PAM. 
 
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 Conflict or Cooperation 
 
 STUDY OUTLINE 
 
 By 
 
 J. B. Ma tthews 
 
 and 
 
 Sylvanus M. Duvall 
 
 THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE 
 WORLD YOUTH PEACE CONGRESS 
 
 104 East 9th Street, Room 386 
 New York City 
 
 393 
 
/ 
 
 i 
 
CONFLICT OR COOPERATION 
 
 A Study Outline 
 
 By 
 
 JOSEPH B. MATTHEWS 
 and 
 
 SYLVANUS M. DUVALL 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I. OUR INHERITANCE —THE WORLD AS IT IS. 
 
 II. AREAS OF CONFLICT. 
 
 III. NATIONALISM. 
 
 IV. THE ECONOMIC ORDER. 
 
 V. IMPERIALISM. 
 
 VI. INTERRACIAL RELATIONS. 
 
 VII. RELIGION AND PEACE. 
 
 VIII. PROPAGANDA OR HISTORY. 
 
 IX. FORCES TENDING TO PERPETUATE A 
 CONFLICT SYSTEM. 
 
 X. AGENCIES WORKING FOR COOPERATION. 
 
 XI. WHAT YOUTH CAN DO. 
 
 XII. THROUGH CONFLICT TO COOPERATION. 
 APPENDIX: SUGGESTIONS FOR LEADERS. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 OUR INHERITANCE — THE WORLD AS IT IS. 
 
 “Put-put-put-put” . . . machine guns and rifles spat fire and 
 lead. When it was over some five hundred dead and fifteen 
 hundred wounded lay upon the ground. 
 
 In India the demand for Swaraj—self-government—was 
 growing. The Rowlatt Act, giving to the administration the power 
 to make arbitrary arrests and to inflict summary punishment had 
 aroused bitter resentment. Several outbreaks had occurred; banks 
 had been looted and their managers killed, and a woman physician 
 had been beaten almost to death. Feeling unable to handle the 
 situation, the Deputy Commissioner turned complete control over 
 to the military governor, General Dyer, who promptly forbade all 
 meetings without his consent. In violation of this order some 
 five thousand people met on May 13, 1919, near Amritsar in the 
 Punjab, to protest against the ruthless policy of the foreigner. 
 Although the crowd was composed of unarmed civilians, some of 
 whom had not even heard of the order, General Dyer surrounded 
 them with his soldiers and without any order to disperse or even 
 a word of warning, at once opened fire. The firing continued 
 until the ammunition was exhausted. Then the troops left the 
 field without any attempt to help the wounded. Said General 
 Dyer, “It was not then my duty to render aid. It was a medical 
 question.” 1 
 
 Why this act of almost incredible barbarity? No violence 
 was threatened; General Dyer himself testifying that “I think it 
 quite possible that I could have dispersed them perhaps even 
 without firing.” Nor was it merely the fiendish act of a maniacal 
 commander. It was done deliberately for a definite purpose. 
 These two thousand people were shot down in cold blood because 
 General Dyer and those who approved his action believed, in 
 view of the prevalent unrest, that something should be done to 
 terrorize the people into submission. 
 
 India and the British authorities were in conflict! Some three 
 hundred years before the British had first penetrated India. 
 Under the British East India Company a succession of able gov- 
 
 1 For an account of this massacre, cf. Moon, Parker T., Imperialism, 
 pp. 305, 306, and the Nation, vol. 110, p. 121. 
 
 5 
 
ernors, after having expelled the French during the Seven Years 
 War, gradually extended British control. The real founder of 
 the British Empire in India was Robert Clive, governor of Bengal. 
 In 1757 he defeated at Plassey the enormous army mustered 
 against him by the local nawab, thus establishing English prestige 
 on a firm basis. Capable successors, such as Warren Hastings, 
 Lord Cornwallis, the marquess of Wellesley, brother of the Duke 
 of Wellington, the marquess of Hastings, and Lord Dalhousie 
 subdued native princes, and seized territories and concessions until 
 in 1849 most of India was under British control. In 1857 the 
 great Sepoy rebellion broke out and for a time, threatened to 
 destroy every vestige of British influence in India. But troops 
 were rushed from England, the country was soon reconquered, 
 and the rebellion was put down. In 1858 the control of the East 
 India Company, which had for the past eighty-five years been 
 gradually curtailed, was taken away and India was transferred 
 to the Crown. In 1877 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress 
 of India by the astute Disraeli. During these early years the 
 British had fought with separate rulers in a much divided India. 
 But during the past fifty years there has gradually grown up, 
 due largely to foreign influence and oppression, a national con¬ 
 sciousness which has increasingly bound the peoples of India 
 into a unity, at least in their desire to be rid of foreign rule. 
 During the World War India as a whole remained loyal to Great 
 Britain, hoping that thereby she might win a large measure of 
 independence. Some concessions were made, but these Dft the 
 actual control of the country in the hands of foreigners. Pro¬ 
 tests and outbreaks occurred, some of which were met by severe 
 reprisals. Ghandi arose, impressed an ideal of unity and hope 
 on his people, and then his influence gradually waned, leaving 
 the control of the movement for self-government in the hands 
 of less peaceful leaders. And so there is conflict in India . . . 
 conflict. 
 
 In fact the whole world seems to be in conflict. We need 
 not delve far into the history of the past; they are here; numer¬ 
 ous conflicts,—real, and contemporary. To quote a competent 
 observer, 1 “If we consider this landscape of uneasiness, Eastern 
 and Western, national and international, religious, racial, and 
 economic, we are forced to the conclusion that there must be 
 grave defects in either the education or the motives of statesmen 
 responsible for the direction of public affairs”. Surely here is 
 a challenge to our best thinking and noblest endeavor. 
 
 X P. W. Wilson in the New York Times, September 11, 1927. 
 
 6 
 
A NEWSPAPER STUDY. 
 
 The remainder of this chapter is devoted to an examination 
 and consideration of the conflict situations presented in only two 
 issues of the New York Times; those of September 11th and 
 12th, 1927. If the purpose of this chapter were merely to help 
 the student to realize the extent of conflict, it might be insuffi¬ 
 cient merely to list the news items which are included. But as 
 the Amritsar massacre was merely an instance of a complicated 
 situation, the roots of which lay deep in the history of the past 
 and the psychology of man, so each item presented is to be un¬ 
 derstood only in the light of the larger and often world situation 
 of which it is an expression. Therefore after each grouping is 
 appended a list of suggestions, the careful consideration of 
 which may help make clear these larger implications. It is hoped 
 that the student may thereby be assisted in learning to see the 
 significance of the events which are transpiring about us, so 
 that when he reads of them he may get, not merely information 
 but understanding. Here is what we find in the Times of Sep¬ 
 tember llth-12th. 
 
 I. ECONOMIC CONFLICTS. 
 
 A. Russia and the Capitalist-Communist Controversy. Al¬ 
 though the conflict suggested by the name of Russia involves 
 many complications and considerations, its crux is undoubtedly 
 economic. 
 
 1. “Red Menace Wanes” in France as the American Legion 
 celebration approaches, according to a headline. 
 
 2. “France to Expel Soviet Ambassador”, we are assured in 
 a headline, although the article which it surmounts con¬ 
 veys the information that final action has not been taken 
 by the French Cabinet in the absence of M. Briand. 
 
 3. “British Labor Rids Party of Red Tinge.” 
 
 4. “Sees Freemasonry Allied with Reds.” This new Russian 
 ally is discovered in France by M. Coty, a manufacturer 
 of perfumes! 
 
 5. “British Say Reds Seek Turco-Persian Break.” 
 
 6. “English Reds Seen as Factor in Break” between the 
 Trades Union Congress at Edinburgh and the All-Rus¬ 
 sian Council of Labor Unions. 
 
 7. “Red Sisters March wiffi Soviet Youth” we are told in 
 the headline of an article on the eagerness with which 
 Russian boys and girls play war. 
 
 7 
 
8. “Another Anglo-Russian Break” is the subject of an edi¬ 
 torial on the 11th in which we are told that the rupture 
 between British and Russian trade unions deprives the 
 latter of their only European friend. 
 
 9. “Oil Men Doubtful of Relief in Russia.” The Standard 
 Oil Company of New Jersey purchased a controlling 
 share in the Nobel Company in Russia after the nation¬ 
 alization of oil by the Russian government, and is now 
 doubtful of its ability to gain possession. (Shouldn’t 
 wonder.) 
 
 10. On the 12th we are told that Poincare, in a telephone con¬ 
 versation with Briand, assured the latter that the cabinet 
 had taken no action on the case of the Soviet Ambassador 
 in Paris. (See item 2 above.) 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. Someone has defined “Bolshevism” as “anything you don’t 
 like and have no valid arguments against”. Is this a reli¬ 
 able description of the way in which the term is fre¬ 
 quently used? What is the legitimate meaning of the 
 term? Of Communism? 
 
 2. What is the psychological effect of the frequent use of the 
 term “Red’ (six times in the headlines quoted above) ? 
 
 3. Without attempting either to attack or to defend it, con¬ 
 sider the causes for communism, attempting, not to judge 
 it but to understand it. Do the same for the prejudice 
 against “radicalism”. 
 
 4. Read chapter 23, “The Poison Gas Attack” in The Rus¬ 
 sian Soviet Republic, in which Professor Ross lists forty- 
 nine fairy-tales and falsehoods spread by the foes of 
 Russia. See the Nation for August 31, 1927, on “A Forger 
 of Soviet ‘Documents’!” Do you think that the Bolshe¬ 
 vists have as much right to attempt to undermine the 
 United States Government as the foes of Soviet Russia 
 have to attempt to undermine and discredit it? If so, 
 are those who make such attacks against the “Reds” in 
 the same class with the Bolshevists ? What shall we say 
 of those who encouraged and supported armed movements 
 against the Soviet government? 
 
 5. Consider the significance of such a statement as that of 
 Upton Close in The Revolt of Asia: “The historian of a 
 century hence will be no more concerned as to which of 
 
 8 
 
the European nations was the technical victor (of the 
 World War) than is the present historian as to which of 
 the city states of Greece won the Peloponnesian War, but 
 he will be tremendously concerned with the fact that by 
 throwing Russia back into Asia, it completely changed 
 the balance of power of the races and the continents, and 
 ushered in the ‘end of the white man’s world’.” 
 
 6. For the further study of Russia: 
 
 a. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and 
 Social Science, July 1927. 
 
 b. Ross, E. A., The Russian Soviet Republic . Century 
 Co., 1923. 
 
 c. Laidler, Harry W., Roads to Freedom, Ch. IV. League 
 for Industrial Democracy, 1925—Ten Cents. 
 
 d. Strong, Anna Louise, The First Time in History . Boni 
 and Liveright, 1924. 
 
 B. The Interallied Debts. A cartoon depicts the indiffer¬ 
 ent attitude of the French and the American soldier toward this 
 economic problem. Further reference is found in the mention 
 of Count Volpin, Italian Minister of Finance who headed the 
 Italian Debt Funding Commission. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. The total amount loaned by the United States to twenty 
 different countries was $10,338,000,000. (See Informa¬ 
 tion Service of the Foreign Policy Association, 18 East 
 41st St., New York City, March, 1927, entitled The United 
 States and the War Debts. 
 
 2. Debt funding agreements have been negotiated with thir¬ 
 teen debtor countries involving varying degrees of cancel¬ 
 lation by means of low interest charges. 75% of the debt 
 of Italy was cancelled in this way. 
 
 3. What have been the effects upon international relations 
 of these debts? What are the reasons for and against 
 the cancellation of the principal of these debts? 
 
 4. For further information on the debt question see 
 
 a. International Conciliation, May 1927, entitled The In¬ 
 terallied Debts. Published by the Carnegie Endow¬ 
 ment for International Peace, 44 Portland St., Wor¬ 
 cester, Mass. Contains full bibliography. Five Cents. 
 
 b. Guy, C. L., Debts and Our Allies in the Century Maga¬ 
 zine for September, 1927. 
 
 9 
 
C. Conflicts between Capitalists and Workers. These will 
 be considered more fully in chapter IV on The Economic Order. 
 Conflict situations of this nature reported in the two issues of 
 the New York Times studies were: 
 
 1. Breton sardine fishers go out on strike. Difficulties said to 
 involve the tariff problem. 
 
 2. British strike cuts drink bill. 
 
 3. Left wing revives war in suit trade. 
 
 4. Truckmen ratify strike agreement in New York. 
 
 5. Federal judge restricts picketing in Steubenville, Ohio, to 
 American citizens. 
 
 1 6. “Sees a Union Drive Against Open Shop” heads an arti¬ 
 cle containing a letter from W. H. Barr, President of the 
 National Founders Association warning its members 
 against the activities of the American Federation of Labor 
 against the open shop. It states that the American Plan 
 Association of Cleveland has a fund of two million dol¬ 
 lars raised by a group of citizens for carrying on this 
 fight with the labor unions. 1 
 
 7. British Laborites at Edinburgh in heated debate over pro¬ 
 posal for cooperation with employers. 
 
 8. German workers are reported to have been quiet last year, 
 due to the economic crisis and unemployment. Is there a 
 subtle implication in the use of the word “quiet” in this 
 connection ? 
 
 D. The Burden of Taxation. “Increasing Burden of 
 French Taxation” is the headline of an article which states that 
 one-fourth of the national income is absorbed by taxation today 
 as compared with one-sixth in 1913. This condition suggests 
 the cost of conflict—an almost universal problem in our post-war 
 world. Consider in this connection the statement of Secretary 
 Mellon that approximately 85% of our total national budget goes 
 for military purposes. 
 
 See The Problem of Armaments by Enock, (Macmillan, 1923) 
 for a full statement on the costs of armaments. 
 
 Uhis item presents an important conflict situation arising over the 
 question of the open shop. More information concerning the two associa¬ 
 tions mentioned is to be found in Professional Patriots, edited by Norman 
 Hapgood (cf. below, ch. IX). 
 
 10 
 
E. The Franco-American Tariff Conflict. On September 
 11th and 12th several articles present the threat of a tariff war 
 between the United States and France. American protests 
 against French rates have been made, and a proposal for a most 
 favored nation treaty with France has been suggested by the 
 United States. Such a treaty would give the United States the 
 benefit of the low rates fixed in a recent trade agreement be¬ 
 tween France and Germany. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. The effects of high tariff rates upon the trade of the 
 United States with Europe. 
 
 2. Is the tariff primarily for the protection of “infant” in¬ 
 dustries, or does it “protect” the older and well-established 
 industries as well? ? Is it true that the wage rate in in¬ 
 dustries protected by tariffs is often lower than that in 
 unprotected industries ? 
 
 3. What was the connection between “tariff” and the Civil 
 War? (See Beard, The Rise of American Civilization, 
 Ch. XVII.) 
 
 4. Read The False Peace-Protectionism Means Endless Con¬ 
 flict by Lambert. Distributed by the International Free 
 Trade League, 38 St. Botolph St., Boston, Mass. 
 
 F. Advertising. Every great newspaper or magazine de¬ 
 votes a large proportion of its space to advertisements. Mr. 
 Edward Bok, writing in the Atlantic Monthly of October, 1923, 
 estimated that the total annual outlay for advertising in the 
 United States is $1,284,000,000. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. Is it true that “advertising is the anti-social weapon of 
 competing groups in their conflict with each other for 
 trade” ? 
 
 2. Why is it that in certain industries, the cost of selling a 
 commodity is greater than the cost of producing it? What 
 proportion of advertising merely cancels itself by present¬ 
 ing competing brands of the same commodities to the 
 public ? 
 
 3. How should an article be chosen; on the basis of what its 
 makers claim for it, or on the basis of actual worth? To 
 what extent does advertising prevent the choice of the 
 best product? 
 
 11 
 
4. Why is advertising unnecessary for the sale of potatoes, 
 but indispensable for the sale of patent-medicines? Is it 
 true that the more useless a product is, the more it must 
 be advertised? 
 
 5. Study The Tragedy of Waste by Stuart Chase (Macmil¬ 
 lan, 1925) chapter VII. 
 
 II. POLITICAL CONFLICTS. 
 
 A. China. Nationalism, Imperialism, Racial Conflicts, 
 Capitalism, Communism, and Militarism are all involved in the 
 conflict which rages in China. Is not China a focal point for 
 almost all of the major conflicts of our generation? State con¬ 
 cretely and in some detail how the “isms” mentioned above are 
 related to the present situation in China. Suggest other phases 
 of this conflict. 
 
 The copies of the Times examined announce: 
 
 1. The fall of Swatow. 
 
 2. The bombardment for a month of a mission in the prov¬ 
 ince of Shantung,—reported by a missionary. 
 
 3. The rise of a new civil head of the Nationalist Party, Mr. 
 Wang Ching-wei. 
 
 B. Germany. It is now apparent that the Treaty of Ver¬ 
 sailles not only left many conflicts unsolved, but created many 
 more. Consider William Allen White’s characterization of the 
 World War as “a futile war followed by a punitive peace”. 
 
 In the Times we read that: 
 
 1. “Germany Dreams of Might Restored”. 
 
 2. Germany is “dissatisfied with League meeting”. 
 
 3. American officials doubt Germany’s willingness to accept 
 compulsory arbitration of all disputes in adhering to the 
 Permanent Court of International Justice. 
 
