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SEPULTURE. 
 
SEPULTURE 
 
 HISTORY, METHODS 
 
 
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 SANITARY REQUISITES 
 
 STEPHEN WICKES, A. M., M. D., 
 
 Author of " History of Medicine and Medical Men of New yersey," ^^c. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO., 
 
 IOI2 WALNUT STREET. 
 1884. 
 
COPYRIGHTED, 1883. 
 
 
 L. J. HARDHAM, PRINTER, NEWARK, N. J. 
 
CONTKNTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 History of Sepulture 11 
 
 Ancient Customs and Methods 16 
 
 Sepulchres 20 
 
 Interments Among the Greeks 25 
 
 Customs Among the Romans 28 
 
 Persian Burial 30 
 
 North American Indian Burial 34 
 
 Early Christian Burial 41 
 
 Animal Putrescence 49 
 
 Malignant Disease from one Corpse 55 
 
 Saturated Soil of a Graveyard Disturbed 57 
 
 Intra-Mural Interment in the United States 94 
 
 Yello\v Fever , 95 
 
 Asiatic Cholera no 
 
 Pestilence 115 
 
 Rural Cemeteries 117 
 
 Coffins for the Dead 1 34 
 
 Country Graveyards 144 
 
 
SEPULTURE. 
 
 ITS IVEKTMODS AND RKOUISITKS. 
 
 BY STEPHEN WICKES, M. D. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The last few years have witnessed a growing popular 
 interest upon the subject of bad air — iiialaria. Its effects 
 are well known. Measures to correct it and thus promote 
 the public health have been made the subject of study by 
 intelligent observers of all classes. Boards of Health, 
 National, State, and Municipal, are established. Wise 
 sanitation is everywhere regarded as essential to the 
 public good. 
 
 In the wide range of sanitary study and effort, the 
 subject of interment of the dead has received a compara- 
 tively limited attention. A more generally extended and 
 definite knowledge upon burial, and the dangers of animal 
 putrescence is an imperative need. 
 
 With the design of diffusing information upon this im- 
 portant subject, the author has written the following 
 treatise on Sepultiire and Mortuary Customs and their 
 Requisites. He first gives a concise historical survey 
 of sepulture from the beginnings of history. He deemed 
 it worthy of its place, because of its intrinsic interest, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 but especially to show that, in this our day of light and 
 of the knowledge of nature's laws, we are still cherishing 
 in our methods of interment customs born and fostered 
 in the dark ages. 
 
 The authorities consulted, which have been freely used 
 in the compilation of facts and of the opinions of scien- 
 tific observers, are : 
 
 Dangers of Interments in Cities, by Vicq. Dazyr. 
 
 Dangers of Interments by Felix Pascalis ; Walker on 
 Graveyards ; Bascom on Ancients Epidemics ; Health of 
 Towns (magazine), London ; Chadwick's Report to the 
 English Parliament ; Rauch on Intramural Interment ; 
 J. F. A. Adams on Cremation and Burial ; Yarrow on 
 Indian Burial ; Parke's Practical Hygiene ; Buck's Hy- 
 giene ; Reports of Boards of Health, National, State and 
 Local of the United States and of the Government Board 
 of Great Britain ; also authors. Biblical, historical, of 
 travels, etc., etc. 
 
 Some of these were written early in the century, and 
 are out of print. Being foreign they are rare in our pub- 
 lic libraries. The author is indebted for the loan of such 
 — the rarest and most valuable — to Dr. Jos. M. Toner, 
 of Washington, D. C, who sent them to him unsolicited, 
 for his use, and for which he returns his grateful acknowl- 
 edgmentjs, as also to his other friends. Doctors S. A. 
 Green and James R. Chadwick," of Jjoston, and to many 
 
 others for their valuable aid. 
 Orange, New Jersey, May, 1883. 
 
SEPULTURE. 
 
 ITS HISTORY. 
 
 " To bury a dead body, whether known before or not, is a debt I owe to human- 
 ity." — Seneca. 
 
 " Bury me with my fathers. * * * There they buried Abraham and 
 Sarah, his wife ; there they buried Isaac and Rebecca, his wife ; and tliere I 
 buried Leah." — Gen. xlix, 29-31. 
 
 These two extracts express the promptings of the 
 universal human heart ; one the reverent reHgious awe 
 in the presence of death, the other an instinctive looking 
 for immortality, which fosters the expectation of a re- 
 union with loved ones gone before. 
 
 According to Josephus the first dead body was buried 
 by Cain to cover his crime. The statement was derived 
 from the traditions of the Rabbis, and cannot be accepted 
 as reliable. The only shred of testimony upon the sub- 
 ject comes from the scripture record : " The voice of thy 
 brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground." A dis- 
 tinguished Hebraist remarks upon this passage that the 
 Hebrew preposition (from) does not decide whether the 
 cry was from the surface or from beneath the ground, 
 although the latter idea might have been made definite 
 by the use of a compound preposition. The idea of Jo- 
 sephus cannot be got from the passage. The body of 
 
12 INHUMATION IN EARLY TIMES. 
 
 Abel was not interred by his brother that it might be 
 " buried from (his) sight." Being the first human cada- 
 ver after the Creation, Cain did not know of its subse- 
 quent corruption. 
 
 Inhumation was practised from the earliest times. The 
 dead were buried in the wilderness, and in places inhab- 
 ited. Abraham, who was a " mighty prince," upon the 
 death of Sarah, " stood up before his dead and spake unto 
 the sons of Heth * * * ^\vq me a possession of a 
 burying place with you that I may bury my dead* out of 
 my sight." He thereupon purchased the cave of Mach- 
 pelah for money. 
 
 Jacob's remains were transported from Egypt by his son 
 Joseph with great pomp, and laid in Canaan, according to 
 his desire made known before his death. Moses was 
 buried in the valley of Moab, Miriam, his sister, in the 
 desert of Zin, Aaron in Mount Hor, Eleazer, his son, and 
 Joshua, on the mountains of Ephraim. The bones of 
 Joseph, which the children of Israel brought up out of 
 Egypt, were buried in Shechem in a parcel of ground 
 which Jacob had bought, three hundred years before, of 
 the sons of Hamor, and where he erected an altar to 
 Jehovah. 
 
 After the Israelites came into the quiet possession of 
 the promised land and were brought under the require- 
 ments of their ceremonial laws, their habits in regard to 
 
 * Not Sarah in particular, but those of his posterity, being assured of tiieir 
 promised possession. 
 
DISEASES OF EARLY TIMES. 1 3 
 
 the dead and their methods of sepulture were somewhat 
 changed. According to the precepts of their law, the 
 touch of a corpse rendered them unclean. 
 
 After the flood, the diseases which afflicted the human 
 race were substantially the same as at the present day.* 
 Epidemics of infection and contagion and pestilential 
 influences were prevalent then as now, the evils arising 
 from improper food and drink, from bad air in the dwell- 
 ings of the people, and neglect of proper hygienic meas- 
 ures required a watchful care. The Mosaic statutes 
 regarding things clean and unclean, though primarily 
 typical, were wisely ordained by God for the best welfare 
 of his chosen people. His precepts in the ceremonial 
 law were designed to preserve their health and to regu- 
 late their moral life. 
 
 * "The records of antiquity show that all kinds of pestilences, including 
 febrile diseases under various appellations, have been known from the earliest 
 ages. From the beginning of the Jewish nation — from the first settlement of the 
 Israelites in unhealthy Egypt to the present day, we find noticed a series of 
 plagues or pestilences spread over the world and destroying millions of the 
 species ; and if we refer to the history of ancient nations, as well as to the modern 
 annals of medicine, we shall find therein recorded the same character of diseases, 
 arising from like causes, occurring in similar seasons, happening in similar 
 localities, and marked pretty generally by the same circumstances. The assump- 
 tion of the existence of any new disease, as propounded by some modern authori- 
 ties, would represent the Divine Power as dispensing with the laws of nature — in 
 short, would imply nothing less than the suspension or alteration of the operation 
 of those laws which the Almighty, in His wisdom, imposed on nature at the 
 Creation — laws which the Psalmist of Israel, in his contemplation of the divine 
 goodness and greatness of Jehovah, as displayed in the kingdom of nature, 
 describes as the admirable chain of natural causes and effects formed and pre- 
 served by him in this lower world : ' Whatsoever the Lord pleaseth He doeth in 
 heaven and in the earth, in the sea and in all deep places. He causeth the vapors 
 to ascend from tlie earth ; He maketh the lightnings for the rains; He bringeth 
 the wind out of his treasure ; He smote the first-born of Egypt, from man to 
 
14 HEBREW INHUMATION. 
 
 The Hebrews were very careful in the burial of their 
 dead. It was considered to be a great calamity to be 
 deprived of it, and denied it to none — not even their 
 enemies. This concern for burial proceeded from a per- 
 suasion of the soul's immortality. Jeremiah (viii, 2) 
 threatens the kings, priests and false prophets, who were 
 idolators, that their bones should be cast out of their 
 graves and be thrown like dung upon the earth. The 
 same prophet foretold that Jehoiakim, King of Judah, 
 who was guilty of all manner of vice, among other severe 
 punishments, should be buried with " the burial of an ass." 
 Jason (2 Mace, v : 10), who had denied burial to many 
 
 beast ; He covereth the heavens with clouds ; He prepareth the rain for the 
 earth,' etc. 
 
 " The supposition of the existence of any new disease is, consequently, unten- 
 able, but to be accounted for because of our inability to trace diseases under the 
 same names and precise characteristic symptoms described by our predecessors. 
 The supposed comparative modern origin of some diseases seems to rest on the 
 absence or deficiency of distinct and express notice of them in the writings of the 
 ancients, arising in some measure from the false and imperfect translations from 
 the original, and from the practice of the ancients in referring different malignant 
 maladies to the same pestilential constitution. They classed all epidemic distem- 
 pers under one general head or term, viz. : pestilence, plague or fever. Under 
 tlie head of consumpiion, they noted all chronic diseases; and boils, pustules, 
 blotches, carbuncles, etc., under that of skin diseases. Thus we read of the same 
 epidemics called pimples, pustules, apostemes and gangrenous sores now being 
 called distinct and confluent small-pox, etc. The perusal of ancient writings, 
 both sacred and profane, not only affords ample evidence of the origin, nature, 
 causes, progress and violence of such maladies in the primitive ages of the world 
 but they demonstrate the identity of ancient pestilence and modern plague ; the 
 resemblance of ancient and modern fevers ; the similitude of burning boils and 
 moilern carbuncles ; the like appearance of pustules and small-iiox — all tending 
 to prove tliat no material alteration in the nature of any diseases or tlieir causes 
 lias taken place since the first population of the world, and, above all, that they 
 display the perpetual uniformity of Providence in the entire operation of nature's 
 works." — Bascom on Ancient Epidemics. 
 
HEBREW INHUMATION. 1 5 
 
 Jews, was himself treated in the same manner. He died 
 in a foreign land, and was thrown like carrion upon the 
 earth. Good men made it a part of their religious devo- 
 tion to inter the dead, as appears in the history of Tobit. 
 Calmet. 
 
 It was a maxim not only with the Jews but with all 
 the nations of the world, that holy places are polluted by 
 the presence of dead carcasses or of dead men's bones. 
 When King Josiah desired to profane the altars dedicated 
 to idols, he burned dead men's bones upon them, which 
 he took from the sepulchres on the Mount. When God 
 threatened by Ezekiel to punish Israel He told them that 
 their altars should be desolate, and " I will lay the dead 
 carcasses of the children of Israel before their idols ; and 
 I will scatter your bones about your altars." 
 
 After the Jews were settled in Canaan, they buried 
 their dead in various places. Their law made no pro- 
 vision for the mode or place of interment. Sepulchres 
 were in the towns and country, by the highways, in gar- 
 dens and on mountains. Those belonging to the Kings 
 of Judah were in Jerusalem, and in the Kings' gardens.* 
 
 * Extract from Dr. Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria: "While 
 walking out one evening a few fields distant from Deir el Kamr with the son of 
 my host to see a detached garden belonging to his father, he pointed out to me, 
 near it, a small, solid, stone building, apparently a house, very solemnly adding, 
 ' Kabbar beity — the sejfulchrc of my family.' It had neither door nor window 
 He then directed my attention to a considerable number of similar buildings at 
 a distance which, to the eye, are exactly like houses, but which are in fact family 
 mansions for the dead. They have a most melancholy appearance, which made 
 him shudder while he explained their use. They seem by their di-ad walls, whicli 
 must be opened at each several interment of the members of a family, to say : 
 
l6 ANCIENT METHODS OF BURIAL. 
 
 Ezekiel intimates that they were dug under the moun- 
 tain upon which the temple stood, as God says, that in 
 future his holy mountain should not be polluted with the 
 dead bodies of their kings. The sepulchre which Joseph 
 of Arimathea provided for himself was in his garden ; 
 that of Rachael was adjacent to the highway from Jeru- 
 salem to Bethlehem ; that of the Maccabees was at 
 Modin ; the Kings of Israel were buried in Samaria : 
 Samuel, in his own house ; Moses, Aaron, Eleazer and 
 Joshua in the mountains ; Saul and Deborah (Rebecca's 
 nurse), under the shade of trees. The sepulchres of the 
 inhabitants of Jerusalem are supposed to have been in 
 the valley of Kidron. — Calmct. 
 
 ANCIENT CUSTOMS AND METHODS OF BURIAL. 
 
 The Egyptians embalmed their dead.* Joseph com- 
 
 ' This is an unkindly house, to which visitors do not willingly throng; but, one 
 by one they will l)e forced to enter, and none who enter ever come out again." 
 Perhaps this custom which prevails here and in the lonely neighboring parts of 
 the mountains may have been of great antiquity, and may serve to explain some 
 scripture phrases. The prophet Samuel was buried ' in his house at Ramah." It 
 could hardly be in his dwelling house. Joab ' was buried in his own house in the 
 wilderness.' This was the 'house appointed for all living.' Caqizov remarks: 
 ' It is hardly to be supposed that the sepulchres were in the houses themselves 
 and under the roof; and we are therefore rather to understand by the term, every- 
 thing which belongs or appertains lo the house — as a court or garden, in a corner 
 of which perhaps such a monument was erected." The view of tliese sepulchral 
 houses puts the matter beyond conjecture." 
 
 ♦The art of embalming was brought to the highest degree of perfection 
 by the ancient Egyptians. The jirocess was conducted by skilled men who, as 
 Herodotus informs us, made it their proper business. Tills historian says that 
 three modes were employed. By the first and most perfect, the brain was drawn 
 through the nostrils by a crooked piece of iron, which dislodged the most consid- 
 
HEBREW BURIAL. 1 7 
 
 manded that his father's body should be embalmed. 
 Joseph's body was also embalmed in Egypt. 
 
 The Hebrew people were buried in sepulchres, or in 
 graves in the open fields. Elijah was laid in a grotto 
 where other bodies were placed. A grave was dug for 
 
 arable portion of the contents of the skull, and then the same was cleared by- 
 rinsing with drugs. Next a cut was made along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian 
 stone (black flint or Ethiopian agate), through which the viscera of the body 
 were removed. The cavities of the thorax and abdomen were then cleansed with 
 palm wine and by frequent infusions of pounded aromatics. They were then filled 
 with the purest bruised myrrh, cassia, and every sort of spicery, except frankin- 
 cense, which was devoted to sacred uses in their temples. The " spicery, and balm, 
 and myrrh " carried by the Ishmaelites down to Egypt, were principally for the em- 
 balmers (Gen. xxxvii, 25-28). The spice merchants are noticed in Solomon's 
 time (i Kings, x, 15.) 
 
 When this initial process was completed the incision was sewed up and the 
 body was placed in natrum (not nitre, but sub-carbonate of soda, which was 
 abundant at the natron lakes in the Lybian desert. — Rawlinsoti's Notes) for sev- 
 enty days and covered entirely over. After the expiration of this time, which must 
 not be exceeded, the body was washed and swathed from head to foot with bandages 
 of fine linen cloth coated with gum. and then delivered to the friends, who en- 
 closed it in a case shaped according to the human figure. It was then placed in 
 a sepulchral chamber upright against the wall. 
 
 The second process, and less costly, was by syringing the cavities through the 
 natural openings of the body with an oil made fiom the cedar tree. The pas- 
 sages by which it might escape were stopped and the body laid in natrum for the 
 prescribed number of days. At the end of the time the cedar oil was allowed to 
 escape, "and such is the power, that it brings with it the whole stomach and intes- 
 tines in a liquid state. The natrum has in the meantime dissolved the fiesh, and 
 so nothing is left of the dead body but the skin and bones." 
 
 The third method employed in the case of the poorer classes was to clear out 
 the intestines by a " powerful cleansing preparation," and let the body lie in na- 
 trum the seventy days, after which it was given to the friends. Herodotus, Book 
 II, ^85, sqq. 
 
 The historian includes in the seventy days the whole period of mourning. 
 The embalming occupies only forty days. Gen. i, 3 (Rawlinson). 
 
 Diodorus Siculus says " the most expensive mode of embalmment cost a tal- 
 ent of silver (^^250, nearly) ; the second, 22 mince (^^90) ; and the third was very 
 cheap. 
 
 The Egyptian mummies as we find them, show a much greater variety in the 
 methods of embalming than those noticed by Herodotus and Diodorus, and the 
 prices doubtless varied accordingly. (Rawlinson). 
 3 
 
1 8 HEBREW CUSTOMS. 
 
 young Tobias in the same field where the other unfortu- 
 nate husbands of Sarah were deposited. Our Saviour 
 compares the Pharisees to " graves that appear not, so 
 that the men that walk over them are not aware of them." 
 In the case of those who died of leprosy, the tumuli of 
 the graves, or other evidences of the dead beneath, were 
 avoided, lest uncleanness should be contracted. 
 
 A few passages of scripture refer to burning of the 
 dead. The cases are exceptional. Saul was buried 
 at Jabesh Gilead. " David carried thence his remains 
 or bones, which had been reduced to ashes by the 
 people, to the land of Benjamin" (2 Sam., xxi, 12). 
 The ceremony of burning"^^ of the body is spoken of as a rite 
 in honor of kings. If the practice did exist it was of short 
 duration and limited to a few. 
 
 Excepting the cases of Jacob and Joseph, whose bodies 
 were embalmed as a mark of distinguished honor, at the 
 expense of the state, we have no distinct account of em- 
 balment among the earlier Hebrews. In later times the 
 Jews adopted it in the case of persons of rank and 
 fortune.f 
 
 After the ablution of the corpse the body was swathed 
 with numerous folds of linen, or other stuffs, each limb:{: 
 
 * According to Spondanus, the Hebrews burned perfumes upon their dead. 
 It was called combustio, from wliich he says it was wrongly concluded that they 
 burned their bodies also. 
 
 t Scripture mentions the embalming of Kings Josiah and Asa, and of our 
 Saviour. 
 
 X The mummies of the Greeks may be generally distinguished by the limbs 
 being each bandaged separately. — Rawlinson' s Notes, 
 
JEWISH EMBALMING. I9 
 
 separately after the manner of the Greeks, and then an- 
 ointed with highly aromatic unguents.* A profuse appH- 
 cation of costly perfumes was esteemed to be the highest 
 token of respect which could be paid to the remains of 
 the departed. We learn from the writers of the Talmud 
 that not less than eighty pounds weight of spices were 
 used at the funeral of a distinguished Rabbi, and Jo- 
 sephus says (Antiq. xvii, 8, § 3) that in the funeral pro- 
 cession of Herod, five hundred slaves and freedmen of 
 the court attended, carrying spices.. Thus we read that 
 Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about 
 an hundred pounds weight, to perform the customary rite 
 to the body of Jesus. The two Marys also prepared them- 
 selves to render the same tokens of affection at the dawn 
 of the first day of the week. 
 
 It was usual to repeat this process for several days 
 together, that thereby the drugs and spices might more 
 completely effect the exsiccation and preservation of the 
 body. It was then swathed, as before described. So we 
 read that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus " took the 
 body of Jesus and wrapped it in linen clothes with the 
 spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury." When 
 Lazarus was raised it is recorded that the dead came forth 
 bound hand and foot in s^rave clothes. About his face was 
 
 * This was a rite common both to the Greeks and Romans, in whose 
 writings it is frequently mentioned — Corpusque lavant frigentis et unguent. — 
 ^neid, b. vi, 219. " For in that she hath poured this ointment on my body she 
 did it for my burial— /mj to entaphlasai me — to embalm me — dispose it for tlie 
 sepulchre. 
 
20 OUR LORD S RESURRECTION. 
 
 folded a napkin, — a separate covering, and not continuous 
 with the bandages. We read that when our Lord was 
 risen, Peter, who went into the sepulchre, saw the linen 
 clothes — keiinena — lying in sitii, as deposited by the em- 
 balmers — alone and separate from the napkin, which was — 
 entetuliginenon — wreathed in folds to form a cap for the 
 the head. 
 
 When Lazarus was raised, Jesus said : " Loose him and 
 let him go." His own body, probably more carefully 
 bound, was not holden by its swathings. He supernatu- 
 rally passed out of them, leaving them without disturb- 
 ing their order. 
 
 SEPULCHRES. 
 
 The holy sentiments which prompted a reverential care 
 of the dead led to the provision in all past time of places 
 of deposit of the most permanent nature, constructed 
 with all the art and skill of their various periods and ac- 
 cording to the wealth of their founders. Abraham, who 
 was " rich " and mighty, raised a memorial to his dead in 
 Hebron, which was doubtless in correspondence with 
 his riches and station. That it was a spacious cave ap- 
 pears from the numbers who, we learn from scripture 
 history, were buried there. The references to sepulchres 
 well peopled d^re. very numerous. The prophet Ezekiel, in 
 chapter xxxii, seems to distinguish certain nations and 
 countries by their mode of burial. We recognize Ashur 
 or Assyria, Ela'tn or Persia, Mechech and Tubal, Muscovy 
 
ANCIENT SEPULCHRES. 21 
 
 and Siberia, Edom and Zidon, and the countries adjacent. 
 Of the Assyrian sepulchres we know but httle, yet the 
 prophet speaks of the " sides of the pit " (the cells or re- 
 cesses in those sides), as being inhabited. From the 
 sepulchres of the kings, yet extant in Egypt we know 
 that the sovereigns were buried together, many sepul- 
 chres encircling the area, and several chambers in one 
 sepulchre. In Persia the evidences of sepulchres cut in 
 the rocks are yet remaining. Not so (probably) Mechech 
 and Tubal. They threw up vast barrows over their 
 valiant leaders, their followers sharing in the same highly 
 raised mound. Their weapons and military ornaments 
 were buried with them. Their swords are to this day 
 found under the heads of their skeletons. The numerous 
 barrows in the steppes of Russia are evidences on this 
 subject, and the phrase " iniquities shall lie heavy on 
 their bones," is an allusion to the weight of earth under 
 which they are deposited. The princes of the north of 
 Syria and of Asia Minor have left wonderful proofs of 
 their skill in excavating rocks, of which recent discover- 
 ies afford attestation. The cryptoe at Latikea or Laodi" 
 cea, in the northern part of Syria, and of Asia Minor, are 
 sepulchral chambers hollowed in the rocky ground, some 
 ten, others twenty or thirty feet square, but not propor- 
 tionate in height. The descent into them is artfully con- 
 trived. A range of narrow cells, wide enough for two or 
 three, runs along the sides of most of them, and appears 
 to be the only provision that has been made for the' 
 
22 ANCIENT SEPULCHRES. 
 
 reception of the dead. The sepulchral chambers near 
 Jebilee Tortosa and the Serpent Mountain, together with 
 those commonly called the royal sepulchres at Jerusalem, 
 are all exactly of the same workmanship and contrivance 
 with the cryptcB at Latikea. Calniet. 
 
 In Edom, the land of Esau, the traveler Stephens 
 describes the tombs at Petra, whose open doors stretch 
 away in long ranges, the facades and architectural decora- 
 tions of which were " everywhere handsome." 
 
 Dr. Clarke discovered and has fully described a number 
 of sepulchres which extend along the side of the ravine 
 to the south, east and west of Mount Sion. They are a 
 series of chambers hewn with considerable art, each con- 
 taining one or more repositories of the dead, like cisterns 
 carved in the rock, upon the sides of the chambers. The 
 doors are so low that to look into any one of them it is 
 necessary to stoop, and, in some instances, to creep on 
 the hands and knees,* Vid. Luke xxiv : 12. 
 
 Stephens, in describing the tombs of the Kings of 
 Egypt at Thebes, says " the world can show nothing like 
 them." Forty-seven of these tombs were entered on the 
 sacred registers of the Egyptian priests, only seventeen 
 
 * Stephens, describing the valley of Jehosophat, says: "Here I was 
 among the hallowed places of the Bible. Here, all was as nature left it, and 
 spared by the desecrating hand of man ; and, as I gazed upon the vast sepulchral 
 monuments — the tombs of Absalom, of Zachariah and Jehosophat, and the thou- 
 sands and tens of thousands of Hebrew tombstones covering the declivity of the 
 mountain — I had no doubt that I was looking upon that great gathenng place 
 where, three thousand years ago, the Jew buried his dead under the shadow o( 
 the Temple of Solomon," 
 
TOMBS AT THEBES. 23 
 
 of which remained about sixty years before Christ. He 
 describes one discovered by Bclzoni. Its entrance is by 
 a narrow door — a simple excavation in the side of the 
 mountain, without device or ornament. It is 309 feet 
 long, and contains fourteen chambers of different sizes. 
 The entrance hall is extremely beautiful, 27 feet long 
 and 25 broad, the walls covered with figures in outline, 
 but perfect, as if recently done. Descending a large stair- 
 case and through a beautiful corridor, the visitor came to 
 another staircase, at the foot of which he found another 
 apartment, 24x13, and ornamented with sculpture and 
 paintings. The sides of all the chambers and corridors 
 are thus covered, the colors appearing fresher as the 
 visitor advances towards the interior of the tomb ; fig- 
 ures of Egyptian gods and goddesses, seeming to hover 
 round and guard the remains of the honored dead. 
 Further on is a large hall, 28 feet by 27, supported by two 
 rows of pillars ; and beyond this is the entry to a large 
 saloon, with a vaulted roof 32 feet by 27. Opening from 
 this were several other chambers of different dimensions, 
 one of them unfinished, and one 43 feet long by 17.6 
 wide, in which was found a mummy of a bull ; but in the 
 centre of the grand saloon was a sarcophagus of the finest 
 oriental alabaster, only two inches thick, minutely sculp- 
 tured within and without with several hundred figures, 
 and perfectly transparent when a light is placed within it. 
 All over the corridors and chambers the walls are adorned 
 with sculptures and paintings in intaglio and relief, 
 
24 TOMBS AT THEBES. 
 
 representing gods, goddesses and the hero of the tomb 
 (supposed to be Pharoah Necho) in the most prominent 
 events of his life, priests, religious processions and sacri- 
 fices, boats and agricultural scenes, and the most familiar 
 pictures of every-day life, in colors as fresh as if painted 
 not more than a month ago ; and the large saloon, lighted 
 up with the blaze of torches, seemed more fitted for 
 a banqueting hall for song and dance than a burial place 
 for the dead, " At different times," says our traveler, " I 
 wandered among all these tombs. All were of the same 
 general character, all possessed the same beauty and 
 magnificence of design and finish, and, in all at the 
 extreme end, was a large saloon adorned with sculpture 
 and paintings in extraordinary beauty, and containing a 
 sarcophagus. Every sarcophagus is broken, and the 
 bones of the Kings of Egypt are scattered. In one I 
 picked up a skull. I mused over it a moment and handed 
 it to Paul (his attendant), who moralized at large : ' That 
 man,' said he, 'once talked and laughed and sang and 
 danced, and ate macaroni.' 'The kings of the nations did 
 lie in glory, every one in his own house, but thou art cast 
 out of thy grave like an abominable branch.' "* 
 
 * The sepulchral chamber was not in the houses of the Egyptians. Hero- 
 dotus says it was in a room made for the purpose, which was a part of (he 
 tomb. 
 
 In the floor of this chamber a pit was sunk, often to the depth of forty feet or 
 more, where, after certain services performed, the embalmed body (mummy) was 
 deposited. Tombs less expensive were without a room, but only the pit, which 
 was the proper place of sepulture. The name " tomb " is applied to the apart- 
 ment above the pit. The coffin or mummy case was placed at the bottom, or in 
 a lateral chamber or recess in " the sides of the ph."—J?awiinson's Notes. 
 
EGYPTIAN MUMMIES. 25 
 
 The same traveler says that notwithstanding the vast 
 numbers of mummies which have been taken and scat- 
 tered over the world, and the mummy cases used for fire- 
 wood by the Arabs, it is supposed that there are still (at 
 the time of his writing) from eight to ten millions of 
 mummied bodies in Thebes. The whole mountain side 
 on the west bank of the river is one vast necropolis. The 
 open doors of tombs are seen in long ranges and at dif- 
 ferent elevations, and on the plains pits have been opened 
 in which have been found a thousand mummies at a time. 
 It has been estimated that 400,000,000 human mummies 
 were made in Egypt from the beginning of the art 
 of embalming until its discontinuance in the seventh 
 century. 
 
 INTERMENT AMONG THE GREEKS. 
 
 The most ancient custom with the Greeks was burial. 
 It is supposed that their subsequent usage of burning 
 was introduced at the seige of Troy,* when the great 
 
 * Homer describes the ceremonies of the funeral pyre of the Greek hero slain 
 by Hector : 
 
 " Permit the mourning legions to retire, 
 And let the chiefs alone attend the pyre ; 
 The pious care be ours the dead to burn 
 He said ; the people to their tents return, 
 While those deputed to inter the slain 
 Heap with a rising pyramid the place. 
 A hundred feet in length, a hundred wide. 
 The growing structure spreads on every side ; 
 High on the top the manly corse they lay, 
 And well-fed sheep and sable oxen slay. 
 Achilles covered with their fat the dead 
 And the pil'd victims round the body spread ; 
 
26 INTERMENT AMONG THE GREEKS. 
 
 slaughter and the example of the Phrygians determined 
 them to consume the bodies of the slain as the readiest 
 mode of disposing of them. The ashes of the heads of 
 the nations and of the generals who had served their 
 country were distinguished by being placed in urns and 
 deposited in houses set apart for them, and sometimes in 
 their temples, but these instances were rare. Interments 
 were more generally used in Greece than elsewhere, and 
 always without the walls of their cities. Burning was by 
 no means the general custom, but was regarded as more 
 honorable, and was used among the higher classes. Plato 
 wrote to Socrates that it was a matter of indifference to 
 him whether his body was buried or burned. It was a 
 
 Then jars of honey and of fragrant oil, 
 Suspends around, low bending o'er the pile. 
 Four sprightly coursers with a deadly groan 
 Pour forth their lives and on the pyre are thrown. 
 Of nine large dogs, domestic at his board. 
 Fall two, selected to attend their lord. 
 Then last of all, and horrible to tell. 
 Sad sacrifice, twelve Trojan captives fell. 
 On these the rage of fire victorious preys, 
 Involves and joins them in one common blaze." 
 
 As the pile no longer blazed, Achilles addressed the Grecians thronged around 
 
 him : 
 
 " Ye kings and princes of the Achaian name ! 
 
 First let us quench the yet remaining flame 
 
 With sable wine ; then (as the rites direct) 
 
 The hero's bones with carefiil view select ; 
 
 (Apart and easy to be known they lie 
 
 Amidst the heap, and obvious to the eye : 
 
 The rest around the margin will be seen 
 
 Promiscuous, steeds and immolated men.) 
 
 These, wrapped in double cawls of fat, prepare; 
 
 And in the golden vase dispose with care, 
 
 There let them rest, witii decent honor laid," 
 
 — Jliad, b. xxii. 
 
GREEK BURIAL WITHOUT THE CITIES. 27 
 
 special provision in the codes of the most famous legis- 
 lators.* 
 
 Coecrops at Athens directed that the dead should be 
 carried without the walls. Solon established the same 
 regulations. The few who were buried within the walls 
 were heroes and those who had sacrificed themselves for 
 their country. Plato did not allow interments in the 
 fields used for culture. Their religion gave sanction to 
 the custom, though no nation was more solicitous to give 
 their dead the honors of sepulture. Those who violated 
 the tombs were regarded as victims irrecoverably given 
 over to the wrath of the gods. " The sanctity of tombs, 
 (many of which became the temples of their divinities 
 and were considered as asylums for the unfortunate and 
 accused) the respect which they bore for the ashes and 
 the memory of their ancestors, the penalties with which 
 the laws of religion menaced the violators of those cus- 
 toms, the curses denounced against them by the priests, 
 in a word, the whole religious doctrine, and the mythology 
 of the Greeks had in view the enforcement of the laws 
 for the interment of the dead at a distance from the hab- 
 itations of the living, "f Vicq. Dazyr. 
 
 * Lycurgus was the only one who permitted burials in cities, in temples, 
 and in public places. His purpose was to arouse the youth of Sparta to bravery 
 and courage by familiarizing with the idea of death . 
 
 t Cicero, in one of his epistles, in which he describes the assassination 
 of his friend, M. Marcellus, at Athens, says that he had not been able to obtain 
 permission of the Athenians that the body should be buried in the city. They 
 said that such permission was inadmissible on religious grounds, and that it had 
 never been granted to any one. 
 
28 ROMAN BURIAL. 
 
 CUSTOMS OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 The Romans in their earlier days practised interment. 
 Vicq. Dazyr says that after their settlement in Italy they 
 constructed tombs at their country places, and placed in 
 them the bodies in vases large enough to enclose them. 
 Numa's tomb was on Mt. Janiculum, which was not then 
 included within the city. The succeeding Kings had 
 tombs in the field of Mars, situated below the city and 
 the Tiber. The Kings of Rome alone had the privilege 
 of being buried on that mount. No private person could 
 be placed there unless distinguished by some worthy 
 action. The vestals were permitted burial within the 
 city walls. Those who had broken the vow of chastity 
 were buried in a field to which that sin had given the 
 name of the "field of crime." It seemed to be an ac- 
 cepted fact that interment of the dead within the city 
 and inhabited places was dangerous to the living, and the 
 places -of burial were removed to some distance. The 
 law of the twelve tables expressly forbade the burn- 
 ing or burying of the dead within the city. 
 
 By the terms of that law it appears that from the 4th 
 century of the republic, burning and burial were both 
 practised. The outrages to the buried bones exposed to 
 the barbarians in war, and their religious sentiments, led 
 them to favor burning and to bring the funeral pile more 
 and more into use.* 
 
 * The "pile was of rough logs, with four equal sides, of which the law 
 of the twelve tables forbade any polishing or adornment, but they were some- 
 
ROMAN BURIAL WITHOUT THE CITY. ig 
 
 The law appointed the open country for funeral rites 
 and inhumations. The practice of these ceremonies was 
 scarcely permitted contiguous to the suburbs of the city. 
 It was ordained that the dead should be respected, 
 " Their sanctuary was thus rendered inviolable and their 
 sepulture sacred. In whatsoever place the dead was 
 interred, all the ground which surrounded it was with- 
 drawn from the purposes of trade or commerce." In the 
 course of time tombs ceased to be constructed at the 
 country seats, and those of the most illustrious families 
 were transported to the highways. Thus the great roads 
 and avenues were named the Aurelian, Flaminian, 
 Lucinian, Appian, Lavinian and Julian way, after the 
 families whose superb mausoleums and sarcophagi of 
 marble adorned them. 
 
 The common people among the Romans had also their 
 funeral piles and public tombs. FIoc miser cb plebi, stabat 
 commune sepiilchrimt. — Hor. Such were the small wells 
 
 times covered with dark leaves. The body was placed upon the pile, with the 
 couch upon which it had been carried. The nearest relative, with averted face, 
 applied the torch, and the flames were fed with cups of oil, ornaments, clothing, 
 and the favorite viands of the deceased. To these were added various perfumes, 
 which, though forbidden by law, were rendered necessary by the disgusting odor. 
 In the case of an Emperor or illustrious General, there was much additional cere- 
 mony. Animals were killed and laid on the pile, and in earlier times, captives 
 and slaves. The soldiers marched thrice around the pile. In the latter days of 
 Rome gladiators were hired to fight about it. W^hen the burning was completed, 
 the embers were soaked with wine. The bones and ashes of the deceased were 
 then gathered by the nearest relatives, who sprinkled them with perfume and 
 placed them in an urn. These urns were often very beautiful and richly deco- 
 rated ; they were commonly of marble, alabaster or baked clay, and bore an in- 
 scription beginning with the letters D. M. or D. M. S. — Dis Manibus Sacrum," — 
 Adams. 
 
30 PERSIAN BURIAL. 
 
 {pHtcolt) or deep cavities into which the dead bodies were 
 cast. The places where the bodies were burned were 
 called iistrincB or public funeral piles. The small wells were 
 on the Hill Esquiline. The neighborhood of the Esquiline 
 becoming infected by the great numbers of the buried dead, 
 it was abandoned and became, history says, afterwards 
 the possession of Maecenas. There he had his tomb, as 
 also Horace, his friend, whose remains repose near him. 
 " From all these laws, customs and usages of the 
 Romans, in relation to their modes of burial, which, with 
 few exceptions, continued in force until the reign of the 
 Caesars, it is evident that the immense City of Rome was 
 better protected against the recurrence of epidemic dis- 
 eases than many of our own capital cities." Pascalis. 
 
 PERSIAN BURIAL. 
 
 The ancient Persians threw out their dead on the 
 roads. If they were promptly devoured by the wild 
 beasts it was esteemed a great honor ; a misfortune, if 
 not. They believed that they must have been very bad 
 if even the beasts would not touch them. The relations 
 of the dead took it as a presage of some great misfortune 
 which was imminent, and that the souls which had 
 inhabited the bodies, being dragged down to hell, would 
 not fail to return and trouble them. 
 
 The Parthians, Medes, Iberians and Caspians had such 
 a horror of the corruption and decomposition of the 
 dead, and of their being eaten by worms, that they threw 
 
PARSEE BURIAL. 3I 
 
 the bodies into the open fields to be devoured by wild 
 beasts, believing that those so devoured would not be 
 entirely extinct, but enjoy a partial life in their living 
 sepulchres. Yarrow on MorUiary Customs. 
 
 The " Towers of Silence" show to this day the custom of 
 the Parsees, in the exposure of their dead to birds of prey. 
 This people are descendants of the ancient Persians — the 
 fire worshippers, in Persia ; called Parsees in India. 
 Prof. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta, 1876, con- 
 cerning these Towers of Silence, which are erected in a 
 garden, approached by a well-constructed private road 
 and barred by strong, iron gates. " No English noble- 
 man's garden could be better kept, and no pen can do 
 justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses 
 and palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of a place 
 of sacred silence, but of peaceful rest." The towers are 
 five in number, of black granite, and constructed with 
 great solidity. The oldest was built 200 years since, and 
 is the smallest, being only used for a certain family. The 
 next oldest was erected in 1756, the others, later. The 
 writer says : " Though wholly destitute of ornament and 
 even the simplest moldings, the parapet of each tower 
 possesses an extraordinary coping, which instantly 
 attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a coping formed, 
 not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These birds, 
 on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves, side 
 by side, in perfect order and in a complete circle around 
 
32 TOWERS OF SILENCE. 
 
 the parapets of the towers, with their heads pointing 
 inwards ; and so lazily did they sit there, and so motion- 
 less was their whole mien, that, except for their color, 
 they might have been carved out of the stone work." 
 
 He describes one of the towers as a round column or 
 massive cylinder, twelve or fourteen feet high, and at 
 least forty feet in diameter, built of solid stone, except in 
 the centre, where a well five or six feet across leads down 
 to an excavation under masonry, with four drains at right 
 angles to each other, terminated by holes filled with char- 
 coal. Round this solid cylinder is the stone parapet, ten 
 or twelve feet high, which conceals from view the interior. 
 The upper surface of the solid stone work is divided into 
 seventy-two compartments, or open receptacles, radiating 
 like the spokes of a wheel from the central well, and 
 arranged in three concentric rings, separated by narrow 
 ridges of stone, grooved to act as channels for conveying 
 all moisture from the receptacles into the well, and thus 
 to the lower drains. Each circle of the open compart- 
 ments is divided from the next by a pathway, making 
 three circular pathways, and these crossed by another 
 conducting from the exterior door which admits the 
 corpse bearer. We give his description of a burial. He 
 says that while he was engaged in examining the work, 
 " a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our 
 heads. At least a hundred birds, collected around one of 
 the towers, began to show symptoms of excitement, while 
 others swooped down from the neighboring trees. 
 
PARSEE HURIAL. 33 
 
 * * * A funeral was seen to be approaching. 
 
 * * ^ The body, swathed in a white sheet, is 
 placed in a curved, metal trough, open at both ends, and 
 the corpse bearers, dressed in pure white garments, pro- 
 ceed with it towards the towers. * * * The funeral 
 I witnessed was that of a child. When the two corpse 
 bearers reached the path leading by a steep incline to the 
 door of the tower, the mourners, about eight in number, 
 turned back and entered one of the prayer houses. 
 
 * * * The two bearers speedily unlocked the door, 
 reverently conveyed the body of the child into the 
 interior, and, unseen by anyone, laid it uncovered in one 
 of the open receptacles nearest the central well. In two 
 minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white 
 cloth, and scarcely had they closed the door, when a 
 dozen vultures swooped down upon the body and were 
 rapidly followed by others. In five minutes more the 
 satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again on the 
 parapet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton." 
 
 The Parsees declare that they have adopted this mode 
 of burial in obedience to the teachings of their prophet 
 Zoroaster (who is supposed to have lived about the time 
 of the fall of Babylon, B. C. 536). He taught that the 
 elements were symbols of the Deity ; that earth, fire and 
 water ought never to be defiled by contact with putrify- 
 ing flesh. Naked we came into the world, and naked we 
 ought to leave it ; that the decaying particles of our 
 bodies should be dissipated as rapidly as possible, and in 
 
34 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 
 
 such a way that neither mother earth nor the beings she 
 supports should be contaminated in the slightest degree. 
 They thus build their towers on the top of hills above all 
 human habitation — not that their dead should be con- 
 sumed by vultures, but dissipated in the speediest possi- 
 ble manner, and without the possibility of polluting the 
 earth or contaminating a single being dwelling thereon. 
 God sends the vultures, they say ; but these do their 
 work more expeditiously than millions of insects would 
 do if the bodies were buried in the ground. Even the 
 rain water which washes the skeletons is conducted by 
 channels into purifying charcoal. 
 
 The towers which have been described contain the 
 bones of all the Parsees who have died in Bombay for 
 the last two hundred years. Yarrow. 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 
 
 The Indians of North America are descended from 
 very ancient races. The ruins of constructions in South 
 America date within 500 years of the foundation of 
 Babylon. Fragments of early history, the relics of con- 
 structions and ethnological characteristics lead to the 
 conviction that the earliest nations in America were from 
 different divisions of the Japhetic and Semitic races. The 
 ruins in Central America, as described by the traveler, 
 Stephens, with accurate representations, testify to the 
 antiquity of the ancient nations of that part of the con- 
 tinent, and their identity with the old nations of Egypt, 
 
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 35 
 
 Persia and Phoenicia. The great mounds of the West, 
 particularly those of Ohio, are of very great antiquity, and 
 demonstrate that they were constructed in a period when 
 the population was more vast than it has been at any pe- 
 riod of time since. 
 
 Doctor H. C. Yarrow, in his contribution to the Bu- 
 reau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, classifies the 
 modes of burial among the North American Indians as 
 follows : 
 
 1st. By Inhumation. — This is the most common mode 
 of interment. The simplest form, as noted by School- 
 craft, was that adopted by the Mohawks, of New York. 
 They made a large round hole in which the body was 
 placed either upright or on its haunches. They covered 
 the grave with timber and raised over it the earth in a 
 round mound. The Carolina tribes first placed the corpse 
 in a cane hurdle or cofifin, and after the funeral rites were 
 celebrated it was placed in its sepulchre. The bottom of 
 the grave is covered with two or three layers of bark, and 
 over the bodies layers of bark many times double, and 
 earth thereon well beaten down ; the body lies in a vault, 
 nothing touching it. 
 
