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Columbia ©nibersitp ^ 
 
 in tfje Citp of iSeto ^orb 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 From the library of the late 
 
 ]frc&eric[^ Milliam Bibblee 
 
 Columbia, Arts '80, Law '82 
 Presented by his Mother 
 
 /Iftre. Sarab /n^. 2)lbinee 
 
Q R N E R A I. 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN GORTON. 
 
 AITHOU OF THE "GENERAL TOPOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, ' S.C.. Src. 
 
 A NEW EDITIO^f. 
 
 to which is added a supplementarv volume completing the wouic to iiih 
 
 preset;! time. 
 
 IN FOUR VOLUMES. 
 VOL. 111. 
 
 LONDON: 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 185L 
 
!)X\ 
 
 .5 
 
GENP]KAL 
 
 BIOGKArillCAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 VOLUMK III. 
 
 NAD 
 
 NADIR SCHAH, or THAMAS KOULI 
 KHAN, king of Persia, a famous con- 
 queror and usurper, was born at Calot, in the 
 province of Khorasan, in ]6S6. His father 
 Avas governor of a fortress on the borders of 
 Tartar)', to which office he succeeded in his 
 minority, under the guardianship of an uncle, 
 who engrossed all the authority. He was 
 subsequently kidnapped by the Usbeks, but 
 escaped, after a detention of four yoars ; and, 
 in 1714, entered into the service of the begler- 
 beg of Muschadi, in Khorasan, where he so 
 much distinguished himself by his bravery, 
 thst he was entrusted with the command of a 
 thousand cavalry, and was soon after placed 
 at the head of an army, with which he gained 
 a great victory over the Usbek Tartars. This 
 achievement excited so much jealousy in the 
 beglerbeg, that he gave the command to ano- 
 ther person ; and when Nadir remonstrated, 
 ordered him to be bastinadoed. Irritated by 
 this disgrace, he joined a band of robbers, and 
 Avith this troop ravaged all the country, and, 
 surprising Calot, put his uncle to death, al- 
 though he had been previously negociating 
 with him, to enter the service of schah Tha- 
 mas, king of Persia, then exceedingly pressed 
 by the Turks and Afghans. Such was the 
 bad posture of his affairs, the schah felt him- 
 
 NAD 
 
 self impelled to overlook this villany, and take 
 Nadir into his service, who greatly repulsed 
 both his enemies, and was honoured with the 
 title of Thamas Kouli Khan. The schah, 
 during his absence, having in person sustained 
 a defeat from the Turks, was induced to make 
 peace with that power, and Nadir was di- 
 rected to disband his army of 70,000 men. 
 Instead of obeying, he immediately led them 
 to Ispahan, where he seized the schuh, con- 
 fined and deposed him, and, proclaiming his 
 son Abbas, then an infant, in his otead, him- 
 self assumed the title of regent. He forth- 
 with renewed the war with the Turks, and 
 recovered all the lost provinces ; and the 
 young king dying in 17;38, he was raised to 
 the sovereignty. This elevation only extend- 
 ed his views, and, after making an honorable 
 peace with the Turks, being invited by some 
 conspirators, about the person of the great 
 mogul, to undertake the conquest of India, he 
 began his march at the head of 1 20,000 men, 
 and with little resistance reached DcUii, 
 March 7, 173-4. The riches which he found in 
 this capital were immense ; but being exaspe- 
 rated by some tumults on the part of the inha- 
 bitants, he caused a general maspacrc,in which 
 upwards of 100,000 persons perished. After 
 thisbarbarity, thcsanguinary victor concluded 
 

 .2> 
 
GENP]RAL 
 
 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 VOLUME III. 
 
 NAD 
 
 NADIR SCHAH, or THAMAS KOULI 
 KHAN, king of Persia, a famous con- 
 queror and usurper, was born at Calot, in the 
 province of Khorasan, in ]6Sfi. His father 
 Avas governor of a fortress on the borders of 
 Tartary, to which office he succeeded in his 
 minority, under the guardianship of an uncle, 
 who engrossed all the authority. He was 
 subsequently kidnapped by the Usbeks, but 
 escaped, after a detention of four years ; and, 
 in 1714, entered into the service of the begler- 
 beg of Muschadi, in Khorasan, where he so 
 much distinguished himself by his bravery, 
 tlist he was entrusted with the command of a 
 thousand cavalry, and was soon after placed 
 at the head of an army, with which he gained 
 a great victory over the Usbek Tartars. This 
 achievement excited so much jealousy in the 
 beglerbeg, that he gave the command to ano- 
 ther person ; and when Nadir remonstrated, 
 ordered him to be bastinadoed. Irritated by 
 this disgrace, he joined a band of robbers, and 
 with this troop ravaged all the country, and, 
 surprising Calot, put his uncle to death, al- 
 though he had been previously negociating 
 with him, to enter the service of schah Tha- 
 mas, king of Persia, then exceedingly pressed 
 by the Turks and Afghans. Such was the 
 bad posture of his affairs, the schah felt him- 
 
 NAD 
 
 self impelled to overlook this villany, and take 
 Nadir into liis service, who greatly repulsed 
 both his enemies, and was honoured with the 
 title of Thamas Kouli Khan. The schah, 
 during his absence, having in person sustained 
 a defeat from the Turks, was induced to make 
 peace with that power, and Nadir was di- 
 rected to disband his army of 70,000 men. 
 Instead of obeying, he immediately led them 
 to Ispahan, where he seized the schah, con- 
 fined and deposed him, and, proclaiming his 
 son Abbas, then an infant, in his otead, him- 
 self assumed the title of regent. He forth- 
 with renewed the war with the Turks, and 
 recovered all the lost provinces ; and the 
 young king dying in 1738, he was raised to 
 the sovereignty. This elevation only extend- 
 ed his views, and, after making an honorable 
 peace with the Turks, being invited by some 
 conspirators, about the person of tlie great 
 mogul, to undertake the conquest of India, he 
 began his march at the head of 120,000 men, 
 and with little resistance reached Delhi, 
 March 7, 173-1. The riches which he found in 
 this capital were immense ; but being exaspe- 
 rated by some tumults on the part of the inha- 
 bitants, he caused a general massacre,in which 
 upwards of 100,000 persons perished. After 
 thisbarbaritVjthcsanguiuary victor concluded 
 
N A I 
 
 NAN 
 
 a peace with che mogul, whose daughter he j NALDI (Sebastianc^) a celebra'.ed Iraiisn 
 mairied, receiving with her, as a dowry, some buftb singer, who came to London in tlie e<iny 
 of the finest provinces of tlie empire that were part of the present century, and distinguished 
 contiguous to Persia. In this expedition, it is himself above all who had gone before him iu 
 supposed, that he carried away and distributed that particular branch of singing, which was 
 amoni; his officers, valuables to the amount of i considered his forte, especially by liis person- 
 nearly one hundred millions sterling. On his ation of the principal character iu the " Fana- 
 
 return, he levied war against the Usbecks, and 
 others ; but, like many other Eastern tyrants, 
 had nearly lost his life by an assassin, insti- 
 gated by his own son. In 1745, he once more 
 defeated the Turks at Erivan ; but his career 
 was now drawing to a close. A conspiracy 
 having been formed against him by the com- 
 mander of his body-guard, and his own nephew, 
 lie was assassinated in his tent on the 8th of 
 June, 1747 ; the same nephew, Ali Kouli, who 
 bad caused his death, succeeding to the throne. 
 This extraordinary usurper was of a tall sta- 
 ture and robust form, with handsome and ex- 
 pressive features. His conduct sufficiently 
 marks his cruelty, ambition, and rapacity. 
 Ills most favourable feature appsars to have 
 been, a disposition to religious toleration. On 
 his accession to the throne, he required certain 
 curses pronounced annually on the caliphs pre- 
 ceding Ali, and other incentives to religious 
 strife, to be dispensed with ; which being object- 
 ed to by the head of the clergy, he had him bow- 
 strung. Nadir was cut oif in the sixty-first 
 year of his age, and eleventh of his reign. — 
 Life by Sir W. Jones. 
 
 N.EVIUS (CNtiLs) an ancient Roman 
 poet and historian, was l)0rn in Campania. He 
 served in the first Punic war, of which he 
 wrote a history in Saturnian verses. Cicero 
 says, that it was written perspicuously, and 
 that Ennius, who speaks contemptuously of it, 
 borrowed from it. Naevius was the second 
 Roman who brought dramatic compositions on 
 the stage : his first comedy gave oftence to seme 
 of the great men of Rome ; and Metellus, wJio 
 thought the satire directed particularly to him- 
 self, procured his banishment from Rome. He 
 died at Utica, BC. 203. A few fragments of 
 works only have reached posterity. — 
 
 tico per la Musica." Naldi met his deatli m 
 Paris in 1819, by the explosion of an apps» 
 ratus which had been invented for cooking by 
 steam. — Biog. Diet, jf Mus. 
 
 ^ NALSON. There were two English di- 
 vines of this name ; John, born in 1638, 
 having gone through the usual course of a 
 university education at Cambridge, took the 
 degree of LLD, and entering the church, ob- 
 tained a stall in the cathedral at Ely, with the 
 living of Doddington, in the same diocese. 
 He translated " Maimbourg's History of the 
 Ciusades," into English ; but is most advan- 
 tageously known by his historical memoirs re- 
 specting certain transactions which took place 
 during the civil wars. His principal narrative 
 appeared in two folio volumes, and is entitled, 
 " An impartial collection of the Affiiiis of 
 State, from the Scotch Rebellion to the Mur- 
 der of Charles the Fust." He also wrote an 
 account of the trial of that monarch ; and died 
 in 1686. — Valentine Nalson, born at Mal- 
 ton, in Yorkshire, in 1641, was a member of 
 St John's college, Cambridge. He became a 
 prebendary of York muister,and incumbent of a 
 benefice adjoining ; and he is known as the au- 
 thor of a volume of sermons on miscellaneous 
 
 took place in 1724. — 
 
 Ins 
 
 Autius GeUius. Vossii Hist, et Poet Lat. 
 
 NAIRONl (Anthony Faustue,^ a learned 
 IMaronite, was born at Mount Libanus, about 
 1631, and was the disciple of Abraham Ec- 
 chellensis. He became professor of the Chal- 
 dee and Syriac languages in the college of Sa- 
 pienza at Rome, where he died in 1711. He 
 wrote two works, entitled " Euoplia Fidei Ca- 
 tholics Romanas historico-dograatica ex ve- 
 tustissimis Syrorem seu Chaldaeorum IMonu- 
 mentis eruta adversus fevi nostri novatores," 
 1694, !ivo; and "Dissertatio de Origine, nomine 
 ac Religione Maronitarum," 1679, in which 
 he endeavours to prove that the Maronites 
 have preserved the genuine Christian faith 
 from liie time of the apostles, and that they 
 derived their name from St Maron, a celebrated 
 anchorite, who lived in the fourteenth century. 
 His arguments are, however, overruled by Ca- 
 tholic critics, who remark that the dates of 
 his authorities are not sufficiently ancient to be 
 admitted as satisfactory evidence of the facts. 
 — Mifr^ri. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 subjects. His death 
 Chalmers' s Biog. Diet. 
 
 NANCEL (Nicholas de) a physician and 
 philologist, was Lorn at Nancel in 1539. He 
 studied at the college of Presles, at Paris, 
 where he made such proficiency, that at the 
 age of eighteen years. Ramus appointed him 
 teacher of Latin and Greek in the college. He 
 then turned his attention to the study of pha- 
 sic ; but on t'ue civil wars in France, he retired 
 to Flanders, and in i56f he became professor 
 o£ the learned languages at Douay. He re- 
 t-iued to Paris, and iu 1587 he was appointed 
 physician to the princess Eleanor of Bourbon, 
 abbess of Fontevrault, where he died in 1610. 
 He wrote " Stichologia Gr.Teca Latinaque in- 
 formanda Reformandaque," an attempt to re- 
 duce French verse to the rules of Greek and 
 Latin poetry, which incurred the usual ridicule 
 attending all such attempts ; " Uiscours de la 
 Peste ;" " De Immortalitate Animi velitatio 
 adversus Galenum ;" " Analogia Microcosmi 
 ad Macrocosmum ;" " Petri Rami Vita." — 
 Moreri. 
 
 NANGIS (GuiLLAUMEde) a French histo- 
 rian of the fourteenth century, is supposed to 
 have taken his name from the place of his na- 
 tivity, in the Isle of Fraixce, and was a Bene- 
 dictine of the abbey of St Denis. He wrote 
 the lives of St Louis and of Philip le Hardi, 
 and also two chronicles, the fiist from the 
 creation to the year 1300, the second a chro- 
 nicle of the kings of France. The former, 
 which iscleaily written in good Latin, has h?.d 
 two continuators, who have brought it dtirii to 
 
NAN 
 
 l:^68. 'Jhe lives were first printed in I'ithou's 
 collection in 1596, and afterwards in that of 
 Du Cliesne. The tlironicle fruni the year 
 1113 was pubhshed in the '* Spicile^ium" of 
 Dom Luc a' Acherv. — Moreri. Noiiv. Diet. JJint. 
 NaNI (Giovanni Battista) the name of 
 a noble \ enetian, distins^'uished both as an 
 Iiistorian and a diidoniatist. He was born in 
 August 1616, and having been admitted at the 
 age of five and twenty into tlie senatorial col- 
 lege, rose rapidly by his abilities to some of 
 the first offices iu the state. During the war 
 in Candia, he was sent ambassador from the 
 republic to the French court, where he so 
 ingratiated himself with cardinal JMazarine, as 
 to obtain considerable supplies both of men and 
 money. His success in regard to this mission 
 occasioned him to bt accredited afterwards to the 
 court of Vienna : and on his return he obtained, 
 from the gratitude of his countrymen, the ho- 
 uouraole dignities of procurator of St jNIai k and 
 captain-general of the marine. lie published 
 an account of his French embassy, and wrote, 
 at the request of the senate, a " History of 
 the A^enetian Republic," the publication of the 
 first part of which he superintended in person ; 
 the second, however, did not appear till 1679, 
 the year succeeding that in which he died. 
 The whole is contained in two quarto volumes. 
 • — Tirahuschi. 
 
 NANNI (Peter) or NANNIUS, a critic 
 and philologist, was horn at Alkmaer in Hol- 
 land, about 1500. lie applied himself for some 
 time to painting, but net finding that conge- 
 nial to his taste, he taught philosophy, and 
 was chosen professor of the learned languages 
 at Louvair o. He also obtained a canonry at 
 Arras. He died in 1.557. He is regarded as a 
 good critic, an estimable poet, but an indifferent 
 orator. His works consist of " Translations 
 ♦)f the Psalms in Latin verse ;" " INIiscellaneo- 
 rum Decas," containing annotations upon se- 
 veral ancient authors ; '• Dialogismi Heroi- 
 narum ;" " Annotationes in Institutiones Juris 
 Civilis ;" " Scholia in Cantica Canticorum," 
 with various Greek translations. — BaiUet. 
 Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NANTFUIL (Robert) an eminent engra- 
 ver, was born at Rheims in 1630. He early 
 manifested his talents for the art, and coming 
 to Paris, he made his w'orks known, and soon 
 gained great employment. He applied him- 
 self chiefly to painting portraits in crayons, 
 which he afterwards engraved ; and his success 
 in taking that of Louis XIV, procured him the 
 place of the king's designer and cabinet en- 
 graver, with a j)ension. Carlo Dati, in his 
 life of Zeuxis, quotes the portraits of IS'an- 
 teuil as the most finished exam})les of modern 
 engraving. Nanteuil also composed pleasant 
 verses, and recited agreeably. His death took 
 place at Paris in 1678. — Moreri. Kouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 NANTIGNI (Louis Chazot de) a cele- 
 brated genealogist, was born in 1692 at Saulx- 
 Ic-duc in Burgundy. He studied at L^ijcn tiUii 
 Paris, and at the latter place he became tutor 
 to some young noblemen. He employed his 
 
 N A U 
 
 which he published in a work, entitled '• Ge- 
 nealogies Hi.;ioriqneri des Hois, des Lmpereurs, 
 et de toules Icrt liaisons Souverains," 4 vols 
 4to. This i> consiiUrcd a valuable work, and 
 he left luater'tdb for its continuation. Hiti other 
 works were, " Tableltea Histouques Geiiea- 
 Iogi(juesetChronologiquHS,"and " lablcitisd'j 
 Ihemis." Nantigni became totally bliii<l before 
 his death, which hajjponed in 1755. — Moreri. 
 AAOGKOIlGi. or KlUCHMAER ( lu,,- 
 MAs) a celebrated I'rotestant divine, was born 
 in 1511 at Straubringue in liavaria. He ac- 
 quired considerable celebrity by his Latin 
 satires against the customs of the Catholic 
 church, entitled " Regnum papisticum." His 
 other works are, " HieremiasTragedia," 1551, 
 8vo ; " Mercator 'I'ragedia,'' 1560; " Incen- 
 dia sive Pyrgopolinices Tragedia," 153U, iivo ; 
 " Agricultura sacra," 1551 ; " Pamaciiius 
 Tragedia,"' 1538. There are two editions of 
 the French translation of the '* Converted 
 Merchant," 1558, 8vo, and 1561, l2mo, and 
 a third 1591, Timo, in which is Beza's " Co- 
 inedie du Pape malade." Jhese works are 
 very scarce, and are much prized by collectors. 
 Mm-eri. Diet. Hist. Saxii Onom. 
 
 NAPIER or Ni:PER (John) baron of .Alar- 
 chiston, a Scottish nobleman, distinguished as 
 a mathematician. He was born in 1550, and 
 was educated at the university of St Andrews, 
 after which he travelled abroad, and on his 
 return to Scotland, devoted himself to the cul- 
 tivation of science and literature. His fame 
 depends on the discovery of logarithms. Being 
 much attached to astronomy and spherical 
 geometry, he wished to find out a method of 
 calculating such triangles, sines, tangents, &c. 
 shorter than the usual one. To the exertions 
 arising out of this desire, is to be attributed 
 his admirable invention of logarithms, and the 
 actual construction of a large table of numbers 
 in arithmetical progression, in correspondence 
 with another set in geometrical progression ; 
 the property of which is, that the addition of 
 the former answer to the multiplication of the 
 latter. The result of these important labours 
 he ])ublished in 1614, under the title of " Lo- 
 garithmorum Canonis Descriptio." He also 
 made several improvements in spherical trigo- 
 nometry, and was regarded by the celebrated 
 Kepler as one of the greatest men of the age. 
 The last publication, which appeared in 1616, 
 was his " llabdologius, seu jSumerationis per 
 Virgulas," which work contains an exjilana- 
 tion of the use of his celebrated " Bones or 
 Rods," with several other ingenious modes of 
 calculation. He died at IManchester, Aj)ril 3, 
 l()17,in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Lord 
 Najiier was also author of a " Plain Discovery 
 of the Revelation of St John." 1593 ; and of 
 a letter to Anthony Bacon, entitled, " Secret 
 Inventions. — Hutton's Math. Diet. Life by 
 Lord Buehan. ■" 
 
 NARDI (Jacopo) an eminent Italian his- 
 torian, was born of an ancient and noble family 
 at Florence, in 1476. In 1527 he was sent 
 ambassador to the republic of Venice ; and 
 upon his return to Florence, he distinguished 
 
 leisure in drawing up genealogical tables, j himself by his opposition to the iMedici, in 
 Bioc. PicT.— Vol. 11. 'i M 
 
N AS 
 
 consequence of which he was imprisoned and 
 exiled, and he retired to Venice, where he 
 passed the rest of his hfe in the cultivation of 
 hterature. Nardi wrote the history of Flo- 
 rence from 1494 to 1.531 ; it is a party work, and 
 was not printed until 1582. He wrote a " Life 
 of Malespini," and acquired great reputa- 
 tion by his translation of Livy, which is con- 
 sidered one of the best versions in the Italian 
 language. He moreover composed " Canti 
 Carnaschialeschi," and a comedy in verse, 
 entitled " L'Almicizia." He is thought to have 
 died about 15.5.5. — Tirahoschi. 
 
 NARES, Mus. Doc. (James) an eminent 
 English composer of the last century, bro- 
 ther to Mr Justice Nares, of the Common 
 Pleas. He succeeded Travers in 1758 as 
 organisfand composer to the king. Dying in 
 178:5 his remains were interred in the church 
 of St Margaret, Westminster. His compositions 
 of sacred music, though not numerous, are 
 marked by great genius, and a thorough know- 
 ledge of the science. Two of his best an- 
 thems, " Behold how Good, &c." and " O 
 Lord my God," are to be foimd in the second 
 volume of Stevens's collection ; and several 
 others, together with a beautiful service in the 
 key of C, are in frequent use among all the 
 choirs of the metropolis. — Biog. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 NASH or NASHE (Thomas) a dramatist 
 and satirical writer, in the reign of queen Eli- 
 zabeth. He was born at Lowestoft in Suffolk, 
 about 1564, and was educated at St John's 
 college, Cambridge, but left the university after 
 taking his fiist degree. He then settled in Lon- 
 don, and became a writer for the stage, and en- 
 gaged in literary controversies with his con- 
 temporaries, in which he displayed some wit 
 and no small portion of scurrility and abuse. 
 Some of his publications were levelled against 
 the puritan Penry, the author of Martin Mar- 
 prelate ; but the chief object of his satire was 
 Gabriel Harvey, in the article relating to whom 
 one of his tracts has been noticed. He was 
 also the author of " Pierce Pennilesse his Sup- 
 plication to the Divell," 4to ; " Plaine Perce- 
 vail, the Peace-^Iaker of England," 4to ; and 
 other pieces ; besides three plays. He died in 
 London in 1601. — Bioor, Dram, Censur. Literar. 
 
 O 
 
 NASH (Tkeadway Russel) an English 
 fintiquary and provincial historian, who was a 
 clergyman of the established church. He stu- 
 died at Worcester college, Oxford, where he 
 took the degree of DD. in 1758 ; and he ob- 
 tained the rectory of St Peters at Droitwich, 
 in Worcestershire. Becoming possessed of a 
 considerable estate at Bevere, near Worcester, 
 he employed his time and fortune in the inves- 
 tigation of the antiquities of the county ; and 
 in 1782 he published " Collections for the 
 History of Worcestershire," 2 vols, folio, 
 comprising materials collected by the Habing- 
 tons in the seventeenth century, and aug- 
 mented by Dr Thomas and bishop Lyttelton. 
 Dr Nash was a fellow of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, and he published, in the Archaiologia, 
 " Observations on the Time of the Death and 
 Place of Burial of Queen Katherine Parr." 
 He also edited Butler's Iludibras, in 3 vols. 
 
 N AV 
 
 4to. His death took place in 1811, at the age 
 of eighty-seven. — Nicholses Lit. Anecd. 
 
 NASMITH, DD. (James) a learned anti- 
 quary, a native of Norwich, born 1740. He 
 completed a classical education at Cambridge, 
 where he became fellow of Corpus Christi (or 
 Bene't) college; and in 1773 obtained from 
 the society of which he was a member, the 
 rectory of St Mary Abchurch, in the city of 
 London, and subsequently that of Snailwell, 
 Cambridgeshire ; on which occasion he re- 
 signed his former benefice. He was the author 
 of a small tract on the statutes respecting the 
 assize of bread, and published new editions of 
 the " Notitia Monastica," by Tanner, and of 
 the " Itineraries of Simon and William of 
 Worcester." He also compiled a catalogue of 
 books, contained in the library of the college 
 to which he belonged, which has since been 
 printed. Dr Nasmith died in 1808, at Leve- 
 rington, in the Isle of Ely, a living of which he 
 had some time previously become the incum- 
 bent. His publications evince much industry, 
 and the accompanying notes display considera- 
 ble research. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 NATHAN (Isaac, or, as some say, Mor- 
 decai) the name of a learned Jewish rabbi, 
 who, about the middle of the fifteenth century, 
 published the first Concordance of the Old Tes- 
 tament in the original tongue. This work, on 
 which he is said to have bestowed ten years of 
 labour, was first printed in 1523 at Venice. 
 Michael Calasio reprinted it at Rome in 1621, 
 in 4 folio volumes, with such additions and im- 
 provements as to render it a complete diction- 
 ary of the Hebrew language. Eleven years 
 after another edition appeared at Basil, revised 
 and corrected by Buxtorf. The rev. W. Ro- 
 maine, vvdth the assistance of Mr Edward Kowe 
 Mores and a Portuguese rabbi, published in 
 1747 a new edition from, that of Calasio, at 
 London, in the same number of volumes, but 
 several liberties having been taken with the 
 text, in order to adapt it to the peculiar opi- 
 nions of a sect, its value as a work is propor- 
 tionably diminished. Of the personal history 
 of the original author little or nothing is known. 
 — Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NAUDE. There were two of this name, 
 Gabriel, the elder, generally known by his 
 Latin designation, Naudajus, was a French 
 physician, equally enunent in his profession 
 and as a man of letters. He was born about 
 the commencement of the seventeenth century 
 at Paris, studied medicine at Padua, where he 
 graduated, and afterwards repairing to Rome, 
 became in succession librarian to the cardinals 
 Bagni and Barberini. A desire of returning to 
 his native country, induced him to quit the 
 service of the latter prelate for that of cardinal 
 Richelieu at Paris, with whom he remained 
 till the decease of his patron transferred him 
 to his successor, Mazarin. Through the in- 
 terest of the new minister, Naud6 was ap- 
 pointed pliysician to the court, and received 
 some lucrative appointments, but at length 
 the disgrace and banishment of the cardmal, 
 his master, induced him again to quit France, 
 and to attach him.self in quality of librarian to 
 
N A V 
 
 Christina of Sweden. His stay at Stockliolm, 
 however, proved but short ; and on his return 
 a fever, occasioned by the fatii^ue he hud un- 
 dergone in travelling, carried liiin off at Abbe- 
 ville, July 29, 16)3. His writings consist of 
 " An Apology for the great Men who have 
 been accused of IMagic ;" " A Supplement to 
 the Life of Louis XI ;"' " The Life of Car- 
 danus ;" " A Treatise against Libels;" " On 
 the study of Military Tactics ;" " On Liberal 
 Studies ;" " Ailvice towards forming a Li- 
 brary ;" " Observations on the attacks made 
 upon Cardinal ALizarin ;" " Bibliographia 
 Politica ;" and some miscellaneous tracts. — 
 Piiii.ip N.vuDE, born in 1651 at ^letz, was a 
 good mathematical scholar, but being driven 
 from his home in common with others who 
 professed the reformed religion, by the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of \antes, he found an asylum 
 in the Prussian capital. Here he I'ose to con- 
 siderable eminence as a professor of his favou- 
 rite science, and was appointed mathematical 
 tutor to the court of Berlin, and a member of 
 the academy there. He had a son w-ho suc- 
 ceeded him in his professorship at his death, 
 which took, place in 1729. A work of his on 
 geometry, written iu the German language, in 
 one volume quarto, is considered a clever book. 
 I'he younger Naude died iu 1745, being, like 
 his father, a member of the Berlin Academy, 
 and also a fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. — Morcri. 
 
 NAUN rOX (sir Pvobert) an English 
 statesman, and court historian, iu the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century. He was de- 
 scended from an ancient family in Suffolk, and 
 was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, 
 after which he became fellow of Trinity hall. 
 After having been employed in embassies to 
 Scotland and France, he returned to the uni- 
 versity, where he filled the office of public 
 orator, in which capacity he attracted the no- 
 tice of kins James I. He became master of 
 requests, and surveyor of the court of wards ; 
 and iu 1617 he was appointed secretary of 
 state. He died in 1630, leaving some curi- 
 ous memoirs of his contemporaries, which ap- 
 peared posthumously under the title of " Frag- 
 menta Regalia," of which there is a modern 
 republication. — Fuller's ]Vortkies. Lloyd's 
 Mem. of Statesmen. 
 
 NAVAGERO (Axdrea) an Italian poet 
 and orator, was born of a patrician family at 
 Venice, iu 1483. He was a great assistant of 
 Aldus Mauutius, in his editions of the ancient 
 writers ; and his reputation for eloquence was 
 such, that he was chosen by the republic to 
 recite the funeral orations of Alirano, the doge 
 Loredano, and Catharine Cornara, queen of 
 Cyprus. He was then appointed historiogra- 
 gher to the state, and on the successes of 
 Charles V, he was sent on an embassy to him. 
 On his return, he was sent ambassador into 
 France, and on his way home, he was seized 
 with a fever at Blois, which terminated fatally, 
 May 1529. He was an elegant Latin poet, 
 and such an admirer of simplicity in poetry, 
 that every year he was accustomed to burn a 
 copy of I^Iartial's epigrams, which he regarded 
 
 NAY 
 
 as the corrupters of tliat species of composi- 
 tion as it existed in the Grecian models. He 
 composfd part of the V'tnetian history, which 
 he also committed to the flames. His works 
 were published by th«? brotlurs \'olpi, in 1718, 
 1 vol. Ito. — TiritlMHiclii. /iosci/e's Lea X. 
 
 NAVARLTE (Juan Fkknandez) a Spa- 
 nish painter, surnamed El Mud >, from his be- 
 ing deaf and dumb, was born at Logranno, in 
 1562. He travelled into Italy for improve- 
 ment, and (m his return to Madrid, in 1568, 
 he was appointed painter to the king. His 
 most distinguished ]iieces are preserved in the 
 Escurial ; and a Holy Family, which is consi- 
 dered his masterpiece, is no less noticed for its 
 beauty, than for the strange accessaries it con- 
 tains iu the figures of a dog, a cat,* and a 
 f>artridge ; indeed, so adilicted was Navarette 
 to the representation of these animals, that iu 
 a contract made with Philip 11, he was 
 obliged to bind himself not to introduce them 
 into sacred subjects. His mode of colouring 
 was so fine, as to acquire, him the name of the 
 Spanish Titian. He died in 1579. — Filking' 
 ton by Fuseli. 
 
 NAVARETTA (Feunandes) a missionary 
 of the order of St Dominic, was born at Pen- 
 nafiel, iu Old Castile. He quitted Spain in 
 1646, on a mission to China, where he did not 
 arrive until 1659 ; and he was at the head of 
 the mission iu the province of Chekiang, when 
 the persecution took place, and he was ex- 
 pelled with the rest of the missionaries. In 
 1672 he returned to Madrid, and soon after 
 went to Rome, to give an account of his mis- 
 sion. In 1678 he was consecrated archbishop 
 of St Domingo, where he died iu 1689. He 
 wrote a work entitled, " Tradados Historicos 
 Politicos Ethicos y Religiosos de la Monarchia 
 de China," which is esteemed one of the 
 most faithful and curious accounts of that 
 country. The second volume was suppressed 
 by the inquisition, but as it has been frecjuent- 
 ly quoted by the Jesuits, it is supposed that 
 they obtained a copy before its destruction. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 NAYLER (James) an English Quaker of 
 the seventeenth century, remarkable for his 
 enthusiasm and sufferings, was the son of an 
 industrious small farmer, in the parish of 
 Ardsley, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, where he 
 was born in 1616. He had a good natural 
 capacity, and was taught to read and write. 
 At the age of twenty-two he married, aud re- 
 moved to Wakefield, where he remained until 
 the breaking out of the ci\il war in 1641. He 
 then entered tlie parliamentary army, in which 
 he served eight years, when he returned 
 home, where he remained until 1651, when 
 the preaching of George Fox made him a 
 convert to Quakerism. In the beginning of the 
 following year, he imagined that he heard a 
 voice calling upon him to renounce his father's 
 house, and become an itinerant preacher. He 
 attended to this fancied inspiration, and soon 
 distiuiruished himself among those of kindred 
 sentiments, both in London and other places, 
 until in 1656 he was committed to E.veter jail 
 for propagating his opinions. At this time 
 2 M 2 
 
^' E A 
 
 his own enthusiasm, and the extravagant ad- 
 miration of some female followers, seem to 
 iiave engendered an incipient derangement, 
 which imluced Fox, and the move formal body 
 of (Quakers, to disown him. On his release 
 from imprisonment, he rej)aired to Bristol, 
 where his equally crazy followers formed a 
 proce5sion. and led him into that city in a 
 manner which they intended to resemble the 
 entrance of Christ into Jerusalem. For this 
 absurdity, IS'ayler, and several of his partizans, 
 were committed to prison, and afterwards sent 
 to London, where a parliamentary committee 
 was appointed to examine witnesses on a 
 charge of blasi)hemy. Nayler asserted that 
 the honours paid were not shown to himself, 
 but to Christ, an ex})lanation which did not 
 prevent him from being declared guilty of 
 blasphemy, and sentenced to a double whip- 
 ping at different times, branding, boring of the 
 tongue with a hot iron, and imprisonment and 
 hard labour during pleasure. 'J'his sentence, 
 which was equally repugnant to wisdom, hu- 
 manity, and equity, resembles that pronounced 
 by the star-chamber on Dr Leighton, and was 
 equally illegal, the house of Commons being 
 no court of judicature, nor legally possessed of 
 any power beyond that of imprisoning during 
 the session. It was, however, fully inflicted 
 upon this unhappy man, who, separated from 
 the incitement which had affected his reason, 
 ingenuously acknowledged the extravagance 
 of his conduct ; and having afforded satisfac- 
 tory evidence of his unfeigned contrition, upon 
 his enlargement he was again received into the 
 communion of the Friends. He did not long 
 survive this event, which took place on the 
 death of the protector, but diid in Hunting- 
 donshire, on his way to his native place, in the 
 month of December, 1660, in the forty-fourth 
 year of his age. Nayler uttered, on his death 
 bed, soine very affecting sentiments of calm 
 resignation, which exhibit an intensity of feel- 
 ing, and a beauty of expression, which show 
 him to have possessed no common mind, and 
 add to the curiosity of his chiiracter among the 
 victims to the reveries of imagination. His 
 writings were collected together, and publish- 
 ed in a single volume, which, although scarce, 
 may sometimes be met with. — Sewell's Hist, of' 
 the Quakers. Neul's Hist, of tlie Piirit. 
 
 jSiEAL (Damel) an eminent dissenting 
 divine, and historian of the puritans, was boru 
 in London, December 14, 1678. Having lost 
 liis parents when young, his education de- 
 volved on an uncle, who had him educated at 
 Merchant Tailors' school. Declining the offer 
 of an exhibition to St John's college, Oxford, 
 in 1697 he entered as a student in a seminary 
 conducted by Mr Roe, a learned dissenting 
 minister, after which he proceeded to the uni- 
 versity of Utrecht, where he studied under 
 Burnian and Grsevius. On hi.s return to Lon- 
 don, in 1703, he began to officiate as a 
 preacher, and in 1706 succeeded Dr Singleton 
 as minister of a congregation in Aldersgate- 
 ptreet, in wliich connexion he continued for 
 eix-and-thirty years. Although indefatigable 
 and assiduous as a minister, he found leisure 
 
 N E A 
 
 for literary labours, and in 17 -20 published his 
 " History of jSew England," 2 vols. 8vo, 
 which met with a very favourable reception, 
 especially in America. In 1722 he published, 
 " A Letter to Dr Fiancis Flare, Dean of Wor- 
 cester," occasioned by some observations on 
 the dissenters, delivered by that divine in a 
 visitation sermon. He subsequently wrote 
 " A Narrative of the Method and Success of 
 Inoculating for the Small-Pox in New Eng- 
 land," which led to an interview with the 
 prince and princess of Wales, afterwards 
 George 11 and queen Caroline. Li 1732 he 
 sent into the world the tirst volume of his" His- 
 tory of the Puritans," 8vo, the second, third, 
 and fourth appearing in 1733, 1736, and 1738. 
 This work, which has obtained considerable 
 authority, is very honourable to the talents of 
 the author, and possibly exhibits as much im- 
 partiality as can be expected from a writer who 
 inherited the religious principles of the body 
 whose history he composed. It called forth 
 a " Vindication of the Doctrine, Discipline, 
 and Worship of the Church of England, as 
 established in the Keign of Queen Ehzabeth, 
 from the injurious Reflections of Mr Neal's 
 First Volume," 8vo, from Dr jNIaddox, bishop 
 of St Asaph, to which he published a reply, 
 which he calls " A Review of the principal 
 Facts objected to, &c." His remaining vo- 
 lumes were reviewed in a similar spirit by 
 Dr Zachary Grey, to which Mr Neal himself 
 never replied, but an answer appears in a new 
 edition of Neal, 1797, 6 vols. 8vo, by Dr Toul- 
 min ; and these various productions are valu- 
 able, as showing the most forcible arguments 
 on each side the question. In 1738 the health 
 of ]Mr Neal began to give way under the se- 
 vere literary application to which he devoted 
 himself, and after repeated paralytic attacks he 
 died at Bath in April, 1743, in the sixty-fifth 
 year of his age, leaving a high character be- 
 hind him both as a writer and a divine. He 
 married a sister of the celebrated Dr Laidner, 
 by whom he had a son named Nathaniel, 
 an attorney and secretary to the Million bank, 
 who wrote "A Free and Serious Remon- 
 strance to Dissenting Ministers, on Occasions 
 of the Decay of Religion ;" and some Let- 
 ters in Dr Doddridge's collection. — Wilson's 
 Hist, of' Dissenting Churches. Memoirs by 
 Toulmin. 
 
 NEANDER (Michael) a German writer 
 on ethics and philology in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Sorau, in Silesia, 
 and studied under Melancthon at Wittemberg. 
 He became rector of the school of Northausen, 
 and subsequntly rector and administrator of 
 the school and convent of Islefield, where he 
 remained till his death, in 1595. He was in- 
 defatigable in his attention to his duty as an 
 instructor of youth, for whose use he published 
 several works, among which may be noticed 
 his " Erotemata Lingu<e Graecaj ;" " Opus 
 Aureum et Scholasticum ;" and " Gnomolo- 
 gia Grajco-Latina," in which he has collected 
 moral sentences from the writings of the an- 
 cient poets, philosophers, historians, &c. ; as 
 also in another treatise, entitled " Ethice vcUis 
 
NEC 
 
 et sa,).en3 veteruni Latinormn sajsjentuni," 
 Isleb. InlU, Hvo. — "^itoUii htlnuL in JHist. J. it. 
 
 NKAIICIIUS, one of tlie tai»taind of Alex- 
 ander the (Jreat, who was employed by chut 
 toiiqiieror in conducting his fleet from India by 
 tlie ocean to the Persian gulf. This exi)C(ii- 
 tion proved so tedious aud fatiguing, that the 
 leader, on his return, was not recognized by 
 liis friends, until he had made himself known. 
 J I is service was so much esteemed, that he 
 was crowned with a garland by Alexander at 
 Susa. The relation of his vovage is extant, 
 and is a curious and valuable record. It may 
 be found among the geographic memoirs by 
 Hudson. Nearchus is reckoned among the 
 liistorians of Alexander, and is referred to as 
 such by Strabo, Suidas, and Arrian. — J'ossii 
 Hist. Grtrc. 
 
 NECKKR (Ja.mfs) a celebrated financier, 
 twice minister of state in France. He was 
 born in 1732 at Geneva, where his father was 
 professor of civil law and regent of the college. 
 At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris, to 
 be placed in a banking-house for instruction ; 
 after wliich he carried on the business of a 
 banker, in partnership with ]\Ir Thelluson, and, 
 after his death, with his brother and others. 
 He first distinguished himself by his " Eloge 
 de Colbert," which was crowned by the French 
 Academy ; and by a treatise, •' ;^ur la Legis- 
 lation et le Commerce des Grains," which 
 passed through more than twenty editions. 
 Having acquired great reputation as a financier 
 by these productions, and some memoirs on 
 the resources of France, which he transmitted 
 to the count de Maurepas, he was in 1776 ap- i 
 pointed director of the finances, and soon after 
 invested with the important office of comp- ; 
 troller general. In 1781 he published an ac- I 
 count of his administration, under the title of 
 " Compte Rendu au Roi," and soon after he 
 made an attempt to obtain admission into the 
 council, and being refused on the score of his 
 religion, as he was a Calvinist, he threatened 
 to resign his official situation. He was in con- I 
 sequence removed, and exiled to his country ' 
 seat. Durino his retirement he wrote his 
 work, " De 1' Administration des Finances de 
 la France," 1784, 3 vols. 8vo ; and another, 
 " De ['Importance des Opinions Religieuses," 
 8vo. In 1788 he was restored to his place of 
 comptroller-general ; when he recommended 
 the important measure of the convocation of 
 tlie stales- general. The momentous events , 
 which followed are matter of well-known his- j 
 tory, and cannot come within the scope of 
 this notice. In July 1789 Necker, who was , 
 regarded by the court party as a spy on tlieir ; 
 conduct, was suddenly dismissed from the 
 king's service ; but being then in the height 
 of his popularity, the strong voice of the public 
 procured his immediate recal. His talents, 
 however, were not adapted to the scenes of 
 commotion which then existed, and ere long 
 ne became the object of the hatred of that 
 people by wliom he had been almost adored. 
 He took his departure from France, and was 
 only protected from the fury of the mob during 
 his jourEey, by the sanction of a decree of the 
 
 N E E 
 
 National Assembly. He retired to Copet in 
 Swit/erland, where he chiefly devoted himself 
 to literary jiursuils. He published a treatise, 
 " Du I'ouvoir executif des granda luats," 
 i7'H. 2 vols. 12mo ; " Coura de IVlorale reli- 
 gieuse," Geneva, 1800, 3 vols. &vo ; and 
 '♦ Dernieres \'ues de Politique et de Financeg 
 oftertes a la Nation Fran9oi6e," 1H02. 8vo. 
 His death took place at Copet in 1801, and 
 his posthumous works were published by his 
 daughter, madame de Stael, under the title of 
 " Manuscrits de M. Necker." — Bio^. Mem. hy 
 Mad. de Stuel. Biog. Unii. — Nf.ckfh (Si/- 
 SANNA CuncHoo) wife of the foregoing, was 
 the daughter of a Swiss clergyman, and was 
 born in the Pays de Vaud. She distinguished 
 herself by her literary talents, having published 
 " Reflexions sur la Divorce," and " Des In- 
 humations pr^cipites." She died in 1796', 
 after which appeared " Melanges extraits dee 
 Manuscrits de INJad. Necker," 3 vols. 8vo ; 
 and " Nouveau Melanges," 2 vols. 8vo, edited 
 by her husband. Mad. Necker was in her 
 youth the object of the early attachment of the 
 celebrated historian Gibbon. — Letters of Gib- 
 bon. Biosr- Univ. 
 
 NECKJ^R (Noel Joseph) a native of the 
 Netherlands, who became botanist and histo- 
 riographer to the elector palatine. He was 
 the author of " Elemeuta Botanica, cum 63 
 Tab. sere incisis," 1791, 4 vols. 8vo, pubhshed 
 atNienwied; " Phytozoologie Philosophique," 
 1790, 8vo, and other works relating to botani- 
 cal science. He died at Manheim in 1793. — 
 Biflg. Univ. 
 
 NEEDHAM (John Tuber ville") a philo- 
 sopher and antiquary of the last century, bom 
 in London in 1713. His parents, who were of 
 the Romish church, placed him at the Scotch 
 college in Douai, where he made a considera- 
 ble proficiency in the sciences, as well as in 
 classical literature. Having completed his 
 education, he returned to England, and kept a 
 school in ' Hampshire for some time, till a 
 vacancy occurring in the English college at 
 Lisbon, he went thither as professor of natural 
 philosophy. The situation, however, not an- 
 swering his expectations, he visited great part 
 of the European continent, in the capacity of 
 tutor to some young men of rank belonging to 
 his 0"«ni country and persuasion, lie was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don, of the Antiquarian Society, of the French 
 Academy of Sciences, and assisted I\l. de 
 Pufl'on in the composition of some parts of his 
 Natural History. His other writings arc, 
 " Enquiries on ^licroscopical Discoveries and 
 the Generation of Organized Bodies," 3 vols. ; 
 " New iMicroscopical Discoveries ;" " Obser- 
 vations on Spallanzani's Discoveries ;" " En- 
 quiries concerning Nature and Rehgion ;" and 
 an " Essay on the Ori<^in of the Chinese Em- 
 pire," which he affirmed to have been colo- 
 nized from ancient Egypt. His death took 
 place in 1781 »t Brussels, where he had lived 
 for some time as rector of the Imperial Aca- 
 demy of Sciences. Though a leari'ed man he 
 was singularly credulous and given to super- 
 stition.— Lije by Abbe Mann 
 
NEE 
 
 NEEDIIAM (Marchmoxt) an active parti- 
 zau and political writer during the civil wars, 
 a uative of Burford near Oxford, where he was 
 bom in 1620. Having received a classical edu- 
 cation in the chapel of All Soul's college and 
 at St Mziry-hall, Oxford, he became for a short 
 time an assistant at ^Merchant Tailors' school, 
 in the city of London, till the commotions of 
 1642, when he threw up his situation, and 
 embracing the popular side of the question, 
 edited a periodical paper against the royal 
 cause, under the title of " Mercurius Britanni- 
 cus." This work, together with some employ- 
 ment which he obtained from an attorney in 
 Gray's-inn, procured him a subsistence till 
 after the battle of Naseby, when he espoused 
 the cause which he had before written against, 
 anJ retraced his steps in a paper, entitled 
 " Mercurius Pragmaticus," in which he sati- 
 rized the presbyterians, and became a warm 
 advocate for the king. The parliament party 
 becoming again predominant, threw Needham 
 into prison for his tergiversation ; but the same 
 versatility which brought him into danger, 
 carried him out of it. He changed sides again, 
 and in his " Mercurius Politicus," from 1649 
 to April 1660, when it was prohibited by the 
 council, unsaid all that he had said before, 
 now arguing strongly in favour of the indepen- 
 dents. During this period he was much in 
 vogue with his party as a physician as well as 
 an author, and had obtained considerable 
 practice, when the death of Cromwell, and 
 the restoration of Charles II once more threw 
 him into difficulties. A man, whose political 
 opinions are of so pliable a nature, however, 
 is rarely at a loss ; and although Dr Needham, 
 for so he was now called, thought it advisable 
 at first to leave the country, he soon obtained 
 liis pardon, and returned to London, where he 
 died in 1678. Wood speaks of him gs com- 
 bining some ability with considerable humour 
 and convivial qualities. — Biog, Brit. 
 
 iXECKHAM, NECK AM, or NEQUAM 
 (Alexander) a monk of the order St Augus- 
 tine, flourished in the twelfth century. JS'ot- 
 Aviihstanding his attachment to the monastic 
 life, he travelled frequently into Italy. He 
 became abbot of Cirencester, where he died in 
 1217. He left numerous treatises on divinity, 
 philosophy, and morality. He also wrote a 
 tract on the ancient mythology, iEsopian fa- 
 bles, and a system of grammar and rhetoric. 
 Of his poems, that " De Laude Sapientife Di- 
 vinaj" is the most esteemed. — Warton's Hist, of 
 Poetry. Tanner, 
 
 NEEF, or NEEFS (Peter^ the elder an 
 eminent artist, was born at Antwerp in 1570. 
 He painted the interiors of churches and tem- 
 ples with surprising neatness and dehcacy. 
 To avoid the monotony attendant upon such a 
 style, he introduced a variety of objects, and 
 by a good management of the chiaro-scuro, 
 he gave a lively and animated effect to what 
 otherwise would have been tame and uninte- 
 resting. As he was but an indifferent de- 
 signer of figures, some of his pictures are de- 
 corated vith those of Velvet Breughel the 
 elder, Teiiiers, &c. He died in 1651. His 
 
 N E L 
 
 son, Peter the younger, painted similar sub- 
 jects, but they are de.ficient both in neatness 
 and correctness. — D'Argenville. Pilkington. 
 
 NEER (Arnold Vander) an eminent 
 artist, was born at Amsterdam in 1619. He 
 excelled in painting views in Holland, cot- 
 tages or fishermen's huts, and in his beautiful 
 delineation of the eflfect of moonlight. He 
 was a perfect master of the chiar-oscuro. His 
 sun-sets are excellent, nor was he less success- 
 ful in painting water pieces, in which he is 
 only surpassed by Cuyp. He died in 1683. 
 — His son, Eglon Hendrick Vander Neer, 
 was born in 1643, and was an historical and 
 portrait painter. His pictures of conversations 
 and gallant subjects are most admired ; they 
 are well coloured, and highly finished. He 
 was employed for some time by the elector pa- 
 latine at Dusseldorf, where lie died in 1703. 
 — D'Argenville. Pilkington by Fuseli. 
 
 NELSON (Horatio) a celebrated naval 
 officer, who was born September 29, 1758, at 
 Burnham Thorpe in Norfolk, of which parish 
 his father was rector. At the agp of twelve, 
 when a war with Spain was apprehended, on 
 account of the dispute about the Falkland 
 islands, he entered as a midshipman on board 
 the Raisonnable, commanded by his uncle, 
 captain Suckling. He afterwards went to the 
 \Vest Indies in a merchant vessel; and in 1773 
 he accompanied commodore Phipps in the ex- 
 pedition towards the north pole. In 1777 he 
 was made a lieutenant, and in 1779 raised to 
 the rank of post-captain, and appointed to the 
 command of the Hinchinbroke, when oui West 
 Indian settlements were threatened by the 
 French under D'Estaiue:. He distinguished 
 himself in an attack on fort Juan, in the gulf 
 of jMexico, and on other occasions, and he re- 
 mained on the American station till the con- 
 clusion of peace. He afterwards commanded 
 the Boreas frigate, and was employed to pro- 
 tect the trade of the Leeward islands ; and 
 while on that service he married Mrs Nesbit, 
 the widow of a physician. On the commence - 
 meut of the war with the French republic, he 
 was made commander of the Agamemnon, of 
 sixty-four guns, with which he joined lord 
 Hood in the Mediterranean, and assisted at 
 the taking of Toulon and at the siege of Bas- 
 tia, when he superintended the landing of the 
 troops. He was subsequently attacked by five 
 French ships of war, and afterwards was at 
 the siege of Calvi, in which service he lost an 
 eye. He next removed from the Agamemnon 
 to the Captaiu, and not long after having 
 hoisted a commodore's pendant, he was em- 
 ployed at the blockade of Leghorn and the 
 taking of Porto Ferrajo. Sailing to Gibraltar 
 on board the Minerva frigate, he fell in with 
 two Spanish frigates, one of which he cap- 
 tured ; and then proceeding to join sir John 
 Jervis, he fell in with the Spanish fleet, by 
 which he was pursued, and escaping, he con- 
 veyed to the admiral that intelligence which 
 led to the victory off cape St Vincent, February 
 13, 1797. On that occasion he commanded 
 the Captain, on board which he attacked the 
 Santissima Trinidadaof 136 guns ; and passing 
 
N E i. 
 
 to the San Nicholas of 80 guns, and the San 
 Josej)h of lli>, he oblii^cd botli those ships to 
 strike their Hags. For Ins gallantry he was 
 made a knight of the Jiath, rear-admiral of 
 the blue, and aii])ointed to the command of 
 the inner squadron at the blockade of Cadiz. 
 His next service was an attack on the town of 
 Santa Cruz, in the island of I'enerirte, in which 
 he was unsuccessful, and being severely 
 wounded, his life was saved byliis son-in-law, 
 caj)tain Nesbit, who at great personal hazard 
 conveyed him to a boat. He was obliged to 
 suffer the amputation of his right arm, in con- 
 sequence of which he obtained a pension of 
 one thousand pounds ; and in the memorial 
 which he presented to his Majesty on the oc- 
 casion, he stated tliat he had been present in 
 more than one hundred engagements. In 
 April 1798 he hoisted his flag on board tlie 
 Vanguard, and rejoined lord St Vincent, (ad- 
 miral Jervis,) who sent him to the Mediterra- 
 nean to watch the progress of the armament 
 at Toulon. Notwithstanding his vigilance, the 
 French fleet escaped which conveyed Buona- 
 parte to Egypt. Thither Nelson followed, and 
 after various disappointments he discovered 
 the enemy's vessels moored in the bay of 
 Aboukir. Notwithstaudino the disadvantasfes 
 which their situation presented, he boldly at- 
 tacked them, and by a well executed ma- 
 noeuvre obliged them to come to action, and 
 obtained a most complete victory, all the 
 French ships but two being taken or destroyed. 
 This achievement was rewarded witli the title 
 of baron Nelson of the Nile, and a pension of 
 two thousand pounds, besides the honours 
 conferred on him by the Grand Seignor. His 
 next service was the restoration of the king 
 of Naples, which was accompanied with cir- 
 cumstances of cruelty by no means creditable 
 to hia character, and which may be attributed 
 to the pernicious influence of lady Hamilton, 
 the wife of the English ambassador, who most 
 improperly entered into the feelings of the re- 
 stored family. His attachment for that lady, 
 with whom lie lived publicly after the death 
 of her husband, occasioned his separation 
 from lady Nelson on his return to England. In 
 1801 he was employed on an expedition to 
 Copenhagen, under sir Hyde Parker, in which 
 he displayed his accustomed gallantry, and 
 effected the destruction of the Danish ships and 
 batteries. On his return home he was created 
 a viscount, and his honours were made heredi- 
 tary in his family, even in the female line, 
 when liostilities recommenced after the peace 
 of Amiens, lord Nelson was appointed to com- 
 mand the fleet in the Mediterranean, and for 
 nearly two years he was engaged in tlie block- 
 ade of Toulon. In spite of his vigilance, the 
 French fleet got out of port IMarch 30, 1805, 
 and being joined by a Spanish squadron from 
 Cadiz, sailed to the West Indies. The Eng- 
 lish admiral hastily pursued them, and they 
 returned to Europe, and took shelter at Ca- 
 diz ; while lord Nelson came home. After a 
 few weeks he again set sail for the coasts of 
 Spain. On the 19th of October, the French 
 commanded by Villeneuve, and the Spaniards 
 
 N E L 
 
 by Gravina, vt-ntured again from Cadiz, and 
 oil Uic 'J 1st llu-y came up with the Kiiglish 
 s(luadroii off capo Trafalgar. An engagc^ueut 
 took place, in which a most glorious victory 
 was obtained, at the expense of the life of the 
 English commander, who was wounded in ihfj 
 back by a musket ball, and shortly after ex- 
 ])ired. His remains were brought to England, 
 and after lying in slate at Greenwich, he was 
 magnificently interred in St Paul's cathedral, 
 where a monument has been erected to hia 
 memory. Having left no issue by his wife, an 
 earldom was bestowed on his brother, and a 
 sum of money voted by parliament for the 
 purchase of an estate, which is to descend 
 with the title to his collateral relutives. The 
 life of this distinguished naval commander has 
 been written by Mr IM'Arthur, Ur J. Stauier 
 Clarke, and Dr Southey. — Naral Chronicle. 
 
 NELSON (RonicnT) an English gentleman 
 of good private fortune, which he employed in 
 works of benevolence and charity •, and from 
 this circumstance, as well as from the devo- 
 tional works, of which he was the author, is 
 now generally distinguished from others of tlie 
 same name, by the epithet of " The Pious." 
 He was the son of a London merchant, en- 
 gaged in the Levant trade, and was born in 
 the English metropolis, June 22, 1656. His 
 friends placed him for education on the foun- 
 dation of St Paul's school, and he subsequently 
 became a fellow commaner of Trinity college, 
 Cambridge. Having gone through the cus- 
 tomary course of study, he then proceeded to 
 make a continental tour, in company with his 
 friend Edmund Halley. While in Italy he 
 was introduced to lady Theophila Lucy, 
 daughter to the earl of Berkley, and widow 
 of sir Kingsmill Lucy, hart. ^Vith this lady 
 he formed a friendship, which on his return 
 to England in 1682 terminated in marria2e. 
 It was not till some time subsequent to the 
 formation of this connexion, that JMr Nelson 
 discovered the religious principles of his wife 
 not to be in accordance with his own, she hav- 
 ing been for some time a convert to the Romish 
 clmrch. Strongly attached, however, as he 
 ■iiuiself was to the principles of the reformed 
 faith, this difference of opinion did not form, 
 as is too frequently the case, any bar to their 
 conjugal happiness, although the lady actually 
 wrote against the doctrines to which her hus- 
 band was so sincerely attached. Protestant 
 as he was, the notions of hereditary right had 
 so strong an influence upon his mind, that on 
 the accession of William he remained a non- 
 juror, associating and communicating princi- 
 ])ally with the recusant clergy. These opi- 
 nions did not, however, interrupt his intimacy 
 with archbishop Tillotson, whom he assisted 
 in every work which had the good of mankind 
 for its object, till the death of the worthy pre- 
 late, who expired in his arms in 1694, dis- 
 solved their friendship. In 1709 the argu- 
 ments of some of his clerical friends had pro- 
 duced such a degree of conviction upon his 
 mind, that he became a member of the Esta- 
 blished church, and continued in that com- 
 munion till his death, which took place at Ken 
 
N K Jl 
 
 sinj^toii, January 16th, 17J.J. Thore are few 
 wrfters on devotional subjects ^vllose works 
 have been so pojuilar as JNIr Nelson's. His 
 treatise, enlitieil " A Companion to the Festi- 
 vals and Fasts," especially, has gone through 
 a great, number of editions. Among his other 
 works, are " The Whole duty of a Christian ;" 
 " 'I'lie Duty of frequenting the Christian Sac:ri- 
 fice ;" 8vo ; " An Address on the Means of 
 doing Good ;" " A Letter on the Trinity ;" 
 "The Practice of True Devotion," 12mo ; 
 '« 'J'ransubstantiation contrary to Scripture," 
 4to ; " A Letter on Church Government ;" a 
 life of his old tutor, bishop Bull, &:c. — Biog. 
 Brit. 
 
 NEAIESIUS, a learned heathen of Phoeni- 
 cia, converted to Christianity about the close 
 of the fourth century. He became afterwards 
 bisliop of F>messa, in his native country. A 
 work of his, "On the Nature of Man," in 
 which he advocates the opinion of the exist- 
 ence of the soul in a state previous to its junc- 
 tion with the body, is yet f xtant in an edition 
 ])rinted in 8vo, in 1671, at the Clarendon 
 press. — iVoia'. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NLNNIUS, an ancient British historian, 
 abbot of liangor, is generally said to have flou- 
 risheil about the year 620, and to have taken 
 refiisre at Chester at the time of the massacre 
 of the monks of that monastery. B'shop Ni- 
 colson, however, contends, that from his own 
 book, it is evident that he did not exist before 
 the nin'li century. He composed several 
 works, of which catalogues are given by Bale 
 and I'its, but the only one remaining is 1ms 
 " llistoria Britonum," or " Eulogium Iki- 
 tannicv," which is published in Gale's Hist. 
 J^rit. Scrip. Oxon, 1691. — ]\'icolsoii''s Hist. 
 J.ili. 
 
 iN'KPOS (CoRNtLiws) an historian, who 
 flourished under the two (irst Ca?sars, and was 
 especially favoureil by Augustus. He is said 
 to have been born at or near Verona in Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, and wrote the lives of several of 
 the most illustrious hcroesof Greece and Rome. 
 This work, formerly published under the name 
 of .i'lmilius Probus, is a standard book, and 
 from the simplicity, as well as the elegance 
 and purity of its Latinity, is commonly used 
 as an introductory one in most of our principal 
 seminaries. Nepos is said to have enjoyed 
 the personal friendship of Cicero and Pompo- 
 nius Alticus, the life of the latter of whom is 
 among his writings, 'i'he time of his death is 
 wiccriain. 'Ihere are several editions of his 
 works, the best of which is that printed at the 
 Clarendon press in 18<>3. — IU<<<;. Cltus. 
 
 NKRl (Anthony) one of the earliest che- 
 mists who wTOte on the art of alass-nuikini'. 
 lie was born at Florence, towarils the miiUlle 
 of the sixteentli century. Though he adopted 
 the ecclesiastical profession, he constantly re- 
 fused to accept of any benefice, that ho might 
 be at leii-ure to study wiiai have been termed 
 the ociult Pci< nces. lie visited several parts 
 of F.urope. and resided for a long time at Ant- 
 werp, but the period of his death is not exactly 
 known. His treatise, entitled " Arte X'eiraria 
 disiinta in libri sctie," which has been oft'n! 
 
 N ES 
 
 printed and translated into various languages, 
 is still deserving of perusal, notwithstanding 
 the great improvements in the art which have 
 taken place in modern times. — B'wg. Univ. 
 
 NEKI (St Philip de) founder of the con- 
 gregation of the priests of the Oratory in Italy, 
 was born July 23, 15lo, of a noble family in 
 Florence. He was distinguished very early 
 by his great devotion, and was ordained priest 
 at the age of twenty-six, from which time, un- 
 til his death, not a day passed without his ce- 
 lebrating mass or communicating. In looO 
 he founded a fraternity for the relief of stran- 
 gers, pilgrims, and destitute sick persons, which 
 led the way to the celebrated institution of the 
 Oratory, which was formally organized by him 
 in 1564, and apjiroved by pope Gregory XllI 
 in 1574. The members of this society, which 
 differs from the congregation of the Oratory, 
 founded by cardinal Berulle in France, take no 
 vows ; their general is changed every three 
 years, aid their officer is to deliver such in- 
 structions every day in their church as are suited 
 to all capacities. Each institution has pro- 
 duced some celebrated men, one of the first of 
 whom wa> cardinal Baronius. Neri died at 
 Rome in 1595, and was canonized by pope 
 Gregory XV in 1622. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 NERI (PoMPEio) a native of Florence, and 
 professor of law at Pisa in the eiohteenth cen- 
 tury. He was the author of " Observations 
 on the Tuscan Nobility ;" a treatise on coin- 
 age ; and another on the imposts of Milan. He 
 founded a botanical institution at Florence, 
 where he died in 1776. — Moreri. 
 
 NERLI (Philip de) an Italian historian, 
 born in 1485, was a senator of Florence. He 
 is supposed to have been the same who was 
 governor of Modena for the church in 1526, 
 and who was excluded from Florence, when 
 attempting to return thither with Guicciardini. 
 He died in 1556. He was the author of a 
 work, entitled " I Commentari de' Fatti ci- 
 vili occorsi nelle citta di Firenze dal 1215, fino 
 al 1537," which was published at Florence in 
 1728. Giannotti, in a letter to Varchi, com- 
 plains of Nerli's misrepresentations and par- 
 tiality, a natural consequence of the part 
 which, as a person in authority, he took in 
 the transactions of his day. — Nouv. Diet, Hist. 
 Tirdhoschi. 
 
 NESBI r (Alexander) a Scottish lawjjrer 
 and antiquary, son of the lord president of that 
 name. He was born in 1672 at Edinburgh, 
 but though educated by his father for the bar, 
 practised very little in his profession, dedicat- 
 ing his time almost exclusively to the study of 
 the antiquities of his native country. Of these 
 he wrote an able " \'indication," still pre- 
 served in the advocate's library at Edinburgh, 
 though never printeil. His other works are, 
 *' An Essay on the I'se of Armories ;" a valua- 
 ble treatise " On Heraldry," in two folio vo- 
 lumes ; and au " Heraldical Essay on addi- 
 tion of Figures of Cadency." His death took 
 place in 1725 at Dirlton, the family seat. — 
 Aikin's G. liiog. 
 
 NESTOR or LETO PIS NESTOROVA, a 
 
N ES 
 
 Russian historian, was born at IJielzier in IO.'jO. 
 lie was a monk of I'etchersti at Kiof, and is 
 supposed to Iiave died about 111."^, ilc is 
 chieHy known by a chronicle, in wliich he gives 
 a geographical description of lUissia, and an 
 account of the Sclavonian nations, and lastly, 
 a chronological series of the Russian annals, 
 from e.'SS to 1113. This work continued in 
 obscurity until Peter the Great ordered a tran- 
 j»crij)t to be made of a copy of it, found in the 
 lilirary of Kiinigsberg. It is esteemed as the 
 earliest monument of Russian history, and has 
 been continued to 1203. — due's Travels in 
 Russia. Nouv. Diet. IJist. 
 
 NESTORIUS, a celebrated patriarch of 
 Constantinople, from whom originated the sect 
 of Nestorians, was born at Germanica, a city 
 of Syria, in the fifth century. He was educated 
 at Antiocli, and on receiving the order of 
 priesthood, lie acquired so much celebrity by 
 his sanctity and eloquence, that the emj)eror 
 'I'heodosius appointed him to the see of Con- 
 stantiiiople. lie immediately began to distin- 
 guisli himself by his zeal for the extirpation of 
 heretics, and not above five days after his con- 
 secration he attempted to demolish the cliurch 
 of the Arians, who thereby rendered desperate, 
 set fire to it tliemselves ; and the conflagration 
 reaching other buildings in the vicinity, much 
 confusion was created, and Nestorius was ever 
 afterwards stigmatised as an incendiary. lie 
 next assailed the Novatians, but was inter- 
 rupted by the emperor, on which he proceeded 
 to persecute the various congregations within 
 his reach, who persisted in celebrating the 
 feast of Easter on the fourteenth day of the 
 moon ; and for this unimportant deviation, seve- 
 ral persons were murdered by his agents at 
 Miletum and Sardis. At length the time ar- 
 rived wlien he was to suffer from an intoler- 
 ance equal to his own, for holding the opinion 
 " that the Virgin jNIary cannot with propriety 
 be denominated the mother of God." The 
 extraordinary devotion of the people for the 
 virgin, the latent causes of which are curiously 
 set forward by Bayle, greatly inflamed them 
 against their bishop, which dissatisfaction was 
 much increased by the haughty and turbulent 
 Cyril, who was jealous of the influence of a 
 prelate of a disposition so resembling his own. 
 Kach party assembled councils, and declared 
 the other side heretical, until at length the third 
 general council in the annals of the church as- 
 sembled at Ephesus, in 431, and, under the in- 
 fluence of Cyril, deprived Nestorius of his see, 
 and banished him to Tarsus, without even al- 
 lowing him to explain his doctrines, wliich sim- 
 ply intended to assert, that the virgin was not 
 the mother of the divine nature of Christ. In 
 the first instance the deposed prelate was al- 
 lowed to return to a monastery . but the invete- 
 racy of religious hate procured his farther ba- 
 nishment to Oasis, in the deserts between Egypt 
 and Lybia ; and he was subsequently dragged 
 and driven from place to place until his death, 
 the exact time of which event is unknown. 
 Little compassion is due to Nestorius, who, if 
 victorious, would probably have treated Cyril 
 and his adherents with equal rigour. His sect 
 
 NET 
 
 by no means died with him ; in tho tenth cen- 
 tury the Nt'storians abounded in Chaldea, unj 
 e.xteniled their opinions beyond mount Iinaus 
 into Tartary, and to tin* north of China. On 
 this account, the court of Home exercised all 
 its policy to court them over to her dominion 
 and succeeded so far as to producf a sebism ; 
 but the main body, whose pontiff residen at 
 iMousul, have resisted every overture of the 
 kind, and remain separate to this day. — Cine. 
 Mosheim. 
 
 NE'rS(TIKR(GASPAK)an eminent pain tf-r, 
 was born at Prague in \6:]9. JJeiiig left 
 destitute by his father, who was a sculptor, 
 he was taken under the protection of a jdiysi- 
 cian at Arnheim, who perceiving his nvitive 
 taste for the arts, placed him under Gerard 
 Terburg, and in a few years his pieces were 
 deemed nearly equal to those of his instructor. 
 The pictures of Netscher usually represent do- 
 mestic subjects and conversations, which he 
 treated with a lustre and delicacy that vie with 
 the productions of Francis JNIieris. lie also 
 excelled in portraits of a small size, in the 
 l)roduction of which he was much emjiloved. 
 It is said, in "Walpole's Anecdotes, that he 
 visited England, upon the invitation of sir 
 William 'J emple, where he painted the por- 
 traits of several persons of distinction. He 
 died at the Hague in 1684. — He had two sons, 
 TiiEonoRE and Constantine, each of whom 
 excelled in portrait painting. — Bryan's Diet, 
 ('/ Paint, and Ens;. 
 
 NP:TTELBLA1)T (Cukistiax, baron de) 
 a learned lawyer, born at Stockholm in 1696. 
 He studied in the German universities, and 
 obtained the professorship of law in the aca- 
 demy of Gripswald. In 1743 he was nomi- 
 nated assessor in the imperial court of Wetz- 
 lar, which office he filled with great reputation 
 till his death in 1776. He published a Swe- 
 dish library, 17^28 — 36, five parts, 4to, de- 
 signe4 to make known to foreigners the state 
 of science and literature in Sweden ; " Memo- 
 ria Virorum in Suecia eruditissimoruni redi- 
 viva," 1728-31, 4 parts, 8vo ; '' Themis Ro- 
 mano-Suecica," 1729, 4to ; besides other 
 works. — Bivg. Unio. 
 
 NETTELBLADT (Daniel) a juridical 
 writer, born at Rostock in 1719. He studied 
 in the university tliere, and afterwards at IMar- 
 purg and Halle, under Christian Wolff. Hav- 
 ing taken his degrees, in 1746 he was made 
 professor of the law of nature at Halle, whi- 
 ther his lectures attracted pupils from all parts 
 of Germany. He was nominated a member 
 of the privy council in 176!), and ten years 
 after director of the university. He died Sep- 
 tember 4, 1791, leaving the character of hav- 
 ing been one of the most profound jurists which 
 Germany ever produced. Among his nume- 
 rous and valuable works may be specified, 
 " Sy sterna elementare univeisa; Jurisprudeu- 
 t'uv naturalis,'' 8vo ; and " Initia Histori;v lit- 
 terariit juridiciB universalis," 8vo. — Henry 
 Nettklbladt, his brother, who was a counsel- 
 lor, published some historical treatises relating 
 to the dutchy of Mecklenburg', 6cc. He dud 
 in 1761. — Idt'in. 
 
IN E V 
 
 NEITLETON (Thomas) a physician and 
 miscellaneous ■v\Titer, Avas born at Dewsbury, 
 in Yorkshire, in 1683. Having taken his de- 
 gree of I\1D. at Utrecht, he settled at Halifax, 
 in his native county, where he practised for 
 many years with great success. Dr Nettleton 
 instructed the celebrated Saunderson in the 
 principles of mathematics ; and in 1729 pub- 
 lished a pamphlet, entitled, " Some Thoughts 
 concerning \'irtue and Happiness, in a Letter 
 to a Clergyman," 8vo, reprinted in 1736 and 
 t7ol. The design of this production is to 
 show, that happiness is the end of all our ac- 
 tions, and virtue the only means of attaining 
 it. He died January 9, 1742. His other 
 works are, *' Disputatio de Inflamatione ;" and 
 " An Account of the Method of Inoculating 
 for the Small-Pox." — Watson's Hist, if Hali- 
 fax. 
 
 NEUMANN (Caspak) an eminent Ger- 
 man chemist of the eighteenth century. He 
 was at first an apothecary at Berlin, where his 
 skill in pharmacy and chemistry attracted the 
 notice of Frederick III, elector of Branden- 
 burgh and king of Prussia, who supplied liira 
 with the means of pursuing his studies at the 
 university of Halle. He afterwards travelled 
 for improvement in England, France, and 
 Italy ; and on his return to Berlin he was 
 nominated professor of chemistry at the Royal 
 college. He took the degree of IMD. at 
 Halle in 1727, and was honoured by the king 
 with the title of aulic counsellor. He died in 
 1737. Neumann contributed to the progress 
 of science by his writings, which comprise 
 some important facts and observations, and are 
 still valuable, though more recent discoveries 
 have overturned the theories which prevailed 
 in his time. His chemical works were trans- 
 lated into English, and published in 17o9, 
 4to ; and in 1773, 2 vols. 8vo. — Rees's Cyclop. 
 
 NEVE (Timothy) an English divine, was 
 bom at Stanton Lacy, in Shropshire, in 1694, 
 and was educated at St John's college, Cam- 
 bridge. He was schoolmaster of Spalding, 
 and minor canon of Peterborough, and he af- 
 terwards became prebendary of Lincoln, arcli- 
 deacon of Huntingdon, and rector of Alwalton 
 in Huntingdonshire, where he died in 1757. 
 He was the author of " An Essay on the In- 
 vention of Printing," which he communicated 
 to the Gentleman's society at Spalding, of 
 which he was a joint founder. — His son, Ti- 
 mothy, was born at Spalding, in 1724, and 
 studied at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, of 
 which he was elected fellow. He took his 
 degree of DD. in 1751, and was elected Mar- 
 garet professor of divinity, and was installed 
 prebendary of Worcester. He died at Ox- 
 ford in 1798. His works consist chiefly of 
 sermons, but he also published " Animadver- 
 sions on Phillips's Life of Cardinal Pole." — 
 Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 NEVILE (Alexandlk) an English poeti- 
 cal writer, was son of Richard Nevile, esq. of 
 the county of Nottingham. He was born in 
 Kent, in 1544, and educated at Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree of MA, and became 
 secretary to the archbiRhops Parker auil Grin- 
 
 N E W 
 
 dal. He wrote a narrative in Latin of Rett's 
 rebellion, under the title c'* " Kettus, sive de 
 Furoribus Norfolciensium, Ketto duce ;" to 
 which he added an account of Norwich. He 
 also published the Cambridge verses on the 
 death of sir Philip Sidney, and paraphrased 
 the " Q^dipus" of Seneca, in the collection 
 translated by Stanley, Nuce, Hey wood, &c, 
 which version is highly spoken of by Warton. 
 He died in 1614. — His brother, Thomas 
 Nevile, was dean of Canterbury, and an emi- 
 nent benefactor to Trinity college, Cambridge. 
 He died in 1615. — Warton s Hist, of Eng. 
 Poet. 
 
 NEVILE (Henry) a republican writer, 
 the second son of sir Henry Nevile, of Biling- 
 beare, in Berkshire, was born in 1620, and 
 educated at Merton college, Oxford. At the 
 commencement of the civil wars, he tra- 
 velled to the continent, but returned in 1645, 
 and became an active advocate of republican 
 principles. In 1651 he was elected one of the 
 council of state, but retired when he fully un- 
 derstood the ambitious views of Cromwell, 
 and associated himself with Harrington, and 
 other votaries of a commonwealth. On the 
 Restoration he was taken into custody, but 
 soon released ; and from this time he lived 
 privately until his deatli at Warfield, in Berk- 
 shire, in 1694. His principal publication 
 was, " Plato Redivivus, or a Dialogue con- 
 cerning Government," 1681, which was re- 
 printed by Mr Hollis in 1763. His other 
 works are, "The Parliament of Love ;" " The 
 Isle of Pines ;" and poems, to be found in 
 various collections. He also edited the works 
 of Machiavel. — Nichols's Poems. Biog. Brit. 
 Athen. Oioii. 
 
 NEWBURGH (William of) or Guliel- 
 mus Neubrigensis, a monk of the abbey of 
 Newborough, was born at Bridlington in York- 
 shire, in 1136. He is called by many Parvus, 
 or Little, but whether this be a surname or 
 nickname, is doubtful. He wrote a chronicle, 
 published at Paris, with Picard's notes, 1610, 
 8vo, then by Gale, and lastly by Hearne, 
 3 vols. Bvo, 1719. It is written in a good 
 style, but with the credulity of his time and 
 profession. He attacks Geoflrey of Monmouth 
 with great asperity ; but this is attributed to 
 his disappointment at not succeeding him in 
 the bishopric of St Asaph. — Tanner. Kicolson. 
 
 NEWCOMB, MA. (Thomas) a clergyman 
 of Herefordsliire, was born in 1675, and was 
 educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford. 
 He was chaplain to the second duke of Rich- 
 mond, and rector of Stophara in Sussex. He 
 died about 1766. He published several poems, 
 congratulatory odes, satires, &c. which were 
 published in one vol. 4to, 1756. He was also 
 the author of poetical versions of " The 
 Death of Abel ;" " Hervey's Meditations ;" 
 and other pieces ; and of " Novus Epigram- 
 niatum delectus, or State F^pigrams and Mimic 
 Odes."— Nichols's Poems. 
 
 NEWCOME (William) archbishop of 
 Armagh, a prelate of great learning and exem- 
 plary manners. He was a native of Barton- 
 le-Clay, Bedfordshire, where he was born in 
 
N E W 
 
 1729. His father being the incumbent of the 
 vicarage of Abingdon, jilaced his m.n at tlie 
 granimar-scliool in that town, ami ;iflei\vards 
 procured him a scholarship at l^embroke col- 
 lege, in tlie university of C)xford. From this 
 society he removed on a fellowship to Hert- 
 ford college, of which lie became tutor, and 
 reckoned among his pupils the late lion. Charles 
 James Fox. In 176o, having graduated as 
 doctor of divinity, he went to Ireland, in the 
 capacity of cha))lain to the lord-lieutenant, the 
 earl of Hertford ; and under the patronage of 
 that nobleman became successively bishop of 
 Dromore, Ossory, and Waterford, Qver which 
 latter diocese he presided upwards of sixteen 
 years, hi 1795 earl Fitzwilliam, the then 
 viceroy, translated him to the primacy. Arch- 
 bishop Newcome was the author of a great va- 
 riety of theological tracts, the principal of which 
 are " A Revision of the English Translation 
 of the New Testament," 8vo, 2 vols. ; " An 
 Attempt towards an improved Aversion of the 
 Book of Ezekiel ;" a similar attempt with re- 
 spect to the twelve minor prophets ; " On the 
 Harmony of the Gospels;" " An Historical 
 View of the English Translations of the Bible," 
 8vo ; " On our Lord's Conduct as a divine 
 Teacher ;" " A Review of the chief Difficul- 
 ties in the Gospel Account of the Resurrection 
 of our Lord," and " On the Duration of our 
 Lord's INIinistry," in a letter to Dr Priestley, 
 uriiited in 8vo. His death took place in the 
 capital of that country in 1800. — Geiit. Mag. 
 
 NEWCOMMEN ( ) a practical 
 
 philosopher, distinguished for his successful 
 efforts towards the improvement of the steam- 
 engine. He was a locksmith at Dartmouth in 
 Devonshire, towards the close of the seven- 
 teenth century, and notwithstanding his hum- 
 ble situation, he engaged in scientific re- 
 searches, and carried on a correspondence with 
 his celebrated countryman, Dr Robert Hooke, 
 to whom he communicated his projects and in- 
 ventions. Newcommen having had his atten- 
 tion excited by the schemes and observations 
 of the marquis of Worcester, the French phi- 
 losopher Papiu, and by captain Savary's pro- 
 posal to employ the power of steam in draining 
 the mines of Cornwall, conceived the idea of 
 producing a vacuum below the piston of a 
 steam-engine, after it had been raised by the 
 expansive force of the elastic vapour, which he 
 effected by the injection of cold water to con- 
 dense the vapour. 'J bus an important step 
 towards the construction of the very powerful 
 instrument in question, appears to have been 
 owing to the ingenuity of Newcommen, who, 
 in conjunction with captain Savary and Swit- 
 zer, took out a patent for the invention. To 
 Watt, of Glasgow, and afterwards of Birming- 
 ham, the world is indebted for the extraordi- 
 nary advances towards perfection, subsequently 
 made in the construction of the steam-engine. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 NEWCOMEN (IMatthew) a nonconfor- 
 mist divine of eminence in the middle of the 
 seventeenth century. He was educated at St 
 John's college, Cambridge, where he took the 
 degree of MA. On the triumph of the pres- 
 
 N E \V 
 
 byterians, after the subversion of the authority 
 of Charles I, Mr Newcomen became a mem- 
 ber of the assembly of divines at Westminster, 
 and assisted in drawing up the catechisaus jjub- 
 lislicd by that asHotiation. J5ut he is chiefly 
 noted us having been one of the authors of the 
 attack on episcopacy, entitled " Siueclym- 
 nuus," a word formed in the taste of the age 
 from the initials of the names of the contribu- 
 tors, who were Stephen Marshal, l^dmund (,'a- 
 lamy, Thomas Young, M. Newcomen, and 
 William Spurstowe. Our author held for some 
 time the living of Dedham in Essex, from 
 which he was ejected in 1 662, when he retired 
 to Leyden in Holland, where he died in 1666, 
 — Calami). 1-empriere's Univ. Biog. 
 
 NEWCOURT (Richard) a civilian of the 
 seventeenth century, who practised in the court 
 of arches, and was over the registry -office of 
 the diocese of Canterbury. He is princijially 
 known as the author of an ecclesiastical survey, 
 entitled " Repertorium Fkclesiasticum Paro- 
 chiale Londinense," in two folio volumes, 
 1708. He survived till 1716, when he died in 
 extreme old age. — Cough's Toj)()g. 
 
 NEWDIGATE, hart, (sir Roger) a mu- 
 nificent patron of 'earning, bom at Arbury ia 
 Warwickshire, the family seat in 1719. His 
 father, sir Richard Newdigate, placed him at 
 Westminster-school, whence he removed to 
 Oxford, as a gentleman commoner of Univer- 
 sity college. The death of his elder brother 
 in 1735, vested in him the family title and es- 
 tates, which induced him, seven years after- 
 wards, to offer himself as a candidate to repre- 
 sent the county of Middlesex in the house of 
 Commons. In this attempt he succeeded, and 
 sat for it till the end of that parliament. In 
 1751 the university of Oxford chose him as 
 their representative, and as with some few ex- 
 ceptions has been usually the case, continued to 
 return him as one of their members during every 
 succeeding parliament till 1780, in which year 
 he retired from public life. The university 
 owes to his muniticeuce an annual prize for the 
 best copy of English verses on subjects con- 
 nected with the tine arts, in length neither ex- 
 ceeding nor falling short of tifty lines, the com- 
 position of an under-graduate ; for this pur- 
 pose he bequeathed the sum of 1000/. There 
 is a treatise on the harmony of the four Gos- 
 pels from his pen. His death took place in 
 iraO.— Gent. Mag. 
 
 NEWTON (sir Isaac) a celebrated plalo- 
 sopher, admitted by the general consent of the 
 learned to have been the greatest master of the 
 exact sciences that ever existed. He was de- 
 scended of an ancient and honourable family 
 in Lincolnshire, and was born at the n anor 
 house of Woolstrope or Woolsihorpe, in the 
 parish of Colsterwortb, in that country, on 
 Christmas-day, O. S. 164'J. His father died 
 previously to his birth, and his mother was re- 
 married to a clergyman named Smith, by whom 
 she had a second family. He was sent for 
 education to a grammar-scliool at Grantham, at 
 the age of twelve, when the natural bent of 
 his disposition displayed itself in the construc- 
 tion of machinery, and in a taste for calcula- 
 
N 
 
 E W 
 
 tion, and tlie art of drawing. On the death 
 of his fatlier in-law he returned lionie, for the 
 professed purpose of assisting his mother in 
 the management of a farm, in which she had 
 been previously engaged. But the young phi- 
 loriopJier, -who actually went to market with 
 corn and other products of husbandry, left the 
 sale of his goods to his servant, while he shut 
 himself up at an inn to ruminate over tlie 
 problems of Euclid, the laws of Kepler ; or to 
 meditate discoveries of his own, which should 
 eclipse the glory of his predecessors. His 
 mother had wisdom enough to relieve him 
 from the superintendance of business, for 
 which he was unqualitied, and aftord him faci- 
 hties for the improvement of his talents, by 
 sending him to Trinity college, Cambridge, 
 A-here he entered as a student in 1660. iMa- 
 thematics immediately engaged his attention, 
 and he studied with avidity, not only the 
 works of Euclid and Kepler, but also those of 
 Descartes, Oughired, Van Schooten, and 
 others. But he soon displayed his genius by 
 his original discoveries, one of the earliest of 
 which was that of the various refrangibility of 
 the rays of light, which led to his new theory 
 of light and colours, and to vast improvements 
 of the construction of telescopes. In 1664 he 
 took the degree of BA. and the following j-ear 
 he wasoblicred to remove for a time from Cam- 
 bridge, on account of the plague. This tem- 
 porary interruption of his studies is singularly 
 connected with one of his most important dis- 
 coveries ; for in his country retirement, sitting 
 one day alone in his garden, the accidental 
 observation of some apples falling from a tree, 
 excited in his mind a train of observations on 
 the cause of so simple a phenomenon, which 
 lie pursued till he had finally elaborated his 
 grand theory of the laws of "gravitation. Re- 
 turning to the university he w'as chosen a fel- 
 low of his college in 1667, and the next year 
 he was admitted to the degree of JMA. In 
 1669 he was chosen professor of mathematics, 
 on the resignation of Dr Barrow, and he then 
 also began to read a course of lectures on op- 
 tics. In 1672 he became a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, to which learned body he communi- 
 cated an account of his theory of light and 
 colours, afterwards published in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions. In 1676 he explained 
 his invention of infinite series, noticinsr the 
 improvements he had made in it by his me- 
 thod of fluxions. This was done at the re- 
 quest of Leibnitz, who was engaged in similar 
 speculations, and who appears to have inde- 
 pendently arrived at the same conclusions 
 with the English philosopher, to whom how- 
 ever the priority of discovery may fairly be 
 assigned. He was engaged in 1680 in making 
 astronomical observations on the comet which 
 then appeared, whence he proceeded to inqui- 
 ries concerning the laws of motion of the pri- 
 mary planets ; and in 1683 he communicated 
 to the Royal Society some propositions on that 
 subject, which afterwards were printed under 
 the title of " Philosophise Naturalis Principia 
 iMathematica," containing in the third book 
 wl'.at has bei-a termed his cosmetic astronomy. 
 
 N E W 
 
 or rather liis system of the world. A secoHvl 
 and improved edition of this work was pub- 
 lished at Cambridge, under the superintendance 
 of Cotes, the professor of astronomy and ex- 
 perimental philosophy. Fontenelle says, that 
 this treatise, in which the author had built a 
 new system of natural philosophy upon the 
 most sublime geometry, was written with such 
 profound judgment, and yet so concisely, that 
 it required some time and skill to understand 
 it properly, on which account it did not at first 
 meet with the attention it deserved ; but at 
 length, when its worth came to be sufficiently 
 known, nothing was heard from all quarters 
 but a general shout of admiration. In 1687, 
 Newton signalized himself as the defender of 
 the privileges of tlie university of Cambridge, 
 when they were attacked by James II , and 
 in 1688 he became a member of the house of 
 commons in the convention parliament. His 
 extraordinary merit was now^ well known and 
 generally acknowledged, and when under the 
 ministry of Montagu, afterwards lord Halifax, 
 the recoinage of our money was undertaken, 
 Newton was appointed warden of the mint, 
 in which office he performed very essential 
 services to the nation. About three years 
 after, in 1699, he was promoted to be master 
 of the mint, a post w'hich he held to the time 
 of his death. Upon this promotion he con- 
 stituted William Whiston his deputy in the 
 mathematical professorship at Cambridge, and 
 resigned the chair to him in 1703, on becom- 
 ing president of the Royal Society. In 1704 
 he published a treatise on the reflections, re- 
 fractions, inflections, and colours of light, 
 which passed through many editions, and was 
 translated into a variety of languages. In the 
 following year queen Anne conferred on him 
 the honour of knighthood ; and in 1707 ap- 
 peared his " Arithmetica Universalis." Soon 
 after the accession of George I, he was ap- 
 plied to by parliament to decide on the merit 
 of a scheme for the discovery of the longitude 
 at sea, proposed by Ditton and Vv histon, with 
 a view to the reward offered by government ; 
 when he delivered an opinion i nfavourable to 
 the projectors. In 1715 Leibnitz, who seems 
 to have been jealous of the fame of Newton, 
 proposed to him for solution the famous prob- 
 lem of the Trajectories, as the most difficult 
 task which he could devise ; but such was the 
 transcendent genius of our countryman, that 
 this puzzling question served as the mere 
 amusement of his leisure, and he solved it the 
 same evening he received it, though he had 
 been fatigued that day with business at the 
 mint. Newton became a great favourite with 
 the princess of Wales, afterwards queen con- 
 sort of George II, at whose request he drew 
 up an abstract of a treatise on ancient chrono- 
 logy, a copy of which in manuscript being 
 taken to France by the abbe Conti, it was 
 there translated, and published with animad- 
 versions, in opposition to the wishes of the 
 author, who at length however laid the work 
 before the public in a legitimate form. His 
 habitual temperance, and the constitutional 
 equanimity with which' he was endowfcd, ton 
 
N E \V 
 
 tributed to the preservation of his health, and 
 the enjoyment of his facuhies to extreme old 
 age ; but he was at last attacked by a calcu- 
 lous disease, from which he sull'ered j^jreat 
 pain, and which occasioned his death 
 jNIarch 20, 1726, in the eighty-fourth year of 
 his age. His corpse lay in state in the Jeru- 
 salem chamber at Westminster, and on tlie 
 28th of JMarch its interment took place in 
 Westminster abbey, when the pall was sup- 
 ported by the lord chancellor, the dukes of 
 ^lontrose and Roxburgh, and the earls of 
 Pembroke, Suffolk, and IMacclesfield. A mo- 
 nument, with a Latin commemorative inscrip- 
 tion, was erected in the abbey ; and his statue, 
 by Roubiliac, has been placed in the college of 
 which he was a member at Canibridge. lie 
 left an estate of o'i.OOO/., which, as he made 
 no will, became the })roperty of his legal heirs, 
 the descendants of his sister, IMrs. Conduit, 
 having himself led a life of celibacy. The 
 character of this great man has been thus 
 drawn by Ihime : — " In Newton this island 
 may boast of having produced the greatest and 
 rarest genius that ever arose for tlie ornament 
 and instruction of the species in philosophical, 
 astronomical, and mathematical knowledge ; 
 cautious in admitting no principles but such as 
 were founded on experiment ; but resolute to 
 adopt every such principle, however new or 
 unusual, from modesty, ignorant of his supe- 
 riority above the rest of mankind, and thence 
 less careful to accommodate his reasonmgs to 
 common apprehensions, more anxious to merit 
 than acquire fame. He was from these causes 
 long unknown to the world ; but his reputa- 
 tion at last broke out with a lustre whicli 
 scarce any writer before liis time ever attained. 
 While Aewton seemed to draw off the veil 
 from the mysteries of nature, he showed at 
 the same time the imperfections of the mecha- 
 nical philosophy, and thereby restored her 
 ultimate secrets from that obscurity in which 
 they had before lain, and in which, without 
 his assistance, they would probably ever have 
 remained." Sir Isaac Newton left a vast mass 
 of unpublished manuscripts, Vv'hich, after his 
 death, were examined by a committee of the 
 Royal Society ; but none were thought worth 
 printing except his " Observations upon the 
 Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse," 
 which appeared in 1733, 4to. " It is astonish- 
 ing," says Dr Cbiaies IJutton, " what care 
 and industry Newton employed about the pa- 
 pers relating to chronology, church history, 
 &c., as on examining them it appears, that 
 many are copies over and over again, often with 
 little or no variation ; the whole number being 
 upwards of four thousand sheets in folio, or 
 eight reams of foolscap paper, besides the 
 bound books, of which the number oi sheets 
 is not mentioned." The best edition of New- 
 ton's " Principia," is that of fathers le Seur 
 and Jacquier, 4 vols. 4to, 1739 ; his " Opus- 
 cula iMathematica, Phiiosopbica et Philolo- 
 gica," were published by Castillion, Laus. 
 1744, 3 vols. 4to ; and his " Aritbmetica 
 Universalis," with a commentary by ihe same 
 editor, Amsterd. 1761, 2 vols. 4to. All his 
 
 ^ K w 
 
 works were published by Ur S. Hofbley. I.ond. 
 1779, 5 vols. 4to , and an I'Jiglish translation 
 of the Principia, is extaiit, by Muttc — Mar' 
 tin's Biotr. I'hiloi. Uutton's Mat. Diet. 
 