 4. Austria is, from the economic standpoint, unwisely cut 
 off from union with Germany by the Treaty of Versailles. 
 
 C. Latin-America and the United States. From the stand¬ 
 point of the United States this conflict is of major importance. 
 Evidences of this conflict are clearly discernible in the Times 
 reports that: 
 
 (Note: Because of its unusual importance in present day conflicts, 
 fuller consideration will be given to China in the next chapter.) 
 
 12 
 
1. Panama has petitioned the League of Nations to settle the 
 question of sovereignty over the Canal Zone. 
 
 2. Sandino wrecks the gold mines in the region of Nicara¬ 
 gua under his control. As a result, “Sandino is described 
 by the mine owner as a desperado, cruel and very forcible. 
 He has trained four boys from fourteen to sixteen years 
 of age, Mr. Butler says, to act as his body guard and kill 
 at his command. These boys are pictured as absolutely 
 cold blooded, ‘thinking no more of shooting a man than 
 cracking a mule with a whip’.” Is there a familiar tone 
 in this “brutality picture”. It is stated that Mr. Butler 
 will file a claim with the Department of State. 
 
 D. Armaments. If armaments are the most effective in¬ 
 struments of peace, as some believe, they should be considered 
 under the sections on agencies of cooperation. However we will 
 venture to discuss them here. 
 
 1. In discussing the failure of the Geneva Conference on 
 Naval Armaments, Mr. P. W. Wilson writes, “Where na¬ 
 tions desire cooperation, we see an insistence on what 
 must result in friction”. Is the writer justified in making 
 a distinction between nations desiring cooperation and gov¬ 
 ernment representatives insisting on policies productive of 
 conflict? Were the major aims of the Geneva Conference 
 lost in the technicalities and ambitions of the experts? 
 
 2. In reference to our own military equipment we learn that: 
 
 a. Our naval planes are held to be the equal of any. 
 
 b. Our new army dreadnaught of the air carries a one- 
 ton bomb “powerful enough to wreck a small town”. 
 
 Does this information give you a sense of security? 
 
 E. The Balkans. The cauldron of Europe is still boiling. 
 
 1. Headlines announce: “Terrorism Charges Revived in Ru¬ 
 mania”. (This refers to the treatment of political foes.) 
 
 2. Mr. P. W. Wilson reminds us of the Italian-Jugoslavian 
 rivalry in the Balkans, involving Albania, Fiume, and the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 III. RACIAL CONFLICTS. 
 
 A. Race Riot. From Berlin, Maryland, comes the news 
 that on the 11th, 300 whites and negroes rioted for three hours. 
 Twenty-two negroes are reported injured, three of them seri- 
 
 13 
 
ously. Nothing is said about injuries to the whites. Berlin is 
 reported to have a population of 1,100 whites and 900 negroes. 
 
 B. Palestine. Mention is made of the conflict between the 
 Arabs and the Jews in Palestine; a conflict which is both politi¬ 
 cal and religious. 
 
 IV. RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS. 
 
 A. Ireland. Several articles consider the conflict in Ire¬ 
 land, one important phase of which is religious. 
 
 B. India. Mention is made of the hostility between the 
 Moslems and the Hindus. 
 
 C. Denominational Divisions, which the religious news 
 page sets clearly before the reader, do not present to the world 
 that example of harmony and cooperation which is so sadly 
 needed today. Groups within the churches are frequently in 
 conflict with each other, as witness the Modernist-Fundamen¬ 
 talist Controversy. 
 
 THE OTHER SIDE. 
 
 Perhaps we weary of hearing of conflict, and certainly there 
 is another side, not as conspicuous, but just as real and perhaps 
 of even greater significance for the future. In these same issues 
 of the Times we find among other indications of the spirit of 
 cooperation, reports concerning: 
 
 1. The League of Nations. The League may be weak, and 
 its imperfections real, but the importance of the functions 
 which it performs and its influence for peace are far 
 greater than many realize. We read: 
 
 a. “League in Tears as Briand Pleads for World Peace”. 
 What must be the effect of such an appeal from the 
 leading statesman of one of the most prominent and 
 vindictive belligerents? What more important service 
 could be rendered the cause of peace than that of pro¬ 
 viding opportunity for stimulating, expressing, and fo¬ 
 cusing the moral sentiment of the world? 
 
 b. An article suggests the possibilities for growth in the 
 League. Another states that the trend within the 
 League is toward arbitration. At least significant 
 statements of opinion. 
 
 (Note: Racial conflicts will be discussed more fully in Chapter V.) 
 
 (Note: See Chapter VI on Religion and Peace.) 
 
 14 
 
c. A $2,000,000 gift for a library for the League is an¬ 
 nounced. 
 
 d. Stresemann declares that in adhering to the Perma¬ 
 nent Court of International Justice, Germany accepts 
 compulsory arbitration. 
 
 2. It is reported that Russian refugees make cultural contri¬ 
 butions in Turkey. Do national and racial fusions pro¬ 
 duce richness of culture? 
 
 3. “Religious Accord Found.” Twenty Brooklyn men of dif¬ 
 ferent faiths hold monthly meetings—seven Jews, seven 
 Protestants, and six Catholics. 
 
 4. International Association of Journalists holds its sessions 
 in Geneva. 
 
 5. British strikers are helped by foreign unions, Germany 
 leading in contributions for the striking mine workers, and 
 Sweden in contributions for the General Strike of May, 
 1926. 
 
 6. Applied science continues to increase the possibilities of 
 cooperation through its achievements in aviation. 
 
 7. News-gathering and printing itself is a remarkable achieve¬ 
 ment in cooperation. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON CHAPTER I. 
 
 1. Students who have been discussing the problems centering 
 about War, Race, and Industry in their recent conferences 
 have been studying, not a fictitious world, but a very real 
 one. 
 
 2. “The World as It Is” is indeed a world of conflict, the re¬ 
 solving of which is perhaps the greatest task confronting 
 mankind. 
 
 3. These conflicts are the expressions and evidences of deeply- 
 rooted and highly complicated conditions and situations. 
 Neither the best of intentions nor even the most sincere 
 and strenuous efforts will avail unless this effort is intelli¬ 
 gently directed by those who have become thoroughly fa¬ 
 miliar with the situations with which they are dealing. 
 
 4. Our first responsibility for the “world as it is” is the moral 
 obligation to become intelligently informed concerning it. 
 
 (Note: The two issues of the New York Times in which all of the 
 above items were included were selected not because of the unusual 
 number of conflict situations which they reported, but because they 
 were the most recent which could be examined before placing this 
 outline in the hands of the printer.) 
 
 15 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 AREAS OF CONFLICT. 
 
 I. CHINA vs. IMPERIALISM. 
 
 Item I: Did you read the following dispatch in an obscure 
 corner of your paper? 
 
 September 12—(Associated Press Dispatch) Shanghai: 
 “The United States gunboat Luzon, one of six similar 
 crafts which are to comprise the new American Yangtze 
 river patrol, was launched from the Kiangnan dockyards 
 on the outskirts of Shanghai today. The Luzon, of 650 
 tons, draws but five feet of water. Her keel was laid last 
 March. She is expected to be commissioned in December. 
 Completion of the fleet, which will cost a total of $5,000,- 
 000, and of which three units now have been launched, is 
 set for next March.” 
 
 Item II: Near the end of March, 1927, the British and the 
 American fleets, acting jointly, bombarded the city of Nan¬ 
 king shortly after it had been entered by the Nationalist 
 troops from the South. The avowed intention of the bom¬ 
 bardment was the protection of British and American 
 citizens said to be in danger from the Chinese Nationalist 
 troops. 
 
 Item III: On May 30, 1925, the British captain of police in 
 Shanghai ordered his men to fire upon a crowd which was 
 composed chiefly of unarmed Chinese students. Many of 
 them were killed and wounded. The students were pa¬ 
 rading in the International Settlement in protest against 
 the arrest and imprisonment of fellow students who in 
 turn had been demonstrating in behalf of workmen in 
 foreign-owned factories. The police captain ordered the 
 demonstrators who had gathered outside the police sta¬ 
 tion to disperse. Instead they rushed the station; and 
 the officer gave the command to fire to kill. 
 
 What is the meaning of this conflict situation that manifests 
 itself in the incidents cited above? What are the elements that 
 go to explain the actions of hostility on both sides? 
 
 16 
 
THE ECONOMIC PHASE. 
 
 1. Industrialism appears in China—foreign capital—in¬ 
 tolerable conditions of labor in factories. 
 
 2. The growth of a Chinese labor movement. 
 
 3. Students maintain their traditional position in China by 
 active participation in public affairs—in this instance 
 sympathetic demonstrations for strikers. 
 
 4. Foreign investments reach through the whole of China’s 
 economic life:—railways, manufactures, banks, trading 
 houses. 
 
 5. Foreign controlled customs service. 
 
 6. Chinese seek tariff autonomy—rate now fixed at 5 per 
 cent by foreign powers. 
 
 7. Concessions obtained by powers in unilateral treaties. 
 
 8. Territorial aggression through a whole century arouses 
 the indignation of Chinese. 
 
 9. The Consortium—foreign control of China’s finances. 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL PHASE. 
 
 1. In early days Chinese were hostile to intercourse with 
 foreigners. 
 
 2. The Opium War and the Treaty of Nanking (1842) 
 with provisions for treaty ports, extraterritorial privi¬ 
 leges, tariff rate of 5 per cent, and the cession in per¬ 
 petuity, of the island of Hongkong. 
 
 3. In 1844 the United States obtained similar concessions 
 under the doctrine of the “most favored nation.” “The 
 Americans crawled behind British guns,” said the lat¬ 
 ter tauntingly. 
 
 4. The Tai Ping Rebellion put down by the Powers under 
 the generalship of “Chinese” Gordon. 
 
 5. The Treaty of Tientsin (1858) granted foreigners fur¬ 
 ther concessions and forbade any interference with the 
 preaching of Christianity. The latter provision is 
 known as the “toleration clause.” 
 
 6. In 1894 at the end of the Sino-Japanese War, China 
 ceded Formosa and the Liao-tung Peninsula to Japan. 
 Japan was blocked in her intention to take Port Arthur 
 by a protest from France, Germany and Russia. 
 
 17 
 
7. Near the end of the century Germany, England, France 
 and Russia took leases on important ports and areas in 
 China. 
 
 8. The Boxer Uprising,—a manifestation of anti-foreign- 
 ism and patriotic protest,—occurred in 1900. Heavy in¬ 
 demnities were imposed by the Powers and the Inter¬ 
 national Settlement of Shanghai was established on 
 Chinese soil. 
 
 9. The United States announced the Open Door Policy to 
 prevent further territorial aggression in China. 
 
 10. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, aimed at Russia, 
 had important consequences for China. The Russo- 
 Japanese War of 1904-05 was a staggering blow at the 
 prestige of Western Powers in the Orient. 
 
 11. The World War brought the Japanese “Monroe Doc¬ 
 trine/’ and the famous “Twenty One Demands” with 
 China’s effective boycott as a reply; and the question 
 of Shantung which caused bitter debates at Versailles. 
 
 12. The revolution in Russia brought a change of attitude 
 toward China in a doctrine of equality which greatly in¬ 
 creased Russian prestige in China. The long-standing 
 Anglo-Russian rivalry thus found a new stage. 
 
 13. Special privileges, concessions, etc., all require the con¬ 
 stant presence of foreign patrols in Chinese waters. 
 
 14. A phase of “racialism” still found among some Western 
 advocates of “the white man’s burden” in the Orient. 
 
 15. The unavoidable tenseness produced by these incidents 
 leads easily to conflict involving violence, as reported 
 above. 
 
 THE NATIONALIST PHASE. 
 
 1. The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the Manchus. 
 
 2. Struggle for a republican form of government under the 
 leadership of Sun Yat' Sen. The appearance of the 
 Kuomintang, a Chinese nationalist movement. 
 
 3. Era of Yuan Shih-K’ai (1914-16). 
 
 4. North vs. South (1916-24). 
 
 5. The spread of democratic ideas from the West. 
 
 6 The “renaissance” affects the whole structure of Chi¬ 
 nese life. 
 
 18 
 
7. Increased facilities for communication aid the growth 
 of nationalism. 
 
 8. Aggression of Western Imperialism, especially any re¬ 
 sort to terrorism, produces nationalistic sentiment. 
 
 WHAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN! 
 
 “But there were two alternative paths which Europe might 
 have followed in the process of ‘opening up’ China. The first 
 was the path of economic exploitation, pure and simple . . . 
 The other was the path of cooperation rather than of ex¬ 
 ploitation . . . 
 
 “It will be argued that the second alternative was impos¬ 
 sibly utopian. But it was not; it was actually tried with suc¬ 
 cess in a limited field . . . The European customs officials 
 considered it their duty to build up for the Chinese Govern¬ 
 ment a service which would protect the legitimate interests 
 and the rights of the Chinese people. Their efforts were met' 
 with hostility and opposition both from the foreign traders 
 and the foreign consuls, but they were successful, and, while 
 everywhere else domestic corruption and foreign exploitation 
 were bringing ruin on China, in the customs administration 
 the Chinese were being consistently helped to protect their 
 own economic interests. 
 
 “These facts show that it was quite possible for Europe 
 to cooperate with the Chinese in such a way as to adapt 
 Chinese organization and government to the necessities of the 
 modern economic world. No one to-day will deny that the co¬ 
 operation of East and West in the customs administration 
 ultimately benefited both China and Europe. But the experi¬ 
 ment was not repeated” Leonard Woolf: Economic Imperi¬ 
 alism, pp. 84-88). 
 
 II. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The expansion of the United States in the western hemis¬ 
 phere has been fraught with conflict. Trace in detail the 
 record of that expansion! 
 
 1. What is the crux of the strained relations between 
 Mexico and the United States? 
 
 2. What is the gist of the Nicaraguan matter? 
 
 3. How and why was the Panama Zone obtained? 
 
 19 
 
4. What was the story of the acquisition of Hawaii? 
 
 5. How did Lincoln, Grant and Woodrow Wilson charac¬ 
 terize the Mexican War of 1848? 
 
 6. How does the Platt Amendment affect the status of Cuba? 
 
 7. What form of government existed in the Virgin Islands 
 before the United States purchased them from Den¬ 
 mark? What form of government have they now? 
 
 8. Under what circumstances was Haiti occupied by U. 
 S. Marines? 
 
 9. Has the Monroe Doctrine undergone distinct changes 
 in interpretation? 
 
 10. What change in the relations between the United States 
 and Europe has taken place since the beginning of the 
 World War? 
 
 III. Other areas of conflict are too numerous to be con¬ 
 sidered in any detail in this outline. They are merely sug¬ 
 gested in order that the student may study them fully as time 
 allows: 
 
 A. Italy and the Mediterranean, —involving an increasing 
 tenseness in relations with France; an avowed policy of 
 expansion and colonization in Africa; friction with 
 Jugo-Slavia over Fiume and the Adriatic; and influ¬ 
 ences in Albania and other Balkan States. 
 
 B. Russia and the Capitalistic Powers, —The Anglo-Rus- 
 sian rivalry was one of the most important in the inter¬ 
 national relations of the 19th century. It is now con¬ 
 tinued in a new form. Russian influence is competing 
 with, and probably with success, British influence in 
 Persia, Afghanistan, Tibet and China. The Russian 
 conflict not only involves Great Britain but all the 
 leading industrial countries. 
 
 C. France has her serious troubles in administering her 
 Syrian mandate, in exploiting her North African Em¬ 
 pire, and in maintaining the most friendly relations 
 with her European neighbors, Italy, Germany, and Eng¬ 
 land. The tariff and the war debt questions with the 
 United States are still unsolved. 
 
 D. Attention has already been called to the conflict in 
 British India. Elsewhere Great Britain is experiencing 
 international friction that might easily lead to conflict— 
 
 20 
 
in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, and in the naval question 
 with the United States. 
 
 E. In the Near East Turkey has broken away from Euro¬ 
 pean domination, but there are still questions unsettled 
 in her relations with foreign peoples and powers. The 
 rich oil resources in the Mesopotamian Valley are cause 
 of conflict. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. What do you consider the chief cause of conflict in 
 the modern world? How does this compare with the 
 past? 
 
 2. Is a philosophy of ultimate values expressed or implied 
 by the “things” over which men contend? 
 
 3. What countries or areas are comparatively free from 
 conflict? Why? 
 
 4. Is it becoming easier to isolate conflicts? Why? What 
 direct or indirect connections can you trace between 
 the place where you live and the principal danger zones 
 of the world? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Close, Upton: The Revolt of Asia, Putnam, 1927. 
 
 Hutchinson, Paul: What and Why in China, Willett, Clark 
 & Colby, 1927. 
 
 Ross, E. A.: The Russian Soviet Republic, The Century 
 Co., 1923. 
 
 Inman, S. G.: Problems in Pan-Americanism, Doran, 1921. 
 Beals, Carleton: Mexico, Huebsch, 1923. 
 
 Beard, C. A. & Mary R.: The Rise of American Civiliza¬ 
 tion, 2 vols., Macmillan, 1927. 
 
 Moon, P. T.: Imperialism and World Politics, Macmillan, 
 1926. 
 
 Earle, Edward M.: Turkey, The Great Powers, and The 
 Bagdad Railway, Macmillan, 1923. 
 
 Hayes, C. J. H.: Political and Social History of Modern 
 Europe, 2 vols, Macmillan, 1916. 
 