 The Sacs and Foxes of Nebraska are careful to prevent 
 the earth coming in contact with the body. They for- 
 merly put bark in the bottom of the graves, before the 
 bodies were deposited in them, and timber or sawed plank 
 over them. The corpse was always enveloped in a blan- 
 ket, and the head placed to the east. They now employ 
 
36 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 
 
 coffins rudely constructed. The Creeks and Seminoles of 
 Florida bury about four feet deep in a round hole directly 
 under the cabin or rock wherever the dead one had lived. 
 The body is placed in a sitting posture. The grave is then 
 covered with canes, and over them a firm layer of clay. 
 The Pimas of Arizona tie the bodies of the dead with 
 ropes, passing the latter around the neck and under the 
 knees, and then drawing them tight until the body is 
 doubled up and forced into a sitting posture. The graves 
 are from four to five feet deep, round, and about two 
 feet in diameter. They then hollow out to one side of 
 the bottom a vault large enough to contain the body. 
 The grave is then filled up level with the ground. The 
 Comanchcs wrap tlie body in a blanket, bind it tightly 
 with cords into a round, compact form, and then literally 
 tumble it into an excavation selected for the purpose, 
 usually a deep wash or head of canon, in which their 
 country abounds. 
 
 The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, who, next to the 
 Choctaws and Cherokees, are the most civilized of our 
 tribes, bury in graves six feet deep, seven feet long and 
 two wide. When filled up the ground is leveled and no 
 mound is left to mark the spot. The corpse is baled up 
 in a large, well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around 
 tight with a rope or lasso made for the purpose. 
 
 There are burying grounds in Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 Illinois, and also in Central America, with regular graves. 
 They are from twelve to eighteen inches deep, with slabs 
 
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 37 
 
 of stone on the bottom, ends and sides. When the 
 corpse is placed, in some horizontal, in others, in a sitting 
 posture, it was covered with earth, with or without 
 top slabs. In Tennessee the burial places or cemeteries are 
 exceedingly abundant throughout the State. Often hun- 
 dreds of graves may be found on a single hillside. Scat- 
 tered graves and mounds are also found, the latter 
 composed of a large number of cyst graves. With men, 
 pipes, stone-hammers, knives, arrowheads, &c., are 
 usually found. With women, pottery, rude beads, shells, 
 &c. With children, toys of pottery, beads, curious peb- 
 bles, &c. Major I. W. Poivell. 
 
 In the graves of all these tribes various articles are 
 found. 
 
 The mounds so common in our Western States are de- 
 positories of the dead in the earth. 
 
 Burials beneath the house where the deceased died is 
 common in some tribes. When it occurs, except in the 
 case of the burial of children, the house is usually vaca- 
 ted and another home constructed. 
 
 Natural or artificial holes in the ground, and fissures in 
 the rocks have been used as places of deposit for the 
 dead from the earliest times, and are used to the present 
 day, not only by the American Indians, but by peoples 
 of mental culture and civilization. In almost every 
 State in the Union burial caves have have been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 The second class of burials are those by embahmnent or 
 
3$ NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 
 
 mummification. The bodies are placed, after the process, 
 
 in the earth, in caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in 
 charnel houses. From the statements of the older 
 writers on North American Indians, mummifying seems 
 to have been practised among certain tribes in Virginia, 
 the Carolinas and Florida, especially for persons of dis- 
 tinction. There is a class of mummies found in the 
 saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky. It is an open 
 question whether measures had been taken to preserve 
 them, or whether the preservative influences of the soil 
 or places of deposit would account for the condition in 
 which the mummies were found. 
 
 The third class, surface burial, has been practised to 
 only a limited extent, so far as has been discovered. The 
 methods varied. Some placed their dead in hollow trees, 
 in an upright position ; occasionally in a hollow log lying 
 on the ground. Other tribes, in logs split and hollowed 
 out. 
 
 Blackbird, the famous chief of the Omahas, was buried 
 seated on his favorite snow-white horse. He was in full 
 dress and fully equipped, and on his head waved, to the 
 last moment, his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles 
 plumes. The burial, as described by Catlin, was as fol- 
 lows : " Turfs were brought and placed around the feet 
 and legs of the horse and gradually laid up to its sides, 
 and at last over the back and head of the unsuspecting 
 animal, and last over the head and even the eagle plumes 
 of its valiant rider, where, all together, they have 
 
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 39 
 
 smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present 
 day." 
 
 Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes of Illinois, 
 was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his 
 hands grasping his cane. The ground around it was 
 picketed, as a protection against wild animals. The 
 chiefs of that tribe were usually buried in this manner. 
 
 Other modes of surface burial were : placing the bodies 
 on trees, on the ground a little scooped out and covered 
 with planks, poles or birch bark, and sometimes beneath 
 heaps of rocks. 
 
 Cremation is also noted as a mode of disposing of the 
 dead. It was used to a considerable extent among the 
 North American tribes, especially those inhabiting the 
 western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The process 
 was by a funeral pyre bearing some resemblance to the 
 Greek and Roman funeral rite of burning.* 
 
 *Gen. Chas. H. Tompkins, U. S. A., furnishes the following account: 
 " A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice recently by 
 Mr. Wm. Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New Jersey bank of the Delaware 
 river, a short distance below Gloucester City, the skeleton of a man was found 
 buried in a standing position, in a high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the 
 stream. A few inches below the surface the neck bones were found, and below 
 these the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of the hands 
 and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be determined whether the 
 remains were those of an Indian or of a white man ; but, in either case, the sep- 
 ulture was peculiarly aboriginal. A careful exhumation and critical examination 
 by Mr. Klingbeil, disclosed the fact that around the lower extremities of the body 
 had been placed a number of large stones, which revealed traces of fire, in con- 
 junction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had undoubtedly been con- 
 sumed. This makes it appear reasonably certain that the subject had been 
 executed — probably as a prisoner of war. A pit had been dug, in which he was 
 placed erect and a fire kindled around him. Then be had been buried alive — or, 
 
40 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN BURIAL. 
 
 The last forms of burial described by Dr. Yarrow are 
 what he terms aerial sepulture and aquatic burial. These 
 are nearly allied to the former class, and embrace burial 
 in lodges on a platform and beneath a tent, covered with 
 buffalo hides or brush ; in houses built in various designs, 
 being wooden tombs ; in a box or sarcophagus of wood, 
 or a canoe, raised a little from the earth, or on scaffolds, 
 and by placing the bodies on trees. 
 
 Aquatic burial is performed by depositing the corpse 
 in a canoe and setting it afloat on streams or lakes remote 
 from habitations. The Indians are very careful not to 
 pollute the springs or streams near which they live by 
 aquatic burial, unless it may be to poison the springs for 
 white persons. 
 
 In " The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe," 
 made in i878-'79 by Baron Nordenskiold in command, 
 is a notice of a burying place in the primeval forest of 
 Siberia, near the houses of the inhabitants. The corpses 
 were placed in large coffins above ground, at which, in 
 most cases, a cross was erected. In one a sacred picture 
 was inserted. Some clothes which had belonged to the 
 departed were hanging on a bush beside the grave, 
 together with a bundle containing food. The crosses 
 
 at least, if he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the earth, 
 with the exception of his head, which was left protruding above the surface. As 
 no trace of the cranium could be found, it seems probable that the head had either 
 been burned or severed from the body and removed, or else left a prey to raven- 
 ous birds. The skeleton, which would have measured fully six feet in height, was 
 undoubtedly that of a man," 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN BURIAL. 4I 
 
 indicated that they had some knowledge of the Christian 
 religion, but heathen customs adhered to them. Among 
 the Chukches of the Polar sea mounds were discovered 
 by the same observers, containing burnt bones. The 
 cremation had been so complete that only one of the 
 pieces of bone could be determined — a human tooth. 
 After cremation, the remains of the bones and the ashes 
 had been collected in an excavation and covered first 
 with turf and twigs and then with small, flat stones. It 
 appears, by the observations of the navigators, that the 
 Chukches sometimes burned their dead and sometimes 
 exposed them to beasts of prey, with weapons, sledges, 
 household articles and clothing. At Port Clarence, south 
 of Cape Prince of Wales, North America, two Eskimo 
 graves were noticed. The corpses had been laid on the 
 ground fully clothed, without coffins, but surrounded by 
 a close fence made of tent poles driven crosswise in the 
 ground. Alongside of one of the corpses lay a kayak with 
 oars, a loaded double-barreled gun, with locks at half 
 cock and caps on, various other weapons, clothes, tinder 
 box, snow shoes, drinking vessels, masks carved in wood 
 and strangely- shaped animal heads, the latter such as 
 were also seen in the tents of the living. 
 
 INTERMENT AMONG THE EARLY CHRISTIANS. 
 
 The new testament furnishes many passages to show 
 that the Jews buried without their cities. The sepulchre 
 in which the body of our Saviour was laid was in the 
 
42 CHRISTIAN BURIAL. 
 
 place where He was crucified. At our Lord's passion the 
 graves were opened and many bodies of the saints which 
 slept arose, and came out of their graves after His resur- 
 rection and appeared unto many in the holy city. The 
 son of the widow of Nain was being carried without the 
 city, when the procession was met by Jesus. The 
 bodies of Ananias and Saphira were carried away for 
 burial, and the body of the martyr, Stephen, who was 
 stoned without the city, was buried where it lay. 
 
 The interment of the first Christians was undistin- 
 guished, and was like that of the common people. 
 After they became a distinct class, they had their own 
 peculiar funeral ceremonies, which partook of usages 
 both Jewish and Gentile, but uniformly by burial. It 
 was not long before the persecutors of the Christians 
 under the Roman Empire and the carnage under Nero, 
 greatly increased the number of martyrs. The tenderest 
 emotions of nature and the impulses of their religion led 
 them to provide a resting place for the slain, to protect 
 their bodies from the rage of the people. They were 
 taken charge of, and with secrecy and great caution 
 transported under cover of the night to the public ceme- 
 teries. The catacombs soon became the repository of 
 their remains,* but anticipating the evils which must 
 
 * The word catacomb is compounded from the Greek, and signifies, over 
 against a hollow deeply excavated. The catacombs are not to be confounded 
 with the cemeteries, each word having its own signification. Mission, a traveler 
 in 1687-8, gives his opinion that no place in the world can compare with Rome 
 
CEMETERIES IN ROMAN SUBURBS. 43 
 
 necessarily result from the accumulation of so many- 
 bodies in the place where they were accustomed to as- 
 semble for religious worship, they were abandoned. 
 
 Large tracts of land in the suburbs of Rome, given by 
 the Patricians and some pious, wealthy women, were ap- 
 propriated to purposes of burial. These were the origin 
 of cemeteries (place of repose). More than forty such 
 burial places are reckoned to have been opened in the 
 suburbs of Rome. Ecclesiastical history has preserved 
 their names. Here were erected altars and chapels, con- 
 structed for funeral ceremonies. The latter were also 
 used for religious worship. The cemeteries were cared 
 for with the greatest attention, and all became the sites of 
 consecrated temples. This gave origin to the Basilics, 
 which became the principal churches, on which the others 
 depended and of which they formed a part.* 
 
 In the law of the twelve tables, enacted by the Decem- 
 viri (A. D. about 200), burial or burning of the dead 
 within the city was forbidden. The statute was in force 
 
 for subterranean passages known as catacombs. They are not single vaults but 
 whole cities of the dead, with turnings aud windings, like streets dug out from 
 the rock. Each passage is commonly from fifteen to eighteen feet wide, and 
 twelve or fifteen feet high. The graves are hollow niches, one above another in 
 rows, where the dead are deposited without coffins. These catacombs to the 
 number of forty and more, running in all directions for unnumbered miles under 
 the Roman Campagna, chiefly along the Appian Way, are witnesses of the faith 
 and practice of early Christianity, as positive, as are the monuments of Egypt 
 and Babylonia of Pagan beliefs and modes of life and worship. They assure us 
 of their one design and purpose oi bicrial, not cremation, which the Christians 
 abhorred as Pagan. — Monumental Christianity. 
 
 * The Christians began to build churches in the second century. Their 
 sites have been determined. The church of Antioch was erected in the third 
 century. Destroyed by Diocletian. 
 
44 BEGINNING OF INTRA-MURAL BURIAL. 
 
 for a long period. The admission of the remains of even 
 holy personages was positively forbidden. 
 
 The Christian church in three centuries rested in com- 
 parative quiet, and finally perfect peace, by the conversion 
 of Constantine, and by his memorable edict of toleration, 
 in A. D. 313. The Pagan temples of idols ceased to be 
 resorted to and were transferred to the worship of God. 
 The altars at which the Christians worshipped in the cata- 
 combs and cemeteries in the suburbs, were transferred to 
 the cities, and the relics of the martyrs took the places of 
 the Pagan deities. Now it was, that a general desire was 
 manifest for providing tombs within their cities. A wish 
 to be buried near the temples of their worship is a natural 
 one. They thought, too, that proximity to the places 
 where the prayers of the holy were offered, would bene- 
 fit the souls of the departed dead, and that the emana- 
 tions from the bodies of the saints would warm the 
 hearts of the faithful and encourage them in pious works. 
 
 Burials within or near a church had their origin in the 
 request of the Emperor Constantine to be buried in the 
 vestibule of the Basilica of the Holy Apostles, which he 
 himself had built. His wish was granted as a mark of 
 the highest honor. The successors of Constantine ob- 
 tained a like distinciion. Benefactors to the church 
 received the same. The priesthood, by their sanctity and 
 rank, were deemed worthy of the high privilege. The 
 revolution thus begun was neither general nor rapid. 
 
BURIAL IN CHURCHES. 45 
 
 The bishops who granted the privileges adopted each his 
 own regulations, which were stringent or otherwise, accord- 
 ing to his views. In half a century interments within 
 the city of Constantinople and other Roman cities became 
 general,* for in A. D, 381, Theodosius renewed the edicts 
 of his predecessors and prohibited interments in cities. 
 He ordained that the bodies, urns, and sarcophagi within 
 the walls of Rome should be removed to a distance. His 
 design was to prevent infection of the air. Van Espen 
 says : ''Inipcratores Cliristiani sanctitateni civitatum violari 
 credebant per corpora mortuorum quod nimio siio f(ztore 
 civitates infccerunt.'' "The Christian Emperors always 
 censured the burial of the dead in cities ; they feared 
 contagion." Seneca says : "■ Non defunctorum causa, sed 
 vivorum invent a est sepultura, 2it corpora et visu et adore 
 fceda amoverenter. 
 
 The edict was observed for a considerable time, but it 
 came to be disregarded long before Gregory the Great, 
 by whom it was restored in Italy. " Whatever difference 
 there might have been in the opinion between the Pagans 
 and Christians as to the fate which awaits us after our 
 mortal career, whatever variety the principles laid down 
 in the Christian church, we always see the most enlight- 
 ened princes maintaining, by their laws in relation to 
 interments, those rules which were most in conformity 
 with the real good of the community. The ancient cccle- 
 
 * The abuse of interring was carried so far that as to permit Pagans and 
 Christians, the impious and holy, to be interred in the interior of their temples. 
 
46 BURtAL IN CHURCHES OPPOSED. 
 
 siastical constitutions, the letters of the Pontiffs, that 
 sacred tradition which they are bound to preserve, all 
 concurred in delivering cities from the infection of dead 
 bodies; but this abuse, far from being destroyed, gained 
 new strength. The innumerable causes for not looking 
 upon the bodies of the dead with disgust, the flattering 
 hopes they entertained of participating in the merits of 
 the just, by partaking of their graves, the distinction 
 which resulted in favor of those who had been deemed 
 worthy of that honor, awakened among some sentiments 
 of piety, excited among others the feelings of self-love. 
 At length tyrannical custom overcame the law. The 
 prerogative which was reserved for Emperors was at last 
 the inheritance of the lowest class of citizens, and that 
 which was at first a particular privilege became at length 
 the common right of all." 
 
 Prior to and during the sixth century interments in 
 cities were greatly increased. Synods and councils be- 
 came earnest in their efforts to arrest the evil and to re- 
 store the ancient discipline of the church. The Council 
 of Bracar contained a celebrated canon which forbade in- 
 terment in churches, and proved also that cities have the 
 right to prohibit any person from burying within its walls. 
 Charlemagne, at the end of the eighth century, gave his 
 earnest attention to ecclesiastical discipline. lie held 
 frequent councils in different parts of his kingdom, the 
 decisions of which were formulated into his noted capitu- 
 laries. One of his bishops, Theodolphus, complained 
 
PROHIBITION BY CHARLEMAGNE. 47 
 
 that the churches in France had become almost burial 
 places. The capitularies of Charlemagne forbade interments 
 of the laity within the churches, and subsequently that of 
 all persons, without discrimination. He ordered the 
 tombs to be destroyed, and wished for the future that 
 they should never be raised above the level of the ground. 
 Notwithstanding the measures enforced by Charlemagne, 
 they were modified by subsequent councils, though the 
 church desired that the prohibition should be obeyed. It 
 fell into such a degree of neglect that the Emperor Leo, in 
 the close of the ninth century, in codifying and publishing 
 the canons of the church, erased in one of his statutes the 
 old prohibition of burying in churches. The terms of his 
 decree show that the old law had fallen into complete dis- 
 credit, and had become a dead letter. He gives two rea- 
 sons for its falling into disuse. The first was the distress 
 of the people to see the bodies of their relatives carried so 
 far from them ; and the second was the expense of trans- 
 portation or great vexation of the poor. 
 
 Notwithstanding the decree of Leo, " it is equally cer- 
 tain that the church, always animated by the same princi- 
 ple, did not cease to enforce as much as possible the 
 ancient usages. The councils, held from the tenth 
 even to the eighteenth century, in various parts of the 
 catholic world, bear evident testimony to that effect."* 
 
 * The following French bishops and archbishops have at the affixed 
 dates promulgated in their sees ordinances against interments in towns or in 
 churches : — Bishop of Avrauches, A. D. 1600 ; Bishop of St. Malo, 1620 ; Bishop 
 of Lizieux, 1650 ; Bishop of La Rochelle, 1655 ; Bishop of Chalons, 1661 ; 
 
48 ANIMAL CORRUPTION DANGEROUS. 
 
 From the beginning of history to the ninth century of 
 the Christian era, it is manifest that however interments 
 were modified by forms of reh'gions or superstition, it 
 was a universally accepted fact that exposure of the 
 living to the corruption which succeeds the death of the 
 body is injurious to the living, and becomes a source of 
 disease and pestilence in crowded communities. It is a 
 remarkable fact that intramural interments should have 
 been allowed by the church and the State just when a 
 knowledge of nature's laws began to be increased. The 
 old nations of the world were, in their generations, wiser 
 in their measures of protection than those of the new. 
 
 There is a popular belief that, as the wise Creator has 
 ordained that we must die, and has taught us that the 
 dead must be buried. He has so ordered that no evil 
 results shall follow their burial. Such an argument 
 proves too much. We know that pestilential influences 
 arise from various other causes, and we provide against 
 them. Death is a consequence of our fallen nature ; dis 
 ease and pestilence are recognized evils. Whatever is 
 believed to produce them must, if possible, be removed. 
 That this is eminently true of the emanations from the 
 putrefaction of decaying dead bodies, and especially so 
 
 Bishop of Amiens, 1662 ; Bishop of Orleans, 1664; Bishop of Aleth, 1670; Bish- 
 op of Cohors, 1673 ; Bishop of Senez, 1672-78 ; Bishop of Grenoble, 1690 ; Bishop 
 of Noyon, 1691 ; Bishop of Soissons, 1700; Archbishop of Rouen, 1721, and in 
 the same year the Bishop of Evreux and the Archbishop of Auch. 
 
 In about 1765 the Archbishop of Toulouse promulgated an ordinance concern- 
 ing interments in churches, contained in fifteen articles. They were confirmed 
 in toto by the Parliaments in France, and sanctioned by the King. 
 
ANIMAL PUTRESCENCE. 49 
 
 when in crowded cemeteries, cannot for one moment be 
 reasonably questioned. The God of the Israelites per- 
 mitted the laws of nature to operate as He had ordained 
 them, but carefully protected his chosen people by 
 statutes which guarded their health and banished from 
 their dwellings and communities the causes of disease 
 and pestilence. 
 
 The testimony of early scripture history admits the 
 belief that uniformity of burial in sepulchres and in the 
 earth among all nations after the deluge, had its origin in 
 the mortuary customs of the old world. It is recorded 
 of the three sons of Noah— (Gen. x) " by these were the 
 nations divided in the earth after the flood." We cannot 
 doubt that the customs in which they had lived a hundred 
 years before the deluge were carried with them and 
 became the traditions of the new world. 
 
 ANIMAL PUTRESCENCE. 
 
 The facts which history so abundantly furnishes of the 
 malignancy of animal putrescence are known compara- 
 tively to the few. They should be known and read of 
 all men. 
 
 Doctor Haguenot, Professor of the University of 
 
 Montpelier, France, was one of the earliest writers upon 
 
 the dangers of interments in the city of his residence. 
 
 Though long convinced of them, he delayed pointing them 
 
 out till an event occurred under his own observation, 
 
 which led him to raise his voice of warning and remon- 
 7 
 
50 EMANATIONS FROM A VAULT. 
 
 strance for the protection of the people against the reign- 
 ing abuse. On the seventeenth of August, 1744, toward 
 evening, the body of a layman was conveyed to a vault 
 in the parish of Notre Dame of Montpelier, attended by 
 a numerous procession of the clergy and laity. No less 
 than three men perished on this occasion ; a fourth was 
 with difficulty recovered from a state of asphyxia, and a 
 fifth was attacked with severe and alarming symptoms, 
 which left him for a long while pale and feeble, and his 
 recovery was very properly termed a resurrection. The 
 catastrophe occurred as follows : While lowering the 
 corpse, a man first went down to support the coflfin, and 
 fell senseless; another followed to assist him, and though 
 drawn out in time was afflicted with the severe illness 
 just noted ; the third, who had the courage to offer his 
 services, descended with a rope around his waist, and had 
 he not been drawn up immediately, would have died ; the 
 fourth, a strong and vigorous man, trusting to his robust 
 constitution, and only barkening to the call of humanity, 
 dared the danger, and died upon entering the vault ; the 
 fifth came out once to recover strength, returned a second 
 time, staggered from the ladder, and fell dead. The 
 bodies were drawn up by hooks. Haguenot was author- 
 itatively commissioned to investigate the conditions 
 attendant upon this tragical event. He had the vault 
 reopened and upon an examination he recorded the fol- 
 lowing experiments. The cadaverous fcEtor exhaled was 
 so intense as to adhere for a long time to any substance 
 
GERMS OF DISEASE IN VAULTS. 5 1 
 
 which was exposed for a few moments in the vault. 
 Lighted tapers, chips, papers and tarred ropes, when 
 brought to the edge of the vault were instantly extin- 
 guished. Animals — dogs and cats— became instantly- 
 convulsed, and died in a few minutes; birds lived a few 
 seconds. The vapor or gas was obtained and preserved 
 in glass vessels. After six weeks it possessed the same 
 qualities and produced the same effects."^ 
 
 In the neighborhood of the church now noticed, Ha- 
 guenot says that the small pox broke out and raged with 
 great violence, and remarks that the more gradual or 
 weaker evolution of thin vapor fills the air with malign 
 qualities, the germs of fatal or epidemic diseases, or they 
 aggravate the symptoms of those prevailing. f 
 
 " Every one knows," says Vicq. Dazyr, "that animal 
 exhalations, particularly from a putrefying carcass, are 
 very noxious and dangerous." Diodorus Siculus (lOO B. 
 C.) notes pestilential diseases produced by the putrefac- 
 tion of different substances. Saint Augustine makes 
 mention of animals cast upon the seashore, whose putre- 
 
 * The investigations were in accordance with the infancy of chemical science, 
 140 years ago, and would now be considered defective and insufficient. 
 
 t The same writer gives a key to the explanation of miracles at the tombs of 
 saints, as being natural causes in operation in sepulchral chambers. Gregory of 
 Tours relates that a thief for the sake of plunder entered the tomb of St. Helius. 
 The holy prelate miraculously detained him and he died. A poor man, who 
 wished to cover the grave of his son with a stone, attempted to steal one from the 
 tomb of a holy personage, and was instantly struck blind, deaf and dumb. Jo- 
 sephus in his antiquities says that the servants of King Herod who broke open 
 the tomb of King David, were killed in the very act. These occurrences, he 
 says, may be attributed to the poisonous vapors of the grave. 
 
52 PESTILENCE FROM PUTREFACTION. 
 
 fying bodies created a widely extended pestilence. The 
 waters of the Nile, as they return from the fields they 
 have inundated, leave a multitude of aquatic insects, 
 which, putrefying, exhale miasm. Egypt is thus exposed 
 almost every year to malignant fevers. It is from that 
 country that the small pox is scattered throughout the 
 world. The putrefaction of grasshoppers in Ethiopia has 
 caused epidemic diseases. 
 
 Lucian notes an epidemic which ravaged the army of 
 Pompey, occasioned by the putrefaction of the horses killed 
 and left on the field of battle. A great mortality oc- 
 curred in the camp of Constantine the Great from similar 
 causes. Carcases scattered over the field of battle have 
 in all times caused mortal sickness. Aristotle advised 
 Alexander to return immediately after the defeat of Da- 
 rius, to avoid the malignant influence of the dead bodies. 
 Long sieges, where many lives are lost, are commonly 
 attended with fevers and fatal distempers. The war of 
 the Swedes in the last century was the occasion of a pes- 
 tilence which desolated Poland. 
 
 Some subterranean vaults at Paris, under the church of 
 St. Eustace, were dug out, and some dead bodies were 
 of necessity removed. They were put in a vault, for a 
 long time shut up. Children who went there to cate- 
 chism sickened. The same effect was produced in adults. 
 Doctor Ferret, who made a report upon the subject, said 
 that he found that the respiration of the sick was diffi- 
 cult ; that the brain was disordered ; they had violent 
 
PUTREFACTION PESTILENTIAL. 53 
 
 palpitation of the heart, and many were affected with 
 convulsive motions in the arms and legs. 
 
 A lot of ground which had, in past times, a convent 
 for the nuns of St. Genevieve, at Paris, was appropriated 
 to the erection upon it of shops. All those who in- 
 habited the ground floor, and particularly the young, 
 were affected with similar complaints, which were, with 
 good reason, attributed to exhalations from the dead 
 bodies interred beneath. 
 
 An attentive physician, in making researches into the 
 causes of the epidemic in Saulier, and carefully studying 
 the sources and consequences of the facts, has shown 
 that the contagion proceeded from a number of dead 
 bodies buried in the parish of St. Saturnine. The cathe- 
 dral of Montpelier was infected by the same causes. 
 
 Vicq. Dazyr says, in regard to these facts : " Were we 
 to collect together all the observations of those who have 
 gone before us, we should find proofs without number of 
 what we advance ; the small number of the learned and 
 of persons capable of transmitting to posterity, accounts 
 of the deadly effects of interments in churches and in 
 towns — or rather the sanctity with which we ourselves 
 have been used to consider the custom of interring in 
 temples — has been often the reason of attributing to 
 other causes the epidemic diseases which have, from time 
 to time, depopulated our cities." 
 
 In Walker on Grave-yards (London, 1839), '^^^ read, 
 'p. 96 : "A mild catarrhal fever prevailed in Saulieu, Bur- 
 
54 PUTREFACTION PESTILENTIAL. 
 
 gundy. The body of a very fat man was buried in the 
 parish church of St. Saturnine. Twenty-three days after- 
 wards a grave was opened by the side of the former, to 
 bury a woman who had died of the same disease. A 
 very fetid odor filled the church and affected all those 
 who entered. In letting down the body the rope slipped, 
 by which the coffin was shaken. A discharge of sanies 
 followed, the odor of which greatly annoyed the assist- 
 ants. Of one hundred and seventy persons who 
 entered the church from the opening of the grave to the 
 interment, one hundred and forty-nine were attacked 
 with a malignant putrid fever, which had some resem- 
 blance to the reigning catarrhal fever ; but the nature 
 and intensity of the symptoms left no doubt that the 
 malignity was owing to the infection of the cathedral." 
 
 Dodsley's Annual Register, July, 1773, gives the par- 
 ticulars of an accident which occurred in the same 
 church : " Of one hundred and twenty young persons of 
 both sexes who were assembled to receive their first com- 
 munion, all but six fell dangerously ill, together with the 
 Cure, the grave diggers and sixty-six other persons. The 
 illness with which they were seized is described as a 
 putrid, verminous fever, accompanied with hemorrhagic 
 eruption and inflammation." 
 
 M. Maret, in a letter to the editor of the Journal 
 Encyclopediqiie, in 1775. states that the curate of Arnay- 
 le-duc, after having breathed the infected air arising from 
 a dead body of one of his parishioners when he was per- 
 
FATALITY FROM ONE CORPSE. 55 
 
 forming the funeral rites, contracted a putrid disease 
 which had reduced him to the last extremity. 
 
 MALIGNANT DISEASE FROM ONE CORPSE. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Render, in his "Tour through Germany," 
 published in London, 1801, mentions the following case : 
 " In the month of July, 17—, a very corpulent lady died 
 
 at . Before her death she begged, as a particular 
 
 favor, to be buried in the parochial church, and on the 
 following Saturday was buried according to her desire. 
 The day following the clergyman preached her funeral 
 sermon. The weather was uncommonly hot and sultry, 
 and a great drouth was prevailing. The succeeding Sun- 
 day the Protestant clergyman had a very full congregation 
 of upwards of nine hundred persons, it being the day for 
 administering the holy sacrament. The weather con- 
 tinuing very hot, many were obliged during the service 
 to walk out for a time to avoid fainting, while some 
 actually fainted away. 
 
 " It is the custom in Germany that when the people 
 wish to receive the sacrament they neither eat nor drink 
 that day till the ceremony is entirely over. The sermon 
 occupied one hour and a quarter, after which the bread 
 was consecrated and, according to custom, remained 
 uncovered during the ceremony. There were about one 
 hundred and eighty communicants. Before they had 
 quitted the church, more than sixty of them were taken 
 ill. Several died in the most severe agonies ; others, of 
 
56 INSECTS GENERATED BY PUTREFACTION. 
 
 a more vigorous constitution, survived by the help of 
 medical assistance. A most violent consternation pre- 
 vailed throughout the whole congregation and town. It 
 was concluded that the wine had been poisoned, and so 
 it was generally believed. The sacristan and several 
 others belonging to the vestry were immediately arrested 
 and cast into prison. The clergyman, on the succeeding 
 Sunday, preached very excitedly and pointed out several 
 others concerned in the plot. This enthusiastic sermon 
 was printed. The persons accused underwent very great 
 hardships. During the space of a week they were con- 
 fined in a dungeon, and some of them put to the torture, 
 but they persisted in asserting their innocence. 
 
 " On the Sunday following, the magistrate ordered that 
 a chalice of wine, uncovered, should be placed for the 
 space of an hour upon the altar, which time had scarcely 
 elapsed when they beheld the wine filled with myriads of 
 insects ; and, by tracing them to their source, it was at 
 length perceived, by the rays of the sun, that they had 
 issued from the grave of the lady who had been buried 
 the preceding fortnight. The people not belonging to 
 the vestry were dismissed, and four men employed to 
 open the grave and the coffin. In doing this, two of 
 them dropped down and expired upon the spot, and the 
 other two were only saved by the utmost exertion of 
 medical talent. It is beyond the power of words to 
 describe the horrid sight of the corpse when the coffin 
 was opened. The whole was a mass of entire putrefac- 
 
SOIL OF A GRAVEYARD DISTURBED. 5/ 
 
 tion, and it was clearly demonstrated that the numerous 
 insects, both large and small, together with the effluvia 
 which had issued from the body, had caused the pestilen- 
 tial infection which was for a while attributed to poison." 
 Bascont. 
 
 SATURATED SOIL OF A GRAVEYARD DISTURBED. 
 
 In the autumn of 1843, i^i Minchinhampton, a grave- 
 yard was disturbed which had existed five hundred 
 years. In rebuilding the church it was deemed expedient 
 to lower the surface of the graveyard to within a foot or 
 two of those buried. The earth so removed, of a dark color 
 — saturated, in fact, with the product of human putrefac- 
 tion—was, in a fatal hour, devoted to the purposes of 
 agriculture. About one thousand cart-loads were so 
 employed, some on a new piece of burial ground to make 
 the grass grow quickly, some as manure in the neighbor- 
 ing fields, some on the rector's garden, and some in that 
 of the patron. The seeds of disease were thus widely 
 sown, and the result was such as any person of common 
 sense might have expected. The diffusion of a morbid 
 poison which soon followed was evinced by an outbreak 
 of fever in this once healthy locality. The family of the 
 rector and the inhabitants of the streets adjoining the 
 churchyard were the first attacked, and were also the 
 greatest sufferers. The rector lost his wife, a daughter 
 and his gardener. The patron's gardener, who had been 
 employed in the unseemly art of dressing flower beds 
 
58 GRAVEYARDS IN CITIES. 
 
 with human manure, also died. The children who 
 attended the school took the fever as they passed the 
 upturned surface of the graveyard, went home and died, 
 but did not communicate the disease to those who came 
 near them. Seventeen deaths occurred, and upwards of 
 two hundred children had measles, scarlet fever and 
 various peculiar eruptions. Bascom. 
 
 This grave-yard had been in use 200 years when Bishop 
 Latimer (1552) warned the people that intramural burials 
 were dangerous to health. In a sermon on the raising of 
 the widow's son, he says : " These citizens of Naim hadd 
 their buryinge place withoute the citie, which no doubt 
 is a laudable thinge, and I doe much marvel that London 
 being soe rich a citie, hath not a buryinge place withoute, 
 for no doubt it is an unwholesom thinge to bury within the 
 citie, especiallie at such a time, when there be great sick- 
 nesses, and manie die together. * * * And I think no 
 lesse but it is the occasion of great sicknesses and disease." 
 
 Adam Clarke in his commentary (1810-26) on the same 
 scripture event, advises that " no burying place should 
 be tolerated within cities or towns, much less in or about 
 churches and chapels. This custom is excessively injuri- 
 ous to the inhabitants, and especially to those who fre- 
 quent public worship in such churches and chapels. God, 
 decency and health forbid this shocking abomination. 
 * * * I am assured from long observation that churches 
 and chapels situated in graveyards * * * are perfectly 
 unwholesome, and many by attending such places are 
 
PESTILENCE FROM TOMBS. 59 
 
 shortening their passage to the house appointed for all the 
 living. What increases the iniquity of this abominable 
 and deadly work is, that burying grounds attached to 
 many churches and chapels are made a source of private 
 gain. * * * Every man should know that the gas 
 disengaged from a human body is not only unfriendly to, 
 but destructive of, animal life." 
 
 When Hannibal laid seige to the city of Agrigentum, 
 in the south-western part of Sicily, for the purpose of 
 raising a wall without, which should overlook and com- 
 mand the city walls, he collected all the materials within 
 his reach, and among the rest destroyed and converted to 
 his use the tombs standing around a city very ancient and 
 populous, and then containing 200,000 inhabitants. From 
 the uncovering and disturbing of so many dead bodies 
 arose a terrible pestilence, which carried off immense 
 numbers of the Carthagenians and the General himself. 
 Afflicted at this dreadful mortality, the beseigers attrib- 
 uted it, with the superstition of the age, to the vengeance 
 of the gods, incensed against them for violating the 
 repose of the dead. The healthiness of the situation, 
 the season, and the thorough appointment and supplies 
 of the Carthagenian army, leave no room to doubt as to 
 the real cause of the sickness, which gradually disap- 
 peared. Two remarks of some importance are suggested 
 by the historian. 
 
 I. The folly of modern nations, especially in warm 
 
6o chadwick's report. 
 
 climates, in suffering the interment of the dead within 
 their cities. 
 
 2. The wisdom of some ancient nations in having a 
 dead as well as a living town. 
 
 About 1843 ^ "report on the sanitary condition of the 
 laboring population of Great Britain — supplementary 
 report on the results of a special inquiry into the practice 
 of interments in towns," was made by Edwin Chadwick, 
 Esq., Barrister at Law, at the request of Her Majesty's 
 principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, 
 It was presented to both Houses of Parliament by com- 
 mand of Her Majesty. 
 
 The materials for the supplement on interments were 
 collected from every source where useful information was 
 likely to be obtained — from ministers of religion called 
 upon to perform funeral rites in the poorer districts, from 
 persons of the laboring class, from officers of benefit 
 societies and burial clubs, from undertakers chiefly en- 
 gaged in the interment of the dead of the laboring classes, 
 from foreigners as to the various modes of interment in 
 their own countries, and the administrative regulations 
 thereon, and finally from eminent physiologists, as to the 
 effects produced on the health of the living by emana- 
 tions from human remains in a state of decomposition. 
 The first part of the report is devoted to the examina- 
 tion of the evidence for and against the conclusions of 
 medical witnesses of high professional position, by whom 
 
PUTRID EMANATIONS. 6l 
 
 it is alleged that the emanations from human remains in a 
 decomposing state do not produce specific disease, and that 
 they are not generally injurious. The learned writer aims 
 to determine the question of the healthiness or otherwise 
 of intra-mural interments, and traces the distinct effects 
 produced by bodies in a state of decay and putrefaction. 
 Respecting the innocuousness of putrefaction, the report 
 notices the testimony of M. Parent Duchatelet and Doc- 
 tor Dunglison, which is not very conclusive in its nature, 
 and which is easily set aside. The latter gentleman says 
 that " we have no satisfactory proof that malaria ever 
 arises from animal putrefaction singly," and then guards 
 this negative proposition by the following admission. 
 
 " In stating the opinion that putrefaction singly does not occasion 
 malarial disease, we do not mean to affirm that air highly charged 
 with putrid miasmata may not, in some cases, powerfully impress the 
 nervous system so as to induce syncope and high nervous disorder ; or 
 that when such miasmata are absorbed by the lungs in a highly 
 concentrated state, they may not excite putrid disorders, or dispose 
 the frame to unhealthy erysipelatous affections. On the contrary, 
 experiment seems to have shown that they are deleterious when in- 
 jected, and cases are detailed in which, when exhaled from a dead 
 body, they have excited serious mischief in those exposed to their 
 action." 
 
 In reference to Duchatelet's statements, when he cites 
 instances of the exhumation of bodies in an advanced 
 state of decomposition, without any injurious consc- 
 
62 PUTRID EMANATIONS. 
 
 quences being experienced by the persons engaged in 
 conducting them, the accuracy of the evidence given 
 is very quickly disposed of in a " Report of Doctor V. 
 A, Riecke, of Stuttgart, on the influence of putrefactive 
 emanations on the health of man," in which the medical 
 evidence of this class is closely investigated. In refer- 
 ence to the statements of Duchatelet on this question, 
 Doctor Riecke observes : 
 
 " When Parent Duchatelet appeals to and gives such prominence 
 to the instance of the disinterments from the churchyard of Saint 
 Innocens, and states that they took place without any injurious con- 
 sequences, although at last all precautions in the mode of disinterring 
 were thrown aside, and that it occurred during the hottest season of 
 the year, and therefore that the putrid emanations might be believed 
 to be in their most powerful and injurious state, I would reply to this 
 by asking the simple question, what occasion was there for disinter- 
 ment ? Duchatelet maintains complete silence on this point ; but to 
 me the following notices appear worthy of attention. In the year 
 1554, Houlier and Fernel, and in the year 1738 Lemery, Geoffroy and 
 Hunaud raised many complaints of this churchyard ; and the two 
 first had asserted that during the plague the disease had lingered 
 longer in the neighborhood of the Cimeti^re de la Trinit6, and that 
 there the greatest number had fallen a sacrifice. In the years 1737 
 and 1746, the inhabitants of the houses around the churchyard of 
 Saint Innocens complained loudly of the revolting stench to which 
 they were exposed. In the year 1755 the matter again came into 
 notice. The inspector who was intrusted with the inquiry, himself 
 saw the vapor rising from a large common grave, and convinced him- 
 
PUTRID EMANATIONS. 6$ 
 
 self of the injurious effects of this vapor upon the inhabitants of the 
 neighboring house." * 
 
 " Often," says the author, " the complexions of the young people 
 who remain in the neighborhood grow pale. Meat sooner becomes 
 putrid there than elsewhere, and many persons cannot get accustomed 
 to these houses." In the year 1779, in a cemetery which yearly 
 received from 2,000 to 3,000 corpses, they dug an immense common 
 grave near to that part of the cemetery which touches upon the Rue 
 de la Lingerie. The grave was fifty feet deep, and made to receive 
 from 1,500 to 1,600 bodies. But, in Febuary, 1780, the whole of the 
 cellars in the street were no longer fit for use. Candles were extin- 
 guished by the air in them, and those who only approached the aper- 
 tures were immediately seized with the most alarming attacks. The 
 evil was only diminished on the bodies being covered with half a foot 
 of lime and all further interments forbidden. But even that must 
 have been found insufficient, as, after some j^ears, the great work of 
 disinterring the bodies from this churchyard was determined upon. 
 This undertaking, according to Thouret's report, was carried on from 
 December, 1785, to May, 1786; from December, 1786, to February-, 
 1787, and in August and October of the same year; and it is not 
 unimportant to note this, as it shows how incorrect is Duchatelet in 
 his general statement that those disinterments were carried on in the 
 hottest seasons of the year. It is very clear that it was exactly the 
 coldest seasons of the year which were chosen for the work ; and 
 though in the year 1787 there occurs the exception of the work hav- 
 
 *As au instance of the state of the cellars around the graveyard, it is 
 stated that a workman, being engaged in one of them, put his hand on the wet 
 wall. He was warned that the moisture on the walls was poisonous, and was 
 requested to wash his hand in vinegar. He merely dried his hand on his apron . 
 At the end of three days the whole arm became numb, then the hand and fore- 
 arm swelled with great pain, blisters came out on the skin, and the epidermis 
 came off. 
 
64 PUTRID EMANATIONS. 
 
 ing been begun in August, it may be assumed that the weather was 
 unusually cold, and it was therefore thought that the work might be 
 carried on without injurious effects. It does not, however, appear to 
 have been considered safe to continue the work at that season, as the 
 operations were again discontinued, according to the report, in 
 September. 
 
 Against those statements of Duchatelet, as to the innocuousness of 
 the frequent disinterments in P6re la Chaise — statements which are 
 supported by the testimony of Orfila and Ollivier in regard to their 
 experience of disinterments — I would here state positive facts which 
 are not to be rejected. ' I,' also remarks Duvergie, ' have under- 
 taken judicial disinterments, and must declare that during one of 
 these, at which M. Piedagnel was present with me, we were attacked 
 with an illness, although it was conducted under the shade of a tent, 
 through which there was passing a strong current of wind ; and, 
 although we used chloride of lime in abundance, Piedagnel was con- 
 fined to his room for six weeks.' Apparently, Duvergie is not far 
 wrong when he states his opinion that Orfila had allowed himself to 
 be misled by his praiseworthy zeal for the more general recognition of 
 the use of disinterments for judicial purposes, to understate the dan- 
 gers attending them, as doubtless he had used all the precautions 
 during the disinterments which such researches demand ; and to 
 these precautions (recommended by Orfila himself) may be attributed 
 their few injurious effects. I cannot refrain from giving, also, the 
 information which Fourcroy gained from the grave-diggers of the 
 churchyard of St. Innocens. Generally they did not seem to rate the 
 danger of displacing the corpses very high. They remarked, how- 
 ever, that some days after the disinterment the abdomen of the corpse 
 would swell, through the great development of gas, and that if an 
 opening forced itself at the navel or anywhere in the region of the 
 belly, there issued forth the most horribly-smelling liquid and a 
 mephitic gas. Of the last they had the greatest fear, as it produced 
 
EFFECTS OF AUTOPSIES. 65 
 
 suddenly insensibility and fainting. Fourcroy wished much to make 
 further researches into the nature of this gas, but he could not find 
 any grave-digger who could be induced by an offered reward to assist 
 him by finding a body which was in a fit state to produce this gas. 
 They stated tliat at a certain distance this gas only produced a slight 
 giddiness— a feeling of languor and debility. These attacks lasted 
 several hours, and were followed by loss of appetite, weakness and 
 trembling. " Is it not very probable," says Fourcroy, " that a poison 
 so terrible that when in a concentrated state it produced sudden 
 death, should, even when diluted and diffused through the atmos- 
 phere, still possess a power sufficient to produce depression of the 
 nervous energy and an entire disorder of the functions ? Let anyone 
 witness the terror of these grave-diggers and also see the cadaverous 
 appearence of the greatest number, and all the other signs of the 
 influence of a slow poison, and they will no longer doabt of the dan- 
 gerous effects of the air from churchyards on the inmates of neigh- 
 boring houses." 
 
