, not much outward result could be seen by 1904, the close of the period under review. Chief Big Jim and other prominent men in the band were opposed to Christianity and were able for the time to thwart largely the efforts of the missionaries. It was a time of seed sowing and long waiting for the harvest.^^ The missions among the Kickapoos and lowas es- tablished earlier but still to be classed as newer sta- tions made slow but steady progress. A large element among the Kickapoos was still very conservative and much opposed to Christianity and the white man's ways. The lowas were restless and unsettled, dis- satisfied with the lands allotted to them, and fond of visiting other nearby Indians. 21 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1892, p. 23; 1899, p. 18; 1904, p. 29. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 223 Friends of Baltimore Monthly Meeting continued their support of the work among the lowas and New England Friends continued to help the Kickapoo sta- tion. In the latter case however the responsibihty for financial support was transferred in 1902 from the Women's Foreign Missionary Society to the Yearly Meeting's Committee on Western Indians. The continued interest in the Indian work so long shown by Friends across the sea was witnessed in this period by the visit of Harriet Green, an English Friend, to the Oklahoma missions. She was much impressed with the evident results among the Indians of the evangelizing message During a visit at Modoc station she dined with Hiram and Ellen Blackfish, Christian Indians. In reporting this visit to Friends in England she related the following incident : " I told Hiram I should like to welcome him to London Yearly Meeting, and I shall never forget the grand ring of his voice or his dignified manner as he said, ' If I came, I should tell the Friends, I am saved of the Lord, saved by the same grace as you are.' " This in- cident illustrates a very general impression made upon visiting Friends that the Indians had a real under- standing of the fundamental imphcations of the Gospel message. ^^ On the whole the work was somewhat less encour- aging in this period. The conditions of Indian life were fast changing. The presence of many white settlers seemed to lessen in some ways the impact of the evangelizing message. There was less need for Friends' schools as the government and public schools became more numerous and more efficient. 22 The Friend, London, 37 (1897) : 168. 224 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. In 1902 Superintendent Hartley reported as fol- lows : " Within the past twelve months, there has been drawn into this new country, by the opening up of new lands, a mixed multitude of people, tens of thou- sands in number, of almost very nationality on the face of the earth." Again just at the close of the period, in 1904, he reported along similar lines, re- viewing the changes of the preceding decade : " On first coming into this locality the nearest railroad sta- tion was fifty miles distant, and these Indians were comparatively isolated; but now the whistle of the trains may be heard on every hand, and white people, side by side with the Indians, are transforming the broad prairies into fertile fields of grain, and orchards of fruit. The huts and cabins are being rapidly ex- changed for commodious dwellings, and the promise of financial prosperity seems evident. " The stimulus to activity thus given, is bearing fruit among the Indian population, in the way of self-sup- port, as more and more they are beginning to cultivate their own farms instead of renting them. " Eventually the change that is now taking place must become a blessing to the natives, after the rougher classes have pushed on to the frontier coun- tries and left their places to be filled by honest indus- trious settlers. "^^ The great development in the central organization of the mission work during this period was the rela- tion established between the Associated Committee and the Five Years' Meeting. Edward M. Wistar, for many years the faithful chairman of the Associated Committee, read a paper on the Indian work before 23 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1902, p. 24; 1904, p. 22, BIRDIE SPOON AND FAMILY AT HOME" TO THE FRIENDS' MISSIONARIES GEORGE N. AND L. ELLA HARTLEY, THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 225 the Five Years' Meeting in 1902 and there followed a discussion participated in by Rachel Kirk, Francis W. Thomas, Allen Jay, Carolena M. Wood and others. As a result the Five Years' Meeting adopted a series of four resolutions endorsing the Indian mission work as worthy of the continued and increased support of the Yearly Meetings and appointing the Associated Committee as its " official representative in this field." The Committee was requested to continue its annual reports to the several bodies represented in it and to send a full report to each Five Years' Meeting.^* During the decade 1 904-1 91 4 William Perry Ha- worth and his wife Abigail C. Haworth occupied the mission station at Shawnee and were superintendents of the entire system of missions. One of the changes that culminated in this period was the elimination of the Indian schools maintained by Friends. In 1898 there were two Friends' board- ing schools, at Kickapoo and Skiatook (Hillside) respectively, besides seven day schools. Gradually, as the government and public schools became more numerous and more efficient, these private schools closed their doors until that phase of the pioneer work came to an end. The following extract from the re- port of the Superintendents in 1908 explains the new conditions that had arisen and also points out the value of the Friends' schools in the past : " With the chang- ing events, circumstances change, surrounding many 24 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1903, pp. 26-27. Minutes of Five Years' Meeting, 1902, pp. 30, 152-153, 1 26-141. The Five Years' Meeting is the central representative body of Friends in America and was organized in 1902. It includes all of the Orthodox Yearly Meetings except Philadelphia and Ohio and some small conservative bodies. 226 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. of our mission stations. With the coming of state- hood (in 1907) is coming the provision for free schools, open ahke to both Indians and whites. This, together with the continued provision of our govern- ment for the education of Indian children, seems largely to supersede any effort we as a religious or- ganization are prepared to make for the education of Indian children. While we might doubt the value or efficiency of such schools, when compared with those under the immediate religious care of the Church, yet they are here, and are offering opportunities to the masses of Indian children, such as the Church would be largely unable to do. The conditions above re- ferred to have occasioned the closing of our school so long maintained at Hillside, it being the last school under the control of your Committee. Many of the business men, both mixed bloods and whites, in the counties adjoining this school, have received their in- spiration and training here, w^hich probably would have been wholly lacking but for the opportunities this school afforded them."'^ Almost at the same time that the school system came to an end, the purely religious work of the Associated Committee was further extended by the addition of a station among the Osage Indians. Friends had been much interested in these Indians from the time of Grant's Peace Policy, and Laban J. ]\Iiles who had been their Agent for some years prior to 1885 ^^'^^ recalled again to that service in 1890 at the request of the Indians. At this time, too, Thomas H. Stanley, of Kansas, a veteran in the Indian work, visited the Osages and helped to awaken again the interest of 25 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1908, p. 26. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 227 Friends in them. In the following years this interest was maintained and in 1907 Isaac T. Gibson, of Okla- homa, a former Agent of the Osages, wrote a letter informing Friends of the open door for missionary effort among these Indians. As a result Edward M. Wistar, William P. Haworth and Isaac T. Gibson visited the Osages early in 1908 and in the fall of that year a mission station was established at Hominy in charge of Daniel A. Williams and his wife Hattie E. Williams. About five hundred Indians had their homes adjacent to the town of Hominy, with no op- portunity for religious instruction save for the occa- sional visit of a Catholic priest. The work of Friends among these Indians has de- veloped largely along the lines of family visitations and of meeting and speaking to the Indians in their own gatherings. No meeting house has been built but the confidence of a large number of the Indians has been gained and a considerable religious influence exerted among them. This is one of the richest of the Indian tribes and the money and lands received from the government have brought with them terrible temp- tations to idleness and vice. The opportunity for re- ligious service is widening and the need is great.^® As the work was thus being extended into new and needy fields it was becoming less extensive in some of the older fields. The changing conditions of Indian life so evident during the administration of George and Ella Hartley (1894-1904) became even more marked in the subsequent decade. As a consequence 26 The dates given in the text are sufficient guide to the source materials in the annual printed reports of the Associated Com- mittee, which are usually reprinted in the Minutes of Indiana and Western Yearly Meetings. 