 Gibbons, H. A.: Introduction to World Politics, Century, 
 1922. 
 
 Gibbons,' H. A.: America’s Place in the World, Century, 
 1924. 
 
 21 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 NATIONALISM. 
 
 I. NATIONALISM IN EUROPE. 
 
 Nationalism shaped the political destinies of Europe from 
 1848 to 1871. In saying this, the danger of too mechanically 
 “periodizing” history is recognized; for at no time in the life of 
 a continent or people are the historical forces few and simple. 
 Periods do not begin and end with abruptness; they always root 
 deeply in the past, and require for their interpretation the fullest 
 possible account of their antecedents. 
 
 II. NATIONALISM AND STEAM POWER. 
 
 Just prior to this period in which Nationalism was the con¬ 
 trolling conception in political thought in Europe, steam power 
 became a revolutionary force in industry. “The conception of 
 racial or national supremacy, based upon cultural superiority and 
 military and financial mastery, originated during the French Rev¬ 
 olution and the Napoleonic wars, and was developed during the 
 period from 1815 to 1848, coincident with the birth of the sense 
 of nationality in Europe and the introduction of steam power into 
 industry and transportation.” (Gibbons: World Politics, p. 17.) 
 
 III. ECONOMIC BASIS OF NATIONALISM. 
 
 The economic basis of nationalism at once becomes apparent. 
 The following steps may be traced in this development: 
 
 1. Steam power transforms industry and greatly increases 
 production. 
 
 2. Steam power is employed for transportation,—carrying 
 raw materials to the factory and manufactured products 
 to their markets. 
 
 3. This further accelerates industrialization and the massing 
 of population at industrial centers. 
 
 4. With the rise of the great industrial powers, it becomes 
 necessary to find raw materials and markets away from 
 home, hence economic imperialism is born. 
 
 22 
 
5. Economic imperialism brings new ideas to exploited areas, 
 and under the none too scrupulous reign of the foreigners 
 Nationalism is engendered as a united opposition to op¬ 
 pression. 
 
 IV. NATIONALISM IN ASIA. 
 
 Nationalism would eventually have come to Asia as it came 
 to Europe,—through forces operating within,—but industrialism 
 came first to Europe whence influences spread to hasten the 
 growth of nationalism in the Orient late in the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
 tury and in the first quarter of the Twentieth. 
 
 1. Spender, in his Changing East, quotes a distinguished 
 Indian of the older generation to this effect: 
 
 “My father greatly respected England and he spoke 
 with great reverence of her great writers and statesmen— 
 Milton, Burke, Byron, Shelley, John Stuart Mill, Glad¬ 
 stone and Bright. As children we were brought up to 
 read your writers and the speeches of your statesmen, and 
 we found them generous and inspiring. No one in those 
 days talked of alien rule. . . . 
 
 “And then a change came, and though I do not know 
 the reasons, I know that we felt it. You began to talk 
 about your empire, and Disraeli came on the scene boast¬ 
 ing of your power and your greatness. You spoke as if 
 you were masters of us body and soul, and as if we were 
 children and barbarians. . . . 
 
 “This went on more and more all through the last 
 twenty years of the last century. All your orators and 
 all your newspapers talked of Empire and Imperialism, 
 and the necessity of expanding and exploiting and govern¬ 
 ing with a firm hand. I don’t know what was behind it 
 all, but this was not the England that we older ones had 
 admired and respected, and we withdrew into our shells, 
 while young men came forward who had not known the 
 old England and were resentful of the new. You had for¬ 
 gotten that in kindling your own Nationalist spirit you 
 were bound also to kindle ours. There is always reaction 
 to every political movement, and our Nationalism was the 
 reaction of your Imperialism.” 
 
 23 
 
2. After the Amritsar tragedy the Viceroy implored Parlia¬ 
 ment to take immediate steps for saving British rule in India. 
 Among other things he said: 
 
 “What lies behind and below the whole of the political 
 difficulties in India is a spirit of Nationalism, a spirit bred 
 in the soil, nurtured by our methods and example, and 
 spreading rapidly through all ranks and classes of Indian 
 society. . . . The government of India is not being 
 
 dragged at the tail of a revolutionary movement by a neg¬ 
 ligible group of professional agitators.” 
 
 3. To what extent is Nationalism in Japan, the Philippines, 
 China, Turkey, and Egypt also due to the Imperialism and other 
 contacts of Western Powers in these countries? (For the recent 
 history of political movements in these countries see Dutcher, 
 The Political Awakening of the East.) 
 
 V. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF NATIONALISM. 
 
 1. The love of power at work in the industrial barons and 
 the unscrupulous political leaders of the new machine age made 
 them ready soil for the planting and propagation of nationalistic 
 conceptions. They discovered that the masses became pliable under 
 the powerful sentiment of nationalism, and willingly furthered 
 their selfish interests even when in conflict with the interests of 
 the masses themselves. Give examples of wars in which the 
 masses had nothing to gain and much to lose, but in which the 
 case was reversed for capitalists and politicians, and yet the latter 
 were supported to the limit by the former! 
 
 2. “On the multitudes nationalism could be made to act as a 
 sort of laughing gas. If a labourer could be induced to take a 
 long deep breath of it, he would feel quite exhilarated and for a 
 time at any rate he would forget about overwork and underpay in 
 factory, field, or mine, and lose the reality of his own squalid 
 habitation in the dream of national greatness.” (Hayes, Essays 
 on Nationalism, p. 74.) Consider to what extent nationalism 
 acts as a compensation mechanism on others who feel their in¬ 
 ability to achieve individually. To what extent does nationalism 
 represent an urge for “the expansion of the ego”? 
 
 3. “But nationalism could hardly be the driving force in the 
 lives of the masses of mankind which it is today had not instru¬ 
 mentalities of mass-education been perfected and utilized for 
 
 24 
 
popular propaganda. Nationalism, being a cultural phenomenon, 
 is not ‘in the blood’; it cannot be transmitted biologically from 
 one person to another; it is an ‘acquired character’, and the 
 method of its acquisition, as of any cultural product, is education.” 
 (Hayes, p. 78.) In this connection we note at least three power¬ 
 ful educational agencies: 
 
 a. Popular compulsory education in state schools has been 
 intensely nationalistic in tone. In what ways? Give 
 some well-known illustrations of educational systems 
 built around the principle of nationalism. 
 
 b. Modern journalism has not lagged behind the schools 
 as an educational agency in implanting nationalistic 
 conceptions in the minds of the masses. Here again we 
 are faced with the significance of the Industrial Revo¬ 
 lution which made possible the new journalism, “the 
 greatest engine yet constructed for propaganda and 
 education.” 
 
 c. Universal military service, a comparatively new insti¬ 
 tution, has been one of the most effective educational 
 agencies of nationalism. Note its historical relation to 
 nationalism. As long as wars were fought by profes¬ 
 sionals, the masses were largely indifferent to their out¬ 
 come, but when the modern state began to reach into 
 every home of the land, it provided, in the most pow¬ 
 erful manner conceivable, for the planting of nation¬ 
 alism deep in the emotional life of the masses. Wars 
 were no longer the concern solely of feudal lords and 
 the fighting men whose services they could buy; they 
 became the common enterprise of whole populations, 
 for which no sacrifice was too great. 
 
 4. Between the final unification of Italy in 1871 and the end 
 of the World War, “Italia Irredenta” (Italy Unredeemed) was a 
 political principle which made a profound appeal to the spirit of 
 nationalism. It stood for a policy which aimed to bring within 
 the Kingdom of Italy those adjacent regions where mixed popu¬ 
 lations included large numbers of Italians. Such a policy, known 
 now as “irredentism”, has been an important nationalistic factor 
 in winning support for many wars in recent history, as for ex¬ 
 ample, the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine. (See Hayes, pp. 138- 
 145.) 
 
 25 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. Distinguish between nationalism and nationality. Between 
 nationalism and race. Also between nationalism and pa¬ 
 triotism. 
 
 2. In what countries were there strong movements of na¬ 
 tionalism between 1848 and 1871 ? 
 
 3. What wars of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 
 have been supported by appeals to the spirit of nation¬ 
 alism? In which of these did “irredentism” play a part? 
 
 4. What present conflict situations involve “irredentist” 
 claims ? 
 
 5. Consider the method of inculcating nationalism by 
 
 a. Building up the myth of the nation as super-person, 
 having unlimited claims of loyalty upon the nationalist. 
 
 b. The process of conditioning responses to symbols of 
 nationalism. (See Allport: The Psychology of Na¬ 
 tionalism, Harper’s Magazine, August, 1927.) 
 
 6. In view of the remarkable efficiency of steam power in aid¬ 
 ing the development of a national consciousness, is it pos¬ 
 sible to believe that radio and aviation will make similar 
 contributions to the development of international or world¬ 
 mindedness ? 
 
 7. What expressions of nationalism are at variance with the 
 principle of international cooperation? Which are not nec¬ 
 essarily inconsistent with it? At what point does na¬ 
 tionalism pass from an achievement to a problem? 
 
 8. Consider nationalism as a religion! (See Chapter VII 
 below.) 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Hayes, C. J. H.: Essays on Nationalism, Macmillan, 1926. 
 Page, Kirby: Nationalism and Imperialism, Doran, 1926. 
 
 Allport, F. H.: The Psychology of Nationalism, Harper’s 
 Magazine, August, 1927. 
 
 Holmes, J. H.: Patriotism Is Not Enough, Greenberg, 
 1925. 
 
 Tagore, R.: Nationalism, Macmillan. 
 
 Spender, J. A.: The Changing East, Stokes, 1927. 
 
 Dutcher, G. M.: The Political Awakening of the East, 
 Abingdon Press, 1925. 
 
 26 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ECONOMIC ORDER. 
 
 As clearly indicated in Chapter II, in all the major areas of 
 conflict, economic considerations are prominently and inextricably 
 involved. It is therefore essential to our purpose that a careful 
 examination be made of the economic and industrial system as 
 prerequisite to an adequate understanding of the international 
 situations which now confront us. 
 
 That the industrial system has brought many benefits to man¬ 
 kind there can be no doubt. But it is equally true that the exist¬ 
 ing control over this system is basically unethical. Although eco¬ 
 nomic enterprise is not uninfluenced by ethical considerations, 
 the avowed aim is private economic gain. The non-social nature 
 of the system which results is clearly evidenced by 
 
 A. The failure to co-ordinate industry as a whole for the pur¬ 
 pose of providing as adequately as possible for human 
 
 needs, resulting in such conditions as 
 
 1. Lack of standardization, and interference with the free 
 interchange of ideas and discoveries by such means as 
 trade secrets and patent rights. 
 
 2. Unnecessary duplication of the means and agencies for 
 production and especially for distribution. 
 
 B. The deliberate refusal, despite the needs which everywhere 
 
 exist, to utilize all of the resources of society to meet 
 these needs : Sabotage: 
 
 1. The wanton destruction and wasting of food, natural 
 resources, and other social wealth in order to maintain 
 a price level or to secure the resources more rapidly. 
 
 3. The unnecessary curtailment of production in order to 
 raise or maintain a price level, and the resulting unem¬ 
 ployment. 
 
 4. The employment of men and resources in harmful, or 
 socially non-productive enterprises. 
 
 In short, those in control of the industrial system have deliber¬ 
 ately restricted production to the amount most profitable to them- 
 
 27 
 
selves, thus giving to society but a small proportion of the in¬ 
 creased production which modern developments in science and 
 invention have made possible. Such conditions evidence, not 
 merely waste and inefficiency but conflict (politely called compe¬ 
 tition). In the struggle to secure economic advantage, natural 
 resources, markets, trade, and the control of capital and indus¬ 
 trial enterprise it is inevitable that the interests of different capi¬ 
 talist groups, and of capitalists, workers, and society should con¬ 
 flict. As results of these evils and the non-social motives of 
 which they are inevitable consequences, are 
 
 A. The denial of Justice and Brotherhood by 
 
 1. The injustice of distributing the economic rewards of 
 industry, not according to services rendered or need, 
 but according to interest in and ability for acquisition. 
 
 2. The arbitrary and irresponsible power which wealth 
 inevitably gives its possessors over 
 
 a. The workers who are dependent upon the use of 
 this capital for the means of earning their livelihood. 
 
 b. The consumers who are dependent upon them for 
 the goods which they must use, and who can exer¬ 
 cise control only by going without the things they 
 need. 
 
 c. The institutions and hence the ideals of society. 
 
 The power to give or withhold donations to politi¬ 
 cal, educational, charitable, or religious institutions 
 gives to its possessors a disproportionate influence 
 over governments, colleges, churches, and charitable 
 organizations, and hence, over the thought and 
 ideals, and to a certain extent the welfare of the 
 other members of society. 
 
 B. The Injurious Effects of Industrial and Economic Condi¬ 
 tions upon the Workers. 
 
 1. Unnecessary industrial accidents and industrial dis¬ 
 eases, and the harmful effects of fatigue. 
 
 2. Evils resulting from the mechanizing effects of indus¬ 
 try upon the workers. 
 
 a. Relative lack of interest in their work, and the lack 
 of development which would result from a greater 
 opportunity for initiative and a greater share in 
 control. 
 
 28 
 
b. Relative lack of interest in living. 
 
 c. The increased desire for unhealthful stimulation. 
 
 3. Poverty and other evils resulting from the lack of 
 leisure and resources to enjoy home life or to take ad¬ 
 vantage of opportunities for personal development and 
 culture. 
 
 THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM AS THE MOST 
 INFLUENTIAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION 
 IN THE MOLDING OF CHARACTER. 
 
 Discussions of the economic system have usually centered 
 about descriptions and explanations of the processes of produc¬ 
 tion and profit-making. Existing conditions and proposed inno¬ 
 vations such as socialism have usually been evaluated upon the 
 basis of their supposed significance for productive efficiency and 
 economic prosperity. More socially minded people have insisted 
 that full consideration be given to the human values involved. 
 So strenuously and effectively have they maintained this emphasis 
 that now even the most orthodox economists no longer regard 
 labor as a mere commodity, and recognize that the effects of in¬ 
 dustry upon the workers and upon society should be taken into 
 account. This humanitarian concern has centered so far about 
 physical welfare; the effects of fatigue, bad housing conditions, 
 inadequate income, industrial accidents and diseases. Hence 
 benevolently inclined employers and philanthropists have raised 
 wages, cut the hours of labor, built model homes, and provided 
 gymnasiums, libraries and classes, free medical attention, and 
 band-concerts for their employees and the community. The sig¬ 
 nificance of industrial and economic conditions for spiritual de¬ 
 velopment have by no means been overlooked. But even these 
 have been considered usually in terms of opportunity and depri¬ 
 vation; of opportunity for initiative, or of leisure and resources 
 for cultural and personal development. The more enlightened 
 have now become deeply suspicious of paternalism and welfare 
 work, and have caught glimpses of the industrial system as not 
 only crushing or enriching personality, but as actually molding 
 character, for better or for worse. But few have grasped the full 
 significance of the economic system as the most potent educa¬ 
 tional influence in the world today, or have centered their pro¬ 
 posals for its reorganization and control about its functions as an 
 institution for character formation. 
 
 29 
 
“Man ist was er isst” says a German proverb. Modern psy¬ 
 chology has conclusively shown that a truer statement would be 
 “Man ist was er tut”, man is what he does. We now know that 
 character is formed in the whole process of experience. Every 
 time one attends a theatre, makes a purchase at the store; every¬ 
 where and every time a conduct decision is made, and in general, 
 only under such circumstances, character is being formed. It is 
 true that “as a man thinketh in his heart so is he”, but it is true 
 also that what he thinks in his heart is largely determined by the 
 customary procedure, attitudes, and standards of value of the 
 social situations in which he must function. 
 
 Of these social influences, by far the most potent is the eco¬ 
 nomic system. The majority of adults spend most of their wak¬ 
 ing hours in striving to wrest from it as much as possible. It is 
 not the length of time spent in such activities, however, which is 
 responsible for their influence on character; it is rather the vital 
 relationship they bear to the whole of life. He errs who con¬ 
 ceives of them in crassly materialistic terms. For upon them are 
 largely dependent such considerations as health, opportunities for 
 education, home, and the welfare of family and children. The 
 most tender sentiments and noblest values are so inextricably 
 bound up with them as to make a refusal to conform to the exist¬ 
 ing system of economic organization practically impossible. The 
 economic system inevitably and indelibly impresses its own na¬ 
 ture upon those who participate in it. Few considerations are 
 more important than the determination of the nature of this most 
 potent influence upon character. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM 
 
 ON CHARACTER. 
 
 I. Effects of the inequitable distribution of wealth. 
 
 A. On the Poor. We have already suggested the physical 
 hardships and deprivations of poverty. Let us not for¬ 
 get that it involves spiritual losses. Among these are: 
 
 1. Those resulting from the absence of freedom, and de¬ 
 pendence upon others for the means of earning a liv¬ 
 ing, with resulting servility. 
 
 2. The necessary concentration of attention upon material 
 considerations, with the resulting lower standard of 
 values. 
 
 3. Fear, bitterness, hatred, hopelessness and despair. 
 
 30 
 
B. On the Rich. Perhaps more unfortunate than the 
 effects of poverty on the poor are the effect's of exces¬ 
 sive wealth on the rich. 
 