 Mr. Chadwick says that an eminent surgeon, who 
 expressed to him his beUef that no injury resulted from 
 emanations from decomposing remains because /le had 
 suffered none, mentioned an instance where he had con- 
 ducted the f>os^ mortem of the corpse of a person of 
 celebrity which was in a dreadful state of decomposition, 
 and that without injury, but admitted, as a casual inci- 
 dent, which did not strike him as militating against the 
 conclusion, that his assistant was immediately after taken 
 ill and had an exanthematous eruption. 
 
 He had been compelled to go to the seaside, and had 
 not yet recovered. Another surgeon who had lived for 
 
66 PUTRID EMANATIONS. 
 
 many years near a churchyard in the metropolis, and had 
 never observed any effluvia from it, neither did he per- 
 ceive any effects of such emanations, at church or any- 
 where else, yet admitted that his wife perceived the 
 openings of vaults when she went to the church to which 
 the graveyard belonged, and after respiring the air there, 
 would say, " they have opened a vault," which upon in- 
 quiry would prove true. He admitted also that formerly 
 in the school of anatomy which he attended, pupils were 
 sometimes attacked with fever, which was called, " the 
 dissecting-room fever " which, since better regulations 
 have been made, is now unknown. 
 
 The fourth paragraph of Chadwick's report notices the 
 evidence of another class to prove the innocuousness of 
 the emanations of human remains upon the general 
 health, to wit, the instances of persons acting as keepers 
 of dissecting rooms and grave-diggers, and the underta- 
 kers' men who, it is stated, have pursued their occupa- 
 tions for long periods and have notwithstanding main- 
 tained robust health. 
 
 The examination of persons engaged in processes ex- 
 posed to miasma from decomposing animal remains in 
 general, only shows that habit, combined with associations 
 of profit, often prevents or blunts the perceptions of the 
 most offensive remains. Men with shrunken figures and 
 the appearance of premature age, and a peculiar cadaver- 
 ous aspect, have attended as witnesses to attest their own 
 
DISSECTINCJ-ROOM EMANATIONS. 6/ 
 
 perfectly sound conditions as evidence of the salubrity 
 of their particular occupation. Generally, however, men 
 with robust figures and the hue of health are singled out 
 and presented as examples of the general innocuousness 
 of the offensive miasma generated in the process in which 
 they are engaged. 
 
 Professor Owen mentions an instance of a witness of 
 this class, a very robust man — the keeper of a dissecting 
 room — who appeared to be in florid health (which proved 
 to be not as sound as he himself conceived), who pro- 
 fessed perfect unconsciousness of having sustained any 
 injury from the occupation, and there was no reason to 
 doubt that he was really unconscious of having sustained 
 or observed any ; but it transpired on inquiry that he had 
 always had the most offensive and dangerous work done 
 by an inferior assistant, and that, within his time, he had 
 had no less than eight assistants, and that every one had 
 died, and some of these had been dissected in the theatre 
 where they had served. 
 
 The sextons of graveyards, who are robust men, 
 frequently attest to their salubrity ; but, upon ex- 
 amining their inferiors, the grave-diggers, it appears 
 when there is much to do, and even in the new ceme- 
 teries, that, as a class, they are unhealthy and cadaverous, 
 and, notwithstanding precautions, often suffer severely on 
 re opening graves, and that their lives are frequently cut 
 short by their work. There are very florid and robust 
 undertakers, but, as a class, and with all the precautions 
 
6S SEXTONS, FELLMONGERS, TANNERS. 
 
 they use, they are unhealthy. A master undertaker of 
 considerable business in the metropolis says, that " in 
 nine cases out of ten the undertaker who has much to do 
 with the corpse is a person of cadaverous hue, and you 
 may almost always tell him whenever you see him." 
 
 Fellmongers, tanners, or the workmen employed in the 
 preparation of hides, have been instanced by several 
 medical writers as a class who, being exposed to emana- 
 tions from the skins when in a state of putrefaction, 
 enjoy good health ; but it appears that all the workmen 
 are not engaged in the process when the skins are in that 
 state, and that those of them who are, as a class, do 
 experience the common consequences. A French physi- 
 cian, M. Labarraque, states that, notwithstanding the 
 constant exposure of tanners to the emanations from 
 putrid fermentations, it has not been remarked of the 
 workmen of this class that they are more subject to ill- 
 ness than others. A tanner, in a manual written for the 
 use of the trade, without admitting the correctness of this 
 statement, observes : " Whatever may be the opinion of 
 M. Labarraque on this point, we do not hesitate to 
 declare the fact that this species of labor cannot be borne 
 by weakly, scrofulous or lymphatic subjects." 
 
 Mr. Barnctt, surgeon, one of the medical officers of the 
 Stepney Union, who has observed the symptoms in those 
 who are exposed to the air of a crowded graveyard, thus 
 describes them : 
 
BURSTING OF COFFINS. 69 
 
 " They are characterized by more or less disturbance of the whole 
 system, with evident depression of the vital force, as evinced through- 
 out the vascular and nervous systems by the feeble action of the heart 
 and arteries, lowness of spirits, etc. These maladies, I doubt not, if 
 surrounded by other causes, would terminate in fever of the worst 
 description. Some years since, a vault was opened in the churchyard 
 (Stepney), and shortly after, one of the coffins contained therein burst 
 with so loud a report that hundreds flocked to the place to ascertain 
 the cause. So intense was the poisonous nature of the effluvia arising 
 therefrom, that a great number were attacked with sudden sickness 
 and fainting, many of whom were, for a considerable time, in a state 
 of ill-health. 
 
 " The vaults and burial ground attached to Brunswick Chapel, 
 Limehouse, are much crowded with dead ; and from the accounts of 
 individuals residing in the adjoining houses, it would appear that the 
 stench arising therefrom, particularly when a grave happens to be 
 opened during the summer months, is most noxious. In one case it 
 is described to have produced instant nausea and vomiting, and 
 attacks of illness are frequently imputed to it. Some say they have 
 never had a day's good health since they have resided so near the 
 Chapel ground, which, it may be remarked, is about five feet above 
 the surrounding yards and very muddy — so much so, that pumps are 
 frequently used to expel the water from the vaults into the streets." 
 
 The bursting of leaden cofifins in the vaults of ceme- 
 teries, unless they are watched and " tapped " to allow 
 the mephitic vapor to escape, are not infrequent. In 
 cases of rapid decomposition, such instances occur in 
 private houses before the entombment. An undertaker 
 of considerable experience states : 
 
70 GRAVE MIASM INSTANTLY FATAL. 
 
 " I have known coffins to explode like the report of a small g^n in 
 the house. I was once called up at midnight by the people, who were 
 in great alarm, and who said that the coffin had burst, as they 
 described it, with 'a report like the report of a cannon.' On proceed- 
 ing to the house I found in that case, which was one of dropsy, very 
 rapid decomposition had occurred, and the lead was forced up. Two 
 other cases have come under my notice of coffins bursting in this 
 manner. I have heard of similar cases from other undertakers. The 
 bursting of lead coffins without noise is more frequent. Of course it 
 is not told to the family unless they have heard of it, as they would 
 attribute it to some defective construction of the coffins." 
 
 The occurrence of instant death to grave-diggers, from 
 accidentally inhaling the concentrated miasm which 
 escapes from coffins, is undeniable. Slower deaths from 
 such exposure are designated as " low fevers," and 
 whether or not the constitutional disturbances attendant 
 be or be not true typhus, it suf^ces, as a case requiring a 
 remedy, that the exposure to such an influence is apt to 
 produce grievous and fatal injury amongst the public. 
 
 Doctor Riecke concludes, from the various cases which 
 are given, that emanations from putrid remains operate 
 in two ways ; one set of effects are produced through the 
 lungs by impurity of the air from the mixture of irres- 
 pirable gases, another through the olfactory nerves by 
 powerful, penetrating, offensive smells. The evidence 
 seems to establish the belief that offensive smells are true 
 warnings of sanitary evils to the population. The fact of 
 the general offensiveness of the emanations under consid- 
 
ORGAN OF SMELL A SENTINEL. 7 1 
 
 eration is adduced by Doctor Riecke as evidence of their 
 pernicious quality. He thus enforces his opinion : 
 
 " It certainly cannot be far from the truth to call the organ of 
 smell the truest sentinel of the human frame. ' Many animals,' 
 observes Rudolphi, ' are entirely dependent on their sense of smell 
 for finding out food that is not injurious. When their smell is injured 
 they are easily deceived, and have often fallen a sacrifice to the con- 
 sequent mistakes.' Amongst all known smells there is, perhaps, no 
 one which is so universally and to such a degree revolting to man, as 
 the smell of animal decomposition. The roughest savages as well as 
 the most civilized European, fly with equal disgust from the place 
 where the air is infected by it. If an instinct can ever be traced in 
 man, certainly it is in the present case. Is instinct a superfluous 
 monitor exactly in this one instance ? Can instinct mislead just in 
 this one circumstance .' Can it ever be that the air which fills us with 
 the greatest disgust is the finest elixir of life, as Dumoulins had the 
 boldness to maintain in one of his official reports ?" 
 
 Section lo of the report treats of the effects of the 
 introduction of dead animal matter into living tissues, 
 and its capacity to produce fatal disease. He quotes Doc- 
 tor Southwood Smith, physician to the London Fever 
 Hospital, who remarks that, 
 
 " The introduction of dead animal matter, under certain conditions, 
 into the living body, is capable of producing disease, and even death, 
 is universally known and admitted. This morbific matter may be the 
 product of secretion during life, or of decomposition after death. 
 Familiar instances of morbific animal matter, the result of secretion 
 during life, are the poisons of smallpox and cowpox ; also the vitiated 
 
72 INOCULATION OF PUTRID MATTER. 
 
 fluids formed in certain acute diseases, such as acute inflammations, 
 and particularly those of the membranes lining the chest and abdo- 
 men. On examining the body a short time after death from such 
 inflammations, the fluids are so extremely acrid that even when the 
 skin is entirely sound they make the hands of the examiner smart, and 
 if there should happen to be the slightest scratch on the finger, or 
 the minutest point not covered by cuticle, violent inflammation is 
 often produced, ending sometimes in forty eight hours in death. It 
 is reniarkable, and it is a proof that in these cases the poison absorbed 
 is not putrid matter ; that the most dangerous period for the exami- 
 nation of bodies who die of such diseases, is from four to five hours 
 after death, and while the body is yet warm. 
 
 " That the direct introduction into the system of decomposing and 
 putrescent animal matter is capable of producing fevers and inflam- 
 mations, is proved by numerous experiments on animals, while the 
 instances in which human beings are seized with severe and fatal 
 affections from the application of the fluids of a dead animal body to 
 a wounded, punctured or abraded surface are of daily occurrence." * 
 
 " It is proved by indubitable evidence that this morbific matter is as 
 capable of entering the system when minute particles of it are diffused 
 in the atmosphere as when it is directly introduced into the blood- 
 vessels by a wound. When diffused in the air, these noxious particles 
 are conveyed into the system through the thin and delicate walls of the 
 air vesicles of the lungs in the act of respiration. The mode in which 
 the air vesicles are formed and disposed is such as to give to the 
 
 *The writer cites many examples of the very serious and often fatal results of 
 the absorption of the poison of dead animal matter. The fact is now so fully 
 recognized that it is not necessary to record them here. Those who at this day 
 engage in examinations />w^ mortem, are careful to protect the hands in some way 
 from the dangers attendant. No prudent physician or surgeon is willing, after a 
 fost mortem which he has himself performed, to respond to a call upon a partu- 
 rient woman. 
 
EFFECTS OF AN INFECTED ATMOSPHERE. 73 
 
 human lungs an almost incredible extent of absorbing surface, while 
 at every point of this surface there is a vascular tube ready to receive 
 any substance imbibed by it, and to carry it at once into the current 
 of the circulation. Hence the instantaneousness and the dreadful 
 energy with which certain poisons act upon the system when brought 
 into contact with the pulmonary surface. A single inspiration of the 
 concentrated prussic acid, for example, is capable of killing with the 
 rapidity of a stroke of lightning. So rapidly does this poison affect 
 the system, that more than one physiologist has lost his life by incau- 
 tiously inhaling it while using it for the purpose of experiment. The 
 substances mixed with or suspended in the atmosphere may be con- 
 veyed with it to the lungs, and immediately enter the circulating mass. 
 Any one may satisfy himself of this merely by passing through a 
 chamber recently painted. The vapor of the turpentine diffused in 
 the room is transmitted to the lungs with the air which is breathed 
 and passing into the circulation, exhibits its effects in some of the 
 fluid excretions of the body even more rapidly than if it had been 
 taken into the stomach." 
 
 Facts such as these help us to understand the produc- 
 tion and propagation of disease through the medium of 
 an infected atmosphere, whether on a large scale, as in 
 the case of an epideinic, which rapidly extends over a 
 nation or a continent, or on a small scale, in the sick- 
 chamber, the dissecting-room, the church, and the church- 
 yard. « 
 
 The exhalations arising from dead bodies in the dissect- 
 ing-room are in general so much diluted by admixture with 
 atmospheric air, through the ventilation which is carefully 
 
 maintained, that they do not commonly affect the health in 
 10 
 
74 AIR OF DISSECTING ROOMS. 
 
 a very.striking or marked manner. By great attention to 
 ventilation it is no doubt possible to pursue the study of 
 anatomy with tolerable impunity. Yet few teachers of 
 anatomy deny that without this precaution, this pursuit 
 is apt to injure the health, and that with all the care 
 which can be taken, it sometimes produces such a degree 
 of diarrhoea, and at other times such a general derange- 
 ment of the digestive organs, as imperatively to require 
 an absence for a time from the dissecting-room, and a 
 removal to the pure air of the country. The same state- 
 ments are uniformly made by the professors of veterinary 
 anatomy. The enquiries personally made into the state 
 of health of persons licensed to slaughter horses, called 
 knackers is, that though they maintain their health 
 apparently for a time, yet the functions of the nutri- 
 tive organs finally become deranged. They begin to 
 emaciate and present a cadaverous appearance, slight 
 wounds fester and become difficult to heal, and upon the 
 whole they are a short-lived class. 
 
 The exhalations arising from dead bodies interred in 
 the vaults of churches and graveyards are also so much 
 diluted by the surrounding air that they do not commonly 
 affect the health in so immediate and direct a manner as 
 plainly to indicate the source of these noxious influences. 
 It is only when some accidental circumstances have fa- 
 vored their accumulation or concentration that the effects 
 become so sensible as obviously to declare their cause. 
 Every now and then they do occur, of which there are 
 
PUTRID EXHALATIONS IN CHURCHES. 75 
 
 many instances on record. It may suffice for the present 
 to mention only one, the particulars of which are obtained 
 from a well-known gentleman, the accuracy of whose state- 
 ments may be relied upon. 
 
 Mr. Hutchinson, surgeon, Farringdon street, was called 
 on Monday morning, March 15th, 1841, to attend a girl 
 aged fourteen, who was suffering from typhus fever of a 
 highly malignant character. The girl was a daughter of 
 a pew-opener in one of the large city churches, situated 
 in the center of a small burying ground, which had been 
 used for interments for centuries, the ground of which 
 was raised much above its natural level, and was saturated 
 with the remains of the bodies of the dead. There were 
 vaults beneath the church in which it was still the custom, 
 as it had long been, to bury the dead. The girl in ques- 
 tion had recently returned from the country where she 
 had been at school. On the preceding Friday, the fourth 
 day before Mr. Hutchinson saw her, she had assisted her 
 mother during three hours, and on Saturday during one 
 hour, in shaking and cleansing the matting of the aisles 
 and pews of the church. The mother stated that this 
 work was generally done once in six weeks ; that the dust 
 and effluvia which arose always had a peculiar fetid and 
 offensive odor, very unlike the dust which collects in pri- 
 vate houses ; that it invariably made her (the mother) 
 ill for at least a day afterwards, and that it used to make 
 the grandmother of the present patient so unwell that 
 she was compelled to hire a person to perform the duty. 
 
7^ CHURCHYARD MIASM. 
 
 On the afternoon of the same day on which this young 
 girl now ill had been engaged in her employment, she was 
 seized with shivering, severe pain in the head, back and 
 limbs, and other symptoms of commencing fever. On 
 the following day all these symptoms were aggravated, 
 and in two days afterwards malignant fever was fully de- 
 veloped. The skin was burning hot, the tongue dry, and 
 covered with a dark brown fur, the thirst urgent, the pain 
 of the head, back and extremities severe, attended with 
 hurried and oppressed breathing, great restlessness and 
 prostration, anxiety of countenance, low, muttering deli- 
 rium, and a pulse of one hundred and thirty in the 
 minute." 
 
 In this case it is probable that particles of noxious animal 
 matter progressively accumulated in the matting during 
 the intervals of its cleansing, set free by this operation 
 and diffused in the atmosphere, always powerful enough 
 to sensibly affect those accustomed to inhale them, were 
 sufficiently concentrated to produce actual fever in one 
 wholly unaccustomed to them, and rendered increasingly 
 susceptible by her recent residence in the pure air of the 
 country. It is a remarkable fact that miasms sometimes 
 act with the greatest intensity on those who habitually 
 breathe the purest air. 
 
 The miasms arising from churchyards are in general 
 too much diluted by the surrounding air to strike the 
 neighboring inhabitants with sudden and severe disease, 
 yet they may materially injure the health, and the evi- 
 
DECAY AND PUTREFACTION. 77 
 
 dence is decisive that they often do so. Among others 
 who sometimes obviously suffer from this cause are the 
 famines of clergymen, when, as occasionally happens, the 
 vicarage or rectory is situated very close to a full church- 
 yard. One clergyman's family I know, whose dwelling- 
 house is so close to an extremely full churchyard, was an- 
 noyed by a very disagreeable smell from the graves, 
 always perceptible in some of the sitting and sleeping 
 rooms. The mother of this family states that she has 
 never had a day's health since she has resided there, and 
 that her children are always ailing. Their ill health is 
 attributed, both by the family and their medical friends, 
 to the emanations of the churchyard. 
 
 The report of Mr. Chad wick gives also a communica- 
 tion, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, as follows : 
 
 " There are two kinds of changes which animal and vegetable matter 
 undergo when exposed to certain influences. They are known by the 
 terms of 'decay' and 'putrefaction.' Decay, properly so called, is 
 a union of the elements of organic matter with the oxygen of the air ; 
 while puirefacUon, although generally commencing with* decay, is a 
 change or transformation of the elements of the organic body itself, 
 without any necessary union with the oxygen of the air. When de- 
 cay proceeds in a body without putrefaction, offensive smells are not 
 generated, but if the air in contact with the decaying matter be in any 
 way deficient, the decay passes into putrefaction, and putrid smells 
 arise. They are rarely, if ever, evolved from substances destitute of 
 the element nitrogen. 
 
 " Both decaying and putrefying matters are capable of communicat- 
 ing their own state of putrefaction or of decay to any organic matter 
 
78 DECAYING EMANATIONS. 
 
 with which they may come in contact. To take the simplest case : 
 A piece of decayed wood, a decaying orange, or a piece of tainted 
 flesh is capable of causing similar decay or putrefaction in another 
 piece of wood, orange, or flesh. In a similar manner the decaying 
 gases evolved from sewers occasion the putrescence of meat or of 
 vegetables hung in the vicinity of the place from which they escape. 
 But this communication of putrefaction is not confined to dead matter. 
 When tainted meat or putrescent blood puddings are taken as food, 
 their state of putrefaction is frequently communicated to the bodies of 
 the persons who have used them, a disease analogous to rot ensues, 
 and generally terminates fatally. Happily this disease is but little 
 known among us, but it is of very frequent occurrence in Germany. 
 
 " The decay or putrefaction communicated by putrid gases or by de- 
 caying matters does not always assume one form, but varies according 
 to the organs to which their peculiar state is imparted. If communi- 
 cated to the blood it might possibly happen that fever may arise ; if 
 to the intestines, dysentery or diarrhoea might result. I think it might 
 even be a question worthy of consideration whether consumption 
 may not arise from such exposure. Certainly it seems to do so among 
 cattle. The men who are employed in cleaning out drains are very 
 liable to attacks of dysentery and of diarrhoea. I recollect instances 
 of similar cases occurring among some fellow-students when I 
 attended the dissecting-room. 
 
 " The effects produced by decaying emanations will vary according 
 to the state of putrefaction or decay in which these emanations are, 
 as well as according to their intensity or concentration. Thus it 
 occurs frequently that persons susceptible to contagion may be in the 
 vicinity of a fever patient and not take the disease. I know one cele- 
 brated medical man who attends his own patients with fever without 
 danger, but who has never been able to take charge of the fever wards 
 of an infirmary, from the circumstance of his being unable to resist 
 
CONCENTRATED MIASM. 79 
 
 the influence of contagion under such circumstances. This gentle- 
 man has had fever several times. This shows that the contagion of 
 fever requires a certain degree of conce7itration before it is able to 
 produce its immediate effects. A knowledge of this circumstance has 
 induced several infirmaries to abolish altogether fever wards, and to 
 scatter the fever patients indiscriminately through the medical wards, 
 Owing to this distribution, cases in which fever is communicated to 
 other patients or nurses in the infirmary are very infrequent, although 
 they are far from being so in those hospitals where the fever cases are 
 grouped together. 
 
 " I consider that the want of attention to the circumstance of the 
 concentration of decaying emanations is a good reason that the 
 effects of miasmata in producing fever is still a qucestio vexata. Thus 
 there may be many churchyards and sewers evolving decaying matter, 
 and yet no fever may occur in the locality. Some other more modi- 
 fied effect may be produced, according to the degree of concentration 
 of the decaying matter, such as diarrhoea, or even dysentery ; or there 
 may be no perceptible effects produced, although the blood may still 
 be thrown into a diseased state, which will render it susceptible to 
 any specific contagion that approaches. It must be remembered that 
 decaying exhalations will not always produce similar effects, but that 
 these will vary, not only according to the concentration, but also 
 according to the state of decomposition in which the decaying mat- 
 ters are. 
 
 " The rennet for making cheese is in a peculiar state of decay, or 
 rather is capable of a series of states of decay, and the flavor of the 
 cheese manufactured by means of it varies also, according to the 
 state of the rennet. Just so with the diseases produced by the pecu 
 liar state or concentration of decaying matters or of specific conta- 
 gions. When the Asiatic Cholera visited this country, many of the 
 towns were afflicted with dysentery before the cholera appeared in an 
 
80 MIASMS FROM DECOMPOSITION. 
 
 unquestionable form. In like manner the miasmata evolved from 
 churchyards may produce injurious effects which may not be sufTi- 
 ciently marked to call attention until they assume a more serious form 
 by becoming more concentrated. But notwithstanding the absence 
 of marked effects, it is extremely probable that constant exposure to 
 miasmata may produce a diseased state of the blood. Thus I had 
 occasion to visit and report upon, amongst other matters, the state of 
 slaughter-houses in Bristol. These are generally situated in courts 
 very insufficiently ventilated, as all courts are. I remarked that the 
 men employed in the slaughter houses had a remarkably cadaverous 
 hue, and this was participated in a greater or less degree by the inhab- 
 itants of the court. So much was this the case that in a court where 
 the smells from the slaughterhouse were very offensive, my com- 
 panion had immediately to return, from sickness. I immediately singled 
 out one person as not belonging to the court from a number of peo- 
 ple who ran out of their houses to inquire the object of my visit. The 
 person who attracted my attention, from her healthy appearance 
 compared with the others, had entered this court to pay a visit to a 
 neighbor." 
 
 The conclusions which appear to be firmly established 
 by the evidence and the preponderant medical testimony, 
 are on every point, as to the essential character of the 
 physical evils connected with the practice of interment, 
 so closely co-incident with the conclusion deduced from 
 observations on the continent, that they may be stated 
 in the following terms : 
 
 "The injurious effect of exhalations from the decompo- 
 sition in question upon the life and health of man, is 
 proved by a suf^cient number of trustworthy facts." 
 
LESSONS FROM PUTRID MIASMS. 8l 
 
 "That this injurious influence is by no means constant, 
 and depends on varying and not yet sufficiently explained 
 circumstances." 
 
 "That the injurious influence is manifest in proportion 
 to the degree of concentration of putrid emanations 
 especially in confined places ; and in such cases of concen- 
 tration, the injurious influence is manifest in the produc- 
 tion of asphyxia, and the sudden and entire extinction of 
 life." 
 
 " That in a state less concentrated, putrid emanations 
 produce various effects on the nerves, of less importance, 
 as fainting, nausea, headache, languor." 
 
 " These emanations, however, if their effect is often 
 repeated, or if the emanations be long applied, produce 
 nervous and putrid fevers, or impart to fevers which have 
 arisen from other causes, a typhoid or putrid character." 
 
 " Apparently they furnish the principal cause of the 
 most developed form of typhus, that is to say, the plague. 
 Besides the products of decomposition, the contagious 
 material may also be active in the emanations arising from 
 the dead bodies." 
 
 Such being the nature of the emanations from human 
 remains in a state of decomposition, or in a state of cor- 
 ruption, it seems to be hopeless to obtain, in a crowded 
 district, any definite or proximate evidence of the extent 
 of the operation of those influences on the health of the 
 people. In such districts the effects of an invisible fluid 
 
82 EFFECTS OF GRAVEYARD SMELLS. 
 
 have not been observed amidst a complication of other 
 causes, each of a nature ascertained to produce an injuri- 
 ous effect upon the general health, but undistinguished 
 except when it accidentally becomes predominant. The 
 sense of smell in the majority of inhabitants seems to be 
 destroyed, and having no perception even of stenches 
 which are insupportable to strangers, they are unable to 
 note the excessive escapes of miasm as antecedents of 
 disease. Occasionally some medical witness, who has 
 been accustomed to the smell of the dissecting-room, 
 detects that of human remains from graveyards, and 
 some have said that they can detect what is called the 
 " dead man's smell," when no one else can, and can 
 distinguish it from that of the sewers. 
 
 The immediate consequence of the smell from a grave 
 yard usually noted is headache. A military officer said 
 that when his men occupied as a barrack a building which 
 opened over a crowded burial ground in Liverpool, the 
 smell from the ground was at times exceedingly offensive, 
 and that he and his men suffered from dysentery. A 
 gentleman who had resided near that ground said that he 
 was convinced that his own health and that of his child- 
 dren suffered from it, and that he had removed to avoid 
 further injury. The following testimony of a lady at 
 Manchester is adduced as an example of the more specific 
 perception of its effects. It brings to view also that in 
 towns it is not only in surface emanations from graveyards 
 alone, that morbific matter escapes : 
 
SEWERS MADE FOUL BY GRAVEYARDS. 83 
 
 You resided formerly in the liouse contiguous to the burying-ground 
 
 of chapel, did you not ? Yes, I did, but I was obliged to leave 
 
 it. Why were you so obliged ? When the wind was west, the smell 
 was dreadful. There is a main sewer runs through the burying- 
 ground, and the smell of the dead bodies came through this sewer up 
 our drain, and until we got that trapped it was quite intolerable. Do 
 you think the smell arose from the emanations of the sewer, and not 
 from the burying-ground ? I am sure they came from the burying- 
 ground ; the smell coming from the drain was exactly the same as 
 that which reached us when the wind was west, and blew upon us 
 from the burying-ground. The smell was very peculiar ; it exactly 
 resembled the smell which clothes have when they are removed from 
 a dead body. My servants would not remain in the house on account 
 of it. I had several cooks who removed on this account. 
 
 Did you observe any effects on your health when the smells were 
 bad ? Yes ; I am liable to headaches, and these were always bad 
 when the smells were so, also. They were often accompanied by 
 diarrhoea, in this house. Before I went there and since I left, my 
 headaches have been trifling. 
 
 Were any of the other inmates of the house affected with illness } 
 I had often to send for the surgeon to my servants, who were liable 
 to ulcerated sore throats. 
 
 And your children ; were they also affected ? My youngest child 
 was very delicate, and we thought he could not have survived. Since 
 he came here he has become quite strong and healthy, but I have no 
 right to say the burying-ground had any connection with his health. 
 
 In the course of an examination of the chairman and 
 surveyor of the Holborn and Finsbury Division of Sewers, 
 oji the general management of sewers in London, the 
 following passage occurs : 
 
84 SEWERS AFFECTED BY GRAVEYARDS. 
 
 You do not believe that the nuisance arises in all cases from the 
 main sewers ? (Mr. Roe.) Not always from the main sewers. (Mr. 
 Mills.) Connected with this point I would mention that where the 
 sewers came in contact with the churchyards, the exudation is most 
 offensive. 
 
 Have you noticed that in more than one case ? Yes. 
 
 In those cases have you had any opportunities of tracing in what 
 manner the exudations from the grave-yards passed to the sewer ? 
 It must have been through the sides of the sewers. 
 
 Then, if that be the case, the sewer itself must have given way. 
 No, I apprehend even if you use concrete, it is impossible but that the 
 adjacent waters would find their way through the cement. It is the 
 natural consequence. The wells of the houses adjacent to the sewers 
 all get dry whenever the sewers are lowered. 
 
 You are perfectly satisfied that in the course of time exudations very 
 often do, to a certain extent, pass through the brick-work.'' Yes; it 
 is impossible to prevent it. 
 
 Have you ever happened to notice whether there was putrid matter 
 in all cases where the sewer passed through a burial-ground .'' 'the 
 last church-yard I passed by in the parish of St. Pancreas, when the 
 sewer was constructing, I obser\^ed that the exudation from it into the 
 sewer was peculiarly offensive, and was known to arise from the 
 decomposition of the bodies. 
 
 At what distance was the sewer from the churchyard .'' Thirty 
 feet. 
 
 Mr. Roe subsequently stated : 
 
 " Mr. Jacob Post, living at the corner of Church street. Lower Road, 
 Islington, stated to the clerk of our works, when we were building a 
 sewer opposite Mr. Post's house, that he had a pump, the water from 
 the well attached to which had been very good, and used for domes- 
 
WELLS TAINTED BY GRAVEYARDS. 85 
 
 tic purposes ; but that since a burying-ground was formed above his 
 house, the water of his well had Itecome of so disagreeable a flavor as 
 to prevent its being used as heretofore. He was in hopes that the 
 extra depth of our sewer would relieve him from the drainage of the 
 burying-ground, to which he attributed the spoiling of his water." 
 
 Professor Brande states that he has " frequently found 
 the well water of London contaminated by organic mat- 
 ters and ammoniacal salts," and refers to an instance of 
 one well near a churchyard, " the water of which had not 
 only acquired odor but color from the soil," and mentions 
 other instances of which he has heard, as justifying the 
 opinion that as " very many of these wells are adjacent 
 to churchyards, the accumulating soil of which has been 
 so heaped up by the succession of dead bodies and cof- 
 fins, and the product of their decomposition, as to form 
 a filtering apparatus, by which all superficial springs must 
 of course be more or less affected." Some of the best 
 springs in the metropolis are, fortunately, of a depth not 
 likely to be considerably affected by such filtration. " In 
 Leicester and other places I have been informed of the 
 disuse of wells near churchyards on account of the per- 
 ception of a taint in them." The difficulty of distin- 
 guishing by any analysis the qualities of the morbific 
 matter, when held in solution or suspension in water, in 
 combination with other matters, in towns, and the conse- 
 quent importance of a separate examination already given 
 to those qualities, may be appreciated by such cases as 
 the following, which are by no means infrequent : 
 
86 PROXIMITY OF WELLS TO GRAVEYARDS. 
 
 " In the instance of the water in one well in the metro- 
 polis, which had ceased to be used in consequence of an 
 offensive taste (contracted, as was supposed, from the 
 draina^Tc of an adjacent churchyard), it was doubted 
 whether it could be determined by analysis what portion 
 of the pollution arose from that source, what from the 
 leakage of adjacent cesspools, and what from the leakage 
 of coal gas from adjacent gas pipes. In most cases of 
 such complications, the parties responsible for any one 
 contributing source of injury are apt to challenge, as they 
 may safely do, distinct proof of the separate effect pro- 
 duced by that one. If, therefore, the combined evil is to 
 remain until complaints are made of separate causes, and 
 their specific effects on the health, and until they can be 
 supported by demonstration, perpetual immunity would 
 be insured to the most noxious combinations. 
 
 The efTects of unguarded interments have, however, 
 been observed with greater care on the Continent, and 
 the proximity of wells to burial-grounds has been reported 
 to be injurious. Thus it is stated in a collection of 
 reports concerning the cemeteries of the town of Ver- 
 sailles, that the water of the wells which lie bcloio the 
 churchyard of St. Louis, could not be used on account 
 of its stench. In consequence of various investigations 
 in France, a law was passed prohibiting the opening of 
 wells within lOO metres of any place of burial ; but this 
 distance is now said to be insufficient for deep wells, 
 which have been found, on examination, to be polluted at 
 
SURFACE EMANATIONS MALIGNANT, 8/ 
 
 a distance of from 150 to 200 metres. In some parts of 
 Germany the opening of wells nearer that 300 feet has 
 been prohibited. 
 
 Where the one deleterious cause is less complicated 
 with others, as in open plains after the burial of the dead 
 on fields of battle, the effects are perceived in the offen- 
 siveness of the surface emanations, and also the pollution 
 of the water, followed by disease, which compels the 
 survivors to change their encampment. 
 
 The fact is thus adduced in the evidence of Doctor 
 Copeland : 
 
 " It is fully ascertained and well recognized that the alluvial soil, or 
 whatever soil that receives the exuvis of. animal matter or the bodies 
 of dead animals, will become rich in general. It will abound in animal 
 matter, and the water that percolates through the soil thus enriched 
 will thus become injurious to the health of those who use it. That 
 has been proved on many occasions and especially in warm climates. 
 Several remarkable facts illustrative of it occurred in the peninsular 
 campaigns. It was found, for instance, at Ciudad Rodrigo, where, as 
 Sir J. Macgregor states, in his account of the health of the army, 
 there were 20,000 dead bodies put into the ground within the space 
 of two or three months ; that this circumstance appeared to affect 
 the health of the troops, who were affected by malignant and low 
 fevers and dysentery, or fevers frequently putting on a dysenteric 
 character.'' 
 
 In the metropolis, on spaces of ground which (in all) 
 do not exceed 203 acres, closely surrounded by the abodes 
 of the living, layer upon layer of the dead (each layer 
 
88 DEEP BURIAT. NOT PROTECTIVE. 
 
 consisting of a population numerically equivalent to a 
 
 large army of 20,000 adults and nearly 30,000 youths and 
 
 children), are every year imperfectly interred. Within the 
 
 present generation, upwards of a million of dead must 
 
 have been interred in these same spaces. 
 
 It has been considered that all danger from interments 
 
 in towns would be obviated if no burials were allowed 
 except at a depth of five feet. But bodies buried much 
 deeper are found to decay, and so certain as a body has 
 wasted or disappeared, is the fact that a deleterious gas 
 has escaped. In the towns where the graveyards and 
 streets are paved, the morbific matter must be diffused 
 more widely through the subsoil, and escape with the 
 drainage. If the interments are so deep as to impede 
 escapes at the surface, there is only the greater danger of 
 escape by deep drainage and the pollution of springs. 
 
 Doctor Reid detected the escape of deleterious miasma 
 from graves of more than twenty feet deep. After notic- 
 ing the accumulation of carbonic acid gas in the deep pits 
 dug in some churchyards for receiving twenty or thirty 
 bodies, and then suggesting a method for their ventila- 
 tion, he further says: 
 
 " Where the drainage of the district in which the church may be 
 placed is of an inferior description, and liable to be impeded period- 
 ically by the state of the tide, as in the vicinity of the Houses of 
 Pariiament, where all the drains are closed at high water, the atmos- 
 phere is frequently of the most inferior quality. I am fully satisfied, 
 for instance, not only from my own observations, but from different 
 
CHURCHYARD AIR IN DRAINS. 89 
 
 statements which have reached me and also from the observations of 
 parties who have repeatedly examined the subject at my request, that 
 the state of the burying-ground around St. Margaret's Church is 
 prejudicial to the air supplied at the Houses of Parliament, and also 
 to the whole neighborhood. One of them stated to me lately that he 
 had avoided the churchyard for the last six months, in consequence of 
 the effects he experienced the last time he visited it. These offensive 
 emanations have been noticed at all hours of the night and morning, 
 and even during the day the smell of the churchyard has been con- 
 sidered to have reached the vaults in the House of Commons, and 
 traced to sewers in its immediate vicinity. When the barometer is 
 low, the surface of the ground slightly moist, the tide full and the 
 temperature considerable (all which tend to favor the evolution of 
 effluvia both from the grave pits and the drains) the most injurious 
 influence upon the air is observed. In some places not far from this 
 churchyard, fresh meat is frequently tainted in a single night, on the 
 ground floor, in situations where, at a higher level, it may be kept 
 without injury for a much longer period. In some cases in private 
 houses, as well as at the Houses of Parliament, I have had to make use 
 of ventilating shafts, or of preparations of chlorine, to neutralize the 
 offensive and deleterious effects which the exhalations produced. No 
 grievance, perhaps, entails greater physical evils upon any district 
 than the conjoined influence of bad drainage and crowded church- 
 yards ; and, until the drainage of air from drains shall be secured by 
 some proper measures, they cannot be regarded as free from a very 
 important defect. The drainage of air from drains is desirable under 
 any circumstances, but when the usual contaminations of the drain 
 are increased by the emanations of a loaded churchyard, it becomes 
 doubly imperative to introduce such measures. If anyone desires to 
 trace the progress of reaction by which the graveyards are continually 
 tending to free themselves of their contents, a very brief inquiry will 
 12 
 
QO ADIPOCIRE. 
 
 give him abundant evidence on this point. My attention was first 
 directed to this matter in London ten years ago, when a glass of water 
 handed to me at a hotel, in another district, presented a peculiar film 
 on its surface, which led me to set it aside. After numerous inquiries 
 I was fully satisfied that the appearance which had attracted my atten- 
 tion arose from the coffins in a churchyard immediately adjoining a 
 well from which the water was taken. Defective as our information 
 is as to the precise quality of the various products from drains, church- 
 yards, and other similar places, I think I have seen enough to satisfy 
 me that in all such situations the fluids of the living system imbibe 
 materials which, though they do not always produce great severity of 
 disease, speedily 'induce a morbid condition which, while it renders 
 the body more prone to attacks of fever, is more especially indicated 
 by the facility with which all the fluids pass to a state of putrefaction 
 and the rapidity with which the slightest wound or cut is apt to pass 
 into a sore." 
 
 Mr. Leigh, surgeon, and lecturer of chemistry at Man- 
 chester, confirms the researches of Mr. Reid, and observes : 
 
 " The decomposition of animal bodies is remarkably modified by 
 external circumstances when the bodies are immersed in or surrounded 
 by water, and particularly, if the water undergo frequent change, the 
 solid tissues become converted into adipocire, a fatty, spermaceti-like 
 substance, not very prone to decomposition, and this change is effected 
 without much gaseous exhalation. Under such circumstances nothing 
 injurious could arise, but under ordinar)' conditions slow decomposi- 
 tion would take place, with the usual products of the decomposition 
 of animal matters. Here the nature of the soil becomes of much in- 
 terest. If the burial ground be in a damp, dense, compact clay with 
 much water, the water will collect round the body, and there will be a 
 
READY ESCAPE OF GASES. 9I 
 
 disposition to the formation of adipocire, whilst the clay will effectually 
 prevent the escape of gaseous matter. If, on the other hand, the 
 bodies be laid in sand or gravel, decomposition will readily take place, 
 the gases will easily penetrate the superjacent soil and escape into the 
 atmosphere, and this with a facility which may be judged of when the 
 fact is stated, that under a pressure of only three-quarters of an inch 
 of water, coal gas will escape by any leakage in the conduit pipes 
 through a stratum of sand or gravel in an exceedingly short space of 
 time. The three seem to oppose scarcely any resistance to its pas- 
 sage to the surface. If the joints of the pipes are enveloped by a thin 
 layer of clay, the escape is effectually prevented. 
 
 " If bodies were interred eight or ten feet deep in sandy or gravelly 
 soils, I am convinced little would be gained by it. The gases would 
 find a ready exit from almost any practicable depth." 
 
 Mr. Leigh expresses the opinion that the " effects of 
 these escapes in an otherwise salubrious locality soon 
 attract notice, but their influence, in obedience to the 
 laws of gaseous diffusion, is not the less scattered over a 
 town because, in the multitude of scents, they escape 
 observation. In open rural districts these gases soon 
 intermix with the air and become so diluted that their 
 injurious tendency is less potent." 
 
 Mr. Chadwick closes that part of his report which 
 relates to interments in the following words : 
 
 " From what has already been adduced, it may here be 
 stated as a conclusion, that inasmuch as there appear to 
 be no cases in which the emanations from human remains 
 in an advanced stage of decomposition are not of a 
 
92 GRAVE-PITS. 
 
 deleterious nature, so there is no case in which the liabil- 
 ity to danger should be incurred, either by interment, or 
 by entombment in vaults (which is the most dangerous) 
 amidst the dwellings of the living, it being established as 
 a general conclusion, in respect to the physical circum- 
 stances of interment, from which no adequate grounds of 
 exception have been established, that all interments in 
 towns, where bodies decompose, contribute to the mass 
 of atmospheric impurity which is injurious to the public 
 health." 
 
 The allusion in Mr. Chadwick's report to pits for inter- 
 ment is explained by Mr. Duncan :* 
 
 " There are 39 burial-grounds within the borough of 
 Liverpool. The interments take place in graves, vaults 
 or pits. In 23 burial-grounds, graves only are used ; in 
 7, graves and vaults only ; in 4, graves and pits ; in 2, 
 graves, vaults and pits, and in i, pits only. The aggregate 
 annual number of interments within the borough is, in 
 ordinary years, from 10,000 to 11,000. Of this number, 
 as nearly as can be estimated, about two-thirds take place 
 in pits and one-third in graves. The interments in 
 vaults probably do not exceed 20 annually. 
 
 " The pits vary in depth from eighteen to twenty feet, 
 being from seven to twelve feet long and three and a half 
 to nine feet wide. The number of bodies deposited in 
 
 * Mass. Sanitary Rep. 
 
GRAVE-PITS. 93 
 
 each pit varies from 30 to 120. In St. James' Cemetery, 
 about six inches of earth are placed over the coffins after 
 each day's interments. In the others the coffins are cov- 
 ered with two and a half feet of soil, which is removed 
 previous to the next interments ; but, with this excep- 
 tion, the pits remain open or only covered with a frame 
 work of boards until filled with coffins — a period varying 
 from ten days in the case of the smaller, to ten weeks in 
 the case of the larger pits. 
 