228 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. there was a gradual withdrawal during both periods from active missionary work at various points. This shifting of effort really dates from the beginning of the missionary work but the process has become more marked as the changes in Indian life have been ac- celerated. The early work of Asa and Emeline Tuttle among the Quapaws was gradually given up as a more open field of service appeared among the Modocs and Ottawas. Similarly in the year 1 896-1 897 five sub- ordinate stations passed from the partial care of the Associated Committee to the entire charge of Kansas Yearly Meeting. This process went on rapidly especially at the east- ern stations as the tide of white population rose. The support of a missionary at Sycamore was discontinued about 1909. The Indian work at Hillside grew less and less after 1905 and that station was discontinued in 1913. The work at Ottawa and Modoc, two of the strongest stations at an earlier time, later became smaller on account of the scattering of the Indians and the coming of white people. As a result the two stations were placed under one missionary during the year 1913-1914 and in 191 5 the support of the Asso- ciated Committee was withdrawn from them alto- gether. The withdrawals thus far mentioned were all from stations in the eastern mission district. The closing of the Iowa station for a period of two years was from other causes. About 1910 the Associated Com- mittee entered into cordial relations with the Home Missions Council, a body made up of representatives from various evangelical Christian churches in Amer- ica. One of the aims of this Council is to prevent any FRIENDS' MODOC MEETING-HOUSE THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 229 overlapping of home missionan' effort. It has been found impossible however to get the cooperation of some of the smaller and more sectarian bodies. As a result a representative of such a body, emphasizing the need of water baptism and certain other outward ordinances, waged a sectarian war against the Friends' missionaries among the lowas and succeeded in al- ienating nearly the whole band of Indians from the influence of Friends. The Iowa Indians had received great help spiritually and temporally from Friends and for some years the mission establishment among them had been one of the most promising. While the closing of such a station was most discouraging yet it may perhaps be counted as one of the inevitable re- sults of the incoming white population. Perhaps the Indian too must suffer from the pett}- sectarian wars that have brought religious devastation to many a white settlement in the pioneer stage. As Friends did not feel drawn to enter into a pro- tracted dispute with the representative of another religious denomination and as a great majority of the Indians seemed thoroughly alienated, the Iowa mis- sion was closed in 191 5. Two years later, however, at the request of a considerable number of Indians, in- cluding Chief Dave Tohee, who always remained loyal to Friends, the mission was reopened under the care of the veteran workers John F, and Marj- Mardock and Lina B. Lunt. Since 1914 Clark and Elma T. Brown have been situated at the Shawnee Mission and are the Superin- tendents of the entire system of Friends' missions in Oklahoma. The system is not so extensive as it once was and the conditions are vastly changed. There 16 230 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. are only seven regular mission stations where a few years ago there were eleven, and the total Indian mem- bership in the organized Friends' meetings has de- creased in still greater proportion. Many of the older leaders and supporters^^ of the work have passed away and some of the Yearly Meetings have diminished or withdrawn their support of the work. At the same time there has been some accession of help from younger Friends and other Yearly Meetings. Looking back over the whole period it is clear that the recent changes in the work are due wholly to the changed conditions of Indian life. In the beginning the Indians lived in allotted districts and were pre- vented by strict government supervision from scat- tering. Moreover at this time the presence of any considerable white population among the Indians was unknown. During the period of Grant's Peace Policy Friends had a paramount influence and an unprece- dented opportunity with various tribes officially under their charge. In many places Friends maintained the only schools in the vicinity and thus found access to the hearts and homes of the Indians through the work for the Indian children. Many of the bands and tribes had suffered untold misery in the Indian wars and in the exigencies of their removal to the Territory. To these Indians Friends brought the consolations and promises of the Gospel and they heard the message 27 Allen Jay, for many years chairman of the Indian Committee of Indiana Yearly Meeting and a valued member of the Asso- ciated Committee, died in 1910. T. Wistar Brown, of Phila- delphia, one of the most generous supporters and wisest ad- visers of the Committee, died in 1916. A provision made before his death allows further support to the work as long as it is continued under the auspices of the Associated Committee as at present constituted. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 231 gladly. The result was a tidal wave of evangelistic effort and an ingathering of converts, comparable, as in the case of the Modocs, to the finest successes of modern missionary effort. All of the fundamental conditions of this early success passed gradually away with the change of gov- ernmental policy and the influx of white population. Friends lost their paramount influence as the agencies passed one by one from their control. Friends' schools were closed as the public school system became estab- lished.^^ The Indians scattered in many sections as the strict government supervision was relaxed. The initial impact of the early evangelizing movement among a pagan people lessened with the influx of white settlers, and the missions have gradually settled into the slower steadier effort to win and hold a people influenced by the vices as well as the virtues of a new civilization. Jonathan M. Steere and Walter Smedley, for many years valued members and officers of the Associated Committee, visited the mission field in 1906, and sum- marized their impressions of the modem problem in the following statement : " We were fully convinced that Friends are doing a splendid piece of work and that while it may from time to time be best to relin- quish it in certain places, the work as a whole should not be allowed to flag; but rather the hands of those who are directly engaged in it should be strengthened, new fields of effort be entered upon as occasion may arise and the whole work be given the hearty and cor- 28 It should be noticed however that at the present time the Friends' missionaries at Wyandotte, Shawnee, and Otoe have good opportunity to influence the Indian children in the gov- ernment schools at those places. 232 FRIENDS AND THE INDIANS. dial support, both financially and sympathetically, of Friends in all our Yearly Meetings. It seemed to us that the work was one peculiarly laid upon Friends to do. The mission stations are points of light and of healthy influence, and we have often talked together of how serious it would be to the communities should they be abandoned. It is perhaps easier to explain why we were impressed so much by what we saw and heard when it is considered that in some places where our missions are established they are the only centers of religious influence of any kind for perhaps a radius of ten or fifteen miles, and were these influences which go out from the little mission centers eliminated from the life of the prairie, it would seem that incalculable loss would be the result."^* Such is the situation and such the work of the Okla- homa missions at the present time. The pioneer con- ditions are gone or going. The high tide of the first evangelizing effort is passed. The present situation calls for steady, earnest, self-sacrificing labor unmind- ful of immediate rewards or successes. It is a critical time for the Indian and a testing time for the Quaker missionary spirit. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. The chief source for the above chapter is Associated Executive Committee Minutes as listed, p. 199, above, and used in this chapter as contained in Indiana Yearly Meet- ing printed Minutes, The American Friend, Philadelphia, contains much valu- able material. This weekly paper, edited by Rufus M. Jones, succeeded in 1894 the Friends' Review, Philadel- phia, and the Christian Worker, Chicago. 29 Indiana Y. M. printed Minutes, 1908, p. 34. THE OKLAHOMA MISSIONS. 233 The Friend, London, and The British Friend have occa- sional articles, chiefly dealing with the travels of Eng- lish Friends among the American Indians. Hubbard, Jeremiah. Forty Years Among the Indians. Miami, Okla., 1913. This book is an enlargement of the same author's Grand River Monthly Meeting, Carthage, Mo., 1913. Newman, Henry Stanley. Narrative of Sojourn Among the Indians. A valuable manuscript written by H. S. Newman at the request of Mary S. Kimber, now deposited in the Library of Haverford College. CHAPTER X. MANY WORKS IN MANY FIELDS. Most of the movements and developments in the work of Friends for the Indians have been described. There remain however some important phases of the story not told in the earlier chapters. White's Institutes, Indiana and Iowa. Josiah White, a Friend of Philadelphia, left $40,000 by will in 1850 to establish two schools, one in In- diana and one in Iowa, " for poor children, white, colored and Indian, . . . such as have not the means to procure schooling, board and clothing for them- selves."