 NEW ION (John) an Pnglish mathemati- 
 cian, of the seventeentli crniury. He was a 
 native of Oundle in Northamptonsliire, and 
 was educated at Oxford, wlure he commenced 
 a commoner of Kdmundhali in 1637. He 
 took the degree of BA. in 1611, and tliat <n 
 RIA. the following year. Having adopted the 
 ecclesiastical profession, he was created i)D. 
 immediately after the Restoration, when he was 
 also made one of the royal chaplains, and pro- 
 moted to the rectory of Ross in Herefordshire. 
 He died December 2.)th, 1678, aged fifty-wix. 
 Among his principal works, are " Astrono- 
 mia Britannica," 4to ; "Tables of Declina- 
 tion, Ascension, &c. for Calculations ;" "Tri- 
 gonometria Britannica," folio ; " Chiliades 
 centum Logarithmorum ;" " Geometrical Tri- 
 gonometry ;" " r^Iathematical Elements ;" 
 " A perpetual Diary ;" " A 'i'reatise on Gaug- 
 ing ;" " An Introduction to Astronomy ;" and 
 " An Introduction to Geography." These 
 publications manifest industrious application to 
 studv. and no common degrree of skill in the 
 science of mathematics. — Martin's Bio'r. Fliiios. 
 NEWTON (John) an episcopal clergy- 
 man of Calvinistic principles, born in London 
 in 1725. He did not enjoy the advantages of 
 a regular education, having, in the early part 
 of his life, been taken to sea by his father, who 
 was master of a merchant-ship. Becoming 
 commander of a vessel employed in the slave- 
 trade, he made several voyages to the coast of 
 Africa, for the purpose of carrying on that dis- 
 gusting traffic, and in the mean time contracted 
 habits of dissipation and vice, which the bru- 
 talizing scenes he witnessed tended to origi- 
 nate and confirm. At length he grew serioua 
 and fond of study, and having relinquished tho 
 occupation of a mariner, he, in 1755, obtained 
 the office of tide-surveyor of the poit of Liver- 
 pool. 'J'here he remauied several years, and 
 during the latter part of that period he be- 
 came a preacher, and made some abortive at- 
 tempts to gain a settlement as pastor to a dis- 
 senting congregation. In 176 ihe was ordained 
 a clergyman of the church of England, by the 
 bishoj) of Lincoln, and immediately after, 
 through the intervention of lord Dartmouth, 
 he was appointed curate of Olney in Bucking- 
 hamshire. Durinij a residence of fifteen years 
 at that place, he formed an intimate friendship 
 with the poet Cowper, whence originated a vo- 
 lume of hymns for public worship, their joint 
 composition. In 1779 iMr Newton removed 
 to London, on being promoted to the rectory 
 of St .Mary Woolnoth, which he held till his 
 death in December 1007. He was the author 
 of a " Review of Ecclesiastical History," 1770, 
 8vo ; *' iMessiah, or a Series of Discourses on 
 the Scriptural Passages which form the Ora- 
 torio of Handel," 1786, 2 vols. 8vo ; and 
 other works, which have been printed toge- 
 ther, in 6 vols. 8vo and 12 vols. 12mo. — 
 Evun^. ^tag' 
 
 NEWTON (TiJOMAs) an eminent T\nglish 
 
N E Y 
 
 divine and theological writer, born at Lichfield, 
 December 21, 1703. He was educated at 
 Westminster school and Trinity college, Cam- 
 brido-e, where he obtained a fellowship. In 
 I74I he obtained the rectory of St Mary-le- 
 Bow, London ; and in 1745 he took the degree 
 of DD. He published an edition of the Para- 
 dise Lost of Milton, with notes, and a memoir 
 of the author, in 1749 ; and he afterwards 
 edited, in a similar manner, the Paradise Re- 
 gained. But his literary fame depends chiefly 
 on his " Dissertations on the Prophecies 
 ■which have been remarkably fulfilled, and are 
 at this trae fulfilhng in the World," 1759, 
 3 vols. 8vo, several times reprinted. In 1757 
 Dr Newton was made a prebendary of West- 
 minster, and subsequently precentor of York ; 
 and in 1761 he was raised to the episcopal 
 bench as bishop of Bristol ; becoming at the 
 same time a canon residentiary of St Paul's, he 
 resigned his former preferments. He after- 
 wards obtained the deanery of St Paul's, which 
 he held till his deatli, which happened Fe- 
 bruary 14th, 1782. Hisworks were published 
 with an autobiographical memoir, in two vo- 
 lumes, quarto. — Aikins G. Biog. 
 
 NEY (Michael) a French marshal uuder 
 the government of Buonaparte. He was born 
 at Sarre Louis in 1769, and having entered as 
 a private into a regiment of hussars, he had 
 attained the rank of a subaltern at the begin- 
 ning of the Revolution. He was soon after 
 made a captain, when he served witb distinc- 
 tion at Xerwinde, Valenciennes, and on other 
 occasions. His address and bravery as a par- 
 tizan officer attracted the notice of Kleber, 
 under whom he served as adjutant-general. 
 He was next made general of a division, in 
 which quality he commanded the French ca- 
 valry in 1798, during the inglorious invasion 
 of Switzerland, when, however, Ney is said 
 to have behaved with humanity to the unfor- 
 tunate objects of republican tyranny. The 
 following year he distinguished himself under 
 Massena ; and in 1800 he shared in the vic- 
 tories gained by I\Ioreau at Moeskirch and 
 Holienlinden. In 1804 he was honoured with 
 the b^ton of marshal ; and the following year 
 he gained tlie victory to which he owed the 
 title of duke of Elchingen. He was next em- 
 ployed against the Prussians and the Russians, 
 when lie greatly contributed to the success of 
 the French at Friedland. His talents were 
 tben put into requisition in Spain, where he 
 showed skill and courage in his retreat from 
 Portugal before the duke of Wellington. In 
 1812 he accompanied Buonaparte to Russia, 
 and his services at the terrible battle of Mo- 
 jaisk, where he commanded the centre of the 
 French army, procured him the title of prince 
 of Moskwa. His conduct on this and other 
 occasions also gained him the epithet of " the 
 bravest of the brave." Having afterwards lost 
 the battle of Dennewitz, in the campaign in 
 Germany, the dissatisfaction of Napoleo^ri in- 
 duced him to retire to Paris, in a kind of dis- 
 grace. He was, however, again employed in 
 1814 ; and he afterwards contributed to in- 
 duce the emperor to resign his authority, and 
 
 N I C 
 
 lie was one of the first of the imperial gene- 
 rals who offered submission to the Bourbons. 
 He preserved, therefore, all his titles and pen- 
 sions, and was created a peer of France. In 
 February 1815, when Buonaparte escaped from 
 the isle of Elba, Ney was at his estate in the 
 country ; and he received orders from the 
 minister of war to repair to his government of 
 Besanpon. He went to Paris, where he made 
 strong protestations of his loyalty to the king, 
 and, it is said, promised to bring him, the 
 disturber of Europe, confined in an iron cage. 
 He then proceeded with some regiments to- 
 wards Lyons ; but instead of attacking the 
 invader, he joined his standard, and became 
 one of his most active partizans. He seems 
 to have served his old master with fidelity, 
 notwithstanding: his conduct has been censured 
 relative to the affairs which preceded the 
 overthrow of Buonaparte at Waterloo. After 
 that event Ney went to Paris, and then took 
 refuge in Auvergne, where he was arrested oa 
 the 24th of July, being denounced as one of the 
 authors of the revolution of the preceding 20th 
 of March. Being conveyed to Paris, he was 
 tried and convicted of treason, before a council 
 of war, by whom he was condemned to death 
 December 6, 1815. He was consequently 
 shot on the following day, near the Luxem- 
 bourg palace, displaying in liis last moments 
 the same firmness he had ever exhibited in the 
 field of battle. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv. des 
 Contemp. 
 
 NICAISE (Claude) a French abbe, emi- 
 nent as one of the most learned antiquaries of 
 the seventeenth century. He was born in 
 1623 at Dijon, of a good family, and taking 
 holy orders, obtained a cauonry in the holy 
 chapel of his native city. The duties of his 
 olfice, however, interfering with the study of 
 ancient monuments, to which he was more es- 
 pecially devoted, he resigned it, and went to 
 Rome, where he grew into favour with pope 
 Clement XI, and continued to maintain a com- 
 munication with most of the literati of Europe 
 for several years. Amoug his printed works 
 are, a treatise " De Nummo Pantheo ;" an- 
 other " On the Forms of the Sirens ;" and a 
 third " On the Schools of Athens and Parnas- 
 sus," two pictures by Raphael. He also left 
 behind him, in manuscript, a small dissertation 
 " De veterum Musica." His death took place 
 in 1702 at Villy, in France, while he was en 
 gaged in decyphering an ancient inscription, 
 " Miner vai Arpalise," then lately discovered in 
 the vicinity of that village. 
 
 NICANDER, an ancient Greek physician, 
 gn^^ammarian, and poet, flourished in the time of 
 Attains Galatonices, king of Pergamus, and 
 was a native ot Colophon. He is also said to 
 have been a priest of the Clarian Apollo, 
 His works were numerous, but only two have 
 reached our time, the one entitled " Theriaca," 
 a poetical description of the wounds made by 
 venomous animals, with their cures ; the other 
 " Alexipharmaca," a treatise of poisons and 
 antidotes. He also wrote " An Account of 
 the Affairs of the ^tolians, (whence he has 
 been called the ^Etolian,) the Boeotians, and 
 
JN I C 
 
 the Colophonians Georgics ; ]\Ietimioi|)ho.>5f3, 
 and Bevt'ial troiilises in medicine. 'I'lie best 
 editious of his works are those of Aldus, 
 1522 ; liaudini, 17tiA; and Schnider, 179i!. — 
 Vossiits de Poet. Gruc. 
 
 NICCOLS, or NICCOLLS (IIuiiaim.) 
 an Enghsh poet of 8onie note in the be>;iu- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, lie was the 
 editor of the most complete edition of the 
 " Mirror for IMagistrates," Lond. 1610, 'Ito, 
 towards which he contributed " A Winter 
 Isight's A'ision," together with •• England's 
 Eliza," &CC. He seems to have availed him- 
 seM' of the attraction arising from the adop- 
 tion of popular topics for the exercise of his 
 poetical talents, as he published in 1616 a 
 poem, entitled " Sir Thomas Overburie's \'i- 
 sion with the Ghoasts of Weston, IMrs. 'I'ur- 
 ner, the late Lieftenant of tlie Tower, and 
 Franklin," 4to, ornamented with curious wood- 
 cuts. This very rare poem is omitted by Wood 
 in his enumeration of the works of Niccols, 
 who was the author of several other pieces. — 
 Wood's Athen. Oxon. 
 
 NICEPIIORUS CALLISTUS XANTIIO- 
 PULUS, au ecclesiastical historian, was bom 
 at Constantinople in the fourteenth century. 
 He wrote a " History of the Church," which he 
 addressed to the emperor Andronicus Palico- 
 logus the elder, and divided into twenty- three 
 books from the birth of Christ to the death of 
 the emperor Leo the philosopher, in 911. 
 Nicephorus has been called the " Ecclesias- 
 tical Thucydides" and the " Theological Pli- 
 ny," both for the elegance and the credulity of 
 his work. Besides this he was the author of 
 " A Catalogue of the Coustantinopolitan Em- 
 perors," and " A Catalogue of the Coustan- 
 tinopolitan Patriarchs," and an " Abridge- 
 ment of the Scriptures," all in Greek iambic 
 verse. — Mosheim Hist. Eccles. Fabricii Bibl. 
 Grccc. Caves Hist. Lit. Dwpin. 
 
 NICEPHORUS GREGORIAS, one of the 
 Byzantine historians, flourished in the four- 
 teenth century, and was a favourite of Andro- 
 nicus Pala^ologus the elder, who made him 
 librarian of the Constantinopolitan church, 
 and sent him on an embassy to the prince of 
 Servia. In the disputes with Barlaam and 
 Palamos he defended the part of the former 
 with so much vigour, that he was cast into 
 prison, whence he was liberated by John Pa- 
 lajolo^us. He wrote eleven books of the Bv- 
 zantine history, from 1204 to 1341, but in a 
 barbarous style, and very inaccurately. Gre- 
 gorias also wrote the life of his uncle John, 
 metropolitan of Heraclea, and composed scho- 
 lia on Synesius ; " De Isoniniis ;" besides 
 other pieces still in manuscript. — Vossii Hist. 
 Grcec Moreri. 
 
 NICERON (John Francis) a French ec- 
 clesiastic of the order of Friars Minims, dis- 
 tinguished for his writings on optics. He was 
 a native of Paris, and an intimate acquain- 
 tance of the celebrated Descartes. His works 
 are, '* L'Interpretationdes Chiffres, ou Regies 
 pour bien entendre et expliquer facilement 
 toutes sortes des Chiffres simples, 6ilc. ;" 
 •• Tliaumaturgus Opticus, sive admiranda op- 
 
 N I C 
 
 ticcs, catoptrices, et dio{ttrice6 ;" and "La 
 I'erspective Curieuse." Niceron died in 1646. 
 aged ihirty-threc. — lilofr. Univ. 
 
 NICEliON (Joiiv Peter) a Bamabite 
 friar, fininent as a literary Ijiutorian. He was 
 born at i'aris in 16».^, and having entered 
 into the clerical order of the Barnabites, he 
 became a teacher of rhetoric and cla««ical 
 literature at the college of Lrjches in Jou- 
 raine. He afterwards removed to Montargig, 
 and at length became professor of the belles 
 lettres at Paris, where he died in 1738. Fa- 
 ther Niceron jmblished " Memoircs pour ser- 
 vir A, rilistoire des Hommes illustres dans la 
 Rej)ubli(]ue des Lettres, avec un Catalogue 
 Raisonne de leurs Ouvrages," 42 vols. 12mo, 
 the last two of which were printed after his 
 death. Much valuable information is com- 
 prised in this work, which, however, is defec- 
 tive in point of arrangement, and the taste and 
 judgment of the author are not always to be 
 commended in his selection of subjects. — Id. 
 
 NICETAS, or NICEITUS (St) a bishop of 
 Heraclea in the eleventh century, canonized 
 by the Romish church after his decease. He 
 wrote the life of Gregory Xazianzen, and some 
 annotations on the Scriptures ; and is said by 
 Forkel to be the real author of the hymn " Te 
 Deum Laudamus," erroneously attributed to 
 St Ambrose. — There were also two historians 
 of this name, David, a Paphlagonian by 
 birth, who wrote the lifS of St Ignatius in 
 Greek, translated into Latin by Ruderi in 
 1604. He flourished in the ninth century. 
 — The otlier, who lived in the thirteenth, was 
 surnamed Achomixates, and was a native of 
 ColosscB, a town in Phrygia. When the 
 Franks in 1204 stormed Constantinople, where 
 he held a situation in the service of the Greek 
 emperor, he fled to Nice in BithjTiia. His 
 annals, which embrace a period of time from 
 the early part of the twelfth to the commence- 
 ment of the thirteenth century, appeared at 
 Paris 1647. His death took place in 1206. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 NICHOLS, MD. FRS. (Frank) body phy- 
 sician to king George II. He was a native of 
 London, born in 1699, and educated on the 
 foundation of Westminster grammar-school, 
 whence he went oft' in due course to Christ- 
 church, Oxford, and there graduated in medi- 
 cine in 1729, having previously filled the situ- 
 ation of anatomical reader to the university. 
 Returning to the metropolis, he commenced 
 there the practice of physic, and rose to con- 
 siderable eminence in his profession. He was 
 elected by the college of physicians Gulsto- 
 nian reader, and appointed to deliver the sur- 
 gical lectures in that society in 1734, in which 
 discourses he was accused of favouring too 
 much the doctrine of materialism. Dr Nichols 
 married the daughter of Dr Mead in 1743, 
 and succeeded sii- Hans Sloane ten years after- 
 wards as physician to the king, of whose last 
 illness and death he published an account, to 
 be found in tlie .ran sac lions of the Roval 
 Society. His works are, " De Anima i\ie- 
 dica;" •' De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, &c. 3" 
 and a tract against man-midwifery. His death 
 
N IC 
 
 took place in 1779, at Epsom. — Life by Br 
 Laicvence. 
 
 NICHOLS (John) fellow of die antiqua- 
 rian societies of London, Edinburgh, and 
 Perth, and for nearly half a century editor of 
 the Gentleman's IMagazine. He was bom at 
 Islington, February 2, 1744, and ha-.'ing re- 
 ceived a liberal education, he became at an 
 early age an apprentice to Bowyer, the learned 
 printer. He was subsequently admitted into 
 partnership ynx.h. his master, on whose death 
 he succeeded to the management of one of the 
 first typographical establishments in the me- 
 tropolis, anil long conducted it with high re- 
 putation. In 1778 he became coadjutor with 
 Mr David Henry, in the publication of the 
 Gentleman's IMagazine ; and on the decease of 
 that gentleman, the duties of editor devolved 
 on Mr Nichols, who, besides his regular con- 
 tribution as conductor of that useful miscel- 
 Jany, inserted in almost every number some of 
 the productions of his pen, relating chiefly to 
 British topography and antiquities. He was 
 admitted into the common council of the city 
 of London in 1784^ to which he belonged till 
 1801 ; and in 1804 he was chosen master of 
 the Stationers' company. In 1 808 his print- 
 ing-office was destroyed by fire, when a great 
 number of valuable works perished in the 
 flames. Among his numerous literary pub- 
 lications may be mentioned, " Anecdotes, 
 literary and biographical, of William Bow- 
 yer," 1778, 8vo, which formed the basis of 
 his " Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth 
 Century," 9 vols. Bvo ; " Illustrations of the 
 Literature of the Eighteenth Century," 3 vols. 
 Bvo, supplementary to the preceding work ; 
 and " The History and Antiquities of Leices- 
 tershire," folio. ]Mr Nichols died Nov. 26. 
 182(5. — Auiobiog. Mem. in Lit, Anec. 
 
 NICHOLS, DD. (William) bom at Don- 
 nington, Bucks, in 1644, was a divine of 
 great learning and piety, and distinguished as 
 an able polemic. From Magdalen hall, Ox- 
 ford, of which he had become a member after 
 going through St Paul's school, he removed to 
 Wadham college. This society he also quitted 
 on obtaining a fellowship at Merton college, 
 in 1 684. Nine years afterwards he graduated 
 as doctor in divinity, and was presented to the 
 living of Selsey, Sussex, in the neighbourhood 
 of Chichester. His principal works consist 
 of a " Defence of the Church of England," 
 written originally in Latin, but afterwards 
 printed in English also. Of this tract there 
 are two editions, one in 12mo, 1707, the 
 other published subsequently in 8vo. " On 
 the English Liturgy," in folio and 8vo ; " The 
 Religion of a Prince ;" " A Conference with 
 a Tlieist," 8vo, 2 vols. ; " On the Thirty-nine 
 Article^'';" " A Paraphrase on the Book of 
 Common Prayer :" and an essay, " On the 
 Contempt of the World." His death took 
 place in 1712. — Chalmers s Biog. Diet. 
 
 NICHOLSON (William) an industrious 
 and ingenious writer on mathematics, natural 
 philosophy, and chemistry. Lie was born in 
 London in 175;, and went to India when 
 young in the maritime service. In 1776 he 
 
 IN lO 
 
 became an agent on the continent for Mr 
 Wedgewood, the manufacturer of Stafford- 
 shire-ware ; and he afterweirds settled in the 
 metropolis as a mathematical teacher. An 
 academical establishment which be had formed 
 proved unsuccessful, and he became a bank- 
 rupt. He took out patents for various inven- 
 tions, and published a " Journal of Natural 
 Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts," which 
 was continued for several years ; but some fa- 
 tality seemed to attend all his speculations, 
 which proved of little emolument to the pro- 
 jector. He was at one time employed as en- 
 gineer to the Portsea Water-works company, 
 which situation he lost, and died in poverty in 
 1815. His works are principally compilations, 
 but being executed with judgment, they are 
 many of them extremely useful. The most 
 important are, "An Introduction to Natural 
 Philosophy," 1782, 2 vols. 8vo; " The First 
 Principles of Chemistry," 8vo ; and a Dic- 
 tionary of Chemistry, 2 vols. 4to. W^ith the 
 Encyclopedia published under his name, he is 
 understood to have had but little concern. 
 [See Joyce, Jeremiah.] — Gent. Mag. 
 
 NICOLAI (Christopher Frederick) a 
 learned and ingenious German writer. He was 
 born in 1733, at Berlin, where his father was 
 an eminent bookseller ; and after having been 
 educated in the schools of Berlin and Halle, 
 he was sent to Frankfort on the Oder, to ac • 
 quire a knowledge of the details of business. 
 In 1752 he returned home, and assisted his 
 father in his trade ; but at the same time he 
 devoted much of his attention to literature. 
 He became acquainted with Lessing and Men- 
 delsohn, with whom he engaged in conduct- 
 ing a periodical journal, called the Library of 
 the Belles Lettres, continued from 1757 to 
 1760, and forming 24 toIs. 8vo. With Abbt 
 and others, lie afterwards published Letters on 
 Modern Literature, 24 vols. 8vo ; and this 
 was succeeded by the General German Li- 
 brary, which he edited from 1765 to 1792, in 
 107 vols. After an interruption of some years, 
 this undertaking was resumed, under the title 
 of the New General German Library, 1800 — 
 1805. Nicolai died January 8, 1811. Be- 
 sides his periodical productions, he published 
 " The Life and Opinions of Sebaldus Nothan- 
 ker," a novel, which has been translated into 
 English; "An Account of a Tour in Ger- 
 many and Switzerland in 1781 ;" "Characte- 
 ristic Anecdotes of Frederick II ;" and seve- 
 ral other works. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv, 
 des Contemp. 
 
 NICOLAUS DAMASCENUS, a philoso- 
 pher and historian, was a native of Damascus, 
 and flourished in the time of Augustus. Herod 
 the Great chose him for his preceptor in phi- 
 losophy, and took him with him to Rome, 
 where he introduced him to Augustus, who 
 also honoured him with his friendship. At 
 the request of Herod, Nicolaus wrote a 
 " Universal History," which is often quoted 
 by Suidas, Josephus and otliers, but of which 
 only a few fragments are preserved. He also 
 wrote " A Disseitation on the Manners of va- 
 rious Nations;'' "Memoirs of Augustus/' 
 
N IC 
 
 and his owii life, of which some fragments are 
 preservt'd by Valesius ; ami a complete edition 
 was published in 180-i, by Oreliius, under the 
 title of " Nicoiai Damasceni Historiarum ex- 
 cerpta et fraginenta qua; supersunl." — Voaii 
 Iljst. Gruc. Moreri. 
 
 NICOLE (Francis) a celebrated French 
 mathematician, was born at Paris in 168.3. He 
 was instructed in mathematics by Monlmart, 
 and early secured the respect of tlie scientific 
 world, by detecting the fallacy of a pretended 
 quadrature of the circle, which a I\I. !\lathu- 
 lon so confidently believed he had discovered, 
 that he deposited three thousand livres in the 
 hands of a public notary at Lyons, to be paid 
 over to any person who, in the judgment of the 
 Academy of Sciences, should demonstrate his 
 so]ution to be erroneous. This deposit was 
 paid over to M. Nicole, who gave it to the 
 hospital at Lyons. In 1707 the academy no- 
 minated him assistant mechanician, and in 
 1721, j)ensioner. lie died in 17o8. The nu- 
 merous able papers of this expert mathemati- 
 cian, are inserted in the JMemoirs of the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Hut- 
 ton's Math. Diet. 
 
 NICOLE (Peter) a celebrated French di- 
 vine in the seventeenth century, was born at 
 Ckartres in 1625. He received his early edu- 
 cation from his father, under whom he attained 
 a high proficiency in the learned languages ; 
 after which he was sent to the university of 
 Paris, and having graduated jNIA., entered 
 upon a course of divinity at the Sorbonne. He 
 also devoted a portion of his time to the in- 
 struction of youth placed under the care of 
 Messieurs, of the Port Royal, which led to 
 his becoming an associate of the celebrated 
 Arnauld, in his defence of Jansenius. He was 
 solicited to take orders, but remained only a 
 tonsured priest, in consequence of the refusal 
 of the bishop of Chartres, who disliked his 
 Jansenism, to ordain him. He continued un- 
 disturbed at Peris until 1677, when a letter 
 which he wrote to pope Innocent IX, in favour 
 of the bishops of St Pons and Arras, excited a 
 storm which obliged him to quit the kingdom, 
 and seek refuge in the Netherlands. He was, 
 however, soon allowed to return, and to live 
 privately at Chartres, under another name. 
 At length, in 1683, he was permitted to return 
 to Paris, where he spent the remainder of his 
 life in the composition of numerous new works. 
 During the latter years of his life he entered 
 into two celebrated disputes, concerning mo 
 nastic studies and quietism, in which he much 
 distinguished himself. He died in 1695, aged 
 seventy-five. The principal works of this able 
 controversialist, are " Moral Essavs,"' 14 vols. 
 12rao ; " Lettres Imaginaiies et Visionnaiies," 
 2 vols. 12mo ; "The Perpetuity of the Faith 
 of the Roman Catholic Church concernincr the 
 Eucharist," 3 vols. 4to ; " Les Prejuges Le- 
 gitimes centre les Calvinistes ;" " Traite de 
 I'Unite de I'Eglise ;" " Epigrammaium De- 
 lectus,'' 1659, 12mo ; and a Latin translation 
 of " The Provincial Letters," with notes. — 
 N.mv. Diet. Hist. Moreri. 
 
 MCOLSON (VViLLiAAi) archbishop of 
 
 Bioo. Dici. — Vol. 11. 
 
 NIE 
 
 Cashel, in Ireland, a j)relate of extensive 
 kiiowh-dge and deep erudition. He waa the 
 son of the rev. Joseph Nicolson, rector of 
 Hemland, in Cumberland, at Orton, in which 
 county, the subject of this article was born in 
 1 655. In his twenty-fourth year he was elect- 
 ed to a fellowshij) of Queen's college, Oxford, 
 when he had taken his bachelor'H degree in 
 arts, and entering the church became domestic 
 chaplain to Uainl)OW, bishop of Carlisle, who 
 in 1681 gave him a stall in his cathedral, and 
 in 1682 made him bis archdeacon. His lite- 
 rary re])utation, both as a divine and an anti- 
 quary, from this period, continued to increase 
 till 1702, when he was farther promoted to the 
 bish()j>ric of the same diocese, over which he 
 presided sixteen years, and was then trans- 
 lated to the see of Londonderry. In January 
 1727, he was made archbishop of Cashel, a 
 dignity which includes that of primate of 
 iMunster, but never lived to take possession, 
 dying on the 13ih of tlie month following. 
 Besides his correspondence, which has lately 
 appeared, he was tlie author of an " English 
 Historical Library," 1696 — 9. A similar 
 work connected with Scotland, and another on 
 Ireland. These tracts were collected in 1776 
 into one quarto volume. " An Essay on the 
 Border Laws," and "A Description of the 
 Kingdoms of Poland and Denmark." He 
 also wrote the prefaces to Chamberlayne's 
 Polyglott of tlie Lord's Prayer, and to ^^'il- 
 kins's " Laws of the Anglo-Saxons ;"' and in 
 1717 especially distinguished himself by the 
 zeal and ability with which he entered into 
 the Bangorian controversy. Browne Willis 
 speaks in terms of the greatest respect of his 
 research and character as an antiquary. — 
 Chalmers's Biog. Diet. 
 
 NICOT (John) a native of Nismes y.\ 
 France, who obtained the office of master of 
 requests at Paris. In 1559, being sent on an 
 embassy to Portugal, he brought home on his 
 return, the plant tobacco, which thence ob- 
 tained the ajipellation of Nicotiana, adopted as 
 a generic name by Linnams and other bota- 
 nists. Nicot died in 1600. He was the au- 
 thor of a French and Latin Dictionary ; 
 " Traite de la IMarine ;" &c. — Diet. //iVt. 
 
 NIELD (James) celebrated for his benevo- 
 lence and philanthropy, was bom at Knuts- 
 ford in Cheshire, May 21, 1744. He was in 
 the first instance designed for agriculture, hat 
 in his sixteenth year he became apprentice to 
 a soldsmith in London, and when out of his 
 time commenced business in St James's-street, 
 where he realized a handsome fortune. Hav- 
 ing been much imjiressed by a visit which he 
 paid, early in life, to the King's Bench prison, 
 and possibly smitten by the example of the 
 benevolent Howard, he exploreil all the pri- 
 sons of the country with a view to the ame- 
 lioration of human wretchedness, and the alle- 
 viation of the misery of his fellow -creatures 
 under confinement. It was his constant prac- 
 tice in these excursions to wait upon the mrt- 
 gistrates in the cities and boroughs, and repre- 
 sent to them what he saw amiss in their jails, 
 or what his experience might suggest foj 
 2 N 
 
NIG 
 
 tlieir improvement. In this manner Tie occu- 
 pied himself for thirty years, producing many 
 substantial benefits, and by his example and 
 communications to the Gentleman's Magazine, 
 exciting kindred beneficence in others. This 
 excellent person was also the prime founder 
 of the society for the relief and discharge of 
 prisoners contined for small debts, formed in 
 1773, and to which he was unanimously ap- 
 pointed treasurer. Mr Nield died universally 
 lamented, February 16, 1814. Besides his 
 communications to the Gentleman's Magazine, 
 he was author of the interesting reports of the 
 society to which his benevolence gave exist- 
 ence. — From a Memoir hi] Himsdf. 
 
 KIEULANU (Peter) a Dutch author, was 
 the son of a carpenter, and was bom at Dim- 
 raermeer, near Amsterdam, in 1764. At the 
 age of ten years he wrote tolerable poetry, 
 and solved several mathematical problems 
 without having liad any instructor. The Ba- 
 tavian government appointed him one of the 
 commissioners of longitude, and he became 
 successively professor of mathematics at Utrecht 
 and Amsterdam. He died in 1794. His 
 principal works are^ treatises " On the INIeans 
 of enlightening a People ;" " Of the System 
 of Lavoisier ;" and "On Navigation ;" " Poems 
 in the Dutch Language ;" with other trea- 
 tises on scientific subjects. — liees's Cyclop. 
 Diet. Hist* 
 
 jSIEUPOORT (William Henry) a learned 
 writer on classical archaeology, born in Holland 
 about 1670. He applied himself especially to 
 the study of ancient history, of which he be- 
 came professor in the university of Utrecht. 
 His death took place about 1730. Nieupoort 
 was the author of a treatise, entitled " Ri- 
 tuum qui olim apud Romanos obtinuerunt suc- 
 cincta explicatio," 8vo, which has been often 
 printed ; and " Historia Reipublicce et Imperii 
 Romanorum, contexta ex monumentis vete- 
 riim," 1723, 2 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 NlEUWEiS'TY'i' (Bernard) an ingenious 
 Dutch philosopher and mathematician, born 
 in 1654. He was intended for the clerical 
 profession, which was that of his father ; but 
 Laving a stronger taste for mathematics than 
 theology, he applied himself chiefly to mathe- 
 matical and physical studies, to which he 
 added that of jurisprudence. He became 
 counsellor and burgomaster of the town of 
 Puremerend in North Holland, and a member 
 of the states of the province. He died in 
 1718. His works are. Considerations on the 
 Analysis of Infinites ; the Analysis of Curve 
 Lines by means of the Doctrine of Infinites ; 
 Considerations on the Principles of the Diffe- 
 rential Calculus ; a Treatise on the use of 
 Tables of Sines and Tangents ; and Contem- 
 plations on the Universe, translated into En- 
 glish by John Chamberlayne, and published 
 under the title of " The Religious Philoso- 
 pher," 2 vols. 4to. — Martin's Biog. Fhilos. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE (Joseph) a dissenting 
 minister, of considerable literary talent, born 
 at Chowbent in Lancashire, in 1775. Having 
 officiated for some short time to a congrega- 
 
 N I V 
 
 tion in the Wesleyan connexion at Maccles- 
 field, he was induced to settle in tlie metropo- 
 lis, where he supported himself principally by 
 the exertion of his talents as an author. In 
 this capacity he compiled several volumes of 
 the " Beauties of England and Wales ■," " En- 
 glish Topography," fol. 1816 ; " A Portraiture 
 of Methodism," 8vo. This last work he pub- 
 lished in 1807, having previously become a 
 convert to Uuitarianism. " Sermons preached 
 at Hanover-street and Worship-street cha- 
 pels," 8vo, 1807 ; " A Portraiture of Catho- 
 licism," 8vo, 1812 ; and " Refutation of a 
 recent anonymous Pamphlet, entitled * A Por- 
 traiture of Hypocrisy,' " Bvo, 1813. His 
 death took place August 9, 1824. — Ann. 
 Biog. 
 
 NIGIDIUS FIGULUS (Publius) a Ro- 
 man author and senator, and friend of CicerO, 
 whom he assisted in defeating the conspiracy 
 of Catiline. Cicero speaks highly of the 
 attainments of Nigidius, and ascribes to 
 him the revival of the Pythagorean philoso- 
 pliy. It has been thought that he was exiled 
 for some of the deceptions which he practised 
 under the veil of this philosophy ; but the real 
 cause of his banishment was his attachment 
 to Pompey. He died BC. 45. His works 
 were, " De Augurio private ;" " De Animali- 
 bus ;" " De Extis ;" " De Vento ;" " De 
 Diis ;" and commentaries on grammar, of 
 
 which 
 
 fragments 
 
 only remain, which were 
 
 published by Janus Rutgersius. — Vossius de 
 Scient. Math. Fabricii BibL Lat. Brucker. 
 
 NIPHUS (Augustine) a learned Italian, 
 was born at Sessa, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 in 1473, and was appointed professor of phi- 
 losophy at Padua. He composed a treatise 
 " De Intellectu et Djemonibus," in which he 
 maintained that there is but one soul which 
 animates all nature. He gained so much re- 
 putation by his works, however trifling they 
 may now appear, that he was ofl'ered profes- 
 sorships in the most celebrated universities of 
 Italy, and he was created count palatine by 
 Leo X. The philosophy of Niphus, however, 
 was only in theory, being, even in his old age, 
 remarkable for his levity and intrigue. He 
 died in 1537. He left " Commentaries in 
 Latin on Aristotle and Averroes," 14 vols, 
 folio ; "A Treatise on the Immortality ot 
 the Soul ;" " De Amore, de pulcliro Vene- 
 ris et Cupidiuis venales," &c. — Tiraboschi. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 NITHARD, a French historian of the ninth 
 century, was the son of Augilbert, abbot of St. 
 Riquier, and of Bertha, daughter of Charle- 
 magne. He was born about the year 790, and 
 appears to liave been distinguislied both as a 
 soldier and a politician. He was author of a 
 chronicle whichgivesanaccount of the divisions 
 between the children of Louis le Debonnaire, 
 which was published in 1594. by IM. Pithou, in 
 his Annalium et HistoriEe Francorum Scrip- 
 tores. — Moreri. Koiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NIVERNAIS (Lours Jules Barbon 
 Mancint, due de) a French statesman and 
 man of letters, born of an Italian family at 
 Paris in 1716. He filled the oflice of ambas- 
 
N O A 
 
 sador at Rome, Rcrlin, and London, havine^ 
 been sent to l!ni;laiid to conclude the treaty 
 of Paris in 1763. He was subsequently ad- 
 mitted a meniljer of tlie Royal Academy of 
 Inscriptions and Helles Lettrcs at Paris ; and 
 he distint;uislit'd himself as the author of fa- 
 bles, sont^s, dialogues of the dead, and other 
 li^ht and elci^Jint productions, ori^^inal and 
 transhited, whicli have been collected andj)ub- 
 lislied in ten volumes octavo. His death took 
 place in 1798. — l^ioir. Univ. 
 
 NIZAAl UL MUiJv, an enlightened Per- 
 sian, who, in the eleventh century, rose from 
 obscurity to be vizier to the sultan Alp Ars- 
 lan, and to his son .Malek Schah. He was at 
 once an able statesman, a consummate gene- 
 ral, and a zealous patron of learning. His 
 palace was not only always open to men of 
 genius, hut manv of them were pensioned by 
 liis liberality. He also founded and endowed 
 numerous seminaries of education, and parti- 
 cularly the once flourishing college of Bagdad. 
 He himself wrote a valuable history of his 
 own times, which work abounds in much in- 
 teresting matter of fact and description. Ni- 
 zam, who was one of the most extraordinary 
 characters of his age, was stabbed at the age 
 of ninety, while reading a petition presented 
 to him by an assassin, or subject of the old 
 man of the mountain. — W llerbelot. 
 
 NIZOLIUS (Marius) a learned Italian, 
 was born at Bresceilo, in the dutchy of ]\Io- 
 dena, in 1498. When his writings had made 
 liim known, he was invited by the princess 
 Farnese to Parma, to give lectures in rheto- 
 ric ; and he was afterwards appointed princi- 
 pal of the new university of Sabionetta. The 
 work by which he is chiefly distinguished 
 was a dictionary of the words which occur in 
 Cicero, entitled, " Thesaurus Ciceronianus," 
 of which the latest edition was printed at Pa- 
 dua in 1734, folio. Nizolius carried his ad- 
 miration of Cicero from his language to his 
 philosophy ; in favour of which he main- 
 tained a strenuous contest with several of his 
 learned contemporaries. In the course of this 
 dispute he wrote a treatise " De veris Prin- 
 cipiis et vera Ratione Philosophandi," which 
 so struck Leibnitz by its philosophy and ele- 
 gance, that in order to expose the ol)Stinacy of 
 the remaining adherents of Aristotle, he gave 
 a new edition of it, with critical notes of his 
 own, 1670, 4to. — Tiraboachi. 
 
 NOAILLES (Louts Antoiwe de) a cele- 
 brated French prelate, was the second son of 
 Anne, due de Ncailles. He inherited at his 
 hirth, which took place in 1651, the dukedom 
 of St Cloud, with the signory of Aubrach, 
 and the dignity of a peer of France. An earlv 
 inclination for literature, and a devotional turn 
 of mind, induced him, however, to forego these 
 temporal advantages, and to enter the church 
 at so early an age, that in his twenty- flfth 
 year he had already become a doctor of the 
 Sorbonne, where he had applied himself to the 
 study o* divinity. As his connexions were of 
 the iirst importance in the state, his rise was 
 proportionably high and rapid, until he at 
 length became archbishop of Paris, and pri- 
 
 NO E 
 
 'mate of France. In this exalte/ situation ho 
 ganifd much credit, not oidy by the excellent 
 rcgiihitiuMs whicli be introduced for rcfurmintr 
 the lives and matmers of the French eccle- 
 siastics, but for tlic strictnvss and iin])artiality 
 with which he caused ihem to be carrn d into 
 
 I execution. The progress of the Janseiiiflts and 
 Quietists, which at this [)eriod excited so much 
 attention in the councils of the X'alican, he 
 exerted himself with much zeal and vigour to 
 arrest and terminate. His labours in the 
 cause of the Romish church on this occasion 
 raised him high in court favour, both at Paris 
 aiid at Rome, and were at length rewarded in 
 1700 by his elevation to the purple. P'ifteen 
 years afterwards, however, his opinions milita- 
 ted so strongly against those then expressed by 
 the papal court in the famous bull L'nigenitus, 
 respecting Pascpiier Quesnel's work on the 
 New Testament, that not only did his popu- 
 larity in that quarter decline, but a sentence 
 of banishment was issued against him, through 
 the influeiue of Tellier and the Jesuitical 
 party, who loudly accused him of a tendency 
 to heresy, and the encouragement of schisma- 
 tical doctrines. His disgrace, however, proved 
 to be but of short duration, and he so far re- 
 canted as to reconcile himself to the sovereign 
 pontiff, by wliich he was enabled to turn the 
 fables on his old antagonist, father Tellier. 
 His death took place at Paris, May 4, 1729. 
 — Kouv. Vict, Hist. 
 
 NOEHDLN, LLD. &c. (Georgt. Henry) 
 a learned and amiable German writer, many 
 years domiciled in this countrj'. He was born 
 January 23, 1770, at Gottingen, in Hanover, 
 and received the rudiments of education at 
 the grammar-school there, after which he en- 
 tered the university, and applied himself more 
 particularly to the study of Greek and Roman 
 antiquities, having for his instructor the 
 learned Heyne, whom he assisted in his edi- 
 tion of Homer. In 1791, being recommended 
 by his master to an English gentleman named 
 Lawrence, at that time residing in Gottingen, 
 as tutor to his children, he became domesti- 
 cated in tlie. family, and through that con- 
 nexion was introduced, in the winter of 1793, 
 to the late sir William Milner, whose son, the 
 present baronet, he attended to Eton, in the 
 capacity of private tutor. Here he ob;ained 
 the friendship of Jacob Bryant, Herschel, 6cc. 
 till the education of bis pupd being comi)leted, 
 he accompanied a younger son of the same 
 family to Gottingen, where he wrote a disser- 
 tation " De Pornhyrii Scholiis in Homerum." 
 After visitinsi tlie courts of Brunswick and 
 Berlin, they returned to Eton, ami in 1800 
 Noehden published his German and English 
 grammar, which has since gone through five 
 editions, and is considered the best extant. 
 In the Milner family he continued to reside 
 till the death of sir William in 1811, some time 
 after which a vacancy occurring among the 
 librarians of the British Museum, his well- 
 f-arned reputation carried the election against 
 thirty o{)poneiits. He was at Weimar, super- 
 intending 'he education of the hereditary 
 grand dukf's children, when this event oc- 
 
 2N2 
 
IV OL 
 
 curred, and he lost no time in returning to Eng- 
 land in 1820. Tlie year following he trans- 
 lated Goethe's observations on the " Last 
 Supper" of Leonardo da Vinci, with a prefa- 
 tory essay and notes ; and soon after succeeded 
 to the superintendance of the numismatic de- 
 partment in the Museum, for which his essay 
 on the *' Northwick Coins" evinces him to 
 have been peculiarly adapted. This Avork 
 he had intended to comprise in twelve num- 
 bers, but his death, which took place in 
 ]\larch 1826, prevented its extension beyond 
 the fourth number. Among his papers after 
 his decease were found, a translation of part 
 of Winckelman's " History of Art ;" another 
 of part of Lessing's " Laocoon ;" some me- 
 moranda of his travels ; and " An Introduc- 
 tion to Numismatology." A cast was taken 
 from his face after his death, for the Asiatic 
 Society, of which he had been elected presi- 
 dent in 1823. — Anil. Biog. 
 
 NOGAROLA (Ludovico) a noble Vero- 
 nese, born in 1509. He was as distinguislied 
 by his learning and abihties as by his rank, 
 and served his country in several diplomatic 
 missions, especially in one to the Venetian se- 
 nate, from whom he received the honour of 
 knighthood. He was afterwards created gene- 
 ralissimo of the papal forces at Rome, but 
 returning at length to his native city, died 
 there in 1558. Among his writings are, an 
 oration delivered by him at the council of 
 Trent ; " On the Divorce of the Queen of 
 England ;" " On the Cause of the overflow- 
 ing of the River Nile ;" " On the treatise De 
 Universa Natura of Ocellus Lucanus ;" and an 
 *' Essay on illustrious Authors, Natives of 
 Italy, who have written in tl e Greek lan- 
 guage." — Nour. Did. Hist. 
 
 NOLDIUS (Christian) a learned Danish 
 divine, was born at Hoybia in Scania, in 
 1626. He was educated at the university of 
 Copenhagen, and in 1650 he was nominated 
 rector of the college of Landscroon. He after- 
 wards travelled in Europe, and in 1660 he be- 
 came tutor to the sons of the lord of Gers- 
 torff". In 1670 he was ordained minister and 
 professor of divinity in the university of Co- 
 penhagen. He died in 1683. He is said to 
 have been the first opposer of demonology, 
 and was the author of the following works, 
 '* Concordantiae particularura Hebreeo-Chal- 
 daicarum," &c. a much esteemed work ; " Sa- 
 crarum Historiarum et Antiquitatum Synop- 
 sis ;" " Leges distinguendi seu de Virtute et 
 Vitio Distinctioiiis Opus ;" " Hietoria Idu- 
 m;i>a seu de Vita et Gestis Herodum Dia- 
 tribe ;" " Logica ;" a "New Edition of Jo- 
 sephus's History." — Freheri Theatr. Vir Ei'ud. 
 Clar. ISIoreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NOLLEKINS (Joseph) a celebrated sculp- 
 tor, was born in London in 1737. He was the 
 son of Joseph Francis Nollekms, a painter of 
 more ingenuity than original talent, who dis- 
 tinguished himself by his close imitation of 
 W'attcau. The subject of this article was 
 placed early under Scheemakers, and in 1759 
 and 1760 gained premiums from the Society 
 of Arts, He subsequently repaired to Rome, 
 
 N O N 
 
 where he obtained the instructions of Cava • 
 ceppi, a sculptor of considerable note, under 
 whom he studied so successfully, that he soon 
 had the honour of receiving a gold medal from 
 tlie Roman academy of painting and sculpture. 
 At the same time he materially improved his 
 fortune by becoming a dealer in antiques, as 
 well as in the productions of Italian art ge- 
 nerally. He remained nine years at Rome, 
 during which time he executed the busts of 
 many Englishmen of distinction ; and returning 
 in 1770, soon after married the youngest daugh- 
 ter of Mr Justice Welch, with a handsome 
 fortune, and speedily took the lead in his pro- 
 fession, and acquired great riches. The chisel 
 of Nollekins was chiefly distinguished by its 
 careful and accurate imitation of nature, and 
 by the absence of any peculiarity of manner. 
 Ilis " Venus with the Sandal" is esteemed his 
 principal production in the ideal line of art ; but 
 his professional reputation rests principally 
 upon his busts. This artist, who was a great fa- 
 vourite with George III, was eccentric in many 
 points of his character, and in })articular was 
 distinguished by that sort of avarice, which, 
 while rigidly penurious in small matters, is 
 capable of occasional expensive acts of gene- 
 rosity. Mr. Nollekins, who became a roval 
 academician in 1772, died April 23, 1823, in 
 the eighty-sixth year of his age, and in the 
 possession of a fortune amounting to nearly 
 200,000/. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 NOLLET (John Anthony) an eminent 
 natural philosopher of the last century. He 
 was a native of Pimbre, in the diocese of 
 Noyon in France, and died at Paris in 1770, 
 at the age of sixty-nine. He was lecturer on 
 experimental philosophy to the duke of Savov, 
 and afterwards to the i>oyal family in his native 
 country ; and he also held the professorship 
 of physics at the college of Navarre at Paris. 
 He was the author of " Le9ons du Physique 
 Experimentale," 6 vols. 12mo ; " L'Art des 
 Experiences," 3 vols. 12mo; " Recueil de 
 Lettres sur I'Electricite," 3 vols. 12mo, be- 
 sides other works. — Biog. Univ. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NON (Claude Richard de St) born in 1728, 
 and advantageously known as the author of a 
 splendid work published at Paris by subscrip- 
 tion, under the title of " Voyage Pittoresque 
 de Naples et de Sicile," which was afterwards 
 abridged by Keerl, secretary to the court of 
 Anspach. In the composition of this book, 
 which is valuable, as well for its biographical 
 notices as for the mode in which it treats of 
 every thing connected with the arts or anti- 
 quities of the kingdom of tlie two Sicilies, 
 he was assisted by his brother, and by the 
 painters Fragonard and Robert, in some mas- 
 terly views and delineations which it contains. 
 He was in the earlier i)art of his life a coun- 
 sellor of the parliament of Paris, and died la 
 that capital in 1791. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 NONIUS or NOXNIUS. There were four 
 of this name, Mahcellus, a i)eripatetic phi- 
 losopher, critic, and grammarian, was a native 
 of I'ibur, (now Tivoli) in the fourth century, 
 and was the author of a treatise, " De pro- 
 prietate Sermonis, sive de variS eignificatione 
 
N O R 
 
 verbonim," in nine books, edited by J. I\Ier- ] 
 tier, witli a commentary, I'aris, i'.vu, 1611. — 
 Another of this name, callt-il also ?onietimf-8 ' 
 NonnusPanojJolita, Houiislicil in the succeeding 
 century at I'anopolis in K^'ypt, and was the 
 author of a metrical parajihrase of St John's 
 Gospel, printed at the Aldine jjress, Venice, in 
 1 .")() 1 ,aiid of an heroic poem, in forty-eight books, 
 entitled " Dionysiacs," printeil at Antwerp, 
 with a Latin translation by Kilhard Lubin, 
 in IGoy. — Lewis Nonnius, born at Antwerp, 
 in the early part of the seventeenth century, 
 was a j)hysician of considerable eminence, 
 celebrated as well for his professional ability 
 as for his intimate acquaintance with classical 
 and general literature. A treatise of his " De 
 re Cibari^," Antwerp, 1646, is valuable for the 
 light it throws upon the domestic luxtiry of 
 the ancients, as described by their own poets. 
 His other works are, an account of the princi- 
 pal rivers in Spain, and a Numismatic treatise 
 on the Greek medals, and those struck by the 
 lirst three Caesars. This last appeared in 1620, 
 illustrated bysome admirable engravings of Golt- 
 zius. — Peter Nonius or Nunez, an eminent 
 Portuguese mathematician, was born in 1497 
 at Alcazar, anciently called Salacia, whence 
 lie is sometimes styled " Salaciensis." He ob- 
 tained the mathematical professorship in the 
 university of Coimbra, and was elected, on ac- 
 count of his talents, by king Emanuel, to su- 
 perintend the education of his son, Don En- 
 riquez, with the title of cosmographer royal. 
 He published a treatise " On Navigation ;" 
 " Mechanical Problems on the movement of 
 Vessels by Oars ;" " Observations on the 
 Planetary Theory of Purbachius ;" " De Cre- 
 pusculo ;" some notes on Aristotle's works, 
 and a valuable treatise on algebra and geo- 
 metry, published in Portuguese and Spanish. 
 His death took place in 1577. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Hiit. 
 
 NOODT (Gxraud) a learned jurist, was 
 boin at Nimeguen in 1647. He visited the 
 universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Frane- 
 ker, where he took the degree of doctor of 
 law in 1669. On his return to Nimeguen, he 
 was chosen professor of law, and in 1684 he 
 was appointed professor in the university of 
 Utrecht. He afterwards removed to the same 
 station at Leyden, where he died in 1725. 
 His works weie collected and published in 
 1713 and 1724, and include two treatises, 
 " De jure Summi Imperii et Lege llegia," 
 and " De Religione ab Imperio jure Gentium 
 libera." The style is pure, but they are so con- 
 cise as sometimes to be obscure. — Mo7-cri. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 NORBERG (George) chaplain and histo- 
 rian of Charles XII of Sweden. He was 
 born at Stockholm in 1677, and having finished 
 his studies at Upsal, he entered into the 
 church, and in 1703 became almoner to the 
 Swedish army. In 1707 he was made almoner 
 to the king, with whom he was at the battle 
 of Pultowa, where he was taken prisoner. 
 Having been sent to Russia with count Piper, 
 he was not liberated till 1715, when he joined 
 King Charles in Pomerania. Soon after he 
 
 N O K 
 
 obtained the ofiire of pastor to a chimJi at 
 Stockbuhn, wh( re lie died in 17 14. NorMvrg' 
 was di8iiiii;uiKh<"d as a pulpit orator, and he 
 publislied a good many funeral discouthes, but 
 hiH history of CMiarles XII ia the only work 
 which entitles him to notice. The mateiiaU 
 which he used wen- partly furnished by the 
 Swedish government, and the manuscript was 
 corrected by (jueen I'lrica Ilconora, the .si.stor 
 and successor of CharU-s Xll. 1 he history 
 was published at Stockholm, 1740, 2 vols, 
 folio ; and a Erench translation aj)p<ar*-d at 
 the Hague in 1742, S vols. 4to. — Biii<r. ['nii\ 
 
 NOR DEN (FuiDKUic Lewis) an eminent 
 geograplier and traveller, was bom at Gluck- 
 stadt in Holstein, in 170B. He entered the 
 marine service, and became so excellent a 
 draughtsman, that the king of Denmark sent 
 him to travel in Europe, in order to study the 
 construction of ships. By command of the 
 same monarch he afterwards went to Egypt, 
 to examine the curiosities of that countrv; and 
 he ])ul)lished the result of his obsei-vations in a 
 work entitled, " Travels in Egypt and Nubia." 
 In 1739, when the war broke out between Eng- 
 land and Spain, he entered the English navy, 
 but his health being very delicate, he went to 
 France, and died at Pans in 1742. His 
 " Travels" were translated into French by 
 Des Roches de Parthenais, and published at 
 Copenhagen in 1755 ; there is also an English 
 translation by Dr Peter Templeman. >Vr- 
 den was also the author of " Drawings of some 
 Ruins and Colossal Statues at Thebes of 
 Egypt ; with an Account of the same, in a 
 Letter to the Royal Society," 1741. — Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 NORDEN (John) a topographer and en- 
 graver, was born in Wiltshire in 1548, and was 
 admitted of Hart-hali, Oxford, where he took 
 the degree of MA. in 1573. He was patro- 
 nized by lord Burleigh, and became surveyor to 
 Henry, prince of Wales. He surveyed the 
 counties of Essex, Hertford, Bliddlesex, but 
 tlie last of his county maps is that of Surrey. 
 He died in 1626. His works are, " England, 
 an intended Guyde for English Travailers, (N:c." 
 London, 1625, 4to ; " Speculum Britannia^ ; a 
 Topograjjbical and Historical Description of 
 Cornwall ;" " An Historical and Chorogra- 
 phical ]3escription of JMiddlesex and Hertford- 
 shire ;" " A Delineation of Northampton- 
 shire," 8vo ; " The Surveyor's Dialogue," 
 4to. — Cough's Topog. Aihcii. Oxon. 
 
 NORGATE (Edward) a native of Cam- 
 bridge, celebrated as an excellent illuminator 
 of manupcrii)ts in the seventeenth century. 
 A beautiful specimen of his talents is yet ex- 
 tant, in the ornaments to the original patent 
 of the government of Nova Scotia, granteil by 
 Charles I to lord Stirling, in whose family it 
 is jireserved. He died in 1650, being at the 
 time Windsor herald, and one of the clerks to 
 the signet. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 NOBIS (Henry) a learned cardinal, was 
 born at A'erona in l6So of a family origii.ally 
 Irish. His father, Alexander Noris, was the 
 author of a " Hi^tol■y of Germany." At tho 
 age of fifteen he was adnxittcd a oenbioiicr at 
 
N OR 
 
 the Jesuits' college at Rimini, and deter- 
 mining to embrace the ecclesiastical profes- 
 sion, he took the ha; it in the convent of the 
 hermits of St Augustine. When his noviciate 
 expired, the general of the order sent for him 
 to Rome, and he was afterwards appointed to 
 teach philosophy and theology at Pezaro and 
 Perugia, where he took his degree of DD. 
 He then proceeded to Padua, where he finished 
 liis " History of Pelagianism," which was 
 printed at Florence in 1673 ; and in 1674 the 
 grand-duke of Tuscany invited him to Flo- 
 rence, and appointed him his chaplain, and 
 professor of ecclesiastical history in the univer- 
 sity of Pisa. In 1692 he was made under 
 librarian of the Vatican, and in 1695 he was 
 created a cardinal. In 1700 he was appointed 
 librarian of the Vatican, and two years after 
 he was directed to undertake tlie reformation 
 of the calendar, but while employed on this 
 he was attacked by a dropsy, of which he died 
 in 1714. The numerous controversial and 
 learned works of this cardinal were all pub- 
 listied at Verona in 17'29-l732, in five volumes 
 folio. — Landi Hht. de la Lit. de V Itulie. 
 Diipin. Moreri. Nouv, Diet. Hist. 
 
 NORRIS (John). There were two of this 
 name ; the first a learned but enthusiastic and 
 mystical divine, was the son of the incumbent 
 of CoUingboume Kingston, in Wiltshire, where 
 he was born in 1657. From \\ inchester 
 grammar school he proceeded to Exeter col- 
 lege, Oxford, which he quitted in 1680, on 
 obtaining a fellowship at All Souls. Here he 
 took his master's degree in arts, but vacated 
 this preferment in 1689, by his marriage, on 
 6ucceeding to the living of Newton St Lo, So- 
 merset ; two years after he was farther pro- 
 moted to that of Beraerton in Wiltshire. 
 He was a great controversialist, but visionary 
 in his ideas, espousing Malebranche's opinion 
 of seeing all things in the Divinity, and is 
 considered one of the principal of the English 
 Platonists. Among his works, which are nu- 
 merous, are, " An Idea of Happiness;" " A 
 Picture of Love unveiled ;" " Theory and 
 Regulation of Love ;" " On the Beatitudes;" 
 " Poems and Discourse** ;" '' On the Conduct 
 of Human Life ;" " On the Love of God;" 
 " On Christian Prudence ;" " On Humility ;" 
 " An Essay towards t!ie Theory of the Ideal 
 or Intelligible World," 8vo; "*^0n the natu- 
 ral Immortality of the Soul ;" " Reason and 
 Religion ;" with four volumes of sermons, 
 some poems, and other miscellaneous pieces. 
 His death took place in 1711. — The second 
 John Norris was a native of the countv of 
 Norfolk, born in 1734, and educated at Eton, 
 whence he proceeded on the foundation to 
 King's college, Cambridge. Mr Norris was a 
 gentleman of good ])rivate fortune, and at his 
 death in 1777, bequeathed to the university, 
 of which he had been a member, property to 
 the value of 190/. per annum, for the en- 
 dowment of a divinity professorship and a 
 theological prize essay, both which still bear 
 his name. He was the intimate associate of 
 Porson, who owed much to his friendship. — 
 Biog. Brit. Cent. Mag. 
 
 NOR 
 
 NORTH (sir Edward) a lawyer of emi- 
 nence in the reign of Henry VllI and queen 
 Mary, by the latter of whom he was created 
 baron North, of Catlidge in Cambridgeslure. 
 He belonged to the court of augmentation ; 
 and he was a benefactor to the college of Pe- 
 terhouse at Cambridge. — His great grandson, 
 DuDiET^ lord North, was born in 1581, and 
 succeeded to the title in 1600. He belonged 
 to the court of Henry prince of Wales ; and in 
 the civil war under Charles I, he adopted tha 
 cause of the parliament. He was the author 
 of a piece, entitled " A Forest of \'arieties, 
 Exonerations, and Privadoes or Extravaganis." 
 His death took place in 1666. — Dudley, 
 lord North, eldest son of the preceding, re- 
 ceived his education at the university of Cam- 
 bridge, and afterwards entered int ; the army. 
 Walpole has given him a place in his " Cata 
 logue of Royal and Noble Authors," in con- 
 sequence of his having published " Observa- 
 tions and Advices Economical ;" " Passages 
 relating to the Long Parliament ;" and " A 
 History of the Life of Edward, Lord Nortli." 
 He died in 1677, leaving four sons, who at- 
 tained political or literary eminence. — 1. 
 Fraxcis North, baron Guildford, lord keei)er 
 of the great seal under Charles II and James II, 
 was the second son of the last- mentioned. He 
 was born about 1640, and became a student of 
 St John's college, Cambridge, after which he 
 entered at the Middle Temple, and was regu- 
 larly called to the bar. He gradually made his 
 way to the first dignities of his profession, ra- 
 ther by his prudence and dexterity than by 
 the influence of extraordinary talents. He was 
 promoted to the office of solicitor-general in 
 1671, when he received tlie honour of knight- 
 hood ; in 1673 he was made attorney-general ; 
 the next year chief-justice of the common- 
 pleas ; and in 1683 he was appointed lord- 
 keeper, and raised to the peerage. He was 
 much esteemed by Charles II, who, one even- 
 ing, when a courtier invidiously observed that 
 North was no lawyer, immediately replied, 
 " WTioever said so did not know the lord chief- 
 justice North." He died in 1685. Besides 
 some papers in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 lord Guildford was the author of " A Philoso- 
 phical Essay on iMusic," which has been 
 highly praised as a scientific performance, 
 which contributed greatly to the improvement 
 of the art of which it treats. — 2. Sir Dudley 
 North, brother of the lord keeper, engaged 
 in commercial jmrsuits, and became an emi- 
 nent Turkey merchant. He travelled to the 
 Levant, and was for some time president of 
 the English factories at Smvma and Constan- 
 tinople. Returning home, he was appointed a 
 commissioner of the customs, and afterwards 
 one of the lords of the treasury in the reign of 
 Charles II. He wrote observations on the 
 manners, customs, and jurisprudence of the 
 Turks, published in his brother's family biogra- 
 phy. He died in 1691. — 3. Dr John North, 
 another brother, embraced the ecclesiastical 
 profession. He was bom in 1645, and was 
 educated at Jesus college, Cambridge, where 
 he obtained a fellowship. In 1672 he was 
 
NOR 
 
 chosen professor of Greek, and the following^ 
 year he was created DL). He subsequeiuly 
 obtained tlie niastersliip of Trinity college, 
 Canibridi;e ; and was nominated clerk of the 
 closet to Charles II. Dr North was a man of 
 considerable erudition, and is said to have been 
 a particular athnirer of the writings of Plato, 
 a selection of whose dialogues, including " Cri- 
 to ;" " Pha.'do ;" with the " Ajiologia So- 
 cratis," he publislied in Greek and Latin, 
 167.S, 8vo. His death took place in 16!53. — 
 4. llociKi! NouTH, a younger brother of the 
 same family, belonged to the legal profession, 
 and was attorney-general under James 11, and 
 stewartl of the courts to archbishop Sheldon. 
 It is, however, as the historian of his family 
 that he principally merits notice. His life of 
 the lord keeper, lord Guildford, 1734, 4to, 
 was reprinted in 1B08, 2 vols. 8vo ; and his 
 lives of sir Dudley and Dr John North, 1744, 
 4to, recently ap{)eared in a new edition with 
 the ])recediiig, 3 vols. Bvo. He was also the 
 author of an " Exiimen, or Inquiry into the 
 Credit and Veracity of Kennel's History of 
 England," 1740, 4to, which, though the work 
 of a partizan of the Stuarts, and designed as a 
 vindication of Charles II, abounds with curi- 
 ous information and anecdote, giving it a de- 
 gree of positive value beyond most works of 
 the kind. He likewise wrote other pieces, 
 amc»ng which is a " History of f]sculent Fish," 
 1794, 4to. He died in 1733.— Fuller's Wor- 
 thies. Walpole. Biog. Brit. Rees's Cyclop. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 NORTH (Frederick) earl of Guildford, an 
 English statesman of the same family with the 
 foregoing. He was the eldest son of Francis, 
 the second earl of Guildford, and was born in 
 1732. He received his education at Eton 
 school, and Trinity college, Oxford, after 
 which he passed some time at Leipsic. Re- 
 turninsr to England, he obtained a seat in the 
 House of Commons, and in 1759 he was ap- 
 pointed a commissioner of the treasury. On the 
 resignation of lord Bute in 1763, he was ad- 
 vanced to tlie head of that board, whicli post 
 he held till 1765 ; and the next year he was 
 made joint receiver and paymaster of the 
 forces. At length, in 1767, he became chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, and in 1770 first lord 
 of the treasury. Plis administration lasted till 
 1782, during a period of peculiar difficulty and 
 danger. Having accepted of office at a time 
 when the court party had become unpopular, 
 on account of the secret influence supposed to 
 be possessed by lord Bute, something of that 
 unpopularity attached to the whole course of 
 lord North's ministry. But this was greatly 
 augmented by the uiwortunate contest which 
 was carried on with our North American co- 
 lonies, and which ended in the loss of that 
 part of the British empire, after the expendi- 
 ture of a vast deal of the national wealth, and 
 the sacrifice of multitudes of lives. For this 
 disastrous measure of subjugating America, 
 the premier appears to have been a sincere ad- 
 vocate ; and in defending his proceedings 
 against the attacks of Mr Fox and his party 
 in parliament, he evinced a degree of political 
 
 NOR 
 
 skill and resolution which would have done 
 honour to a better cause. It is a circumtjtanc e 
 by no means creditalde to Ins opponents, that 
 after his dismission from office, instead of in- 
 stituting against him that impeachment with 
 which they had often threatened him, a league 
 was formed between Lis lordshi{) and the 
 Whigs, which led to the famous coalition mi- 
 nistry ; but this heterogeneous administration 
 lasted only a few months, after which lord 
 North held no responsible station in the state. 
 He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 
 1790, on the death of his father, and died in 
 1792. Lord North was much esteemed in pri- 
 vate life, and was distinguished for urbanity of 
 manners, and a turn for repartee. He was 
 afflicted with blindness several years before 
 his death, and his p(ditical antagonist, colonel 
 Barre, was subject to the same misfortune. 
 Replying to some observations of the colonel 
 in the house of Commons, lord North said, 
 "Notwithstanding the hostility which the 
 honourable gentleman opposite has shewn to- 
 wards me, yet I am certain that there are no 
 two persons in the world who would be more 
 happy to see each other." — Bridges' s Edit, of 
 CoUins's Peerage. 
 
 NORTH (George) an English antiquary 
 and writer on numismatics. He was born iii 
 London in 1710, and received his education at 
 St Paul's school, and Bene't college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he proceeded IMA. in 1744. 
 He was rector of Codicote in Hertfordshire, 
 and died in 1772. INIr North was the autiior 
 of " A Table of English Silver Coins, from 
 the Conquest to the Commonwealth, with Re- 
 marks ;" " An Epistolary Dissertation on 
 some supposed Saxon Gold Coins ;" " Re- 
 marks on some Conjectures relative to an an- 
 cient Piece of Money found at Ekham in 
 Kent ;" and " An Answer to a Libel, enti- 
 tled the Impertinence of ^Modern Antiquaries 
 displayed." — i^'ichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 NORTON (Thomas) a dramatic writer of 
 the sixteenth century, a native of Shar]ienhoe, 
 Bedfordshire, principally known as the author 
 of the first three acts of " Ferrex and Porrex," 
 to which Thomas SackviUe, earl of Dorset, 
 added the fourth and fifth, and published tlie 
 whole under the title of " Gorboduc." He 
 was a staunch Calvinist in his religious opi- 
 nions, and j)ut into metre twenty-seven of the 
 Psalms in Sternhold and Hopkins's version ; 
 these may be distinguished by his initials 
 affixed in the first edition. His other writings 
 are, some controversial tracts against the Ro- 
 man C-itbolics, and translations of Nowell's 
 " Greater Catechism ;" Calvin's Institutes, 6:c. 
 He made tlie law his profession, and acted as 
 counsel to the Stationers' company. His death 
 took place about 1584. — There was also a 
 John Norton, a whimsical writer of the time 
 of Charles II, who. in a strange work, entitled 
 " The Scholar's Vade Mecura," proposed to 
 alter the whole structure of the English lan- 
 guage. — IMo'^. Brit. 
 
 NORWOOD (Richard) an English geo- 
 metrician, who first measured a degree of the 
 meridian in this countrv. Thia undertaking 
 
NOT 
 
 was executed in 1635, the operations being 
 carried ou between London and York. Nor- 
 wood was the author of a treatise on Trigono- 
 metry, printed at London in 1667, though the 
 dedication is dated 1631. The work was re- 
 pubhshed in 1694, with two otliers relating to 
 navigation and fortification. He also pub- 
 lished letters and papers in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, on the flux and reflux of the 
 tide ; on the mensuration of an arc of the me- 
 ridian, and on other subjects. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 NOSTRADAiMUS(iAlicHAEL) a celebrated 
 empiric of the sixteenth century, born Decem- 
 ber 14th, 1503, at St Reray in Provence. 
 After studying at Avignon and Montpellier, 
 and graduating in physic at the latter city in 
 1529, he practised medicine at Agen, Mar- 
 seilles, Ly»ns, and Aix. Here he acquired 
 great credit by a chemical composition of such 
 prevailing virtue, real or supposed, that the 
 plague which had been raging with great vio- 
 lence in the neighbourhood was arrested by 
 its presumed influence, and the physician re- 
 ceived some substantial tokens of the gratitude 
 of the citizens. The reputation of & skilful 
 physician, however, was not sufficient f r his 
 ambition, he aimed at the higher character of 
 an astrologer and adept in the occult sciences, 
 by virtue of which he pretended to foretell fu- 
 ture events, and published a volume of obscure 
 metrical rhapsodies in 1555, under the title of 
 " Prophetical Centuries." Henry II and 
 Catherine de Medicis yielded implicit credence 
 to his pretensions, and loaded him with favours; 
 a circumstance which naturally induced him to 
 prosecute still farther a trade so profitable, 
 and his prognostications were consequently 
 soon increased from three hundred stanzas to 
 a thousand. The king at length dying of a 
 wound received, from the lance of the count de 
 IMontgomeri, at a tournament, it was soon after 
 discovered that an enigmatical expression in 
 one of the prophecies of Nostradamus could 
 refer to no other event. His fame now reached 
 its zenith, and all ranks, from the palace to 
 the cottage, vied in chaunting his praises. 
 Charles IX himself came in person to Salon, 
 where he now resided, for the purpose of visit- 
 ing him, and appointed him his first physician. 
 He did not, however, long survive this honour, 
 dying on the 2d of July, 1566. There is an 
 English translation of his book in one folio 
 volume. — Moreri, Biog. Univ. 
 
 NOTT, MD. (JoHx) a polite scholar, an 
 elegant poet, and philological writer, born at 
 Worcester, December 24th, 1751. Having 
 studied surgery under Mr Hector, of Birming- 
 ham, and sir CaBSar Hawkins, he visited Paris, 
 in order to avail himself of the opportunities 
 afforded by the French school of medicine, and 
 subsequently went out to China, as surgeon to 
 an East Indiaman. While in the East he ac- 
 quired an extensive acquaintance with the Per- 
 sian language ; his proficiency in which, as 
 well as his poetical taste, he evinced, on his 
 return to Europe, by some elegant translations 
 of the odes of Hafiz. In 1788 he graduated in 
 medicine, and soon after attended the duchess 
 of Devonshire to the continent, in quality of 
 
 NOV 
 
 family physician. In 1793 he returned to Eng- 
 land, and settled at Bristol Hot-wells, whev« 
 he continued to reside till his death in 1826, 
 the last eight years of his life being those Oi 
 suffering, arising from a painful state of pa- 
 ralysis, amounting to hemiplegia. Among hia 
 writings are, '* Alonzo, a poetic Tale," 4to, 
 1772 ; a translation of the " Basia" of Jo- 
 hannes Secundus, 8vo, 1775 ; "Leonora, an 
 Elegy," 4to, 1775 ; " Poems from the Italian 
 of Petrarch," 8vo, 1777; "Original Pieces 
 and Translations," 8vo, 1780 ; " Heroic Epis- 
 tle from monsieur Yestris in London to madame 
 Heinel in France," 4to, 1781 ; the " Cyn- 
 thia" of Propertius, 8vo, 1782 ; " Chemical 
 Dissertation on the Springs of Pisa and As- 
 ciano," 8vo, 1793 ; " On'' the Hot-wells of 
 Bristol," 8vo, 1793 ; an edition of " Catullus," 
 with the Latin text rendered into English verse, 
 and classical notes, 2 vols. 8vo, 1794 ; a 
 translation of the " Kisses of Bonefonius of 
 Auvergiie," with the Latin text annexed, 8vo, 
 1797 ; another of "The first Book of Lucre- 
 tius," with the Latin teJit, 8vo, 1799 ; " Th« 
 Odes of Horace," with the Latin text revised, 
 Bvo, 2 vols. 1803; " Sappho, after a Greek 
 Romance," 12mo, 1803; *' On the Influenza 
 which prevailed at Bristol in 
 
 1803," 8vo, 
 1803; a farther "Selection from Petrarch, 
 with Notes," 8vo, 1808 ; select poems from 
 the " Hesperides" of Herrick, 8vo, 1810; 
 " A Nosological Companion to the London 
 Phannacopceia," 12mo, 1811 ; and an edition 
 of Decker's " Gull's Horn Book," with notes 
 and illustrations, 4to, 1812 ; besides several 
 works left incomplete in manuscript, especially 
 a translation of Silius Italicus. — Ann. Bios. 
 
 NOUE (Francis de la) surnamed Bras de 
 Fer, an eminent warrior and statesman, was 
 born in 1531, of an ancient family in Britanny. 
 In his youth he served m Italy, but on return- 
 ing to France he embraced the Calvinistic re- 
 ligion, of which he became a zealous supporter. 
 In 1567 he took Orleans from the Catholics^ 
 and afterwards he distinguished himself a; 
 the battle of Jarnac. His left arm being 
 broken at the capture of Fontenay, he had it 
 replaced by one of iron, whence he derived 
 his surname. In 1571 he surprised Yalen- 
 ciennes, and on his return the king gave him 
 the command of the troops sent against Ro- 
 chelle ; but his indignation at the massacre of 
 St Bartholomew overcoming his fidelity, he 
 betrayed his trust, and used the forces for its 
 defence. He rendered signal services to his 
 party, and on the accession of Henry lY, he 
 continued to serve with glory under him until 
 he was killed by a musket shot at the siege of 
 Lambalie, in 1591. He was tlie author of 
 " Discours Politiques et Militaires," composed 
 in prison ; they have been several times re- 
 printed, and are still esteemed. — His son, 
 Odet de la Nour, was the author of " Poesies 
 Chretiennes," Geneva, 1504. He died be- 
 tween 1611 and 1620. — Moreri, Nouv. Diet, 
 Hist. 
 
 NOVATIANUS, a Greek philosopher, 
 converted to Christianity in the earlier part of 
 the third century. He became a member of 
 
NOW 
 
 ide prieBthood, although, from some irregula- 
 rity, the bishop refused to confirm his onlina- 
 tion. Notwithstaiidiubj tliis, lie 8ubse(|ueiitly 
 8(1 far prevailed upon a few ignorant |)relates, 
 that tluy ordained him a hishop, ami, allhou^^h 
 excommunicated by St Cyprian, he became a 
 candidate for the ])0])edom in 'J.')7. Foiled in 
 his attempt by the election of Cornelius, he 
 separated himself from the communion of the 
 l{omisli chiiich, and became the head of a 
 sect called, from their pretensions to superior 
 sanctity, ('athaiites, (puritans,) or iS'ovatians, 
 from their founder. It was one of their tenets 
 to refuse the Eucharist to reconverted here- 
 tics, as also to those who contracted second 
 marriages ; and they caused all those who had 
 been baptised into the church, to undergo the 
 rite a second time. This sect, after the coun- 
 cil of Nice, fell into disre}>ute in the Western 
 empire, but continued to prevail for a mueJi 
 longer period in the East. There is an edi- 
 tion of his works published by Jackson, 4to, 
 London, 17'28. — Cave. Moreri. Diipin. 
 
 NOVERRE (John George) reformer of 
 the art of dancing in Europe, was born at 
 Paris in 1727. His father was an adjutant in 
 the army of Charles XII, and he was destined 
 for the military profession ; but his taste led 
 him to prefer dancing to fighting, and he be- 
 came the pupil of the famous dancer Dupie. 
 After attracting the notice of royalty in his 
 own country, be went to Berlin, where he was 
 equally well received. He returned to France 
 in 1746, and composed for the comic opera his 
 noted Chinese ballet, which made no extraor- 
 dinary sensation. He afterwards produced 
 other pieces of the same kriid, and acquired 
 so much celebrity, that Garrick invited him to 
 England, where bis talents attracted great ad- 
 miration. Returning to France, he published, 
 in 1767, " Lettres sur laDanse," in which he 
 started some new ideas, and proposed a radi- 
 cal reformation of his art. He afterwards be- 
 came master of the revels to the duke of 
 Wurtemberg, with whom he continued some 
 years, and then held a similar office at Vienna. 
 He went to Blilan, on the marriage of the 
 archduke Ferdinand, and also visited the 
 courts of Naples and Lisbon, where his merit 
 was rewarded with the cross of the order of 
 Christ. After a second journey to London, 
 Noverre entered into the service of IMarie An- 
 toinette, queen of France, who appointed him 
 chief ballet-master of the royal academy of 
 music. He suffered greatly at the revolution, 
 and passed the later years of his life in indif- 
 ferent circumstances. His death took place 
 November 19, 1810. He published, in 1807, 
 a new and enlarged edition of his " Lettres 
 sur les Arts imitateurs, et sur la Danse en 
 particuiier," 2 vols. 8vo ; and at the time of 
 his death he was engaged on a dictionary of 
 the art of dancing, intended to rectify the 
 errors of the Encyclopedic on that subject. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 NO WELL. There were two learned dig- 
 nitaries of the church of this name in the six- 
 teenth century, brothers, and natives of Read- 
 hall, in Lancashire. — Alexander, the elder, 
 
 NOV 
 
 born m 1.^07, removed fn'm Aliddleton school 
 to Hrasennose college, Oxford, where he ob- 
 tained a county fellowship in l.')4i). In ].)4J 
 he was appf)inted to the secoiid mastership of 
 Westminster scIhujI, to which was added, eight 
 years after, a stall in the abbey. On the ac- 
 cession of Mary, his religious opinions soon 
 made it advisable for him to seek a temporary 
 asylum on the continent, where he continued 
 to reside during the whole of that reign, 
 riie re-establishment of Protestantism under 
 Elizabeth, induced him to return ; and 
 in 1j6() he was raised by that sovereign 
 to the deanery of the metropolitan church, 
 with the rectory of Great Hadham, Herts. 
 I'he convocation for settling the Liturgy 
 chose him their prolocutor, soon after 
 wliicli he published his " Greater" and 
 " Lesser" catechisms, in Latin, the latter be- 
 ing an abridgment of the former. Besides a 
 free grammar-school atMiddleton, he founded 
 and endowed thirteen fellowships in the col- 
 lege of which he was a member, and which, 
 in 1595, elected him its principal. His death 
 took place in the spring of 1602. — Lawrence, 
 the younger brother, was an able antiquary, 
 and compiled a dictionary of the Saxon 
 tongue, the manuscript of which is still pre- 
 served in the Bodleian library at Oxford. He 
 died dean of Lichfield in 1576. — Life by 
 C hurt on, 
 
 NOY (William) an eminent lawyer of 
 the seventeenth century, in whose counsels the 
 fatal civil wars, which, during a part of that 
 period, desolated England, may be said t6 
 have originated. He was a native of St Bu- 
 rian, in Cornwall, and after going through a 
 course of university education at Exeter col- 
 lege, Oxford, became a member of the so- 
 ciety of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the 
 bar. In his profession he rendered himself re- 
 markable by his plodding industry and inde- 
 fatigable research into ancient charters and 
 records, which, together with his cynical 
 temperament and unbending sternness, ren- 
 dered him afterwards a very powerful instru- 
 ment in the hands of the court. The outset 
 of his parliamentary career, however, gave 
 little token of the line of politics which he 
 eventually thought proper to follow. Being 
 returned for Helstone, and afterwards for 
 St Ives, in the time of tlie first .fames, he dis- 
 tinguished himself by the violence of his op- 
 position to the measures of the court ; and in 
 these opinions he persevered during the first 
 part of the succeeding reign, till, in 1631, 
 being snddeidy a}>pointed (without solicitation, 
 it is said,) attorney-general, he veered about 
 at once, and became one of the most strenu- 
 ous supporters of that prerogative he had for- 
 merly laboured to abridge, 'i'he fatal project 
 of attempting to raise supplies, by what was 
 called ship-money, is said to have originated 
 with him. He did not, however, live to see 
 the whole of the misery which he was prepar- 
 ing for his country, but died in the August of 
 163-1, at Tunbridge Wells, whither he had 
 gone for the benefit of his health, and wai 
 buried at Brentford, in MiddlcBcx, He vvas 
 
IN U N 
 
 considered a sound lawyer, where politics did 
 not interfere, aud was the author of " The 
 Grounds and Maxims of English Law ;" 
 " The perfect Conveyancer j" " The com- 
 plete Lawyer;" " Argumt-nts of Law, and 
 Speeches ;" and a collection of Reports. — 
 Biog. Brit, 
 
 JS'UCK (Anthony) a skilful anatomist and 
 surgeon, was a German by birth, but settled 
 in Holland. He was professor of anatomy 
 and surgery in the university of Leyden, and 
 president of the college of Surgeons. He 
 died ill 1672. He acquired great celebrity by 
 his skill iu dissection, aud he was the disco- 
 verer of a new salival duct, of the communi- 
 cation between the red veins and the lym- 
 phatics, and of a mode of making prepara- 
 tions of the lungs by inflation. His works 
 are, " De Ductu Salivali novo, Saliva, ductibus 
 aquosis et humore aqueo oculorum," Leid. 
 1686 ; " De Vasis aquosis Oculi," ibid. 
 1685; " Adenographia curiosa et Uteri fcB- 
 niinei Anatome nova cum Epistola ad Amicum 
 de Inventis novis ;" " Operationes et Experi- 
 menta Chirurgica ;" •' Sialograpbia et Duc- 
 tuum aquosorum Anatome nova." The three 
 last were published together at Lyons in 1722, 
 in 3 vols. 12mo. — Eloy Diet. Hist, de la Mede- 
 cine. Moreri. 
 
 NUGENT (Robert Craggs, earl) a minor 
 poet of the last century. He was a native of 
 Ireland, and of a family professing the Ca- 
 tholic faith, in which he was educated. Be- 
 coming a Protestant, he obtained a seat in the 
 English house of Commons, where he thrice 
 sat as member for the city of Bristol, In 
 1767 he was created viscount Clare, and raised 
 to the earldom of Nugent in 1776. He pub- 
 lished a volume of poetry in 1739, and some 
 of his works will be found in Dodsley's col- 
 lection. One of his performances is a copy of 
 " Verses to the Queen, with a New Year's 
 Gift of Irish Manufacture," (a piece of linen) 
 printed in I77n. To this nobleman Gold- 
 smith addressed his poem, entitled, " The 
 Haunch of Venison." Lord Nugent died in 
 1788. — Park's edit, of the Royal and Noble 
 Authors. 
 
 NUGENT (fiioMAs) an ingenious literary 
 compiler aud translator, who was born in Ire- 
 land, and diediu London April 27, 1772. He 
 was a fellow of the Antiquarian Society, and 
 in 1765 he obtained from the university of 
 Aberdeen the diploma of LLD. Among his 
 publications are, " Travels tlirough Germany," 
 1768, 2 vols. 8vo ; " Observations on Italy 
 and its Inhabitants," 1769, 2 vols. 8vo ; and 
 a French and English dictionary, which has 
 been often reprinted. He translated Henault's 
 Chronological Abridgment of the History of 
 France ; the Life of Benvenuto Cellini ; and 
 several other works. — Christopher Nugent, 
 MD. FllS. was a native of Ireland, and was 
 the father-in-law of the celebrated Edmund 
 Burke. He published "An Essay on Hy- 
 drophobia." He practised with much reputa- 
 tion as a physician in the metropolis, and died 
 November 12, 1775. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 NUNEZ (Fern AN de Guzman) a knight 
 
 N YS 
 
 and commander of the order of Santiago, was 
 born at Valladolid iu the sixteenth century. 
 His inclination leading him to litera'.ure, he 
 went to Italy to study the dead languages, and 
 when cardinal Ximenes founded the university 
 of Alcala, he, and Demetrius the Cretan, were 
 appointed Greek professors ; and he was em- 
 ployed by the same cardinal on his celebrated 
 Polyglott. He distinguished himself in the 
 cause of liberty, endeavouring to win the 
 people of Alcala to the side of tlie Commons 
 of Castile ; but the tide rising against him, he 
 removed to Salamanca, where he was also ap- 
 pointed Greek professor. He died in 1553. 
 His principal works are, " Annotationes in 
 Senecag Philosophi Opera;" " Observationes 
 in Pomponium Melam ;" " Observationes in 
 loca obscura et depravata Hist. Nat. C. Pliuii," 
 folio ; " Refranes o Proverbios en Romance ;" 
 folio ; " Glosa sobre las obras de Juan de 
 Mena." — Aiiton. Bibl. Hisp. 
 
 NYE (Philip) an eminent nonconformist 
 divine, who distinguished himself by his sup- 
 port of the parliament against Cliarles 1 dur- 
 ing the discussions in the assembly of divines 
 at Westminster, was born in Sussex about 1596. 
 He took his degrees in arts in Magdalen-hall, 
 Oxford, after which he became minister of 
 St Michael's church, Cornhill. Here he con- 
 tinued, until by his resistance to archbishop 
 Laud he rendered himself obnoxious to the 
 episcopal court, and to escape persecution lied 
 into Holland, lliere he remained until 1640, 
 when finding that his party was gaining the 
 ascendancy, he returned, and was made mi- 
 uister of Kimbolton, in Huntingdonshire. He 
 was one of the assembly of divines, and dis- 
 tinguished himseUby his great zeal, for which he 
 was rewarded with the rectory of Acton, near 
 London. In 1647 he was appointed one of 
 the chaplains who attended the commissioners 
 empowered to treat with Charles I, in the 
 Isle of Wight. He continued to make him- 
 self conspicuous by the active part he took in 
 politics, until llie Restoration, when he was 
 ejected from the rectory of St Bartholomew 
 behind the Exchange, and an act was passed, 
 restraining him from holding any office, civil 
 or ecclesiastical. He died in 1673 ; " and," 
 says Calamy, " left behind him the character 
 of a man of uncommon depth, who was sel- 
 dom, if ever, outreached." He published se- 
 veral treatises and exhortations on controver- 
 sial subjects, but they are nov/ obsolete. — 
 Wood's Ath. Ox. Biog. Brit. Calamy. Neat's 
 Hist. Pur it. 
 
 NYSI'EN (Peter Hubert) an eminent 
 physician aud physiologist, born at Liege iu 
 1771. He was intended for the legal profes- 
 sion, but preferring the study of medicine, he 
 went to Paris for improvement in that science, 
 and distinguished himself by his researches 
 concerning galvanism. In 1802 he was ap- 
 .pointed member of a medical committee des- 
 patched to Spain to make observations on the 
 yellow fever. Returning to Paris, he published 
 several works ; and through the interest of M. 
 Halle he was made physician to the Foundling 
 "^lospitaL He died, owing to an attack of apo- 
 
O B E 
 
 plexy, in 1818. Amoiii,' liia writin!j;8 are, — 
 " iSouvellcs f xperieijcto fiiites sur It's Orgaiiet> 
 Musculaires de I'lloninie, &c." im3, 8vo ; 
 " Ileclierchea de Physiologie et de Chiiuie 
 
 () B E 
 
 j)alliolfi^ji|ue," 1811, Bvo ; befides two me- 
 dical di( tionarit's, produced iu conjuuclion 
 wiiL M. Capuroii. — /Jio^. Univ. 
 
 O B E 
 
 OATES (Titus). This iufamous cliaracter 
 was born about 1619. lie was the son of a 
 baptist preacher, and educated at IMerchant 
 Tailors' school, whence he removed to Cam- 
 bridge, and afterwards took orders. In 1677 
 lie turned Roman Catholic, and was admitted 
 into the society of Jesuits ; but subsequently 
 declared himself a Protestant, and in conjunc- 
 tion with one Dr Tongue, gave information of 
 a pretended popish plot, for tlie destruction of 
 t})e l*rotestanirehgion, ami falsely accused the 
 Catholic lords Petre, Powis, Jiellasis, Arun- 
 del, of Wardour, and otlier persons of quality, 
 several of whom, including lord Stafford, were 
 executed, of being concerned in the conspiracy. 
 Such was the heated credulity of the times, 
 this versatile and unworthy cliaracter was re- 
 warded wiili a pension of 1,200/. per annum, 
 and lodged for safety at the palace of White- 
 hall. On the accession of James II, however, 
 he was thrown into prison, and indicted for 
 perjury, and being convicted, was sentenced to 
 stand in the pillory five times a year during his 
 life, and to be whipped from Aldgate to New- 
 gate, and thence to Tyburn, the last part of whicli 
 sentence was executed with extraordinary 
 severity. Though the whipping was so harshly 
 inflicted, he was enabled, by the care of his 
 friends, to recover ; and at the Revolution, the 
 current of popular prejudice again setting in 
 liis favour, he was rewarded with a pension of 
 1000/. per annum. In 1698 he sought to be 
 restored to the congregation of baptists, to 
 which he had primitively belonged ; but in the 
 course of a few months was excluded as a hy- 
 pocrite and disorderly person. He died in 
 1705. Hume says, that this execrable tool of 
 faction had, in early life, been chaplain on 
 board the fleet, from which he was dismissed 
 for unnatural practices, and it was then that 
 he became a convert to the Catholic religion, 
 as he boasted, with a view to obtain the secrets 
 of its adherents. On all sides, the infamy of 
 his character is allowed, and the credit given 
 to a miscreant so utterly unworthy of confi- 
 dence, to the destruction of several persons of 
 respectability, and even consequence, aftbrds a 
 memorable demonstration of the opposing bi- 
 gotrv which predominated in that most dis- 
 graceful period of English history. — Hume. 
 Burnet. 
 
 O'BEIRNE, DD. (Thomas Lewis) a 
 learned prelate, a native of the county of Long- 
 ford in Ireland, born in 1748, of a Catholic 
 family, by whom he was sent to St Omers at 
 an early age, togethei with his brother John, 
 with a view to the priesthood. In the latter 
 instance, the wishes of their relations were! 
 
