MASTER 
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A UTHOR: 
 
 PENNELL, ROBERT 
 FRANKLIN 
 
 TITLE: 
 
 ANCIENT GREECE, 
 FROM THE EARLIEST 
 
 PLACE: 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 DA TE: 
 
 1885 
 
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 LATE SEVER, FRANCIS, & CO. 
 
 1885. 
 
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 PREFACE. 
 
 Entered according to Act ot Congress, in the year 1874, by 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 
 University Press: 
 John Wilson & Son, Cambridgb. 
 
 
 'T^HIS volume is composed of selections taken 
 chiefly from Curtius and Rawlinson, and 
 arranged in such a manner as to bring in events 
 of the first importance. All other facts, even 
 though important, have been omitted, on the 
 principle that a mere compilation of names and 
 dates is not only unattractive, but also highly 
 injurious, to the beginner. 
 
 The matter contained in the book is amply 
 sufficient to prepare one in Greek history for any 
 of our colleges. At the same time the preparatory 
 
 student should remember that the true place to 
 
 learn the history of the Greeks and Romans is 
 
 in their writings. 
 
 I wish here to express my obligation to Dr. 
 
 D. F. Wells for his kind and gentlemanly assi>it- 
 
 ance in preparing the map and plans given in 
 
 the history. 
 
 R. F. Pennell. 
 
 Exeter, N.H., June 20, 1874. 
 
 11 
 

 '»» » ' > 
 
 
 • 
 
 • J 
 
 
 t i 1 
 I t 
 
 ' ) > 
 
 INTllODUCTION. 
 
 
 ) > 
 
 
 
 01??WS 
 
 T 1 
 
 Uftr, 
 
 IN times long before any recorded liistory, there lived 
 in Asia (possibly in tlie region lying between the 
 rivers Oxus and Jaxartes) a people called the Aryans. 
 As this race increased in numbers, their country became 
 too small to sii]»port tlie excess of poi)ulation. Tliis ex- 
 cess found relief in mii^ratinc: to the south and west. 
 
 The earliest migrations west were made by the Celts, 
 who pushed on as lar as the Atlantic toast, and whose 
 language is represented to-day by the inhabitants of 
 Bretagne, Wales, and Ireland. 
 
 The second migration was made by the Teutons, the 
 ancestors of the English, Germans, Danes, Swedes, and 
 Norwegians. 
 
 The Teutons were followed by the Slaves and Lithu- 
 anians, from whom are descended the inhabitants of 
 Russia, Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. 
 
 Distinct from these migrations, another succession of 
 tribes left the primitive Aryan race in later times, and 
 occupied the peninsulas of Greece and Italy. They 
 were called the Peiasgi, and their language formed the 
 foundation of both the Latin and Greek tongue. 
 
 Nothing definite is known about the Pelasgic period 
 of Greece. 
 
^ 
 
 I 
 
 li 
 
 2 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 ;• '. : •.SdK»eqnoi)fl}-6tlrer tribes branched off from the same 
 ... ijigt4Ȥr triiii3c;avci' swept over Greece. Althouijh oriiri 
 /.t^^y.pf.thetsflind.race as the l^ehisgi, they were mor^^ 
 highly /yyilizofl .©n»acpouiit of tlieir contact, in course of 
 .V .V»g';^'itiOCj3'ilh'!Eistorn nations. 
 
 The tribe that was destined to be predominant 
 among these was tlie Hellenes, who first settled in 
 Hellas, a small district of southern Thessaly, but finally 
 spread over the Avhole of Greece and assimilated the 
 other tribes to themselves. 
 
 The early history of the Hellenes is as much envel- 
 oped in darkness as that of the Pelasgi. They claimed 
 to be descended from a common ancestor, Helleu ; and 
 that from his two sons, Dorus and iEolus, and two 
 grandsons. Ion and Achaeus, were sprung the four grand 
 divisions of the Hellenic race, — viz., Dorians, iEolians, 
 lonians, and Achseans. 
 
 The lonians and Dorians became the leading races; 
 the former represented by Athens, the latter by Sparta. 
 
 To relate all the stories of the Greeks about their 
 ancestors would require a volume hi itself. We shall 
 speak of only a few. 
 
 Cecrops,^ who came from Egy]>t, was said to be the 
 first king of Attica. He founded Athens, and divided 
 
 J Codrus (1045 n.c.) was the last king of Athens. When his 
 city was hard pressed hy the Dorians, an oracle stated that his 
 death would ensure the safety of the city. The patriotic king 
 went to the camp of the enemy in disguise, and in a quarrel with 
 the soldiers managed to be killed. The Athenians, unable to find 
 a suitable successor to such a hero, abolished the title of king, elect- 
 ing Medon, the son of Codrus, as Archon for life. 
 
 This was the beginning of the life Archons, which lasted until 
 752 B.C., when Archons were appointed to hold office for ten 
 years, called Decennial Archons 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 the state into twelve parts. He introduced civilization^ 
 marriage, and the worship of the gods. 
 
 Danaiis was an ancient king of Argos. He had fled 
 from Egypt with his fifty daughters, and was selected 
 by the Argives as their monarch. 
 
 Pelops was a native of Phrygia. Driven from his 
 country, he wandered to Greece, where he became of 
 so much influence that all southern Greece was called 
 after him the Peloponnesus, Le. "Island of Pelops." 
 His son Atreus was king of Mycenro. 
 
 Cadmus was a Phoenician, who founded Thebes, in- 
 troduced the use of letters and the cultivation of the 
 
 vine. 
 
 From these traditions we can infer that the Egyptians, 
 Phoenicians, and Phrygians settled in various localities 
 in Greece. The civilization of these settlers was higher 
 than that of the people among whom they settled. 
 Hence the Greeks were improved by them. From 
 the Phoenicians they learned the use of the alphabet. 
 But these settlers were not numerous, and did not 
 affect the language, customs, or religion of the Greeks 
 to any marked extent. 
 
 Religion. 
 
 The earliest form of Pelasgic religion was the wor- 
 ship of one supreme being, Zeus (Jupiter). The most 
 ancient oracle in Greece was dedicated to him at 
 Dodona, in Epeirus. The responses of the oracle were 
 given from the sacred oaks, in the rustling of whose 
 leaves the voice of the divinity was heard. Subse- 
 quently the worship of other divinities was introduced, 
 as that of Aphrodite (Venus), Poseidon (Neptune) ; 
 and in Attica, Demeter (Ceres), and Athena (Minerva^. 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 But the god whose worship was more universal than 
 that of Zeus even, was Apollo. To his oracle at Delphi, 
 pei-sons came from all parts of the Hellenic world to 
 consult the priestess called Pythia. Here was kept a 
 golden statue of the god, and a lire never allowed to 
 die out. In the centre of the temple there was a small 
 opening in the ground, from which arose an intoxicating 
 vapot supposed to be the breath of the god. The 
 sacred tripod (three-footed stool) stood over this open- 
 ing, on which the priestess took her seat whenever the 
 oracle was to be consulted. Inspii-ed by the vapor, 
 she gave her answers in verse (hexameters). These 
 answers were not infrequently ambiguous, and might 
 be interpreted in several ways. The Delphian Oracle 
 supplanted in a great measure that of Zeus at Dodona. 
 
 Mount Olympus was the abode of the gods; and 
 here was the throne of Zeus, who, with his wife Hera 
 (Juno), was the chief of the Olympian council. It 
 consisted of six gods and six goddesses.^ 
 
 Heroes. 
 
 Among the heroes of ancient Greece, three stand 
 out prominent : — 
 
 1 Besides Zeus and Hera, there were in this council t^- 
 Poseidon (Neptune), the god of the sea, 
 Apollo, the god of music, poetry, and eloquence. 
 Ares [Mars), the god of uxir. 
 Hephsestus ( Vidcan), the god of jire. 
 Hermes (Mercurg), the messenger of the godM, 
 Athena {Minerva), the goddess of wisdom, 
 Artemis {Diana), the goddess of hunting. 
 Aphrodite ( Venus), the goddess of love, 
 Hestia ( Vesta), tlie goddess of domestic life, 
 Dcmeter {Ceres), the goddess of harvests. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, O 
 
 1. Heracles (Hercules), the national hero of Greece. 
 
 2. Theseus, the hero of Attica. 
 
 3. Minos, kinor of Crete and founder of Greek law 
 and civilization. He was supposed to have received his 
 laws direct from Zeus. 
 
 Theseus was one of the early kings of Athens, and 
 founded her future greatness by instituting laws and 
 festivals, erecting public buildings, and establishing a 
 government. 
 
 Heracles was son of Zeus by Alcmena, the wife of 
 Amphitryon of Thebes. Zeus visited Alcmena in the 
 form of her husband, while he was absent, and became 
 by her the father of Heracles. He was noted for his 
 great strength and courage, and was generally repre- 
 sented as carrying a club. His great-uncle, Eurystheus, 
 imposed upon him twelve labors,^ all of which he per- 
 formed successfully. 
 
 He afterwards married Deianeira. She, becoming 
 jealous of a female prisoner he had taken, gave to him 
 a garment soaked in poisoned blood. As soon as he 
 had put on this garment, and the poison began to 
 penetrate his body, he was seized with terrible pains. 
 
 * 1. Fight with the Nemean lion. 
 2. Fight against the Lernean hydra. 
 8. Capture of the Arcadian stag. 
 4. Destruction of the Erymanthian boar. 
 6. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas, king of Elii, 
 
 6. Destruction of the Stymphalian birds. 
 
 7. Capture of the Cretan bull. 
 
 8. Capture of the mares ofDiomedes, king of Thrace, 
 
 9. Seizure of the girdle of the Queen of the Amazons, 
 10* Capture of the oxen of Geryones in Erythia. 
 
 11. Fetching of the golden apples of the Ilesperides. 
 
 12. Bringing the three-headed dog, Cerberus, from the lower world 
 
6 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Seeing that death was near, he ascended Mount 
 (Eta, raised a pile of wood, on wliich lie placed him- 
 self, and ordered it to be set on fire. When the pilo 
 was burning, a cloud came down and enveloped him ; 
 and amid peals of thunder he was carried to Olympus, 
 where he was honored with immortality. 
 
 The IIeracleid^, the descendants of Heracles, 
 were driven out of the Peloponnesus shortly after the 
 death of their ancestor, and settled in southern Thes- 
 saly. One hundred years later, in 1104 B.C., they re- 
 conquered (with the aid of the Dorians) the Pelopon- 
 nesus, and divided its government among the lineal 
 descendants of Heracles. Tins was called the Dorian" 
 Invasion, or the Return op the Heracleid^. 
 
 The Siege of Troy. (1194-1184 B.C.) 
 
 There was to be a great wedding on Mount Pelion. 
 The nymph Thetis was to be married to the mortal 
 Peleus. All the gods and goddesses were invited to 
 participate in the rejoicings; but, that there might bo 
 perfect unanimity in the assembly, the goddess of 
 Discord (Eris) was not asked. With feelings full of 
 anger, she threw among the guests a golden apple, on 
 which was inscribed, "For the beauty," hoping thereby 
 to cause discord. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, each 
 claimed the apple, on the ground of being " the beauty." 
 Zeus was appealed to. He ordered Hermes to escort 
 the goddesses to Mount Ida in Troas, where Paris, the 
 son of the king of Troy, was tending his flocks. He 
 was to be the umpire. Hera promised him the sover- 
 eignty of Asia ; Athena, renown in war ; Aphrodite, 
 the fairest of women for a bride. Paris decided in 
 iavor of the latter. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 He afterwards went to the court of Menelaiis, kmg 
 of Sparta, whose wife, Helen, was the most beautiful 
 woman in the world. In the absence of his host, ho 
 ran off with Helen, and thus Aphrodite fulfilled her 
 promise. Before her marriage, Helen had been wooed 
 by princes from all parts of Greece. These princes 
 resolved to punish Paris for his audacity, and fitted 
 out an expedition against Troy. Agamemnon, brother 
 of Menelaiis and king of MycensB, was placed in com- 
 mand. 
 
 The fleet rendezvoused at Aulis, in Boeotia, from 
 which place it sailed to Troy. 
 
 The Trojans endured a siege of ten years, but were 
 finally overcome by treachery. Priam was king of the 
 city, whose son Hector, the greatest Trojan hero, was 
 killed by Achilles ; and his body, tied to the chariot 
 of his victor, was dragged around the walls of the 
 city three times. uEneas was a brave Trojan. His 
 wanderings from Troy to Italy, where his descendants 
 founded Rome, are the subject of the Epic poem of 
 Virgil. 
 
 The hero of the Greeks before Troy was Achilles 
 son of Peleus and Thetis. He was the handsomest 
 and bravest of all, and could not be wounded in any 
 place except his heel. An arrow from the bow of 
 Paris, unluckily striking him in this his only vulner- 
 able spot, caused his death just before the close of the 
 
 siege. 
 
 Odysseus (Ulysses) was second only to Achilles in 
 bravery. In wisdom he was superior to all the Greeks, 
 being their chief adviser before Troy. He was king 
 of Ithaca, an island west of Greece. There his wife 
 Penelope, a matron noted for her virtues and accoin- 
 
8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 plishments, waited faithfully twenty years for the 
 return of her lord and master. 
 
 Homer.* 
 
 The Epic poet of Greece lived, probably, in the ninth 
 century b.c. His"niad" and "Odyssey" are poems 
 of the highest order, never equalled by any of his 
 many imitators. The subject of the "Iliad" is the 
 siege of Troy during the last year. The "Odyssey" 
 gives an account of the wanderings of Odysseus from 
 Troy to Ithaca. 
 
 Society among the Eably Geeeks 
 
 Was divided into four classes. 
 
 1. An hereditary king. 
 
 2. The nobles, or counsellors of the king. 
 
 3. The common people, who, practically, had no 
 voice in the government. 
 
 4. The slaves. 
 
 The power of the king was not absolute. He was 
 counselled by the nobles, who* were expected to express 
 their opinions freely upon all matters. The people' 
 were called together to listen to their debates, and ex- 
 press their opinion of them by applause, or the con- 
 trary. 
 
 Olympic Festival. 
 
 One of the chief ties that united the Greeks was 
 the Olympic festival. This was celebrated once in 
 
 1 Seven cities claimed the honor of being the birthplace of 
 Homer ; viz., Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argo*, 
 Athenae. 
 
 * The council of the nobles was called the Boule. 
 
 * The assembly of the people was called the Agora. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ^ four years at Olympia, in Elis, on the banks of the 
 river Alpheius. Here all sorts of games were engaged 
 in, such as wrestling, boxing, jumping, foot races, 
 chariot races, &c. This festival became of so much 
 renown, that not only the Greeks attended it, but 
 people from all parts of the world. The Greeks used 
 the Olympic festival as an era in dates. The year 
 776 B.C. was regarded as the first Olympiad. To be 
 proclaimed victor at these games, before the assembled 
 crowds, was considered the greatest honor to be ob- 
 tained. The only prize was a garland of wild olive. 
 
 There were also the Pythian games, held in honor 
 of Apollo, at Delphi, once in four years; the Nemean 
 games, in honor of Zeus, at Nemea in Argolis ; the 
 Isthmian games, in honor of Poseidon, on the Isthmus 
 of Corinth, at its narrowest part. The last two were 
 celebrated once in every two years. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Geography of Greece. 
 
 I. Greece proper is a peninsula in the soutliern part 
 of Europe, situated between tlie 36th and 40th degrees 
 of North Latitude. It is 250 miles long, from its ex- 
 treme northern to its extreme southern limit, i,e, from 
 the promontory Acroceraunia to Cape Tainarum, and 
 180 miles broad in its widest part, i.e. from Cape 
 Actium to the plain of Marathon. It is in size but 
 little larorer than the State of Maine, which has about 
 35,000 square miles. 
 
 Greece is bounded on the north by Illyricum and 
 Macedonia; on the east by the ^gean sea; on the 
 south by the Mediterranean ; on the west by the 
 Ionian sea. It may be divided for convenience into 
 three grand divisions; viz.. Northern Greece, Central 
 Greece, and Southern Greece, or the Peloponnesus, as 
 the last is usually called. 
 
 Northern Greece includes Thessalia, Epeirus, and 
 Dolopia. 
 
 Central Greece includes Acarnania, ^tolia. Western 
 Lociis, Phocis, Doris, Malis, Central Locris, Eastern 
 Locris, Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. 
 
 The Peloponnesus includes all south of Megaris; viz., 
 
12 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE, 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE, 
 
 13 
 
 Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia, Arcadia, 
 Laconia, and Argolis. 
 
 II. Greece is surrounded by many islands, the largest 
 of which is Eubcea, separated from the mainland by 
 the nari'ow strait of Euripus. 
 
 Salamis and -ZEgina are small islands south of Attica, 
 in the Saronic gulf. Cythera is south of Laconia, in 
 the Laconic gulf. Corcyra, Leucas, Cephalleuia (or 
 Samos), Ithaca, and Zacynthus are west of Greece in 
 the Ionian sea. In the iEgean sea are many important 
 islands, of which we shall mention only a few. Lesbos, 
 Chios, Samos, Rhodos, Cos, (Naxos, Paros, Delos),* 
 Scyros, Lemnos, Thasos, and Tenedos. 
 
 III. Greece is a very mountainous country. The 
 Cambunian range bounds it on the north ; the range 
 of Pindus separates Thessalia from Epeirus. This range 
 runs with some interruptions through Central Greece 
 to Sunium, the southern promontory of Attica. The 
 highest peaks among these ranges are Olympus (nearly 
 10,000 feet high), Ossa, Pelion, Othrys, (Eta, Parnas- 
 BUS (8,000 feet). Helicon (sacred to Apollo and the 
 Muses), Cithajron, Pames, Pentelicus, and Hymettus. 
 
 Of the numerous ranges in the Peloponnesus, we 
 shall only mention Taygetus and Parnon ; the former 
 separating Laconia from Messenia, the latter running 
 parallel to it further east. Cyllene, in Arcadiji, is a 
 high peak, rising more than 8,000 feet. 
 
 rV. Owing to the numerous mountains, there are but 
 few plains in Greece. The greater portion of Thessalia 
 is a vast plain hemmed in by mountain ranges, and 
 drained by the single river Peneius. In Boeotia there 
 
 • » 
 
 i Beloiigin*;: to the Cyclades. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 are two large plains : one the marshy plain of Cephissus, 
 much of which is occupied by Lake Copais (in the 
 summer the gi*eater part of this is dry, and becomes 
 a green meadow, in which cattle are pastured) ; and 
 the other, the plain watered by the river Asopus, 
 on tlie verge of which stood Thebes, Thespian, and 
 PIata?(e. 
 
 Attica has three plains: that of Eleusis, adjoining the 
 city of the same name ; that of Athens ; and that of 
 Marathon. 
 
 In western and southern Peloponnesus are the low- 
 lands of Elis, watered by the rivers Peneius and Al- 
 pheius ; also, the plain about Sparta, watered by the 
 Eurotas (beautiful stream), and the high upland plains 
 about Tegea, Mantineia, and Orchomcnos in Arcadia, 
 and lastly the fertile plain of Argolis. 
 
 V. The rivers of Greece are numerous, but of small 
 volume, the majority being little more than winter 
 torrents, carrying little or no water in the summer time. 
 
 The largest of these streams is the Achelous, which 
 rises in Mount Pindus and flows southward, forming 
 the boundary between Acarnania and -^tolia, an<i 
 empties into the Ionian sea. It is about 130 miles in 
 length. The chief river of Thessalia is the Peneius, 
 which also rises in Mount Pindus, and after receiving 
 ma!iy tributaries, forces its way through the vale of 
 Tompe, between Mounts Ossa and Olympus, into the 
 Thermaic gulf. 
 
 The Alpheius is the largest river in the Peloponnesus, 
 rising in the south-east of Arcadia, flowing through 
 Arcadia and Elis, and emptying into the Ionian sea. 
 In some parts of its course it flows underground. 
 
 Among secondary streams are the Cephissus and 
 
14 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 15 
 
 Asopus in Bceotia, the Peneius in El is, the Eurotas iu 
 Laconia, the Cephissus and Ilissus in Attica. 
 
 VI. The lakes of Greece are numerous, but not re- 
 markable. 
 
 The largest is Copais in Bceotia (for description see 
 Sec. IV.). 
 
 VII. Of the countries of Greece, we shall examine 
 more particularly, Ba3otia, Attica, Laconia, Arcadia, 
 and Argolis. 
 
 Bceotia is generally flat and marshy, but contains the 
 mountain range of Helicon on the south, and lolly hills 
 in the eastern part of the country. Lake Copais covers 
 an area of forty-one square miles. .The chief rivera are 
 the Cephissus and Asopus. 
 
 Bceotia was noted for the number of its towns. The 
 chief of these was Thebes; but the following were 
 important, viz., Orchomenos, Thespia), Tanagra, Leuc- 
 tra, and Plata3a3. 
 
 Attica is a mountainous and infertile country. 
 Mounts Cithajron, Parnes, and Phelleus form a con- 
 tinuous range, running about east and west; in the 
 south are 3Iounts Kerata, ^galeos, Pentelicus, and 
 Ilymettus. Athens (Atheme) was the only city of 
 importance. Its rivers, the Cephissus, Ilissus, and 
 Charadrus, are mere torrent courses. 
 
 Laconia consists mainly of a single narrow valley, 
 that of the Eurotas, enclosed between two lofty moun- 
 tain ranges, those of Parnon and Taygetus. Sparta, 
 its capital, was situated on the Eurotas, about twenty 
 miles from the sea. The other towns were unim 
 portant. 
 
 Arcadia has by far the greater part of its area cov- 
 ered by mountains and narrow but fertile valleys. Im- 
 
 
 portant cities were numerous, as Mantineia, Tegea, 
 Orchomenos, and Megalopolis. 
 
 Argolis contains a large and rich plain at the head 
 of the Argolio gulf. Its capital was, in early times, 
 MyceuaB ; afterwards Argos. Tiryns was an ancient 
 city. Troezen was in the eastern part, near the coast. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 The country which we call Greece was known to the 
 Greeks themselves only as Hellas. And by Hellas 
 they meant not only Greece proper, as described above, 
 but also any places where Greek settlers had planted 
 colonies. 
 
 Of these colonies, among the most flourishing were 
 those planted on the western coast of Asia Minor, and 
 the islan<l8 adjacent. They were divided into three 
 classes, viz., iEolic, Ionic, and Doric, according as their 
 founders were -Cohans, lonians, or Dorians. The 
 -^olic cities occupied the northern part of the coast, 
 including the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos. Mytileae 
 was the chief city. The Ionic cities were situated 
 mostly between the rivei*s Ilermus and MoBander; also 
 the islands of Chios and Samos were settled by lonians. 
 The chief cities were Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomende, 
 Miletus, Chios, and Samos. The Doric cities were on 
 the southern coast, with the islands of Rhodos and 
 Cos. Halicarnassus (birthplace of Herodotus) and 
 Cnidus were large places. 
 
 In the southern part of Italy, many* colonies were 
 early established by the Greeks. These became so 
 
 * Tarentum, Metapontum, Sybaris, Tliurii, Croton, Locri Epi- 
 zephjrii, Ilhcgium, Elea, and Cumae. 
 
 
I 
 
 ili 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 rich and powciful that all of Italy, from Cumge on the 
 one side, and Tarentum on the otlier, was called Magna 
 Graecia. 
 
 On the southern coast of Gaul, MassUia (Mareeilles) 
 was founded about 600 B.C. In Sicily, Syracuse and 
 Agrigentum were prosperous colonies. 
 
 Byzantium (Constantinople), in Thrace, was a colony 
 of the Megarians. 
 
 Cyrene, on the northern coast of Africa, was founded 
 in the seventh century b.c. 
 
 Amphipolia and Eion (northern coast of the ^gean) 
 and Potideea (on Pallene) were founded in later times, 
 the latter by the Corinthians, the two former by the 
 Athenians. 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Sparta from the Time of Lycurgus down to 
 
 500 B.C. 
 
 Lycurgus was the real founder of the Spartan state. 
 It is uncertain when he lived, but probably as early as 
 
 825 B.C. 
 
 Not satisfied with the management of public affairs 
 in his native city, he travelled in foreign countries, 
 for the purpose of making himself familiar with different 
 forms of government. He is said to have made a 
 special study of the Constitution of Crete, an island 
 famous for its institutions and laws.^ Upon his return 
 he found the state full of dissensions and disputes. 
 The Spartans all looked to him as the only person fit 
 to remodel the government and frame a new constitu- 
 tion. Lycurgus accepted the task, and, when it was 
 finished, called together the people, and required of 
 them a promise to make no change in his laws until his 
 return from a journey, which he was about to make. 
 
 He never returned, but is said to have starved him- 
 self to death, in order that his fellow-citizens might 
 always be bound by their oath. 
 
 The Lycurgean Constitution 
 
 assigned the duty of governing to; — 
 
 1. Two hereditary Kings, whose power was limited. 
 They presided over the Senate, but had no more influ- 
 
 1 See under Minos, page 5. 
 
18 THE LYCURGEAN CONSTITUTION^ 
 
 ence than other members. They were commanders* 
 in war; and at such times, when outside of* Laconia, 
 their power was absohite. They possessed large royal 
 domains in many of the townships in Laconia. They 
 received frequent presents; and their table was sup- 
 ported at the public expense. They were also accom- 
 panied by a body-guard of 100 men. 
 
 2. Five Ephors, elected annually by the people, 
 whose special duty was to see that the laws of Lycur- 
 gus were enforced, to scrutinize the conduct of all 
 magistrates, even that of the kings, and to watch over 
 the manners and morals of the people. Their power 
 was supreme, and they did not hesitate to use it. 
 
 3. The Senate, or CouncU of Elders, consisting of 
 thirty members, none of whom could be less than sixty 
 years of age, and who held their office for life. 
 
 It was their duty to sit in judgment over all cases 
 involving the life of a Spartan citizen. No measure 
 could be discussed in the Popular Assembly until it had 
 first passed through the Senate. 
 
 4. The Popular Assembly, composed of all free 
 citizens of the age of thirty and upward. Meetings 
 were held at every full moon. It had the power of 
 declaring war and making peace ; of choosing higher 
 offices, and rejecting or approving the measures of°the 
 Senate. 
 
 The population of Laconia was divided into three 
 orders, — Spartans, Perioeci, and Helots. The first of 
 the three lived in Sparta itself, and were alone eligible 
 to offices of the state. The most fertile portions of 
 Laconia belonged to them, and they were maintained 
 
 1 At first the kings commanded together, but afterwards one at 
 a time. 
 
 THE LYCURGEAN CONSTITUTION. 
 
 19 
 
 ,, ♦ 
 
 i 
 
 by the produce of the land, which was tilled not by 
 themselves (for it was considered disgraceful for a 
 Sparta-- to peiform manual labor), but by the Helots, 
 who paid to them a certain proportion of the crops, 
 sometimes even as much as one half. 
 