 1. The undue power of wealth subjects its possessors to 
 strong and unusual temptations. Probably the most 
 subtle, alluring, and destructive of these is the tempta¬ 
 tion to control one’s fellow men. The control which 
 wealth gives over the institutions of society, plus the 
 deference given to its owners by those who wish this 
 wealth for their enterprises, almost inevitably gives to 
 those who possess it an unjustified and exaggerated 
 conception of their own competence and right to de¬ 
 cide the policies of these institutions, and hence, con¬ 
 duct and opinions of their fellow men. Few situations 
 could be more damning to character than the oppor¬ 
 tunity for incompetents to exercise unearned and irre¬ 
 sponsible power. 
 
 2. Unearned wealth and income tends to weaken charac¬ 
 ter and to make its possessors idle, lazy, and useless. 
 
 3. Great differences in economic status tend to isolate the 
 rich from their fellow men and to make human sym¬ 
 pathy and mutual understanding more difficult. 
 
 a. Wealth is a barrier to mixing and to the free inter¬ 
 change of viewpoints. 
 
 b. Not knowing what it means to go without, the rich 
 tend to become indifferent to human needs. 
 
 II. The present economic system promotes the use of Force 
 and Violence and the spirit of Revolt and Crime. 
 
 1. It is largely responsible for the existence of the social 
 conditions, such as the slums, in which the criminal and 
 the malcontent are bred. 
 
 2. By making it often more profitable to engage in socially 
 less productive enterprises, it has dissipated valuable tal¬ 
 ent and energies which otherwise might be available to 
 correct these evil social conditions. 
 
 3. It has, and to a great extent, consciously and deliberately, 
 done much to create discontent among the people by 
 
 a. The examples of conspicuous waste and the “higher” 
 standard of living set by the wealthy. 
 
 b. Salesmanship and advertising. 
 
 31 
 
c. The spectacle of large fortunes being amassed without 
 the necessity for productive effort. 
 
 4. It has failed to provide, for most people, legitimate and 
 moral possibilities for the satisfying of their desires. 
 
 5. It has tended to destroy confidence in, and to promote con¬ 
 tempt for, law, order, and constituted authority by 
 
 a. The control which it has exercised, often by corrupt 
 means, over the election and conduct of civil authori¬ 
 ties. 
 
 b. Its encouragement of the illegal and unjustifiable use 
 of force and violence on the part of civil authorities 
 against laboring groups. 
 
 c. Its promotion of actual anarchy; the employment by 
 private interests, of armed forces which are not respon¬ 
 sible for their conduct to any civil authority. 
 
 d. Industrial espionage; the employment of spies, thugs, 
 and gunmen to break up labor organizations and to 
 discredit them in the eyes of the public. 
 
 6. It has tended to undermine and destroy the faith of the 
 people in moral ideals by 
 
 a. Accepting as the underlying basis of its philosophy and 
 practice, acquisition (private greed) as its primary aim 
 and most important consideration. 
 
 b. Its utter disregard for truth in its propaganda against 
 those who attempt to call it to account for its philosophy 
 and activities. 
 
 c. Its shameless disregard for human welfare, human 
 happiness, and human life. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM 
 ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. 
 
 It is needless to do more than suggest that, in securing for 
 itself the best talent available, the economic system has arrogated 
 to itself a disproportionate share of the total energies of society, 
 and thus deprived society of talent, resources, and ability sadly 
 needed for the task of social adjustment. Here, for example, is 
 a man, brilliant and talented; one man in a thousand. He might 
 if he would, be doing much to work out means for the pacific set- 
 telment of international disputes; in helping to make it impossible 
 that men should ever again be hanging, “screaming and gibbering 
 ... on the barbed wire until a friendly spout of liquid fire 
 shrivels them up like a fly in a candle”. Yet with the seeds of 
 
 32 
 
another such war being sown; a war far more horrible than any 
 the world has yet known; a war so destructive that if it comes, 
 civilization will be a thing of the past; what is this man doing 
 with his abilities? He is conducting a series of advertising cam¬ 
 paigns, trying to persuade people to buy one brand of pink pa¬ 
 jamas instead of another. Why? Because as society is now or¬ 
 ganized it does not pay him to stop wars, but the pink pajama 
 industry he finds highly profitable. 
 
 Far more insidious than any mere deprivation, however, is 
 the influence of the struggle for the natural resources, markets 
 and trade of the world in causing international complications. 
 It is not to be supposed that those will exploit the labor of the 
 children of their own country, or employ spies, thugs, and gun¬ 
 men against their fellow citizens, will scruple in dealing with the 
 “backward” foreigners into whose territories they have gone in 
 search of gain. Nor is it surprising that those who will bribe 
 and corrupt their governments to gain economic advantage at 
 home will hesitate to bring as much pressure as possible to bear 
 to promote their interests abroad, even though such a policy may 
 result in war with the governments of other economic interests. 
 The frequent invasions of supposedly sovereign states by the 
 military forces of the United States, and the seizure and forcible 
 defense of concessions in China and other areas of the Orient not 
 strong enough to defend themselves show clearly the operation of 
 such influences. The facts of imperialism and “dollar diplomacy” 
 are too well known to need further elaboration. While we would 
 not subscribe to the rather loose and confused “economic inter¬ 
 pretation of history”, there can be little doubt, as other chapters 
 in this book clearly show, that economic conflicts, while by no 
 means the only causes, lie at the basis of international discord. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 A. Consider the profit motive. 
 
 1. What is it? The desire for economic security? For 
 luxury? For power? 
 
 2. Why is it that those who have far more money than 
 they wish to spend continue to strive for more? Is it 
 because 
 
 a. They are mean and do not wish others to have 
 enough ? 
 
 b. They just wish to see how much they can get? 
 
 c. Money is power and they wish as much control over 
 their fellow men as possible? 
 
 33 
 
3. Why is it that men who are willing to give their em¬ 
 ployees high wages and all sorts of welfare work vig¬ 
 orously and uncompromisingly fight all efforts on the 
 part of their employees to share in the control of the 
 business? Why do many people regard charity and 
 welfare work with suspicion? Do these questions throw 
 any light on the opposition of employees to unions and 
 the closed shop, and on the opposition of labor leaders 
 to company unions ? 
 
 4. Consider the proposition that the struggle for power is 
 a central issue in the conflicts between capitalists and 
 workers, and between conservatives and radicals. 
 
 5. Is the profit motive indispensable, or is it possible that 
 industry might be conducted as the home, the public 
 school, the church, and the political state are conducted; 
 not for the economic advantage of those who control 
 them, but for the good of the people? 
 
 B. The chapter includes a rather severe indictment of the eco¬ 
 nomic system. To what extent do you think that this in¬ 
 dictment is justified? 
 
 1. Do you agree with the chapter that the economic sys¬ 
 tem is the most influential educational institution in the 
 world from the standpoint of character formation? 
 Consider advertising as an influence on moral educa¬ 
 tion. What ideals does it present as to what is most 
 important and worth while in life? 
 
 2. Whom does the inequitable distribution of wealth in¬ 
 jure most; the poor or the rich? Do you believe that 
 the state should strictly limit inheritance in order to 
 protect the oncoming generations from the injurious 
 effects of unearned riches? 
 
 3. As an actual matter of fact, who have been most free 
 in the employment of force and violence in the United 
 States, capitalists or communists? 
 
 C. To what extent have the rich actually earned the enormous 
 fortunes which they possess? Do you know of fortunes 
 which have been founded or greatly increased by such 
 means as 
 
 1. The deliberate manipulation of stock, or the issuance of 
 watered stock, involving others in financial ruin ? What 
 is the significance of the stock dividend? 
 
 34 
 
2. The control of legislation and courts by bribery and 
 political pressure? 
 
 3. The gouging of the government in contracts? 
 
 4. Secret discriminatory transportation rates enabling 
 those so favored to crush competitors and establish 
 monopolies ? 
 
 5. Undervaluation in customs returns, enabling certain 
 importers to crush competitors who made honest re¬ 
 turns ? 
 
 6. The seizure of public domain and the exploitation of 
 natural resources for private gain? 
 
 7. The underpayment of labor and the exploitation of 
 child labor? 
 
 8. The exploitation of backward peoples with the military 
 support of government? 
 
 9. Such accidental factors as inheritance or the rise of 
 land values ? 
 
 D. Consider carefully the influence of economic conflict on 
 international discord. What part did economic causes play 
 in the last war? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Chase, Stuart, The Tragedy of Waste, Macmillan, 1926. 
 
 Chase, Stuart, and Schlink, Getting Your Money’s Worth, 
 Macmillan, 1927. 
 
 Howard, Sidney, The Labor Spy, New Republic Press, 
 1924. 
 
 Hunter, Robert, Violence and the Labor Movement, Mac¬ 
 millan. 
 
 Lane, Winthrop D., The Denial of Civil Liberties in the 
 Coal Fields, Doran. 
 
 Whipple, Leon, The Story of Civil Liberties in the United 
 States, Vanguard Press, 1927. 
 
 Hapgood, Norman, (editor), Professional Patriots, A. C. 
 Boni, 1927. 
 
 Tarbell, Ida, The History of the Standard Oil. (2 vols.) 
 
 Myers, Gustavus, The History of the Great American For¬ 
 tunes (3 vols.), Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1907-1909. 
 
 Nearing, Scott, Dollar Diplomacy. 
 
 Moon, Thomas Parker, Modern Diplomacy. 
 
 35 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 IMPERIALISM. 
 
 Modern imperialism is the product of the new economic order 
 and the spirit of nationalism. By 1871 the industrialization of 
 Europe and the growth of nationalism had proceeded so far that 
 the new or economic imperialism was inevitable. It differed from 
 ancient imperialisms in its economic emphasis. From 1848 to 1871 
 was the period of nationalism; 1871 to 1914 was the period 
 of economic imperialism. There are signs of the beginning of 
 the end of this newest form of imperialism. With the growth 
 of nationalism in exploited areas, imperialism is encountering 
 difficulties that begin to seem insurmountable. Two courses seem 
 open to the present and rising generation: deadlier conflict that 
 has yet been known in international war with consequences that 
 cannot be predicted, or some form of internationalism that em¬ 
 bodies in a full measure the principles of cooperation. Can it be 
 that these courses present the most urgent task of the immediate 
 future? 
 
 I 
 
 Again our story begins with the rise of industrialism which 
 made the factory instead of the home, the producing center. The 
 consequences of this shift were so momentous that even now we 
 cannot measure them. The ownership of the tools of production 
 passed from those who toiled with their hands to those who were 
 clever enough to seize them. With the ownership of the tools 
 went the lion’s share of the rewards of production. Labor be¬ 
 came a commodity to be bought with the smallest wage that 
 would enable the worker to keep body and soul together. The 
 profit motive became dominant. Wealth was more and more 
 massed in the hands of those who owned the tools. One tool 
 they lacked,—the handy instrument of government. That was 
 still in the hands of the “planting aristocracy,” or the successors 
 of the feudal lords, who owned the land. The industrial barons 
 set out to dispossess the landlords, and in the United States the 
 Civil War was the result. The industrialists won. They im¬ 
 posed tariffs upon the goods of competing producers in other 
 lands. They regulated prices at home on the principle of “all 
 the traffic would bear;” and waxed fat in wealth. Labor hit 
 upon the idea of organization to resist exploitation, and the 
 modern labor unions were born. 
 
 36 
 
II 
 
 Soon the home market reached the “saturation point,” and 
 other markets had to be found abroad for the surplus products 
 of the industrial system. There was a scramble for colonies in 
 all the “unoccupied” areas of the world. Europe took up the 
 long-neglected “white man’s burden.” In the United States, 
 economic initiative was still busy with the conquest of its vast 
 western territories. But with the turn of the century the United 
 States, too, turned its attention to the economic opportunities of 
 the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine underwent re¬ 
 interpretation to permit interference in the domestic politics of 
 the Latin American countries, whenever “the lives and property 
 of American citizens” demanded it. 
 
 III 
 
 To reach the markets at home and abroad, improved com¬ 
 munications became necessary. Steam and electricity were rapidly 
 harnessed for the purpose. Between 1850 and 1900 railways 
 increased from a mileage of 24,000 to a mileage of 500,000. The 
 tonnage of steam shipping increased more than three hundred 
 per cent in the last quarter of the 19th century. Telegraphs in¬ 
 creased from 5,000 miles in 1850 to 1,180,000 miles in 1900. 
 
 IV 
 
 The supplies of certain raw materials which were of funda¬ 
 mental importance in modern industry soon occasioned new 
 rivalries between the industrial powers. Uninhabited areas which 
 were useless as markets held vast stores of iron, coal, rubber, 
 and oil. The wheels of imperialism cannot turn without these. 
 
 a. “Who has oil has empire!” wrote Berenger to Clemenceau 
 in 1919. “Control of the ocean by heavy oils, control 
 of the air by highly refined oils, and of the land by petrol 
 and illuminating oils. Empire of the World through the 
 financial power attaching to a substance more precious, 
 more penetrating, more influential in the world than gold 
 itself!” Such a statement explains why all the Great 
 Powers have a definite “oil policy.” Lord Curzon de¬ 
 clared, “Truly posterity will say that the Allies floated 
 to victory on a wave of oil.” 
 
 b. Rubber is quite as essential as oil to modern civilization. 
 The automobile industry alone requires an amount of 
 
 37 
 
rubber sufficient to make it one of the “raw materials of 
 imperialism.” Whereas there were less than 4,000 auto¬ 
 mobiles manufactured in the United States in 1899, there 
 were almost 4,000,000 made in our country a quarter of 
 a century later. 
 
 c. The United States Steel heads the list of our billion dollar 
 corporations. Coal and iron supplies are not found in 
 equal quantities throughout the world,—hence the rivalries 
 of the Great Powers for these raw materials! 
 
 V 
 
 The next important factor in the making of modern imperial¬ 
 ism was the “surplus capital” for investment in foreign countries. 
 Bankers have not infrequently lent to weaker powers on bad 
 securities and then relied on government to collect the obligations. 
 Among others, study the case of Egypt during the 19th century. 
 In several cases the conclusion of the matter has been the political 
 control of the borrowing country by the country of the lending 
 bankers. 
 
 VI 
 
 Where surplus capital is invested in weaker countries it claims 
 the full protection of the military forces of the home govern¬ 
 ment. Hence military occupations for the “protection of Ameri¬ 
 can lives and property!” The whole economic outreach of an 
 industrial country into the farthest corners of the earth is depend¬ 
 ent for its success, so we are told, upon a home government with 
 a military machine ready and adequate for its protection,—with 
 or without regard for the interests of the peoples of the exploited 
 regions. Thus militarism becomes a strong ally of the economic 
 order. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. What concessions has imperialism made to the growing 
 nationalism of China and Turkey in recent months? Do 
 you agree with Upton Close that this growing nationalism 
 of Oriental peoples spells the end of the white man’s world? 
 
 2. Would universal Free Trade lessen international conflicts 
 and make for cooperation? 
 
 3. What will happen in exporting countries when their mar¬ 
 kets are cut off by the growth of manufacturers in coun¬ 
 tries where they have been selling? 
 
 38 
 
4. Study the distribution of the principal raw materials of 
 industry. Can you suggest any control of these supplies 
 for the use of all countries, in proportion to their indus¬ 
 trial needs? 
 
 5. Should there be limits upon the protection given foreign 
 investments? What? The United States has more than 
 twenty billions of dollars in foreign investments and foreign 
 debts; does this constitute, in your judgment, an entangl¬ 
 ing alliance? How does it compare with membership in 
 the League of Nations in its “entangling” possibilities? 
 
 6. Correlate the expenditure for military purposes with the 
 total of their foreign investments, of the leading countries 
 of the world. 
 
 7. What blessings has imperialism brought to backward 
 peoples ? What handicaps ? 
 
 8. Does imperialism now have at its disposal machinery that 
 could be turned into the machinery of cooperation? Give 
 concrete illustrations. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Moon, P. T.: Imperialism and World Politics, Macmillan, 
 1926. 
 
 de la Trameyre: The World Struggle for Oil, Knopf, 1924. 
 
 Davenport, E. H. and Cooke, S. R.: The Oil Trusts and 
 Anglo-American Relations, Macmillan, 1924. 
 
 Enock, A. G.: The Problem of Armaments, Macmillan, 
 1923. 
 
 Inman, S. G.: Imperialistic America, Atlantic Monthly, 
 July 1. 
 
 Woolf, L.: Economic Imperialism, Harcourt Brace, 1920. 
 
 Thomas, Norman: The Challenge of War, an Economic 
 Interpretation. (League for Industrial Democracy). 
 
 39 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INTERRACIAL RELATIONS 
 
 “NEGROES BARRED IN GARY SCHOOL” 
 
 “Striking Students Win Out in Protest Against Blacks” 
 
 (By United Press.) 
 
 “Gary, Ind., Sept. 30.—‘Jim Crow’ today had gained a foot¬ 
 hold in the Gary school system and 1,500 white students who 
 walked out of classes rather than attend with negroes returned to 
 Emerson High School. 
 
 “The city council at a special meeting last night agreed to a 
 special bond issue of $15,000 for establishment of a temporary 
 high school for negroes, to be used until a permanent school can 
 be established. 
 
 “Negroes will continue to attend other high schools, but they 
 will be barred from the Emerson school, located in the city’s 
 most exclusive residential district. 
 