 () B E 
 
 comjdied with, John, taking orders in due 
 course, and becoming a Catholic priest in the 
 clioiese of which his brother was eventually 
 the Protestant bishop. — Thomas, on the con- 
 trary, saw reason to renounce the creeil in \\hich 
 he had been educated, in favour of that of the 
 Established cliurch. At the commencement 
 of the American war, having taken ord<-rs in the 
 Protestant communion, he accompanied lord 
 Howe, as chaplain of the fleet. On his return 
 to England he published a vindication of his 
 liatrons, the Howes, whose conduct was at 
 that time a subject of parliamentary investiga- 
 tion, which he followed up by a spirited pamph- 
 let on the opposition side, entitled " 1 he 
 Gleam of Comfort." His connexion with this 
 noble family introduced him to the then duke 
 of Portland, whom in 1782 he accompanied to 
 Ireland, as private secretary, and obtained, 
 the following year, from his grace, two valua- 
 ble livings in Northumberland and Cumber- 
 land. Becoming afterwards first chaplain to 
 the new lord-lieutenant, earl Fitzwilhani, he 
 was promoted to the see of Ossory, from which, 
 on the death of Dr jNIaxwell, he was translated 
 to that of Meaih. As a prelate he was highly 
 popular among the clergy of his diocese. His 
 writings, some of which were published anony- 
 mously, are " The Crucifixion," a poem, "iu 
 4to, 1776 ; " The Generous Impostor," a co- 
 medy, 1780 ; " A short History of the last 
 Sestion of Parliament," 8vo, anonymous ; 
 " Considerations on the late Disturbances, by 
 a consistent Whig," 8vo ; "Considerations 
 on the Principles of Naval Discipline and 
 Courts-Martial," 8vo, 1781 ; and several ser- 
 mons and charges on various occasions. His 
 lordship died February 15th, 1823. — Gent. Mag, 
 OBERKAMPF (Christopher Philip) 
 the founder of the manufacture of printed linens 
 of Jouy, and of the cotton manufacture of Es- 
 sonne in France. He was born in 1738, in the 
 territory of Auapach in Germany, and was the 
 son of a dyer, who, after exercising his occu- 
 pation in several parts of Germany, had taken 
 up his resilience at Arau in Switzerland. 
 Young Oberkampf having acquired the art of 
 making printed linens, quitted his father at the 
 age of nineteen ; and two years after he com- 
 menced, on a small scale, a manufactory in the 
 vallt'y of Jouy. The design of the figures, the 
 printing, and the dyeing of the goods, were all 
 performed by a single individual, who, in spite 
 of various difficulties with which he was sur- 
 rounded, acted with such spirit and persever- 
 ance, that in the progress of time he collected 
 a population of 1,500 persons in a spot which 
 had beeu almost a desert ; and by the supply 
 
O BR 
 
 of printed linens at home, put an end to the 
 importations of those articles into France. The 
 benetits he had be »tovved on the country were 
 properly appreciated. Louis XVI conferred 
 on Oberkampf letters of nobility ; and in 1790, 
 the council-general of the department decreed 
 the erection of a statue in honour of him, which 
 mark of gratitude, however, he declined. In 
 1793 his life was in danger, but he fortunately 
 escaped proscription. Some years after he was 
 oft'ered a place in the senate, which he re- 
 fused, but he accepted the cross of the legion 
 of honour, bestowed on him by Buonaparte. 
 Oberkampf, in the latter part of his life, esta- 
 blished a cotton manufactory at Essonne, and 
 thus naturalized that important branch of in- 
 dustry in France. The commotions which ac- 
 companied the overthrow of Buonaparte, had 
 a disastrous influence on the manufactories of 
 Jouy, and deeply afiiicted the mind of the pro- 
 prietor, whose death took place October 4th, 
 1815. Bios:. Univ. 
 
 OBERLIN (Jeremiah James) a learned 
 and industrious antiquary and philologer, 
 born at Strasburg in 1735. He studied in the 
 university of his native city, and in 1758 he 
 obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy. 
 He afterwards attended lectures on theology, 
 but his researches were devoted chiefly to sa- 
 cred criticism and antiquities. At the age of 
 twenty he became an assistant to his father, 
 who was a tutor at the gymnasium, and whom 
 he succeeded in 1770, at which period he was 
 likewise appointed professor of Latin eloquence 
 at the academy. He also gave lectures on ar- 
 chaeology, ancient geography, diplomatics, &cc. 
 relative to which subjects he published ele- 
 mentary treatises, which have been used as 
 text-books in many of the German semina- 
 ries. In 1778 he was nominated professor 
 extraordinary at the university of Strasburg, 
 and in 1782 he obtained the chair of logic and 
 metaphysics ; to which, in 1787, was added, the 
 office of director of the gymnasium. The 
 French Revolution interrupted his learned la- 
 bours ; and in 1793 he was imprisoned at 
 Metz, and treated with great cruelty. The 
 termination of the tyranny of Robespierre re- 
 stored him to liberty, and he returned to Stras- 
 burg to resume his literary occupations. On 
 the establishment of the central schools, he was 
 appointed librarian of that of the Lower Rhine. 
 He -died October 10th, 1806. He published 
 valuable editions of Tacitus and Caesar, and 
 various other works, of which a list may be 
 found in the annexed authority. — Bios;. Univ. 
 
 OBRECHT(Ulric) anative of Strasburgh, 
 wlio became professor of history and rhetoric, 
 in the university of that city. Such was his 
 reputation for variety and extent of learning, 
 that he was termed the epitome of human 
 science. Among his principal writings are, 
 " Exercitatio de Philosophia Celtica ;" " Ex- 
 cerptorum Historicorum et Juridicorum de na- 
 tura successionis in Monarchiam Hispaniaj ;" 
 -'Prodromus Rerum Alsaticarum." He pub- 
 lished an edition of the Trojan history, ascribed 
 to Dictys Cretensis ; and also wrote coni- 
 ment;uies on the treatise of Grotius *' De Jure 
 
 occ 
 
 Belli ac Pacis." He was originally a Pro. 
 testant, but in 1684 he became a Catholic; 
 and was subsequently employed in affairs Oi 
 state. His death took place in 1701, at the 
 age of fifty-four. — Kiceron Mem. 
 
 OCARiZ or OCARITZ (don Joseph, che- 
 valier d') a Spanish diplomatist, who distin- 
 guished himself by his attempts to prevent the 
 execution of Louis XVI. He was born about 
 1750, near the frontiers of Biscay, and having 
 completed his studies at Madrid, he became 
 secretary of the embassy at Turin, and then 
 at Copenhagen. In 1788 he was sent to Paris 
 as consul-general ; and in August 1792 he held 
 the post of charge d'aff"aires. Shortly after, 
 he wrote to the French minister, Lebrun, a 
 letter in favour of Louis XVI, which seems to 
 have produced a strong impression in the Na- 
 tional Convention ; and on the 17 th of January, 
 1793, he wrote a second letter, addressed to 
 the Convention, in which he offered the me- 
 diation of his sovereign to engage Prussia and 
 Austria to terminate the war v.ith France, on 
 condition of the suspension of judgment against 
 the kin^r. When war was declared against 
 Spain in the following montli of March, the 
 chevalier Ocariz quitted Paris, whither, how- 
 ever, he returned some time after, on the re- 
 storation of peace. He occupied other diplo- 
 matic situations ; and at length, having been 
 nominated Spanish ambassador at Constanti- 
 nople, he died on his way thither at Varna in 
 Hungary, in 1805. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 OCCAM or OCKHAM (William) an 
 eminent divine and philosopher of the four- 
 teenth century. He was a native of Ockhara 
 in Surrey, and was educated at Merton college, 
 Oxford, where he studied under the celebrated 
 Duns Scotus, whose opinions he, notwith- 
 standing, controverted, becoming the founder 
 of the philosophical sect of the nominalists, as 
 Scotus was of the realists. Occam entered 
 into tlie Franciscan order of Friars Minor, or 
 Cordeliers ; and he also took orders in th 
 church, and became archdeacon of Stowe, in 
 the diocese of Lincoln, which preferment he 
 resigned about 1320. He wrote against pope 
 John XXII, whom he treated as a heretic, and 
 joined the anti-pope Nicholas V, set up by the 
 emperor Lewis of Bavaria. Occam having 
 been excommunicated, betook himself to the 
 protection of the emperor, exclaiming, " De- 
 fend me, O prince, with thy sword ; and I 
 will defend thee with my pen." He died at 
 Munich in 1347. Trithemius says, he was 
 well acquainted with the Scriptures, and with 
 the philosophy of Aristotle ; and that he pos- 
 sessed a subtle genius, and a great deal of elo- 
 quence. Among his works are, " Commenta- 
 rium super Sententias," lib. iv. ; " Quodli- 
 beta ;" " De Ingressu Scientiarum ;" and a 
 treatise against the j)ope, " De Paupertate 
 Christi et Apostolorum." The philosophical 
 tenets of Occam seem to have approached 
 those of IMalebranche and Berkeley. He ob- 
 tained the title, among the schoolmen, of the 
 Invincible Doctor. — Trithem. de Script. Ec- 
 cles. StoUii Introd. iti Hist. Lit. Prof'^^crr 
 Stewart's Pre/. Disc, to EncycL B-^it 
 
0(: H 
 
 OCCO (Adolphus) an eminnr.t writer on 
 DuniismaticB, born in lo~'4, at Augsbury. lie 
 received a medical education, and took the 
 decree of MD. at the academy of Ferrara in 
 Italy. Having returned to liis native place, 
 be practised his art witli success, and on the 
 establishment of the college of medicine at 
 Augsburg in 1582, lie held an oflicial situa- 
 tion in it for some time, and was deprived by 
 the senate for having opposed the introduction 
 of the Gregorian calendar. lie then devoted 
 himself entirely to the study of antiquities 
 and the science of medals, relative to which 
 he produced a work of importance, entitled, 
 " Numismata Imperatorum Komanorum, a 
 Pompeio IMag. ad Heraclium," printed at 
 Antwerp, 1579, 4to, and with additions at 
 Augsburg in 1601. Occo also published a 
 Pharmacopoeia, and other works. He died in 
 1605 or 1606. — Bios;. Univ. 
 
 OCELLUS LUCANUS, so called from be- 
 ing a native of Lucania, w\is a Pythagorean 
 philosopher, who flourished about BC. 500. 
 He wrote a treatise " On the Universe," which 
 is still extant, and from which Aristotle, in 
 his treatise on generation and corruption, 
 seems to have borrowed freely. Some critics 
 have been of opinion, that this book was 
 compiled from the writings of Aristotle ; but 
 Brucker thinks with little reason, as this book 
 passed out of the hands of ^Eschylus into those 
 of Plato, and consequently must have existed 
 previously to the time of Aristotle. This 
 remnant of philosophical antiquity was first 
 published in 1539. Of succeeding editions, 
 the best is that by Gale, in his " Opuscula," 
 with the Latin translation of Nogarola. — Fa- 
 bncii Bibl. Gr. Brucker. 
 
 OCHINUS (Bernardin) a celebrated Ita- 
 lian monk, was born at Sienna, in 1487. He 
 was at first a Cordelier, but applying himself to 
 the study of physic, he threw ofl:" the monastic 
 habit, which in 1534 he again resumed, em- 
 bracing the reformed sect of the Capuchins, 
 of which he became vicar-general. He also 
 became fatlier- confessor and chaplain to pope 
 Paul HI. In 1541, whilst at Naples, he he- 
 came acquainted with John Valdes, a Spa- 
 niard and Lutheran, who, by his arguments, 
 succeeded in bringing him over to his faith, 
 ■which Ochinus began to preach with great 
 boldness. To avoid the persecutions which 
 must necessarily follow his conversion, he 
 ■went to Geneva, thence to Lucca, where he 
 married, and then proceeded to Augsburg, 
 where he published some sermons. In 1547, 
 on the invitation of archbishop Cranmer, he 
 accompanied Peter Martyr to England, for the 
 purpose of assisting in the Reformation, but 
 upon the death of Edward VI, being forced to 
 leave this country, he returned to the conti- 
 nent in 1555, and became minister of an Ita- 
 lian church at Zurich, where he remained un- 
 til 1563, wlien he was banished thence on ac- 
 count of some dialogues, in which he main- 
 tained the doctrine of polygamy. He after- 
 wards proceeded to IMoravia, where he fell in 
 with the Socinians, and then proceeded to Po- 
 land, on quitting which country on his way 
 
 ODE 
 
 back to IMoravia, he fell ill of tlie plague, and 
 (lied at Slawkaw in 1564. He waa the author 
 of a great number of sermonu, dialogues, &c. 
 \shich have been translated into English. — 
 Cieii. Diet. Moreri. Strype's Life of Cranmer* 
 OCHS (Petku) chevalier and grand tri- 
 bune of the state of liasle, one of the most ce- 
 lebrated statesmen of modern Helvetia. He 
 was born at ]5asle about 1719, and having 
 finished his academical studies, lie received 
 lessons on politics from Isaac Iselin. He had 
 long been distinguished f(jr his legal know- 
 ledge, when in 1795 he was chosen by hia 
 fellow citizens to negotiate with INI. liarthele- 
 my, agent of the French directory. He sub- 
 sequently a.ssisted in other diplomatic trans- 
 actions, and at length became member of the 
 Helvetic senate, and president of the assembly 
 convened to organize a constitution for the 
 state of Basle, under the influence of France. 
 Political intrigues occasioned him to be dis- 
 placed, and in 1800 he went to Paris, where 
 he remained some time. Having attended at 
 the Consulta, held at Paris when Buonaparte 
 was First Consul, for the purpose of preparing 
 a federative constitution for Switzerland, Ochs 
 was appointed a member of the council of 
 state at Basle, under the new government, 
 which subsisted till the return of the Bourbons 
 to France in 1814. He died at Basle, June 19, 
 182 1. Ochs was distinguished as an author, 
 having published " Histoire de la Ville et du 
 Pays du Bale," 1785 — 1821, 5 vols. 8vo ; 
 " Projet de Constitution Helvetique ;" and 
 some dramatic pieces. — Biog. K. des Contenjp. 
 OCKLEY (Simon) an eminent Orientalist 
 of the last century. He was born at Exeter in 
 1678, and received his education at Queen's 
 college, Cambridge, where he took the degree 
 of JMA. He entered into holy orders, and ob- 
 tained the vicarage of Swavesey in Cambridge- 
 shire. In 1708 he published " The Life of 
 Hai Ebu Yokdan," a kind of moral romance, 
 translated from the Arabic of Abu Jaafar Ebn 
 Tophail ; and the same year appeared hia 
 great work, " The History of the Saracens, 
 illustrating the Religion, Rites, Customs, and 
 Manner of Living of that warlike People," 
 with a life of Mahomet, 2 vols. 8vo, of which 
 a new edition was published in 1757.' This 
 very learned and industrious scholar met with 
 little encouragement in the prosecution of his 
 studies, and after having been imprisoned for 
 debt, he died in poverty in 1720. Besides the 
 publications mentioned, he was the author of 
 " Introductio ad Linguas Orientales," 1713, 
 8vo ; and other works. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 ODERIC OF PORTENAU, one of the 
 most famous travellers of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. He was born in Friuli about 1286, and 
 entered young into a convent of Franciscans 
 at Udina. He visited as a missionary many 
 parts of Asia, then almost unknown, among 
 which were the islands of Ceylon, Sumatra, 
 Java, and Borneo, the southern provinces of 
 China,ChineseTartary, and Tibet. He returned 
 to Europe, a ter sixteen years' absence, about 
 1330, and hastening to the pope at Avignon, he 
 endeavoured to obtain assistance towards new 
 
OD I 
 
 efforts for the conversion of the infidels. The 
 affairs of the church did not admit of this be- 
 ing afforded him ; and he returned to liis con- 
 vent at Udiaa, where he died in the beginning 
 of 1331. Tiie travels of Oderic were pub- 
 lished in the collection of Ramusio, and also 
 by Hakluyt. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ODERICO (Gaspar Lewis) a learned an- 
 tiquary and medallist, who was a native of 
 Genoa. He entered into the society of the 
 Jesuits, and going to Rome, became professor 
 of theology ; but ancient coins, medals, in- 
 scriptions, and other monuments of Greek and 
 Roman antiquity, were the principal objects of 
 his researches. He was 'admitted a member 
 of the Etruscan academy of Cortona, under 
 the name of Theodemio Ostracinio. On the 
 suppression of the order to which he be- 
 longed, he retired to Genoa, where he was 
 made conservator of the university library ; 
 and in 1787 he went to Turin with his bro- 
 ther, to conduct some negotiations, and re- 
 mained there six years. The revolution at 
 Genoa deprived him of his office •, but on the 
 reorganization of the university he was re- 
 placed, and at the same period he was chosen 
 a member of the Institute. He died of apo- 
 plexy, December 10, 1803, aged seventy- 
 eight. He published somp valuable works re- 
 lative to ancient medals and inscriptions ; and 
 he left in MS. " Notizie istoriche sulla Tau- 
 rica fino all, anno 1475," written at the re- 
 quest of tbe empress Catherine II. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ODIER (Lewis) one of the founders of 
 the medico-surgical society of Geneva, a cor- 
 respondent of the French Institute, and a 
 member of many scientific associations, was a 
 physician at Geneva, where he was born in 
 1748. He studied at Edinburgh, where he 
 proceeded MD. and afterwards visited Ley- 
 den and Paris. Returning to Geneva, he 
 commenced a course of lectures on chemistry, 
 in which he unfolded the great discoveries 
 which had been made in that science by the 
 English and French philosophers. He prac- 
 tised medicine with great reputation in his na 
 tive city, where he exercised several public 
 functions, and he assisted in the arrangement 
 of a new code of criminal law. His death took 
 place April 13, 1817. He was the author of 
 a '* Manual of Practical Medicine ;" and many 
 scientific memoirs in periodical works. He 
 also distinguished himself by his successful en- 
 deavours to introduce vaccine inoculation on 
 the continent. — Bio^. Utiiv, Bioo-, K. des 
 Contemp. 
 
 ODINGTON (Walter) or Walter of 
 Evesham, a monk of tliat monastery in Wor- 
 cestershire, who flourished in the reign of 
 Henry HI. He was an astronomer and mathe- 
 matician, and is said to have been the author 
 of " l)e Motibus Planetarum et de Mutatione 
 Aiiris." He also wrote a treatise, entitled, 
 " Of the Speculation of Music," preserved in 
 \he library of Bene't college, Cambridi^e, of 
 •which JJr liumey says, that if all other musi- 
 cal tracts, from the time of Boethius to Franco 
 and John Cotton were lost, with this MS. our 
 
 O E D 
 
 knowledge would not be much diminishecL — 
 Biir)ieii's Hint, of Music. 
 
 OIJO (Saint) a celebrated abbot of Clugni, 
 was born at Tours in 879. At the asre of 
 nineteen he was made a canon of St Martin's, 
 in that city, and he afterwards went to Paris, 
 where he became a disciple of St Rhemy of 
 Auxerre. In 912 he took the habit in the mo- 
 nastery of Beaume, in the diocese of Besan- 
 9on, and in 927, having taken orders, he be- 
 came second abbot of Clugni, and by his 
 efforts the order or discipline of that monastery 
 obtained a very high character. So high 
 stood Odo's reoutation for sanctity and wis- 
 dom, that the popes, bishops, and princes paid 
 the greatest deference to his opinions, and 
 frequently made him the arbiter of their dis- 
 putes. He died at Rheims in 942. He was 
 the author of " The Life of St Gerard, Count 
 of Aurillac, in four Books;" "Sermons," 
 " Hymns," which Duchesne has edited in his 
 " Bibl. Cluniac. ;" and " Moralium in Job. 
 lib. xxxvi," which are chiefly taken from 
 the " Morals of St Gregory." All these 
 pieces may be seen in the •' Bibl. Patr." — 
 Moreri. Diipin. Mosheim. 
 
 CECOLAMPADIUS (John) a distin- 
 guished reformer, was born in Franconia, in 
 1482. He studied at Heidelberg, after which 
 he became tutor to the son of the elector pa- 
 latine, and was presented to a benefice. In 
 lo20 he entered into a convent near Augs- 
 burg, but on reading the books of Luther, he 
 quitted his cell and repaired to Basil, where 
 he was made professor of divinity. He em- 
 braced the doctrine of Zuinglius on the sacra- 
 ment, but conducted himself, controversially, 
 with great moderation. In 1528 he married 
 the widow of Cellarius. 'ihe writings of 
 fficolampadius, which evince a great extent of 
 learning, are too numerous to be particula- 
 rized here, but a list of them will be found in 
 our authorities. He appears to have been 
 held in high estimation even by his opponents. 
 He died of the plague in 1531. — Melchior 
 Adam. Dupin. Moaheim. 
 
 OECUM ENIUS, an ancient Greek com- 
 mentator upon the Scriptures, flourished in 
 the tenth century, and is said to have been bi- 
 shop of Trica, in Thessaly. He was the au- 
 thor of " Commentaries" upon the Acts of the 
 Apostles, the fourteen epistles of St Paul, and 
 the seven Catholic epistles, which, besides 
 his own remarks, contain those of many of the 
 ancient fathers. He is thou'j^ht also to have 
 written a commentary upon the four Gospels, 
 but this is not extant. His works were pub- 
 lished in Greek at Verona, in 1532 ; and in 
 Greek and Latin at Paris, in 1631, in 2 vols, 
 folio. To the latter is added, the " Com- 
 mentary" of Arethas, upon the book of Re- 
 velation. — Cave. Larduer. Fabricii. Bibl. 
 Grccc. Moreri. 
 
 OLDER (George Louis) an eminent phy- 
 sician and botanist, born at Anspach, in 1728. 
 He studied under Haller, at Gottingen, and 
 after having practised as a physician at Sles- 
 wick, he was, in 1752, invited to take the bo- 
 tanical chair at Copenhagen. He travelled 
 
OE L 
 
 through many of the provinces of Denmark 
 Bid Norway, to investij,':ite tlie native plants, 
 and the result of liis hibours was a work en- 
 titled, •• Flora Dunica," the first part of wliich 
 appeared in 1763. lie also turned his atten- 
 tion to ])oiitical economy and finance, and in 
 1769 he published a memoir on tl)e civil and 
 political state of the j.easantry. Count 15ern- 
 storff often consulted him on affairs of admi- 
 nistration ; and under Struensee he was ap- 
 pointed counsellor of finance, and jiresidtnt of 
 the council of revenues of Norway, 'i'he fall 
 of that minister occasioned his removal from 
 Copenhagen. He was made bailli of the du- 
 chy of Oldenburgh, where he eni])loyed him- 
 self in the establishment of a fund for the be- 
 nefit of widows, and other financial undertak- 
 ings. He died the 28th of October, 1791. 
 Besides the works already referred to, Oeder 
 published, " Elementa Botanica," 1762 — 64, 
 SJ vols. 8vo ; " Nomenclator Botanicus," 1769, 
 8vo ; " Figures of Plants growing spotane- 
 ously in Denmark and Norway," 1766, folio ; 
 " Observations on a Bank for Widows," Co- 
 penhagen, 1771, 8vo; besides many memoirs 
 inserted in periodical journals. Linnjcus gave 
 the name of (Edera to a genus of plants, na- 
 tives of the Cape of Good Hope, in honour 
 of this botanist. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 OELRICHS (John Charles Conrad) a 
 German historian and bibliographer, born at 
 Berlin in 1722. He was educated at Frank- 
 fort on the Oder, where he proceeded LLD. 
 and in 17o2 ho was appointed professor of 
 history and civil law at the academy of Stettin. 
 Notwithstanding his official occupations, he 
 published a number of curious dissertations, 
 chiefly relating to the history of Germany in 
 the middle ages. At the age of fifty he mar- 
 ried a widow, who brought him considerable 
 property, and resigning his chair, he settled at 
 Berlin. In 1784; he obtained the post of 
 counsellor of legation, and resident of the 
 duke of Deux- Fonts, at the court of Berlin. 
 His death took place December 30, 1798. 
 Besides the Berlin Library, a literary journal, 
 carried on in conjunction with IMoehsen, from 
 1747 to 1750, he published many valuable 
 works in Latin and German, the most impor- 
 tant of which are mentioned in the Biogra- 
 phie Universelle. Prefixed to the catalogue 
 of his library, which was sold after his death, 
 in 1800, is his life, written by himself in La- 
 tin. — BifliT. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 
 OELRICHS (Gerard) a learned lawyer, 
 born at Bremen, in 1727, who studied at Got- 
 tingen and Utrecht. After having been for 
 some time resident of the emperor at Frank- 
 fort, he abandoned diplomacy to become syn- 
 dic of Bremen, where he died in 1789. 
 Oelrichs was particularly skilled in the an- 
 cient dialects of the Teutonic lanfiuatre. He 
 published, " Glossarium adStatuta Bremensia 
 antiqua," 1767, 8vo; a collection of the an- 
 cient and modern laws of Bremen ; the laws 
 of the city of Riga, with a glossary ; and 
 other works. — John Oelrichs, professor of 
 theology, and rector of the gymnasium of 
 Bremen, who died in 1801, aged seventy-' 
 
 O E X 
 
 sevin. distinguished himself by some impor- 
 tant publications rt-lative to Gt-rman and Nor- 
 thern literature, among which ib an " Ai.j^lo- 
 Saxon Christomaihy," with a German versK^n, 
 1798, 4to. — .loir.' Giokgk y\uNOLU OtL- 
 nicns, a native of Ilanivcr, «iit*d in his 
 twenty- fourth year in 1791. at Gottit.gen, 
 where he had studied undir ilayne and llee- 
 ren, and excited much notice bv liis early 
 proficiency. In 1787 he published a disser- 
 tation on the philosophy of Plato ; and in 
 1788, another on the jdiilosophy of the Fa- 
 thers of the Church ; but his greatest work 
 was published posthumously by professor 
 Heeren, under the title of " Commen-arii de 
 Scriptoribus Ecclesijc Latin;u jirioruin sex 
 sjpculorura," Lips. 1791, 8vo. — Bing. Univ. 
 Biog. Nouv. drs Contemp. 
 
 OENOPIDAS.orOENOPIDES. ofChio, 
 a Pythagorean philoso|)lier, who lived in the 
 fifth century BC. Like others of the Grecian 
 sages, he visited Egy])t, in search of know- 
 ledge, and there he made himself ac<|uamted 
 with geometry and astronomy. Some of the 
 problems of Euclid are attributed to this ma- 
 thematician, who chiefly distinguished himself 
 by the invention of a cycle for the regulation 
 of tlie year, which was afterwards improvt'd 
 by Melon. Oenopides engraved on a table 
 of brass his astronomical calculations, apj)lied 
 to a period of fifty-nine years, which lie con- 
 [ sidered as marking a revolution of the stars, 
 ' and called it the great year. He consecrated 
 i this table at the Olympic games, that it mi-jlit 
 I be preserved for the use of the public. — Biog, 
 j Univ. 
 
 OETTER (Samuel Wiliiam) a German 
 i historian, born in 1720, in the dominions of 
 I the margrave of Bareuih. He studied at P-r- 
 lang, and having adopted the ecclesiastical 
 orofession, became pastor at Linden in 1749, 
 and removed in 1762 to IMakterlebach. His 
 historical productions having made him ad- 
 vantegeously known, he was appointed histo- 
 riographer of Brandenburg, Anspach, and 
 Bareuth, and member of the consistorial coun- 
 cil of his district. He died in 1792. He 
 possessed an extensive acquaintance with his- 
 tory, diplomatics, and antiquities, especially 
 those of Franconia ; and he illustrated a mul- 
 titude of obscure transactions ; but he was de- 
 ficient in taste, and was too fond of conjectural 
 etymologies. He was the author of " An 
 Essay towards a History of the Burgraves and 
 IMargraves of Brandenbourp; ami Franconia," 
 founded on coins, seals, and documents, 1751 
 — 58, 2 vols. 8vo ; and many other works, of 
 which an account may be found in Schlichte- 
 groH's Necrology. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 OEXMELIN (Alexander Oliver) a 
 traveller and historian, who was proi.ably a 
 Fleming. In July 1666, he was at Tortue, 
 in America, in the service of the West India 
 company, where he was sold to a planter for 
 thirty crowns. After three years' servitude, 
 he joined some freebooters, and remained with 
 them till 1674, engaging in all their enter- 
 prises. He then embraced an opportunity to 
 return to Europe, thanking God, as he says, 
 
O G E 
 
 lliat he had been enabled to relinquish such a 
 miserable kind of life. Ee afterwards made 
 three other voyages to America, with the 
 Dutch and with the Spaniards ; and he was 
 at the taking of Carthageua in 1697. He 
 wrote an account of his adventures, published 
 ia French at Paris in 1686, 2 vols. 12mo ; 
 and afterwards at Trevoux, 1744 and 1775, 
 4 vols. 12mo. From some passages in his 
 narrative, it seems probable that he exercised 
 the profession of a surgeon. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 OGDEN (Samuel) an eminent diviue of 
 the establishment, was born at Manchester, 
 in 1716, and educated at the grammar-school 
 Aere, from which he was removed to King's 
 college, Cambridge, and next to St John's, 
 where he obtained a fellowship. In 1744 he 
 became master of the grammar-school at Ha- 
 lifax ; but in 1753 returned to Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree of DD. and was pre- 
 sented to the living of Damerham, in Wilt- 
 shire, lu 1766 he was appointed Woodwar- 
 dian professor, and subsequently received the 
 rectories of Lawford in Essex, and of Stans- 
 field in Suffolk. He died in 1778. Two vo- 
 lumes of sermons by this divine were pub- 
 lished in his lifetime, which being short, ani- 
 mated, and striking, obtained considerable 
 celebrity. A new edition of these were pub- 
 lished in 1780, by his friend bishop Halifax, 
 with a memoir of his life, in which some ob- 
 jections to his style and manner are freely 
 canvassed. — Life by Halifax. Wakef eld's 
 Memoirs. 
 
 OG E, a Creole of St Domingo, belonging to 
 the class called in the colonies Quarteroons, 
 who was, at the commencement of the Revo- 
 lution, engaged in commerce at Ca])e Fran- 
 fais. Rlercantile affairs having drawn him to 
 Paris, he was there admitted into the society 
 of Friends of the Negroes, (Amis des Noirs, ) 
 and aided by some of the most active mem- 
 bers, he warmly solicited the National As- 
 sembly in favour of his brethren. 13 ut he 
 soon perceived that solicitations alone would 
 not procure the rights of equality for men of 
 colour ; and returning to St Domingo, he 
 resolved to adopt some more efficacious means 
 for their liberation. Having made his way to 
 the quarter of Dondon, where he was born, he 
 began by spreading a proclamation, inviting 
 all the people of colour, and negro slaves to 
 join him. The insurrection took place in No- 
 vember, 1790, in the quarter denominated 
 Grande Riviere. The insurgents at first de- 
 manded nothing but what was just, freedom 
 and political equality ; but their cause was 
 ere long disgraced by crimes equally useless 
 and atrocious. These, however, were not at- 
 tributable to their leader, but to his lieutenant 
 Chavannes, a sanguinary wretch, who de- 
 lighted in deeds of violence. Troops of the 
 national guard and of the line were sent 
 against tlie blacks, who were obliged to give 
 way to superior force. Oge, with a ft- w of his 
 intrepid followers, took refuge in the Spanish 
 territories, and being given up by the gover- 
 nor to the French, he was tried before the su- 
 perior council at Cape Franjais, and con- 
 
 OG 1 
 
 demned to be broken on the wheel; as also 
 was his lieutenant. Oge, on hearing his 
 doom, took a quantity of black seeds, and 
 placing them in the hollow of his hand, co- 
 vered them with a small quantity of white 
 grains ; he then shook them together, and the 
 former remaining uppermost, he exclaimed to 
 his judges, " Where are tlie Whites V This 
 impressive allegory was terribly verified in the 
 subsequent revolution of St Domingo. — Diet, 
 des H. M. Ju 18/«e S. Biog. N. des Contemp. 
 
 OGIER (CiiAKLEs) a man of learning, 
 was borx at Paris in 1595. He was for some 
 time an advocate, but becoming disgusted 
 with his profession, he accepted the post of 
 secretary to Claude de IMesmes, count d'Avaux, 
 whom he accompanied in his embassy to 
 the northern courts in 1634 and 1635. He 
 drew up an account of his travels, which was 
 first published in 1656, with this title, " Ca- 
 roli Ogerii Ephemerides sive iter Danicum, 
 Suecicum, Polouicum, cum esset in comitatu il- 
 lustr. Claudii Memmii comitis Avauxii ad 
 septentriones reges extraordinarii legati," 
 12mo. This journal contains some curious 
 particulars of the negotiations of the count of 
 Avaux, the manners, customs, &c. of the coun- 
 tries which he visited. Ogier also published two 
 Latin poems to the memories of D. Petau and 
 Peter du Pay. He died in 1654. — Francis 
 OoiER, his brother, was an ecclesiastic, and 
 attended the count d'Avaux when he went to 
 sign the peace of 1648. He defended Balzac 
 in his quarrel with Goulu, and wrote several 
 works, of which the most esteemed is "Juge- 
 ment et Censure de la Doctrine curieuse de 
 Fr. Garasse." He died in 1670. — Mo^eri. 
 Kvuv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OGILBY (JoHNy an industrious writer, was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1600. His father be- 
 commg a prisoner for debt in the King's Bench, 
 the son bound himself apprentice to a danc- 
 ing-master in Loudon, and with the first mo- 
 ney he procured, he released his father. A 
 strain, which he received in cutting a caper, 
 disabled him in his profession, and he was 
 obliged to seek other means of subsistence. 
 After suffering great vicissitudes, he at length 
 overcame his want of a literary education so 
 far as to translate from the Latin and Greek, 
 and to compose verses of his ovra, which, how- 
 ever, were but very indifferent. He made a 
 translation of Homer, which, though very 
 wretched, was esteemed at the time it ap- 
 peared, and had the honour of kindling a poeti- 
 cal flame in the youthful breast of Pope. The 
 cuts to his translation of Virgil were gieatly 
 valued, and served for a splendid Latin edi- 
 tion of that poet. In London, after the great 
 fire, he erected a printing-office, and was ap- 
 pointed the king's cosmographer and geogra- 
 phic printer, and he printed some volumes of 
 a great Atlas. He also published an account 
 of the great and cross-roads of the kingdom, 
 from his own actual survey and mensuration. 
 He also built a theatre at Dublin. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 OGILVIE (John) a divine of the cliurch of 
 Scotland, was born in 1733. He was edu- 
 cated at the university of Aberdeen, by which 
 
OH A 
 
 he was honoureil with the ilpc^ree of DD., and 
 he became minister of Miihnar, in thf siimfi 
 county. [Fe also became a fellow of the Royal 
 Society of Kdiiiburgb, and was much esteemed 
 both as a divine and man ot" literature. His 
 works are, " Poems on several Subjects," 
 12 vols. 8vo ; " Sermons," 8vo ; " Paradise, a 
 Poem," 4to ; " Rona, a Poem;" " Phiioso- 
 ])hical and Critical Observations on Coni|)osi- 
 tion," 2 vols. 8vo ; "An Inquiry into the 
 Causes of Infidelity and Scepticism," Bvo ; 
 " riieology of J'lato, compareil with tiie Prin- 
 ciples of Oriental and Grecian Philosophers," 
 8vo ; " Examination of the Evidence of Pro- 
 j^hecy in behalf of the Christian Religion," 
 8vo ; " Pritanuia, aPoem,"4to. — Gent. Mas;. 
 OGLEl'IIORPE (Jamks EnwAno) an 
 English general officer, was the son of sir The- 
 ophihis Oglethorpe, of Godalming, Surrey. 
 He was born in London in 1698, and was edu- 
 cated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, on 
 ieaving which he obtained a commission in the 
 guards. He subsequently went abroad, and 
 served under prince Eugene, and on his re- 
 turn, obtained a seat in parliament. In 1733 
 he distinouished himself bv his exertions to 
 found the colony of Georgia, for which he ob- 
 tained the royal charter. He also conducted a 
 iody of emigrants to the province, at which 
 time he was accompanied by the two Wesleys. 
 In 1734 he returned with some Indian chiefs 
 in his suite, who were presented to the king ; 
 and in 1736 revisited Georgia, with another 
 band of emigrants, and proceeded very suc- 
 cessfully in the settlement of the colony. On 
 the rupture with Spain, he was made general 
 nnd commander-in-chief of the English forces in 
 Georgia and Carolina, ^^dlh which he success- 
 fully repelled the attempts of the Spaniards ; but 
 was unsuccessful in an expedition against St Au- 
 gustin. In 1745 he was promoted to the rank 
 of major-general, and was employed to follow 
 the rebels under the Pretender ; but not being 
 able to come up with them, he was tried by a 
 court martial for neglect of duty, and ac- 
 quitted. The private character of general Ogle- 
 thorpe was extremely amiable, and he has been 
 eulogized both by Thomson, Pope, and Dr 
 Johnson. He chiefly claims distinction, how- 
 ever, for his benevolent and judicious settle- 
 ment of Georgia. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. Bns- 
 weU's Life of Johnson. 
 
 O'HAR.i (Kane) an Irish dramatist, who 
 was a younger brother of a good family. He 
 had much musical taste, and a happy talent of 
 adapting verses to old airs. In the latter part 
 of his life he was afflicted with loss of sight, 
 and employed an amanuensis, whom he kept 
 constantly near him, as he was often making 
 alterations in his theatrical pieces, which are 
 all burlettas or ballad operas. His first pro- 
 duction was " jMidas," acted at Coven t Gar- 
 den in 1764, which was extremely well re- 
 ceived, and is still a favourite entertainment. 
 His other works are, " The Golden Pippin," 
 1773; "The Two Misers," 1775; "April 
 Day," 1777 ; and " Tom Thumb," 1780. 
 •iis death took place June 17, 178'J. — Thesp. 
 
 Bioc. DicT.— Vol U. 
 
 OLA 
 
 ] OTZEL, or OUZKL (Jamfs) a learne I 
 civilian, was burn at Daiilzic in lo.jl. H; 
 I received his education at I^eyden, where he 
 took his doctor's dej^ree, and published an ex- 
 cellent edition of Alinutius Felix. After tra- 
 velling in Europe in l«k;7, be was ai)pointe<t 
 professor of law at Groningcn. He died in 
 1686. He likewise published an edition of 
 Aulus Gellius, Leyden, 1666, Bvo ; and a 
 treatise, entitled, " Thesaurus selectorum Nu- 
 niismatum antiquoriim a^re expressorum," 
 Anist. 1677, 4to, a scarce and curious work. 
 He was the friend of Puffcndorf, between 
 whose ideas and his own there existed a great 
 conformity. — Chnufepie. Niceron. Mnreri. 
 
 OISEL, or OUSEEL (Philip) a learned 
 German reformed professor of divinity, and 
 Oriental scholar, was born at Dantzic in 1671. 
 He became minister of the German church at 
 Leyden, and was afterwards appointed profes- 
 sor of divinity at Frankfort on the Oder. It 
 is related of him, that when he was upon his 
 death-bed, and his colleague was reciting for 
 his consolation passages of scripture in Latin 
 or German, he corrected the language of the 
 version made use of by him, according to the 
 original Hebrew or Greek, with the same ac- 
 curacy and calmness as if seated in his acade- 
 mical chair. His principal works are, " Iq. 
 troductio in Accentuatiouem Hebraeorum Me- 
 tricam ;" " Introductio in Accentuatiouem 
 j HebraiorumProsaicum," 1715; " De Lepra;" 
 and several treatises on the ten command- 
 j ments. — The above-mentioned, James Ov- 
 SEEL, who wrote notes on the " Octavius" of 
 Minutius Felix, was his relation — Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. U Advocates Diet. Hist.et Bibl. Portatif. 
 
 OKOLSKl (SiMox) a Dominican, was born 
 in Russia, and became provincial of his order 
 in Poland in 1649. He was the author of a 
 work, entitled " Orbis Polonus,"or a history of 
 the Polish nation, with learned researches 
 concerning the origin of the Sarmatians. Itig 
 very scarce and valuable, but the author is 
 somewhat partial. He also published a work, 
 entitled " Preco divini verbi Albertus episco- 
 pus Ratisponensis." — Moreri. 
 
 OLAHUS (Nicholas) a learned prelate, 
 was born at Hermanstadt in 1493. After va- 
 rious preferments, he was nominated by Fer- 
 dinand, king of Hungary, bishop of Zagrab and 
 chancellor of that kingdom. He afterwards 
 became bishop of Agria, and was present at 
 the siege of that town by the Turks in 1552, 
 at which, bv his liberalitv and exhortations, 
 he greatly supported the inhabitants in their 
 defence. The next year he was appointed 
 archbishop of Strigonia, and held two national 
 councils at Tyrnau, the acts of which were 
 printed at Vienna in 1560, and was instru- 
 mental in founding the first Jesuit's college in 
 Hungary. In 1562 he was created palatine 
 of the kingdom. He died at Tyrnau in 1568. 
 His works are, " A Chronicle of his own 
 Times ;" " A History of Attila," Presb. 
 1538 ; and " A Description of Hungary." — 
 jSIoreri. Nnuv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OLAVIDES (Paul Anthony JoskpiO a 
 Spanish statesman, one of the modem victims 
 
OLA 
 
 of the inquisition. He was born in 17^5 at 
 Lima in Peru, and was of wealtliy and re- 
 spectable parentage. At an early age be dis- 
 played an ardour for study, and having given 
 proofs of his capacity, he was appointed au- 
 ditor of the province of Lima. Having, by 
 the liberality of his opinions, given offence to 
 the monks and friars, they contrived to get 
 him recalled to Spain, where he was com- 
 mitted to prison by the inquisition ; but his 
 innocence was at length established, and he 
 was liberated. He took up his residence at 
 Madrid, and being appointed agent for his 
 Peruvian countrymen, he employed his talents 
 and influence for their benefit as well as for 
 that of the kingdom in general. He power- 
 fully seconded the measures of the Spanish 
 minister, the count d'Aranda, for the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits ; and having displayed on many 
 occasions enlightened {)olicy and genuine pa- 
 triotism, the government appointed him in- 
 tend ant of the province of Andalusia. He 
 there founded a new colony, which flourished 
 under his auspices, becoming the seat of agri- 
 cultural and commercial industry. From this 
 establishment he endeavoured to exclude as 
 much as possible the monastic and mendicant 
 orders, whose enmity being excited, they 
 charged Olavides with heresy, on account of 
 fwme regulations which he had made relative 
 to his colonists, many of whom were Swiss 
 and German Protestants. In November 1776, 
 he was aiTested and thrown into a dungeon of 
 the inquidtion, and after two years' confine- 
 ment he was brought before that merciless 
 tribunal to receive his sentence. Among the 
 charges against him was thai of having in his 
 library the French Encyclopedie, Bayle's Dic- 
 tionary, Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws, and the 
 works of Voltaire and Rousseau. The re- 
 maining imputations were equally nugatory and 
 absurd, including those of having taken a 
 journey to see Voltaire, and having in his 
 possession a letter from that philosopher to 
 himself, wherein was the phrase — " It is 
 much to be wished that Spain possessed forty 
 such persons as yourself." Olavides denied 
 the charge of heresy, not\\athstanding which 
 he was conderant-d to eight years' seclusion 
 in a monastery to practise exercises of piety, 
 and to be afterwards banished twenty leagues 
 from the court and all great cities ; and to be 
 incapable of public employment, and subject 
 to certain degrading privations. He contrived 
 to escape from the convent, and took refuge in 
 France, whither monastic hatred pursued him, 
 and he was forced to seek an asylum at 
 Geneva. After the death of Charles III, he 
 was permitted to return to France. He re- 
 sided there at the Revolution ; and under the 
 reitm of terror he was imprisoned at Orleans, 
 but was released after the fall of Robespierre. 
 He employed the period of his confinement, 
 and his subsequent leisure, in writing a work, 
 entitled " The Triumph of the Gospel," which 
 attracted much notice in his own country, 
 parsed through many editions, and was trans- 
 lated into French. Its Buccess induced the 
 aealots who had persecuted the author to as- 
 
 OLD 
 
 sume the merit of having converted an infidel 
 philosopher, and they obtained his recal to 
 Spain. He went thither in 1798, and after a 
 short stay at Madrid, retired to his estate in 
 Andalusia, where he died in the bosom of his 
 family in 1803. — Biog. Nouv. des Contem'p. 
 
 OLDCASTLE (sir John) lord Cobham, 
 the first martyr among our nobility, was born 
 in the fourteenth century, in the reign of Ed- 
 ward III. He obtained his peerage by mar- 
 rying the daughter of that lord Cobham, who 
 so firmly opposed Richard II. He excited the 
 resentment of the clergy by his zealous adhe- 
 rence to the doctrines of Wickliffe, whose 
 works he collected and transcribed, distri- 
 buting them among the people. In the reign 
 of Henry IV, he was at the head of an Eng- 
 lish army in France during the Orleans and 
 Burgundian factions, and he obliged the duke 
 of Orleans to raise the siege of Paris. Under 
 Henry V he was accused of heresy, but the 
 king, with whom he was a favourite, delayed 
 the prosecutions against him, and tried to rea- 
 son with him, and to convince him of his al- 
 leged errors, but in vain, and he soon after 
 left him to his fate. He was then cited before 
 the archbishoj) of Canterbury, and not being 
 able to satisfy his accusers, he was condemned 
 as a heretic, and committed to the Towor, 
 whence he escaped into Wales. A report wan 
 then zealously circulated by the clergy, and sent 
 to the king, that 20,000 Lollards were assem- 
 bled at St Giles's for his destruction, with lord 
 Cobham at their head. This accusation seems 
 to have been fully credited by Henry, though 
 there does not appear to have been really the 
 slightest foundation for it, on which a bill of at- 
 tainder was passed against lord Cobham, and 
 he was burnt alive in St Giles's- fields in 1417, 
 He was a man of high spirit and warm tem- 
 per, which his misfortunes could not subdue. 
 His acquirements were extensive, and his 
 thirst after knowledge first made him ac- 
 quainted with the doctrines of Wickliffe. In 
 conversation he was remarkable for the poig- 
 nancy and readiness of his wit. He wrote 
 " Twelve Conclusions, addressed to the Par- 
 liament of England," published in Bale's 
 " Brefe Chronycle concernyng the Examy- 
 nacyon and Death of the blessed Martyr of 
 Christ, syr Johan Oldecastle the lorde Cob- 
 ham," which was reprinted in 1729. — Gilpin^a 
 Lives. Bale. Fox's Acts and Monuments. 
 
 OLDENBURG (Henry) a mathematician 
 and natural philosopher, who was a native of 
 the dutchy of Bremen, and is said to have 
 been descended from the counts of Oldenburg 
 in Westphalia. He was born in 1626, and 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century 
 he was sent to London as consul for his coun- 
 trymen. Losing that office he went to Ox- 
 ford, and in 1656 entered as a student of the 
 university, with a view to avail himself of the 
 advantages of consulting the books and MSS. 
 of the Bodleian library. He acted as a pri- 
 vate tutor, and formed an acquaintance with 
 many of his scientific contemporaries, with 
 whom he contributed to the foundation of the 
 Royal Society, and on its incorporation I.** 
 
OLD 
 
 became one of the secretaries. In 16C3 lie 
 coinraenced the publitaiiou of the Pliiloso- 
 pliiral Transactions, which he contiiiut.'il till 
 1677, when he was succeeded in his ufHcc* by 
 13r Neheiniah Grew. He carried on an t xtin- 
 uive correspondence both at home and abroad, 
 and transhited into Latin many of the philo- 
 6oj)hical memoirs of Mr Uoyle and others. 
 About 1C74 he became involved in a dispute 
 •with l)r Kobert Ilooke, who complained to 
 the Royal Society that Oldenburg had not 
 properly noticed in their 'J'ransactions his in- 
 vention of sjiiral sjirinj^s for watches ; but on 
 an inquiry taking place, the doctor's complaint j 
 was declared to be unfounded. This ])hiloso- [ 
 jther interested himbelf much in theological ' 
 controversy, and ai one time attempted to ef- | 
 feet a union between the followers of Luther 
 and Calvin ; but lie afterwards became a de- i 
 cided Calvinist, sat ia the Westminster assem- : 
 biy of divines, and joined in the measures of | 
 the independents till the Restoration. He 
 died at his residence at Charlton, near Green- 
 wicli in Kent, in August 1678. A list of his 
 works, which relate to politics, divinity, and 
 philosophy, may be found in Chalmers's 
 Biographical Dictionary. — Martin's Biog. Phil. 
 OLUFIELD (Ann) a celebrated English 
 actress, born at Westminster in 1683. Her 
 father held a commission in the guards, but 
 dying while she was young, he left his family 
 in such circumstances that the daughter was 
 apprenticed to a sempstress. She and her 
 mother resided for some time with a relation, 
 ■who kept a tavern in St James's market, where 
 her talents attracted the notice of Farquhar, 
 the author of the " Beaux' Stratagem," who 
 introduced her to sir John Vanbrugh, through 
 whose means she obtained a theatrical en- 
 gagement in 1699. She first disiinguislied 
 herself in the character of Alinda, in the 
 " Pilgrim" of Beaumont and Fletcher ; but 
 it was not till 1703, when she appeared as 
 Leonora, in " Sir Courtly Nice," that her 
 merits were properly appreciated ; and having 
 the advantages of a good figure and a fine 
 voice, she soon became a general favourite. 
 Her great excellence lay in comedy, and the 
 parts of lady Betty INlodish, in the " Careless 
 Husband," and lady Townly, in the " Pro- 
 voked Husband" of Cibber, were those in 
 which she was most admired ; but she some- 
 times also appeared in tragedy, and in such 
 characters as Calista and Cleopatra, her ta- 
 lents were very conspicuous. Though much 
 esteemed in private life, her character was not 
 immaculate. She was the acknowledged mis- 
 tress of Mr Arthur INIayn waring for some years 
 previously to his death in 1712 ; and she after- 
 wards became connected with generalChurchill. 
 Her death took place October SJod, 1730 ; and 
 her corpse, after lying in state, was interred 
 in Westminster abbey. — Biog. Brit. Thesp. 
 Diet. 
 
 OLDFIELD (T. P.^ a youth, whose history 
 exhibits an extraordinary instance of preco- 
 cious genius. At the age of five he was 
 seized with scarlet fever, which produced such 
 constitutional debility, that he becanu; subject 
 
 OLD 
 
 to paralysis of the lower extremities, and con- 
 sequent perMianent lanienestt ; and after ten 
 years of sullenny, he was afl'ettvd with dr<jp8y 
 and hiemoptysih, which occationed his d<-aih 
 at Margate, .luly lOih, 11504, in the fcixteenlh 
 year of his ai^e. lie possebsed great (juickncbS 
 of apprehension, and an extraordinary me- 
 mory, so that almost all that he read wa» 
 easily remembered. He made himself ac- 
 quainted with mathematics, natural jihiloHo- 
 jjhy, geography, history, and painting. He 
 could recite the principal events in the histo- 
 ries of Groc' e and Rome, and of his native 
 country ; and had become familiar with the 
 discoveries of modern astronomers. The 
 works of Newton and Locke were the favou- 
 rite objects of his studies. He displayed taste 
 and talent as an artist, and is said to have 
 produced, from memory, admirable likenesses 
 of persons whom he had seen. His temper 
 was as amiable as his capacity was excellent. 
 Thoagh a constant invalid, he bore his sickness 
 without repining or impatience ; and he seems 
 to have exhibited a union of virtues and abi- 
 lities seldom to be found in one individual. — 
 Gent. ^lag. 
 
 OLUllAM (John) an English poetical sa- 
 tirist of the seventeenth century. He waa 
 born in 16.V3, at Shipton in Gloucestershire, 
 and received his education at the neighbour- 
 ing town of Tetbury. His father, who was 
 minister of the parisli at the time of his birth, 
 but was afterwards dismissed for nonconfor- 
 mity, is said to have suffered much uneasiness 
 in consequence of his youthful irreuulaiities. 
 But his dissipation did not })revent his appli- 
 cation to learning ; and from school he went 
 to Edmund hall, Oxford, where he took but 
 one degree, after which he obtained the situa- 
 tion of usher to the free-school of Croydon. 
 There his talents as a poet procured him the 
 notice of some persons of distinction, and lie 
 was taken into a gentleman's family as a do- 
 mestic tutor. He subsecjuently resided with 
 tlie earl of Kingston, in whose house he was 
 seized with the small-pox, and died at the age 
 of thirty. Oldham's principal work is his 
 " Four Satires u])on the Jesuits," vN-ritten in 
 1679, which, with his other poems, have since 
 his death been published in 3 vols. I'Jmo. He 
 displays force and spirit in his conceptions, 
 and his language is nervous and expressive, 
 tliough sometimes deficient in elegance and 
 propriety ; but these faults may be excusrd on 
 the score of the youth and ])remature death 
 of the author. His licentious sentiments admit 
 of no apoloiry or extenuation but the miserable 
 taste of the age, which infected most of the 
 contemporary Hards. — Biog. Brit. Ed. 
 
 OLDISWORTH (William) a miscella- 
 neous writer in the reigns of queen Anne and 
 George I, but of whom little more is known 
 than the titles of his books, which are, "State 
 and Miscellany Poems ;" " A Translation of 
 the Odes, Epodes, and Carman Seculare of 
 Horace;" " The Life of Edmund Smith;" 
 " Timothy and Philatheus, against Tindal's 
 Rights of the Church ;" " State Tracts." 
 He" also published a translation of " The 
 2 02 
 
OLE 
 
 Accomplished Senator"' of (Josliski, bishop of 
 Posnia ; in the preface to which he defends 
 his o^Ti cliaracter as a writer for the preroga- 
 tive and the ministry, and admits that he wrote 
 under the earl of Oxford. Oldisworth was 
 one of the original authors of the " Examiner," 
 and continued to write in it as long as it ex- 
 isted. He died in 1734. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 OLDYS (William) a hibliographer, was 
 the natural son of Dr Oldys, a civilian, and 
 was born in 1696. Little is known of the 
 early part of his life, but in 1726 he succeeded 
 Wanley in the care of lord Oxford's library, 
 of wbich he partly formed the catalogue ; he 
 was also employed in the selection, entitled 
 " 'I-'he Harleian jMiscellany." His circum- 
 stances always appear to have been moderate ; 
 at one time he was confined in the Fleet prison, 
 where he acquired such a liking for the com- 
 pany he found there, that during the rest of 
 liis life he always passed his evenings at a 
 house within the rules with people of that 
 class. In return for the pleasure he received 
 from his life of sir Walter Raleigh, his prin- 
 cipal work, the duke of Norfolk gave him the 
 post of Norroy king-at-arms, and this was the 
 only situation he ever held. During the lat- 
 ter part of his life he abandoned himself to 
 drinking, which contributed to shorten his 
 days, and he died in 1761. He was the au- 
 thor of a great many works, of which the fol- 
 lowing are the principal : " Life of Sir W' al- 
 ter Raleigh ;" " The British Librarian ;" 
 " Tables of the eminent Persons celebrated 
 by the British Poets ;" this does not seem to 
 have been printed; " The Scarborough Mis- 
 cellany ;" •* The Universal Spectator." He 
 also wrote several lives in the " Biographia 
 Britannia," " General Dictionary," &c. The 
 following ingenious anagram is in one of 
 his MSS. 
 
 In word and will i am a friend to you. 
 
 And one friend old is worth a hundred new, 
 
 Biog. Brit. 
 
 OLEARIUS (Adam CElschlaeger, or) 
 a German traveller, the son of a tailor, at 
 Aschersleben, in the country of Anhalt, where 
 he was born about l600. He studied at Leip- 
 sic, and having taken his degrees, he entered 
 into the service of Frederick, duke of Hol- 
 stein Gottorp, who appointed him secretary to 
 an embassy which he sent to the czar of Mus- 
 covy and the king of Persia. The ambassadors 
 left Gottorp in October 1633, and after travel- 
 ling through various parts of Persia, and visit- 
 ing the borders of the Caspian sea, they re- 
 turned home in 1639. Olearius, who had 
 received the title of ducal counsellor, was on 
 his return appointed librarian and mathema- 
 tician to the duke, which offices he held till 
 his death in 1671. He published an account 
 of his travels, Sleswick, 1647, folio, of which 
 there are several other editions, and French, 
 English, and Dutch translations ; the Gulistan 
 of Saadi, translated from the Persian ; the 
 Fables of Lokman, from the Arabic ; and 
 the Chronicle of Holstein. — Biog. Univ. — 
 Godfrey Olearius, doctor of theology, and 
 euperintendant of Halle, who died in 1687, at 
 
 OLE 
 
 the age of eighty-one, was ine author of a 
 body of theology for the use of the Lutherans. 
 — His son, John Olearius, professor of rhe- 
 toric, and afterwards of theology, at Leipsic, 
 was one of the first authors of the literary jour- 
 nal published there under the title of " Acta 
 Eruditorum." He also wrote an " Introduc- 
 tion to Theology," and other works. He died 
 at Leipsic, in 1713, aged seventy-four. — Diet, 
 Hist. 
 
 OLEARIUS (Godfrey) a learned Ger- 
 man writer on divinity and philology, born at 
 Leipsic in 1672. He studied in the universi- 
 ties of Germany and Holland, after which he 
 visited England, and staid for some time at 
 Oxford. Returning to Leipsic, he obtained 
 the chair of Greek literature, wbich, in 1708, 
 he exchanged for that of theology. He 
 translated into Latin Stanley's History of 
 Philosophy, to which he added dissertations, 
 " De Philosophia Eclectica ;" " De Djemo- 
 nio Socratis ;" and " Exercitatio ad dialogum 
 L. Allatii de Scriptis Socratis." He also 
 published an edition of the Life of Apollo- 
 nius of Tyana, by Philostratus ; and aug- 
 mented Frankenstein's Introduction to the 
 Roman and German Historv ; besides which 
 he produced " Observations on St Matthew's 
 Gospel," and other theological works. He 
 died in 1715. — Stollii Introd. in Hist. Lit. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 O'LEARY (Arthur) a Roman Catholic 
 divine, was born in the city of Cork, but in 
 what year is not recorded. He studied at the 
 college of St Mark, in Britanny, and subse- 
 quently entered into the Franciscan order of 
 capuchins. He acted for some time as chap- 
 lain to tlie English prisoners of the Catholic 
 religion, during the seven years' war, for 
 which he received a small pension from the 
 French government, until the Revolution. He 
 subsequently returned to Ireland, and was 
 enabled to build a small chapel at Cork, where 
 he distinguished himself by entering into a 
 controversy in defence of the divinity of 
 Christ. When the parliament of Ireland 
 shewed a disposition to relax the rigour of the 
 penal laws against the Catholics, and framed 
 the Test Act, now in force, he published his 
 " Loyalty Asserted, or the Test-Oath Vindi- 
 cated," by which address he induced many 
 Catholics to comply with the provisions of 
 tbe legislature. These, and similar services, in 
 which he ably and eloquently endeavoured 
 to show that the Catholics might legally swear 
 that the pope possessed no temporal power in 
 Ireland, procured him the friendship of many 
 eminent Irish political and literary characters. 
 He also distinguished himself by the most lau- 
 dable attempts to produce subordination, and 
 induce the lower class of Catholics to be less 
 lawless in their resistance to the tythe proctors 
 of the Protestant clergy. These and kindred 
 services induced the Irish government, on his 
 departure for London, to recommend him to 
 persons in power in England, and accordingly 
 he was much countenanced, and officiated for 
 many years as principal minister in the Roman 
 Catholic chapel in Soho-square. He died ?.t aa 
 
O L 
 
 Rtlraaced age iu January 1802. !\Ir O'Lcary 
 was cniiiuiitly gifted with %vit and liuiiiour ; 
 and as a writor his style is flueiit, bold, and 
 figurative, but sonR'tinies deficient in grace 
 and incorrect, lie was author oi' several " Ad- 
 dresses to the Catholics in Ireland;" " Re- 
 marks on IMr Wesley's Defence of the Protes- 
 tant Association," which, with several other 
 tracts, were collected in one vol. octavo. He 
 also wrote a very spirited " Defence of the 
 Conduct and Writings of the rev. Arthur 
 O'Leary," in answer to Dr Woodward, bishop 
 of Clovne. — Month. Mas;. Gent. Mas- 
 
 OLKASTKR (Jeromk) a learned Portu- 
 guese Dominican of the sixteenth century, was 
 born at Azambuja. In 1545 he attended the 
 council of Trent, as theolgian, from John 111, 
 king of Portugal, and upon his return he was 
 nominated bishop of St Thomas's in Africa, 
 which dignity he refused. He was then made 
 inquisitor, and held with honour the principal 
 offices of tlie Dominican order in his jirovince. 
 He died in 1563. He has left " Commenta- 
 ries on the Pentateuch," Lisbon, 1556, 1558, 
 five parts, in one vol. folio, much sought after 
 by collectors, from its not having been sub- 
 jected to the examination of the holy office. 
 His " Commentaries on Isaiah" were pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1623 and 1658. — Antonii 
 Bibl. Script. Hisp. Mureri. Nonv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OLIVA (Alexander) a celebrated Ita- 
 lian cardinal, was boin of humble parents, at 
 Sassoferrato, in 1409. He entered among the 
 hermits of St Augustine, and was appointed 
 professor of philosophy at Perusia, and after- 
 wards attorney-general of his order. His mo- 
 desty prevented his displaying his talents and 
 erudition at the public disputations, but he 
 preached with great reputation at Venice, Na- 
 ples, Bologna, Florence, INIautua, Ferrara, 
 &c. In 1459 he was made general of his 
 order, and the following year he was promoted 
 to the purple. He died at 'I'ivoli in 1463. 
 He was the author of various works, of which 
 the principal are " De Cocua cum Aposiolis 
 Facta ;" " De Christi Ortu Sermones Cen- 
 tum ;" " Orationes Elegantes, lib. I ;" " De 
 Peccato in Spiritum Sanctum." — Moreri. 
 Nonv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OLIVA (Giovanni) a learned antiquary, 
 was born at Rovigo, in the Venetian territory, 
 in 1686. He was ordained priest in 1711, and 
 was immediately after nominated professor of 
 belles lettres at Azzolo. In 1719 he was in- 
 vited to Rome by Clement XI, and in 1722 
 the cardinal de Rohan appointed him his libra- 
 rian, in which office he remained during his 
 life, dying in 1757, at Pans. The abbe Oliva 
 was the author of two dissertations ; one, 
 *' De Antiqua in Romanis Scholis Grammati- 
 corum Lisciplina ;" the other, on the discovery 
 of a four-footed marble of Isis. He also pub- 
 lished an edition of some hitherto unpublished 
 letters of Poggio. His works were {)riuted 
 after his death, with a third dissertation on 
 the necessity of adding the study of medals 
 to that of history. — Moreri. 
 
 OLIVAREZ (Ga.spar Gusman, count- 
 duke d') a famous Spanish minister of state ^ 
 
 () L I 
 
 descended from the ancient Castilian family of 
 (jusman. He w;is Ijorn at Home, wln-re his 
 father was sent on an enihausy to pope Six- 
 tiis V. Having fini>h<-d his studies at Sala- 
 manca, he was (ailed to court, and .soon ob- 
 tained the confidence of the prince royal, who, 
 on succeeding to the crown as I'hilip I\', in 
 1621, abandoned the nianagj-ment of public 
 adairs entirely to Olivarez, though the title of 
 minister was bestowed on his uncle Jiemard 
 de Zuniga, who hail been the king's gover- 
 nor. He enjoyed, during a period of twenty- 
 two years, almost unbounded authority. The 
 commencement of his administration was dis- 
 tinguished by some u.-eful regulations, adapted 
 to increase the population and resources of the 
 country. The system he pursued with regard 
 to foreign afl'airs, however, was unfortunate ; 
 and being constantly thwarted in his schemes 
 by the bolder genius of the French minister 
 Riclielieu,he had the mortification to witness 
 the revolt of the Catalonians, the dismember- 
 ment of Portugal from the crown of Sj)ain, 
 and the loss of Hra/il and other foreign colo- 
 nies, which fell into the hands of the Dutch. 
 These national misfortunes rendered him so 
 unpopular, that the king was forced to dismiss 
 him in 1643, when he was succeeded by his 
 nephew Don Louis de Haso. A justificatory 
 memoir which he published, is said to have 
 irritated his enemies, and j)revented his recal, 
 and he died at Toro, a few months after his 
 removal from the ministry. — Diet, flist. 
 Bing. Univ. 
 
 OLIVET (Joseph Thoumer d') a member 
 of the order of the Jesuits, distinguished as a 
 classical editor. He was bom at Salins, iu 
 France, in 1682, and died at Paris in 1768. 
 He devoted himself to the cultivation of the 
 belles lettres ; and becoming a member of the 
 French academy, he published a continuation 
 of the history of that literary society, in. 
 1723 appeared his translation of Cicero's Dia- 
 logues on the Nature of the Gods ; and he 
 also translated the speeches against Catiline, 
 and other works of that orator, as well as the 
 Phili])pics of Demosthenes, all which have 
 been repeatedly printed. But the most im- 
 portant literary labour of the al)b^ d'Olivet 
 was his edition of the entire works of Cicero, 
 j)ublished at Paris, in 1740, 9 vols, 4to, and 
 reprinted at Geneva and at Oxford. He was 
 likewise the author of a treatise ou French 
 prosody. — Aikin's G, Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OLIVER OF MALMESBL'RY, a Bene- 
 dictine monk of the eleventh century, famous 
 for his skill in mechanics. He was born at 
 Malmesbury in Wiltsliire, and became a mera- 
 ber of the monastery at that })lace. The his- 
 torian, William of I\Ialmesbury, says, that he 
 was skilled in mathematics and astrology, and 
 farther informs ns. that though not deficient 
 in learning or abilities, he undertook one en- 
 terprise when he had arrived at years of ma- 
 turity, which savoured strongly of juvenile 
 audacity. Having affixed wings to his hands 
 and feet, he ascended a lofty tower, whence 
 he took his flight, and was borne upon the a:r 
 .for the space of a furlong ; but owing to the 
 
O L I 
 
 violence of the wind, or his own fears, he 
 then fell to the ground, and broke both his 
 legs. From this concise narrative it is im- 
 possible to determine what degree of merit is 
 due to this monkish aeronaut. It may, how- 
 ever, be concluded that his machinery was con- 
 structed on the principles of the parachute ; 
 and he appears to have been the first En- 
 glishman who attempted to travel through the 
 aerial regions. Oliver, who died a little be- 
 fore the Norman conquest, wTOte on astrology 
 and mathematics, but none of his works are 
 extant. — Moffatt's History of Malmesbury. 
 Bio^. Univ. 
 
 OLIVEYRA (Francis Xavieu d') a Por- 
 tuguese gentleman, a knight of the order of 
 Clirist, born at Lisbon in 1702. At the age 
 of fourteen he was admitted into a public 
 office, and in 1732 he went to IMadrid, where 
 his uncle, who held a diplomatic situation, 
 presented him to the king of Spain. His fa- 
 ther dying, he succeeded him as secretary of 
 embaesy at Vienna, and having had a dispute 
 with the count de Taronca, the ambassador, 
 he resigned his employment, and went to Hol- 
 land in 1740. His connexions with some Lu- 
 therans at Vienna had excited iu his mind 
 prepossessions against the Catholic faith, to 
 which he gave vent in " JMemoirs of his Tra- 
 vels," and " Familiar Letters," which he pub- 
 lished in 1741 and 1742. These works were 
 censured by the inquisition ; and the author, 
 having removed to England, made an open 
 profession of Protestantism in 1746. He pub- 
 lished a " Pathetic Discourse to his country- 
 men, on the earthquake at Lisbon in 1756," 
 and the following year a second discourse. In 
 September 1762 he was declared a heretic at 
 an Auto-da-Fe, and condemned to be burnt in 
 effigy, on which he published a book, entitled, 
 " The Chevalier d'Oliveyra burnt in Effigy as 
 an Heretic, why and wherefore 1 Anecdotes i 
 and Reflections on the Subject laid before the 
 Public by himself." He died at Hackney, 
 near London, in 1783. He published some 
 pieces, besides those mentioned, and left a 
 great number of MSS. including " Oliveyriaua, 
 or Memoirs, historical and literary," 27 vols. 
 4io.— Gent. Mag. for 1724. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OLIVIER, a French author, member of the 
 academy of Lyons, who, in 1750, wrote an 
 essay on the advantages derivable from m.usic 
 in the cure of diseases. His theory supposes 
 that there exists a certain s}'Tnpathy between 
 the human body and the surrounding atmos- 
 phere, and that the former is consequently 
 acted upon by th'^ vibrations of the latter, 
 which produce a kind of electrical effect. He 
 was also the author of a work entitled " L'Es- 
 prit d'Orphee, ou de I'lnfluence de la Mu- 
 sique," printed at Paris in 1798. — Biog. Diet, 
 of Mus. 
 
 OLIVIER (GuiLLAUME Antoine) an emi- 
 nent French naturalist and traveller, member 
 of the Institute and of the Agricultural Society 
 of Paris. He was born near Frejus in 1756, 
 and studied at Montpellier, where he received 
 the degree of MD. at tlie age of seventeen. 
 Natural history, and especially botany and en- 
 
 O L Y 
 
 tomology, were his favourite pursuits ; and at 
 the a^e of tweutv-three he went to Paris, to 
 assist in the composition of a work relative to 
 the natural history of the district in which that 
 metropolis is situated. He was afterwards sent 
 into England and Holland, to collect materials 
 for a general history of insects ; and he was 
 also employed on the entomological part of 
 the " Encyclopedie Methodique." The Re- 
 volution having arrested the progress of both 
 these enterprises, Olivier travelled to Persia, 
 together with IM. Bruguieres, another man of 
 science, or a diplomatic mission planned by the 
 minister Roland, whose death deprived the 
 envoys of the financial resources and official 
 protection on which they had calculated. Oli- 
 vier returned to Paris in December 1798, after 
 an absence of six years, during which he 
 visited Egypt, Greece, Turkey, Arabia, Per- 
 sia, and other eastern countries. He brought 
 home numerous and valuable collections of 
 curious objects of natural history, of which he 
 published an account in his " Voyage dans 
 I'Empire Ottoman, I'Egypt, et la Perse," 
 3 vols. 4to. with an atlas and plates. This 
 scientific traveller died suddenly at Lyons, in 
 1814. — (See Bruguieres, J. W.) — Biog, 
 NoHV. des Contemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OLIVIERI (Annibal) a learned Italian 
 antiquary. He was born at Pesaro, in tlie 
 Marche of Ancona, on the 17th June, 1708, 
 of an ancient family. After being educated at 
 the college of noblemen at Bologna, he studied 
 civil law at Pisa, and became honorary cham- 
 berlain to pope Clement XIII, and perpetual 
 secretary of the academy of Pesaro. He had 
 scarcely attained his twenty-eighth year, when 
 he published his admired work, entitled "Mar- 
 mora Pesauriensia Notis illustrata," 2 vols, 
 folio. In 1744 appeared his " Memoirs of 
 the ancient Port of Pesaro," 4to, and in 1780 
 his " History of the Church of Pesaro in the 
 Thirteenth Century." He also composed the 
 *' Memoirs of the Chevalier Passeri." — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 OLYMPIODORUS, an Alexandrian phi- 
 losopher, who flourished about the year 430, 
 and is celebrated for his knowledge of the 
 Aristotelian doctrine. He is to be distinguish- 
 ed from a Platonist of the same name, who 
 wrote a " Life of Plato," which has been 
 published in a Latin version by JamesWinder. 
 •He also wrote a " Commentary upon Plato," 
 preserved among the MSS. in the royal li- 
 brary at Paris. — There was also a peripatetic 
 of the same name, "who flourished in a later 
 age, and wrote a " Commentary upon the Me- 
 teorology of Aristotle. — Another Olympio- 
 DORUS was a Greek monk, who is placed under 
 the year 501. His works are, "A Commentary 
 on Ecclesiastes ;" "A Commentary upon the 
 Lamentations of Jeremiah ;" and "A Com- 
 mentary upon Job." — Suidas. Enfield's Hist. 
 Phil. Cave, MorerL 
 
 OLYiMPUS. There were two celebrated 
 musicians of antiquity who bore this name; 
 the one a scholar of Marsyas, bom in Mysia, 
 flourished before the Trojan war, and is men- 
 tioned honourably by Plato, Aristotle, nad 
 
ONE O IM 
 
 riutsJTch, who gpeak of his productions m \ of Cyrus. Ho is treated by Strabo, and 
 
 othira of tin? ant ients, as a fabulous and ro- 
 inunlic writer : but it m probable iba' tlie ii,'- 
 
 eiill extant in tbcir time. Suidas, and Julius 
 Pollux, also notice liim as an ele»^ant elej^iac 
 poet. Tbe otber, wbo died about tbe close of 
 the seventh century before tbe Christian a,na, 
 was contemporary with INlidas, by birth a 
 Phrygian, and, according to Suidas, the au- 
 thor of several poetic effusions, sometimes er- 
 roneously attributed to liis predecessor of the 
 same name. — Burney^s Hist, of' Mits. 
 
 OLZOFFSKI (Anduew) an eminent Po- 
 lish divine, was born in 1618. He was much 
 favoured by Ladislaus I\', who made him 
 prebendary to the crown, and promoted him 
 to the see of Culm. On the death of that 
 monarch, he was for some time in disgrace, 
 because he opposed the queen in her design 
 
 norance of the (Jreeks and Romans relative to 
 India contributed not a littl«- to render the 
 narrative of Onesicrites increiiible to hiB coun- 
 trymen. He survived Alexander, but the 
 exact time of liis death is not known. Hit 
 History is no longer extant, thouub pome of 
 his details relative to the geography and na- 
 tural history of the regions he visited have 
 been preserved by Strabo, iElian, and I'liny. 
 — Bincr. Univ. 
 
 ONlvELOS, a Jewish rabbi, 6upj)osed to 
 have been the disciple of Hillel the elder, and 
 to have lived in the beginning of the first 
 century. He was the author of the earliest 
 
 of establishing a French prince upon the throne [ Taruum, or Chaldee interpretation of the He- 
 
 of Poland ; nevertheless he was made vice- 
 chancellor of the crown, and on the ascension 
 of Michael Koribut be became grand-chan- 
 
 brew scriptures, extending hcjwever only to 
 the Pentateuch. The I'argum of Onkelos 
 consists of little more than a verbal transla- 
 
 cellor. On the death of Koribut he inte- | tion, but it is distinguished for accuracy and 
 rested himself zealously in procuring the elec- i purity of style, and is therefore much esteemed 
 tion of John Sobieski,who rewarded him with both by Jews and Christians. 'J'he other lar- 
 the archiepiscopal see of Gnesna, and would ' gums are that of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the 
 have made him a cardiual, had he not pro- i historical and prophetic books of the Bible, 
 tested against it. He died at Dantzic, in | from Joshua to Ezekiel inclusive, composed 
 1678. His works are, " Singularia Juris Pa- ; nearly at the same jieriod with the preceding. 
 
 tronatus W, Poloni;e ;" " Vindiciaj Polonicje;' 
 and some other j)olitical treatises. — Moi-eri. 
 
 and approaching to it in the style and manner 
 of its execution ; the 'Cargum on the law of 
 
 OMAR I, caliph of the Saracens, the se- ; Moses, ascribed to Jonathan, but disgraced by 
 cond of the successors of Mahomet. Under the i"ntroduction of legendary tales and ridicu- 
 his reign tlie empire of the Moslems was lous digressions, and probably not of earlier 
 greatly extended. His generals, Kaled and date than the seventh century ; the Jerusalem 
 Abu Obeidah, drove the Greeks out of Syria Targum, a Chaldee paraphrase ou select parts 
 and Phoenicia, and the caliph himself took of the law, apparently a compilation from va- 
 possession of Jerusalem in 638, which city ' rioug authors made in the seventh or eighth 
 remained in the hands of the Tnfidels till it century ; the Targum on the Hagiograpba, or 
 •was reconquered by Godfrey of Bouillon, at Psalms, Proverbs, &c. said to have been the 
 the end of the eleventh century. Under work of rabbi Joseph the Blind, in the third 
 Omar, also, Amru became master of Egypt, century, but from its legendary character, and 
 and after taking Alexandria he is said to have the corruptions of style which it exhibits, it is 
 destroyed the famous library there, by the ex- obviously the production of a much later pe- 
 piess order of the caliph, who declared that riod ; the 'J'argum on the Megilloth, or books 
 the books of which it consisted, if they agreed of Canticles, Ruth, &c. apparently written in 
 with the Koran, were superfluous; if they the sixth century, and. like the last, abound- 
 contradicted it, erroneous, and therefore in | ing in fables ; three Targums, on the book of 
 either case useless. It however ought to be ; P'.stber, written in very corruf)t Chaldee ; and 
 observed, that this story is regarded by mo- the Targum on the books of Chronicles, of a 
 dern historians as of doubtful authenticity, late date, and of little authority. The earliest 
 
 The conquests of the Mahometans in the reign 
 of Omar extendeil to Mesopotamia and Persia; 
 and having fixed his residence at Jerusalem, 
 he was there assassinated by a Persian slave, 
 in the tenth year of his government, AD. 
 61-3. Omar is distinguished for liavinor col- 
 
 and most important of these Targums are 
 printed in Walton's Polyglott Bible. — Moreri. 
 Prideavx. Home's Introd. to the Holy Script. 
 ONOSANDER, a Greek writer, who flou- 
 rished about the middle of the first century. 
 He wrote commentaries on Plato's Treatise on 
 
 lected and arranged tbe chapters of the Koran, i Politics, which are no longer extant ; and he 
 which assumed its })resent form under his di- ! was also the author of a work on Strategetica, 
 rection, from the collation of various copies of or the duties and virtues of the general of an 
 different portions dispersed among the dis- i army, jmblished at Nuremberg, 1762, folio, 
 ciples of Mahomet, or preserved by oral tra- and of which there are various translations. — ' 
 dition. — Ockley's Hist, of the Saracens. Ru\s;. Univ. 
 
 ONESICRITES, a Greek historian, a na- OPIE (John) professor of painting at the 
 live of the island of Egina, and a disciple of Royal academy, was bom in 1761, in the 
 the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. He was parish of St Agnes, near Truro, in Coniwall. 
 taken into tbe service of Alexander the Great, ' His father was a carpenter, and he was intend- 
 whom he accompanied in his expedition to i ed for the same occupation ; but when very 
 India, and wrote an account of that under- ' young he manifested a taste for study, and a 
 Uiking on the plan of Xenophon's Expedition _ strong predilection for the arts of design, Hii 
 
O P i 
 
 t«Ients attracted the notic:e of Dr Walcot, then ] 
 a physician at Truro, who gave Opie some in- 
 structions, and enabled him to visit some of . 
 the neighbouring towns as a portrait-painter. I 
 He returned from his expedition with twenty \ 
 guineas, which he had earned by his pencil, 
 and he thenceforward resolved to devote him- i 
 self to the profession of painting. When 
 about nineteen he removed to London, where he 
 improved the various advantages for study which | 
 the situation afforded ; but it was not till 1786 ! 
 that any of his pictures were admitted into the 
 exhibition at Somerset house. He was short- ! 
 ly after nominated an associate of the academy, 
 and then an academician. The first specimen 
 he gave of his literary ability was in a life of 
 sir Joshua Reynolds, in Dr Wolcot's edition 
 of Pilkington's Dictionary. He then publish- 
 ed " An Inquiry into the requisite Cultivation 
 of the Arts of Design in England ;" and he 
 delivered lectures at the Royal Institution. In 
 180-1 he succeeded Mr Fuseli as professor of 
 painting, when he read four lectures on paint- 
 ing, which have been published. He died 
 April 9, 1807, and was interred in St Paul's 
 cathedral. Opie holds a high station among 
 modern historical painters ; and his pencil 
 was employed on the pictures exhibited in the 
 Boydell and Macklin galleries. — Bryan s Diet, 
 of Pahit. and Eng. 
 
 OPITZ, or OPITIUS (Henry) a divine of 
 the Lutheran persuasion, eminent as anOriental 
 scholar. He was born at Alteuburg, in Ger- 
 many, in 1642: and after studying the Eastern 
 languages in his native country, he came to 
 England, and pursued his researches under 
 professor Pocock, at Oxford. In 1675 he ob- 
 tained the Greek professorship at Kiel, to 
 ■which was added three years after, that of 
 Oriental literature. He became professor of 
 divinity in 1689, and subsequently ecclesias- 
 tical counsellor to the duke of Holstein. He 
 died in 1712, leaving many useful works re- 
 lating to the study of the Hebrew language 
 and Biblical literature, comprising a grammar 
 and lexicon, and a tract, entitled " Atrium 
 Linguae Sanctse, quo exhibetur Consilium de 
 Studio Ling. Sanct." 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 OPITZ VON BOBERFIELD (Martin) 
 known also by his Latinized name Opitius, a 
 celebrated German poet of the seventeenth 
 century. He was born at BunzJau in Silesia, 
 in 1597, and commenced author by the publi- 
 cation of Latin poems, entitled, " Strenarum 
 Libellus," in 1616. The following year he 
 became a teacher at the gymnasium of Ben- 
 them on the Oder, and besides poetical com- 
 positions, he published his" Aristarchus, sive 
 de Contemptu Linguae Teutonicae," 4to. He 
 then studied at Frankfort on the Oder, and hav- 
 ing afterwards visited many cities in Germany 
 and Holland, he went in 1621 to the court of 
 the duke of Lignitz ; whence, in about a year, 
 he removed, to become professor of philosophy 
 and classical literature at the university of 
 Weissemoourg, then newly founded by Beth- 
 lem Gabor. The situation proving unpleasant, 
 he soon returned to Bunzlau, and afterwards 
 lo Lignitz. Becoming distinguished for his 
 
 GPP 
 
 talents, he went to Vienna, where the empe- 
 ror Ferdinand II bestowed on him the poetical 
 crown, and afterwards gave him letters of no- 
 bility, when he assumed the title of von Bo- 
 berfeld. He returned to Silesia, and became 
 secretary to the Burgrave of Dohna ; but on 
 losing his patron by death, he entered anew 
 into the service of the duke of Lignitz. At 
 length he was appointed secretary and histo- 
 riographer to the king of Poland, and he 
 passed the last five years of his life at Dant- 
 zic, where he died August 20, 1639. Among 
 his works are, a poem on mount Vesuvius, 
 Silvae, Epigrams, &:c. He has been termed 
 the father of German poetry, and the Mal- 
 herbe of Germany, having greatly contributed 
 to polish the poetical style and language of his 
 countrymen. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OPORINUS (John) a learned printer and 
 classical scholar of the sixteenth century. He 
 was the son of John Herbst, a painter, and 
 was born at Basil in 1507. After finishinsr 
 his education at Strasburg, and experiencing 
 great difficulties from the narrowness of his 
 circumstances, he became teacher in the 
 school at the abbey of St Urban, in the canton 
 of Lucerne. He afterwards was made pro- 
 fessor of classical literature at Basil, but he 
 was obliged to quit that situation, because he 
 had not taken the degree of master of arts. 
 He then studied medicine, which pursuit he 
 relinquished to engage in business as a printer, 
 in partnership with another person ; and he then 
 changed his family name for the Grecised ap- 
 pellation of Oporinus. This typographical 
 undertaking was unsuccessful, and the part- 
 nership being dissolved, Oporinus carried on 
 business afterwards on his own account. He 
 printed fine editions of a great number of an- 
 cient authors, many of which were accompa- 
 nied with translations and annotations from his 
 pen, highly creditable to liis learning and in- 
 dustry. He wrote notes on some of the works 
 of Plutarch, Solinus, Cicero, and Demosthenes; 
 and he translated into Latin those of Xeno- 
 phon, Theocritus, and Hesiod. He died in 
 1568, having been four times married ; and 
 by the last of his wives he left one son, — Teis- 
 sier Eloges des H. S. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OPPENHEIMER (David Bex Abra- 
 ham) a rabbin of the eighteenth century, who 
 was a native of Worms in Germany, He was 
 educated at Kicolsburg, in Moravia, and pre- 
 sided over the synagogue there, and after- 
 wards over that of Prague, where he died in 
 1737, at the age of seventy. He was distin- 
 guished for his learning, and formed a most 
 valuable library of Hebrew books and MSS. 
 which was of great use to Wolfius in the com 
 position of his Bibliotheca Hebraica. A cata. 
 logue of this collection was published at Ham- 
 burg in 1782, 4to. Oppenheimer left a great 
 number of works in manuscript, and he pub- 
 lished a " Preface for the Pentateuch," in the 
 rabbinical Bible of Berlin, 1705, 8vo, and 
 other pieces. — De Ilossii Dizion, Star, de^lt 
 Autori Ebrei. Bio<r, Univ. 
 
 OPPIAN, a Greek poet, who lived under 
 the emperor Caracaila, in the begiuninj, of the 
 
O PS 
 
 third century- He was a native of Cilicia. 
 and apparently of Grecian descent, as his fa- 
 ther's name was Agesihius, and his mother's 
 Zenodota. He wrote poems distinguished for 
 elegance and sublimity ; hut two only of his 
 productions are nowextant, his " llalieuticon," 
 or five books on fishing ; and four books on 
 hunting, entitled " Cynicgeticon." Caracalla, 
 the Roman emperor, to whom the latter work 
 was presented, was so j)leasetl with it, that he 
 gave the author a piece of gold for every 
 verse, whence the poem has been stiled the 
 golden verses of Ojjjnau. He died in his 
 thirtieth year, AD. '■213, and his countrymen 
 erected statues in honour of him. The best 
 edition of his works is that of Schneider, 
 Strasb. 17 To, 8vo ; and there is another by 
 the same editor, 1813, 8vo. His Halieatics 
 have been translated into English, by Jones, 
 Oxford, 1722, 8vo. — Elton s Spec, of Classic 
 Poets. Bifliz. Unic. 
 
 OPSOPJEUS. or OBSOP.EUS (John) a 
 German physician, born at Brettin, in the 
 Palatinate, in 1356. Having received a clas- 
 sical education at Neuhausen, and at the 
 college of Wisdom at Heidelberg, he went 
 to Frankfort on the IMayne, where he be- 
 came corrector of the press, for the prin- 
 ter Wechelius. There he also applied 
 himself to the study of medicine, and 
 after remaining six years, he visited Eng- 
 land and PloUand, when returning to hi« 
 native country, he obtained the medical cLair 
 in the university of Heidelberg. He be- 
 came physician to the elector Frederick IV, 
 whom he attended on a visit to Hamburg, and 
 being taken ill immediately after his return 
 home, he died in 1596. He published seve- 
 ral of the treatises of Hippocrates, with Latin 
 versions and notes ; the Sibylline Oracles, with 
 remarks ; '' Zoroastris Magica, cum Scholiis 
 Plethonis et Pselli ;" and " Oracula IMetrica 
 Jovis ;" printed altogether at Paris, in 1607. 
 — Simon Opsop.cus, brother of the preceding, 
 was also professor of medicine at Heidelberg, 
 where he died in 1619, aged forty-four. He 
 enjoyed high reputation as a physician, and 
 published some works on his profession. — 
 Moreri. HiitcJiinson. Biog. Univ. 
 
 OPSOP^US (Vincent) a learned philolo- 
 gical writer, born in Franconia, towards the 
 end of the fifteenth century. He opened a 
 school of classical literature at Anspach, and 
 employed his leisure in the revision of such 
 manuscripts as he could procure. He endea- 
 voured to stimulate the German printers of 
 his time to follow the example of Aldus i\Ia- 
 nutius, in publishing editions of ancient au- 
 thors, instead of employing their presses on 
 the futile productions of their contemporaries. 
 The details of his life are little known, but 
 he died about 1540. He translated into La- 
 tin the letters of Luther ; and from the Greek, 
 several books of the Iliad ; the history of Po- 
 lybius, that of Diodorous Siculus, and the 
 romance of Heliodorus. He was likewise the 
 author of a curious poem " De Arte Biben- 
 di ;" a treatise on rhetoric, and other works. 
 -Biog. Univ. 
 
 OPTATUS, a saint in the Roman calendar, 
 was bi>li(,p of Mclevia, a town of Numidia, 
 and riuurisliitl in the fuurth century, under th« 
 empire of Valentinian and Valena. He ac- 
 (iniretl much reputation by a work which he 
 wrote in favour of the Catholica agaiuHt the 
 Douatists, in six books, to which a Beveulli 
 has been added by another hand. This work 
 has been published 8ev<-ral times ; the last and 
 best edition is that of Dupin, in 1700, in 
 which he has inserted the notes of the other 
 editors, with a collection of the acts of co ,n- 
 cils, edicts of emperors, letters of bishops, pro- 
 consular acts, and acts of martyrs, which in 
 any way regard the history of the Donaiists. 
 It also contains two other dissertations of Op- 
 tatus, one containing the " History of the 
 Donatists ;" the other upon " The Sacred 
 Geography of Africa." — Cave. Dupin. 
 