^ The two institutions were established in due time, one near Salem, Iowa, and the other near Wabash,, Indiana. Both were embarrassed by a lack of financial resources and were not largely successful during their early years in carrying out the design of the founder. About 1883 a movement for the extension of Indian education developed that practically changed the two White's Institutes into Indian schools for a short period of years. At this time the Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs was seriously considering the advisability of establishing an industrial school for Indian children in or near the Indian Territory. The ^Friends' Review, 4 (1850) : 174. 234 MANY WORKS IN MANY FIELDS. 235 government however decided to provide such a school and also to support a number of Indian children in other schools that mig 116; of Maine, 113; of Indiana, 135; of Ohio, 137, 138, 140; west of Mississippi River, 143, 145, 150, 17s, 189, 192, 193, 194, 195 ; at White's Institute, Indiana, 236 ; at White's In- stitute, Iowa, 240 ; among Eastern Cherokees, 243 ; among Alaska Indians, 251. Alaska, northern, work of Friends in, 253-256, 2(>2. Alaska, southeastern, work of Friends in, 245-253. Aleutian branch of Eskimauan Indians, 3. Alford, Thomas W., 216 note. Allen, Anna C, 181 note. Allen, William, member of the Aborigines Protection Soci- ety, England, 261 note. Allotments of land to Indians, 6, 192, 193, 194- Alsop, Jane, Wyandot Indian woman, 217. American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions, takes charge of work among Alas- ka Indians, 251-252; trans- fers work in southeastern Alaska to Presbyterians, 252— 253. Andrews, Edwin, 181 note. Apache Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 176. Arapaho Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 175, 186. Archdale, John, Quaker Gov- ernor of the Carolinas, sale of rum to Indians forbidden in regime of, 54 ; adjust- ment of civil disputes be- tween whites and Indians under, 55 note; prevents selling of some Florida In- dians into slavery, 58 ; makes treaty of peace with Indians, 70. Arizona, Indian reservations in, 6. Arkansas river, 181. Arnett, Theresa, 144 note. Arnold, Harrison H., men- tioned in Preface, vi. Arnold, Thomas, 112 note. Associated Executive Commit- tee of Friends on Indian Affairs, 15; foreshadowed, 147 note; fund ready for, 158; organized, 170; be- gins labors under Grant's peace policy, 173 ff.; resigns official work under govern- ment, 185 ; missions main- tained by in Oklahoma, 202 ff. ; forecasts later work, 203-204 ; work of in Okla- homa at its height, 212; withdraws from some sta- tions, 228 ; recent problems of, 230-232 ; aids White's Institute, Indiana, 238. Bacon, David, 34. Baldwin, Jesse, 139 note. Bales, Oliver H. and Martha, 267 268 INDEX. Superintendent and Matron of White's Institute, Indi- ana, 237. Baltimore, Maryland, Friends' records preserved at, 264. Baltimore Monthly Meeting, supports work among Iowa Indians, 213, 223. Baltimore Yearly Meeting (prior to division of 1828), reawakened interest of in Indians, 1795, 132; aids In- dians of Indiana and Ohio, 132-140; aids in support of mission in Kansas, 140 ff. Baltimore Yearly Meeting (Liberal branch after 1828), aids New York Indians, 119 ff . ; cooperates in Grant's peace policy, 165 ff. Baltimore Yearly Meeting (Or- thodox branch after 1828), aids in support of mission in Kansas, 140 ff , ; cooper- ates in Grant's peace policy, 166 ff. ; cooperates in work of Oklahoma missions, 201 ff. Bangham, William F., works among Alaska Indians, 245 ff. Barclay, Robert, in East New Jersey, 45. Barclay's Catechism, Indian children exercised in, 151. Barnesville, Ohio, Friends' records preserved at, 264. Barrow, Robert, 58. Battey, Thomas C., book by on experiences among In- dians, 199 note. Beales, Thomas, 35. Bean, James, active in North- ern California Indian Asso- ciation, 258 note. Bean, Joel and Hannah E., ac- tive in Northern California Indian Association, 258 note. Beard, Elkanah and Irene, la- bor among western Indians, 181 note, 183, 203. Beede, Cyrus, 172 note, 175 and note. Beeson, Joseph, 134 note. Bettle, Samuel, Jr., 164. Bible Schools established among western Indians, 210, 220—221; among Eastern Cherokees, 242 ; among Alas- ka Indians, 247-249, 256. Bibliographical notes, 15-18, Z7. 59, 83-88, no, 131, 159- 161, 199-200, 232-233, 2^1, 264-266. Biddle, John, 92 note. Big Jim Indian Mission, 201, 220, 2.21—222. Big Jim, Shawnee Chief, op- poses work of Friends, 222. Bishop, George, letter to from Josiah Coale, 24 note. Bishop, John B., 216 note. Blackfish, Hiram and Ellen, Christian Indians, 223. Black Hoof, Indian Chief, 138. Blackledge, Philander and Caroline, work among west- ern Indians, 222. Blue Jacket Monthly Meeting organized, 212. Board of Indian Commission- ers, Friends as members of, 169 note. Bond, Abel, among western Indians, 181 note. Bond, Joseph, 133-134 note. Bonsall, Isaac, 100. Bourne, Richard, missionary to the Indians, 11. Bowater, John, 35. Bownas, Samuel, 35. Braddock, General, defeat of, 66. Bradley, Taylor, Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Branen, David, 134 note. Branen, John, 133 note. Bray, Levert, works among Alaska Indians, 251 note. INDEX. 269 Brebeuf, Father, Catholic mis- sionary martyr, lo. Brock, Mary, 144 note. Brosius, Augustus, Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Brosius, Samuel M., Agent at Washington for Indian Rights Association, 257. Brotherton Indians, aided by Friends, 152. Brown, Aaron, 141 note. Brown, Clark and Elma T., Superintendents of Oklaho- ma missions, 229. Brown, Jonathan, 144 note. Brown, Thomas C, Superin- tendent of Indian schools among Eastern Cherokees, 242. Brown, T. Wistar, supports In- dian work, 230 note. Buckland, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Budd, Thomas, 35 ; at a chief- tain's death-bed, 43. Buffalo Creek Indians, aided by Friends, 105-106. Bull, John, 181 note. Burgess, William, Indian Agent 182, 190 note. Butcher, John, 134 note. Butler, John, visits western Indians, 174, 181. Butler, Lydia M., 144 note. Caddo Indians, school work among, 177. California Indians, decrease of, 2. California, Northern, Indian Association, 258. California Yearly Meeting, young people of aid Alaska Indians, 252 note; carries on extensive missionary Work in northern Alaska, 253-256. Canada, Friends of aid In- dians, 260-261 note. Canada, reservation plan in, 5, Canandaigua, New York, Friends attend Indian treaty at, 90-91. Cancer, Louis, Catholic mis- sionary among Indians, 10. Cape Blossom, Alaska, 254. Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, 253. Captive White Children among Indians, release of secured by Friends, 178. Carolinas, The, evangelical doc- trine purchased by George Fox to Indians of, 20-21 ; Indian slavery in, 56, 58. Carter, Jacob V., 172 note. Carter, John and Achsa, 144 note. Carter, Nerena, 144 note. Cass, Lewis, Secretary of War, 142. Catholic, Roman, mission work among the Indians, 9-1 1. Cattaraugus County, N. Y., settled, 97. Cattaraugus Indians, aided by Friends, 104-106; special ef- forts of Liberal Friends among, 1 18-13 1. CayTiga, mission meeting at, 217. Central Superintendency, work of Orthodox Friends for In- dians of, 170 ff. Chalkley, Thomas, preaches to Shawnee Indians in Penn- sylvania, 28. Chamberlain, Olive, 215. Chandlee, Gouldsmith, 134 note. Charles II, King, grants war powers to William Penn, 62. Chase, Amasa, 181 note. Cheraw Indians, North Caro- lina, 52. Cherokee Indians, aided by Friends, 94 ; in west, visited by Friends, 148; aided by Friends, 171. Cherokees, Eastern, work for in North Carolina, 241-245. 270 INDEX. Cheyenne Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 175, 183, 186; aided by Friends, 203. Cheyenne wars, 162. Chickasaw Indians, aided by Friends, 94, 171. Chippewa Indians, aided by Friends, 94. Choctaw Indians, aided by Friends, 94 ; in west, visited by Friends, 148 ; aided by Friends, 171. Christian Endeavor Society, of California Yearly Meeting, aids work for Alaska In- dians, 252 note. Church, work of for Indians, 7 ff. ; statistics of missions in 1914, 13. Cimarron river, 181. Civil disputes, between whites and Indians regulated under Quaker regime, 55. Civil War, effect of on Friends' Indian mission in Kansas, 157- Clark, Benjamin, 92 note. Clear Creek, Indians at aided by Friends, 104, 105. Clendenon, Robert, loi. Cleveland, President Grover, 198. Clinton, John, works among western Indians, 205, 214. Clinton, Modoc Indian, 210. Coale, Josiah, relations of with Indians from Virginia to New England, 23-24, 41-42, 260. Coates, Isaac, 92 note. Coffin, Dr. William V. at Forest Grove Indian School, 186 and note; visits Alaska Indians, 249 note. Coffin, William G., Indian Su- perintendent under Presi- dent Lincoln, 163. Coffin, William H., aids In- dian mission in Kansas, 154, Coggeshall, Frank, 144 note. Cold Spring, N, Y., Friends' school for Indians at, 98 note, 99. Colonies, land policy of vari- ous, affecting Indians, 4, Columbus, Christopher, land- ing on San Salvador, 10. Comanche Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 175, 176, 182, Compton, Henry, Bishop of London, advises purchase of Indian lands, 48. Congregationalists, early mis- sions of among the Indians, II-I3- Connecticut, Thomas Story preaches to Indian woman in, 28, Connett, Dr, James E., works among Alaska Indians, 249 note, Coope, Benjamin, 104 note. Cooper, Griffith M., 118 note. Cooper, James, 92 note. Copeland, John, at Martha's Vineyard, 41 ; beaten by white settlers and befriended by Indians, 42. Cope, Marmaduke C, visits western Indians, 174-175, 181 note. Coppock, Benjamin S., Super- intendent of Chilocco In- dian School, 216 note; Prin- cipal of White's Institute, Indiana, 235 ff. ; article by, 256 note. Corn Planter, Seneca Chief, asks help of Friends, 92 ; village of, 96-97. Coronado, Spanish explorer in South-west, 10. Corporation for the Propaga- tion of the Gospel among the INDEX. 