 The PericBci, or freemen, were the ancient Achaean 
 inhabitants of Laconia, who had been conquered at the 
 Dorian Invasion.^ They were much more numerous 
 than the Spartans, and cultivated the less fertile lands 
 of the mountains. 
 
 They also worked the stone quarries and mines on 
 Mount Taygetus, and supplied the market of Sparta 
 with iron implements, building materials, &c. They 
 had no influence or control in public aifairs, and were 
 in a position greatly inferior to that of the Spartans. 
 
 The Helots were serfs residing on the fields of the 
 Spartans, and were obliged to pay a portion of the 
 produce to their masters. 
 
 They could not be sold out of the country, being 
 considered the property not of the master, but of the 
 state, which they served, in the time of war, as light- 
 armed troops, each of the Spartans being accompanied 
 by one or more of them. If they showed unusual 
 bravery, they were rewarded with freedom. 
 
 They were generally courag'^ous and energetic ; and, 
 as their numbers increased, the Spartans began to fear 
 them, and devised many cruel means of getting rid of 
 them. At one time 2,000 were secretly put to death. 
 
 The Lycurgean Discipline 
 
 aimed to educate in the Spartans those qualities which 
 fit men best for war. According to it, " the chief end 
 
 * See page 6, under Heracleidas. 
 
 / 
 / 
 
20 
 
 THE LYCURGEAN DISCIPLINE. 
 
 THE FIRST MESSENIAN WAR. 
 
 21 
 
 of man was to live on black broth at home, to march 
 about in heavy armor, to fight with or without cause, 
 to beat or kill the Helots, and to die on the field of 
 battle." To bring about this desired result, all male 
 children, even at birth, were examined in public, and, 
 if found deformed in any way, were exposed on Mount 
 Taygetus to die. 
 
 At the age of seven, all males were removed from 
 home, and taken in charge by the state. Their heads 
 were shaved, they went barefoot, and played naked. 
 
 At the age of twelve, they were divided up into 
 troops, and intrusted to the special care of competent 
 trainers. The youths were not only expected to be 
 adepts in all gymnastic exercises, but to endure all 
 sorts of hardships without a murmur. To be whipped 
 severely at the altar was a common mode of testing 
 their endurance. Many were sent on stealing expedi- 
 tions, and, if caught, were punished ; not because they 
 had been stealing, but because they lacked cunning 
 enough to conceal their theft. Their meals were all 
 taken at a common table, and the principal dish 
 served was " black broth," which required a ravenous 
 appetite to be palatable. When the Spartans became 
 men, this discipline was not relaxed. Their days were 
 spent in military drill, their nights in the barracks. 
 The family seemed to be nothing, the state every thing. 
 All interests must be subservient to the state^ no sac- 
 rifice was too great for the state. Not only was this 
 system of training demanded of the youths and men of 
 Sparta, but the maidens also were expected to exercise 
 daily in running, wrestling, and boxing, that they 
 might be the better fitted to become mothers of a 
 gtrong and hardy race. 
 
 The Spartan never dreamed of any literary educa- 
 tion, and was even averse to social or commercial inter- 
 course with other nations. He was obliged to use iron 
 money, silver and gold being a forbidden coin ; and, if a 
 stranger ventured to enter the city, he was treated with 
 marked coolness; in fact, all social intercourse, the 
 delights of literatuve, family ties, and every thing that 
 has charms to a civilized people was sacrificed. 
 
 The results of this discipline were that the Spartans 
 became warriors unequalled by any in Greece. Their 
 desire for war was irresistible, and engendered a passion 
 for foreign conquest. Thus we see them early looking 
 with covetous eyes upon Messenia, a country of woody 
 valleys and well-watered plains, which were filmed for 
 the number and beauty of their herds and flocks, and 
 for the variety of their shrubs and fruit-trees. The 
 LacedaBmonians^ began the 
 
 First Messenian War (743-724 b.c.) 
 
 by surprising Ampheia, a border town of Messenia, and 
 murdering its defenders. A long struggle then followed 
 with varying success. Finally the Messenians were so 
 weakened that they were obliged to take refuge on the 
 fortified mountain of Ithome. Their king Aristodemus 
 offered in sacrifice his own daughter to appease the 
 WTath of the gods, but to no purpose. The Spartan 
 soldiers still pressed them, until in the twentieth year 
 of the war Ithome was abandoned, and those of the 
 inhabitants who did not flee to Arcadia or Eleusis were 
 completely subjugated. 
 
 * Sparta was sometimes called Lacedaemon, and its inhabitants 
 Lacedaemonians. 
 
 / 
 
^} 
 
 22 
 
 THE SECOND MESSENIAN WAR. 
 
 J' 
 
 THE SECOND MESSENIAN WAR, 
 
 23 
 
 After bearing the yoke 38 years, the Messenians again 
 took up arms. 
 
 The Second Messenian War (685-668 b.c.) 
 
 centres around one figure, — that of Aristomenes, the 
 Achilles of the Messenians. He is their champion in 
 the three great battles of this war. He often pene- 
 trates into Laconia, suqmsing its towns; and even 
 enters Sparta one night and hangs up his shield, as a 
 token of defiance, in one of the tem})les. Three times 
 he is taken prisoner. Twice he manages to escaj)o 
 before he reaches Sparta; the third time he is thrown 
 (with fifty of his countrymen) into a deep cave in 
 Mount Taygetus. He alone is not killed by the fall ; 
 and, shortly afterwards, seeing a fox creeping about 
 among the dead bodies of his companions, he seizes it 
 by the tail, and clinging to it finally finds an opening 
 to which the fox comes in his struggles to escape. This 
 opening Aristomenes enlarges until he can crawl out 
 himself. Thus he escapes a third time from his 
 enemies. 
 
 The stronghold of the Messenians in this war was 
 Eira, a fortified mountain in the north-western part of 
 Messenia. At this stronghold Aristomenes was finally 
 compelled to concentrate his forces, and here he main- 
 tained an obstinate resistance for eleven years. At 
 length, unable to hold out any longer, he, with his sons, 
 forced his way through the assailants, and left the 
 country. The rest of his life was passed in Rhodes, 
 where he lived with his son-in-law. Those Messenians 
 who did not emigrate to other countries were reduced 
 to the condition of seifs (Helots). 
 
 The person who animated the Spartans most during 
 
 / 
 
 >' 
 
 this war was the poet Tyrtseus, a native of Attica. He 
 composed songs for the troops on the march and during 
 the charge. The power of his poetry was felt by all, 
 and served as well to quiet the discontents of the 
 mutinous as to cheer the heart and exhilarate the sj^irit 
 of the discouraged warrior. 
 
 Sparta could not rest satisfied with this victory. 
 Arcadia now attracted her attention. The Arcadians 
 had assisted the Messenians in the late war, and this 
 was a good excuse for an attack upon their territory. 
 This contest was prolonged for many years. The 
 Spartans finally reduced the Arcadians to the state of 
 subject-allies. 
 
 The power of Argos ^ also was broken, so that about 
 600 B.C. Sparta controlled nearly two-thirds of the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 * At the time of Lycurgus, Argos was the most powerful city in 
 the Peloponnesus. She was at the head of a strong confederation 
 of Doric cities^ and had colonies established in various localities. 
 
 ) 
 
A THENS, 
 
 25 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 Athens from the Earliest Times down to 
 
 500 B.C. 
 
 The earliest govennnent of Athens was a monarchy. 
 There were seventeen kings in all, the last of whom 
 was Codrus.^ Medon, the son of Codrus, succeeded 
 his father as Archon (ruler) for life. Thirteen life- 
 Archons held office from 1050 to 752 B.C. 
 
 A change was now made in the duration of the 
 Archonship to this effect, that the Archon held his office 
 for ten years instead of for life. This change was 
 brought about by the Eupatridae (nobles). There were 
 seven decennial Archons, who governed the state down 
 to C83 B.C. Again the Eupatridae changed the law, and 
 instead of choosing one of their number to be Archon 
 for ten years, they chose nine Archons, who were to 
 hold office only one year. 
 
 Thus we see that the goveniment of Athens devel- 
 oped gradually from a Monarchy into an Oligarchy, or 
 the government of a few, who were chosen from the 
 Eupatridae. But the common people soon grew weary 
 of this state of things. They were pei-secuted by the 
 nobles, and many were sold as slaves to pay the debts 
 they owed their oppressors. A code of written laws 
 was demanded, for up to this time the laws had been 
 traditional, and the interpretation of them had been in 
 tlie hands of the EupatridaB. 
 
 ^ See lotroduction, p. 2. 
 
 7 
 
 Draco was appointed to draw up this code, 624 B.C. 
 He made every offence punishable by death, so that 
 his laws were called the "bloody laws" of Draco. 
 They naturally did not give satisfaction ; and Solon, 
 one of the seven wise men, was asked (594 B.C.) to 
 frame a new constitution for Athens. Its main object 
 was to give the common people a greater freedom from 
 the oppression of the rich and the nobles. This was 
 effected in part by dividing the people hito four classes, 
 according: to the amount of their income. The first 
 class included those whose annual income equalled or 
 exceeded the value of 500 medimni* of corn. The 
 second class included those whose annual income 
 ranged between 500 and 300 medimni. The third 
 class were those whose income was between 300 and 
 200 medimni. The fourth and lowest class included 
 all whose income fell below 200 medimni.^ 
 
 The first three classes were taxed according to the 
 amount of their property, the fourth class was free 
 from taxes, but also could hold no public office. Only 
 membei-s of the first class could be Archons. 
 
 Solon also instituted a Council of 400, to be elected 
 annually by the free votes of all the citizens. 
 
 The Public Assembly, or Ecclesia, composed of all 
 Athenians, elected the Archons and higher offices, and 
 accepted or rejected all * the laws and decrees proposed 
 by the Council of 400. 
 
 * A medimnus was about one and a half bushels. 
 
 ' The first class were called tlie Pentacosiomedimni. 
 The second class were called the Hippeis (Knights). 
 The third class were called the ZeugitaD. 
 The fourth class were called the Thetes. 
 
 • Tliis was the first step towards an Athenian democracy, after- 
 wards developed and perfected hy Cleisthenes. 
 
 2 
 
26 
 
 THE PEISISTRATIDJE. 
 
 The Senate or Council of the Areiopagus (so called 
 because it met on Mars' Hill) was the highest tribunal 
 in the state, and " had general supervision of the laws, 
 and exercised a censorial power over the morals and 
 occupations of the citizens." 
 
 The Areiopagus judged cases of murder, and other 
 crimes of a heinous character. 
 
 As soon as Solon's laws went into operation, quarrels 
 began to arise between the different classes. Some 
 B:iid he had gone too far, others not far enough. They 
 divided into three factions. A man by the name of 
 PeisistratuB pretended to support the faction repre- 
 sented by the poor class, and gained the mastery over 
 the others; but, after he had worked into favor with 
 the common people and obtained much power and 
 influence, he threw off" his mask and declared himself 
 despot of Athens, 5G0 B.C. This is the beginning of 
 the rule of the Peisistratidae, which lasted until 610 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Peisistratus himself ruled with some interruptions 
 until 527 b.c. He governed the people wisely and 
 kindly. Under him Athens was prosperous. He 
 founded a libraiy, and made it public, and was the 
 first who collected the poems of Homer. 
 
 Peisistratus left the government to his two sons, Hip- 
 pias and Hipparchus, who ruled for some years in peace 
 and harmony with the people. 
 
 But in 514 b.c. a conspiracy was formed against them 
 by two young men, Harmodius and Aristogeiton ; the 
 former of whom was enraged with Hippias, on account 
 of an insult offered by him to his sister. This con- 
 spiracy succeeded in part; viz., in the assassination of 
 Hipparchus. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES, 27 
 
 After the murder of his brother, Hippias changed 
 the character of his rule from mildness to cruelty, and 
 in four years (510 B.C.) he became so unpopular that 
 he was expelled from the city. He afterwards repaired 
 to the court of Darius, hoping to be restored to his 
 native country by the aid of the Persians. He accom- 
 panied them in their first invasion of Greece, and was 
 killed on the plains of Marathon, 490 b.c. 
 
 Cleisthenes was now (510 B.C.) the head man at 
 Athens. He belonged to the noble fixmily of the Alc- 
 mseonidae, who had been opposed to the Peisistratidae. 
 He introduced many reforms into the constitution in 
 favor of the common people, and under him the Athe- 
 nian government became really a democracy, — that 
 is, a government of the people ; whereas the govern- 
 ment of Sparta was an aristocracy, — that is, a govern- 
 ment of the "best," or the nobles. 
 
 Tile Constitution of Cleisthenes 
 
 tended to a more popular government. 
 
 The citizens were divided into ten tribes (each tribe 
 including ten towns — demes— with their adjacent 
 
 territory). 
 
 Cleisthenes increased the council of 400 to 500, and 
 called it the Boule. "Fifty were drawn from each tribe. 
 All citizens in full standing, of thirty years of age and 
 upward, could be drawn into the Boule. 
 
 "The business of this body was to prepare the ques- 
 tions that were to come before the Ecclesia. Tliey also 
 controlled the finances, and received foreign ministers." 
 
 The most important tribunal introduced by Cleis- 
 thenes was the HeUaea, a court of law, in which the 
 influence of the people was deeply felt. Its members 
 
28 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTIIENES. 
 
 were drawn by lot from the ten tribes, each of which fur- 
 nished 600. The courts were held in eight or ten 
 different places. 
 
 "The parties who had cases to be tried apj)eared 
 before them and argued their cause. When the verdict 
 was to be rendered, a herald called upon all who 
 thought the accused guilty to hold up their hands, 
 which were counted; then those who thought him 
 innocent did the same ; and the votes of the majority 
 decided the case." 
 
 Cleisthenes also first introduced Ostracism. Its pur- 
 pose was " to remove from the city for a definite time 
 those who appeared to be superior to their fellow- 
 citizens, by reason of their wealth, the number of their 
 friends, or any other means of influence." It applied 
 to cases where no crime was committed, and was no 
 personal disgrace. 
 
 We have come now (500 B.C.) to an era in Greek 
 history, and it will be well to pause for a moment and 
 review our work. In Sparta we have the reforms of 
 LycurguB to remember; the Messenian wars, and 
 Sparta's gradual increase in power, until at this time 
 she controlled two-thirds of the Peloponnesus. In 
 Athens we have Draco, Solon, Peisistratus, Hippias, 
 Hipparchus, Harmodius, Aristogeiton, and Cleisthenes, 
 the fi'iend of the common people. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Persians and tue First Persian Invasion. 
 
 Marathon, September 12, 490 b.c. 
 
 Before proceeding further in our Greek history, 
 we will turn back and examine the early history of 
 the Persians, since they had so much influence upon 
 Greece. 
 
 The Persian empire was founded by Cyrus I. in 558 
 B.a . Previously to this, the nation was dependent upon 
 the Medes ; but Cyrus, who was very ambitious, saw 
 that the power of the Medes was merely a name and 
 not a reality, weakened as they were by high and luxu- 
 rious living. So the Pei-sians, headed by him, re- 
 volted; and instead of being dependent upon the 
 Medes, the scales were turned, and the Medes were 
 conquered and subdued by the Persians. At the death 
 of Cyrus, 529 b.c, the Persian empire included all of 
 Asia west of the Euphrates ; also Lydia, which had 
 been governed by Crcesus (said to have been the richest 
 monarch in the world), and the Greek cities on the 
 western coast of Asia Minor. 
 
 Cyrus left his vast kingdom to his son Cambyses, who 
 reigned from 529 to 522 b.c. 
 
 He conquered Egypt. At his death the kingdom 
 fell to Darius I., who ruled from 521 to 486 B.C. He 
 was the greatest of Persian monarchs. He had a large 
 
80 
 
 THE IONIC REVOLT. 
 
 army of over 1,000,000 troops, stationed iu different 
 parts of his kingdom, and his navy amounted to 1,000 
 ships. 
 
 lie extended his empire by the subjugation of 
 Scythia, 508 ij.c. A few years later (500 B.C.) tho 
 ambitious designs of Darius were inten*upted by the 
 revolt of the Ionic cities in Asia Minor, led by Miletus. 
 These cities obtained the aid of Athens and Eretria (:i 
 city on the island of Eubcea). They collected their 
 forces at Ephesus, and marched straight for Sardis, tho 
 capital of Lydia. 
 
 The city was captured (499 b.c.) and burned to tho 
 ground. 
 
 Darius took active measures to put down this revolt; 
 but, when he began to get the better of the Ionic cities 
 in Asia Minor, Athens and Eretria witlidrew their 
 forces and went home. As soon as he had subdued 
 the Ionic cities, Darius turned his attention towards 
 Greece, and swore vengeance upon the peoi)le who had 
 dared to aid his rebellious subjects. Active prejiara- 
 tions were immediately made to fit out an expedition. 
 Mardonius, a general of Darius, was sent out with a 
 large naval force in 493 b.c. ; but the wliole fleet was 
 disabled in a stonn off Mount Athos, a dancrerous 
 promontory in Chalcidice. 
 
 Darius was not discouraged by this failure. lie spent 
 the next two years in fitting out a second expedition, 
 placed under the joint command of Datis and Arta- 
 phernes. 
 
 The fleet sailed from the bay of Issus, along the 
 coast of Asia Minor, to Samos. From here it directed 
 its course to Naxos, to punish the bold islanders for not 
 having immediately submitted. The city was burned 
 
 FIRST PERSIAN INVASION 
 
 31 
 
 to the ground, and the inhabitants made slaves. From 
 Naxos the fleet sailed to Deles, where the Persians 
 offered sacrifices to the presiding divinities^ of the 
 island. 
 
 Eretria was the next place to which the Persians 
 sailed. For six days they attempted to storm the walls, 
 but in vain. Where force was of no avail, treason suc- 
 ceeded. Tlie upper classes of the city sympathized with 
 the besiegers and opened the gates. The city received 
 no more mercy than Naxos, and the citizens were 
 reduced to slavery. The Persians were elated. Their 
 success thus far had been uninterrupted. Why should 
 they not meet with equal good fortune at Athens ? Tlie 
 nearest landing place in Attica was at Marathon, a 
 plain on the eastern coast of Attica (22 miles N. E. of 
 Athens) of about six miles in length, and from three 
 miles to one and one-half miles in breadth, surrounded 
 on all sides, except towards the sea, by high rocky hills. 
 Hippias, who accompanied the Persians, pointed out 
 this plain, and stated that it would afford a fine oppor- 
 tunity for them to manoeuvre their cavalry. The whole 
 Persian force amounted to 110,000, of which 100,000 
 were infantry. 
 
 As soon as the fall of Eretria was announced at 
 Athens, a courier was sent to Sparta in all haste to ask 
 for aid. The Spartans promised it, but failed to keep 
 their promise through superstition, as it wanted but a 
 few days of the full moon, and it was contrary to their 
 custom to begin a maich at such times. So the 
 Athenians were compelled to fight by themselves.^ The 
 Athenian force, numbering 10,000 infantry, was under 
 
 1 ApoUo and Artemis were the especial guardians of Delos. 
 • 1,000 Flataeans joined the Athenians just before the battle. 
 
32 
 
 MARATHON. 
 
 the control of the ten persons who alternated in com- 
 mand, each one holding the power for one day. Mil- 
 tiades, one of the ten, was thought by his colleagues to 
 be the most efficient general, and was invested by them 
 with supreme command. He advanced to Marathon, 
 and drew up his forces on the rising ground above tlie 
 plain, with the rear and both flanks protected by high 
 hills. 
 
 For nine days the armies stood facing each other 
 without moving. On the morning of the 12th of Sep- 
 tember, when the supreme command would have regu- 
 larly fallen to him, Miltiades ordered the Athenians to 
 advance to the attack. His forces were arranged so 
 
 o 
 
 that members of the same tribe fought side by side, 
 thus stimulating and encouraging one another. The 
 battle lasted for many hours. The Athenian wings were 
 successful from the first, and drove their opponents 
 towards the shore. But the enemy's centre, where were 
 massed picked troops, stood finn. Here the struggle 
 was the fiercest, and the Greeks were repulsed. Mil- 
 tiades then ordered the victorious wings to return from 
 the pursuit, and to make a combined attack upon the 
 Peraian centre in the rear. 
 
 The Persians were now speedily routed, and fled to 
 their ships, on which they embarked and put out to 
 sea. 
 
 In this memorable battle the Athenians lost 192; 
 the Persians, 6,400. The Athenian dead were buried on 
 the field of battle in a large imound, which can bo seen 
 to this day. 
 
 The departure of the Persians was hailed with great 
 joy at Athens. Marathon was ever after a magic word. 
 There was good reason to be jjroud of it, as it was the 
 
 DISGRACE OF MILTIADES. 
 
 33 
 
 fii-st time that the Greeks had ever defeated the Persians 
 in battle. If the Persians had conquered at Marathon, 
 Greece would probably have become a Persian prov- 
 ince, and the destinies of all Europe might have been 
 changed. 
 
 MUtiades, the hero of Marathon, was received at 
 Athens with the greatest honor. A sepai-ate monument 
 was erected to him on the battle-field. It would have 
 been fortunate for him if his career had ended here. 
 The Athenians placed great confidence in him, which 
 he abused; for, in order to avenge a private hatred 
 against the inhabitants of Paroa, he asked his country- 
 men for a fleet of seventy ships, without telling them 
 the reason of the request. The ships were given him, 
 but he failed in his attempt to take the island, and waa 
 obliged to return home without accomplishing any 
 thing. The Athenians were very indignant, and con- 
 demned him to pay a fine of $50,000, the cost of fitting 
 out the fleet. Being unable to pay this fine, he was 
 thrown into prison, where he died soon after from the 
 eflTects of a wound received at Paros. His son Cimon 
 paid the fine. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Preparations, on the part op Athens and thk 
 Persians, for the Second Persian Invasion. 
 
 Aristeides and Themistocles. 
 
 Soon after the battle of Marathon, a war broke out 
 between Athens and -^sjina. 
 
 The importance of this war was that it caused the 
 Athenians to feel the necessity of a large naval force, 
 the advantage of which the ^ginetans had seen before, 
 and consequently already possessed a fine navy. 
 
 Ten years intervened between the first and second 
 Persian invasion. The time was occupied in active 
 preparations on the part of the Greeks. Athens espe- 
 cially strengthened her power by increasing her navy, 
 and training her citizens to be more eflScient sailors. 
 
 Themistocles and Aristeides were the most distin- 
 guished men of Athens at this time. They were both 
 of marked ability, but forming a striking contrast to 
 each other. 
 
 Aristeides was a man of such incorruptible virtue 
 that he was called the "Just." He could not be induced 
 to swerve from what he considered the path of duty, 
 either by any prospect of advantage to himself or the 
 state. He was a little too rigid, however, in his adher- 
 ence to the old school of Athenians. In fact, he was 
 BO averse to any modifications in the customs of the 
 
 ARISTEIDES AND THEMISTOCLES, 35 
 
 people that, if his policy had been always followed, 
 Athens would have fared very badly. The youn<y 
 Athenians soon began to regard him as an old conser- 
 vative. 
 
 Themistocles, on the other hand, was of much more 
 brilliant genius. He belonged to the new school, and 
 was an advocate of such changes as seemed for the 
 advantage of the state. With his unusual powers of 
 foresight, with his energy and boldness in executing 
 plans, with his insight into the purposes of the enemy, 
 and skill in thwarting them, with the eloquence of an 
 orator at his command, it is not strange that he became 
 one of the ablest statesmen of Athens. 
 
 Nevertheless Themistocles was not as honest as his 
 rival. He was wily and tricky, passionate and selfish, 
 and open to bribery. 
 
 As an advocate of progress, he became very popular, 
 and of course was a bitter rival of Aristeides, whose 
 ostracism he was instrumental in bringing about in 
 482 B.O. 
 
 There was at this time a large surplus in the treasury, 
 arising from the produce of valuable silver mines at 
 Mount Laurium, in south-eastern Attica. Themis- 
 tocles persuaded the Athenians to spend this surplus 
 on a fleet of 200 ships, and also to pass a decree that 
 twenty new ships should be built every year. 
 
 The defeat of the Persians at Marathon only made 
 Darius the more eager to punish Athens. He now re- 
 solved to collect all tht forces of his empire and march 
 against the city. But in the midst of his preparations 
 he died, 486 b.c. 
 
 Xerxes succeeded to the throne. He was not a war- 
 like prince like his father, but eflfeminate and fond of 
 
36 
 
 PREPARATIONS OF XERXES. 
 
 ease. He would have given up the preparations already 
 begun against Greece, bad not his general, Mardonius, 
 been pressing in his desire to wipe out the disgrace of 
 Marathon. 
 
 Xerxes spent four years in collecting an immense 
 army, made up of forty-six different nations, amounting 
 to 2,000,000 men. His fleet consisted of 1,200 triremes 
 and 3,000 smaller vessels, manned by 500,000 men. 
 While he was collecting these forces, he had a bridge 
 built across the Hellespont, where it was one mile wide, 
 between Abydos and Sestos. 
 
 We saw in a previous chapter that a fleet of the 
 Persians had been destroyed by a stoi-m off Mount 
 Athos. To avoid this dangerous promontory, Xerxes 
 ordered a canal to be built through the isthmus con- 
 necting Mount Athos and the mainland. This canal 
 was 1 1-2 miles long, and wide enough for two triremes 
 to go abreast. Traces of it can be seen at the present 
 time. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Second Persian Invasion". 
 
 THEEMOPYLfi, July, 480 b.c. 
 
 Xeexes spent the winter of 481 and 480 b.c. in 
 Sardis, and in the early spring set out with his vast 
 Lost for Greece-* 
 
 For seven days and seven nights the army was pass- 
 ing the bridge over the Hellespont. Xerxes here re- 
 viewed them, and is said to have wept at the thought 
 that so vast a host would all be gone in a hundred 
 yeai*s. 
 
 From the Hellespont they marched along the coast 
 of Thrace, compelling the towns on their route to fur- 
 nish them meals. It took $400,000 to provide this 
 luxury ; thus it was no small tax upon a place. From 
 Thrace they passed through Macedonia and Thessalia to 
 the pass of Thermopylae. 
 
 The fleet sailed along the coast of Thrace, near the 
 army, until it arrived off Mount Athos. Here it passed 
 through the canal mentioned above, and, weathering 
 the other two Chalcidian peninsulas, it steered for the 
 northern coast of Eubcea. 
 
 The report of this immense armament frightened 
 most of the Greek states so much, that they did not 
 dare to make any preparations for defence. The only 
 states north of the Peloponnesus that remained faithful 
 
88 
 
 TIIERMOPYLJE, 
 
 to their country were Attica, Phocla, and the cities ol 
 Plataeae and Thespiae ; also the island of iEgina. In the 
 Peloponnesus the Spartans took the most active part. 
 These states, together with Thessalia, held a congress 
 to fix upon a spot most suitable for making a stand 
 against the Persians. The pass of Tempo, in northern 
 Thessalia, and ThermopylaB on the Maliac gulf, were 
 tlie two most feasible spots for resistance. The latter 
 was chosen. 
 