 " It has been estimated that an acre of ground is capa- 
 ble of affording decent interment to not more than 130 
 bodies yearly ; but in the thirty-seven burial-grounds of 
 Liverpool, taking one with another, the number of burials 
 to an acre is fully double of that just stated. Were the 
 calculations confined to those most in use, the proportion 
 would be greatly augmented. In some of these places 
 it is almost impossible to dig a new grave without dis- 
 turbing bodies previously buried, and in some the soil 
 when opened up appears to consist chiefly of human 
 remains in a state of decomposition. It cannot be 
 doubted that graveyards thus impregnated with decaying 
 animal matter must contaminate the atmosphere in such 
 a way as to injure the health, not so much by the pro- 
 duction of sudden disease, which may be directly traced 
 to its cause, as by a gradual process of deterioration 
 leading to the development of disease in a more slow but 
 equally certain manner. But the grand evil in the case 
 of Liverpool, and that which calls most urgently for 
 
94 INTRA-MURAL BURIAL IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 interference, is the practice of burying large numbers of 
 bodies in open pits. It must be unnecessary to say any- 
 thing as to the injurious nature of this practice, if it be 
 considered that in the hot weather of summer more than 
 lOO bodies are collected together in an open pit, in all 
 stages of decomposition, some of them having lain there 
 for upwards of two months. Only two feet of space are 
 left between the pits, so that the moisture, saturated 
 with the decomposed matter of an adjoining pit, not 
 unfrequently percolates through the intervening rock or 
 soil into one that is newly made. In no case does the 
 soil covering the pit, when filled, exceed the legal mini- 
 mum of two and a half feet." 
 
 INTRA-MURAL BURIAL IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The testimony of the consequences of intra-mural 
 interments has thus far been drawn from England and 
 the continent of Europe. It is reasonable that it should 
 be first noticed. The vaults of their churches and their 
 crowded churchyards voice the dangers of a system of 
 burial begotten at the beginning of the middle ages, 
 maintained throughout that dark period, and cherished 
 down to the present century. 
 
 The first settlers of America came with the traditions 
 of the land of their fathers. They buried their dead in 
 their midst, and their descendants do so still. A popula- 
 tion comparatively sparse and the ventilation of broad 
 
YELLOW FEVER IN NEW YORK. 95 
 
 acres surrounding our towns and cities have blinded the 
 people to the evils which they are fostering for their 
 descendants, as an inheritance of disease and death. 
 There is, however, evidence in our own country sufficient 
 to warn of our dangers, and of the urgent necessity of 
 making provision against them. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER. 
 
 In the early years of the present century, the attention 
 of the citizens of the City of New York was directed to 
 the frequency of sickly periods when malignant disease, 
 more particularly yellow fever, was apprehended year 
 after year.* The streets then were narrow, irregular and 
 confined. The water was obtained from wells. The 
 slips on the river borders were receptacles of immense 
 quantities of filth, the sewers emptying into them 
 between high and low water. 
 
 The yellow fever, when it invaded the city, was not 
 confined to the slips, nor did it always commence there, 
 though always in localities where there seemed to be a 
 recognized cause. In 1822 no nuisances of the ordinary 
 kind existed in the part of the city which was infected. 
 The only cause on which suspicion could rest was the 
 
 * The writer of this well remembers, when he was a youth living on Long 
 Island, a few miles from New York, the exodus of the peopfe from the city into 
 the towns of Long Island, fleeing from the yellow fever. It did not occur every 
 year, but so often that it was every year expected. 
 
96 TRINITY CHURCHYARD, NEW YORK. 
 
 cemetery of Trinity Churcli, which contained so many 
 thousands of dead. This cemetery is thus described by 
 Dr. Ackerly, (1822) : " Trinity churchyard is on high 
 ground, west of Broadway, and contains about two and a 
 half acres. It is walled up on two sides above the 
 adjoining streets. Its westerly wall is ten or twelve feet 
 high, of more than 3CX) feet on one side of Lumber street, 
 which is very narrow. This church was first built in 
 1698, and its graveyard has been receiving the dead from 
 that time to the present — a period of 124 years. More 
 persons are probably interred within its precincts than in 
 any burying-ground in the city, and it is supposed to con- 
 tain the remains of human beings almost equal in number 
 to the present population of New York. A burial can 
 scarcely take place without disturbing a previous one, 
 and the bodies cannot be deposited at a sufficient depth. 
 I have seen a corpse* in Trinity churchyard not more 
 than eighteen inches under ground, and a less depth in 
 another instance in another burying-ground in this city." 
 Dr. Ackerly claims, with justice, that such collections 
 must become a cause of sickening exhalations, and a resi- 
 dence near them cannot be safe and healthful. He 
 further says: " It may be asked, what proof have we of 
 its sickening influence, and why has it not before caused 
 similar mischief? To this it may be answered, in general, 
 that the cup must be full before an addition will make it 
 
 * There are many now living who can testify to the offensive odor from the yard 
 when passing it in the evening on Broadway. 
 
PESTILENTIAL VAPORS IN NEW YORK. 97 
 
 overflow. But this same ground emitted pestilential 
 vapors during the revolutionary war, the recollection of 
 which is not obliterated from the memory of a number 
 of living witnesses. In the hard winter of 1780-81, this 
 city was in possession of the enemy, and the ground was 
 so frozen that the soldiers and others who were buried 
 there during that long and severe winter were interred 
 but a small distance beneath the surface. The conse- 
 quence was that in the ensuing warm season it became so 
 offensive as to require the interposition of the military 
 commandant, and the Hessian soldiers were employed in 
 covering the whole ground with a fresh stratum of earth 
 three or four feet thick." 
 
 In 1 8 14 a battalion of militia was stationed on a lot in 
 Broadway, the rear of which was bounded on Potter's 
 Field (now Washington Square), from which arose a most 
 deadly effluvium. A number of the soldiers were attacked 
 with diarrhoea and fever. They were removed at once. 
 One of the sick died. The others rapidly recovered. 
 
 An article in the Comm.ercial Advertiser , Sept. 7, 1822, 
 furnishes further facts. It will be remembered that the 
 graveyard being above the streets on the west, and encom- 
 passed by a massive stone wall, and the east side being 
 level with Broadway, it results that this body of earth, 
 the surface of which has no declivity to carry off the 
 rains, thus becomes a great reservoir of contaminat- 
 ing fluids, suspended above the adjacent streets. In 
 proof of this it is stated that in a house in Thames street 
 
 13 
 
98 YELLOW FEVER IN NEW YORK. 
 
 springs of water pouring in from that ground occasioned 
 the removal of the tenants on account of their exceeding 
 fcetidness. The cellars of all the houses in the streets 
 west of the churchyard were all more or less accessible to' 
 impure springs of water. These springs had their source 
 in the graveyard, which was twenty-five or more feet 
 higher than the last street below (west) it. The report 
 of the Board of Health up to Saturday, October 26, gave 
 the number of cases of yellow fever as 401. The aggre- 
 gate mortality was 256, and the comparative mortality of 
 this Broadway district with the other district where the 
 disease occurred was nearly three to one. " This," the 
 writer says, " is unexampled in the historj'' of yellow 
 fever in the United States. 
 
 The Board of Health in its report notices that of 65 
 persons, residents of the upper part of the city,* who 
 visited the sickly district, 34 died, showing a diminished 
 proportion of mortality. Doctor Pascalis remarks upon 
 this : " Since, therefore, it exhibited a greater degree of 
 malignity in one part of the city than in another, and 
 precisely in that district which is termed the cleanest and 
 healthiest, we must necessarily conclude that it was 
 aggravated by local circumstances. Again, in these nar- 
 row, central, and more confined streets — William, Maiden 
 Lane, Stone, and Dutch, no more than one-third of the 
 sick fell victims. In three houses and three families in 
 
 The city did not extend above Canal street. 
 
GRAVES IN NEW YORK. 99 
 
 Dutch, Maiden Lane and Nassau, thirteen persons have 
 sickened ; seven were reported and all have recovered. 
 The milder nature of these cannot certainly be accounted 
 for but by their distance from their primary focus of 
 infection." 
 
 There were other graveyards and vaults in proxim- 
 ity to that of Trinity. The South Reformed Church 
 having a space of 25,000 square feet in Garden street, 
 which was narrow and confined ; and Wall Street Church, 
 covering with the building 20,000 square feet, nearly the 
 whole of which was excavated for vaults, and an addi- 
 tional range constructed under the sidewalk. Between 
 Pine and Cedar streets were the burying grounds of the 
 Associate Reformed -and French Protestant Churches. 
 
 The Middle Dutch Church Cemetery was a consider- 
 able place of interment and appropriated to vaults ; as also 
 St. Paul's Church and the North Dutch Church, in Fulton 
 street. St. Paul's was contiguous to Broadway. The 
 monuments now standing in it bear testimony to its being 
 the resting place of large numbers of the dead. Nearly 
 opposite to it was the cemetery of Brick Church, which, 
 in 1823 was entirely filled. Pascalis, in commenting upon 
 these, and other burial places which he makes " of less 
 account," says " there is, as all know, at the slightest com- 
 putation, ten acres or 500,000 square feet of ground in 
 the city exclusively appropriated to interments in graves 
 or vaults. * * * We will take the subject in another 
 point of view, to ascertain whether the space thus em- 
 
100 GRAVES IN NEW YORK. 
 
 ployed may endanger the health of the inhabitants. On 
 the authority of observation and experience, it * * * 
 takes more than ten years for the entire decay of the 
 human frame in graves, and a much longer time than that 
 in vaults. * "^ * The yearly bills of mortality at the 
 city inspector's office for the last eleven years amount to 
 33,945. We have here then, a total of 33,945 dead bodies 
 dispersed and accumulated within an area of three miles, 
 during eleven years and a half, all still under the decom- 
 posing operation of nature, and diffusing, in the warm 
 season, their volatile exhalations in the air we must 
 respire." Doctor Barrow says of them : " They (the 
 graveyards) are saturated with materials hostile to human 
 life." In a work published prior to 1823 is the following 
 warning : " Avoid as much as possible living near church- 
 yards. The putrid emanations arising from churchyards 
 are very dangerous ; and parish churches, in which many 
 corpses are interred, become impregnated with air so cor- 
 rupted, especially in spring when the ground begins to 
 grow warm, that it is prudent to avoid this evil, as it may 
 be, and in some cases has been, one of the chief sources 
 of putrid fevers, which are so prevalent at that season." 
 
 The following personal experience of a resident of New 
 York was given to Doctor Ackerly, in a letter from New- 
 burg, July 7, 1823: " During the summers of 1816, 1817, 
 I resided at 39 Liberty street, directly opposite the 
 churchyard. In the hot months, whenever a vault was 
 opened on the side of the yard next to my residence, a 
 
INSECTS FROM A REVOLUTIONARY PIT. lOI 
 
 very offensive stench was emitted from the vault, to such 
 a degree that we were compelled to shut the door and 
 windows looking into the yard. Being frequently 
 annoyed by this nuisance, I remonstrated with the sexton 
 against his opening the vaults in the morning and per- 
 mitting them to remain open during the day, to the 
 annoyance of the neighborhood. His reply was that it 
 would be as much as his life was worth to go into the 
 vault until it had stood open some time to air. I applied 
 to the Mayor to correct the proceedings. He said it was 
 a subject of so much feeling with the citizens that the 
 corporation would not interfere to regulate interments. 
 
 " In the summer of one of the years I have mentioned, 
 the trustees of the church made some repairs to it, and 
 built a porch to each of the eastern doors next to Liberty 
 street. In digging for the foundation of the southeast 
 porch, next to the sugar house, they came upon the great 
 grave in which had been buried those who died in this 
 sugar-house while it was occupied as a prison during a 
 period of the revolution. The grave was deep and spa- 
 cious, and it became necessary, in order to get at the solid 
 earth for the foundation of the porch, to disinter a great 
 quantity of the remains of those who had been buried 
 there. Several cartloads were taken up and carried away. 
 During this operation the air of the churchyard and its 
 vicinity swarmed with myriads of little black flies, very 
 troublesome. They filled our house, covering the side- 
 board, furniture, and every article on which they could 
 
 THE 
 
 NEWBERRY 
 
 UIPRARY 
 
 C H I C ." ;: o 
 
102 VAULT EMANATIONS. 
 
 alight. Even closing the doors did not entirely relieve 
 us from their annoyance."* 
 
 Co-incident with the above, the Medical Repository gives 
 the experience of a person who, on the 19th of August, 
 18 10, when the thermometer noted 88°, attended the 
 funeral of one whose remains were laid in the public vault 
 of this same church. He stated that he was never so 
 sensible of a cadaverous foetor. The effluvia from the 
 dead corpses was so offensive that he and many others 
 were obliged to retreat from its mouth. In depositing a 
 corpse in one of the vaults in the Brick Church, Beekman 
 street, the sexton cautioned the attendants to "stand on 
 one side ; you are not accustomed to such smells." Mr. 
 DeGroadt, the sexton of the Dutch Church above noted, 
 frequently remarked that, in descending into the vaults, 
 candles lose their lustre, and that the air is so sour and 
 pungent that it stung his nose. The Journal says : 
 " This being the case with all the vaults where dead 
 bodies are deposited, and subject to be opened at all 
 seasons, this method of disposing of the remains of our 
 friends is, at the best, an unpleasant and certainly a dan- 
 gerous one." 
 
 The writer records an incident of his own observation. 
 
 *This phenomenon occurred at least thirty -five years after the interments. 
 \^Vid. Doctor Render's narrative in a former part of this treatise.) History in- 
 forms us that after the mob at Paris, in the time of the French Revolution, broke 
 into the vaults of the Kings, and broke open the coffins for plunder, tliey were 
 overcome and sickened by the poisonous emanations from the coffin of Francis I, 
 who died in 1537. He liad been then buried two and a half centuries. 
 
VAULT EMANATIONS. I03 
 
 occurring in a family to which he is remotely allied. A 
 family in New York who had purchased a lot in Green- 
 wood and there buried many of their dead, was desirous 
 of transferring the body of an honored ancestor from a 
 vault where it reposed in a town in Connecticut to their 
 own burial plot in Greenwood. Two members of the 
 family circle, one a clergyman, the other a lawyer, under- 
 took to conduct the details of the transfer. They were 
 both healthy men, in the usual vigor of early manhood. 
 They both entered the vault. They found it to be very 
 foul. One of them fainted ; the other suffered much, but 
 persevered in superintending the process of removal. 
 The one who fainted — the clergyman — became sickly 
 from that moment, and died in about two years, suffering 
 during those years with a broken down constitution. 
 The other lost from the same date the vigor of his health. 
 He lived for several years and then died. Their memory 
 is cherished by those who survive them all the more, in 
 that they had sacrificed their lives in a work prompted 
 chiefly by a desire to gratify their family kindred. 
 
 The Board of Health in the City of New York, in 1806, 
 appointed a committee to report on measures necessary 
 to secure the public health. The following extract from 
 the report, which was drawn by Doctor Edward Miller, 
 is appropriate in this place : 
 
 "That interments of dead bodies within the city 07(g]it 
 to be prohibited. A vast mass of decaying animal matter 
 produced by the superstition of interring dead bodies 
 
I04 STATE LAW FOR THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 
 
 near the churches, and which has been accuinulatincr for 
 a long lapse of time, is now deposited in many of the 
 most populous parts of the city. It is impossible that 
 such a quantity of animal remains, even if placed at the 
 greatest depth of interment commonly practised, should 
 continue to be inoffensive and safe. It is difficult, if not 
 impracticable, to determine to what distance around, the 
 matter extricated during the progress of putrefaction may 
 spread ; and by pervading the ground, tainting the waters 
 and perhaps emitting noxious exhalations into the atmos- 
 phere, do great mischief. But if it should be decided still 
 to persist in the practice of interments within the city, it 
 ought to be judged necessary to order the envelopment 
 of the bodies in some species of calcareous earth, either 
 quicklime or chalk. * * * This growing evil must 
 be corrected at some period, for it is increasing and ex- 
 tending by daily aggregation to a mass already very large, 
 and the sooner it is arrested the less violence will be 
 done to the feelings and habits of our fellow-citizens." 
 
 This report, upon being sent to the Legislature with a 
 memorial upon the subject, resulted in the passage of a 
 law authorizing the corporation of the City of New York 
 to prohibit interments within its limits. The law was 
 afterwards incorporated into the general statutes of the 
 State. It was not till 1823 that the Common Council of 
 New York passed a prohibitory ordinance upon the sub- 
 ject, and when passed it was some years before it became 
 operative. 
 
EFFECT OF OZONE. 105 
 
 During a series of experiments made at and near Bur- 
 lington, Iowa, in 185 1-2, by Raucli,* for the purpose of 
 determining the relation which ozone held to certain 
 epidemic diseases, he says that " he could not usually 
 detect its presence where any considerable amount of 
 animal or vegetable matter was undergoing rapid decom- 
 position. It was not until the weather became very cold 
 that he could detect its presence within the cemetery 
 enclosure or in the immediate vicinity of slaughter or 
 packing-houses." " In the same proportion as the pres- 
 ence of ozone was found everywhere, certain types of 
 disease diminished." His observations have satisfied 
 him that ozone exists more abundantly in the atmos- 
 phere — other conditions being the same — after than 
 before a thunder storm, and that, according to the degree 
 of its electrical disturbance. During the prevalence of 
 the cholera at Burlington, in 1850, the weather was very 
 hot and oppressive. On the i6th of July a thunder 
 storm occurred, accompanied by a heavy fall of rain. 
 The epidemic immediately abated. One case only 
 occurred on that day ; the number of new cases dimin- 
 ished. The observations of the writer, for which he can 
 furnish abundant data, lead him to say : " There is no 
 room for doubt that ozone is a purifier of the atmosphere, 
 and that anything, no matter what, which diminishes the 
 
 * " Intra-mural Interments in Populous Cities and their Influence upon Health 
 and Epidemics, by John H. Rauch, M. D. Chicago, 1866." 
 14 
 
I06 PUTRID EMANATIONS CAUSE PESTILENCE. 
 
 normal amount of ozone acts injuriously upon man and 
 animals." 
 
 " Reasoning, therefore, from a purely chemical, physio- 
 logical and philosophical standpoint, we are fully war- 
 ranted in making the assertion that the emanations of 
 human remains frequently result in disease, increase the 
 ravages of epidemics, in many instances act as the excit- 
 ing causes of them and diminish life." As illustrating 
 his statement, he notices among others which have here- 
 tofore been noticed in this treatise, that the opening of a 
 corpse at Leictourne occasioned a grievous epidemic on 
 the plain of Armagnac. At Riorm, in Auvergne, they 
 were removing the earth from an old burying-ground for 
 purposes of embellishment ; soon after, an epidemic dis- 
 ease carried off many, particularly of the lower classes, 
 who lived in the vicinity of the cemetery. At Aubert 
 Haller, a church became infected from a single corpse 
 after twelve years' interment, in consequence of which all 
 the members of a convent were attacked with a danger- 
 ous malady. 
 
 We draw from Rauch's excellent monograph the fol- 
 lowing valuable testimony : In a report of the yellow 
 fever of 1838-39, which occurred at Charleston, it was 
 attributed to domestic origin, viz. : the decomposition of 
 animal and vegetable matter. The report recommended 
 the burial of the dead beyond the precincts of the city. 
 
 In a report of epidemic yellow fever as it occurred in 
 British Guiana in 1852-53, Dr. Blair says: " The poison- 
 
YELLOW FEVER IN NEW ORLEANS. I07 
 
 ous agent persisted in its predilection for damp, low, 
 crowded places and the neighborhood of putrid exhala- 
 tions, and woe to the unwary or reckless who lived or 
 lingered in such places or were exposed to such exhala- 
 tions." 
 
 Report of the Sanitary Commission on the Epidemic 
 Yellow Fever of i8^j, in New Orleans^ by Dr. E. H. Barton. 
 In looking over the sanitary map accompanying this 
 report, it appears that the Fourth District suffefed more 
 than double that of any other, the mortality being at 
 the rate of 452 per 1,000 of the population. In this dis- 
 trict three extensive cemeteries exist, in which were 
 buried the year before nearly three thousand bodies. It 
 was in one of these that the offensive exposure of bodies 
 occurred, so painful to the public. In the First ward of 
 this district was a series of low, crowded and filthy pest- 
 houses, inhabited by the lowest class of people. The 
 proportion of deaths here was 542 per 1,000. 
 
 The next in mortality was the Third, containing all the 
 cemeteries and most of the vacheries. The proportion 
 here was 508 per 1,000. 
 
 The First District comes next ; the ratio to the whole 
 population was 234 per 1,000. The second worse ward 
 in this district is the Seventh, in which are the Girod 
 street cemetery, two extensive hospitals and the gas- 
 works. The number of fatal cases in it was 394 per 
 1 ,000. 
 
 In the Second District we have 87 cases per 1,000. 
 
I08 YELLOW FEVER IN NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 Ward No. 2, having more than double the amount of the 
 average of the district, or 173 per 1,000, embraces in its 
 limits all the cemeteries of the district, in which were 
 buried that year 1,163 bodies. 
 
 The Third District shows 114 fatal cases to the 1,000. 
 In noting the causes of the mortality in this district, 
 much of it is attributed to the polluting air of a cemetery 
 in which were buried during the year 2,446 bodies. 
 
 Doctor Barton says : " There is probably no climate in 
 America where the vicinage of cemeteries would and 
 does do so much damage to public health as here. Rapid 
 and prolonged decay results from the great moisture of 
 the climate and small desiccative power. Burying almost 
 universally above ground (in the cemeteries of the city), 
 the mortar connecting the brick-work soon splits, giving 
 exit to injurious exhalations from the within decomposi- 
 sitions. The force of the gases (and especially under the 
 augmented temperature of the summer, when they are 
 the most injurious), is often so very great as sometimes to 
 burst the leaden coffins, and always to escape through the 
 pores of the wooden ones, and to split the metallic ones, 
 and the brick and plaster work of the vaults, contaminat- 
 ing the atmosphere for a great distance around. In no 
 case then, if permitted in cities, should a dwelling be 
 permitted nearer to these yards than several hundred 
 paces, according to the frequency of interment." 
 
 The entire commission unite in the recommendation 
 that " the present cemeteries within the city limits should 
 by all means be closed against future use." 
 
YELLOW FEVER IN NORFOLK. IO9 
 
 Doctor Bryant, on yellow fever at Norfolk and Ports- 
 mouth in 1855 {Am. Jour. Med. Sci. Ap. 1856), after giv- 
 ing a history of the epidemic and its terribly fatal results, 
 and offering some suggestions upon a future correct 
 hygiene, says : 
 
 " The last and at the same time one of the most impor- 
 tant of these suggestions relates to the remains of the 
 dead. They can scarcely be said to rest beneath the sod. 
 They lie in tiers, and some of them, from the sad neces- 
 sity of the case, uncofifined, while but a thin stratum of 
 sabulous earth separates them from the water below and 
 the superincumbent air. The average depth of the graves 
 is about four feet, the deepest five, and in many of them 
 three bodies are placed, one upon the other. When the 
 summer's sun shall pour its rays down upon this decaying 
 mass, can it be otherwise than that their noxious gases 
 will commingle with the purer air, and sooner or later aid 
 in reproducing other harvests of disease and death. 
 * * * I am aware that it is affirmed by some that 
 animal decomposing matter is not deleterious. This is 
 far from being established by sufficient facts. The rem- 
 edy here indicated is the disinterment of the dead, and 
 their removal to a distance of not less than eight miles 
 from either city. It is the total forbidding of intra-mural 
 or even near-by suburban cemeteries." 
 
no ASIATIC CHOLERA. 
 
 ASIATIC CHOLERA. 
 
 Next to yellow fever the cliolera is the epidemic most 
 dreaded in this country. It is in truth more to be 
 dreaded, as the fever is more or less limited to sections, 
 while all parts of the United States are liable to an inva- 
 sion of Asiatic cholera. 
 
 A very significant lesson upon the spread of this disease 
 may be drawn from the study of its origin and progress 
 in India and Asia. 
 
 It is well known that outbreaks of the disease occur 
 especially in the province of Bengal every year, more 
 particularly every third, sixth, ninth and twelfth year, in 
 connection with the great pilgrimages to Juggernaut, 
 Hurdwar, and their affiliated shrines. The influence of 
 the Juggernaut pilgrimages, or of the Worshipers of 
 Shiva, the Destroyer, can be traced from 1781 through 
 the great twelve year epidemics of 1817, 1829, 1841, 1853, 
 and 1865 in India, stretching north to Calcutta and south 
 to Madras, on the east coast of Hindostan, while the 
 influence of the pressure of the adorers of Vishnu to 
 Hurdwar in the north of India, and to numberless other 
 sanctuaries, may be seen in the great outbreaks of 1819, 
 1831, 1843, 1855, and 1869 in India and adjoining places.* 
 
 *" Report of Jno. C. Peters, M. D., in Cholera Epidemic of 1873 in the 
 United States, by Jno. M. Woodworth, M. D.," 1875. 
 
PESTILENCE FROM PILGRIMAGES. Ill 
 
 Every year, particularly at the great festivals, the 
 pilgrims flock in crowds to the Juggernaut temple. It is 
 calculated that there are at least 1,200,000 of them an- 
 nually, of whom, it is said, nine out of ten die on the road 
 of famine, hardship and sickness. It is a well-known fact 
 that the country for miles around the sacred place is 
 covered, with human bones. Many old persons undertake 
 the pilgrimage that they may die on holy ground. Not 
 far from the temple is a place called by the Europeans 
 Golgotha, where the corpses are thrown, and dogs and 
 vultures are always feeding on the carrion.* 
 
 Epidemiologists have concluded that the presence, 
 persistence and recurring activity of cholera in Persia is 
 owing to its central location between India and Europe, 
 exposing it to frequent importation and invasion, which 
 scarcely allows one outbreak to subside before another is 
 introduced. But a similar effect of pilgrimages seems 
 manifest in Persia as in India. From Bassorah, near the 
 united mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, the disease 
 is frequently carried by pilgrims to the holy shrines of 
 Kerbala (Meshid Hossein) and Nedjef (Meschid Ali), just 
 south of Bagdad. From W. A. Shephard's book, " From 
 Bombay to Bushire and Bassorah," we learn that Bas- 
 sorah, at the head of the Persian Gulf, has many pilgrim 
 boats, which are always crowded with the living and the 
 dead going up to Kerbala and Nedjef. The living car- 
 
 * Ency. Am. 
 
112 CHOLERA FROM PII.riRI MACKS. 
 
 goes, consisting of men, women and children, are huddled 
 together like pigs, from one hundred to one hundred and 
 fifty being crowded together in a space forty feet by 
 twenty, with twenty-five or more dead bodies piled about. 
 As these pilgrim-boats passed or went to windward the 
 scent was anything but pleasant, and it was difficult to 
 say whether the living or the dead were most disagreea- 
 bly fragrant. Then the Arabs living along the shores of 
 the rivers not only stop the vessels and rob the living, 
 but also take and hold the dead bodies in pawn till the 
 price they set upon them is paid by the sorrowing rela- 
 tives, who believe that their own souls and those of their 
 dead relatives will never reach paradise unless they get 
 their bodies to the tombs of Hossein or Ali, at Kerbala 
 or Nedjef. At the two latter places, and at Meschid 
 Reza, the gorgeous mosques are hardly less sacred to the 
 various sects of Mohammedans than is the mosque at 
 Mecca. " They are," says the London Lancet, "probably 
 the most important fostering places of cholera in North 
 and South Persia ; for they are burial places of Hossein, 
 Ali and the Imam Reza, the three most highly-rated 
 saints next to Mohammed. To their shrines not less 
 than one hundred and twenty thousand pilgrims flock 
 annually from Persia and India, bringing with them 
 many hundred corpses in all stages of decomposition, for 
 interment in the sacred soil of these great holy cities." 
 
 The pilgrim caravans arc described as a sea of long, 
 black boxes surging by on scores of mules and camels. 
 
CHOLERA FROM PILGRIMAGES. II 3 
 
 Each animal is laden with two of these mysterious 
 objects, one on each side. Many of them are so loosely 
 nailed together that another sense than that of sight soon 
 convinces the beholder that they are cofifins. In fact, they 
 contain the putrefying bodies of the devout, who, having 
 died in the true Mohammedan faith, are now being taken 
 for burial in holy ground at Meschid, Kerbela or Nedjef. 
 They are often carried hundreds of miles, and a sickening 
 stench always comes up from their gaping seams, causing 
 nausea and faintness in the drowsy and unsuspecting 
 traveller, who finds it impossible to extricate himself 
 promptly from their disgusting contact with apparently 
 no limit to their numbers. 
 
 The Lancet, in another number, says that for several 
 years previous to 1870, outbreaks of cholera at Teheran 
 had almost invariably followed the arrival of the pilgrims 
 and the annual exhumation of bodies for transportation 
 to their holy places. The epidemic was very virulent in 
 Teheran in 1870. It commenced at the caravanserais 
 near the principal gates of the city, as if coming from 
 pilgrims and travelers, and rapidly extended into the 
 town in various directions. This outbreak was again 
 attributed to the exhumation of bodies preceding the 
 annual pilgrimages to Kerbala and Merschid, for not less 
 than three hundred were dug up at Teheran. 
 
 Trinity churchyard, New York, has been the centre of 
 a very fatal prevalence of cholera whenever the disease 
 
114 CHOLERA AND PLAGUE FROM PUTRID MIASM. 
 
 has occurred as an endemic near or within a quarter of a 
 mile of it. Trinity place, west of it ; Rector street, on 
 its border ; the streets west of Rector, and the occupants 
 of the neighboring offices and commercial houses, have 
 suffered severely at each visitation of the pest, from 1832 
 to 1854. Letter of Elisha Harris, M. D. 
 
 During the prevalence of the cholera at Burlington, 
 Iowa, in July, 1850, a number of the dead were interred 
 in the city cemetery. No deaths occurred in its neigh- 
 borhood until about twenty had been buried there. 
 After this, until the epidemic ceased, cases occurred, and 
 always in the direction from the cemetery in which the 
 wind blew. Dr. Ranch. 
 
 The excavations made for sewers where the victims of 
 the plague of 1665 were buried, increased the virulence 
 of the cholera in London in 1854. The authorities had 
 been warned of this probable result by Mr. Simon. Dr. 
 Playfair believes that the prevalent fever in Rome is due 
 to the exhalations from the soil, which is saturated with 
 organic matter. " It is impossible for anyone to say how 
 long the materies morbi may continue to live under 
 ground. If organic matter can be boiled and frozen 
 without losing vitality, and seeds 3,000 years old will 
 sprout when planted, it would be hardihood to assert 
 that the poison of cholera or small-pox (or typhus), what- 
 ever it is, may not for years lie dormant, but not dead, in 
 the moisture and temperature of the grave." Buck's 
 Hygiene. 
 
ORIGIN OF PESTILENCE IN THE EAST. I15 
 
 PESTILENCE. 
 
 Pestilence is a terrible, perhaps the most terrible, 
 scourge of the human race. The Hebrews in Egypt said 
 to Pharaoh " let us go * * * and sacrifice unto the 
 Lord our God, lest He fall upon us with the pestilence." 
 The Psalmist of Israel said of the dealings of Jehovah 
 with His chosen people, He " gave their life over to the 
 pestilence and smote all the first-born of Egypt," 
 
 Natural causes are at times operative, and always have 
 been, to promote epidemic disease. The condition was 
 called by Hippocrates a constitution of the air. We have 
 no better term for it now. The great national pestilences, 
 plague and cholera, have had their rise in the east and 
 have progressed westward. They seem to be periodical 
 or cycloid in their character, which is also true of the 
 type of our ordinary diseases, undergoing, as they do, 
 changes in long cycles of years. 
 
 The origin and causes of pestilence are occult. We 
 have no reason to believe that they will not, to some 
 degree, always be concealed. The pestilence " walketh 
 in darkness." He who " hath gathered the wind in His 
 fist," holds the supreme control of the hidden forces of 
 nature. Nevertheless, He has endowed His creatures 
 with powers to perceive and with intellect to study their 
 modes of operation, that they may use their knowledge 
 for their own protection, and thus put away from them 
 
Il6 PLAGUE IN EGYPT. 
 
 the larger share of the natural evils which are sources of 
 suffering and afifliction.* 
 
 A candid and careful consideration of the facts which 
 have now been presented, cannot fail, we think, to con- 
 vince any one of the necessity of accepting them as a 
 warning against shutting our eyes to their light, and 
 against cherishing longer in our crowded communities the 
 enormous evil of INTRA-MURAL INTERMENTS. It is not 
 the great pestilences only which are promoted and inten- 
 sified by them. The testimony before us shows that our 
 ordinary endemics, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and the minor 
 diseases of children, become epidemic and widely fatal, 
 
 * There is nothing in the mere climate of Egypt that will account for the spon- 
 taneous origin and spread of the plague. Its development may be reasonably 
 attributed to hygienic conditions. Its inhabitants create the causes of their own 
 destruction. The destitution, filth and misery of the poor are extreme. Their 
 wretched hovels are so horribly disgusting as to defy description. They are the 
 receptacles of heaps of ordure and putrid matters. Not unfrequently the dead 
 are buried under the mud floors of the dwellings of the living. Many of the 
 graves in the cemeteries (which are always within the villages) being left open, 
 are continually exhaling a stench which is intolerable to any stranger. The 
 hygienic state of the cities and larger towns is not much better than that of the 
 villages. Cairo, with its 200,000 inhabitants, is a very hot-bed of the most dis- 
 gusting and pestiferous impurities. The canal which traverses it constantly 
 steams forth a cloud of intolerable offensiveness. There are thirty-five cemete- 
 ries, of which twenty-five are within the walls. In the Copt quarter of the town 
 the dead are buried under the floors of the houses, and nothing but a few boards 
 separate the living from the putrid bodies of the dead. From eighty to ninety 
 corpses have been known to be huddled together in these sub-domal receptacles. 
 The plague has never been known to appear spontaneously in Egypt except in 
 places and seasons where these most pernicious agencies are at work. 
 
 All the producing causes of this terrible disease being found united in Lower 
 Egypt, it is there endemic. It is seen every year in the sporadic, and about 
 every tenth year in the epidemic form. 
 
 The hygienic reforms necessary in modern Egj'pt are sanitary methods to 
 counteract the evils of animal putrefaction. Rep. of the Royal Acad, of Med., 
 Paris, 1846, in Med. Chi. Rev., Oct., 1846. 
 
RURAL CEMETERIES. II7 
 
 by the same influences. It is " sufficient to prove conclu- 
 sively the truth of the chemical, physiological, and patho- 
 logical deductions arrived at in the consideration of the 
 subject ; and that the same laws hold good in all import- 
 ant epidemic visitations, no matter in what quarter of the 
 globe, and under what circumstances they have ap- 
 peared." Ranch. 
 
 RURAL CEMETERIES. 
 
 Cemeteries extra-mural, in our own country, have been 
 commending themselves to the popular favor for the last 
 fifty years. Considerations for the public safety and 
 health, doubtless, have had their effect, but their moral 
 influences more. The retirement they afford to surviving 
 friends in their visits to the graves of loved ones ; the 
 quiet precincts of the sacred place, made beautiful by the 
 embellishments of artistic tillage and the inspiration of 
 natural scenery, combine to make attractive and sacred 
 the city of the dead. They become places of respectful 
 and reverent resort. In our own, as in other countries, 
 they have the effect of soothing the grief of surviving 
 friends, and in refining the sentiments of the communities 
 where they are established. At Constantinople the place 
 of promenade for Europeans is the cemetery at Pera, 
 which is planted with cypress, and has a delightful site 
 on the side of a hill overlooking the Golden Horn. The 
 greatest public cemetery attached to that capital is at 
 Scutari, which forms a beautiful grove, and vies in its 
 
Il8 CEMETERIES IN RUSSIA AND GERMANY. 
 
 attractions to readers, with the fountains and cloisters of 
 the mosques. 
 
 In Russia, ahuost every town of importance has its 
 burial place, at a distance from the town, laid out by the 
 architect of the government. It is always well planted 
 with trees, and is frequently ornamented with good 
 sculpture. Nearly every German town has its cemetery 
 at a suitable distance, planted with trees and ornamented 
 with public and private monuments, though most of them 
 have some choice works of art or public memorials which 
 alone would make them objects of attraction. At Saxe 
 Weimar, the cemetery contains the tombs of Goethe and 
 Schiller, placed in the mausoleum of the ducal family. 
 In Turkey, Russia and Germany, the poorer classes have 
 the advantage of interment in the national cemeteries. 
 In Russia it is the practice to hold festivals twice yearly 
 over the graves of their friends. In some parts of Ger- 
 many similar customs prevail. At Munich the festival of 
 All Saints' Day is described as one of the most extraor- 
 dinary spectacles which is to be seen in Europe. The 
 tombs are decorated in a most remarkable manner with 
 flowers natural and artificial, branches of trees, canopies, 
 pictures, sculptures, and every conceivable thing that can 
 be applied to ornament or decoration. During the whole 
 of the night preceding the holy day. the relations of the 
 dead are occupied in completing the decoration of the 
 tombs, and during the whole of All Saints' Day and the day 
 following, the cemetery is visited by the entire population 
 
CEMETERIES IN THE UNITED STATES. II9 
 
 of Munich, including the King and Queen, who go there 
 on foot, and by many strangers from distant parts. Mr. 
 Louden states that when he was there it was estimated 
 that 50,000 persons had walked round the cemetery in one 
 day, and all, with very few exceptions, dressed in black. 
 We have made this record to illustrate the salutary and 
 refining influence of a rural burying-place, in contrast 
 with the confined, offensive and health-polluting grave- 
 yard of a populous city. 
 
 The cemetery at Boston — Mt. Auburn — was estab- 
 lished in 183 1 ; Laurel Hill, soon after ; Greenwood, N. Y., 
 in 1842. Now, the most of our larger towns have their 
 rural repositories for the dead, though too many of 
 them still permit burials within their populated limits. 
 
 Such being the popular sentiment in regard to burials 
 without the city, it has become a question of the highest 
 importance how to locate them and what methods to 
 adopt in their management and in all their mortuary 
 requisites, that their moral influences may be promoted 
 and the best sanitary results secured. 
 
 In the Tenth Annual Report of the Local Government 
 Board, London, 1881, upon the " Sanitary Requirements 
 of Cemeteries," it is pointed out that a cemetery, accord- 
 ing to the Public Health Act, is not to be constructed 
 nearer any dwelling-house than 200 yards, except with 
 the consent of the owner or occupiers. The prescribed 
 minimum distance of a cemetery in France from the 
 
I20 SANITARY REQUISITES OF CEMETERIES. 
 
 nearest habitation is icxd metres (109 yards), and it is not 
 lawful, without special permission, to build any house or 
 dig any well within that distance of an existing cemetery. 
 The report alluded to says : " It may be taken that a 
 distance of 200 yards is amply sufificient to prevent any 
 injury arising to health from a well-kept cemetery, so far 
 as regards noxious matters transmitted through the air. 
 It is, however, by no means certain that cemeteries estab- 
 lished under the Public Health Act will in all cases, and 
 at all times, be distant so much as 200 yards from the 
 nearest human habitation. With the consent of the 
 owners and occupiers of existing houses, a cemetery may 
 be established within the prescribed limit ; and it is com- 
 petent to anyone afterwards to erect a new house as near 
 to the cemetery as he pleases. It does not appear that 
 the amount of danger to health to be feared from a 
 proximity to a well-kept cemetery is large. Since intra- 
 mural interment has been abolished, recorded cases of 
 injury to health, or even of nuisance arising from grave- 
 yard emanations, whether conveyed by air or water, are 
 extremely rare." 
 
 The most suitable distance for a cemetery will var}'' in 
 different cases. It will be greater in the case of a large 
 than of a small town ; greater, also, in the case of a town 
 larger and rapidly extending than in one small and 
 stationary. 
 
 The site should be elevated sufficiently above the 
 region surrounding, so as to receive the benefit of free 
 
SANITARY REQUISITES OF CEMETERIES. 121 
 
 ventilation by the winds, which should have an unob- 
 structed approach to it from all points of the compass. 
 It should not be on a high hill, as the springs of water at 
 its base are liable to contamination from its drainage.* 
 
 Its surface should be undulating, but not to such a 
 degree as to cause the moisture to collect in the low 
 places, unless they can be thoroughly drained. The 
 undulations of the surface afford opportunity to make 
 the place more attractive by the arts of the landscape 
 gardener. 
 
 Trees should be cherished, trimmed from below and 
 not standing too densely. Evergreens should not abound 
 if they feather from the ground. Hedges of arbor vitse 
 and dense shrubs around and within the burial plots 
 ought to be forbidden. They collect and hold the 
 noxious gases which rise from beneath. No vegetation, 
 however beautiful in itself, should prevent the free circula- 
 tion of the air which dilutes the emanations from the 
 
 * " In searching for cases of recent date of disease resulting from graveyard 
 infection, we find that such are almost unknown to medical literature. The only 
 marked European case which we have yet discovered is that mentioned by Pietra 
 Santa, of the villages of Rotendella and Ballita, in Italy. The cemeteries of 
 these villages were at the summit of a wooded hill, at a considerable distance from 
 the houses. The springs from which the water was obtained.were at the foot of 
 the hill, and ultimately the water became highly contaminated. A severe epi- 
 demic which recently visited these villages was ascribed to the use of this impure 
 water. A similar case occurred during the past year in Barbary, as an incident 
 of the plague which has recently visited that country. The people of a certain 
 village lived in excavations in roclcs, getting tlieir water supply from wells into 
 which water had run from the cemetery where bodies were covered only a foot 
 deep with gravel. Those only who had drank of this impure water were attacked 
 with the plague." /. F. A. Adams, M. D., in Report of Mass. B. of Health, 1875. 
 
 IS 
 
122 SOIL BEST ADAPTED TO CEMETERIES. 
 
 graves and thus renders them innocuous. Trees should 
 never be allowed to impede the circulation of the air and 
 the free access of the winds to the grounds. 
 
 The soil best adapted to secure the rapid progress of 
 decomposition is a sandy soil or a sandy loam, with a 
 mixture of vegetable mould. Clay retards putrefaction 
 and holds the corpse buried in it through a long series of 
 years. A dense clay is laborious to work and difficult to 
 drain. It retains, in a concentrated state, the products 
 of decomposition, sometimes to be discharged into 
 graves opened in their vicinity, or sometimes to escape 
 through cracks in the ground to the surface. A district 
 with a stony sub-stratum should be avoided. The loose, 
 stony soil allows the passage of effluvia. The overlying 
 soil should be at least eight feet deep. If hard rock lies 
 beneath, sufficient drainage is afforded to the fluids of the 
 graves. Fissured rock beneath a superstratum of sand 
 or gravel, receives the surface water with great rapidity, 
 and conducts it oftentimes to considerable distances. If 
 beneath a cemetery, the wash of the superincumbent soil 
 thus contributes to the pollution of neighboring wells 
 and of the remoter sources of water supply.* 
 
 *The rapidity with which a deposit of sand drinks up water is iUustrated by 
 Geo. P. Marsh in his " Earth as Modified by Human Action." He says on page 
 477 : " In a heavy thunder storm, accompanied by a deluging rain, which I wit- 
 nessed at Mount Sinai in the month of May, a large stream of water poured in an 
 almost continuous cascade down the steep ravine north of the convent by which 
 travelers sometimes descend from the plateau between the two peaks, but, after 
 reaching tl)e foot of the mountain, it flowed but a few yards before it was lost in 
 the sands." 
 
PROTECTION TO SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY. 1 23 
 
 In the selection of a cemetery site, the pollution of 
 wells and of water supply should receive especial 
 attention. 
 