 “The strike originated Monday when six hundred students 
 left their classes in protest against eighteen negroes who had reg¬ 
 istered.” 
 
 I. WHAT IS RACE? 
 
 In considering the relations between races it is important at 
 the outset to define as clearly as possible what we mean by the 
 term race. 
 
 a. Distinguish between race and nationality. 
 
 b. Do racial lines follow linguistic lines? Is the term 
 “Aryan” used more correctly in describing a racial or a 
 linguistic group ? 
 
 c. Are racial distinctions strongly marked? 
 
 d. Are they permanent? 
 
 e. How are geography and race related ? 
 
 f. Are there any pure races? How have migrations affected 
 racial purity? 
 
 40 
 
g. Is race an exact or an approximate classification based 
 upon certain arbitrarily chosen qualities? 
 
 h. Which of the following characteristics determine race: 
 Color of hair; color of skin; anatomical measurements; 
 culture; economic levels; language; geographical area; 
 color of eye; hair-form; grade of intelligence? Does a 
 single trait suffice to fix racial category or must there be a 
 combination of a number of traits? 
 
 II. WHERE DO INTERRACIAL RELATIONS 
 CONSTITUTE PROBLEMS? 
 
 a. The Southern States of the United States. Note the back¬ 
 ground of the present situation, and in what ways it dif¬ 
 fers from the past. In Northern cities due to recent mi¬ 
 grations. 
 
 b. The South African situation. 
 
 c. The Japanese in California. 
 
 d. Western Imperialism in the Orient. 
 
 e. In Immigration: 
 
 1. Discriminations in laws of the United States. 
 
 2. In Australia. 
 
 f. Name other conflict areas involving race. 
 
 g. What areas are free from race conflicts? Why? 
 
 III. THE BASES OF RACIAL CONFLICT. 
 
 a. Attitudes of superiority. How are these expressed? 
 
 b. Fear of loss of economic security and standards. 
 
 c. It has been said that government is usually, if not always, 
 the instrument of the dominant class designed to maintain 
 its position of supremacy over other classes. Is this borne 
 out in areas of racial conflict? How? 
 
 d. To what extent is racial antipathy based upon the mere 
 fact of “differentness” ? Does a provincially-minded per¬ 
 son think of differences in others as inferiority ? Give ex¬ 
 amples. 
 
 e. Ignorance concerning the achievements of other racial 
 groups. Lack of contacts with the best in other groups. 
 
 41 
 
IV. CONFLICT SITUATIONS. 
 
 Consider the manifestations of racial conflict as found in the 
 United States. Complete this list, and give illustrations from 
 your own experience or study. 
 
 a. Did the “emancipation proclamation” remove all economic 
 
 handicaps from the Negro? 
 
 1. See Walter White, The Negro and the Flood, in The 
 Nation, June 22, 1927: “In many of the refugee camps 
 Negroes are carefully guarded, and when the flood re¬ 
 cedes and the land dries they are released only to the 
 landlord from whose plantation they came.” In the 
 same article Mr. White quotes from Daily News, Jack- 
 son, Mississippi, April 30, as follows: “All labor in 
 authorized camps will be held and not allowed to go to 
 other sections of the State, and after the flood danger 
 has passed and conditions are such that they can re¬ 
 sume work, they will be taken back to their homes in 
 the various sections of the delta from which they 
 came.” Can this latter quotation conceivably refer to 
 white labor? How could you designate such a labor 
 status as that occupied by these workers who are held 
 under armed guard and released only to the landlords 
 from whose plantations they came? 
 
 2. To what extent is Negro labor organized? How does 
 this affect his economic position ? 
 
 3. To what extent can economic freedom be conferred 
 from without and to what extent must it be achieved 
 from within? To what extent may the achievement of 
 economic freedom be retarded or promoted by the 
 dominant race? 
 
 4. Can there be real political and religious freedom with¬ 
 out economic freedom? Why? 
 
 b. Consider the legal handicaps imposed upon racial groups 
 
 as a phase of our interracial conflict: 
 
 1. Longer Sentences —“In South Carolina a white man 
 stole an automobile and was sentenced for thirty days; 
 on the same day and by the same judge a Negro who 
 stole a bicycle was sent to the chain-gang for three 
 years.” {And Who Is My Neighbor? page 47.) Do 
 Greeks, Italians, Chinese, and other minority racial 
 
 42 
 
groups have similar experiences? Give examples. 
 Often there is lack of law enforcement in cases involv¬ 
 ing only Negroes. What injustice does this involve? 
 
 2. Lynching —What is the present situation as compared 
 with that of previous years? In numbers? Attitude 
 of press ? Attitude of civic and religious bodies ? 1922 
 —58 lynchings; 1923—33; 1924—16; 1925—16; 1926 
 —29. Consider the effects upon those who participate 
 in lynching, and the communities where they occur! 
 
 3. The Franchise —What devices have been used to dis¬ 
 franchise large groups upon which the constitution by 
 intent, confers the right of suffrage? How would you 
 look upon the sincerity of a state or community that 
 protests against the nullification of the Eighteenth 
 Amendment by a state with “wet” sentiment, while it 
 practises nullification of the Fifteenth Amendment on 
 the ground of its “color” sentiment? 
 
 c. Numerous social handicaps act to engender friction be¬ 
 tween races living side by side. Some of these are too 
 subtle to permit of concrete illustration, while others are 
 strikingly at variance with a democratic society, to say 
 nothing of one organized on a thoroughly cooperative 
 basis. 
 
 1. What is your reaction to the news item at the begin¬ 
 ning of this chapter? 
 
 2. The issue of residential segregation has been set forth 
 prominently in the famous case of Dr. Sweet in De¬ 
 troit. . . . Do you know what the Supreme Court 
 ruling on coercive segregation is ? 
 
 3. The operation of “Jim Crow” laws on public convey¬ 
 ances is too well known to need illustration. Similarly 
 discriminations in hotels, shops, and educational insti¬ 
 tutions may be found at any time in any section of the 
 country where different races are in contact. 
 
 d. The part played by the press in exaggerating or alleviat¬ 
 ing racial conflicts is obviously important. The Chicago 
 Race Commission listed 1,338 Negro news items which ap¬ 
 peared in three Chicago dailies over a period of two years. 
 Almost exactly one-half of these dealt with riots, clashes, 
 crime and vice, while only fifty-eight dealt with construc- 
 
 43 
 
tive matters like education, art and business. Note the 
 manner in which the word Negro is emphasized in crime 
 news. Analyze your local newspaper from this standpoint. 
 
 e. The immigration problem has given rise to racial friction 
 between countries of Oriental and Occidental races. 
 
 1. On July 1, 1924, an act excluding Japanese from the 
 United States went into effect. The circumstances of 
 the passage of this act contributed to magnify the ele¬ 
 ment of friction. The day was observed throughout 
 Japan as “Humiliation Day”. Cyrus E. Woods, former 
 American Ambassador to Japan, characterized the act 
 in these words: “The Japanese Exclusion Act was, in 
 my judgment, an international disaster of the first mag¬ 
 nitude,—a disaster to American diplomacy in the Far 
 East, a disaster to American business, a disaster to re¬ 
 ligion and to the effective work of our American 
 churches in Japan.” 
 
 2. During the year 1923 state legislatures passed acts in 
 California and Washington designated to deny equality 
 of treatment in economic rights to all persons ineligible 
 for citizenship. 
 
 V. PROPOSALS FOR SOLVING RACIAL CONFLICTS. 
 
 What do the citizens of a country containing important groups 
 of racial minorities propose to do about the conflicts which arise 
 under the present order? 
 
 a. There are a few individuals who seriously propose whole¬ 
 sale deportation of racial minorities as the only solution 
 for the problems of conflict. This has apparently worked 
 very well between Greece and Turkey recently, in their 
 mutual exchange of populations. What are the differ¬ 
 ences between that case and the situation in the United 
 States ? 
 
 b. Others propose what might be called a “parallelism” for 
 racial situations such as that in the South. According to 
 this idea the two races would be entirely separate, each de¬ 
 veloping from within, with an absolute minimum of inter¬ 
 racial contacts, having, however, some slight cooperation 
 in matters of government and education. Can there be any 
 real “parallelism” as long as one group is politically, so- 
 
 44 
 
dally and economically disinherited? What can you say 
 for and against such a plan? 
 
 c. Others accept the complex racial situation in the United 
 States as a challenge to those who believe in thorough¬ 
 going cooperation, and are working along all lines for the 
 improvement of racial relations. Some of the methods of 
 cooperation now in use are briefly described below: 
 
 1. The National Committee on American-Japanese Rela¬ 
 tions has adopted the following as its program: 
 
 (1) To cultivate in regard to Japan an informed and 
 rational public opinion, inspired by a friendly 
 spirit and a sympathetic understanding of her 
 needs, problems, and aspirations. 
 
 (2) To advocate a square deal and impartial treat¬ 
 ment for Japanese in the United States. 
 
 (3) To urge the enactment of adequate Federal legis¬ 
 lation for the protection of aliens and for the en¬ 
 forcement of their treaty rights as urged by 
 Presidents Harrison, McKinley, Roosevelt, and 
 Taft. 
 
 (4) To urge that, after July 1, 1927, Japanese be in¬ 
 cluded in the quota provisions of the new Immi¬ 
 gration Law, thus laying the basis for right rela¬ 
 tions between the two countries. 
 
 How would you criticize this program? Since the 
 Exclusion Act also applies to other Oriental peoples, 
 why has more consideration been given to the claims 
 of Japan? 
 
 2. Interracial Commissions,—national, state, and local,— 
 have been formed with a view to bringing together 
 members of our two races for conference and coopera¬ 
 tion in all matters affecting the welfare of the races in 
 their contacts with each other. 
 
 3. The Interracial Commissions News Bureau sends re¬ 
 leases to fifteen hundred dailies and weeklies, religious 
 journals, college, labor, agricultural and women’s pa¬ 
 pers, with an aggregate circulation of fifteen million. 
 These releases deal with all subjects that might con¬ 
 ceivably promote better understanding and cooperation 
 between the races. 
 
 45 
 
4. Thousands of study groups, particularly among the 
 white group, are designed to interest white students in 
 the achievements and needs of the colored group. The 
 Basis of Racial Adjustment by Dr. T. J. Woofter, Jr., 
 was prepared for use with college groups. 
 
 5. Forums which bring together members of our two 
 races have become permanent features of interracial 
 cooperation in several cities in the South. 
 
 6. Efforts are being made, and in some cases have already 
 been successful, to secure equal appropriations (in pro¬ 
 portion to population) for education among white and 
 colored groups in Southern states and counties. In ad¬ 
 dition there are several large funds established which 
 aim to provide better equipment for Negro schools. 
 
 7. Campaigns for the prevention of lynching have been 
 conducted by numerous bodies,—civic, religious, and 
 educational. On the whole there has been a marked 
 decrease in the number of lynchings since these organi¬ 
 zations undertook an aggressive program for the com¬ 
 plete eradication of this cancerous growth upon the 
 body of society. 
 
 8. To further the economic progress of the Negro group, 
 banks have been established (about seventy in the 
 South) which are owned and operated by Negroes, as¬ 
 sisted by cooperation with other banks. In many States 
 Farm Demonstration Agents are teaching improved 
 methods in agriculture. In Alabama “seventy-seven 
 Negro demonstration agents are working among 85,203 
 Negro farmers/’ During the World War a Bureau of 
 Negro Economics was established by the government 
 with Dr. George E. Haynes as Director. 
 
 VI. FOR FURTHER STUDY. 
 
 a. In what ways do you come into direct contact with persons 
 of other races ? Do these contacts represent, on the whole, 
 conflict or cooperation? 
 
 b. In what ways are you indebted to other races for your re¬ 
 ligious, intellectual, economic, and social heritage? 
 
 46 
 
c. In what ways and to what extent are you dependent on 
 persons of other races for your present mode of living? 
 
 d. Do you believe a plan of the most thoroughgoing coopera¬ 
 tion between races is practicable? What are the chief bar¬ 
 riers now in the way of its achievement? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Hankins, Frank H.: The Racial Basis of Civilization, 
 Knopf, 1926. 
 
 Haynes, George E.: The Trend of the Races, Missionary 
 Education Movement, 1922. 
 
 Woofter, T. H., Jr.: The Basis of Racial Adjustments, 
 Ginn & Co., 1925. 
 
 Locke, Alaine: The New Negro. 
 
 Cotton, W. A.: The Race Problem in South Africa, The 
 Student Christian Movement, London, 1926. 
 
 Oldham, J. H.: Christianity and the Race Problem, 
 
 Race Relations and the Christian Ideal, A Discussion 
 Course for College Students, Association Press, 1923. 
 
 And Who Is My Neighbor? Published by The Inquiry, 
 1924, 129 East 52nd Street, New York City. 
 
 All Colors, Published by The Inquiry, 1926. 
 
 Moncrief, Maud: Changing Attitudes in Race Relations, 
 an unpublished thesis, 1927. (Scarritt College.) 
 
 47 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RELIGION AND PEACE. 
 
 I. PEACE IDEALS. 
 
 No religion has a monoply on the ideals of cooperation or 
 brotherhood, and none can throw stones at its neighbor for its 
 failures to embody the principles of peace in its practice. Almost 
 all of them have an ideal of peace. 
 
 1. Lao-tze, the founder of Taoism, wrote in the Toa Teh 
 King : “To those who are good to me, I am good; to those who 
 are not good to me, I am also good; and thus all get to be good.” 
 This ancient seer of China, who lived more than five centuries 
 before Jesus, believed that “returning good for evil” was a 
 stronger force for righteousness than any form of retaliation. 
 
 2. Confucius, who was a contemporary of Lao-tze, is credited 
 with the saying that “within the four seas all men are brothers,” 
 and also with a negative statement of the golden rule. 
 
 3. “They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their 
 spears into pruninghooks: nation shall not lift up sword against 
 nation, neither shall they learn war any more.” This is an ideal 
 which Judaism and Christianity hold in common. “All they that 
 take the sword shall perish by the sword,” said Jesus. 
 
 4. Gautama, usually known as Buddha, taught the law of 
 love. His present day followers,—the Federation of Buddhists, 
 representing approximately 70,000 temples and 50,000,000 mem¬ 
 bers,—at a conference in Tokyo drew up a declaration of ideals 
 which includes these statements: “The everlasting peace of men 
 and the welfare of all nations is our fundamental goal . . . We 
 desire that all nations will devote themselves to the establishment 
 of a peace system based on the principles of humanity and justice.” 
 
 5. In the Bhagavad Gita, which has been called the New 
 Testament of Hinduism, Arjuna cries out against the fratricidal 
 conflict of armies in these words: “Woe is me! We are set on 
 doing a great evil, since through lust of the kingdom and its 
 pleasures, we are ready to slay our own kin. If Dhritarashtra’s 
 sons, weapon in hand, should slay me in battle, weaponless and 
 unresisting, that would be far more easy to bear!” Gandhi, modem 
 
 48 
 
saint of Hinduism, says it was through reading the Bhagavad 
 Gita that he came to his philosophy of non-violent resistance of 
 oppression. 
 
 6. The Bahai Movement, which originated in Persia in 1844, 
 has for one of its fundamental principles the following: “There 
 shall be universal peace amongst governments, religions, races 
 and denizens of all regions. Today in the world of humanity 
 the most important matter is the question of universal peace.” 
 
 II. PRACTICE FORSAKES PRECEPT. 
 
 It will be urged that, whatever the ideals of peace held by 
 the world’s great religions, they have been often ignored in 
 practice. One looks in vain to find serious religious opposition, 
 from within, to any war that was ever fought by any Christian 
 country on earth. History may record that justice was on the 
 other side, but the unrighteous cause had the substantial support 
 of the religiously minded people, no matter what name their re¬ 
 ligion bore. This has been no less true in our so-called enlightened 
 age than in the past; some would believe that in the Age of Na¬ 
 tionalism, in which we have been living for almost a century, it 
 has been more true. Individuals have raised feeble protests 
 against the wars in which their governments were engaged, but 
 the masses of Christians, as of other religions, have always rallied 
 to the support of their warring government. 
 
 No wonder many have reached the conclusion that religion 
 is not a vital, practical force in the life of man. There are many 
 evidences indeed that Nationalism, as a religion, has supplanted 
 Christianity, wherever relations with other nations are involved. 
 In discussing the universal ethics of Christianity and the nar¬ 
 rower national ethics, Professor McDougall says A “The civilized 
 man of to-day gives a theoretical allegiance to the universal system 
 only; but, when the two systems conflict, he follows in the main 
 the principles of national ethics, justifying such practices, if he 
 seeks to justify them, on the ground of urgent practical neces¬ 
 sity.” Professor McDougal says that it is his “good sense” 
 which causes a man to act on his national ethics instead of the 
 universal ethics of Christianity. Similarly, he says: “the princi¬ 
 ples of universal ethics . . . demand that the American Negro 
 shall be given social and political equality; yet, though for sixty 
 
 1 McDougal: Ethics and Some Modern World Problems, p. 46. 
 
 49 
 
years the Federal law . . . has prescribed such equality, the 
 good sense of the Southern white man still steadily forbids him 
 to obey these precepts and impels him in a course of conduct in¬ 
 consistent with his acknowledged ethical principles .” 1 
 
 Would it not make for a clarification of issues if we frankly 
 abandoned professions of Christianity and, instead, declared our 
 allegiance to Nationalism or Racialism as the case may be? 
 