 Thermopyl^, July, 480 B.C. 
 
 "Thermopylae {Hot Gates) lay between Mount 
 (Eta and an inaccessible morass, forming the e<lge of 
 the Maliac gulf. At one end of the pass the mountain 
 approached so close to the morass as to leave room for 
 only a single carriage between. This narrow entrance 
 formed the west gate of Thermopylae. About a milo 
 to the east the mountain again approached close to the 
 sea, thus forming the east gate. The space between 
 these two gates was wider and more open, and was 
 distinguished by its abundant flow of hot springs; 
 hence the name of the place." 
 
 The Greeks sent their whole allied fleet, under com- 
 mand of the Spartan admiral Eurybiades, to the north- 
 em coast of Euboia, and stationed it off Artemisium, 
 where it commanded the entrance to the Maliac gulf. 
 Only a small land force was sent to Thennopylie, under 
 command of Leonidaa, king of Sparta. His forces 
 numbered but little over 5,000; of these only 300 
 were Spartans. 
 
 Meanwhile Xerxes had arrived near Thermopylae. 
 Although he had heard that a few men proposed to 
 make a stand against him at this pass, yet he could 
 
 THERMOPYLAE. 
 
 39 
 
 hardly believe it, and waited four days for them to dis- 
 perse. On the fifth day he ordered picked troops to 
 advance and drive back the Greeks. But to no purpose. 
 Leonidas and his gallant followers held their position, 
 with gi*eat loss to the enemy. The next day the attack 
 was renewed, with the same results. Xerxes began to 
 despair, when Ephialtes, a Malian, informed him of a 
 mountain path by which the Persians were enabled to 
 fall upon the rear of the Greeks. 
 
 When Leonidas found out that this path had been 
 made known to Xerxes, he permitted most of his 
 troops to return home, retaining only the Spartans and 
 700 Thespians. 
 
 He dressed himself in his royal garments, oflered 
 sacrifices to the gods of Sparta, supj)ed with his 300 
 warriors ; and, before the body of Persians could amve 
 to attack him in the rear, advanced with his little band 
 against the countless numbers of the foe. 
 
 The Spartans had no hope of victory, but were 
 anxious only to sell their lives as dearly as possible. 
 
 Leonidas fell with his companions. On the tomb 
 erected to his memory was the following inscription : 
 " Stranger, tell the Spartans that we lie here in obedi- 
 ence to their commands.'* 
 
SALAMIS. 
 
 41 
 
 CHAPTER yil. 
 
 Artemisium, July, 480 B.a 
 
 Sal AMIS, September 20, 480 b.c. 
 
 When the Persian fleet arrived ofl* Artemisium, tlie? 
 saw for the first time the Greek ships of war (271 in 
 number). 
 
 Preparation was immediately made to force an en- 
 trance through the straits of Euripus, between Eubcea 
 and the mainland. Then followed three naval engage- 
 ments without any decisive advantage to either side ; 
 but as soon as the Greeks heard of the result of Ther- 
 mopylaB, they withdrew through the straits of Euripus, 
 taking along with them as many of the unfortunate 
 inhabitants of Eubcea as they could. 
 
 Athens was now threatened with immediate destruc- 
 tion. In six days Xerxes would appear with his army. 
 The inhabitants left their homes and fled, — some to 
 Salamis, some to TrcBzen. 
 
 Meanwhile the Persian monarch was on the march 
 from Thermopylae. Only the inhabitants of Phocis, 
 Thespiae, and Plataeae, refused to acknowledge his 
 power. Here he found deserted villages and houses. 
 As he passed tln-ough Phocis, he sent a body of troops 
 to Delphi to plunder the temple. As the soldiers were 
 marching up the path, at the base of Mount Parnassus, 
 a violent thunder tempest arose, causing crags to roll 
 
 down the mountain side, and spreading dismay among 
 the ranks. Seized with panic, they turned and fled, 
 abandoning all further attempts upon the temple. 
 When Xerxes arrived at Athens, he found the city 
 deserted, except by a few desperate men. He burned 
 all the buildings on the Acropolis. At the same time 
 tlie Persian fleet, consisting of 1,000 sail, arrived in the 
 bay of Phalerum, off Athens. 
 
 The combined Greek fleet under Eurybiades, consist- 
 ing of 366 ships, was stationed at Salamis. 200 of 
 these ships were Athenian, and commanded by Themis- 
 tocles. All of tlie Greek commanders, except Thcmis- 
 tocles, wished to retreat to the isthmus of Corinth, 
 and there co-operate with the land forces. But he said 
 no^ for, if a battle was fought in the bay of Salamis, the 
 large Persian fleet could not manoeuvre, and the smaller 
 Greek fleet would have the advantage. At first he 
 persuaded Eurybiades to order the fleet to remain at 
 Salamis, but the other commanders were so dissatisfied 
 that another council was called. Themistocles then had 
 recourse to stratagem. He sent a trusty slave, who 
 knew the Persian language, to inform Xerxes of the 
 dissensions among the Greeks, and tell him how easy it 
 would be to surround and conquer a fleet so small and 
 disunited. Xerxes followed the advice, and ordered his 
 forces to close up the straits of Salamis at both ends 
 during the night. The next morning (September 20) 
 the Persian fleet was seen stretchinnr alono: the coast 
 as fiir as eye could reach. Xerxes had a silver-footed 
 throne erected on a high hill, on the mainland opposite 
 the bay of Salamis, where he could see the contest and 
 encourage his men. His land forces were drawn up on 
 the right. Both sides prepared for a most determired 
 
42 
 
 SALAMIS. 
 
 struggle. The last hope of the Greeks was in the 
 annihilation of tlic foe; and behind them stood on the 
 heisrhts of Salarnis their wives and children, who would 
 be sold into slavery, if the Persians were victorious. 
 
 The Persians made the first general attack, driving 
 the Greeks back upon Salarnis. But the latter soon 
 advanced again, and then ensued a fierce battle. The 
 barbarians, depending upon mere numbers, fought with- 
 out any systematic order ; while the Greeks held to- 
 gether in squadrons. The size of the Persian fleet was 
 its own destruction. Tliey were too crowded to do 
 efficient service, and thus the more easily fell a prey to 
 the Greeks. Ariabignea, the admiral and brother of 
 Xerxes, and other men of rank, fell in the fight. Tlie 
 fleet lost confidence in itself, and began to retreat to 
 the bay of Plialerum. 
 
 Aristeides, who had been viewing the battle, with a 
 band of armed citizens, from Salamis, now landed on 
 the island of Psyttaleia, where were stationed a body 
 of picked Persians, and, falling upon them, cut them to 
 pieces. Two hours after sunset the moon rose to favor 
 the last moments of pursuit, and light up for the Greeks 
 the bay of Salamis, abandoned by the Persians, and 
 densely covered with fragments of vessels and bodies 
 of the dead. 
 
 Athough this victory was a brilliant one, yet, if 
 Xerxes had been any thing but the veriest coward, the 
 Greeks would have been no better off than before. He 
 still had his immense army unimpaired, and full three- 
 quarters of his fleet ; but the boastfid arrogance of the 
 great king was broken down. He lost confidence in 
 his men, and his heart sunk at the possibility of being 
 surrounded in a hostile land. Hence it was not strange 
 
 SALAMIS. 
 
 43 
 
 that he believed the story of Themistocles, that the 
 bridge over the Hellespont might be destroyed, and 
 thus his retreat cut ofi". 
 
 Accordingly he immediately made preparations to 
 depart, and ordered the fleet to sail for tlie Hellespont. 
 He left the best of his land forces (300,000), under com- 
 mand of Mardonius, to complete the subjugation of 
 Greece, so ingloriously begun. 
 
CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 Plat^ile, September, 479 B.C. 
 
 The departure of Xerxes gave the Greeks just cause 
 for rejoicing. Gifts were vowed to the gods, and prizes 
 distributed. Honors were heaped upon Themistocles 
 at Sparta. Together with Eurybiades, he was publicly 
 crowned with -a wreath, presented with a splendid 
 chariot, and conducted solemnly by 300 Spartan 
 knights as far as the frontier of the land. All these 
 honors were not such as would create a favorable im- 
 pression at Athens. At any rate, either for this or 
 some other reason, the influence of Aristeides again 
 became predominant. In the spring of 479 B.C. he 
 was elected commander-in-chief of the Athenian land 
 
 forces. 
 
 Mardonius spent the winter of 480-79 b.c. in Thes- 
 salia. From the first his conduct was marked by ex- 
 treme caution. He passed the time in forming such 
 connections as he could with Greek states, and especially 
 in negotiating with the Athenians. He even offered to 
 rebuild their city and temples, if they would make a 
 common cause with him. Aristeides was now the one 
 to come forward and take a firm stand. Through him 
 the Athenians declared that they would not barter 
 away their liberty for any treasures in the world ; that 
 they were the enemies of the Persians, and would remain 
 
 PL A TuE^. 
 
 45 
 
 Buch as long as the sun pursued its course. In May, 
 479 B.C., Mardonius advanced towards the south, and in 
 July reoccupied Athens. Again the Athenians were 
 compelled to leave their homes and undergo the pri- 
 vations attendant upon emigration. After devastating 
 the whole of Attica, Mardonius passed back over 
 Cithasron into Boeotia, where, in the meadows of the 
 Asopus near Plataeae, there would V»e a favorable oppor- 
 tunity for the management of his oavalry. 
 
 ^ Meanwhile the Peloponnesiaus had joined the Athe- 
 nians at Eleusis. The commander-in-chief of both was 
 Pausanias, king of Sparta, who was a man of genius 
 and great ambition. The forces in all amounted to 
 some 110,000 troops: of these, Athens sent 8,000, led 
 by Aristeides. It was the largest combined army that 
 Greece ever raised, but it contained no cavalry. These 
 forces marched into Boeotia, and met Mardonius and 
 his troops near Platajae. The armies confronted one 
 another for ten days, neither having the courage to 
 take the initiative. At last the Persians began to 
 suflTer from the want of supplies, and determined to 
 make an attack. The result of the battle was doubtful 
 for a long time. Great bravery was shown on both 
 sides. At last the combat was decided by the heavy 
 armor and coolness of the Spartans. The Persians 
 gave way ; and when Mardonius himself fell, all resist- 
 ance was at an end. 
 
 In another part of the field the Athenians had hot 
 work with the Greek allies of Mardonius, but finally 
 Aristeides succeeded in driving back the ranks of the 
 foe. In this memorable fight, both Athens and Sparta 
 proved themselves the leading champions of Greece. 
 The victory of Plataeae was the most decisive of the 
 
46 
 
 PL A t^je:. 
 
 whole war ; for Marathon and Salamis had only broken 
 the courage of the enemy, while here his power was 
 annihilated. With a loflier pride than ever before, the 
 Greeks recoirnized the contrast between themselves and 
 the barbarians, and never was their country stronger 
 than on the battle-liuld of Plataeaj. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Mycale, September, 479 B.a 
 Rebuilding op Athens. 
 
 iMaiEDiATELY after the flight of Xerxes from Salamis, 
 Themistocles sailed with the Athenian fleet over the 
 ^gean, visiting the ishmds and compelling them to 
 pay tributes. He returned to Athens with large stores 
 of money. Emboldened by this, the Athenians with 
 Bome allies sent out, in the* early spring, while Mar- 
 donius was still in Thessalia, a fleet of 110 sail, under 
 Leotychides and Xanthippus. In the mean time a 
 Persian fleet of 300 ships had anchored ofl* Samos, 
 and a land army was being collected at Mycale. 
 Xerxes himself remained near Sardis, to await the final 
 result of the operations of Mardonius. The Greek 
 fleet made for Samos. Upon their arrival, the Persians 
 retreated to the promontory of Mycale, disembarked, 
 drew their ships ashore, and with the land army strongly 
 entrenched themselves. The Greeks, however, followed 
 them, and, in spite of showers of arrows, advanced 
 against the fortified encampment. A hand-to-hand 
 fight then ensued, resulting in the total rout of the 
 Persians. This victory is said to have been gained on 
 the same day as that ot* PlataeaB. 
 
 One of the results of Mycale was that Greece 
 obtained the control of all the islands near the coast 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
46 
 
 PLATjEJU. 
 
 whole war ; for Marathon and Salamis had only broken 
 the courage of the enemy, while here his power was 
 annihilated. With a loftier pride than ever before, the 
 Greeks recognized the contrast between themselves and 
 the barbarians, and never was their country stronger 
 than on the battle-held of PlatiEOB. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Mycale, September, 479 b.c. 
 Rebuilding op Athens. 
 
 Immediately after the flight of Xerxes from Salamis, 
 Tliemistocles sailed with the Athenian fleet over the 
 ^gean, visiting the islands and compelling them to 
 pay tributes. He returned to Athens with large stores 
 of money. Emboldened by this, the Athenians with 
 some allies sent out, in the* early spring, while Mar- 
 donius was still in Thessalia, a fleet of 110 sail, under 
 Leotychides and Xanthippus. In the mean time a 
 Persian fleet of 300 ships had anchored ofi* Samos, 
 and a land army was being collected at Mycale. 
 Xerxes himself remained near Sard is, to await the final 
 result of the operations of Mardonius. The Greek 
 fleet made for Samos. Upon their arrival, the Persians 
 retreated to the promontory of Mycale, disembarked, 
 drew their ships ashore, and with the land army strongly 
 entrenched themselves. The Greeks, however, followed 
 them, and, in spite of showers of arrows, advanced 
 against the fortified encampment. A hand-to-hand 
 fight then ensued, resulting in the total rout of the 
 Persians. This victory is said to have been gained on 
 the same day as that of Plataeae. 
 
 One of the results of Mycale was that Greece 
 obtained the control of all the islands near the coast 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
48 
 
 REBUILDING OF ATHENS. 
 
 REBUILDING OF ATHENS. 
 
 49 
 
 But Sestos, a strong fortress on the Hellespont, waa 
 still in the hands of the Persians. To this place the 
 Athenian fleet under Xanthippus sailed, laid siege to 
 the town, and after a protracted resistance starved it 
 out (478 B.C.). Thus the Chersonesus was liberated, 
 and ample spoils carried home. 
 
 How fared Athens during this time? Her walls 
 gone, her houses burned, — nothing but ashes and ruins. 
 A sad prospect indeed to the inhabitants as they re- 
 turned to their city, and endeavored as best they could 
 to make the hardships of the coming winter endurable. 
 As soon as the spring opened, all possible haste was 
 made for the restoration of the city. To Themistocles 
 everybody looked as a head. It was through his un- 
 tiring energy that Athens rose so soon from her ruins, 
 stronger and greater than before. But she was not 
 allowed to recover her strength in peace. The Pelopon- 
 nesians, especially Sparta, fearing that Athens would 
 outstrip all the rest, resolved at any price to prevent 
 the building of walls around the city. They sent am- 
 bassadors to demand of the Athenians the cessation of 
 building. At this critical moment, the craft of Them- 
 istocles was of avail. He ordered immediate com- 
 pliance with the demands ; and, pretending submissive- 
 ness, repaired himself to Sparta, in order to treat with 
 the Spartans in person. On his arrival there, he kept 
 deferring the time of negotiations from day to day, 
 excusing himself on the ground that his fellow-envoys 
 had not yet arrived. 
 
 Meanwhile at Athens, all, young and old, male and 
 female, were working unceasingly to complete the 
 walls. As soon as they reached a height sufficient for 
 defending the city, the other envoys joined Themisto- 
 
 cles, and shortly after they openly informed the Spar- 
 tans of the progress of the work. The enemies of 
 Athens were then obliged to acquiesce in what had 
 been done. Two years after the battle of Plataete, the 
 Acropolis ^ and lower city were enclosed by walls sixty 
 feet high. Also the Peirajeus,* at a distance of four 
 and one-half miles from Athens, was surrounded by 
 a wall thirty feet high, sixteen feet thick, and seven 
 miles in length. At the mouth of each of the harbors 
 a pair of towers was erected, opposite to each other and 
 BO near together that they could be connected by 
 chains. Thus the harbors could be locked up and all 
 invaders kept at bay. The Peiraseus itself became 
 a busy town, even rivalling Athens. To Themistocles 
 is due this remarkable change, effected in so short a 
 time ; and when we learn of his final career, we shall 
 be the more surprised that a man who had done so 
 much for his native city could at last become a traitor. 
 
 » See Chapter XIV. 
 
PAUSANIAS, 
 
 61 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Pausanias. The Confederacy op Delos. 
 
 In the spring of 477 b.c, a combined fleet of 100 
 ships set sail from Greece, directing their course towards 
 the island of Cyprus, which, on account of its vast 
 resources, was indispensable to the Persians. Of this 
 fleet the Athenians furnished thirty sail, under com- 
 mand of Aristeides and Cimon, the son of Miltiades. 
 The chief command of the whole fleet was given to 
 Pausanias. 
 
 Cyprus possessed admirable facilities for trade and 
 commerce. To turn these facilities to their own ad- 
 vantage, the Persians had stationed garrisons in the 
 towns of the island. Notwithstanding these numerous 
 garrisons, the Greek fleet accomplished, before the sum- 
 mer was far spent, the partial liberation of the whole 
 island. But, instead of completing their work here, 
 they resolved to sail against Byzantium (Constantinople) 
 before the cold weather of autumn and winter set in. 
 
 Byzantium was a stronglv fortified place, where tlie 
 Persians had deposited, for dafe keeping, a large store 
 of treasures. The garrison were wholly unprepared for 
 resistance, as they did not expect an attack from an 
 enemy supposed to be engaged in Cyprus. The place 
 was stormed without difficulty by the Greeks. An 
 immense booty fell into their hands, and many Persians 
 of high rank. 
 
 Such good fortune was too much for Pausanias. Con- 
 tinued success made him vain-glorious and desirous 
 of still greater power. He could not submit to the 
 idea of again being under the control of the Ephors at 
 home, and resolved at any price to free himself from 
 such unpleasant connections. 
 
 To carry out his wishes, he needed the co-operation 
 of Xerxes. 
 
 Accordingly he allowed the noblest of the prisoners 
 to escape ; then wrote to Xerxes, declaring that it was 
 his fondest wish to bring Greece under the control of 
 the great king. 
 
 Xerxes eagerly entered into his plans, and sent one 
 of his friends to treat with him. The pride of Pausanias 
 now knew no bounds. He displayed his plans with 
 foolish boldness, arrayed himself with all the pomp and 
 show of the Persians, was accompanied by an Egyptian 
 and Median body-guard, treated his soldiers with lordly 
 arrogance, and in every way acted the part of a cruel 
 tyrant. 
 
 The result of all this was that the Greek forces 
 became discontented; especially the lonians and Athe- 
 nians, whose indignation knew no bounds. 
 
 In striking contrast to the arrogant Pausanias stood 
 forth the simple and honest Aristeides, always calm and 
 impartial, devoted only to the best interests of his 
 country. By his side stood Cimon, a man of great 
 liberality, friendly and courteous to all. 
 
 Meanwhile rumors of the outrageous conduct of 
 Pausanias reached Sparta. Accordingly the Ephoi-s 
 summoned him home to give an account of himself! 
 The Peloponnesian fleet also returned with him. 
 
 As soon as Pausanias departed, the lonians, who 
 
62 
 
 CONFEDERACY OF DELOS. 
 
 formed an important part of the combined fleet, re- 
 warded Aiisteides with the command of it (in the 
 spring of 476 B.C.). 
 
 This is an event of great importance, as it gave to 
 Athens the leadership by sea, previously held by 
 Sparta. 
 
 An offensive and defensive league was then formed 
 by Athens, through the instrumentality of Aristeides, 
 with the islands of the ^gean, and the Ionian cities on 
 the western coast of Asia Minor, against the power of 
 Persia. 
 
 This league was called the CoNrKDEBACT of J[)elos. 
 The original idea of this confederacy was a free league. 
 The island of Delos was made the centre. There a 
 congress, consisting of delegates from all the members 
 of the league, was to sit every year, and there the 
 treasury to be, into which the annual sum of 460 talents 
 (about $500,000) was contributed. Athens was to be 
 considered the head of this confederacy, with however 
 no more real power than the other members. 
 
 Such was the original idea of the confederacy. But 
 Athens soon changed her nominal leadership to a 
 sovereignty. At first any state or city could join the 
 confederacy or leave it at will, but ere long Athens 
 obtained such power that she did not allow any state to 
 leave it ; and if they made the attempt, as some did, she 
 reduced them by force of arms. Next the treasury 
 was transferred from Delos to Athens, and the annual 
 meetings of the congress discontinued. Finally Athens 
 appropriated to her own use the money and ships of 
 the allies, and the members of the league were treated 
 as Athenian subjects, instead of allies. These changes, 
 while they increased the apparent power of Athens, 
 
 CONFEDERACY OF DELOS. 
 
 53 
 
 at the same time aroused a feeling of deep discontent 
 among the other members of the league, and finally 
 turned to her disaster. Such was the origin and brief 
 history of the Confederacy of Delos, which was the 
 beginning of the Athenian leadership, a leadership last- 
 ing for three-quarters of a century, during a period 
 most brilliant in Athenian history. 
 
 Sparta and the Peloponnesus took no part in form- 
 ing this league; but they looked with eyes fu*l of 
 envy upon the rapid growth of Athens. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 Pausanias. Themistocles. Aristeides. 
 
 After the recall from Byzantium, Paiisanias did not 
 give up his plans there formed. He succeeded, by 
 means of bribes, in obtaining an acquittal of the charge 
 of high treason brought against him by his accusei-s. 
 He afterwards returned to Byzantium and renewed 
 his intrigues with Xerxes ; but again the Ephors called 
 him to an account for these actions, and he was obliged 
 to return home. Here, notwithstanding he was a 
 second time (471 B.C.) prosecuted for high treason, he 
 carried on unhindered his correspondence with Xerxes. 
 One of the slaves whom he sent with a letter to the 
 Persian king, noticing that those previously sent on 
 the same errand had never returned, opened the letter, 
 and found, among other things, an order for his own 
 death. He gave the letter to the Ephors, who at last 
 ordered the arrest of Pausanias. He fled to a temple 
 for refuge. Here, as it was against the divine law to 
 lay hands upon him, he was walled in, and not carried 
 out until at the point of starvation, that by his death 
 he might not pollute the sacred place. 
 
 Themistocles, as we saw, immediately after the battle 
 of Salamis, was very popular among the Spartans. His 
 subsequent deception practised upon them, in order 
 that Athens might be walled, cost him much of this 
 
 THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 55 
 
 popularity. At home, too, he acted in a proud and 
 vain-glorious manner. He caused a statue of him- 
 self to be set up in his own house. On every occa- 
 sion his harsh and imperious self-will was manifest. 
 This personal vanity offended the fine tastes of the 
 Athenians, and gradually he became less and less popu- 
 lar, until in 471 b.c. he was banished. He retired to 
 Argos. Shortly after the Ephors at Sparta found 
 proofs convicting him of a share in the guilt of Pau- 
 sanias. Themistocles was obliged to flee like a com- 
 mon criminal from one place of refuge to another. 
 Finally he crossed the -^gean, and repaired to the 
 court of Artaxerxes (son of Xerxes), 465 b.c. Here 
 he learned in a year the Persian tongue. He became 
 the king's companion and a person of decided influ- 
 ence. Magnesia on the Marauder was given him to 
 live in. An annual sum of $50,000 supported him. 
 Notwithstanding all this splendor, his lot was neither 
 happy nor peaceable. He had many enemies, who 
 were continually trying to undermine his influence with 
 the king, and his reckless boldness often exposed him 
 to danger. He died in 449 b.c, at the age of sixty-five. 
 His remains were afterwards carried back to Athens, 
 and secretly buried. 
 
 Aristeides died a few yeai*s after the banishment ot 
 Themistocles, 468 b.c. He is said to have been so 
 poor that the state paid the expenses of his funeral. 
 
 Thus ended the three great men of this generation. 
 Athens owed much to both Aristeides and Themistocles. 
 The former was the leader in the Confederacy of 
 Delos, such an important addition to the power of 
 the city. The latter was the statesman to whom she 
 owed, in a great measure, her internal growth and 
 
56 
 
 ARISTEIDES. 
 
 progress. Aristeides shared in the laurels of Plataew. 
 Themistocles won Salamis. The one, however, was a 
 conservative, and of no great military talent ; while 
 the dishonest conduct of the other led his countrymen 
 to distrust him. Both were great men, and in each we 
 can learn much to imitate and avoid. In Pausanias 
 we see the bad results of unrestrained ambition, joined 
 to an unscrupulous conscience. It would be unneces- 
 sary for us to take warning, perhaps, did we not see 
 every day, on a smaller scale, the same results arising 
 from the same causes. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CiMON. Battle of Eueymedon, 466 b.o 
 
 After the banishment of Themistocles (471 B.C.), 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, became the most influential 
 man at Athens. Cimon possessed great military talent. 
 He was frank and pleasing in his manners. His im- 
 mense wealth enabled him to bestow presents with un- 
 bounded liberality. The natural result of this was that 
 his popularity was marked. Shortly after the forming 
 of the Confederacy of Delos, Cimon had succeeded 
 Aristeides in the command of the combined fleet. His 
 first important action was the siege and capture of Eion 
 (475 B.C.), a town near the mouth of the Strymon. 
 This place was a stronghold of the Persians, and its 
 occupation of great importance to Athens. It also was 
 a key to the gold mines in southern Thrace, by which 
 the treasury at Athens was much enriched. The next 
 exploit of Cimon was the reduction of the island of 
 Bcyros off the coast of Eubcea, in 470 B.C. This island 
 afforded a fine naval station for the Athenian fleet. 
 
 Soon after this the first feelings of discontent are seen 
 among the members of the Confederacy of Delos. 
 NazoB, one of the members, revolted in 466 b.c, unable 
 to endure the growing oppressiveness of the Athenian 
 leadership. Cimon immediately attacked the island, 
 and after a blockade of some duration reduced it and 
 made it a mere tributary to Athens. In the same year 
 8» 
 
68 
 
 BATTLE OF EURYMEDON. 
 
 he proceeded with his fleet to the coast of Asia Minor, 
 expelled the Persians from several Greek cities in Caria 
 and Lydia, and finally met their combined land and 
 naval forces at the mouth of the river Eurymedon 
 in Pamphylia, where the Persians suflered a severe 
 defeat. 
 
 The results of this brilliant victory of Cimon were 
 that the cities of Lycia as far east as Pamphylia joined 
 the Confederacy of Delos. 
 
 The Athenians, in their attempt to extend their 
 dominion along the Thracian coast, were violently 
 opposed by the neighboring island of Thasos. Tlie 
 Thasians were an enterprising people of much wealth, 
 accruing: from their mines and extensive commerce. 
 They had control of the opposite mainland of Thrace, 
 and were especially enriched by the valuable gold 
 mines of Mount Pangaeus, near Eion. 
 