 In the Report of the British Local Government Board, 
 before noticed, upon the " Relations of a Cemetery to 
 Sources of Water Supply," we read : " It is evident that 
 the drainage of a cemetery should not be allowed to 
 enter a stream from which water is drawn for domestic 
 purposes. The degree to which the purity of neighbor- 
 ing wells is endangered by a cemetery, and the distance 
 to which contamination may extend, obviously depend in 
 each particular case upon the relative elevation of the 
 respective sites of cemetery and well, and upon the 
 nature and dip of the intervening strata, so that it would 
 seem impossible to lay down a general rule for all cases. 
 Fissured rock might allow foul matters to traverse con- 
 siderable distances, while the interposition of a bed of 
 clay or a water-tight vault would shut them off, or the 
 passage through an aerated stratum of finely-divided 
 earth would oxidise and destroy them on their way. A 
 dangerous state of things is, when the graves and wells 
 are sunk near together in a shallow, superficial, water- 
 bearing stratum of a loosely porous nature, resting on 
 impervious clay. It does not appear, however, that the 
 risk to which wells are exposed from the proximity of a 
 properly-managed cemetery is, in ordinary cases, great." 
 
 Dr. Ranch, in his " Intra-mural Interments," &c., states, 
 in regard to interments in the City of Chicago about 
 
124 WATER POLLUTION. 
 
 i860, that, owing to the properties of the soil of its 
 cemeteries, it is impossible that the gases emitted from 
 the dead should be absorbed to any extent or neutralized 
 by its action. The drainage into the lake from every 
 portion of these cemeteries was manifest ; and from the 
 topography of the ground and the sandy nature of the 
 soil, resting on a stratum of clay, the rainfall percolates 
 the sand and decomposing mass of animal matter until it 
 comes to the clay, and is carried thence to the lake, less 
 than half a mile above the Water Works. The current 
 which is flowing constantly along the shore sweeps 
 whatever noxious elements may come from the ceme- 
 teries to the very source of the universal water supply of 
 Chicago.* The subsequent facts are these : The popula- 
 tion, in six years, increased 70,ockd, and in the immediate 
 vicinity of the cemeteries 100 per cent. In like manner 
 the mortality increased, manifested in an increase of 
 burials almost equal to the increase of population. 
 
 The Mass. State Board of Health (report of 1875) 
 notices the following examples of water pollution which 
 had been recently reported. 
 
 At a meeting at Milan, Dr. Polli, to prove that inhuma- 
 tion taints air and water, referred to certain researches of 
 Prof. Selmi, of Mantua, and to the chemical analyses of 
 the waters of Milan, by Professors Parvesi and Rontondi. 
 
 M. Ducamp discovered in Paris a well, the water of 
 
 * This was the case in i860. The mode of supply of water was subsequently 
 changed. 
 
WATER POLLUTION. 12$ 
 
 which was entirely derived from cemeteries. It had 
 acquired a sulphur-like taste, so that the people bought it 
 for mineral water. 
 
 The following case is also furnished : " In the last 
 remarkable report of the Faculty of Medicine of Saxe, 
 Reinhard relates that nine large and several smaller 
 victims of the cattle plague were interred at Dresden at 
 a depth of ten or twelve feet. It was found the next 
 year that the water from a well situate one hundred feet 
 from the pit in which they were buried had a fetid odor, 
 and contained butyrate of lime. At a distance of twenty 
 feet it had the disgusting taste of butyric acid and each 
 quart contained about thirty grains of this substance." 
 The bodies were subsequently disinterred and buried. 
 
 The water from graveyards contains ammonium and 
 calcium nitrates, and nitrates, and sometimes fatty acids 
 and much organic matter. Lefort found a well of water 
 at St. Didier, more than 300 feet from a cemetery, to be 
 highly contaminated with ammoniacal salts and an or- 
 ganic matter left on evaporation. The water was clear 
 at first, but had a vapid taste, and speedily became pu- 
 trid. Parke s Hygiene. 
 
 A recent report on the preservation of the Aiithrax 
 germ in graves furnishes the following fact : 
 
 In Livingston County, New York, on a sandy soil over 
 a heavy clay soil, the graves were carefully fenced in by 
 direction ; but nearly a year after, during a rainy period, 
 the liquid oozing out on the river bank between the clay 
 
126 DISEASE GERMS IN WATER. 
 
 and sand, and opposite one of the fenced graves, was licked 
 by six cattle, all of which promptly perished of anthrax. 
 The grave was now fenced in down to the water, and no 
 further deaths occurred. Report of Dr. James Laiu on 
 the Bacillus Aiithracis, in " Contagious Diseases of Do- 
 mesticated Animals. '' U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 1881. 
 
 The germs of cholera and of typhoid fever are mainly 
 thrown off by the bowels. If they are exposed to the 
 free action of the air on the surface of the soil, they soon 
 become innocuous. If they are thrown into a close privy 
 vault, or into an unventilated sewer, their virulence is 
 increased, and their emanations are intensely pestilential. 
 Atkins says that the specific germs of typhoid fever may 
 be propagated among healthy persons, first, by percola- 
 tion through the soil into wells that supply drinking 
 water ; second, by issuing through defects in sewers ; 
 third, by exhalations through apertures of ill-trapped 
 water-closets. Ibid. 
 
 Professor Fleck, of Dresden, having made extended 
 and minute investigations of water from wells situated 
 in or near cemeteries, published the same in 1873. Dres- 
 den has ten cemeteries, two within the city, the others 
 suburban. Water from wells situated in nine was care- 
 fully analyzed between June and November, 1872, and 
 the results given. The remarks of Fleck upon these 
 analyses are in part as follows: 
 
CEMETERIES IN DRESDEN. 12/ 
 
 " In general, there is little agreement in composition among the 
 well waters from the different cemeteries in Dresden, and it seems 
 evident that the greatest influence is exerted, not by the proximity and 
 age of the graves, so much as by the character of the ground. With 
 the exception of the water from the Trinity and Elias Cemeteries (in 
 which cases the wells are situated in clean, coarse gravel), the amount 
 of organic matter is very considerable. This is the case to a marked 
 degree in the well waters of the oldest cemeteries — the Anna Ceme- 
 tery, the Catholic Cemetery, and the old Evangelical Cemetery, — 
 where, besides notable quantities of nitrates, there was found a very 
 considerable amount of unoxydized organic matter. In the Heller 
 Cemetery, which is in clean sand on the right bank of the Elbe, the 
 amount of nitric acid is very small ; but the amount of ammonia and 
 of organic matter is quite large. These differences can be explained 
 only by taking into account, in addition to the influence exerted by 
 the character of the soil, also the effect of the ground water itself. 
 A ground water at a great depth, moving slowly, that is to say, flow- 
 ing with a slight fall, will dilute the matter dissolved from the soil 
 less, and will afford a concentrated solution containing a larger pro- 
 portion of organic matter than a ground water flowing rapidly ; and 
 since in the Trinity Cemetery the ground slopes somewhat rapidly 
 towards the Elbe, we may infer that the motion of the ground water 
 is also somewhat rapid. This condition of things gives us as a pro- 
 duct a water which is poor in decomposed and undecomposed organic 
 matter, that is to say, a nearly pure water in spite of the greater amount 
 of lime salts originally contained in the ground water. In no other one 
 of the cemeteries are the conditions so favorable as in the Trinity ; 
 and in the case of the Anna Cemetery (Annenkerchhof), where we 
 should expect a rapidly-moving ground water, on account of the de- 
 clivity of the surface, there is lacking, in the neighborhood of the 
 wells, the porous material necessary to bring about a rapid decompo- 
 sition of the contents of the graves. 
 
128 REPORT OF OBSERVATIONS MADE. 
 
 " It may be stated, as the result of experience, that the best locality 
 for a cemetery is on a porous, coarse-grained, gravelly soil, with rap- 
 idly moving ground water, that is to say, situated on a declivity. In 
 such a situation the processes of decay go on more rapidly, and con- 
 sequently it is possible to renew the graves in a comparatively short 
 time." 
 
 The author of the report from which Professor Fleck's 
 remarks are taken issued circulars to nearly 500 physi- 
 cians, with a view of ascertaining the experience of the 
 medical profession as to the influence of cemeteries, as at 
 present managed, upon the public health. The circulars 
 were sent to medical observers in this country and in 
 Great Britain. The questions he propounded were : 
 
 I. Have you observed any instances in which sickness 
 appeared to be induced or aggravated by the proximity 
 of dwellings to cemeteries. If so, please cite cases. 
 
 II. In such cases have you attributed such sickness to 
 poisoned wells, or foul air, or both ? 
 
 Of the one hundred and seventy-one correspondents 
 who responded, eleven have observed sickness from this 
 cause ; three attributing it to foul air, four to poisoned 
 wells, and four to both causes combined. The remaining 
 one hundred and sixty-one have never observed any such 
 phenomena. A considerable number state that the cem- 
 eteries in their vicinity are at a distance from habitations. 
 
 The process and progression of putrefaction in organic 
 bodies are governed by the particular circumstances which 
 surround them. The remains of the young decompose 
 
PROGRESS OF DECOMPOSITION. 1 29 
 
 with greater rapidity than those more advanced in h'fe ; 
 those of females more speedily than of males ; those 
 dying in full health than those whose tissues are wasted 
 by disease. 
 
 Persons dying from diseases of a malignant nature, or 
 where the fluids are in a depraved condition, decompose 
 with still greater rapidity. When decomposition takes 
 place, the parts become soft ; they change in color, ex- 
 hale a disgusting odor, diminish in weight, and afford 
 several new products, some of which escape in gaseous 
 form ; others pass off in a liquid state, and others again 
 are contained in a fatty or earthy residuum. The prin- 
 cipal elements of animal matter are carbon, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. These, dur- 
 ing life, with a few other elements, are variously combined 
 to form the different tissues of the body. During life 
 they are held together in a solid or liquid form. When 
 life ceases they separate from one another, form new com- 
 binations and escape. Ranch. 
 
 A certain temperature and a certain degree of moisture 
 are indispensible agents in the common process of putre- 
 faction. Could these be avoided, human bodies might 
 last indefinitely. When a certain degree of cold exists it 
 tends to check the destructive process. When it extends 
 to congelation its protecting power is complete."^ 
 
 * The most remarkable instance of preservation by frost of an animal body, is 
 that of an elephant of an extinct species, discovered in 1806 in the ice of the polar 
 seas by Mr. Michael Adams. The animal was first seen by a chief of the Ton- 
 17 
 
130 PROGRESS OF DECOMPOSITION. 
 
 Maret thinks that the extent of cemeteries should be 
 determined by the time necessary for the total destruc- 
 tion of bodies inhumed within them. He means by 
 total destruction, the dissolution of the soft tissues, leav- 
 ing the bones dry and entire. He thinks three years 
 sufficient to decompose a body in a grave four or five 
 feet deep. At a depth of six feet, the process of putre- 
 faction is retarded by pressure. From this he reasons 
 that the ground should be so apportioned as to contain 
 three times the mortality of a year, if the graves are four 
 or five feet deep. If they are six or seven feet deep, it 
 should contain four times that amount. Such a calcula- 
 tion relates to grounds for burial which are to be used 
 without that reverent regard for the permanent repose 
 of the dead which in our own country is a chief consider- 
 
 guse tribe, in the year 1799. At this time it was imbedded in a rock of ice about 
 one hundred and eighty feet high, and had only two feet, with a small part of the 
 body projecting from the side so as to be visible. At the close of the next sum- 
 mer the entire flank of the animal was thawed out. It required five summers to 
 thaw the ice so that the whole body could be liberated. At length, in 1804, the 
 enormous mass separated from the mountain of ice and fell over upon its side on 
 a sand bank. At this time it appears to have been in a state of perfect preserva- 
 tion, with its skin and flesh as entire as when it had existed before the deluge^ or 
 during that condition of the globe which placed animals apparently of the torrid 
 zone in the confines of the Arctic circle. The Tonguse chief cut off the tusks, 
 which were nine feet long and weighed two hundred pounds each. Two years 
 after this event, Mr. Adams being at Yakutsk and hearing of the animal jour- 
 neyed to the spot. He found the animal in the same place but greatly mutilated 
 by the dogs and wolves of the neighborhood, which had fed upon the flesh as fast 
 as it thawed. He succeeded, however, in removing the whole skeleton and in 
 recovering two of the feet, one of the ears, one of the eyes and about three- 
 quarters of the skin, which was covered with reddish hair and black bristles. 
 These are now in the museum at St. Petersburg. Digelow's "Modern EtiquirUs." 
 
TIME FOR COMPLETE DECAY. I3I 
 
 ation in founding cemeteries where their sacred dust shall 
 be preserved from future disturbance. 
 
 The length of time necessary to efifect complete decom- 
 position varies according to the soil. It is shorter in one 
 porous and open than in one either dense or clayey. 
 The regulations of the Home Office (British) prescribe 
 that no unwalled grave shall be reopened within fourteen 
 years after the burial of a person above twelve years of 
 age, or within eight years after a burial of a child under 
 twelve years of age, unless to bury another member of 
 the same family, in which case a layer of earth not less 
 than one foot thick shall be left undisturbed above the 
 previously-buried coffin. If, on reopening any grave, the 
 soil be found to be offensive, such soil shall not be dis- 
 turbed, and in no case shall human remains be removed 
 from the grave. 
 
 In the Report of the U. S. National Board of Health, 
 1879, *t ^s noted of Weehawken cemetery, Bergen Co., 
 New Jersey : " In the dry and porous soils, from one to 
 three years will insure complete decay. In the moist and 
 heavy earth, a much longer period. In the cemeteries of 
 Hudson County, New Jersey, the soil varies somewhat. 
 The graves are dry. As to the rapidity of decay, it 
 varies with .ae soil. In the tenacious and clayey por- 
 tions, bodies have been exhumed after twelve years and 
 found not completely destroyed. " In the more sandy 
 and porous soils, three years are sufficient to reduce 
 bodies to the condition in which they would be in clay- 
 
132 GRAVE SPACES. 
 
 moist soils in twelve years." Other testimony, and from 
 other districts, is to the same effect. We think it may be 
 accepted as a rule that in favorable soils — porous and 
 well aerated — decomposition will be complete in from 
 three to four years ; and in soils dense, clayey or wet, the 
 putrefactive process will be delayed for from twelve to 
 fifteen years, according to the circumstances.* 
 
 The size of grave spaces, as adopted by the British 
 Home Office, and so prescribed, is nine feet long by 
 four feet broad, four square yards for an adult, and for a 
 child under twelve, two square yards, either four and a 
 half by four feet, or six by three feet. This size, which 
 may be recommended by sanitary authorities for general 
 adoption, allows the retention of a strip of undisturbed 
 ground about two feet in width between two adjacent 
 graves. In any case it is important that each grave 
 should be at least a foot distant from the nearest graves 
 on every side, not only to prevent the passage of effluvia 
 into the open grave from decomposing bodies in the 
 
 * The following was related to the writer by one of the parties concerned. A 
 young man was instantly killed by lightning on Governor's Island, New York 
 harbor, while at work as a carpenter. His body was brought to Orange, N. J., 
 and buried in the parish burying-place. He was killed on the 24th of June, 1799, 
 In the month of December, 1878 — seventy-nine years afterwards — two of his neph- 
 ews superintended the interment of his remains for removal to another resting 
 place. One of them was an intelligent physician. The soil of the graveyard is 
 a sandy loam overlying the red sandstone, which is from eight to twelve feet 
 beneath. About a foot of gravel was found above the remains. When they were 
 reached it was found that the coffin and everything of the body was gone except 
 the skeleton, which was in a state of complete preservation. The bones perfectly 
 preserved were taken out with great care and laid on the ground beside the exca- 
 vation. The perfect skeleton was thus reproduced. Not a carpal or metacarpal, 
 nor a tarsal or metatarsal bone was missing. 
 
MODES OF INTERMENT. 1 33 
 
 graves adjoining, but to avoid the danger of falls of earth 
 when excavations are made too near to ground which has 
 been previously disturbed. 
 
 The modes of interments in the British cemeteries are in 
 graves, vaults and tombs. The former are in general use. 
 Their depth varies from five to six feet, the same being 
 prescribed by the cemetery companies, or by the authori- 
 ties of the towns or cities where they are situated."^ 
 Graves are the safest place for burial, and furnish condi- 
 tions for the most rapid progress of decomposition. 
 
 When vaults are used they should always be built 
 under ground, in places well drained, and as free as possi- 
 ble from moisture. Bodies in vaults decompose slowly 
 under the most favorable soil conditions. Tombs built 
 above ground, and such as will be best adapted to preserve 
 the air from the noxious vapors of decomposition, should 
 be constructed with chambers in stone and masonry, and 
 in such a manner as to be hermetically sealed with stone 
 and cement, as they successively become occupied. 
 
 * In Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, which is the largest in this country 
 containing 450 acres, the graves are six feet deep. The soil is mostly a sandv 
 loam and gravel. It was established in 1840. The number of interments to 
 November, 1882, is 216,137. 
 
 In a recent medical journal, in an article on cremation, it is said: ''It need 
 surprise no one to learn that tlie exhalations of this cemetery (Greenwood) were 
 recently complained of in South Brooklyn." This writer addressed a letter to 
 Doctor J. H. Raymond, tlie intelligent Commissioner of Public Health in Brook- 
 lyn, containing the above extract, and asking if the fact therein stated was so. 
 His reply was, " I have heard no complaints about exhalations, nor can I learn 
 from any source that any such have been made." We notice this to correct an 
 error, but more to illustrate the good sanitary influences of a very large, yet well 
 regulated rural cemetery. 
 
134 COFFINS EARLY USED. 
 
 COFFINS FOR THE DEAD. 
 
 Coffins have baeii used from the earliest ages of which 
 history or monuments furnish any memorials. 
 
 The word coffin is derived the' Greek kofinos, — a basket, 
 coffer, chest ; in the ordinary English sense, a chest or 
 box in which the dead are laid. 
 
 When Joseph died, we have the scripture record : 
 " They embalmed him and he was put in a coffin in 
 Egypt." This is the first and only time that the word 
 appears in the scriptures. It was, doubtless a mark 
 of distinguished honor to one who, by the word of Pha- 
 raoh, had so long been " ruler over all the land of 
 Egypt."* 
 
 When Cambyses, son of Cyrus the Great, (A. C. SS^O 
 conquered Egypt, the spies whom he sent forth to make 
 observation of the kingdom, were permitted to sec the 
 
 * It is supposed by some writers upon Egypt that the evaporation and absorp- 
 tion by the earth are so rapid that the Egyptians were led to adopt embalmment. 
 Herodotus says that they embalmed their dead to prevent the destruction of the 
 bodies by worms. It came to be a custom with them, after the embalming pro- 
 cess was completed, to enclose the bodies in a case or coffin made of paper or 
 other fabrics, and saturated with substances for its preservation . The atmosphere 
 of our northwestern Territories is dry to such a degree that the snows of the 
 winter pass off from the ground without leaving it wet. A mummified buffalo 
 was found a few years since on the plains of Colorado. An occasional specimen 
 of an Indian muirimy is to be found in our museums. 
 
 A traveler over a plain near the Soudah Mountains, in Northern Africa, ob- 
 served many skeletons of animals, which had died of fatigue on the desert, and 
 occusionally the grave of a human being. All these bodies were so dried by the 
 heat of the bun that putrefaction appeared not to have taken place after death. 
 In animals recently dead he could not detect the slightest offensive smell; and 
 in those long dead, the skin with the hair on it remained unbroken and perfect, 
 although so brittle as to break with a slight blow. Lyell's Geology. 
 
COFFINS. 135 
 
 coffins of the Ethiopians, which were made of crystal. 
 The corpse was "placed in a crystal pillar, hollowed out 
 to receive it. '^' '^' * You may see the corpse through 
 the pillar, within which it lies." Herod, b. iii, § 24. This 
 was probably glass, as it is known to have been made in 
 Egypt 2,000 years before Christ, having been found bear- 
 ing the name of a Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty. 
 Rawlinsoii s Notes. 
 
 Coffins, in the modern sense, were known in Greece, 
 composed of various materials. Those most common 
 were of baked clay or earthenware. The coffin of the 
 Romans was called area or lociihis, and was frequently 
 made of stone — originally of a peculiar kind of stone, 
 brought from Assos, in Troas, which was said to consume 
 all the body except the teeth in a few weeks. From this 
 fact it was called sarcophagus, — the Greek word for flesh 
 destroying. They also had coffins of bricks covered with 
 tiles ; of stones, with urns, patercB and lachrymatories in 
 them. They had, also, leaden and glass coffins. Of 
 wooden coffins, Arthur's is the oldest known instance. 
 They frequently occur in English barrows, boxes hollowed 
 out of the trunk of a tree. Sometimes an elm with the 
 bark on, fastened with rivets and small strips of brass, 
 have been found in English barrows, holding skeletons 
 and burnt bones. 
 
 Many Roman stone coffins have been found in England. 
 The simplest of all was that used by the British Celts and 
 other rude nations, consisting of unhewn stones set on 
 
136 COFFINS. 
 
 their edges, so as to cover the sides and ends of the 
 graves, one or more fiat stones being tlien laid over the 
 body, to form the lid. To these succeed stone coffins, 
 used for persons of the higher classes in Saxon times and 
 throughout the middle ages. They occur among the 
 Anglo-Saxons so early as 695, and were not quite obso- 
 lete before the reign of Henry VIII (1509). They were 
 generally of a single block, tapering from the upper end. 
 In the hollow for the reception of the body was a part 
 cut out and fitted for the head and a hole in the bottom 
 to permit the escape of the fluids of the decomposing 
 body. They were not buried deeply in the earth, and 
 were frequently so near the surface that the lids were 
 visible. If within a church the lid formed part of the 
 pavement, and sometimes they were above the ground 
 altogether, and thus became the originals of the Altar 
 Tombs. Leaden coffins were occasionally used in the 
 middle ages. Strtitfs Manners a)id Ciistonis. GougJis 
 Sepulchral Monuments. Fosbroke's Ency. of Ant. 
 
 About the time of the Conquest, and for a century 
 after, the usual folding of a corpse seems to have been the 
 strongest leather, or a bull's hide. Of the fashion of the 
 ox hide there are a great many instances. Henry I and 
 his son Prince Henry, the Empress Maude, King John, a 
 countess of Pembroke, James HI of Scotland are re- 
 corded by Gough as wrapped in bulls' hides. ''''' 
 
 * " From the great number of stone coffins found in tliis kingdom (Derbyshire, 
 Gloucester, Notlinghamsliire), it appears that formerly all iiersons of rank and 
 
BURIAL IN THE BARE EARTH. 1 3/ 
 
 In the Norman dynasty, it was the custom to bury 
 monks in the bare ground.* Abbot Waring (died 1195) 
 ordered that they should be buried in stone coffins, as 
 more decent. With this exception, the former custom 
 prevailed for long after. In the time of Edward II and 
 III, even persons of distinction preferred to have their 
 bodies committed to the bare earth. It was a common 
 custom in the time of Queen Elizabeth to bury only in 
 winding sheets. There were recently to be seen at St. 
 Albans and at Durham, the chests, with hd and hinges, 
 which were formerly used as biers to convey those dead 
 to the grave who had no coffin but their winding sheets. 
 When laborers were at work in the choir of Gloucester, 
 in 1 741, during the ransacking, as it is called, of that 
 cathedral, they found in the passage three abbots buried 
 near the surface of the ground in pontificalibus, part of 
 
 dignity, of fortune and fashion, were buried in this manner. It was the custom 
 among our Saxon ancestors. The number of the coffins found is no inconsider- 
 able proof of it, but there is a clear instance in Ven. Bede, who, speaking of 
 Queen ^dylthryd, or St. Awdry, that died of the pestilence in the year 669, says 
 she was burled by her express command in a wooden coffin — ' et ceque, ut ipsa 
 jusserat, non alibi qiiam in medio eorum j uxta ordinem quo transierat ligneo in locello 
 sepulta.' 
 
 " This implies that otherwise a person of her high birth and great dignity would 
 have been buried in a coffin of stone. This inference is just, for it follows after, 
 in the same author, that her sister Sexburg, who succeeded her as abbess, after 
 the body had lain in the grave sixteen years, caused her bones to be taken up, put 
 in a new (stone) coffin and translated to a place in the church. In more modern 
 times their use was continued as late as the reign of Henry III ; in some cases to 
 Henry VIII." Sa-m'l Pegge, in Gent. Mag., 1759. 
 
 * In the monkish times, stone coffins were much in vogue for persons of quality. 
 For the inferior monks, the most common way was by the winding sheet. Notes 
 and Queries. 
 
 18 
 
138 BURIAL WITH FEET TO THE EAST. 
 
 the gloves and apparel remaining. Ancient bishops of 
 London were so found lying in their proper habits. Ibid. 
 
 Among the vestry minutes of St. Helen's, Bishops- 
 gate, is the following, March 5th, 1564, proving that the 
 custom of burials in a winding sheet had prevailed and 
 ought to be stopped : " Item, That none should be buried 
 within the church unless the dead corpse be coffined in 
 wood." Notes and Queries. 
 
 It was a custom observed in various parts of Christen- 
 dom before and since the seventeenth century, to bury 
 the clergy with their feet towards the east, that they may 
 meet their flocks on the morning of the great day and 
 conduct them to the tribunal. Tradition has fostered 
 the expectation that our Lord will appear in the east. 
 Therefore, all the faithful dead are buried with their feet 
 to the east, to meet him. Hence, in Wales, the east 
 wind is called the wind of the dead men's feet. This 
 sacerdotal privilege was conferred in 1614, by a rule con- 
 tained in the Rituale Romanum, sanctioned by Pope 
 Paul V. Ibid. 
 
 In the reign of James II, a St. Clair was buried in a 
 coffin. The usage of interring the knights of this noble 
 family in their armor and without coffin, is referred to 
 by Sir Walter Scott : 
 
 " Seemed all on fire that chapel proud, 
 Where Roslin's chiefs uncoffined lie. 
 Each baron, for a sable shroud, 
 Sheathed in his iron Panoply. 
 
WOODEN COFFINS. 1 39 
 
 " Seemed all on fire within, around, 
 Deep sacristry and altars pale ; 
 Shone every pillar foliage bound, 
 
 And glimmered all the dead men's mail." 
 
 Shakespeare, in ten or twelve instances, notices coffins 
 of wood as enclosing the honored dead. 
 
 " Upon a wooden coffin we attend," 
 
 says Exeter, in ist Henry, vi : i, 3. 
 
 Clifford, when importuned by the Earl of Rutland to 
 spare his life, says — 3d Henry, vi : i, 3 : 
 
 " No, if I digged up my forefather's graves 
 And hung their rotten cofifins up in chains 
 It could not slake mine ire." 
 
 The very few allusions of the poet to the " uncoffined " 
 dead relate to the ignoble poor and to criminal outcasts. 
 
 It would seem, from the apparently studious avoidance 
 of any mention of coffins in the burial service of the 
 Church of England, that at the period of the compilation 
 of that service (1546-7), uncoffined interments were com- • 
 mon ; corpse, or body, alone is spoken of. Sir Henry 
 Spelman says in his works : " Interments without coffins 
 were common amongst the humbler classes even so late 
 as the year 1650. Some decent involucra or coverings 
 
140 SWATHING OF THE DEAD. 
 
 were deemed to be necessary, but this was all."* Notes 
 and Queries. 
 
 Linen was the customary fabric for swathing the dead 
 by those who were able to purchase. As it was imported 
 from " beyond the seas," an act was passed by Parliament 
 in 1 8th of Charles II, "-for burying in ivoolen only'' 
 intended to lessen the importation of linen, and for the 
 encouragement of the woolen manufacturers of the 
 kingdom. It provided that no corpse should be buried 
 but in woolen only ; penalty, ^^5. A register to be kept 
 in every parish of persons buried there, af^davit to be 
 made within eight days after each burial that the person 
 was buried in woolen ; penalty, £^. 
 
 The very poor were sewed up in sheets and carried to 
 the grave in a '' parish shell," which was a coarser kind of 
 coffin with a movable lid, and used as a bierf for the 
 purpose of conveying the body to the place of sepulture. 
 Fosbroke Eficy. Ant. 
 
 Interment in the bare earth was the common method 
 among the Jews and other nations as well. Jacob was 
 embalmed by command of Joseph, and Joseph also was 
 embalmed. As they died in Egypt, their remains were 
 
 * In Caiston, Lincolnshire, is a register, date 1707: "The parish clerk is 
 chosen by the vicar, his salary paid as foUoweth, viz. : the church wardens pay 
 him yearly for winding the clock and ringing the bell at the customary honri day 
 and night, 17 shillings, and the constable for every passing bell, five pence. For 
 every grave in the churchyard and without coffin, four pence ; if with coffin, one 
 shilling," &c. Notes and Queries. 
 
 t Bier has the same root as bear— to carry. 
 
BURIAL IN THE BARE EARTH. I4I 
 
 thus distinguished according to the custonns of the 
 country. No other Israelite is spoken of in the old testa- 
 ment scripture as having been embalmed. Numerous 
 burials are noticed, of which we have spoken before. 
 Some were laid in tombs, but the most were buried in the 
 earth. The body of our Saviour was wrapped in linen. 
 The stone at the door of the sepulchre was, to the minds 
 of the holy women, the only apprehended hindrance to 
 their approach to his body. 
 
 Through all English history the distinguished alone, as 
 we have seen, were laid in coffins. It is reasonable to 
 infer that the dead bodies of the pilgrims at Plymouth, 
 so many of whom died during the first winter, were laid 
 in the bare earth. So immediately after the arrival of the 
 pilgrim fathers, harassed by their various needs, destitute 
 of sawed timber, half their number " wasting away by 
 consumptions and lung fevers," fear of the Indians 
 prompting them to conceal the great mortality among 
 their little company, we cannot doubt that any other 
 mode of burial was adopted than that to which they were 
 accustomed in the land of their fathers. The writer has 
 taken great pains to find records or tradition upon this 
 subject among the old towns of Massachusetts and on 
 Long Island, but thus far without success. In Doctor 
 Samuel A. Green's " Early Records of Groton, Mass.," 
 are the items of a town clerk's funeral expenses, February, 
 i/of. They are: "A winding sheet, 18 shillings; coffin, 
 lOs. ; grave digging, ys.,6d. ; " &c. In the Massachusetts 
 
142 " EARTH TO EARTH " COFFIN. 
 
 Historical Society collections are some nails from the 
 coffins of Roger Williams and of his wife. The coffins 
 were wholly decayed except a few fragments. Williams 
 died in April, 1683. 
 
 Burial in coffins, as a universal custom, commenced 
 with the last century. Fosbroke's Ency. Ant. 
 
 A reverent respect for the dead and the purest senti- 
 ments of affection are in harmony with the method of 
 depositing, in proper swathing, in mother earth, the 
 bodies of those who " return to their dust." It hastens 
 the inevitable decay, and thus protects the living. A 
 burial at sea without a coffin is accepted as proper, and is 
 not esteemed to be abhorrent to surviving friends. 
 
 Some years ago Mr. Francis Seymour Haden, an emi- 
 nent surgeon, wrote a series of letters to the London 
 Times, in which he very forcibly showed that the solid 
 coffin is a source of evil, and that burial in it was dishon- 
 oring to the dead and fatal to the living. He pointed out 
 the distinction between effective and non-effective inhuma- 
 tion, and that the former could not be obtained in heavy 
 oak or other wooden coffins. The result of his teachings 
 upon the subject has been the introduction into England 
 of the "Earth to Earth" coffin, constructed of perishable 
 material, as pulp or wicker-work, but with the necessary 
 strength and solidity, and with the general appearance of 
 an ordinary coffin. A casket such as this meets the 
 requisites of inhumation and does no violence to our 
 
MEASURES BEFORE BURIAL. I43 
 
 present burial associations. Their introduction into our 
 own country would, if they were understood, be atten- 
 ded with the popular favor. 
 
 The treatment of a corpse before burial is a subject 
 worthy of the careful and studious consideration of 
 undertakers for the prevention of the spread and fatality 
 of disease. It is a part of their office to enforce the 
 strictest rules of cleanliness and disinfection. " The Jew- 
 ish mode of sanitation, as revealed in scripture and as 
 illustrated in profane history, is well worthy of note as an 
 example. Immediately after death the body was well 
 washed, generally with a strong solution of native carbon- 
 ate of soda. It was then anointed all over with some 
 fragrant oil. Most of the essential oils have disinfectant 
 properties. In some cases, as in scarlet fever for instance, 
 oil serves a valuable purpose in preventing particles from 
 the skin from floating in the atmosphere. 'Oil or vaseline 
 can be used still with advantage." Dr. Hunt, jd An. 
 Rep. State B. of H., N. J. 
 
 The interval of time between death and burial varies 
 somewhat according to the custom of neighborhoods and 
 classes of people. " When thou hast wept awhile," says 
 Jeremy Taylor, " compose the body to burial ; which, 
 that it may be done gravely, decently and charitably, we 
 have examples of all nations to engage us, and of all ages 
 of the world to warrant. So that it is against common 
 
144 COUNTRY GRAVEYARDS. 
 
 honesty and public fame and reputation not to do tliis 
 office." Impressed with such sentiments, we should pay 
 our tribute of love and respect to the dead. 
 
 The stages of decomposition which are the most dan- 
 gerous are, that which takes place immediately after 
 death, and the extreme degree of putrefaction. Among 
 the poorer classes who live in very limited, ill-ventilated 
 quarters, the corpse frequently occupies the bed where 
 the previous sickness and death have occurred. Its eman- 
 ations, and those of the sordes, infect the air. Here the 
 members of the family eat and drink, and work and sleep. 
 Thence go forth, in neglected neighborhoods, infection 
 and contagion to do their fatal work. The custom 
 among a portion of our foreign population of waking the 
 dead is attended with serious danger, and becomes the 
 frequent occasion of transporting the contagion of dis- 
 ease in a degree corresponding to the numbers of those 
 partaking in it. While preparing this manuscript, its 
 writer has found it to be his duty to warn one of his own 
 household, and forbid attendance at the wake of a child 
 who had died of scarlet fever. 
 
 COUNTRY GRAVEYARDS. 
 
 We have considered the subject of rural cemeteries — 
 their comparative safety and the best methods of man- 
 agement to preserve the public health. These arc, for 
 the most part, established, for our cities and larger towns. 
 
COUNTRY GRAVEYARDS. I45 
 
 A graveyard in the country is not usually deemed to be 
 a source of infection or a means of deterioration of the 
 air. In many cases it is not ; but the facts which have 
 been presented in this treatise have a logic in them which 
 cannot, with a wise regard to the health of a town, be 
 overlooked or disregarded. In the Report of the Board 
 of Health of New Jersey, 1880, we find the following 
 from a writer in the northern part of the State : 
 " Another great nuisance in some parts of the country is 
 the graveyard or burying-ground ; such a one we have in 
 
 the village of , in the shape of a graveyard. It is 
 
 in the centre of the village, and on the elevated side of 
 the street. The church is in the graveyard. Private 
 dwelling houses are situated on the lower, or other 
 side, of the street. Each house has a well of water for 
 family use. The water runs from the graveyard into 
 these wells. I have heard one old sexton of this church 
 tell me a number of times, that when graves were dug in 
 certain parts of the yard the wells of water would become 
 roiled and muddled during the process of digging. The 
 children of the Sunday school drink out of these wells, 
 and the children of the public school in the place patron- 
 ize them, as the school has no well of its own ; and if it 
 had, the school-house is situated at the lower end of the 
 graveyard. This graveyard is a confirmed nuisance. It 
 is an old yard, and the community still bury in it. The 
 land is wet and soggy in the yard. There are a number 
 of good locations within a quarter to half a mile from 
 \9 
 
146 COUNTRY GRAVEYARD NUISANCES. 
 
 the village for a cemetery ; soil dry and pleasant. I 
 urge strongly on the State Board of Health that the 
 matter be looked into, and, if I am correct, that an act 
 of the Legislature be passed preventing any more burials 
 taking place in this graveyard." 
 
 Another writer from another county in New Jersey 
 remarks that burial-grounds are mostly connected with 
 churches, and raises the question whether churches which 
 are closely crowded upon by graves, and not occupied 
 during the week, do not become receptacles of graveyard 
 air, and thus risk the health of the Sabbath worshipers, 
 especially in those churches heated by furnaces, which 
 cause a current of air from without laden with noxious 
 gases. 
 
 In the case of the graveyard first noticed, the " wet 
 and soggy ground " retards indefinitely the natural decay 
 of the bodies buried in it, and the specific germs of 
 malignant fevers — cholera, diphtheria, etc., — are liable to 
 find their way into the wells. As may have been the 
 case here, a place of burial in the country is not infre- 
 quently a gift, or is purchased because it is cheap, being 
 unfit for cultivation. If an endemic of fatal disease 
 invades, it is accepted as a visitation of God, and not as 
 a judgment upon the people who do violence to His 
 laws. All our country towns are subject, in a greater or less 
 degree, to the more common forms of epidemic disease. 
 We will not venture the assertion that they have their 
 cause in the graveyard ; it cannot be questioned, how- 
 
DANGERS OF COUNTRY GRAVEYARDS. I47 
 
 ever, that it may, by its emanations and the pollution of 
 the water, intensify prevalent disease, increase its infec- 
 tious power, and convert a mild into a widely-fatal 
 epidemic. 
 
 The country towns in the vicinity of our great cities 
 have become suburban ; small villages have become con- 
 siderable cities. Their population, as it increases, crowds 
 upon the old and venerated burying-places, and they are 
 enlarged to meet their increasing interments. The 
 authorities of such towns are stimulated by their growth 
 to add to their attractions by improvements in drainage, 
 by abating nuisances and by conveniences of various sorts; 
 but when, as has occurred in some towns, they are warned 
 of the dangers of the graveyards, and importuned to 
 abate them, they let them alone to receive their annually 
 increasing dead, to exhale their noxious miasm, to pollute 
 the water supply, and to become nuisances of a daily 
 increasing power for evil. 
 
 The most of the governments in Europe have prohib- 
 ited intra-mural interments absolutely. In our own 
 country the disposal of the dead has not been a subject of 
 legislation by State legislators, to whom it belongs. The 
 regulation of burials has been left to municipal authority, 
 liable to be governed in its action by local influences. 
 
 The question how and where the dead shall be disposed 
 of is one eminently sanitary. It is a civil affair. The 
 religion of all peoples modifies and renders traditionally 
 
148 INTERMENT A SUBJECT OF LEGISLATION. 
 
 sacred their methods of burial ; but among Christian 
 nations " such is the harmony always existing between 
 religion and sound policy, that what is acknowledged as 
 decorous and useful by one is also commanded and pre- 
 scribed by the other."* The dead should be so buried 
 that the living may not suffer. The Legislatures of our 
 States adopt laws of quarantine to protect the people 
 from the importation and consequent spread of contagion. 
 The State of New Jersey, perhaps others, provides by a 
 general law against the infection of cattle. Our law- 
 makers do not recognize as they should, the fearful dangers 
 of the inhumation of human bodies, dead from malignant 
 disease with its specific germs — germs which float in the 
 air we breathe, and the water we drink ; germs which 
 neither boiling nor freezing can destroy ; germs which, 
 after being buried in the earth for centuries, when brought 
 to the surface by excavations produce a pestilence, and 
 which, like vegetable seed germs buried for ages in the 
 earth, when brought to the surface, bring forth fruit, 
 each after its kind.f 
 
 * Ordinance of Archbishop of Toulouse, forbidding interments in churches, and 
 enacted by the State (1765). 
 
 t Numerous instances are on record where seeds have grown which have lain 
 dormant for ages. Their vitality seems to be imperishable, while they remain in 
 situations in which nature has deposited them. When a forest old enough to 
 have witnessed the mysteries of the Druids is felled, trees of other species spring 
 in their place, and when they in their turn fall before the axe, the germs which 
 their predecessors have shed, perhaps centuries before, sprout up and restore the 
 original growtli. 
 
 Earth brouglit up from wells and other excavations in primitive soil, soon 
 
CREMATION AND DESICCATION. I49 
 
 The disposal of the dead by cremation or by chemical 
 destruction, has not been considered in this treatise. 
 Each method, like the slower processes of decomposition 
 in the earth, resolves the body into its original elements. 
 If good hygiene made it necessary, the former methods 
 would doubtless, be accepted as reasonable and proper. 
 In our own country the question of their adoption upon 
 sanitary grounds is not an urgent one. It may become so in 
 the generations to come. Inhumation commends itself to 
 the traditional sentiments of the people, and an innovation 
 upon these is not demanded. 
 
 Rural cemeteries, properly regulated, under wise con- 
 trol, guarded by good laws, and permanently extra-mural, 
 afford all necessary protection to the public health. 
 
 produce plants unlike those of the \oq?\ flora, and in some cases species entirely 
 new. Earth and Man, by Geo. P. Marsh . 
 
 In Modena, Italy, excavations made through a part of the city where the 
 victims of the plague were buried 300 hundred years before, caused an immediate 
 outbreak of the disease in the neighborhood. 
 
INDKX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Aaron, Burial of 12 
 
 Abel, Burial of 1 1 
 
 Altars and Chapels for Funeral rites 43 
 
 Transferred from the Catacombs to the cities 44 
 
 Ananias and Saphira, Burial of 42 
 
 Armies affected by putrid matter in soil 87 
 
 Asiatic Cholera no 
 
 Assyrian Sepulchres ... 21 
 
 Athens — burial without the walls 27 
 
 " " " " within 27 
 
 Autopsy, Effect of 67 
 
 Basilics, Origin of 43 
 
 Battle grounds 52 
 
 Black Bird, Burial of 38 
 
 Black Hawk, Burial of 39 
 
 Burials a subject of legislation 148 
 
 Burial of the Plymouth Pilgrims 141 
 
 Burning 18 
 
 Greek 25 
 
 of Patroclus 25 
 
 Pile described 28 
 
 North American Indians 39 
 
 Cadaver, the first human 12 
 
 Canaan, Burial in, varied 15 
 
 Carcases on Battle Fields 52 
 
 Catacombs, Roman 42 
 
 Catarrhal Fever converted into Putrid Fever in Saulieu. . . 53 
 
 Cemeteries, Rural 117 sqq. 
 
 Sanitary Requisites 119 sqq. 
 
 Greenwood 133 
 
152 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chadwick's Report 60 
 
 Conclusions of 80 
 
 Cholera 110-113 
 
 Christian Burial early , 41 
 
 Church — First burial within 44 
 
 Church Burial, edict against 45 
 
 Churches first built in second century 43 
 
 Churches and Cities, Interments in the sixth century 46 
 
 Forbidden by Charlemagne 47 
 
 Clay and gravelly soil, comparative effects of, upon decom- 
 position 122, 131 
 
 Clark, Adam, on Burial in cities 58 
 
 Coffins 134 
 
 In early times 1 34 sqq. 
 
 Bursting of 69 
 
 Hayden's " Earth to Earth" 142 
 
 Constantine, Edict of toleration 44 
 
 Burial of 44 
 
 Corpse, Treatment of, before burial 143 
 
 Crucifixion, Graves opened at . . 42 
 
 Dead thrown to wild beasts in Persia 31 
 
 Decomposition in towns always evil 104 
 
 Most dangerous stages of 144 
 
 Of a corpse, process of ... 129 
 
 Decay and Putrefaction comparative effects 77 sq. 
 
 Disease and Death caused by putrid exhalations 52 sqq. 
 
 Malignant from one corpse 55 sq. 
 
 Diseases, Early, same as now 1 3 sq. 
 
 After the Flood 13 
 
 Mosaic Statutes on 13 
 
 Dissecting Room Exhalations 75 sq. 
 
 Earth to Earth Coffin 142 
 
 Edom, Tombs in 22 
 
 Eleazer, Burial of 12 
 
 Elijah, Burial of 17 
 
 Embalmment, Egyptian 16 sq. 
 
 Of Our Lord 19 sq. 
 
 Of Lazarus ... 1 9 sq. 
 