 ORANGPj (PiiiLiBKKT ije Chalons, 
 prince of) a famous military officer of the six- 
 teenth century. He was in the service of 
 Francis I of France, which he quitted in 1520, 
 through pique at being deprived of his apart- 
 ments at Fontainebleau, to make room for the 
 Polish ambassador. He went over to the em- 
 peror Charles V, who recompensed him for 
 the loss of his principality, and the govern- 
 ment of Britanny, by giving him the princi- 
 pality of Amalphi, the dutchy of Gravina, 
 various territories in Italy and Flanders, and 
 the order of the golden fleece. He commanded 
 the Spanish infantry at the siege of Fontarabia 
 in 1522 ; but his greatest exploit was the cap- 
 ture of Rome in 1527, after the death of the 
 constable de Bourbon, to the command of 
 whose army he succeeded. He was killed at 
 the battle of Pistoia in 1530, at the age of 
 twenty-eight. Dying unmarried, he left his 
 estates to Rene de jSassau, the son of his 
 sister, and thus the principality of Orange, to 
 which Philibert had been restored by the 
 treaty of JNIadrid, descended to the house of 
 Nassau. — Orangk (William of Nassau, 
 prince of) succeeded to the title on the death 
 of his cousin Ren6 in 1541. He was ap- 
 ])ointed by the States-gener;tl of the Dutch 
 United Provinces, chief of their republic, to 
 the establishment and security of which he 
 had contributed, on their tlirowing off the yoke 
 of Spain. He was a great captain and a wise 
 politician, and he was so much dreaded by the 
 Spaniards, that not being able to overcome 
 him by force of arm^, they resorted to the in- 
 famous expedient of taking him off by assas- 
 sination. In 1582 he was wounded by a pis- 
 tol-shot as he was rising from table, by Jaure- 
 gui, the servant of a ruined banker, who was 
 suspected of having poisoned Don John of 
 Austria. The prince recovered fron\ the effects 
 of this injury, but he was killed by Balthasar 
 Gerard, a Burgundian, employed by the Spa- 
 niards, June 10, 1581-. He had four wives, 
 and left twelve children, of whom two of his 
 sons became successively stadtholders of the 
 United Provinces. — Orange (Maurice of 
 Nassau, prince of) the second son of Wil- 
 liam, succeeded his elder brother Philip Wil- 
 liam in 16 lo, in the hereditary principality , 
 
O 11 F 
 
 but the states of Holland, Zealand, and 
 Utrecht had previously chosen him for their 
 goyernof on the death of his father. He made 
 himself master of all the places belonging to 
 the Spaniards in Holland. In 1.590 he sur- 
 prised Breda, and took it by stratagem ; and 
 in a short time he recovered all Friseland, Gro- 
 ningen, Overyssel, Nimeguen, and the county 
 of Gueldres ; till at length the seven pro- 
 vinces were united under his government. In 
 1600 he defeated the archduke Albert, at the 
 famous battle of Nieuport, in wbich 6000 
 Spauiards were left on the field. A truce for 
 twelve years, concluded in 1609, between 
 Spain and the Dutch states, was the impor- 
 tant result of bis enterprises. Prince ^Maurice, 
 who has been reckoned tbe greatest general 
 of his age, was only calculated to shine in war. 
 His endeavours to obtain the sovereignty of 
 Holland, and bis barbarous treatment of Barne- 
 veldt, and other patriots who opposed him, 
 tend greatly to tarnish the glory he had pre- 
 viously acquired. In 16!21 war was renewed 
 with tbe Spaniards, under the marquis Spi- 
 nola, who, having taken Breda from the Dutch 
 in 1625, contrary to the expectations of prince 
 Maurice, he was so chagrined at the misfor- 
 tune, that he died shortly after, at the age of 
 fifty-five. — Moreri, Biog. Univ. 
 
 ORDERICUS VITALIS, an historian of 
 the twelfth century. He was of a French 
 family, but was born in England, and at the 
 age of ten he was sent for education to an ab- 
 bey in Normandy, in winch his father, who 
 had become a widower, had taken the reli- 
 gious habit. He also entered into the order 
 of priesthood, but never attained to any of 
 the dignities of his profession, having devoted 
 his life to literary studies. He died after 1143. 
 He wrote an " Ecclesiastical History," in 
 thirteen books, published in Duchesne's "His- 
 toricE Normannorum Scriptores," and in other 
 collections. This work, amidst a multitude of 
 frivolous details and religious fables, contains 
 many interesting facts relating to Normandy 
 and England, which are not to be found in 
 any contemporary author. — Diet. Hist. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ORELLANA (Francis) a Spanish oflicer, 
 who is regarded as the discoverer of the great 
 river of the Amazons in South America. In 1539 
 he embarked near Quito, on the river Coca, 
 which, lower down the stream, takes the name 
 of Napo. From this river he passed to another, 
 wbich gradually became more eitensive, and 
 following the course of the current, he at 
 length arrived at Cape North, on the coast of 
 Guyana, after a navigation of nearly 1800 
 leagues. Orellana perished ten years after, 
 with three vessels, with which he had been 
 intrusted by the Spanish government to ex- 
 plore the river he had previously discovered, 
 but the opening of which he was not able to 
 find. The denomination of the river, as well 
 as of the country through which it flows 
 (Amazonia) originated from an encounter of 
 Orellana with some armed females during 
 bis first expedition. — Robertson. 
 
 ORFIREUS or ORFFYREUS (John 
 
 ORI 
 
 Ernest Elias) a German mechanic, whose 
 proper name was Bessler. He was bom in 
 1680, of a mean family in Lusatia. He first 
 studied divinity and medicine, but at length 
 devoted himself entirely to the cultivation of 
 the mathematical sciences, and especially of 
 mechanics. After travelling through various 
 parts of Germany, and experiencing a multi- 
 tude of adventures, he entered into a convent 
 as a lay-brother ; but getting tired of the con- 
 finement, he made his escape, and went to 
 Italy. He then turned empyric, and subse- 
 quently devoted himself to researches after the 
 perpetual motion. In 1712 he exhibited a 
 machine, in the construction of which he pro- 
 fessed to have attained his object ; but this 
 he afterwards destroyed. In 1716 he ob- 
 tained the patronage of the elector of Hesse, 
 who invited him to Cassel, to renew his ope- 
 rations ; and he was so far successful, that 
 he produced a piece of mechanism, which was 
 examined by the philosopher S'Gravesande, 
 who was convinced that it was set in motion 
 by no external power, though it continued 
 moving for an indefinite length of time. Orf- 
 fyreus, displeased at the investigations of 
 S'Gravesande, to whom he refused to exhibit 
 the interior of his machine, broke it in pieces. 
 He afterwards obtained a house and estate at 
 Carlshaven, where he undertook to re-con- 
 struct his machine on a large scale, and he 
 settled there in 1722 ; but he made no further 
 attempt, devoting his time to other projects, 
 equally nugatory. He died in November 1745. 
 He published a tract, entitled " Ihe Perpe- 
 tual Motion triumphant," Cassel, 1719, 4to, 
 and other works. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ORIBASIUS, a celebrated Greek physi- 
 cian of the fourth century, born at Pergamus. 
 He was the pupil of Zeno of Cyprus, and be- 
 came physician to the emperor Julian, whom 
 he accompanied in his expedition to Persia, 
 and witnessed his death. Under the succeed- 
 ing emperors, Valens and Valeutinian, he fell 
 into disgrace, was deprived of his property, 
 exiled, and obliged to take refuge among the 
 barbarians. At length his merit was acknow- 
 ledged, and he was recalled, and recompensed 
 for his losses. He lived till towards the middle 
 of the fifth century. Notwithstanding his 
 misfortunes and his travels, he composed many 
 professional works, some of which are still 
 extant. The most important is his treatise on 
 anatomy, published at Paris, 1556, 8vo ; and 
 at Leyden, 1735, 4to, enriched with notes, 
 by Dr W. Dundas. — Biog. Univ. Hutchinson. 
 
 ORI GEN, one of the most celebrated among 
 the Christian fathers of the third century. He 
 was called also Adamantius, and was bom. 
 about AD. 185, at Alexandria in Egypt, being 
 the son of Leonides, who suffered martyrdom 
 in the reign of the Roman emperor Severus. 
 He studied under the philosopher Ammonius, 
 and afterwards under Clement of Alexandria. 
 He was but seventeen at the death of his 
 father, and it is reported that his zeal would 
 have induced him to share the fate of Leoni- 
 des, had not his mother prevented his pur- 
 pose. Origen then betook himself to the office 
 
C) II I 
 
 of a grammatical tutor, in order to support 
 his widowed parent and several youni^er bro- 
 thers, who were reduced to poverty. At 
 length he was made proft ssor of sacrtd lite- 
 rature at Alexandria, wlu re his lectures were 
 much frequented, and he had among his 
 hearers several persons who afterwards at- 
 tained threat eminence in the cliurcli. He then 
 devoted himself to preachinij, and practised 
 extraordinary mortilications, never sleeping on 
 a bed, and abstaining from wine and flesli, 
 with a variety of otlier austerities inter- 
 mixed with religious exercises. If, however, 
 his enthusiasm carried him to all the lengths 
 which have been reported, he must have liad 
 less confiilence in the strength of his resolu- 
 tion than has fallen to the share of most asce- 
 tics, since it would appear that lie resorted to 
 physical means to secure himself against temp- 
 tation. At this period he commenced his 
 celebrated " Ilexapla," which first suggested 
 the idea of Polyglott Bibles. This work con- 
 tained the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, 
 with the Greek versions of the Septuagint, and 
 those of Aquila, Theodoiion, and Symmachus, 
 together with other versions of some portions 
 of the Scriptures. Fragments alone of the 
 Hexapla have been preserved, which were col- 
 lected and published by father I\Iontfaucon. 
 Origen having taken the order of priesthood in 
 Palestine, Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria, 
 was displeased at his conduct, and professing 
 to have discovered errors in his writings, he 
 prevented him from teaching, and procured 
 his biinishment. He then went to Ca^saria, 
 where his fame is said to have attracted the 
 notice of Mamm^ea, the mother of the empe- 
 ror Alexander Severus, who sent for him to 
 Antioch, and was highly edified by his apos- 
 tolic zeal, and the eloquence of his discourses. 
 "When the Christians were persecuted in the 
 reign of iMaximin, Origen took refuge at 
 Athens, where he employed himself in writing 
 Scholia, or commentaries on the Scriptures. 
 He subsequently converted Beryllus, bishop of 
 Bostra, who had fallen into error relative to 
 the pre-existence of Christ ; and he also as- 
 sisted at a council in which the heresy of some 
 Arabians was condemned, who, like the mo- 
 dern Unitarians, maintained that the soul dies 
 with the body, and will be revived at the re- 
 surrection. Origen himself, however, was 
 charged with holding various heterodox opi- 
 nions, among which the most fermidable is 
 that of the finite duration of future punishment, 
 and the ultimate salvation of devils, which, as 
 may be supposed, gave great scandal to the 
 church. His attachment to the ])bilosophy 
 of Plato, in which he had been instructed by 
 his master Ammonius, also appears in his 
 explanations of the Scriptures, which abound 
 in allegory and mystical allusion. He, how- 
 ever, in some measure atoned for his errors by 
 his noble defence of the Gospel against the 
 Epicurean philosopher Celsus, in a treatise 
 which is still extant. Hence Cassiodorus 
 says of Origen, " Ubi bene nemo melius ; ubi 
 male nemo pejus." In the Decian persecu- 
 tion he was imprisoned and tortured, and, ac- 
 
 O R L 
 
 cording to some accounts, he suffered mar- 
 tyrdom, thuugh it is ^(enerally supposed that 
 he died a natural »leaih at Tyre, AD. '254. 
 His works were jiublislied by Huet, but the 
 best edition is tliat of tlie Benedictines, Paris, 
 1733, 4 vols, folio. Tuthemius. llneiii Ori- 
 l^oi'uinct. Cnia's Lives of the Fathers. 
 
 OllUiNY ( Antiionv John Baiti^t Abra- 
 ham d') horn at Rheims in 1731, lield the 
 office of counsellor of the mint, and dedicated 
 his leisure to the cultivation of letters. Ho 
 was a member of many provincial academies, 
 and died in October 1798. He published 
 " Dictionnaire des Origines, ou Kpoches dea 
 Inventions, Decouvertes, 6tc." Paris, 1776, 
 1778, 6 vols. 8vo ; " Abreg^ de I'Histoire du 
 Theatre Franfais," tome quatrieme, 1733, 
 in continuation of a work by Mouhy, and 
 " Anuales du Theatre Italien," 1788, 3 vols. 
 8vo. — Pj'iof^. Univ. 
 
 OIIIGNY (PiTtn Adam d') a writer on 
 classical antujuities, who was a native of 
 Rheims in France, and died there September 
 9, 1774. In the early part of his life he en- 
 tered into the army, and became a captain of 
 grenadiers ; but having been disabled by a 
 wound, which he received at the attack of the 
 lines of Weissembourg in Germany, he retired 
 from the service, with a pension and the cross 
 of St Louis. He was the author of a learned 
 work entitled " L'Egypte Ancienne, ou Me- 
 moires historiques ct critiques sur les Objets 
 les plus imjiortans du grand Empire des Egyp- 
 tiens," 1762, 2 vols. 12mo ; and another on 
 Egyptian Chronology ; and at the time of his 
 death, he was occupied in more extended re- 
 searches relating to the same subject. — Diet, 
 Hist. Biog. U7iiv. 
 
 ORLANDI (Peregrine Anthony) a 
 learned bibliographer and writer on the history 
 of the arts, who died about 1730. He pub- 
 lished an " Account of the Orioin and Protrresa 
 of Printing, from 1457 to 1500," Bologna, 
 1722, 4to ; a " History of Bolognese Writers, 
 with Remarks on their Works," 1714, 4to ; 
 and a Dictionary of Artists, entitled " Abece- 
 dario Pittorico," 1719, 4to, which was repub- 
 lished with additions after the death of the 
 author. All the works of Orlandi are es- 
 teemed for their general accuracy, and the 
 abundance of information which they afford. 
 This writer was a Carmelite fiiar, and was 
 doctor and professor of theology at Bologna. — 
 Diet. Jlist. Edit. 
 
 ORLEANS (Gaston John Baptist, duke 
 of) the third son of Henry 1\ of France, by 
 his wife Mary de INIedicis. He was bom at 
 Fontainebleau in 1608, and at first received the 
 title of duke of Anjou, but after the death ot 
 an elder brother in 1611, he was made duke 
 of Orleans. He was engaged in various in- 
 trigues and insurrections against the govern- 
 ment in the reiijn of his brother, Louis NlIT, 
 and the minority of Louis XIV. Prompted 
 by his favourites, he made a multitude of un- 
 successful attempts to ruin cardinal Richelieu. 
 It was by his persuasions that the duke of 
 Montmorenci, governor of Languedoc, was 
 induced to take arms against the minister ; 
 
O R L 
 
 and Gaston traversed France to join him, in a 
 stvle more resembling that of a fugitive, fol- 
 lowed by a few deserters, than like a prince in 
 arms against a king. This revolt proved very 
 unfortunate, for Montmorenci was taken pri- 
 soner and executed, and Orleans was forced 
 to make most humiliaiing submissions. Some 
 time after, he became involved in the conspiracy 
 of Bouillon and Cinq-lMars, from which he ex- 
 tricated himself by accusing his accomplices, 
 and renewing his humiliation. After the death 
 of Louis XIII, he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general of the kingdom, when he acquired mi- 
 litary reputation by the taking of Gravelines, 
 Courtrai, andMardyck ; but his cabals against 
 cardinal Mazarin at length occasioned his be- 
 ing banished to Blois, where he died Febru- 
 ary 2d, 1660. This prince possessed much 
 wit and humour, and many of his repartees 
 are recorded. He left " Memoires de ce qui 
 s'est passe de plus considerable en France de- 
 puis I'an 1608 jusqu'en 1635," printed at Am- 
 sterdam in 1683, and at Paris in 1685, 12mo. 
 — Orleans (Philip, duke of) the younger 
 son of Louis XIII, born in 1640. He had for 
 his tutor La Mothe le Yayer, to whom cardi- 
 nal Mazarin said, " Why should you make 
 the king's brother a clever man 1 If he be- 
 come more learned than the king, he will not 
 know how to yield him implicit obedience." 
 Upon such principles was his education con- 
 ducted, and he consequently proved dissipated, 
 vain, and effeminate. He was married in 
 1661, to Henrietta, the sister of Charles II, 
 who died in 1670, under circumstances which 
 rendered it highly probable that she was poi- 
 soned. In the following year the duke took 
 for his second wife, Charlotte Elizabeth, daugh- 
 ter of the elector of Bavaria. He died of apo- 
 plexy at St Cloud, June 1st, 1701. A French 
 translation of the Roman history of Florus, by 
 the duke of Orleans, was published in 1670, 
 12mo. — Orleans (Philip, duke of) son of 
 the preceding by bis last wife, bom at St 
 Cloud, August 4th, 1674. He possessed great 
 natural abilities, which might have been bet- 
 ter cultivated, if he had not fallen under the 
 control of his sub-preceptor, Dubois, after- 
 wards cardinal. He nevertheless made a ra- 
 pid progress in various sciences, and especially 
 in geometry, chemistry, and, poetry, and he 
 was also skilled in the arts of music and draw- 
 inor. He was married to mademoiselle de 
 Blois, one of the daughters of Louis XIV, by 
 madame de Montespan, whom he treated with 
 attention, but at the same time he gave way 
 to his inclinations, wliich led him to practise 
 the grossest sensuality and dissipation. Yet 
 in the midst of his criminal career, he was not 
 deaf to the calls of ambition, and he was en- 
 gaged in military service in Flanders, Italy, 
 and Spain, where he displayed considerable 
 abilities. When the cause of his cousin, Phi- 
 lip V, appeared almost hopeless, he formed a 
 design of securing the Spanish sceptre for 
 himself ; but his plan was discovered, and that 
 and some other intiigues of which he was 
 suspected deprived him of the favour of Louis 
 XIV, whose death, in 1715, prevented the 
 
 ORL 
 
 completion of arrangements for preventing the 
 duke of Orleans from obtaining the regencj 
 during the minority of the next king. He ac- 
 cordingly succeeded to that office, and during 
 nearly the whole of his government he was 
 guided by the counsels of his able but profli- 
 gate minister, cardinal Dubois. The duka 
 himself is said to have manifested a spirit o! 
 clemency and generosity towards his enemies 
 and a disposition to alleviate the burdens ot 
 the people ; but some of his plans proved un- 
 successful, and otliers were overruled by his 
 advisers. Exhausted by business and plea- 
 sure, he died December 25, 1723. He left 
 some good specimens of his ability as an ar- 
 tist, particularly in the plates to a splendid 
 edition of Amyot's translation of the romance 
 of Daphnis and Chloe, designed and engraved 
 by himself; and he also composed the music 
 of two operas. — Orleans (Louis, duke of) 
 son of the regent, was born at Versailles, Au- 
 gust 4, 1703. He had for a tutor the abb6 
 Mongault, who inspired him with an early 
 taste for study ; but the first part of his life 
 was spent in dissipation. In 1724 he mar- 
 ried the princess of Baden, and having had 
 the misfortune to lose her two years after, he 
 was afflicted with a profound melancholy, 
 which at length induced him to seclude him- 
 self from the world, and devote himself to re- 
 ligious exercises and study. He took an 
 apartment in the abbey of St Genevieve in 
 1730, and resided there entirely from 1742 till 
 his death, which happened February 4, 1752. 
 He wrote translations, paraphrases, and anno- 
 tations on the Scriptures, and various other 
 theological works. — Orleans (Louis Jo- 
 seph Philip, duke of) grandson of the fore- 
 going, was born at St Cloud, April 13, 1747. 
 He was called when young the duke of Char- 
 tres, and in 1769 he was married to the 
 daughter of the duke of Penthievre,who held 
 the office of grand-admiral of France. He 
 wished to have succeeded him, and not being 
 able to obtain his object, he went as a volun- 
 teer on board the squadron of the count d'Or- 
 villiers, when he was present at the engage- 
 ment with the English off Ushant, and he is 
 stated to have behaved on that occasion with 
 extreme cowardice. On his return home, in- 
 stead of receiving promotion in the navy, the 
 post of colonel-general of the hussars was 
 created and bestowed on him. Some time 
 after, he succeeded the count de Clermont as 
 chief of the French Freemasons. After the 
 death of his father, in 1787, he became pos- 
 sessed of the hereditary title and estates ; and 
 from that period he adopted various methods 
 to obtain popularity, with a view to political 
 power. In the disputes between the court 
 and the parliaments he constantly opposed the 
 royal authority, and gradually drew around 
 him almost all the friends of revolution or re- 
 form. His behaviour towards the king at the 
 royal session of November 19, 1787, occa- 
 sioned his exile to Villers Coteret, during 
 which the praises of the journalists heighten- 
 ed his influence with the populace. Previously 
 to the convocation of the States-general, some 
 
() R L 
 
 attempts nro said to have, been made to pain '■ 
 him ovtT to the court, but lliey were iiieflec- 
 lual ; and becoming; a member of tbat body, 
 he, from the begini-.iiig, protested against all 
 tlie decrees of the chamber of nobles, and at 
 length joined, with other members, the tiers- 
 6tat to form the National Assembly. At this 
 period it appears \o have been his ohject to 
 reduce the king to a state of tutelage, and pro- 
 cure for himself the formidable ofhce of lieu- 
 tenant-general of the kingdom, l^ut he was 
 by no means qualified to profit by the commo- 
 tions to which lie had contributed, and he be- 
 came, in a great measure, the passive instru- 
 ment of the jacobins, and ultimately the victim 
 of his schemes of ambition, lie was chosen 
 a member of the National Convention in Sep- 
 tember 179'2, at which time the commune of 
 Paris authorised him to adopt for himself and 
 his descendants the appellation of I^gahte, in- 
 stead of the name and titles of his family. In 
 the Convention he voted for the deatli of the 
 king, and on the 7th of April following he was 
 liimself arrested and committed to prison at 
 IMarseilles, wnth otlier members of his family, 
 liein^ brought before the criminal tribunal of 
 the department, he was declared innocent of 
 the charges of conspiracy against the govern- 
 ment which were preferred against him ; but 
 the committee of public safety forbade his li- 
 beration, and after six months' detention he 
 was transferred to Paris to undergo a new trial. 
 At his examination he defended his conduct 
 with calmness and address, but ineffectually ; 
 and being condemned to suffer by the guillo- 
 tine, he submitted to his fate with courage and 
 firmness. He was executed November 6, 
 1793. — Diet. Hht. Biag. Univ. 
 
 ORLEANS (Anne Mary Louisa of) see 
 
 IMoXTPKXSir.R. 
 
 ORLEANS (Charlotte Elizabeth, du- 
 chess of) was the daughter of Charles Louis, 
 elector of Bavaria. She was born in 1652, and 
 in 1671 became the secontl wife of the brother 
 of Louis XIV, by whom she was the mother of 
 the regent, duke of Orleans. Her person was 
 extremely plain, but her di.si)Osition was lively, 
 and she possessed talents and wit, which made 
 her a favourite with the king. She died in 
 1722. Her letters, written between 1715 and 
 1720, and addressed to duke Ulric of Bavaria, 
 and the princess of Wales, tend to elucidate 
 the history of the reign of Louis XIV, and the 
 regency of her son, as well as the manners and 
 characters of her contemporaries. 1 hey were 
 published at Paris in 17B8, and reprinted in 
 1807 ; but the best edition is that of INL 
 Schubart, Paris, 1823, Qvo.—Dict. Hist. 
 
 ORLEANS (Peter Joseph d') a Jesuit 
 and writer of history, was born at Bourges in 
 IG-il, being the member of an ancient family 
 in the province of Berry. He entered into 
 the college of Jesuits in 1659, and for several 
 years taught rhetoric in its seminaries. He 
 cultivated talents for the pulpit, but more par- 
 ticularly attended to historical composition. 
 He was a man of lively parts and ingenious 
 conversation ; but his writings are more dis- 
 
 Oli L 
 
 for accuracy and justness of tliinking. The 
 work by wbicli he- is most known is his " Hrs- 
 toire de la Ktvolution dv rAngleterre," 3 vol>;. 
 ■Ito, a work wbu.b wna much admired in 
 France, and wliich lias even found a<lnjiren* 
 among the partizaiiH of arbitrary power in 
 (Jreat Britain. English liistory, howpvcr, ia 
 no thenn; for a jesuit ; and as a proof of it, 
 father d'Orleans regards Magna Charta, with- 
 out stating its contents, as tlie root of all {x>- 
 litical dissensions in England. His next con- 
 siderable work is the " Ilistoire des Revolu- 
 tions d'Espagne," of which he wrote about a 
 volume and a half, the remainder, completing 
 three volumes 4to, being executed by fathers 
 Roiiille and Brumoy. His other works are, 
 " Histoire des deux Conquerants Tartares, 
 Cbimchi et Camlii, qui ont subjutiue la 
 Chine," 1689, 8vo ; "Histoire de AI. Con- 
 stance, Premier Ministre du Roi de Siam, 
 &c." 1692, 12mo; "Sermons et Instructions 
 Chretiennes," 1696, 2 vols. 12mo ; and the 
 lives of PP. Cottin and Ricci, Lewis de Gon- 
 zaga, INIary of Savoy, the infanta Isabelle, and 
 Stanislaus Kotska. — Noav. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ORLOFF (Gregory) one of the favourites 
 of Catherine II of Russia. He served in the 
 artillery under the empress Elizabeth, and at 
 length became aide-de-camp to general Schu- 
 valoff", whose mistress, the princess Kurakin, 
 preferring him to the general, their intrigue 
 was discovered, and Orloff was dismissed from 
 his post, and narrowly escaped banis^lment to 
 Siberia. Catherine, then grand duchess, 
 heard of the affair, saved him from banish- 
 ment, and took him under her protection. He 
 had a principal sliare in the revolution which 
 placed liis mistress on the throne of Russia, 
 after which he was made grand master of tlie 
 artillery, and raised to the first dignities in the 
 state. His ambition prompted him to aim at 
 sharing the throne of the empress, who would 
 have submitted to a private marriage. This he 
 imprudently refused to accept, in consequence 
 of which his influence declined, and he was 
 supplanted by anew favourite. He was then 
 ordered to travel, but was gratified with mag- 
 nificent presents, and received tlie title of 
 prince of the German empire, which Cathe- 
 rine procured for him. After an absence of 
 five months he returned, lioping to recover his 
 former influence at court, but he was disap- 
 pointed. He resided several years at Peters- 
 burgh, and then made a tour in Germany, 
 Italy, and France, indulging himself in the 
 most extravagant luxury. He went to Pe- 
 tersburgh again in 1782, when he l)ecame de- 
 ranged, and being removed to Moscow, he 
 died there in the following year. He liad by 
 the empress one son, named Bobrinski, who 
 was educated under the direction of his mo- 
 ther, but he showed himself unworthy of the 
 cares bestowed on him. — Orloff (Alexis) 
 brother of the preceding, was remarkable for 
 his gigantic stature and Herculean strength. 
 He powerfully assisted the measures of Gre- 
 gory for the elevation of his mistress to the 
 throne, and is said with his own hand to have 
 
 tinguished for imagination and eloquence, than | strangled the enwerorin his prison. He con 
 
CRN 
 
 tmued to serve the empress with great zeal 
 and fidelity, and was employed by her in the 
 army and ncivy. On ihe accession of Paul I 
 he was disgraced, and banished from Russia. 
 He then went to Germany, and resided several 
 years at Leipsic ; but after the death of Paul, 
 he returned to Moscow, and died in that city 
 in January 1808. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ORLOFF (count Gregouv VLADiMino- 
 MiTz) a Russian nobleman, more distinguished 
 by his attachment to literature, and the pa- 
 tronage which he extended to it, than by his 
 rank and fortune. He was born in 1778, and 
 passed the earlier part of his life in his native 
 country, till the delicate state of his health 
 obliged him to exchange it for a milder cli- 
 mate. He therefore repaired to Italy, where 
 he composed his" iNIemoires Historiques, Po- 
 litiques, et Litteraires, sur le Royaume de 
 Naples." This work, which comprehends 
 the entire history of lower Italy, appeared m 
 1820, and was succeeded in 1822 by his 
 " Histoire des Arts en Italie." The year fol- 
 lowing he published an account of his travels 
 through part of France. His other produc- 
 tions are a translation of Kirloffs fables from 
 the original Russian into the French and Ita- 
 lian languages, in bringing which forward, his 
 munificence rather than his own personal 
 labour was the principal assistant. In 1826 he 
 commenced translating Karamsin's " History 
 of Russia" into French, but his decease in the 
 July of that year prevented his completing a 
 task which, if accomplislied, would have com- 
 municated to the rest of Europe that respect- 
 able proof of rising Russian literature. — Ann, 
 Biocr, 
 
 ORME (Robert) a distinguished histo- 
 rian, was born at Anjengo in the East Indies in 
 1728, and was educated at Harrow. He then 
 obtained a civil appointment at Calcutta, and 
 ■was created a member of the council at Fort 
 St George. After being elected commissary 
 and accountant general in 175 ;, he embarked 
 for England for the recovery of his health ; 
 but the ship in which he sailed being captured 
 by the French, he did not reach his destina- 
 tion until the spring of 1760. The first vo- 
 lume of his celebrated work, " History of the 
 Military Transactions of the British Nation in 
 Indostan, from the year l74o," appeared in 
 1763, and the second in 1778. The elegance 
 and perspicuity of the narrative, with its great 
 fidelity and impartiality, cause "the author to 
 rank with the best historical writers of his 
 time. He also published " Historical Frag- 
 ments of the Mogul Empue of the Mahrattas, 
 and of the English Concerns in Indostan." 
 Mr Orme was at the same time an elegant 
 versifier, and possessed of a fine taste for 
 music and drawinsr. He died in 1801. — Life 
 prefixed to Fragments. 
 
 ORMTHOPARIUS, a German author of 
 the sixteenth century, who wrote on the 
 science of music with considerable ingenuity 
 and humour, as well as a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with his subject. His principal work, 
 •* Musicaj activae Blicrologus," Leipsic, 1517, 
 W&3 the first ever printed in Germany on the 
 
 ORG 
 
 science. There is an English translation of it 
 by Dow'land, London, 1609. — Biog. Diet, of 
 Music. 
 
 OROBIO (Isaac) or BALTHASAR DE 
 CASi'RO, a learned Jew, who was a native 
 of Spain. His parents professed the Catholic 
 faith, in which he also was educated, and 
 having studied the scholastic philosophy, he 
 was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the university of Salamanca. He afterwards 
 became a medical practitioner at Seville ; and 
 being secretly attached to the religion of his 
 ancestors, he at length had the misfortune to 
 be accused before the inquisition of infidelity 
 and Judaism. He was treated with all the 
 rigour to which the victims of the holy ofiice 
 were usually subjected ; but three years' con- 
 finement in a dark dungeon, with the repeated 
 administration of torture, not producing a con- 
 fession of his imputed crime, and there being 
 no direct evidence as^ainst him, he was at 
 length discharged, and, as may be supposed, he 
 seized the earliest opportunity for quitting the 
 Spanish territories. He first settled at Tou- 
 louse in France, where he obtained the pro- 
 fessorship of medicine ; and there he con- 
 formed to the religion of the country. But 
 being after a time desirous to enjoy liberty of 
 conscience, he removed to Amsterdam, relin- 
 quished his Christian name, Baltliasar, and 
 submitting to the distinguishing rite of Ju- 
 daism, took that of Isaac, and conforming 
 openly to the law of JMoses, he practised as a 
 physician with great reputation. He em- 
 ployed his pen in confuting the principles of 
 Spinosa ; but the friendly controversy which he 
 carried on with Limborch, relative to the re- 
 spective merits of Judaism and Christianity, 
 has chiefly tended to maintain his literary re- 
 putation. It ended, as such disputes usually 
 do, in each party retaining his own sentiments ; 
 but the papers on both sides were afterwards 
 published by Limborch. The death of Orobio 
 took place in 1687. — Hutchinson s Biog. Med, 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 OROSIUS (Paulus) a Spanish priest 
 and historian of the fifth century. He was a 
 native of Tarragona, and a disciple of St Au- 
 gustin ; and he lived in the time of the empe- 
 rors Arcadius and Honorius. The city of 
 Rome having been taken by Alaric, king of 
 the Goths, the Pagans attributed that, and the 
 other misfortunes which had befallen the em- 
 pire, to the alteration of the national religion 
 from heathenism to Christianity. It was to 
 justify the Christians from this reproach 
 that Orosius, at the request of St Augus- 
 tin, undertook his principal work, entitled 
 " Hormesta," in which he exhibits a view of 
 the most important events from the creation of 
 the world to his own time, in order to show 
 that great calamities had happened in every 
 age, and that the Roman empire had not been 
 more exempt from them at any other period 
 than since the birth of Christ. This treatise 
 forms a kind of general chronicle, or universal 
 history, divided into seven books. The author 
 has fallen into some important mistakes, es- 
 pecially in point of chronology, uotwithstand- 
 
OUT 
 
 ing which his work became exceedingly popu- 
 lar in the middle ay;t'S, and it was iiaiish.ted 
 into Anglo-Saxon, and commented on by king 
 Alfred. Orosius wrote also against the luresy 
 of Pelagius, and on other theological topics. 
 The best edition of his history is that of Ilaver- 
 camp. Lugd. Bat. 1738, 4to. — Dupiii BibL des 
 Ant. Kccles. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ORPHEUS, a name celebrated in Grecian 
 mythology, by some asserted to have been a 
 poet, musician, and philosoi)her of Thrace, 
 while Aristotle, from the manifestly fabulous 
 accounts connected with his history, has gone 
 so far as to denv his existence altogether. He 
 is said to have been the son of .-Eager, and the 
 chief founder of allegorical theology among the 
 Greeks, as well as, according to Suidas, of the 
 relio-ious ceremonies, called, from the country 
 which gave him birth, " Threskeia." 'J'he a^ra 
 in which he flourished is generally placed 
 before that of the Trojan war ; and although 
 the ancient verses which go under his name 
 are manifestly the productions of a later 
 age, yet, if we believe Plato, Isocrates, and 
 Diodorus Siculus, there seems to be no cause 
 for doubting his existence. The addition of 
 three strings to the lyre, and the invention of 
 hexameter verse, have been attributed to him. 
 He was also skilled in medicine, which cir- 
 cumstance is thought to explain the fable of 
 his recalling his wife Eurydice from hell. His 
 death is variously related, but it is usually 
 said to have proceeded from the hands of his 
 infuriated countrywomen. — Brucker. Rees's 
 Encuclop. 
 
 ORSARTO (Sertorio) Lat. Ursatus, an 
 eminent antiquary, was born at Padua in 1617, 
 and became professor of natural philosophy in 
 the university of that city. He died in 1678. 
 His works are numerous and esteemed : the 
 principal are, " A History of Padua," in Ita- 
 lian, 1678, fol ; " Prainomina, Cognomina, et 
 Agnomina antiquorum Romanorum ;" " Deo- 
 rum, ])earumque Nomina et Attributa;" " IMo- 
 nuraenta Patavina ;" " Commentariusde notis 
 Romauorum ;" " Cronologia di Reggimenti 
 di Padova ;" " Poems and Orations ;" and 
 " Marmi eruditi." — Tiraboschi. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 ORSI (Francis Joseph Augustine) an 
 eminent cardinal, was born in Tuscany in 1692. 
 He entered the Dominican order, and was ap- 
 pointed theological professor. He was after- 
 wards made master of the sacred palace, and 
 after receiving various promotions, in I7r>9 he 
 was raised to the purple. He was the author 
 of " ]nfallibilitas act Rom. Pont." 1741 ; and 
 " An Ecclesiastical History of the first six Cen- 
 turies," He died in 1761. — There was also 
 another Orsi (John Joseph) an Italian gram- 
 marian and poet, who was born at Bologna in 
 16b'2, and died in 1733. He left several sonnets, 
 pastorals, and poetical pieces ; but his prin- 
 cipal work is his •* Thoughts" on Bouhourr's 
 " Maniere de Penser," Modena, 1735, 2 vols. 
 4to. — Fabroni. 
 
 ORTELIUS (Abraham) an eminent anti- 
 quary and geographer of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Antwerp, and was 
 
 () U V 
 
 'acquainted with Camih-u, whom he visited in 
 the course of Iub travels in England. Ite waa 
 particularly skillt-d in maihimatical science, 
 and wiis one of llie earlit-Ht writers among the 
 moderns who elucidated the geograj)hy of for- 
 mer ages. On Iub return to the NeiherlandH, 
 lie became cosmographcr to the king of Spain. 
 His death took place June 26, InyB, Rt the 
 age of seventy-one. He was the author of 
 " Synonyma Geographica," Antwerp, l.'>78, 
 4to ; "Thesaurus, sive lexicon Geograph." 
 1596, 4to ; " Deorum, Dfcarum(j capita, ex 
 Numismatibus," 4to ; " Itinerarium per non- 
 nulas Belgiie partes ;" and " Germanorum 
 veterum vita, mores, et religio, cum Iconibus," 
 1596, 4to. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ORTON (Job) an eminent nonconformist 
 divine, was born at Shrewsbury in 1717. He 
 was educated at the free-school of his native 
 place, and was afterwards placed under the 
 care of Dr Doddridge, whose assistant he be- 
 came. He preached occasionally in several 
 congregations in Northamptonshire until 1741, 
 when he became minister of the united inde- 
 pendent and presbyterian congregations at 
 Shrewsbury. In 1765, his health being in a very 
 delicate slate, he was obliged to retire from 
 his public duties. He fixed his residence at 
 Kidderminster, wliere he passed his time in 
 literary occupations until his death, which hap- 
 pened in 1783. Mr Orton received the degree 
 of doctor in divinity several years previous to 
 his death ; but he never would be addressed 
 by that title, or prefix it to any of his writings. 
 His works are very numerous, and are written 
 in a fervent energetic style, and in a spirit of 
 strict piety and morality. The principal are 
 these: " Memoirs of Dr Doddridge ;" " Chris- 
 tian Zeal, three Discourses;" " Discourseson 
 Eternity ;" " Religious Exercises ;" " Chris- 
 tian Worship, three Discourses ;" " Sacra- 
 mental Meditations ;" " Summary of doctri- 
 nal and practical Religion :" " Exposition of 
 the Old Testament ;" " Discourses to the 
 Aged ;" " Letters to a young Clergyman," 
 iScc. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 ORVILLE (James Philip d') an eminent 
 writer on classical literature, of French extrac- 
 tion, but born at Amsterdam in 1696. He 
 pursued his^ studies at the university of Ley- 
 den, where in 1721 he took the degree of 
 LL.D. Having, however, renounced his de- 
 sign of becoming an advocate, and determined 
 to devote himself to the belles lettres, he tra- 
 velled in England, Italy, France, and Ger- 
 many, visiting every where the public libra- 
 ries, cabinets of medals and antiquities, and 
 forming an acquaintance with the most cele- 
 brated classical scholars of the age. On his 
 return to Holland, about 1730, he obtained 
 the chair of history, rhetoric, and Greek lite- 
 rature at Amsterdam, which he occupied till 
 1742, when he gave in his resignation, still 
 however preserving the titles and honours of 
 the office. He died September 14, 1751. His 
 work.< are, " IMiscellanea; Observationes Cri- 
 ticic liovai," carried on periodically in con- 
 ) uK-ti< n with Buiman ; " Critica Vannus in 
 iuanes Jo. Corn. Pavonis pakas," 1737, a 
 
OSI 
 
 satirical treatise against M. de Pauw, of 
 Utrecht; an edition of the Greek romance of 
 Chariton, with a learned commentary, 1750; 
 4to ; and Observations on Sicily, published 
 after the death of the author by Barman, under 
 the tile of" Sicula," 1764, folio. — Diet. Hht. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 OSBEllN or OSBERT, a Benedictine 
 monk of Canterbury, who flourished about 
 1070. Trithemius says he was learned in 
 the Scriptures, deeply skilled in music, 
 and eminent for his knowledge and elo- 
 quence. He wrote on sacred and prophane 
 literature, and among the various subjects of 
 which he treated was music ; but he is chiefly 
 known at present as the author of a life of St 
 Dunstan, into which Osbern, in compliance 
 with the taste of his age, has introduced a 
 number of lesrendarv tales, doubtless designed 
 to do honour to his hero, but which have had 
 the effect of ruining his own credit as a bio- 
 grapher. This work has been published in 
 Wharton's Anglia Sacra. — Trithem. de Script. 
 Eccles. Fullers Worthies. 
 
 OSIANDER (An drew) an eminent divine, 
 was born in Bavaria in 1498, and began to 
 preach at Nuremburg in lb'2^. He was one 
 of the promoters of the reformation ; but 
 finally by his peculiar doctrines, he became 
 the cause of great disturbances in the Luthe- 
 ran churches. At the conference of Marpurg 
 in 1529, between Luther and the Swiss divines, 
 he maintained his opinion, " that a man is 
 justified formally, not by the faith and appre- 
 liension of the justice of Jesus Christ, or the 
 imputation of his justice according to the opi- 
 nion of Luther and Calvin ; but by the essen- 
 tial justice of God." He then drew up a 
 confession of faith, which was printed by order 
 of the margrave of Brandenburg, but highly 
 disapproved of by the Lutherans. He was a 
 studious and acute divine, but much disliked 
 for his arrogance and the insolent manner in 
 which he treated the aged Melancthon. His 
 works are, " Harmonia Evangelica ;" " Liber 
 de Imagine Dei quid sit ;" '* Epistola ad 
 Zuinglium de Eucharista ;" " Dissertationes 
 duae de Lege et Evangelio et Justificatione." 
 He died suddenly at Konigsberg, where he 
 was minister and professor in 1552. — His son, 
 Luke, was a Lutheran divine, and wrote an 
 institution of the Christian religion, &c. He 
 died at Tubingen in 1604. — Another, Luke 
 OsiANDER, was chancellor of I'ubingen, and 
 died in 1638. He was the author of a trea- 
 tise " On the Omnipresence of Christ as 
 JMan." — Andrew Osiaxder, grandson of the 
 preceding Andrew, was preacher and a coun- 
 sellor to prince Louis of Wirtemberg, and was 
 the editor of " Biblica Sacra Latine vulgata," 
 and other works. He died in 1617. — There 
 was also a Johx Adam Osiander, another 
 Lutheran divine, and professor and provost of 
 the university of Tuldngen, where he died in 
 1697. He wrote " Commentarius in Peuta- 
 teuchem," 5 vols, folio ; Commentaries on 
 Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, 3 vols, 
 folio ; and '• Disputationes Academicie in 
 pr3ecipus et maxime controvcrsa Novi Testa- 
 
 OS M 
 
 menta Loca," &c. — Melchior Adam. Dupitt' 
 Moreri. 
 
 OSIUS or OSIO (Felix) a celebrated 
 writer, was born at Milan in 1587. He be- 
 came professor of rhetoric at Padua, where he 
 died in 1631. His works are, ■' Tractatus de 
 Sepulchris et Epitaphiis Ethnicorum et Chris- 
 tianorum ;" " Elogia Scriptorum illustrium ;" 
 '• Romano-Grfficia ;" " Orationes ;" " Epis- 
 
 I tolarum Libri duo ;" " Notes and Corrections 
 to the History of the age of Frederic Bar- 
 
 I barossa," written by Morenas, in torn. iii. of 
 the Thesaurus Italia?, and to Albert JMus- 
 sato's " History of the Emperor Henry VII," 
 Venice, 1635, folio ; " A Collection of Au- 
 thors of the History of Padua." — His brother, 
 Theodosius Osius, also wrote several tracts. — 
 Saxii Onomast. Hist. Diet, de L'Advocat. 
 
 OSMAN BEY (Nemsey) a noble Hunga- 
 rian, who entered into the army, and obtained 
 the rank of colonel in the Austrian service. 
 Havinsf been accused of robbing the reeimen- 
 tal chest, he endeavoured to justify himself at 
 the expense of the paymaster, who had disap- 
 peared. His defence not appearing satisfac- 
 tory to the emperor, Joseph II, he was de- 
 prived of his commission and imprisoned. In 
 about a year after he was liberated ; but not 
 being able to obtain the restoration of his rank, 
 he determined to go to Constantinople and turn 
 Mahometan. He arrived there in 1779, and 
 his intention beinsf made known to the Aus- 
 trian ambassador, baron Herbert Rathkeal, he 
 endeavoured to persuade the intended renegade 
 &om fulfilling his purpose ; but in vain, for 
 he made profession of the Moslem faith, and 
 received from the grand seignor a pension of 
 five or six thousand francs, with an estate in 
 Magnesia, in Asia Minor. Osman Bey pos- 
 sessed a taste for the fine arts, and for the stu- 
 dy of archaeology and numismatics. He had 
 brought from Germany a collection of ancient 
 medals, to which his new situation enabled 
 him to make considerable additions. He had 
 continued thus to employ himself for some 
 years, when be was murdered by two of his 
 servants, who robbed him of a considerable sum 
 of money which he had recently received. His 
 property was, as usual, seized by the Turkish 
 government : and his medals, being sold, were 
 
 I ultimately lodged in the cabinet of the king of 
 Bavaria at Munich. Osman was considered 
 in the Levant as a manufacturer of false me- 
 dals, of which description were many of those 
 in his collection. His murder happened in 
 1785. — Bios:;. Univ. 
 
 OSMOND or OSMUND (St) bishop of 
 Salisbury in the eleventh century. He was 
 the son of the count of Sees, and in 1066 he 
 accompanied William the Norman to England. 
 That prince made him earl of Dorset, coun- 
 sellor of state, and chancellor of England- 
 He had not only acquired military renown in 
 the early part of his life, but had also distin- 
 guished himself by his learning, to which, 
 and to the duties of religion, he at length de- 
 termined to devote himself. Havinsj taken 
 
 I holy orders, he was, in 1078, made bishop of 
 Sarum, where he remained till his death ia 
 
OSS 
 
 1099. St Osmond erected .1 catlieJral at Old 
 Sarum, in which lie was interrt'd, hut his 
 ashes were afterwards taken up and enshrined. 
 His cauonization took place in 1458. He 
 composed religious offices, which were suhse- 
 qutintly inter])olated with Apocryphal le- 
 gends ; but his Missal, or service-book, for 
 the use of his cathedral, is the proiluction 
 wliiih has principally contributed to j)reserve 
 his name from oblivion. It became at length 
 the most ])opular manual of public devotion 
 among the Kiiglish clergy, and prayer-books, 
 " Secundum usum Sarum," were adopted for 
 the service of churches in general. — Biog. 
 L niv. 
 
 OSORIO (jEnoMF.) a Portuguese divine 
 and historian, who was a native of Lisbon. He 
 studied at Paris and Bologna, and on his re- 
 turn to Portugal he brcame jirofessor of theo- 
 logy at the university of Coimbra. Having 
 taken holy orders, he was at length made bisliop 
 of Silva, in which station he distinguished 
 himself by his virtue and patriotism, as 
 well as by his learning. 'J'he troubles which 
 took place in Portugal, after the death of king 
 Sebastian, who is supposed to have perished 
 in fighting against the Moors in Africa in 1578, 
 deeply afflicted Osorio, who died at 'J'avila, 
 August 20, 1580, aged seventy-four. Among 
 his works are treatises, " De Nobilitate Ci- 
 vili;" " De Nobilitate Christiana;" " Ue 
 Regis Tnstitutione ;" and " De Rebus Em- 
 manuelis Regis Lusitaniai virtute et auspicio 
 gestis ;" which, together with several others, 
 were published at Rome in four volumes folio, 
 by his nephew, Jerome Osorio, canon of 
 Evova. — Teiss'ter Elosies des H. S. Bio^. Univ. 
 OSS AT (Arnaud d') an eminent cardinal, 
 was bom of humble parents at Cassagnabere, 
 a village near Audi, in 1536. He became tu- 
 tor to some young noblemen, whom lie accom- 
 panied to Paris, where he applied himself zea- 
 lously to his own improvement. After study- 
 ing the law, he practised at the bar, and was 
 much admired for his eloquence. When Paul 
 de Foix, archbishop of Toulouse, was nomi- 
 nated by Henry III ambassador to the court of 
 Rome, he carried d'Ossat with him as his se- 
 cretary; who, after the death of that prelate 
 in 1584, took holy orders, and was received 
 into the house of the cardinal d'Este. He was 
 afterwards made charge-d'aftaires for the 
 French court, and in that capacity he was 
 greatly instrumental in reconcJImg Henry IV 
 with the see of Rome, for which he was re- 
 warded first with the bishopric of Rennes, and 
 afterwards with a cardinal's hat and the see of 
 Bayeux. He died in 1604. He was a man 
 of great penetration and prudence, and though 
 a profound politician, he was an honest man. 
 He wrote a work in defence of Ramus, whose 
 disciple he was, entitled, " Expositio Arnoldi 
 Ossati in Disputationem Jacobi Carpentarii de 
 Methodo." His letters, relative to the nego- 
 ciations in which he was employed, were pub- 
 lished by Amelot de la Houssaye, Paris, 1678, 
 2 vols. 4to, and 5 vols. 12mo. — Moreri. jSouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 OSSIAN, a Gaelic bard, supposed to liave 
 Bioc. Dk.t. — \'0L. U. 
 
 O S T 
 
 lived in the third century, and to have been 
 the son of Kingal, a (Jaliduiiian chief, whom 
 he accompanied in various military exjicdi- 
 tions. Some epic poems, and other pieces, 
 ascribed to Ossian, wire jiublished in a pro- 
 fessed English version in prose, by .lanu-B 
 Macpherson. in 176s;, and subuequently ; and 
 a warm and protracted conlroverHy took place 
 relative to their authenticity. In 1781, Mr 
 W. Shaw, author of a (Jaelic grammar and 
 dictionary, published " An Enquiry into the 
 Authenticity of the Poems ascribed to Ossian ;" 
 and he was answered by Mr. John Clarke, a 
 member of the society of Scottish antiquaries, 
 and a translator of (Caledonian poetry. More 
 recently, Malcolm Laing attacked the credit 
 of the Ossianic poetry, and was opposed by 
 Mr Archibald Macdonald and Dr Patrick 
 Graham. Further information on the subject 
 may be found in the Report of the Highland 
 society, published by Henry Mackenzie, esq., 
 and in the pieces attached to the Gaelic poems, 
 published as the originals of Ossian, with a 
 literal Latin version, by Robert Macfarlan, 
 A.INI. 3 vols. 8vo. — Ori<r. 
 
 o 
 
 OSTADI^ (Adrian van) a Dutch painter, 
 was born at Lubeck in 1610, and studied 
 under Francis Hals. His pictures are charac- 
 terized by an exact imitation of nature, and 
 his admirable representations of subjects, 
 wliich in other hands would only have dis- 
 gusted us. They usually consist of the inte- 
 riors of alehouses or kitchens, with Dutch pea- 
 sants smoking, quarrelling, or drinking ; but 
 he throws such expression into the heads of 
 his characters, that their vulgarity is lost in 
 our admiration of their truth and animation. 
 His colouring is rich and clear, bis touch spi- 
 rited and free, and all his works are highly 
 finished. On the approach of the French 
 troops in 1662, Ostade sold all his pictures and 
 effects in order to return to Lubeck ; but at 
 Amsterdam his fears being overcome, he was 
 prevailed upon to remain there, and he prac- 
 tised his profession with great reputation until 
 his death, which took place in 1685. — Isaac 
 van Ostade, his brother and scholar, was bom 
 at Lubeck about 1617. His earliest pictures, 
 which he painted in imitation of his brother, 
 were greatly inferior, but he afterwards adopt- 
 ed a style of his own, in which he was suc- 
 cessful ; and he was often solicited by contem- 
 porary landscape painters to add his figures to 
 their pieces. He died young. — D'Argemille. 
 Pilkington. Brians Diet, of Paint, and Eiig. 
 
 OSTERVALD (John Frederic) a Swiss 
 Protestant divine, was born at Neufchatel iu 
 1663, and became pastor of the church in 
 that place in 1699. He died in 1747. His 
 works are, " A Treatise concerning the Causes 
 of the present Corruption of Christians, and 
 their Remedies," 8vo ; "A Discourse against 
 the Sin of Uncleanness ;" "An Abridgment 
 of the Sacred History ;" " Ethica Christiana ;" 
 " Theologian Compendium ;" " A Treatise on 
 the Sacred .^linistry ;" " A Catechism ;" &cc. 
 M. Ostervald also published an edition of the 
 Geneva French version of " The Holy Bible," 
 with arguments and reflections. — His sob, 
 
 2P 
 
OS Y 
 
 John Rodot.ph Ostervald, was pastor of 
 the French church at Basil, and wrote a much 
 esteemed treatise, entitled, " The Duties of 
 Communicants." — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OS rER WICK (Maria van) a celebrated 
 paintress of flowers and fruit, born at Noot- 
 dorp, a small town near Delft, in 1630. She 
 was the pupil of Jolin David de Heem, the 
 most celebrated flower painter of his time. 
 Her pictures were admitted into the choicest 
 collections : the emperor Leopold commanded 
 lier to paint one for his gallery, with whicli he 
 was so much ple&sed, that he gave her the 
 portraits of himself and his empress, set with 
 diamonds. She was also distinguislied by 
 William III, and Louis XIV. Maria van Os- 
 terwick is ranked among the most celebrated 
 flower ])aincers ; her colouring is clear and 
 transparent, and finishing exquisite. She 
 died, unmarried, in 1693. Her pictures are 
 extremely scarce and valuable. — Bryan's Diet, 
 of' Paint. a)id Eng. 
 
 OSWALD (JoHx) a native of Scotland, 
 who displayed an early inclination for litera- 
 ture, but entering into the army, was sent to 
 the East Indies as a lieutenant in a regiment 
 of foot. He returned to England in 1.783, 
 and having attained a knowledge of Latin and 
 Greek without the assistance of a master, he 
 made liimself acquainted witli the Arabic 
 also, during his residence in the East. He 
 distinguislied himself by some singularities of 
 behaviour, among which was a partiality for 
 the opinions of the Brahmins, whom he imi- 
 tated in abstaining from animal food. In 1786 
 he published a burlesque piece, entitled, 
 " lianas Comical Evacgelizantes ; or, the Co- 
 mic Frogs turned IMethodists ;" and this was 
 followed by " The alarming Progress of 
 French Politics," occasioned by the treaty of 
 commerce with France in 1787 ; " Euphro- 
 syne, an Ode to Beauty," 1788 ; and " Poems, 
 with the Humours of John Bull, an operatical 
 farce," under the pceudonym of Sylvester Ot- 
 way, 1789. On the occurrence of the revolu- 
 tion in France, Oswald went thither, and ob- 
 tained the rank of colonel under the repub- 
 lican government. He was at length killed in 
 battle. — Redhead Yorke's Letters from France. 
 Biog. Ncmv. des Contemp. 
 
 OSYMANDYAS, an ancient king of 
 Egypt, celebrated for his conquests and for 
 the magnificent monuments attributed to him 
 by the historian Diodorus Siculus. He is sup- 
 posed to be the same monarch who is styled, 
 by Strabo, Ismandes, who was also called 
 Memnon. To this prince, the vocal statue, 
 (the remains of which still exist in the ruins 
 of ancient Thebes, ) is supposed to have been 
 dedicated. The palace he erected at Thebes 
 is said to have contained a library, which is 
 the earliest mentioned in history. He also 
 built a sepukliral monument, surmounted by a 
 golden circle marked with astronomical divi- 
 sions, reported, by Diodorus, to have been 
 taken away by Cambyses, t^ng of Persia, 
 when he conquered Egypt. Osymandyas is 
 conjectured to have reigned 3,000 years be- 
 fore the beginning of the Christian sera. 
 
 OTT 
 
 — Reimman. Idea, antiq. literatnr. jEgypt* 
 Marskami Canon. Chron. JEgypt. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 OTFRID, the author of one of the earliest 
 specimens of composition in the German lan- 
 guage. He was a native of Swabia, and lived 
 in the middle of the ninth century. After 
 having become a monk of the abbey of Weis- 
 senburg, in Alsace, he studied under Rabanus 
 Maurus, abbot of Fulda ; he then returned to 
 his monastery, where he opened a school of 
 literature, and wrote a variety of works in 
 prose and verse. The most important of tbese 
 is a version, or paraphrase, of the Gospels, in 
 AUemaiush rhyme, still extant, in which some 
 passages of lyrical poetry occur, es|.ecially 
 one, where the cloistered bard expresses a 
 longing for his native home. Scherz has 
 published this work, with a Latin translation, 
 in his edition of Schilter's Thesaurus Anti- 
 quitatura Teutonicarum. — Trithem. de Script. 
 Eccle>!. Biog. Univ. Lond. Mag. vol. iii. 
 
 OTHER, OHTHERE, or OTTAR, a Nor- 
 wegian traveller of the ninth century. He 
 resided at the extremity of the inhabited part 
 of Norway, and was engaged in the seal and 
 whale fisheries. At length, probably in the 
 prosecution of a mercantile adventure, he 
 made a vovage to England, where he became 
 known to king Alfred the Great, who took 
 him into his service. To that prince he com- 
 municated an account of two voyages in which 
 he had been engaged in the Arctic seas, af- 
 fording the earliest information extant relative 
 to the north of Europe ; and the narrative of 
 Other, together with that of Wulfstan, ano- 
 ther traveller, were inserted by Alfred in his 
 Anglo-Saxon version of Orosius. An account 
 of the voyages of Other was published by 
 Hakluyt and Purchas, and moie recently in 
 Daines Barrington's edition of the Saxon Oro- 
 .--ius. The work has also occupied the atten- 
 tion of the Danish literati. — Turner s Hid. of 
 the Ano-lo'Saxons. — Bios^. Univ, 
 
 OTHO, or OTTO, of Freisingen, a German 
 ecclesiastic and historian of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. He was the son of Leopold, marquis 
 of Austria, and is said to have been equally 
 illustrious for his birtli, his learning, and his 
 piety. After studying at the college of Neu- 
 burg, which was founded by his father, he 
 went and completed his education at the uni- 
 versity of Paris. He then entered into the 
 monastic order of the Cistercians, in the con- 
 vent of Morimond in Burgundy, of which he 
 became abbot. Having afterwards been elec- 
 ted bishop of Freisingen, in Bavaria, he re- 
 turned to Germany ; but in 1148 he followed 
 the emperor Conrad in an expedition to the 
 Holy Land. The latter part of his life was 
 j)assed in seclusion at the monastery of Mori- 
 mond, where lie died in 1158. Otho com- 
 posed a Chronicle, or general history, from 
 the creation to AD. 1146 ; and also a life of 
 the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, in two 
 books, which last work was continued by Rad> 
 wic, a canon of Freisingen. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 OIT (John Henry) a Swiss divine, was 
 bom at Zurich in 1617. He received a liber"! 
 
( ) T r 
 
 education at sever;il uiiivrr'^itica, anil tlien tra- 
 velled into Kngland and France. Upon his 
 return to Switzerland, he was presented to the 
 living of Dictlicken. In 1631 he was ap- 
 pointeil professor of elocjuence at Zurich ; in 
 16.y5, of Hebrew ; and in 1668, of ecclesiasti- 
 cal history. He died in 16H'J, leaving he- 
 hind him numerous works, winch are esteemed 
 for their erudition. The principal are, " An- 
 nals relating to the History of the Anabap- 
 tists ;" ''On the Grandeur of the Church of 
 Rome ;" " A Latin Discourse in favour of the 
 Study of the Hebrew Language ;" " A Latin 
 Treatise on Alphabets, and the Manner of 
 Writing in all Nations." — His son, John Bap- 
 tist Ott, was born in 1661, and acquired ce- 
 lebrity by his knowledge of the Oriental lan- 
 guages and antit|uities. He was pastor of a 
 church at ZoUicken, and professor of Hebrew 
 at Zurich ; and in 1715 he was jjromoteil to 
 the archdeaconry of the cathedral in that city. 
 He was the author of " A Dissertation on 
 Vows;" "A Letter on Samaritan iMedals, 
 addressed to Adrian Ueland ;" a treatise "On 
 the iNIanuscripts and Printed Versions of the 
 Bible before the a?ra of the Reformation;" 
 " A Disquisition on certain Antiquities tiisco- 
 vered at Klothen in 172-i." — Moreri. U Ad- 
 vocates Diet. Hist, et Bibl. portatif. 
 
 O rrO, count de iMosloy, (LouisWit-liam) 
 an eminent French diplomatist, born in 1754, 
 in the duchy of liaden, and educated at the 
 university of Strasburg. In 1777 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of legation to the French 
 embassy in Bavaria; and the ambassador, iM. 
 de la Luzerne, being appointed minister- pleni- 
 potentiary to the United States of America in 
 1779, took with him M. Otto, who remained 
 there as secretary and charge- d'affaires till 
 1792. He was then employed by the com- 
 mittee of public safety in the foreign depart- 
 ment of the state ; but on the fall of the Gi- 
 rondists, shortly after, he was sent to the Lux- 
 embourg prison, where he remained till the 
 revolution of the 9th of Thermidor. He then 
 lived in retirement near Lagny till 1798, when 
 he went to Berlin as secretary to the ambas- 
 sador, the abbe Sieyes. In 1800 he was sent to 
 England to treat for an exchange of prisoners, 
 and he subsequently exercised the functions of 
 minister-plenipotentiary till the peace of 
 Amiens, wlien he was succeeded by general 
 Andreossy. His removal from a situation 
 which he had tilled with great ability, has 
 been attributed to the displeasure of ]\apoleon 
 at his refusal to assist in the schemes of the 
 French ruler for speculating in the funds. 
 Otto was employed subsequently in a mission 
 to Bavaria ; and after the campaign of 1809, 
 he was sent ambassador to Vienna, where lie 
 negotiated tlie marriage of Buonaparte with 
 the archduchess, and remained there till 
 1813. He became a minister of state on his 
 return to Paris ; and during the hundred days 
 in 1815, he was under-secretary of state for 
 foreisin atl'airs. He died at Paris, November 
 9, 1817. He is said to have been a man of 
 highly cultivated talents and fascinating man- 
 ners, and to have been profoundly skilled in 
 
 () T \V 
 
 political diplomacy. — Hi'g.ilnii^. Btog. Xouv. 
 (It's Ciiiiteiiii) 
 
 O r\V A V (Thomas) an eminent writer of 
 tragedy, was born in 1(551, at TDtting, in 
 Sussex, his father being the rector of Wool- 
 beding in tiiat county. He was educated at 
 Winchester, antl was entered a commoner of 
 Chnstchurch, Oxford, which he left wii'iout a 
 degree, or any professional cletermination, 
 possibly owing to the narrowness of his cir- 
 cumstances, as he went to London, and made 
 some attempts as an actor, with but little suc- 
 cess. As he possessed talents for poetry, he 
 was naturally led to turn his attention to the 
 drama, and in 1675 he produced his first tra- 
 gedy of " Alcibiades." The following year 
 appeand his " Don Carlos," which proveil 
 extremely successful, and it appears by some 
 brutal and illiberal lines bv lord Rochester, in 
 his " Session of the Poets," that the profits 
 of this piece rescued him from great indigence. 
 His theatrical re[)utation introduced him to the 
 patronage of the earl of Plymouth, a natural 
 son of Charles II, who procured him a cor- 
 netcy in a new raised regiment of cavalry, 
 destined for Flanders, in which country he 
 served for a sfiort time, and then returned, it 
 is not known why, pursued by his habitual po- 
 verty. He continued to write for the stage, 
 but either owing to dissolute habits, or inade- 
 quate encouragement, he found it a very 
 scanty means of subsistence, lie produced in 
 1677, Titus and Berenice, from Racine, and 
 the Cheats of Scapin, from .Alolieie, which 
 were acted together as play and farce, and 
 succeeded. The following year he produced 
 his " Friendship in Fashion," a comedy, which 
 was followed in 1680 by his tragedies of ' Caius 
 INIarius," and " The Orphan ;" and in 168'J 
 by " Venice Preserved ;" on which last two 
 pieces his dramatic fame is chiefly founded. 
 An intervening comedy, entitled " The Sol- 
 dier's Fortune," merits little notice, nor in- 
 deed any of his comedies, which were coarse 
 and licentious even for that day. All these 
 pieces were produced before he reached his 
 thirty-fourth year, for he died in 1685, pre- 
 viously to having completed it, at a public 
 house on Tower Hill, where he had secreted 
 himself from his creditors, in a state of great 
 destitution. It is a traditionary story, that 
 being nearly farriished, he begged a shil- 
 ling of a gentleman, who gave him a gui- 
 nea, and that he was clicked by eagerly 
 devouring a roll, which he then purchased 
 to allay his hunger. Pope was however 
 informed, that he fell a sacrifice to a 
 feve (Occasioned by his anxious pursuit of a 
 person who had shot a friend of the name of 
 Blakeston. All accounts agree, that he closed 
 his life in great penury. The unhappy fate of 
 Otway has excited great sympathy, associated 
 as his memory is with some of the most ten- 
 der and pathetic scenes in Knglisli tragedy ; 
 but his dissoluteness of life and manners, and 
 shameless flattery of the great, much tended 
 to abate this kindiv feeling. As a trajric wri- 
 ter he stands high, and no one has touched 
 the string of domestic distress with more force 
 52 P iJ 
 
O U G 
 
 and fueling. Though often highly poetical, 
 his language is easy and natural, and the sen- 
 timents and incidents irresistibly moving. His 
 " Venice Preserved," with an equivocal plot, 
 and scarcely a virtuous character, except the 
 heroine, never fails to excite the most heart- 
 felt interest, and the skill of the poet com- 
 pletely triumphs over the colder conclusions of 
 reason. The miscellaneous poetry of Otway is 
 very indifferent. The latest edition of his works 
 is that of Mr Thornton, in three volumes, 8vo. 
 1812. — Biog. Brit. Life prefixed to his Woi-ks. 
 
 OUDIN (Casimir) a French monk, was 
 born at IMezieres-on-the-Meuse in 1638. He 
 entered among the monks of the Premontre 
 order, at the abbey of St Paul at \erdun, 
 where he applied himself to the study of phi- 
 losophy and divinity, but more particularly to 
 ecclesiastical history. In 1677 he was placed 
 in the abbey of Bually in Champagne, where, 
 on the occasion of a visit from Louis XIV, 
 he made such a display of his talents and ge- 
 nius, tliat his superiors were induced to em- 
 ploy him in making collections for a history of 
 their order. In 1688 he published " Supple- 
 mentum de Scriptoribus vel Scriptis ecclesias- 
 ticis a Bellarrnino omissis ad annum 1460," 
 8vo. In 1690 a change taking place in his 
 religious sentiments, be embraced Protestant- 
 ism at Leyden, and was soon after appointed 
 sub- librarian of that university. He died in 
 1717. His works are, " Commentarius de 
 Scriptoribus ecclesise antiquis scriptis, &c." 
 " Veterum aliquot Gallise et Belgi2e scripto- 
 rum opuscula Sacra;" " Trias dissertationum 
 Criticai'um," Sec. — Niceron. Moreri, 
 
 OUDIN (Francis) a learned French Je- 
 suit, was born at Vignorix or Vignory in Cham- 
 pagne in 1673. In 1691 he entered among 
 the Jesuits at Nancy, and in 1707 he took I 
 the vows and orders. He was professor of 
 rhetoric, and afterwards of positive theology 
 in the college of Dijon, where he died in 175^. 
 He was the author of numerous " Orations," 
 •' Dissertations," " Eulogies," " Lives of difte- 
 rent Writers inserted in Niceron 's Memoires ;" 
 " Commentaries on the Psalms, the Gospel of 
 St Matthew, and almost all the Epistles of St 
 Paul," still in MS. He was employed by his 
 superiors upon a continuation of the " Biblio- 
 tlieca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," on which 
 he spent tlie latter years of his life. Father 
 Oudin had also a taste for polite literature, 
 and possessed great facility in composing 
 Latin verses, most of which were inserted in 
 a collection, entitled " Poemata didascalica," 
 3 vols. l<^mo. — Moreri. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OUGHTRED (William) an English 
 divine, eel brated for his very great skill in 
 the mathematics, was born at Eton in Bucking- 
 hamshire, in 1373 or 1574. His father, who 
 was a scrivener, placed him on the foundation 
 of that school, where he was elected in 1592 
 to King's college, Cambridge, of which, after 
 a due probation, he was admitted a fellow. 
 He applied himself with great assiduity to the 
 different branches of academical learning, but 
 particularly to the mathematics, to which the 
 Lent of his genius more particularly directed 
 
 OUT 
 
 him ; and while yet an undergraduate, he in- 
 vented an easy method of geometrical dialling. 
 In 1599 he graduated MA. and the following 
 year projected a " Horizontal Instrument," for 
 delineating dials on any kind of planes, and 
 for working most questions which could be per- 
 formed on the globe ; of which invention he 
 published no account until 1636. About 1600 
 he was ordained priest, and presented to the 
 rectory of Albury in Surrey, where he distin- 
 guished himself by the conscientious discharge 
 of his pastoral duties, and assiduous cultivation 
 of the mathematical sciences. In 1614 lord 
 Napier having published an account of his in- 
 vention of logarithms, Mr Oughtred is thought 
 to have been then led by Mr Briggs to compose 
 his treatise " On Trigonometry," which how- 
 ever did not appear until many years after. 
 In 1628 he was engaged by the earl of Arun- 
 del to become mathematical tutor to his son, 
 for whose use he drew up an " Arithmeticae 
 in numeris et speciebus Institutio," intended to 
 serve as a general key to the mathematics, 
 which work was highly esteemed, and trans- 
 lated into English under the title of " The 
 Key to the JVlathematics, new forged and 
 filed." Later editions of the Latin original, 
 with great additions, gradually became a stan- 
 dard book with the mathematical teachers of 
 Cambridge. Notwithstanding his mathema- 
 tical attainments, wliich have gained him a 
 name throughout Europe, he was in danger in 
 1646 of a sequestration by the committee for 
 plundered ministers ; but upon the day of 
 hearing, the astrologer, William Lilly, applied 
 to sir Bulstrode Whitlocke and other friends 
 who appeared in such numbers on his be- 
 half, that he was acquitted by a majority. 
 While thus persecuted at home, he received 
 various invitations from abroad, all which he 
 declined. He lived to see the P^estoration in 
 1660, in which year he died, at the age of 
 eighty -six J it is said in consequence of joy at 
 hearing the news of the vote at W^estminster, 
 which produced that event. His books and 
 MSS. came into the possession of Mr William 
 Jones, and afterwards into those of Sir Charles 
 Scarborough, who selected such of the latter, 
 as were fit for the press, and had them printed 
 at Oxford in 1676, under the title of " Opus- 
 cula Mathematica hactenus inedita." In 1660 
 sir Jonas Moore annexed to his " Arithmetic" 
 a treatise, entitled " Conical Sections, &c." 
 translated from the papers of the learned 
 William Oughtred. According to Dr Hut- 
 toii, this eminent mathematician was more 
 scientifically profound than happy in his me- 
 thod of treating the subjects on which he 
 wrote ; hi& manner being dry and obscure, and 
 rules and precepts so involved in symbols and 
 abbreviations, that his mathematical writings 
 are both troublesome to read, and difficult to 
 understand. — Biog. Brit. Hutto7i^s Math. Diet, 
 OUTRAM or OWTRAM (William) a 
 learned English divine, was born in Derby- 
 shire in 1625, and was educated at Cambridge, 
 where he took all his degrees. After various 
 promotions, he was collated to tlie archdea- 
 conry of Leicester, and installed prebendary 
 
O VE 
 
 of St Peter's church in Westminster. He was 
 liJso for souie time rector of St ISl.iri^arei's, in 
 the same city. He died iu 1679. He was 
 celebrated for his skill in rabbinical learning, 
 anil his acquaintance with the ancient fathers. 
 He was an accurate and precise writer. 
 His works are, " De Sacrificiis Lihri duo ; 
 (juorum altero explicantur omnia Juda-orum, 
 noiuitdla Gentium profanarum sacrificia, altera 
 Sacriticium Christi," &lc. •' Twenty Sermons 
 preached upon ditlerent Occasions." — Biog. 
 Ihit. Preface to SermoHS. 
 
 OUVILLE (Anthony le Metel d') the 
 brother of Boisrobert, the favourite of cardinal 
 Richelieu. He was born at Caen, but in wjiat 
 year is uncertain, and he died before his bro- 
 ther in 16.56 or 16.^7. He wrote ten plays, 
 and translated some romances from the Spa- 
 nish ; but he is only known at present on ac- 
 count of his tales, which hare been compared 
 with tliose of La Fontaine, whose licentious 
 indecency he has rivalled, though he fall^ far 
 beneath that writer in wit aud humour. 
 D'Ouville's pieces, which are in prose, were 
 published in 1669. under the title of ♦' I^'Elite 
 des Contes du Sieur D'Ouville," 2 vols. 12mo. 
 — Bion;. Univ. Diet. Hist. 
 
 OliVRARD (Rene) a celebrated canon of 
 Tours, was a native of Chinon in Touraine. 
 He was a poet, mathematician, divine, and 
 controversial writer, and even a musician, 
 having for ten years filled the post of master of 
 music at the holy chapel at Paris. He died 
 at Tours in 1694, and on his tomb are these 
 lines, composed by himself— 
 
 Dum vixi, divina mihi Laus tinica Cura : 
 Post obitum sit Laus divina mihi unica 
 Merces ! 
 He was the author of numerous works, of 
 which the following are the principal : " Mo- 
 tifs de reunion a I'lglise Catholique presentes 
 a ceux de la Religion pretendue reformee de 
 France ;" " Les Motifs de la Conversion du 
 comte de Lorges Montgommery;" " Defense de 
 I'ancienne Tradition ties Eglises de France ;" 
 " Secret pour composer en Musique par un 
 Art nouveau ;" " Studiosis sanctarum Scriptu- 
 rarum Biblia Sacra in Lectiones ad singulos 
 dies, 6cc." " L'Art de la Science des Nom- 
 bres ;" •• Architecture harmonique ;" " Ca- 
 lendarium novum ;" " Breviarum Turonese 
 renovatum, &c." His " History of Music," 
 and dissertation on Vossius's treatise, " De 
 poematum cantu et viribus rythmi," remain in 
 MS. — Moreri. Noia: Diet, flist. 
 
 OVERALL (John) an English prelate, 
 was bora about 1599. After taking his de- 
 grees, he was promoted by queen Elizabeth to 
 the deanery of St Paul's. He was appointed 
 bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, whence he 
 was translated to Norwich, where he died in 
 1619. He maintained a correspondence with 
 Gerard Vossius and Grotius, in which he de- 
 clares himself in favour of Arminianism, for 
 which he paved the way in England. The 
 work by which bishop Overall is chiefly 
 known, is ♦' The Convocation Book," in which 
 kv maintained the divine origin of government. 
 
 O V E 
 
 der to be published ; but James I not liking' 
 a convocation to enter into such a theory of 
 politics, commanded that it should proceed no 
 farther. It was huwcver finally pufjliMhed by 
 J)r Sherlock, a.H a juBtification of his taking 
 the oaths at the Revolution, in order to be- 
 come dean of St Paul's -Kncycl. lirit. liur- 
 iwt's Otoi Times. 
 
 OVERBEECK (Bonavkntiirk van) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1660. 
 After having studied under I-airesKe, he went 
 to Home, where he made designs from incient 
 statues and other works of art. Rttumine to 
 Holland, he again connected himself with Lii- 
 resse, with whom he indulged in habits of 
 dissipation extremely unfavourable to his pro- 
 gress in the prosecution of his studies. At 
 length he precipitately quitted his society, and 
 made repeated visits to Rome, where he 
 stayed some years, and collected the materials 
 for a great work, on which his reputation is 
 founded. He was preparing to publish it, 
 when he died in 1706, and the work appeared 
 in 1709, under the following title, •' Heliquise 
 antiqujB Urbis Roma^, quarum sinpulas per- 
 scrutatus est, ad Vivum delineavi'., dimensus 
 est, descripsit, atque incidit Boaaventura de 
 Orerbeke," large folio, in three parts, each 
 containing fifty plates. The explanatory text, 
 which had been written in Flemish, was trans ■ 
 lated into Latin and French, and an edition of 
 the latter was reprinted in 1763. — Biof^. Univ. 
 OVERBUllY (sir Thomas) a miscella- 
 neous writer, principally known by the tragic 
 circumstance of his death, was descended 
 from an ancient family in Gloucestershire. He 
 was born in 1581 at the house of his maternal 
 grandfather, in Warwickshire, and in 159."> 
 was entered a fellow-commoner of Queen's 
 college, Oxford. Thence, after taking a de- 
 gree, he removed to the Middle Temple for 
 the study of the law ; but his inclination being 
 more turned to polite literature, lie preferred 
 the chance of pushing liis fortune at court. 
 In 1604 he contracted an acquaintance witli 
 Robert Car, the worthless favourite brought 
 from Scotland by James L The ignorance 
 and mean qualifications of this minion, ren- 
 dered the services of a man of parts and edu- 
 cation, like Overbury, exceedingly welcome, 
 and he repaid las services by procuring for 
 him, in 1608, the honour of knighthood, and 
 the place of a Welsh judge for his father. 
 The intimacy continued to be mutually ad- 
 vantageous, until the favourite engaged in his 
 celebrated amour with the countess of Essex. 
 With too much of the license of fine gentle- 
 men in every age, sir Thomas countenanced this 
 gallantry in tl>e first instance ; but when that 
 infamous woman had, by a disgraceful series 
 of proceedings, unhappily but too much coun- 
 tenanced by the king himself, procured a di- 
 vorce from her husband, he opposed the pro- 
 jected marriage between her and her gallant 
 by the stronges' remonstrances. This counsel. 
 Car, then become viscount Rochester, com- 
 municated to the lady, who immediately ex- 
 ercised her influence for the removal of her 
 
 k was read in convocation, and oassed, in or- I adversary. An attempt was mad'.- to place 
 
O V 1 
 
 him at a distance, by appointing liim to a fo- 
 reign mission ; but relying upon his ascen- 
 dancy with tlie favourite, which he exercised 
 with considerable arrogance, he refused to ac- 
 cept it. On ilie ground of disobedience in de- 
 chning the king's service, he was immediately 
 arrested, and committed a close prisoner to 
 the Tower in April 1613, and all access of 
 liis friends was debarred. At length, fear of 
 his resentment and disclosures, if released, 
 induced Car and the countess, now become his 
 wife, to cause infected viands to be adminis- 
 tered at various times to the unhappy pri- 
 soner, who finally fell a sacrifice to a poisoned 
 clyster, on the 15th September, 1613. All 
 these facts afterwards appeared in evidence, 
 when the accomplices in the murder were 
 tried, and sir GervaseElways, the lieutenant of 
 the Tower, a creature of Car's, with several 
 others, were condemned and executed. Car 
 and his lady, then become earl and countess of 
 Somerset, were also convicted and condemned, 
 but to the eternal disgrace of James, par- 
 doned for no assignable cause that will not 
 add to the ignominy of the proceeding. Sir 
 Thomas Overbury wrote both in verse and in 
 prose, and his])oem., entitled " The W iie,"bas 
 been much admired ; as also his " Characters," 
 or witty descriptions of the properties of sun- 
 dry persons, somewhat in the manner of the 
 sketches in the posthumous works of Butler. 
 A tenth edition of all his works was published 
 in 1753, 8vo. — His nephew, sir Thomas 
 OvEKBUKY, published" An Account of the 
 Trial of Joan Perry and her two sons, for the 
 ]\Iurder of William Hamson ;" a most re- 
 markable case, the parties who were executed 
 having confessed themselves guilty of the 
 murder, although innocent ; " Queries on Per- 
 secution in Religion ;" and " Rationum Ver- 
 naculum," a further work on the same sub- 
 ject. — Bi>^g. Brit. State Trials. 
 
 OVID, or PUBLICS OVIDIUS NASO, 
 a celebrated Latin poet, who flourished in the 
 reign of Augustus. He was the son of a Ro- 
 man knight, and was born at Sulmo, about 
 ninetv miles from Rome, 43 BC. He was 
 liberally educated, and studied rhetoric under 
 Fortius Latro, being destined for the profes- 
 sion of an advocate. But his decided predi- 
 lection for polite literature, and especially poe- 
 try, led him to neglect severer studies, and 
 the early death of an elder brother put him in 
 possession of the family estate, and left him 
 at libeity to follow his inclinations. Previously 
 to this event he had made himself acquainted 
 with the Greek language, and spent some time 
 at Athens, then the fashionable resort of the 
 R.oman youth. Returning to Rome he became 
 a member of the court of the Triumviri, and 
 afterwards held other judicial offices ; but his 
 attachment to poetry and ])leasure induced 
 him, at about the age of twenty four, to re- 
 nounce all public employment for the life of 
 an indolent courtier and a man of letters. He 
 now published his poem " De Arte Amandi," 
 in five books, wbicli, however exceptionable in 
 7.(.'intof moralit\ , aflords sufficient evidence of 
 his abilities; and this was followed by bis OWEN (Henry) a learned divine, wasthc 
 
 OWE 
 
 " Heroic Epistles," and other works. At 
 length, after having been a companion of the 
 great, and a favourite at court for some years, 
 he was suddenly banished from Rome for some 
 unknown cause, and sent to live among the 
 Getre or Goths, on the borders of the Euxine. 
 Learned men have formed a multitude of con- 
 jectures as to the cause of Ovid's disgrace, 
 and the precise situation of Tomos, the place 
 of his exile, and many of them have supported 
 their various opinions with a great deal of mis- 
 applied erudition. Tt is probable, from some 
 concurrent circumstances, that the political 
 intrigues of the empress Livia and her son 
 Tiberius, contributed to the removal of the 
 poet ; while the licentiousness of his writings 
 and the irregularities of his life afforded plau- 
 sible pretexts for the infliction of his punish- 
 ment. He wrote several books of elegies and 
 e|)istles while among the Goths, and amused 
 himself in studying their language, and com- 
 posed in it a work which procured him great 
 reputation among them. After in vain soli- 
 citing his recal during the reign of Augustus, 
 he lost all hopes of obtaining it under his 
 successor, and died at Tomos, AD. 17. Be- 
 sides the works mentioned, Ovid wrote the 
 " Fasti" and " Metamorphoses," relating to 
 the heathen mythology, &c. Among the best 
 editions of the works of Ovid, are those of 
 Heinsius, apud Elzev. L. Bat. 1629, 3 vols. 
 18rno; Amst. 1661, 6 vols. 18mo : Notis 
 Varior. L. Bat. 1670, 3vols. 8vo; in usum 
 Delph. Lugd. 1689, 4 vols. 4to ; Burman, 
 Amst. 1727, 4vols. 4to; and the Bletamor- 
 phoses and other pieces have been often 
 edited separately. — Massons Life of Ovid. 
 Martin's Biog. Philos. Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 OVIEDO Y VALDES (Gonzalvo Her- 
 nandez de) a Spanish military officer, who 
 became inspector- general of American com- 
 merce in the reign of the emperor Charles V. 
 He was the author of " Cronica de las Indias," 
 and " La Historia General de las Indias,'* 
 1546, republished with additional matter at 
 Salamanca, in 1547, folio. This is one of the 
 scarcest books relative to the early history of 
 the intercourse of the Spaniards with Ame- 
 rica ; and it has been the source whence suc- 
 ceeding writers have drawn much of their in- 
 formation concerning the New World. Ra- 
 musio published it in Italian, in the third vo- 
 lume of bis collection of voyages. Oviedo 
 was alive after 1534, but the exact time of his 
 death is uncertain. — Moreri. Edit. 
 
 OVIEDO (John Gonzales) a native of 
 Madrid, who soon after the discovery of Ame- 
 rica visited the West Indies, to examine the 
 natural productions of that part of the world. 
 He published the result of bis researches in a 
 work entitled " Historia general y natural de 
 las Indias Occidentales," 1535, folio, which 
 has been translated into French and Italian. 
 Oviedo, according to Fallopius, was the first 
 discoverer of the virtues of Guaiacum in the 
 cure of syphilitic complaints. He died in 
 1540, aged seventy-two. — Antonio. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
o ^v E 
 
 eon of a gentToman of pood estate, in tli« 
 county of Mtrianeth, where he was horn in 
 1716. He was educated at the grammar 
 school of Rulhin in Denbiglisliire, whenie he 
 was removed to Jesus college, Oxford. He 
 turned his attention in the lirst instance to 
 pliysic, but subsecjuently took orders, and 
 after various preferment became rector of St 
 OlKve, Hart-t-treet, and vicar of Eihnonton in 
 Middlesex. He died in 179."). His works 
 are, '* Harmonia Trigonometrica ;" " The In- 
 tent and Propriety of the Scripture I\Jira- 
 fles ;" " Observations on the Four Gosjjels ;" 
 " Directions to Stud<!D'.s in Divinity ;" " En- 
 quiry into the State <ff the Septuagint Version 
 of the Old Testament ," " Critica Sacra, or a 
 short Introduction to Hebrew Criticism ;" 
 " Collatio Codicis Cottoniani Geneseos, cum 
 Editione Romano a viro clarissimo Johanue 
 Ernesto Grabe," deemed tlie most ancient ma- 
 nuscript in Ijirope ; " Critical Disquisitions;" 
 " The IModes of Quotation used by the Evan- 
 gelical Writers." He was also the editor of 
 Xenoplion's iMemorabilia, and furnished seve- 
 ral papers to the Archajologia, and to Bow- 
 yer's Collections on the New Testament. — Ni- 
 chols's Lit. A)iecd. 
 
 OWEN (John) a distinguished writer of 
 Latin epigrams, was a native of Caernarvon- 
 shire. He received his education at Win- 
 tiiester school, whence he was removed to 
 Kew college, Oxford, where he graduated 
 LLB. and obtained a fellowship. He after- 
 wards became master of a free school near 
 Monmouth, and in 1594 was placed over that 
 of Warwick, \^l>ere he became celebrated for 
 his skill in La',in poetry, especially epigrams. 
 He is said to have experienced the poet's 
 frequent lot of indigence, being struck out of 
 the will of a rich uncle, who was offended 
 with his attacks on the church of Rome, one 
 of his epigrams un which, as a specimen of 
 his manner, is here supjtlied. 
 
 An Petri's fuerit Romae sub judice lis est ; 
 Simonem Romeo nemo fuisse negat. 
 Owen died in 1622, and was buried at the ex- 
 pense of bisliop Williams, (by whom he was 
 ^.hiefly supported in the latter part of his life,) 
 in St Paul's cathedral. His epigrams, in 
 twelve books, have been several times pub- 
 lished. In some he imitates the point of -Mar- 
 tial, but the greater number have little to re- 
 coT.niend them but purity and simj)licity of 
 language. An edition of them was printed by 
 Renonard, at Paris, in 1794. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 OWEN, DD.(John) the most eminent of the 
 English nonconformist divines, was descended 
 from a respectable family in North Wales, and 
 born at Stadham in Oxfordshire, in 1616, of 
 which place his father was vicar. He stutlied 
 at Queen's college, Oxford, where he gra- 
 duated MA. in 1635. He remained at col- 
 ege, where he was supported by his uncle, a 
 gentleman of good fortune in Wales, until he 
 had attained his twenty-first year. During 
 tliis period he became a most distinguished 
 scholar, but imbibing a dislike to the discipline 
 of the university, then under the c-liance!lor- 
 ahip of archbishop Laud, it disposed him, on 
 
 o \y E 
 
 t!ir breaking out of ihe civil war, to take part 
 with the parliament. liy this conduct he lost 
 the favour of his uncle, wIkj died without 
 leaving hitn any thing. He llien ^uc•cesHively 
 became a tutor in the family of hir Hoh«-rt 
 Dormf'r, and chaplain to lonl Lovelace, but 
 subsequently rej)aired to London, where he 
 wrote liis " Display of Arminianisin," which 
 was i)ublish(d in 1()42, and was deemed »o 
 important by the ascendant party, that the 
 chairman of the committee then formed for 
 l)urging the church of scandalous ministers, 
 presented him with the living of Eordliarn in 
 Essex, whence he removed to that of Coggle- 
 shall in the same county, to which, at the re- 
 quest of the inhabitants, he was presented by 
 the earl of Warwick. He ha<l iiitherto been a 
 presbyterian in matters of church government, 
 but now adojited the congregati nal or inde- 
 jiendent mode, as more conformable to the 
 New Testament ; and published his reasons for 
 thinking so, in two quarto volumes, which pro- 
 ceedings exceedingly ofFemied the presbyte- 
 rian party. During the siege of Colchester 
 I)e became acquainted with general Fairfax, 
 and now having acquired great celebrity, was 
 appointed to preach at Whitehall, the day 
 after the execution of Charles I. On this oc- 
 casion, however, he kept his esntiments on 
 that subject in such reserve, that while his 
 friends had little oi)])ortunity for exception, the 
 oi)posing party could stir uj) nothing fur future 
 accusation. He was soon after introduced to 
 Cromwell, whom he accompanied in his ex- 
 peditions both to Ireland and Scotland, and 
 in 1651 was made dean of Christchurcu col- 
 lege, Oxford, on which appointment he re- 
 ceived his doctor's degree, and in 1652 was 
 nominated by Cromwell, then chancellor of 
 the university, his vice-chancellor. In this 
 capacity he ))eliaved at once witli great firm- 
 ness and moderation, and held this office live 
 years ; but on the death of the protector, he 
 was deprived both of that and his deanery by 
 the influence of the presbyterian party. At 
 the meeting of his brethren at the Savoy in 
 1658, he had a powerful hand in drawing up the 
 confession of faithof the congregational churches. 
 On the Restoration he retired to Stadham, where 
 he preached until prevented by the interru])tion 
 of the military and others, on which he set- 
 tled in London, and so pleased lord Clarendon 
 by his answer to a work by a Franciscan friar, 
 entitled *• Fiat Lux," thai he oflered him im- 
 mediate preferment if he would conform, which 
 proposal he respectfully declined. W bile the 
 bill to revise the conventicle act was pending, 
 he drew up reasons against it with great abi- 
 lity, which arguments were laid before the 
 lords by several persons of respectability and 
 consequence, although fruitlessly, as the bill 
 passetl into a law. notwithstanding Charles II 
 and his brother James both affected to disap- 
 prove of it, and the former gave Dr Owen a 
 thousand guineas to distribute among the suf- 
 ferers under it. This very influential and 
 learned divine died at Ealing, Middlesex, on 
 tlie 24ih August. 1683, in the sixty-third sear 
 of his age. Dr Owen's works, which it aesd 
 
OW E 
 
 not be said are of a high Calvinistic character, 
 are very numerous, amounting to seven volumes 
 in folio, twenty in 4to, and thirty in 8vo. In 
 this number are " An Exposition on the Epis- 
 tle to the Hebrews," in 4 vols, folio; *' A 
 Discourse ou the Holy Spirit ;" " A complete 
 Collection of Sermons and several Tracts," 
 folio ; " An Inquiry into the original Nature, 
 Institution, &c. of Evangelical Churches," 
 4to ; " An Account of the Nature of the Pro- 
 testant Religion ;" and a great many more 
 tracts, either in vindication of the general 
 doctrines of Christianity, or of the independent 
 churches. — Biog. Brit. Calamy's Account of 
 Ejected Ministei'S. Granger. 
 