 The encroachments of the Athenians upon this terri- 
 tory (see above, capture of Eion) naturally aroused the 
 indignation of the Thasians. In 464 B.C. they openly 
 revolted from the Confederacy of Delos. 
 
 Cimon took command of the expedition against the 
 Thasians, who soon perceived that they would bo un- 
 able to withstand successfully his fleet, and accordingly 
 sent envoys to Sparta for aid. Here they met with a 
 favorable reception ; for, while Athens had been gain- 
 ing victory after victory, and extending her power from 
 year to year, Sparta had stood still with no increase 
 in strength or influence. 
 
 It was necessary therefore for Sparta to arouse her- 
 self and recover her former power and authority. Ac- 
 cordingly she promised immediate aid to Thasos ; but 
 before she could fulfil her promise a terrible calamity 
 
 CIMON. 
 
 69 
 
 occurred, which interrupted her preparations. This 
 was an earthquake (464 b.c.) of the most violent char- 
 acter. The city was all destroyed except a few houses. 
 At the same time the Helots revolted. The Thasians 
 were obliged to do without their promised help. They 
 maintained an obstinate struggle for more than two 
 years, until their resources were exhausted. Tlie 
 proud island was obliged to give up her navy, pull 
 down her walls, pay the expenses of the war, relin- 
 quish the rich mines of Thrace, and pay a regular 
 tribute to Athens. 
 
 Cimon now stood at the zenith of his fame, equalled 
 by no previous Athenian general. Ever since he suc- 
 ceeded Aristeides in the command of the fleet, his vic- 
 tories had been uninterrupted. Of aristocratic birth, 
 he naturally looked upon Sparta with more favor than 
 the Athenians in general. His policy was to maintain 
 an alliance with this city, and he often held her up 
 as an example worthy of imitation. To such a policy 
 the views of his predecessor, Themistocles, had been 
 directly opposed. These ideas of Themistocles were 
 still alive ; moreover, they had taken deep root in the 
 Athenian mind. Hence a party, large and constantly 
 growing, was soon opposed to Cimon. 
 
 The Spartans, unable to suppress the revolt of the 
 Helots, sent to Athens in 462 b.c. for aid, which the 
 Athenians would have refused, had not Cimon and his 
 adherents interceded in behalf of Sparta. Troops under 
 Cimon w^ere sent to Ithome, wiiere the Helots were 
 strongly entrenched. But because Cimon did not 
 immediately dislodge their rebellious subjects, the 
 Spartans began to suspect him of secretly helj)- 
 ing the enemy, and dismissed him with his army, on 
 
60 
 
 CIMON. 
 
 the ground that they had no further need of hia 
 Bervices. 
 
 Athens was stung to the quick by this insult. Her 
 alliance with Sparta was broken off. The indignation 
 was so deep that Cimon himself was banished shortly 
 afterwards (461 b.c.). 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Pericles. Tanagra, 457 b.c. 
 CEnophyta, 456 b.c. 
 
 As the influence of Cimon had declined, that of 
 Pericles increased. Pericles was the greatest of Athe- 
 nian statesmen. By birth he was one of the noblest 
 Athenians, a £, rand-nephew of Cleisthenes. He pos- 
 sessed an ample fortune, which was not spared in pre- 
 paring him carefully for the career of a statesman. The 
 most scholarly and ablest men of the age were employed 
 tp instruct him. Although connected on his mother's 
 side with the noble families of Athens, Pericles be- 
 longed to the popular party. He first appeared in 
 public about 469 b.c. He was an opponent of Cimon, 
 who was through his influence ostracized 461 b.c. The 
 ambition of Pericles aimed at securing for Athens the 
 first position in Greece by land as well as by sea. " He 
 resolved to make his native city the most illustrious in 
 the world ; and he fulfilled his resolution. He crowned 
 the Acropolis ^ with wonders of architecture which no 
 other city has approached; he filled the temples and 
 public squares with sculptures, whose fragments are the 
 teachers of modern artists, as they gaze upon them 
 with delight, wonder, and despair; he caused the mas- 
 terpieces of tragedy and comedy to crowd the Diony- 
 
 ^ See next chapter. 
 
62 
 
 TAN AGRA. 
 
 siac Theatre at the great festivals. He was moderate 
 in his counsels, and always opposed extravagant plans 
 of foreign conquest." Had he lived longer, the disasters 
 that befell Athens might have been averted. 
 
 The jealousy of Sparta was aroused to such a pitch 
 by the prosperity of her rival city, that towards the end 
 of the revolt of the Helots (which was finally put down 
 in 455 B.C.) she resolved to take some action. 
 
 Under pretence of assisting the Dorians, whose 
 temtory had been invaded by the Phocians, a large 
 force was sent into central Greece. But upon their 
 arrival the Spartans proceeded to caiTy out their real 
 designs ; viz., to prevent Athens from gaining any more 
 power in the other states of central Greece, especially 
 in Ba3otia. The Athenians, in whose breasts still 
 rankled the insults recently received at Ithome, were 
 ready for a trial at arms. The two parties met near 
 Tanagra, in the ejistern part of Ba?otia. Here a liard 
 battle ensued (457 B.C.), in which the Athenians were 
 defeated ; but the victory of the Spartans was not 
 decisive enough to give them any real advantage. 
 They made no further attempts, for the present, to 
 o})pose the progress of Athens. 
 
 On the eve of this battle, the banislied Cimon ap- 
 peared in the Athenian camp, and begged permission 
 of his countrymen to fight in their ranks as a common 
 soldier. His request was not granted. Whereupon he 
 left his armor with some friends, begging them to wipe 
 out by deeds of valor the stains under which he labored. 
 They set up the armor in their midst, and closing around 
 it fought with desperate courage. 
 
 This action of Cimon caused a change of public feel- 
 ing at Athens, and he was recalled from banishment. 
 
 (ENOPHYTA. 
 
 63 
 
 Athens did not allow Thebes, the centre of the 
 oligarchical party north of the Peloponnesus, and her 
 own opponent in all democratic measures, to profit by 
 the victory of the Spartans at Tanagra. 
 
 Two months later (early in 456 b.c.) Athenian forces 
 crossed over the mountains into Bceotia, and met the 
 Thebans near CEnophyta. This battle put an end to 
 the power of Thebes. The oligarchical governments 
 in all the towns of Bceotia were overthrown, and 
 democratic constitutions established in their place. 
 
 CEnophyta marks the era of Athens' highest pros- 
 perity. Her infiuence not only extended over central 
 Greece, and the islands and cities of the Confederacy 
 of Delos, but she also sent out colonies to distant 
 shores, and new towns arose at Amphipolis in Thrace, 
 Thurii in Italy, and elsewhere. But her prosperity was 
 not uninterrupted. Clouds began to appear on her 
 horizon, and stormy days were in store. In 449 b.c. 
 she lost her greatest general, Cimon, who died, as he 
 had always lived, opposing the power of Persia. Two 
 years later she was humbled on the field of Coroneia, 
 where she lost the flower of her youth and all her in- 
 fluence in Bceotia. The cities of Euboea followed the 
 example set by Bceotia, but with less success. 
 
 It was in these days so dark for Athens that the 
 ability of Pericles shone forth. It was his steady hand 
 that guided the ship of state safely in her dangerous 
 course. It was through his far-sighted policy and con- 
 summate statesmanship, that finally (445 b.c.) a peace of 
 thirty years was concluded between the diflferent powers 
 of Greece, and a treaty entered into with Persia, 
 
 For the next ten years an almost unbroken quiet 
 reigned at Athens. Occupations of peace were followed. 
 
64 
 
 A 1 HENS A T PEA CE. 
 
 Commerce thrived. LearniDg and the fine arts flourished. 
 Beautiful buildings were erected, and adorned with 
 exquisite sculptures and paintings, which the world has 
 never ceased to admu-e. All who excelled in literature 
 and arts resorted here for mutual improvement. Her 
 government was a truly democratic one, and her gates 
 open to alL 
 
•i 
 
 I 
 
CHAPTER XIV, 
 
 
 Athens; hek Buildings and Fortifications. 
 
 Athens was situated about four miles from the sea, 
 between two small rivers, the Cephissus on the west, 
 the IlisBus on the east. The beauty of the city was 
 chiefly owing to its public buildings. At this time it 
 contained about 100,000 inhabitants. It consisted of 
 two distinct parts ; viz., the city (astu) proper, and the 
 three harbor towns. The city proper was also divided 
 into the Acropolis (upper city) and the lower city. 
 Both the city proper and the harbor towns were sur- 
 rounded by walls. (See Chapter IX., last paragraph.) 
 
 The Acropolis was a steep rock, near the centre of 
 the city proper, 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 
 feet broad. Before the Persian invasions, it had been 
 inhabited like the city proper, but subsequently it was 
 appropriated entirely to the worship of the guardian 
 gods and goddesses of Athens, especially to Athena 
 (Minerva). The only approach to the Acropolis was 
 on the western side, by a flight of magnificent marble 
 steps, seventy feet broad, at the head of which stood 
 the Propylsea, or " The Entrances," erected under the 
 direction of Pericles. It was built wholly of the finest 
 marble, and was a fitting entrance to the beautiful 
 works within. The finest building on the Acropolis 
 was the Parthenon, the greatest work of Greek archi- 
 tecture. It was erected in honor of the virgin (Parthe- 
 
66 
 
 BUILDINGS AT ATHENS. 
 
 nos) Athena, the guardian goddess of the city. Within 
 the Parthenon was a large statue of Athena, made of 
 gold and ivory. Its height was forty feet. The goddess 
 was represented standing with a spear in her left hand 
 and an image of victory in her right. Another magnif- 
 icent building was the Erechtheium, or temple of Erech- 
 theus, a god who, with Athena, was the protecting 
 deity of Athens. There was also on the Acropolis an 
 immense statue of Athena in bronze. It was called 
 Athena Fromachos, because it represented the goddess 
 armed and ready for battle. It towered above the Par- 
 thenon, and the crest of its helmet could be seen off 
 the promontory of Sunium by sailors as they ap- 
 proached the city. This statue was in a good state of 
 preservation 900 years after (400 a.d.), and frightened 
 away one of the barbarian kings who came to attack 
 Athens. Immediately in front of the Propylaja on the 
 right of one entering, was the temple of Nike ApteroB 
 (wingless victory), erected in commemoration of the 
 victory of Cimon at Eurymed^n 
 
 The Theseium was situated on a hill to the north-west 
 of the Acropolis, and was built to receive the bones of 
 Theseus, which Cimon brought from Scyros, in 469 b.c. 
 It is the best preserved of all the temples of ancient 
 Athens. The temple of Olympian Zeus was a gigantic 
 structure, in the south-eastern part of the city, near the 
 Ilissus. 
 
 Directly west of the Acropolis was the Areiopagus, 
 or Mars' hill, so called because Mars (Ares) was tried 
 here for murder by the assembled gods. A senate met 
 here called the Council of the Areiopagus. From this 
 hill the Apostle Paul preached to the Athenians. The 
 Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the 
 
 FORTIFICATIONS OF ATHENS. 67 
 
 Athenians, was on the side of a low rockv hill of the 
 same name, about a quarter of a mile to" the west of 
 the Acropolis. There still stands a solid block of 
 granite hewn out of the hill, called the Bema, from 
 which the Atlienian orators addressed the people Near 
 the base of these three hills (Acro,>olis, Areiopaous, 
 and l„yx) was the Agora, or market-place, - a lar^re 
 square where the Athenians transacted their business!' 
 The Theatre of Dionysus (Bacchus) occupied the 
 slope at the south-eastern extremity of the Acropolife 
 The rows of seats ascended in curves one above another 
 as they do in our modern theatres, and were cut out 
 of the solid rock of the hill. It was large enou-h to 
 accommodate all the citizens of Athens, and many 
 strangers besides. 
 
 Outside of the walls of the city, about a mile to the 
 west, were the gardens of the Academy, where the 
 great scholars of Atliens walked and conversed. 
 
 Pheidias (490-432 n.c.) was the great sculi)tor and 
 artist of tliis age. lie suj)* rintended all the works of 
 art on the Acropolis, and built, with his own hands, the 
 statue of Athena, wliich was within the Parthenon. 
 
 The city harbors were connected to the city proper 
 by walls. There were three harbors; viz., Peir^eus, 
 Munychia, and Phalerum. The Phaleric wall, connect- ^ 
 ing the city i>roi)er with Phalerum, was four miles long. 
 The Long Walls, connecting the city proper wit1i 
 Peira}eus and Munychia, were four and one Iialf miles 
 long, running j)arallel at a distance of 550 feet from 
 each other. They were sixty feet high, and tliick 
 enough for two chariots to drive abreast on them. Tlie 
 street formed by tliese Long Walls was lined with 
 buildings on either side. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 The Causes of the Peloponnesian Wab, 
 
 These were twofold, general and particular. 
 
 The general causes were the jealousy and hatred of 
 the cities of Greece, especially of Sparta, caused by the 
 constant prosperity and unparalleled growth of Athens. 
 
 The particular causes were numerous, the most im- 
 portant of which we shall proceed to enumerate. 
 
 Troubles between Corinth and Corcyra. Corcyra 
 was an island of great prosperity and wealth, which 
 had been originally settled by the Corinthians. Fifteen 
 miles north of the Acrocoraunian i)romontory was 
 situated Epidamnus (afterwards Dyrrhachium, and now 
 Durazzo), founded by Corcyra. Epidamnus had a lucra- 
 tive commerce with Illyricum, and was full of slaves 
 and an industrious population of foreigners. The noble 
 families kept aloof from the common classes, and quar- 
 rels were constantly arising between the two parties. 
 Finally the former, having been driven from the city, 
 sought aid of the Illyrians, that they might force a 
 return to their homes. The Ejiidamnians accordingly 
 applied to Corcyra for help, but were refused on the 
 ground that the Corcyrajans favored the noble families. 
 Corinth was then appealed to, with better success. She 
 immediately sent an army to strengthen the popular 
 party, and succor the dty in such a dangerous position. 
 This step was a signal for the outbreak of war. The 
 
 BATTLE OF SYBOTA. 
 
 69 
 
 Corcyraeans had no intention of allowing their colony 
 to pass into the hands of the enemy. They met the 
 Corintliian fleet, sent to assist Epidamnus, off Cape Ac- 
 tium, and defeated it. On the same day Epidamnus 
 fell into their hands, so that the CorcyraBans were now 
 masters of the whole Ionian sea. These events hap- 
 pened in the autumn of 435 B.C. 
 
 The next two years were spent by both parties in 
 active preparations. The Corcyraeans, fearing that they 
 could not meet single-handed the Corinthians, asked 
 Athens to form with them an offensive and defensive 
 alliance. The Athenian assembly refused to do this, 
 but decided to conclude a defensive alliance with them ; 
 i.e., Athens promised to help Corcyra in case her ter- 
 ritory was actually invaded by an enemy. A fleet of 
 only ten ships was sent into the Ionian sea. 
 
 In the spring of 432 B.C., the Corinthians despatched 
 a fleet of 150 triremes to seek out the enemy in his 
 own waters. They sailed, without meeting any op- 
 position, as far as Cape Cheimerium. Near by this 
 cape, off the island of Sybota, the Corcyraean fleet, 
 with the ten Athenian triremes, was stationed. Here 
 a battle was fought, — the greatest battle that had up 
 to this time taken ])lace between Greek ships. In the 
 early part of the day the Corinthians were decidedly 
 getting the better of the contest, when they suddenly 
 gave way and retreated. The reason was, that they 
 descried in the distance a squadron of Athenian triremes 
 approaching; for the Athenians had sent twenty ships 
 after their fii*st ten, to give more efticient aid if neces- 
 Bary. The mere sight of these Athenian vessels dis- 
 couraged the Corinthians, and thus the fleet of Corcyra 
 was saved. 
 
70 
 
 CONGRESS AT SPARTA. 
 
 The results of this ensfasfomcnt were of the c^'e.'^tcst 
 importance. The Corinthians coiiM never forget that 
 the Athenians had torn from tlieir hands a well- 
 eamed victory; and peace, which liad been fraaght 
 with such advantages to Athens, was virtually at an 
 end. 
 
 On the isthmus that connects Pallene with the main- 
 land of Thrace was situated Potidaea, a colony of 
 Corinth. This city had joined the Athenian alliance, 
 without, however, being on unfnendly terms with 
 Corinth. After the battle of Sybota, she was obll;j:ed 
 to side either with Athens or Corinth. Perdiccas, king 
 of Macedonia, who was an enemy of Athens, incited 
 Potidjea to side with Corinth and revolt from Athens. 
 This was another immediate cause of stirring up feel- 
 insrs of hatred between Athens and Corinth. 
 
 The winter of 432-431 n.c. was employed by Corinth 
 in working uj) the feelings of Sparta to such a ])itch 
 that she would be not only willing, but eager to enter 
 into hostile relations with Athens. In December, a 
 meeting of all who had any comi)laints to ofler against 
 the policy of Athens was called by Sparta. 
 
 In this meeting the principal complainants were 
 ^irina and Meijara. The former accused the Atheni- 
 ans of withholding from them promised independence ; 
 while the latter charged them with having passed a 
 decree that excluded them from all ports and markets 
 in the Athenian dominion, thus destroying their pros- 
 perity. The Corinthians reserved their speech to the 
 last In it they endeavored to show that honor and 
 duty demanded of Sparta resolute and speedy action ; 
 that the Athenians were grasping, and always maturing 
 some plan for further increiise of teiritory ; that they 
 
 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 71 
 
 were from day to day growing more dangerous to the 
 Peloponnesians, and it was high time to check their 
 power. The result of this meeting was, that Sparta 
 with her Peloponnesian allies resolved ui)on war. 
 
 The strucrLcle which now commenced is known as 
 the Peloponuesian war. It lasted twenty-seven years 
 (431-404 B.C.), and extended over almost the whole 
 of the Greek world. The war was virtually a struggle 
 between Athens and Sparta for the supremacy; between 
 the Ionian and Dorian races ; between democracy and 
 oligarchy. 
 
 The J lower of Athens lay chiefly in her fleet, that of 
 Sparta in lier land forces. The allies of Athens were 
 subject-allies, who accepted her leadership more from 
 compulsion than choice. Sparta's allies were jjurely 
 voluntary, regarding their interests as identical with 
 hers. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War. 1st Period, 
 
 431-421 B.C. 
 
 In this war the allies of Sparta were the Corinthians, 
 the Boeotians (except PhUaBoe), the Megarians, the 
 Phocians, the Locrians, the Arcadians, and Eleans. 
 
 The subject-allies of Athens were Euba3a, Chios, 
 Lesbos, Samos, Naxos, Paros, all the Greek cities of 
 Asia Minor and on the coast of Thrace, Platoeae, Nau- 
 pactus, Zacynthus, and Corcyra. The Thessalians and 
 Acarnanians were friendly to her, and also the Ionian 
 cities in Sicily and Italy. Besides her subject-allies, 
 Athens held at this time, as part of her own territory, 
 JEgiiia, Scyros, Leninos, Imbros, and the Chersonesus. 
 
 The finances of Atliens at the beginning of this war 
 were very great. She received from her subject-allies 
 an annual tribute of over SGOO,000, and from other 
 sources between one and two million dollars. She had 
 also gathered in her treasury over $G,000,000, and in 
 her temples deposits and oiferings of great value. 
 
 The Peloponnesian war may be divided into three 
 periods: 1st. From the beginning until the Peace of 
 [Nicias, — ten years, 431-421 B.C.; 2d. From the 
 Peace of Nicias to its rupture by Sparta, — eight 
 years, 421-413 B.C.; 3d. From the rupture of the 
 Peace of Nicias to the capture of Athens by Ly- 
 Bander, — nine years, 413-404 B.C. 
 
 ATTACK UPON PLAT^^. 
 
 73 
 
 First Year, 431 b.c. — Before any open hostilities on 
 the part of Sparta, an attack was made by the Thebans 
 upon Plata30B. Plata?a3 was a democratic city, and a 
 special friend of Athens. The other Boeotian cities, 
 which were governed by oligarchies, modelled after the 
 government of Sparta, were her bitter enemies. 
 
 On the eve of the 4th of April, 431 B.C., during a 
 religious festival, a body of 300 Thebans was admitted 
 within the gates of the city by some friends. They 
 took up their position in the market-place, and sum- 
 moned by a herald all citizens, who were of like politi- 
 cal opinion as themselves, to join them. Meanwhile 
 the Platajans, having recovered from their first fright, 
 assembled in sufficient numbers and attacked the The- 
 bans just before daybreak. The Thebans turned and 
 fled, and most of them, mistaking the door of a large 
 granary for one of the city gates, rushed in and were 
 captured. A reinforcement sent by Thebes now arrived 
 outside the walls of the city. The Platoeans promised, 
 if they would retire, to give up the prisoners just 
 taken; but when the Thebans withdrew, instead of 
 keeping their promise, they killed in cold blood all the 
 prisonere (180 in number). Thus treason and murder 
 in that night of horrors opened the war in Greece. 
 
 As soon as the events at Plata;a3 were known in 
 Sparta, the Peloponnesian army under Archidamus was 
 sent (June, 431 b.c.) into Attica. The inhabitants were 
 obliged to leave their fields and take refuge within the 
 walls of Athens and Peira^eus. Every building, nook, 
 and corner of the city was crowded. It was hard for 
 them to remain inactive within the city, while the 
 enemy were pillaging their beautiful country seats and 
 forms. But Pericles did not think it the best policy to 
 
74 
 
 THE PLAGUE IN ATTICA. 
 
 carry on the war in Attica. Tie wisliecl to inflict the 
 same injury upon the homes of the Peloponucsians 
 that, they were inflict ini; in Attica. Accordingly a 
 combined fleet of Athenians and Corcyrajans sailed 
 around the PJoi)onne.sus, stoi)i)ing at various places 
 to ravaije and lav waste the country. 
 
 Archidamus, after remaining Ave or six weeks in 
 Attica, withdrew and disbanded his forces. 
 
 Tlie SECOXD YKAii (430 B.C.), the Spartans again in- 
 vaded Attica. But a still greater calamity visited the 
 Athenians. The plague broke out, and, owing to the 
 crowded condition of the inhabitants, it spread with 
 great rajjidity. To draw off some of the ovcrcrow<led 
 population, Tericles fltted out a fleet, and connnanding 
 it in person sailed to the Peloponnesus to renew the 
 ravages of the previous year. On his return, the Athe- 
 nians, in their despair at seeing so many dying around 
 them, accused him of being the cause of their great 
 sufferings. Ilis influence over tlie people was gone. 
 He was even accused of appropriating to his own use 
 the public money, and fined a large sum. He gave up 
 his command, and became for the first time for many 
 years a private citizen. But sufferings still awaited 
 him. The pestilence made fearful raids into his circle 
 of friends and relatives. His eldest son died ; his sister 
 was taken away ; and many others who had been his 
 companions and advisers were cut off*. When the 
 youngest and best beloved son fell a victim to the 
 scourge, the father's heart was broken. A lingering 
 fever seized him, and he was fast approaching his end. 
 His last words were, " What I pride myself most upon 
 is, that no Athenian has ever mourned on my account." 
 The war had lasted for two years and six months when 
 
 SIEGE OF PLATjE^, 
 
 75 
 
 Pericles died. He was buried near the last restins:- 
 place of the Athenians who had fallen in the service of 
 their country. 
 
 In the THIRD YEAR (429 B.C.) the Spartans directed 
 their campaign against PlataBae. The inhabitants made 
 a vigorous resistance, and, although their garrison 
 numbered only 480, defied the whole Peloponnesian 
 army. The Spartans began by shutting up every out- 
 let of the town with a palisade of wood ; then erected 
 against this a mound of earth and stone, forming an 
 inclined plane up which they could march. The Pla- 
 tajans undermined this mound, and thus defeated its 
 purpose. They also built a new wall within the old 
 one, so that, if the latter was taken, the Spartans would 
 Btill be no nearer the possession of the city. Thereupon 
 the Spartans surrounded the city with a double wall, 
 thus shutting off the Platajans from any communication 
 with the outer world. For two years they endured 
 this blockade, when about half of the garrison managed 
 to escape. The remainder were reduced to aosolute 
 starvation, and were obliged to surrender. They were 
 all put to death by the Spartans. Plata?ae was razed to 
 the ground, and blotted from the map of Greece. 
 
 The FOUKTn year (428 b.c.) was marked by the 
 revolt of Mytilene, capital of Lesbos. The inhabitants 
 Bent to Sparta for assistance, which was gladly given. 
 
 In this year the Spartans invaded Attica a third 
 time, and, to retaliate, the Athenian fleet ravaged the 
 coast of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 In the FIFTH YEAR (427 B.C.), Attica was invaded for 
 the fourth time. In the early spring of this year the 
 Spartan fleet set sail to succor Mytilene, but arrived 
 there too late, for they found that the city had already 
 
76 
 
 SURRENDER OF MYTILENE, 
 
 surrendered to the Athenians. The ringleaders of the 
 revolt were sent to Athens, and the fate of all the in- 
 habitants was to be decided there by the popular as- 
 sembly. Cleon, a tanner and low demagogue, persuaded 
 this assembly to vote that all the men of Mytilene 
 shnild be put to death, and the women and children 
 sd.d into slavery. A galley was immediately sent to 
 the Athenian commander, stationed at Mytilene, with 
 orders to this effect. The next day, however, the Athe- 
 nians repented of their rash and cruel vote, and re- 
 scinded it; whereupon another galley was despatched 
 in all haste, with instructions to overtake the other if 
 possible. The crew worked night and day with scarcely 
 any rest, and managed to arrive at Mytilene just as the 
 commander was proceeding to execute the orders con- 
 tained in the first despatch. The inhabitants of Myti- 
 lene were saved, but the walls of their city were razed 
 to the ground, and their fleet given up to the Athenians. 
 The ringleaders, who had been sent to Athens, were 
 tried, convicted, and put to death. 
 
 During this year the Peloponnesians attempted to 
 recover Corcyra from the control of Athens, and change 
 Its government to an oligarchy. They were unsucces^'s- 
 ful, and the popular party, protected by the Athenians, 
 committed every kind of excess. The aristocracy was 
 neariy exterminated, only 500 escaping. It was in thig 
 year that Plata^ae surrendered. (See previous page.) 
 
 In the SIXTH YEAR (426 b.c), earthquakes prevented 
 the Spartans from making their usual invasion. The 
 plague again broke out at Athens. A purification of 
 the island of Delos was performed to appease the wrath 
 of Apollo, who was imagined to be the cause of the 
 scourge. This island was the birth-place of Apollo; 
 
 OCCUPATION OF PYLOS. 
 
 77 
 
 all the bodies buried there were removed, and a festival 
 was celebrated in great pomp. 
 
 In the SEVENTH year (425 b.c.) the Spartans invaded 
 Attica for the fifth time. They remained but a few 
 days, for their assistance was needed in Messenia to 
 expel the Athenians who had established a footing at 
 Pylos. 
 