 In view of the present situation it is not surprising to find 
 a group of colored students in South Carolina making the follow¬ 
 ing statement : 2 
 
 “There is a strong tendency to ignore religion as a vital 
 practical force in social evolution or progress. The resources 
 of religion are not co-ordinated with human resources such 
 as economic prosperity, scientific knowledge, political and 
 social organization, etc. There is a failure to realize the radical 
 challenge involved in a serious attempt to follow closely the 
 leadership of Jesus or to practice the true principles of 
 Christianity as reported by the writers of the New Testament. 
 The colored college students seem to be convinced that the 
 religion of their white contemporaries is not the religion of 
 Jesus Christ. This seems to be due to their observation that 
 the conduct of the white people does not ‘square with’ the 
 teachings of Jesus, especially in reference to the brotherhood 
 of man.” 
 
 III. IN DEFENSE OF RELIGION. 
 
 If all that could be said for religion were stated in effect in 
 the preceding section, then religion would be a thing of dismal 
 failure indeed. 
 
 Present-day religion is heir to some problems which the re¬ 
 ligion of former days lacked the creative energy to solve. With 
 the coming of industrialism, nationalism, and imperialism, religion 
 was confronted with some very new situations. Before it was 
 aware of the fact, breaking of political and economic thought 
 had proceeded far, breaking up the older unity of things. Man 
 became “an economic animal” instead of a spiritual being. This 
 was a reaction from an equally erroneous position which held 
 that scorn of the gross material world was an ornament to the 
 soul. 
 
 1 McDougal: Ethics and Some Modern World Problems, p. 46. 
 
 2 Y. M. C. A. Conference of South Carolina Negro Students. 
 
 50 
 
But if the problems of this changed world are being attacked 
 anywhere with persistence today, surely they are being met by 
 men for whom religion has most vital significance. Even the 
 statement adopted by the Negro students of South Carolina, 
 quoted above, was made in a conference held under distinctly 
 religious auspices. In like manner, when one thinks of Indianapo¬ 
 lis, Louisville, Evanston, Memphis, and Minneapolis, where thou¬ 
 sands of youth have grappled with the conflicts of industry, race, 
 and war, he is reminded that all these great conferences have been 
 fostered by organized religion. 
 
 All over the world it is the religious spirit that is ushering 
 men into the presence of our “perennial crisis.” 
 
 IV. MISSIONS AND PEACE. 
 
 Consider the ways in which the missionary enterprise has 
 advanced the cause of international cooperation. 
 
 1. Through contacts between high types of Christian per¬ 
 sonality and non-Christian peoples. Think of the influence 
 of such men as Bishop Bashford in China, Paul Harrison 
 in Arabia, and Stanley Jones in India. Name others whom 
 you know. 
 
 2. Through fostering mutual acquaintance between peoples. 
 For long the missionary enterprise was the primary source 
 of information concerning Oriental and African peoples 
 for millions of Americans. What other sources are in¬ 
 creasingly performing this function. Which contribute 
 to better understanding and which do not? 
 
 3. Through opposition of missionaries to exploitation of back¬ 
 ward peoples today. Consider the attitude of the mission¬ 
 aries to recent happenings in China. Note the sharp con¬ 
 trast between their attitude and that of the American 
 Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai! Which makes for 
 peace ? 
 
 4. Through the ideal of cooperation (brotherhood) inherent 
 in the Christian message. 
 
 5. A modern tendency of the missionary enterprise may be 
 seen in such titles as Working With India by D. J. 
 Fleming. Consider this editorial comment on Stanley 
 Jones in The Hindu of Madras: “The interest of Dr. 
 
 51 
 
Jones’ lectures will be in his departure from the conven¬ 
 tional lines. . . . He has learned the great lesson which the 
 people of India have taught the missionaries, that of 
 distinguishing between Christ and Christianity, between 
 Jesus and the Christ of the churches. He has also learnt 
 that one who comes forward to teach must be willing, nay, 
 ready and anxious to learn from those he wishes to teach. 
 Not only does he not say anything against other religions, 
 but he seeks for all that is good and true in those systems 
 and tries to correlate them to Jesus who is to him not the 
 name of a dead hero of the past but a personality living 
 in the present and commanding the future.” 
 
 But we must also consider the temptations to which the repre¬ 
 sentatives of the missionary enterprise have been subjected, and 
 in many cases have succumbed: 
 
 1. Intolerance (which seems to be steadily declining). How 
 and why? 
 
 2. Through dark and unfair presentations of conditions in 
 non-Christian lands. What motives work here? 
 
 3. Through emphasis upon dogmas instead of sharing life. 
 
 4. Through divisions often characterized by the absence of 
 fellowship. Consider the statement of Bishop Brent in 
 the opening sermon at the Lausanne Conference this sum¬ 
 mer: “The hundred missionary societies in China today 
 are as suicidal for Christianity as the civil divisions are 
 to the national peace and prosperity.” 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. What ideals of Christianity bear directly upon the major 
 conflicts of today? Concerning personality? Brother¬ 
 hood? Truth? Life? God? 
 
 2. Someone has asked “how long young people should be 
 subjected to the moral strain of duel ethics?” As for 
 example: (a) in the different codes used toward mem¬ 
 bers of their own race and toward members of another 
 race? (b) in the different codes of friendship, which says 
 “give,” and of business, which says “take.” 
 
 3. To what extent is the spirit and desire for cooperation 
 today born of religious idealism? 
 
 52 
 
4. Are religious conviction and tolerance mutually exclusive? 
 
 5. Why do men want religion to maintain a comfortable 
 ambiguity toward commerce, finance, ownership, race, and 
 politics ? 
 
 6. What do you consider the proper attitude of a Christian 
 toward war? (a) in time of peace? (b) in time of war? 
 
 7. What evidences can you find of a tendency to make Na¬ 
 tionalism the supreme religion in the United States today? 
 
 8. Should missionaries have “gunboat protection?” 
 
 9. What evidences do you have that religious conventions and 
 conferences take their “ringing resolutions” seriously? 
 
 10. List the following in their proper order as peace agencies: 
 commerce, science, religion, preparedness, education. 
 
 11. Study William Penn's experiment of an unarmed state. 
 Were the Puritans with their guns and Bibles safer? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Stabler, Isabel: What the Churches are Doing to Abolish 
 War, National Council for Prevention of War, 1924. 
 
 Tawney, R. H.: Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, 
 Harcourt Brace, 1926. 
 
 McDougall, William: Ethics and Some Modern World 
 Problems, Putnam, 1924. 
 
 The Inquiry: International Problems and the Christian 
 Way of Life, Association Press, 1923. 
 
 Gulick, S.: A Christian Crusade for a Warless World, 
 Macmillan, 1922. 
 
 Irwin, Will: Christ or Marsf Appleton, 1923. 
 
 Coffin, H. S.: A More Christian Industrial Order, Mac¬ 
 millan, 1920. 
 
 53 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PROPAGANDA OR SCIENTIFIC HISTORY. 
 
 I. “PRESERVE THE LEGENDS”. 
 
 To “inspire the children with patriotism”, to “preach on every 
 page a vivid love of America”, and to “preserve the legends”! 
 These were the avowed aims of the American Legion of San 
 Jose, California, in effecting a change of history textbooks in the 
 public schools. 
 
 “By force of public opinion let us reestablish Americanism in 
 our public schools, make a bonfire of the books belittling our 
 country and expose those who dare pollute the nurseries of our 
 American patriotism,” runs the appeal of a contributor to the 
 New York World recently. 
 
 On January 22, 1924, a bill was introduced in the Assembly 
 of the State of New Jersey, which contained the following pro¬ 
 visions: “No book shall be used or designated for use in the 
 public schools in any school district in this State, or of any high 
 schools or normal schools of this State: A. Which falsifies, dis¬ 
 torts, or denies the act of oppression recited in the Declaration of 
 Independence . . . , or C. Which if the textbooks dealing with 
 the Revolutionary period does not contain the Declaration in its en¬ 
 tirety, or D. Which if a comprehensive textbook on American 
 history does not stress the significance of the Declaration of In¬ 
 dependence, its immediate effect and subsequent influence upon 
 the course of events in other countries in the world, or E. Which 
 belittles, ridicules, doubts, denies, or which, if a textbook dealing 
 with the Revolutionary period, omits to mention the services and 
 sacrifices of American patriots by which our national independ¬ 
 ence was won, or F. Which ridicules, belittles, or, if a textbook 
 for district schools, omits to mention within its pertinent scope 
 those interesting and inspiring episodes in early history of Amer¬ 
 ica, that are properly calculated to arouse in the children a justi¬ 
 fiable pride in the patriotism and patriotic ideals of those by whose 
 constancy, courage and spirit of self-sacrifice our national inde¬ 
 pendence was won and later firmly established.” (What this bill 
 lacks in grammatical correctness, it makes up in patriotism.) 
 
 54 
 
These are some of the many recent attempts to control the 
 teaching of history in the public schools of the United States. 
 The forces back of the attempts to nationalize education are many. 
 They are not always fully conscious of the meaning of their ac¬ 
 tivities. Professor Hayes suggests the following: 
 
 a. Politicians who conceal their paucity of convictions and 
 ideals under the broad folds of Old Glory; 
 
 b. Actors who redeem poor performances by displaying at 
 the critical moment an American flag; 
 
 c. Captains of industry who sense that patriotic fervor is less 
 injurious to the stock and bond market than economic 
 criticism; 
 
 d. Vain women and vainer men who delight to wear the rib¬ 
 bons of ancestrally patriotic societies that are presumably 
 aristocratic; 
 
 e. Individuals who make their living by whipping up popular 
 emotion and popular prejudice; 
 
 f. Newspapers, with their enormous circulation and influ¬ 
 ence, which focus attention upon the imperative need for, 
 and the fancied lack of, nationalism in the schools. 
 
 II 
 
 WHAT THE HISTORIES CONTAIN. 
 
 Under the auspices of the Association for Peace Education 
 studies are being made in order to ascertain the facts in reference 
 to the contents of history textbooks. On February 14, 1925, a 
 Conference on the Teaching of History was held in Chicago for 
 the purpose of studying this question. The full text of the pa¬ 
 pers read at this conference may be obtained from the Associa¬ 
 tion for Peace Education, 5733 Blackstone Avenue, Chicago, for 
 25 cents. An Analysis of the Emphasis Upon War in Our Ele¬ 
 mentary School Histories is published by the same association 
 and sold for 10 cents. 
 
 Some of the conclusions drawn from this analysis were: 
 
 1. The average history textbook devotes a disproportionate 
 amount of space to war. The war space could be reduced 
 at least one-half without detracting from the historical 
 value of the books. 
 
 55 
 
2. The amount of space devoted to peace by both the texts 
 and the supplementary readers is almost negligible. 
 
 3. The war word content is on the whole nationalistic, biased, 
 and, in many cases, flamboyant. Its tawdry emotionalism 
 frequently violates every principle of good literature. 
 
 4. Very few histories even approach the real truth about war. 
 Concealment and propaganda frequently appear. 
 
 5. Histories pay little attention to the Edisons, the Horace 
 Manns, and the Franklins; they are too busy depicting the 
 overdrawn exploits of the Lees, the Grants, and the Na¬ 
 than Hales. 
 
 (For ample data on this question the group should have 
 
 available these or similar pamphlets.) 
 
 Ill 
 
 THE QUESTION OF WAR GUILT. 
 
 Through the unusual circumstances of the opening of the 
 German, Austrian, and Russian archives, important official docu¬ 
 ments bearing upon the origins of the World War have become 
 available to historians of the generation in which the war was 
 fought. The revolutions in these three countries have furnished 
 materials from both sides of the great conflict. On the basis of 
 these documents and an understanding of pre-war influences in 
 Europe, many are drawing conclusions that are at variance with 
 the declaration of the Treaty of Versailles which fixed the whole 
 responsibility for the war upon Germany. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 It is important to get beneath the propaganda of war days, 
 not only for the sake of justice in apportioning blame, but for 
 the more important purpose of understanding the causes of war 
 in the modern world. Only when we know the “whys” of war 
 can we be confident about the “hows” of peace. Scientific his¬ 
 tory alone will yield information on the real causes of interna¬ 
 tional conflict. Propaganda yields “unrepresentative truths”, 
 perverted judgments, and confusion in planning the next stage of 
 human progress—the abolition of war. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of state 
 control over any branch of education? 
 
 56 
 
2. Compare French and German accounts of the World War. 
 What will be the effects of diametrically opposed explana¬ 
 tions of origins, etc., upon the rising generation in these 
 two countries? To what extent can the seeds of the next 
 war be planted in the textbooks which deal with the last? 
 Give examples. 
 
 3. Is it true that “children who are systematically indoctrin¬ 
 ated with nationalism are not prepared for a career of 
 true patriotism”? In what sense? 
 
 4. Would it be dangerous for a nation to develop in its chil¬ 
 dren a genuine capacity for criticism instead of a senti¬ 
 mental devotion to the national myths? 
 
 5. Should there be a neutral tribunal set up to consider the 
 question of responsibility for the World War? 
 
 6. Would nations go to war if, instead of liberal doses of 
 propaganda, they were given the unadulterated truth ? Are 
 the falsifications of war propaganda justified by the neces¬ 
 sity for creating national morale to support the war? 
 
 7. In the lobby of the University of Vienna there is a marble 
 memorial of the World War. It is the upturned face of a 
 fallen Austrian youth of flowing hair and a countenance 
 of unforgettable strength and beauty. On the base of the 
 memorial are three words: EHRE, FREHEIT, VATER- 
 LAND. (Honor, Freedom, Country.) Were the ideals 
 for which the youth in the Allied countries consented to 
 fight nobler than these? 
 
 8. In what ways can we partially overcome what many feel 
 to be utter helplessness in the face of propaganda? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Owen, R. L.: The Russian Imperial Conspiracy, 1927. 
 Barnes, H. E.: Genesis of the World War, Knopf, 1926. 
 
 Hamlin, C. H.: The War Myth in United States History, 
 Vanguard Press, 1927. 
 
 Lippman, Walter: Public Opinion, Harcourt Brace, 1922. 
 
 Creel, George: How We Advertised America, Harper’s, 
 1920. 
 
 Gibbs, Phillip: Now It Can Be Told, Harper’s, 1920. 
 Nock: The Myth of a Guilty Nation, Huebsch, 1922. 
 Peat: The Inexcusable Lie, Barse & Hopkins. 
 
 57 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FORCES TENDING TO PERPETUATE A 
 CONFLICT SYSTEM. 
 
 Every worker for cooperation should understand the nature 
 and strength of those forces which, consciously or unconsciously, 
 tend to perpetuate the status quo —which means perpetuating 
 the conflict system. It is difficult to group all such forces together 
 under a single description, so varied in purpose and activity are 
 they. These forces range all the way from vested interests which 
 profit in the sale of war materials to those timid souls who are 
 fearful of all social change. Some are devoted to the status quo 
 because their present circumstances are comfortable, and some 
 because they lack the creative imagination to think beyond things 
 as they are. 
 
 I. PATRIOTIC ORGANIZATIONS 1 
 
 It would be impossible to list here all the patriotic organizations 
 which oppose social change. In some the membership is a fair 
 cross-section of American life, and not all of their activities are 
 reactionary in nature. It should be borne in mind that there is 
 no intention of making sweeping indictments against these socie¬ 
 ties. 
 
 In general the activities of these organizations are directed 
 against “radicalism,” “pacifism,” and “Bolshevism.” Little care 
 is taken to distinguish between these menacing “isms,” and they 
 are used with such broad meanings that they cover a multitude 
 of things. In fact, almost anything which suggests a reorganiza¬ 
 tion of world-wide activities on cooperative bases. 
 
 A. Their activities may be studied along these lines: 
 
 1. Attacks on Peace Organizations,—often involving seri¬ 
 ous misrepresentations;—the tendency to identify the 
 whole peace movement with the “red menace” is strong. 
 
 iHapgood: “Professional Patriots,” a complete survey of some of 
 these organizations. 
 
 58 
 
2. Support of a strong preparedness program;—many 
 professional military men are prominent in these or¬ 
 ganizations;—manufacturers of chemicals and other 
 war materials are large contributors. 
 
 3. Opposition to Organized Labor,—it is surprising to 
 find such overwhelming numbers of capitalists who are 
 opposed to organized labor among the leaders of these 
 societies;—the tendency to identify “open shop” and 
 “Americanism” is most pronounced. 
 
 4. Opposition to welfare legislation,—based in part, it 
 seems, on dislike of state interference in industry. 
 
 II. NEW POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES. 
 
 In the main the organizations represented above stand for an 
 exaggerated capitalistic society. At least two new theories for the 
 method of social and political organization are claiming attention 
 in the post-war world. Both are in part products of the world 
 war and the conditions which led up to the war. They are Rus¬ 
 sian Communism and Fascism. It seems that both these programs 
 tend to perpetuate a conflict system; and must be considered with 
 the forces opposed to a genuine democratic cooperation between 
 all the elements that compose modern society. 
 
 A. COMMUNISM. 
 
 Note the striking similarity between the Russian Communist 
 program for social change and the ancient apocalypticism of Ju¬ 
 daism and early Christianity (still held by a few) : 
 
 a. The total wickedness of the present world order (of 
 capitalism). 
 
 b. The elect community of believers, within, but not of, the 
 present order (i.e. the Communist Party). 
 
 c. The coming catastrophic overthrow of the present order 
 (by divine intervention in apocalypticism) by the social 
 revolution. 
 
 d. The new order of righteousness is not built upon but sup¬ 
 plants the old order of iniquity. 
 