 OWEN (Lewis) a controversial writer 
 against the Jesuits, was born in Merioneth- 
 shire in 1572. He went abroad and entered 
 the society of Jesuits in Spain, but finding that 
 they paid more attention to worldly intrigues 
 than to the affairs of religion, he withdrew 
 from them, and made use of the information 
 he had gained to expose them in his works, 
 which are '* The Running Register, recording 
 a true Relation of the State of the English 
 Colleges, Seminaries, and Cloysters, of all 
 Foreign Parts, together with a brief and com- 
 pendious Discourse of the Lives, Practices, 
 Couzenage, Impostures, and Deceits of all our 
 EngUsh Monks, Friars, Jesuits, and Seminarie 
 Priests in general," Lond. 16^6 ; " The Un- 
 masking of all Popish Monks, Friars, and Je- 
 suits ;" and " Speculum Jesuiticum, or the 
 Jesuit's Looking-Glass, wherein they may 
 behold Ignatius (their patron), his Progress, 
 their own pilgrimage, &c." The time of 
 Owen's death is unknown, but he was living 
 in 1629. — Athen. Oxon. vol i. 
 
 OWEN (Thomas) a learned judge, was 
 bom at Condover in Shropshire, and died in 
 1598. After passing through various promo- 
 tions, he became judge of the Common Pleas, 
 which office he discharged with great inte- 
 grity and ability. His " Reports in the King's 
 Bench and Common Pleas, in the Reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth," were printed in folio in 
 1656. — Athen. Oxon. 
 
 OWEN, RA. (William) an eminent Eng- 
 lish artist, a native of Shropshire, in which 
 county he was born in 1769. He was placed 
 by his friends at the grammar-school at Lud- 
 low, where the early indications of genius and 
 the passionate love of painting which he ex- 
 hibited, fortunately attracted the notice of Mr 
 Payne Knight, whose mansion was in the vi- 
 cinity of that place. By the advice and as- 
 tsistance of that liberal patron of the arts, 
 young Owen was sent to London, and placed 
 under Charles Catton, the royal academician. 
 Having made an excellent copy of one of sir 
 Joshua Reynolds's best portraits, that great 
 painter paid him much attention, and benefited 
 Lim considerably by his instructions. From 
 tliis period his exertions were unremitting, 
 and altliough the defalcation of a friend at 
 one time involved him in serious pecuniary 
 embarrassments, yet it may be questioned 
 whether the increased application to his pro- 
 fession which this circumstance rendered ne- 
 
 O XE 
 
 I cessary, did not eventually tend to his advan- 
 tage. In 1800 he settled with his family at 
 Pimlico, and in 18 33 was appointed principal 
 portrait painter to the prince regent, on which 
 occasion he was offered, but modestly declined, 
 the honour of knighthood. His professional 
 emoluments, as well as his reputation, con- 
 tinuing to increase, he in 1818 removed to a 
 larger establishment in Bruton-street, but 
 from this time his health appears to have aban- 
 doned him ; and although he survived till the 
 February of 1824, yet the five last years of 
 his life were passed in being wheeled from his 
 bed-room to his drawing-room, on the same 
 floor. The immediate occasion of his decease 
 originated in the carelessness of a chemist's 
 apprentice, who, mixing up for his use a ca- 
 thartic, and a preparation of opium, known by 
 the name of " Battley's Drops," transposed 
 the labels on the phials. The whole contents 
 of the one, containing the latter, were, incon- 
 sequence, swallowed, and the patient fell into 
 a lethargy from which he never awoke. Be- 
 sides his celebrated pictures of ]Mr Pitt, lords 
 Grenville andEldon, the duchess of Buccleugh, 
 and other distinguished characters, Mr Owen 
 occasionally relieved the monotony of portrait 
 painting, by employing his pencil on histori- 
 cal pieces, and subjects of fancy. Among 
 the latter, his •' Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
 Green ;" "The Village Schoolmistress ;" and 
 " Road Side," have been engraved, and met 
 with deserved popularity. He had been en- 
 rolled among the members of the Royal Aca- 
 
 j demy as early as the spring of 1806. — Ann. 
 Biog. 
 
 OXENSTIERN (Axel) an eminent Swe- 
 dish statesman, son of baron Gabriel Oxen- 
 stiem, was bom at Fano, in Upland, in 1583. 
 He was sent at an early age to study in Ger- 
 many, and on his return becoming distin- 
 guished for his abilities, was in his twenty- 
 sixth year admitted a member of the Swedish 
 senate, and placed by Charles IX at the head 
 of the regency, rendered necessary by his in- 
 creasing infirmities. On the accession of Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, he was made chancellor, and 
 acted a distinguished part under that spirited 
 and able sovereign. On the death of Gusta- 
 vus at Lutzen, the great talents of Oxenstiern 
 kept alive the declining spirit of the allies, 
 until this most eventful war was brought to a 
 conclusion by the celebrated treaty of West- 
 phalia. For these and other eminent services, 
 Oxenstiern received the title of count from 
 queen Christina, and at the same time was 
 chosen chancellorof the university of Upsal. He 
 strongly opposed the abdication of Christina, 
 and even feigned indisposition that he might be 
 absent from the deliberations on that measure. 
 This able and patriotic statesman died in the 
 month of August, 1 654, in his seventy-first year, 
 leaving behind him a character for ability and 
 integrity, which may vie with that of the most 
 illustrious of those who have distinguished 
 themselves in the art of wisely governing 
 their fellow creatures. His knowledge of the 
 himian heart was profound, and his political 
 sagacity, exercised as it was with integrity, 
 
OZ A 
 
 excited no less respoct than admiration. Tlie 
 form of government wliich be drew up at the 
 command of Iiis sovereign, in 1 <).)!, Ii:i9 boen 
 deemed a master-piece of j)olitic;d wisdom, in 
 comparison to the general theories of the aije. 
 A Hst of his works, as well as of the manu- 
 scripts which he left beliind him, may be seen 
 in tl»e Hibliotheca Sino-Gothica. — John Ox- 
 ENSTiERN, son of the chancellor, was the Swe- 
 dish ambassador and plenipotentiary at the 
 treaty of iMunster, and ably supported tlie 
 credit of liis name. — E^nic Oxenstiern, ano- 
 ther son, also obtained considerable distinc- 
 tion in the same line. — Tliere was also a 
 count OxENSTiEitv, a grand nephew of the 
 chancellor, wlio became a Catholic, and died 
 in 1707. He was author of " Pensees sur 
 divers Sujets, avee des Reflexions morales," 
 2 vols. I'imo. — Gezelii Biographiska Lexicon. 
 
 OZANAM (James) an eminent French ma- 
 thematician, descended from a family of Jew- 
 ish extraction, but which had long been con- 
 verts to the Romish faith. He was born at 
 Boligneux in Brescia, in 1640, and being a 
 younger son, was bred to the church. On the 
 death of his father, however, he gave up the 
 study of divinity, and devoted himself entirely 
 to the mathematics. He afterwards repaired 
 to Lyons, where he commenced mathematical 
 tutor for his support, and acquired many pu- 
 pils, and considerable reputation. His gene- 
 rous confidence in advancing money to two of 
 his pupils, who were disappointed of receiving 
 bills of exchange, was the means of })is being 
 recommended to INI. D'Aguesseau, father of 
 the chancellor, who invited him to Paris, 
 wliere he met with great encouragement ; but 
 being young, handsome, and sprightly, was 
 seduced into some imprudences in the way of 
 gallantry and gaming, which induced him to 
 marry a young lady without fortune, but with 
 whom he enjoyed much happiness for several 
 years. After long enjoying great emolu- 
 meat as a mathematical teacher, he ex- 
 
 OZ E 
 
 perit-ncotl some reverses, in consequence of be- 
 ing ileprivt'd of his fort-ign pupils by the war 
 for the Spanish succession ; and about the 
 same time he lost his wife, and was thereby 
 reduced to a slate of great melancholy depres- 
 sion, which waa somewhat alleviale<l by hia 
 admission into the Royal Academy of Scienraiii. 
 He died of an apojilexy in 1717. He wrote a 
 gr"at number of useful works, the principal of 
 which are, " ])i(tionnaire des Mathematiques," 
 ko ; " Cours des Matbematiques," 5 vols. 
 Hvo ; " Recreations Mathcmatifjues et Phy- 
 siques," 4 vols. 8vo ; " Traite de la Fortifica- 
 tion," 4to ; " Nouveau JOIemens d' Algebra ;" 
 " La Perspective Theoriciue et Pratique," ice, 
 8vo. — Ifntton's Math. Diet. 
 
 OZKLL (John) a miscellaneous writer, of 
 French extraction, but born in England. He 
 was intended for the church, but his inclina- 
 tion not being that way, he obtained the si- 
 tuation of auditor-general of the city and 
 bridge accounts, also of the accounts of St 
 Paul's cathedral and St Thomas's hospital. 
 Mr Ozell gave translations of Don Quixote, 
 Rabelais, and iMoliere, but possessing neither 
 humour nor imagination himself, it was impos- 
 sible for him to do justice to those excellent 
 works. He also published " Common Prayer 
 and Common Sense, in several ^Maces of the 
 Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French, Latin, 
 and Greek Translations of the English Litur- 
 gy," which is esteemed; " Fenelon on Learn- 
 ing ;" Vertot's " Revolutions of Rome ;" 
 " The Life of Veronica of Milan ;" " Nicole's 
 Logic ;" parts of Rapin, Boileau, Sec. Ozell 
 was endowed with a considerable share of va- 
 nity, and on being introduced by Pope in the 
 Dunciad, he expressed his resentment in an 
 extraordinary advertisement, signed with his 
 name, in a paper called " The Weekly Med- 
 ley," and drew a comparison between J^ope 
 and himself, in which he professed himself su- 
 perior both in respect to learning and poetical 
 "renins. He died in 1743. — Cibber's Lives, 
 
 P AC 
 
 PA AW (Peter) a physician and botanist, 
 was bom at Amsterdam in 1.564. His 
 reputation caused him to be called to Leyden, 
 where he was appointed professor of medicine, 
 and died in 1617. His works are chiefly on 
 anatomical and botanical subjects, and though 
 mucli surpassed by the subsequent discoveries, 
 they are still esteemed. The principal are, 
 " Notae et Commentarii in Epitomen Anato- 
 micam Andrete Vesalii," Leyden, 1616 ; 
 " Hortus Lugduno-Batavus," 1629, 8vo ; 
 " De Peste Tractatus cum Henrici Florentii 
 additamentis," Leyden, 1636. Paaw was the 
 founder of the botanical garden at Leyden. — 
 Eloy Diet. Hist, de Medicine. 
 
 PACATUS (Lativus DnEPAXtus) a La- 
 tin poet and orator of the fourth century, was 
 
 P AC 
 
 a native of Drepanum in Aquitania. When 
 Theodosius the Great visited Rome in 388, 
 after the defeat of [Maximus, Pacatus was 
 sent from Gaul with congratulations, and he 
 pronounced on the occasion a panegyrical ora- 
 tion, for which he was rewarded by the pro- 
 consulship of a province in Africa, and in 393 
 with the office of superintendant of the impe- 
 rial domain. None of his poems are extant, 
 the panegyric on Theodosius only remains ; 
 the best edition is that by Amtzenius, Amst. 
 1753. It is more distinguished by its imagi- 
 nation and expression than by its purity ; but 
 for the age in which it was composed, it is a 
 tolerable piece of eloquence. — Moreri. Xouv 
 Diet. Hist. 
 P.ACCHIONI (Anthony) an eminent ana- 
 
P A C 
 
 tomist, born at Reggio, in Iialy, iii 1 (364. 
 Having taken the degree of MD. he was in- 
 vited to Rome by Malpighi, and afterwards 
 practised as a physician at Tivoli, Returning 
 to Rome, be became assistant to the celebrated 
 anatomist Lancisi, and devotmg liimseli to 
 dissection, he distinguished himself by his 
 researches relative to the structure and proper- 
 ties of the brain and its membranes. He was 
 chosen a member of the academies of Bo- 
 logna and Sienna, and of the Academia Cu- 
 riosorum Naturag. He died at Rome in 1726. 
 Among his principal works are, " Disserta- 
 tiones physico-anatomicas de Dur^ meninge 
 human&, novis Expenmentis et Lucubrationi- 
 bus auctai et illustrate," 1721, which, with 
 his other treatises on the same subject, ap- 
 peared at Rome, 1741, 4to, under the title of 
 " Opera Omnia." — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PACE (Richard) sometimes called Pa- 
 caeus, a learned and eloquent divine, high in 
 favour with Henry the Eighth of England, who 
 employed him on various occasions of state 
 policy. He was a native of Hampshire, born 
 1482, and was educated at Padua, at the ex- 
 pense of Tbomas Langton, bishop of Win- 
 chester, who made him his secretary. After 
 his studies had been completed at Queen's 
 college, Oxford, cardinal Bambridge then car- 
 ried him with him to Rome in his suite ; on 
 his return he obtained an employment about 
 the court, till having attracted the notice of 
 the monarch by his accomplishments, he be- 
 came a secretary of state, and taking orders, 
 received from the bounty of his royal patron, 
 a stall in the cathedral of York, the archdea- 
 conry of Dorset, and the deaneries of Exeter 
 and St Paul's, most of which benefices were 
 conferred upon him while employed as an am- 
 bassador abroad. In this capacity he visited 
 Vienna and Rome, to which latter capital he 
 was despatched in 1 524 by Wolsey, with the 
 view of forwarding that ambitious jirelate's at- 
 tempts on the popedom vacant by the death 
 of Leo X. Before be reached the point of his 
 destination, however, the object of his mis- 
 sion was already frustrated, the conclave hav- 
 ing previously proceeded to election, a cir- 
 cumstance which lost him the favour of the 
 disappointed cardinal, who took the opportu- 
 nity, on his being subsequently accredited to 
 the court of Vienna, so to harrass him by with- 
 holding the necessary resources and direc- 
 tions, that a strong sense of the neglect he 
 experienced operating upon a nervous tempe- 
 rament, produced a temporary insanity. His 
 recal was tbe consequence, when his healtli 
 became partially re-established, notwithstand- 
 ing the yet unsatisfied rancour of his former 
 patron not only deprived him of the king's 
 countenance, but procured him an incarcera- 
 tion for two years in the Tower of London. 
 He at length obtained his liberty, but with- 
 drew at once from public life, with an enfee- 
 bled constitution, resigning all his preferments 
 and retiiing to Stepney, where he died in 
 1532. Dr Pace was much esteemed by Eras- 
 mus, sir Thomas More, and cardinal Pole. 
 His principal writings were, a treatise on the 
 
 PAC 
 
 marriage of the king with Catharine of Arra- 
 gon ; " De Fructu Scientiarum," 4to ; and a 
 musical tract " De Restitutione Musices." — 
 Athen. Oion. 
 
 PACHYMERA (George) a Greek histo- 
 rian of the fourteenth century, was bom at 
 Nicsea. He entered the church, in which, as 
 well as in the state, he bore considerable 
 offices under the emperors INIichael Palaeologus 
 and Andronicus the elder. He is suj^posed to 
 have died about 1310. He wrote *' The His- 
 tory «f INIichael Pal^jologus and Andronicus," 
 in thirteen books, wiiich was published with a 
 Latin version by father Poussines, at Rome, 
 in 1666, and was translated into French by the 
 president Cousin. The style is harsh and ob- 
 scure, but it is written in an impartial and en- 
 lightened spirit. To Pachymera is also attri- 
 buted a paraphrase on the Epistles of Diony- 
 sius the Areopagite, and a treatise on the pro- 
 cession of the Holy Ghost. A compendium of 
 Aristotelic philosophy was published from his 
 MS. at Oxford in 1666. — Voaii Hist. Grcec, 
 Moreri. Bruckei Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PACL\l]DI (Paul Maria) an Italian 
 ecclesiastic, antiquary, and historian, was born 
 at Turin in 1710. After studying at the uni- 
 versity of that ca])ital, he took the religious 
 habit in the order of Theatins, at Venice, 
 and after studying under Beccaria at Florence, 
 he became professor of philosophy at Genoa. 
 In 1761 he settled at Parma as librarian to the 
 grand duke, who also appointed him his anti- 
 quary, and invested him witli the conduct of 
 several public works. To these honours and 
 employments he likewise added that of histo- 
 riographer of the order of Malta. Father 
 Paciaudi, who was the correspondent of Cay- 
 lus, Barthelemy, and Winkelman, died in 
 1785. His principal works are, " A Series of 
 Medals, representing the most remarkable 
 Events of the Government of iNIalta," folio ; 
 " De Sacris Christianorum Balneis ;" " De 
 Athletarum Cubistesi ;" " Monumenta Pelo- 
 ponessia," 2 vols. 4to ; " IMemoirs of the 
 Grand Masters of the Order of St John of 
 Jerusalem," 3 vols. 4to. — Fahroni Vilce Ita- 
 lorum. 
 
 PACIUS. There were two learned men of 
 this name, brothers, and natives of Vicenza, 
 who flourished in Italy during the latter half 
 of the sixteenth century. Oi those, Fabius 
 was eminent as a physician. Julius, the 
 more celebrated of the two, born 1550, distin- 
 guished himself while yet a youth by the soli- 
 dity as well as the precocity of his talents. 
 At the age of thirteen he composed an arith- 
 metical treatise of consiJerable merit, and 
 after having completed his education at Padua, 
 where be made great proficiency in Oriental as 
 well as classical learning, and took his doctor's 
 degree, travelled over great part of the nortli- 
 ern states of Europe, delivering lectures on ju- 
 risprudence. Though born of Catholic pa- 
 rents, he became a convert to Protestantism, 
 and visited Geneva, whence he removed in 
 1585 to Heidelberg, on obtaining a professor 
 ship in that university. He subsequently vi- 
 sited Sedan, Montpellier, Aix, and other cities. 
 
PAG 
 
 until the prospect of a j)rofes9orship at Padua 
 at length induced liinri to settle in the Vene- 
 tian tt'iritories, whert' lie w:is hrKl in sncli hi^li 
 estimation on account of his kainiug und abi- 
 lities, tliat the senate conferred on liiin the 
 honour of adniisjiion into ihe equestrian order 
 of St Mark, and l)estowed a professorship uj)on 
 his son. IJeside the juvenile j)roductioii al- 
 ready alluded to, he was the author of *' Cor- 
 pus juris Civilis," l.")8(), foho ; an edition of 
 the " Organon" of Aristotle, Gr. et Laf. 8vo, 
 1598 ; " I)e Contractihus." 1606, folio ; " De 
 Jure Maris Adriatici," 8vo, 1609 ; " In l)e- 
 cretales," a treatise in five books, 8vo ; " Con- 
 suetudines Feudoruni," folio ; and " Doctrina 
 Peiipatetica," 3 vols. His scholar, Nicholas 
 Peireso, is said to have reconverted him to 
 Catholicism a short time ])reviou.-.lv to his 
 death, which took place in 1635, at Valence. 
 — \iceri>n» 
 
 PACK (Richardson) au ingenious wri- 
 ter, who published some miscellaneous works 
 of merit in the early part of the last century. 
 He was born in tlie county of Suftbik, but re- 
 ceived the rudiments of a classical education 
 in London, at Merchant Tailors' school. Go- 
 big off to college upon that foundation, he be- 
 came a fellow of St John's, Oxford, and on 
 
 P A G 
 
 Geographical Account of the River of Amn- 
 zons." He died, highly esteemed, at Paris 
 in 1665. — I'enuult Uommei Illust. 
 
 PACJi:. 01). (William) a native of Har- 
 row, Middkhex, or according to others, of the 
 metropolis, b.»rn 1590. He was* educated at 
 (Oxford, where hi; entered originally at lUlioI 
 college, but (juitted it in 16 19, on be'ji.g chosen 
 fellow of All Souls. Ten years after he ob- 
 tained the head-inH8terslii[) of Reatling gram- 
 mar-school, and the rectory of l'a-,t I^ockirit;, 
 Berks ; but on the breaking out of the civil 
 wars, his principles rendering him obnoxious 
 to the re|)ul)licaii party, he was ejected from 
 his school, though the piofjis of his benefice 
 were not 8e(|uestered. He is principally 
 known as the author of a devotional treati>e 
 on Genuflexicm. in 4to, printed at Oxfonl in 
 I6."3l ; a Reply to John Hales's Iract on 
 Schism ; and a translation of the " De Iniita- 
 tione, (Sec." of Thomas a Kempis. His death 
 took place in 1663. — Athen. 0.jun. 
 
 PAGES ( Francis Xavier ) a literary com- 
 piler antl indefatigable romance-writer, born 
 at Aurillac, in the department of Cantal in 
 France, in 1745. He settled at Paris a short 
 time before the beginning of the Revolution, 
 of which he protessed himself an admirer; 
 
 quitti;ig the university, entered himself of the but deprived of his property by the ensuin 
 
 Middle 'I'emple, but subsequently entered the ' • ' . . , . . 
 
 army, and rose to the rank of major. His 
 
 works, an edition of which appeared the year 
 
 following that of his decease, in one volume, 
 
 octave, consist of a tale, entitled, " Religion 
 
 and Pljlosophy ;" and a " Life of Pomponius 
 
 Atticus ;" with some miscellaneous pieces, both 
 
 in prose and verse. His death took place in 
 
 1728, at Aberdeen. — Gibber's Lives. 
 
 PACUVIUS (Marcus) a Latin tragic poet, 
 and the nephew of Ennius, was a native of 
 Brundusium, and flourished abou* BC. 154. 
 He obtained great repiitaticn by his tragedies, 
 of which that of " Orestes" is particularly 
 mentioned by Cicero. He also wrote satires, 
 and possessed a talent for painting. The only 
 remaining fragments of his works were pub- 
 lished in the " Corpus Poetarum Latiiiorum." 
 He died at Tarentum, in his ninetieth year. — 
 Vossii Poet. Lat. Baillct. 
 
 PAGAN (Blaise Francois, count de) an 
 eminent French military engineer, was born in 
 1604 at Avignon. He entered the army at 
 an early age, and lost an eye at the siege of 
 IVIontauban, which did not prevent him from 
 following up his profession with great bravery 
 and success. In 1642 he was sent into Por- 
 tugal as field-marslial, and then lost his other 
 
 eye ; and thus disabled from serving his coun- 
 try in the field, he employed tlie whole force 
 of his mind in mathematical studies, in which 
 be had previously been much conversant, with 
 a view to the science of fortification. The re- 
 sult of his application appeared in 1645, in his 
 '• Traile de Fortifications," the best work 
 which had then appeared on the suliject 
 
 commotions in the state, he devoted himself 
 to literary pursuits, as a means of existence. 
 He died at Paris, December 21, 1802. Among 
 his numerous works may bo mentioned, " His- 
 toire secrete de la Revolution Franfaise," 
 1796-1801, 6 vols. 8vo, which was translated 
 into English, Italian, and German ; and 
 " Nouveau A^o^age autour du Monde, en 
 Asie , en Ameiiqae, et en Afrique, precede 
 d'un Voyage en Italie," 1797, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 This last is a kind of compilation (in the man- 
 ner of the " Voyageur Fran^ais " of the abbe 
 de Laporte), which M. Boucher de la Hiciiar- 
 derie, deceived by the name of the author, has 
 confounded with the work mentioned in the 
 following article. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv, 
 des Contemp. 
 
 PAGES (Pierre Marie FRAN90is,vicomte 
 de) a French navigator, born of a noble family 
 at Toulouse in 1748. He entered into the 
 navy at the age of nineteen, and in 1767 he 
 embarked at Cape Francois in St Domini^o, on 
 a voyage with a view to explore the Indian 
 seas, and travel through China and Tartary to 
 the Northern Ocean. He arrived at the Phi- 
 lippine Islands in October 1763, and finding 
 it impossible to penetrate China, he went by 
 sea to Bassora, and travelliuij through the de- 
 sert to Syria, he reached France in December 
 1771. In 1773 he sailed in Kerguelurs expe- 
 dition towards the South Pole ; and on his 
 return, he made a voyage in a Dutch vessel 
 employed in the whale fishery in the North 
 Seas, when he proceeded as fai as 81 degrees 
 and a half of north latitude. Pages obtained, 
 as the reward of his services, the rank of cap 
 
 Tliis was followed by his " Theoremes Geo- tain, and the cross of St Louis, and he was 
 metriques," 1651; •' Theorie des Planetes," chosen a correspoTident of the Academy of 
 1()57; and "Tables Astronomi(]ues," 1658. Sciences. He served in the American war. 
 
 He w&'} also the author of au "Historical and [ and after tlie peace of 1783, he retired to !^ 
 
PAG 
 
 Domingo, where Le had a considerable estate. 
 He was unfortunately murdered during the 
 revolt of the negroes in 1793. He published 
 ♦' Vo3'ages autour du Monde et vers les deux 
 poles, par Terre et par Mt-r, pendant les An- 
 nees, 1767-76," Paris, 1782, 2 vols. 8vo ; a 
 work praised for its fidelity, by Humbolt, with 
 the exception of inaccuracy with regard to the 
 orthography of foreign names. — Eadem. 
 
 PAGl (Anthony) a famous cordelier, was 
 born at Rogues, a small town in Provence, in 
 1624. He was made four times provincial of 
 his order, and died at Aix iu 1699. He was 
 a learned, judicious, and candid writer, and his 
 Style is distinguished by its simplicity. His 
 principal works are, " Critica Historico-Chro- 
 nologica in Universos Annales Ecclesiasticos 
 eminent, et Rev. Caes. Card. Baronii, &c." 
 and " Dissertation upon the Consulates." — 
 His nephew, Francis Paci, also a cordelier, 
 was born at Lambese in 1654. He assisted 
 his uncle in his critique upon Baronius's An- 
 nals, of which he became the editor. He also 
 wrote a work, entitled " Breviarium Historico- 
 Chronologico-Criticum, lUustriora Pontificum 
 Romanorum Gesta Conciliorum generalium 
 Acta," &c. 4 vols. 4to. This dis{)lays some 
 learned and curious research, and the style is 
 simple and plain ; and he is a zealous advocate 
 for the Ultramontane theology, and uses every 
 arguanent to exalt the authority of the papacy. 
 He died in 1721. — Chaufepie. Kiceron. 
 
 PAGNINI (LucANTONio) an Italian poet, 
 born at Pistoia in 1737. Distinguished for 
 his talents when young, he attracted the no- 
 tice of the vicar-general of the Carmelites at 
 Mantua, at whose invitation he entered into 
 that order. After remaining some time at 
 Florence, he was sent to Parma, where he 
 became professor of philosophy in the schools 
 of his order, and afterwards of rhetoric and 
 Greek in the Royal Academy. In 1806 he 
 was aggregated to the university of Pisa, as 
 professor of humanity, and then of belles let- 
 tres. After the occupation of Tuscany by the 
 French, the university being newly modelled 
 as an academy, he was appointed professor of 
 Latin poetry, and dean of the faculty of lite- 
 rature In 1813 the Academia della Crusca 
 of Florence, bestowed on Pagnini the prize of 
 poetry, for his translation of Horace. The 
 same year the bishop of Pistoia appointed him 
 a canon of his cathedral ; but he held the 
 office only a few months, dying iMarch 21, 
 1814. Among his works are translations of 
 Anacreon, Theocritus, Bion, INIoschus, Calli- 
 machus, Hesiod, &c. ; " Le Quattro Sta- 
 gioni," from the Enghsh of Pope ; besides 
 some original productions. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAGiSINUS (Santes) a Dominican friar, 
 was born at Lucca in 1466. He was master 
 of the Greek, Latin, Chaldee, Arabic, and 
 Hebrew languages, the latter of which he 
 taught in a monastery at Lyons, Conceiving 
 the idea that the Vukate translation of the 
 Scriptures was not by J erome, or was greatly cor- 
 rupted, lie undertook a new one ; and his inten- 
 tion meeting with the approbation of Leo X, he 
 promised to furnish Lim with all the necessary 
 
 r A I 
 
 expenses. He was employed five and twenty 
 years upon this translation, on which there 
 has been great difference of opinion. The 
 great fault of Pagninus was, that he adhered 
 too strictly to the original text, which often 
 made his work obscure and full of solecisms. 
 He afterwards translated the New Testament, 
 and was the author of a " Hebrew Lexicon 
 and a Hebrew Grammar." — Le Long Bibl. 
 Sacra. Moreri. 
 
 PAINE (Thomas) acelebrated political and 
 deistical writer. He was born in 1737, at 
 1 hetford, in Norfolk, where his father, who 
 was a quaker, carried on the business of a 
 staymaker. He received his education at a 
 grammar-school in his native place, but at- 
 tained to little beyond the rudiments of the 
 Latin language, which sliglit information he 
 never afterwards improved, affecting to hold 
 the dead languages in extreme contempt. He 
 seems however to have paid great attention to 
 arithmetic, and to have obtained some know- 
 ledge of the mathematics. In early life he 
 followed the business of his father, which he 
 practised in London, Dover, and Sandwich, 
 where he married ; but afterwards became a 
 grocer and exciseman at Lewes in Sussex. He 
 lost this situation for some misdemeanour of 
 no flagrant notice, as he was subsequently re- 
 stored on petition, until finally dismissed for 
 keeping a tobacconist's shop, which was 
 deemed incompatible with his duties. The 
 abilities which he displayed in a pamphlet 
 composed by him, in order to show the pro- 
 priety of advancing the salaries of excisemen, 
 having struck one of the commissioners, he 
 gave him a letter of introduction to Dr Frank- 
 lin, then in London, who recommended him 
 to go to America. He took this advice, and 
 reaching Philadelphia towards the close of 
 1774, in the following January became editor 
 of the Pennsylvania magazine, which he con- 
 ducted with considerable ability. A few 
 months after his arrival, hostilities commenced 
 between the mother country and the colonies, 
 which led him, as it is said, at the suggestion 
 of Dr Rush, to compose his celebrated pam- 
 phlet, entitled " Common Sense," which be- 
 ing written with great vigour, and addressed to 
 a highly excited population, was doubtless of 
 great benefit to the colonial cause. The direct 
 object of this tract was to recommend the 
 separation of the colonies from Great Britain, 
 which advice was virtually carried into effect 
 by the famous declaration of independence 
 issued by congress a few months afterwards. 
 For this production the legislation of Penn- 
 sylvania voted him 500/. ; he also received 
 the degree of MA. from the university of the 
 same province, and was chosen a member of 
 the American philosophical society. To these 
 rewaras was soon afterwards added the office 
 of clerk to the committee for foreign affairs, 
 which, although a highly confidential situa- 
 tion, scarcely justified him in assuming the title 
 of " late secretary for foreign affairs," which 
 he did in the title page of the Rights of Man. 
 While in this office, he ])ublished a series ot 
 popular political appeals on the nature of the 
 
PA I 
 
 pending struggle, wliich lie clenoniinated tlie 
 " Cnsi3." lie was obliged to resign his secre- 
 tary.sliij) in 1779, owing to a controversy with 
 Silas Deane, wlioin he defeated in a fraudu- 
 lent attempt to profit by Ins agency, in con- 
 veying the secret suj)plies of warlike stores 
 by France. Led by tlie warmth of his tem- 
 per, he dividged the real state of tlie case, 
 wliich, as he had acquired it oHiciaily, was 
 deemed an injurious breach of trust, and 
 one which might tend to alienate the Frendi 
 court. The next year, however, he obtained 
 the subordinate appointment of clerk to the 
 assembly of Pennsylvania, and in 1785, on 
 the rejection of a motion to appoint him his- 
 toriographer to the United States, with a 
 salary, received from congress a donation of 
 3000 dollars. Jle also received 500 acres of 
 highly cultivated land from the state of New 
 York. In 1787 he embarked for France, and 
 after visiting Paris, came over to England, 
 with a view to the prosecution of a project 
 relative to the erection of an iron bridge, of 
 his own invention, at Kotherham, in York- 
 shire. Ihis scheme involved him in pecisniary 
 difficulties, and in the course of the following 
 year he was arrested for debt, when he was 
 bailed by some American merchants. He went 
 to Paris in 1791, and published, under the 
 borrowed name of Achilles Duchatellet, a 
 tract recommending the abolition of royalty. 
 He soon returned to this country, and on the 
 appearance of Burke's " Reflections on the 
 French Revolution," he wrote the first part of 
 his " Rights of Man," in answer to that ce- 
 lebrated work. The second part was pub- 
 lished early in 1792 ; and on the 21st of May 
 that year, a proclamation was issued against 
 ■wicked and seditious publications, alluding to, 
 but not naming, the " Rights of Man." On 
 the same day the attorney-general commenced 
 a prosecution against Paine as the author of 
 that work ; and amidst the irritation of con- 
 flicting opinions between the partizans and the 
 enemies of the recent Revolution in France, 
 be became the object of extreme execration 
 with the ascendant i)arty. While the trial 
 was pending, he was chosen a member of the 
 National Convention for the department of 
 Calais ; and making his escape from the dan- 
 gers that awaited him, he set off for France, 
 and arrived there in September 179'J. He was 
 in that assembly an advocate for the trial of 
 Louis XVI ; but he voted against the sentence 
 of dtath passed on him, proposing his impri- 
 sonment during the war, and his banishment 
 afterwards. This conduct so offended the 
 Jacobins, that towards the close of 1793 he 
 was excluded from the Convention, on the 
 ground of his being a foreigner, (though he 
 had been naturalized,) and immediately after 
 lie was arrested, and committed to the prison 
 of the Luxembourg. Just before his confine- 
 ment he had finished the first part of his work 
 against Christianity and revelation generally, 
 entitled " The Age of Reason, being an in- 
 vestigation of true and fabulous Theology ;" 
 and having coufided it to the care of his friend 
 Joel Barlow, it was published, by which step 
 
 P A I 
 
 he undoubtedly forfeited tlie countenance of 
 by far the greater part of his American con- 
 nexions. In his prison lie wus taken dan- 
 gerously ill, to which circumstance he ascribed 
 his escape from the guillotine ; and on the 
 fall of Robespierre he was rtli-a^ifd. In 179.) 
 he published, at Paris, the second part of his 
 "Age of Reason," and in May 179<i ad- 
 dressed to the Council of Five Hundred, a 
 work entitled, " The Decline and Fall of the 
 System of Finance in Kngland ;" and also pub- 
 lished his pamphlet, entitled, " Agrarinn Jus- 
 tice." Fearful of being captured by Kiigli«h 
 cruisers, he remained in France till August 
 1802, wlien he embarked for America, and 
 reached Baltimore the following October. He 
 had lost his first wife the year following his 
 marriage, and after a cohabitation of three 
 years and a half, had separated from a second 
 by mutual consent several years before. Thus 
 situated, he obtained a female companion in 
 the person of a madame de Bonneville, the 
 wife of a French bookseller, who, with her 
 two sons, accompanied him to America ; but 
 whatever the nature of this connexion (at the 
 age of sixty-five,) which has been differently 
 represented, the husband and children, as well 
 as the wife, became bis chief legatees. His 
 subsequent life was by no means happy, for, 
 although occupied in various mechanical sjx'. 
 culations and other engrossing pursuits, and 
 possessed of decent competence, his attacks 
 upon religion had exceedingly narrowed his 
 circle of acquaintance ; and probably always 
 a little inclined to the bottle, these sliglits, 
 which he felt keenly, encouraged the perni- 
 cious practice, until it became habitual, to the 
 extreme injury of his health, :md the ultimate 
 production of a complication of disorders, to 
 which he fell a victim on the 8th of June 
 1809, in bis seventy-third year. Being re- 
 fused interment in the ground of the society of 
 friends, which favour he had requested before 
 his death, he was buried on his own farm. 
 The strong part taken by this extraordinaiy 
 man in religion and })olitics, has produced 
 such extremes of praise and execration, that 
 there exist few or no sources of unbiassed in- 
 formation, either as to his abilities or character, 
 except his writings. That he possessed much 
 native vigour of intellect is indisputable, and 
 concentrated as it became by resolute exclusion 
 of multifarious accjuirement, and of even a mode- 
 rate recourse to books, it assumed, in his writ- 
 ings, that j)iquancy, force, and simplicity , which, 
 of all qualities, secure the largest share of gene- 
 ral attention in popular controversy. Both his 
 " Common Sense" and " Rights of Man" 
 prove the truth of this observation, and like 
 the kindred lucubrations of a noted writer of 
 the same class now existing, form striking spe- 
 cimens of a faculty of appealing to reason in 
 the abstract, with a total disregard of the pre- 
 judices of education, the operations of institu- 
 tion and of habit, as well as of the incidental 
 and involuntary trains of association which 
 modify human character, independently on ra- 
 tiocination. To say ivnliing of the total igno- 
 rance of mental and of niuial philosophy 
 
PAL 
 
 which this form of appeal too frequently ex- 
 hibits, it is unnecessary to add, tliat however 
 occasionally searching and serviceable, it as 
 frequently disguises fallacy as any other, al- 
 though possibly the error is more difficult of 
 detection. " The Age of Reason" exempli- 
 fies in a still greater degree the characteristics 
 of its author ; but the whole of his subsequent 
 experience was of a nature to convince him, 
 that attacks upon revelation liave to encounter 
 principles and feelings which of all others are 
 the least assailable by direct onsets of this na^ 
 ture. That he made sacrifices to, and was 
 sincere in his opinions, must however be 
 conceded ; for the vague stories related of his 
 excsJamations on his death betl, ap])ear to rest 
 u|)on no solid foundation, and would prove lit- 
 tle or nothing were it otherwise. For the rest, 
 he has been described as liberal and benevo- 
 lent according to his means, but irascible and 
 peevish in temper, and exceedingly vain of the 
 distinction which he had acquired. Some de- 
 fects in deportment and conduct indeed, seem 
 always to have impeded his cordial reception 
 among the more steady and influential of the 
 American leaders, althoutih receivino an occa- 
 sional countenance from nearly all of them 
 until the publication of " The Age of Reason." 
 The brief political tracts, letters, and ad- 
 dresses of Paine are very numerous, and 
 may be found in the collective editions of his 
 works. They are also enumerated at the end 
 of his life by Sherwin. — Lives by Cheetham and 
 Sherwin. 
 
 PAINTER (William) a writer in the 
 reign of queen Elizabeth, who puldished a very 
 popular work, entitled " The Palace of Plea- 
 sure, beautified, adorned, and well furnished 
 with pleasant Histories and excellent Novels, 
 selected out of divers good and commendable 
 Authors," London, 1566-7, 2 vols. 4to. This 
 work, which was reprinted, is interesting to 
 the critic on account of its having apparently 
 been the source whence Shakspeare and other 
 dramatist-; derived the plots of some of their 
 plays. In 1813 Mr Hazlewood published a 
 new edition of the Palace of Pleasure, some 
 copies of which were printed on vellum, form- 
 ing 4 vols. 4to. — Orig. 
 
 PAISIELLO (Giovanni) a celebrated 
 singer and musician, the son of a veterinary 
 surgeon of I'arento in Italy, wheie he was 
 born in 1741. From the age of five to that 
 of thirteen he was placed by his father at the 
 Jesuit's college in his native city, where his 
 musical talents first exhibited themselves in 
 the matin services performed in the chapel, 
 and the chevalier Carducci, who superintended 
 the choir, prevailed upon his friends to send 
 him to Naples, for farther instruction in the 
 science. Accordingly, in 1754, he was put 
 under the care of the celebrated Durante, at 
 the conservatory of St Onoirio, where his pro- 
 gress was very rapid ; and in 1763 his first 
 opera, " La Papilla," was performed with 
 great applause at the Marsigli theatre in Bo- 
 logna. From this period commenced a long 
 career of success, which attended him at Mo- 
 dena, Parma, Venice, Pvome, Milan, Naples, 
 
 PAL 
 
 and Florence, till in 1796 he was induced to 
 enter the service of Catherine II of Russia, 
 who settled on him a pension of 4000 rubles, 
 with a country house and other advantages in 
 his capacity of musical tutor to the grand 
 duchess. In Russia he remained nine years, 
 when he returned to Naples, visiting Vienna 
 in his way, and continued in the service of 
 Ferdinand IV, till the court retired into Sicily. 
 On the French Revolution extending to Na- 
 ples, Paisiello, who remained behind, received 
 from the republiLan government, now esta- 
 blished, the appointment of composer to the 
 nation. On the restoration of the Bourbon 
 family he fell iflto disgrace ; but at the expi- 
 ration of two years was restored to his situa- 
 tion. JNaj)oleou afterwards sent him an invi- 
 tation, or rather a command, to come to Paris, 
 which he obeyed, but declined the director- 
 ship of the imperial academy, which was of- 
 fered to his acceptance, contenting himself with 
 that of the chapel. After remaining in the 
 F'rench capital nearly three years, his own 
 health and that of his wife compelled him to 
 return to Italy, when, on the expulsion of the 
 Bourbons, he was made chamber musician to 
 Joseph Buonaparte, receiving at the same 
 time from Napoleon the cordon of the legion 
 of honour and a pension of 1000 francs. In 
 this situation he continued under Murat, and 
 became a member of many learned and scien- 
 tific, as well as musical societies, especially of 
 the Napoleon academy of Lucca, the Italian 
 academy of Leghorn, and the French insti- 
 tute. There are few composers who have given 
 greater proofs of industry than Paisiello, or 
 whose works have met with a greater portion 
 of success all over Europe. His operas, serious 
 and comic, exceed seventy, besides a great va- 
 riety of ballets, cantatas, and some sacred mu- 
 sic of great merit. He died in 1816, at Na- 
 ples, and was honoured with a public funeral. 
 Simplicity, elegance, and correctness, are the 
 characteristics of his style, while the grace and 
 freshness of melody in which he has far sur- 
 passed most other composers, have constituted 
 a model to numerous imitators. — Biog. Diet, 
 of Mils. 
 
 PAL/EPHATUS. Three ancient writers 
 of this name are recorded; one an Athenian, 
 anterior to Homer ; another a native of Paros 
 or Priene, who flourished under Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon, and the third a grammarian and 
 philosopher, born either at Athens or in Egypt 
 posterior to Aristotle. There is a work ex- 
 tant bearing the name of Palaephatus ; but it 
 is not known to which of the three to attribute 
 it. It is in Greek, and is entitled " De In- 
 credibilibus ;" it consists of an explication of 
 ancient fables. The best edition is that of 
 J. F. Fischer, Lips. 1761, 1789.— Fossii Hist. 
 Lat. Bibliogr. Diet. 
 
 PALAFOX Y MENDOZA (D. Juan de) 
 natural son of the marquess de Hariza, and 
 bishop of Angelopolis in New Spain, where 
 he became viceroy in the absence of the duque 
 de Escalona. He was made bishop of Osiua 
 or Osma in Old Castille, in 1653, wliere he 
 died in 1659. He was a voluminous writer, 
 
PAL 
 
 but his principal work is a little history of the 
 conquest of China hy the Tartars, publislu'd 
 aft<T his death by D. Joseph Palafox, at i'aris, 
 aiul translated into several languages. — \'ic. 
 A )i ton 10. 
 
 PA LA.MEDKS, a distinguished Greek, of 
 the senii-fabulons limes, was the son of Nau- 
 plius, king of the isle of Kubuca. He is said 
 to have discovered, by a stratagem, the pre- 
 tended insanity of Ulysses, in order to be ex- 
 cused from accompanying tlie expedition 
 against Troy ; in revenge for which act, the 
 latter contrived to involve him in a charge of 
 treason, and to get him stoned to death. This 
 tale is possibly oidy an invention ; but so many 
 different authors record instances of his know- 
 leilge and ingenuity, he was probably a very 
 extraordinary person. To liini are attributed 
 the first use of weitihts and measures, the art 
 of drawing uj) a battalion, the regulation of 
 the year and montlis by the sun and moon, 
 and the invention of the games of chess and 
 dice. Pliny an-l Philostratus also ascribe to 
 him the adoption of four of the letters of the 
 Greek alphaliet. Suidas likewise mentions 
 him as a poet. — PliuU Hist. iVar. Merer i. 
 
 PALKARIUS (AoNius or Antonio) a 
 learneil Italian writer of the sixteenth century, 
 was born at Veroli in the Campagna di Roma. 
 He tauiiht rhetoric and the belles lettres ; first 
 at Sienna and afterwards at Lucca, but being 
 suspected of favouring the sentiments of the 
 reformers, and having otherwise given offence 
 to the monks, they never rested until they had 
 convicted him of heresy, which, on the acces- 
 sion of Paul V, a Dominican and an inquisitor, 
 to the papal cliair, they were enabled to effect. 
 His conviction was grounded on his having 
 called the inquisition a dagger " drawn against 
 literature in general." For this honest truth 
 he was burnt at Rome in July 1570. His 
 })rincipal works are, " De immortalitate 
 aninr.e;" " Epistola^ ;" "Orationes;" " Poe- 
 mata ;" which have been collected into one 
 volume, 8vo, Amsterdam, 1696. — Niceron. 
 
 PALEOTTI (Gabriel) a learned prelate 
 of the sixteenth century, the first archbishop 
 of Bologna, in which city he was born about 
 the year 1.524. His reputation as a scholar, 
 especially in the science of jurisprudence, 
 gained him early in life a professorship in bis 
 Dative university, which he retained till a fa- 
 vourable opportunity offering at Rome, he ob- 
 tained, in his thirly-tliird year, the post of 
 auditor of the Rota, in tliat capital. After 
 filling several official situations about the papal 
 court, he, in I56.i, reached his highest point 
 of elevation, being then presented with a car- 
 dinal's hat. Besides a history of the proceed- 
 ings of the council of Trent, (at which he as- 
 sisted in an inferior capacity,) a work still 
 preserved at Rome in manuscript, he was the 
 author of treatises, " De Sacri Consistorii 
 Consultationil'us ;" " Archiepiscopale Bono- 
 niense ;" " De Imaginibus Sacris et Pro- 
 fanis," &c. His death took place in 1597. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 PALESTRINA (Giovanni Pietro Aloi- 
 »ie da) an eminent musical composer of the 
 
 PAL 
 
 sixteenth century, the particulars of whose life 
 and cotiilition are httb- known in compariso'i 
 With the fame which liist woiks have gained 
 liim. He ajipoars to have been born in I'ales- 
 tiina, the anti-nt I'rai.crtte, hb((Ul the year 
 l.Jii), and to have studied under Goudiuiel. 
 About ).■}.).■> he betiiiue a member of the 
 I'apal chapel at Rome, and was afterward* 
 chapel-master at the church of .Santa .Maria 
 Maggiore, and at St I'eter's. His death took 
 j)lace in February 1594 ; and a strong proof is 
 exbibited of the veneration in which lie wan 
 held by contemporary professors, in their nu- 
 merous dedications of their works to him, as 
 well as in the inscription on hn cotlin in St 
 Peter's, " Johannes Petrus Aloyisius Pra-'nes- 
 tinus, iMusicaj Piinceps." — Buniey's Hist, of 
 Mils. 
 
 PALEY (William) a celebrated divine 
 and ])liilosophpr, was the son of a clergyman, 
 who held a small living near Peterborough, 
 where the subject of this article was born in 
 1743. He was instructed under his father, 
 who became master of a grammar-school in 
 Yorkshire, whence he was removed as a sizar 
 to Christchurch college, Cambridge. He .soon 
 obtained a scholarship, and 1763, having higli- 
 ly distinguished himself as a disj)utani on ques- 
 tions of natural and moral j)hilosophy, he took 
 bis first degree. He was afterwards emploved 
 for three years as an assistant to an academy 
 at Greenwich, and on taking deacon's orders, 
 officiated as curate to Dr Hincbcliffe, llien 
 vicar of Greenwich, and afterwards bishop of 
 Peterborough. In 1766 he proceeded MA, 
 was elected a fellow of his college, and 
 appointed one of its tutors. In the latter ca- 
 pacity he signally distinguished himself by his 
 assiduity and anility ; and the lectures which 
 he then delivered on the Greek Testament 
 and on moral philosophy, contain the outlines of 
 the works by which he subsecpiently obtained 
 so much celebrity. In 1767 he took priest's 
 orders, and maintained an intimate ac- 
 quaintance with the most eminent persons in 
 the university, particularly Dr Law, bishop of 
 Carlisle, Dr .lohn Law his son, and doctors 
 Waring and Jebb. IMosJ of these being pre- 
 sumed to fall below the established standard 
 of orthodoxy, I\Ir Paley began to be regarded 
 with some coolness by its most zealous de- 
 fenders. His friends could not, however, per- 
 suade him to sign the petition for relief in tlie 
 matter of subscription to the articles, on 
 which occasion he observed, with more point 
 than decorum, that " he could not afford to 
 keep a conscience." In 1776 he quitteil the 
 university, after a residence of ten years, and 
 entered into a matrimonial connexion. He 
 had previously obtained a small beneJice in 
 Westmoreland, and he now was inducted into 
 the vicarage of Dalston, in Cumberland, to 
 which was soon after added the living of Ap- 
 ])leby, and a prehendal stall in the cathedral 
 of Carlisle. In 178'J he was appointed arch- 
 deacon of the diocese, and not long afterwards, 
 succeeded Dr Burn in the chancellorship, for 
 ail wliidi preferments he was indebted to the 
 bishop of Carlisle. In 1785 he published his 
 
PAL 
 
 f' Elements of Moral and Political Philoso- 
 phy," with a highly liberal dedication to his 
 episcopal patron. Of a work so well known, 
 it is unnecessary to say more than that, while 
 with much vigour and discrimination it stands 
 unrivalled for its simplicity and pertinence of 
 illustration, many of the definitions and prin- 
 ciples laid down, both in his politics and 
 morals, aie justly open to exception. That his 
 casuistry occasionally degenerates into an apo- 
 logy for existing practices, or exhilnts the doc- 
 trine of mere expediency, has been discovered 
 by more than one able opponent ; and allusions 
 have, in consequence, been made to the maxims 
 of the school of Loyola, which at least are abun- 
 dantly severe. On the death of the bishop of 
 Carlisle, in 1767, archdeacon Paley drew up 
 a short memoir of that liberal prelate, and 
 soon after published his " Horai Paulinas," a 
 work which ranks him very high among the 
 argumentative advocates of Scripture autho- 
 rity. The chief object of this work is to 
 bring together, from the Acts of the Apostles, 
 and from the different epistles, such passages 
 as furnish examples of undesigned coinci- 
 dence, and thus to infer the authenticity of the 
 Scriptural writings, independently on inspira- 
 tion. In 1794 he published his " \it\v of the 
 Evidence of Christianity, in three parts," in 
 3 vols. l2mo, afterwards printed in 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 PAL 
 
 It is said, that Mr Pitt \%'ished to make him a 
 bishop, but that objections prevailed in a high 
 (juarter in the church ; but whether on account 
 of suspicions of his orthodoxy, or any other 
 latent reason, is not known. As a writer, Dr 
 Paley Avas less solicitous to delight the 'ear 
 than inform the understanding ; yet few au- 
 thors havf written so pleasingly on similar 
 subjects, and there is, both in his conceptions 
 and language, a peculiarity of manner which 
 marks the native vigour of his mind. After 
 his death, a volume of his sermons was pub- 
 lished in 8vo ; and he was also author of two 
 small pieces, entitled, " The Clergyman's 
 Companion to the Sick;" and " 'J'he Young 
 Christian Instructed." — Life by Meadley. 
 
 PALFIN (John) an eminent writer on 
 surgery and anatomy, born at Ghent, in the 
 Netherlands, in 1649. He practised as a sur- 
 geon in his native city, where he also became 
 anatomical and surgical lecturer. His death 
 took place in 1730. He published, " Osteo- 
 logy, or a Description of the Bones," in Fle- 
 mish, translated by himself into French ; 
 " Surgical Anatomy, or an exact Description 
 of the Parts of the Human Body," also in 
 Flemish and French ; " An Account of the 
 Dissection of Two Monstrous Infants united 
 together ;" " A Dissertation on the Circula- 
 tion of the Blood in the Foetus," in opposi- 
 
 This work, which contains an able popular view tion to the opinion of INI. Mery ; besides other 
 
 itf the arguments for the truth of the Chrisdan 
 •religion, drawTi up with his usual perspi- 
 juity and dialectic skill, is now generally re- 
 garded as the most complete summary on the 
 subject which has ever appeared. It seems, 
 indeed, to have roused the episcopal bench into 
 a due sense of his services ; and he was made 
 I sub-dean of Lincoln, by bishop Pretyman, 
 md received the valuable living of Bishop's 
 Wearmouth, from the bishop of Durham, and 
 the prebend of St Pancras from the bishop of 
 London. In 1795 he was created DD. by the 
 university of Cambridge ; and his health not 
 allowing him to officiate in the pulpit, he un- 
 dertook the compilation of his " Natural The- 
 ologv, or Evidences of the Existence and At- 
 tributes of the Deity, collected from the Ap- 
 pearances of Nature," 8vo ; which, however, 
 was not published until 1802. The object of 
 this masterly treatise is to trace and show the 
 marks of design in the various parts of the 
 Creadon ; but the Rutlior has dwelt principally 
 upon those which may be discovered in the 
 constitution of the human body. Such was 
 its favourable reception, it reached a tenth 
 edition before the expiradon of three years. 
 This was his last publication, his death taking 
 place on the 25th of May 1805, in his sixty - 
 second year. He left four sons and four 
 daughters by his first wife, and a second wife 
 who survived him. In private life, Dr Paley 
 seems to have exhibited very little of the 
 gravity of the philosopher, being fond of 
 amusement and company, whom no one could 
 better entertain, by a spontaneous exhibition 
 of \di and humour. At the same time, no 
 man was more beloved by his friends, or 
 evinced more attachment to them in return. 
 
 works. — Hutchinson s Biog. Med. 
 
 PALINGENIUS (Marcellus) a modern 
 Latin poet, who lived at the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century. His real name is believed 
 to have been Pier Angelo MarizoUo, of which 
 his Latin appellation is the anagram ; and he 
 is supposed to have been a native of Stellata 
 in the Feirarese, and to have held the post of 
 physician to the duke of Ferrara, to whom 
 he dedicated the work for which he is chiefly 
 celebrated, entided " Zodiacus A'itaj ;" this is 
 a poem divided into twelve parts, each in- 
 scribed with one of the signs of the zodiac, the 
 professed object of which is to guide men to 
 present and future happiness. It is inter- 
 spersed with many invectives against the court 
 and church of Rome, the monks and the 
 clergy, whence it was placed in the Index Ex- 
 purgatorius. He published this book, in which 
 he unreservedly inculcates the opinions of 
 Epicurus in 1536, and seems not to have lived 
 long after that date. His body, after his 
 death, w^as ordered to be dug up and burnt, 
 but the duchess of Ferrara, who favoured the 
 Reformation, interfered to prevent its execution. 
 His poem of the Zodiac has passed through 
 many editions ; the best of which is that of 
 Rotterdam, 172:2. — Bayle. Tiraboschi. 
 
 PALISSOT DE BEAUVOIS (Ambroise 
 Marie Francois Joseph) an eminent natu- 
 ralist, born at Arras in the French Nether- 
 lands, in 1752. He studied at the college of 
 Harcourt at Paris, and in 1772 he was admit- 
 ted a counsellor of the parliament of that city. 
 Some time after he succeeded his elder brother 
 as receiver-general of territorial imposts, which 
 office was suppress^ed in 1777. He then devoted 
 his attention entirely to natural history, and 
 
PAL 
 
 especially botuuy ; aiul in 1781 lie hocame a 
 corresponding member of the Parisian A( a- 
 demy of Siientes, to which he addressed se- 
 veral memoirs on botany and vegetable pby- 
 tiiolo^y. The love of scienc<e induced him to 
 untlertake a voyage to the coast of Guinea, 
 with an intention to travel across the African 
 continent to Kgypt ; hut he was unable to 
 execute that design, ami aftei remaining some 
 time at Owara and lienin, he sailed for St 
 33omingo, and arrived at Cape Fran^ais in 
 June 178U. He continued there some years, 
 occupying official situations in the colony ; but 
 Ids opposition to the revolutionary attempts of 
 the negroes having endangered his safety, h" 
 with difficulty effected his escape to Philadel- 
 j)hia, in the United States. Thence he pur- 
 posed to return to France, when he learnt that 
 he had been proscribed as an emigrant. He 
 was obliged to support himself as a teacher of 
 languages, and by exercising his talents as a 
 musician, till the arrival of the French minis- 
 ter Adet, who was himself a man of science, 
 and who afforded Paiissot the means of prose- 
 cuting inquiries into the natural history of 
 America. At length he received the news of 
 Lis name being erased from the list of emi- 
 grants, and he returned to his native country, 
 taking with him the rich collection of natural 
 curiosities which he had formed. In 1806 he 
 was admitted into the Institute in the room oi 
 Adanson; and he became a member of other 
 learned societies. He died January '21, 1820. 
 Among his principal works are, " Flore 
 d'Oware et de Benin," Paris, 1804-21, 2 vols, 
 folio ; *' Insectes recuillis en Afrique et en 
 Amerique." 1805-21, folio ; •* F^ssai d'une 
 nouvelle Agrostographie, ou Nouveaux genres 
 des Graminees," 1812, 4to and Bvo ; all which 
 are illustrated by engravings. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PALISSOT DEMONTENOY (CiiARLKs) 
 a French dramatist, born at Nanci in 1730, his 
 father being counsellor to the duke of Lor- 
 raine. He made an early progress in his stu- 
 dies, and entered into the learned congregation 
 of the oratory, but he soon quitted it, and was 
 married at the ajre of eighteen. He then 
 wrote a tragedy, which had no great success ; 
 on which he turned his attention to comedy, 
 and after producing two pieces of some merit, 
 he brought forward in 1755 his comedy of 
 '• Le Cercle," in which he gave offence to the 
 philosophical party of the French literati, by 
 ridiculing Jean Jacques Rousseau. Hencefor- 
 ward lie was engaged in a series of literary hos- 
 tilities. In 1756 appeared his " Petites Lettres 
 contre des grands Philosophes ;" in 1760, was 
 represented his comedy of '' Les Philosophes;" 
 and in 1764 he published his " Dunciade," in 
 imitation of the satire of Pope. This he after- 
 wards enlarged ; and he also produced seve- 
 ral other comedies, and " Memoires sur la 
 Litterature Fran9aise," besides other works. 
 In the latter part of his life he was adminis- 
 crator of the JMazarine library, and a corre- 
 spondent of the Institute. He died in 1814. — 
 Idem. 
 
 PALISSY (Bernard de) an ingenious ar- 
 tist, was born at Agen about 1524. 
 Bioo. DicT. — Vol. II. 
 
 Having 
 
 PA L 
 
 got po88e8«ion of a cup of enamelled pottery, 
 he turned his whole attention u|)on imitating 
 it, and after repeated unriuccHH«ful atienjptH, 
 in whuh he wa.sted lii« wholi- f<»rtune, he huc- 
 ceededsowell that his manufacture burpasBeil 
 'he finest of the Italians. He was the first 
 person wlio formed a collection of natural his- 
 tory at Paris, upon which he gave lectures at 
 half-H-crown each person, unrier the obligation 
 of returning it fourfold should any thinj; which 
 he tau'^ht be jiroved false. Palissy was a 
 Calvinist, ami firmly attached to his religion, 
 and during the fury of the league under Henry 
 111 in 1584, he was committed to the bastille. 
 The king, who was his well-wisher, having 
 told him that if he did not comj)ly with the 
 prevailing religion, he should be con>trained 
 to leave him in the hands of his enemies, 
 Palissy replied, " Your majesty has often said 
 that you pity me ; for my part 1 pity you for 
 pronouncing the words, ' I shall be con- 
 strained ;' this is not speaking like a king ; 
 but let me inform you in royal language, that 
 neither the Guisarts, your whole people, nor 
 yourself, shall constrain a potter to bend his 
 knee before images." He u.sed to say that he 
 had no other property than heaven and earth. 
 The works of Palissy are, " Moyen de devenir 
 riche, &c." " Discours admirable de la Na 
 ture des Eaux et Fontaines, de Metaux des 
 Sols, des Salines, des Pierres, des'lerres, itc." 
 lie died in 1590. — Moreri. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PALLADIA O (James) known also by the 
 name of James de Teramo, from the city where 
 be was born in 1349, was successively arch- 
 bisbo'^ if Tarento, Florence, and Spoletto, 
 had the administration of the duchy for popes 
 Alexander V and John XXIII, and was sent 
 legate into Poland, where he died in 1417 
 He wrote some very curious books, which were 
 very popular in their day ; the principal is 
 •* Jacobi de Teramo compendium perbreve 
 consolatio Peccatorum nuncupatum et a])ud 
 nonnuUos Belial vocitaturri , id est Processus 
 Luciferi contra Jesum." It has been trans- 
 lated into Frencli, by Peter Farget, an Augus- 
 tine, Lyons, 1485, 4to, and hcis been fre- 
 quently reprinted in the same form. It is also 
 printed under the name of James d'Ancha- 
 rano. — Marchand. L'Avocat Diet, llisl. 
 
 PALLADIO (Andrea) one of the greatest 
 classical architects of modern Italy, whose 
 works of art and his writings alike contributed 
 to improve the taste of the age in which he 
 lived, and direct the genius of posterity. He 
 was bom at Vicenza, in the Venetian terri- 
 tory, in 1518, and after having studied under 
 Trissino, he went to Rome, where he acquired 
 a maturity of skill and science from an exa- 
 mination of the productions of ancient and 
 modern art which that capital afforded. Re- 
 turning to bis native country, he established 
 his fame by his designs for many noble edifices 
 both there and in otlier parts of Italy, which 
 have afforded models for some beautiful struc- 
 tures in F^ngland, as well as other parts of I'-u- 
 rope. I'he villa built by lord Burlington at 
 Chiswick (but since enlarged by James Wyatt) 
 was from a design of Palladio ; as was also » 
 2 Q 
 
PAL 
 
 Ijridge at Wilton, the seat of the earl of Pem- 
 broke, in Wiltsiiire. But this great arclntect 
 is best known in the present age on account of 
 his published works, especially his treatise of 
 architecture, in four books, which first ap- 
 peared in a folio volume at Venice in 1570, 
 and has been many times reprinted. It has 
 also been translated into French and English. 
 James Leoni, an Italian architect, published 
 Palladio's architecture in English, with the 
 notes and remarks of Inigo Jones, and en- 
 gravings by Picart, London, 1742, 2 vols, 
 folio ; and some of the designs of this arclii- 
 tect were published by lord Burlington in 
 1730. Palladio was likewise the author of an 
 Italian work, on the antiquities of Rome, Ve- 
 nice, 1594, and Home, 1599, 8vo ; and of 
 Illustrations of the Commentaries of Caesar. 
 He died at Vicenza in 1580. — Temanzas Lives 
 of Venetian Architects and Sculptors. Edit. 
 
 PALLAUIUS (RuTiMus Taurus ^:mi- 
 LiANus) also called Rutilius Palladianus, 
 the author of a curious treatise on the agricul- 
 ture and rural economy of the ancient Ro- 
 mans. His work, entitled, " De Re Rustica, 
 lib. xiv," was published at Lyons in 1535, 
 and at Heidelberg, 1598, 8vo ; an Italian ver- 
 sion was printed at Venice in 1,028, 4to ; and 
 there is a German translation, published toge- 
 ther with the Agriculture of Columella, at 
 Magdeburg, 1612, folio. Palladius treats 
 systematically of the labours of the husband- 
 man through the twelve months of the year, 
 and affords some interesting details relative to 
 the rural affairs of the ancients. Little is 
 known of this author, who wrote at Naples, 
 probably towards the close of the fifth cen- 
 tury, or the beginning of the sixth, as he is 
 mentioned by Cassiodorus. — Biog. Univ. An- 
 nates des Arts, v. xl. 
 
 PALLADIUS, bishop of Helenopolis, in 
 Bithynia, and afterwards of Asporia, was born 
 in Cappadocia, in 368. In 388 he became an 
 anchoret, in the mountain of Nebria, and was 
 made a bishop in 401. He was the firm friend 
 of St John Chrysostom, whom he never for- 
 sook. About 421 he wrote his " Lausiac 
 History," so called from Lausus, a nobleman 
 of the court of Constantinople, to whom it is 
 inscribed. It contains the lives of persons 
 wheat that time were remarkable for their ex- 
 traordinary austerities in Egypt and Palestine, 
 and is written in a plain and unornamented 
 style. He died in the fifth century, but in 
 what year is unknown. His " History" was 
 published in Greek by Meursius, Amst. 1619, 
 and in Latin in the " Bibliotheca Patrum ;" 
 but he seems not to have been the writer of 
 the " Life of St John Chrysostom, in Greek 
 and Latin," published by M. Bigot, in 1680. 
 Dupin. Moreri. Lardner. Cave. 
 
 PALLAS (Peter Simon) a celebrated 
 German traveller and naturalist, born at Ber- 
 lin, in 1741. After having studied medicine 
 at the universities of Halle and Gottingen, he 
 removed to Leyden, where he graduated as 
 MD. in 1760. He then went to London, to 
 improve his professional knowledge, by ^^- 
 lending on the hospital practice of that metro- 
 
 P A L 
 
 polls. About 1762 he returned to Berlin, 
 but at length settled at the Hague, where he 
 published some valuable works relating to 
 zoology. In 1767 he went to Russia, and was 
 employed by the government of that country, 
 in conjunction with other persons, on an ex- 
 pedition of discovery in the Asiatic provinces 
 of that vast empire. In the course of this 
 undertaking, which occupied six ypars, he not 
 only collected a variety of miscellaneous in- 
 formation, but likewise procured the materials 
 for several important works on the various 
 branches of natural history, which he after- 
 wards published. In 1793 and 1794 he tra- 
 velled in the southern provinces of Russia, and 
 subsequently settled in the Crimea, on an es- 
 tate bestowed on him by tlie empress Cathe- 
 rine II. His death took place at Berlin, in 
 1811. Among the principal works of M. Pal- 
 las are, '* Elenchus Zoopbytorum," Hag. Com. 
 1763 ; " Miscellanea Zoologica," Hag. Com. 
 1766, 4to; *' Spicilegia quibus novai Anima- 
 lium species Iconibus illustr." Berolin. 1767 
 — 80, 4to ; " Novs Species Qnadrupedum, e 
 Glirium Ordine," Erlang. 1778, 4to ; " Ico- 
 nes Insectorum prsesertim Rossiaj, Sibirifeque 
 peculiarium," Erlang. 1791, 4to ; "Flora 
 Rossica, seu stirpium Imp. Rossici per Euro- 
 pam et Asiam indigenarum Descriptiones et 
 Icones," Petrop. 1784—1815, 2 vols, folio; 
 " Jllustrationes Plantarum imperfecte vel non- 
 dum cognatirum," Petrop. 1804 — 6, folio ; 
 " Linguarum totius Orbis Vocabulaiia compa- 
 rativa," Petrop. 1786—89, 2 vols. 4to ; 
 " Reise durch verschiedene Proviuzen des 
 Russischen Reichs," Petersb. 1771, &c. 
 5 vols. 4to ; " Sammlungen HistorischerNach- 
 richten iiber die MongolischenVolkerschaften," 
 Leips. 1779, 8vo ; " Bemerkungen auf einer 
 Reise in die Siidlichen Staatlialterschaften der 
 Russischen Reichs in den Jahren, 1793 — 4," 
 Leips. 1799—1801, 2 vols. 4to. The travels 
 of M. Pallas have been translated into French, 
 under the title of " Voyages dans plusieurs 
 Provinces de I'Empire de Russie, et dans 
 I'Asie Septentrionale, trad, par Gautier de la 
 Peyronie," Paris, 1788> 5 vols. 4to, and 1794, 
 8 vols. 8vo ; and, " Second Voyage en Russie, 
 pendant les annees 1793 — 4," Paris, 1811, 
 4 vols. 8vo. There is also an English transla- 
 tion of the latter work, 1812, 2 vols. 4lo. — 
 Bivg. Univ. 
 
 PALLAVICINO. The name of a noble 
 Italian family, which has produced many re- 
 markable characters. Cardinal Antonio Pal- 
 LAViciNO, born at Genoa in 1443, distin- 
 guished himself as a statesman and a scholar 
 during the latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 He was employed by the Vatican in conduct- 
 ing several important negociations, and died 
 bishop of Pampeluna in 1507. — Ferrante, 
 the most notorious, and perhaps the most ta- 
 lented, of his race, was a native of Piacenza, 
 bom in that city in 1616. In early youth he 
 exhibi'f^d tokens of very extraordinary ability, 
 and, in obedience to parental authority, assumed 
 the monastic habit. For a time he appears to 
 have ac(juired as much reputation for propriety 
 of conduct as for his learning, and obtained a 
 
P A 1 
 
 canonry at St (liovauDi ili Latcrano. 15iit 
 yielding at lengtli t) the seductions of pleasure, 
 while at Venice, the irregularity of his life 
 became a source of poverty to himself, and of 
 great acamlal to his order. Being leduced to 
 eke out liis impaired finances by the assistance 
 of his pen, his talent for satire sliewed itself 
 in a scries of periodical lampoons, entitled, 
 " The Courier robbed of his ^lail." The 
 work at lengtli attracted the notice of the 
 holy office, by tlie causticity of its animadver- 
 sions on an officer of the republic, and the au- 
 thor found it convenient to retire from the 
 coming storm into Germany. After a while 
 lie was induced to return, anil might proiiably 
 liave done so with impunity, liad not his sar- 
 castic vein again broken out in diatribes of 
 much bitterness against the wiiole of the 
 Barberini family, and more particularly against 
 its head, pope Urban the Eighth. He was 
 arrested by the familiars of the inquisition, 
 from whom lie managed to effect his escape, 
 but being betrayed again into their hands by a 
 pretended friend, one IMorfu, a native of 
 France, who offered to jirocure him an asylum 
 in that country, under the protection of cardi- 
 nal Richelieu, he was treacherously c(mducted 
 to Avignon, instead of Paris, and redelivered 
 into the power of his enemies. His fate was 
 now decided, and although the form of a trial 
 was allowed him, at which he defended him- 
 self with great ingenuity, sentence of decapi- 
 tation was pronounced against him, and was 
 carried into eftect at Avigncm, in 1643. His 
 works, an edition of which appeared at Ve- 
 nice, in four duodecimo volumes, in 1655, con- 
 tain many pieces of considerable literary 
 merit, especially a tract, entitled, " II Divortio 
 Celeste, "(" The Heavenly Divorce, or Separa- 
 tion of Christ from the Church of Rome"). 
 Of tliis there is an English translation. The 
 traitor who inveigled him to his fate, though 
 richly rewarded at the time, fell afterwards 
 by the poniard of a companion of his victim. 
 It is much to be lamented that such utter 
 profligacy, and gross sensuality, degraded 
 a genius of so superior an order as that 
 possessed by this unhappy and infatuated 
 man, who, amidst all his debauchery, 
 seems to have possessed some amiable 
 qualities, as well as a most brilliant wit. — 
 Sforza, born at Home in 1607, though the 
 eldest son of Alexander, marquis Pallavicino, 
 
 PAL 
 
 more ^-steemed for the elegance of itn Ptyle, 
 than the accuracy of its htatements, which 
 are sometimes distorted by the prejudices of 
 the autlior. Cardinal Pallavicino died in 
 l()(i7. — Nnitv. iJict. Hist. 
 
 I'ALEIOr (I'KrKii) an industriouH genea- 
 logist, wa.t born at I'ans in K.OH, and settled 
 at JJijon, where he became a printer. He 
 devoted himself to the studies of genealogy 
 and heraldry, and published the following 
 works: " Le J'arlement de Hourgogm-," 
 1619, folio, to which another volume wa« 
 added by Vr. Petitot, in 173.'); " Science deg 
 Armories de Gelliot, auginentee de plus de 
 6, 000 Ecussons," Paris, 1660. His other 
 works are genealogical histories of particular 
 families; and he left in manuscri])t thirteen 
 volume.'^, folio, of memoirs concerning the fa- 
 milies of Burgundy. He died at Dijon, iu 
 1698. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PAELUEL (Francis Crktte de) a dis- 
 tinguished French agriculturist, born at Dugni, 
 near Paris, in 1741. He was nominated a 
 member of the electoral assembly of the Isle 
 of France in 1789, and was also admitted into 
 the Royal Society of Agriculture. In 1791 
 he was chosen a deputy to the legislative as- 
 sembly, and in 1796 a member of the com- 
 mission of agriculture. Amidst his various 
 occupations, the improvement of husbandry in 
 France principally engaged his attention ; and 
 his merit, as an experimental farmer, is warnily 
 acknowledged by Arthur Young, in his Tra- 
 vels in France. He published a variety of 
 memoirs and observations iu the Transactions 
 of the Agricultural Society, and in other pe- 
 riodical works. His death took place at 
 Dugni, November 29, 1798. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PALM (.Tamks Philip) a German book- 
 seller, memorable as one of the \'ictiras of 
 French ambition. He was a native of Wur- 
 temberg, and was estaldished in business at 
 Nuremberg in 1806, when that fine city was 
 suddenly occupied by the French army. Be- 
 ing accused of having distributed, in tlie spring 
 of 1806, a pamphlet against liuonaparte, 
 ascribed to M. Gentz, and entitled " Germany 
 in its profound abasement." Palm was arrested 
 bv virtue of an ortler sent from Paris, and con- 
 ducted to Braunau. Three days after his arri- 
 val he was arraigned before a military com- 
 mission, when he alleged that he received by 
 post the offensive pamj)hlet, and that he knew 
 
 resigned his prospects as a layman, and volun- nothing of the author. He was, however, cou- 
 tanly taking the tonsure, entered into tlie , demned to be shot, and the sentence was 
 order of Jesuits in 1638. His family con- speedily executed, notwithstanding the inter- 
 nexions soon raised him to high dignities in the cession of the inhabitants of r)raunau. Palm 
 church, which his learning anil correct life | was regarded throughout all Germany as a 
 proved him not unworthy of. Innocent the ■ martyr ; and subscriptions were opened for 
 Tenth made him a bishop, and Alexander the I the benefit of his widow and children, not only 
 Sixth elevated him to the purple in 1657, out 1 in his native country, but also at London and 
 of gratitude, it is said, for kiutlnesses shown to at Petersburg, where the emperor and the em- 
 that j)ontifF when in a less exalted situation, press dowager became contribul-jrs. — Biog. 
 He wrote a history of the council of Trent, in Univ. 
 
 opposition to that composed by father Paul ; PALMFLR (John) a dissenting minister of 
 
 some note in the last century, was born in 
 
 the best edition of this work in the original 
 Italian is that of Rome, folio, 2 vols. 1656 ; 
 there is also a Latin translation of it in three 
 
 SouthwarK, and being brought up to the mi- 
 nistry, in 1759 became minister of a dissent- 
 
 4to volumes. Upon the whole, this treatise is , ing congregation in New Broad-street. Al- 
 
 2 Q 2 
 
PAL 
 
 though brought up a Calvinist, he finally be- j 
 came a UnitariaR, and particularly opposed 
 himself to every thing in the form of a reli- 
 gious test. He retired from preaching in 1780, 
 wad having married a lady of considerable pro- I 
 perty, lived privately until his death in 1790. ' 
 His works are, " Prayers for the use of Fami- 
 lies ;" " Free Thoughts on the Inconsistency \ 
 of conforming to any religious Test as a Con- i 
 dition of Toleration;" " Observations in De- \ 
 fence of the Liberty of Man as a moral 
 Aeent," in answer to Dr Priestley's " Illus- 
 trations of Philosophical Necessity ;" " An 
 Appendix" to the same : and " A Summary 
 Off Christian Baptism." — Life by Toulmin. 
 
 PALMER (John) an eminent English ac- 
 tor, born in London about 1742. He made 
 his first appearance, under Foote's mairage- 
 reent, at the Haymarket theatre, and after 
 having performed with reputation in the coun- 
 try, he was engaged by Garrick at Drury-lane. 
 For some time, however, he was confined to 
 inferior characters, and attracted but little no- 
 tice, till the accidental illness of another per- 
 former furnished him with an opportunity for 
 displaying his talents. He gradually appeared 
 in a great variety of parts, both in tragedy and 
 comedy, in which he was greatly admired, and 
 in some of which perhaps he was never excel- 
 led. He remained at Drury-lane, sometimes 
 visiting Liverpool in the summer, till he en- 
 gaged in the scheme for erecting a new thea- 
 tre in the Eastern suburb of London. Having 
 been appointed manager of the concern, he 
 laid the first stone of the building, Decem- 
 ber 26, 1785, and in June 1787 it was 
 opened, but without legal authority. Mr. 
 Palmer persevered for some time in a fruit- 
 less attempt to obtain a patent ; and after 
 bavin g involved himself in a quarrel with the 
 proprietors of Drury Lane, by his secession 
 from that house, he was obliged to return 
 thither. His unlucky project was the cause of 
 great pecuniary embarrassments, and he was 
 at length committed to the King's Bench, 
 from which he was liberated by means of a 
 compromise with his creditors. His difficul- 
 ties still continuing, he purposed emigrating to 
 America ; and he went with that view to 
 Edinburgh, in his way to Glasgow, where he 
 intended to embark, but be afterwards relin- 
 quished his scheme, and, returned to London. 
 Towards tbe close of his life he passed the 
 summer season in the country, emd his last 
 engagement was at Liverpool. At the 
 theatre there, on the 2d of August, 1798, while 
 performing the principal character in Kotze- 
 bue's play of " The Stranger," he fell on the 
 stage in a state of exhaustion, and almost 
 immediately expired ; while the scene was 
 rendered doubly impressive by his having just 
 before exclaimed, in the words of the drama, 
 " There is another and a better world '" His 
 distressed circumstances, the recent loss of a 
 son by death, and other family misfortunes, 
 had preyed greatly oq his spirits, so that he 
 may be szdd to have died of a broken be jrt.— 
 Thesp. Diet. 
 
 PALMER (John) the iii^t projector of 
 
 P A I. 
 
 mail coaches, was a native of Bath, where he 
 was brought up as a brewer, but subsequently 
 solicited and obtained ti patent for a theatre in 
 his native city. Being led by liis profession 
 to travel about from place to place to wit 
 ness and engage rising performers, he was 
 struck with the insecurity of the usual man- 
 ner of conveying the mails, and matured in 
 his mind the existing plan of mail coaches. 
 He succeeded in his object, but not without 
 great opposition ; and the utility of the scheme 
 soon becoming manifest, he was made comp- 
 troller of the post-ofHce, with a salary of 
 1500/. per annmn. Some disputes, however, 
 occurring, a party grew up against him, which 
 he was not powerful enough to encounter, and 
 he was suspended in 1792. On subsequent 
 petitions, however, he was reimbursed by par- 
 liament, although very inadequately to his 
 promised reward. He died in 1818. — Monthly 
 
 O 
 
 PALMER (Samuel) an English printer of 
 eminence, who died in 1732. He publislied 
 a " General History of Printing, from tlie firs' 
 Invention of it at MentZj to its Propagation 
 and Progress throuyjli most Kingdoms in P^u- 
 rope, particularly its Introduction and Success 
 in England," 1733, 4to ; and he was also the 
 author of a " Printer's Grammar," 8vo. — 
 Orig. 
 
 PALIMIERI (Matted) an Italian man of 
 letters, was born at Florence in 1405. He 
 was several times employed in offices of ma- 
 gistracy, and rose to the supreme dignity of 
 gonfalonier of justice. He died in 1475. His 
 most considerable work was a chronicle, from 
 the creation down to his own times, which 
 was continued to 1482, by a native of Pisa, 
 nearly his namesake, IMattea Palmieri. He 
 also wrote " The Life of Niccolo Acciajuoli ;" 
 " De Captivitate Pisorum," published by Mu- 
 ratori ; " Delia Vita Civile." In imitation of 
 Dante, he composed three books in terza rima, 
 entitled " Citta de Vita," never printed, but 
 extant in MS. In consequence of some theo- 
 logical notions condemned as heretical, it was 
 solemnly burnt, a fate which seme writers 
 have erroneously attributed to the author, — 
 Vossii Hist. Lat. Tiraboschi. 
 
 PALMQUIST (Magnus, baron) a Swedish 
 nobleman, president of the council of mines iu 
 his native country. He was long engaged iu 
 military service, and was distinguished for his 
 skill in fortification, and his acquaintance with 
 mathematical science. He died in 1729, aged 
 sixty-nine. In the " Journal des Savants" 
 for 1690, is a letter from Palmquist, to M. Re- 
 gis, on the solution of an arithmetical prob- 
 lem. — Palmquist (Frederic) another Swe- 
 dish mathematician, was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, to whose 
 Transactions he was a contributor. He also 
 published several works in the Swedish lan- 
 guage, of which the most important are, " An 
 Introduction to Algebra," 1741, 4to ; " A 
 Treatise on the Force and Density of Bodies," 
 1749; and " The Principles of Mechanics," 
 1756, 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ALOMLNO BE VELASCO (A. Ant 
 
PAM 
 
 NTo) one of the most emineni of the Spaninh 
 painters, born near Corclo\ i in 1653. After 
 haviiiir studied his art under V'uldea, he went 
 tc Madrid for improvement in 1678. He was 
 employed by the king, and appointed royal 
 painter, to which title was added a considera- 
 ble pension in 1690. His works at Valencia, 
 Salamanca, Grenaila, and at Cordova, added 
 greatly to his reputation ; and lie distins^uished 
 himself by the works of his pen, a.s well as his 
 pencil, having published a treatise, entitled, 
 ** Kl Museo i)ictorico, y Escala optica," Ma- 
 drid, \T\o-'2l, 3 vols, folio, which contains 
 the theory and practice of painting, and the 
 lives of the most celebrated Spanish painters. 
 The latter part has been translated into 
 French ; and Paloanino's Lives of the Spa- 
 nish Painters, and his Notices of ihe Cities, 
 Churches and Convents where their works 
 are preserved, were published in London, the 
 ftjrmer in 174i'2, and the latter in 1746, 8vo, 
 This artist died at Madrid in 1726. — Bios. 
 Univ, 
 
 PALSGRAVE (John) a learned English 
 divine and grammarian of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, a native of London, educated at the 
 universities of Cambridge and Paris. In this 
 Jatter city he soon acquired a very extensi>re 
 knowledge of French literature, and so inti- 
 mate an acquaintance with the principles of 
 the language, that being selected by the court 
 to instruct the queen Mary, wife of Louis XII, 
 and sister of Henry Vlll of JLngland, in the 
 tongue of her adopted country, he actually 
 compiled a grammar of it for her use, the first 
 of the kind ever produced ; and what is yet 
 more remarkable in a foreigner, accompanied 
 it with many judicious regulations for more 
 correct pronunciation. He eventuady returned 
 to England, and graduated as bachelor 'n 
 divinity at Oxford, when he obtained from the 
 king the situation of a court chaplain, with a 
 stall in St Paul's cathedral, and the living of 
 St Dunstan's in the East, in the city of London, 
 His grammar is entitled " L'Eclaircissemen.- 
 de la Langue Fran9aise," folio, 1530. His 
 only other production was a translation of 
 Yullonius' Latin comedy, " Acolastus.'" His 
 death took place in 1554. — Athen. Oioii. 
 
 PAMPHYLIUS. an ancient painter, flou- 
 rished in the time of Pliilip, king of Macedon. 
 He was the master of Apelles, and had a 
 school at Sicyon, where he was the first that 
 taught his art upon mathematical principles. 
 — Sandraart Acad. Pictur. 
 
 PAMIGER or PAMINGER. Therewere 
 two eminent German composers of this name 
 in the sixteenth century, father and son. 
 Leonard, the elder, was a good scliolar as 
 well as a musician, and was the intimate friend 
 of Martin Luther. He composed a great va- 
 riety of church music, printed in four vols, 
 which appeared at difterent periods, after his 
 decease in 1568, under the superin tendance of 
 his son, Sophonicis. The latter, bom in 1526, 
 studied under Luther and Melancthon, to 
 whom he was recommended by his father, at 
 Wittcmberg, and afterwards suffered mucb 
 persecution on account of his having embraced 
 
 V A I^ 
 
 their relit;iou» opinions. He bccanie m 1568 
 rector of the choir ai Octiii'^en ; but the same 
 cause forcing hira to (|uit that place, he re- 
 tired to Nuremberg, where he suppoitcd lum- 
 self principally by the salt* of liis fatlier's 
 works, and by teax:bin^ at tiie ('arthu»ian coii- 
 vfiit in that city. Hi.s death took pl.u;fc in 
 1 60.J. — Uioir Diet, of Mas. 
 
 PANARl) (CnAHLEs Fuancis) an inge- 
 nious French poet, was horn about 16'.'0 at 
 Courville near Chartres where he had a 
 trifling employment, and lived gome time in 
 obscurity, until the comedian, I^e Grand, hav- 
 ing seen some of his pieces, encouraged him 
 to write for the stage, in which department he 
 became very successful. iMarmontel calls him 
 the La Fontaine of the Vaudeville, both from the 
 naivete of his writing and the simplicify of h'n 
 character. His works are occasionally incor- 
 rect and negligent; but they are always stamper', 
 by nature, sentiment, wit, and good sense.. 
 He knew perfectly well how to sharpen the 
 point of an epigram, but his satire was ahvavs 
 directed to the vice, not to the person. He 
 died in 1765. His works were printed in 
 4 vols. 12mo, entitled " Theatre et CEuv/ea 
 diverses." — Xecrohge Fran^ais. Hist. Diet. 
 
 PAXCIROLUS (Gity) a learned professor 
 of jurisprudence, descended of a noble family, 
 and born at Reggio in 1523 He early dis- 
 played an extraordinary genius, which he 
 cultivated with much assiduity at Ferrara. Pa- 
 via, and other of the principal Italian univer- 
 sities. In 1547 he obtained the second pro- 
 fessorship of civil law at Padua, which he re- 
 tained till 1561, when he vacated it, on being 
 elected to that of the Roman law. Philibert 
 duke of Savoy, giving him an invitation tv> 
 Turin, he accepted it in 1571, the ratlier ttiis 
 he considered himself to have some grounds 
 for complaint as to his treatment at Padua. In 
 this capital he continued to till the professor's 
 ch:iir in jurisprudence upwards of eleven years, 
 during which period he produced an ingenious 
 work, " Ue rebus inventis et deperdifis," 
 wri:ten in the Italian language. His eyes at 
 length failing him, and the sight of one be- 
 coming totally lost, Pancirolus returned to 
 Padua, where he passed the remainder of his 
 life. Besides the work alluded to, which Sal- 
 muth translated into Latin,. he was ihe author 
 of a treatise, " De Numismatibus anti(juis ;" 
 " De quatuordecim Regionibus Komee earum- 
 que ^-Edificiis ;" " Commentarii in Notitiam 
 utriusque Imperii et de .Magistratibus." folio ; 
 " De Claris Legum Inteipretibus ;'' " De 
 Magistrat. Municipal, et Corporibus Artifi- 
 cum," (Sec. His death took place about the 
 close of the sixteenth century. — Niceron. 
 
 PANCKOUCKE (Andrew Joseph) a 
 bookseller at Lisle, in Flanders, where he 
 died in 1753, aged fifty-two. He w-as the 
 author of several popular and useful compila- 
 tions, and some original works, including 
 " La Bataille de Fontenoi, Poeme heroique, 
 en Vers burlesques, par un Lillois, Natif de 
 Lille en Flandre, avec des Notes historiques, 
 critiques, et morales, pour I'lntelligence de ce 
 Poeme," 1745, 8vo, intended ai""" a criticisD- 
 
PAN 
 
 ©n Voltaire's poem on the same subject ; and 
 " Art de desopder la Rate," of which a post- 
 humous edition appeared in 1773, 2 vol?. 
 12mo. — Panckoucke (Charles Joseph) son 
 of the preceding, was also a bookseller and a 
 man of letters. He was born at Lisle in 1736, 
 and at the age of twenty-eight he settled at 
 Paris, previously to which period he had made 
 himself known by some pubUcations from the 
 press, and mathematical pieces, which he 
 had sent to the Academy of Sciences. His 
 bouse became the resort of the most distin- 
 guished authors ; and he conducted himself 
 with great liberality to those with whom he 
 was cotmected in his literary enterprises. He 
 engaged in the publication of the " IMercure 
 de France," and various other periodical works, 
 and established the " Moniteur," under the 
 direction of H. B. JMaret, since duke of Bas- 
 sano. He also formed tlie plan of the " f2n- 
 cyclopedie IMethodique," consistmg of a num- 
 ber of distinct dictionaries of the various 
 branches of art, science, and literature ; of 
 which ninety parts had been published in 
 1822. Panckoucke died December 19, 1798. 
 He was the author of " De 1' Homme et de la 
 reproduction des diflferents Individus," 1761, 
 i2mo ; " Traduction Libre de Lucrece," 1768, 
 2 vols. 12mo ; and other works. — Biog. Univ. 
 Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 
 PANTALEON (Henuy) a learned physi- 
 cian and historian, was born at Basil, in 1522. 
 He studied divinity, but changing his design, 
 be taught dialectics and natural philosophy at 
 Basil for forty years. At an advanced age, he 
 devoted himself to medicine, and took the de- 
 gree of jMD. practising with much reputation 
 until his death, which took place in 1595. He 
 composed various works, the most useful of 
 which now is an account of the eminent men 
 of Germany, entitled, " Posopographia Heroum 
 et lllustrium viroruni Germanise," dedicated 
 to the emperor Maximilian II, who gave him 
 the title of count Palatin. He also published, 
 " Historia Militarisordiuis Johannitarum Rho- 
 diorum au-t JNIelitensium Equitum ;" " Chro- 
 nographia Ecclesiai Christi ;" " Diarium His- 
 toricum ;" and " Comoedia de Zaccheo publi- 
 canorum principe," 1546, 8vo. — Melchior 
 jidam. 
 