 The harbor of Pylos (Bay of Navarino) was the best 
 in the Peloponnesus, but had been neglected through 
 some strange oversight on the part of Sparta. Demos- 
 thenes, an Athenian general, took possession of this 
 harbor with only five ships and 200 men. The Spartans 
 were immediately aroused to indignation by the bold 
 encroachment upon their territory. They sent a fleet 
 of forty-three ships filled with troops to drive the 
 enemy from Pylos. Demosthenes, instead of being 
 overcome by fear, acted with resolute presence of 
 mind. He despatched two ships for aid, and with his 
 few soldiers kept the Spartans from landing. 
 
 Brasidas, who commanded the Spartans, in vain 
 attempted to force his way on shore. The Athenians 
 stood firm as a wall ; and after two days he was com- 
 pelled to give up the fight for the present. Shortly 
 after Athenian reinforcements arrived. A hard naval 
 battle ensued in the harbor, which resulted in favor of 
 the Athenians. The Spartans were now entirely cut 
 off from their friends, without provisions, on a rocky 
 desolate island (Sphacterik) at the mouth of the Bay 
 of Pylos. For the sake of obtaining provisions they 
 gave up all their triremes, sixty in number, to the Athe- 
 nians. Sparta was now thoroughly frightened. Four 
 hundred of her highest-born youths were on this 
 island. She saw no way out of the difficulty except 
 
78 
 
 CAPTURE OF SPHACTERIA. 
 
 BATTLE OF DELIUM. 
 
 79 
 
 through peace. Accordingly ambassadors were sent to 
 Athens to sue for peace, but the Athenians were so 
 exorbitant in their demands that no terms could be 
 agi'eed upon. The war then recommenced in the Bay 
 of Pylos. But the Spartans did not surrender, as 
 expected from day to day. The citizens at Athena 
 began to complain bitterly, and when fresh troops were 
 asked for they repented at not having come to terms 
 of [)eace with Sparta. Cleon accused the officei-s of 
 incapacity and cowardice, and declared if he were 
 general he would take Sphacteria at once. The Athe- 
 nian assembly, amused at the idea of a tanner being in 
 command, took him at his word. Cleon tried to evade 
 the responsibility, but to no purpose. Seeing that he 
 must go, he assumed a bold face and declared that he 
 would bring the Spartans from Sphacteria, or put an 
 end to them there, within twenty days. Fortune favored 
 Cleon in au extraordinary manner. Demosthenes had 
 already prepared a plan for an attack upon the island. 
 It was his foresight, aided by the accidental burning of 
 the woods on Sphacteria, rather than any generalship 
 of Cleon that was the cause of victory. The figlit was 
 a hard one, and lasted all day, but finally the few sur- 
 viving Spartans surrendered. Cleon and Demosthenes 
 arrived at Athens within twenty days after the former 
 had departed. 
 
 Sparta was deeply humbled by this defeat, and lost 
 her [)restige in battle. It had been hitherto deemed an 
 impossibility that the descendants of Leonidas could 
 surrender with arms in hand. Again the Spartans 
 asked for peace; but the Athenians, who had recovered 
 their good spirits, were as exorbitant as ever in their 
 demands. 
 
 The power of Cleon was now greater than ever. He 
 was the hero of the day and the benefactor of the city. 
 
 At the beginning of the eighth year (424 b.c.) 
 the Athenians were everywhere victorious. Nicias, 
 an Athenian general, captured the island of Cythera, 
 and placed garrisons there, which were a continual 
 source of annoyance to the Spartans. The success of 
 the Athenians in the Peloponnesus encouraged them 
 to make attempts u])on Boeotia. Thirty-two thousand 
 troops crossed into Boeotia to Delium. The Boeotians 
 had assembled a large force at the neighboring town of 
 Tanagra, and they now advanced upon the Athenians. 
 A terrible battle ensued. The Boeotians by making a 
 very effective use of their cavalry thoroughly defeated 
 the Athenians. A thousand Athenian dead lay upon 
 the field. Thus the triumphant pride of Athens had 
 met with a most decisive rebufi*. 
 
 Sj)arta began now to recover her courage. Brasidas, 
 her leading general, was a man of marked ability, a 
 fervent patriot, and inspired with the belief- that 
 Sparta's proper position was at the head of Greece. 
 He saw that Athens would receive a severe blow to 
 her prosperity, if he could get control of her possessions 
 in Thrace. Accordingly he collected an army, and, 
 marching up through Thessalia and Macedonia, ad- 
 vanced upon Amphipolis, a colony of Athens on the 
 river Strymon. It was a rough winter's night, during 
 which the snow fell. No one expected an attack. The 
 ])lace was easily taken, and a large number of citizens 
 fell into his hands. 
 
 The fall of Amphipolis made a marked impression 
 Athens was deeply wounded, and her dominion on the 
 coast of Thrace shaken. 
 
 K 
 
80 
 
 PEACE OF NICIAS. 
 
 Ninth year (423 b.c). The Athenians were thor- 
 oughly disheartened, and in turn began to propose 
 peace. The Spartans, anxious to get back the prisoners 
 captured at Sphacteria, were equally desirous of a 
 peace. A year's truce was agreed upon, to give time 
 for further negotiations. 
 
 Tenth year (422 b.c.). The year's truce did not 
 bring about any results, and at the expiration of it 
 Cleon was sent to Thrace to check the rapid victories 
 of Brasidas. He advanced against Amphipolis, near 
 which place the two generals met, and in the battle 
 which ensued both were killed. The Athenian forces 
 were defeated. 
 
 In the death of Brasidas and Cleon, the two chief 
 obstacles to peace were removed ; and in April, 421 b.c., 
 a truce of fifty years was concluded, called the Peacb 
 
 OF NiCIAS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 pELOPOi^rNEsiAN Wab. Second Peeiod, 421-413 B.a 
 
 The Sicilian Expedition. 
 
 Fob the first few years of this period numerous 
 alliances were formed and broken by the different states 
 of Greece. Sparta quarrelled with Argos. The two 
 cities met in battle on the field of Mantineia, 418 b.c. 
 Here the Spartans were victorious. 
 
 Far more important than these troubles in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus was the project of Alcibiades, of conquering 
 Sicily. Alcibiades was born 450 b.c. He lost his 
 father at an early age, and was adopted by Pericles. He 
 was very handsome, and of great wealth; a slave to 
 every kind of excess, but of marked abilities. He took 
 part in the battle of Delium (424 b.c), and there saved 
 the life of his instructor, Socrates. At the death of 
 Cleon (422 b.c.), Alcibiades became the leading man 
 at Athens. In politics he was opposed to Nicias. He 
 was an accomplished orator and general, but the want 
 of principle rendered his talents ruinous both to himself 
 and his country. His pride and arrogance were exces- 
 sive, his ambition unbounded. He wished not merely 
 to outshine his fellow-citizens, but to outstrip all Greece 
 in glory and splendor. 
 
 Kotvvithstanding the extent of the personal influence 
 of Alcibiades, he could not bring about a union among 
 4* » 
 
82 
 
 EGESTA AND SE LINUS, 
 
 the different political parties in Athens. The young 
 men all imitated him, and considered a wild and reck- 
 less life of debauchery fashionable and aristocratic; 
 while the elder generation was filled with indignation 
 against this corrupter of morals. Thus, although the 
 power of Athens was great, and feared abroad, although 
 her revenues were vast, her naval dominion absolute, 
 and her enemies weaker than ever belbre, yet the 
 real strength and vigor of the state — the virtue and 
 morals of its citizens — were in a sad condition. 
 
 Such was the state of affairs when (416 b.c.) envoys 
 arrived from Egesta, to seek aid ajjainst the neiirliborinir 
 city of Selinus. These two cities had had a quarrel ; 
 the latter obtained aid from Syracuse. Alcibiades was 
 very earnest to help the Egestaeans. fie saw in Sicily 
 an opportunity of gratifying his ambition, and at the 
 same time of replenishing his wasted fortunes with 
 rich spoils. Nicias and his party were violently op- 
 posed to this enterprise. TJxiy persuaded the Athe- 
 nians to send ambassadors to Egesta to find out whether 
 the Egestajans could furnish much money for the war. 
 The ambassadors were entertained royally at the houses 
 of the citizens, where gold and silver plate was dis- 
 played in abundance. They were entirely deceived 
 however, for the same plate was carried from house 
 to house. 
 
 The glowing accounts of the ambassadors, when they 
 returned home, about the wealth of Egesta, removed 
 all doubt from the minds of the Athenians as to the 
 expediency of carrying on a war in Sicily. 
 
 Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were appointed 
 commanders of the expedition. 
 
 A short time before the expedition set sail, on a 
 
 MUTILATION OF THE IIERMJ2. 
 
 83 
 
 single night (May 10, 415 B.C.), the marble statues of 
 the god Hermes^ (Mercury), which were in front of all 
 houses and sanctuaries, were found broken to pieces. 
 The people were horrified, and demanded the speedy 
 punishment of the perpetrator of such a crime. Alci- 
 biades was suspected. He asked for an immediate trial, 
 that he might prove his innocence before he started for 
 Sicily. But his enemies managed to postpone the trial 
 until he had gone. 
 
 In the beginning of July the preparations for the 
 expedition were completed. The fieet sailed from the 
 Peirajeus amid great rejoicing. The first rendezvous of 
 the Athenians was at Corcyra. Here assembled 13G 
 triremes and some 7,000 troops. From Corcyra they 
 sailed to southern Italy, and the army disembarking 
 encamped near Rhegium. Now for the first time they 
 found out that they had been tricked by the EgestaBans, 
 and that their wealth was a mere fiction. A council of 
 war was then called. It was decided to seek new allies 
 among the Greek cities in Sicily, and attack Syracuse. 
 
 The fleet then sailed southwards, and took possession 
 of Catana, which became its head-quarters. It had 
 scarcely arrived here when the Athenian vessel of state 
 appeared with orders that Alcibiades should return 
 home for trial, on account of the mutilation of the 
 Ilerma). When the vessel touched at Thurii on its 
 return, Alcibiades managed to escape. At Athens he 
 was condemned to death, his ])roperty confiscated, and 
 he himself pronounced accursed. 
 
 Meanwhile Alcibiades made his way to Sparta and 
 infoimed the authorities of the plans of Athens. Thus 
 the Spartans were enabled to counteract them. 
 I These statues were called Hermae. 
 
 / 
 
84 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SYRACUSE. 
 
 The Athenians spent three months at Catana, so 
 inactive and idle that the Syraciisans began to look 
 upon them with contempt. But Nicias finally sent a 
 fjdse message to Syracuse that the Cataneans were 
 tired of keeping the Athenians, and wished her aid in 
 expelling them. Accordingly a large force was de- 
 spatched from Syracuse to Catana. While this was on 
 Its way, the Athenian fleet sailed into the Great liar- 
 bor of Syracuse, and, landing near the river Anapus 
 entrenched itself there. As soon as the Syracusans 
 returned from Catana, a battle ensued, which resulted 
 m favor of Nicias. But instead of taking advantage 
 of this victory he withdrew again to Catana, and there 
 spent the winter of 415-414 b.c. in idleness. 
 
 The Syracusans were meanwhile very active. They 
 fortified the city strongly by walls and forts. Ambas- 
 sadors were sent to the Peloponnesus to form alliances 
 with the cities there, and obtain what aid they could. 
 The Spartans, through the influence of Alcibiades, 
 resolved to send an auxiliary force under command of 
 Gylippus, a general of gieat skill and activity. 
 
 As soon as spring opened, Nicias began the siege of 
 Syracuse in earnest. Syracuse consisted at this time 
 of two parts, an inner and outer city. The former 
 comprised the island of Ortygia, the original city; the 
 latter, called afterwards Achradina, occupied higher 
 ground, on a peninsula north of Ortygia. The island 
 of Ortygia, on which the modem city of Syracuse is 
 built, is about two miles in circumference, lying between 
 the Great Harbor on the west and the Little Harbor on 
 the east, and separated from the mainland by a narrow 
 channel. The Great Harbor is a fine bay, five miles in 
 circumference. The Little Harbor was spacious enough 
 
 DEATH OF LAMACHUS, 
 
 85 
 
 to receive a large fleet of ships. The outer city was 
 defended on the north and east by the sea, which beat 
 against high cliffs and rocks with such force that it was 
 impossible to land. On the land side it was protected 
 by a high wall. 
 
 The Athenian fleet landed at Leon, a little to the 
 north of Syracuse. Here the troops disembarked an<l 
 marched immediately to the heights of Epipolae, west 
 of the city. These heights commanded the city, and 
 the party that gained possession of them would have 
 a great advantage. From some strange oversight the 
 Syracusans had neglected to occupy them. The Athe- 
 nians then easily became masters of the position. After 
 they had fortified themselves securely here, they built 
 further south a circular fort called Syke, of consider- 
 able strength. From this fort they began to build a 
 wall in a northerly and southerly direction, to cut 
 off the Syracusans from supplies. The wall towards 
 the south extended to the Great Harbor; the one 
 running northward towards the sea was never com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Nicias had stationed the fleet in the Great Harbor 
 and nearly finished the wall when Lamachus was killed 
 in a skirmish. Lamachus was indispensable to Nicias, 
 who relied much upon him for advice. He possessed 
 the energy wanting in his superior commander, and his 
 death was a great calamity to the Athenians. Nicias, 
 satisfied with the previous success of his trqpps, sud- 
 denly relapsed into a state of apathy, too inactive to 
 crown this success with the surrender of the city. 
 Thus Syracuse, although on the point of giving up, 
 was saved for the present. ^ 
 
 At this time Gylippus arrived from Sparta. As 
 
86 
 
 ARRIVAL OF GYLIPPUS. 
 
 Boon as he placed his foot on Sicilian soilf the course 
 of the entire war was changed. He crossed the 
 Epipolse, eluding without difficulty the careless Nicias, 
 and entered Syracuse, whose inhabitants inunedi- 
 ately intrusted him with the command of all their 
 forces. 
 
 The first act of Gylippus was to send a herald to 
 Nicias, and command him to depart with his army 
 within five days. Upon the refusal to comply with 
 this demand, he ma<le himself master of Epipohe, and 
 began to build a wall to intersect the Athenian lines 
 on the north. Nicias, seeing that it would now bo 
 impossible to blockade the city, withdrew his forces 
 to the headland of Plemmyrium, south of the Great 
 Harbor. The situation of the Athenians was becoming 
 more perilous every day. Nicias, naturally inclined to 
 look always on the gloomy side, was poorly adapted 
 to encourage his trooj)S. Accordingly many of his 
 men began to desert, and all were getting to be dis- 
 heartened. 
 
 Nicias wrote to Athens, begging for reinforcements, 
 and that lie himself miglit be reUeved of the command. 
 The letter reached Athens in the middle of the winter 
 of 414-413 B.C. Although the city was hard pressed 
 by the Spartans, and the citizens wearied and exhausted 
 with the defence of their walls, yet they resolved to 
 reinforce Nicias, but refused to recall him. Demos- 
 theues and Eurymedon immediately set sail with 
 money and troops to Syracuse. 
 
 Meanwhile there had been in the Great Harbor two 
 naval engagements, in the first of which the Athenians 
 were victorious, but in the second they were thoroughly 
 defeated and disheartened. 
 
 REINFOR CEMENTS, 
 
 87 
 
 At this crisis the reinforcements from Athens ap- 
 peared, consisting of seventy-three new triremes, 5,000 
 heavy-armed warriors, and a large body of light-armed 
 trooi)s. The effect was marked. The Syracusans were 
 terrified. The Athenians once more outnumbered the 
 enemy on both land and sea. Demosthenes, a general 
 of an entirely different stamp from Nicias, soon ac- 
 quainted himself with the situation of affairs. He saw 
 at once that, unless Epipolae was retaken, Syracuse was 
 safe. Accordingly he made an attack by night upon 
 the heights, but without success. 
 
 Demosthenes now thought the best policy was to 
 return home and assist the Athenians in driving the 
 Spartans from Attica. Nicias, however, insisted upon 
 the army's remaining. He feared to return and be 
 covered with disgrace. But when fresh troops arrived 
 to assist Gylii)pus (towards the end of August), even 
 Nicias was obliged to yield, and secret preparations 
 were made to leave Syracuse. The night of the 27th 
 was agreed upon for a start. Every thing was ready, 
 when an eclii)se of the moon took place. The sooth- 
 sayers declared that tliis was an ill omen, and that the 
 dei)Jirture nmst be deferred for 27 days. Three days 
 after this (Aug. 30) Gylippus gave orders for an attack 
 by land and sea. Tiie Athenians were defeated, and 
 one of their generals, Eurymedon, was killed. The 
 remnant of their fleet was driven into the innennost 
 corner of the Great Harbor, the entrance of which was 
 closed and blockaded with ships connected by chains. 
 A life-and-death struggle now ensued. If the Athe- 
 nians were ever to see their homes again, they must 
 break this blockade. The crews advanced, animated 
 by the courage of despair. Nearly 200 ships were 
 
\ 
 
 \ 
 
 88 FINAL FAILURE OF THE ATHENIANS, 
 
 engaged in close conflict, while the shores around were 
 lined with Syracusan troops, and destruction threatened 
 the Athenians on every side. They fought with des- 
 peration, but to no purpose. Their fleet was driven 
 back to the shore, and they were obliged to take refuge 
 in the fortifications. In this hopeless situation, the 
 Athenians deteiTnined to desert their fleet, leave their 
 wounded to the mercy of the enemy, and march into 
 the interior. On the 3d of September the army 
 began their march, — an army of 40,000 men, without 
 any definite goal for their journey, without sufticient 
 supplies of food, without confidence in themselv*es, and 
 utterly disheartened. The van was led by Nicias, the 
 rear by Demosthenes. For six days they pursued their 
 weary course, harassed on all sides by the enemy, with 
 continual losses and desertions, until finally those that 
 were left (only 10,000) surrendered. Nicias and De- 
 mosthenes were condemned to death. The great mass 
 of prisoners was placed in stone quarries, where they 
 were exposed to the glowing heat of the sun, with 
 scarcely provisions enough to sustain life. The bodies 
 of those who died from such exposure were left to 
 decay where they had fallen, causing finally such a 
 stench that the Syracusans were obliged to sell tlie 
 survivors into slavery. 
 
 Thus the Sicilian expedition ended in a series of 
 events, which to this day excite feelings of horror. Tlio 
 primary cause of the failure of this expedition consisted 
 in the fact that the Athenian people had deserted the 
 principles of Pericles. It was his i)olicy, after having 
 secured to Athens such an enviable position, to act 
 simply on the defensive, and not to run any risk by 
 pursuing a dangerous offensive course; therefore the 
 
 SECONDARY CAUSE OF FAILURE, 89 
 
 first mistake of the Athenians was in sending any ex- 
 pedition at all to Sicily. Again, Nicias, through his 
 want of energy and incompetency as a general, was a 
 secondary cause of the failure of this expedition. Had 
 be been the proper man for the position, the result of 
 the enterprise would have been far different. 
 
 / 
 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 The Peloponxesiax War. Tiiikd Pekiod, 
 
 413-404 B.C. 
 
 When the news of the disasters in Sicily reached 
 Athens, it could hardly be believed. The citizens were 
 in a state of despair and terror, and believed that the 
 last days of their city had come. They had lost 200 
 ships of war, and C0,000 men ; their docks and naval 
 arsenals were empty, and also their treasury; their 
 command at sea was gone, and their whole povvxr, 
 based on the fear inspired in their subject-allies by their 
 powerful fleets, was shattered. On the other hand, 
 Sparta stood at the head of her confederates, animated 
 by new hopes, and eager to make herself mistress of 
 the resources of Athens. 
 
 Previous to the destruction of the Sicilian armament 
 (in the spring of 413 n.c), the Spartans, acting on the 
 advice of Alcibiades, had established themselves at 
 Deceleia, a place situated on the ridge of Mount Panics, 
 14 miles north of Athens, and commanding the Athe- 
 nian plain. This post they held throughout the war, 
 and so important was it that the third i)eriod of the 
 war was called the Deceleian war. 
 
 In 412 ii.r., Chios, Lesbos, Ilhodos, and several cities 
 on the coast of Asia ISIinor revolted from Athens. Here 
 again the hatred of Alcibiades is felt ; for it was he 
 tliat advised the Spartans to assist the rebellious sub- 
 
 ALLIANCE OF PERSIA AND SPARTA. 91 
 
 jects of his native city. The Athenians, however, did 
 not despair: they determined to make a brave struggle 
 before submitting. Pericles had reserved a fund of 
 11,000,000, to be used only in a crisis like this. The 
 Athenians determined to nuike use of this reserve for 
 putting down, if possible, the revolt of the islands and 
 Ionian cities. The Spartans saw it was important to 
 encourage this revolt, and crossed the ^gean sea with 
 forces to co-operate with the rebels against Athens. 
 Persia, desirous of recovering the Ionian cities formerly 
 under her control, entered into an alliance (412 b.c.) 
 with Sparta. The Persians promised to pay the ex- 
 penses of the war, provided the cities of Asia Minor, 
 the islands of the iEgean, and even Thessalia and 
 BcDotia were considered a part of their dominion. 
 
 Such a treaty as this was humiliatinor and disgrace- 
 ful. Sparta in her blind hatred of Athens was willing 
 to stoop to any shameful act, if only her rival was in- 
 jured thereby. 
 
 In the autumn of 412 b.c. the Athenian fleet arrived 
 off* Miletus. A battle was fought with the Pelopon- 
 nesians and Persians, in which the Athenians ^rained 
 the advantage. The results of this battle, however, 
 were unimportant. The Athenians withdrew to Samos 
 (which had constantly remained faithful to them), and 
 spent the winter (412-411 b.c). 
 
 The most important event of this winter was the 
 change which occurred in the plans of Alcibiades. He 
 had performed the most valuable services for Sparta, 
 and had been the chief cause of all her successes. He 
 saw now that his own plans could be better carried out 
 by Persian aid. He accordingly quitted the Pelopon- 
 nesian camp in secret, and repaired to the head-quarters 
 
 
 7 
 
92 
 
 PLANS OF ALCIBIADES, 
 
 of Tissaphernes, the Persian governor, by whom he was 
 gladly welcomed. Soon he became the confidential ad- 
 viser and minister of Tissaphernes, and directed the 
 foreign policy of the state here as he had at Sparta. 
 His advice to Persia was, not to become the ally of any 
 one of the Greek states ; for it was her interest to keep 
 both Atliens and Sparta weak. Tissaphernes was de- 
 lighted with these counsels. He honored Alcibiades at 
 his court in every possible manner, and even named 
 his new pleasure-grounds at Sardis after him. But, in 
 point of fact, Alcibiades was working only for his own 
 ends, as we shall soon see. 
 
 The long continuance of the war caused at Athens 
 a general feeling of weariness. No genuine ardor for 
 continuing the struggle prevailed in any quarter. Un- 
 der these circumstances the oligarchical party felt tliat, 
 by changing the form of government to one more 
 resembling that of Sparta, a termination of the war 
 might at length be brought about. 
 
 Alcibiades gave impulse to this feeling. He entered 
 into communication with the most influential oligarchs 
 in the Athenian camp at Samos, promising them pecu- 
 niary aid from Tissaphernes, and all the support that he 
 himself oould give, if they succeeded in overthrowing 
 the present constitution of Athens. 
 
 Peisander was commissioned by the party at Samos 
 to go to Athens and gain as large a party as he could 
 to favor a new constitution. He held secret conferences 
 with the leading citizens, by whose influence a decree 
 was passed (January, 411 b.c.), empowering him with 
 ten others to negotiate openly with Tissaphernes and 
 Alcibiades. But Alcibiades made such extravasrant 
 
 THE FOUR HUNDRED, 
 
 98 
 
 demands that they could not be listened to, and the 
 negotiations were broken off. 
 
 Meanwhile at Athens the friends of Peisander were 
 working with better success. Theramenes and Auti- 
 phon were his strongest supporters, both eloquent 
 speakers and influential men. Thus when Peisander 
 returned to Athens he found every thing ready for 
 action, and in March (411 b.c.) he carried "through, in 
 the assembly, a series of resolutions to this effect T viz., 
 a new council of Pour Hundred should govern the 
 state to the best of its ability. This council sent envoys 
 without delay to Deceleia to inform the Spartan king 
 of the changes that had taken place at Athens, and to 
 enter into negotiations with him for the bringing about 
 of peace. 
 
 In Samos this revolution at Athens was looked upon 
 with ill grace. All the lovers of liberty, headed by 
 Thrasybulus, united their efforts against the Four 
 Hundred. The whole array took a solemn oath to 
 hold fast to the old constitution, to courageously 
 carry on the war against Sparta, and to regard the 
 Four Hundred as enemies of the state. Thrasybulus 
 was the firet man in the camp, a person full of vii^or 
 and moral stamina. He burned to deliver his native 
 city from the bonds of the present government, and 
 restonj the former state of liberty. He saw that Alci- 
 biades would, be his best ally in furthering his plans, 
 and accordingly summoned him from Asia (April, 411 
 
 B.C.). 
 
 Thus, after an absence of four years, Alcibiades stood 
 once more among his fellow-citizens. He soon gained 
 the hearts of the soldiers, and raised their courage by 
 promising aid from Persia. 
 
94 
 
 BATTLE OF CYNOSSEMA. 
 
 Meanwhile at Athens the Pour Hundred were not 
 governing in perfect harmony. Division of opinions 
 arose, some wanted one thing, some another. The 
 Athenians at last became so disgusted with the govern- 
 ment tliat in the middle of June they assembled in the 
 Pnyx and deposed the Council of the Four Hundred 
 four months after its formation. Most of the council 
 fled ; but two of the leaders were tried and condemned 
 to death. 
 
 In July of this summer the Athenians gained a great 
 .victory over the Spartans at Abydoa on the Hellespont. 
 A few weeks later, in October, the Spartans again 
 offered battle. It continued all day long, without any 
 decisive result, when Alcibiades arrived with reinforce- 
 ments. The Athenians were filled with fresh courage 
 at seeing his standard unfurled. The Si)artan8 werp 
 driven to the shore and utterly routed. This battle ia 
 generally called that of Cynossema, after a promontory 
 which was near the field of action. 
 
 In the following February (410 B.C.), the most bril- 
 liant victory of this period of the war was gained by 
 the Athenians under Alcibiades at Cyzicus. The Spar- 
 tan general, Mindarus, was slain, and the entire Pelo- 
 ponnesian fleet captured. 
 
 These repeated successes filled the Athenians with 
 boundless joy. They welcomed (June, 408 B.C.) Alci- 
 biades back to his native city. His proj)erty was all 
 restored, and he himself made general with unlimited 
 powers. Athens now seemed in a fair way to regain 
 her former power and influence. But the arrival of 
 two new officers upon the field of war in Asia Minor 
 turned the scale against her. One was Cyrus, a son 
 of the Pei*sian king; the other was Lysander, the 
 
 BATTLE OF ARGINUSM, 
 
 95 
 
 new Spartan commander. Thus, when Alcibiades arrived 
 from Athens, he found the situation less favorable than 
 he had hoped. While absent from his fleet for the 
 purpose of raising funds among friendly states, his cap- 
 tain, Antiochus, was surprised and defeated offNotium, 
 in the Gulf of Ephesus (407 b.c). 
 