271 Indians of New England, II. Cory, Adin T., 115 note; work of among Onondaga Indians of New York, 117, 118 note. Cotter, Nicholas, works among western Indians, 206. Cotton, John, missionary to the Indians, 11. Cox, Bertha, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Cox, Wilson H. and Lucy, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Creek Indians, aided by Friends, 94 ; in west, visited by Friends, 148 ; aided by Friends, 171. Crew, Mary, 144 note. Criticism, of Friends' Indian mission in Kansas, by com- mittee of Indiana Yearly Meeting, 155. Cruz, Juan de la, Spanish mis- sionary to Indians, 10. Damascus, Ohio, Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs organized at, 170. Danforth, Samuel, his work with John Eliot among the Indians, 11. Darlington, Brinton, 172 note, 174. Dartmouth College and the education of Indian youth, 8. Davis, Amos, 216 note. Davis, Jackson, Indian Agent in Maine, 113. Dean, John, 115. Death of Friends at hands of Indians, cited as exceptions to the rule of the preserva- tion of Friends : three in Massachusetts, 73 ; two in Georgia, 73 ; case of Ben- jamin Gilbert of Pennsyl- vania, 76-77. Deering, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Delaware Indians, pushed west- ward, 32-33 ; lands of pur- chased, 49 ; fierce in war, 83 ; aided by Friends, 94, 132, 137; visited by Friends, 148; recall kindness of Wil- liam Penn, 148. Dennis, Philip, does mission- ary work among Indians near Fort Wayne, Indiana, 134 ff. Denny, John, and wife, 144 note. Descalona, Spanish mission- ary to Indians, 10. Devonshire House, London, materials on Quaker history in, vi, 261 note, 265. Dewees, Aaron P. and Eunice, 100 note. Dewees, Watson W., article on " The Walking Purchase," SI. Dickenson, James, 35. Dillon, Josiah, works among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Dillon, Moses, 134 note. Domestic arts among Indian women and girls, of eastern states, 95, 101-105, 108, 116, 117, 126-128; of western states, 135, 140, 145, 151, 194, 236-237, 239; of North Carolina 243. Douglas Island, Alaska, work of Friends among Indians of, 246 ff. Douglass, Cornelius and Phebe, 144 note. Drinker, Henry, 92 note. Dudley, John H., visits west- ern Indians, 190. Dutch, at New Amsterdam, op- pose sale of liquor to In- dians, 7. Dymond, Essay on War by, makes incomplete statement 272 INDEX. as to number of Friends killed in Indian wars, 72. Earle, Edward, 181 note. Earlham College, Indian girls educated at, 186, 216, 238. East New Jersey, Quaker In- dian policy in, 45. Easton, John, Deputy-Gover- nor of Rhode Island, goes unarmed to King Philip's camp, 61. Easton, Nicholas, Governor of Rhode Island, 55. Easton, treaty of, 46, 78. Edmundson, William, preserved from harm in hostile Indian country, 77 note. Edwards, Charles H., killed while attempting to protect Alaska Indians from illegal importation of liquor, 249- 250. Eel River Indians, aid by Friends, 135. Eliot, John, and the Indians, 10, II, 12. Elkinton, Joseph (1859-), ar- ticle on Tunesassa work by, no; interest of in Indian work, 259 note. Elkinton, Joseph (i 796-1 868), work of at Tunesassa, 98 and note, 99 ; founds " Abo- riginal Agricultural Society," 102. Elkinton, Joseph S. (1830- 1905), collection of manu- scripts prepared by, no; interest of in Indian work, 259 note. Elkinton, Mary Nutt, work of at Tunesassa, 98-99. Ellicott, Elias, 134 note. Ellicott, George, 134. Elliott, Franklin, works among western Indians, 203, 204. Elliott, John, 90 note ; 92 note. Emlen, James, 34 ; 92 note. England, early land policy of, with reference to Indians, 3, 5 ; colonies of, oppose sale of liquor and firearms to Indians, 7-8. English Friends, uphold peace policy of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 66-67 ; funds for Indian work provided by, 118 note; disposition of large fund donated by, 139- 140 note; desire Christian instruction of Indians, 145- 146; Robert and Sarah Lind- sey, visit Friends' Indian mission in Kansas, 152 note; Stanley Pumphrey visits western Indians, 176-177; Isaac Sharp visits western Indians, 209 ; Henry Stan- ley Newman and Mary Anna Newman visit western In- dians, 209-210; Harriet Green visits Oklahoma mis- sions, 223 ; summary of aid given by to Indian work, 260-261, See also London Yearly Meeting. Episcopal missionaries, aid Santee Sioux Indians, 188. Eskimauan Indians, of Alaska, work of Friends among, 245, 253-256. Expenditure of Orthodox Friends for the Indians in 1879, 178. Faithful William, Modoc In- dian, 210. Farquhar, Allan, 133 note. Female Manual Labor School, maintained at Cattaraugus, N. Y., by Liberal Friends, 126 ff. Field matrons, among Indians, 194, 197-198. Fiske, John, historian, merely paraphrases Parkman's crit- icism of Quaker Indian policy, 79. Five Medals, Indian Chief, 134. INDEX. 273 Five Years Meeting, adopts work of Associated Execu- tive Committee, 224-225. Forest Grove Indian School, 186. Forster, Josiah, member of Ab- origines Protection Society, England, 261 note. Forster, William, member of Aborigines Protection So- ciety, England, 261 note. Fort Niagara, English officers at release Friends captured by Indians, yd. Fort Wayne, Indiana, Friends' Indian mission near, i34jEf. ; broken up by war of 1812, 137- Fothergill, Samuel, favors peace policy with Indians, dj, 260. Fox, George, advises Friends in America to preach the Gospel to the natives, 19, 22-2Z ; preaches to Indians during American journey, 20-21; in Maryland, 20; at Shelter Island, 20 ; in the Carolinas, 20-21 ; notices little religious progress among Indians, 36 ; refer- ence to, 260, 2(i2. France, early land policy of, with reference to Indians, 3 ; reser\fation policy in Canada, 5 ; tries to prohibit sale of liquor to Indians, 7 ; en- courages missionary effort among Indians, 9. Franciscan fathers and the In- dians, 9 ff. Frazier, Charles W., works among western Indians, 213, 216 note. Frazier, Thomas, 141 note. French and Indian War, effect of on Quaker peace policy, 66 ff. ; reference to, 260. French, explorers and settlers destroy many Indians, 3 ; missionaries among Indians, 10. French, Thomas and Esther, 144 note. Friendly Association, efforts of to maintain peace with In- dians, 67-69. Friends, Liberal, labors of, among New York Indians, 1 1 8-1 3 1 ; under Grant's Peace Policy, 187-199; Indian work of more circumscribed in later years, 198 note. Frye John and Myra E., 209. Frye, Myra Esther, Kickapoo Indian girl, 215 note. Furnas, Robert, 141 note. Gardner, Anna Bell, works among Alaska Indians, 251 note. Gardner, William and Pene- lope, 144 note. Garfield, President James A., 241. Garner Dr. I. D., Maryville, Tennessee, 241. Garrett, John B., accompanies Thomas Wistar on visit to western Indians, 164. Garrett, Philip C, member of Board of Indian Commis- sioners, 169 note; various activities of in behalf of In- dians, 259. Geary, James V. and Eva, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Genesanguhta (Old Town), N. Y., work of Philadelphia Friends at, 96-97. Genessee Yearly Meeting (Lib- eral), work of for New York Indians, it8 note, 119 ff. ; cooperates in work for western Indians, 165. George, William L., 216 note. Georgia, two Friends killed by Indians in, 73. 274 INDEX. Germans, as early settlers in Pennsylvania, 32, 66. Germantown, Pennsylvania, Friends' records preserved at, 264. Gibson, Isaac T., 172 note, i75 note, 179. Gilbert, Benjamin, and family taken captive by Indians, "](>- 77- Gill, Roger, 35. Gillingham, T. T., Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Glover, Richard, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Goddard, Charles W., 216 note. Goddard, Pliny Earle, works among Hupa Indians, 258 note. Gooden, William T. and Liz- zie, work among Alaska In- dians, 257 note. Gordon, Jennie, 181 note. Grand River Monthly Meeting, among Indians, set up, 205. Grand River Quarterly Meet- ing organized, 212. Grant, Ulysses S., 15; peace policy of, 162 ff.; confer- ences of Friends with, 167; announces peace policy, 168; comments on success of peace policy, 170; peace policy of repudiated by Hayes administration, 184— 185, 196, 198; peace policy of, a success, 198-199; peace policy of mentioned, 261, 262. Greane, David, 134 note. Great Nehama Agency, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 189 ff., 196. Greene, Albert L., Indian Agent during Grant's peace policy, 189 ff. Green, Harriet, English Friend, visits Oklahoma missions, 223, 261. Green, Robert, 139 note. Greenville, Ohio, Indian treaty at, 89. Gregory, William, 96 note. Greist, Jesse W., Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Gua-na-ea, an Indian woman, addresses women Friends, 126. Guilford College, North Caro- lina, Friends' records pre- served at, 264. Gummere, Amelia Mott, v ; proposed new edition of Woolman's writings by, 32 note ; part of Quakers in American Colonies written by, 85. Gurney, S., Jun., member of Aborigines Protection So- ciety, England, 261 note. Hadden, Solomon, 142 note. Hadley, Eli, 144 note. Hadley, Jeremiah A. and wife, 144 note. Hadley, John, 172 note. Hadley, J. Perry and Martha, work among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Hadley, Martha E., works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Hadley, Mary J., 144 note, Hadley, Simon, 142 note, 144 note. Hadley, William, 141 note. Haines, Franklin, visits west- ern Indians, 190. Haines, Zebedee, interest of in Indian work, 259 note. Hall, John, works among west- ern Indians, 210. Hall, John W., 216 note. Hall, Julia, works among west- ern Indians, 210. Hall, Rachel P., 144 note. INDEX. 