 PAM VINIUS(Onuphrius) called, by Ma- 
 nutius, Helluo Antiquitatis, from his incessant 
 labour in antiquarian pursuits, was a noble Ve- 
 ronese of the sixteenth century, born in 1529. 
 He became a member of the society of the 
 hermits of St Augustine, and rising high in the 
 favour of cardinal Alexander Farnese, followed 
 that prelate to Sicily. A spurious and imper- 
 fect edition of his first work, " A Chronicle of 
 Popes and Cardinals," having appeared in 1557 
 at Venice, he was induced to superintend tlie 
 publication of a more accurate copy. He af- 
 terwards wrote a continuation of Platina's 
 *' Lives of the Popes," with annotations on 
 the original work. His other productions 
 were, " Topographia Romag ;" " De Primatu 
 Petri;'' " D e Antique Ritu Baptizandi ;" 
 " De Romanorum Nominibus ;" " De Trium- 
 phis et Ludis Circensibus /' " De Repub- 
 
 P AO 
 
 lica ;" " De Ritu Sepeliendi mortuos apnd 
 veteres Christianos ;" and four treatises on 
 Roman antiquities to be found in the collec- 
 tion of Graevius. He also published an edition 
 of the '' Fasti Cousulares." Panvinius died 
 in Sicily in 1568. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PANZER (George Wolfgang Francis) 
 an eminent bibliographer, born at Suizbacli. in 
 the upper palatinate of the Rhine, in 1729. 
 He studied at the university of Altdorf, where 
 he took the degree of doctor of philosophy in 
 1749, and afterwards that of doctor of divinity. 
 Returning to his native country, he became a 
 minister at Eyelwang, and subsequently pastor 
 of the church of St Sebald, at Nuremberg. He 
 exerted all his efforts to suppress such religi- 
 ous practices as ap}>eared to be relics of po- 
 pery ; and, in particular, he introduced into 
 his parish the custom of public confession. His 
 death took place July 9, 1805. His principal 
 work is, " Annales Typographici ab Artis iu- 
 ventae origine ad annum 1536, post Maittairii, 
 Denisii, aliorumque doctiss. viror. curas, in 
 ordinem redacti, emendati et aucti," Norimb. 
 I 1793 — 1803, 11 vols. 4to. He also wrote au 
 account of early printed Bibles, and on other 
 subjects connected with the history of typo- 
 graphy. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAOLI (Pascal) a Corsican officer, distin- 
 guished by his exertions to maintain the in- 
 dependence of his native country. He was 
 born in Corsica in 1726, and was the second 
 son of Hyacinthus Paoli, a man of considerable 
 influence in the island, who had frequently 
 taken an active part in the management of po- 
 litical affairs. The circumstances of the coun- 
 try at length inducing him to remove, with his 
 family, to Naples, Pascal was there educated 
 at the Jesuit's college. He was still engaged 
 in the prosecution of his studies, when his 
 countrynier, who had long been struggling for 
 freedom against the Genoese, by whom they 
 were held in subjection, sent him an invitation 
 to become their chief. He accepted the pro- 
 posal, and going to Corsica, he was appointed 
 to ilte supreme government of the island in 
 July, 1755. Having organized a regular plan 
 for the conduct of affairs, both civil and mili- 
 tary, Paoli opposed the Genoese with such 
 spirit and success, that after they had carried 
 on hostilities against him for neaily ten years, 
 they entered into a treaty with France, in pur- 
 suance of which a body of French troops was 
 sent to their assistance ; and, finding themselves 
 still unable to conquer the island, they at 
 length made a formal surrender of their claims 
 of sovereignty over it to the French govern- 
 ment. Ihe duke de Choiseul endeavoured to 
 prevail on Paoli to submit to the new arranj'e- 
 nient, and accept of the office of commander- 
 in-chief under the authority of France. But 
 he patriotically rejected all overtures of accom- 
 modation, and opposed with vigour the dan- 
 gerous enemies he had now to encounter. At 
 first he was successful, and a much greater 
 force than had been anticipated was found re- 
 quisite for the subjugation of Corsica. Fresh 
 bodies of troops were st-nt thither, and over- 
 powered by numbers, Paoli found it necessary 
 
PAP 
 
 to consult his uersonal s;if(>ty \>y fliylit from liis 
 native country. Me made his way to the aea- 
 coast, and embarkinj; on board an Knghsh 
 vessel, on the Itithof June, 17t)9, he sailed to 
 Leijhorn, whence lie afterwards proceeded to 
 England. Here much attention was paid him, 
 and he obtained from the government a pen- 
 sion of {."JOOI. a-vear. After an interval of 
 twenty years, the Revolution in France pre- 
 sented to the Corsican exile new and flattering- 
 j)rospects for himself and his compatriots. In 
 1789 the island was recognized by a decree of 
 the National Assembly, as a department of 
 France ; and Paoli being invited to resume his 
 station at the head of affairs, resigned Iiis 
 pension, and took his departure from England. 
 Oil the i^ord of April, 1790, attended by depu- 
 ties from Corsica, he presented himself at the 
 bar of the National Assembly at Paris, when 
 lie was received with enlliusiasm, and he took 
 the oath of Hdelity to the French government. 
 The progress of the Revolution disappointed 
 the hopes which he had conceived ; but he 
 continued the connexion with France till 
 after the execution of Louis XVI, when he 
 abandoned his allegiance, and was invested 
 vv^ith his original dignities of president of the 
 Consulta, or national council, and commander- 
 in chief of tlie inland. He was encouraged 
 to adopt these measures by the promise of as- 
 sistance from Great Britain ; and in February, 
 1794, an English army landed in Corsica, 
 under sir Gilbert Eliot, afterwards lord JMinto. 
 On the 14lh of June following, a meeting took 
 place of deputies from the different parts of the 
 island, when, through the influence of Paoli, a 
 decree was made, declaring the separation of 
 Corsica from France, and its union to the Bri- 
 tish empire. Paoli subsequently returned to 
 England, in consequence of some difference 
 with the viceroy, sir G. Eliot. Having had 
 the misfortune to lose the bulk of his property 
 through a commercial failure at Leghorn, he 
 was reduced to difficulties on his return to Lon- 
 don ; but his pension being restored, he was 
 relieved from his embarrassment, and he 
 passed the remainder of his days in tranquil- 
 lity. He died at his residence in the Edtje- 
 ware-road, London, February 5, 1807. — Ai- 
 kin's Athenaum, vol. i. -Bio^". Univ. 
 
 PAPEBROCK (Daniel) a Flemish Jesuit, 
 who assisted in the compilation of the " Acta 
 Sanctorum," commenced by Rosweide and 
 Bollandus. [See 15ollandus, John.] Piipe- 
 brock, in conjunction with Henschenius, ano- 
 ther Jesuit, published tht- Memoirs of Saints 
 for the month of iNLirch, in 3 vols, folio, in 
 1668; those for April, in 3 vols, in l67o; 
 those for May, in 7 vols. It380 — 8.5 — 88, of 
 which the first only appeared during the life 
 of Henschenius. The work was carried on 
 under the direction of Papebrock, till his 
 death, which happened June 29, 1714, in the 
 eighty- sixth year of his age. — Diet. Hist. 
 Bio;::. Univ. 
 
 PAPILLON (John) the son of an indiffe- 
 rent French engraver, was born at St Quintin 
 in 1661, and was very successful as an engra- 
 ver on wood. He v- also said to have been 
 
 PAP 
 
 the inventor of printing' papers in imitation of 
 
 tapestry to furni>li roumH. He died al< )Ut 
 l()iiB. — His son, John IUitim Muhav.i., 
 j was born at I'aris in 1698. and exercised the 
 same art still more mk < ••hnfully. His engrav- 
 ings possess con.sideralile merit, particularly 
 those which represent foliage or flowers. He 
 was the author of an interesting work, enti- 
 tled, " Traite hisloriipn' t^ pratique de la 
 Gravuire en Bois." He died in 1776. — Strutt. 
 ]\loieri. Did. Hist. 
 
 PAPILLON (Thomas) a French lawyer, 
 was burn at Dijon in 1.514. He w:ia the au- 
 thor of the following works, " Commentarii in 
 quatuor prioies titulos, lib. |/rimi Digestorum ;" 
 " l)e Directis Ha^redum Substitutionibus ;" 
 " Libellus de Jure accresceiidi." He died in 
 1.596, at Paris. — There was also a Piiii.iiJir'.T 
 P.^pii.LON, alearned canon of i>a Cliapelle-au- 
 Riche Dijon, who wrote a work, entitled " La 
 Bibliothecjue des Auteurs de Bourgogne," Di- 
 jon, 174'i, 2 vols. foho. He died in 1738. — 
 Moreri. Did. lli^t. 
 
 PAPIN (Denys) an eminent natural phi- 
 losopher and physician, who was a native of 
 Blois in France. After he had finish- d his 
 studies, and taken the degree of ."M D. he 
 ma le a visit to England, and in 1680 he was 
 admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 assisted Mr Boyle in his j)hilosophical experi- 
 ments, and made himself known as an in^e- 
 nious practical pliilosopher. Being a Protes- 
 tant, the revocation of the edict of Nantz pre- 
 vented him from returning to his native coun- 
 try, and on leaving England, he settled at 
 i\Iarpurg, in Germany, as a teacher of mathe- 
 matics. Papin chiefly distinguished himself 
 by his researches concerning the power of 
 steam, and the influence of mechanical pres- 
 sure in retarding the ebullition of liquids. He 
 suggested the principle which led to the in- 
 vention of the steam engine, (see Newcom- 
 MEN ;) but he is best known for an invention 
 of his own, denominated " Papin's IJUges- 
 ter," consisting of an air-tight iron vessel, in 
 which water, ice. may be heated consider;! biy 
 beyond the boiling point, of which a descrip- 
 tion was published under the title of " The 
 New Digester, or Engine for the Softening of 
 Bones." He was also the autlior of " Fasci- 
 culus Dissertationum de quibusdam INIachinis 
 Phvsicis ;" and " Ars nova ad Aquam Ignis 
 adminiculo efiicacissime elevaiulam." He died 
 in 1694. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Ujiiv. 
 
 PAPIN (Isaac) a French divine, ])robably 
 of tlie same familv with the sulject of the last 
 article, as he was born at Blois, in 1657. He 
 studied theology at Geneva, but was refused 
 tlie usual testimonies of proficiency, in conse- 
 quence of his departure from the standard 
 belief of the Calvinists. He then visited 
 En 'land, and took orders in the established 
 church in the reign of James II ; and after- 
 wards became professor of divmity among the 
 French refugees at Dantzic. Disturbed by the 
 hostility of jvirieu, with whom he had a lite- 
 rary controversy, and driven from the situation 
 he occupied, he became a Romau Calhoiic, 
 and wrote in defence of that cLurcii. He died 
 
PAP 
 
 at Paris in 1739, ncl liis wTitings were pub- 
 lished collectirei/ in 1723, 3 vols. 8vo. — 
 Niceroii. Moreri. 
 
 PAPON (Jouv Peter) a French histo- 
 rian, an associate of the Institute, born near 
 Nice, in 1734. Having finished his studies, 
 he was admitted into the congregation of the 
 Oratory ; but he quitted that society, to be- 
 come keeper of the library at Marseilles. 
 While in that situation he commenced his prin- 
 cipal work, " Histoire generale de Provence," 
 1777-86, 4 vols. 4to, for which a pension of 
 2000 francs was bestowed on him by the states 
 of Provence ; and he also experienced the li- 
 berality of the late king, then the count de 
 Provence, to wliom the history was dedicated. 
 Tfce abbe tlien settle-1 at Paris, whence h^re- 
 isaved to the department of Pay de Dome, 
 '''uring the storms of the Revolution ; and 
 Jitter remaining there some years, he returned 
 to Paris, where he died of apoplexy in 1803. 
 He was the author of " Voyage liiteraire de 
 Provence," 1787, 2 vols. l2mo ; " Histoire de 
 
 PAR 
 
 his writings, in one folio volume, Bologna, 
 1660. — Hittton's Muth. Diet. 
 
 PARABOSCO (GiROLAiMo) an Italian 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, at Placen- 
 tia. He was a musician, and a maestro di 
 capella. His comedies, which are six in num- 
 ber, possess much originality. The best edi- 
 tion was published at Venice in 1560. He 
 also wrote novels in the style of Boccaccio and 
 Bandello, which were published in 1538, witli 
 the title of " I Diporti di M. Girolamo Para- 
 bosco." His letters, tragedies, and other works, 
 consisting of " Motti," or bon mots, are now 
 almost forgotten. — Tiraboschi. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PARACELSUS, or PHILIPPUS AU- 
 REOLUS THEOPHRASTUS AB HO- 
 HENHEIM, a celebrated empyric and alchy- 
 mist, born at Emsidlen, near Zurich, in 
 Switzerland, in 1493. His father, William ab 
 Hohenheim, a physician, is said to have been 
 the natural son of a Teutonic knight. After 
 some education at home, he visited France, 
 
 Ja Revolution de France," published posthu- Spain, Italy, and Germany, with a view to im- 
 
 mously, 1815, 6 vols. 8vo ; '• Epoques memo- 
 rabies de la Peste, et Moyens de se preserver 
 de ce Fleau," 2 vols. 8vo ; besides other 
 works. — J^i'ig' Univ. 
 
 PAPINlAN, a celebrated Roman lawyer. 
 He was born in the year 175, and became pre- 
 torian prefect under the emperor Severus, who 
 had so high an opinion of his worth, that at 
 his death he recommended his sons, Caracalla 
 and Geta to his care. The first having bru- 
 tally murdered his brother, enjoined Papinian 
 to compose a discourse in accusation of the 
 deceased, in order to excuse his barbarity, to 
 the senate ami the people. With this man- 
 date the prefect not only refused to comply, 
 but he nobly observed, that it was easier to 
 commit a parricide than to excuse it, and that 
 slander of innocence was a second parricide. 
 Caracalla, enraged by this refusal, secretly in- 
 duced the pretorian guards to mutiny, and de- 
 mand their leader's head ; and, apparently to 
 satisfy tliem, he was executed in 212, in his 
 thirty-seventh year, and his body dragged 
 through tlie streets of Home. Tiie reputation 
 of Papinian, as a lawyer, stood very high, and 
 lie had a great number of disciples. He com- 
 posed several works, among wliich are twenty- 
 seven books of "Questions on the Law;" 
 nineteen of " Responses, or Opinions ;" 
 two of " Definitions ;" two upon "Adultery ;" 
 and one upon the " Laws of Ediles." — Moreri. 
 Saxii Oiiorn. 
 
 PAPPUS, an Alexandrian philosopher and 
 mathematician, who flourished in the fourth 
 century, under Theodosius the Great. He was 
 the author of some annotations on the Alma- 
 2:e8L of Ptc'emy ; a mathematical treatise, 
 cranslated by Commandine in 1588 ; a descrip- 
 tion of some of the principal rivers in Africa ; 
 a work on military engines, &c. ; together with 
 several other tracts, most of which liave not 
 reached posterity, though some oi them have 
 been abridged, and others enumerated by 
 Marin Mersenne. Charles Manolepius col- 
 lected and published all that is now known of 
 
 provement in medicine, and the arts and sci- 
 ences connected with it, especially chemistry. 
 In the course of his travels he became ac- 
 quainted with some remedies not in common 
 use among the faculty, (probably preparations 
 of mercury,) by means of which he performed 
 extraordinary cures, and obtained great repu- 
 tation. Returning to Switzerland, he taught 
 medicine and surgery at Basil, delivering his 
 lectures partly in the German language, for 
 want of a sufficient knowledge of the Latin. 
 At length, having cured John Lichtenfels, a 
 rich ecclesiastic, of a dangerous disease, and 
 being precluded by a decision of the magis- 
 tracy from obtaining the stipulated reward, for 
 which he was obliged to sue his patient, he 
 was so enraged at the disappointment, that he 
 grossly abused the judges, and becoming ap- 
 prehensive of their resentment, took his de- 
 parture from the city. He then led a wander- 
 ing life in Alsatia, accompanied by hia pupil, 
 0])orinus, who, disgusted with his violence 
 and intemperance, at length left him to pursue 
 his wild career alone. Paracelsus professed 
 an utter contempt for the practice of his me- 
 dical contemporaries, and boasted of an inter- 
 course with spirits, and the possession of the 
 philosopher's stone, and the elixir of life ; but 
 he disgraced his pretensions by dying in the 
 forty -eighth year of his age, after a few days* 
 illness, at the hospital of St Sebastian at 
 Salzburg, in 1541. Among the writings at- 
 tributed to Paracelsus are some on surgery, 
 chemistry, and theology, many of wliich re- 
 main unpublished A collection of his works, 
 in 11 vols. 4to, was printed at Basil in 1589 ; 
 and they were also printed at Geneva in 1658, 
 with a preface, containing an account of the 
 author. — Melch. Adam. Teissier Eloges des if. 
 S. Morhof. Poluhi.^t. Hutchinson's Bios;. Med. 
 PARADIN (William) a French historian 
 of the sixteenth century, the time of whose 
 biith and death are unknown. He wrote se- 
 veral v.'orks, of wliich these are the principal • 
 •' Historia sui Temporis," translated into 
 
PAR 
 
 French in 1558 ; " Tlie History of ArislaiM, 
 respecting tlie version of the Pentateuch," 
 4to ; " Annales de Bourgogne ;" " I)e Mo- 
 ribus Galli'.e Ilistoria ;" " Aleinoires cle I'His- . 
 toire cle Lyon ;" " De rehus in Belgio, ,anno 
 1543 geslis ;" "La Chronicjne cle Savoie ;" | 
 " Historiae (Jalli;\: a Franchise! I coronuiioiie aci 
 annum 1550;" " llistoria Kcclei^iiu Galli- 
 caiuii ;" " Memoralia insignium Francias Fa- 
 niiliarum." He was clean of Beaujeu. — 
 Le Lous; Bihl. Hist, de France. Rloreri. 
 
 PAliClKUX (Antoink de) an ingenious 
 French mathematician, member of the acade- 
 mies of sciences at Paris, Stockholm, and 
 Berlin, and censor- royal. Ho was born near 
 Uzes, in 1705, and was of low parentage, but 
 was enablt^d, through the gratuitous benevo- 
 lence of a friendly individual, to study at the 
 college of Lyons, where he cultivated mathe- 
 matical learning with great success. He af- 
 terwards settletl at Paris, wliere he attracted 
 notice by his skill in the construction of sun- 
 dials. He published, " Traite de Trisjono- 
 m^trie Rectiligne et Spheric,ue," 1711, 4to, 
 dedicated to the Royal academy ; " Essai sur 
 les Probabilites de la Duree de la Vie Hu- 
 inaine," 1746, 4to ; " IMemoire sur la Possi- 
 bilite d'amener a Paris les Eaux de la Riviere 
 de I'Yvette," 4to ; and several other works. 
 He died in 1768. — Biog. Univ. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PARCIEUX (Antoine de) nephew of the 
 preceding, and also eminent as a mathemati- 
 cian. He was born near Nismes, in 1753, 
 and he applied himself with such ardour to 
 literature, that, when cpiite young, he composed 
 a tragedy, called, " Ozorio," altered from one 
 written by Thomas Comeille. At length he 
 became professor of mathematics at Paris, and 
 often supplied the place of Brisson, professor 
 of natural philosophy at the college of Na- 
 varre, whose lectures he had assiduously at- 
 tended. In 1779 he gave a course of lectures 
 on experimental physics, and he was after- 
 wards employed to form a cabinet of that 
 science at the military school of Brienne. On 
 the establishment of the Lyceum at the Pan- 
 theon, he was nominated professor. Among 
 his works are, *' Notions du Calcul Geome- 
 trique et d'Astronomie ;" " Traite elemen- 
 taire, de Mathematicjue ;" " Traite des Annui- 
 ties, ou Rentes k Termes ;" occ. He was pre- 
 paring a complete course of natural ])hilosophy 
 and chemistry, of which he had sent only the 
 first volume to the press, when he fell a sacri- 
 fice to fatigue, occasioned by over attention to 
 his studies, in 1799. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PARDIES (Ignatius Gaston) a learned 
 and ingenious Jesuit of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, a native of Paris, or as others say, of 
 Pau, in Gascony, born 1636. In the earlier 
 part of his life he cidtivated the belles lettres 
 witli great success, and some of his liirhter 
 compositions were much admired, on account 
 of the airy elegance and delicacy of their 
 style. Subsequently he devoted the whole of 
 his attention to severer studies, and became 
 celebrated for his })roficieucy in mathematics 
 and general philosophy, his reputation for 
 \wiicu procured him a proiesicuship in the 
 
 P A R 
 
 college of Lewis. \ IV. Some of his works 
 were well known in England, e»])ecially a 
 controversy carried on by him in 1672 with sir 
 Isaac Newton, whos*! tb<<»ry of optics he im- 
 pugned, llu- is(ibhlani<! of winch is to be found 
 in the IMiilosojihical Transactions. His " Ele- 
 ments of (ieoinctry," too, liccaine familiar to 
 the JCnglish reader in Harris's traiislatioii, 
 which has gone through several editions. Hiii 
 other works are, " Lettre d'un Pbilosophie a 
 un Cartesien de sea amis ;" " Discours sur la 
 Connoissance des Jietes ;" " llorologiuui 
 Thaumaticum duplex ;" " De Motu et Na- 
 tuia Cometarum ;" " La Statique, on la Sci- 
 ence des Forces IMouvantes ;" " Kemarquea 
 du Mouvement de la Lumiere ;" and " JJis- 
 cours du Mouvement Local." In 1673, hav- 
 ing employed himself diligently in administer- 
 ing tlie comforts of religion to the prisoners 
 confined in (he Bicetre during the Holy week, 
 he caught a jail fever, then prevalent among 
 them, which occasioned his decease. — A't»m. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PARE(AMnnosE) an eminent surgeon, was 
 born at Laval, in the district of the Maine, in 
 1509. He was appointed surgeon in ordi- 
 nary to king Henry II in 1552, and he held 
 the same office under Francis II, Charles 
 IX, and Henry IIL He was on one occasion 
 of great service professionally to Charles LX, 
 who proved his gratitude by sparing him in 
 the massacre of St Bartholomew, although a 
 Protestant. He died in 1590. Pare was a 
 bold and successful operator, and rendered 
 real services to his art, particularly in the 
 practice of tying divided arteries, and in the 
 treatment of gun-shot wounds. His works 
 were universally read, and translated into most 
 of the languages of Europe ; they consist of 
 numerous treatises, and were translated into 
 Latin by his pupil, Guillemeau, with the title 
 of " Ambrosii Para3i Opera, novis iconibus 
 eleganlissimis illustrataet Latinate donata." — 
 £/ov Diet. Hist, de la Med. Rees's Cyclopedia. 
 Haller. Moreri. 
 
 PARENT (Anthony) a learned French 
 mathematician, bom at Paris in 1666. He 
 received his early education at Chartres, and 
 while at school was particularly attracted by 
 the study of gnomonics, on which he wrote a 
 treatise, and he acquired skill in forming sun- 
 dials. He then went back to Paris to study 
 the law ; but his strong attachment to the ma- 
 thematical sciences superseded every other pur- 
 suit, and shutting himself up in the college of 
 Dormans, he gave way to his inclination, 
 leaving his retreat only to attend the lectures 
 of De la Hire and Sauveur, at the royal col- 
 lege. Wishing to obtain a practical accpiaint- 
 ance with mathematics as aj)plicd to military 
 tactics, he made two campaigns with the mar- 
 quis d'Aligre. He afterwards devoted bis time 
 entirely to the study of ])hysical and mathe- 
 matical science, including anatomy, botany, 
 and chemistry. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences as an adjunct professor 
 of mechanics, and in 1716 he was apj)ointed 
 assistant geometrician. He died of the small- 
 pox the same year. The Memoirs of the Aca- 
 
PAR 
 
 demy of Sciences contain many papers by M. 
 Parent, who also published " Elements of 
 Mechanics and Natural Philosophy ;" " Ma- 
 ihematical and Philosophical Researches;" and 
 a treatise on arithmetic. — Martin's Biog. Philos. 
 PAREUS or PARE. There were three of 
 this name, father, son, and grandson, all emi- 
 nent for their learning and abilities. David, 
 the elder, was born of Protestant parents at 
 Frankenstein in Silesia. His father, whose 
 name was Wangler, an appellation which the 
 son afterwards elevated into Parens, from a 
 Greek word of the same signification, becom- 
 ing a widower, contracted a second marriage, 
 the consequence of which was that his oflf- 
 spring were neglected, and put to different 
 trades ; the subject of this article being first 
 placed with an apothecary, and afterwards 
 with a shoemaker. The strong bent of his 
 genius towards literary pursuits triumphed, 
 however, eventually over his difficulties, and 
 being fortunate enough at length to secure the 
 instructions of Schilling, his progress was 
 equally sound and rapid. He obtained the 
 professorships of the humanities and of divinity 
 at Heidelberg, where he entered warmly into 
 the controversies carrying on between the 
 Lutherans and the Calvinists, having aban- 
 doned the tenets of the former for the stricter 
 discipline of the latter party. While resident 
 at this university, he acquired the esteem of 
 the elector palatine and other persons of high 
 rank and consideration, and in 1539 printed, 
 under their auspices, an edition of the Scrip- 
 tures, with a commentary. In 1592 he was 
 elected an ecclesiastical counsellor, and the 
 year following took his doctor's degree. In 
 id 17 appeared his famous " Commentary on 
 the Epistle to the Romans," which was 
 speedily dispersed all over Europe ; but 
 the doctrines it contained militating very 
 strongly against regal prerogatives and the 
 divine right of kings, James I of England was 
 so incensed at its promulgation, that he or- 
 dered it to be burnt publicly in London by the 
 hands of the common hangman. David Pa- 
 reus dying in 1632, his son, John Philip, 
 collected his exegetical works, and published 
 them with a life prefixed, in three folio vols. 
 at Frankfort in 1647. The latter, who was born 
 at Hembach, in the spring of 1576, and be- 
 came rector of the college of Neustadt, was 
 the author of several valuable works, the prin- 
 cipal of which are, " Calligraphia Romana,'^ 
 8vo, 1620 ; "Lexicon Criiicum," 8vo ; " Electa 
 Symmachiana," 8vo ; " Analecta Plautina;" 
 " Lexicon Plautinum," and other treatises 
 illustrative of his favourite author Plautus, of 
 whose works he published an excellent edition, 
 and in defence of whose fame he entered into 
 a controversy with the learned JoliB Gruter, 
 as remarkable for the reading it evinced, as for 
 the acrimony with which it was carried on. 
 He died at Hanau in 1648 ; his son, Danikl 
 Pa REUS, having preceded him to the grave 
 thirteen years before. This young man was a 
 scholar of great promise, and besides an origi- 
 nal History of the Palatinate of Bavaria, and 
 a work entitled " Medulla Historiai Ecclesias- 
 
 PAR 
 
 ticae," had published editions of the works of 
 Lucretius, Musi\3us, and Quintilian, with va- 
 luable notes, as well as an elegant selection 
 from the writings of the best Greek authors, 
 under the title of " Melleficium Atticum," 
 when his career was cut short by the hand of 
 an assassin, who murdered him for the sake of 
 plunder. — Xouv. Diet, Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PARFAIT (Francis) a French writer, dis- 
 tinguished as a dramatic historian, who was 
 born at Paris in 1698, and died in 1753. 
 Among his works are, " Histoire gen^rale 
 du Theatje Francois, depuis son origine jusqu'a 
 present," 15 vols. 12mo; " Memoires pour 
 servir a I'Histoire de la Foire," 2 vols. 12mo; 
 " Histoire de Tancien Theatre Italien," 12mo; 
 and " Dictionnaire des Theatres," 7 vols. 
 12mo. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 PARINI (Joseph) a modern Italian poet, 
 who raised himself to eminence by his talents, 
 which he employed in satirizing the vices and 
 follies of his age and country. He was the 
 son of a poor peasant, and was born on the 
 shores of Lake Pusiano, about seven leagues 
 from Milan. His docile disposition attracted 
 the notice of some monks, who bestowed on 
 him a gratuitous education, to fit him for some 
 subordinate ecclesiastical office. A thirst for 
 learning induced him to acquire farther know- 
 ledge by his own exertions ; but his pros- 
 pects of clerical promotion were blasted by an 
 attack of paralysis in his nineteenth year, 
 which rendered him a cripple for life. He 
 first exerted his poetical talents to procure the 
 means of support for himself and his widowed 
 mother ; but he was obliged to struggle through 
 nearly twenty years of obscurity, indigence, 
 and neglect, ere he emerged into reputation 
 and competence. This change in the literary 
 fortunes and situation of Parini was produced 
 by the appearance of his fine sadrical work, 
 " II Giomo," or " The Day, "a poem, intended 
 to exhibit a sarcastic and humorous delinea- 
 tion of the character and maimers of the Mi- 
 lanese nobility, which appear to have been 
 highly deserving of his animadversions. Pa- 
 rini was also the author of several lyr;c com- 
 positions, some of which display the same 
 strain of moral satire as the Giorno, on which 
 his celebrity chiefly depends. Towards the 
 close of his life he enjoyed a large share of 
 popularity, which he constantly exerted to pro- 
 mote peace and union among his fellow-citi- 
 zens. Once, when the democratic spirit ran 
 high at Milan, and the people were tumultu- 
 ously assembling, with cries of ** Viva la Re- 
 puiilica ! JMorti ai Tirauni, ai Patrizii !" Pa- 
 rini issuing forth from an adjoining hotel, in- 
 dignantly exclaimed, " Viva la Republica, e 
 morte a nessuno ; canaglia stolta!" "The 
 republic for ever, and death to nobody, you 
 stupid people." The crowd, struck with sur- 
 prise and admiration, after cheering the cham- 
 pion of their rights, quietly dispersed. He 
 lived miich esteemed and respected to his 
 seventieth year, and died very generally re- 
 gretted. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAPvlS (Francis) usually called the abb6 
 Paris, was the son of a counsellor to the par- 
 
P A R 
 
 /iament, and was bom at Paris in 1(")'.)(). He 
 enibraceii the ccilediastical ])roft'8si(m, and 
 look deacon's ordtTS, and in tlie disputes occa- 
 sioned by the hull Uni'^enitus, lie attached i 
 himself to the .lanscnist party. Upon the 
 tleath of his father, tlie abbe Paris renounced 
 all ilaim lo liis patrimonial inheritance in fa- 
 vour of a younger brother, anil devoted him- 
 self lo a life of poverty, livintj in a poor little 
 house in the suburb of Marcel, where he [ 
 passed his time in prayer and in making stock- 
 ings for the poor. He died in 17J7, and was { 
 buried in the churchyard of St IMedard ; and | 
 on his death the Jansenists made great use of I 
 liis credit lo revive their sinking fame, by | 
 making his tomb the seat of their iiretendeu 
 miracles ; and so far did the delusion gam ' 
 ground, that in 17o';2 the court found it neces- 
 sary to have the churchyard walled up. The 
 abbe Paris wrote a " Commentary on the Gos- 
 pel of St INIatthew ;" an " Explication of the 
 nine first Chapters of the Epistle of St Paul 
 to the Romans ;" on the Galatians ; and " An 
 Analysis of the Epistle to the Hebrews." — 
 Diet. Hist. Douglas's Criterion. 
 
 PARIS (Matthew) an English historian, 
 was a Benedictine monk of the congregation of 
 Clugny, in the monastery of St Albtn's, aim 
 died in l'io9. He is said to have been univer- 
 sally accomplished, and a man of rare inte- 
 gritv, freely censuring all that he found wrong 
 in all orders of people, without regard to rank 
 or power. His principal work is his " His- 
 toria Major," of which we have only remain- 
 ing the annals of eight kings, from the begin- 
 ning of the Conqueror's reign to the end of 
 that of H^nry III, the latter years being 
 added, it is supposed, by William Rishanger, 
 a monk of the same monastery. It is a valu- 
 able history, composed with great candour and 
 impartiality. He also wrote " Historia Mi- 
 nor," an abridgment of the former, which is 
 extant in MS. and some other works, which 
 are supposed to have perished. — Vossii Hist. 
 Lut. Nichnlso)i's Histor. Lib. 
 
 PARISO I (Pierre) also called Norbert, 
 born in 1697, at Bar-le-Duc. He entered 
 into holy order>, and assumed the habit of a 
 Capuchin friar, in which capacity he afterwards 
 was despatched by his order on a mission to 
 India. Here his conduct gave great offence 
 to the Jesuits, who procured his recal in 1744, 
 after he had been about four years in the coun- 
 try, which induced him on his return to France 
 to publish a work highly vituperative of the 
 society, entitled, " Historical Memoirs of the 
 JNIissions in the Indies." His own order how- 
 ever, so far from supporting him on this occa- 
 sion, found much to displease them in his 
 book on their own account, and the indigna- 
 tion which it excited among them operated so 
 strongly, that the author withdrew into Eng 
 land, and there supported himself by intro- 
 ducing a manufactory of tapestry. After vi- 
 siting part of Germany and the Peninsula, he 
 at length returned to his native country, be- 
 came reconciled to his order, and again, v^*ith 
 a fickleness which seems to have been inhe- 
 rent in him, abjured it. His principal work is 
 
 r A II 
 
 a " IliMtory of the Society of Je«u». from its 
 first Koiiiid.aion hv Ignatius Iviyoia, " in 'i voU. 
 Hi5 death took place in l77(l. — W'"^. f^<^t. 
 
 I*ARK (MuNoo) an enterprising traveller, 
 wlio fell a victim to bin repeateit attetiiptti to 
 explore the interior of iht; Afrii an contineiit. 
 His father was a farmer, and he was born near 
 Selkirk ill Scotland, Septeiidier 10. 1771. He 
 was educated for the nudwiil profesMoii, and 
 after having studied at Edinburgh for three 
 years, la; was ai)i>reniiced to Mr. Anderson, ;i 
 surgeon of Selkirk, whose daughter lie subse- 
 quently married. C)n quitting this situation 
 he went to Eondon, and then made a voyage to 
 the East Indies, as assistant-surgeon on board 
 one of the Company's vessels ; in the course 
 of which service he had an opportnnitv of 
 making some botanical collections at IJencoo- 
 len, of which an account may be found in the 
 Transactions of the Linniean Society. Return- 
 ing to England, he engaged in an expedition 
 to the intertropical regions of Africa, lo trace 
 the course of the river Niger, under the pa- 
 tronage of the African Society. He urrived 
 on the coasts of Senegal in Jnne 179.T, and 
 having made himself acquainted with the 
 IMandingo language, he commenced his jour- 
 r ^y, in the course of which he encountered 
 great dangers, in spite of which he prosecuted 
 his undertaking till he had reached the banks 
 of a large river, which appeared lo be the ob- 
 ject of his researches. The state of destitu- 
 tion to which he had been reduced, rendered 
 it almost impossible for him to proceed, and he 
 therefore returned towards the coast, and ar- 
 rived in England at the end of the year 1797. 
 Of his interesting discoveries he published an 
 account in his " Travels in the Interior of 
 Africa, in 1795, 96, and 97," 4to, 1799. Hav- 
 ing married the lady already alluded to, Mr 
 Park engaged in practice as a surgeon, at Pee- 
 bles, in his native country, in 1801 ; and con- 
 tented with the fame he had acquired, he 
 would probably have sought for no new ad- 
 ventures, nor have exposed himself to fresh 
 perils, but for the extraordinary inducement 
 held out to him in a proposal from government, 
 to engage in a second expedition of discovery 
 in the tract he had before visited, but with 
 much more ample resources than on the for- 
 mer occasion. Towards the close of 1803 he 
 entered on the undertaking, provided with an 
 escort of thirty soldiers, and accompanied by 
 other individuals, furnished with commodities 
 for tradini^ with the natives of the countries 
 through which they might pass. Mr Park 
 transmitted to the British settlement on the 
 coast, an account of his progress, till lie em- 
 barked with some of his followers in a boat ou 
 the stream which he had previously disco- 
 vered ; but beyond that point no certain intel- 
 ligence of his fate has ever been received. 
 After all hope of his return was at an end, 
 governor Maxwell, of Goree, despatched a per- 
 son to the inland part of the country, lo learn, 
 if possible, what had become of the unfortu- 
 nate traveller and his companions ; and the 
 result of the messenger's enquiries was a vague 
 report, that Mr Park and his friend Mr Mai- 
 
PAR 
 
 tyn had been drowned, in attempting to avoid 
 the pursuit of a barbarian chief, whom they 
 had unintentionally offended ; and that all the 
 other Europeans of the party had previously 
 died from fatigue or disease. An account of 
 Park's second journey, so far as his own narra- 
 tive extended, with a memoir of his life, by 
 Mr Wishaw, was published in 1815. — Quar- 
 terlxji Review. 
 
 PARKER, lord Morley (Henry) a literary 
 nobleman of the reign of Henry VHl, was the 
 son of sir WiUiam Parker, knight, and derived 
 his title from his maternal grandfather, lord 
 Morley. He was educated at Oxford, and was 
 summoned to parliament in the twenty-first 
 year of Henry VHL He was one of the ba- 
 rons who signed the memorable declaration to 
 pope Clement VII, threatening him with the 
 loss of his supremacy, unless he consented to 
 the king's divorce. Of his works only one has 
 been published, entitled, "A Declaration of 
 the 94th Psalm ;" the rest remain in manu- 
 script, in the king's library. He is said to 
 have written several tragedies and comedies, 
 of which not even the names are remaining. 
 " Certain Rhimes," and the " Lives of Sec- 
 taries" are also mentioned as his, but nothing 
 is now known of them except a few lines quoted 
 in our authories. Lord Morley died in la56. 
 — Ath. Ox. Park's Royal and Noble Authors. 
 Wartons Hist, of Poetry. Phillips's Theatrum, 
 by Sir E. Brydges. 
 
 PARKER (Matthew) archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, a prelate of great learning and accom- 
 plishments, as well as of uncompromising 
 principles, and much constancy of mind. He 
 was a native of Norwich, born 1504, and was 
 educated at Corpus Christi (Bene't) college, 
 Cambridge, of which he was successively fel- 
 low and master, and during his eventual eleva- 
 tion became a liberal benefactor to the society. 
 In 1533 Anne Boleyn appointed him her 
 chaplain, when she obtained from the king a 
 license for him to preach the reformed doc- 
 trines, and subsequently procured him a king's 
 chaplaincy, which he held ihrough that and 
 the following reign. Edward VI raised him 
 to the deanery of Lincoln, but on the acces- 
 sion of queen jMary, his well known and in- 
 flexible attachment to Protestantism, caused 
 him to fall into disgrace at court, and to be de- 
 prived of all his preferment. A charge brought 
 against him of having contracted a marriage, 
 was the ostensible ground of his degradation ; 
 and while in retirement, he took up the subject 
 in a treatise, which he composed, and entitled, 
 " A Defence of the Marriage of Priests." 
 After narrowly escaping the stake more than 
 once, the accession of Elizabeth again re- 
 stored him to safety, to his former rank in the 
 church, and ultimately to the primacy. He 
 was especially careful as to the morals, both 
 of the higher and inferior clergy ; but his seve- 
 rity, in respect to conformity, led him to mea- 
 sures which have been justly deemed demon- 
 strative of a bigotted and peisecuting spirit. 
 He exerted himself in procuring a more general 
 distribution of the Scriptures, himself taking a 
 very prominent part in the rendering that trans- 
 
 PAR 
 
 lation of them familiarly knowwi by the name of 
 the " Bishop's Bible," and also in the con- 
 struction of the present liturgy of the church 
 of England. He was, besides, the author of 
 a funeral sermon on the death of Bucer, and in 
 addition to the theoloo-ical works already men- 
 tioned, gave strong evidence of his general 
 learning, industry, and research, by a treatise 
 " On the Antiquity of the English Church;" 
 an edition of the works of JMatthew Paris ; 
 and by the encouragement he gave to the cul- 
 tivation of the ancient Saxon language. He 
 was also a sound practical, as well as theoreti- 
 cal musician, and not only composed several 
 melodies for parts of the Liturgy, but makes 
 some very ingenious observations on church 
 music in general, in a translation which he 
 completed of the Psalter. His death took 
 place in May 1576, and although during the 
 Cromwell usurpation his tomb in Lambeth 
 chapel was ransacked, yet his remains were 
 afterwards collected, and restored to their 
 original resting-place. — Strype's Life of Par- 
 ker. Biocr. Brit. 
 
 PARKER (Richard) an English sailor, 
 noted as the leader in the dangerous mutiny 
 which took place on board the squadron of 
 lord Bridport, in the spring of 1797. Parker 
 was bom at Exeter about 1760, and havins: re- 
 ceived a decent education, he entered into the 
 navy, and served during the American war. 
 On peace taking place he retired from his pro- 
 fessional duties, and married a woman with 
 some property, which he dissipated, and hav- 
 ing incurred some debts, he was imprisoned at 
 Edinburgh. He vi'as at length released, and 
 sent on board the royal fleet at the Nore, as a 
 common sailor, where he displayed a spirit of 
 insubordination to his officers ; but he so far 
 acquired the confidence of the men, that on 
 the mutiny arising, he was appointed admiral 
 cf the fleet. The revolt havins^ at length been 
 suppressed, through the prudent management 
 and firmness of lord Howe, Parker was put in 
 confinement, and after undergoing a trial at 
 Sheerness, he was hanged on board the Sand- 
 wich, to which ship he had belonged, and his 
 body was exposed on the coast of the isle of 
 Sheppey. He suffered June 30, 1797, dis- 
 playing in his last moments great calmness of 
 mind, and penitence. — Monthly Mag. 
 
 PARKER (Samuel) bishop of Oxford, in 
 the reign of the second James, a prelate of 
 considerable talent and learning, but contemp- 
 tible from his versatility and time-serving dispo- 
 sition, qualities which he appears to have in- 
 herited from his father, a lawyer, who after 
 exhibiting the greatest subserviency to the 
 parlieunentarian party, veered round at once 
 on the death of the protector, and received his 
 reward in the appointment of a sergeant-at- 
 law, and a seat on the Exchequer bench. His 
 son, the subject of this article, was bom in the 
 autumn of 1640, at Northampton and having 
 been brought up in the strictest principles of 
 puritanism, entered himself, at the age of 
 nineteen, at Wadham college, Oxford, where, 
 as well as at Trinity college, to which he af- 
 terwards removed, he distinguished himself as 
 
PAR PAR 
 
 much oy his ascetic mode of life, as l)y liis in- on which sul)j((t he <it livcrcj a speed) in tlie 
 tlefatigable aijplicaiion to books. His ri-hgi- liouscof l^ords, which hr afierwards jiubiished. 
 ous opinions, however, soon underwent a j He died in 1766. — Coll itn's Peerage. I'.tlit. 
 change more comj)atible witli his temi)orary | PA IlK KS (Samii r. ) an inj^enuius and sci- 
 interests; and a work whicli lie pullislicd.cn- eniific profi-ssor of cheniisiry, was born at 
 titled, " 'I'entamina Physico-Theologica de Stourbridge, in WorcestcrKhire, in 17.')<», and 
 Deo, &c." attracting the notice of tlie primate j ediuateu at Market 1 larb(jrough, under Or 
 Sheldon, tliat ])rtlate gave him a stall in Can- | Addiny;ton. I le was principally eminent as an 
 terbury calhedral, witlj the archdeaconry of i exi)eriinental chemist, and in liUXi published 
 the diocese annexed. In the ensuing reign, I a most interesting and valuable treatise on the 
 James, to whom the pliancy of his disposition science, entitled, a " Chenucal Catechism," 
 made him peculiarly acceptable, forced him : of which many editions have since apjteared, 
 ujion the fellows of Magdalen college as their j This work he followed up, in 1808, by an 
 president, and still farther advanced him to i " Essay on the Utility of Chemistry in the 
 the see of Oxford, favours which the new pre- Arts and Manufactures ;" and in 1809, by liig 
 late returned by writing in favour of the Ro- i " Rudiments of Chemistry, illustrated by ex- 
 mish doctrine concerning the Eucharist, and amples," an abridgment of his first treatise, 
 the efficacy of the intercession of saints duly [ which he was induced to publish, on account 
 canonized by papal authority. His next work of an unprincipled attempt to ))irate tiie work. 
 
 was entitled, " Reasons for Abrogating the 
 lest imposed upon all Members of l^irlia- 
 ment, 6tc." which met with great approbation 
 at court, although he i» saia, ul this very time, 
 to have been either no insincere in his public 
 professions, or so alarmed at the probable con- 
 sequences to which the attempt to render his 
 principles general might lead, that he ad- 
 dressed a private expostulation to the king, 
 recommending his conversion to tlie reformed 
 church. The scarcely-concealed disdain with 
 which all the most respectable persons of both 
 communions at length treated him, is said to 
 Lave had a strong effect upon his health, both 
 mental and bodily, and materially to have ac- 
 celerated his decease, which took place at 
 Magdalen college, in the spring of 1687. Be- 
 sides the works already mentioned, bishop 
 Parker was the author of a " Demonstration 
 of the Divine Authority of the Law of Na- 
 ture and the Christian Relig.on," a work of 
 merit; "A History of his own Times," in 
 Latin and English, published by his son of the 
 same name ; " The Case of the Church of 
 England fairly Stated ;" and other polemical 
 tracts. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 PARKER (Thomas) lord Parker, after- 
 wards created earl of INIacclesfield, was raised 
 to the office of lord chancellor in INIay, 1718, 
 having succeeded lord Cowper. After hold- 
 ing the situation for several years with credit 
 and respectability, he was accused of corrupt 
 practices in selling the post of master in chan- 
 cery, and the fact being proved, he was dis- 
 placed, and sentenced to pay a fine of 30,000/. 
 This proceeding is said to have originated in 
 the displeasure conceived by the prince of 
 Wales, afterwards George II, at an opinion 
 delivered by lord Macclesfield on the subject 
 of a dispute between the prince and his father, 
 as to the custody of the children of the former. 
 His lordship was removed from office in 17'2.5, 
 and his death took place in 1732, when he was 
 succeeded in his title by his son, George Par- 
 KEU, second earl of Macclesfield, who was 
 president of the Royal society. This noble- 
 man devoted himself to scientific inquiries, 
 and was an active promoter of the act of par- 
 liament for the reformation of the calendar, or 
 introduction of the new style in England inl752, 
 
 only supj)ressed by an injunction from the 
 court of Chancery. His last production was, 
 " Chemical Essays, principally relating to the 
 Arts and JManufactures of the British Domi- 
 nions," printed in 1815, in eight octavo vo- 
 lumes. Mt Parkes was a fellow of the Society 
 of Arts, and of various other literary and phi- 
 losophical associations, at the time of his de- 
 cease, which took place at his house in IMeck- 
 lenberg-square, London, December 23, 1825. 
 Ann. Biog. 
 
 PARKINSON (John) one of the earliest 
 and most industrious cultivators of the science 
 of botany in England. He was bom in 1567, 
 and adopting the profession of ])harmacy, he 
 settled in London, and was appointed apothe- 
 cary to king James I. In the following reign 
 he obtained the farther title of principal bota- 
 nist to the king. He had a large gaideu near 
 the metropolis, where he appears to have cul- 
 tivated many of the plants which he has de- 
 scribed. He probably died soon after the pub- 
 lication of his Herbal, in 1640. The titles of 
 his works are, " Paradisi in Sole Paradisus 
 terrestris ; or a Garden of all Sorts of pleasant 
 Flowers, which our English Air will permit to 
 be nursed up, &cc. ;" and " Theatrum Botani- 
 cum ; a Theatre of Plants ; or an Herbal of a 
 large Extent, containing therein a more am- 
 ple and exact History and Declaration of the 
 physical Herbs and Plants than are in other 
 Authors," 1640, folio. — PuUeney. Hutchiu' 
 son's Biocr. J\le(L 
 
 PARKHURST (John) an English divine 
 and poet of the sixteentli century. He was 
 bom in 1511, at Guildford in Surrey, and was 
 educated at Magdalen college, Oxford, and 
 afterwards became a fellow of ^Nlerton, where 
 he also acted as a tutor, and had among his 
 pupils, Jewel, the celebrated champion of the 
 English church. He was presented to the 
 rich living of Cleve in Gloucestershire, in the 
 reign of Edward VI ; but on the death of that 
 prince he was obliged to leave the kingdom, 
 on account of his religious opinions. He found 
 an asylum at Zurich in Switzerland, whence 
 he returneil when Elizabeth succeeded to the 
 throne ; and in 1560 he was raised to the bi- 
 shopric of Norwich, over which he presided 
 fourteen years dying in 1574. He translated 
 
PAR 
 
 jmrt of the Apocrypha, in tlie " Bishop's Bi- 
 ble ;" and he ])ublislipd a volume of Latin 
 poems, entitled " Ludicra, sive Epigrammata 
 Jnvenilia," highly praised by Fuller. — Wood's 
 Athen. Oion. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 PARKHURST (John) a learned critic and 
 divine, who was a native of Catesby in North- 
 amptonshire. He was educated at Rugby 
 school in Warwickshire, whence he removed 
 to Clare-hall, Cambridge, where he obtained 
 a fellowship. He took holy orders, but held 
 no preferment ; for being possessed of an in- 
 dependent fortune, he devoted himself entirely 
 to literary researches. He was well skilled in 
 the Hebrew language, and like some other 
 Oriental scholars, he was an advocate for the 
 Hutchinsonian philosophy. He published a 
 valuable Hebrew and English Lexicon ; also a 
 Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testa- 
 ment ; and a tract in defence of the divinity 
 of Jesus Christ. He died at Epsom in Surrey, 
 in 1797, aged sixty-eight. — Gent. Mag. Suppl. 
 to Encvcl. Brit. 
 
 PARMENIDES, a philosopher of the Elea- 
 tic sect, who flourished about BC. 504. tie 
 was a native of Elea, where he was a man of 
 wealth and influence, and also distinguished 
 in civil affairs, until introduced by Diochetas, 
 a Pythagorean, to the study of philosophy. 
 H« wrote the doctrines of his school in verses, 
 of which a few fragments remain in the col- 
 lection, " De Poesi Philosophica," by Henry 
 Stephen, Paris, 1573. Parmenides became 
 the disciple and successor of Xenophanes, the 
 founder of the Eleatic sect, but adhered more 
 closely to the doctrine of Pythagoras than his 
 master. Telesius revived the opinions of Par- 
 menides in the sixteenth century. — Briicker. 
 Enfield. 
 
 PARMENTIER (John) a scientific French 
 navigator, born at Dieppe in 149-i, was ori- 
 ginally a merchant. He was the first pilot 
 who conducted ships to the coast of Brazil, 
 and the first Frenchman who discovered the 
 Indies a3 far as Sumatra, where he died in 
 1530. He wrote two rare and curious books, 
 entitled " Description nouvelle des Dignites 
 du Monde et de la Dignite de I'Homme," and 
 " IMoralites tres-excellens en I'honneur de la 
 Benoiste Vierge Marie mise en rime Franfaise 
 et en Personnages, par Jehan Parmentier," 
 Paris, 1531, 4to, black letter. He also drew 
 several maps and charts, both spherical and 
 plane, of great use to navigators. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. Brunei Manuel du Lihraire. 
 
 PARMIGIANO, a very eminent painter, 
 whose real name was Francesco Mazzuoh, was 
 born at Parma in 1 503. He was brought up 
 by two uncles, painters, and at the age of six- 
 teen he had already created himself a reputa- 
 tion by an oil painting of the baptism of St 
 John, in one of tlie churches at Parma. At 
 the age of twenty he went to Rome, to study the 
 works of the great masters particularly of Mi- 
 chael Angelo and Raphael, and so well did 
 he profit by his application, that it was said at 
 Rome, " that the soul of Raphael had passed 
 into the person of Parmigiano." He was pa- 
 tronized by Clement VII, for whom he painted 
 
 PA 11 
 
 a picture of the Circumcision at the Vatican, 
 The sacking of Rome in 1527 obliged him to 
 take refuge at Bologna, where he painted 
 several altar pieces for the diflFerent churches. 
 On his return to Parma, he was engaged to 
 paint in fresco the vault of La Madonna della 
 Steccata, where was his famed cliiar-oscuro of 
 Moses breaking the tables of the law ; one of 
 the grandest compositions of the Lombard 
 school, both for sublimity of conception and 
 beauty of execution. Parmigiano was devoted 
 to the strange infatuation of pursuing the 
 search of the philosopher's stone ; and after 
 wastincr his own fortune and large sums that 
 had been advanced to him for the works he 
 was engaged in at the Steccata, he was prose- 
 cuted by the confraternity. He fled to Casale 
 ^laggiore, where he died of grief and disap- 
 pomtment at the age of thirty-seven. His 
 style is distinguished by its seductive grace 
 and elegance ; his designs are rather tasteful 
 than correct, and though his heads are full of 
 expression, they are not always free from afl^ec- 
 tation. His colouring was most beautiful, and 
 
 ' he was a complete master of the chiar-oscuro. 
 
 ' He is supposed to have been the first artist in 
 Italy who employed the point for etching. 
 Some of his plates are very spirited, but from 
 the early stage of the art at that period, they 
 
 I are not distinguished by much clearness or 
 delicacy. — D'Argenville. Filkington, Bryan's 
 
 ' Diet, of Paint, and Eng. 
 
 PARNELL (Thomas) an English poet, 
 was descended of a Cheshire family. His 
 father having followed the parliamentary cause 
 in the civil wars of Charles I, upon the Res- 
 toration went to Dublin, where Thomas was 
 born in 1679. He was educated at Trinity 
 
 I college, and taking orders in 1705, he was pre- 
 sented to the archdeaconry of Clogher. He 
 then came to England every year, and became 
 connected with Addison, Congreve, Steele, and 
 other whigs in power ; but towards the latter 
 part of queen Anne's reign, when the tories 
 became triumphant, he deserted his former 
 friends, and linked himself with Swift, Pope, 
 Gay, and Arbuthnot. He afforded Pope some 
 assistance in his translation of Homer, and 
 wrote the hfe prefixed to it ; but being a very 
 bad prose writer. Pope had a great deal of 
 trouble in correcting it. Being intimate with all 
 the Scriblerus tribe, he contributed to the ' ' Ori- 
 gin of the Sciences ;'" he also wrote the " Life 
 of Zoilus," as a satire on Dennis and Theobald, 
 with whom t'leclub had long been at variance. 
 He wrote several excellent papers in the Spec- 
 tator and Guardian, in the form of visions. 
 By means of Swift's recommendation to arch- 
 bishop King, he obtained a prebend and the 
 valuable living of Finglass. On the death of 
 his wife in 1712, to whom he was tenderly at- 
 tached, he fled to wine for consolation, and 
 contracted haiats of intemperance which ulti- 
 mately shortened his hfe. He died at Chester 
 on his way to Ireland in 1717, and was buried 
 in Trinity church, without any monumenta. 
 record. A collection of his poems was pub- 
 lished by Pope after his death. They are 
 pleasing, and possess much fancy, ease,spright- 
 
PAR 
 
 liness, and melody of versification ; wliile their 
 sentiments are elegant, and morality pure. A n - 
 otli»'r [)osllmmoiis volume was publisheci af 
 Diiblui in 17.)8 ; but these are by no means 
 calrulated to raise his reputation, being in evt-ry 
 wav inferior, though they have been added 
 with the former in the collections of l",rii;lish 
 poets. — Johnson's Life. Life by Goldsmith. 
 Xichols's /'(vvns. 
 
 PA RR ( Richahd) a divine, was the son of 
 a clergyman, and was born at Fermoy in the 
 county of Cork, in 1617. He was sent to 
 England in 163.), ami entered as a servitor of 
 Exeter colh'ge, Oxford, of which he became 
 chaplain and fellow. In 164:5 archbishop 
 Uslier retired to this college from the tumult 
 then prevailing in the nation. lie observed the 
 talents of Mr Parr, and made him his chap- 
 lain. He was instituted to the living ofCam- 
 btrwell in Surrey, where he was much ad- 
 mired and esteemed, both for his preaching 
 and the benevolence of his character. At the 
 Restoration he was created DD. and had the 
 deanery of Armagh and an Irish bishopric offer- 
 ed to him, both which he refused, but accepted 
 a canonry of Armagh. He died at Camber- 
 well in 1691. He was the author of a Life of 
 Arclibishop U.sher, prefixed to that prelate's 
 letters, folio, 1686, which is the most amjde 
 account we have of Usher; " Christian Re- 
 formation," being an earnest persuasion to the 
 speedy practice of it, &c. Bvo, 1660 ; Ser- 
 mons, &?c. (Sec. — Ath. Ox. Lijsons's Environs. 
 Manning and Bray's Surreif. 
 
 PARR (Samuil) a learned divine and 
 eminent critic, was the son of an apothecary of 
 Harrow in Middlesex, where he was born Ja- 
 nuary 15, 1747. At the age of six he was ad- 
 mitted into the celebrated school of his native 
 place, which he headed in his fourteenth 
 year. He was soon after called upon, much 
 against his inclination, to assist his father, 
 whom he subsequently induced to send him to 
 Emmanuel college, Cambridge ; but unable to 
 support a continuance of the expense, he ac- 
 cepted the situation of an usher under Dr Sum 
 ner at Harrow. In 1769 he entered into dea- 
 con's orders, but did not receive those of priest 
 until 1777. In 1771 he was created AM. at 
 Cambridge, by royal mandate, for the purpose 
 of qualifying him to succeed Dr Sumner, who 
 died the same year. He accordingly offered 
 himself as a candidate for the mastership of 
 Harrow school, but not succeeding, he gave 
 up the situation of assistant, and opened a 
 school at Stanmore, where he was followed by 
 no less than forty-five of the scholars from Har- 
 row. At this time he married a Miss Maule- 
 vrier, a Yorkshire lady, by whom he had three 
 sons and three daughters. The establishment 
 at Stanmore ultimately failing, he gave it up 
 in 1776, and became master of the grammar- 
 scliool at Colchester, whence, in 1778, here- 
 moved to take charge of that of Norwich. In 
 1780 he was presented to the rectory of As- 
 ♦.erly in Lincolnshire, and the following year 
 received the degree of LL.D. In 1783 he ob- 
 tained the perpetual curacy of Hatton in War- 
 rt'ickshire, where he put up his future residence, | 
 
 1» A R 
 
 and was about the same time presented by 
 bishop Lowth to a prebend in Uie cathedral of 
 St Pud. In 18()'2 sir Francis Purdett, in ad- 
 miration of his opt-n and liberal political sen- 
 timent.-*, pre»eute<l him to the valuable living 
 of (irallnam in the county of Huntingdon, 
 which proved the extent of his preferment m 
 the church ; for all which, nolwitlihtanding his 
 claims as a man of profound learning and great 
 intellect, he v.-as indebted to private friend.-.|iip 
 alone. Dr Parr commenced his career as an au- 
 thor in 1760, by the publication of " Two .Ser- 
 mons on lAlucation," and in the following year, 
 printed " A Discourse on the late Fast," 
 which, in consequence of its advertence to the 
 politics of the inauspicious contest with Ame- 
 rica, excited great attention. In 1787 he as- 
 sisted his friend. Henry Homer, in a new edi- 
 tion of the learned Scotsman, William Pellen- 
 den (Bellendenus). This rej)ubIication he 
 inscribed to Messrs. Fox, and Purke, and lord 
 North, the character of whose oratory he drew 
 \sith uncommon eh gance, force, and felicity. 
 Making use of the same opportunity to as.>-ail 
 that of their political opponents, who were in 
 possession of power, he necessaiily put an end 
 to all hopes of preferment from the side of go- 
 vernm.ent, on which account a subscription 
 was made by the Whig club, which secured 
 him an annuity of 300/. per annum. In 1789 
 he repnbli.-^hed the " Tracts by Warburton 
 and a Warburtonian," to which he prefixed 
 some severe strictures on bishop Hurd. In 
 1790 he engaged in the controversy on the 
 real authorship of White's " Bampton Lec- 
 tures," from which it appeared that his own 
 share in them was by no means inconsiderable. 
 In l79l his residence was in some danger of 
 destruction from the Birmingham rioters, in 
 consequence of his intimacy with Dr Priest- 
 ley, but happily their gothic and discreditable 
 barbarity was in this instance turned aside. 
 On this occasion he published a forcible and 
 eloquent tract, entitled " A Letter from Ire- 
 nopolis to the Inhabitants of Eleuiheropolis." 
 On Easter- Tuesday, 1800, he preached his 
 celebrated Spital sermon, in which he smartly 
 attacked the social doctrine of ^Nlr Godwin, in 
 liis Political .Justice. This discourse he soon 
 after published, with a great number of notes, 
 to some of which Mr Godwin replied, with no 
 small animation. On the death of Mr Fox ap- 
 peared his " Characters nf the late Right 
 Hon. Charles James Fox, selected and in part 
 written by Philopatris \'arvicensi9 ;" being a 
 collection of testimonies in praise of that states- 
 man, printed and illustrated by the doctor him- 
 self. In 1819 he reprinted " Speeches by 
 Roger Long, and John Taylor, of Cambridge, 
 witli a Critical Essay and Memoirs of the Au- 
 thors ;" and towards tlie close of life composed 
 a pamphlet, which did not appear until after 
 his death, defending bishop Halifax from the 
 chaT'Te of having become a convert to the 
 chiircb of Rome, in his last sickness. The 
 death of this eminent scholar took place at 
 Hatton, INIarch 26, I82.i, in his seventy-ninth 
 year. Although equalled by some of his con 
 temporaries in verbal criticism, in curious an 
 
PAR 
 
 elegant classical knowledge he seems to be en- 
 title to the lead among the scholars of his 
 day. It is possibly, however, to be regretted, 
 that he did not exert his literary powers upon 
 subjects of adequate and permanent interest, 
 on which account his sermous and tracts, 
 although written with great vigour and ele- 
 gance, will fail to secure lasting attention. His 
 prodigious memory and extent of research, 
 rendered hira, like Dr Johnson, astonishingly 
 powerful in conversation. Although possessed 
 of something of the warmth of a political par- 
 tizan, Dr Parr was highly disinterested and in- 
 dependent, and evinced singular benevolence 
 and benignity in his general deportment ; and 
 few men appear to have been more venerated 
 and beloved. Of all his family, two daugh- 
 ters alone survived him. He also left a widow, 
 a lady whom he married in a very advanced 
 period of life. — Jim. Biog. 
 
 PARR (Thomas) an extraordinary in- 
 stance of longevity, was born in Shropshire, 
 in 1483. He was a labourer, and at the age 
 of one hundred and twenty he married a 
 widow. In 1635 the earl of Arundel took him 
 to the court of Charles 1 ; but the change of 
 diet and air alFected his health, and he died at 
 the age of one hundred and tifty-two years 
 and nine months. His body was opened by 
 Dr Harvey, who found no signs of internal 
 decay. Parr had a grandson, who lived to 
 the age of one hundred and twenty. — Life by 
 Taylor the Water- Poet. 
 
 PARRHASIUS, an ancient celebrated 
 painter, was a native of Ephesus, and was 
 contemporary with Zeuxis, whom he is said to 
 have excelled. According to Pliny, he was 
 the first who gave symmetry and just pro- 
 portions iu his art ; and, as an instance of 
 his power in expressing the complications of 
 character ana sentiment, he is said to have 
 painted the genius of the Athenian state, 
 fickle and inconstant,, mild and passionate, cle- 
 ment and cruel, just and unjust, proud and 
 humble. His other celebrated pieces were, a 
 portrait of Theseus ; a groupe, of Meleager, 
 Hercules, Perseus and iEneas, with Cas- 
 tor and Pollux. He became singularly vain 
 and arrogant, and affected a ridiculous splen- 
 dour of dress. Xenophon makes Parrhasius 
 an interlocutor witb Socrates, in a dialogue on 
 the pictorial art ; and a work of his furnished 
 the subject of an elegant epigram in the Greek 
 Antliology. — Plinii Hist. Nat. lib.xxxv. Carlo 
 Dali Vite de Pittori Ant. 
 
 PARRHASIUS (AuLus Janus) the as- 
 sumed name of Gianpaolo Parisio, an eminent 
 philologist, born in 1470, at Cosenza in Na- 
 ples. He taught at Milan with much reputa- 
 tion, and was much admired for his graceful 
 delivery. He went to Rome during the pon- 
 tificate of Alexander VI, but was obliged to 
 fly to Milan, in order to avoid the conse- 
 quences of his friendship with cardinals Ber- 
 nardini Cajetan and Silius Savello, who fell 
 under the displeasure of the pope. He next 
 repaired to Vicenza, where he was elected to 
 the chair of eloquence ; hut the states of the 
 Venetians being laid waste by the troops of 
 
 PAR 
 
 the league of Cambray, he withdrew to his 
 native country, where he laid the foundation 
 of the Cosentine academy. He was invited by 
 Leo X to be professor of eloquence at Rome, 
 but being a martyr to the gout, he soon re- 
 turned to Cosenza, where he died in 1533. 
 His works were published by Henry Stephens 
 in 1567, 8vo, and consist of letters and trea- 
 tises on classical subjects ; the principal is en- 
 titled, " Liber de rebus per Epistolam Quze- 
 sitis." — Gen. Diet. Mureri. Saxii Oiiom. 
 
 PARRY (Caleb Hillier) MD. FRS. an 
 ingenious physician and natural historian of 
 Bath, father of captain Parry, the commander 
 of the Polar expedition. Besides numerous 
 professional publications on the rise and pro- 
 oress of various disorders, Dr Parrv is advan- 
 tageously known as the author of " A Treatise 
 on Wool," containing tlie result of a series of 
 experiments on this staple commodity of Great 
 Britain, to which his attention was originally 
 directed by the circumstance of king George 
 the Third presenting two Merino rams, of the 
 purest breed, to the Bath and West of Eng- 
 land society, then in its infancy, with a view 
 to ascertain the practicability of producing in 
 this country wool of equal fineness with the 
 best of that of Spain. But his principal work 
 is, the " Elements of Pathology," printed in 
 1816, an original and valuable treatise. He 
 died March 9, 1822, having been deprived of 
 the use of his faculties by a sudden attack of 
 palsy in 1816. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 PARRY (J. H.) an ingenious antiquary, 
 who combined great literary attainments with, 
 highly polished manners. He was the son of 
 a Welsh clergyman, rector of Llanferris, in 
 Denbighshire, and was born at INIold in 1787. 
 After receiving a university education, he be- 
 came H member of the Temple in 1807, and 
 having served the usual number of terms, was 
 called to the bar in 1810. His professional la- 
 bours had already procured him considerable 
 forensic reputation, as well as a fair share of 
 emolument, when his life was cut short untime- 
 ly, in consequence of a blow which he received 
 in the street. As a writer, he is known by his 
 edition of the " Cambro-Briton ;" "The Cam- 
 brian Plutarch ;" " The Transactions of the 
 Royal Cambrian Society ;" and other works il- 
 lustrative of ancient British history, and 
 the antiquities of the Welsh principality. 
 His death took place in 1825. — Aim. Biog. 
 
 PARSONS (James) an eminent physician 
 and antiquary, bom at Barnstaple in Devon- 
 shire, in 1705. He received his early educa- 
 tion in Ireland, whither his father had 're- 
 moved on obtaining the appointment of bar- 
 rack-master ; but his medical studies were 
 prosecuted at Paris, under Astruc, I^ecat. and 
 other celebrated professional men. He after-^ 
 wards took his degree at the university of 
 Rheims, and returning to London in 1736, he 
 assisted Dr James Douglas in his anatomical 
 works, and also commenced medical practice. 
 In 1740 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and in 1751 admitted a licentiate of 
 the college of Physicians. He had previously 
 obtained the situation of medical attendant to 
 
P A II 
 
 the public iiifirmar}' ia St Giles's parisli ; but 
 he devoted himself chiefly to the obstetrical 
 branch of his profession. He was a fellow of 
 the Antiquarian society, and was accpiainti-d 
 with Dr Stukeley, bisliop Lyttelton, Henry 
 Baker, Dr Cjowin Kni^jht, as well as wiili se- 
 veral men of science abroad, with whom he 
 kept u\) an extensive correspondence. In 
 1769 ill health induced him to retire from bu- 
 siness, and he went to Bristol witli a design to 
 seek a warmer ciinrnte ; but relimpushing his 
 purpose, he returned to tlie metropolis, where 
 lie died A|)ril 4th, 1770. Dr Parsons was 
 the author of a tract on the analoj^y between 
 the propagation of animals and that of vege- 
 tables ; and other works on anatomy and phy- 
 siology, as well as several papers in the Plii- 
 losopbical Transactions ; but his most remarka- 
 ble jiroduction is his " Remains of Japhet, 
 being historical Inquiries into the Affinities 
 and Origin of the European Languages," 4lo, 
 a work displaying extensive learning and much 
 ingenuity. — Hutchinson's Biog, Med. Nichols's 
 Lit. Aiiec. 
 
 PARSONS (Philip) an English clergyman 
 and miscellaneous writer, who was a native of 
 Dedham in Essex, and was educated at Cam- 
 bridge, where he proceeded IMA. in 1776. He 
 had previously obtained the living of Wye in 
 Kent, with the mastership of a free grammar- 
 school ; and in 1767 he was presented to the 
 rectory of Eastwell, to which was subsequently 
 added tliat of Suave, both in the same county. 
 He published, in 1774, " Astronomic Doubts, 
 or an Inquiry into the Nature of that Supply 
 of Light and Heat, which the superior Planets 
 may be supposed to enjoy," 8vo ; " Dialogues 
 of the Dead with the Living," 1778, 8vo ; 
 " Six Letters on the Establishment of Sunday 
 Schools," 1786, 8vo ; and some poetical 
 pieces, besides a work containing an account 
 of monuments and painted glass in the differ- 
 ent churches in the county of Kent, 4to. Mr 
 Parsons died at Wye, in 1812, aged eighty. — 
 Gent. Mag. 
 
 PARSONS (^ William) an English comic 
 actor of great eminence. He was born Fe- 
 bruary !iJ9th, 1736, and was a native of Eng- 
 land, but he made his first appearance on the 
 stage at Edinburgh in 1758, and soon esta- 
 blished a high reputation as a representative of 
 old men. In 1763 he came out at Drury-lane, 
 in the character of Pilch, in the " Beggar's 
 Opera," and was much admired in that as 
 well as other characters in low comedy. His 
 line of acting not at all interfering with tliat of 
 the manager, Garrick, he became a favourite 
 with him as well as with tlie public, and was 
 much benefited by his instructions. Having 
 afterwards joined Colman's company, at the 
 Haymarket, he was for many seasons the cliief 
 support of that theatre. His death took place 
 February 3d, 1795. In the conception and 
 performance of such parts as Foresight, in 
 " Love for Love ;" Corbaccio, in " Volpone ;" 
 and sir Fretful Plagiary, in the " Critic," his 
 excellence was almost unrivalled ; and his ap- 
 pearance never failed to extort the genuine 
 applause of universal laughter. To his thea- 
 Bioc. DicT. — Vol. II. 
 
 V A U 
 
 trical talents, he added considerable skill in 
 tbe art of painting, particularly fruit pieces, — • 
 Thcsp. Dirt. Joneis H. iJirt. 
 
 PARSON'S or PERSON (Rohekt) a 
 famous English Jesuit, boni in l:yU'>, at Nether 
 Stowey in Somt-rsctsliire, wliere his father it 
 said to have been a blacksmith, lie howcTer 
 obtained a university education, having been 
 a stud<>nt at Haliol college, Oxford, where ho 
 took his degrees in arts, and obtained h fellow- 
 sliip. According to Fuller he was expelled 
 from his post with disgrace, having been 
 charged with embezzlement of the college- 
 money. He then went to Rome, and entered 
 into the order of the Jesuits, and in l.")79 he 
 returned to England as superior of the Catbo- 
 lic missionaries. Two years after he was 
 obliged to leave the kingdom hastily, in conse- 
 quence of his political intrigues, when he again 
 took refuge at Rome, where he was placed at 
 the head of the English college. His politi- 
 cal sagacity and active disposition induced 
 Philip H to employ him in some preliminary 
 measures, at the time of bis projected invasion 
 of England by the Spanish armada ; and, aft'T 
 the failure of that scheme, Parsons rendered 
 himself formidable to the government of queen 
 Elizabeth, by his attempts to promote insur- 
 rection, and procure tbe assassination of that 
 ])rincess. He seems, however, to have car- 
 ried on his plots with a degree of caution that 
 argued a prudent regard for his own safety, 
 and while Garnet and others of his bretliren 
 became the victims of their zeal, he kept him- 
 self secure from danger, and died in 1610, at 
 Rome, where he had for twenty -three years 
 presided over the English college. He was 
 the author of a " Conference about the Suc- 
 cession to the Crown of England," which he 
 published under the name of Doleman, with a 
 dedication to the earl of Essex ; besides other 
 works. — Fuller's ^Vorthies. Biog. Brit. 
 
 PARUTA (FiLippo) a learned antiquary, 
 was a nobleman of Palermo, and secretary to 
 the senate. He wrote several works, but the 
 one by which he is principally known, is 
 " Sicilia descritta con Medagiie," published 
 at Palermo in 161t2. It was enlarged by LeO' 
 nardo Agostini, and jirinted at Rome in 1649, 
 and at Lyons in 1697. Havercamp also pub- 
 lished a Latin edition of it, 3 vols, folio, 1723, 
 which forms part of the Itahan Antiquities of 
 Grajvius and Burmanu, Paruta died in 16'J9. 
 — TM)idi Hist. Lit. de Vllalie. 
 
 PARU TA (Paul) a noble Venetian, was 
 born in 1540, and succeeded Contarini, as his- 
 toriographer of the republic, in 157 :^>, He be- 
 came governor of Brescia, and finally was 
 chosen a procurator of St Mark. His death 
 took place in 1598. His works are, " Delia 
 Perfezione della Vita Politica." 1582, 4to ; 
 " Discorsi Politici," both of which are much 
 esteemed for their depth and sagacity ; " A 
 History of Venice, from 1513 to 1551, with 
 the Addition of the War of Cyprus in lo70- 
 72," 4to, 1605. It is written in a grave, dig- 
 nified style ; and for its exactness and impar- 
 tiality, it is considered one of the best works 
 of the class in the language. A new edition 
 
 2R 
 
PA S 
 
 of it was given by Apostolo Zeno in 1703. 
 The integrity and zeal of Paolo Paruta were 
 8.) esteemed, that lie was called the Cato of 
 Venice. — Chaufepie. Kiceron. Tirahoschi. 
 
 PASCAL (Blaise) a very distinguished 
 French mathematician and philosopher, was 
 born at Clermont in Auvergne, in 1623. His 
 father, who was president of the court of 
 Aids, in his province, and a man of consi- 
 dtrable learning, relinquished his office, when 
 Blaise, his only son, had reached his eighth 
 year, in order to settle at Paris, and superin- 
 cend his education. From his infancy he 
 showed marks of an extraordinary capacity, 
 and such an aptitude for the mathematics, that 
 his father, who feared that it would impede 
 liis acquirement of the learned languages, hav- 
 ing precluded the study of geometry, he 
 reached by himself, and without assistance 
 from books of any kind, to a proposition tanta- 
 mount to the thirty-second of the first book of 
 Euclid. He was then allowed to freely indulge 
 his genius in mathematical pursuits, and at 
 the age of t^ixteen, composed a " Treatise on 
 Conic Sections," which attracted the admira- 
 tion even of Des Cartes, In his nineteenth 
 year, he formed an admirable machine, fur 
 nishing nn easy and expeditious method of 
 making all sorts of arithmetical calculations, 
 with the eye and hand only. In his twenty- 
 fourth year he distinguished himself by various 
 ingenious experiments, confirmatory of the 
 theory of Torricelli, in respect to the weight 
 of the atmosphere, by which the reputation of 
 his scientific sagacity was extended through- 
 out Europe. He also solved the problem 
 proposed by father Merseune, which was to 
 determine the curve described in the air by 
 the nail of a coach wheel in motion, now 
 commonly known by the name of the cycloid. 
 He filso drew up a table of numbers, which he 
 called an " Arithmetical I'riangle ;" the no- 
 tion of which, however, is shown by Dr Hut- 
 ton to have been previously entertained by 
 Cardan, Stifelius, and others. Unhappily, about 
 this time, i\I. Pascal, induced by the perusal 
 of the books of some of the ascetic divines, 
 who make virtue consist in an abstinence from 
 pleasure of every kind, and eternal self-mor- 
 tification, gave himself up to the most super- 
 stitious practices. In the fulfilment of this 
 abasing theory, he not only adopted a rigid 
 system of prayer and extreme mortifica- 
 tion, but relinquished science itself, as a 
 source of enjoyment. He wore an iron gir- 
 dle next his skin, notwithstanding the ex- 
 treme delicacy of his constitution, and was in 
 the habit of striking it with his elbow, to in- 
 crease the pain when he deemed a vain or sin- 
 ful thought had involuntarily occurred to him. 
 But Nature cannot be wholly controlled : 
 hcwever abstracted from the world, he could 
 not be entirely indifferent to all that was pas- 
 sing in it, and especially interested himself in 
 the contests between the Jesuits and Janse- 
 nists. Taking the side of the latter, he wrote 
 his celebrated " Provincial Letters," published 
 in 1656, under the name of Louis ^lontalto, 
 which attack upon the detestable casuistry 
 
 PAS 
 
 of some of the most distinguished leaders oi 
 that dangerous body, has, in the estimation of 
 Voltaire, rendered him the first of French sa- 
 tirists. Of all the books published against 
 the Jesuits, none did them more injury, or in- 
 flicted greater mortification, than these cele- 
 brated letters, which were translated into all 
 the European languages, and which, while 
 they interest more serious readers by their soli- 
 dity, and by their wit and pleasantry, prove ac- 
 tractive to those of every description. Pascal 
 was only thirty years of age when he pro- 
 duced this celebrated work ; yet he had be- 
 come exceedingly infirm, and conceiving his 
 end to be approaching, he redoubled his aus- 
 terities and mortifications, until he became af- 
 flicted with the most melancholy hypochon- 
 dria. He imagined that he saw a dee[) abyss 
 on the side of his chair, that he was favoured 
 with a kind of vision, and exhibited other 
 marks of a disordered imagination. After 
 languishing in this state of occasional nervous 
 imbecility for some years, he died at Paris, 
 August 19, 1662, in the thiriy-ninth year of 
 his age. Towards the close of his life, he oc- 
 cupied himself wholly in pious and moral re- 
 flections, which he wrote down on slips of 
 paper as they occuned to him. I'hese have 
 been published in thirty -two chapters, under 
 the title of " Pensees de IM. Pascal, sur la 
 Religion, et sur quelques autres Sujeis " 
 which collection bears the marks at once of 
 his genius and his intin-mities. The works of 
 Pascal were collected together and published 
 at Paris in 1779, under the superiutendance 
 of the abbe Bossut, who ranks him as a man 
 who inherited from JN'ature all the powers of 
 genius, and who was at the same time a geo- 
 metrician of the first rank, a profound rea- 
 soner, and a sublime and elegant writer, an 
 opinion which had previously been pronoun- 
 oed in still stronger terms by Bayle. — La Vie 
 de Pascal, par Madame Ferier. Huttons Math. 
 Diet. Bayle. 
 
 PASCHAL (Charles') an eminent writer 
 on ethic«, antiquities, and jurisprudence, in 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century. Pie 
 was a native of France, where he was a coun- 
 sellor of state, and was the intimate friend of 
 Guy du Faur, sieur de Pibrac, whose life he 
 wrote. He likewise published an elaborate 
 work, in ten books, " Ue Corona," Paris, 
 1610, 4to, and Lugd. Bat. 1671, 8vo ; " Vir- 
 tutum et Vitiorum Characteres," Paris, 1615, 
 8vo ; and a treatise, " De Legato," 1623, 
 12mo. His death took place in 16^5, at the 
 age of seventy-nine. — StoUii Intivd. in Hist, 
 Lii. 
 
 PASC HASIUS RATBERTUS, a celebrated 
 Benedictine of the ninth century, was born 
 at Soissons, and was carefully educated by the 
 monks of Notre Dame. He took the religi- 
 ous habit in the abbey of Corbey, of which 
 he became abbot. About the year 831 he 
 wrote a treatise " On the Body and Blood of 
 Christ," in which he maintained, that after 
 the consecration of the bread and wine in the 
 Lord's Supper, nothing remained of these 
 symbols but the outward figure, under which 
 
PAS 
 
 llie identical body and bluoil of Christ were 
 really present. This tloctniie then heing quite 
 new, tiiused a violent controversy, in wlucli 
 most of tlie learned men of the time took 
 part, and which finally imhired Paschasius to 
 resij^Mi his ahbey, and he died soon after in 
 865. liis other works are, " Commentaries 
 on St Matthew, on I'sahn XLIV, and on the 
 Lamentations of Jeremiah ;" " The Life of 
 St Adelard ;" treatises " De Parlu Vir- 
 {^inis;" " l)e Corpore Christi," &c. His 
 works were collected and published bv father 
 Sirmond, in 1618. — Caie. IJupiit. 
 
 I'ASOll (Gkohok) a learned divine and 
 critic of the seventeentli century. He was 
 professor of divinity and Hebrew literature at 
 the university of Franeker, whither he had re- 
 moved from Ilerborn, in Germany. He was 
 the author of " Lexicon Gneco Latiuum in 
 Novum Testamentum," which has gone 
 through many editions, and other pliilological 
 works. He died in 1637. — Pasor (INLat- 
 THiAs) son of the preceding, was first profes- 
 sor of mathematics at Heidelberg, whence he 
 removed to England, and in 16^6 settled at 
 Oxford, and gave lectures on the Eastern lan- 
 guages and mathematics. In 1629 he went 
 to (jroningen, where he obtained the profes- 
 sorship of ethics, and he afterwards occu})ied 
 the chair of theology and the Ilel)rew lan- 
 guage. He died in 1658, aged fifty-nine, 
 leaving some miscellaneous tracts, written in 
 Latin. — Baijle. Wood, i^iog- Univ. 
 
 PASQUIER (Stephen) a celebrated law- 
 yer and man of letters, was born at Paris in 
 Ib'-JS, and being admitted as an advocate, be- 
 came one of the most eloquent pleaders of his 
 time. He particularly distinguished himself 
 against the Jesuits, and was chiefly instrumen- 
 tal in causing their exclusion from the univer- 
 sity. He was rewarded by Henry III with 
 the post of advocate-general of the chamber 
 of accompts. He died in 1615. He wrote a 
 great deal both in verse and prose, of which 
 his Latin poems are much the best. His most 
 important work is his " Recherches sur ju 
 France," of which li£ published seven books, 
 and three more were printed after his death. 
 It contains much interesting information, and 
 lively observation, but not a great deal of judg- 
 ment. He also wrote " Catechisme des Je- 
 suites ;" " Letters;" " F^xhortation aux 
 Princes, ficc. pour obvier aux Seditions qui sem- 
 blant nous menacer pour le Fact de la Reli- 
 gion." — His son, Nicolas, a master of re- 
 quests, left a volume of entertaining " Let- 
 ters." — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hi^t. 
 
 PASQUINI (Bernardo) a native of 
 R'mie, born in 1640, considered one of the 
 most eminent dramatic composers of his time. 
 He was contemporary withCorelli, and played 
 ill the same orchestra with him and Gaetani. 
 He is also celebrated as bein^; the musical in- 
 structor of Gasparini and Durante. Of his 
 works, the only two now much known are his 
 " Dov' e Aniore e Pieta,"'an opera performed 
 at the opening of the Cupranira Theatre in 
 1679; an 1 an "Allegorical Drama," per- 
 formed at Rome in 1686, iu compliment to 
 
 I' A S 
 
 CliriKlina of Sweden, on her vifiiliug that tiipi« 
 tal. — /{((.iT. Dirt, of Mils. 
 
 PASS, or I'ASSIO (CiiiHi'iN dc) an emi- 
 nent engraver and man of letters, was born at 
 UtriM ht about 15')(), an<l i^ haiil lu Imvc been 
 ibf pupil of Ihtudore Cucnliert. How long 
 he lived is unkiujwn, but itiii fame was higlie»t 
 from 1()1() to \t,t.i, in which yiar he pnblibhed 
 at AnKsterdam his faiuouu drawing bcjtA, in 
 Italian, French, High and Low Dutch, with 
 forty-eight plates. His next work was, " In- 
 struction du Roi en rExcrrise di- nionl«'r ii 
 Cheval, par IMessire Antoine de Pluvinel," 
 adorned with some excellent cuts. He also 
 was at the entire exj>ense of " Holland's Ile- 
 roloogia, "in which he employed the bt-st I'lf- 
 mish engravers. The works of Crispin Passe 
 are very numerous, among which wr-re his 
 X'ir^jil, Ovid, and Homer, and hid " Hortus 
 Floridus," extremely scarce and valuable. He 
 is sujjposed to have come to England, but at 
 what period is unknown. His ])lates, though 
 occasionally still" and formal, possess much 
 merit and originality. His two sons, Cris- 
 pin and William, bis daughter, l\I agdai.kn, 
 and his grandson, Simon, all distinjiuislu-d 
 themselves, and gained considerable fame in 
 the art, and William and Simon passed some 
 time in England, but the particulars of their 
 lives are not known. — Walpole. Striitt. Brtj- 
 an's Diet, of Vainters and Engravers. 
 
 PASSERAT (John) a native of Troyes in 
 France, who studied jurisprudence under 
 James Cujas, and became professor of rhetoric 
 at the Royal C'ollege at Paris. He wrote com 
 mentaries on the poems of Catullus, TibuUus, 
 and Propertius ; orations ; Latin and French 
 poetry; a tract" De Litterarum inter se cog- 
 natione ;" and other works. Jle had also a 
 share in the famous "Satire Menippee," di- 
 rected against the League. Passerat died in 
 1602, aged sixty-seven. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 PASSERl (John Baptist) a painter 
 and poet, was the disciple of Domeni- 
 chino, but did not distinguish himself in 
 either art. He wrote an interesting work, 
 entitled, " Lives of the Painters, Sculp- 
 tors, and Architects who flourished at Rome 
 in his own Time." It is written in a very 
 impartial spirit, and was puidished at Rome m 
 1772. Passeri died in 1679. — His nephew, 
 Joseph Passeri, also a painter, was born at 
 Rome in 1651, and was a scholar of Carlo 
 iMaratti, under whom he made great progress. 
 One of his most esteemed works is at Pesaro, 
 and represents St Jerome motlitating on the 
 last judgment. He died in 1714. — FUkington. 
 D'Argeniille. 
 
 PASSEKl ( John B A ptist) an eminent anti- 
 quary, was born at Gubio in 1694, and on 
 the death of his wife in 17:)8 he entered into 
 the ecclesiastical order, and obtained the office 
 of vicar-general of Pesaro. He died in 1780, 
 in consequence of a fall from his carriage. 
 His principal works are, " Lucern;T> ficiiles 
 Musad Pa^serii ;" and " Discourse on the 
 History of the Fossils of the District of Pe- 
 saro ;" " Dissertations on ancient Monuments 
 in the ^luseum Clementinum ;" * PicturiB 
 2 H "? 
 
PAT 
 
 Etiuscorum in Vasculis in iinuni collettae Dis- 
 sertationibas illustratas ;" the second and third 
 voluiiies of the " Thesaurus Gemmarum As- 
 triferarum Antiquarum ;" and the fourth 
 volume of the " Thesaurus veterum Diptycho- 
 rum consularium ;" with many other erudite 
 treatises. In 1780 was printed at Rome, the 
 first volume of an extensive work entitled, 
 •' Thesaurus Gemmarum Selectissimarum." — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. Saxii Onom. 
 
 PASSIONEl (Dominic) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic and man of letters, born at Fossom- 
 brone, in the territory of Urbino, in 16Q'2. He 
 pursued his studies in the Clementine col- 
 lege at Rome, after which he went to Paris 
 with the papal nuncio, cardinal Gualterio. In 
 1708 he was employed as a secret agent of the 
 court of Rome in Holland, and subsequently 
 in Switzerland and other c.nuitries. He was 
 appointed titular archbishop of Ephesus, by In- 
 nocent XIII ; was made a cardinal, and secre- 
 tary of the briefs by Clement XII ; and at 
 length he became keeper of the Vatican 
 library. He died in 1761. He published an 
 account of his negociations in Switzerland, un- 
 der the title of " Acta Legationis Helveticae," 
 folio ; and he displayed his regard for litera- 
 ture by forming a Ubrary at the Clementhie 
 college, and by the encouragement he gave to 
 the collation of MSS. of the Old Testament in 
 the Vatican library, for the use of Dr. Kenni- 
 cott, in the publication of his Hebrew Bible. 
 — Benedict Passionet, nephew of the car- 
 dinal, published a collection of ancient inscrip- 
 tions, with annotations, 1763, folio. — Biog. 
 Univ. Diet. Hist, 
 
 PATERCULUS (Caius Velleius) an an- 
 cient Roman historian, was born in the year 
 of Rome 735, of a family in Campania, which 
 had borne various important offices in the 
 state. He served under Tiberius in Germany, 
 as commander of the cavalry, and in the first 
 year of that emperor's reign was nominated 
 prajtor. Nothing further is known of him ; but 
 the praises he bestowed upon Sejanus have led 
 to a supposition that he was a partizan of that 
 minister, and involved in his ruin. His death 
 is placed by Dodwell in the year of Rome 
 784, in his fiftieth year. Paterculus composed 
 an abridgment of Roman history, in ten books, 
 of which the greater part has perished, and 
 unfortunately that which remains is incurably 
 corrupted, only one manuscript having been 
 discovered. His style is pure and elegant, and 
 be excelled in a brief and forcible manner of 
 drawing characters ; but his connexions with 
 Tiberius and Sejanus rendered him an adulator 
 of those detestable persons, and warped his 
 representations of the actions and characters of 
 the republican party. The most esteemed edi- 
 tions of this classic, are those of Burrmann, 
 Leyden, 1719; of Ruhnkenius, Leyden, 1779, 
 and of Krausius, Leipsic, 1800. — Vassii Hist. 
 Lat. Dibdin's Edit. pJ' Haruood's Classics. 
 
 PATERSON (Samuel) a writer on bib- 
 liography and miscellaneous literature. He 
 was born in London in 1728, and having been 
 deprived of his parents when young, and con- 
 signed to the care of an unfaithful guardian. 
 
 PAT 
 
 he was sent to France, where be liad an oppor- 
 tunity for gaining a general acquaintance with 
 the value of books ; and on his return to Eng- 
 land he enga^jed in trade as a bookseller in the 
 metropolis. Not being successful in this pur- 
 suit, he became an auctioneer ; when he turned 
 his previous knowledge to good account, and 
 obtained great credit for his skill in forming 
 catalogues of books and manuscripts, and ar- 
 ranging them for sale. He also produced 
 some light and amusing works of his own 
 composition, including " A Journey through 
 part of the Netherlands in 1766, by Coriat, 
 Junior," 1769, 3 vols. 12mo ; and " Joiner- 
 iana, or the Book of Scraps'" 1772, 2 vols. 
 8vo. His principal work as a bibliographer is 
 his " Bibliotheca universalis selecta ; a Cata- 
 logue of Books, ancient and modern, in various 
 Languages and Faculties, and upon almost 
 every Branch of Science and Polite Litera- 
 ture," 1786, 8vo. Mr Paterson died March 
 29, 1802. — Nichols s Lit. Anec. Dibdin's Bib. 
 Dec. 
 