 The Athenians, acting in an unaccountable and fool- 
 ish haste, immediately deprived Alcibiades of his com- 
 mand, because of this defeat, although he himself was 
 not at all accountable for it. Thus they lost their most 
 able general. Alcibiades now retired to his j)rivate 
 domain in the Chersonesus, and a few years alter (404 
 B.C.) was murdered by a band of assassins hired by the 
 Spartans. 
 
 Conon succeeded Alcibiades in the command of the 
 fleet. At the same time Lysander, whose term of 
 office had exj)ire(l, was succeeded by Callicratidas. 
 These two met in the harbor of Mytilene (40G b.c). 
 In this engagement the Athenians lost lialf their sliips, 
 Hud were themselves blockaded by Callicratidas. As 
 soon as the defeat of Conon was known at Athens, a 
 large fleet was sent to his assistance. Callicratidas, 
 hearing of the approach of this fleet, left enough ships 
 to continue the blockade of Mytilene, and sailed out 
 with the remainder to meet the enemy. 
 
 Battle of Arginus^ (Sept., 40G b.c). 
 
 The Spartan commander took up a position off the 
 southern promontory of Lesbos. He was animated by 
 an undoubting confidence of victory ; while the Athe- 
 nians timidly held back, fearing the first encounter. 
 Their fleet was drawn up opj>osite tlie Lesbian promon- 
 tory, near three rocky islands called the Arginusse 
 
96 
 
 BATTLE OF jEGOS-POTAMI. 
 
 Callicratidas made the first attack. The struggle that 
 followed was a terrible one, but the Athenians finally 
 came out victorious. Callicratidas himself was drowned. 
 The battle of Arginusae was the greatest naval battle 
 of the whole war. Two hundred and seventy-five 
 ships were engaged in it. The Spartans were dis- 
 couraged. They sent envoys to Athens to renew oflTers 
 for peace. The Athenians, emboldened by success, re- 
 jected all their proposals : thus this victory, which might 
 have been used to such advantage, was allowed to be 
 void of results. 
 
 A violent storm arose immediately after the battle of 
 Arginusse, and the disabled Athenian vessels could not 
 be rescued. Consequently all those who were alive on 
 these vessels, as well as the dead, were left to the mercy 
 of the elements. The commanders were summoned 
 home to answer for this conduct. They were con- 
 demned and executed. The Athenians repented, when 
 too late, of this cruel and uncalled-for punishment. 
 
 ^GOS-PoTAMi (August, 405 B.C.). 
 
 Again Lysander was placed at the head of the Spartan 
 forces. He equipped a large fleet, and sailed to the Hel- 
 lespont in 405 B.C. The Athenian fleet was stationed 
 opposite Lampsacus in an open bay, into which flowed 
 the "goat-river" (^gos-Potami). Here Lysander 
 attacked it when off its guard, and gained a complete 
 victory. The whole fleet, except the ship of Conon 
 and eight others, was captured, together with 3,000 
 
 prisoners. 
 
 The news of this great calamity spread horror and 
 dismay at Athens. The city had no means of defence ; 
 and two months later, when the Spartan Admiral ap- 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE LONG WALLS, 97 
 
 peared in the harbor and demanded immediate surrender, 
 she was obliged to capitulate. The long walls and forti- 
 fications of the Peirajeus were destroyed, all the ships 
 of war given up, all exiles restored, and all foreign pos- 
 sessions relinquished. 
 
 Thus ended the Athenian supremacy, which had 
 lasted for seventy-three years. The great days of 
 Athens under Pericles were gone ; but they could never 
 be forgotten, and remained as a treasure to the nation 
 for all time. After-generations have found a source cf 
 encouragement in the contemplation of this age, which, 
 in its iutcllectual activity, has never been surpassed. 
 
CHxlPTER XIX. 
 
 The Thirty Tyrants. Socrates. 
 
 The triumph of Sparta was the triumph of oligar- 
 chical principles throughout Greece. At Athens the 
 democracy was abolished, and the entire control of the 
 government placed in the hands of a Board of Thirty, 
 called the Thirty Tyrants. Boards of ten were set 
 up by Lysander, as the supreme authority, in Samoa 
 and other places, while Spartan goveraoi-s, with in- 
 definite powers, were established. everywhere. The 
 Greeks found that, instead of gaining by the change of 
 masters, they had lost; that they had exchanged the 
 yoke of Athens, which if grasping was at least refined, 
 civilized, and polished, for that of Sparta, which was 
 not only grasping, but coarse, harsh, and cruel. 
 
 Critias was at the head of the Thirty Tyrants at 
 Athens. He was distinguished above all the others fur 
 his cruelty and rapacity. Hundreds of citizens were 
 seized, pronounced guilty by the Thirty, and con- 
 demned to perish. The property of the victims was 
 confiscated, and murder and robbery seemed the order 
 
 of the day. 
 
 Such numerous deeds of violence filled the city with 
 terror and indignation. It became more and more 
 evident every day that no man was safe in Athens ; so 
 that Athenian emigrants kept flocking into the neighbor- 
 ing states. These suff*ering exiles aroused deep sympathy 
 
 DEATH OF SOCRATES. 
 
 99 
 
 by the recital of the endless enormities perpetrated by 
 Critias and his colleagues. Thrasybulus, one of the exiles 
 who had fled to Thebes, marched with a small band of 
 followers into Attica and seized Phyle, a fortress north 
 of Athens on the direct road to Thebes. The Thirty 
 marched out with a strong force to attack him, but were 
 driven back. Five days later, Thrasybulus formed 
 the bold plan of surprising by night the Peirajeus. 
 Here he was joined by many sympathizing countrymen. 
 The next morning Critias with a body of men en- 
 deavored to dislodge liim, but to no purpose. In 
 the engagement that ensued he himself, with many 
 followers, was killed. 
 
 The Thirty, now that they had lost their leader, the 
 most cruel and unprincipled of them all, were easily 
 deposed (403 B.C.), after a government of only eight 
 months. 
 
 Shortly after this, the exiles were recalled, all the acts 
 of the Thirty Tyrants annulled, and the old laws of 
 Draco and Solon revised and put in force. 
 
 A dark blot on the history of Athens at this tnne is 
 the condemnation of Socrates (399 B.C.). This illus- 
 trious philosoi>her, whose teachings were full of the 
 liighest morality, who had always been a true patriot 
 and fought faithfully on many a battle-field, who had 
 ever favored justice and mercy, the powers of whose 
 great intellect were directed against atheists and 
 sceptics of all kinds, was accused, forsooth, of corrupt- 
 ing the Athenian youth, and introducing the worship of 
 8tran<re deities. His admirable defence when on trial 
 served only to exasperate his blind judges, and he was 
 condemned to death. 
 
CORONEIA AND CNIDOS, 
 
 101 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Expedition of the Tex Thousand. Battle op 
 CuNAXA. Autumn, 401 u.c. 
 
 Darius II. (Nothus), king of Persia and grandson 
 of Xerxes I., died 405 B.C. Darius had two sons, Arta- 
 xerxes and Cyrus (called Cyrus, the Younger). ArtJi- 
 xei-xes succeeded to the throne; but Cyrus, who had 
 always been a rival of his brother, determined to obtain 
 by force the coveted sceptre. Accordingly he hired 
 10,000 Greek troops, who, at the close of the Pelo[)on- 
 nesian war, were left in Asia Minor with notldng to do, 
 to assist him in his bold undertakinj;. 
 
 They marched from Sardis in the spring of 401 n.c, 
 pursued their course through Asia ]\Iinor, Syria, and, 
 having crossed the Euphrates, ibllowed its couree until 
 they met the forces of Artaxerxes on the j)lain of 
 Cuuaza, near Babylon. In the battle which followed 
 the Gieek troops were victorious, but Cyrus himself 
 was killed. Xeuophon then took command of the 
 Greek army, and a retreat was made, under great 
 difficulties and dangei*s, through \\n enemy's country, 
 to the Euxine (Black) sea. This celebrated Retreat 
 of the Ten Thousand has been described in full by 
 Xenophou himself, in one of his writings called the 
 Anabasis. 
 
 U 
 
 The War op the Spartans with Persia, 
 
 399-394 B.C. 
 
 The Corinthian War, 394 B.C., terminated by 
 the "Peace of Antalcidas." 
 
 The immediate result of the expedition of the " Ten 
 Thousand " was war between Persia and Sparta. The 
 greater part of the " Ten Thousand " was composed 
 of Spartan troops, and Artaxerxes was determined to 
 punish them for their boldness in marching against 
 him. The war lasted for six years, and was carried on 
 in Asia Minor. 
 
 Agesilaus, the Spartan commander, was decidedly 
 getting the better of Artaxerxes, when he was called 
 home to crush an alliance formed against Sparta by 
 Argos, Thebes, Corinth, and Athens, who were becom- 
 ing jealous of her power. 
 
 The war which followed is called the Corinthian 
 war, a war now in favor of Sparta, now of the allies. 
 The m*cat land fii^ht was at Coroneia, in Boeotia, 394 
 B.C. Here Agesilaus gained a victory, though not a very 
 decisive one, over the Thebans. ]Uit in a severe naval 
 battle oif Cnidos, in Caria (August, 394 B.C.), Conon, 
 the Athenian Admiral, assisted by the Persians, com- 
 pletely defeated the Spartans. More than half their 
 fleet was either captured or destroyed. 
 
 In the following spring (393 B.C.) Conon returned to 
 Athens, and rebuilt the Long Walls and fortifications of 
 the Peiraeeus. The Athenians honored him as a second 
 founder of their city an<i restorer of her greatness. 
 
 Sparta soon found that the strain upon her resources 
 to carry on this war successfully was so great that she 
 
102 
 
 PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS, 
 
 was eager to procure peace at any cost. Antalcidas 
 was sent to the Persian court to conclude a peace. 
 This peace, called the Peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.), 
 was most disgi-aceful to the Greeks, who relinquished 
 to Persia all the Greek cities in Asia Minor and many 
 of the islands of the -^gcan. (Lemnoa, Imbros, and 
 Scyros were still to belong to Athens.) 
 
 Sparta was now at the zenith of her power, extending 
 lier influence in all directions, and nowhere meeting 
 with resistance. But success, as is often the case, 
 resulted in arrogance. Even in time of peace she 
 occupied the citadel of Thebes, — the Cadmeia, — and 
 for three years the city was a mere dependent upon 
 Sparta. But the Thebans were discontented, and de- 
 termined as soon as possible to throw oif the hated 
 yoke. Their deliverance was near at hand. Two 
 young Thebans, Epameinoudas and Pelopidaa, were 
 destined to be the saviors of their city. 
 
 n 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Freedom of Thebes from Spartan Sway, 379 B.a 
 League between Athens and Thebes. 
 
 Epameinondas and Pelopidas. 
 
 The Peace of Callias, 371 b.c. 
 
 Epameinondas and Pelopidas were two Thebans 
 noted for their faithful friendship to one another. 
 They were both distinguished for integrity and up- 
 rightness, and both were successful generals. 
 
 Pelopidas at the head of a body of exiles resolved to 
 make an attack upon the Spartan garrison at Thebes, 
 and wrest the city from their oppressive rule. The Spar- 
 tan leaders were killed at a banquet, and the garrison 
 expelled from the citadel (379 b.c). Athens and 
 Thebes now joined in alliance, and declared war 
 against Sparta. A confederacy, similar to the Con- 
 federacy of Delos, was formed, with Athens at the 
 head, but with all the members peifectly independent. 
 
 In Thebes the soldiers were put under the best train- 
 ing, and the memorable Sacred Band was for the first 
 time organized. This was a brigade of 300 heavy- 
 armed men. It consisted of young men from the 
 best families, distinguished for their strength and cour- 
 age, and was drawn up in such a manner that each 
 pair of soldiers were intimate friends. Thus the whole 
 ban 1 was kept together by ties which no dangers could 
 
104 
 
 PEACE OF C ALU AS. 
 
 sever. Eparaeinondas took the most prominent part in 
 drilling and disciplining these bands. 
 
 In the summer of 378 B.C., a large force of Spartans 
 marched into Bceotia, but without effecting any thing 
 decisive. All subsequent invasions of the Spartans 
 were similar in their results; until, in 374 B.C., the 
 Thebans succeeded in driving out the Sj)artans, and 
 for two years were free from an invasion. During this 
 period most of the Boeotian cities submitted to Thebes, 
 all Spartan garrisons were expelled, and free govern- 
 ments restored. 
 
 In September, 376 b.c., the Athenians gained their 
 first great victory since the Peloponnesian war at 
 Naxos. The Spartan fleet had been cruising in the 
 .^gean, and threatening to destroy the commerce of the 
 Athenians. Feeling severely this interruption to their 
 trade, Athens fitted out a fleet and despatched it to 
 check the Spartans in their coui*se. The two fleets 
 met, and in a shai-ply contested action near Naxos the 
 Spartans received a severe defeat. Athens regained 
 her mastery over the sea. 
 
 Thus all the efforts of Sparta against her two ene- 
 mies (Thebes and Athens) were of no avail. 
 
 But the successes of Thebos raised feelings of jealousy 
 in the breasts of the Athenians, who began to negotiate 
 with Sparta. A j)eace was then (371 b.c.) concluded, 
 called the Peace of Callias, in which the independence 
 of all Greek cities was recognized. Thebes, wishing 
 to be the head of the cities in Jiceotia, declined peace 
 on such terms, and was excluded from the treaty. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIL 
 
 The Theban Supremacy, 371-301 B.a 
 
 Leuctra, 371 B.C. 
 
 Mantineia, 362 b.c. 
 
 Sparta now having only Thebes to contend with, and 
 imagining that she could easily triumph, sent troops 
 into Bceotia to crush her hated rival. But Epameinon- 
 das and Pelopidas were not to be so easily overcome. 
 The Theban army, though outnumbered, arrayed their 
 forces so skilfully that the Spartans could nowhere 
 break their solid lines. The tactics adopted by Epam- 
 einondas were the same as those used by Napoleon in 
 modern times; viz., to concentrate at a given point of 
 the enemy's line large numbers of troops. The Sacred 
 Band led the attack ; and, although the Spartans evinced 
 their usual valor, the Thebans carried every thing before 
 them. The Spartans left 4,000 on the field, while only 
 300 Thebans were slain. 
 
 This magnificent victory of Epameinondas at Leuctra 
 <lashed the hopes of Sparta to the ground. She I'ell, 
 suddenly and for ever, from her previous high position. 
 Almost all central Greece joined Thebes. Ejiameinon. 
 das, invited by Arcadia, marched into the Peloponnesus 
 and ravaged the Spartan territory, a])i»roaching to the 
 very suburbs of the city, an almost unj)recedented 
 
106 
 
 BATTLE OF MANTINEIA. 
 
 event ; for it had been the boast of Sparta that " their 
 women had never seen the smoke of an enemy's camp." 
 
 Epameinondas also founded a new city in Arcadia, 
 which he called Megalopolis. He established the inde- 
 pendence of Messenia, and founded the city of Messene. 
 
 Meanwhile Thebes was extending her influence also 
 in northern Greece. Her armies were sent into Thes- 
 salia, and after some resistance the country was sub- 
 jugated. In a battle fought here on the hills of 
 Cynoscephalae (364 B.C.) PeIo|)idas was slain. 
 
 In 362 B.C. Epameinondas again entered the Pelopon- 
 nesus. At Tegea he was joined by his allies. From 
 here he advanced towards Mantineia, where the Spartan 
 troops were stationed. Here a great battle was fought, 
 in which Epameinondas repeated the tactics so success- 
 ful at Leuctra, and comi)letely defeated the Spartans 
 and their allies. But he himself was killed, and in his 
 death Sparta was almost compensated for her defeat; 
 for Thebes, unable to find another capable leader, sunk 
 bnck at once into insignificance. Thus ended the 
 Theban supremacy, which lasted for ten years, 371- 
 
 361 BX3. 
 
 CHAPTER XXin. 
 
 SociAi. War, 358-355 b.c. 
 
 Sacred War, 357-346 B.a 
 
 Philip of Macedonia. 
 
 The peace which followed Mantineia was not dis- 
 turbed for six years. During this time Athens recovered 
 in a great measure her former prosperity. She had 
 again become mistress of the Chersonesus, of Euboea, 
 and her territory in the region of Amphipolis. But a 
 revolt of many of her more distant allies, as Rhodos, 
 Cos, Chios, and Byzantium, engaged her in the Social 
 war. This war cost her many men, drew largely on 
 her treasury, and finally resulted in a peace disadvan- 
 tageous to herself, while it secured the independence of 
 ber allies. 
 
 The Social war was also highly injurious to Athens 
 in another respect. She was so engaged in the struggle 
 with her allies that she allowed Philip, king of Mace- 
 donia, now first rising into importance, to deprive her 
 of all her dominions upon the Thermaic Gulf, the most 
 important of which were Amphipolis and Potidaea. 
 
 Before the Social war had come to an end, another 
 struggle, fatal to Greece, was begun, called the Sacred 
 war. The cause of this war was the hatred of Thebes 
 for Phocis, a state that had been a friend of Sparta. 
 Phocis seized upon the treasures at Delphi, and with 
 

 108 
 
 PHILIP OF MACEDONIA. 
 
 the assistance derived from them prolonged the war for 
 eleven years. At last Thebes called in (346 b.c.) the 
 aid of Philip, king of Macedonia. 
 
 Philip (359-336 b.c.) was a monarch of great ability 
 and activity. Previous to his accession, Macedonia had 
 been a second or third rate power of no importance. 
 
 At the age of fifteen, Philip was sent to Thebes as a 
 hostage, where he lived three years, while that city was 
 at the height of its prosperity under Pelopidas and 
 Epameinondas. He was thus brought in contact with 
 these great men, and led to study their system and 
 imitate their actions. He learned the importance of 
 careful military training ; and it was in a great measure 
 owing to the fine discipline of his troops that he was 
 always invincible. He was also a master of diplomacy 
 and an artful deceiver, advancing his purposes fully as 
 much by promising and bribing as by force of arms. 
 
 Such was the i)erson whom Thebes invited to aid her 
 in conquering the Phocians; one who would only be 
 content when he saw the whole of Greece at his feet. 
 
 It required but a short time for Philip to reduce the 
 towns of Phocis and disperse their inhabitants. 
 
 Within six years of the submission of Phocis, Philip 
 declared war against Athens, the only city in Greece 
 capable of offering any resistance. At this time the 
 Athenians were in a state of apathy, in marked con- 
 trast to their ancient activity and patriotism. De- 
 mosthenes, the greatest orator of ancient times, was 
 the only person who seemed to realize the importance 
 of making a firm stand against Philip, and opj)osing 
 to the last his ambitious plans. His orations a^^ainst 
 Philip and his policy (called the Philippics) are master- 
 pieces of eloquence. jaSschines was the opponent of 
 
 BATTLE OF CILERONEIA, 
 
 109 
 
 Demosthenes; an orator of nearly equal ability as his 
 rival, but won over to the side of Philip by flattery 
 and bribes. 
 
 In 338 B.C. Philip again appeared in Greece, having 
 been requested to punish Amphissa, a town in Locris, 
 that had been guilty of sacrilege. Instead, however, 
 of proceeding against this place, he seized Elateia, a 
 town in Phocis, evidently intending to gain a strong 
 footing in central Greece. 
 
 The TLebans and Athenians were at last alarmed, 
 and determined to take the field against tliis dangerous 
 foe. Philip met them on the plains of Chaeroueia 
 (August 7, 338 B.C.). Here the Macedonian troops 
 showed that their careful training and drill had been to 
 some purpose. The Greeks were completely routed. 
 
 All the states, except Sparta, immediately acknowl- 
 edged the supremacy of Philip. 
 
 Philip's empire now included all Greece as well as 
 Macedonia. Not satisfied with this, he turned his 
 ambitious plans towards Persia. He could not rest 
 until the inhabitants of this vast country were num- 
 bered among his subjects. But in the midst of his 
 preparations he was assassinated at the age of forty- 
 seven, after a reign of twenty-three years. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 Alexander the Great, 336-323 B.a 
 
 PniLTP was succeeded by his son Alexander. At 
 the beginning of his reign, Alexander quelled several 
 rebellions, marched down into Greece, and received 
 from it proof's of submission. On his return to Mace- 
 donia, he found it necessary to invade Thrace, and 
 crush his enemies in that region. 
 
 While he was absent on this expedition, a false 
 report was spread in Greece that he had been killed. 
 Thebes immediately revolted (335 B.C.), and her exam- 
 ple would probably have been imitated by the other 
 cities of Greece, had not the young monarch appeared 
 unexpectedly in Bceotia. He stormed Thebes, massa- 
 cred her citizens, and completely destroyed the city. 
 The few survivoi*s were sold into slavery. All Greece 
 was thoroughly terrified by this vengeance of Alexan- 
 der, and gave him no further trouble. 
 
 Alexander now determined to carry out the plans of 
 his father, and invade Persia. In the spring of 334 B.C. 
 he crossed the Hellespont with an army of about 35,000 
 men. This army consisted entirely of veteran troops 
 who had had a long experience in warfare under Philip. 
 The Persians awaited his approach near the river Grani- 
 cus in Mysia. Their forces outnumbered those of 
 Alexander, but the superior discipline of the Mace- 
 donian troops won the day. The result of this victory 
 
 ISSUS AND ARBELA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 was, that the greater part of Asia Minor revolted from 
 tlie Persians and sided with Alexander. 
 
 The conqueror now marched through Asia Minor, and 
 found the Persian monarch himself (Darius IH.) with 
 an immense army of 600,000 men awaiting him at Issus 
 (November, 333 B.C.). Darius had intended to fight on 
 the plain of Antioch, where his vast army would have 
 room to act. But, as Alexander did not come to meet 
 him, he grew impatient, and advanced into the defiles 
 which lie between Syria and Cilicia, near Issus. In a 
 narrow valley the armies met, where numbers, upon 
 which the Persians relied, were of no avail, but rather 
 an impediment. Under such circumstances Alexander 
 was easily victorious. 
 
 After the victory of Issus, Alexander conquered the 
 cities on the coast of the Mediterranean, the most 
 important of which was Tyre. This place endured a 
 siege of seven months. When it was finally taken 
 (July, 332 B.C.), the inhabitants who escaped massacre 
 were sold into slavery. Alexander next marched into 
 Egypt, and, having subdued the country, founded Alex- 
 andreia near the mouth of the Nile, which afterwards 
 became a wealthy and populous city. 
 
 After these conquests, Alexander sought out Darius 
 in the heart of his Empire. The Persian king had, 
 meanwhile, collected the entire forces at his command, 
 determined to make a final stand against the intruder. 
 It was on the field of Arbela (October, 331 b.c), near 
 Babylon, that the comparative strength of Persian and 
 Macedonian discipline was fairly tested. Darius had 
 Belected his own ground, and had every natural advan- 
 tage in his favor. Here his defeat was owing both to 
 the superiority of the European to the Asiatic soldier, 
 
112 
 
 DEATH OF ALEXANDER, 
 
 and to the consummate ability of the Macedonian 
 commander. 
 
 The result of Arbela was that the Persian Empire 
 became a mere dependency of Macedonia. Darius 
 himself was shortly after murdered. 
 
 The ambition of Alexander was still unsatisfied. He 
 conceived the startling plan of conquering India ; and 
 Jiad not his soldiers, tired out by such an uninterrupted 
 series of campaigns, refused to proceed, his empire 
 would have been bounded on the east only by the 
 ocean. As it was, he advanced to the river Hyphasis, 
 a branch of the Indus. 
 
 Alexander was no selfish conqueror. He did not 
 conquer simply for the sake of conquering. Wherever 
 he went he im|)roved the country. Throughout Persia 
 commerce revived, and new vigor was infused into the 
 Asiatic blood. It was his hope to extend his kingdoms 
 still further by the conquest of Arabia, when he was 
 suddenly cut off by a fever (June, 323 B.C.), in the 
 thirteenth year of his reign and the thirty-third of his 
 age. The empire which he had built up so quickly 
 broke as quickly into fragments now that its head was 
 gone. 
 
 The news of Alexander's death was received with great 
 joy throughout Greece. Demosthenes again endeavored 
 to arouse by his eloquence the Athenians, with but little 
 result. Athens never afterwards possessed any political 
 power. Her greatness was gone. Iler glory, which 
 had outshone that of any other city, was deiiartcd. 
 
 But her real empire — that over the minds of men 
 
 still exists in the writings of her great scholars. 
 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Greece and Macedonia from Alp:xander to their 
 Conquest by the Romans. 
 
 The news of Alexander's death reached Greece m 
 the summer of 323 B.C. A large confederacy was 
 formed, and war begun, in the expectation of freeing 
 Greece from the Macedonian yoke. This war, called 
 the Lamian war (323-321 B.C.), was a perfect failure ; 
 and, in the defeat at Crannon, the yoke of Macedonia 
 was riveted upon Greece more firmly than ever. 
 
 From this time, Greece becomes little more than a 
 tool in the hands of competitors for empire elsewhere. 
 
 Antipater, one of Alexander's generals, who was now 
 the ruler of Macedonia, died in 318 b.c, leaving the 
 regency to his brother ofiicer, Polysperchon. 
 
 Cassander, the eldest son of Antijjater, was disap- 
 pointed at not receiving the kinglom, and raised a 
 rebellion against Polysperchon, which resulted favor- 
 ably. He occupied the throne from 316 to 296 b.c. 
 Cassauder was followed by his son Thessalonice (298- 
 297 B.C.) ; he, by his two brothers, Antipater II. and 
 Alexander (297-294 B.C.). Demetrius Poliorcetes then 
 ascended the throne. The sceptre fell to his descend- 
 ants, who held it for more than one hundred years, until 
 Perseus was carried away as a captive, to grace the 
 triumph of a Roman conqueror (168 b.c). 
 
 u 
 
114 
 
 CAPTURE OF CORINTH. 
 
 During this time, the Achaeana made an effort to 
 unite the Greek states into one body, whose common 
 interests would make them stronger than when dis- 
 united by local feuds and jealousies. The Achajan 
 league, led (251 b.c.) by Aratus of Sicyon, and after- 
 wards (183 B.C.) by Philopoemen of Megalopolis, was 
 successful. But the feuds of the Acarnanians and 
 ^tolians prepared the way for the great conquerors of 
 the world to step in. Corcyra and Epidamnus became 
 Roman allies ; and Roman allies soon became Roman 
 subjects. The Romans, having once obtained a foot- 
 hold in a place, never gave it up. After the battle of 
 Pydna (168 B.C.), which decided the fate of Macedonia, 
 the Roman general, Mummius, marched to Corinth, 
 and captured it (14G b.c). The Acha3an league was 
 thus brought to an end ; and Greece became a Roman 
 province, under the name of Achaia. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 Ancient Gbeek Wbitees. 
 