INDEX. 153 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Embalmment of Jacob and Joseph 18 
 
 Jewish 19 
 
 Indian 37 
 
 Eskimo Burial 41 
 
 Eustace St., Church, Paris 52 
 
 Ezekiel, Description by, of modes of Assyrian burial and of 
 
 countries adjacent 20 sq. 
 
 Fevers, a catarrhal fever rendered malignant 53 
 
 Yellow, in United States 95 sqq. 
 
 Malignant, in Egypt 52 
 
 Typhus, from church miasm 75 
 
 Fellmongers affected by putrid matter 68 
 
 Field of crime 28 
 
 Fields for culture, Burials in forbidden 27 
 
 Germs Disease 1 14-148 
 
 In vaults 51 
 
 Of Fever and Cholera 1 26 
 
 Of Anthrax 125 
 
 Of Plague in Modena 149 
 
 Grasshoppers, Putrefaction of, in Ethiopia 52 
 
 Graves opened at the Crucifixion 42 
 
 Graves and spaces 132 
 
 Graves, Deep, no protection from miasm 88 
 
 Grave-diggers — Effect of their calling 66 sqq. 
 
 Graveyards in New York 99 sqq. 
 
 In the country 144 sqq., 147 
 
 Soil disturbed in 57 
 
 Greeks, Customs among the 25 
 
 Ground, Burial in the bare 137 sq. 
 
 Hannibal, Death of 59 
 
 Herod, Funeral of King 19 
 
 Holy places polluted by dead bodies 15 
 
 Horace, Tomb of 30 
 
 Indians, North American 34 
 
 Indian burial 35 sq. 
 
 Inhumation, Earliest method 12 
 
 Interments within cities 116 
 
 30 
 
154 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 IiUerments, Effect of in New Orleans 107 
 
 Intra-mural burial in the United States 94 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 Insects, minute, generated by putrefaction 56 
 
 Aquatic of the Nile 52 
 
 From opening a Revolutionary grave-pit loi 
 
 Jacob the Patriarch buried ... 12 
 
 Joseph, the bones of, carried to Shechem 12 
 
 Juggernaut, Pilgrimages to, effect of 1 1 1 sq. 
 
 Kings, Roman, Burial of 28 
 
 Latimer, Bishop, on burial in cities 5^ 
 
 Machpelah, Cave of 12 
 
 Moecenas, Tomb of 30 
 
 Mausoleums on the Roman Highways 29 
 
 Miasm Decaying, Concentration of 78 
 
 Of graves and effects 70 
 
 Middle Dutch Churchyard, New York 99 sq. 
 
 Miller, Dr. Edward — Report of on prohibiting burials in 
 
 New York 103 
 
 Miracles at the Tombs of Saints 51 
 
 Miriam, Burial of 12 
 
 Moses, Burial of 12 
 
 Mosaic Laws, Sanitary 49 
 
 Mummies, Egyptian 16-25 
 
 Indian 38 
 
 Nain, Son of Widow of 42 
 
 Nile, Aquatic Insects of 52 
 
 Numa, Tomb of 28 
 
 Ozone — Effect of its absence on Epidemic Cholera 105 sq. 
 
 Parsee Burial 31 
 
 Patroclus, Funeral pile of 25 
 
 Parliament Houses, Air of, polluted by miasm 89 
 
 Persian Burial 31 
 
INDEX. 155 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Pestilence 115 
 
 In camp of Constantine 52 
 
 In Poland 52 
 
 From one corpse 55 sq. 
 
 From exhalations of dead bodies 50-52 sqq. 
 
 From pilgrimages to shrines in sqq. 
 
 In Pompey's army 52 
 
 In Egypt and Ethiopia 52 
 
 Of small-pox 51 
 
 Of Plague 149 
 
 Caused by sieges 52 
 
 Pilgrims, Burial of Plymouth 141 
 
 Potter's field, New York, in 1814 97 
 
 Preservation of dead bodies by cold 129 
 
 Putrescence, Animal 49, 63, 71 
 
 Roman customs .... 28 
 
 Removal of a dead body. Result of 103 
 
 Sarah, Burial of 12 
 
 Saul buried 18 
 
 Saviour, Embalmment and resurrection of 20 
 
 Shechem, Joseph buried in 12 
 
 Siege of Agrigentum 59 
 
 Sepulchres 21 
 
 Assyrian 21 
 
 Syria 15 
 
 Theban 23 sqq. 
 
 Silence, Towers of 31 sqq. 
 
 Sion Mt., Tombs in 22 
 
 Small-pox from animal putrescence 51 
 
 Smell, The ^ense of, a sentinel against putridity 71 
 
 Of putrid miasm destroyed by constant exposure 
 
 to it 82 
 
 Putrid from drains through graveyards 84 sqq. 
 
 Spices and perfumes in burial 19 
 
 Tanners affected by putrid matter 68 
 
 Twelve Tables, prohibited intra-mural burials 28, 43 
 
156 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Trinity churchyard, New York, described 96 sqq. 
 
 Emanations from 114 
 
 Vault opened, death from 66, 102 sq. 
 
 Veterinary anatomy, study of, injurious 74 
 
 Wells and springs polluted 85 sqq., 1 2 1 sqq. 
 
 1 n New York 98 
 
 Weehawken cemetery, Decay of bodies within 131 
 
 Woolen swathing of the dead 140 
 
 Yellow Fever 95 
 
 In New Orleans 107 sqq. 
 
 In Norfolk 109 
 
 In New York 95-98 sqq. 
 
CATALOGUE NO. 1. 
 
 SEPTEMBER, 1883. 
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 OF 
 
 MEDICAL, DENTAL, PHARMACEUTICAL 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 A. HAND-BOOK OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDI- 
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 It is of a much higher order than the usual compilations and abstracts placed in the hands 
 of students. It embraces many suggestions and hints from a carefully compiled hospital 
 experience ; the style is clear and concise, and the plan of the work very judicious. — 3Iedical 
 and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 It is unsurpassed by any work that has fallen into our hands as a compendium for stndents 
 preparing for examination. It is thoroughly practical and fully up to the times. — The Clinic. 
 
 We find it an admirable book. Indeed, we know of no hand-book on the subject Just now 
 to be preferred to it. We particularly commend it to students about to enter upon the 
 practice of their profession. — St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal. 
 
 If there is a book in the whole of medical literature in which so much is said in so 
 few words, it has never come within our reach, ^k) clear, terse, and j)ointetl is the style ; 
 so accurate the diction, and so varied the matter of this book, that it is almost a dictionary 
 of practical medicine. — Chicago Medical Journal. 
 
Mr. Presley Blakiston having on January ist, 1882, purchased all the 
 interest of the late firm of Lindsay & Blakiston will continue the publication 
 and sale of Medical and Scientikic Books at No. 1012 Walnut Street, Phil- 
 adelphia, having associated with him his son, Kenneth M. Blakiston, and 
 Frank W, Robinson, under the firm-name of 
 
 P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO. 
 
 MEDICAL, DENTAL. SCIENTIFIC 
 
 AND 
 
 PHARMACEUTICAL BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO. PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 i!®="Any book in this catalogue can be had from or through booksellers in the principal cities in 
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 publisher. 
 
 AMERICAN HEALTH PRIMERS. 
 
 Edited by W. W. Keen, m.d. Complete in 12 volumes, handsomely bound. 
 Price, in cloth binding, 50 cents ; paper covers, 30 cents. 
 
 I. Hearing and How to Keep It. With illus- 
 trations. By Chas. H. Burnett, m.d. 
 n. Long Life, and How to Reach It. By J. Q. 
 Richardson, m.d. 
 
 III. The Summer and Its Diseases. By Jas. C. 
 
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 IV. Eyesight, and How to Care for It. With il- 
 
 lustrations. By George C. Harlan, m.d. 
 V. The Throat and the Voice. With illustrations. 
 
 By J. SoLis Cohen, m.d. 
 VI. The Winter and Its Dangers. By Hamilton 
 
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 IX. 
 
 VII. The Mouth and the Teeth. With illustra- 
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 Brain Work and Overwork. By H. C. 
 
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 Our Homes. With illustrations. By Henry 
 
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 The Skin in Health and Disease. By L. D. 
 
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 Sea Air and Sea Bathing. By John H. 
 Packard, m.d. 
 XII. School and Industrial Hygiene. By D; L. 
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 X. 
 
 XL 
 
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 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL JOURNAL. 
 
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 ACTON, THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 
 
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 " In the work now before us, all essential detail upon its subject matter is clearly and scientifically given. \Vc 
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 " On the subjects of Impotence and Spermatorrhoea, those bugbears ot so many weak and foolish persons, and 
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 AGNEW, ON THE PERINEUM AND FISTULA. 
 
 Lacerations of the Female Perineuni and Vesico-vaginal Fistula. Their His- 
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 So many applications having been made for these papers, as originally issued, 
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 ALLEN, COMMERCIAL ORGANIC ANALYSIS. 
 
 An Introduction to the Practice of Commercial Organic Analysis. By Alfred 
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 tives, Phenols, Acids, etc. 8vo. Price $3.50 
 Vol. II now ready. 8vo. Price $5.00 
 Being a treatise on the Properties, Analytical Examination, and Modes of 
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 ALLAN, FEVER NURSING. 
 
 Notes on Fever Nursing. Addressed to nurses in hospital and private life. 
 
 By James W. Allan, M.D. i2mo. Illustrated. Price .75 
 
 ALLINGHAM, DISEASES OF THE RECTUM. Illustrated. 
 
 Fistula, Haemorrhoids, Painful Ulcer, Stricture, Prolapsus, and other Diseases 
 
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 "He is in charge of the only hospital in the world I "This book h.is always been a great f.ivorite, and 
 
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 rectum, and he is recognized, both in this country and magisterial in its teaching, and valuable in showing 
 
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 ALTHAUS, MEDICAL ELECTRICITY. 
 
 A Treatise on Medical Electricity, Theoretical and Practical, and its Use in 
 the Treatment of Paralysis, Neuralgia, and other Diseases. By Julius Althaus, 
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PUBLICA TIONS. 5 
 
 ANSTIE, STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
 
 With special researches on the Action of Alcohol, Ether and Chloroform on 
 the Vital Organism. By Francis E. Anstie, m.d. 8vo. Trice jJs.oo 
 
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 be neglected." — American Medical youtnal. 
 
 ATTHILL, DISEASES OF WOMEN. 
 
 Clinical Lectures on Diseases Peculiar to Women. By Lombe Atthill, m.d. 
 5th edition, revised and enlarged, with numerous illustrations. i2mo. Cloth. 
 
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 AITKEN'S PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. New Edition. 
 
 The Science and Practice of Medicine. By William Aitken, m.d., f.r.s. 
 London, Professor of Pathology in the Army Medical School, etc. Seventh 
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 throughout. In Two Volumes. 196 Engravings on Wood, and a Map showing 
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 BALFOUR, ON THE HEART AND AORTA. 
 
 Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Heart and Aorta. By G. W. Balfour, 
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 BARTH AND ROGER, AUSCULTATION AND PERCUS- 
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 A Manual for the Student. By M. Barth and M. Henri Roger. Trans- 
 lated from the 6th French Edition. i2mo. Price $1.00 
 
 BIBLE HYGIENE; 
 
 Or, Health Hints. By a Physician. This book has been written, first, to im- 
 part in a popular and condensed form the elements of Hygiene ; second, to show 
 how varied and important are the Health Hints contained in the Bible, and third, 
 to prove that the secondary tendency of modern Philosophy runs in a parallel 
 direction with the primary light of the Bible. i2mo. Paper, .50; Cloth, $1.00 
 
 " The scientific treatment of the subject is quite abreast of the present day, and is so clear and free from unne- 
 cessary technicalities that readers of all classes may peruse it with satisfaction and advantage." — Edinburgh 
 Medical yournal. 
 
 BIDDLE, MATERIA MEDICA. Ninth Edition. 
 
 ( Contains all the changes in the Sixth Revision of the New Pharmacopoeia.') 
 Materia Medica. For the Use of Students and Physicians. By the late 
 Prof. John B. Biddle, m.d.. Professor of Materia Medica in Jefferson Medi- 
 cal College, Philadelphia. The Ninth Edition, thoroughly revised, and in 
 many parts rewritten, by his son, Clement Biddle, m.d., Assistant Surgeon, 
 U. S. Navy, assisted by Henry Morris, m.d. Containing all the additions 
 and changes made in the last revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia. 
 The Botanical portions have been curtailed or left out, and the other sections, 
 on the Physiological action of Drugs, greatly enlarged. Octavo, 
 
 Cloth, ^4.00; Leather, $4.75 
 
 " The additions are valuable, and we must congrat- 
 ulate the author upon having improved what was 
 already so useful a work, both to the student and phy- 
 sician." — Phila. Medical and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 " It has been the design of the author to present in 
 his work a te.\t-book for the student. It is brief, and 
 yet sufficiently comprehensive. His style is clear and 
 
 " One thing that particularly recommends this work 
 to the student is, that the book is not so large as to dis- 
 courage and cause him to feel thnt it is impossible for 
 him to get over it and so much else in the short time 
 before him." — St. Louis Medical and Surgical your- 
 nal. 
 
 " It contains, in a condensed form, all that is valu- 
 
 yet succinct. He covers the ground — covers it well, | able in materia medica, and furnishes the medical 
 and cumbers his work with nothing superfluous." — student with a complete manual on this subject." — 
 Atlanta Medical and Surgical yournal. ! Canada Lancet. 
 
6 P. BLAKlSrON, SON &* CO.'S 
 
 BRE\VING, DISTILLING, ETC. 
 
 Tlie Brewer, Distiller :incl Wine Minufdcturcr ; a Handbook for all interested 
 in the Manufacture and Trade of Alcohol and its Compounds. Edited by John 
 (iardner, Kellow of the Chemical Society of London. Illustrated. Cloth, j;i.75 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. — Alcohol, its Preparations, etc. ; Alcoholometry ; 
 Brewing and Beers; Varieties of Malt Liquors; Malt; Raw Grain; Sugar; 
 Hops; Arrangement of a Brewery; Different Processes; Chemical Changes 
 during Washing, Boiling, Cooling, Fermentation, etc., etc. ; Storing and Clari- 
 fying, Porters, Ales ; Analysis of Beers, Ciders, Perry, Mum ; Liquors and Cor- 
 dials, giving over 80 preparations. Other sources of Spirituous Liquors ; Dis- 
 tillation of Alcoholic Liquors, including Rums, Brandies, Whiskies, Gins.^etc. ; 
 Wine and Wine Making ; Tests for Adulterations ; Remarks on the Cultivation 
 of Grapes, etc.; Imitation of Wines. 
 BLOXAM. CHEMISTRY, Inorganic and Organic. Fifth Edition. 
 
 With Experiments. By Charles L. Bloxam, Professor of Chemistry in 
 King's College, London, and in the Department for Artillery Studies, Wool- 
 wich. Fifth edition. With nearly 300 Engravings. Cloth, ;J4.oo; Leather, $ 5.00 
 
 A most complete Text-Book for Schools and Colleges. 
 
 " Professor Bloxam has given us a most excellent and useful practical treatise. His 666 pages (now 700) are 
 crowded with facts and experiments, nearly all well chosen, and many quite new, even to scientific men 
 It is astonishing how much information he often conveys in a few paragraphs. We might quote fifty instances of 
 this . " — Chemical News. 
 
 BLOXAM, LABORATORY TEACHING. Fourth Edition. 
 
 Progressive Exercises in Practical Chemistry. By Charles L. Bloxa.m, 
 Professor of Chemistry in King's College, London, etc. Fourth edition. With 
 89 engravings. i2mo. Price $1.75 
 
 This work is intended for use in the Chemical Laboratory, by those who are 
 commencing the study of Practical Chemistry. It contains: — 
 
 I. A series of simple Tables for the analysis of unknown substances of all 
 kinds. 2. A brief description of all the practically important single substances 
 likely to be met with in ordinary analysis. 3. Simple directions and illustra- 
 tions relating to Chemical Manipulation. 4. A system of Tables for the detec- 
 tion of unknown substances with the aid of the Blowpipe. 5. Short instructions 
 upon the purchase and preparation of the tests intended for those who have not 
 access to a Laboratory. 
 
 " a great amount of valuable practical information is here condensed into a book of ifr> pages, such as only a 
 priictical teacher could prepare. ' — Neiv England ymirnal of Education. 
 
 BRUEN. PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS. 
 
 A Pocket Book of Physical Diagnosis, for Physicians and Students. By 
 Edward T. Bruen, m.d., Asst. Prof, of Clinical Medicine, University of Penn'a. 
 Illustrated by Original Wood Engravings. i2mo. Extra Cloth. Price $2.00 
 
 BENNETT. NUTRITION IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
 
 A Contribution to Hygiene and Clinical Medicine. By J. Henry Ben- 
 nett, M.D. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Cloth. Price $2.50 
 
 HY same author. 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION 
 BY HYGIENE, CLIMATE AND MEDICINE. 
 
 With an Appendix on the Sanitaria of the United States, Switzerland and 
 the Balearic Islands. Third Edition much Enlarged. Price ?2. 50 
 
 "Any physician may take it up with every feeling of confidence that the views enunciated by the author will be 
 found to be able, honest and orthodox." — Medico- Ckirurgical Rrview. 
 
 BERKART, ASTHMA. 
 
 The Pathology and Treatment of Asthma. By Joseph B. Berk art, m.d. 
 Svo. Price 52.50 
 
PUB Lie A TIONS. 
 
 BEALE ON SLIGHT AILMENTS. New Edition. Just Ready. 
 
 Slight Ailments, Their Nature and Treatment, By Lionel S. Bkalk, m.d., 
 
 F.R.S., Professor of Practice, King's Medical College, London. Second Edition. 
 
 Enlargeil and Illustrated.. Price, Cloth, ,^1.25 ; Paper covers, .75 cents. 
 
 Fine Edition, Heavy Paper. Extra Cloth, Price ^1.75 
 
 OUTLINE OF CONTENT.S. 
 
 Introductory. The Tongue in Health and Slight Ailments. Appetite. Nausea. Thirst. Hunger. Indigestion, 
 
 its Nature and Treatment. Constipation, its Treatment. Diarrhoea. Vertigo. Oiddine.ss. Biliousness. Sick 
 
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 and Inflammation, Common Forms of Slight Inflammation, etc., etc. 
 
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 which will prove more useful to the young general practitioner, for whom it is really intended, than this volume, 
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 Science 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 ON LIFE AND VITAL ACTION IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
 
 l2mo. Price $2.00 
 
 THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN PRACTICAL MEDI- 
 CINE. 
 
 For Students and Practitioners, vi^ith full directions for examining the various 
 secretions, etc., in the Microscope. Fourth Edition. 500 Illustrations. Much 
 enlarged. 8vo. Price ^7.50 
 
 " We have before us Prof. Beale's work. The Micro- I " As a microscopical observer, and a histological 
 jfo/<? z"« j'V/ifa';V/«t', a book which it gives us pleasure to manipulator, his (Dr. Beale) skill and eminence are 
 recommend to every student of microscopy, whether he generally conceded." — Popular Science Monthly. 
 be a physician or naturalist." — yournal of the Frank- 
 lin Institute, Philadelphia. \ 
 
 HOW TO WORK WITH THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 A Complete Manual of Microscopical Manipulation, containing a full descrip- 
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 jects under the highest powers, and for taking photographs of microscopic 
 objects. Fifth Edition. Containing over 400 Illustrations, many of them colored. 
 Octavo. Price $7.50 
 
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 It impossible to present an abstract of its contents ; suffice it to say, that anything in his department upon which 
 the physican can desire such information will be found here, and much more in addition. It is, moreover, a store- 
 house of facts, most valuable to the physician, and is indispensable to every one who uses the microscope." — 
 American yournal of Medical Science. 
 
 BIOPLASM. 
 
 A Contribution to the Physiology of Life, or an Introduction to the Study of 
 Physiology and Medicine, for Students. With numerous Illustrations. 
 
 Price $2.25 
 PROTOPLASM; or MATTER AND LIFE. 
 
 Third Edition, very much enlarged. Nearly 350 pages. Sixteen Colored 
 Plates. Part i. Dissentient. Part 11. Demonstrative. Part iii. Suggestive. 
 One volume. Price ^3.00 
 
 LIFE THEORIES ; Their Influence upon Religious Thought. 
 
 Six Colored Plates. Price $2.00 
 
 ONE HUNDRED URINARY DEPOSITS, 
 
 On two sheets, for the Hospital, Laboratory, or Surgery. Each Sheet $1.00, or 
 on Rollers, Price j?i.2 5 
 
 BERNAY, CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Notes for Students in Chemistry. Compiled from Fowne's and other manuals. 
 By Albert J. Bernay, pm.d. Sixth Edition. i2mo. Price $1.25 
 
 BENTLEY'S STUDENTS' BOTANY. 
 
 The Students' Guide to Structural and Physiological Botany. By Professor 
 Robert Bentley. Illustrated by nearly 500 Wood Engravings. 
 
 /;/ Preparation. 
 
8 P. BLAKISTON, SON &* CO:S 
 
 BEASLEY. THE BOOK OF PRESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Containing over 3100 Prescriptions, collected from the I'mctice of the most 
 Eminent Physicians and Surgeons — Knglish, French and American ; a Com- 
 pendious History of the Materia Mcdica, Lists of the Doses of all Officinal and 
 Established Preparations, and an Index of Diseases and their Remedies. By 
 Henry Beaslly. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Price $2.25 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 THE DRUGGIST'S GENERAL RECEIPT-BOOK. 
 
 Comprising a copious Veterinary Formulary; numerous Recipes in Patent 
 and Proprietary Medicines, Druggists' Nostrums, etc. ; Perfumery and Cos- 
 metics; Beverages, Dietetic Articles and Condiments; Trade Chemicals, Scien- 
 tific Processes, and an Appendix of Useful Tables. Eighth Edition. Price $2.25 
 
 THE POCKET FORMULARY and Synopsis of the British and 
 Foreign Pharmacopceias. 
 
 Comprising Standard and Approved Formula: for the Preparations and Com- 
 pounds Employed in Medical Practice. Tenth Edition. 511 pp. i8mo. 
 
 Price $2.25 
 BENTLEY AND TRIMEN'S MEDICINAL PLANTS. 
 
 A New Illustrated Work, containing full botanical descriptions, with an account 
 of the properties and usesof the principal plants employed in medicine, especial 
 attention being paid to those which are officinal in the British and United States 
 Pharmacopoeias. The plants which supply food and substances required by the 
 sick and convalescent are also included. By R. Bentley, f.r.s.. Professor of 
 Botany, King's College, London, and H. Trime.n, m.b., f.h.s., Department of 
 Botany, British Museum. Each species illustrated by a colored plate drawn 
 from nature. In Forty-two parts. Eight colored plates in each part. 
 
 Price $2 each, or handsomely bound in 4 volumes. Half Morocco, $90.00 
 
 " It would be impossible to enumerate all the new 
 plants that are here delineated. The result is a work 
 which, from all points of view, is a credit to the scientific 
 literature of the day." — London Lancet. 
 
 "It is an indispensable work of reference to every one 
 interested in pharmaceutical Botany." — London Phar- 
 ?>taceutical journal. 
 
 BRUBAKER, PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 A Compend of Physiology specially adapted for the use of Students and Phy- 
 sicians. " No, 4, ? Quiz-Compend Series ?" i2mo, Cloth. Price $1. 00 
 
 " Dr. Brubaker deserves the hearty thanks of medical students for his Compend of Physiology. He lias 
 arranged the fundamental and practical principles of the science in a particularly inviting and accessible 
 manner. I have already introduced the work to my class." — Maurice N. Miller, M.D., Demonstrator of 
 
 J'liysiology, Medical Department University of the City of New York. 
 
 BYFORD. DISEASES OF WOMEN. New Revised Edition. 
 
 The Practice of Medicine and Surgery, as applied to the Diseases of Women. 
 By W. H. Byford, a.m.,m.d., Professor of Obstetrics and The Diseases of Wo- 
 men and Children, in the Chicago Medical College. Third Edition. Revised 
 and Enlarged, much of it rewritten, with numerous additional illustrations. 
 
 Price, in Cloth $5.00; Leather, 56.00 
 
 " The treatise is as complete a one as the present " The author is an experienced writer, an able teach- 
 
 state of our science will admit of being written. We cr in his department, and h.is embodied in the present 
 
 commend it to the diligent study of every practitioner work the results of a wide field of practical observa- 
 
 and student, as a worjc calculated to inculcate sound tion. We have not had time to read its page* critically, 
 
 principles and lead to enlightened practice. — Ne'M \ but freely commend it to all our readers, as one of the 
 
 York Medical Record. I most valuable practical works issued from the Ameri- 
 
 I can press." — Chicago Medical E.xamincr. 
 
 BY .SAME AliTHOR. 
 
 ON THE UTERUS. The Chronic Inflammation and Displace- 
 ment of the Unimpregnated Uterus. 
 
 An Enlarged Edition, with Illustrations. 8vo. Price $2.50 
 
 "A good book from a good man." — American Journal Medical Science . 
 
 " It is a sensible, practical work, and cannot fail to be read with interest and profit." — Boston Medical and 
 Surgical journal. 
 
 " This work may be recommended as a most useful 
 one to druggists, and all who desire to be familiar 
 with the Botany of Medicinal Plants." — Druggists' 
 Circular. 
 
 " The work when complete (it is now complete) 
 will be the most valuable compend of Medical Botany 
 ever published." — Boston your tial of Chemistry. 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 
 
 BRAUNE, TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 An Atlas of Topographical Anatomy. Thirty-four Full-page Plates, Photo- 
 graphed on Stone, from Plane Sections of Frozen Bodies, with many other illus- 
 trations. By WiLHELM Braune, Professor of Anatomy at Leipzig. Translated 
 and Edited by Edwakd Bellamy, f.r.c.s.. Lecturer on Anatomy, Charing 
 Cross Hospital, London. Quarto. Price, Cloth, ^8.00 ; Half Morocco, ;Jio.oo 
 
 "As a whole the work cannot fail to meet with a hearty reception by every progressive student of the human 
 body. To the surgeon it is a contribution to the study ol topographical anatomy which needs to be known to be 
 properly appreciated To such practitioners who reside in large cities, where anatomy can be studied upon the 
 cadaver, it will afford a v.iluable aid, while to those who are without such means of study it is an almost indis- 
 pensable addition to a working library." — New York Medical Record. 
 
 " We commend the book most heartily to the Profession." — American yournal of Medical Science. 
 
 BUCKNILL AND TUKE ON INSANITY. 
 
 A Manual of Pyschological Medicine : containing the Lunacy Laws, the 
 Nosology, CEtiology, Statistics, Description, Diagnosis, Pathology (including 
 morbid Histology), and Treatment of Insanity. By John Charles Bucknill, 
 M.D., F.R.S., and Daniel Hack Tuke, m.d., f.r.c.p. Fourth Edition, much 
 enlarged, with twelve lithographic plates, and numerous illustrations. Octavo. 
 
 Price $8.00 
 
 " We have read no book in any language, and certainly none in English, which ought to be preferred to this 
 for a text book, by those who wish to make a thorough study of the subject. — Edinburgh Medical yournal. 
 " We can heartily commend the work. — American yournal of Insanity. 
 
 BURDETT, HOSPITALS. 
 
 Pay Hospitals and Paying Wards throughout the World. Facts in support 
 of a rearrangement of the system of Medical Relief. By Henry C. Burdett. 
 Svo. Price $2.25 
 
 " Mr. Burdett displays and discusses the whole scheme of Hospital accainsaodation with a comprehensive 
 understanding of its nature and extent. — American Practitioner. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 COTTAGE HOSPITALS. 
 
 General, Fever, and Convalescent : their Progress, Management, and Work. 
 Second Edition, rewritten and much Enlarged, with many Plans and Illustra- 
 tions. Crown Svo. Price $4.50 
 
 Contents. — Chap. — i. Origin and Growth of the Cottage Hospital System. 2. Comparative Success of 
 Treatment in large and small Hospitals. 3. Finance. 4. Cottage Hospital Construction and Sanitary Arrange- 
 ments. 5. The Medical and Nursing Departments. 6. Domestic Supervision and General Management. 7. 
 Cottage Hospital Appliances and Fittings. 8. Cottage Fever Hospitals. 9. Midwifery in Cottage Hospitals. 10. 
 Remunerative Paying Patients. 11. Convalescent Cottages. 12. Cottage Hospitals in America. 13. Mortu- 
 aries. 14. A more Detailed Account of certain Cottage Hospitals, with Plans and Elevations. 15. Selected and 
 Model Plans criticised and compared, with a detailed description of various Hospitals. 16. Peculiarities and 
 Special Features in the Working of Cottage Hospitals. With an Appendix containing much statistical and useful 
 information. 
 
 " Mr. Burdett'sbook contains a mass of information, statistical, financial, architectural , and hygienic, which has 
 already proved of great practical utility to those interested in cottage hospitals, and we can confidently recom- 
 mend this second edition to all who are in search of the kind of information which it contains." — Lancet. 
 
 BUZZARD, NERVOUS DISEASES. 
 
 Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System. By Thos. Buzz.a.rd, 
 M.D. Illustrated. Octavo. Price $5.00 
 
 CARPENTER, THE MICROSCOPE. Sixth Edition. 
 
 The Microscope and its Revelations. By W. B. Carpenter, m.d., f.r.s. 
 Sixth Edition. Revised and Enlarged, with over 500 Illustrations. Price $5.50 
 
 " Not only the student of medicine, but amateurs, 
 and others interested in the study of natural history, 
 will find this volume one of great practical value." — 
 N^iu York Medical yournal. 
 
 " It is by far the most complete and useful treatjse 
 now accessible to the student." — The Technolo^t. 
 
 "As a text book of Microscopy in its special relation 
 to natural history and general science, the work before 
 us stands confessedly first, and is alone sufficient to 
 supply the wants of the ordinary student." — Anurican 
 yjurnal of Microscopy. 
 
10 p. BLAKISTON, SON 6- CO:S 
 
 CARTER, EYESIGHT. New Edition now ready. 
 
 Eyesight, Good and Bad. A Treatise on the Exercise and Preservation of 
 Vision. By Rouekt Bkudenell Carter, f.r.c.s. Second Edition, with 50 
 Illustrations, Test Types, etc. i2mo. Price, Cloth, $1.25 
 
 " It is written in a lucid and .igrccablc style, conveying an easily comprehensible account of the structure of 
 the eye and the function of vision, and gives a description of the principal anomalies of the latter, at the same 
 time inculcating such salutary advice as may be beneficial for the preservation of sight." — London Medical 
 Times and Gazette. 
 
 " There is much wholesome advice given on the ' Care of the Eyes in Infancy and Childhood,' and on this 
 account, if no other, the book should be in the hands of every parent and teacher." — St. Louis Courier of 
 Medici tu. 
 
 CARTER, PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Elements of Practical Medicine. By Alfred H. Carter, m.d., London, 
 Member of the Royal College of Physicians ; Physician to the Queen's Hos- 
 pital, Birmingham, etc. Crown 8vo. Price $3.00 
 
 " The object of this volume is to provide the student with a general introduction to the study of Medicine, 
 and to bring the essentials of the subject, so far as required for the ordinary medical qualifications, within the 
 grasp of those who have not the time or leisure to read the larger and more elaborate works on Practice." — 
 Pre/ace. 
 
 " Dr. Carter is favorably known as a London physician of learning and experience, and a clear writer. He 
 aims to give a judicial epitome of practical medicine, and this is a well-prepared book." — Philadelphia Medi- 
 cal and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 CULLINGWORTH, ON NURSING. Illustrated. 
 
 A Manual of Nursing, Medical and Surgical. By Charle.s J. Ci'LLING- 
 worth, M.D., Physician to St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester, England. With 
 eighteen Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, fi.oo 
 
 CAZEAUX'S GREAT OBSTETRICAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 A Theoretical and Practical Treatise, including the Diseases of Pregnancy 
 and Parturition. By P. Cazeaux, Adjunct Professor in the Faculty of Medi- 
 cine of Paris, etc. etc. Revised and Annotated by S. Tarnier, Former Clini- 
 cal Chief of the Lying-in-Hospital, etc., etc. Sixth American from the Seventh 
 French Edition. Translated by Wm. R. Bullock, m.d. One volume, Royal 
 Octavo, over iioo pages, with Lithographic and 175 other Illustrations on 
 Wood. Price, Cloth, s;6.oo; Leather, §7.00 
 
 M. Cazeaux's great work on Obstetrics has become classical in its character, and 
 almost an Encyclopaedia in its fulness. Written expressly for the use of students of 
 medicine, and those of midwifery especially, its teachings are plain and explicit, 
 presenting a condensed summary of the leading principles established by the masters 
 of the obstetric art, and such clear, practical directions for the management of the 
 pregnant, parturient, and puerperal states, as have been sanctioned by the most 
 authoritative practitioners, and confirmed by the author's own experience. Collect- 
 ing his materials from the writings of the entire body of antecedent writers, carefully 
 testing their correctness and value by his own daily experience, and rejecting all such 
 as were falsified by the numerous cases brought under his own immediate observa- 
 tion, he has formed out of them a body of doctrine, and a system of practical rules, 
 which he illustrates and enforces in the clearest and most simple manner possible. 
 
 "The edition before us is one of unquestionable ex- 
 cellence. Every portion of it has undergone a thorough 
 revision, and no little modification ; while copious 
 and important additions have been made to nearly 
 every part of it. It is well and beautifully illustrated 
 by numerous wood and lithographic engravings, and 
 in typographical execution will bear a favorable com- 
 parison with other works of the sameclass."y</«fr/ira« 
 Medical yournal. 
 
 "The translation of Dr. Bullock is remarkably well 
 done. We can recommend this work to those espe- 
 cially interested in the subject treated, and can espe- 
 cially recommend the American edition." — Medical 
 Times and Gazette. 
 
 " We do not hesitate to say that it is now the most 
 complete and best treatise on the subject in the Eng- 
 lish langu.ige." — Buffalo Medical yournal. 
 
 " It is unquestionably a work of the highest excel- 
 lence, rich in information, and perhaps fuller in details 
 than any text-book with which we are acquainted. 
 The author has "not merely treated of every question 
 which relates to the business of parturition, but ho has 
 done so with judgment and ability." — British and 
 Foreign Rfedico-Chirurgical Revie^u. 
 
 " No work, in our estimation, bears any comparison 
 to Cazi-aux, in its entire perfectness ; and if we were 
 called upon to rely alone on one work on accouch- 
 ments, our choice would fall upon the book before us 
 without any kind of hesitation." — H'cst. your, of Med- 
 icine and Surgery. 
 
 " We know of no work on this .ill-important branch 
 of our profession that we can commend to the student 
 or practitioner as a safe guide befcrc :hjc" — Chicagt 
 Medical yournal. 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 
 
 CHARTERIS, PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Hand-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By M. Charteris, m.d., Member 
 of Hospital Staff and Professor in University of Glasgow. With Microscopic and 
 other illustrations. Price §1.25 
 
 " Wc have not often met with a book whick can be so confidently recommended to physicians or men in general 
 practice." — Lancet. 
 
 " The style in which it is written is clear and attractive. The illustrations are a marked feature in it. It can 
 be recommended as a very reliable, handy book, weU adapted for ready reference." — New Remedies. 
 
 CHAVASSE ON CHILDREN. 
 
 The Mental Culture and Training of Children. By Pye Henry Chavasse. 
 
 i2mo. Price, Paper covers, .50; Cloth, $1.00 
 
 The mental culture and training of children is of immense importance. Many 
 
 children are so wretchedly trained, or rather not trained at all, and so mismanaged, 
 
 that a few thoughts on this subject cannot be thrown away, even upon the most 
 
 careful. 
 
 CLAY ON OBSTETRIC SURGERY. Third Edition. 
 
 A complete Hand-Book of Obstetric Surgery, with Rules for every Emergency 
 and Descriptisns of the more difficult as well as the every day operations. By 
 Charles Clay, m.d., with numerous Illustrations. From the Third London 
 Edition, i2mo. Paper Covers, .75 ; Cloth, $1.25 
 
 " It is a useful and convenient book of reference ; the illustrations are good, and the book will be found of value 
 to the student and young practitioner, as well as to the skilled Obstetrician." — American yournal of Obstetrics. 
 
 CLEVELAND, POCKET DICTIONARY. 
 
 A Pronouncing Medical Lexicon, containing correct Pronunciation and Defi- 
 nition of terms used in medicine and the collateral sciences. By C. H. Cleve- 
 land, m.d. Twenty-ninth Edition. i6mo. 
 
 Price, Cloth, 75 cents ; Tucks with Pocket, $1.00 
 This is a most convenient size for the pocket, and contains all the principal words 
 in use, together with rules for pronunciation, abbreviations used in prescriptions, list 
 of poisons, their antidotes, etc. 
 
 COHEN, INHALATION. Enlarged Edition. 
 
 Inhalation, its Therapeutics and Practice, including a Description of the Ap- 
 paratus Employed, etc. By J. SoLis Cohen, m.d. With cases and Illustrations. 
 A New Enlarged Edition. 8vo. Price $2.50 
 
 " The book has the merit of containing much information that cannot be found elsewhere." — N. Y. Medical 
 Journal. 
 " One of the best treatises we have seen on this subject." — Medical Times and Gazette. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 CROUP, 
 
 In its Relation to Tracheotomy. 8vo. Price $1.00 
 
 CLARKE, SURGERY. 
 
 Outlines of Surgery and Surgical Pathology, including the Diagnosis and 
 Treatment of Obscure and Urgent Cases. By F. LeGross Clarke, f.r.s. 
 Second Edition. 8vo. Price $2.00 
 
 COBBOLD, PARASITES. 
 
 A Treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals, including some account of 
 the Ectozoa. By T. Spencer Cobbold, m.d., f.r.s. With 85 illustrations. 
 8vo. Price $5.00 
 
12 /'. BLAKISTOX, SON 6f CO.'S 
 
 COLES, THE MOUTH. Third Edition, just ready. 
 
 Deformities of the Mouth, Congenital and Acquired, with Their Mechanical 
 Treatment, By Oaklkv Coles, d.d.s. Third Edition. 83 Wood Engravings 
 and 96 Drawings on Stone. 8vo. I'rice $^.^0 
 
 " Aliogcihcr we must hcarlily congratulate Mr. Coles on this creditable completion of a work which cannot 
 |ut redound to his credit uhercvcr ii is known." — liritisk youriuil of Dental Science. 
 " We recommend this book to the study of both surgeons and dentists " — London Lancet. 
 
 \\\ S.\.MK AUTllOK. 
 
 A MANUAL OF DENTAL MECHANICS. 
 
 Containing much information of a practical nakirc, upon the Materials and 
 Appliances used in Mechanical Dentistry. For Practitioners and Students. 
 Second Edition, with 140 Illustrations. i2mo. 
 
 THE DENTAL STUDENT'S NOTE-BOOK. 
 
 A new Edition. i6mo. Price Jl.oo 
 
 CORMACK, CLINICAL STUDIES. 
 
 Illustrated by Cases Observed in Hospital and Private Practice. By Sir 
 John Rose CoRMACK, W.D., K.B., etc. Illustrated. 2 vols. 1,127pp. Price g 5. 00 
 
 COURTY, THE UTEi^US, OVARIES, ETC. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Uterus, Ovaries, and Fallopian 
 Tubes. By Prof. A. CouRTV, of Montpellier, France. Translated from the 
 Third Edition by his pupil and assistant, Agnes McLaren, m.d., m.k.q.cp.i. 
 With a Preface by J. Matthews Duncan, m.d., ll.d., f.r.s., Obstetric Physi- 
 cian to Saint Bartholomew's Hospital, London. With 431 Illustrations. One 
 Vol., Svo. Price, in Handsome Cloth, $6.00 ; Full Sheep, Raised Bands, S7.00 
 
 OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 
 TPODUCTIOM. — On the Anatomy, Physiology, and Teratology of the Organs of Generation. Part I. — 
 General Survey of Uterine Diseases. Diagnosis of Uterine Diseases in General ; Treatment of 
 Uterine Diseases in General ; General Characteristics of Uterine Diseases. Part ii. — Uterine Diseases 
 IN Detail. Functional Disorders; Changes of Position; Morbid States without Neoplasm; Organic 
 Alterations ; Diseases of the Uterine Appendages ; Pelvic Hemorrhages and Peri-uterine Haematocele ; 
 Cy.'t of the Ovary and Genito-pelvic Tumor ; Sterility, etc., etc. Index 
 " Courty's work has, since its first publication, been recognized everywhere. In France, its position is 
 attested by the sale of two editions, numbering, I am told, ten thousand copies, and by the appearance of 
 another, the third edition. I recommend to the careful study of my professional brethren a book which has 
 already been crowned by the Institute of France." — y. Matthews Duncan. 
 
 CURLING, ON THE TESTIS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Testis, Spermatic Cord, and 
 Scrotum. By T. B. Curling, m.d., f.r.s. Fourth Edition, Enlarged and Il- 
 lustrated. Svo. Price §5.50 
 
 " We believe this work to be the most trustworthy that can be consulted in this Department of Surgerj-, 
 
 his pages abound with valuable suggestions and cautions that mark his intimate knowledge of the 
 
 subject." — London Practitioner. 
 
 COOPER'S SURGICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 A Dictionar}' of Practical Surgery and Encyclopaedia of Surgical Science. 
 By Samuel Cooper. New Edition, brought down to the present time. By 
 Samuel A. Lane, f.r.c.s., assisted by various eminent Surgeons. In two 
 vols. Price $12.00 
 
 COTTLE, ON THE HAIR. 
 
 The Hair in Health and Disease. By E. W. Cottle, m.d. Partly from the 
 notes of the late George Nayler. i8mo. 
 
 CORFIELD, DWELLING HOUSES. 
 
 The Sanitary Construction and Arrangement of Dwelling Houses. By W. 
 H. Corfield, M.A., M.D. Enlarged Edition, with Plans and Illustrations. 
 l2mo. Price $1.25 
 
PUBLICATIONS. 13 
 
 COULSON, THE BLADDER. Sixth Edition. 
 
 Diseases of the Bladder and Prostate Gland. By Walter J. Coulson, f.r.c.s. 
 Sixth Edition. Revised and Enlarged, with 22 Engravings. 8vo. Price §6.40 
 
 CRIPPS, THE RECTUM. 
 
 Cancer of the Rectum. Its Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment. By. W. 
 Harrison Cripps, f.r.c.s. Illustrated by Plates. 8vo. Price 52.40 
 
 DAY ON CHILDREN. Second Edition. Just Ready. 
 
 The Diseases of Children. A Practical and Systematic Treatise for Practi- 
 tioners and Students. By Wm. H. Day, m.d. Second Edition. Rev/ritten and 
 very much Enlarged. 8vo. 752 pp. Price, Cloth, $5.00; Sheep, $6.00 
 
 " Dr. Day brings to hi>i t.nsk a large experience, and 
 evidences a very thorough knowledge of ilie literature, 
 native and foreign, pertaining to this special branch of 
 mediciije. The book h.-is been written with great care, 
 and the author is a good writer. The publisher's part 
 of the task has also been excellently performed." — 
 Boston Medical and Surgical journal. 
 
 " Believing the work well adapted to meet the wants 
 of the Student as well as the Practitioner, I will recom- 
 mend it to the classes of Rush Medical College." — 
 DeLeskie Miller, M.D., Cliicago. 
 
 " On the whole, we must confess we are pleased with 
 this book and can heartily recommend it — a recommen- 
 dation which it does not appear to need, as it has 
 already reached its second edition." — American Jour- 
 nal oy Medical Science. 
 
 DAY ON HEADACHES. Fourth Edition. 
 
 The Nature, Causes, and Treatment of Headaches. Fourth Edition. Illus- 
 trated. By Wm. Henry Day, m.d. Octavo. 
 