 PATIN (Guy) a French physician and let- 
 ter-writer, born at Houdan, near Beauvais in 
 Picardy, in 1602. He studied at the college 
 of Beauvais, and afterwards at Paris, and was 
 designed for the church. His inclination led 
 him to prefer the medical profession, and hav- 
 ing applied himself closely to the requisite stu- 
 dies, he was admitted a physician at Paris in 
 1627. He became very eminent as a prac- 
 titioner ; and at length he was made prof, ssor 
 of medicine at the Royal College. He died in 
 1672. He was the author of several niedical 
 tracts of little importance ; but his " Let- 
 tres," published posthumously, attracted great 
 notice. They contain the current wit of his 
 time, interspersed with satirical observations 
 and amusing anecdotes, carelessly thrown 
 together in a manner that indicates their not 
 having been designed for the press by their 
 author. The first volume was published at 
 Geneva, in 1683, and its unexpected success 
 occasioned the speedy appearance of two more 
 volumes, and the three were reprinted at Paris. 
 In 1718 an addition to this correspondence 
 was made by the publication of " Nouvelles 
 Lettres, de feu M. Gui Patin, tirees du Ca- 
 binet du jM. Charles Spon," Amsterdam, 
 2 vols. 12mo. All the letters were written 
 between 1642 and 1672. — Patin (CiiARLts) 
 second son of the foregoing, a physician and 
 medallist. He was born at Paris in 1633, and 
 he made such an astonishing progress in Latin 
 and Greek literature, that be was admitted to 
 the degree of MA. at the age of fourteen. He 
 then studied the civil law, and was made a 
 counsellor of the Parliament of Paris ; but he 
 relinquished that profession for medicine, in 
 which he took the degree of doctor, and deli- 
 vered lectures on the practice of physic. He 
 also acquired considerable reputation as a phy- 
 sician ; but in 1668 he was obliged to leave 
 France, to avoid the resentment of some per- 
 sons in power, whom he had offended. He 
 then travelled in Germany. Holland, England, 
 Switzerland, and Italy, after which he settled 
 at Basil ; but the war between France and 
 
P A T 
 
 Germany rendering his situation disagreo- 
 able, he removed to i'adua ia Italy, wliore 
 lie wa3 made professor of medicine in 
 1676. Three years after, the state of Venice 
 bestowed on him the order of St Mark. In 
 1681 he received an intimation that he might 
 return to France ; but he was temj)ted to re- 
 main at Padua, by an appointment to the pro- 
 fessorship of surgery, with an increased salary. 
 He died of a polypus of the heart, October 'i, 
 169:). Among his works are, " Introduction 
 ii rHistoire par la Connoissance des Me- 
 dailles," 166.">, l'<;?mo ; " Familia; Komaiiie, 
 ex antiquis numismatihus," folio ; " Inipera- 
 torum Numismaia," folio ; " Ihesaurus Nu- 
 mismatum," 4to ; " Relations Historiques et 
 curieuses de diverses Voyages en AUemagne, 
 Angleterre, Hollande, &.c." Timo ; " Lycsum 
 Patavinum, sive Icones et Vita; Professorum 
 Patav. ann. 1682 pub. docentium," 4to. The 
 wife and daughters of Patin were learned la- 
 dies, and members of the academy of the Rico- 
 ^rati at Padua, of which he was president. — 
 Uittchinson's Binfr, Med. 
 
 PATKUL (John Rexmhold, count) a Li- 
 vonian, who distinguished himself by his op- 
 position to the dominion of the Swedes over 
 his native country in the latter part of the 
 seventeenth century. The schemes of the 
 insurgents being frustrated, Patkul left Livo- 
 nia, and was employed as political agent in 
 Saxony, by Peter, the czar of Russia. Charlc s 
 XII of Sweden having obliged the Saxon go- 
 vernment to surrender him a prisoner, he was 
 condemned, and executed on the charge of 
 treason in 1706. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PATRICK (Simon) an English prelate, 
 was born in 1626, at Gainsborough in Lin- 
 colnshire, in which town his father carried on 
 the business of a mercer. After being well 
 grounded in grammatical learning, he was 
 Bent in 1644 as a sizar to Queen's college, 
 Cambridge, of which he became a fellow iu 
 1647. In 1651 he obtained the degree of 
 MA. and took orders from Dr Hall, the ejected 
 bishop of IS'orwich ; and in 1658 he graduated 
 BD. and became vicar of Battersea. In 1661 
 he was elected, by a majority of the fellows, 
 master of Queen's college, in opposition to a 
 royal mandate ; but the affair being brought 
 before die king in council, he was ejected. 
 He was presented to the living of St Paul's, 
 Covent- garden, in 1662; aed endeared him- 
 self much to his parishioners, by remaining 
 with them during the plague. In 1666, hav- 
 ing received some slight at Cambridge, he 
 took his degree of DD. at Oxford, and be- 
 came chaplain to the king. About the same 
 time he composed a treatise intended to ex- 
 pose the character and manner of preaching 
 of the nonconformist ministers, entitled, " A 
 Friendly Debate between a Conformist and 
 Noncomformist," which he subsequently with 
 much candour allowed to be too indiscrimi- 
 natingly severe. He followed this publi- 
 cation with his " Christian Sacrifice, shewing 
 the successful end and manner of receiving 
 the Holy Communion ;" " The Devout Chiis- 
 tian ;" " Advice to a Friend ;"' " Jesus and 
 
 1* A T 
 
 the Resurrection Justified ;" " The Glorious 
 Kphiphany ;" and various other pious iractd. 
 In 1672 he wrts nuidc |trib<Mi(lary of Wt-btmin - 
 Bter, and in 167'.>dfan of J't- ti-rl)<)rou;;h, vvhero 
 he completed the " Hisrory of the Church of 
 Peterborough," wiiich had b»*en begun by Si- 
 mon (iunton. During the reign of Jamra II, 
 he was one of the ablest defcnd«-r8 of the Prc- 
 testant religion ; and in 1()H6 took his part in n 
 conference with two Romish jtrit-sts, in ihu 
 presence of that king and his brother-in-law, 
 the earl of Rodiester, whom he wished in vain 
 to make a Catholic. After the Revolution he 
 was advanced to the see of Chichester, whence 
 in 1691 he was translated to that of Kly, where 
 he died in 1707, in high rejtutation for l^-arn- 
 ing, talent, and piety. Besides the works 
 already alluded to, bishop Patrick wrote 
 " Commentaries" on the historical parts of the 
 Old Testament, and " Paraphrases" on the 
 books of Jol), Psalms, Proverbs, &c. which 
 are deemed the most valuable of the whole. 
 After having been frequently reprinted, thev 
 were published in 2 vols, folio, and with Lowth 
 on the Prophets, Arnald on the Apocrypha, 
 and Whitby on the New Testament, have 
 been recently published in 4to, as a complete 
 commentary on all the sacred books. — Bing. 
 Brit. 
 
 PATRICK (Richard) an Enghsh divine 
 and philological writer. He published " A 
 Chart of the Ten Numerals, in Two Hundred 
 Tongues, with a Descriptive Flssay," 1812, 
 8vo ; " The Death of Prince Bagration," a 
 poem, 1813, 8vo ; and a sermon on the state 
 of manners in an English sea-port, besides a 
 variety of articles in the Classical Journal. 
 He was vicar of Sculcoates, near Hull, in 
 Yorkshire, and chaplain to the dowager mar- 
 chioness Townshend. His death took place 
 in February, 1815, at the age of forty-five. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PATRICK (Dr Samuel) a learned and 
 industrious critic, who belonged to Eton col- 
 lege in the former part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. He published a great number of useful 
 works relating to classical literature, including 
 " Plauti Comediae quatuor, cum Notis Ope- 
 rarii," Lond. 1724, 8vo ; " Hederici Lexicon 
 manuale Gra^cum," 1727, 4to ; " Clavis Ho- 
 merica, seu Lexicon Vocabulorum Omnium 
 quag Continentur in Uiade et potissima parte 
 Odyssea;." 1727, 8vo, often republished ; 
 " Cellarii Geographia Antiqua, recognita 
 castigata et aucta," 1730, 8vo. Dr Patrick 
 died in 1748. — Bio^. Univ. 
 
 PAl'RIN (Eugene Louis Melchior) a 
 mineralogist, distinguished for his interesting 
 discoveries in geology. He was born at 
 Lyons, in France, in 1742, and was destined 
 by his parents for the bar, but he preferred 
 the study of natural history and physical sci- 
 ence, and he was permitted to follow his in- 
 clination. After having acquired a knowledge 
 of chemistry and natural philosophy, he tra- 
 velled in the north of FLurope, and then in 
 Germany and Poland ; and in 1786 he under- 
 took a journey to Siberia, to investigate the 
 structure of the I'ral mountaius. He returue* 
 
PAT 
 
 P AU 
 
 the following- year to Peter^'burgh, with a member to deliver a similar harangue. Upon 
 quantity of mineral specimens which he had every point relating to lanijuage, Patru wa3 
 collected ; and after an abi^ence of ten years, completely informed ; and Vaugf las acknow- 
 he revisited bis native country, and stttled at It^d^es bis asi^istauce in bis r-marks on the 
 Paris. He was chosen a member of the Na- | French language. Boileau and Racine sub- 
 tional Convention for the city of Lyons ; but miitfd their works to hisjudt^ment, and tbou^Il 
 he took little interest in tlie cabals wbirb agi- he was generally severe tliey seem to have 
 tated that assembly in which he voted for the profited by it. In spite of his talents, Patni 
 banishment of Louis X\ I. He was after- fell into a state of indigence, and being 
 wards [)roscril)ed, and obliged to conceal him- ' obliged to sell bis library, Boileau purchased it, 
 self during the reign of terror. On the crea- j and generou^ly insisted upon his retaining it 
 tion of the school of Mines, he presented his \ during his life. His opinions were sreptical, 
 museum of minerals to that, institution, of and being visited by l^ossuet during his last 
 which he was made librarian, and he assisted illness, he refused to talk on the subjt-ct. On 
 in the Journal published by the professors. He j his death-bed he received a visit from Colbert, 
 died in 1815. His principal work is, " His- I who brought him, but too late, a donation of 
 toire N'aturelle des Rlineraux," o vols, form- j five hundred crowns from the king. He died 
 ing a sequel to the works of BufFon. He was | in 1681. He is principally known by bis 
 a member of the institute, the academy of ' " Plaidoyers," which are five from ilie bar- 
 Petersburgb, &;c. ; and a contributor to seve- j barisms wbi'_h formerly pervaded the bar. He 
 ral periodical works of science. — Biog. Univ. j also wrote orations, letters, and lives of some 
 PATRIX (Peter) a French minor poet, ' of his friends. The best edition of bis works 
 was born at Caen in 1585. He was designed j is that of 1732, 2 vols. 4to. — Moreri. Kouv. 
 for the l:iw, but addicted himself to poetry, j Diet. Hi^t. Niceron, 
 
 and at the age of forty attached himself to the j PA ITISON (William) a poet, was bom 
 court of Gaston, dike of Orleans. He lived , at Peasmarsh in Sussex, in 1706, and was the 
 to the great age of eighty eight, and becoming | son of a fiirmer, but his father not bung able 
 religious as he advanced in life, emleavoured j to give him an education suitable to bis lite- 
 to suppress the licentious productions of bis ' rary propensities, bis landlord, tbe earl of 
 youtb. Of Ins works tiieie are extant, a col- I Thanet took him under bis protection, and 
 lection of verses, entitled, '* La Misericorde ' placed him at Ajjpleuy scbool in Wtsiinore- 
 de Dieu." 1660, 4to. ; " Plaintes des Con- | land. He thence [)roceeded to Sidney college, 
 sonnes ;" and *' .Miscellaneous Poems.'' l he j Cambridge, but having a violent quarrel with 
 piece by Patrix which is most known, how- I bis tutor, to avoid threatened exjjulsiou betook 
 
 ever, was written a few days before his death, 
 and is called " The Dream." Although of a 
 Berious (-ast, it has singularly enough found its 
 way into most of tbe English jest-books, in a 
 
 bis name out of the college-book, and came to 
 London. He plunged into all tbe {ileasuresof 
 the metropolis, and was in a sbort time re- 
 duced to the deepest distress, untd CurJl, the 
 
 translation, commencing, " I dreamt, tbat bu- 1 bookseller, finding some of bis compositions 
 ried in my fellow clay," owing to which odd j well received, took bim into bis house, where 
 appropriation, tbe English verses are probably I he died of the smallpox in 1727, in his 
 much better known than the French original. I twenty-first year. His poems were published 
 -Nouv. Diet. Hht. in two volumes, octavo, in 1728. — LiJ'e pre- 
 
 PAIRIZ!. or PATRICIO (Francisco) 
 an Italian pbilosopher and philological writer 
 of the sixteenth century. He was a native of 
 Istria, and studied at the university of Padua. 
 After travelling for some time, be became pro- 
 fessor of philosopby at Ferrara, whence be re- 
 moved to Rome, and died in that city in 1597, 
 at tbe age of sixty-seven. He was a professed 
 admirer of tbe Platonic pbilosopby, and pub- 
 
 Jij.ed to his Poems. 
 
 PAUNCTON (Alexis John Peter) a 
 French mathematician, born in 1736. From 
 the poverty of his parents, his educatiou was 
 neglected till he was eighteen years oid, when 
 be received some instructions fiom a charita- 
 ble ecclesiastic, and be afterwards studied at 
 i\antz, where the exact sciences princi})ally 
 attracted his attention. He then went to 
 
 hsbed a curious work, entitled, " Oracula Zo- Paris, and became a mathematical teacher. In 
 roastris, Hertnetis Trismegisti, et aliorum, ex ' 1768 he pubiislied, " Tiieone de la \ is d'Ar- 
 Scriptis Platonicorum coliecta, Gr. et Lat. ' chimede ;" and in 1780 appeared his " Me- 
 praifixa Dissertatioue Hislorica," Ferrar, 1591. I trologie, ou Fraite des Measures, Poids et 
 He also wrote "A parallel between the An- I Monuaies des Aiciens Peuples et des Mo- 
 
 cients and Moderns as to tbe Military Art ;" 
 besi les other works on rhetoric, poetry, geo- 
 metry, &€. — Teissier Eloges des H. S. 
 
 PA IRU (Oliveu) a distinguished French 
 pleader and man of letters, was born at Pans 
 in lo04. After visiting Rome be returned to 
 Pans, and applied bimself earnestly to tbe 
 8tud> of the law. He was admitted a mem- 
 ber of the French academy in 1640, and on 
 his entrance he pronounced an oration of 
 thank"', which gave so much satisfaction, that 
 it became thencefoith a rule for every new 
 
 dernes," 4to. tbe most valuable work of the 
 kind extant. Pauctou obtained tbe cbair of 
 matbeniaticsatStrasburgh, which he was oblig- 
 ed to quit in consequence of the Aust lan 
 invasion. He tbeu settled at Dole, till 1796, 
 when be removed to Paris on being apjioinied 
 calculator to tbe " Conuaissance des 1 emps ;" 
 and be was aLo nominated an associate- corres- 
 f)ondent of the Institute. He died June 15, 
 l79ii.— Hiog. Univ. 
 
 PAUL OF liURGOS, a learned Jew, born 
 in that city in 1353. He embraced Chrislia- 
 
V A V 
 
 nity, and became succrssively archdeacon of 
 'I'revigiio. bishop of (j;»rLliai;<Miii, of riijri,N)s. 
 ami finally j)atriarcli of A(|uileia. he dieii in 
 ll."\>. lie has left addilions to NicolaH de 
 Lyra's " I'ostills ;" H tieiuise, entitled " Scrii- 
 tiiimni Scripmrarum ;" with other It-arned 
 works. His thiee sons were also Christians. 
 Alphonzo was bishop of Hurj,ros, and wrote 
 an ahrid-nient of tlie Spaiiislj history. CjOii- 
 salvo, tiie second, was bishop of Placenlia ; 
 and Alvarez, the third, pul)lished a history of 
 John II. kiiii; of Castille, — Mneri. 
 
 PAUL IIIK DKaCON, or PAULUS 
 DIATONUS. alsocalled WARN KKRIDUS, 
 an.l PADLLIS MONACHUS, was born at 
 Friuli in the ei^^hth 'eniury, and was educated 
 in the court of tlie Lombard kiiii;s at Pavia. 
 On the capture of l>esiderius, the last king of 
 the J.ombards bv Charlemagne, he retired to 
 the monastery of iMonte Casino, where he 
 took tiie habit. lie wrote a " History of the 
 .Lombards ;" and as lie was an eye-witness of 
 many of tlie events he mentions, his statements 
 are lieid to be generally correct. It was 
 printed at Hamburgh in 1611, and is also con- 
 tained in Muratoii's Rerum Italic. Scriptores. 
 — Dupin, ]\]oven. 
 
 PAUL OF SAMOSATA, so named from 
 the place of his birth, flourished in the third 
 century, ana was one of the first who en- 
 tertained the opinions kno«ii by the name of 
 Unitarian orSocinian. He was chosen bishop 
 of Antioch -n 260, but venturing to broach his 
 new doctrine, he was deposed in '270. lie re- 
 fused to submit to his sentence, and was sup- 
 ported by Zenobia, queen of Paln.yra ; but on 
 the capture of that monarch by the emperor 
 Aiuvlian, Paul was expelled, and what be- 
 came of him afterwards is unknown. His 
 great wealth pioved that his character as a 
 pastor was not unimpeachable, since it was 
 neither derived from his ancestors, iior ac- 
 quired by his own industry. His followers 
 were called Pauliiiists for a long time after. — 
 Lurdnei Miliie<\ Church Hist. Gibbon. 
 
 PA 'L (St Vincent de) an ecclesiastic 
 of the church of Rome was born in l.">76. 
 In a vovage wbuh he made from iMarseilles 
 to Narbonne, the shi)) was captured ',y the 
 Turks, and he remained a considerable time 
 in slavery under three masters, the last of 
 whom he converted. Returning t' France, 
 Louis XIII made him abbot of St Leonard le 
 Cbaulme, and he had also tlie living of Clichy. 
 Li lti09 he became tutor to the family of 
 Lmanuel de (jondy, but on the death of ma 
 dame de Gondy, he retired to the collet-e d 
 Rons Enfans whence he \\ as removed •■ the 
 direction of the house of St Lazare Hio life 
 •was a continued seri' s of good and ciaritable 
 works Of the benevolent institiitions of 
 France, the following; are piincipally indebted 
 to him for their establishment: «he hospitals 
 de Biceire. de la Salpetriere, de la Pitie, those 
 of iMarseilles for galley slaves, of St Reine for 
 pilgrims, of le Saint Nom de Jesus for old men, 
 of die Charitable Virgins for the sick poor, 
 an hospital for foundlings, &c. During ten 
 years, he, Vincent, presided in the council of 
 
 P A U 
 
 conscience under Anne of Austria, and liP suf- 
 feied none but the mori' worihy to )j<f preieu'.t-rJ 
 t<» benelicen. He tlu"l in 1 00(V and wan 
 canonized by Ciemeui XII lu 1737, — ij,rt. 
 
 P.aUL of VKNICKCfather) a celebrated 
 ecclesiasti': and historian of llie bix'eenth cen- 
 tury, whose propel nan.e was Pieiro Sarpi. 
 He was born at \^enice, Ajgust 11, 15')^, Hnd 
 was the son oi Fra.icisco Sarui, a irerchanl o( 
 that city. He entered young into the religi- 
 ous ordei of tne Ser^ites, and 'n hit* 'weimeth 
 vear be was apjiomted cliaplain lo 'he |:ran(l 
 duke of iManlua, and made lecturer on •he 
 canon law by the bishop of that city. Af'ei 
 two years, he returne<j to \'enii-e, and haviri" 
 received tlie degree of duclor ot th-ology, he 
 became provincial of his ordei, for the regu- 
 lation of which he com|)Osed a new body ot 
 statutes. He was afterwaids raised to 'he of- 
 fice of procurator-genera! of the Servites, and 
 being under the necessity of residing, for a 
 while, at Rome, he consigned his pr'vate af- 
 fairs at Venice to the care of a friend, who, 
 having abused his confidence, endeavoured to 
 persuade him to remain at Rome for tne sake 
 of obtaining promotion in the church. Fa- 
 ther Paul, in rej)ly to tine advice, observed, 
 that he was so far from coveting 'he dignities 
 of the court of Rome, that he held them in 
 abomination. His treacherous corresj^ondent 
 betrayed his sentiments, and brought on him 
 the imputation of being a heretic, while his 
 li'eral inteicouise with eminent protestants 
 contributed to increase the prejudices against 
 him in the breasts of the zealots of popery. In 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century, a 
 dispute took place between the pope and the 
 Venetian government on the subject of eccle- 
 siastical immunities, which was carried to such 
 extremities, that his holiness at length laid the 
 state under an interdict. Father Paul, on this 
 occasion, showed himself a strenuous advo- 
 cate for the cause of liberty, and bv his writ- 
 ings against the encroachments of the papal 
 government, he gave the highest offence to the 
 court of Rome, whither be was suMimoneil, 
 on pain of excommunication, to answer for his 
 conduct. The Venetians were aoout to throw 
 off their spiritual allegiance, when the artair 
 was compromised, and a reconciliation took 
 place Father Paul had, ho«evtr, acted too 
 prominent a part in tins dangerous relieliiun 
 against eccle.-iastical despotism to be allowed 
 to escajie unpu ished ; and to the vengeance 
 I of his [)olitical enemies may be attributed an 
 *ttemj)t whub was made lo assassinate bun in 
 16t^". He receiv<-d many dangerous wounds 
 ! from a band of ruffians, and probably owed 
 I lub recovery to the skill and attention of the 
 ! celebrated surgeon F'abriciusab Ai|uapendtiue, 
 who was rewarded by the senate of X'enice 
 with the order of St Mark. F'atlier Paul em- 
 ployed the latter part of his life in writing the 
 Idstory of the councd of Irent, in wlucli he has 
 developed the intrigues connected with the 
 transactions of that famous assembly, with a 
 degree of boldness and veracity, which renders 
 the work one of the most interesting aud im- 
 
P A U 
 
 poi-t.ant productions of tlie class to which it 
 belongs. The literary and scientific labours of 
 faiher Paul were extended to various branches 
 of knowledge ; he was not only deeply skilled 
 in the canon law. but he was also distinguish- 
 ed for his acquaintance with anatomy. He ap- 
 pears to have discovered the valves of the veins 
 which contribute to facilitate the circulation of 
 the blood, though those writers are mistaken 
 who represent him as having forestalled our 
 countryman, Dr Harvey, in tlie discovery which 
 has immortalized his name. The death of this 
 great man took place January 14, 1622 ; and 
 he is said to have expired after uttering the 
 words, " Esto perpetua/' which have been 
 construed as a prayer for the prosperity of Ve- 
 nice. The history of the council of Trent was 
 first published in London in 1619, having been 
 transmitted to this country through the medium 
 of the English resident at Veni:;e, sir Henry 
 Wotton, a personal friend of the author. It 
 has been translated into English hy sir Adam 
 Newton and sir Nathaniel Brent ; and a more 
 recent translation was projected by Dr Johnson 
 in the early part of his literary career, but never 
 executed. He proposed to have added the 
 notes annexed from the French version of father 
 Courayer, published in 1736, 2 vols, folio. The 
 works of father Paul were printed at Verona, 
 1761, 8voIs.4to; and at Naples, 1790,24 vols. 
 8vo. — Baijle. Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAULlNdeSt E A RTHELEMI( John Phi- 
 lip Werdin, or) a barefooted Carmelite, and 
 missionary to the East Indies, born in Lower 
 Austria, in 1748. His parents were peasants, 
 and at the age of twenty he took the religious 
 habit, and having studied theology and philo- 
 sophy at Prague, he entered into the semi- 
 nary of the missions of his order at Rome, and 
 learnt the Oriental tongues at the college of 
 St Pancratius. In 1744 he embarked for the 
 coast of Malabar, and after passing fourteen 
 years in India, he was honoured with the title 
 of vicar-general, and at length with that of 
 apostolic visitor. He was then recalled to Eu- 
 rope to give an account of the missions in In- 
 dostan, and to correct the catechisms, and 
 other elementary works printed at Home, for 
 the use of the missionaries. He removed 
 from Rome to Vienna in 1798, when the 
 French invaded Italy ; and he was secretary 
 to the congregation of the Propaganda, at the 
 dispersion of that society. He returned to 
 Rome in 1800, and pope Pius VII. appointed 
 him counsellor of the congregation of the In- 
 dex, and inspector of studies at the Urban col- 
 lege of the Propaganda. He died January 7, 
 1806. He wrote an account of his travels, 
 translated into French, and published at Paris, 
 under the title of " Voyage aux Indes Orien- 
 tales," 1808, 3 vols. 8vo ; and he was also 
 the author of several works relative to the lan- 
 guages of India, and the state of Christianity 
 in that country, of which an account is given 
 in the annexed authority. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAU LINUS, an ecclesiastical writer, de- 
 gcended from an illustrious Ronum family, was 
 born at Bounleaux in 353. After filling some 
 considerable posts v; he empire, he married a 
 
 V A U 
 
 Spanish lady, who converted hira, and he was 
 ordained a priest. He settled at Nola, of 
 wiiich he became bishop in 409. He died in 
 431. His works consist of poems and letters, 
 written with much elegance and strength ; 
 they wTre published at Paris in 1516, and at 
 Antwerp in 1622. Paulinus appears to have 
 corresponded with all the great men of his 
 time, by whom he was much esteemed and 
 caressed, being of a most amiable and liberal 
 disposition. — Dupin. Milner, Saxii Onom. 
 
 PAULINUS, patriarch of Aquileia in the 
 eighth century, was born at Friuli in 726. 
 He is honoured by the Catholics with the title 
 of saint, on account of his zealous defence of 
 the orthodox doctrines of the trinity, on which 
 he published several treatises. He was high 
 in favour with the emperor Charlemagne, 
 who gave him many preferments, and finally 
 made him patriaich of Aquileia. He died in 
 804, and a complete edition of his works v/as 
 published at Venice in 1737, by John Francis 
 Madrisi, a priest of the congregation of the 
 Oratory. — Dupin. Cave. Miluer. 
 
 PAULLI (Simon) a Danish physician and 
 naturalist, born in 1603. He was tbe son of 
 Henry Paulli, physician to the queen dowager 
 of Denmark ; and after having studied in the 
 universities of Germany, he went to Paris, and 
 returning to Wittemberg, he took his degrees 
 in 1630. Two years after he was appointed 
 to the medical chair at Rostock, and in 1639 
 he was invited to Copenhagen to become pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at the college of Finck. He 
 afterwards became first physician to Fre- 
 derick HI. of Denmark ; and he died at Co- 
 penhagen in 1680. He was the author of a 
 treatise on the properties of plants used in me- 
 dicine, Rostock, 1639, 4to, of which an im- 
 proved edition was published at Frankfort in 
 1708 ; " Icones Florae Danica?, cum explica- 
 tionibus," Copenhagen, 1647, 4to ; " Com- 
 mentarius de abusu Tabaci et Herbag Theae," 
 1661, 4to, several times reprinted; besides 
 other works. — Simon Paulli, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, relinquished the medical profession, 
 and settled as a printer at Strasburgh, where 
 he published several works on geography, and 
 improved editions of some of the writings of 
 his father. He also produced " Historia Lit- 
 teraria sive dispositio librorum omnium facul- 
 tatum ac artium secundum m.ateriam," 1671, 
 8vo, which, notwithstanding its imposing title, 
 is only a catalogue of the books he kept for 
 sale. — Niceron. Biog. Univ. — Olugeu Paul- 
 li, another son of the elder Simon, distin- 
 guished himself by his fanatical publication?. 
 He was bred to commerce, and having been 
 appointed secretary to the Indian company, he 
 became one of the richest merchants in Den- 
 mark. In the midst of his prosperous specu- 
 lations he became deranged, and after setting 
 up for a prophet, and committing many extra- 
 vagances, he was made a bankrupt, and quit- 
 ting his family, he went to Paris, and proposed 
 a j)Ian for the conquest of Judea, and the re- 
 building of Jerusalem. He was at length im- 
 prisoned at Amsterdam for publishing a bouk, 
 in which he ridiculed Christianity, and au- 
 
V A U 
 
 nounced a project for establisliing a new reli- 
 gion on its ruins. Afttr exjifriencinf^ various 
 adventures, he dit-d in ol)siurity, at dopenlia- 
 gen, in 1715. He publiulu'd " llie Dove (jf 
 ^lOali, or Good News from CauaHn," Anisitr- 
 dani, \69i') ; " Ihe Triumj)!) of the Stone cui 
 witliout Hands," and other books with ecjuallv 
 strange titles. — Adelung's History of Human 
 Fotlii, vol. iv. 
 
 PAl'LMlERsieur de GRENTEMESNIL 
 (Jacques le) a miscellaneous writer, born at 
 Caen in Normandy, in 1387. He received a 
 classical education ; but on leaving college, he 
 relinquished the study of literature, and sei-ved 
 
 V \ V 
 
 expression of his opinions, offended U.e stadt- 
 holder's government, he wa^i removt-d from his 
 situation in 17»7. when he retin-d to Kranci-. 
 In 179.') he j)rf'<ide.l at tiie first assi-mbly of 
 the provisional representatives of Holland ; wan 
 a meml)er of tlu; naval committee, negocialor 
 of tlu- treaty of j)eace wiili France, and deputy 
 from the province of Holland at the dehbi-ra- 
 tions wiiich related to the convocation of a 
 constituent assembly. He died March I7ih, 
 171>6. Paulus was the author of a " Com- 
 mentary on the 'I'reaty of Utrecht," 177.'>, 
 3 vols. 8vo , a " Memoir on the Kcjuality of 
 Mankind," which passed through several edi- 
 
 for several years in the army. At length he | tions ; besides other works. — liiog. Uuii. 
 retired to Caen, and at the age of {or\.y -iwe] B'u.tr, Koui.des Contemp. 
 
 resumed his studies, and as Huet informs us, PAIJSANIUS, a Greek geographer of the 
 wrote a number of works in prose and verse, ^ second century, supposed to have beeu a so- 
 in the J'rench, Italian, Spanish, Latin, and ] phist or rhetorician, and a native of Ca'saria 
 
 in Cappadocia. According to Philostratus, he 
 studied under Herodes Atticus, and after- 
 wards resided at Rome, though he held an 
 office at Athens. He wrote a valuable de- 
 scription of Greece, still extant, besides other 
 works, which are lost. Among the best edi- 
 tions of the " Descriptio Gra;ciaj," are those 
 of Kuhnius, Leipsic, 1696, folio ; and of f a- 
 cius, Leip. 1794-97, 4 vols. 8vo. There is a 
 French translation by Clavier, and one in Eng- 
 lish by Taylor, 1797, 3 vols. 8vo. — Vo^xi Hist. 
 Grac, Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAUW (Cornelius de) a German canon, 
 was born at Amsterdam in 1739, and died in 
 1799, at Xantem, near Aix-la-Chapelle. He 
 was uncle to Anacharsis Clootz, who figured 
 at the French Revolution, and his opinions 
 were in some respects as singular. His prin- 
 cipal works are, " Recherches pliilosophiques 
 sur les Americains, les Egyptiens, et les Chi- 
 nois," 7 vols. 1768 ; and " Recherches philo- 
 sopl)iques sur les Grecs," 2 vols. 8vo, 1787. 
 He has much learning and ingenuity; his style 
 is agreeable, but full of paradoxes, and of 
 those free opinions once so much in vogue in 
 France, and which greatly recommended him 
 to Frederick the Great of Prussia. — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PEACHA^I (Henuy) an ingenious writei 
 of the seventeenth century, a native of North 
 Mims, Herts. Little is known of his {>rivate 
 history, farther than that he was a graduate of 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, and that a portion 
 of Ills life was passed in Italy, in the study of 
 the fine arts, of which he was a passionate ad- 
 mirer. He was the author of" The Valley of 
 Variety ;" " Tlie Gentleman s Exercise," 4to j 
 " The Worth of a Penny ;'' " Minerva Bri- 
 tannica," 4to ; " Thalia's Banquet ;" and 
 other tracts ; but the work by which he is 
 principally known is his " Complete Gentle- 
 man," which has been repeatedly reprinted, 
 and though now obsolete, enjoyed at one 
 period a great share of public favour The 
 time of his decease is supposed to be about 
 the year 1640. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 PEACOCK (RroiNALn) whose name i* 
 also written Pecock, bishop of Chichester, a 
 learned prelate of the fifteenth century, by 
 birth a Welchman, born in 1390. He re- 
 
 Greek languages. His most important produc- 
 tions are, " Observations on the ancient 
 Greek and Roman Authors ;" and a " De- 
 scription of ancient Greece ;" both written in 
 Latin. He died in 1670. — Julian le Paul- 
 MiFR, the father of the former, studied medi- 
 cine at Paris, and having taken the degree of 
 doctor, he became one of the most eminent 
 physicians of his time. He published several 
 works relating to his profession ; and died at 
 Caen in 1588, aged sixty-eight. — Huet Orig. 
 de Caen. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAULUS ^GINETA, a Greek physi- 
 cian, a native of the island of ^i^gina, sup- 
 posed by Le Clerc to have lived in the fourth 
 century, though others, with greater probabi- 
 lity, place him nearly two centuries later. He 
 travelled through several countries in search 
 of knowledge, and particularly visited Alexan- 
 dria, then famous for its library. He wrote 
 on surgery, and Fabricius ab Aquapeudente is 
 said to have copied freely from that part of his 
 works, the materials of which Paulus had pro- 
 bably derived from the writings of his prede- 
 cessors. There have been many editions of 
 his productions, which were translated into 
 Latin, and commented on by John Winther of 
 Andernach, whose annotations, with those of 
 Goupil and Camotius, appear in the edition 
 ))r)nted at Venice, 1553, 8vo. — Hutchinions 
 Biog. Med. 
 
 PAULUS (Julius) a celebrated Roman 
 lawyer, who flourished in the third century of 
 I he Christian sra. He exer; ised for many 
 }ears the profession of an advocate at Rome ; 
 and being made an imperial counsellor, under 
 Severus and Caracella, he distinguished him- 
 self by the boldness with which he delivered 
 his opinions. Under Heliogabalus he was 
 banished ; but the emperor Alexander Seve- 
 rus recalled him, raised him to the consular 
 dignity, and appointed him pr;etorian prefect, 
 after the death of Ulpian. Some of his nu- 
 nieroufl professional works are still extant. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PAULUS (Pkter) grand pensionary o'' 
 Holland, was born in Dutch Flanders in 1754, 
 He was employed in the marine department 
 of the state, in which he displayed great acti- 
 vity and intelligence ; but having, by the open 
 
PEA 
 
 ssKed Lis education at Oriel college, Oxford, 
 end afterwards obtained some pieferment in 
 \.ne city of London, wh^re he acquired the 
 esteem and patronage of the protector, Hura- 
 phrc-y of Gloucester who raised him to the 
 bishopric of St Asaph in 1444. After presid- 
 i«g over this see five years, he resigned it for 
 tha» of Chichester ; but faUing into disgrace 
 witli the court of Rome, on account of a work 
 in which he denied the real presence, he was 
 solemnly deprived, and committed close pri- 
 soner to Thorney Abbey, notwithstanding his 
 liaving submitted to a public recantation of the 
 opinions he had advanced in his writings, 
 wlucli were burnt at Oxford in 1457. The 
 principal of these is a tract, entitled " A Trea- 
 tise on Faith," 4to, 1688. Bishop Peacock 
 surrived his disgrace only three years, dying in 
 confinement. — Life bit Lewis. 
 
 PEARCE (N A THAN! El,) a seafaring adven- 
 turer, was born of respectable parents at i^ast 
 Acton in Middlesex, and went to sea a r 
 early age. He resided for some years in Abys- 
 sinia, where he was a favourite of the kino, 
 and beloved by the people. He went to Cairo, 
 with the intention of revisiting England, hav- 
 ing collected a great number of curiosities for 
 the British Museum, and had proceeded to 
 Alexandria, where he was seized with a bili- 
 ous fever, which put an end to his life on the 
 12ih of August, 1820. He was buned in a 
 Greek convent, his body, according to his de- 
 sire, being carried by six English sailors. He- 
 left his MSS. to Air Salt, the consul-general in 
 Egypt. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 PEARCE (Zaciiary) bishop of Rochester, 
 a prelate of distinguished learning and piety, 
 born in Holborn, Loudon, where his father was 
 a distiller, in 1690. From Westminster gram- 
 mar-school he went oft" to Trinity college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he obtained a fellowship through 
 the interest of the lord chief-justice Parker, 
 afterwards earl of Macclesfield. The same pa- 
 tronage also procured him a living in Essex,, 
 and the vicarage of St Martin's in the Fields, 
 London, but his friend going out of power, Dr 
 Pearce, who had now obtained the degree ': 
 DD. from the archbishop of Canterbury, re- 
 mained stationary for a time, though still no- 
 ticed occasionally by the ministry, till 1739, 
 when he was promoted to the vacant deanery 
 of Winchester. Nine years after, the bishopric 
 of Bangor was bestowed upon him, not only 
 without solicitation, but contrary to his wishes, 
 which pointed entirely to a private life. He 
 was with difficulty prevailed upon to accept it, 
 ajid though translated to Rochester, with the 
 deanery of Westminster annexed, in 17.t6, his 
 anxiety to retire from the high station to which 
 he was thus involuntarily raised, was so sin- 
 cere, as well as strongs that at length, in 1768, 
 the government yielded to his repeated request, 
 and allowed him to resign the more valuable 
 a))pointinent, Ids deanery, in favour of Dr. 
 'J hoinas, retaining, however, the bishopric, to 
 the retiring from which there existed some ob- 
 jections of an ecclesiastical nature. Bishop 
 Pearce was as distinguished for his charity and 
 
 PEA 
 
 &e Widows college, in the immediate neigh- 
 bourbood of his palace, at Bromley, by a do- 
 nation of 5000/., while hi? tracts on theological 
 subjects are numerous and valuable. Of these 
 the principal are, " A Commentary on the 
 Gospels and the Acts," 4to, 2 vols. , two Let- 
 ters to Conyers Middleton, in defence of 
 Bishop Waterland; a reply to Woolston 
 on the Miracles ; a Review of the Test of 
 .^Iilton : an edition of " Louginus on the 
 >ublime," with a Latin translation annexed, 
 and another of Cicero's Offices ; four volumes 
 of Sermons, &c. His death took place in 
 1774. — Life •prefixed to Comnifntanj. 
 
 PEARSON, DD. (Edward) a'learned and 
 amiable divine, was bom on the 15th of Octo- 
 ber. 1756, in the city of Norwich. He was 
 never placed at any public school, but derived 
 all early education frcm private instruction, 
 and his own assi hiity. In 1778 he was en- 
 tered at Sidney Susses college. Cambridge ; 
 an.i proceeded to the decree of BA., 1782 ; 
 and MA,, 1785. In 1786 he obtained the 
 Norrisian prize, for an *• Essay on the Good- 
 ness of God, as manifested in the Mission 
 of Jesus Christ," which was soon afterwards 
 published, in conformity to the will of the 
 founder. In 1792 he took the degree of BD., 
 and during a considerable period Mr Pearson 
 filled the situation of tutor to the coile<^e. 
 In 2797 he was presented by his kind a'lid 
 esteemed friend, Dr Elliston, the master, to 
 the rectory of Rempstone, Nottinghamshire, 
 In the same year he married Susan, the daugh- 
 ter of Richard Johnson, esq. of Henrietta- 
 street, Covent-gardeu. In 1807 he was cho- 
 sen, by the trustees, to preach the Warburto- 
 nian lectures at Lincoln's Inn, which he com- 
 pleted early in 1811. In 1808, on the death 
 of Dr Elliston, he was elected master of Sid- 
 ney Sussex college, on which occasion he re- 
 ceived by royal mandate, ths degree of DD. ; 
 and in the same year was appointed vice-chan- 
 cellor. In 1810 he was elected by the uni- 
 versity to the office of Christian advocate. The 
 arduous duties connected with these various 
 and important appointments had visably 
 affected his health, and whilst taking his cus- 
 tomary walk in the garden of his parsonage, 
 at Rempstone, he was suddenly attacked with 
 an apoplectic seizure, from which he never re- 
 covered sufficiently to articulate ; but expired 
 on the 17th of August 1811. The works of 
 Dr Pearson, besides that already mentioned, 
 are the following, " Discourses to Academic 
 Youth ;" " A Letter to a Member of the Se- 
 nate of the Univer.^ity of Cambridge ;" and 
 " Remarks on the Theory of Morals.'' The 
 Warburtonian Letters were also published, as 
 well as several family prayers, written by him. 
 — Frhate Cammunicntiou. 
 
 PEARSON (John) bishop of Chester, a 
 learned and pious prelate of the seventeenth 
 century. He was the son of an English divine, 
 rector of Snoring, Norfolk, where he was born 
 in 161.2. From Eton he v.-ent off, on the 
 foundation, to King's college, Cambridge, and 
 was ordained in 1639, upon the Netherhaven 
 
 munificence, as for his learning. Pie enrich', d J '***''» J" Salisbury cathedral. The following 
 
1> E C 
 
 year, lord keeper Finch, whose domestic chap- i 
 lain lie was, prespiued him to the liviii<' of ' 
 I orriii^ton, Siillolk ; hut ou the huccess of 
 the I'iuliameulariaii ]>arty. he was one of the '. 
 many ministers ejecteii on accouiitof their mo- | 
 nanhiciil piim i|>l« s. In Iti.'iO, however, he 
 wa^ a|)pointt'd to St. Clenienis, Kaslilieap, in 
 the city of l^ondon, and became, afier the Ue- 
 Btoratinn, in succession, hidy .Mar|^aret profes- 
 sor of divinity, and master of Jesus colh'i^e, in 
 the univel^ily of Cambridge, wiih the rectory 
 of St. Christopher's, London, and a stall at Kly. 
 In 1662 he was removed to the mastership of 
 'Irimlv college, and in tlie course of the same 
 year assisted in the revision of the liturgy, a 
 ta.-k for whicli his jireviou-* jmldicaiions had 
 announced bun to be peculiaily cpialitied. I he 
 death of Idshop Wiliiins in l67o, made room 
 ibr his advancement to the episco|)al bench, 
 and he accordingly was raised to the vacant 
 see of Chester, over which diocese he con 
 tinued to preside till his death in 1686. 'J'he 
 work by whicli be was principally known, is his 
 celebrated " Exposition of the Creed,'" orij^i- 
 nally delivered by Mm in a succession of dis- 
 courses fiom the jiulpit, at St Clement's. This 
 able treatise first appeared in its present shape 
 In 1659, 4to, and bas since gone through many 
 editions. Previously to this he had, in conjunc- 
 tiwi with .Mr Gunidng, carried on a polemical 
 controversy on the subject of secession fiom 
 the H.omish church, with two priests of that 
 communion, a garbled account of which ap- 
 peared in 1658, at Paris. His other works 
 are, " Annales Cyprianici," and a vindication 
 of the letters of St Ignatius against the attacks 
 of Daille. — Bioo. Brit. 
 
 o 
 
 PEARSOJN (jM.^rgaret Eclincton) a 
 Jady distinguished for her skill in the art of 
 enamelling, or painting on glass. She was 
 the daughter of Samuel Paterson, the well- 
 known bibliographer, and miscellaneous wri- 
 ter, and she became the wife of an arti.-t 
 named Pearson, in conjunction with whom 
 she established a manufactory of stained 
 glass at Hampstead. Among the various 
 productions which remain as monuments of 
 liL*r almost unrivalled excelltnce in her pro- 
 fession, may be mentioned her cojnes of th 
 Cartoons of Raphael, of which sli xecuted 
 two sets, one for the late marquis of Lruis- ! 
 downe, and another for sir G. P. Turner. 
 Her death took place hi February, 1Q'2S. — 
 Gent. Mag. 
 
 PECHANTRE (Nicoi..\s de) a French wit 
 and poet, was born at Toulouse iu ^6S\^. He 
 wrote several tragedies, which were much 
 esteemed, viz., "Gela;" " Le Sacrifice 
 d" Abraham ;" "Joseph Vendupar ses Freres;" 
 and " La Mort de Nero," concerning which 
 a droll anecdote is related. He happened to 
 leave I lie plan of this tragedy in a public- house, 
 in which he had written, " Ici le roi sera tue." 
 The innkeeper, conceiving that he was con- 
 cerned in some conspiracy, gave information to 
 tlie magistrate, and Pechantre was taken up. ; 
 but on perceiving his paper in the hands of the 
 man who seized him, he eagerly exclaimed, 
 " Ah I there it is; the very scene which 1 had 
 
 V i: c 
 
 planned for the death of N'ero." He was ac- 
 cordingly discbar^^td. IU- du-d ai Parib ui 
 \H)9 —'Moirii. Din. Hist. 
 
 PI'.CK ( Francis ) a learned ntitiipia'y, wa<i 
 born at Stamford in IhO'i. He wan edjcatcd 
 at I ririiiy ( olle^e, ( ainbiiilge, wilt re lie took 
 tlie degree of M ,\. in 17 27, and liaviii|^ entered 
 into orders, beiame rector of Godet»y in Ix*i- 
 cestershiie, which was his sole prr ferment. 
 Ihe same year he published his *' Acade- 
 mia tertia Anglicana," or Anii(|uarian An- 
 nab of Stamford, in Linc(jln, Kuliand, and 
 Nortbamptonsbires. In 17;J2 he pui>ii>lied 
 the first volume of the work by which he is 
 most known, entitled " Desiderata Curiosa, 
 or a Collection of divers scarce and cuiioug 
 Pieces, relating chiefly lo .Matters of KnghsU 
 History," of which a second volume apjieared 
 in 1739. The same year he disjdayed hi> in- 
 dustry in " A complere Catalogue of all tli<? 
 Discourses written both for and again.-^t l\jp( ry 
 in the Reignof King James 11." la l7o9 he 
 edited " xV,iiieteen Letters of the truly rev. and 
 learned Henry Hammond, DD " His next 
 pul)Iication was, ** Memoirs of the Life and Ac- 
 tions of Oliver Cromwell, as delivered in 1 hree 
 Panegyrics of him, written in Latin," and 
 '* New Memoires of the Life and Poetical 
 Works of Mr John .Milton," 2 vols. 4to. 'J'his 
 was the la.^t of his labours, his death taking 
 place in 1743. He left behind him a great 
 number of materials for nine different works, 
 which he liad in contemplation. Of his IMS-S., 
 the greater part of which came into the po.->ses- 
 sion of sir Thomas Cave ; the most valuable were 
 five volumes in 4to, fairly written out for the 
 press, under tne title of " IVlonasticon Angli- 
 canum, siipplementis novis Adauctum," which 
 are now in the British JNIuseum. — NichoU'i 
 Lit. Anec. 
 
 PECK HAM (John) archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in the reign of Edward 1, and was 
 born in Sussex about 1240. He took his doc- 
 tor's degree at Oxford, and proceeded to 
 France, and obtained a canonry in the cathe- 
 dral of Lyons, and thence to Rome, where 
 the pope appointed him auditor, or chief- 
 judge, of bis jialace. In lt^78 the pope con- 
 secrated him archbishop of Canterbury, upon 
 his agreeing to pay his holiness the sum of 
 4, ()()() marks, which he was so slow in remit- 
 ting, that the pontiff threatened to excommu- 
 nicate him. In 1282 he went in person to 
 the prince of Wales, to endeavour to eflect a 
 reconciliation between him and the king ; but 
 being unsuccessful, he exiommunicated the 
 [irince and his followers. He died at Mort- 
 lake, in 1292. He was a man of great state 
 and pomp, but of an accessible and liberal 
 disposition, and appears to have been a severe 
 disciplinarian. His theological works remain 
 in MS; two only have been piinted, " Collec- 
 tanea Bibliorura libri quin'^ue ;" and, " Per- 
 spectiva Communis." He founded a college 
 at W ingliam, in Kent, which at the dissolu'ion 
 had an annual revenue of 84/. — Tanner Cave. 
 W'hartorti Aii;rHa Sacra. 
 
 PECQl'Lr (John) a pliysician and anato- 
 mist of the seventeenth century, dipiingui.shed 
 
PEG 
 
 for his discoveries relative to the organs of 
 nutrition in animals. He was a native of 
 Dieppe in Normandy, and died at Paris in 
 1674. He first properly described the reser- 
 voir or receptacle of the chyle, and demon- 
 strated that the lacteal vessels convey the chyle 
 from the intestines to tLli? receptacle, which 
 forms the inferior portion of the thoracic duct, 
 by means of which the chyle passes into the 
 blood-vessels. In 1654 Pecquet published 
 " New Anatomical Experiments, relative to the 
 hitherto unknown Receptacle of the Chyle," 
 with a dissertation on the circulation of the 
 blood, and the motion of the chyle ; and in 
 1661 appeared his treatise on the lacteals. — 
 Hutchhisoii's Biog. Med. Eloy Diet. H. de la 
 Med. 
 
 PEDRUZZI or PEDRUSI (Paul) a 
 learned Jesuit, was born at JMantua, in 1646. 
 He was employed by Rainucio, duke of Par- 
 ma, to arrange his cabinet of medals, and h^ 
 wrote seven volumes of an account of this 
 collection, entitled, " 1 Cesari in oro raccolti 
 nel Farnese Museo e pubblicati colle soro con- 
 gruo interpretazioui," Parma, folio. He died 
 before this work was finished, but an eighth 
 volume was edited by Peter Provene, a bro- 
 ther Jesuit, and the whole forms ten tomes, 
 bearing the name of the " Museo Farnese." — 
 Moreri. Tiraboschi. Suxii Onom. 
 
 PEELE (George) a wit, poet, and drama- 
 tist of the Elizabethan age. He is supposed 
 to have been a native of Devonshire, and he 
 was educated at Oxford, having studied first 
 at Broadgate hall, now Pembroke college, and 
 then at Christchurch, where he completed his 
 degrees in arts in ^b7^. At the university he 
 acquired fame as a poet, and thence going to 
 London he became acquaintedwith Shakspeare, 
 Jonson, and other dramatic writers, and wrote 
 also for the stage. According to Wood, his plays 
 were often acted with great applause, not how- 
 ever apparently much to the emolument of the 
 author, who died in obscurity about 1598. His 
 works are, " The famous Chronicle of King 
 Edward I, surnamed Longshankes, with his 
 returne from the Holy Land : also the Life of 
 Lleiiellen Rebel in Wales ; lastly, the sinking 
 of Queen Elinor, who sunk at Charing Cross 
 and rose again at Potter's-bith, now named 
 Queen-hith," an historical play, 1593, 4to ; 
 " David and Bathsheba, their Loves, with the 
 Tragedy of Absalom," 1599, 4to ; pastoral 
 poems in England's Helicon ; and other poeti- 
 cal pieces. There is also extant a scarce book, 
 entitled ' * The merrie conceited Jests of George 
 Peele, Gent, sometime a Student in Oxford, 
 wherein is showed the Course of his Life, how 
 he lived ; a Man very well knowne in the Citie 
 of London and elsewhere," 1627, 4to. — Wood\ 
 Athen. 0x0)1. Berkenhout's Biog. Lit. 
 
 PEGGE, LLD. (Samuel) an English di- 
 vine of the last century, known as one of the 
 most erudite and indefatigable antiquaries of 
 his time. He was a native of Chesterfield, 
 born 1704, and educated at St John's college, 
 Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowsliip. 
 Having taken holy orders, he obtained, in 
 17.31 the small vicarage of Godmersham, 
 
 'm 
 
 PE I 
 
 near Canterbury, and resided there many 
 years, contributing, in numerous papers, the 
 result of his industrious researches, to the 
 Gentleman's Magazine, where his communi- 
 cations will be readily recognized under the 
 assumed signature of Paul Gemsege, the ana- 
 gram of his name. The " Archajologia" was, 
 about the same period, indebted to him for 
 several valuable papers. The living of Brindle, 
 Lancashire, with that of Whittington, 
 Staffordshire, was presented to him in 1751, 
 the former of which he soon after exchanged, 
 from motives of local convenience, for that of 
 Heath. Among the tracts which principally 
 evince his severe investigation and patient re- 
 search, are, a " History of Beauchief Abbey ;" 
 " Anonymiana ;" an *' Essay on Ancient Bri- 
 tish Coins of the time of Cunobelinus or Cym- 
 beline j" another " On Ancient English Cook- 
 ,j.y ." '< On Anglo-Saxon Remains," &c. 
 and the lives of Grossetete, bishop of Lin- 
 coln, and Roger de Weseham, bishop of 
 Lichfield. His death took place in 1796. — 
 His son, of the same name, and his grandson, 
 sir Christopher Pegge, both evinced the 
 possession of considerable hereditary talent ; 
 the first, born in 1731, held a situation in the 
 royal household, and died in 1800 : he is 
 known as the author of certain " IMemoirs" 
 connected with the establishment to which he 
 belonged. The latter practised many years 
 with great success as a physician at Oxford, 
 where he held the regius professorship in me- 
 dicine till his death in 18^5. — Gent. Mav. 
 
 PEIRCE (James) an eminent dissenting 
 minister, was born in London, in 1673. Losing: 
 his parents early, he was placed under the 
 care of a learned dissenting divine, and subse- 
 quently sent to Utrecht and Leyden, where he 
 remained five years. On his return, he be- 
 came minister of a congregation in London, 
 whence, in 1713, he removed to another at 
 Exeter, where he continued until a schism 
 arose in consequence of his refusal, in con- 
 junction with his colleague Mr Hallett, to pro- 
 fess their belief in the Trinity. This dispute 
 terminated by their ejection, and building a 
 chapel for themselves ; an aflfair which pro- 
 duced much controversy, in which Mr Peirce 
 ably distinguished himself. He died in 1726. 
 The works of this zealous and active minister 
 in defence of the validity of the dissenting 
 ministry and presbyterian ordination, being 
 very numerous, a complete list of them 
 would exceed our limits, but they will be found 
 in our authorities. The principal are, " Viu- 
 dicije Fratrem Dissentientium in Anglia ;" 
 " Defence of the Dissenting Ministry and 
 Ordination ;" " The Case of the Ministeer 
 Ejected at Exon ;" " The Western Inquisi- 
 tion ;" " A Paraphrase on some of the Epis- 
 tles of St Paul ;" " Essay in favour of giving 
 the Eucharist to Children ;" and " Fifteen 
 Sermons." — LiJ'e in Prot. Dissenters' Mag. 
 
 PEIRESC (Nicholas Claude Fabri, 
 sieur de) a learned Frenchman, descended of 
 a Pisan family settled in Provence, in the 
 reign of St Louis. He was born at Beaugen- 
 sier in 1580, and was educated partly at the 
 
P E I 
 
 jpsui. s college at Avignon, where he dis- 
 played extraordinary abilities, and partiiu- 
 larly ppplied himself to the invi-sti^a'.ion of 
 ancient medals, inscriptions, and other monu- 
 ments of anti()iiity. lie then remo%'ed to 
 Aix, and became a student of law ; after which 
 he went to Italy, an<i remained for some time 
 at Padua, where he ac(iuiri»d a knowledge of 
 mathematics and the oriental languageH. In 
 1()0.5 lie visited England, examined the public 
 libraries, and formed an actpiaiutance with the 
 famous Camden and other English literati. 
 His connections with the learned and inge- 
 nious coutemjioraries were very extensive, and 
 he numbered among his friends Baptista Poita, 
 the Italian ])hilosopher, aiid the celebrated 
 painter Rubens. He also lived nn terras of 
 the greatest intinxacy with Duvair, first presi- 
 dent of the parliament of Aix, who afterwards 
 took holy orders, and became bisliop of Lisieux, 
 and who was a mau of tiistinguished learning 
 and abilities. Peiresc became a counsellor of 
 parliament in 1 607 ; and when Duvair, in 
 1616, was appointed to the office of keeper of 
 the seals, he accompanied him to Paris, where, 
 with an unusual degree of disinterestedness, 
 he made use of his influence vi'ith his friend 
 rather for the benefit of others than for bis 
 own ; and the only preferment he would ac- 
 cept was a small benefice in Guienne, which 
 be obtained in 1618. Atter the death of his 
 friend Duvair, in 1621, he returned to Aix, 
 where he continued his scientific and literary 
 pursuits, and his commerce with men of let- 
 ters, till his own death, which happened in 
 June 1637. INIany of the letters of Peiresc 
 Lave appeared in different collections, and be 
 left several unpublished works. — Perrault, 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PEIROUSE (Philip Picot, baron de lay 
 a naturalist, born at Toulouse in 174-1. He 
 turned his attention to the office of magistracy, 
 in compliance with the wishes of his uncle, 
 the baron de la Peirouse, whose title and for- 
 tune be inherited in 1775. He had obtained 
 the post of advocate-general of the chamber of 
 waters and forests, in the parliament of Tou- 
 louse, which being abolished, he devoted him- 
 self entirely to the study of natural history; 
 and till tlie commencement of the Revolution, 
 he employed the greater part of his time in 
 travelling and making observations. His first 
 publication related to fossils, and was entitled 
 " Description de plusieurs nouvelles esj)eces 
 d'Orthoceratitesetd'Ostracites," Erlang,178l, 
 folio. He had however previously communi- 
 cated to the academy of Toulouse memoirs re- 
 lating to the plants and minerals of the Pyre- 
 nean mountains, among which he had fixed 
 his residence. In 17'86 he published an ac- 
 count of the iron works in the county of Koix, 
 wiiich was translated into German by Kars- 
 ten. After the convocation of the States Ge- 
 neral in 1789, la Peirouse was emjdoyed to 
 draw up instructions to the deputies for the 
 province of Languedoc ; and in 1790 he was 
 appointed one of the administrators of the dis- 
 trict uf Toulouse ; but the state of affairs in- 
 duced him to relinquish all public functions in 
 
 PEL 
 
 1793. H»' was, notwithitandini^, imprisoned 
 during eighteen monlhH, niuhr llie tyranny of 
 the jacobins. On hlH relt-aAc-, after the exe- 
 cution of Kolicspierre, he rehunied IjIh scien- 
 tific researches ; and he was »acceKBively no- 
 minated inspector of minea, and profK»»<ir of 
 natural history at the c«Mitral school of Tou- 
 louse. In 1800 he was appointed mayor of 
 Toulouse, which office he held till 1H()6 ; and 
 during his administration Ik- founded a botanic 
 garden, a cabinet of chemistry and pliysica, 
 public libraries, a museum, and other impor- 
 tant e8tal)li3hments. The academy of sciences 
 at Toulouse, which had been sujjpresMed in 
 1792. being restored xn 1807, he was ap- 
 pointed perpetual secretary. He died October 
 18, 1818. Besides the works mentioned, he 
 published an Account of a Journey to Mont 
 Perdu a peak of the Pyrenees ; " Tables me- 
 thodicjues des Mammiferes et des Oiseaux ob- 
 serves dans le Department de la Haut Ga- 
 ronee," 1799; " Histoire abreg6e des Plantes 
 des Pyrenees, et Itineraire des Botanistes dans 
 ces Montagnesj," 1813; besides memoirs in 
 the transactions of various learned societies, 
 and other productions. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PELAGIUS, the Greek appellation of an 
 ecclesiastic of the fifth Cf-ntury, for which he 
 •xchanged that of Morgan, bearing tlie same 
 signification in the language of his native 
 country, Wales. He appears to have been 
 originally a man of unblemished character, 
 and to have passed the earlier period of his 
 i.fe in the monastery of Bangor, of which he 
 was a monk, or as some say, abbot. Soon 
 after the commencement of the century in 
 which he flourished, he went to Rome, where 
 he wrote a treatise, which he addressed to 
 pope Innocent the First, in 405, entitled, 
 " Libellus Fidei," which denied the doctrine 
 of original sin, and asserted that of free-will, 
 and the possibility of man's being saved by his 
 own merits. In advancing these opinions, 
 Pelagius appears to have been carried on by his 
 zeal against lukewarmness and indifference in 
 religion, beyond what he had at first contem- 
 plated. This work drew upon him the attacks 
 of Augustine and Jerome, the censure of se- 
 veral councils, especially that of Carthage, 
 and the excommunication of the pope, who 
 denounced, in the strongest terms, the opinions 
 or heresy which is still known by his name. 
 Celestius, his disciple and countryman, accom- 
 panied him into Palestine, where he was well 
 received by the bishop of Jerusalem, and ex- 
 hibited much ingenuity before a congress of 
 prelates held at Diospolis. On the accession 
 of Zosimus to the papal chair, Pelagius was 
 for a while countenanced by that pontilf, but 
 soon fell into disgrace, and the whole influence 
 of the new pojie was exerted with Honorius, 
 the emperor, to procure his banishment. On 
 this he retired once more into his native coun- 
 try, after which St Germaine, of Auxerre, 
 wrote a refutation of his opinions. It has 
 been asserted by some, that Pelagius received 
 his education at Cambridge ; this, however, 
 is denied by the learned Cave, while he admits 
 that he was a liriton by birth. He was the 
 
PEN 
 
 excellence, which was cut short by liis decease 
 in the flower of manhood. He was born in 1591 
 at Egerton, a small village in East Kent, and 
 received his education at Magdalen college, Ox- 
 ford, of which society he became fellow, tutor, 
 and lecturer in divinity. He was the author 
 of " Enchiridion Oratorium ; " " De forma- 
 rum origine ;" " De sensibus internis ;" &c. 
 Twelve years after his death, which took place 
 in 1623, his works were collected and printed 
 in one folio volume. — Athen. Oion, 
 
 PENN (sir William) an English admiral, 
 ■who appears to have been a native of Bristol, 
 though descended of a family holding conside- 
 rable estates in North Wiltshire. He was em- 
 ployed in the war with the Dutch after the 
 overthrow of regal government in England, 
 and he was subsequently sent to the West 
 Indies, together with Admiral Venables, when, 
 after an ineffectual attempt on Hispaniola, 
 they took the island of Jamaica. Penn con- 
 curred in the measures for the restoration of 
 Charles II, who bestowed on him the honour 
 of knighthood, and he served under the duke 
 of York, against the Dutch, and was present 
 at the victory gained over Opdam in 1665. 
 His death took place in 1 670, at the age of 
 forty-nine. — Penn (William) a celebrated 
 theologic sectary and legislator, was the son 
 of Sir W. Penn, and was born in London in 
 1644. After some previous tuition, he en- 
 tered as a commoner at Christchurch, Oxford, 
 in 1660 ; and while at the university he dis- 
 played his inclination for fanaticism, by fre- 
 quenting the meetings of the nonconformists, 
 a circumstance which exposed him to the dis- 
 pleasure of his father. To cure him of his he- 
 terodoxy, he was sent to France, and after- 
 wards he entered as a student of law at Lin- 
 coln's Inn. He staid there however but a 
 short time, for in 1666 he was at Cork in Ire- 
 land, where he met with a person he had 
 known at Oxford, who had become a prose- 
 lyte to Quakerism ; and he found the princi- 
 ples of his friend so congenial to his enthu- 
 siastic feelings, that he immediately adopted 
 them. This step produced an open breach 
 with his father, on his return to England ; but 
 he was too zealous a professor to be reclaimed 
 by harsh treatment, and in 1668 he was com- 
 mitted to the Tower for preaching against the 
 established church. While in confinement, he 
 composed a tract entitled, " No Cross, No 
 Crown ; a Discourse showing the Nature and 
 Discipline of the Holy Cross of Christ," 
 which is considered as the best of his writ- 
 ings. He was no sooner released than he re- 
 commenced preaching, and he was in conse- 
 quence arrested, together with his companion, 
 William Mead, and indicted at the Old Bai- 
 ley sessions for illegally holding forth in 
 Gracechurch-street, in the city of London. 
 Though acquitted by the verdict of the jury, 
 they were arbitrarily imprisoned in Newgate, 
 by order of the court. On obtaining his 
 liberty, Penn visited Holland and Germany as 
 a missionary ; but he hastily returned to Eng- 
 land, in consequence of the illness of his father, 
 whom he found on his death-bed, and with 
 
 PEN 
 
 ! whom he effected a reconciliation previous to 
 his decease, which happened shortly after. He 
 then married, and settled at Rickmansworth, 
 in Hertfordshire. Becoming heir to very con- 
 siderable property, he determined to employ 
 the influence he derived from it, in propagat- 
 ! ing the principles he had adopted. Great part 
 of his inheritance consisted in crown debts due 
 ' to the estate of Admiral Penn, for advances of 
 money he had made for the sea-service. In 
 lieu of these claims Mr. Penn obtained from 
 Charles II. a grant of a vast tract of land in 
 North America, to the south of the provinct-s 
 of New England and New York. He sailed 
 in 1681 tocolonize his newly acquired territo- 
 tories, with a band of persecuted Quakers,who 
 j followed his fortune ; and having entered into 
 I a treaty with the Indian natives, he founded 
 I the city of Philadelphia, and the settlement 
 j received from the proprietor the appellation of 
 Pennsylvania. He abolished negro slavery in 
 I his dominions, and established a code of laws 
 ' for their internal government, which contri- 
 buted much to the prosperity of the colony. 
 Penn became a great favourite at the court of 
 James II, whose measures for allowing liberty 
 of conscience he advised or recommended ; in 
 consequence of which he incurred the suspicion 
 of being a Jesuit in disguise, from which im- 
 I putation he thought it necessary to justify him- 
 self by an appeal to the press. The Revolu- 
 tion placed the Quakers, in common with other 
 dissenters, under the protection of the laws in 
 the exercise of their religion, and Penn having 
 witnessed this favourable change in their si- 
 tuation, returned to America, where he was 
 joyfully received, and found the affairs of his 
 settlement in a prosperous condition. After 
 residing in Pennsylvania some years, he left 
 it to negotiate some matters with the British 
 government, relative to the commerce of the 
 colony, whither he did not again return, dying 
 at his seat at Ruscombe in Berkshire, in 1718. 
 Besides the tract already mentioned, Penn was 
 the author of "Primitive Christianity revived 
 in the Faith and Practice of the People called 
 Quakers;" " A Brief Account of the Rise 
 and Progress of the Quakers ;" &c. which, 
 with his journal, life, original letters, and other 
 papers, were published in two volumes folio, 
 m 1726. — Biog. Brit. Voltaire's Lett, on the 
 English nation. 
 
 PENNANT (Thomas) an eminent English 
 naturalist and antiquary born at Downing in 
 Flintshire, the seat of his family, in 1726. He 
 studied at Queen's college, Oxford, and after- 
 wards removed to Oriel college, in the same 
 university, which he left without taking a de- 
 gree. His first production was an account of 
 an earthquake, felt in Flintshire April 2, 1750, 
 which aj)})eared in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions in 1756 ; and the following year he was 
 chosen a member of the Royal Society of Up- 
 sal, through the influence of the Swedish natu- 
 ralist, Linnaeus, with whom he corresponded. 
 He commenced in 1761 a body of " British 
 Zoology," which first appeared in 4 vols, folio, 
 and was republished in quarto and octavo, and 
 translated into German by C. Theooh. Murr. 
 
PEN 
 
 This work wan followc i by his " Intlian Zoo- 
 logy," 1769; " Synopsis of Quiulrupftls," 
 1771 ; " Genera of Hirds," 1773; " History 
 of Quadrupeds," l?yi ; " Arctic Zoolo^'y," 
 1786; and " Index lo JJiilVun's iXalurui Jlis- 
 tory of Birds," 17B7 ; wliicli are his nriiicipal 
 works relative to the department of science 
 whi( li lie chiefly cultivated ; but he also pub- 
 lished a miini)er of iletached essays and pa- 
 pers in the IMiilosopliical Transactions, on si- 
 milar subjects. In 176.T Mr Tennant took a 
 journey to the continent, when he visited 
 iJuri'on, Halltr, Pallas, and other eminent 
 foreigners. He was admitted into the Koyal 
 Society in 1767 ; and in 1769 he umlertook 
 a tour into Scotland, of which he published an 
 account in 177 1 , and a second volume appeared 
 in 1776, relatin^f to a second tour in the same 
 country, and a voyage to the Hebrides. In 
 1778 he published a tour in Wales ;' to which 
 was afterwards added, in another volume, a 
 journey to Snowdon. He produced, in 178'J, a 
 narrative of a " Journey from Chester to Lon- 
 don ;" and in 1790 ap{)eared his very amusing 
 and popular work, " An Account of London," 
 4to. In 1793 he professedly took leave of the 
 public in a piece of autobiography, which he 
 Btylfd *' The literary Life of the late J honias 
 Pennant ;" but this did not prove to be his 
 latest publication, as he subsetpiently com- 
 mitted to the j)res5, a " History of the Parishes 
 of Whiteford and Holywell," in his native 
 county. He died December 16, 1798, at his 
 seat in Flintshire. After his death, appeared 
 " Outlines of the Globe, comprising a \'iew 
 of Indostan, of India beyond the Ganges, of 
 the iNlalayan Isles, &c." 4 vols. 4to, forming a 
 portion of a very extensive undertaking, which 
 was never completed. This posthumous pub 
 lication was succeeded by a " Journey from 
 London to the Isle of Wight," 1801 ; a " Tour 
 from Downing to Alston Moor," 1801 ; and 
 a " Tour from Alston iNloor to Harrowgate and 
 Brimham Cra^s," 1804. 'J'he character of 
 •*ennant stands hio;her as a naturalist than as 
 an antiquary ; and it is by his skill in the se- 
 lection of interesting subjects for discussion, 
 and by his felicity of illustration, that he has 
 attracted so many admirers, rather than by 
 the extent of his researches or the profundity 
 of his observations. Though he made no 
 great discoveries in science, yet he improved 
 on the labours of his predecessors ; and the 
 popularity of his productions shows that he 
 possessed the happy art of communicating an 
 interest to the subjects of which he treats. — 
 Life hy Himself. Month. Rev. Gent. Mag. 
 Kdit. 
 
 PENNINGTON (Isaac) a writer of con- 
 siderable estimation among the society of 
 friends. He was born in 1617, being the son 
 of an alderman of London, who sat as one of 
 the judges of Charles I, for which he was ar- 
 ;ested at the Restoration, and imjjrisoned in 
 the 'i'ower, where he died. The t.ubject of 
 this article is said to have received a learned 
 education, and to have attended one of the 
 universities. He is repre^^ented by himself and 
 sect as having been early impressed with no- 
 BroG. DicT. — Vol. IT. 
 
 I* E N 
 
 tions of the want of u more vital and bpirilual 
 religion. Thut* diB|)oi»«'d, he attended the 
 preaching of George Kox, and b«ing led for- 
 mally to join the (pjakerw, be gCKJii began to 
 (xperieiice ilie liarhli jKrheculion to which 
 that rising sect was then Huljjected. He 
 resided for the most part on his own eulate in 
 Buckinghamshire, and endured no fewer than 
 six long imprisonments ; some of which could 
 scarcely be deemed legal, even under the con- 
 venticle and other ojijtressive acts then ex- 
 istent. All this he bore with a meek aTi>l(|uiet 
 spirit, in strict conformity with his priiK iplt-s, 
 until his death in 1679. I'lie latest edition of 
 the numerous writings of this amiab'.i and in- 
 offensive entbusiast, is in 4 vols. 8vo. Some 
 of his letters Were also published in 1796, in 
 an octavo volume. All his writings breathe a 
 eenuine spirit of philanthropy, deej)ly tinged, 
 however, with mysticism, which of ccnirse 
 confines them to the perusal of persons of 
 his own persuasion. — Fenii and Ellwiwd't 
 Testimonies prefixed tohis Works. 
 
 iM.NIlOSK (Thomas) the son of a Berk- 
 shire clergyman, bom at Newbury in that 
 county, in 1743. Having received a classical 
 education at Christ cliuich, Oxford, where he 
 had developed a talent for poetical composition 
 of no mean promise, he from some unexpected 
 cause suddenly entered the royal marines, 
 and served as a lieutenant on board a king's 
 ship, in the early part of the American war. A 
 severe wound, which lie received inaction, in- 
 duced him to retire from the service, after 
 which he renewed his academical ])ursuits, and 
 taking orders, served the church of his native 
 town for some time in the capacity of curate, 
 but gave up that situation on obtaining the liv- 
 ings of Beckington and Standerwick, Somerset. 
 There is an edition of his poems, with a life 
 prefixed, now become comjiaratively scarce. 
 It appeared soon after his decease, which oc- 
 curred at Bristol Hot-wells, whither he had gone 
 for tJie benefit of his health in 177 9. — XichoU'i 
 Lit. A nee. 
 
 PENKY or AP HENllV (John) com- 
 monly known by his assumed name of Martin 
 Mar-prelate, was born in Wales in 1.to9. He 
 studied first at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where 
 he graduated BA. in l.i84, and afterwards pro- 
 ceeded to Oxford, where he obtained the de- 
 gree of iNIA. and was ordained a priest. He 
 preached for some time botli at Oxford and 
 Cambrid'^e with great reputation, but soon 
 rendered himself obnoxious, by embracing the 
 sentiments of that body of the clergy who were 
 denominated puritans. In 1588 he published 
 a brace of tracts to prove the necessity of more 
 attention to religious instruction in Wales, 
 both of which being written on jiuritanical 
 princij)les, gave great ofl'ence. The contro- 
 versy between the church and this body hav- 
 ing now become exceedingly virulent, the lat- 
 ter, to whom the public presses were shut, 
 printed many productions privately, which 
 were deemed the labour of a club of writers, 
 of whom Penry was supposed to be one of the 
 most active. Of these tracts that which gave 
 the greatest offence bore the name of " ilar- 
 2 S 
 
PER 
 
 Carlisle, which he resigned four years after for 
 the Irish bisliopric of Dromore. The most 
 popular of his works are, his " lleliques of 
 Autient I^nglish Poetry," in 3 vols. 8vo, a col- 
 lection of great interest ; and a poem, " The 
 Hermit of Warkworth." He was well skilled 
 in the Icelandic and several of the Oriental 
 languages, especially the Chinese, from which 
 he made some translations, and in particular 
 one entitled, " Hau Kiou Chouan." His other 
 writings are, "A Key to the New Testament ;" 
 a new version of " Solomon's Song;" with 
 translations of Mallet's " Northern Antiqui- 
 ties ;" and of some pieces of Icelandic poetry ; 
 lie also published a curious domestic record, 
 long extant in the Percy family, and known as 
 " The Northumherland Household-hook," a 
 document valuable for the light it throws on 
 the manners, habits, &c, of our ancestors. His 
 death took place at his episcopal palace at 
 Dromore, September 30, 1811. — Gent. Mag. 
 Nichols s Lit. A)iec. 
 
 PEREFIXE (Hardouix de Beaumont, 
 de) archbishop of Paris in the seventeenth 
 centuiy, was a prelate of much learning, and 
 no mean talent as an historian. His father 
 filled a situation in the household of cardinal 
 Richelieu, who patronised the son, and con- 
 tributed to his advancement. He became a 
 member of the Sorbonne, and was afterwards 
 one of those appointed to superintend the 
 education of Louis XIV. In 1647 he pub- 
 lished a treatise, entitled, '• Institutio Prin- 
 cipis," Avhich gained him considerable credit ; 
 but the production by which he is most ad- 
 vantageously known is his life of Henry IV, 
 Amst. 1661, 12mo, a work of great merit for 
 the accuracy and impartiality with which it is 
 compiled. He survived his elevation to the 
 metropolitan see only four years, dying in 1670. 
 — Wi'Hv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PEREIRA DE FIG UEIREDO (Anto- 
 nio) a Portuguese divine and historian, born 
 in 1725. He was educated at the Jesuits' 
 college at Villa Viciosa, and in 1744 he was 
 admitted into the congregation of the Oratory 
 at Lisbon. After having distinguished him- 
 self by some useful works on education, he 
 employed his pen in defending the rights of his 
 country against the court of Rome. Joseph I, 
 to recompense his services, appointed him de- 
 puty in ordinary of the tribunal of censure, 
 which office he held from its creation in 1768, 
 till it was abolished. In 1769, by the king's 
 command, he quitted the habit of his order to 
 fill at court the double employment of first in- 
 terpreter of languages in the foreign and war 
 offices, which he held till his death, in August 
 1797. His works, original and translated, are 
 very numerous, including a translation of the 
 Bible into the Portuguese language, with a 
 preface and notes, 23 vols.8vo ; and Histories 
 of the Old and New Testaments. — Biog.Nom. 
 des Coyitemp. 
 
 PEREIRE (Jacob Rouuigue?) a native 
 of Spanish Estremadura, who first practised in 
 France the art of teaching the deaf and dumb. 
 He appears to have opened a school at Cadiz, 
 which probably did not succeed, as he soon 
 
 PE R 
 
 removed to Bordeaux. Having taught a dumb 
 person at Rochelle to pronounce a few words, 
 he was employed to communicate instruction 
 to a youth of fortune, whose proficiency proved 
 so satisfactory on examination before Loiiis 
 XV, in \7hl, that he bestowed on Pereire a 
 pension of 500 francs. In 1765 he was far- 
 ther rewarded by a patent for the office of 
 royal iuterjjreter. He died at Paris, Septem- 
 ber 15, 1780, aged sixty-five. His method of 
 instruction was difierent from that of the abbe 
 L'Epee, whose plan he attacked in a letter 
 published in a periodical work ; and he vi-as 
 also author of a IMemoir, and Observations on 
 the Deaf and Dumb, read to the academy of 
 Sciences ; and of a Dissertation on the articu- 
 lation of an inhabitant of Otaheite, pu')lished 
 in the Voyage of Bougainville. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PEREZ (don Antonio) a Spanish states- 
 man, who was the natural son of Gonzalo 
 Perez, secretary of state under Chailes V, and 
 Philip II. Antonio, after having finished his 
 studies at Alcala, and travelling in foreign 
 countries, returned to Sjjain possessed of ta- 
 lents and intelligence which qualified him to 
 fill with reputation the office held by his father. 
 Having engaged in an intrigue with the prin- 
 cess d'Eboli, the ndstress of Philip II, and 
 'procured the assassination of a person who 
 had discovered his treachery, he was in the 
 first instance condemned to imprisonment in 
 the castle of Toreno. Farther proceedings 
 being instituted against him, he was tortured, 
 notwithstanding wliich he escaped from cus- 
 tody, and took refuge in the province of Ar- 
 ragon. 'J'here he was a second time arrested, 
 and conducted to Saragossa, where he found 
 means to interest the people in his favour, and 
 thus avoided being delivered up to the inqui- 
 sition. At length he sought an asylum in 
 France, whence he went to London, and wa-s 
 well received by queen Elizabeth and her fa- 
 vourite Leicester. Returning to Paris, Henry 
 IV bestowed on him a pension, and he em- 
 ployed his time in arranging " Memoirs" of 
 the transactions in which he had been en- 
 gaged, a work displaying just observations and 
 views worthy of an enlightened statesman, 
 though his silence respecting his connexion 
 with the princess d'Eboli, and his obvious en- 
 mi t_y to his sovereign, detract from the value 
 of his narrative. He died at Paris in 1611. 
 His letters, as well as his memoirs, have been 
 often published. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PEREZ (Antonio) an eminent Spanish 
 lawyer, born about 1585. He studied at 
 Brussels and Louvain, and having travelled in 
 France and Italy, he returned to Louvain in 
 1614, to occupy the chair of jurisprudence. 
 Six years after he accepted the lucrative 
 employment of intendant of the army, but he 
 soon resumed his academical function, and re- 
 tained it till his death in 1672, having, during 
 the last fifteen years, been afflicted with loss of 
 sight, llis works are, " Institutiones Impe- 
 riales Erotimatibus distinctae ;" •' Annota- 
 tiones in Pandectas ;" " Annotationes in Co- 
 dicem ;" of all which there are several edi- 
 tions. — Bio<s. Univ. 
 
p i: R 
 
 PKREZ (David) a Neapolitan musician, 
 (lesceiidetl of a Spanish faiiulv, l>orii in 1711, 
 and educated under Gallo and !\lancini. t)n 
 quitting tlie Conservatoiio he went, into Sicily, 
 and brouglit out his first opera at Palermo in 
 17-il. In tliin capital he rcinained ahoiit 
 seven years, during whiih period he aci|uued 
 considerable reputation, which was yet fariher 
 increased on his subsequently visiting rsaj)ies 
 and Home. In 17^2 he accepted an invita- 
 tion to Lisbon, given him by the l^iug of Por- 
 tugal, who appointed him his chapel -master, 
 in which capacity he continued to serve that 
 monarch twenty-seven years, when he died, at 
 the age of sixty-seven. He was the author of 
 twelve operas, of wliich liis " Alessandro nell' 
 Indie," written at Rome iti I7o0, and recom 
 posed at Lisbon in 17;")5, is the most cele- 
 brated, and may fairly rank with tlie produc- 
 tions of the best masters. Although totally 
 deprived of sight for some years j)revious to 
 his decease, he continued to dictate composi- 
 tions in parts, and wrote a dirge, afterwards 
 performed at his own funeral. The general 
 style of his compositions bears the stamp of 
 science and energy, but is considered some- 
 what deficient in grace. — Burney's Hist, of 
 Miis. 
 
 PERGOLESI (Giovanni Battista) a 
 native of Casoria, in the Neapolitan territories, 
 about ten miles distant from the capital. He 
 was born in 1704, and received tlie rudiments 
 of a musical education at the conservatorio 
 Dei Poveri in Giesu Cristo, under Gaetano 
 Greco. His genius outrunning the pedantiy 
 which prevailed at tliat seminary, he per- 
 suaded his friends to remove him, at the age 
 of fourteen, and being left to the dictates of 
 his own genius, soon surprised every one by 
 the rapidity with which he mastered the diffi- 
 culties of composition, and the graceful sim- 
 plicity of the interesting melodies whicli he 
 },)roduced. His first opera, however, " Dei 
 Fiorentini," performed at the second theatre 
 in Naples, was but very coolly received; nor 
 did his version of the " Oiimpiade" of IMe- 
 tastasio, which he brought out at Rome, meet 
 at first with more success. It was not till his 
 celebrated mass, written for the duke of JMa- 
 telon, and performed in the church of San Lo- 
 renzo, a productiim which has been so much 
 admired and so often copied, tliat his fame 
 rose at once to its zenith, and he was placed 
 in the first rank of musical composers. A lin- 
 gering consumption, during which he wrote his 
 celebrated cantata, " Orfeo e Euridice," Iiis 
 beautiful " Stabat Mater," and " Salve Re- 
 gina," (the last of his compositions,) carried 
 iiim off in 1737, in his thirty-third year. 
 After his decease, his •' Ohmpiade" was re- 
 rived at Rome, and received with a degree of 
 enthusiasm which fully atoned for the neglect 
 it had before experienced. Dr Rurney con- 
 aiders the works of Pergolesi as forming a 
 great sera in modem music, being the principal j 
 ()olisher of a style of composition both for the 
 church and the stage, which lias been ever , 
 since predominant. — Burjieii's Hist, of Mas. I 
 PERICLES one ot the nrtjoxt illustrious 
 
 r j: ii 
 
 Btateiimen of ancient Greece, was a native of 
 Aiheuti, and hju of Xhmhi|i})u>i, who gained 
 the battle of .My< ale again.st tin; PerHian.H. He 
 received the usii:il liberal education given lo 
 AtheniaiiM of rank, ami attended the lectures 
 of Anaxayoras and /eno. Although conu'-ct- 
 <'il by family with the aiistocracy. tlie party of 
 nobles being headed by the celebrated (jinion. 
 he courted the favour of the jteople, and »oon 
 acquired considerabh*. influence by hii* elo- 
 quence, which was of the most lofty and per- 
 suasive kind. He obtained, in the first insiancc 
 the banislimt'iit, and subsequently the recal, of 
 Cimon, and on the death of the latter, lie be- 
 came tlie undoubted master of Athens, lie 
 contrived always to occupy the attention of the 
 peoj)ie, eitlier ijy planting new colonies, form- 
 ing expeditions, or undertaking great jtublic 
 works to increase the splendour of the city, 
 and gratify Athenian pride and taste. In 
 order to suiij)ly the expense of this maijnifi- 
 cence, he removed the public treasures of 
 Greece from Delos to Athens, on a plea that 
 the latter would alone protect Greece 
 from tlie barbarians, the object for which the 
 money was deposited. He subsequenilv made 
 himself master of the important i^land of 
 Euboea. The subjugation of Saraos took place 
 a few years afterwards, wliich, it is said, 
 he undertook at the instigation of the celebra- 
 ted courtezan Aspasia, whose beauty and ac- 
 complishments obtained so great a mastery 
 over him, that he divorced his wife, that he 
 might marry her. It was after a second ex- 
 pedition to suppress a revolt of the Samians, 
 that he pronounced the cekbnited funeral ora- 
 tion, which was so grateful to the Athenians, 
 that the women crowded round him to crown 
 him with garlands. At length a party among 
 the people began to exhibit some jealousv at 
 his great [)Ower, and it was with difficulty that 
 he could, by his tears as well as oratory, free 
 Aspasia from a public charge of irreligion and 
 immorality ; and elude an attack u]ion his old 
 tutor, Anaxagoras, by sending him out of At- 
 tica. When the Spartans, taKing the part of 
 the small states of Greece, demanded repara- 
 tion of the injuries done by Athens, he per- 
 suaded the people to refuse all concession, and 
 thus brought on the celebrated Pelcponnesian 
 war, which was followed by the memorable 
 plague at Athens, in which it required all hi* 
 abilities ami fortitude to sustain his t-wn con- 
 rage and the sjiints of the Athenians. In 
 order to divert their attention, he fitted out an 
 expedition against Epidaurus, but being unsuc- 
 cessful, he was fined and displaced by tiie 
 Athenians, who, however, soon restored him 
 to power. I lis close of life was very me- 
 lancholy; the plague had deprived him of his 
 two legitimate sons, and of many relations • 
 and althousrh, to comfort him. the Athenians 
 enrolled his son by Aspa«ia a free citizen, h« 
 fell into a state of lingering decay, and diej 
 13C. 4'29, after having ruled the restless demo- 
 cracy of Athens longer than any other citizen. 
 Pericles, although by no means a pure cha- 
 racter, exhibited many marks of a great and 
 enlightened mind. His philosophical educa- 
 
V £ ii 
 
 tion had exalted him above the superstitious 
 j>reiuctices of his age, and his spirit was not 
 only magnificent, but his love of grandeur was 
 informed by the best taste. He no doubt la- 
 vished vast sums on these objects, but the 
 erection of such edifices as the Parthenon, the 
 Odeum, the vestibule of the citadel, and the 
 formation of numerous statues by Phidias and 
 others, stamped that character of fine art upon 
 the productions of Athens, which rendered 
 it great long after it had lost all political 
 distinction. He was less excusable in foster- 
 ing the ambition and spirit of aggrandisement 
 of his countrymen, which conduct led to great 
 disasters ; and he also too much favoured the 
 corruption of manners, in which he partici- 
 pated. — Plutarch. Thucydides. 
 
 PERIER (James Constantine) an emi- 
 nent mechanic, member of the academy of 
 Sciences, born at Paris in 1742. After hav- 
 ing distinguished himself, in conjunction with 
 his brother, Charles Perier des Garennes, by 
 the construction of a centrifugal pump for the 
 duke of Orleans, he made repeated visits to 
 England to examine the steam engines, and 
 other important machines invented or im- 
 proved in this country. The fruit of his stu- 
 dies and labours was an establishment at 
 Chaillot, where four reverberatory furnaces 
 were erected, and steam-engines, cylinders for 
 paper- making, machines for cotton-spinning, 
 &c. were constructed. In 1788 the brothers 
 Perier undertook to supply various parts of 
 Paris with the water of the Seine, and formed 
 a joint-stock company for that purpose. Tiie 
 same year they erected steam-engines on the 
 Isle des Cignes, to set in motion mills for 
 grinding corn, instead of the water-wheels, 
 rendered useless by the freezing of the river 
 Seine. During the revolutionary war, 1,200 
 pieces of cannon were cast at the foundry of 
 Chaillot, under the direction of Monge. The 
 Periers suffered greatly by the depreciation of 
 assignats, and other causes, which induced 
 them at length to employ their establishment 
 only in making machinery for manufacturers. 
 J. C. Perier erected a foundry of cannon for 
 the navy, at Liege. He was admitted into the 
 academy of Sciences, in the section of me- 
 chanics, in 1783 ; and he died August 17, 
 1818. He was the author of an essav on 
 steam-engines, and other memoirs in the col- 
 lection of the academy. — Biog. Univ. Biog. 
 Nouv. des Contemp. 
 
 PEllIER (Scipio) of a different family to 
 the preceding, was born at Grenoble, in 1776, 
 and studied among the fatiiers of tlie Oratory 
 at Lyons. Becoming, at the age of twenty, 
 proprietor of an estate at Laval, he endea- 
 voured to introduce into that country forges 
 such as are used in Catalonia. His father 
 having acquired a property in the coal mines 
 of Anzin, in 1801, he became one of the ma- 
 nagers, and introduced there considerable im- 
 provements. Scipio Perier joined his bro- 
 ther, Cassimir, in establishing a bank at Paris, 
 the available capital of which was devoted to 
 the promotion of various undertakings, in the 
 ceurse of which he added greatly to his kaow- 
 
 P E R 
 
 ledge of chemistry and mechanics. After the 
 death of J. C. Perier, he purchased the estab- 
 lishment at Chaillot, where he had projected 
 some advantageous alterations in the founde- 
 ries, when he was taken off by death, April 2, 
 1821. He was an excellent chemist, and pub- 
 lished many articles in the " Annales de 
 Chimie." He belonged to the general coun- 
 cil of manufactures attached to the home de- 
 partment, and to other public bodies ; and he 
 was one of the first promoters of the plan for 
 lighting the streets, 6cc. with gas. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 PERINGSKIOLD (John) a learned anti- 
 quary, was born at Strengnes, in Suder- 
 mania, in 163-1, and was the son of Laurence 
 Frederic Peringer, professor of rhetoric and 
 poetry. Tn 1689 he was appomted antiqua- 
 rian professor at Upsal, in 1693 secretary and 
 antiquary to the king of Sweden, and in 1719, 
 counsellor to the chancery for antiquities. His 
 works are much valued by Swedish historians 
 and antiquaries: the principal are, "Hist. 
 Hialmari regis," from a Runic IMS. ; " Hist. 
 Wilkinensium Theodorici Veronensis ac Ni- 
 flungorum," &c. copied and translated from an 
 ancient Scandinavian MS. : " Snorronis Stur- 
 lonidas Hist, regum Septentrionalium," with 
 two translations ; and, " Monumenta Sueo- 
 Gothica," 2 vols, folio, 1719.— Nicer on. 
 Bibl. Germanique. 
 