 POETS. 
 
 Epic. 
 
 Homer, see page 8. 
 
 Hesiod, born at Ascra, in Bceotia. Lived about the 
 same time as Homer. Principal works are the "The- 
 ogony," an account of the origin of the world and the 
 birth of the gods; the "Works and Days," in which he 
 lays down moral maxims for the regulation of our 
 daily conduct. 
 
 Tbagic. 
 
 -^sciiYLus, bom at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 b.c. ; died 
 in Sicily, 456 b.c. Seven of his plays have come down 
 to us. 
 
 Sophocles, bom at Athens, 495 b.c; died 406 b.c. 
 Seven plays have been preserved. 
 
 Euripides, bom at Salamis, 480 b.c. ; died 406 b.c. 
 Nineteen plays are extant. 
 
 Comic. 
 
 Aristophanes, born at Athens, 444 b.c. ; died about 
 880 B.C. Eleven plays preserved. 
 
116 
 
 \ 
 
 HISTORIANS AND ORATORS. 
 
 PROSE WRITERS. 
 
 Historians. 
 
 ITerodotus (calletl the father of history), born at 
 Ilaliciirnnssus, in Caria, 484 B.C. ; fVied about 408 B.C. 
 His history embraces a period of about 240 years, en<l- 
 ing in the year 478 B.C. 
 
 TiiucYDiDES, born at Athens, 471 B.C. ; died in exile, 
 in Thrace, 391 B.C. His history of the Peloponnesian 
 war, in eight books, closes in the year 411 B.C. This 
 history is a very careful and impartial composition, differ- 
 ino^ from that of Herodotus, which is full of episodes 
 and wonderful tales. 
 
 Xenopiion, born about 445 B.C. ; died about 359 b.c. 
 Works: Hellenica, a continuation of the history of 
 Thucydides; Anabasis, an account of the expedition of 
 the "Ten Thousand;" Cyropaedia, the life of Cyrus the 
 Great; MemorabUia, a defence of Socrates and his 
 philosophy. 
 
 OliATORS. 
 
 Pericles, born at Athens, about 499 B.C. ; died 429 
 B.C. (See i)agos Gl, 03, and 74.) 
 
 Of this distinguished orator and stah?sman Thucy- 
 dides says : " All the time that he stood at the head of 
 the state, he governed it with moderation, and watched 
 over its safety. Under him it rose to the highest i)itch 
 of greatness. The cause of his influence was that he 
 was^ powerful in dignity of character and wisdom; that 
 he proved himself to be pre-eminently the most incor- 
 ruptible of men ; and that he restrained the people 
 freely, and led them instead of being led by thera." 
 
 ORATORS AND PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 117 
 
 Demosthenes, born at Athens, 382 b.c. ; died 322 b.c. 
 The first attempt of this great orator at eloquence was 
 a perfect failure ; he was even hooted ofi* the platform. 
 He then withdrew from the public, and devoted himself 
 sedulously for some time to the study of oratory. He 
 is said to have shut himself up for three months in a 
 subterranean chamber, copying and recopying the his- 
 tory of Thucydides, that he might thereby improve his 
 own style. Such careful training was rewarded with 
 success, and when he next ventured to speak in public 
 he was received with favor. Of his orations, which 
 have always been considered models of eloquence, 
 sixty-one have come down to us. 
 
 ^sciiiNES, bom 389 b.c. ; died 314 b.c. Only three 
 orations have been preserved. (See pages 108 and 
 109.) 
 
 Philosophers. 
 
 Thales, born at Miletus, 630 b.c. ; died about 540 
 B.C. Called the Ionic philosopher. He maintained 
 that water was the first principle of all things. 
 
 Pythagoras, born at Samos ; flourished first half of 
 the sixth century. He taught the transmigration of 
 souls. 
 
 Socrates, born 469 b.c.; died 399 b.c. (See page 
 
 99.) 
 
 Plato, born 429 b.c. ; died 347 b.c. He was a disci- 
 ple of Socrates, and founded the Academic school of 
 philosophy. 
 
 Aristotle, born at Stagira, in Chalcidice, 384 b.c. ; 
 died in Euboea, 322 b.c. He founded the Peripatetic 
 Bcbool of philosophy, so called because he delivered 
 his lectures walking about. 
 
118 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 y 
 
 B.O. 
 
 1194-1184. 
 1104. 
 
 1045. 
 
 850 (?) 
 ^825 (?) 
 ^76. 
 
 A 
 
 752-684. 
 ' 743-724. 
 685-668. 
 684. 
 ^624. 
 /^94. 
 '^560-510. 
 558-529. 
 529-522. 
 527. 
 
 521-486. 
 514. 
 
 510. 
 
 508. 
 500. 
 499. 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 493. 
 
 490. 
 
 489. 
 486. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Siege of Troy. 
 
 Return of the Heracleidae. 
 ( Death of Codrus, last king of Athens. 
 ( Medon, first life-Archon. 
 
 Homer. 
 
 Lycurgus. 
 
 First Olympiad. 
 
 Decennial Archons. 
 
 First Messenian War. 
 
 Second Messenian War. 
 
 Annual Archons. 
 
 Draco. 
 
 Solon. 
 
 The PeisiatratidaB. 
 
 Cyrus L 
 
 Cambyses. 
 
 Death of FelBiatratus. 
 
 Darius L 
 
 Assassination of Hipparchus. 
 f Hippias expelled from Athens. 
 ( Clelsthenes. ^ 
 
 Subjugation of Scythia by Darius I. 
 
 Ionic Revolt. 
 
 Sardis burned. 
 (Fleet of Mardonius wrecked off Mount 
 1 Athos. 
 
 r First Peraian Invasion of Greece. 
 I Marathon (September 12), 
 
 Death of Miltiades. 
 
 Death of Darius L 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 119 
 
 / 
 
 B.C. 
 
 486-465. 
 
 482. 
 
 480. 
 
 / 
 
 479. 
 
 478. 
 477. 
 
 y476. 
 
 475 (?) 
 470 (?) 
 471. 
 471. 
 468. 
 ^ 466. 
 
 / 
 
 464. 
 
 / 
 
 461. 
 
 457. 
 
 . 456. 
 
 455. 
 
 449. 
 
 447. 
 
 445. 
 
 ^' 435. 
 
 432. 
 
 / 
 
 432. 
 
 Xerzes I. 
 
 Aristeides ostracized. 
 { Second Persian Invasion of Greece. 
 K Thermopylae and Artemisium (July). 
 Csalamis (September 20). 
 
 Plataeae and Mycale (September). 
 
 Capture of Sestoa. 
 
 Capture of Byzantium. 
 
 Confederacy of Delos. N 
 
 Capture of Xiion. 
 
 Capture of Scyros. 
 
 Themistocles banished. 
 
 Fausanias convicted of treason. 
 
 Aristeides dies. 
 
 Eurymedon. Nazos revolts. 
 f Uprising of the Helots (sometimes called 
 < the Third Messenian War). Thasos 
 ( revolts. 
 
 c Alliance between Athens and Sparta broken 
 J off. Cimon ostracized, but recalled in 
 ( 456 B.C. 
 
 Tanagra. Completion of Long Walls. 
 
 CBnophyta. 
 
 Revolt of Helots put down. 
 
 Death of Themistocles and Cimon. 
 ( Coroneia marks the end of Athens' control 
 \ in BcBotia. 
 
 Thirty Years' truce concluded by Pericles. 
 
 Cape Actium. 
 
 Cape Cheimerium (Sybota), 
 ( Revolt of Potidaja. 
 ( Congress at Sparta (December). 
 
 ^ 
 
120 
 
 BC. 
 
 431-404. 
 /,429. 
 
 427. 
 
 425. 
 
 ,424. 
 
 422. 
 
 421. 
 /4I8. 
 /4I6. 
 
 415-413. 
 ^413. 
 
 412. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY, 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 411. 
 
 Feloponnesian "War. 
 Death of Pericles. 
 ( Capture of Mitylene. 
 (. Flatseas surrenders to the Spartans, 
 Sphacteria. 
 Delium. 
 
 Death of Cleon and Brasidas. 
 Peace of Nicias. 
 Mantineia. 
 
 Aid asked of Athens by Egesta. 
 Sicilian Expedition. 
 
 Occupation of Deceleia by the Spartans. 
 f Revolt of Chios, Lesbos, and Rhodes. 
 < Naval fight off Miletus. Alliance between 
 ( Sparta and Persia. 
 The Four Hundred (March-June). 
 411 ^A *l^ (-^cibiades rejoins his countrymen at 
 
 ( Snmos. 
 411 ^T 1 ^ (Victory of Athenians over Spartans at 
 
 ^ ^^^^'\ Abydos. 
 411 (Oct.). Cynossema. * 
 
 410 (Feb.). Cyzicus. 
 408 (June). Alcibiades returns to Athens. 
 
 r Notium. Alcibiades deprived of command, 
 407. 4 and retires to his private estates in the 
 
 ( Chcrsonesus. 
 406. MytUene. 
 
 ^ 406 (Sept.). Arginusae. 
 405 (Aug.). iEgos-Fotami. 
 
 -^404-408! ( rpr, ^^. , „, 
 
 N "i The Thirty Tyrants. 
 /(8 mos.). C 
 
 404-371. Supremacy of Sparta. 
 
 / 
 
 CHRONOLOGY, 
 
 121 
 
 / 
 
 { 
 
 B.C. 
 
 399. 
 401. 
 399-394. 
 
 394. 
 
 393. 
 
 387. 
 
 376. 
 
 /371. 
 
 /,371. 
 
 ^371-361. 
 
 /364. 
 
 362. 
 
 358-355. 
 y357-346. 
 ^346. 
 
 338. 
 /33O-323. 
 7335. 
 
 334. 
 ^^333 (Nov.). 
 ^332 (July). 
 
 332. 
 J 331 (Oct.). 
 
 Death of Socrates. 
 
 Cunaxa. 
 
 War of Sparta with Persia. 
 
 Corinthian "War. 
 
 Coroneia, Cnidus. 
 
 Long Walls rebuilt by Conon. 
 
 Feace of Antalcidas. 
 
 Defeat of Spartans at Naxos. 
 
 Feace of Callias. 
 
 Leuctra. 
 
 Theban Supremacy. 
 
 Death of Felopidas at Cynoscephalae. 
 
 Mantineia. Death of Epameinondas. 
 
 Social "War. 
 
 Sacred "War. 
 
 Philip of Macedonia first called to Greece. 
 
 Chderoueia. 
 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 Revolt and reduction of Thebes. 
 
 Qranicus. 
 
 Issus. 
 
 Capture of Tyre. 
 
 Founding of Alexandrela. 
 
 Arbela. 
 
 6 
 
PERSIAN KINGS. 
 
 Cyrus I. (558-529 b.c.V 
 I —" 
 
 I 
 Cambyses (529-522 b.c.). 
 
 Atossa-Darius I. (5^21-486 b.c.). 
 Xerxes I. (486-465 b.c). 
 
 Art A XERXES I. (465-425 b.c). 
 
 Darius II. (Notlius) (425-405 B.a). 
 Artaxerxes II. (405-362 b.c). 
 
 Artaxerxes III. (359-338 b.c). 
 
 Darius III. (perhaps descended from Dariits U.) 
 (336-330 B.C.). 
 
 I ;n' D E X. 
 
 Tho numbers refer to the pages. 
 
 A. 
 
 AbydoR, 36. 94. 
 
 Academic School of Philosophy, we 
 I'lato. 
 
 Academy, 67. 
 
 Acarnania, XL 
 
 Achxans, 2. 
 
 Achaeus, 2. 
 
 Achaia, 12. 
 
 Achelous, 13. 
 
 Achilles, 7. 
 
 AchraiUna, 84. 
 
 Aeroceraunia, 11, 68. 
 
 Acropolis, 41, 49, 61, 65, 67. 
 
 Actium, 11; battle of, 69. 
 
 ^^t;aleos, Mount, 14. 
 
 Jij;lna, war with Athens, 34, 38; 
 complains against Athens, 70. 
 
 iEfjos-Potami, 96. 
 
 iEolians, 2. 
 
 iEneas, 7. 
 
 JEolus, 2. 
 
 iEsehlnes, 108, 115. 
 
 Jischylus, 113. 
 
 iEtolia, 11. 
 
 Africa, 16. 
 
 Agamemnon, 7. 
 
 Agesilaus, lOL 
 
 Agora, 8, 67. 
 
 Alcibiiides, character of, 81; com- 
 mands fleet for Sicily, 82; ban- 
 ished, 83; advises the Spartans, 
 90; goes over to Persia, 91; joins 
 Thrasvbulus at Samos, 93; gains 
 the battle of Cyzicus, 94; de- 
 
 8 rived of command, 95; death, 
 6. 
 
 Alcmajonldae, 27. 
 
 Alcmena, 5. 
 
 Alexander the Great, 110-112. 
 
 Alexandria, 111. 
 
 Alpheius, 9, 13. 
 
 Aniphipolis, 16, 79; battle of, 80, 
 107. 
 
 Amphissa, 109. 
 
 Ampliitryon, 5. 
 
 Ampheia, 21. 
 
 Anabasis, 100, 114. 
 
 Anapus, 84. 
 
 Antalcidas, peace of, 102. 
 
 Antiochus, 95. 
 
 Aphrodite, 3, 4, 6, 7. 
 
 Apollo, 4, 9, 31, 76. 
 
 Antlphon, 93. 
 
 Arbela, 111, 112. 
 
 Arcadia, 12. 
 
 Archidamus, 73, 74. 
 
 Archon, 21,24, 25. 
 
 Areiopagus, 20, 66. 
 
 Ares, 4, 66. 
 
 Arginusae, 95, 96. 
 
 Argolis, 12, 15. 
 
 Argos, 3, 15, 23, 81, 101. 
 
 Ahabignes, 42. 
 
 Aristeides, character of, 34, 55, 56 ; 
 ostracism of, 35; at Psyttaleia, 
 42; gains infkience, 44; at Pla- 
 taeae, 45; commands fleet with 
 Cimon, 50; simplicitj-, 51; takes 
 chief command of fleet, 52 ; death 
 of, 55 ; succeeded by Cimon, 57. 
 Aristodemus, 21. 
 Aristogeiton, 26. 
 Aristomenes, 22. 
 Aristophanes, 113. 
 
124 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aristotle, 115. 
 
 Artaxerxcs I., 55, 120; IT., 101, 
 
 120; HI., 120. 
 Artemis, 4, 31. 
 
 Arteiiiisium, 38; battle of, 40. 
 Asupus. 14. 
 Astu, 65. 
 
 Athena, 3, 4, 6; PromJlchos, 66. 
 Athens, early governnieut of, 24; 
 
 description of, 05-07. 
 Athos, Mount, 30, 36, 37. 
 Atossa, 120. 
 Atreus, 3. 
 Aulis, 7. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babylon, 100, 111. 
 
 Henia, the, 67. 
 
 Bceotia, description of, 14. 
 
 BouUS the, 8, 27. 
 
 Brasldas, 77 ; character of, 79 ; death 
 of, 80. 
 
 Byzantium, 16; taken by the Athe- 
 nians, 50| 54. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cadmeia, the, 102. 
 
 Cadmus, 3. 
 
 Callias, peace of, 104. 
 
 Callicratldas, 95, 96. 
 
 Cambunian Mountains, 12. 
 
 Cambyses, 29, 120. 
 
 Caria, 58, 114. 
 
 Cat£ina, 83, 84. 
 
 Cecrops, 2. 
 
 Cephissus, the, 14, 65. 
 
 Ceres, see Demeter. 
 
 Charoneia, 109. 
 
 Chalcidlce, 115. 
 
 Cheiraerium, Cape, 69. 
 
 Chersonesus, 48, 95, 107. 
 
 Chios revolts, liO. 
 
 Chronoloj,'y, llG-119. 
 
 Cilicia, 111. 
 
 Cimon, pays his father's fine, 33; 
 commands fleet with Aristeides, 
 50; compared with Pausanias, 
 51 ; succeeds Theraistocles in in- 
 fluence, 57; victory at Euryme- 
 don, 58; character, 59; banish- 
 
 ment, 60; influence declines, 01 j 
 
 at Tanagra. 62; death of, 63. 
 Clei.sthcncs, 25, 27; constitution of, 
 
 27, 61. 
 Cleon, 76, 78; influence of, 79; 
 
 death of, 80, 81. 
 Cnidus, 15, 101. 
 Codrus, 2, 24. 
 Colonies, Greek, 15, 16. 
 Conoa, 95; rebuilds Long Walls, 
 
 101. 
 Copals, Lake, 13, 14. 
 Conyra, 12; troubles with Corinth, 
 
 68, 61); alliance with Athens, 69; 
 
 civil quarrels, 76, 83. 
 Corinth, 9, 70, 101. 
 Coroneia, 63, lOL 
 Council of 400, 25, 27. 
 Crituis, 98, 99. 
 Croesus, 29. 
 Cumie, 16. 
 Cunaxa, 100. 
 Cycludcs, 12. 
 ( J^'nosceijlu'ila;, 106. 
 Cynossema, 94. 
 Cyprus, 50. 
 CyrGne, 16. 
 Cyropa'dia, 114. 
 Cyrus L, 29, 120; brother of ArU- 
 
 xerxes, 94. 
 Cyzlcus, 94. 
 
 D. 
 
 Daniius, 3. 
 
 Darius L, 29, 120; II., 100, 120; 
 IN., Ill, 120. 
 
 Datis, 30. 
 
 Deceleia, 90, 93. 
 
 Decennial Archons, 2, 24. 
 
 Delaneira, 5. 
 
 Delium, 79, 81. 
 
 Delos, 12; confederacy of, 52, 53, 
 57, 58, 63; purification of, 76; 
 103. 
 
 Delphi, 4, 40, 107. 
 
 Demeter, 3, 4. 
 
 Demosthenes, the general, 77; ar- 
 rives at Syracuse, 86; death, 88; 
 the orator^ 108 ; the Pliilippics of^ 
 108, 112. 
 
 Dodona, 3. 
 
 Dorian Invasion, 6. 
 
 Dorus, 2. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 125 
 
 Draco, 25, 99. 
 
 Dionysiac Theatre, 62, 67. 
 
 Dyrruchium, 68. 
 
 £. 
 
 Ecclesia, 25, 27. 
 
 I'gesta, 82. 
 
 Eg>'pt, 3, 29, IIL 
 
 Eio'n, 16, 57, 58. 
 
 Eira, 22. 
 
 Elateia, 109. 
 
 Eleusis, 113. 
 
 Elis, 12, 13. 
 
 Epameinondas, 102, 103, 104, 105; 
 
 death of, 106. 
 Ephesus, 15, 30, 95. 
 Ephialtes, 39. 
 Epiiors, 18, 51, 54, 55. 
 Epidanmus, 6H, 69. 
 Epipolaj, 85, 86, 87. 
 Epeirus, 3, 11. 
 Erectheium, 66. 
 Eretria, 31. 
 Eris, 6. 
 
 Euboca, 12, 40, 63, 115. 
 Eupatrldip, 24. 
 Euphrates, 20, 100. 
 Euripides, 113. 
 Eurlpus, 40. 
 Eurutas, 13, 14. 
 Eurybiiides, 38, 41, 44. 
 Eurymedon, 58; the general, 80; 
 
 death of, 87. 
 Eurystheus, 5. 
 
 F. 
 
 Four Hundred, the, 93, 94. 
 
 G. 
 
 Granlcus, 110. 
 
 Gylippus, 84; arrives at Syracuse, 
 85; 86. 
 
 H. 
 
 Ilallcamassua, 15. 
 Ilannodius, 26. 
 Hector, 7. 
 
 Helen, 7. 
 
 Heliwa, 27. 
 
 Helots, 19, 22; revolt of, 59, 62. 
 
 Hellas, 2, 15. 
 
 Hestia, 4. 
 
 Helien, 2. 
 
 Hellenes, 2. 
 
 llellenica, 114. 
 
 Hellespont, 43, 48, 110. 
 
 Hephastus, 4. 
 
 Hera, 4, 6. 
 
 Ileracleidaj, 6, 19. 
 
 Heracles, 5. 
 
 Herodotus, 114; birthplace of, 15. 
 
 Hermes, 14; mutilation of the 
 
 Hermaj, 83. 
 Hesiod, 113. 
 Hipparcbus, 26. 
 Hippias, 26, 27, 31. 
 Homer, birthplace of, 8, 113. 
 Hyphasis, 112. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iliad, 8. 
 Ilissus, 14,65. 
 Illvricum, 11. 
 Indus, 112. 
 Ionian Sea, 11, 69. 
 Innians, 2. 51. 
 Ionic Hevolt, 30. 
 Issus, 30, IIL 
 Isthmian Games, 9. 
 Italy, 7. 
 Ithaca, 7, 8. 
 llhome, 21, 59, 62. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lacedirmonians, 21 foot-note. 
 
 Lacoiiia, 12, 14. 
 
 Laniachus, 82; character of, 85. 
 
 I^urium, Mount, 35. 
 
 Leon, 85. 
 
 Leonidas, 38, 39. 
 
 Leotychldes, 47. 
 
 Lesbos, 12, 90, 95. 
 
 Leuctra, 105, 106. 
 
 Literature, Greek, U3-115. 
 
 Locris, 11, 109. 
 
 Long Walls, 67. 
 
 Lycia. 58. 
 
126 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lycurgus, 17; constitution of, 17- 
 
 19; discipline of, 19-21. 
 Lydia, 58. 
 ^.ysauder, 94, 96. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macedonia, 11, 107, 108, 109, 110. 
 
 Maeander, 15, 55. 
 
 Map^na (Ira'cia, 16. 
 
 Maiiac Gulf, 38. 
 
 Mantineia, 81, 106, 107. 
 
 Marathon, 11, 31; battle of, 32, 46. 
 
 Wardonius, 30, 36, 43, 44, 45, 47. 
 
 Mars, set Ares. 
 
 Massilia, 16. 
 
 Nedes, the, 29. 
 
 !Mediinnus. 25. 
 
 Mfdon, 2, 24. 
 
 Mediterranean, 11. 
 
 Me^^ulopOlis, 106. 
 
 Mejjara, 70. 
 
 Memorabilia, 114. 
 
 Menohius, 7. 
 
 Mercurv, see Hermes. 
 
 Mcssene, 106. 
 
 Messenian War, 1st, 21; 2d, 22; 3d, 
 59. 
 
 Miletus, 15, 30, 91, 115. 
 
 Miltiudes, comniands at Marathon, 
 32; expedition aijainst Paros, 33 ; 
 57. 
 
 Mindarus, 94. 
 
 Minerva, see Athena. 
 
 MinoH, 5. 
 
 Muiiychia, 67. 
 
 Mycjile, 47. 
 
 Mycen;e, 7, 15. 
 
 Mytilene, 15; revolt of, 75; sur- 
 render of, 76, 95. 
 
 N. 
 
 Napoleon, 105. 
 Navarino, 77. 
 
 Kaxos, 12; revolt of, 67, 104 
 Kemean Games, 9. 
 Nicias, 79; peace of, 80, 81; takes 
 command of fleet against Sicily, 
 
 82; superstition of, 86, 87; death 
 of, 88: poor generalship, 89. 
 
 Nike AptCros, 66. 
 
 Nile, 111. 
 
 Notium, 95. 
 
 0. 
 
 Odysseus, 7, 8. 
 Odyssey, 8. 
 (Enophyta, C3. 
 CEta, Mount, 6, 12, 33. 
 ( )lympia, 9. 
 Olympiad, 9. 
 Olympic Festival, 8. 
 Olympus. 4. 
 Ortygia, 84. 
 Oslraci&m, 28. 
 
 P. 
 
 PallSne, 16, 70. 
 
 Pamphylia, 58. 
 
 Pangoius, Mount, 58. 
 
 Paris, 6, 7. 
 
 Parnassus, Blount, 12, 40. 
 
 i'amcs, Mount, 12, 90. 
 
 Panion, Mount, 12. 
 
 Parthenon, 65. 
 
 Pausanias, 45, 50; proud condnct, 
 51; death of, 54; moral upon, 56. 
 
 Peirajeus, 49, 67, 73. 
 
 Peisander, 92, 93. 
 
 Peisistratus, 28. 
 
 Peisistratldte, 26, 27. 
 
 Pela.sgi, 1. 
 
 Pelasgic, 1, 3. 
 
 Peleus, 6, 7. 
 
 Pelion, Mount, 12. 
 
 Pelopldas, 102, lu3, 106. 
 
 Peloponnesus, 11. 
 
 Peloponnesian War, causes of, 68 
 allies of Athens and Sparta in, 
 72; finances of Athens at the 
 beginning of, 72; divisions of, 72. 
 
 Pelops, 3. 
 
 Peneius, the, 13, 14 
 
 Penelope, 7. 
 
 Perdiccas, 70. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 127 
 
 PerioDci, 18. 
 
 Pericles, 61; statesmanship of, 63; 
 73; death of, 74, 91, 97; character 
 of, 114. 
 
 Peripatetic, 116. 
 
 Persians, origin of, 29; Persian 
 kings, 120. 
 
 Phalerum, 41, 42, 67. 
 
 Pheidias, 67. 
 
 Philip, 108; assassinated, 109. 
 
 Philippics of Demosthenes, 108. 
 
 Phocis, 11. 40, 107, 108, 109. 
 
 Pha'uicians, 3. 
 
 Phrj'gia, 3. 
 
 Phrygians, 3. 
 
 Phylc, 99. 
 
 Plague at Athens, 74. 
 
 Plata'ie, assi>ts at Marathon, 31; 
 38; 40; 44; battle of, 45, 46, 47; 
 surprised by Thebans, 73; be- 
 sieged by Spartans, 76. 
 
 Plato, 115. 
 
 Plemmvrium, 8G. 
 
 Pnyx, '60. 
 
 Poseidon, 3, 4, 9. 
 
 Potidiva, 16, 70, 107. 
 
 Priam, 7. 
 
 Propyliea, 65, 66. 
 
 Pylos, 77. 
 
 Pythagoras, 115. 
 
 Pytiuau Uames, 9. 
 
 R. 
 
 Retreat of the 10,000, 100. 
 Khegium, 83. 
 
 Rhodos, 12, 22; revolt of, 90. 
 Rome, 7. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sacred Band, 103. 
 
 Sacred War, 107. 
 
 Salamis, 8, 40; battle of, 41-42; 
 
 46; 47; 54; 113. 
 Samos, 12, 47, 115. 
 Sardis capture of, 30, 47, 100. 
 Scvros, 57. 
 Sehnus, 82. 
 
 Sestos, 36 ; siege of, 48. 
 Sicily, expedition to, 81-89. 
 
 Social War, 107. 
 