275 Hallowell, Benjamin, leader of Indian work among Liberal Friends, visits western In- dians, 190 and note. Hanna Charles A,, historian, his criticism of Quaker In- dian policy examined, 81- 83. Hansen, Sibyl J., works among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Hanson, John, family of taken captive by Indians, 73. Hare, Rhoda M., works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Harnden, Elmer, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Harrison, President Benjamin, 259. Harrison, Thomas, 92 note. Harrison, William Henry, de- feats Indians at Tippecanoe, 136. Hartley, George N. and L. Ella, Superintendents of Ok- lahoma missions, 211, 220- 225, Hartshorne, William, 90 note, 92 note. Harvard College, and the edu- cation of Indian youth, 8. Harvey, Agatha, 141 note. Harvey Amos, 92 note. Harvey, Ann, 144 note. Harvey, Caleb, 141 note, 144 note. Harvey, Henry, 139 note, 141 note, 142 note, 144 note. Harvey, Isaac, saves Indian woman in Ohio from execu- tion on charge of witch- craft, 139 note; mentioned, 141 note. Harvey, Jesse and Elizabeth, 144 note. Harvey, Mary H., 144 note, 154. Harvey Mary J., 144 note. Harvey, Rebecca, 144 note. Harvey, Simon, 139 note. Harvey, Simon D., 154, 144 note. Harvey, Thomas, 144 note. Harvey, William F. and Sarah* 144 note. Hatfield, Absalom and Ruth, IIS note. Haverford College, Pennsyl- vania, Friends' records pre- served at, 265. Haworth, James M., 172 note, 173 and note, 175, 182. Haworth William P. and Abi- gail C, 212, 225—229. Hayes, President Rutherford B., does not cooperate with Friends in Indian work, 184 ff., 196, 198. Heald, Nathan 134 note. Healy, Christopher, journeys of among Indians, 259 note. Hesper Academy, Kansas, 249. Heston, Zebulon, visits west- ern Indiana, 33-34. Hill, Charles, Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note, 196. Hill, Mary E., 144 note. Hillside Indian Mission, see Skiatook. Hoag, Enoch, of Iowa, as Su- perintendent of Central Su- perintendency under Presi- dent Grant, 171 ff. ; danger- ous journey of among In- dians, 181-182. Hoag, Joseph D., 181 note. Hobbs, Barnabas C, manages work of Friends among Eastern Cherokees, 241 ff. Hobbs, Wilson and Zelinda, 144 note. Hodgkin, Dr. Thomas, mem- ber of Aborigines Protection Society, England, 261 note. Ho-di-wi-yus-doh, Seneca In- dian name for " Society of Friends," 130. Hodson, Robert W., 216 note. 276 INDEX. Holder, Christopher, at Mar- tha's Vineyard, 41. Holland Land Company, land purchased of at Tunesassa by Friends, 98, Home Missions Council, Asso- ciated Executive Committee cooperates with, 228-229. Hominy, Indian Mission at, 22T. Hopewell (Opequan), Va., In- dian lands at, occupied by Friends, 51-52, Hopkins, Gerard T., 134; journal of, 161 note. Horniday, Eleanor, 144 note. Horniday, William, 144 note. Hough, Zeri and Miriam, 144 note. Howell, Samuel, 92 note. Howland, Thomas, 112 note. Hubbard, Jeremiah, 181 note; works among western In- dians, 203 and note, 205 ff., 218, 245. Hunnicutt, Anna, works among Alaska Indians, 251 note, 254- Hunicutt, Martha, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Hunt, John, of Darby, 92 note. Hunt, John, of Evesham, 92 note. Hunt, John, of London, dy, 260. Hussey, Maria, 144 note. Hussey, Samuel F., Indian Agent in Maine, 113. Illinois Yearly Meeting (Lib- eral), cooperates in Grant's peace policy, 191. Indiana Yearly Meeting (prior to division of 1828), organ- izes and appoints first In- dian Committee, 141 and note ; aids Indians of Ohio, 141 and note. Indiana Yearly Meeting (Lib- eral branch after 1828) co- operates in work for west- ern Indians, 165. Indiana Yearly Meeting (Or- thodox branch after 1828), aids mission in Kansas, 142 ff. ; contribution to Kansas mission, 146 note; receives Shawnee fund, 158; cooper- ates in Grant's peace policy, 166 ff.; women Friends of support mission among Otoe Indians, 220—221. Indian reservations, see Res- ervations, Indian. Indian Rights Association, work of Friends in, 257. Indians, statistics of popula- tion of, I ; territorial posses- sions of, I ; causes of de- crease in population, 2 ; de- frauded in land purchases, 4 ; land and reservation pol- icy affecting, 3-6 ; recent policy of the United States affecting, 6-7 ; college edu- cation of, 8 ; school educa- tion of by United States, 8- 9 ; missions of various churches among, 9 ff. ; re- moval of to reservations, 12; early preaching of Friends to, 19 ff- ; pushed westward, 32-33 ; practical dealings of early Friends with, 38 ff. ; lands of purchased by Friends, 43-53 ; sale of rum to discontinued by Friends, 53-54 ; general trade with regulated in Pennsylvania, 54-55 y adjustment of civil disputes with, 55 ; enslave- ment of, attitude of Friends toward, 56-58; peaceful re- lations of with early Friends, 60 ff. ; some Friends arm to protect Indians, 69-70 ; spare Friends in time of war, 72- 77 ; aided by Friends' work at Tunesassa, 89 ff. ; various tribes of aided by Phila- INDEX. 277 delphia Friends, 94 ; manner of life in western New York, 1806 and 1816, loo-ioi ; progress of by 1866, 102; aided by New England Friends, 111-114; aided by New York Friends, 114- 117; of New York aicied by Liberal Friends, 118- 127; progress of, 127 £f.; ex- press gratitude to Friends, 130-131 ') of the west aided by Friends, 132 £f.; take sad leave of Friends in Ohio, 141-142; pay part expense of orphan school, 156-158; during Grant's peace policy, 162 ft'.; life of as seen by Friends, 190— 191 ; Friends' missions among in Oklaho- ma, 201 ft.; membership of among Friends, 212-213; as Christian workers, 216- 218; attend White's Insti- tutes in Indiana and Iowa, 234-241 ; as members among Friends, 240 ; of North Car- olina aided by Friends, 241— 245 ; as members among Friends, 248 ; remarkable progress of in Alaska, 251, 255-256; summary of Friends' work for, 262. Indian Territory, formation of, 5. Industrial arts among Indians in, 97, 100-105, 108, 113, ^37, 138, 194, 243. See also Agriculture, Domestic Arts. Inward Light, see Light With- in, Iowa Indian Mission, 201, 213, 222, 228—229. Iowa Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 189 ff., 195, 197; Friends' Monthly Meeting organized among, 212, 213. See also Iowa Indian Mis- sion. 19 Iowa Yearly Meeting, aids western Indians, 146, 166— 167. Ireland, Friends of make do- nation for Indian work, 139, 260. Iroquois Indians, of New York, claims of to lands in Penn- sylvania, 48 ; confirm the in- famous " Walking Pur- chase," 50; Albany Council of 1754, 50; aided by Phila- delphia Yearly Meeting, 89 ft.; in Ohio, 137. See also Six Nations. Jackson, Arizona, Wyandot In- dian girl, educated at Earl- ham College, 216. Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, 253. Jackson, Halliday, 97, 100. Jackson, Hannah, 96 note; 104 note. Jackson, Lydia, Indian scholar at Tunesassa, essay of, 102— 103. Jackson, Samuel A. and Lula, work among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Janney, Asa M., Indian Agent during Grant's peace policy, 188 ff. Janney, Israel, 134 note. Janney, Samuel M., as Super- intendent of Northern Su- perintedency during Grant's peace policy, 187 ff.; sums up Indian situation and pro- poses methods, 189-190; sum- mary of work as Superin- tendent, 193-194; sugges- tions by, 197. Jay, Allen, takes active part in Indian work, 225, 230 note. Jemison, Thomas, Indian, 103. Jenks, Rebecca, 144 note. Jennings, Samuel, 35. Jesuit fathers and the Indians, 9ff. 278 INDEX. Jogues, Father, Catholic mis- sionary martyr, lo. Johnson, Alfred, 144 note. Johnson, Anthony, 92 note. Jones, David, 144 note. Jones, Hiram W., 172 note. Jones, Rufus M., his Quakers in the American Colonies, 85. Jones, Stephen, 113 note. Kake Indians, work of Friends for, 249 ff. Kansas City, Friends' Indian mission established near, 142 ff.; description of mis- sion in 1850, 150-151. Kansas, early Friends of, take active part in Indian work, 154, 156. Kansas-Nebraska Act, effect of on Friends' Indian mission in Kansas, 153-154. Kansas (or Kaw) Indians, vis- ited by Friends, 148; Friends' mission school among, 163 and note; under Friends' care during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 179; aided by Friends, 203. Kansas, portion of as part of Indian Territory, 5 ; " bleed- ing," as experienced by Friends, 153, Kansas State Record, 179. Kansas Yearly Meeting (Or- thodox), given charge of mission stations, 228 ; work of among Alaska Indians, 245 ff. Kaw Indians, see Kansas In- dians. Kelsey, W. Irving, mentioned in Preface, v. Kent, Mahlon B., Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. " Kent," ship in which early Friends came to Delaware River, 45. Kickapoo Indian Mission, 201, 214, 222, 223, 225. Kickapoo Indians, visited by Friends, 148 ; under Friends' care during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff. See also Kickapoo Indian Mission. Kiko, a Christian Indian, joins Friends, 146. Kimber, Mary S., mentioned in Preface, v. King, Grandma, aged Indian woman, gives reminiscences, 206. King Philip's War (1675- 1676), 2, 11; and Indian slavery, 56-57; Quaker peace efforts during, 61—62. Kiowa Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 176, 182. Kirk, Caleb, 133 note. Kirk, Dr. Charles W., at Wy- andot mission, 183 and note; Superintendent of Oklahoma missions, 21 1-2 19. Kirk, Rachel, 183 note, 213, 215, 225. Kivalina, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Knowles, William, 112 note. Koluschan Indians, work of Friends for, 245—253. Kotzebue, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, mis- sionary effort of Friends in vicinity of, 253-256. Kupreanoff Island, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians of, 249 ff. Kyst, Moses, Modoc Indian, 210. Lake Mohonk, N. Y., Indian Conferences, see Mohonk, Lake, Indian Conferences. Lalement, Father, Catholic missionary martyr, 10. Land policy, of various nations INDEX. 