 Paper Covers, 75 cents; Cloth, $1.25 
 Summary of Contents. — Headache from Cerebral Anaemia, Cerebral Hyperasmia, Sympathetic, Congestive, 
 Dyspeptic or Bilious Headaches, Headache from Plethora, from E,\haustion, from Change in Cerebral Tissue, 
 from Affections of the Periosteum, Nervous and Nervo-Hyperaemic Headache, To.xKmic, Rheumatic, Arthritic 
 or Gouty Headache, Neuralgic Headache, and Headaches of Childhood, Early and Advanced Life. 
 " Well worth reading. The remarks on treatment are very sensible." — Boston Medical and Surg, yjurnal. 
 
 DALBY, ON THE EAR. 
 
 The Diseases and Injuries of the Ear. By W. B. Daley, m.d.. Surgeon and 
 Lecturer on Aural Surgery, St. George's Hospital. With Illustrations. i2mo. 
 
 Price $1.50 
 
 'A safe and readable introduction to aural surgery." | "The lectures occupy 226 pages, are clearly and 
 
 Medical Press and Circular. consisely written, contain a number ofgood illustrations, 
 
 " Dr. Dalby has presented us with a very readable 1 ^"d are well worth the careful study of both student 
 
 litde book, which is destined to render much service in =>"<? practitioner. To aurists the work will be most 
 
 i.\i^%3.\'\v.zo{&^r?,."— N. Y. Medical Journal. I welcome and valuable. —Specialist. 
 
 DILLINGBERGER, WOMEN AND CHILDREN'S DIS- 
 EASES. 
 
 A Hand-Book of the Treatment of the Diseases Peculiar to Women and Chil- 
 dren. By Dr. Emil Dillingberger. i2mo. Price $1.50 
 
 "It is a magnum inparvo. The style is simple, clear, lucid, and free from theoretical discussion. No one will 
 regret the small outlay for this volume. — Richmond and Louisville Medical Journal. 
 
 DUNGLISON, THE PHYSICIAN'S REFERENCE BOOK. 
 
 The Practitioner's Ready Reference Book ; a Guide in Office and Bedside Prac- 
 tice ; containing Therapeutical and Practical Hints, Dietetic Rules, and General 
 Information. By Richard J. Dunglison, m.d. Fourth Edition. 8vo. 
 
 Price $3.50 
 
 " We can heartily commend this book as one that I " The demand for a second edition so soon after the 
 must prove very useful to the general practitioner."— i>ublication of the first volume shows that this work is 
 The McdiciU Record. \ appreciated by the profession." — Canada Lancet. 
 
 DURKEE, VENEREAL DISEASES. Sixth Edition. 
 
 Gonorrhoea and Syphilis. By Silas Durkee, m.d. Sixth Edition. Revised 
 and Enlarged, with Portrait and Eight Colored Illustrations. 8vo. Price $3.50 
 
 " We may, finally, recommend Dr. Durkcc's book .as eminently practic.-'.l, well written, full of excellent counsel, 
 and worthy of being cons ilted by every member of the profession. A late number of the London Medical Times 
 and Gazette also speaks of the book in terms of the highest approval." — B.ston Medical and Surgical JournaL 
 
14 P. BLAKISTOW SON &' CO.'S 
 
 DAGUENET, OPHTHALMOSCOPY. 
 
 A Manual of Ophthalmoscopy, for the Use of Students. By Dr. Daguenet. 
 Translated from the French, by Dr. C. S. Jeaffreson, f.r.c.s.e. Illustrated. 
 l2mo. Price $1.50 
 
 "Its portable siie, the condensed nature of its text, and the admirably systematic arrangement of its contcnu. 
 
 render it gxtrt.mely useful as a pucWct iiniiual for S\.\id<:i\\.i.— Trans!alor'sJ''rc/ace. 
 
 DOBELL, WINTER COUGH AND CATARRH. 
 
 On Winter Cough, Catarrh, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Asthma, etc. By 
 Horace Dobell, m.d., Lecturer at the Royal Hospital for Diseases of the 
 Chest. Third Edition. With Colored Plates. 8vo. Price $350 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 ON LOSS OF WEIGHT. Revised Edition. 
 
 Blood Spitting and Lung Disease. Colored Frontispiece of Lung. Tabular 
 Map, etc. Second Edition Enlarged. 8vo. Price 54.00 
 
 DOMVILLE, ON NURSING. 
 
 A Manual for Hospital Nurses and others engaged in attending to the sick. 
 4th Edition. With Recipes for Sick Room Cookery, etc. Price .75 
 
 DRUITT'S MODERN SURGERY. Eleventh Edition. 
 
 The Surgeon's \'ade Mecum; a I\L^nual of Modern Surgery. By ROBERT 
 Druitt, f.r.c.s. Eleventh Enlarged Edition, with 369 Illustrations. 864 pp. 
 1878. Price $5.00 
 
 This is a most complete, accurate, and trustworthy Hand, or Text-Book of Sur- 
 gery. Unrivaled as a book for the Student. Fully illustrated, and brought up to 
 the present state of the science. In use in many Medical Colleges. 
 
 DULLES, ACCIDENTS. 
 
 What to Do First, In Accidents and Poisoning. By C. W. Dulles, .m.d. 
 Second Edition, Enlarged, with new Illustrations. Cloth, .75 
 
 " Its usefulness entitles it to a wide and permanent j " So plain and sensible that it ought to be introduced 
 
 circulation." — Boston Gazette. I into every female seminary. — Evening Chronicle, 
 
 " A complete guide for sudden emergencies. — Phila- | Pittsburgh, 
 
 delphia Ledger. \ 
 
 EDWARDS, BRIGHT'S DISEASE. New Edition. 
 
 How a Person Affected with Bright's Disease Ought to Live. By Jos. F. Ed- 
 wards, M.D. Second Edition. i2mo. Price .75 
 
 " Physicians, as well as laymen, will find the work interesting, and will obtain many valuable hints as to the 
 proper hygiene to be observed in this disease." — Cincinnati Medical News. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 CONSTIPATION. New Edition. 
 
 Plainly Treated and Relieved Without the Use of Drugs. Second Edition. 
 i2mo. Price .75 
 
 MALARIA. 
 
 Malaria: What It Means; How to Escape It; Its Symptoms; When and 
 Where to Look for It. i2mo. Price .75 
 
 VACCINATION AND SMALL-POX. 
 
 Showing the Reasons in favor of Vaccination, and the Fallacy of the Argu- 
 ments Advanced against it, with Hints on the Management and Care of .SmaH- 
 Pox patients. i6mo. Price .50 
 
 These are invaluable little treatises upon subjects that enter painfully into the 
 
 life experiences of a large majority of the human family. Dr. Edwards shows not 
 
 only how they may be avoided, but in plain and simple language he tells those 
 already afflicted with them how they may find relief. 
 
PUB Lie A TIONS. 
 
 '5 
 
 ELLIS, DISEASES OF CHILDREN. 
 
 A Practical Manual of the Diseases of Children, with a Formulary. By Ed- 
 ward Ellis, m.d. Late Physician to the Victoria Hospital for Children, 
 
 London. Fourth Edition Enlarged. Now Ready. 
 
 Price 53.00 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 WHAT EVERY MOTHER SHOULD KNOW. 
 
 i2mo. Price .75 
 
 " It is only too true that our children have to dodge through the early part of life as through a labyrinth. We 
 must be thankful to meet with such a sensible guide for them as Dr. Ellis." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 FLUCKIGER, THE CINCHONA BARKS. 
 
 The Cinchona Barks Pharmacognostically Considered. By Professor Fried- 
 RiCH Fluckiger, of Strasburg. Translated by Frederick B. Power, pii.d., 
 formerly Professor of Chemistry, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, now Pro- 
 fessor of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin. With 8 
 Lithographic Plates. Royal Octavo. In Press. 
 
 FENNER, ON VISION, Second Edition, Enlarged. 
 
 Vision ; Its Optical Defects, the Adaptation of Spectacles, Defects of Accommo- 
 dation, etc. By C. S. Fenner, m.d. With Test Types and 74 Illustrations. 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo. Price §3.50 
 
 FENWICK, THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Outlines of the Practice of Medicine. With Appropriate Formulae and Illus- 
 trations. By Samuel Fenwick, m.d.. Physician to the London Hospital. i2mo. 
 
 Price $1.25 
 
 "This little work displays a sound judgment in the arrangement of its subject matter, and an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the practice of medicine possessed by but few writers, and should have been elaborated into a more 
 comprehensive work. Of all the hand-books we have seen, this is certainly one of the best." — Medical Herald. 
 
 " It is an eminently practical little treatise, pervaded with much common sense, and will doubtless be found 
 useful, particularly by advanced students." — Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 ON THE STOMACH. 
 
 Atrophy of the Stomach and Its Effect on the Nervous Affections of the Digest- 
 ive Organs. Svo. Price ^3.20 
 
 FOTHERGILL, ON THE HEART. Second Edition. 
 
 The Heart and Its Diseases. With Their Treatment. Including the Gouty 
 Heart. By J. Milner Fothergill, m.d., Associate Fellow of the College of 
 Physicians of Philadelphia. Second Edition, Entirely Re-written. Octavo. 
 
 Price $3.50 
 
 " It is the best, as well as the most recent work on 
 the subject in the English language." — Medical Press 
 and Ci^xular. 
 
 " The most interesting chapter is undoubtedly that 
 on the gouty heart, a subject which Dr. Fothergill has 
 specially studied, and on which he entertains views 
 such as are likely, we think, to be generally accepted 
 by clinical physicians, although they have not before 
 been stated, so far as we are aware, with the same 
 breadth of view and extended illustration." — British 
 Medical yournal. 
 
 " To many an earnest student it will prove a Hght in 
 darkness ; to many a practitioner cist down with a 
 sense of his powerlessness to cope with the rout and 
 demoralization of Nature's forces, a present help in 
 time of trouble." — Philadelphia Medical Times. 
 
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 dent." — Students' Jozirjial. 
 
 FULTON, ON PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 A Text-Book of Physiology. By J. Fulton, m.d., Professor at Trinity 
 Medical College, Toronto. Second Edition, Illustrated and Revised. Svo. 
 
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l6 P. BLAKISTON, SON &- CO.'S 
 
 FLOWER, DIAGRAMS OF THE NERVES. 
 
 Diagrams of the Nerves of the Human Body. Exhibiting their Origin, 
 Divisions, and Connections, with their Distribution to the various Regions of the 
 Cutaneous Surface, and to all the Muscles. By William H. Flowek, f.r.c.s., 
 F.R.S., Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the 
 Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Third Edition, thoroughly revised. 
 With six Large Folio Maps, or Diagrams. Royal Quarto. Price S3. 50 
 
 " Admirably arranged, and will be of incalculable aid to the student of anatomy. Each of the large »nd 
 beautiful plates is accompanied with explanatory text." — jV. V. Medical Record. 
 
 " The nerves and ganglia arc clearly represented. The impressions are well made, and no doubt the diagrams 
 will prove useful." — Medical and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 FLAGG, PLASTIC FILLING. 
 
 Plastics and Plastic I-'illing; As Pertaining to the Filling of all Cavities of De- 
 cay in Teeth below Medium in Structure, and to Difficult and Inaccessible 
 Cavities in Teeth of all Grades of Structure. With some beautifully executed 
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 Therapeutics in Philadelphia Dental College. Octavo. Price %i.oo 
 
 FOX, WATER, AIR AND FOOD. 
 
 Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air and Food, By Cornelius B. Fox, 
 M.D. 94 Engravings. 8vo. Price S4.00 
 
 FOSTER, CLINICAL MEDICINE. 
 
 Lectures and Essays on Clinical Medicine. By Balthazar Fo.ster, m.d. 
 Illustrated. 8vo. Price JS3.00 
 
 "No one can peruse the thoughtful comments of our " Jt is the record of honest work, such as Dr. Foster 
 
 author upon every subject he considers, without feeling may be proud of; we can recommend it to the profession; 
 
 himself a wiser man for his pains." — N. Y. Medical it may be read with profit and advantage by both prac- 
 
 yournal. titioner and student. — Edinburgh Medical yournal. 
 
 FOX, ATLAS OF SKIN DISEASES. 
 
 Complete in Eighteen Parts, each containing Four Chromo-Lithographic Plates, 
 v.'ith Descriptive Text and Notes upon Treatment. In all 72 large colored Plates. 
 By Tilbury Fox, m.d.,f.r.c.p.. Physician to the Department for Skin Diseases 
 in University College Hospital. Folio Size. 
 
 Price $1.00 each, or complete, bound in cloth, $20.00 
 
 No Atlas of Skin Diseases has been issued in this country for many years, and no 
 complete work of the kind is now procurable by the Profession. This one, brought 
 out under the editorial supervision and care of Dr. Tilbury Fox (the most distin- 
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 upon the classical work of Willan and Bateman (now entirely out of print), but com- 
 pletely remodeled, so as to represent fully the Dermatology of the present day. 
 
 " Preference will be given to this work over Hebra ; not simply, however, because it is a home production, but 
 by reason of the manner of its execution, the excellent delineation of disease, and the natural coloring of the plates. 
 . The letter-press is entirely new. In the accuracy of the latter the subscriber may have the fullest confi- 
 dence, since it is from the pen of Dr. Tilbury Fox." — British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review. 
 
 FRANKLAND, WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 Water Analysis, For Sanitary Purposes, with Hints for the Interpretation of 
 Results. By E. Frankland, M.D., F.R.s. Illustrated. i2mo. Price $1.00 
 
 "The author's world-wide reputation will commend 
 this manual to all sanitarians, and they will not be dis- 
 appointed in finding all the essentials of the important 
 subject of which it treats." — The Sanitarian. 
 
 "The work is one which physicians practicing ia 
 the country and in villages and towns remote from 
 medical centres cannotaflford to be without." — Medical 
 and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR, 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 How to Teach Chemistry; being Six Lectures to Science Teachers. Edited 
 by G. George Chaloz^er, F.c.s. Illustrated. i2mo. Price $1.25 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 17 
 
 GILLIAM'S PATHOLOGY. Illustrated. 
 
 The Essentials of Pathology; a Ilandl^ook for Students. By D.Ton Gilliam, 
 M.D., Professor of Physiology, formerly Professor of Pathology, Starling Medical 
 College, Columbus, O. With 47 Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00 
 
 GAX.LABIN, DISEASES OF WOMEN. 
 
 The Student's Guide to the Diseases of Women. By A. Lewis Gallabin, M.A., 
 M.D., F.R.c.p. Illustrated with 63 Engravings. i2mo. Price $1.25 
 
 r.V SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 A MANUAL OF MIDWIFERY. 
 
 For Students and Practitioners. Illustrated. In Press. 
 
 *^" Prof. Gallabin is Obstetric Physician to Guy's Hospital, London, and occupies 
 the chair of Midwifery in that Institution. His work in this department has been 
 noted for its perfection and practical character. 
 
 GROSS, BIOGRAPHY OF JOHN HUNTER. 
 
 John Hunter and His Pupils. By S. D. Gross, m.d., Professor of Surgery in 
 Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. With a beautifully executed full length 
 Portrait of the Author in his Study. A Handsome Octavo volume. Bound in 
 Beveled Cloth. Price $1.50 
 
 " It is refreshing to read the story of a life so fully devoted to science, and the reader will readily appreciate 
 Professor Gross's enthusiasm for his subject, which led him to extend what was originally intended for an essay to 
 its present size. 
 
 " The phototype of Sharp's well-known engraving of Sir Joshua Reynold's portrait is an excellent reproduction, 
 and forms a fitting and handsome frontispiece. 
 
 " The volume will prove an ornament to the study table, where it will be a constant incentive to whatever ii 
 best and noblest in a noble profession." — B^'ston Med. and Surgical yournal. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 AMERICAN MEDICAL MEN. 
 
 American Medical Biography of the Nineteenth Century, with portrait of Dr. 
 Benjamin Rush. Large 8vo. 
 
 GLISAN, TEXT-BOOK OF MODERN MIDWIFERY. 
 
 A Text-Book of Modern Midwifery. By Rodney Glisan, m.d.. Emeritus 
 Professor of Midwifery and Diseases of Women and Children in the Medical 
 Department of Willamette University, Portland, Oregon, and Late President 
 of the Oregon State Medical Society. With 129 Illustrations. One Volume, 
 octavo, 624 pp. Price, in Cloth $4.00 ; in Leather $5.00 
 
 GILL, ON INDIGESTION. Third Edition. 
 
 Indigestion ; What It Is ; What It Leads To ; and a New Method of Treating 
 It. By John Beadnell Gill, m.d. Third Edition. i2mo. $1-25 
 
 GANT, ON THE BLADDER AND PROSTATE. 
 
 Diseases of the Bladder and Prostate Gland and Urethra, including a Practical 
 View of Urinary Diseases, Deposits and Calculi. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged, with New Illustrations. i2mo. Price $3.00 
 
 GIBBES, STUDENT'S PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Practical Histology and Pathology. By Heneage Gibbes, m.b. i2mo. 
 Cloth. Price $1.00 
 
 Chap. i. Introduction. 2. On Preparing Tissues for Examination. 3. On Cutting Sections. 4. On Staining. 
 5. On Double Staining. 6. On Mounting. 7. Method of Obtaining Animal Tissues, etc. Practical Histology-, 
 PathoSogy, Memoranda and Formula;. 
 
 " This excellent little work is admirably adapted to fulfill the purpose for which it has been written. It is 
 short, clear, and eminently practical. The author is evidently an accomplished histologist, and his book <:onyeys 
 the impression that it is based upon his own personal experience." — Tlic London Medical Record. 
 
i8 P. nr.Ak'/sTON, SON 6- co:s 
 
 GODLEE'S ATLAS OF HUMAN ANATOMY. 
 
 Illustrating; most of the Ordinary Dissections and many not usually practiced 
 by the Student. Accompanied by References and an Explanatory Text. Com- 
 plete. Folio Size. 48 Colored Plates. By Rickma.n John Godlee, m.d., 
 F.R.C.S. Forming a large Folio Volume, with References, and an Octavo 
 Volume of Letter-press. 
 
 Price of the two Volumes, Atlas and Letter-press, Cloth, $20.00 
 
 " It is likely to prove as useful to the physician and 1 " The explanatory text is concise, well written, and 
 surgeon as to the anatomist." — Medkal Times and contains many valuable suggestions for the surgeon." 
 Cazttte. I — Loudon Lancet. 
 
 COWERS, SPINAL CORD. 
 
 Diagnosis of Diseases of the Spinal Cord. With Colored Plates and Engrav- 
 ings. A Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By William R. Cowers, 
 M.D., Assistant Professor Clinical Medicine, University College, London. 8vo. 
 Second Edition. Price $1.50 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 OPHTHALMOSCOPY. 
 
 A Manual and Atlas of Medical Ophthalmoscopy. With 16 Colored Auto" 
 type and Lithographic Plates and 26 Wood Cuts, comprising 112 Original Illus- 
 trations of the Changes in the Eye in Diseases of the Brain, Kidneys, etc. Svo. 
 
 Price J6.00 
 EPILEPSY AND ITS TREATMENT. 
 
 Epilepsy and other Chronic Convulsive Diseases : Their Causes, Symptoms, 
 and Treatment. Octavo. Just Ready. Price, Cloth, J4.00 
 
 NERVOUS DISEASES. 
 
 A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, for Practitioners and Students. 
 
 In Press. 
 
 " Dr. Gowers, while profoundly conversant with the literature of his subject, has not allowed himself to be 
 influenced to an undue extent by the writings of others, but while fairly stating their views, where this is neces- 
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 and when, consequently, they receive confirm-^tion or not at his hands, thoy are all the more valuable as being the 
 outcome of the most searching and unbiased criticism. It would be impossible, within :he limits of a short re- 
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 GREENHOW, BRONCHITIS. 
 
 On Chronic Bronchitis, especially as connected with Gout, Emphysema, and 
 Diseases of the Heart. By E. Headlam Greenhow, m.d. i2mo. Price $1.50 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 ADDISON'S DISEASE. 
 
 Being the Croonian Lectures, delivered before the Royal College of Physi- 
 cians, London. Revised and Illustrated by Plates and Reports of Cases. Svo. 
 
 Price $3.00 
 
 "The book forms a most interesting and valuable monograph, comprehensive and exhaustive." — Britith 
 Medical yournal. 
 
 HUGHES, COMPEND OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 A Compend of Practice. By Daniel E. Hughes, m.d., Demonstrator of 
 Clinical Medicine at Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. In two parts — 
 
 Part I. — Continued, Eruptive, and Periodical Fevers, Diseases of the Stom- 
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 Diseases, etc. 
 
 Part II. — Diseases of the Respiratory System, Circulatory System, and 
 Nervous System ; Diseases of the Blood, etc. 
 Price of each Part, in Cloth, $1.00; interleaved for the addition of Notes, f 1.25 
 
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 new prescriptions. They have been compiled from the lectures of prominent 
 Professors, and reference has been made to the latest writings of Professors 
 
PUB Lie A TIONS. 
 
 »9 
 
 HABERSHON, ON THE STOMACH. 
 
 On Diseases of the Stomach — The Varieties of Dyspepsia — Their Diagnosis 
 and Treatment. By S. O. HAiiERSHON, M.D., F.R.C.P., Senior Physician to, and 
 Late Lecturer on, the Principles and Practice of Medicine at Guy's Hospital. 
 Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo. Price $1.25 
 
 " As .in exprcs'iion of the results of long personal experience in both hospital and private practice, conveyed 
 in .-igrecable though not always perspicuous diction, this contribution of Dr. Habershon's has special value of its 
 own, and is so far entitled to the favorable consideration of the practitioner, as is already testified by a demand 
 for a third edition." — American yournal of Medical Sciences. 
 
 HALE, ON CHILDREN. 
 
 The Manajjemcnt of Children in Mcalth and Disease. A Book for Mothers, 
 By Mrs. Amie I\L Hale, m.d. Abounding in valuable information and com- 
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 HOR^A^ITZ, COMPEND OF SURGERY. 
 
 A Compend of Surgery, including Minor Surgery, Amputations, Fractures, 
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 HARDWICKE, MEDICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Medical Education and Practice in All Parts of the World. Containing 
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 " Dr. Hardwicke's book will prove a valuable source of information to those who may desire to know the 
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 HARLEY, ON THE LIVER. Illustrated. 
 
 On Diseases of the Liver, with or without Jaundice. Diagnosis and Treat- 
 • ment. By George Harley, m.d. Author of the Urine and Its Derangements. 
 With Colored Plates and Numerous Illustrations. Royal Octavo. 
 
 Price, Cloth, $5.00; Leather, $6.00. 
 
 " It is one o{\.\\s /reshesi, most readable, and irtost 
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 extremely valuable book." — Philadelphia Medical 
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 " The work is far in advance, in original and prac- 
 tical information, of any treatise on the subject with 
 A'hich we are acquainted, and is worth many times its 
 cost to any physician treating hepatic troubles." — 
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 " The whole subject-matter is treated in a masterly 
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 among the classics." — Medical Herald, Louisville, 
 Ky. 
 
 " It is the outcome of a mind that went to its task 
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 tent ourselves with this bare statement, hoping that 
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 ourselves." — JVezu Orleans Medical and Surgical 
 yournal. 
 
 HOLDEN, HUMAN OSTEOLOGY. Sixth Edition. 
 
 Comprising a Description of the Bones, with Colored Delineations of the At- 
 tachments of the Muscles. The General and Microscopical Structure of Bone 
 and its Development. By the Author and A. Doran, f.r.c.s., with Lithographic 
 Plates, etc. By Luther Holden, f.r.c.s. Numerous Illustrations. Sixth 
 Edition, carefully Revised. Price $6. 00 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 Manual of Dissections of the Human Body. 
 170 Illustrations. 
 
 LANDMARKS. 
 
 Landmarks, Medical and Surgical. 
 Enlarged. 
 
 Fourth London Edition. With 
 Price $5.50 
 
 Third London Edition. 
 
 Revised and 
 Price ii.oo 
 
 "Mr. Holden is the happy possessor of the foculty of writing interesting works on Anatomy. A part of the 
 charm consists in the frequent references to practical points, and in the explanation of the advantages aii" objects 
 of details of structures." — Boston Medical and Surgical yournal. 
 
ao P. BLAKISTON, SON 6- CO.'S 
 
 HEATH'S OPERATIVE SURGERY. 
 
 A Course of Operative Surgery, consisting of a Scries of Plates, each plate 
 containing Numerous Figures, Drawn from Nature by the Celebrated Anatomi- 
 cal Artist, M. Lcveillc, of Paris, Engraved on Steel and Colored by Hand, 
 under his immediate superintendence, with Descriptive Text of Each Operation'. 
 By Christopuek Heath, f.k.c.s.. Surgeon to University College Hospital, and 
 Holme Professor of Clinical Surgery in University College, London. One Large 
 Quarto Volume. Price $14.00 
 
 The author has embodied in this work the experience gained by him during 
 twenty years of surgical teaching. It comprises all the operations that are required 
 in ordinary surgical practice. He has selected for illustration and description those 
 methods which appear to give the best results in practice, referring to the errors 
 likely to occur and the best methods of avoiding them. 
 
 RY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO SURGICAL DIAGNOSIS. 
 
 i3mo. Price ;f 1. 25 
 
 " Mr. Heath is so well known, both as a practical surgeon, teacher and writer, that anything from his pen re- 
 quires no introduction from the hands of reviewers, and scarcely any notice but the announcement of the fact that 
 he has written a book." — Medical Record. 
 
 A MANUAL OF MINOR SURGERY AND BANDAGING. 
 
 Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With 115 Illustrations. i2mo. 
 
 Price $2.00 
 
 "This excellent work should not be termed a ' Minor ' Surgery, but it really consists oi the sum and substance 
 of Practical surgerj-. We would not exchange it for any book in our possession." — Southern Clinic. 
 
 HEATH'S PRACTICAL ANATOMY. Fifth London Edition. 
 
 Practical Anatomy. A Manual of Dissections. Fifth London Edition. 24 
 Colored Plates, and nearly 300 other Illustrations. Just Ready. Price $5.00 
 
 INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE JAWS. 
 
 The Jacksonian Prize Essay of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, ^ 
 1867. Second Edition, Revised, with over 150 Illustrations. Octavo. 
 
 Price $4.25 
 HOOD, ON GOUT AND RHEUMATISM. 
 
 A Treatise on Gout, Rheumatism, and the Allied Affections. Their Treat- 
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 tion, Revised and Enlarged. With some Considerations on Longevity. Octavo. 
 
 Price $3.50 
 
 " The Observations on Treatment are specially to be commended." — London Lancet. 
 
 HOLDEN, THE SPHYGMOGRAPH. 
 
 The Sphygmograph. Its Physiological and Pathological Indications. By 
 Edgar Holden, m.d. Illustrated by Three Hundred Engravings on Wood. 
 8vo. Price S2.00 
 
 HOLMES, THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
 
 A Guide to the Use of the Laryngoscope in General Practice. By GORDON 
 Holmes, M.D., Physician to the Throat and Ear Infirmary. i3mo. Price $1.00 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Vocal Physiology and Hygiene. With reference to the Cultivation and 
 Preservation of the Voice. Illustrated. i2mo. Price $2.00 
 
 HOFF, ON H^EMATURIA. 
 
 Haematuria as a Symptom of the Diseases of the Genito-Unnary Organs. By 
 O. HoFF, M.D. Illustrated. i2mo. P"ce .75 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 21 
 
 HUNTER, MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various kinds of Artificial 
 Dentures, with Formulae, Receipts, etc. By Charles Hunter, d.d.s. igo 
 Illustrations. i2mo. Price $1.50 
 
 "It is the outcome of his own experience of some twenty years as a Mechanical Dentist, and contains, moreover, 
 much derived from practical knowledge of other dentists. The value of the book is also much added to by illus- 
 trations. It will be very useful to the Dental Student, and to all Mechanical Dentists." — London Medical Times 
 •ind Gazette. 
 
 HUTCHINSON'S ILLUSTRATIONS OF CLINICAL SUR- 
 GERY. First Volume Complete. 
 
 Consisting of Plates, Photographs, Woodcuts, Diagrams, etc. Illustrating 
 Surgical Diseases, Symptoms, and Accidents; also Operations and other 
 Methods of Treatment. With Descriptive Letter-press. I5y Jonathan Hutch- 
 inson, F.R.C.S., Senior Surgeon to the London Hospital, Surgeon to the Moor- 
 fields Ophthalmic Hospital, and to the Hospital for Diseases of the Skin, Black- 
 friars. In Quarterly Fasciculi. Imperial 4to. Volume i. (Ten Fasciculi) bound 
 complete in itself. Price $25.00. Parts Eleven to Fifteen of Volume 2, Now 
 Ready. Each, $2.50 
 
 HEWITT, DISEASES OF WOMEN. Fourth Edition. 
 
 The Diagnosis, Pathology, and Treatment of Diseases of Women, Including 
 the Diagnosis of Pregnancy. Founded on a Course of Lectures Delivered at St. 
 Mary's Hospital Medical School. By Graily Hewitt, m.d., Lond., m.r.c.p., 
 Physician to the British Lying-in Hospital ; Lecturer on Midwifery and Diseases 
 of Women and Children at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School; Honorary 
 Secretary to the Obstetrical Society of London, etc. The Fourth American 
 Edition. Revised and Enlarged, with New Illustrations. Octavo. 
 
 Price, Paper, $1.50; Cloth, $2.50 
 
 " Readers of the former editions will not require to 
 be told that the additions now made are of the highest 
 possible excellence." — Times and Gazette. 
 
 " It is one of the most useful, practical, and compre- 
 hensive works upon the subject in the English language, 
 a true guide to the student, and an invaluable means of 
 reference for the teacher." — iV. Y. Medical Record. 
 
 " The excellent work of Dr. Hewitt presents — in a 
 form well adapted to conduct the student to a knowledge 
 of the Diseases of Women, and to assist the young 
 practitioner in his study of these diseases at the bedside 
 of the patient — a very full and clear exposition of the 
 views entertained by the most authoritative teachers as 
 to their pathological treatment and their correct Diag- 
 nosis."— y^w^'r. Med. yournal. 
 
 HAY, SARCOMATOUS TUMOR. 
 
 History of a Case of Recurring Sarcomatous Tumor of the Orbit in a Child. 
 By Thomas Hay, m.d. Illustrated. Paper. Price .50 
 
 HEWSON, EARTH IN SURGERY. 
 
 Earth as a Topical Application in Surgery, Being a Full Exposition of its Use 
 in Cases Requiring Topical Applications. By Addinell Hewson, m.d. Illus- 
 trated. 8vo. Price $2.56 
 
 HODGE, ON ABORTION. 
 
 On Foeticide or Criminal Abortion. By Hugh L. Hodge, m.d. 
 
 Price, Paper, .30; Cloth, .50 
 HODGE, CASE-BOOK. 
 
 Note-Book for Cases of Ovarian Tumors. By H. Lennox Hodge, m.d. With 
 Diagrams. Price, Paper, .50 
 
 HIGGINS, DISEASES OF THE EYE. Now Ready. 
 
 A Hand-Book of Ophthalmic Practice. By Charles Higgins, f.r.c.s. 
 Ophthalmic Assistant Surgeon at Guy's Hospital. Second Edition. i6mo. 
 
 Price .50 
 
 Contents. — Section:. Discharge from the Eyes. ii. Intolerance of Light, iii. Iritis and Glaucoma, iv. 
 Diseases of the Eyelids, v. Watering of the Eye. vi. Acuteness of Vision, Field of Visiwi, Anomalies of Re. 
 fraction, Astigmatism, Accommodation, Presbyopia, vii. Disturbance of Vision, Use of the Ophthalmoscope; 
 Normal and Morbid Appearances, vill. Injuries. 
 
 "We have rarely seen so much important information condensed in so .'.hort a space." — American Medical 
 %furnal. 
 
22 • P, BLAKISTON, SON &- CO.'S 
 
 HARRIS, THE PRACTICE OF DENTISTRY. Tenth Edition. 
 
 The Principles and Practice of Dentistry. Tenth Revised Edition. In great 
 part Rewritten, Rearranged, and with many new and important Illustrations. 
 By Chapin a. Hakkis, m.d., d.d.s. Edited by P. H. Alsten, m.d., Professor 
 of Dental Science and Mechanism in the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery. 
 With nearly 400 Illustrations. Royal Octavo. Price, Cloth, $6.50; Leather, §7. 50 
 
 This new edition of Dr. Harris' work has been thoroughly revised in all its parts, 
 more so than any previous edition. So great have been the advances in many 
 branches of dentistry that it was found necessary to rewrite the articles or subjects, 
 and this has been done in the most efficient manner by Professor Austen, for many 
 years an associate and friend of Dr. Harris, assisted by Professor Gorgas and Thomas 
 S. Latimer, m.d. The publishers feel assured that it will now be found the most 
 complete text-book for the student, and guide for the practitioner in the English 
 language. 
 
 BY S,\ME AUTHOR. 
 
 MEDICAL AND DENTAL DICTIONARY. Fourth Edition. 
 
 A Dictionary of Medical Terminology, Dental Surgery, and the Collateral 
 Sciences. Fourth Edition, Carefully Revised and Enlarged. By Ferdinand 
 J. S. Gorgas, m.d., d.d.s.. Professor of Dental Surgery in the Baltimore College, 
 etc. Royal Octavo. Price, Cloth, ;g6.5o; Leather, $7.50 
 
 This Dictionary, having passed through fAn'e editions, and been for some time 
 out of print, has been again carefully revised by F. J. S. Gorgas, M.D., Dr. Harris' 
 successor as Professor of Dental Surgery in the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery. 
 In his preface to this new edition, the editor says : — 
 
 " The object of the reviser has been to bring the book thoroughly up to the pres- 
 ent requirements of the profession, the Medica/ portion having been as carefully re- 
 vised and added to as that devoted more especially to Dental Science, while a 
 number of obsolete terms and methods have been omitted. In nearly ever>' one of 
 the seven hundred and forty-three pages of the former edition corrections and addi- 
 tions have been made, and many new processes, terms and appliances described, 
 some of which are not found in any other work published." 
 
 HANDY, ANATOMY. 
 
 Text-Book of Anatomy and Guide to Dissections. For the Use of Students. 
 By W. R. Handy, m.d. 312 Illustrations. Price S3.00 
 
 HILLIER, DISEASES OF CHILDREN. 
 
 A Clinical Treatise on the Diseases of Children. By Thomas Hillier, .m.d. 
 8vo. Price $2.00 
 
 HUFELAND, LONG LIFE. 
 
 The Art of Prolonging Life. By C. W. Hufeland. Edited by ERASMUS 
 Wilson, m.d. i2mo. Price Ji.oq 
 
 " Wc wish all doctors and all their intelligent clients would read it, for surely its perusal would be attended 
 •A'ith pleasure and benefit." — American Practitioner. 
 
 " It certainly should be in the library of every physician." — Medical Brief. 
 
 HUNTER, PORTRAIT OF. 
 
 Portrait of John Hunter. From Sharp's well-known Engraving; a copy of 
 Sir Joshua Reynold's Portrait. For Framing. Large size, 9 x 1 1 ; sheet 16 x 20. 
 Price, in the Sheet, sent free by mail, 50 cents ; or, Handsomely Framed 
 
 Price $2.0Q 
 
PURLICA TIONS. 23 
 
 HEADLAND, THE ACTION OF MEDICINES. Ninth Edition. 
 
 On the Action of Medicines in the System. ]5y F. W. Headland, m.d. 
 Ninth American Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo. Price J53.OC 
 
 " It displays in every page the evidence of extensive knowledge and of sound reasoning; it will be useful alike 
 to those who arc just commencing their studies, and to those who arc engaged in the active pursuits of pro- 
 fessional \\ic."— Medical Tiiin-s. 
 
 " The very favorable opinion which we were amongst the first to pronounce upon this essay has been fully 
 confirmed by the general voice of the profession, and Dr. Headland may now be congralulatecl on having pro- 
 duced a treatise which has been weighed in the balance, and found worthy of being ranked with our standard 
 medical works." — London Lancet. 
 
 JAMES, SORE THROAT. 
 
 On Sore Throat, Its Nature, Varieties and Treatment, Including its Con- 
 nection with other Diseases. By Prossrr James, m.r.c.p. Fourth Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. With Colored Plates and Numerous Wood-cuts. i2mo. 
 
 Price $1.25 
 
 ♦' We can confidently recommend his therapeutic teachings as well worthy of the careful consideration of the 
 Profession, for they set forth the pr.ictice of an enthusiastic worker, whose special experience has been large and 
 lengthened." — British Medical yoicmal. 
 
 " The practitioner who buys Dr. James' unpretending little book will provide himself with a wise and practical 
 clinical commentary, and with a well arranged digest of long and varied experience." — Westminster Revieu). 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 LARYNGOSCOPY AND RHINOSCOPY. 
 
 Including the Diagnosis of Diseases of the Throat and Nose. Third Edition. 
 With Colored Plates. i8mo. Price j52.oo. 
 
 " It gives in a succinct form the approved methods of examination and treatment of diseases of the nose, throat, 
 and larynx. The plan pursued is one well adapted to the needs of the general practitioner." — American Medical 
 yournal. 
 
 JONES, AURAL ATLAS. 
 
 An Atlas of Diseases of the Membrana Tympani, Being a Series of Colored 
 Plates, containing 62 Figures. With appropriate Letter-press and Explanatory 
 Text. By H. Macnaughton Jones, m.d., Surgeon to the Cork Ophthalmic and 
 Aural Hospital. 4to. Price $4.00. 
 
 " The cases are well selected, the drawings executed from life, highly artistic and very conscientious, and the 
 commentaries indicate familiarity with the subject and good judgment in dealing with it." — British Medical 
 yournal. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 AURAL SURGERY. 
 
 A Practical Hand-book on Aural Surgery. Illustrated. Second Edition, Re- 
 vised and Enlarged, with new Wood Engravings. i2mo. Cloth. Price $2.75 
 
 JONES, SIEVEKING AND PAYNE, PATHOLOGICAL AN- 
 ATOMY. 
 
 A Manual of Pathological Anatomy. By C. Handfield Jones, m.d., and 
 Edward H. Sieveking, m.d.. Physician to St. Mary's Hospital. A New En- 
 larged Edition. Edited by J. F. Payne, m.d.. Lecturer on Morbid Anatomy at 
 St. Thomas' Hospital. With Numerous Illustrations. Demi 8vo. Price $5.50. 
 
 JONES, ON SIGHT AND HEARING. 
 
 The Defects of Sight and Hearing, their Nature, Causes, and Prevention. By 
 T. Wharton Jones, m.d. Second Edition. i6mo. Price .50. 
 
 KIRBY, ON PHOSPHORUS. Fifth Edition. 
 
 Phosphorus as a Remedy for Functional Diseases of the Nervous System. 
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 KOLLMEYER, KEY TO CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Chemia Coartata, or Key to Modern Chemistry. By A. H. Kollmeyer, m.d. 
 With Numerous Tables, Tests, etc. Price ,?2.35 
 
 KIRKE, PHYSIOLOGY. Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 A Hand-book of Physiology. By Kirke. Tenth London Edition. By W, 
 Morrant Baker, m.d. 420 Illustrations. Ntnu Ready. Price gS-oc 
 
 " This is undoubtedly the best work for students on Physiology extant." — Cincinnati Med. News. 
 
24 p. BLAKISTON, SON &' CO.'S 
 
 KANE, THE OPIUM, MORPHINE AND SIMILAR HABITS. 
 
 Drugs that Enslave. The Opium, Morphine, Chloral, Hashisch and Similar 
 Habits. Hy H. H. Kane, m.d., of New York. With Illustrations. Price 51.25. 
 
 " It contains a large amount of information collected with much labor and prcRcnted In a systematic manner. 
 The subject of the chloral habit has not been investigated by any one, wc believe, so thoroughly as Dy I>r. Kane." 
 — Midical Rfcord. 
 
 " It deserves to be read by those who feel an interest in discouraging ihe use of these dangerous drugs. The 
 book is embellished by an excellent phototype frontispiece of Laocoon." — American Journal of Pkarmtuy. 
 
 " A work of more tlian ordinary ability and careful research. . . . For the first time, reliable statistics on 
 the use of chloral arc clxssificd and published, . . . and it is shown that the use of cMor:i\ causes a more 
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 KIDD, THERAPEUTICS. 
 
 The Laws of Therapeutics ; or, the Science and Art of Medicine. By Joseph 
 KiDD. M.D. i2mo. Cloth. Price ;fi. 25. 
 
 " Dr. Kidd acknowledges two laws — that oi contraria contrariis timA simitia similibus : but the cases he gires 
 m his chapter on ars medica show that, like a sensible practitioner, he does not allow himself blindly to follow 
 either the one or the other, but seeks out the cause of disease, and tries by rational measures to remove it. The 
 cases are the most valuable part of the book." — London Practitioner. 
 
 LANDIS, A COMPEND OF OBSTETRICS. Illustrated. 
 
 A Compend of Obstetrics ; especially adapted to the Use of Students and 
 Physicians. By Henry G. Landis, m.d.. Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases 
 of Women in Starling Medical College, Columbus, Ohio. Illustrated. i2mo. 
 Cloth. Price ;fi.oo: interleaved for the addition of Notes, ;Jii.25 
 
 " It is complete, accurate and scientific ; the very 
 best book of ils kind." — Fro/, y. S. Knox, Rusk 
 Medical College, Chicago. 
 
 " I have been teaching in this department for many 
 years, and am free to say that this will be the best 
 assistant I ever had. It is accurate and comprehen- 
 sive, but brief and pointed." — Pro/. P. D. Yost, St. 
 Louis. 
 
 " The questions are well chosen, the answers clear, 
 concise, and well up to the present state of obstetrical 
 science. It will be a handy book for reference for 
 practitioner as well as student." — Prof. £. O. F. 
 Roler, Chica!;o Medical College. 
 
 " I have ODserved no statement to the correctness 
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 Practical Guide to the Examination of the Urine, for Practitioner and Student. 
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PUBLICA TIONS. 
 
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 I.E^A^IN, ON SYPHILIS. 
 
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rUBLlCA TIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 MENDENHALL, VADE MECUM. 
 
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3° 
 
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 " To no authority can the medical inouirer turn for an analysis of the phenomena of epilepsy with more satisfac- 
 tion than to the admirable essay of Dr. Radcliffe." — American Journal Medical Sciences. 
 
 ROBERTS, MANUAL OF MIDWIFERY. 
 
 The Student's Guide to the Practice of Midwifery. By D. Lloyd Roberts, 
 M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester, etc., etc. Second 
 Edition. With 95 Illustrations. i2mo. Price $1.25 
 
 "As an obstetrical manual, we think that of Dr. Rob- "The present edition has been very thoroughly re- 
 
 erts one of the best now offered to the Profession, as it vised, some chapters having been entirely re-written, 
 comes with authority, and he possesses the ability to For its size, it forms a remarkably complete compendi. 
 
 condense, and at the same time present a subject clear- | um of the subject, and can hardly be surpassed in the 
 
 ly." — American yournal of Medical Science. \ simplicity and clearness of its explanations." — Otstet- 
 
 "Concise, clear, and practical." — Medital Press \ rical jfournal of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 and Circular. \ 
 
 REYNOLDS, ELECTRICITY, 
 
 Lectures on the Clinical Uses of Electricity. By J. Russell Reynolds, m.d., 
 F.R.s. Second Edition. i2mo. Price $1.00 
 
 " It is thoroughly reliable as a guide, very concise, and will be found exceedingly useful to the general practi- 
 tioner." — Canada Lancet. 
 
 RICHARDSON, MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. Third Edi- 
 tion. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Dentistry. By Joseph Richardson, d.d.s. 
 Third Edition. With 185 Illustrations. 8vo. Price, Cloth, $4.0x3; Leather, $4.75 
 
 "Taken as a whole. Professor Richardson's work is a valuable contribution to the dental art, and is beyond all 
 question the best treatise extant upon the general subject of Mechanical Dentistry."— ZJ^w/a/ Cosmos. 
 