 What are the inherent limitations in all class struggles that 
 make it almost inevitably intolerant and destructive? Is this ap¬ 
 parent on both sides of the struggle ? 
 
 59 
 
B. THE FASCIST PROGRAM. 
 
 At least five main principles are involved in the Fascist pro¬ 
 gram : 
 
 1. Cooperation between labor and capital under state super¬ 
 vision and with compulsory arbitration. 
 
 2. Representation on the basis of occupation as well as of 
 residence. 
 
 3. Extension of the control of the government over freedom 
 of speech and of the press. 
 
 4. Increase of the power of the central government over local 
 government. 
 
 5. In the central government, concentration of power in the 
 hands of the Premier. 
 
 (This summary is made by the Foreign Policy Association in 
 its Information Service, June 7, 1926, which contains a full ac¬ 
 count of recent legislation in Italy.) 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. What are advantages and the dangers of the Fascist pro¬ 
 gram ? 
 
 2. In 1926 a bill was passed which substitutes for elective 
 offices an executive (called a “Podesta”) appointed by the 
 central government, in all communes of Italy having a pop¬ 
 ulation of less than 5,000. This law applies to more than 
 7,000 of the approximately 9,000 communes in Italy. It 
 means the abolition of mayoralty elections in these towns. 
 Compare what remains of democracy in this system with 
 that which can be found in a senatorial election where 
 thousands of votes are bought at ten dollars each! 
 
 3. Noting the press campaign on Russia in our country, is 
 there a corresponding attempt to discredit the Fascist 
 government ? Why ? 
 
 4. Read an authoritative account of Fascism in The Political 
 Doctrine of Fascism by Alfredo Rocco, Minister of Jus¬ 
 tice in the Government of Italy. This statement has the 
 unqualified endorsement of Premier Mussolini. (It is pub¬ 
 lished by International Conciliation, 44 Portland Street, 
 Worcester, Mass., and may be obtained for five cents a 
 copy.) 
 
 60 
 
III. THE PRESS AND AN INTERNATIONAL CRISIS. 
 
 The possibilities for creating international misunderstanding 
 and friction are well illustrated by the way in which a large 
 section of the press in the United States reported the events sur¬ 
 rounding the bombardment of Nanking late in March, 1927. Mr. 
 Frederick Moore reporting for the New York Times, unquestion¬ 
 ably a most influential role, furnished the following “news” to 
 the American Public: 
 
 1. Attempts to discredit the strength of the Nationalist 
 
 Movement in China: 
 
 a. Failure of the Nationalist forces to take Shanghai “is 
 now regarded by most competent observers as a fore¬ 
 gone conclusion.” (March 7.) 
 
 b. Concerning the safety of Shanghai “There is absolute 
 security from without, no equal Chinese force being 
 in the vicinity.” (March 4.) 
 
 c. He was informed that “reports of large, well disciplined 
 Chinese armies being in the vicinity are totally incor¬ 
 rect.” 
 
 d. The defending army in Shanghai was “considered the 
 best in China, excluding Chang Tso-lin’s.” 
 
 e. The latter’s was an army “infinitely better than the 
 Southern army.” Its position was reported as “incal¬ 
 culably stronger.” 
 
 f. “The long-heralded battle of Shanghai becomes daily 
 more and more unlikely.” (March 9.) 
 
 g. Four days before the Nationalist armies marched into 
 Shanghai, he reported : “The coolest and best informed 
 foreigners still agree that Shanghai is unlikely to be 
 taken by the Southern armies for many weeks, possibly 
 months.” 
 
 2. Calling for military action by the American forces in 
 
 China, Mr. Moore used the “news” columns in this fash¬ 
 ion: 
 
 a. Americans in Shanghai were reported as “complaining 
 of the inactivities of the American Marines.” 
 
 b. Failure of the Marines to take more aggressive action 
 was “commented on as not being adequate defense of 
 American lives and property.” 
 
 61 
 
c. The Marines themselves were “anxious for more active 
 duty.” 
 
 d. The reporter declared that only a “punitive expedition” 
 could “reestablish a tenable condition for foreigners 
 among the Chinese” in the Yangtse Valley. 
 
 e. “Only gunfire will save missions as well as business 
 houses,” he wrote on March 27. 
 
 f. Military action by the United States forces “would 
 reestablish the missionaries as well as the business men, 
 and it is also true that it could be accomplished with 
 comparatively few troops, the Chinese armies being 
 ridiculously weak, their warfare childish in character 
 and the morale of their armies negligible.” 
 
 3. Mr. Moore’s picture of China and the Chinese: 
 
 a. “Interference on a large scale” is “the only hope against 
 Bolshevism.” 
 
 b. Any assurances given by the Nationalists are described 
 as “valueless.” (March 23.) 
 
 c. The Nationalists are “unable or unwilling” to fulfill 
 their assurances. (March 24.) 
 
 Their promises are “empty.” (March 26.) 
 
 e. China is confronted with “the alternative of brigandage 
 or Bolshevism.” (March 8.) 
 
 f. While writing he hears shots which “may be” an at¬ 
 tempt to assassinate British police in Shanghai. (March 
 21 .) 
 
 g. Reported that the Nationalists in Shanghai intend to 
 “attack the French and international settlements.” 
 (March 26.) 
 
 h. “Everywhere” the Nationalist leaders “have been mer¬ 
 cilessly decapitating and shooting their own Chinese.” 
 (March 26.) 
 
 i. He describes China as “apparently incapable of under¬ 
 standing” the fine motives of Great Britain which 
 “meant the Chinese well.” 
 
 j. “Ignorance and distress are too widespread to permit 
 her to understand kindness with the authority of force.” 
 
 k. The Chinese are “without schools worthy of the name.” 
 
 l. They have “not a single responsible law court.” 
 
 62 
 
m. The foreigner would teach the Chinese a lesson by let¬ 
 ting them alone entirely for a “decade” or so “to realize 
 what they have lost.” 
 
 n. Missionaries who profess to see hope for China on her 
 own score are “inclined impractically to theorize about 
 equality.” 
 
 o. It is doubtful whether “a republic is possible for a 
 country . . . with no native university equaling an 
 American high school.” 
 
 (For the above see The New Republic, April 13, 1927, “Mr. 
 
 Moore’s Private War.”) 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Hapgood, Norman: Professional Patriots, Albert and 
 Charles Boni, 1927. 
 
 Boeckel, Florence: The Power of the Press for Peace and 
 War, National Council for Prevention of War, 1924. 
 
 Lane, Winthrop: Military Training in Schools and Col¬ 
 leges, Committee on Militarism in Education, 1925. 
 
 . See Bibliography on Communism in Chapter I. 
 
 63 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 AGENCIES WORKING FOR COOPERATION 
 
 “As the nineteenth century advanced and the Industrial Rev¬ 
 olution progressed and the most different nationalities and the 
 most diverse localities were knit together by railways, steamships, 
 telegraphs, and cables, the number and importance of international 
 undertakings rapidly increased. There was the prodigious in¬ 
 crease of foreign travel and foreign trade. There was the re¬ 
 markable growth of science and popular education, restricted to 
 no one land and to no one nation. There was the marked tend¬ 
 ency everywhere to adopt uniform standards of clothing, food, 
 and architecture, as well as of literature, science, and politics. 
 There was the multiplication of international societies and con¬ 
 gresses.” 1 
 
 The Bureau of International Organizations, a department 
 of the Secretariat of the League of Nations, publishes a Hand¬ 
 book which lists three hundred sixty International Organizations. 
 Almost all of these have come into existence within the past 
 fifty years. 
 
 Some of the earliest international organizations formed were: 
 
 (1) The Universal Telegraph Union (1875)— 30 nations. 
 
 (2) For using the metric system (1875) — 23 “ 
 
 (3) Universal Postal Union (1878) — 60 “ 
 
 (4) The International Parliamentary Union (1889). 
 
 I 
 
 An understanding of existing agencies of cooperation is ob¬ 
 viously necessary for further progress in eliminating destructive 
 conflict from the world. It is therefore suggested that a study 
 be undertaken along the lines indicated below. 
 
 A. The League of Nations —its covenant—its record for 
 dealing with international crises—its limitations—its 
 humanitarian and intellectual work—the extent to which 
 the United States is now cooperating—a program for 
 further possible cooperation. 
 
 i-Hayes: Political and Social History of Modern Europe, p. 682. 
 
 64 
 
B. The Permanent Court of International Justice- —its es¬ 
 tablishment and relation to the League of Nations—its 
 constitution— its record. 
 
 C. The International Labor Office —its connection with the 
 League of Nations—its General Conference—questions 
 handled—results achieved. 
 
 D. The Pan-American Union —its history—its objectives— 
 its meetings—its achievements. 
 
 E. The Locarno Pact —how negotiated—signatories—pro¬ 
 visions—relation to League of Nations—its possibilities 
 in suggesting other similar pacts. 
 
 F. The Washington and the Geneva Conference on Limi¬ 
 tation of Armaments —a comparison—the conference 
 idea. 
 
 G. The Institute of Pacific Relations —membership and 
 meetings—questions dealt with and their importance for 
 the future. 
 
 II 
 
 In the foregoing section, organizations of a distinctly inter¬ 
 national character were considered. It will be well for us to 
 know something about the American organizations formed for 
 the promotion of cooperation along international, industrial, and 
 interracial lines. It is obviously impossible to mention all of them 
 by name. The National Council for Prevention of War has 
 published a directory of “Organizations in the United States 
 That Promote Better International Understanding and World 
 Peace.” It lists thirty five National Organizations Formed Pri¬ 
 marily to Promote World Peace. Twenty six of these have been 
 founded since the beginning of the World War. Is this signi¬ 
 ficant? Under the head of State and Local Organizations Formed 
 Primarily to Promote World Peace twenty eight organizations are 
 listed, all but one of which were founded during or after the 
 World War. 
 
 The President of the Reserve Officers' Association of the 
 United States sent out a letter concerning this Directory, in 
 which he said: “If—what you learn from that publication of 
 the scope and strength of the pacifist opposition to Defense does 
 not secure your IMMEDIATE and ACTIVE participation in 
 
 65 
 
our work, then may God help the National Defense Act! It will 
 soon be beyond our aid! . . . Numerically our strength is piti¬ 
 fully small compared with those leagued against us. Spiritually, 
 however, our Cause is a powerful FORCE provided we can put 
 it to work.” Do you consider the strength of the peace move¬ 
 ment so great as to justify the fears of the writer of this letter? 
 
 These organizations are essentially one in purpose, but are 
 sometimes in sharp disagreement on the method of achieving 
 world cooperation. 
 
 A. “A Clearing-house of Information and Activity.” The 
 National Council for Prevention of War, 532 Seventeenth 
 St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Thirty five organizations 
 affiliated in 1927. Publishes a nlonthly News Bulletin. 
 
 B. Advocating Adherence of the United States to the Per¬ 
 manent Court of International Justice, and ultimately the 
 membership of the United States in the League of Nations. 
 —League of Nations Non-Partisan Association, 6 East 
 39th St., New York City. Publishes The League of Na¬ 
 tions News. 
 
 C. For the Outlawry of War— American Committee for the 
 Outlawry of War, 134 South LaSalle St., Chicago. Dis¬ 
 tributes articles and pamphlets on this topic by such men 
 as Senator Borah, Professor Dewey, and Dr. C. C. Morri¬ 
 son. 
 
 D. Dealing with Military Training— Committee on Militarism 
 In Education, 387 Bible House, Astor Place, New York 
 City. For the “Abolition of compulsory drill in colleges 
 and universities; abolition of all military drill in high 
 schools.” 
 
 E. Based on Jesus’ Way of Life— The Fellowship of Re¬ 
 conciliation, 383 Bible House, Astor Place, New York City; 
 Youth Section, Fellowship of Reconciliation, 386 Bible 
 House, Astor Place, New York City; Fellowship for a 
 Christian Social Order, Room 505, 347 Madison Avenue, 
 New York City. 
 
 F. Organizations for Youth— World's Student Christian Fed¬ 
 eration (groups in 25 countries), 347 Madison Ave., 
 New York City; Youth Section, F. O. R. (see above); 
 National Board of Young Women's Christian Associcu- 
 
 66 
 
tions, 600 Lexington Ave., New York City; National 
 Council of the Young Men's Christian Associations, 347 
 Madison Ave., New York City. 
 
 G. Among the Churches— Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America maintains a Department of Research 
 and Education which publishes an Information Service; 
 also has a Commission on the Church and Race Relations; 
 and a Commission on International Justice and Goodwill, 
 —all having offices at 105 East 22nd St., New York City. 
 
 American Friends Service Committee, 20 South 12th St., 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Church Peace Union, 70 Fifth Avenue, New York City. 
 
 Peace Association of Friends in America, 615 National 
 Road, Richmond, Indiana. 
 
 World Alliance for International Friendship Through the 
 Churches, 70 Fifth Ave., New York City. 
 
 H. Organizations for Women— Women's International League 
 
 for Peace and Freedom, 522 Seventeeth St., N. W., Wash¬ 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 Women's Peace Society, 20 Vesey St., New York City. 
 Women's Peace Union, 39 Pearl St., New York City. 
 
 I. Specializing in History— Association for Peace Education, 
 5733 Blackstone Ave., Chicago, Ill. 
 
 J. Specializing in Research— Foreign Policy Association, 18 
 East 41st St., New York City. 
 
 K. Specializing in Industry— League for Industrial Democ¬ 
 racy, 70 Fifth Ave., New York City. 
 
 L. General— American Peace Society, Colorado Building, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Association to Abolish War, 7 Wellington Terrace, Brook¬ 
 line, Mass. 
 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2 Jackson 
 Place, Washington, D. C. 
 
 World Peace Association, Greenville, Iowa. 
 
 World Peace Foundation, 40 Mt. Vernon St., Boston, 
 Mass. 
 
 M. War Resisters League, 132 West 12th St., New York City. 
 
 67 
 
Ill 
 
 “Ideas and not navies rule the sea; ideas, not armies dominate 
 the land,” declared Walter Williams, dean of the School of Jour¬ 
 nalism of the University of Missouri, addressing the National 
 Editorial Association. “Lower tolls and thus make available the 
 avenues of communication between nations, and free news sources 
 from the poison of interested propaganda, and we thereby help 
 to make a sick world well. Permit these avenues to be clogged, 
 congested and corrupted—let them remain inadequate—and the 
 fever of war returns apace.” 
 
 The press, as an agency working for cooperation, is among 
 the most influential. The liberal press, including several well 
 known weeklies, supplies adequate and accurate information 
 concerning the relationships of mankind,—racially, industrially, 
 and internationally. Without the information available from this 
 quarter one may easily be helpless before the great propagandist 
 drives of “interested” journalism. 
 
 68 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 WHAT YOUTH CAN DO. 
 
 Governments are absolutely dependent upon youth to man the 
 war-machine. It is therefore no impertinence for youth to offer 
 its resources for building a world of fellowship. In war times 
 youth is hailed as “the saviour of civilization.” Elder statesmen 
 do not hint that youth is too immature to serve in that capacity. 
 It is therefore the peculiar right of youth to raise its voice in 
 protest against the destructive conflicts of the old order, and to 
 assert its leadership in the movement for universal cooperation. 
 
 I 
 
 With many of the agencies mentioned in the foregoing chapter 
 youth can work as individuals on the same basis as others. Does 
 such cooperation with existing general agencies exhaust the possi¬ 
 bilities of a youth contribution to the solution of conflict problems, 
 or do we need, in addition, distinctive youth organizatoins and 
 distinctive youth approaches to some of these problems? Can a 
 “youth movement” be justified? If not, why not? If so, what 
 forms should it take? What objectives should it strive to reach? 
 Is there a “youth movement” in America now ? Should there be ? 
 What is necessary to a youth movement? A distinguished and 
 sympathetic leader is credited with the observation that “there is 
 no revolt of youth in this country, except a revolt against the 
 decencies.” Is he right? 
 
 II 
 
 Aside from general study, the value of which cannot be over¬ 
 stated, students and young people are engaging in many forms 
 of cooperation along industrial, interracial and international lines. 
 An efficient learning process is seen, more and more, to involve 
 participation in actual situations. Youth, at least, seems to be 
 aware that long-range handling of social conflicts is ineffective. 
 Good talk is undoubtedly essential for the communication of 
 ideas, but education is not solely a “talking-process.” Some of 
 the forms of youth activity are presented below. You may know 
 of others, or have suggestions for some that have not yet been 
 tried. Criticize these freely. 
 
 69 
 
A. STUDENTS IN INDUSTRY. 
 
 1. Joint recruiting agreed upon by all interested agencies— 
 Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., American Friends Service Committee, 
 the Church League for Industrial Democracy, the Fellowship of 
 Reconciliation, the Fellowship for a Christian Social Order, 
 League for Industrial Democracy, Continuation Committee of the 
 Evanston Conference, and the Social Service Commission of the 
 Federal Council of Churches. 
 