279 settling America, 3-4; of Friends in dealing with In- dians, 43-53; of Friends in Pennsylvania, 47-51; Walk- ing Purchase, 49. Lang, John D., on Indian Committee of New England Yearly Meeting, 113 note; visits western Indians, 147- 150; member of Board of Indian Commissioners, 169 note. Lawrence, Jennie, works among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Lawrence, Mida, works among Alaska Indians, 249 note. Lawrie, Gawen, deputy-gover- nor of East New Jersey, 45. Leiter, Frances E., works among Alaska Indians, 249 and note, 250, 251 note. Lewis, Captain, 138, 141. Lewis, Edith, 144 note. Lewistown, Ohio, Indians near aided by Friends, 137 ff. ; Indians of remove to Kan- sas, 141. Lightfoot, Thomas, Indian Agent during Grant's peace policy, 189 ff. Lightner, Isaiah, Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note, 196. Light Within, doctrine of preached to Indians by John Richardson, 2(i-2y, 28, 29. Lincoln, President Abraham, appoints a Friend as Indian Superintendent, 163. Lindley, Jacob, 90 note. Lindsey, Robert and Sarah, English Friends, visit Friends' Indian mission in Kansas, 152 note. Literary Societies, formed among Indians, 178. Little Turtle, Miami Chief, 133, 134- Logan, James, reports remark- able inerview with Indians, 64. London, England, Friends' rec- ords preserved at, 265. London Yearly Meeting, urges peace with Indians, dj, 260 ; encourages Canadian Friends to help Indians, 260-261 note. See also English Friends. Lone Wolf, Indian Chief, 173 note. Long Island, John Taylor preaches to Indians of, 24. Love, John, 133 note. Lunt, Lina B., 213, 215, 229. M'Kim, John, 133 note. Macy, John M., 144 note. Mardock, John F., works among western Indians, 205, 213, 222, 229. Mardock, Mary, 229. Marital bonds, observance of among Indians, 106. Markham, William, carries to America William Penn's first message to Indians, 25 note. Martha's Vineyard, Josiah Coale preaches to Indians of, 2^^ ; Christopher Holder and John Copeland among Indians of, 23 note. Martin, Calva and Frankie, work among Alaska Indians, 251 note. Maryland, George Fox preaches to Indians in, 20. Maryville, Tennessee, Friends of interested in Eastern Cherokees, 241. Maryville, Tennessee, Normal Institute, 186, 242. Matthews, Thomas, 133 note. Mayhew, Thomas, and the In- dians, 10, II. Mendenhall, Richard, 144 note. Mendenhall, Tamar Kirk, and eldest son killed by Indians in Georgia, yz- 280 INDEX. Menominee Indians, aided by Friends, 164, Methodists, mission work of among Indians, 155. Miami Indians, aided by Friends, 94. i33, US- Miami Monthly Meeting, In- diana, receives Indian into membership, 146. Mifflin, Warner, 92 note. Miles, Benjamin and Elizabeth B., labors of among Indians, 238 ff. Miles, B. W., 172 note. Miles, John D., 172 note, 186. Miles, Laban J., 172 note, 186, 226. Miller, Guion, activities of on behalf of Indians, 259. Miller, Mark, 92 note. Miller, Thomas, 172 note. Mills, Alpheus, visits Alaska Indians, 251 note. Mills, Jay, works among Alaska Indians, 251 note. Mills, Seth, visits Alaska In- dians, 251 note. Minthorn, Dr. H. J., in charge of Forest Grove Indian school, 186; Superintendent •of Chilocco Indian school, 216 note. Missouri Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 195, 197. Modoc, Frank, Friends' min- ister, 206 ; conversion, la- bors, and death of, 208-209. Modoc Indian mission, 228. Modoc Indians, aided by Friends, 203, 205 ff., 217. See also Modoc Indian Mis- sion. Modoc Preparative Meeting established, 205. Mohonk, Lake, Indian Confer- ences, 257-258. Monroe, President James, out- lines reservation policy, 5. Montauk Indians, aided by Friends, 117. Montgomery, George, men- tioned in Preface, vi. Mooney, James, on value of Indian missions, 13-14. Moon, Silas and Anna, work among Alaska Indians, 246 ff., 249 note. Moore, Joseph, 90 note. Morris, Joel H., 172 note, 179. Morris, Lizzie, works among Alaska Indians, 251 note. Morrison, Mary E., 241 note. Mt. Pleasant, John, Indian, 103. Munsee Indians, preserve mem- ory of William Penn, 148. Myers, Albert Cook, v ; new edition of William Penn"s Works in preparation by, 86. Myers, Eli and Minnie, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Napoleon, and the Louisiana Purchase, 46. Narraganset Indians aided by Friends, 112 note. Navajo war, 162. Neal, William, 216 note. New Amsterdam, Dutch colony of, opposes sale of liquor to Indians, 7. Newberg, Oregon, Friends of aid Alaska Indians, 249. Newby, Elias, 144 note. New England, policy of pur- chasing Indian lands in, 4 ; Indian slavery in, 56-57. New England Yearly Meeting, early efforts of for eastern Indians, iiiff, ; sends me- morial to government, 112 and note ; work of for Pe- nobscot and Passamaquoddy Indians, 112—114; aids west- ern Indians, 146 ; renewed interest of in western In- dians, 147 ff. ; cooperates in work for western Indians, INDEX. 281 i66 flF. ; Friends of support work among western In- dians, 213, 223. New Garden, N, C, Friends of, seek to reimburse Indians for lands, 52 ; maintain tes- timony on peace, T2, New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians, 46-47. New Jersey, policy of purchas- ing Indian lands in, 4, 44- 47 ; last lands of Indians purchased in, 46 ; no Indian war in, 47 ; sale of rum to Indians in, 53-54; adjust- ment of civil disputes be- tween whites and Indians in, 55. Newlin, M. H,, 172 note. Newman, Henry Stanley and Mary Anna, English Friends, visit western Indians, 209— 210 ; describe meetings among Indians, 217-219; reference to, 261. Newsome, Dr. and Mrs. Ben- jamin, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. New York, N. Y., Friends' records preserved at, 265. New York, policy of purchas- ing Indian lands, 4. New York state, George Fox preaches to Indians at Shel- ter Island, 20 ; John Taylor preaches to Indians of Long Island, 24 ; Philadelphia Friends visit Indians of, 34 ; Indians of aided by Friends, 89-109, ii4fT. ; many In- dians of move to west, 117. New York Yearly Meeting (prior to division of 1828), aids New York Indians, 96, 114 ff.; Indian Committee of appointed in 1795, 114; work of begun among Stock- bridges in 1807, 115; work of among various tribes, New York Yearly Meeting (Liberal branch after 1828), continues work among New York Indians, 119 ff.; coop- erates in Grant's peace pol- icy, 165, 187 ff. New York Yearly Meeting (Orthodox branch after 1828), aids western Indians, 146, 147 ff,; cooperates in Grant's peace policy, 166 ff.; aids Oklahoma missions, 205 ff. Nicholls, Smith, converted In- dian, 218. Nicholson, Dr. William, Gen- eral Agent of Associated Executive Committee, 172; Superintendent of Central Superintendency, 172 note. Nixon, Sarah Ann, 144 note. Noatuk, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. North Carolina Yearly Meet- ing, Friends of and Indian lands, 52-53; Friends of in relation to peace policy, 70— "72 ; Friends of oppose com- pulsory military service, 71 ; Friends of aid Eastern Cherokees, 241 ff. Northern California Indian As- sociation, 258. Northern Superintendency, work of Liberal Friends for Indians of, 187 ff. Oak Grove Seminary, Vassal- boro, Maine, attended by Frank Modoc, 209. Ogden, David A., forms Ogden Land Company, 119 note. Ogden Land Company, efforts of Friends to protect Indians against claims of, 1 19-125. Ohio Yearly Meeting (prior to division of 1828), organiza- tion of and appointment of first Indian Committee, 138 282 INDEX. and note ; work of among Indians of Ohio, 138-140. Ohio Yearly Meeting (Liberal branch after 1828), cooper- ates in work for western In- dians, 165, 187 ff. Ohio Yearly Meeting (Ortho- dox branch after 1828), aids mission near Kansas City, 140-159; cooperates in work for western Indians, 166 ff. Oklahoma, development of from Indian Territory, 5. Oklahoma Indian Missions, maintained by Friends, 201 ff. ; distribution of early ef- fort among, 204 ff. ; admin- istration of by C. W. Kirk, 211— 2ig; administration of by G. N. Hartley, 220-225 ; administration of by W. P. Haworth, 225-229 ; recent developments in, 229-232 ; mentioned, 262. Oksik, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Old Town (Genesanguhta), N. Y., work of Philadelphia Friends at, 96—97, Olive, Thomas, 35. Olmos, Father, Catholic mis- sionary to Indians, 10. Omaha Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 188 ff., 193, 195, 197. Oneida Indians aided by Friends, 95-96, 115 and note, 116, 164. Onondaga Indians aided by Friends, 115 and note, 116; show marked progress, 117, 118. Ordinance of 1787, clause of affecting Indians, 4. Oregon, Indians of aided by Friends, 209. Oregon Yearly Meeting, Friends of aid Alaska In- dians, 249 ff. Orphan asylum, established for Indian children as memorial to Friends, 131 note. Osage Indian Mission, 201, 203, 22^-22']. Osage Indians, visited by Friends, 148; under Friends' care during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 175, 186; aided by Friends, 203. See also Osage Indian Mission. Oskaloosa, Iowa, Friends' rec- ords preserved at, 265. Otoe Indian Mission, 201, 220. Otoe Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 189 ff., 195, 197. See also Otoe Indian mission. Ottawa Indian Mission, 204 ff., 228. Ottawa Indians, aided by Friends, 94, 152. See also Ottawa Indian Mission, Ottawa Preparative Meeting established, 205. Outland, D, Amos and Rhoda M., Missionaries among Otoe Indians, 220-221, Ozbun, Jonathan, works among western Indians, 203 ff. Pacific Railroad, building of disturbs Indians, 162. Padilla, Spanish missionary to Indians, 10, Painter, Dr. Edward, Indian Agent during Grant's peace policy, 188 ff. Parker, Elisha and wife, 144 note. Parker, Ely Samuel, annouces President Grant's peace pol- icy, 168. Parkman, Francis, criticism of Quaker Indian policy by, 39, 79-81, Parrish, John, visits western Indians, 33-34 ; among In- dians in western New York, 34 ; mentioned, 90 note, 92 note. INDEX. 