 Society among early Greeks, 8. 
 
 Socrates, 81, 99, 114, 115. 
 
 Solon, 25, 99. 
 
 Sophocles, 113. 
 
 Sparta, 7; congress at, 70-, Them- 
 
 istocles at, 48. 
 Sphacteria, 77 ; capture of, 78, 80. 
 Stagira, 115. 
 Strvmon, 57, 79. 
 Sybota, 69, 70. 
 Svke, 85. 
 Syracuse, 16, 82. 83; des&riptionof 
 
 84; siege of, 85-87. 
 Syria, 100, 111. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tanarum, 11. 
 
 Taniigra, 14, 62, 79. 
 
 Tartntum, 10. 
 
 Taygetus, 12. 
 
 Tegra, 15. 106. 
 
 Tempe, 38. 
 
 Ten Thousand, retreat of, 100, 114. 
 
 Thales, 115. 
 
 Thasos, 12; revolt of, 58. 
 
 Thebes, 14, 101, 102, 103; supre- 
 macy of, 105, 106; stormed by 
 Alexander the (Jreat, 110. 
 
 Themistocles, character of, 34-35; 
 41, 43, 55, 50; <leceives the 
 Lacedemonians, 48; building 
 of Peinveus, 49, 54; declme of 
 influence, and death, 55, 57. 
 
 Theramenes, 93. 
 
 Thennopyhe, 37; description of, 
 38; battle of, 39, 40. 
 
 Theseium, 66. 
 
 Theseus, 5. 
 
 Thespiic, 14, 38, 40. 
 
 Thetis, 6, 7. 
 
 Thessalia, 11, 12. 13, 38, 44, 47. 
 
 Thirty Tyrants, 98, 99. 
 
 Thrasvbulus, 93, 99. 
 
 Thucydldes. 114. 
 
 Thurii, 63, 83. 
 
 Tiryns, 15. 
 
 Tissaphemes, 92. 
 
 Transmigration of souls, see Py- 
 thagoras. 
 
 Troezen, 15. 
 
128 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Troy, 6, 8. 
 Tyre, 111. 
 TyrtjBus, 23. 
 
 U, V. 
 
 Ulysses, 7. 
 
 Venus, «ee Aphrodite. 
 
 Virgil, 7. 
 
 Vulcan, see HephaestuA 
 
 Xanthippus, 47. 
 Xenopbon, 100, 114. 
 
 z. 
 
 Zeus, 8, 6, 6, 9; temple of Olym- 
 pian, 66. 
 
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 fhe £ and execution of the book, and feel that it will afford a happy 
 
 introduction to the study of the Greek drama. 
 
 Prof T. L. Seip, Muhlenberg College, Pa. -The Introduction is Tery 
 vairable to the student, and meets a want seldom supphed in similar 
 ToXs The article on the lyric parts, and the metrical ^-^^^^^>'-'-f^^ 
 Toiidse firm much-needed information. The text is very .ood, and the 
 notes are a satisfactory aid for beginners m Greek Tragedy. 
 
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 tied Great care has been taken to explain the 3";^- -pres.^^^^ 
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 Prof. J. E. Goodrich, University of Vermont. — These Dialogues of Lucian 
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 mars have been added. 
 
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 otliers of Wagner, abounds in original and sensible remarks ; the notes are 
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 Prof. Ch. Morris, Randolph Macon Colletje, Virginia. — I have now in 
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 altogether satisfactory. It shows much greater care and scholarship than 
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 Prof. W. W. Goodwin, Harvard College. — It is rare to find an edition 
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 The ** Symposium," according to its original design, makes a delightful 
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 are useless to test a pupil's knowledge. 
 
 Prof. Geo. O. Holbrooke, Trinity College, Hartford. — Abbott's Latin 
 Prose is the best book of the kind with which I am Acquainted. It teaches 
 the student to compose Latin, instead of translating stock sentences. 
 
 Prof. E. H. Griffin, Williams Cdlege, Williamstown. — Any book by the 
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 I Easy Latin Stories for Beginners. With Vocabulary 
 
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 Dr. H. T. Fuller, St. Johnsbury Academy, Vt. — We have used Bennett's 
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 revised by Professor Francis W. Kelsey, Lake Forest Univer- 
 sity. Second Edition. 16mo, 279 pages, $1.20. Each part 
 separately, ^0.75. 
 Prof. M. M. Fisher, University of Missouri. — The edition is in every 
 respect the best I have seen, and I shall use it in my classes. 
 
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 edition of these works of Cicero with which I am acquainted. I have used 
 the edition by Beid, and consider it a work of high merit. Professor 
 Kelsey's revision seems to me to retain all the desirable features of the 
 original edition, while much has been added which is of especial value to 
 the American student. 
 
 Prof. A. G. Hopkins, Hamilton College, New For^-. — It is a handsome 
 piece of work in every respect, and will, I doubt not, meet with a cordial re- 
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 Comstock's First Latin Book. Designed as a Manual of 
 Progressive Exercises and Systematic Drill in the Elements of 
 Latin. By D. Y. Comstock, M.A., Phillips Academy, Andover, 
 Mass. 12mo, cloth, 400 pages, ^1.00. 
 
 John S. White, LL.D., FTead-Master Berkeley/ School, New York City. — 
 Comstock's Latin Book 1 find the best book for its purpose that I have ever 
 used. The review of English Grammar at the beginning ; the separation 
 of the vocabularies from the exercises ; judicious and progressive presen- 
 tation of the various uses of the verb in the different moods ; and the con- 
 densed exhibit of the grammar, — are such valuable features gathered 
 within the covers of a text-book, that it lias no rival. 
 
 Nathan Thompson, A.M., Princijxil Laurence Academy, Groton, Mass. 
 — It is altogether the best Latin book for beginners with which I am 
 acquainted. 
 
 Geo. B. Tumbul, Colgate Acad., riamilton, N. Y. — I am using Com- 
 stock's First Latin Book with the Junior Class, and find it even more 
 satisfactory than I had hoped. 
 
 Prof. E. Alexander, University of Tennessee, Knorville. — Comstock's 
 Latin Book is in use in our preparatory department, and is perfectly 
 satisfactory. A better text-book is not often seen. 
 
 Prof. H. C. Missimer, High School, Erie, Pa. — It is very easy to see 
 that Comstock's First Latin Book is the work of a thorough teacher, 
 who has had actual experience in the class-room with the difliculties which 
 beginners in Latin usually meet. Its classification and methods are thor- 
 ough and complete ; its language is clear and simple. Mr. Comstock has 
 hit the nail on the head. He knows just what and just how much grammar 
 is needed for good, clean work. We have had Leighton and Jones, — both 
 good, — but we like Comstock more, because it is better. 
 
 Horace. With English Notes, by the Rev. A. J. IVLicleane, 
 M.A. Revised and edited by R. H. Chase, A.M. Thirteenth 
 Edition. 12mo, 580 pages, $1.30. 
 
 Chas. P. Parker, Harvard College. — Chase's Macleane's Horace I have 
 long known and used, and have found it thoroughly satisfactory botli in 
 study and in teaching. 
 
 Prof. Herbert W. Smyth, Williams College, 3/ass.— -lam glad to 
 express my commendation of Macleane's Horace as republished by you. 
 Its scholarly character places it at the head of all editions used in schools, 
 while its just discrimination in the selection of notes adds materially to its 
 usefulness. 
 
 Prof. J. H. Chamberlin, Marietta, Ohio. — I recommend Macleane's 
 Horace to my classes. It is a most excellent edition. 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, Publisher, 
 
 80, Franklin Street, Boston. 
 
 JuvenaL Thirteen Satires, with Notes by Macleane. Re- 
 vised and Edited by Professor Samuel Hart, Trinity College, 
 Hartford. Fifth Edition. IGmo, 2G2 pages, .^1.10. 
 Prof. E. P. OrovftW, Amherst College. — The work of the American edi- 
 tor is done with excellent judgment, and his additions to the notes will 
 greatly increase their value for our students. 
 
 Prof. L. Coleman, Lafayette College, Euston, Pa. — ^I am happy to say that 
 I have in use Professor Hart's edition of Juvenal, and find it a very useful, 
 judicious, and scholarly manual, admirably adapted to the wants of the class. 
 
 JuvenaL Thirteen Satires, with Notes and Introduction by 
 G. A. SiMCOX, M.A., Fellow of Queen*s College, Oxford. Sec- 
 ond Edition, revised and enlarged. (Catena Classicorum.) 16mo, 
 225 pages, 81.20. 
 
 Prof. F. P. Nash, Hohart College, New York. ^The charm of Mr. Sim- 
 cox's work lies in the very scholarly character of his notes and their fresh- 
 ness. They are original, and are marked by a real desire to place in the 
 hands of the learner all that is most effective to throw light upon the author. 
 The introduction is calculated to give the student much insight into the 
 writings of Juvenal and their relation to his age. 
 
 Latin Selections. Being Specimens of the Latin Language 
 and Literature from the earliest times to the end of the Classical 
 period. Edited by Professor Edmund H. Smith, Hobart Col- 
 lege, N. y. 12mo, 420 pages, ^1.75. 
 
 Prof. Charles Chandler, Denison University, Granville, Ohio. — I consider 
 the Selections to be an excellent and long-needed book. I shall use it 
 more or less every term from the beginning of Freshman year. For reading 
 at sight it is just the thing that I have wanted, and, in connection with the 
 study of the development of Roman Literature, such a book will be highly 
 interesting and profitable. I have always maintained that it is a flat, stale, 
 and unprofitable task for the student to read about the productions of Latin 
 authors, without at the same time studying the productions themselves. 
 
 Prof. J. H. Hewitt, Williams College, W ill iamstown, Mass. — The Selec- 
 tions have been made with discretion, not only in that they are interesting 
 in themselves, but in that they are such as to show the peculiarities of the 
 thougiit and style of the several writers. The book cannot fail to be useful 
 as a manual of exercises for translation at sight, and also as a text-book in 
 connection with instruction in the history of Latin literature. 
 
 Prof. Tracy Peck, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. — The plan seems to 
 me to be carried out with excellent judgment and taste. This work cer- 
 tainly gives in succinct and attractive form a clear view of Roman literature 
 throughout its best periods 
 
JOHN ALLYN, Publisher, 
 
 80, Franklin Street, Boston, 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, Publisher, 
 
 80, Franklin Street, Boston. 
 
 Lucretius; De Rerum Natura Libri Sex. With an Introduc- 
 tion aud Notes to Books I., III., and V., by Francis W. Kelsey, 
 M.A., Professor of Latin in Lake Forest University. IGmo, 
 444 pages, 8175. 
 
 Prof. Saml. Hart, Trinity College, Hartford. —It is a most excellent edi- 
 tion, and, coming at a time when renewed interest is felt in the doctrines 
 and writings of Lucretius, its publication meets a real want. 
 
 Prof. C. J. Harris, Washington and l^e University/, Va. — It is an admi- 
 rable edition, and will be thoroughly helpful in the difficult work of devel- 
 oping the school-boy into the scholar. The editor has caught much of the 
 enthusiasm of his author, and the wide and varied reading which he has 
 brought to bear upon his work, and his freshness and vigor of treatment, 
 cannot but prove very stimulating to earnest and ambitious students. 
 
 Prof. L. S. Potw'm, Adelbert College, Cleveland, 0. — I like it much, and 
 think it not only well annotated, but also prepared on the true theory, 
 viz. : to give the whole text, and notes on a part. This gives a chance for 
 independent study on a portion, and practice in reading at sight. 
 
 Persius. The Satires ; with Notes, based on those of Macleane 
 and Conington, by the Rev. Samuel Hart, M.A., Professor in 
 Trinity College, Hartford. 16mo, 91 pages, 110.75. 
 
 The text of this edition agrees in most places with that of Jahn. In the 
 arguments prefixed to each satire, the editor has endeavored to give a 
 suggestive outline of the poet's thoughts, and in the notes, to point out as 
 clearly as possible the connection of one idea, or one part of the poem, with 
 another. 
 
 Plautus. The Mostellaria. Edited by Professor E. P. Mor- 
 ris, Williams College, Mass. Third Edition. lOmo, 180 pages, 
 ^1.00. 
 
 Prof. J. E. Goodrich, University of Vermont. — It is the best American 
 edition of any play of Plautus. 
 
 Prof. A. G. Hopkins, Hamilton College, New York. — Your edition of 
 the Mostellaria by Morris is elegant in appearance, and has a scholarly 
 finish to it which no American edition of Plautus has hitherto shown. The 
 Introduction is full and interesting ; the text is a model of typographical 
 beauty ; and the notes explain to the young student all the difficulties and 
 peculiarities of the text. 
 
 Prof. John K. Lord, Dartmoxith College, N. H. — l think the notes judi- 
 cious, correct, and well digested, giving the right kind of information in the 
 right way. 
 
 
 Pliny's Letters. Selections from the Letters of the Younger 
 Pliny. Edited, with Notes and Index, by George O. Hol- 
 brooke, M.A., Professor of Latin in Trinity College, Hartford. 
 IGmo, 218 pages, $1.00. 
 
 Prof. F. P. Nash, Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y. — It is evident on every 
 page of this interesting volume that it is the work of a scholar, and that it 
 belongs to that new school of American editions which has at last learned 
 to stand on its own legs, and use its own brains to some better purpose than 
 merely to decide from whom it is best to borrow. 
 
 Prof. Minton Warren, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. — I 
 find the text and notes very satisfactory, and shall make use of the book in 
 our course here next year. 
 
 Tacitus. Selections^ embracing the more striking portions of 
 
 his different works. With Notes, Introduction, and a Collection 
 
 ^ of his Aphorisms. By J. T. Champlin. Fifth Edition. IGmo, 
 
 272 pages, $1.10. 
 
 The design of this book is to give a comprehensive view of the writings 
 of Tacitus in a comparatively small space. For this purpose, portions have 
 been taken from all his works, except the Germania, but not without due 
 regard to unity in the main parts. All biographical and historical informa- 
 tion which seemed to be required kas been introduced into the notes. The 
 introduction contains a translation of Dr. Draeger's excellent essay on the 
 peculiarities of the language and style of Tacitus. 
 
 Thomas Chase, President Haverford College, Pa. — A very interesting 
 and useful text-book has been made up by these admirable selections. The 
 notes are able and judicious, and supply just the information needed by 
 students. Dr. Draeger's exhaustive essay on the language and style of 
 Tacitus is of the greatest value to scholars. 
 
ENGLISH TEXT BOOKS. 
 
 OWEN'S HAMILTON'S METAPHYSICS. Tli« 
 
 Metaphysics of Sir William Hamilton, collected, arranged, 
 and abridged by Francis Bo wen, Alford Professor of Moral 
 Philosophy in Harvard College. 12mo, 570 pages. $1.50. 
 
 The editor has endeavored to prepare a text-book which should contain, iaa 
 Hamilton's own language, the substance of all that he wrote upon the I'lbject of 
 metaphysics. 
 
 I cannot refrain from conprratulating yon on your success. You have given th« 
 Metaphysics of Sir Wm. Haniiltou in his own words, and yet in a form admirably 
 adapted to the recitation room, and also to private students. — James Walker^ D.J). 
 LL.D f late President of Ilattnrd University. 
 
 The students of our colleges are to be congratulated that the labors of the preat 
 master of metaphysical science are now rendered much more availing for their ben- 
 efit, than they weVe made, perhaps than they could have been made, by his own 
 hand. — North American Rtvieto, 
 
 BOWEN'S LOGIC. A Treatise on Logic, or the Laws of 
 
 Pure Thought; comprising both the Aristotelic and Ilamiltonian 
 Analyses of Logical Forms, and some chapters on Applied Logic. 
 By Prof. F. Bo wen. 12mo, 476 pages. ^1.50. 
 
 Throughout the work the author has kept constantly in view the wants of 
 learners, much of it having been first suggested by the experience of his own class 
 room. 
 
 I have found it the most thorough and systematic text-book on the subject with 
 which I am acquainted. It fully supplies the purpose for which it was written, 
 and, in the hands of a good teacher, it furnishes all the aid that he or his clast 
 will need. — E. 0. Hcecen^ LL.D.^ late President of University of Michigan. 
 
 As an English text-book in this department of philosophy, I have seen nothing 
 to be compared with it. — James Walker , D.D.^ LL.D.y UUe President of Barvtuv 
 University. 
 
 OOKE'S CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. Principles 
 of Chemical Philosophy, by Josiah P. Cooke, Jr., Erving 
 Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard College. 
 Fourth Edition, revised and corrected. 8vo, 6U0 pages. ^3.50. 
 
 The object of this book is to present the philosophy of chemistry in such a 
 form that it can be made with profit the subject of college recitations. The author 
 haa found, by long experience, that a recitation on mere descriptions of apparatus 
 and experiments is all but worthless, while the study of the philosophy of chemis- 
 try may be made highl}* profitable both for instruction and discipline. Part L 
 of the book contains a statement of the general laws and theories of chemistry, 
 together with so much of the principles of molecular physics as are constantly ap- 
 plied to chemical investigations. It might be called a Grammar of the scienoe^ 
 
 Part II. presents the scheme of the chemical elements, and should only be studieo 
 in connection with experimental lectures or laboratory work. In the new edition, 
 the text has been altered wherever corrections have been made necessary by the 
 recent progress of the science. 
 
 I consider it one of the very best works on the subject in the English lanpage. 
 It is concise, comi)jut, philosophical, c&^ital— Professor J. S.Schanck, Colleye of 
 New Jersey, Princtton. 
 
 As far as our recollection goes, we do not think there exists in anv language a 
 book on so difficult a subject as this so carefully, clearly, and lucidly written. — 
 Litndon Chemical News. 
 
 COOKE'S CHEMICAL PHYSICS. Elements of Chemi- 
 cal Physics. By Professor Josiah P. Cooke, Jr. Third Edition. 
 8vo, 750 pages. ^4.50 
 
 This volume is intended to furnish a full development of the principles in- 
 volved in the investigation of chemical phenomena. In order to adapt it to the 
 purposes of instruction, it has been prepared on a strictly indurtiV*. "••thod through- 
 out; ana any student with an elementary knowledge of mathematics will be able 
 to follow the course of reasoning without difficulty. Each chapter is followed by a 
 large number of problems, which are calculated, not only to test the knowledge of 
 the student, but also to extend and apply the principles discussed in the work. 
 
 ENNELL'S ANCIENT HISTORIES. 
 ANCIENT GREECE, from the Earliest Times down to 
 146 B. c. By R. F. Pennell, Professor of Latin in Phillips 
 Exeter Academy. With Map and Plans. 16mo, 130 pages. 60 cents. 
 
 ROME, from the Earliest Times down to 476 a.d. 16mo, 
 206 pages. 60 cents. 
 
 These books are compiled respectively from the works of Curtius and Rawlinson, 
 and from Mommsen and Niebuhr. They contain amply sufficient matter to prepare 
 a pupil for any of our colleges. All minor details are, however, omitted, thus 
 avoiding a confused mass of matter so perplexing to every beginner. Important 
 events, names, and dates are printed in heavy type, strongly impressing them 
 upon the student's memory. 
 
 I knew of no other compend of Roman Geoffrapl^y and History so well fitted 
 for students in the earlv stapes of a classical education. In addition to its worth 
 as a school book, it is of no little value as a reference book for the leading names, 
 dates, and facts of Roman history. — ^. P. Peabody, D.D., Harvard University. 
 
 It is a most judicious epitome of Greek history, containing just those salient 
 points about which all the minor events naturally group themselves. Teachers ami 
 pupils will rejoice to be free from Smith's maze of petty names and events. — /To- 
 fessor W. M. Jeferis, Delaware College. 
 
 I am very much pleased with the Greek history, and believe it will meet the 
 waats of classes fitting lor college, better than anv thing of the kmd that has bc« 
 published. — i^ro/ei»o»- Charles Dole, Northfield, Veiinont. 
 
 PENNELL'S LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE. The Latin 
 Subjunctive, a Manual for Preparatory Schools. By Professor R. F. 
 Pennkll 16mo, sewed, 56 pages. 25 cents. 
 
FRENCH TEXT BOOKa 
 
 BOHN'S CLASSICAL LIBRAEY. 
 
 HARDENAL'S FRENCH SERIES. 
 FIRST FRENCH COURSE, or Rules and Exercises for 
 Beginners. By C. A. Chardenal. 16mo, 220 pages. CO ceuts. 
 
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 16mo, 250 pages. 75 cents. 
 
 FRENCH EXERCISES FOR ADVANCED PUPILS, containing 
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 Phrases, and Proverbs. 16mo, 332 pages. $1.00. 
 
 These books have been carefully graded to meet the wants alike of the begin- 
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 first two volumes contain, in addition, a French Reader, with complete vocabularies j 
 and the last book contains also a long list of French idioms, arranged in sections, 
 with exercises for translation and retranslation on each section. 
 
 I have examined very carefully the book of Chardenal you had the kinanoM lA 
 tend me. I shall most certainly use it in some of my classes, and introduce it next 
 year at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Proftuor J. Levy, Boston. 
 
 Monsieur Chardenal's system of teaching French, unlike that of some modern 
 professors, is based upon a sound and thorough comprehension of the rules of the 
 language. He does not profess to teach French in a fortnight, or, may be, in a 
 week ; but tells his pupils at the outset that the knowledge of French, like any other 
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 extended over a considerable space of time. We cordially recommend his volumes. 
 — London Spectator, 
 
 They are certainly the best books for the teaching of French I have ever seen, 
 and I have no hesitation in making them the text-books here. — Prq/e^or M. B. 
 Anderson^ Butler University, Indiana. 
 
 Le recueil d'exercices public par M. Chardenal r^pond parfaitemcnt, selnn mol, 
 an but que I'auteur se propose. . . . £n un mot, ces exercices apprendront aux 
 ^Idves a parler fran^ais, au lieu de se servir de phrases litti^ralement traduites de 
 I'anglais. — Professor Karcher, Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. 
 
 Je puis vous dire, en toute sinc^ritd, que vous avez fait un travail boa ot utile. 
 Le recueil d'expressions idioniatiques est excellent et ferait & lui seul le succ^ de 
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 Le« regies sont si braves et si claires, les themes si bien gradual, et les idiot- 
 Ismessi bien rendus en anglais, que I'utilitedu livre pour les maitres aussi bien que 
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BENNETT'S LATIN BOOKS. 
 
 By GEORGE L. BENNETT, M.A., 
 
 Etad Master of the High School, Plymouth, Eng., formerly Assistant Master 
 
 at Rugby School. 
 
 I. Easy Latin Stories for Begrinners. With Vocabulary and 
 
 Notes. 16mo. 70 cts. 
 
 The aim of this book is to supply easy stories illustrating the elementary 
 principles of the Simple and Compound Sentence. It is intended to be used 
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 rV. Second Latin Writer. Containing Hints on Writing Latin 
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 table of differences of idiom. The Three Hundred Exercises are fresh and 
 interesting, and give ample room for selection. 
 
 BENNETTS LATIN BOOKS, Continued. 
 
 One or more of the above books are NOW IN USE in Phillips- 
 Exeter Academy ; Phillips- Andover Academy ; St. Paul's School, 
 Concord, N. U. ; St. Mark's School, Southboro', Mass. ; St. Johns bury 
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 standing. 
 
 From Principal A. C. Perkins, Exeter Academy, 
 
 •* We take Bennett's ' First Latin Writer' as the Best Manual of Latin 
 Composition for the first two years of our course. The ' Easy Latin Sto- 
 ries ' by the same author is excellently fitted for pupils when they are begin- 
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 From Dr. H. T. Fuller, St. Johnshury Academy. 
 
 " We have used Bennett's ' First Latin Writer ' for the last two years, 
 and find it eminently satisfactory. Instead of giving detached sentences 
 to illustrate special grammatical principles, like most 4)ooks of the sort, it 
 takes the pupil over a well-graded series of exercises to the writing of con- 
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 and Latin Idioms, and, by a skilful selection of review work, obliges the 
 pupil to keep what he has once acquired. Its breadth of vocabulary is com- 
 mendable in that it is not restricted to the words of any single author.'' 
 
 From The N. E. Journal of Education 
 
 **In the * Latin Writers * the editor has not sought by a special and limited 
 vocabulary to assist the pupil in reading one particular author, but has 
 rather endeavored, by a copious vocabulary and gradual but frequent use of 
 all the rules of Syntax, to give the pupil an excellent foundation for a sound 
 and comprehensive knowledge of Latin Prose Composition. The exercises, 
 too, are interesting in themselves, and take up the different idiomatic pecul- 
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 masters them, without having theril glaringly thrust upon him in little 
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 to recognize. We cordially recommei|| these books to the attention of all 
 classical teachers." 
 
 JOHN ALLTN, Publisher, 30, Franklin Street, Boston. 
 
DE TOCQUEVILLE'S 
 
 DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA. 
 
 TRANSLATED BY REEVE. 
 
 Revised and Edited, with Notes, by Francis Bowen, Pro- 
 fessor of Moral Philosophy in Harvard University. Sixth 
 Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. Cloth. $5.00. 
 
 A cheaper edition of Vol. I., with especial reference to its use 
 as a Text-Book, is also issued, under the title of AMERICAN 
 INSTITUTIONS, in lamo, cloth. Price $1.20. 
 
 Prom tJu Washington Giobo, 
 
 By the common consent of all critics, this is the best work on Democracy in andent 
 or modem literature.* It has had the universal good fortune to please men of all 
 •hades of political opinion, for the simple reason that, being the work of a man who 
 •trove to attain the just medium in all his opinions, who was a sincere seeker after 
 truth, and whose chief aim in life was the good of mankind, it bears throughoa* 
 •trong marks of impartiality, sincerity, and honesty. 
 
 FromtkoA'. V, Tribunt, 
 
 The more it is studied, the more reason one will find to admire the philosophical 
 •pirit which pervades every part, without being anywhere ofiFensively obtruded ; its 
 luminous method ; the accurate knowledge of our institutions which it reveals alike 
 m their spirit and in their details; and the accuracy, clearness, and grace of the 
 •tyle. . . . Professor Bowen has subjected Reeve's version to a careful supervision, 
 and has almost rewritten it. He has made it more correct and more compact by lop- 
 ping off its redundancy and tightening its structure, so that it not only better repro> 
 ■eots De Tocqueville, but it is better English. 
 
 From tht National Qnarttrfy Rtviow. 
 
 De Tocqueville has become a classic in every literature in Christendom. His 
 •* Democracy in America" is everywhere recognized as a standard authority. True, 
 he wrote this work thirty years ago : at least a score have been written on the same 
 subject since ; but his is worth five score. Yet it is a remarkable fact that the one 
 now before us is the only edition in English of " Democracy in America " which is at 
 all worthy of the author, or of the subject which he handles with such masterly skill. 
 
 i 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, PUBUSHEE, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
This book is dtie two weeks from the last date stamped 
 below, and if not returned at or before that time a fine of 
 five cents a day will be incurred. 
 
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