 RIGBY AND MEADOWS, OBSTETRIC MEMORANDA. 
 
 Dr. Rigby's Obstetric Memoranda. Fourth Edition. Revised. By Alfred 
 Meadows, m.d. 32mo. Price .50 
 
 PIGGOTT, ON COPPER. 
 
 Copper Mining and Copper Ore. With a full Description of the Principal 
 Copper Mines of the United States, the Art of Mining, etc. By A. Snowden 
 PiGGOTT. i2mo. Price $1.00 
 
 PRINCE, ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY. 
 
 Plastic and Orthopedic Surgery. By David Prince, m.d. Containing a 
 Report on the Condition of, and Advance made in. Plastic and Orthopedic Sur- 
 gery, etc., etc.. and Numerous Illustrations. Svo. Price $4.50 
 
 RYAN, ON MARRIAGE. . , ^ , . 
 
 The Philosophy of Marriage. In its Social, Moral and Physical Relations 
 and Diseases of the Urinary Organs. By Michael Ryan, m.d. Member of 
 the Royal College of Physicians, London. i2mo. Pnce ?i.oo 
 
PUBLICATIONS. 33 
 
 ROBERTS, PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. Fourth Edition. 
 
 The Theory and I'ractice of Medicine. Hy I'"i<i-;i>i:ki(:k Roukkts, m.d. 
 Third American, from the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. 
 
 Price, Cloth, %'^.QO ; Leather, g;6.oo 
 
 Recommended at the University of Pennsylvania, Yale and Dartmouth Colleges, 
 TTniversity of Michigan, and many other Medical Schools. 
 
 The unexceptional large and rapid sale of this book, and the universal commen- 
 dation it has received from the profession, seems to be a sufficient guarantee of its 
 merits as a Text-book. The publishers are in receipt of numerous letters from 
 Professors in the medical schools, speaking favorably of it, and below they give 
 extracts from the medical press, American and English, attesting its superiority and 
 value to both student and practitioner. The present edition has been thoroughly 
 revised and much of it re-written. 
 
 "The best Text -book for Students in the English 
 langnage. We know of no work in the English lan- 
 guage, or in any other, which competes with this 
 one." — Edinburgh Medical jfotirnal. 
 
 " It is a remarkable eviilence of industry, experi- 
 ence, and research." — Practitioner. 
 
 " Dr. Roberts' book is admirably fitted to supply 
 llie want of a good hand-book, so much felt by every 
 medical student." — Student's yournal and Hospital 
 Gazette. 
 
 " It contains a vast deal of capital instruction for Clinic. 
 
 " To the student it will be a gift of priceless value." 
 — Detroit Revieiv o/ Medicine. 
 
 "We heartily recommend it to students, teachers, 
 and practitioners." — Boston Medical and Surgical 
 yournal. 
 
 " It is of a much higher order than the usual compi- 
 ations and abstracts placed in the hands of students." 
 1 — Medical and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 " It is unsurpassed by any work that has fallen into 
 our hands as a compendium for students." — The 
 
 the student." — Medical Times and Gazetti 
 
 "There are great excellencies in this book, which 
 will make it a great favorite with the student." — Rich- 
 iiiond and Louisville yournal. 
 
 " We particularly commend it to students about to 
 enter upon the practice of their profession." — St. Louis 
 Medical a7id Surgical yoicrnal. 
 
 RINDFLEISCH, GENERAL PATHOLOGY, 
 
 General Pathology; a Handbook for Students and Physicians. By Prof. 
 Edward Rindfleisch, of Wurzburg. Translated by Wm. H. Mercur, m.d.. 
 Edited and Revised by James Tyson, m.d.. Professor of Morbid Anatomy and 
 Pathology, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo. Cloth, 
 
 /// Rapid Preparation. 
 
 RINDFLEISCH, PATHOLOGICAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 A Text-Book of Pathological Histology. By Dr. Edward Rindfleisch. 
 Translated by Drs. Wm. C. Kolman and F. T. Miller. 208 Illustrations. 
 8vo. 
 Recommended as a Text-Book at the University of Pennsylvania and other Med- 
 ical Schools. 
 
 " To be up with the times, our Pathologists must make thtmselves familiar with the thorough, clear, and al- 
 most exhaustive teachings of Professor Rindfleisch." — Ohio Medical and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 ROYLE AND HARLEY, MATERIA MEDICA. Sixth Edition. 
 
 A Manual of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By Dr. J. Forbes Royle. 
 Sixth Edition. Edited by John Harley, m.d. 840 pages and numerous Illus- 
 trations. Demi 8vo. Price $5.00 
 
 RUTHERFORD, PRACTICAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 Outlines of Practical Histology ; being the Notes of the Course of Practical 
 Physiology given in King's College, London, and the University of Edinburgh. 
 By William Rutherford, m.d., f.r.s., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine 
 in the University of Edinburgh (with additional leaves for Notes). Third Edi- 
 tion. Illustrated. [In Pcss. 
 
 " To the student and teacher of Practical Histology, this work can hardly help being a great boon. It is 
 complete, yet short, perfectly clear and simple, and moreover every line bespeaks the outcome of an extensive 
 practical acquaintance with the subject." — Medical Times and Gazette , London. 
 
34 P. BI.AKfSTOX, SON &^ CO.'S 
 
 SANDERSON AND FOSTER, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LA- 
 BORATORY. 
 
 A Hand-book of the I'hysiological Laboratory. Being Practical Exercises for 
 Students in Physiology and Histology. By J. Bl'RIjon Sanderson, m.d., E. 
 Kli:in, M.D., Michael Foster, m.u., f.r.s., and T. Lauder Brunton, m.d 
 With over 350 Illustrations and Appropriate Letter-press Explanations and Ref- 
 erences. 
 
 Price. Two Volumes, Text and Plates, separate, - - - $6.00 
 
 " One " " " bound together, Cloth, 5.00 
 
 " " " " " " " Leather, 6.00 
 
 Adopted as a Text-book at Yale College, and used at other Medical Schools in 
 
 America and England. 
 
 " Recognizing the fact that Physiolog>' is emphatic- | " We confidently recommend it to the attention of ail 
 
 ally an experimental science, it furnishes minute in- | who are interested in the wide and fertile field of Phy- 
 
 structions for performing a great variety of exper- | siological research." — New \'ork Medical Journal 
 elv desire a better guiae 
 
 inents. A student could scarcely desire a better guide." ' "This is a most superb bonk, and fills a hiatus which 
 
 every physiological 
 Medical yournal. 
 
 -Baston Medical and Surgical yournal. | every physiological student has lamented." — Chicago 
 
 ' 'edici 
 
 SANDERSON, PHYSIOLOGY. Second Edition. 
 
 A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Physiology. By J. Burdon Sander- 
 son, M.D. For the Use of Students. Second Edition. 8vo. Price $1.50 
 
 SANDERSON, PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
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 SANSOM, PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS. Third Edition just ready. 
 
 The Physical Diagnosis of Diseases of the Heart. Including the Use of the 
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 Edition. Revised and Enlarged. With Illustrations. i2mo. Price $2.00 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 
 
 The Lettsomian Lectures on the Treatment of some of the Fonns of Valvular 
 Disease of the Heart. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.25 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 ON CHLOROFORM. 
 
 Chloroform. Its Action and Administration. i2mo. Price $1.50 
 
 SMITH, MANUAL OF GYNAECOLOGY. 
 
 Practical Gynaecology. A Hand-book of the Diseases of Women. By Hey- 
 wood Smith, M.D. Physician to the Hospital for Women and to the British 
 Lying-in Hospital. With Engravings. Price $1.25 
 
 The object of the author has been to present the busy practitioner with a book 
 systematically arranged, burdened with no discussions on vexed questions of pathol- 
 ogy, and giving at a glance the salient points of diagnosis and treatment with clear- 
 ness and brevity. 
 
 BY same author. 
 
 DYSMENORRHCEA. Just Issued. 
 
 Its Pathology and Treatment. i2mo. Price 5i-75 
 
 SMITH, RINGWORM. 
 
 The Diagnosis and Treatment of Ringworm. By Alder Smith, F.r.C.S. 
 With Illustrations. i2mo. Price $1.00 
 
 SMITH, ON NURSING. 
 
 The Efficient Training of Nurses for Hospital and Private Practice. By Wil- 
 liam Robert Smith. Illustrated. Third Edition. Price 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 
 
 . 35 
 
 SMITH, ON CHILDREN. 
 
 Clinical Studies of Diseases in Children. By Eustace Smith, m.d. Second 
 Revised Edition. Price $2.50 
 
 MEDICAL HERESIES, HISTORICALLY CONSIDERED. 
 
 A Series of Critical Essays on the Origin and Evolution of Sectarian Medi- 
 cine, embracing a Special Sketch and Review of Homoeopathy, Past and Pres- 
 ent. By GoNZALVO C. Smythe, a.m., m.d. Professor of the Principles and 
 Practice of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Indianapolis, Indi- 
 ana. i2mo. Cloth. Price $1.25 
 
 " This book gives, in a small comphss, .in excellent 
 history of medicine, from its earliest day to the present 
 lime." — Buffalo Medical and Surgical yournal. 
 
 " Students and others interested in the subject of 
 medicine will find a digest of the entire controversy 
 (between the various schools of medi'-.ine) presented in 
 "Cannot"fail to be of interest, not only tc the medi- j «^'^ xo\\xm^."—7.mrnal of Education. 
 cal profession, but io the general reader." — Baltimore j " Professor Smythe has succeeded in writing a brief, 
 Gazette. clear, and interesting sketch of the evolution of medical 
 
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 style, and has cost the writer much literary research." fallacies. —Philadelphia Medical fimes. 
 ■•-New York Medical yournal. 1 
 
 SAVAGE, FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS. Author's Edition. 
 
 The Surgery, Surgical Pathology and Surgical Anatomy of the Female Pelvic 
 Organs. In a Series of Colored Plates taken from Nature, with Commentaries, 
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 SAVORY & MOORE, DOMESTIC MEDICINE. 
 
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 SCHULTZE, OBSTETRICAL PLATES. 
 
 Obstetrical Diagrams. Life Size. By Prof. B. S. Schultze, m.d., of Berlin. 
 Twenty in the Set. Colored. 
 
 Price, in Sheets, $15.00; Mounted on Rollers $25.00 
 
 SCANZONI, DISEASES OF WOMEN. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Sexual Organs of Women. By 
 Dr. F. W. Von Scanzoni. Translated by A. K. Gardiner, m.d. 8vo. 
 
 Price $5.00 
 
 SIEVEKING, LIFE ASSURANCE. 
 
 The Medical Adviser in Life Assurance. By E. H. Sieveking, m.d. i2mo. 
 Second Edition, Revised. Price $2.00 
 
 SHEPPARD, ON MADNESS. 
 
 Madness, in its Medical, Social and Legal Aspects. A series of Lectures de- 
 livered at King's Medical College, London. By Edgar Sheppard, m.d. 8vo. 
 
 Price $2.25 
 
 STOCKEN, DENTAL MATERIA MEDICA. Third Edition. 
 
 The Elements of Dental Materia Medica and Therapeutics with Pharmacopoeia. 
 By James Stocken, d.d.s. Third Edition. i2mo. $2.50 
 
 The first edition of this book was disposed of in a little less than four months. In 
 making this revision the author has endeavored to make it still more useful by the 
 addition of considerable new matter. 
 
 •SUTTON, VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. Fourth Edition. 
 
 A Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis, or the Quantitative Estima- 
 tion of Chemical Substances by Measure, Applied to Liquids, Solids, and Gases. 
 By Francis Sutton, f.c.s. Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlarged, with Illus- 
 trations. 8vo. Price $5.00 
 
36 P. BLAh'ISTON, SON ."- CO:S 
 
 " A valuable book for the general Praclitioncr who 
 tt. in warn ol n practical manual relating especially to 
 iliscnses of the \.QK\\\."—Mfdi>.al BrifJ. 
 
 SEWELL, DENTAL ANATOMY AND SURGERY. 
 
 A Manual of Dental Anatomy unci Surgery, Including the Extraction of Teeth. 
 IJy H. E. Skwkll, d.u.s., m.d. With 77 Illustrations. i2mo. IVice Si.25 
 
 " It will be fijurnJ useful to the general Practitioner in 
 the management of many incidental affections connected 
 with the teeth and mouth, which cannot always be 
 handed over to the specialist." — I'aci/tc MiJ. jfournat 
 
 STILLE, ON MENINGITIS. 
 
 Epidemic Meningitis, or Cercbro-spinal Meningitis. By Alfred Stii.le, m.d., 
 Professor of Practice at the University of Pennsylvania. 8vo. Price ;fi2.oo 
 
 " The name of the author is a sufficient guarantee that this monograph is elegant in style, exhaustive of its sub- 
 ject and rich with practical suggestions." — /'/ij7a<i'.,-///j/a Medical and Surgical Reporter. 
 
 STOKES, DISEASES OF THE HEART. 
 
 The Diseases of the Heart and Aorta. By William Stokes, m.d. Thick 
 8vo. Price $3.00 
 
 SWAIN, SURGICAL EMERGENCIES. 
 
 Surgical Emergencies: Concise Descriptions of the Various Accidents and 
 Emergencies, with Directions for their Treatment. By Wm. Paul Swain, f.r. 
 C.S. Eighty-two Illustrations. i2mo. Price $2.00 
 
 Contents. — Chapter I. Injuries to the Head. IL Injuries to the Eye. III. Injuries to the Mouth, 
 Pharynx, CEsophagus, and Laryn.x. IV, The Chest. V. The Upper Extremity. VI. The Abdomen. VII. 
 The Pelvis. VIII. The Lower Extremity. IX. Emergencies connected with Parturition. X. Poisoning. 
 XI. Antiseptic Treatment. XII. Apparatus and Dressing. 
 
 " Many surgeons will thank Dr. Swain for the trouble he has taken to put them easily in possession of this re- 
 fresher of //a{/' forgotten knowledge. — The Practitioner. 
 
 SWERINGEN, REFERENCE BOOK. 
 
 A Pharmaceutical Lexicon or Dictionary of Pharmaceutical Science. Contain- 
 ing explanations of the various subjects and terms of Pharmacy, with appropriate 
 selections from the Collateral Sciences. Formula; for Officinal, Empirical, and 
 Dietetic Preparations, etc., etc. By Hiram. V. Sweringen, m.d. 8vo. 
 
 Price, Cloth, $3.00; Leather, $4.00 
 
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 " It will prove of great service to the pharmaceutical student, apprentice, pharmacist, druggist and physician, as 
 a book of ready reference and as an aid to the study of scientific works." — . \ntc)ican yournal o/ Pharmacy. 
 
 THOMPSON, LITHOTOMY AND LITHOTRITY. 
 
 Practical Lithotomy and Lithotrity ; or, an Inquiry into the best Modes of 
 Removing Stone from the Bladder. By Sir Henry Thompson, f.r.c.s., Emer- 
 itus Professor of Clinical Surgery in University College. Third Edition. 8vo. 
 With 87 Engravings. Price $3.50 
 
 "The chapters of most interest are those in which Bigelow's operation is discussed, and the final one, in 
 which is a record of 500 operations for stone in cases of male adults under the author's care. Such a table ha.i 
 never before been compiled by any surgeon." — Lancet. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 URINARY ORGANS. Seventh Edition. 
 
 Diseases of the Urinary Organs. Clinical Lectures. Seventh London Edition. 
 Enlarged, with 73 Illustrations. Price, Cloth, 51.25 ; Paper, .75 
 
 ON THE PROSTATE. 
 
 Diseases of the Prostate. Their Pathology and Treatment. Fifth London 
 Edition. 8vo. With Numerous Plates. Price, Cloth, ;? 1.25 ; Paper, .75. 
 
 CALCULOUS DISEASES. 
 
 The Preventive Treatment of Calculous Disease, and the Use of Solvent 
 Remedies. Second Edition. i6mo. Price $\.oo 
 
 "Catholic in his investigation of the fruit of the labor of others, cautious in all his deductions, rejecting all spc 
 cious theories in the effort to obtain practically useful results, as clever with his pen as he is with the sound or 
 lithotrite, one can scarcely wonder that he is esteemed the master that he is." — American yourt.al of M.dica- 
 Science. 
 
PUBLICA TIONS. 
 
 37 
 
 By E. S. TiiOMP- 
 Pricc .60 
 
 THOMPSON, COUGHS AND COLDS. 
 
 The Causes, Nuturc, and Treatment of Coughs and Colds. 
 SON, M.D. i6mo. 
 
 THOROWGOOD, MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 The Student's Guide to Materia Mcdica. By John C. Thorowgood, M.D. 
 Illustrated. 318 pages. i2nio. Price ^2.00 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 ON ASTHMA. 
 
 The Forms, Nature, and Treatment of Asthma. 
 
 i2mo. 
 
 TUSON, VETERINARY PHARMACOPCEIA. 
 
 A Pharmacopoeia, Including the Outlines of Materia Medica and Therapeu- 
 tics. For the Use of Students and Practitioners of Veterinary Medicine. By 
 Richard V. Tuson, f.c.s. Third Edition. i2mo. Price $2.50 
 
 " Not only practitioners and students of veterinary medicine, but chemists and druggists will find that this 
 book supplies a want in veterinary literature." — Druggist and Chetiiist. 
 
 THUDICHUM ON THE URINE. Second Edition. 
 
 The Pathology of the Urine and Complete Guide to Analysis. By John L. 
 ■ W. Thudichum, M.D. Second Edition. Enlarged and Illustrated. 8vo. 
 
 Price $5.00 
 
 "The treatise of Dr. Thudichum is well known as one of the medical classics of the language, and in com- 
 pleteness, thoroughness, and originality, the volume before us has few rivals in any branch of our science. Kor 
 the specialist, for the physiological chemist, for the physiologist, the volume of Dr. Thudichum is a sine Qtia 
 non, and to such the new edition must be 9- most welcome guest." — PhiUidelphia Medical Times. 
 
 TROUSSEAU, CLINICAL MEDICINE. 
 
 Lectures on Clinical Medicine, Delivered at the Hotel Dieu, Paris, by A. 
 Trousseau, Professor of Clinical Medicine to the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, 
 etc., etc. Translated from the Third Revised and Enlarged Edition by P. Vic- 
 tor Bazire, M.D , London and Paris ; and John Rose Cormack, m.d., Edin- 
 burgh, F.R.S., etc. With a full Index, Table of Contents, etc. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Sold by Subscription only. Price, Cloth, $8.00; Leather, $10.00 
 
 Sydenham Edition, Same Work. 5 Vols. 8vo. Large Print. Price $15.00 
 Trousseau's Lectures have attained a reputation, both in England and in this 
 country, far greater than any work of a similar character heretofore written. In 
 order to bring the work within the reach of all the profession, the publishers now 
 issue an American edition, containing all the lectures as contained in the five-vol- 
 ume Sydenham edition, at a much lower price. Below are a few only of the many 
 favorable opinions expressed of the work : — 
 
 " A clever translation of Prof. Trousseau's admirable 
 and exhaustive work ; the best book of reference upon 
 the Practice of Medicine." — Indiana Medical Gazette. 
 
 TEST TYPES, 
 
 " We scarcely know of any book better fitted for 
 presentation to a young man when entering upon the 
 practical work of his life." — London Medical Times 
 and Gazette. 
 
 Selections from Snellen's Test Types mounted upon heavy card board ; suit- 
 able for hanging in the office. Price 50 cents 
 
 TIDY, MODERN CHEMISTRY. 
 
 A Hand-Book of Modern Chemistry. Organic and Inorganic. By C. Mev- 
 MOTT Tidy, m.d. 8vo. Price $5.00 
 
 "We doubt if any other chemical work containing so large an amount of information could be procured." — 
 Dublin Medical fournal. 
 
38 P. BLAKISTON, SON &- CO.'S 
 
 TILT, THE CHANGE OF LIFE IN WOMEN. 
 
 The Chan{,'c of Life in }lcalth and Disease. A Practical Treatise on the 
 Diseases incidental to Women at the Decline of Life. By Edward John Tilt. 
 M.D. Fourth London Edition. 8vo. Price, Cloth, 51.25; Paper cover, .75 
 
 " We believe Dr. 'lilt briiiRS much more than ordinary merit to bear on his subject, and handles it accord- 
 ingly. Few books arc isNUcd thai arc more indispensable to the general pr.iclilioncr." — I'liila. Med. Titnes. 
 
 " Dr. 'l"ilt's clear and concise style makes the book at once a pleasant one to read and an easy guide to follow, 
 and we arc quite sure it is the most v.iluable one we have on the subject." — Botton Med. &• Surg. Journal. 
 
 " The best work on the subject." — London I.iincet. 
 
 TOMES, DENTAL ANATOMY. Second Edition. 
 
 A Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative. By C. .S. To.mes, 
 D.D.s. With 179 Illustrations. Second Edition. i2mo. Price $4.25 
 
 TOMES, DENTAL SURGERY. 
 
 A System of Dental Surgery, l^y John Tomes, f.r.s. The Second Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. By C. S. Tomes, d.d.s. With 263 Illustrations. i2mo. 
 
 Price 55.00 
 
 " We rejoice that such books as these (Dr. Tomes' Works) are demanded by the profession, and that the men 
 to write them arc furnished by the profession." — Denial Cosmos. 
 
 TAFT, OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. Fourth Edition. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Operative Dentistry. By Jonathan Taft, d.d.s. 
 Fourth Revised and Enlarged Edition. Over 100 Illustrations. 8vo. 
 
 Price, Cloth, $4.25 ; Leather, 5.00 
 
 "All the important operations, in all their modif!ca> \ " It is a thorough and complete treatise on the Art 
 
 r;ons, are clearly discussed by the author, and the ' of Practical Dentistry." — London Medical Timts and 
 
 work is highly practical throughout." — Dental Regis- Gazette, 
 ler. 
 
 TANNER, INDEX OF DISEASES. Second Edition. 
 
 An Inde.\ of Diseases and their Treatment. By Thos. Hawkins Tanner, .m.d.. 
 
 F.R.c.P. Second Edition. Revised and Enlarged. By W. H. Broaduent, .m.d. 
 
 With Additions. Appendix of Formulae, etc. 8vo. Price $3.00 
 
 By this useful hand-book the character of any disease may be determined in a 
 
 moment, and the general outline of treatment pursued by the best authorities made 
 
 apparent. 
 
 " This work, like others from the gifted author, has " Finally, a chapter on the climates, countries, mine- 
 already won for itself a reputation." . . . " It is ral springs, etc., best adapted to the various classes of 
 in tnith what its title indicates." — New York Medical invalids, makes this work the most complete practi- 
 Record. j t'oner's manual that we have yet seen. — Chicago Medi- 
 
 I cal Times. 
 
 RY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 THE DISEASES OF INFANCY. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood. Third Edi- 
 tion. Carefully Revised and much Enlarged. By Alfred Meadows, m.d. 
 8vo. Price $3.00 
 
 Recommended as a Text-book at Jefferson Medical College and other schools of 
 Medicine. 
 
 "One of the most careful, ornate, and accessible I " We corusider the views of the .nuihor on the subject 
 manuals on the subject." — London Lancet. of therapeutics as rational in the highest degree." — 
 
 I Boston Medical and Surgical yournal. 
 
 MEMORANDA OF POISONS. 
 
 A Memoranda of Poisons and their Antidotes and Tests. Fifth American, 
 from the Last London Edition. Revised and Enlarged. In Press. 
 
 This most complete Toxicological Manual should be within reach of all physi- 
 cians and pharmacists, and as an addition to every family library, would be the 
 means of saving life and allaying pain when the delay of sending for a physician 
 would prove fatal. 
 
PUBLIC A riONS. 39 
 
 TIBBETS, MEDICAL ELECTRICITY. 
 
 A Hand-book of Medical Electricity. Giving full directions for its Applica- 
 tion, etc. By Herbert Tibbets, m.d. 64 Illustrations. 8vo. 
 
 TRANSACTIONS OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS. 
 
 The Transactions of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. New Series. 
 Vols. I, II, III, IV. 8vo. Price, per volume, %2.lo 
 
 Vol. V. Containing Articles and Discourses by Drs. Atlee, DaCosta, Mills, 
 A. V. Meigs, PI. C. Wood, Cohen ; Profs. Tyson, Gross, Bartholow, Allen, Leeds 
 and others. Just Ready. Cloth, Gift Top, ^3. 50 
 
 TYSON, BRIGHT'S DISEASE AND DIABETES. 
 
 A Treatise on Diabetes and Bright's Disease. With Especial Reference to 
 Pathology and Therapeutics. By James Tyson, m.d., Professor of Pathology 
 and Morbid Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. With Colored Plates 
 and many Wood Engravings. 8vo. Price $3.50 
 
 "This volume is the outcome of some fifteen years' ' "The symptoms are clearly defined, and the treat- 
 special study and observation, and will be found to be i ment is exceedingly well described, so that every one 
 
 a very well prepared monograph His direc- I reading the book must be profited " — Cincinnati La n- 
 
 tions are clear and minute. — Med. and Surg. Reporter. \ cet and Clinic. 
 
 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 GUIDE TO THE EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Examination of Urine. For the use of Physicians and 
 
 Students. With Colored Plates and Numerous Illustrations Engraved on Wood. 
 
 Fourth Edition. i2mo. Price ^1.50 
 
 Advantage has been taken, in bringing out a newr edition of this work, not only to 
 
 correct the previous one, but to make such additions of new Facts and Processes as 
 
 would add to its value without materially increasing its size. 
 
 " Dr. Tyson commences with a short account of the theory of renal secretion, the physical and chemical charac- 
 ters of the urine, and the reagents and apparatus used in its analysis. Excellent rules are then given for detecting 
 the presence of albumen, sugar, coloring-matters, bile, urea, uric acid, chlorides, phosphates and sulphates : and 
 minute instructions for approximative and quantitative determination of most of those ingredients by volumetric 
 analysis are supplied." — Philadelphia Medical Tunes. 
 
 " We have experienced both pleasure and profit ftom the perusal of this book. It is agreeably written, contains 
 much practical information, and is, we believe, a reliable and satisfactory guide to the clinical examination of 
 arine. We can recommend Dr. Tyson's book as one that amply supplies the clinical needs of the physician." — 
 Dublin journal of Medical Science. 
 
 THE CELL DOCTRINE. Second Edition. 
 
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PUBLICA TIONS. 41 
 
 WEST, THE DISEASES OF WOMEN. Fourth Edition. 
 
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 Voyage — Future Plans. 11. The Homeward Voyage. 12. Australia: its Climate, Cities, and Health Resort*. 
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PUB Lie A TIONS. 43 
 
 WOODMAN and TIDY, MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
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 realized in the volume before us. The style is clear 1 numerous new illustrations, some of which are from 
 
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 of which are beautifully colored, are not to be excelled. | practical guide and reference book is also a necessity. 
 We feel proud of it as an American production." — and we are fully warranted in reiterating the statement 
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 BY SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 DOSE AND SYMPTOM BOOK. Eleventh Edition. 
 
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 MEDICINAL PLANTS. 
 
 Being Descriptions, with original Figures, of the Principal Plants employed in 
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 for Skin Diseases in University College Hospital. With 72 Colored Plates 
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 AN ATLAS OF HUMAN ANATOMY. 
 
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 Fasciculi XI to XV. Ready. Each, $2.50 
 
NOW READY, THE SEVENTH REVISED EDITION. 
 
 MEIGS AND PEPPER, ON CHILDREN. 
 
 THE MOST THOROUGH, COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL WORK 
 ON THE SUBJECT NOW BEFORE THE PROFESSION. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF CHILD- 
 REN. By J. FoKSYTU Meigs, m.d., one of the Physicians to the Pennsylvania 
 Hospi'.al, Consulting Physician to the Children's Hospital, etc., and William 
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 and ex-officio President of the Faculty, Physician to the Philadelphia Hospital, 
 
 Fellow of the College of Physicians, etc., etc. The Seventh Revised and Improved 
 
 Edition. In one volume of over iioo royal octavo pages. 
 
 Price, handsomely bound in Cloth, ;^6.oo; Leather $j.oo. 
 
 The rapid sale of si.x large editions of Drs. Meigs and Pepper's work on Children, 
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 value unequaled, probably, by any other on the subject now before the profession. 
 
 The entire work has been now again subjected to an entire and thorough revision, 
 some articles have been rewritten, many additions made, and great care observed by 
 the authors, that it should be most effectually brought up to the light, pathological 
 and therapeutical, of the present day. 
 
 The publishers have very many favorable notices of the previous editions, re- 
 ceived from numerous sources, foreign and domestic. They append a few from lead- 
 ing journals, which will give a general idea of the value placed upon it, both as a 
 Text-Book for the Student and a work of reference for the General Practitioner. 
 
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 and agreeable diction are appreciated." — American yournal of Obstetrics. 
 
 " It is only three years since we had the pleasure of recommending the Fifth Edition of this excellent work. 
 With the recent additions it may safely be pronounced one of the best and most comprehensive works on diseases 
 of children of which the American Practitioner can avail himself, for study or reference." — JV. Y. Med. yournal. 
 
 " It is not necessary to say much, in the way of criticism, of a work so well known. Cut it is clinical. Like so 
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 and practice, with evidence throughout of good personal judgment, knowledge, and experience. The book also 
 abounds in exposition of American experience and observation in all that relates to the diseases of children. We 
 are glad to add it to our library. There arc few diseases of children which it docs not treat of fully and wisely, in 
 the light of the latest physiological, pathological, and therapeutical science." — London Lancet. 
 
 P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 Successors to LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, 
 
 1012 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
NO W REA DY. 
 
 Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 BY GEORGE HARLEY, M.D., F.R.S., Etc., 
 
 Author of " The Urine and Its Derangements," and " Diabetes, Its Various Forms and Tieatmem." 
 
 On Fine Paper, from Good TyPe, with Colored Plates and Thirty-six Wood-cuts 
 Bound in Heavy Cloth, Beveled Edges, I5.00/ Leather, with Raised Bands, $6.00. 
 
 THE Publishers call special attention to this work, the only thorough book now 
 before the profession. The reputation of its distinguished author i#a guar- 
 antee of its merits. 
 
 THE AUTHOR, IN HIS PREFACE, SA^b; 
 
 THIS NEW TREA TISE, which I have thought fit to entitle Diseases of the Liver, with 
 and without Jaundice, with special application to Diagnosis and Treatment, 
 embodies within it the whole substance of my original monograph on Jaundice and 
 Diseases of the Liver; though greater than it, both as regards its scope and 
 materials, and the large amount of clinical and scientific data that has never 
 before been collected together into one volume; while in a great many instances 
 it gives a new rendering to old clinical facts, by presenting them to the reader in 
 the light of modern pathological science. 
 
 As I think time is quite of as much value to the professional as it is to the mercantile man, 
 I have endeavored to condense my materials to the utmost, without running the 
 risk of endangering their perspicuity. Added to which, as this treatise has not 
 been penned either for the use of the tyro or the dilettante in medicine, but for 
 that of my qualified brethren, I shall neither waste time by entering into detailed 
 accounts of the literature, nor give tedious, and probably at the same time profit- 
 less, discussions of the theories of the mechanism of jaundice in hepatic derange- 
 ments. Taking care, however, in order that it may carry more weight with it 
 in the eyes of the reader, to illustrate it freely with cases reported by indepen- 
 dent observers, both at home and abroad. While, in order, again, that the reader 
 may be able to see for himself, at a glance, how many of the old-fashioned theories 
 of the pathology of jaundice have been abandoned, as well as how many new ones 
 have been espoused, I have put my views, in accordance with the facts and 
 arguments expressed throughout the body of the volume, into a concise and 
 diagrammatic tabular form. 
 
 / WOULD DIRECT the special attention of my readers to the chapter devoted to 
 treatment, as well as that at the end of the book, entitled Hints on Diagnosis. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction, giving a general view of the scope of the 
 roiume.and the application of Physiological Chemistry 
 to the diagnosis and treatment of Hepatic affections. 
 
 Chemistry, Physics and Physiology of the Liver and 
 its secretions. 
 
 EtioloK>' of Jaundice — different kinds — causes pro- 
 ducing tb-m — treatment. 
 
 Signs and Symptoms of Liver Diseases. 
 ^General remarks on all Icindg of Hepatic Remedies. 
 
 Special Hepatic Medicines; their modes of action 
 ■ua uses. 
 
 Mineral Waters, Wines and Foods ; treatment of 
 Pyrexia, Cerebral complications, etc. 
 
 Congenital and Hereditary Liver Diseases, Bilious- 
 Qcss; Its Varieties and Treatment. 
 
 Jaundice from Knervation, all its forms explained and 
 their different Treatments 
 
 Different forms of Inflammation of the Liver and their 
 Treatments. 
 
 Jaundice caused by Diaea.se Germs, Yellow Fevers. 
 Contagious and Epidemic Jaundice, different kinds and 
 Uieir Treatments. 
 
 Jaundice of Pregnancy. 
 
 Different forms of Hepatic Atrophy and Ascites. 
 
 Biliary Concretions, Iiupissated Bile. Gall-Stones ol 
 every kind and form, direct and indirect effects of, 
 their Symptoms and Treatment, verj* fully gone into. 
 
 Different kinds of Colics, etc. 
 
 Catarrhal Jaundice. 
 
 Jaundice from Poisons. 
 
 Different kinds of Jaundice from Permanent 01>stnic- 
 tions. 
 
 Physiological Chemistry of the Excretions, Urine 
 and Stools, as a Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. 
 
 All kinds of Abscess, Tropical, Pyaemic, Metastatic, 
 etc. 
 
 Different kinds of Cancen of the Liver and its Appen- 
 dages. 
 
 ilydatid and Cystic Diseases of the Liver; Syphilitic 
 and Fibroid Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 Embolisms, Fatty, Amyloid and other Degenerations 
 of the Liver. 
 
 Traumatic Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 Diseases of the Gall Bladder. 
 
 A concluding chapter, entitled Hints on Differential 
 Diagnosis. 
 
 Index. 
 
 This work is now ready, and will be sent by mail, postpaid, upon receipt of price. 
 (Cloth, $5.00. Leather, $6.00.) 
 
PRESS NOTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 Dr. George Harley's New Book on 
 
 Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 " The Medical Profession, botli n Englam and Amer- 
 ica, has for some time been on tl.i gui vive :_r this new 
 work on the Liver, both because hepatic literature is mea- 
 gre in the extreme, and because it was well known that 
 J'rof. Harley was specially qualified to write an authorita- 
 tive work on the subject. . . . The author has unques- 
 tionably written the most valu.ible work on hepatic dis- 
 eases that lias yet appeared. We must confess that we 
 have tried, and tried hard, to find some error in the work, 
 to preclude the charge of partiality being made." — Vir- 
 giniii Medical Monthly. 
 
 " It is one of the freshest, most readable, and most 
 instructive medical books that have been laid upon our 
 table during the present decade. ... In conclusion, we 
 commend again most heartily Dr. Harley's extremely 
 valuable book." — Philadelphia Medical Times. 
 
 "The work is far in advance, in original and practical 
 information, of any treatise on the subject with which we 
 are acquainted, and is worth many times its cost to any 
 physician treating hepatic troubles." — Chicago Medical 
 Times. 
 
 "The whole subject-matter is treated in a masterly 
 manner, and the work is destined to find a place among 
 the classics." — Medical Herald, Louisville , Ky. 
 
 " It is the outcome of a mind that went to its task 
 amply equipped therefor. It is the product of long think- 
 ing and ripe judgment. . . . We must content ourselves 
 with this bare statement hoping that those who read the 
 book wilj derive as much benefit as ourselves." — Neuj 
 Orleajis Medical and Surreal Jozirtial. 
 
 " The work before us is one of the most thoroughly 
 scientific ever offered to the medical profession upon the 
 diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the liver. This 
 book will prove especially valuable to the Southern prac- 
 titioner, who, on account of climatic influences, is daily 
 forced to combat these ailments. In this section of 
 country hepatic disorders are not only common as inde- 
 pendent conditions — diseases per se — but they form im- 
 portant factors in the production of, and are ordinary 
 concomitants of, most of our malarial diseases." — The 
 Missit-'ippi Valley Medical Monthly, Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 "The work of Dr. Harley is the most complete work 
 upon diseases of the liver now before the profession. It 
 embodies not only the results of his own large experience 
 and observations, but also exhibits the researches of oth- 
 ers in the same class of diseases. As a scientific treatise 
 of hepatic affections and their treatment, it will certainly 
 hold a first position among the standard works." — Cin- 
 cinnati Medical News. 
 
 " We regard it as one of the most valuable of the recent 
 additions to medical literature." — Southern Practitioner, 
 Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 " His especial point, as mdicatcd in the titiC, is to 
 bring prominently forward the relations of physiology to 
 the forms of disease. Too exclusive attention, he thinks, 
 has been paid to pathology. It has been rtgr.rded as a 
 science apart. The great truth has been overlooked that 
 the same fundamental laws regulate the phenomena both 
 of health and disease. 
 
 " With this as his guiding principle, he approaches the 
 complicated problem of ' liver complaints' and 'biliou^ 
 ness' with a much stronger hand than his predecessors in 
 that field. Afflicted as many districts of our country are, 
 with many and puzzling forms of these maladies, we be- 
 lieve Dr. Harley's volnme will be a welcome addition to 
 many a library." — Philadelphia Meidcal and Surgical 
 Reporter. 
 
 " We have read the volume before us with peculiar in- 
 terest, and it will be read especially by Southern doctors, 
 who, although they do not nave a monopoly of diseases 
 of the liver, by reason of semi-tropical malarial climate 
 encounter a large proportion of such diseases. . . . We 
 most heartily commend this book to our readers as a val- 
 uable addition to the working volumes of their libraries : 
 for without any exception it is the most entertaining and 
 instructive volume we had the pleasure of reading for 
 many years." — North Carolina Medical Journal. 
 
 " The author has succeeded admirably in the work he 
 has undertaken, and has placed before the profession a 
 work that will be of inestimable value to the practi- 
 tioner." — Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery. 
 
 "His chapter on 'Hints to Aid in the Diagnosis of 
 Liver Disease,' is one of the best in the book, and will 
 amply repay any one for its perusal." — Indiana Medical 
 Journal. 
 
 " With unusual gratification we have received this 
 most excellent work, and present it to the niedical profes- 
 sion with an unqualified endorsement. We know of no 
 work of the kind, as this, based upon the unvarj'ing rela- 
 tion between physiology and pathology, the only avenue 
 of approach to the cause of disease and proper treat- 
 ment." — Missouri Valley Medical Journal. 
 
 " Those features which are the most noteworthy from 
 their novelty, or as showing individuality in treatment, 
 are to be found in the chapter on ' The General Treat- 
 ment of Hepatic Disease,' and in that on the ' Chemistry 
 of the Excretions.' In the former the author takes up 
 the most prominent articles in the materia medica having 
 a reputation in this class of diseases, and considers their 
 chemistry, their mode of action, and the conditions which 
 seem to indicate their employment, after adding brief 
 cases in illustration." — Nevj York Herald. 
 
 " We commend the book to the profession as eminently 
 worthy of study, and one that should be in the library of 
 every physirinn." — Southern Medical Record. 
 
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 Heavy Cloth, Beveled Edges ^5 oo 
 
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 *^SENT, POSTPAID, ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. 
 
 BEALE ON SLIGHT AILMENTS. 
 
 SLIGHT AILMENTS: Their Nature, Causes, and Treatment. By Lionel S. Bkale, M.D., 
 F.R.S., Professor of Practice in King's Medical College. Second Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged, with Illustrations. Octavo. Jitst ready. 
 
 Price, in Strong Paper Covers, 75 Cents; Cloth, $1.25 
 
 A finer edition of this work is also printed, on thick paper, hound in Extra Cloili, price Si. 75 
 
 Outline of Contents. — Introductory. The Tongue in Health and Slight Ailments. 
 
 Appetite. Nausea. Thirst. Hunger. Indigestion, its Nature and Treatment. Constipation, 
 
 its Treatment. Diarrhoea. Vertigo. Giddiness. Biliousness. Sick Headache. Neuralgia. 
 
 Rheumatism. The Feverish and Inflammatory State. Of the Actual Changes in Fever and 
 
 Inflammation. Common Forms of Slight Inflammation, etc., etc. 
 
 " We venture to .^ay, that among the numerous medical publications there has been none which will prove more 
 
 useful to the young general practitioner, for whom it is really intended, than this volume, while the time of the older 
 
 physician might be much more unprofitably spent." — American yournal 0/ Medical Science . 
 
 TILT ON CHANGE OF LIFE IN WOMEN. 
 
 THE CHANGE OF LIFE IN WOMEN, IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. A Clinical 
 Treatise on the Diseases Incidental to Women at the Decline of Life. By Edward John 
 Tilt, M.D., Past President of the Obstetrical Society. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 Octavo. A^ow ready. Price, in Strong Paper Covers, 75 Cents; Cloth, $1.25 
 
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 tion." — American Practitioner. 
 
 AGNEW ON THE FEMALE PERINEUM. 
 
 LACERATIONS OF THE FEMALE PERINEUM AND VESICO-VAGINAL 
 FISTULA. Their History and Treatment. With 75 Illustrations. By D. Hayes Agnew, 
 M.D., Professor of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo. Readv. 
 
 Price, in Strong Paper Covers, 75 Cents; Cloth, $1.25 
 So many applications having been made for these papers, as originally issued, it has been 
 thought best to bring them before the profession in the present form. 
 " The literature of the subject, its history, causes, complications, and various modes of treatment, -.-e given. The 
 various methods of radical cure are classified." — Indiana your nal 0/ Medicine. 
 
 " These two monographs will merit this more durable and convenient form." — Atn. yournal 0/ Cisletr,,,. 
 
 DAY ON HEADACHES. 
 
 THE NATURE, CAUSES AND TREATMENT OF HEADACHES. I'.v William 
 Henry Day, .m.d., author of a " Treatise on the Diseases of Children." Fourth Edition, 
 with Illustrations. Octavo, yitst Ready. 
 
 Price.'in Strong Paper Covers, 75 Cents ; Cloth, $1.25. 
 
 Summary of Contents. — Headache from Cerebral Ana;inia, Cerebral Hyperaimia; Sympathetic, Congestive, 
 Dyspeptic or Bilious Headaches; Headache from Plethora, from Exhaustion, trom C'hangc in Cerebral Tissue, from 
 Affections of the Periosteum ; Neri'ous and Ncrv-o-Hypcrsemic Headache ; Toxa:mic. Rheumatic, Arthritic or Gouty 
 lle.-idache; Neuralgic headache, and Headaches of Childhood, Early and Advanced Life. 
 
 ALLINGHAM on DISEASES of the RECTUM. 
 
 FISTULA, HEMORRHOIDS, PAINFUL ULCER, STRICTURE, PROLAPSUS, 
 ..nd all other Diseases of the Rectum. Their Diagnosis and Treatment. By William 
 AllinghAM, m.d. Fourth Enlarged and Improved Edition, with Illustrations. Octavo. 
 Just ready. Price, in Strong Paper Covers, 75 Cents; Cloth, $1.25 
 
 %* The publishers have also a few copies of a much finer edition of Dr. AUingham's book. 
 
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 " No book on this special subject can at all approach AUingham's in precision, clearness and practical good sense." 
 
 — London Medical Timesfand Gazette. 
 " It is, as indeed the verdict of the profession has already pronounced it, one of the very best works on Diseases of 
 
 the Rectum." — American yournal 0/ Medical Science. 
 
 J(^"No subscribing nuisance is connected with this series, each volume is sold separately, or 
 
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DEC 1 3 J91S 
 
DUE DATE 
 
 
 
 NOV -■- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Printed 
 m USA 
 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 
 
 0037523163 
 
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