283 Parvin, Benjamin, 30. Passamaquoddy Indians, aided by New England Friends, 112-114. Pawnee Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 181, 1 88; life of as seen by Friends, 191 ; prog- ress of, 195, 197. Paxon, John, 139 note. Paxson, Oliver, 92 note. Paxton Riot, The, 69-70; re- ferred to by Charles A. Hanna in his history, 81-83. Peace Policy, Grant's, see Grant, Ulysses S. Peace, The Quaker, 60-83 ; in Rhode Island, 60—62 ; in Pennsylvania, 62-70 ; broken by French and Indian war, 66 ff. ; in the Carolinas, 70- y2 ; preservation of Friends as result of, 72--^-j ; criti- cisms of, 79-83. Pearson, Charles E., 216 note. Pearson, Marcus L., principal of White's Institute, Indi- ana, 238. Pearson, Moses, and wife, 144 note. Pease, Joseph, member of Ab- origines Protection Society, England, 261 note. Peebles, Annis, works among Alaska Indians, 248, 249 no^e. Pelham Quarterly Meeting, Canada, aids Indians, 261 note. Pemberton, Israel, 75. Pennsylvania, policy of pur- chasing Indian lands in) — ; William Penn's desire for the religious welfare of In- dians in, 24-26 ; John Rich- ardson preaches to Indians of, 25-27 ; Thomas Chalkley preaches to Indians of, 28 ; John Woolman preaches to Indians at Wyalusing in, 29- 32 ; Quaker land policy in, 47-51; sale of rum to In- dians in, 53-54; general trade with Indians regulated in, 54-55 ; adjustment of civil disputes between whites and Indians in, 55 ; Indian slavery in, 57-58; peace pol- icy in, 62-67 ; sufferings of Friends during Indian war in, 74-77. Penn, Thomas, bears odium of " The Walking Purchase," 49. Penn, William, first message of to Indians, 24-25 ; wishes re- ligious meetings provided for Indians and negroes, 25 ; and John Richardson at a meeting with Indians, 25- 26 ; ideals of put into prac- tice, 38-59 passim ; land pol- icy of, 43 ff. ; and sale of rum to Indians, 53-54; reg- ulates general trade with In- dians of Pennsylvania, 54- 55 ; and the Quaker peace policy in Pennsylvania, 62— 67; at treaty of 1701, yj ', tribute to by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 79; his peace policy criticized by some historians, 79-83 ; re- membered by Indians, 91, 148—149 and note; peace policy of and Grant's peace policy, 162; treaties of re- ferred to, 165. Penney, Norman, vi, yj note, 261 note. Penobscot Indians, aided by Friends, 112-114. Pequot War, 2. Perquimmans, North Carolina Yearly Meeting held at, 70- 71. Philadelphia Indian Aid Asso- ciation, 171, 213; aids In- dian children in White's In- stitute, Indiana, 238. 284 INDEX. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Friends' records preserved at, 265. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (prior to division of 1828), members of visit Indians of Ohio, 33-34; members of hold impressive meeting with Indians of western New York, 34-35; discourages sale of rum to Indians, 54 ; opposes Indian slavery, 57- 58; attitude of during French and Indian War, 66-70 ; not indifferent to sufferings caused by Indian war, 68 ; expression of on Indian pol- icy, 78-79 ; begins work among Iroquois Indians of Western New York, 89-97 > appoints first Indian Com- mittee, 92 ; Indian Commit- tee of issues appeal, 93-94 ; aids Oneida Indians, 95-96 ; turns to Senecas, 96 ff. ; urges other Yearly Meetings to aid Indians, iii. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Liberal branch after 1828), aids New York Indians, 119 ff. ; cooperates in work for western Indians, 165, 194. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox branch after 1828), continues work at Tunesassa, N. Y., 99-109; aids western Indians, 146; Friends of, aid Oneida In- dians in Wisconsin, 164; del- egation from visits Presi- dent Grant, 167; Friends of become members of Asso- ciated Executive Committee, cooperating in Grant's peace policy, 171 ff. Phillips, John, 100. Pickeral, Henry, 141 note. Pickering, John H., 172 note. Pickering, Timothy, Secretary of State, recommends work of Friends to the Six Na- tions, 95. Pierce, John, 92 note, 97. Plymouth Colony, Josiah Coale preaches to Indians near, 23- 24. Pool, John, 144 note. Potawatomi Indians, aided by Friends, 94, 133 ; visited by Friends, 148; under Friends' care during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 179. Potter, Abraham, 72. Pound, Asa, 139 note. Powell, Joseph, visits western Indians, 190. Presbyterian Church, mission- aries of aid Santee Sioux Indians, 188; takes over Friends' missions in Alaska, 252-253. Preservation of Friends from Indian depredations, 72-77. Princeton College, and Indian education, 8. Progress of Indians, in civil- ized life, loo-ioi, 102, 117— 118, 127-128 and note, 194 ff. ; in Alaska, 251, 255-256. See also Agriculture, Domes- tic arts. Industrial arts. Re- ligious work. Schools. Providence, R. I., attitude of toward Indian slavery, 57; Friends' records preserved at, 266. Pugh, Achilles, visits western Indians, 174, 181 note. Pumphrey, Stanley, visits west- ern Indians, 176, 181-182, 261. Quapaw Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 185; aided by Friends, 203, 205 ff. ; Friends cease work among, 228. Queen Anne's War, 72-73. Quiggan, Robert K., 216 note. INDEX. 285 Rale, Father, Catholic mission- ary martyr, lo, Reckitt, William, 35. Reindeer, herds of established among Eskimos by govern- ment, 256 and note. Religious work among Indians, of eastern states, 19-37, 97, 103-104, 109, 113, 129; of the west, 141-146, 150-151, ^77, 179 ff-, 190, 206 ff., 210, 216—218, 220—221, 227, 2^1, 237, 240 ; of North Carolina, 243-244 ; of Alaska, 247, 248, 253-254, 256 ; in general, 262. Replogle, Charles and Mary, work among Alaska Indians, 249 note, 254, 257 note. Replogle, Clinton S. and Nora, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Reservation plan in Canada and the United States, 5. Reservations, Indian, policy of, 5 ; number of, 6. Rhoads, James E., visits west- ern Indians, 174-175, 181 note ; death of and resolu- tions concerning, 219. Rhode Island, adjustment of civil disputes between whites and Indians in, 55 ; Quaker attitude toward Indian slav- ery in, 56-57; the Quaker peace policy in, 60-62. Richards, Jonathan, 172 note, 175. Richardson, John, religious ef- forts of among Indians, 25- 27, 260. Richland Monthly Meeting, 76. Richmond, Indiana, Friends' records preserved at, 266. Roberts, B. Rush, member of Board of Indian Commis- sioners, 169 note. Roberts, C. H., Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Roberts, Reuben L., 172 note. Robin Hood, Modoc Indian, 210. Robinson, William, 35. Rodgers, Cyrus, 144 note. Rodman, Samuel, 112 note. Rotch, William, Jr., 112 note. Rowland, Josiah, 96 note. Rum, sale of to Indians, dis- continued by Friends at early period, 53. Russians, destroy many In- dians in Alaska, 3 ; establish Indian schools, 7. Sac and Fox Indians, visited by Friends, 148; under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 185, 189, 19s, 197. Sakarissa, Tuscarora Chief, asks help of Friends, 93. Samms, Robert and Carrie, work of among Alaska In- dians, 254. Sandusky, Ohio, Friends visit Indians near, 90. Sansom, Joseph, 92 note. Santee Sioux Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 188 ff., 193, 194, 195, 196. Savery, William, attends im- pressive meeting among In- dians of Western New York, 34-35 ; muses on lack of religious progress among Oneida Indians, 36 ; proposes more active service for In- dians, 90—91 ; on first In- dian Committee of Philadel- phia Yearly Meeting. 92 note. Scarfaced Charley, Modoc In- dian, 210. Scattergood, George J., account of work at Tunesassa writ- ten by, no; interest of in Indian work, 259 note. Schools, Indian, in New York State, 95, 98-109, 116, 118, 126-127; in Ohio, 139-140; 286 INDEX. among Indians west of Miss- issippi River, 144-159, 175- 178, 185-186, 189, 192, 193- 194, 195, 203, 210-21 1, 213, 215-216, 22^—226, 231; in Indiana, Iowa and North Carolina, 235-245 ; in Alaska, 247-248, Scotch Irish, as early settlers in Pennsylvania, 32, 66; threaten Friends in Paxton Riot, 69. Scotton, Robert, 99, loi— 102. Searing, Charles H., Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Selawik, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Sells, Cato, United States Com- missioner of Indian Affairs, " Declaration of Policy " by (1917), 6-7. Seminole Indians, aided by Friends, 171. Seneca Indian Mission, 201, 203, 218. See also Seneca Indians. Seneca Indians, mentioned by Thomas Chalkley, 28 ; of New York aided by Friends, 96-109, 1 1 8-13 1 ; in west, visited by Friends, 148 ; aided by Friends, 152. See also Seneca Indian mission. Seneca Preparative Meeting established, 205. Severalty Act of 1887, progress in administration of, 6. Shackamaxon, treaty of, 39, 63 ; long remembered by In- dians, 148. Sharp, Isaac, English Friend, visits western Indians, 209, 261. Sharpless, Isaac, v ; on Quaker policy of buying Indian lands, 50-51 ; historical works by, 85, 87. Sharpless, Joshua, visits New York Indians, 97. Shawnee Indian Mission, 201, 203, 204 ff. See also Big Jim Indian Mission. Shawnee Indians, in Pennsyl- vania preached to by Thomas Chalkley, 28 ; declare Friends were spared by Indians in time of war, 77; aided by Friends, 94; in Ohio aided, 137-140; in Kansas aided, 140 ff.; description of mis- sion among in 1850, 150-151 ; of Kansas join Cherokees of Indian Territory, 158; branch of under Friends' care dur- ing Grant's peace policy, 172 ff. See also Shawnee Indian Mission. Shawnee Monthly , Meeting, among Indians, established, 205. Shearman, Abm., Jr., 112 note. Shelter Island, meeting of George Fox with the Indians on, 20. Sherman, General W. T., ad- vises peaceful negotiations with Indians, 165. Sherman, John F., 216 note. Sherman, Mary, 213. Shillitoe, Thomas, among the Indians of New York and Canada, 115 note. Shinnecock Indians, aided by Friends, 117. Shungnak, Alaska, work of Friends for Indians at, 254. Sickles, Leslie, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Silvister, Joseph, appointed by George Fox to read Scrip- tures to Indians, 20. Simmons, Henry, Jr., 96 note ; 97. Sioux wars, 162; see also Santee Sioux. Sitka, Alaska, 254. Six Nations, of New York, visited by Friends of Phila- delphia Yearly Meeting, 34 ; INDEX. 