 2. Four groups conducted during the summer of 1927, in four 
 cities: 
 
 a. Chicago—conducted by the Y. W. C. A. with fifteen 
 college girls. 
 
 b. Philadelphia—conducted by the American Friends Ser¬ 
 vice Committee with six college students and six indus¬ 
 trial workers for joint discussion of industrial prob¬ 
 lems. 
 
 c. Detroit—Conducted by the Michigan State Commit¬ 
 tee of the Y. M. C. A. with forty college men. 
 
 d. New York—conducted by the Y. M. C. A. and the 
 Social Service Commission of the Federal Council of 
 Churches, with fourteen students. 
 
 3. To make closest contacts possible with the realities of in¬ 
 dustrial life the students 
 
 a. found their own jobs, often with much difficulty; 
 
 b. lived on the wages they received; 
 
 c. lived in workers’ families or in laborers’ hotels; 
 
 d. kept their identity as collegians unknown. 
 
 4. Their seminar meetings discussed: 
 
 a. unemployment, b. living wages, c. unions, d. open 
 shop. e. employee representation, f. race problems in in¬ 
 dustry. g. labor legislation, h. safety, i. free employment 
 bureaus, j. workers’ education, k. non-financial incen¬ 
 tives. 1. research. 
 
 (The foregoing material on Students in Industry is taken 
 from Information Service, Federal Council of Churches, Sept. 
 10, 1927.) 
 
 R. YOUTH IN INTERRACIAL RELATIONS. 
 
 1. On October 22, 1926, a meeting of the Student Interracial 
 Committee (of the Y. W. C. A. and the Y. M. C. A. of the South- 
 
 70 
 
ern Division) was held at Fisk University. Youth leaders from 
 both races met in fellowship and conference for the discussion of 
 interracial problems in the South. The presiding officer opened 
 the meeting with these words : “Fellowship leads to better under¬ 
 standing, unified thinking, a sense of seriousness of purpose, a 
 vision of the bigness of the task, a realization of dependence 
 one upon another, appreciation of each one’s contribution, and 
 a sense of responsibility.” 
 
 2. Several meetings of the State Student Volunteer Unions in 
 the South have been interracial in their composition in recent 
 years. The 1927 meeting of the Tennessee Union was of this 
 character. A study of the educational significance of this meet¬ 
 ing was made by one of its members, some of the results noted 
 being as follows: 
 
 a. An octogenarian who attended the sessions of the con¬ 
 ference wrote: “I enjoyed it as an evidence of the 
 progress made by youth of today over those of my 
 day sixty years ago.” 
 
 b. A white student wrote: “Yes indeed, I unlearned 
 much.” Another commented: “I was delighted with 
 the response of the student groups, and a burning de¬ 
 sire came to make such relations permanent under vary¬ 
 ing circumstances.” Another: “I saw for the first 
 time educated Negroes.” 
 
 c. A Negro delegate noted a change in his thinking with 
 these words: “The Conference has wiped out of my 
 heart the bitterness of many years, and I am going 
 back to Liberia to encourage the missionaries in their 
 work. Before I came to this meeting I had determined 
 to return to my country to do everything in my power 
 against Christianity.” Another made this discovery: 
 “When I came to this Conference I was not interested 
 in Christ, for I thought He was for white people only. 
 I am going back feeling that He is for me too.” An¬ 
 other said, “I can go back to my college and pray for 
 the first time in a long time.” 
 
 d. Growing out of the Interracial and International Teas 
 of this conference one of the institutions is reported 
 to have scheduled such gatherings by-monthly where 
 the students of the different races may meet for social 
 and intellectual fellowship. 
 
 71 
 
3. Many students recently have been pursuing graduate studies 
 in race relations, making careful and thorough analyses of all 
 phases of the question. Surely the racial situation in the United 
 States provides the amplest laboratory facilities for fruitful re¬ 
 search in this field. What are the values for youth in such 
 original investigations as compared with the studies of older men 
 and women? Are there any unique values for interracial coopera¬ 
 tion ? A survey of “Changing Attitudes in Race Relations as Re¬ 
 vealed by a Study of Nashville Students” was made this year 
 by a graduate student. One hundred twenty-six white students 
 from four institutions and one hundred twenty-seven Negro stu¬ 
 dents answered suestions submitted to them. The following 
 table reveals some of the results of the study: 
 
 
 Whites 
 
 Negroes 
 
 
 YES 
 
 NO 
 
 YES 
 
 NO 
 
 Attended interracial forum . 
 
 40 
 
 81 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 Found forum valuable . 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 Had read on Race Relations . 
 
 102 
 
 19 
 
 121 
 
 54 
 
 Attended social functions . 
 
 49 
 
 70 
 
 145 
 
 22 
 
 Believed interracial social functions 
 
 
 
 
 
 promote better relations . 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 101 
 
 2 
 
 4. In several Southern cities Interracial 
 
 Forums 
 
 ; have 
 
 been 
 
 organized since the Student Volunteer Convention, which met in 
 Indianapolis in December, 1923. Students from white and Negro 
 colleges meet at least twice a month for the discussion of what¬ 
 ever topics may be of mutual interest, minimizing rather than 
 emphasizing the question of racial relations in the discussions. 
 
 C. YOUTH IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. 
 
 1. Under the auspices of the American Friends Service Com¬ 
 mittee a new venture was undertaken during the summer of 1927. 
 Eighteen young people made up nine teams which “caravaned” 
 in different rural sections of the United States, addressing many 
 groups of people on the general subject of peace. The Commit¬ 
 tee reports encouragement from the results. Information con¬ 
 cerning these “peace caravans”'may be obtained from the Ameri¬ 
 can Friends Service Committee, 20 South 12th St., Philadelphia, 
 Pa. 
 
 2. A Student Project in Building International Understanding, 
 “a plan that has worked,” is the title of a leaflet that may be 
 
 72 
 
obtained from the Council of Christian Associations, 600 Lexing¬ 
 ton Avenue, or 347 Madison Avenue, New York City. The plan 
 calls for an International Goodwill Team which secures and dis¬ 
 tributes information relating to international relations, provides 
 speakers for meetings, and assists young people in planning 
 programs. 
 
 3. Every year thousands of American youth travel in Europe. 
 Not all of these establish contacts or find experiences which make 
 for international understanding, but many do, either independ¬ 
 ently or under the auspices of organizations having for their 
 specific purpose personal acquaintance with youth in other lands. 
 
 4. Many youth leaders are found in the Eddy Seminar which 
 makes annual visits to the leading countries of Europe for study. 
 
 5. Many students find profitable social and intellectual fellow¬ 
 ship with the large numbers of foreign students who attend 
 American institutions. International House in New York City is 
 a great experiment in international goodwill. Students from ap¬ 
 proximately fifty nations, attending many institutions in New 
 York City, live under one roof, with adequate provision for their 
 social and intellectual fellowship. 
 
 6. The Student Friendship Fund is maintained by the con¬ 
 tributions of American students for the aid of students in Euro¬ 
 pean countries where the World War seriously handicapped the 
 student group. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. Consider the origin of the modern missionary movement, 
 and also the origin of the Student Volunteer Movement. 
 Do they give any suggestions as to what it is possible for 
 youth to do. In 1792, the presiding officer of the assembly 
 said to William Carey: “Sit down, young man; when it 
 pleases God to convert the heathen, He will do it without 
 your help.” 
 
 2. Have you ever been told something like this: “Sit down, 
 young man; when it pleases God to convert the economic 
 order, He will do it without your help.” Will He? 
 
 3. Consider youth both as a chronological age and as an 
 attitude of mind. Have you ever known any old men 
 with youthful attitudes? Any old-fogies under twenty? 
 What is the attitude of mind which you call youthful? 
 
 73 
 
4. Think of the young people you know. Are they more 
 shallow than older people ? More interested in vital issues ? 
 To what extent can young people be appealed to by the 
 challenge of a great and worthy task to be accomplished? 
 
 5. Must youth constitute itself another “class” among the 
 many warring classes of a combative society? Must it 
 enter the “class struggle” by casting its vote for one class 
 or another? Or can youth in some way transcend the 
 struggle of classes and yet at the same time make a dis¬ 
 tinctive youth contribution to the solution of these conflicts ? 
 
 6. What is your place in relation to the industrial, interracial 
 and international strife of this generation? 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 High, Stanley: The Revolt of Youth, Abingdon Press, 
 1923. 
 
 Hunter, A. A.: Youth’s Adventure, Appleton, 1925. 
 
 Shaver, E. L.: Christian Young People and World-Friend¬ 
 ship, University of Chicago Press, 1925. 
 
 The Inquiry: What Makes Up My Mind on International 
 Questions, The Association Press, 1926. 
 
 Davis, Jerome, and Chamberlin, Roy: Christian Fellowship 
 Among the Nations, Pilgrim Press, 1925. 
 
 Stauffer, M. T.: Youth and Renaissance Movements, 
 Council of Christian Associations, 1923. 
 
 High, Stanley: Youth Looks at the Church, 1926. 
 
 74 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THROUGH CONFLICT TO COOPERATION. 
 
 “Life is strife; but clear thinking on the distinction between 
 strife that is creative and strife that is destructive, is the vital 
 need of our times.”—Streeter. 
 
 “Strife is creative only when it is the expression of love.”— 
 Streeter. 
 
 A society from which the necessity for all struggle had been 
 removed would undoubtedly end in utter stagnation. But the 
 idea that man must go on warring with and destroying his fellow 
 man is a fallacy without any support in biology or common sense. 
 If the probability, that man will always need to struggle in order 
 to maintain himself on high levels of life, amounts to certainty, it 
 is also true that the struggle must be transformed, in the nature 
 of the objects sought and the methods employed. 
 
 “The struggle for wealth, fame or power in human society . . . 
 generally leads to sterility.” War for these ends is increasingly 
 self-defeating. The civilization which man has built up through 
 the centuries rests upon that sacrificial passion for truth which 
 has characterized the scientist and the prophet, and upon the 
 capacity for cooperation which is nowhere wanting in the human 
 family. 
 
 Youth possesses unique opportunities for engaging in creative 
 strife. Class struggle is too often marred by the sting of bitter¬ 
 ness, planted deep in the soul by oppression. It is open to youth 
 to strive for truth and cooperation, the stores of which,—unlike 
 material riches,—are inexhaustible. They are increased in direct 
 proportion to the energy and the intelligence of the strife,— 
 and that makes the strife creative. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 
 
 1. Be careful to set reasonable standards of expectation for 
 those with whom you differ. What are the advantages 
 for cooperation in this? 
 
 2. Be careful to think of all conflicts, first in terms of the 
 persons involved, and then in terms of principles, property, 
 
 75 
 
etc. This is to set a scale of values in which the personal 
 stands first. Does this, or does it not, aid in building up a 
 technique for creative conflict? 
 
 3. What are the desirable attitudes which should be cul¬ 
 tivated, in reference to 
 
 (1) the opposition? 
 
 (2) our own case? 
 
 (3) the larger whole? 
 
 4. Every title in the following bibliography is important for 
 a study of successful group discussion and the art of 
 creative strife: 
 
 Streeter, B. H.: Reality, chapter on “Creative Strife, 
 p. 143f¥, Macmillan, 1926. 
 
 The Inquiry : A Cooperative Technique for Conflict, As¬ 
 sociation Press, 1924. 
 
 Sheffield, A. D.: Joining in Public Discussion, Doran. 
 Elliott, H. S.: The Process of Group Thinking, Associa¬ 
 tion Press, 1927. 
 
 APPENDIX: SUGGESTIONS FOR LEADERS. 
 
 The purpose of these discussions is so to train the group that 
 their judgments with regard to the vital international problems 
 of our day may become increasingly reliable. It has now become 
 evident that this purpose can effectively be accomplished only by 
 inducing people into, and guiding them through experiences in 
 which the formulation of such judgments is involved. The pur¬ 
 pose of this book is to contribute to situations which shall furnish 
 opportunities for such experiences. In order to assist the leaders 
 of groups to function more effectively in the promotion of such 
 ends, the following suggestions are offered. 
 
 1. The issues should be clearly stated and kept before the 
 group. 
 
 2. The group should keep to the point at issue. Difficulty 
 may be experienced with 
 
 a. Those who, either because they have not sufficiently 
 familiarized themselves with the topic, or because of 
 limitations of nature, are unable to distinguish between 
 what is relevant and what is not. 
 
 b. Those who have hobbies which they insist upon in¬ 
 jecting into every discussion. 
 
 76 
 
c. Those who have failed to distinguish between a dis¬ 
 cussion and a talk-fest, and who regard the group as 
 an opportunity for garrulous indulgence. 
 
 3. There should be no attempt on the part of the leader or 
 of any member of the group to put across his opinion on 
 the rest of the group. The existence of such a situation 
 tends to defeat the purpose of discussion which is, not 
 the winning of personal victories, but the arriving at more 
 reliable conclusions. The ideal is that all should pool their 
 experiences and viewpoints to the end that the conclu¬ 
 sions of all may be corrected, transformed, and enriched. 
 
 4. Members of the group who are less able in expressing 
 themselves often have points which they are not able to 
 state with sufficient clarity to gain for them the considera¬ 
 tion which they deserve. It is the task of the leader to 
 assist such members to discover and express the points 
 which they really have in the background of their minds. 
 
 5. May the discussion leader himself take part in the dis¬ 
 cussion, or should he confine his remarks to a summary 
 of the points which others have made? The leader should 
 wait to see whether or not the points which he has in 
 mind will be made by others. But he is a member of the 
 group, and certainly be should not withhold from it any 
 contribution which he may be able to make. 
 
 6. Within the discussion there should be orderly progression. 
 Once a point has been thoroughly presented, proceed to 
 the next. 
 
 7. At the end of each point or topic, the leader or someone 
 else should summarize the results of the discussion up to 
 that point, and point out the issues and conclusions. 
 
 8. It frequently happens that after even the freest and fullest 
 discussion, members of the group still find themselves in 
 basic disagreement and yet are unwilling to let the topic 
 drop. In such cases the group should cease to discuss 
 until further data is available. Many differences of opin¬ 
 ion are due to an inadequate knowledge of the facts. In 
 and throughout all discussions the group should 
 
 Insist that the discussions be based upon accurate and re¬ 
 liable information, rather than upon mere opinions. 
 
 If civilization goes on the rocks it will not be because of any 
 dearth of opinions as to what should have been done to save it, 
 Communist, hundred-percenter, state-socialist, New Thoughter, 
 
 77 
 
viewer-with-alarm, capitalism apologist, and the-world-is-dying- 
 for-lack-of-my-brand-of-mythology religionist offer their solu¬ 
 tions with bewildering avidity and pathetic naivity. What is 
 needed today is the intelligent direction of a surprising and en¬ 
 couraging moral earnestness which is so outstanding a character¬ 
 istic of a certain group among the younger generation. 
 
 In discussions which center about more personal problems, the 
 leader may sometimes assume that the members have been fur¬ 
 nished by their experiences with data sufficient to make pos¬ 
 sible intelligent discussion. But in considering the larger social 
 issues, the necessary data can be secured only by careful and 
 rather extensive study. No service more valuable could be ren¬ 
 dered than the teaching of the group that only earned conclusions 
 are to be regarded seriously. 
 
 The Preparation of the Leader. 
 
 Since the success of a discussion group usually depends largely 
 upon the ability and skill of its leader, careful preparation is es¬ 
 sential. 
 
 This preparation should include a general survey of the whole 
 topic and as careful a predicition as possible of the points which 
 are likely to arise. The leader should not, of course, attempt to 
 determine just what shall be brought up in the group and the way 
 in which it shall be considered; much less should he attempt to 
 steer the group into adopting his own conclusions. He should, 
 however, have a sufficient grasp of the topic to be able to see, 
 and to assist the group in seeing the relationship of the points 
 presented, to the total problem. This preparation is essential also 
 in enabling him to assist those who are struggling to express points 
 which they either understand imperfectly, or are unable to state 
 clearly. 
 
 The leader should have available all the sources of information 
 possible, in order to assist the group in making further investi¬ 
 gations, and to help it to make certain that the conclusions reached 
 are based upon adequate evidence. 
 
 It is evident, then, that the preparation of the leader must be 
 careful, extensive, and thorough. The lecturer need be prepared 
 upon only such subjects as he himself has chosen and may handle 
 them in the way in which he finds most convenient. The leader 
 of the discussion should be prepared, not only for any point 
 which might arise, but also for any way of conceiving and stat¬ 
 ing that point which may occur to any member of the group. 
 Some job, isn’t it? But it is worth while. 
 
 78 
 
WORLD YOUTH PEACE CONGRESS 
 
 This study outline was prepared especially for use 
 in connection with the World Youth Peace Congress 
 to be held in Eerde, Holland, from August 17-26, 
 1928. The purpose of the Congress is: to stimulate 
 and promote a study of the basic causes of war and 
 their elimination, and to focus the enthusiasm and 
 power of the youth of the world upon the develop¬ 
 ment of agencies for dealing with the problem of war. 
 
 Information regarding delegates and the conditions 
 for attendance may be secured from the American 
 Committee which has assumed responsibility for 
 America’s participation in the Congress. 
 
 Posters and additional copies of this pamphlet may be 
 
 obtained by addressing: 
 
 The American Committee 
 World Youth Peace Congress of 1928 
 104 East 9th St., Room 386 
 New York City 
 
 Posters—5 cents each, twenty cents a half dozen. 
 
 Pamphlet—25 cents each, two dollars for ten, 
 nine dollars for fifty. 
 
 79