287 aided by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 89 ff. See also Iro- quois Indians. Skiatook (Hillside) Friends' Indian Mission 215, 225-226, 228. Slaves, Indian, and attitude of Friends, 56-58, 61-62. Sloan, Joseph, 92 note. Smedley, Walter, visits west- ern Indians, 231-232. Smiley, Albert K., member of Board of Indian Commis- sioners, 169 note; founds Lake Mohonk Indian Con- ference, 257-258. Smiley, Alfred H., 258, Smiley, Daniel, 258. Smith, Harlan and Melinda, work among Alaska Indians, 251 note. Smith, Jane, 141 note. Smith, John, 92 note. Smith, Matilda, 144 note. South Carolina, law against selling rum to Indians in, 54; and Indian slavery, 58. South Dakota, Indian reserva- tions in, 6. South Kingston, R. I., Indian slaves in, 56. Spain, early land policy of with reference to Indians, 3 ; and the Indian missions, 7, 9. Spencer, John, Jr., 92 note. Spray, Henry W., Superintend- ent of Indian school, 244. Spray, Samuel J., 163 note. Stacey, Robert, 35. Standing, Alfred J., 176-177. Stanley, James, 156-157, 144 note, 163 note, 172 note. Stanley, Jesse, 216 note. Stanley, Rachel, 157, 144 note. Stanley, Thomas and Mary, 144 note, 163 note. Stanley, Thomas H., 181 note, 205, 226. Stanton, Ann, 144 note. Stanton, James, 144 note. Stanton, Mary H., 144 note. Stanton, William, 141 note. Stapler, John, 92 note. Steere, Abby, 181 note. Steere, Florence Trueblood, mentioned in Preface, v. Steere, Jonathan M., v; visits western Indians, 231—232. Stephenson, Sarah, 35. Stewart, John, 144 note. Stockbridge Indians, aided by Friends, 95, 115 and note, 116; a woman of, in west, visited by Friends, 148; aided by Friends, 152. Story, Thomas, preaches to In- dians of Virginia and Con- necticut, 27-28 ; travels in New England, 72-73, 260. Stratton, Elizabeth, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Stubbs, Mahlon, 163 note, 172 note, 179. Stubbs, Rachel, 163 note. Sullivan, General, raid of into New York brings Indian re- prisals, 76, Swaine, Joel, g6-g7. Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, Friends' records preserved at, 266. Swett, Benjamin, 92 note. Sycamore Creek, funeral serv- ice in valley of, 207. Sycamore, missionary work dis- continued at, 228. Taber, Ashugak, Alaska Indian girl, 257 note. Taber, Augustus and Anna F., active in Northern Califor- nia Indian Association, 258 note. Taber, Cornelia, active in Northern California Indian Association, 258 note. Tarhe, Wyandot Chief, 132. Tatum, Lawrie, 172 note, 174, 178, 181 note. 288 INDEX. Taylor, Jacob, 96 note, 104 note, 105, 139 note/ Taylor, John, preaching of among Indians of Long Is- land, 24, 260. Taylor, Samuel, Jr., visits western Indians, 147-150. Teas, Edward Y., 144 note. Tebbetts, Charles E., General Secretary of American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions, 251. Tecumseh, agitation of among western Indians, 136. Tedyuskung, Indian Chief, re- fuses to negotiate treaty un- less Friends are present, 78. Temperance, advanced among Indians, 26, 106, 133-134, 136, 138, 178, 183, 248. Tenskwatawn, Shawnee "Prophet," 136. Test, Elizabeth, teaches school among Iowa Indians, 213; works among Kickapoo In- dians, 214-215. Thayer, Davis W. and wife, 144 note. Thayer, Elizabeth M., 144 note. Thomas, Allen C, History of Friends in America by, 87. Thomas, Dana and Otha, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Thomas, Evan, 133 note. Thomas, Francis W., 225. Thomas, Jonathan, 96 note. Thomas, Philip E., labors of for Indians, 124-125 and note. Thorndike, Henry and Anna M., 144 note. Thurston, Thomas, journey of with Josiah Coale from Vir- ginia to Long Island, 23, 41- 42. Timbered Hills Monthly Meet- ing, 205, 245. Tippecanoe, battle of, 136. Tohee, Chief Dave, a loyal member of Friends, 229. Tonawanda Indians, aided by Friends, 105-106, 117, 123 and note. Townsend, Alpheus, works among western Indians, 206. Townsend, Martha, 144 note, 163 note. Trade, between whites and In- dians regulated under Quaker regime, 54-55- Treaties, Indian, attended by Friends, 77-78, 90-91. Trimble, Joseph, 92 note. Troth, Jacob M., Indian Agent during Grant's peace policy, 188 ff. Tunesassa, preliminaries of Friends' work at, 89-97 '> site located, 97-98 ; work sus- pended at for five years, 99 ; boarding school established at, 99 ; new building erected at, 100; material progress of Indians at, 100-103; religious progress, 103-104; other work in vicinity of, 104-106; expense of work at, 107; modern dairying at, 107; recent developments at, 109; mentioned, 262. Turner, Thomas, 35. Tuscarora Indians, a message for them from George Fox, 21—22; reimbursed for lands at Hopewell, Va., 52. Tuttle, Asa C. and Emeline H., labor among western Indians, 181 note, 202 and note, 204- 205, 208, 228, 235. Twining, Stephen, 104. Unthank, Dr. John, gift of for Indian work, 146 note. United States, land policy of, affecting Indians, 4-7 ; reser- vation policy, 5 ; recent al- lotments of land to Indians, 6; present policy (1917), 6- INDEX. 289 7 ; aids college education of Indians, 8; provides schools for Indians, 8-9 ; aids relig- ious denominations to main- tain mission schools, 8 ; sta- tistics of Indian schools of, 8 ; and claims of Ogden Land Co., 1 19-125; removes Ohio Indians to west, 140-141 ; peace policy of under Presi- dent Grant, 162 ff.; estab- lishes schools under care of Friends among western In- dians, 175 ff . ; extends school system among Indians, 226 ; provides funds for schools under care of Friends, 234- 245- Upsall, Nicholas, treated kindly by Indians, 40-41. Valentine, Thomazine, portrays progress of Indians in 1866, 102. Van Buren, President Martin, and the claims of the Ogden Land Co., 121. Vaux, George Jr., chairman of Board of Indian Commis- sioners, 169 note, 259. Vestal, Eli and Jemima, 144 note. Virginia, Thomas Story preaches to Indians of, 2"]— 28 ; Friends of, and Indian lands, 51-52. Voltaire, idealization of Quaker Indian policy by, 39. Vore, Jacob, Indian Agent un- der Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Walker, Benjamin, 134 note. Walker, Enoch, 96 note. Walking Purchase, the iniquity of, 49-50 ; referred to by Parkman, 81. Walton, Alfred and Priscilla, sufferings of at Kivalina, Alaska, 255. Walton, Joseph S., 129-130. Wapakoneta, Ohio, Indian mis- sion at maintained by Friends, 137-140. Warden, Edward, 58. Washington, George, President of United States, 89, 94. Watson, Eliza, 215. Watson, Eva, teaches school among Indians, 215-216. Watson, John M., works among western Indians, 205, 207, 215. Wea Indians, aided by Friends, 135- Webster, Joseph, Indian Agent under Grant's peace policy, 190 note. Weekly Chronicle, Washing- ton, D. C, 165. Weesner, Elwood, among west- em Indians, 181 note; or- ganizes work among Indians of Douglas Island, Alaska, 245 ff- Wells, Thomas and Hannah, 144 note, 151 note. West, Benjamin, idealization of Quaker Indian policy by, 39. West Branch, Iowa, Indian school at, 239, 240. Western Yearly Meeting, aids western Indians, 146, 166 ff.; aids Indians of North Caro- lina, 241 ff. West New Jersey, Quaker In- dian policy in, 44-47- Wetherill, B., 175 note. Whitacre, Patience, 141 note. White, Barclay, Superintendent of Northern Superintendency during Grant's peace policy, 194 ff.; closes his work, 196; suggestions of, 197. White, Howard, serves as In- dian Agent during Grant's 290 INDEX. peace policy, 187 flf.; distri- butes annuity goods to Win- nebagoes, 190-191 ; holds election among Winnebagoes, 192-193, White, Josiah, of Philadelphia, founds institutes in Indiana and Iowa, 234. White, Milton and Margaret, work among Alaska Indians, 257 note. White's Institute, of Indiana, 186, 234-238. White's Institute, of Iowa, 186, 238-241. Whitewing, Frank, Wyandot Indian convert, 206-208. Wichita Indians, under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 172 ff., 175, '^n- Wickersham, Caleb, 141 note. Widders, Robert, 35. Widdifield, Timothy, 181 note. Wilber, Thomas, 112 note. Willetts, Charles, 115 note. William and Mary College and the education of Indian youth, 8. Williams, A. C, 172 note. Williams, Daniel A. and Hat- tie E., 22^. Williams, Roger, benevolent at- titude of toward Indians, 4, 10, II. Willis, Joel W., and Elizabeth, 144 note. Wilmington Yearly Meeting, aids in work for Alaska In- dians, 252 note. Wilson, Christopher, (>t, 260. Wilson, John, 133 note. Winnebago Indians, visited by Friends, 148; under care of Friends during Grant's peace policy, 187 ff. ; life of as seen by Friends, 190-191 ; chiefs of deposed by Agent Howard White, 192-193 ; land allot- ted to, 193; progress of, i95, 197. Winney, John and Lucy, elders of Seneca Friends' meeting, 217, 218. Wistar, Edward M., v, 164 note ; as Chairman of Asso- ciated Executive Committee, reads report before Five Years Meeting, 224-225 ; visits Osage Indians, 227. Wistar, Thomas, first Clerk of Philadelphia Indian Commit- tee, 92 note. Wistar, Thomas, 2d, work of for Indians, 164 and note; interview of with President Grant, 167; visits western Indians, 174-175, 181 note. Witchcraft, belief in by In- dians, 106, 139 note. Woman's Christian Temper- ance Union, 248. Women Friends, of Philadel- phia and Germantown aid Indians, 171, 178-179, 240. Women's National Indian As- sociation, begins work among Big Jim Band of Absentee Shawnee Indians, 221-222. Wood, Carolena M., 225. Woodard, John, 163 note. Woodard, Levi, 172 note. Woodward, Dr. Walter C, General Secretary of Five Years Meeting, 266. Woolman, John, journey and preaching of to Indians at Wyalusing, Pennsylvania, 29- 32 ; relations of with Morav- ian missionary David Zeis- berger, 30 ; member of New Jersey Association for Help- ing the Indians, 47. Wooten, Andrew, 181 note. Worth, Ebenezer, maintains schools among Indians, 99- Worth, Isaiah, 181 note. Wright, Francis A., visits Alaska Indians, 249 note. INDEX. 291 Wright, Jonathan, 141 note. Wright, Jonathan (of Monal- len), 133 note. Wyandot Indian Mission, Wy- andotte, Oklahoma, 201, 217-218. Wyandot Indians, aided by Friends, 94, 132-133, 152, 179, 183, 185, 186. See also Wyandot Indian Mis- sion. Wyandot Preparative Meeting established, 205. York, Herbert, works among Alaska Indians, 257 note. Zane, Sarah, bequest of for Indian work, 147 note. Zeisberger, David, Moravian missionary to Indians, 30. DATE DUE klr\\ t /\ NOV -^ 'm5 - ^ i ^ 1 0.1-- GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.SA COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 0046029397 938.96 K299 4- in (> 4- Q -^'\\^' -HO'^ sO C7^ :ai