 PERINO DEL VAGA, otlierwise PIE- 
 RINO BUONACCORSI, the most distin- 
 guished of Raphael's pupils, and assistants in 
 the Vatican, was born in Tuscany in loOO. He 
 was considered the first designer of the Flo- 
 rentine school after Michael Angelo ; the im- 
 molation of Isaac, in the Stanze ; the taking 
 of Jericho ; Joseph sold by his brethren ; Ja- 
 cob with the vision, and others among the 
 frescoes of the Loggia, are his. Perino's 
 principal fame lies in Genoa, where he pre- 
 sided over the embellishment of tlie Dorian 
 palace ; and here every performance breathes 
 the spirit of Raphael's school. He debased 
 much of his fame by his eagerness to acquire, 
 and by his interested choice of, his associates , 
 he is, however, to be considered as the foun- 
 der of the school of Genoa. He died ia 
 1547. — Pitkington bij Fnseli. 
 
 PERION or PERRION (Joachim) a 
 learned doctor of the Sorbonne, was born at 
 Cormery, in Touraine, in loOO. At the age 
 of seventeen ho entered a Benedictine monas- 
 tery, at his native place, where he died about 
 1559. He gave elegant translations of seve- 
 ral of the ancient fathers and philosophers, 
 but the correctness of his versions has beea 
 called in question. By a particular decree of 
 tlie university of Paris, he was appointed to 
 defend Aristotle and Cicero against Ramus ; 
 and he discharged his task with success. His 
 principal works are, " De Dialectica lib. iii. ;" 
 " Historia Abdict Babylonii ," " Topicorum 
 Theologicorum, lib. ii. ;" " De Origine Lin- 
 gua; Gallicae et ejus cognatione cum Grjeca ;" 
 " Liber de Sanctorum Virorum qui Patri- 
 archte ab Ecclesia appellantur rebus gestis ac 
 vitis j" " Orations," in Latin ; " De Vita re- 
 
V K \l 
 
 busque lesu Chrisii ;" and " Do Vil;i \'ir- 
 giiiis ft Aj)Ostol()iuiit ;" wiih versions of Plato, 
 Aristotle, i)aniastenus, Cvc. cvc. — Xiccroit. 
 Teissier Kloges cies Ilointnes Samits. 
 
 PKRIZOMUS. There weie two learned 
 Dutch writers of this name in the seventeenth 
 century, father and son. — Anthony, tlie 
 elder, is jirmcipally known as the author of an 
 elaborate treatise on the study of divinity. lie 
 died in 1672. — His son, James, who soon 
 eclipsed the reputation of the other, was born 
 in lool, at Dam, in Holland, and accompa- 
 nied his father to Deventer, wliere the latter 
 had been elected to the Oriental professorship. 
 Here he obtained the instructions of Iloger- 
 sius and Cuj)er, till 1671, when he went to 
 Utrecht, and studied umler Gra-vius. lie af- 
 tersvards removed to Leyden, and applied him- 
 self with great success to history and the 
 belles lettres. Soon after, he accepted the 
 headship of the gramn>ar-school at Delft, 
 which he superintended with great credit till 
 16H1, and then resigned it on being chosen 
 professor of rhetoric and history at Franeker. 
 After (iliing tliis situation about twelve years, 
 he obtained a similar one, with the Greek 
 professorship annexed, at Leyden. Among 
 the j)riiuipal of his writings are, " Curtius in 
 Intoi;nun llestitutus j" " Animadversiones 
 llistaricu' ;" " Origines ^gyptiac^ et liabylo- 
 ui ;e," 2 vols.; a commentary on the " Mi- 
 nerva" of Sanctius ; an " Historical Commen- 
 tary on the Transactions of the Sixteenth 
 Century ;" an edition of the works of ^lian, 
 in two octavo volumes, with some orations 
 and valuable tracts on subjects of antiquarian 
 research. Pie died at Leyden in 1717. — 
 Kimv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PEIIKINS (Elisha) a physician, who ex- 
 ercised his profession at Plaiufield, in the 
 L'nited States of vVmerica, in the latter pare 
 of the eighteenth century. He was the in- 
 ventor of a method of curing diseases by the 
 apjilication of brass andiron pins, which were 
 termed metallic tractors ; and the doctrine on 
 which he professedly grounded his invention 
 was called, from the author, Perkinism. He 
 ap[)lied his tractors at tirst to patients lahour- 
 iiig under gout, rheumatism, and analogous 
 disorders; and (probably through the force of 
 imagination) he effected some cure*?. Fame 
 magnitied his success, and the supposed dis- 
 covery attracted some notice in England, and 
 much more iu Denmark, where Abildgaart, 
 Kafn, Herholdt, Bang, and other medical 
 men of eminence, engaged in the study of the 
 mystery of Perkinism, which some of them 
 endeavoured to connect with electricity. The 
 futility of this ridiculous quackery was demon- 
 strated in England by the experiments of Dr. 
 Haygarth ; and iu Denmark its credit received 
 a death-blow from the well directed satire of 
 an anonymous writer. Perkins, the inventor 
 of the tractors, carried his pretensions so far, 
 as to profess to cure the yellow fever by the 
 application of his instruments ; but he died of 
 that disease, notwithstanding the use of his 
 boasted remedy, abdut the end of the last 
 century. — Benjamin Docgi.as Perkins, son 
 
 V i: K 
 
 jof llie preceding, vi.-itt-d Jinj^land for tlift pur- 
 pose of selling the nielallic truclorM, and wrote 
 some pamphlets in order to recommend ihem. 
 — /'"•;;. I nil'. 
 
 PiOllklNS ( William) a learned ilivine, 
 was born dt Marston, in Warwu k^liin-, ia 
 l.">.")8, and was educated at Chriut college, 
 Cambridge, where he at first led an extremely 
 (.lisscdute life, but afterwards became r<foiuied. 
 Being chosen fellow of his college, he took 
 orders, and first j)reached to the prisoners in 
 Cambridge jail. He subsi (pnntly became 
 |)reacher at St Andrew's church, Camljridge, 
 which was the oidy fireferment lie ever ob- 
 tained. He died in loU'J. He was a rigid 
 Calvinist, and the treatises which he pub- 
 lished, in defence of his doctrines, involved 
 him in a controversy with Arminius, which 
 lasted until his death. He was also for scjme 
 time suspended by archbishop Whitgift, for 
 having subscribed or declared his apjirobation 
 of the book of discipline. His woiks were 
 collected and published in 1606, in 3 vols. 
 folio, and are written in a much better style 
 than was usual in his time ; they have been 
 translated into German, Dutch, French, Spa- 
 nish, Italian, and Latin. — Fuller's Church Hist. 
 Brnok's Puritans, 
 
 PEllNETY. There were two insrenious 
 writers of this name, contemporaries and re- 
 lations, both natives of Roanne en Forez. Of 
 these, Ja.mks, the elder, was born about the 
 close of the seventeenth century, and is known 
 as the author of a work " On the Abuses of 
 Education," 12mo ; a " History of the Reit/n 
 of Cyrus," 12mo, 3 vols. ; " Letters on Phv- 
 
 siognomy, 
 
 vols. 
 
 Counsels of Friend- 
 
 ship ;" " Memoirs of Remarkable Citizens 
 of Lyons," 2 vols. 8vo ; and, "A Picture of 
 Lyons," of which city he was historiographer, 
 and a member of the academy, whence, in his 
 writings he calls himself, somewhat affectedly, 
 a " Soldier of the Church of Lyons." His 
 death took place in 1777. — Anthony Joseph, 
 the second, was born in the spring of 1716. 
 He assumed the Benedictine habit, and after 
 Bailing to the iMaldives and back, settled at 
 Berlin, wjiere lie was elected a member of the 
 Royal Academy, and was made librarian to 
 the king. His works consist of " An Account 
 of a Voyage to the Malouine Islands," 6cc. ; 
 " A Dictionary of Painting, Sculj)ture, and 
 Engravixig," 12mo ; " A Dissertation on Amei.- 
 rica and the Americans," written in answer to 
 Pauw ; " On the Fables of Egypt and Antient 
 Greece," 8vo, 2 vols. ; ami a " ,"\lytho-Her- 
 metic Dictionary." He passed the latter pe- 
 riod of bis life in his native country, where he 
 died at a very advanced age, about the com- 
 mencement of the present century. — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PEROX (FnANcis) a French naturalist 
 and voyager, born in 177.3, at Cerilly, iu the 
 Bourbonnais. After having received a good 
 education, he entered into the army in 1792, 
 and was sent to Germany. He was made a 
 sub-officer, for his good conduct at the siege of 
 Landau , and in December 1793 he was made 
 I prisoner by the Prussians, at the battle of Kais- 
 
PER 
 
 erslautern. In about a year he was exchang- 
 ed, and liaving lost the siglit of one eye, he 
 was discharged from the service, and returned 
 to Cerilly, in August, 1795. He then ob- 
 tained admission into the school of medicine 
 at Paris, where he applied himself closely to 
 his studies, and also attended the lectures of 
 the museum of natural history. When the 
 expedition to the South seas, under captain 
 Bandin, had been projected, Peron, with some 
 difficulty, obtained the situation of zoologist. 
 The vessels appointed for this service, the Ge- 
 ographer and tiie Naturalist, sailed from Ha- 
 vre, October 19. 1800, and returned to France 
 in April 1804. They had visited New Holland, 
 and many of the Australasian and Polynesian 
 islands ; and during the whole of the Toyage 
 Peron seized every opportunity for augmenting 
 the stores of science, by making collections and 
 observations. After his return he was em- 
 ployed, in conjunction with captain Freycinet, 
 to draw up an account of the voyage ; and 
 with M. Le Sueur, to describe the new objects 
 of natural history which had been procured. 
 Peron died December 14, 1810. His works 
 are, " Observations sur I'Anthropologie ;" 
 and, " Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres 
 Australes," 1807—1816, 3 vols. 4to.— Bio^. 
 Univ. 
 
 PEROT (Nicholas) archbishop of Si- 
 nonto, a learned prelate of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, author of an excellent translation of Po- 
 /ybius, and of a commentary on the writings of 
 Martial, entitled, " Cornucopiae," in which he 
 displays deep erudition and great research into 
 the domestic habits and manners of the au- 
 tient Romans. He also wrote a treatise on 
 grammar, and another on the varieties of 
 metre. Perot, in early life, filled the situation 
 of secretary to cardinal Bessarion, and is said 
 to have been the involuntary cause of that 
 prelate's failure in his attempt upon the pope- 
 dom. In spite of the intrigues of his enemy, 
 cardinal Alain, the conclave had, it seems, 
 elected Bessarion to the vacant triple- 
 crown, and a deputation was actually des- 
 patched to salute him pope, when Perot posi- 
 tively refused to admit them, as his eminence 
 was, he said, busily engaged at his studies. 
 The prelates, disgusted at the disrespect shown 
 them, retired ; and Alain, seizing upon the 
 circumstance, prevailed on the body to proceed 
 to a fresh election. Perot died m 3 480. — 
 Bing. Uidv, 
 
 PEROUSE (John Francis Galaitp, de 
 la) a French navigator, distinguished for his 
 talents, and still more remarkable for the mys- 
 tery attending his fate. He was bornat Albi, 
 in Languedoc, in 1741, and entered at an early 
 age into the naval service of his country. 
 During the American war, he had the com- 
 mand of an expedition sent to Hudson's bay, 
 when he destroyed the trading establishments 
 of the English. After the restoration of peace, 
 the French government having determined on 
 the prosecution of a voyage of discovery, M. 
 de la Perouse was fixed on to conduct the un- 
 dertaking. Two vessels, the Poussole and the 
 Astrolabe, were placed under his command ^ 
 
 PER 
 
 and leaving France in 1785, he proceeded to 
 the South sea, and having visited the coast of 
 California, and other places, he crossed the 
 Pacific, to continue his researches on the east- 
 ern coasts and islands of Asia. In April, 
 1787, the sliips sailed from Manilla towards 
 the north ; and after passing the islands of 
 Formosa, Quelpaert, the coasts of Corea and 
 Japan, tliey sailed between Chinese Tartary 
 and Sagaleen island, where they landed ; and 
 at length, on the 6th of September, they ar- 
 rived at the harbour of St Peter and St Paul, 
 at Kamtschatcha. There they stayed to refit 
 the ships, and tliey experienced the utmost 
 hospitality from the Russian local authorities. 
 The commander had also the satisfaction to 
 receive letters from France, informing him 
 tliat he had been promoted to the rank of 
 chef-d'escadre, or commodore, which event 
 M. KastofF, the governor of Kamtschatclia, as 
 soon as he heard of it, celebrated by a dis- 
 charge of all the artillery of the place. From 
 St Peter and St Paul Perouse sent copies of 
 his journals, &c. to France, by M. de Lesseps, 
 who proceeded overland across Siberia to Pe- 
 tersburg ; and on the 30th of September the 
 vessels sailed in search of farther discoveries. 
 They crossed the equinoctial line, without 
 meeting with any land till the 6th of Decem- 
 ber, when they saw the Navigators' islands, 
 and a few days after they landed at Maouna, 
 one of that groupe. Here M. de Langle, the 
 captain of the Astrolabe, M. Lamauon, the 
 naturalist attached to the expedition, and ten 
 other persons, were killed in what appears to 
 have been an unprovoked attack of the natives. 
 After this misfortune, Perouse visited Oyolava, 
 an island near Maouna, and then steered for 
 the English colony in New South Wales. On 
 the ^3rd of January, 1788, they made the 
 coast of New Holland, and on the 26th an- 
 chored in Botany bay, at the very time gover- 
 nor Philip, with the whole of the colonists 
 embarked under his direction, was sailing out 
 of the bay to the then newly-projected settle- 
 ment of Port Jackson. The French left Bo- 
 tany-bay in March, and in a letter which the 
 commodore wrote in the preceding month, he 
 stated his intention to continue his researches 
 till December, when he expected to arrive alt 
 the Isle of France. This was the latest direct 
 intelligence received of the fate of the f^xpe- 
 dition ; andM. d'Entrecasteaux, who was des- 
 patched by the French government, in 1791, 
 in search of Perouse, was unable to trace the 
 course he had taken, or gain any clue to the 
 catastrophe which had befallen liim and his 
 companions. Very recently, however, the at- 
 tention of the public has been excited towards 
 this mysterious affair, by a notice publis-hed 
 by the French minister of tiie marine, purport- 
 ing, that an American captain had declared, 
 that he had seen in the hands of one of tho 
 natives of an island in the tract between 
 Louisiade and New Caledonia, across of the 
 ordt r of St Louis, and some medals, which 
 appeared to have been procured from the 
 .-liijiwreck of La Perouse. In consequence oi 
 iliis information, the commander of a vessej 
 
p l: II 
 
 •ffhich aaileci from Toulon, in April, IH'io, oji 
 avoyaj^e of discoverv, received onlers to make 
 researclies in the quarter .specified, in order to 
 restore to tlieir country any of the shipwrecked 
 crew wlio may yet remain in existence. Otiier 
 intelligence, relative to the wreck of two lar^e 
 vessels, on two different islands of the 
 New ne])rides, was obtained hy captain 
 Dillon, the commander of an English vessel 
 at Tucopia, in his passage from \'alparaiso 
 to Pondicherry. in IMay. iS'io, in conse- 
 quence of which that officer has been 
 despatched to the New Hebrides to ascertain 
 tlie authenticity of the report he had received. 
 The voyage of La Perouse was published in 
 French at Paris, 1797, 4 vols. 4to ; and an 
 Knglish translation, in 3 vols. 8vo, appeared in 
 1798, fron^. which the preceding account is 
 partly derived. — Biog. Univ. Atlas News- 
 paper, vol. ii. 
 
 PERRAULT, the name of four brothers, 
 who flourished at Paris, of which city they 
 ■were natives, in the seventeenth century. — 
 Claude, the elder, born in 1613, was origi- 
 nally a physician, but having a decided taste 
 for the study of architecture, made that sci- 
 ence his profession, and rose to great eminence 
 in it, as well, as in painting and sculpture, all 
 which attainments he is said to have acquired 
 without any other instructor or assistance than 
 his own genius and application. Voltaire calls 
 liis celebrated facade to the palace of the 
 Louvre, " one of the most august moruiniejits 
 of architecture in the known world." lie 
 published a traoiiJation of Mtruvius, with 
 highly finished drawings of his own, folio, 
 1673, at the request of CoP^ert ; as also, " Me- 
 moires pour servir a I'Histoire naturelle des 
 Animaux," folio, 2 vols. 1676, with plates; 
 " Essais de Physique," 12mo, 4 vols. 1688, 
 the year of his decease; and " Recueil de 
 plusieurs Machines de nouvelle Invention." 
 4to, published two yeai^s after his death. — 
 Chari.es, born in 1626, equalled his brother 
 in his love for the fine arts, and rose far above 
 him as a man of letters. He was educated by 
 his father, a French advocate, for his own pro- 
 fession, at the college of Beauvais. Being 
 fortunate enough however to attract the no- 
 tice of Colbert, that minister appointed him 
 secretary to a society, which, founded under 
 his own auspices, eventually ripened into that 
 ■»f the Academic des Inscriptions. In this 
 situation he gave such satisfaction, that his 
 patron afterwards gave him in succession, the 
 posts of comptroller of the buildings and com[)- 
 IroUer general of finance, which he held till 
 iJie disgrace of Colbert in 1683, and then re- 
 fired witti a well-earned reputation into private 
 hfe. His principal work, and one which gave 
 fee to an animated, not to say an acrimonious 
 Hspute, between Boileau and liimself, is his 
 '* Siecle de Louis le Grand," in which lie 
 maintains the superiority of modern writers 
 Dver those of antiquity. His other productions 
 ftre, " La Peinture," 1668, a poem of conside- 
 rable merit, very popular in its day ; " Le Ca- 
 binet ties Beaux Arts," folio ; a metrical 
 translation into French of the fables of Faer- 
 
 PER 
 
 nua; " .\ I'arallel b«'tween the Antient.s an| 
 Moderns ;" " Refiexions on the Writings ^ 
 JvOii'^inus," 6cc. His death took place in 17().>. 
 — PiKiinK PKnuAui.T also held a siiuatioti ir/ 
 the financial department under (.'oli)ert, and 
 wrote, '• De I'Origine des Fontaines." — Ni- 
 cholas was the author of a work entitled, 
 " La Morale des Jesuites ;" and died a Jocloi 
 of the Sorbonne, iu 1661. — /<"';?'. Unit: 
 Moreri. 
 
 PERRIER (Charles) or DL'PKRRIKR, 
 Ci French poet, was born at Aix in Provence, 
 and first devoted himself to Latin versification. 
 Having a quarrel with the celebrated .Santeuil, 
 whom he boasted of having formed, they re- 
 ferred their difi'erences to Menasre, who de- 
 cided in favour of Perrier, and called him "The 
 Prince of Lyric Points." Perrier afterwards 
 apj)lied himself to French poetry, and took 
 Malherbe for his model ; but in this he was 
 not very successful, though he twice gained 
 the prize of the academy. He died in 1692. 
 His Latin poems may be found in various col- 
 lections, but they have never been printed se- 
 parately. — Biflg. Univ. art. Dnperrier. 
 
 PERRIER (Francis) a French painter 
 and engraver, was born at IMa^on in Bur- 
 gundy, about 1.590. His father opposing his 
 design of becoming a painter, he ran away 
 from home, and in partnership with a blind 
 man, he begged his way to Rome, where he 
 became intimate with Lanfranco, who admit- 
 ted him into his school. On his return to 
 Frauce he passed some time at Lyons, where 
 he painted the Carthusians' cloister. He then 
 proceeded to Paris, and was employed by 
 Simon Vouet. In 1635 he retumtd to Rome, 
 where he applied himself to engraving the 
 principal antique statues and bas-reliefs. He 
 stayed there ten years, and on the death of 
 Simon Vouet he went again to Paris, where 
 he became professor of the academy, and died 
 in 1660. — Pilkinu-toit. Strutt. D'Ar^-eri' 
 ville. 
 
 PERRON (Jacques Davy du) cardinal of 
 St .Agnes, a prelate highly distinguished by 
 his talents, natural and acquired. He was 
 born of a noble Huguenot family, Nov. 2.5, 
 1.556, and exhibited so singular a specimen of 
 precocity in literary attainments, that at the 
 age of twenty he was introduced to Henrv III 
 of France as a " perfect scholar." In fact he 
 appears at this period to have been familiarly 
 versed in all the learned languages, especially 
 in Hebrew, as well as in the sciences of ethics 
 and mathematics, for the acquisition of much 
 of which he was indebted solely to his own 
 unassisted efforts and industry. The perusal 
 of the works of Aquinas is assigned as the 
 cause which conduced principally to his aban- 
 doning the mode of faith in which he had 
 been brought up, and reconciling himself to 
 the church of Rome ; less candid scrutinizers 
 have however found reasons equal Iv strong for 
 his adoption of this measure, in the honours 
 and rewards to which it led. Certain it is, 
 that his zeal for making converts wan soon 
 only equalled by Ins subtlety and ingenuitv as 
 a controversi;dist, while his efforts at length. 
 
V E li 
 
 reached their highest pinnacle of success in 
 making a nominal proselyte at least, of Henry 
 IV. In the service of this prince he dis- 
 tinguished himself as an active and able diplo- 
 matist, especially in his negociations with the 
 papal see, carried on for the purpose of pro- 
 curins: his master's formal absolution, and in 
 conducting which he was fortunate enough to 
 secure the esteem of both parties. At the 
 special request of Henry, he now composed 
 his " Reply to King James the First of Great 
 Britain," and received in reward of his nume- 
 rous services, the bishopric of Evreux, and the 
 archbishopric of Sens, with the dignity of 
 grand almoner of France, in succession. Pope 
 Clement VIH at length put the crowning ter- 
 mination to his career of greatness, by elevat- 
 ing- him to the purple. Beside the treatise 
 already mentioned, Du Perron composed ano- 
 ther, in answer to the celebrated Du Plessis 
 Mornay, " On the Sacrament of the Eucha- 
 rist ;" an account of his conference with this 
 his great rival in ability, is also to be found 
 among his works, which were collected and 
 })ablished after his decease, in three volumes, 
 folio, with a life prefixed. His death took 
 place at Paris, in 1618. — Nouv. Diet. Hid. 
 Moreri. 
 
 PERRONET (John Rodolphus) an emi- 
 nent French engineer of the last century. He 
 was born in 1708, and studied the principles of 
 architecture under Beaufire. The bridges of 
 Orleans, Neuilly, and Nantes, and the canal 
 of Burgundy, are among the monuments of his 
 skill, as well as some of the finest roads inFrance, 
 which he improved in his capacity of director- 
 general of roads and bridges. The manage- 
 ment of the school of engineers at Paris was 
 confided to his superintendance, and several 
 literary societies, foreign and domestic, admit- 
 ted him among their members. The Royal 
 Societies of London and Stockholm among the 
 former, the Academy of Sciences among the 
 latter ; the king also marking the sense he en- 
 tertained jf his merits, by conferring on him 
 the cross ol the order of St Michael. He 
 published a work " On the Mode of construct- 
 ing grand Arches of Stone, from 200 to 300 
 Feet in Width ;" and a " Description of 
 Bridges," embracing those of his own con- 
 struction. His death took place at Pans in 
 1794. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PERRO T. sieur d'Ablancourt ( Nicholas) 
 a distinguished member of the Fiencli Aca- 
 demy, born at Chalons sur Marne, in 1606. 
 Being of a Protestant family, he was sent for 
 education to the college of Sedan, where he 
 studied the law, and he was admitted to prac- 
 tise at the bar ; but he quitted his profession 
 for that of literature, and employed his pen 
 with great industry, especially in translations 
 of the classics. He possessed a sound judg- 
 ment and lively fancy, and wrote with free- 
 dom and elegance, considering the period at 
 which he lived ; but his works are in general 
 superseded by the more correct productions of 
 succeeding writers. Among the authors he 
 trinslated are, IMinutius Felix, Tacitus, Lu- 
 cian, Arr'an, Thucydides, Xenophon, C?esar, 
 
 PER 
 
 and Frontinufi. After having resided at Paris 
 for some time, he left it in consequence of the 
 civil wars, and went to reside on his estate at 
 Ablancourt, where he died in l664. Perrot 
 displayed an unusual degree of versatility as to 
 religion ; for after relinquishing the profession 
 of Protestantism, ir, which he had been edu- 
 cated, he returned to it again. There is how- 
 ever no reason to question his sincerity, as in- 
 terested motives would rather have leu him to 
 continue a Catholic. — Diet. Hint. Biog. Uniu 
 PERRY (Tames) a native of Aberdeen, in 
 Scotland, the son of an eminent builder, born 
 October 30, 1756. He received the rudiments 
 of education at the chapel of Garioch, under 
 the rev. W. Farquhar, (father of sir Walter 
 Farquhar,) whence he was removed to the 
 high school in his native city. In 1771 he 
 was admitted of the marischal college, in the 
 university there, and commenced a course of 
 study for the Scottish bar. His father failing 
 in business in 1774, he proceeded first to 
 Edinburgh, and afterwards to England, with 
 the view of at once completing his education, 
 and gaining a livelihood. In pursuance of tlie 
 latter object, he engaged as clerk to Mr Din- 
 widdie, a manufacturer at Manchester, with 
 whom he remained two years, employing his 
 leisure hours in the perusal of the best authors, 
 and cultivating the friendship of several of the 
 principal inhabitants, by the display of his ta- 
 lents in a society established there for the pur- 
 pose of moral and philosophical discussion, as 
 well as by several literary essays. In the be- 
 ginning of 1777 he quitted IManchester for the 
 metropolis, and soon after was retained by 
 Messrs. Richardson and Urquhart as a writer 
 in the '• General Advertiser" and the " Lou- 
 don Evening Post," in which capacity he re- 
 i)orted the memorable trials of admirals Kep- 
 pel and Palliser, sending up from Portsmouth 
 daily, and unassisted, eight columns of pro- 
 ceedings taken by him in court, a circumstance 
 which raised the sale of the paper many thou- 
 sands a day. In 1782 he projected, and was 
 the first editor of the " European Magazine," 
 which situation he quitted in little more than 
 a year for that of editor of the " Gazetteer," 
 with an express stipulation that he was to be 
 left to the free exercise of his own judgment 
 and political opinion in the conducting of it. 
 In undertaking this task, he had the merit of 
 suggesting an improvement in the manner of 
 reporting the debates in parliament, substi- 
 tuting the employment of a succession of re- 
 porters for that of a single one, as had huherto 
 been the practice. By these means he com- 
 pletely suj)eiseded IMr Woodfall's accounts, in 
 the " Morning Chronicle,*' a paper which he 
 afterwards purchased himself, and carried on 
 (after the death of his friend Mr. Gray, who 
 joined him for a few months in conducting it.) 
 as sole editor and proprietor. Mr. Perry had 
 more than once an opportunity of coming into 
 parliament, being solicited to that end both by 
 Mr. Pitt and lord Shelburn ; but firm to the 
 cause he had adopted, he declined b(jth offers 
 He was twice prosecuted under ex officio in- 
 formations, the first time for printing the " Re- 
 
V E II 
 
 solutions of the Derby IVIeetinef ;" and secondly 
 for a juiragraph respcctiug his present Ma- 
 jesty, then imiice of Wales, copied from tlie 
 Kxamiiier. On the former occa>ion he \\;is 
 defended by lord Erskine, on the hitter he 
 ])lea(ied his cause in person wiili great ta<t and 
 ability, and both times obtained a veniict of 
 acquittal. For a considerable time previously to 
 his decease, his dechidni; health compelled 
 him to relinquiah all share in the conduct of 
 his journal, and for the four last months of his 
 hfe lie had retired altogether from London to 
 lirighton, where he died December 4, 18'21, in 
 his sixty- fifth year. For a great many years 
 the Morning Chronicle, under the management 
 of Mr Perrv, miiiht be deemed a sort of olH- 
 
 i» f : s 
 
 displaying elevation of sentiment and elegance 
 of style, occasionally obscured by sententious 
 brevity of expression, and by allusions to the 
 manners and occurrences of his time. They 
 have been often published in conjuncti(«n with 
 the satires of .luveual, as in the very useful 
 edition of Mndan, which contains a prose 
 translation and notes, 1789, y vols. 8vo, re- 
 printe>l in lfil.'3. Among the principal poet- 
 ical translations of Pt-rsins may Iv specified 
 those of Drydeii, Dr IJrewster, iJruiiimund, 
 fjowes, and (jiHord. — Vossius de Poet, Lut, 
 LuliDii Piolp<;nin. in Persiiim. Ktlit. 
 
 PKIIUGINC) (I'li-.THo) an eminent Italian 
 painter, vihose family name was Vauucci, 
 was born at ]'erni;ia in 1446, and was the 
 
 cial organ of the Whig opposition, a feature I disciple of Andrea Verocchio at Florence, lie 
 
 vs'hich It h;is gradually lost since his death, 
 partly in consequence of the merging of the 
 Whigs into a more general party distinction, but 
 j)robably in a still greater degree occasioned by 
 the loss of an individual, who had for so manv 
 years enjoved the friendship and confidence of 
 their j)riiKipal leaders. Mr Perry died in pos- 
 session of a very handsome fortune, amassed 
 in a long course of useful industr:' and active 
 exertion. — Ami. Biog. 
 
 PEKRY (Sampson) was born at Aston 
 near Birmingham, and educated for the medi- 
 cal profession. Being convicted in 1796 of a 
 libel published in the " Aigus," an opposition 
 paper, of which he was then editor, he with- 
 crew to Paris, where he became the friend, 
 and subsequently the fellow-priscner of Tlio- 
 mas Paine, in conjunction with whom he nar- 
 rowly escaped the guillotine during the reign 
 of terror. Their execution was only delayed 
 by the circumstance of the jailor accidentally 
 turning on its swivel their dungeon door, by 
 which means the " red chalk," the sign of 
 destruction, was left in the inside of the j)ri- 
 son during the visit of the officers. The mis- 
 take was soon discovered, hut fortunately for 
 the captives the critical moment had arrived, 
 Robespierre became himself a victim, and they 
 were liberated. On his return to England, 
 JMr Perry was imprisoned on his outlawry, but 
 liberated on a change of ministry. He after- 
 wards purchased the Statesman newspajier, 
 which he edited a few years, and then resold. 
 He published several political tracts, and died 
 suddenly of the rupture of an artery of the 
 heart, on the day in wtich he was liberated 
 from prison under the insolvent act, early in 
 18ii3. He was seventy-eight years of age. — 
 Ann. Biog. 
 
 PERSIUS FLACCUS (ArLus) a cele- 
 brated Roman satirist, born AD. 34, at Vol- 
 terra in Etruria. He lost his father when 
 young, and being sent to Rome, he studied 
 srainmar and rhetoric, and afterwards became 
 the pupil of Cornuius, the Stoic })hilosopher, 
 with whom he formed an intimate friendship. 
 He was also acquainted with Ca'sius Bassus, 
 the Ivric poet, Lucan, author of the Pharsalia, 
 and the pliilosojdier Seneca. Persius belonged 
 to the equestrian order, but he appears to have 
 held no public office, having died prematurely, 
 AD. 65. His works consist of six satires, 
 
 rose to considerable eminence, and was em- 
 ployed by Sixtus 1 \' to paint several pieces for 
 his chapel at Rome. On his return to Flo- 
 rence, his avaricious disposition involved him 
 in a quarrel with Michael Angelo, and he was 
 so severely satirized by tlie Florentine poets, 
 that he was obliged to retire tJ Perugia. The 
 same vice proved the cause of his death, for 
 being in the habit of carrying all his money 
 about him for safety, lie was once roboed, and 
 though he recovered the greater part of his 
 property, his grief had been too severe for his 
 strength, and he died in l.)24. His touch 
 was light, and his pictures were hrghly finished ; 
 his female figures were particularly graceful, 
 but his manner was stift' and dry, and his out- 
 lines were often incorrect. — Pilkimrtoii. 
 
 PERUZZl (Baldassare) an eminent pain- 
 ter and arcliitect, was bom in 1481 at Acca- 
 jano, in the diocese of Vokerra. He went to 
 Rome, where he was employed by Alexander 
 VI, in decorating his palaces, and al^o in se- 
 veral chapels and convents, which he j)ainted 
 in fresco in a very grand style. The branch 
 in which he particularly distinguished him- 
 self, was in perspective and architectural 
 views, which he represented with such fiLlelity 
 and precision, and so able a management of 
 the chiar-oscuro, as to become perfect illusion ; 
 his imitations of the bassi-rehevi were also 
 much admired. One of his most esteemed 
 works is at the Farnesina at Rome, in which 
 he has represented the history of Perseus, 
 embellished with ornaments in imitation of 
 stucco, so admirably executed, that Titian is 
 stdd at first to have been deceived by it. The 
 life of Peruzzi was a series of disappointment 
 and misfortune. Having with great difficulty 
 saved a little property, he was plundered < f it 
 at the sacking of Rome, and he was finally 
 poisoned by the jealousy of a rival in 1536, iu 
 the prime of his life. He is said to have writ- 
 ten a treatise on the antiquities of Rome, and 
 a commentary upon Vitruvius. — Tuahoschi. 
 Bruuii's Dirt, of Paint. aJid Eng. 
 
 PESSELIER (Charles STEPHEN)aFrench 
 poet, was born at Paris in 171!£. He was 
 brought up to the bar, and noLwithstamling his 
 disinclination to his profession, he regularly at- 
 tended business, and became the assistant to 
 M. Lallemand of L^ety, a farmer -general. He 
 wrote two or tliree comedies in verse, entitled 
 
PES 
 
 " Kcole (lu Temps," and " Esope au Par- 
 na.sse," which were highly successful, and 
 •' La Mascarade du PaniHSse," which was 
 never performed ; besides some fables which 
 were esteemed. He was also the author of 
 " Letters on Education," and a " Discourse on 
 the Customary Laws of the Kinsfdora." He 
 died in 1763. — Diet. Hist, 
 
 PESTALOZZI or PESTALUZ (Henry) a 
 dit'tinguished practictil philosopher, famous as 
 Hie inventor of a new mode of instruction for 
 youth. He was born of a good family at Zu- 
 ridi, January 12, 1745. Left an orphan in 
 his infancy, and without fortune, he acquired 
 early habits of industry, and adopted from in- 
 clination the employment of a teacher. Guided 
 by experience, he formed a novel plan for 
 ameliorating the lot of the indigent, by fur- 
 nishing them with the means of mental im- 
 provement ; and he developed his ideas in a 
 fictitious narrative, entitled " Lienhard and 
 Gertrude," printed at Leipsic in 1781-1787, 
 which has passed through many editions, and 
 been translated into most f^uropean languages. 
 Pestalozzi was powerfully seconded in his phi- 
 lanthropic projects by I\L Tscharner, bailli of 
 Wildenstein, a rich Swiss proprietor, whose 
 character he has traced in his romance under 
 the appellation of Arner. He composed many 
 other works, with a view to the same object ; 
 among which may be mentioned a weekly pa- 
 per for the country, the numbers of which were 
 republished in 2 vols. Bvo ; " Letters on the 
 Education of the Children of Indigent Pa- 
 rents ;" " Reflections on the Progress of Na- 
 ture in the developement [education] of the 
 Human Species ;" " Images for my Abece- 
 dary, or Elements of Logic for my Use." In 
 1799 the Helvetic government appointed Pes- 
 talozzi director of an orphan house at Stantz, 
 in the canton of Underwald ; and, on the dis- 
 solution of that establishment, the chateau of 
 Burgdorf, four leagues from Berne, was granted 
 him, where he carried on his plans of tuition. 
 The number of pupils which flocked to him, 
 induced him to remove his seminary to the 
 castle of Yverdun. In 1803 the canton of 
 Zurich nominated Pestalozzi raem.ber of the 
 Helvetic Consulta, summoned by Buonaparte 
 to Paris ; and he subsequently received from 
 the emperor of Russia the order of St Wla- 
 dimir. He closed a long life of labours for the 
 benefit of society on the 17lh of February, 
 1827, at Brugg in Switzerland. Messrs. 
 Amaury Duval, Chavannes, JuUien, Ray- 
 mond, and others, have published accounts of 
 Pestalozzi's mode of instruction ; and the Hel- 
 vetic Diet having appointed a commission to 
 examine his establishment, the abbe Girard 
 of Fribourg, one of the members, drew up a re- 
 port on the subject, published in 1805. — 
 Biocr, Koiiv. des Coutemp. Edit. 
 
 Pf^STEL (Frederick William) a cele- 
 brated German jurist, born at Rinteln in West- 
 phalia in 1724. He became professor of pub- 
 lic law at Levden in 1765, when he published 
 a discourse, " De damnis ex neglectu Juris 
 publici in civitates redundantibus." The revo- 
 lution of 1795 occasioned the removal of Pes- 
 
 P E 
 
 lel from his office, and he retired to Gftrmtinj' 
 but in 1803 he was honourably recalled, and 
 resumed his functions. He died in 1805. Hi^ 
 principal works are, " Fundamenta Jurispru- 
 dentine naturalis de lineata m usum auditorum," 
 1773, of which a fourth edition, much en- 
 larged, appeared in 1788, and which has been 
 translated into French, Dutch, and German ; 
 and " Commentarii de Republica Batavica," 
 
 1 vol. 8vo, in the new edition of 1798, aug- 
 mented to 3 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Nouv. des Cont. 
 
 PEFAGNA (Vincent) an Italian physi- 
 cian and botanist, born at Naples in 1734. 
 He was educated among the Jesuits, after 
 which he studied medicine. In 1770 he be- 
 came attached to the service of prince Kau- 
 nitz, the Austrian minister at Naples, with 
 whom he travelled in Italy and Germany ; and 
 on his return to his own country, he employed 
 himself in setting in order the collections of ob- 
 jects relating to natural history, and especially 
 insects, which he had collected. He then 
 made a visit to Sicily, to examine the produc- 
 tions of that island. Subsequently he became 
 })rofessor of botany in the university of Na- 
 ples ; and he was a fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety of London, and other scientific associa- 
 tions. His death took place at Naples, Octo- 
 ber 6, 1810. He published " Institutiones 
 Botanicae," Naples, 1785, 5 vols. 8vo ; " Spe- 
 cimen Insectorum Calabriee ulterioris," 1785, 
 4to ; " Institutiones Entomologicae," 1790, 
 
 2 vols. 8vo ; " Delle Facolta delle Piante,'' 
 1797, 3 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Nouv. des Contemp, 
 
 PETAU (Denys) or Dionysius Petavius, a 
 learned Jesuit, born at Orleans in France, 
 August 21, 1583. Such was his early profi- 
 ciency in literature, that he became professor of 
 philosophy at Bourges at the age of nineteen. 
 In 1605 he entered into the order of the Je- 
 suits, making his profession at their college of 
 Clermont at Paris, and he was aftervsards 
 sent to Rheims in Picardy to teach rhetoric. 
 Thence he was removed to the college of La 
 Fleche, in the province of Anjou, and finally 
 to the college of Clermont at Paris, where his 
 death took place December 11, 1652. Father 
 Petau displayed a universal genius, and ac- 
 quired a critical knowledge of the most im- 
 portant living and dead languages, and more 
 than a superficial acquaintance with all tha 
 liberal arts and sciences. He composed tra- 
 gedies, and wrote Latin, Greek, and even 
 Hebrew poetry, which has been praised by 
 Grotius. But Petau owes his fame to his 
 writings on history, chronology, and divi- 
 nity. His treatise, entitled " Opus de Doc- 
 trina Tempoi-um," 1627, 1630, 3 vols, folio ; 
 comprises a vast mass of erudition relative to. 
 the synchronisms of ancient history, of which 
 almost all subsequent writers on the subjec* 
 have availed themselves ; and his abridgment 
 of this great work, called " Rationarium Tem- 
 porum," is one of the best compeudiums of 
 general history extant. In his *' Opus de 
 Theologicis Dogmatibus," .3 vols, folio, he 
 displays au equal extent of learning in dis- 
 cussing the doctrines of Christianity. Among 
 the other publications of this celebrated writ."? 
 
PET 
 
 are, " I'raiiologion," folio; " 'rabulii' Cliro- 
 iioJogicaj Kt'^uin," ami editions of tlie works 
 of Synt'sius ami ilpiiiliauius. — I'errault. iUo- 
 reri. Biofi;. Uuiv. 
 
 PKTKR OF lU.OlS, or PETRI'S BLK- 
 SKNSIS, a leariK'cl ecclesiastic of tlie twelfth 
 century, a native of iihiis in France, who 
 settling in Knglaml iii the reign of Henry 11, 
 obtained the arclideaconry of IJatli, and after- 
 wards tliat of London. He was the intimate 
 friend of John of Salisbury, to whom he wrote 
 a number of e])istles still extant, containing 
 some iiiteresting facts and observaiions re- 
 lating to the times in which he lived. Resides 
 Ills epistles, he wrote books *' l)e Studio Sa- 
 ))ientiii5 ;" " De Officio Episcoj)i ;" " De 
 Vita Clericorum curialium," &ic. He died in 
 1200. — Trillieiiiius. Cave de Script. Kccles. 
 
 PKIKK, surnamed Clirysologus, a Roman 
 Cattiolic saint, was born at Imola in the fifth 
 century, and was educated by Cornelius, bishop 
 of that city. He was elected bishop of Ra- 
 venna in 4Jj, and died before 4ol. He ac- 
 quired the surname of Clirysologus from his 
 great eloquence, the interj)retation of that word 
 beirig golden speaker. He wrote a great num- 
 ber of homilies in a quaint style, but concise 
 and elegant ; also " A Letter to Eutyches, the 
 Archimandrite," in which he declares against 
 the sentiments of that monk, and expresses 
 Lis admiration of the conduct of the patriarch 
 Flavianus. The best edition of St Peter Cliry- 
 sologus is that printed at Augsburg, 17;")8, 
 folio. — Cdie. Diipiii. Sdxii Onomust. 
 
 PETER DE CLUGNY or PETER the 
 VEN'ICRABLE, a French monk, was de- 
 scended from the noble family of the counts 
 de iMonboissier, and was born in Auvergne in 
 1095. He became abbot of Clugnv in 1 12o, 
 and at the same time was chosen general of 
 his order, in which he instituted a rigid dis- 
 cipline. He met with a great deal of trouble 
 from his predecessor, Pontius, who had re- 
 signed his abbacy, on a visit to the Holy Land, 
 but who, upon his return, endeavoured to get 
 possession of it again by force, for which he 
 was excommunicated, and Peter remained 
 lirm in his seat. Jle then ap})lied himself to 
 the refutation of the doctrine of Peter de 
 Riu\s, and became one of his rigorous perse- 
 cutors. In 1140 he affordid shelter to the 
 imfortunate Abeiard, and by his interposition 
 at Rome he prevented the execution of the 
 unjust sentence which had been pronounced 
 against him. He died at Clugny in ll.o6. He 
 acquired the surname of \'enerable from the 
 gravity of his deportment. He wrote a treatise, 
 jn four books, against the Mahometans, and 
 caused ilie Koran to be translated into Latin. 
 His works consist chiefly of polemical pieces 
 against Jews, Petrobrusians, &c. and Letters, 
 some of which are curious and interesting, 
 i'hey were published at Ingoldstadt in \h46. 
 and at Paris, with the notes of Duchesne and 
 ]Marrier, in 1614. This last edition was in- 
 serted in the 2'2d volume of the " Hibl. Patr." 
 — Cave. l)upi)i. Morcri. IMiliier^s Ch. Hist, 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PETER, the HERMPr, a fanatical monk of 
 
 P E T 
 
 Amiens, who, about the close of the eleventj 
 century, roused almost the wiiole of l!ur((|w 
 to the first of ihosi- attempts ujton the Saia. 
 ceiiiu j)ower in l*alestine, since famous by i^. 
 name of the ('rusa<les. I'eler, wlio hatl hiiii- 
 self made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, iustigattu 
 by the difficulties and indignities he liad under- 
 gone in his progress to vards the holy 8(- 
 l)ulchre, flew at his return to Pope .Martin the 
 Second, and under the ausi)ice8 of that Poiuilf 
 preached to an assembly of more than four 
 thousand of the clergy, with thirty thousand 
 laymen that met at I'lacenza, the ai)parently 
 wild project of precijiitating the whole of 
 Christendom into the plains of Syria, in order 
 to drive the Mahometans from Jerusalem. 
 The success of liis enthusiastic liarrangues 
 was proportionate to the boldness of his 
 scheme and the ignorance of his auditors, 
 nearly the whole of whom instantly took the 
 vow, and their example was soon followed, 
 according to contemporary authority, by more 
 than six millions of persons in various coun 
 tries, who professed themselves the soldiers 
 of the Cross. Peter, whose personal exer- 
 tions among the Continental provinces had 
 been unremitting, himself led the way through 
 Hungary, at the head of a rude undisciplined 
 multitude of more than three hundred thousand 
 men, whose excesses on their route, rousing the, 
 |)opulaiion of the countries which tliey traversed 
 in their march against them, this circum- 
 stance, combined with disease and the want 
 of the necessaries of life spread devastation 
 among their ranks, so that a comparatively 
 small number survived to bring their mad 
 attempt to an issue which was temporarily 
 successful. Peter distinguished himself by 
 his personal courage at the storminar of the 
 holy city, and having witnessed the accom- 
 plishment of his uiadertaking, finding too, 
 perhajis, his influence over his followers di- 
 minishing, returned to his native country, 
 where he founded the Abbey of jNoirmoutier, 
 and died its first superior. — Mosheim. Biog, 
 Ihiiv. Gihhini. 
 
 PETER ALEXIEVVrrSCH czar of Russia, 
 usually termed Peter the Great, was born 
 JMay 30, 1672. He succeeded to tlie crown 
 on the death of his lialf- brother Feodcr, in 
 1682; but his sister Sojihia, an ambitious 
 princess, excited the Strelitzes, or guards, to 
 massacre the maternal relations of I'eter, and 
 causing his elder brother Jwan to be asso- 
 ciated with him in the nominal sovereignty, 
 obtained for herself the regency, and assumed 
 the title of autocratrix. In 1689 Peter effected 
 a revolution in the government, freed himself 
 from the influence of the princess Sojihia, 
 wl (,m he confined in a monastery, and ba- 
 nished her minister Calitzin. Iwan was per- 
 mitted to retain the title of czar, but without 
 any share of authority, and he survived till 
 1696, when he died, leaving three daughters, 
 one of whom, Anna Iwanowna, afterwards 
 became emjm-ss, and another gave birth to 
 the unfortunate Iwan ^'l. 'J'lie c/ar I'eter 
 had no sooner become emancij)Hted from the 
 power of his sister and lu r partizans, than he 
 
P E T 
 
 began to display indications of that extraordi- 
 nary character and powerful genius, which 
 enabled him to project and execute schemes 
 of importance for the benefit of his subjects 
 and his own aggrandisement. It was his 
 object to raise the llussians from that state of 
 semi -barbarism in which they were plunged, 
 and to fit them to assume a place among the 
 civilized nations of Europe. His prmcipal 
 counsellor was a Genevese, named I^efort, 
 and through his advice he paid particular at- 
 tention to naval and military affairs. In 1696 
 he engaged in person in the siege of Azoff, 
 which place was ceded to him in 1698, l)y 
 the treaty of Carlowitz. But his most sin- 
 gular proceeding was that of travelling as a 
 private person in the suite of his own ambas- 
 pador. In 1697 he undertook his first tour 
 through different European countries, to study 
 the customs and manners of civilized nations. 
 He went through Germany to Holland, and at 
 Sardam he worked as a journeyman ship- 
 wright in the dock-yard, and acquired a prac- 
 tical knowledge of various useful arts. He 
 f.hen visited England, where he continued his 
 studies of naval architecture ; and in both 
 countries he engaged the best workmen he 
 could procure, and sent them to Russia. 
 Having proceeded to Vienna, he there re- 
 ceived intelligence of the rebellion of the 
 Strelilzes, on which he immediately returned 
 home, crushed the insurrection, -id having 
 disbanded that body of troops, he caused two 
 thousand of them to be executed, and distri- 
 buted the remainder in diii'erent regiments. 
 His turbulent sister, who had prompted this 
 revolt, was destined to permanent seclusion. 
 The most important transaction in the reign 
 of this prince wa.s his war with Sweden, which 
 he commenced in 1700 by the siege of Narva. 
 His troops being but imperfectly acquainted 
 with European tactics, were at first defeated 
 by the well-disciplined forces of Charles XII ; 
 but while the latter was occupied in Poland 
 and Saxony, Peter repaired his error, and 
 made himself master of Tngria and Carelia. 
 In 170^ he took Notebourg, and in 1703 
 Xeuenschantz on the Neva, where he laid the 
 foundations of Petersburgh, which afterwards 
 became the seat of the imperial government. 
 In the ensuing yeais he conquered Livonia 
 and Estbonia ; and, at length, in 1709, 
 Charles XII having attacked him at the fa- 
 mous battle of Pultowa, the Swedes were 
 entirely defeated, and their fugitive monarch 
 sought an asylum in Turkey. Hostilities 
 taking place between the Grand Signior and 
 the Czar, the Russians under his command 
 marched into JMoklavia, and encamping on the 
 banks of the Pruth, they were surrounded by the 
 enemv. From this perilous situation thev were! 
 released by the address of the czarma Cathe- i 
 rine, who succeeded in bribing the grand visir to j 
 agree to a negociation, to the utter mortifica- 
 tion of Charles XII, who had calculated on 
 sharing in a victory which would wi])e away i 
 the disgrace he had incurred at Pultowa. ' 
 The Russian prince, however, was obliged to 
 feurreuder Azoff, as the price of the treaty , 
 
 PET 
 
 with the Turks, which he signed at Pruth id 
 1711. Charles XII being killed, the wat 
 with the Swedes was terminated in 1721, bj 
 the peace of Nystedt, in virtue of which 
 Russia obtained full possession of Livonia, 
 Estbonia, Ingria, and part of Carelia ; and as 
 those provinces may be considered as the 
 granary of the north of Europe, they gave a 
 pre])onderant influence in the political balance 
 j to the potentate who thus acquired them. It 
 was after the conclusion of tliis peace that the 
 senate of Russia pioclaimed Peter I emperor, 
 and conferrfdon him the title of " the Great." 
 In 1716 the czar had made a second foreign 
 tour, in the course of which he visited Den- 
 mark and Holland, and afterwards went to 
 Paris. Wliile he engaged in this journey his 
 eldest son the czarowitz Alexis, discontented 
 with the schemes of his father, secretly quitted 
 Russia, and went to Vienna, and thence to 
 Naples. Tiie emperor sent after him some 
 Russian noblemen, who persuaded the young 
 prince to return home, and acknowledge his 
 disobedience, and submit himself to the mercy 
 of his oftended parent. He was declared to 
 have forfeited his presumptive right to the 
 throne, and was condemned to death ; and in 
 1718 he either died or was executed in prison, 
 leaving a son, who nine years after became 
 emperct of Russia. Peter now declared his 
 younger son whom he had by the empress 
 Catherine, his successor, and the death of 
 that child taking place when he was only two 
 years old, the father gave himself up to the 
 most intemperate transports of grief, and passed 
 three days in total seclusion and abstinence. 
 The senator Doljiorokof at length broke in 
 upon his retirement, and persuaded liim to 
 listen to reason and resume the manasjement of 
 public affairs. He then published a decree 
 vesting in the reigning emjieror the right of 
 designating a successor ; and this ordmance 
 was regarded as a fundamental law in Russia 
 till 1797. In 1723 Peter I engaged in an 
 expedition against Persia, and taking the field 
 in person, he made himselt master of Der- 
 bend. By the peace which followed he pro- 
 cured the cession of the provinces of Ghilan, 
 Mazenderan, and Asterabad. He died in 
 consequence of a stranguary, January 28th, 
 1725, leaving two daui;hters, one of whom, 
 Elizabeth Petrowna, subsequently ascended 
 the throne, but he was immediately succeeded 
 by his Avidow. [See Catherine I.] The 
 character of Peter the Great was strongly 
 marked, and its distinguishing trait seems to 
 have been good sense, or sound judgment. 
 That he sometimes sufff-red himself to be 
 swayed by passion and j)rejudice, and tb.at he 
 exhibited some striking instances of eccentricity 
 must be admitted ; but the former fault may 
 fairly be attributed to his defective education, 
 both moral and intellectual, aiul the latter to 
 the peculiarity of his situation. That he vvas 
 fully sensible of the value of that mental cul- 
 ture of which he felt the deficiency, may be 
 concluded from an anecdote related by Staeh- 
 lin, on tlie autliority of the empress Elizabeth. 
 She stated that once when the czar found her 
 
PET 
 
 ond her sister reading the works of INIadame do 
 l.ainhfrt, in Frencli, a pui^e of wliich shi- trans- 
 laud for him into lluissian, he exchiinicil, 
 " Ah! how happy are you, my children, who 
 ire taught in your youth to n-ad useful hooks, 
 and liave in many respects such an education 
 as I totally wanted." He used frequently to 
 Bay that he would williiii^ly have lost one of 
 liis finj^ers to have had learninij in las youth. 
 Into Russia he not only transplanted the arts 
 of war and peace, manufactures, commerce, 
 and naval science ; hut he also made provi- 
 sion for the difl'usion of literature anioiiy his 
 subjects, by foundmg schools, colleges, an 
 observatory, a botanic garden, printing-offices, 
 lil)raries, and museums. — Voltuire's lAj'e of' 
 Peter I. Stnehlius Auecdotes. Zopf Hist. 
 Univ. f^iog. Uiiiv. 
 
 PETERS (Charles) an English divine 
 and biblical critic, wlio was a native of Corn- 
 wall. He received his education at Exeter 
 college, Oxford, and took the degree of ]\I.A. 
 in 1713. Two years after he was presented 
 to the livins: of Boconnoc ; and in 17'27 he 
 obtained the rectory of St. JNIabyn, both in 
 the county of Cornwall. In 1731 he pub- 
 lished " A Critical Dissertation on the Book 
 of Job," 4to, in which he exhibited a very 
 respectable degree of learning and aruteness ; 
 and as one of the antagonists of Warburtoa 
 he obtained the commendation of Lowth. He 
 died February 17, 1774, at a very advanced 
 a^e ; and a volume of his sermons on several 
 occasions was subsequently published. — Gent. 
 Mag 
 
 PETERS (Hugh) a noted fanatic in tlie 
 reign of Charles 1, was the son of a merchant 
 of Fowey, in Cornwall. He was educated at 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, where he received 
 the decree of JNI. A. in 16'22 ; but it is said 
 that he was ultimately expelled for irregularity 
 of conduct. He then went on tiie stage, but 
 was afterwards allowed to take orders, and 
 was for a lime lecturer of St. Sepulchre's, in 
 London ; but being prosecuted for an intrigue 
 with a married female, he absconded to Rot- 
 terdam, where he became a joint ])astor of the 
 En-^'lish church. He subsequently went to 
 America, where lie remained seven years, 
 and then returned to F^ngland, and. took 
 part against Charles I. He became one 
 of the most useful tools of Cromwell, owing to 
 his extreme popularity with the soldiers and 
 lower classes, by his burlescpie humour and 
 farcical gesticulation. When the king was 
 brought to London for trial, Peters, according 
 to Sir Philip Warwick, was " really and truly 
 his oaoler." He was vehement for the execu- 
 tion of Charles, and after the restoration, suf- 
 fered as a regicide. Some of his " Dis- 
 courses," and his •' Last Legacy to his Daugh- 
 ter" have been printed. There is some reason 
 to believe that the strong part taken by Peters 
 against Charles I lias tended to exaggerate the 
 unfavourable points of a character which at best 
 was very indifferent. — Life bii Harris. Granger. 
 PETHION DE VILLENEUVE (Jerome) 
 a French revolutionary statesman, who was 
 originally an advocate at Chartres, and was 
 
 PET 
 
 chosen deputy from the Tiers Etat of tlie bail- 
 liage of that city to the States (jeneral. The 
 charuiler, the comluct, and even the talents 
 of I'ethion have been variouhly represented ; 
 and wliile some pourtray him as a Catiline, 
 and others as an An; ti.les, both parties were, 
 perhaps, equally mistaken. 'I'he importaut 
 situations which he successively occupied, and 
 wliirh gave him a great influence over public 
 all'iiirs, may liowev( r, be considered as a pre- 
 sumptive proof that he was not so destitute of 
 ability as he has been sometimes descriljed. 
 In the early part of his career he freu'ientlv 
 acted with Mirabeau, but lie did not join ia 
 such of the measures of that « ily demagogue 
 as were calculated to impede the extension of 
 liberty and equality of national riglits and pri- 
 vileges. In October, 1789, he was appointed 
 a member of the first Committee of General 
 Safety ; and on the 4th of December, 1790 he 
 was elected president of the National As- 
 sembly. In June following h« became pre- 
 sident of the Criminal Tribunal of Paris ; and 
 when the assembly was informed of the flight 
 and detention of the royal family, Pethion, 
 together with Barnave and Latour IMaubourg 
 were ajjpointed commissioners to attend the 
 return of the unfortunate monarch. On this oc- 
 casion Pethion is said to have behaved with less 
 attention to his ca])tives than Barnave, though 
 he treated them with less insolence than the 
 other commissioner. He was elected to the 
 important office of mayor of Paris, November 
 14, 1791, and in consequence of his supposed 
 implication in the riotous attack of the Pari- 
 sian mob on the Tuileries on the 20tli of June, 
 1792, he was suspended from his functions by 
 the king, on the 6th of July, but was restored 
 by the Assembly on the loth. His behaviour 
 on thememorai'le lOtli of August has by some 
 been interpreted as the result of weakness and 
 irresolution, and by others as the effect of an 
 hypocritical design, to avoid betraying his 
 real character as an abettor of the disj^race- 
 ful violence of that period. In the impri- 
 sonment of the royal family and other mea- 
 sures of the ruling party, he took a very ac- 
 tive part ; and being nominated a deputy from 
 the department of F^ure and Loire to the 
 Convention which met in September, he be- 
 came the first president of that assembly. Soon 
 after the death of the king, Pethion was ac- 
 cused of having contributed to the massacres 
 of the jirisoners of Paris by the Septembrizers ; 
 but against tliis charge he successfully de- 
 fended himself. He seems now, however, to 
 have become the peculiar object of jealousy to 
 Robespierre, and being included in the pros- 
 cription of the Girondists, wliich took place 
 May 31, 1793, he was confined in his own 
 house, in the custody of a gendarme, from 
 which he contrived to make his escape, and 
 with some other deputies of the same party, he 
 took refuge in the department of Calvados, 
 where they in vain endeavoured to avail them- 
 selves of the insurrections against the terror- 
 ists. Some time after, the body of Pethion, 
 with that of Buzot, one of his confederates, 
 was found in a field, in the dejiartment of 
 
P kT 
 
 t!ie Gironde, lialf devoured by wolves, and it 
 \'4iis supposed tijat he liad perished from 
 hunger. His works were printed in 1793, in 4 
 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. 
 
 U'llV, 
 
 PETION (Alexandeu Sabes) president of 
 tLe republic of Haiti, born at Port-au-Prince, 
 April 2, 1770. He was the son of a colonist 
 uamed Sabes, who possessed considerable pro- 
 p^Tty in St Domingo , and his mother was a 
 free mulatto. His father bestowed on him a 
 liberal education, and he showed an early dis- 
 position for study. He was scarcely twenty 
 when the revolutionary commotions broke out 
 in the island, and he was one of the first who 
 took arms. He was soon made an officer of 
 artillery ; and he obtained the rank of adju- 
 tant-general during the civil wars, and the En- 
 glish invasion previously to the arrival of gene- 
 ral Leclerc at St Domingo. After the English 
 bad left the island, Petion joined general Ri- 
 gaud, a man of colour like himself, in opposing 
 the projects of Toussaint L'Ouverture. Ri- 
 gaud being unsuccessful, embarked for France, 
 with many of his best officers, among whom 
 was Petion. They both returned to St Do- 
 mingo with general Leclerc, under whom Pe- 
 tion held a colonel's commission. The violent 
 measures adopted by Leclerc and his succes- 
 sor, Rochambeau, induced Petion to quit the 
 French service, and forming a union with 
 the negro, general Dessalines, they declared 
 war against the French, whom they at length 
 expelled. Assisted by the English, they suc- 
 ceeded in establishing the independence of 
 Haiti in 1804. Petion obtained the govern- 
 ment of the western district, of which Port-au- 
 Prince was the ca])ital. Dessalines becoming 
 chief of the republic, assumed the title of em- 
 peror ; and his conduct having given ofl'ence, 
 he was assassinated in 1806. Christophe, his ; 
 
 PET 
 
 Paris. His works are all translations, o? 
 which the following are the principal : " The 
 Oriental Library of Hadji Calfa ;" " The His- 
 tory of all the Mahometan IMonarchies," from 
 the Turkish ; " General State of the Ottoman 
 Empire ;" " History of GengisKhan ;" "His- 
 tory of Timur Bee ;" and " Persian Tales,' 
 which were published after his death, of which 
 he says, that they were Indian plays turned 
 into Persian stories by the dervise Modes, 
 who aave him leave to transcribe them. — His 
 son. Lours Alexander IMarie, was also 
 Arabic professor in the Royal college, and 
 translated the canon of Soliman II, for the in- 
 struction of Mourad. He died in 1751. — Mo- 
 rtri, Nouv. Vict. Hist. 
 
 PETir (Anthony) a physician, and medi- 
 cal writer of eminence, born at Orleans in 
 1718. He studied at Paris, and in 1746 he 
 was admitted doctor- regent of the faculty of 
 medicine, some delay in granting the diploma 
 having taken place in consequence of his indi- 
 gent circumstances. His industry and merit 
 procured him promotion. In 1760 he was 
 chosen a member of the academy of Sciences, 
 and in 1768 professor of anatomy at the Jar- 
 din du Roi. He died October 21, 1794, at 
 Olivet, a village near Orleans, where he had 
 for some time lived in retirement. His works 
 are, " Traite d'Osteologie ;" " Rapport en 
 Faveur de I'lnuoculatiou," Paris, 1768, 8vo ; 
 " Recueil de Pieces concernant les Nais- 
 sances tardives," 1766, 2 vols. 8vo, &c. — 
 Biog, Univ. 
 
 PETI r (Francis Pourfour du) a physi- 
 cian and oculist, who was a native of Paris. 
 He acquired considerable skill in the treat- 
 ment of diseases of the eyes, and wrote on the 
 operation for the cataract. He also produced 
 other works, and contrived an instrument for 
 measuring the various parts of the eye, which 
 
 lieutenant, was elected president of Haiti by j he called an ophthalmometer. His death took 
 the senate, but he chose rather to take the place in 1741, at the age of seventy-six. — 
 
 title of king; and behaving in a tyrannical 
 manner, he was obliged to submit to a parti 
 
 Eloij Diet. H. de la Bled. Biog. Ihiiv. 
 
 PETIT (JorrN Lewis) an eminent surgeon 
 tion of his dominions. All the southern and and anatomist, born at Paris, in 1674. He 
 western part of the island acknowledged the ' studied dissection under Littre, when very 
 authority of the senate, by whom Petion was young ; and in 1670 he was placed with M. 
 elected president, January 27, 1807. A civjl , Castel, a surgeon of ability, with whom he 
 war took place betweeu the rivals, but Petion ' stayed two years, when he attended the prac- 
 retained his office, in spite of all opposition, ! tice of Mareschal, at the hospital of La Cha- 
 till his death in IQVd, when he was succeeded rite. In 1692 he was employed in the nuli- 
 
 by his lieutenant, general Boyer. — Biog. Univ. 
 PETIS DE LA CROIX (FRANcrs) a 
 learned French Orientalist, was born in 1654, 
 and was the son of the king's Oriental inter- 
 preter. At the age of sixteen he was sent, by 
 Colbert, to reside for some time in the East. 
 He returned to Paris in 1680, and two years 
 afterwards he was sent to Morocco, as secre- 
 tary to the embassy under I\I. de St Amand, 
 to Muley Ishmael. He next accompanied the 
 French armament against Algiers, as secretary 
 interpreter of the marine, and in that capacrty he 
 was employed in some important negociations 
 with Tunis and Tripoly, in which lie acquitted 
 himself greatly to the satisfaction of LouisXI V, 
 who, in 1692, appointed him Arabic professor 
 Sii the Royal college. He died in 1713, at 
 
 tary hospitals in Flanders ; and afterwards 
 remained some time at Tournay as assistant- 
 surgeon -major. In 1700 he was admitted a 
 master of surgeiy at Paris, where he settled, 
 and gave public lectures. He became a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences in 1715 ; 
 and he also was admitted into the Royal Society 
 of London, and the other learned associations. 
 In 1730 he was appointed censor of the col- 
 lege of surgeons, and repeatedly held the 
 office of provost of that body. In 1734 he 
 took a journey to Spain to attend the prince Don 
 Ferdinand, when he resisted the very tempt- 
 ing proposals made to induce him to stay in 
 that country. He died April 17, 1750. His 
 principal production is " A Treatise on the 
 Diseases of the Bones j" but he also published 
 
V E V 
 
 " A System of Surgery," autl other works. — 
 Uutchinstni's B/o^. Med. 
 
 Pl>riT (PtTiJi) a m<itliemat.iciaii and na- 
 tural philosopher, horn at AlcMitlu^-on, in 
 I'rance, li'Jl. Having stuilii'd the exact 
 sciences with success, he accepted a civil 
 ofKce at the- desire of his father; hut soon 
 reiiuiiuishing it, he went to Paris in 1633, 
 and cardinal Richelieu, to whom he had 
 been rt'commended, gave him the appoint- 
 ment of provincial commissary of the artillery, 
 and sent him to visit the harbours of France 
 and Italy. He was intimate with Pascal, with 
 whom he repeated the experiments relating to 
 the vacuum in ])hysics, and improved on the 
 discovery of Torricelli. About 1649 he was 
 made intendant-general of fortifications, and 
 soon after ennobled for his services. He re- 
 tired to Lagni sur JMarne, where he died 
 August 20, 1677. He was the author of 
 several works on experimental philosophy and 
 astronomy ; and he wrote a treatise on chro- 
 nology, in defence of Joseph Scaliger. — Mar- 
 thi's fiiog. Pliilos. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PEIir (Petir) a French physician, emi- 
 nent for his acquaintance with classical lite- 
 rature. He was born at Paris in 1617, and 
 studied medicine at INIontpellier, where he 
 took the degree of M. D. but he did not en- 
 gage in the practice of his profession. Re- 
 turning to Paris, he resided for some time 
 with the jjresident Lamoignon, as tutor to his 
 sons ; and afterwards as a literary companion 
 with jM. Nicolai, first president of the chamber 
 of accounts. Having taken a wife in his old 
 age, he died shortly after in 1637. Several of 
 the works of this writer are distinguished for 
 tlie singularity of their subjects, as well as for 
 the learning and ingenuity displayed in them. 
 Among these are " Liber de Motu Animalium 
 Spontaneo," 1660, 8vo. ; " De nova curan- 
 florum morborum ratione per l^ransfusionem 
 Sanguinis," 1667, 4to. in which he objects to 
 the then fashionable speculation relative to 
 the cure of diseases by the transfusion of 
 blood ; " De Amazonibus Dissertatio," 1685, 
 12mo. the best known of all his works ; and 
 " De Natnra et INloribus Anthropophagorum 
 Dissertatio," 1688, 8vo. Petit also pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1683, " Selectorum Poema- 
 tum, lib. ii. cum Dissertat. de Furore Poetico," 
 8vo. ; and in 1726 appeared his Commentary on 
 the first three books of Ariteeus, with the Life of 
 Petit. by i\Iaittaire,4to. — Hiachinsoi'sBiog.Med. 
 
 PETIT (Samuel) a learned divine of the 
 reformed church, born at Nismes, in 1594. He 
 was admitted to the ministry at his native 
 place when very young, and soon after ap- 
 pointed professor of theology, and the Greek 
 and Hebrew languages, in the college of that 
 tity, of which he afterwards became principal. 
 His extraordinary reputation for learning pro- 
 cured him the friendship of Peiresc, Selden, 
 Vossius, Gassendi, Pjochart, and other eminent 
 men among his contemporaries ; and he not 
 only received a flattering invitation to accept 
 the office of honorary professor in the univer- 
 sity of Franeker, but also tempting offeis of 
 
 Bioo. DicT. — Vol, M. 
 
 PET 
 
 patronage from i)0i)e Urban VUI, wlio wifbed 
 him to go to Kume to arrange the MSS, in ih*! 
 Vatican library. He however preferred re- 
 maining at N'ismrs, where he diid, December 
 12, Uil 3. Among his works are, " Lclogiu 
 Ghronologicaj de Anno Altico, et de Anno et 
 Perioilo veterum Uomanorum ;" " Leges At- 
 tic;e ;" and, " iMiscellaneai Obrtervatioues." — 
 Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 PETITOT (John) an artist of Geneva, the 
 inventor of enamel painting, born in 1(;()7. He 
 was originally by trade a jeweller, but havinjj 
 a strong passion for the arts, accompanied his 
 brother-in-law, Bordier, into Italy, where he 
 obtained possession of some chemical secrets;, 
 useful in the preparation of colours. To these 
 were afterwards superadded others, which he is 
 said to have acquired from sir Theodore May- 
 erne, j)hysician to the court of Charles the First 
 of England, whither the two friends had jiro- 
 ceeded on quitting Italy. 'J'hat unfortunate 
 monarch was much pleased with Petitot, and, 
 together with his whole family, sat to him ; 
 but on his execution, the artists retired with 
 precipitation into France, where they were 
 well received by Louis the Fourteenth, and 
 realized considerable property. On the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes, Petitot, who 
 was of the reformed church, was thrown into 
 prison ; but at length obtaining his liberty, re- 
 turned to his native city, where he continued 
 to reside for some time, till he quitted it at 
 length for Vevay, in the canton of Berne, and 
 died there in 1691. He was a man of mild 
 disposition and amiable manners, as may be 
 inferred from the fact of his having lived with 
 his friend Bordier for nearly half a century 
 without a single misunderstanding. Indeed, 
 the friendship of the two artists seems to have 
 been cemented as much by congeniality of dis- 
 position, as by their habit of working on the 
 same piece in concert, Petitot executing the 
 heads and hands of the portraits, while the 
 other operated upon the hair, draperies, &c. — 
 A son, of the same name, followed his father's 
 profession, but with far inferior success, in the 
 English metropolis. — D'Argenville Vies des 
 Feint. Wulpole's Aiiec. 
 
 PETIVER (James) an eminent English 
 botanist, who practised as an apothecary in 
 London, and obtained the office of apothecary 
 to the Charterhouse. He was a great collec- 
 tor of natural curiosities, and formed a mu- 
 seum, of which he published an account, and 
 which extended his reputation among men of 
 science both at home and abroad. He was chosen 
 a fellow of the Royal Society ; and becom- 
 ing acquainted with Ray, he assisted him in 
 arranging for the press the second volume of 
 his History of Plants. He died April 20, 
 1718 ; and his collection was purchased by sir 
 Hans Sloane. He published, " Musei Petive- 
 riani Centuriaj decem," 8vo ; " Gazophylacii 
 Naturaa et Artis Decades decem," 1702, "folio, 
 with plates; " A Catalogue of Mr Ray's En- 
 glish Herbal," folio, with figures ; besides 
 smaller tracts and papers in the Philosophical 
 'iVansactions. Some of his pieces were coi- 
 
 2T 
 
PET 
 
 lecied and republished in 2 vols, folio, in 1767. 
 • — Hidclmison's Biog. Med. 
 
 PETRARCH (Francis) one of the most 
 celebrated names in the literature of the mid- 
 ille ages, was bom in 1306 at Arezzo in Tus- 
 cany. His father was a notary of Florence, 
 who having taken part with the Ghibelline 
 faction, sliared their fate, and being banished, 
 took up his residence at Avignon. The sub- 
 ject of this article was designed for the pro- 
 fession of the law, and with that view, after 
 being instructed in grammar,dialectics, and rhe- 
 toric, was sent to study civil law at Montpellier 
 and Bologna. He very early discovered such 
 a predilection for polite literature, that his 
 father, in anger, threw his Virgil and Cicero 
 into the fire ; and it was not until his death 
 that Petrarch found himself at liberty to 
 })ursue his inclinations. This event took place 
 when he was about the age of twenty-two, on 
 which he enrolled himself in the clerical order, 
 but only received the tonsure. About the 
 same time he obtained the patronage of the 
 Colonna family, and might have expected a 
 rapid advancement in the ecclesiastical pro- 
 fession, but that his inclinations and habits of 
 life were by no means adapted to the clerical 
 character. It was in his twenty- seventh year 
 that he first saw at Avignon the beautiful 
 Laura, whom he has rendered so celebrated in 
 those poems which have chiefly conduced to 
 his permanent reputation. His passion for this 
 lady appears to have been real, but her iden- 
 tity was not only a subject of controversy during 
 his life-time, but has been almost ever since. 
 In 1764 the abb6 de Sade, in his " Memoires 
 pour la Vie de Petrarch," adduces reasons for 
 believing that she was the daughter of Audi- 
 bert de Noyes, syndic of Avignon, and the 
 wife of Hugh de Sade, one of the abbe's own 
 ancestors ; an hypothesis which, however, has 
 been assailed with considerable force by lord 
 Woodhouselee, who implies, from the VMitiii^d 
 of Petrarch, that the object of his regarc" ^.juld 
 not have been a mamed woman. Whether • 
 real or a mere metaphysical passion, (the latter 
 of which suppositions is countenanced by Gib- 
 bon,) when stripped of the colouring of ro- 
 mance, it amounts to little more than an en- 
 grossing idea, which gave much of its colouring 
 to the imagination and literary composition of 
 Petrarch, although after reading his poems, his 
 letters, and serious ■\\Titings, it is diflicult to 
 conceive that it was not founded on real 
 amatory passion. As he had other amours, 
 however, which were any thing but platonic, 
 it may be presumed, that employed as he 
 otherwise was, his alleged misery was not alto- 
 gether unbearable. To tliis mysterious attach- 
 ment is attributed his love for travelling, which 
 assisted to dissipate his uneasiness. In 1336 
 he engaged in a tour through Italy, after which 
 he resolved upon that retreat which has made 
 the name of Vaucluse, a solitude about fifteen 
 miles from Avignon, so famous in the annals 
 of Jove and gallantry. Here he wrote the 
 most celebrated of his works, particularly his 
 Italian poetry, many of his Latin epit;tles, in 
 prose and vcree, and his eclogues ; his trea- 
 
 PET 
 
 tises on a " Solitary Life" and on " Religious 
 Tranquillity," and part of his poem on Africa, 
 which works exalted him to the highest pin- 
 nacle of reputation. He accordingly received 
 a complimentary letter from the Maecenas of the 
 age, Robert, king of Naples; and in 1340 was 
 invited by the Roman senate to be crowned 
 poet in the capital, which ceremony was per- 
 formed with much magnificence, and he re- 
 ceived a diploma, wherein the title and prero- 
 gatives of poet-laureate were revived, after a 
 lapse of 1300 years. He soon after obtained 
 an archdeaconry in the church of Parma, and 
 in 1342 Clement VII gave him a priory in the 
 diocese of Pisa. In the following year he 
 composed his curious dialogue with St Augus- 
 tine, in which he confesses that his passion for 
 Laura still held dominion over his soul. In 1348, 
 that lady, whoever she was, appears to have 
 fallen a sacrifice to the pestilence, then raging 
 tliroughout Europe, which also deprived him 
 of his great patron, cardinal Colonna. In 
 1350 he again visited Padua, and obtained a 
 canonry, and wTote an elegant letter to the 
 emperor Charles IV, to induce him to come 
 and settle the distracted state of Italy. In 
 1360 he was sent to Paris, to compliment John, 
 king of France, on his liberation from English 
 captivity, and was received with gi"eat dis- 
 tinction. His last journey was to Venice, in 
 1373 ; and on his return to Avignon, he fell 
 into a languor, which terminated in his sudden 
 death, in the night of July 18, 1374, being 
 found dead the next morning in his library, 
 with his head resting on a book. Petrarch 
 was undoubtedly one of the most memorable 
 characters of his age and nation ; and although 
 his countrymen may have estimated his genius 
 at too high a rate, he merits the applause and 
 admiration of posterity. Of the several kinds 
 of writing, in which he distinguished himself, 
 his Italian poetry is that on which his fame is 
 now chiefly founded. Although frequently de- 
 fu-.*idd by artificial conceits, his sonnets and 
 canzoni abound in elevated conceptions, simple 
 pathos, and elegant description, conveyed in 
 language and versification which, in the opi 
 nion of the best Italian critics, have never since 
 been surpassed in that language. His treatises 
 on moral philosophy and on politics, toge- 
 ther with one or two historical works, are 
 what might be expected from an age just 
 reviving from barbarism. In divinity he 
 was strictly orthodox, and wrote a treatise, 
 " De sibi ipsius et multorum Ignorantia ;" in 
 which he exhibits great distrust of human rea- 
 son, but at the same time has the merit of 
 ridiculing the delusions of astrology and al- 
 chemy. The most valuable of his prose writ- 
 ings are his letters, which, although diff"use and 
 pedantic, abound with curious facts and frank 
 and lively notices of himself. But it is not 
 only as an author that literature is indebted to 
 Petrarch ; no one had a greater share in bring- 
 ing to light the writings of the great authors of 
 antiquity. The works of Cicero were the es- 
 pecial objects of his inquiry, and to him is 
 owing the discovery of the familiar epistles of 
 that great man. Although his own reading 
 
P E 
 
 T 
 
 v:a.s chit'fly confined to Latin amiiors, liis rc- 
 jmtatioii procured him the present of a Greek 
 Homer from Constantinople, which he pre- 
 sented to the republic of Venice. He also 
 appears to have formed the earliest collection of 
 medals in Europe. The editions of the works 
 of I'etrarch, which have been loaded with end- 
 less commentary by his countrymen, are almost 
 innumerable ; but the best is that of Venice, 
 17.">6, 2 vols. 4to. He has also had no fewer 
 than twenty-five biographers, among whom 
 the abbe de Sade is deemed the most instruc- 
 tive and curious. Lord Woodhouselee also pub- 
 lished in 1810 an " Historical and Critical Es- 
 say on the Life and Character of Petrarch." — 
 Tirahoschi. Abb^ de Sade. Wuodlionselee. 
 
 PETRI (Siffuid) a learned writer, was 
 a native of Leuwarden in Friesland, and flou- 
 rished in the sixteenth century. He became 
 secretary and librarian to cardinal Granville at 
 Erfurth ; he afterwards went to IjOuvain and 
 Cologne, where he was chosen professor of 
 law. He was likewise historiographer to 
 the states of Friesland. He translated some 
 of Plutarch's works into Latin, and wrote 
 the following : — " Orationes de utilitate mul- 
 tiplici Gra;cae Linguaj ;" "Chronicon Ducum 
 Brabautiai vitus ;" " Continuatio Chronici 
 Episcoporum Ultrajectensium ; JSotse in Euse- 
 bium, Sozomenum, &c." " De Origine Fri- 
 siorum." He died in 1597. There was also 
 a Peter Petri, bishop of Leuwarden, who 
 publislied several theological works, and died 
 in 1580. — Valer. AndrtE Bibl, Belg. 
 
 PETROiVIUS ARBITER (Caius or Ti- 
 tus) a Roman satirist, was a favourite with 
 Nero, and generally supposed to be the same 
 whom Tacitus mentions as proconsul of Bi- 
 thynia, and afterwards consul. He is said by 
 that author to have discovered a capacity for 
 the highest offices, but abandoning himself to 
 voluptuousness, he became one of the com- 
 panions of Nero, and the superintendant of his 
 licentious pleasures. This favour proved his 
 ruin, by exciting the envy of Tigellinus, a still 
 greater minion than himself, who accused him 
 of being engaged in a conspiracy against the 
 emperor. Being arrested on this charge, he 
 was condemned to death, on wlucli he caused 
 his veins to be opened, and died about the year 
 66, as he had lived, with perfect indifference. 
 He sent, as a last legacy to Nero, a sealed 
 paper, reproaching that monster with his in- 
 famous and unnatural debaucheries. His 
 
 V E T 
 
 deemed tin- \>vai ; although some pr-rsoris pre 
 fer that of Autoniua, Leij)sic, 17tJl, bvo. — 
 Vosiii l\>el. Lai. Saiii (humi. 
 
 PEITY (sir Wii.irAM) a ctlebrated prac- 
 tical philoHophor, who was the son of a clo- 
 thier at Rumseyin Hampshire, whf-re he was 
 born May 16, \'32:i. Heajipears to have dis- 
 played a genius for mechaiucs, even in child- 
 hood ; but after previous education at a gram- 
 mar-school at Uumsey, he went to the univer- 
 sity of Caen, in Normandy, at the a;;e of fif- 
 teen, and stayed there about two years. Re- 
 turning to England, he obtained some office 
 connected with the navy, which, however, he 
 only retained till he had saved the sum of 
 sixty pounds. He went abroad in 1643, to 
 study medicine and anatomy, and having 
 visited Leyden, Utrecht, Amsterdam, and 
 Paris, he came home three years after. In 
 1647 he obtained from the parliamentary go- 
 vernment a patent for a copying machine ; and 
 though the invention did not turn out profita- 
 ble, its ingenuity attracted notice, and intro- 
 duced Mr Petty to the acquaintance of several 
 men of science. He next took up his resi- 
 dence at Oxford, where he was appointed as- 
 sistant professor of anatomy, and practised as 
 a physician. Such was his reputation, that at 
 his house were held those philosophical meet- 
 ings which gave origin to the Royal Society. 
 Soon after he obtained a fellowshij) at Brazen- 
 nose college ; he was created MD. IMarch 7, 
 1649 ; was admitted into the College of Phy- 
 sicians in June 1650 ; in the beginning of thy 
 following year he succeeded to the professor- 
 ship of anatomy, and was chosen professor of 
 music at Gresham college shortly afterwards. 
 In 1652 he w-as appointed physician to the 
 arrny in Ireland, and also to the lord-lieutenant. 
 After the suppression of the Irish insurgents, 
 he was made one of the commissioners for the 
 division of forfeited lands ; and wlien Henry 
 Cromwell obtained the lieutenancy in 1655, 
 he appointed Dr Petty his secretary, and clerk 
 of the council. He was chosen MP. for the 
 borough of West Loo, in the parliament con 
 vened in January 1658 ; and on the 25th of 
 March following, he was impeached of high 
 crimes and misdemeanours in the execution of 
 his office as Irish commissioner, by sir Hierom 
 Sankey, the member for Woodstock ; the issue 
 of which proceeding was, his removal from his 
 public employments in 1659. He then retired 
 to Ireland, till the restoration of Charles II, 
 
 " Satyricon," which is written in very elegant when he was made a commissioner of the 
 Latin, is a farrago of verse and prose, relating court of claims. He became one of the first 
 
 to topics and stories, serious and ludicrous, 
 intermixed with the most disgusting obscenity. 
 A uew fragment was discovered at Trau in 
 Dalmatia, in 1664, the genuineness of which 
 has been pretty generally admitted. On the 
 other hand, some additional fragments, pro- 
 
 fellows of the Royal Society, and was a mem- 
 ber of its council. To this learned association 
 he presented a model of a double-bottomed 
 ship, designed to move against wind and tide ; 
 and he so far perfected the scheme, that a 
 vessel constructed on it, made a voyage from 
 
 duced by Nodot in 1694, are deemeil spurious. Dublin to Holyhead in July 1663. He con- 
 Ihe difficulties of this autlior have caused him ; tinned for two years after to make improve- 
 ments in his plan, but at length relinquished 
 
 to be much studied by the curious literati ; and 
 France, Germany, and Holland, have produced 
 editors and commentators, but no English critic 
 has condescended to illustrate his impurities. 
 The Burman edition of 1743, 4to, is usually 
 
 it altogether. In 1666 he drew up a treatise, 
 entitled, " Verbum Sapienti," containing an 
 account of the national wealth and expendi- 
 ture, with a method for equalizing taxation. 
 •2 T 2 
 
PET 
 
 He suffered a great loss of property, through 
 the great fire in London tlie same year ; and 
 in 1667 he married the daughter of sir Har- 
 dress Waller, and subsequently he engaged in 
 various profitable speculations, having set up 
 iron-vi-orks, opened lead-mines, and established 
 a pilchard fishery in Ireland. He continued for 
 several years to occupy himself in literary and 
 scientific pursuits, particularly in the forma- 
 tion of a philosophical society ir. Dubhn, of 
 which he was chosen president Ir. -lovcraber 
 1684. At Iciivth he Y/as eJeize 1 with a morti- 
 fication in the foot, occasioned by the gout, in 
 consequence of which he died at his house in 
 Piccadilly, London, December 16, 1687, and 
 he was interred at Rumsey, his birth-place. 
 He was the author of a treatise on " Political 
 Arithmetic," and several other productions, 
 of which a list may be found in the first of the 
 annexed authorities. — Hutchinson s Biog. Med. 
 Martins Biog. Fhilos. — Petty (William) 
 marquis of Lansdown, was descended from 
 sir W. Petty, and was born in 1737. He 
 succeeded to the Irish title of earl of Shel- 
 burne, on the death of his father in 1761 ; and 
 in 1763 he obtained the office of president of 
 the board of trade, which he resigned to join 
 the train of opposition led by Mr Pitt (lord 
 Chatham) with whom he returned to office in 
 1766. When a change of ministry took place 
 in 1768, he was again displaced, and he con- 
 tinued to be a parliamentary antagonist of mi- 
 nisters till 1782, when he was nominated se- 
 cretary of state for the foreign department. 
 On the death of the premier, the marquis of 
 Rockingham, he was succeeded by lord Shel- 
 burne ; but he was soon obliged to give way 
 to the coalition between lord North and ]\Ir 
 Fox. In 1784 he became an English peer, by 
 the titles of marquis of Lansdown and earl of 
 Wycombe. He now employed himself in the 
 cultivation of science and literature at Bow- 
 wood, his seat in Wiltshire; and he collected 
 a valuable library, the MSS. belonging to 
 which were, after his death, purchased for the 
 British museum. His death took place in 
 1805. Lord Lansdown was twice married. 
 By his first wife, the daughter of earl Gran- 
 ville, who died in 1771, he had a son, who 
 succeeded him, and died without issue. By 
 his second wife, lady Louisa Fitzpatrick, he 
 became the father of the present marquis. 
 The subject of this article was one among the 
 numerous conjectured authors of " Junius's 
 Letters." — British Peerage. 
 
 PETYT (William) an English lawyer, 
 who was a native of Yorkshire, and became 
 treasurer of the Inner Temple, and keeper 
 of the records in the Tower. He died in 
 1707, leaving a great number of IMSS. col- 
 lected from records and other authentic mate- 
 rials, chiefly relating to the laws and constitu- 
 tion of Enghind, which are preserved in the 
 Inner Temple library. He was also the au- 
 thor of " The Ancient Rights of the Com- 
 mons of England, proving that they were ever 
 an essential part of Parliament," 1680, 8vo ; 
 two tracts, in defence of that work ; " Mis- 
 cellanea Parliamentarin," 1680, 1681; and, 
 
 PE Y 
 
 " Jus Parliaraentarium," 1739, folio. — Bridg" 
 man^s Leg. Bib. 
 
 PEUCER (Caspar) a physician and ma- 
 thematician, born at Bautzen, in Lusatia, in 
 1525. He studied at Wittemberg, where he 
 took the degree of doctor of medicine, and 
 obtained the professorship of that science. 
 He maiTied a daughter of Melancthon, the 
 reformer, whose principles he contributed to 
 diffuse, and whose works he edited. Being 
 imprisoned, on account of his opinions, for ten 
 years, he wrote his observations on the mar- 
 gins of books which he was allowed to read, 
 making a kind of ink with burnt crusts of 
 bread infused in wine.. He died in 1602. 
 His works are, " De praecipuis Divinationum 
 Generibus," 1584, 4to ; " Vitse illustrium 
 IMedicorum ;" and other tracts. He also as- 
 sisted Melancthon in the enlarged edition of 
 Carion's Chronicle. — Hutchinson's Biog. Med. 
 
 PEUTINGER (Conrad) a celebrated 
 scholar, was born at Augsburg, in 1465. He 
 was appointed secretary to the senate of that 
 city, and was employed in the diets of the 
 empire, and in various courts of Europe. He 
 died in 1574. His works are, " De Rebus 
 Gothorum ;" " Romante Vetustatis Fragmen- 
 ta in Augusta Vindelicorum ;" " Sermones 
 Conviviales," in the collection of Schardius ; 
 ".De Inclinatione Romani imperii et gentium 
 commigrationibus," subjoined to the former, 
 and to Procopius. Peutinger is, however, 
 best known by an ancient itinerary, called from 
 him, " Tabula Peutingeriana," formed under 
 the reign of Theodosius the Great, and shew- 
 ing the roads by which the Roman armies 
 passed at that time to the diflferent parts of the 
 empire. It appears to have been written by a 
 Roman soldier, unacquainted with geography, 
 and knowing nothing but what respected the 
 roads and places of encampment. A very 
 scarce and magnificent edition was published 
 by F. C. Scheib, at Vienna, in 1753, folio. — 
 diaufepie. Nicer on. 
 
 PEYER (John Conrad) an anatomist, 
 who was a native of Schaff hausen, in Swit- 
 zerland. He was the first who accurately de- 
 scribed the intestinal glands, which, in a state 
 of health, separate a fluid which serves to lu- 
 bricate the intestines, and which have been 
 termed, glandulse Peyerianse. His works are, 
 " Exercitatio Anatomico-Medica de Glandu- 
 lis Intestinorum," 1677 ; ** Paionis et Pytlia- 
 gorae Exercitationes AnatomicJB," 1682 ; 
 " Methodus Historiarum Anatomico-Medica- 
 rum," 1679; " Parerga Anatomica et Me- 
 dica ;" and, " Experimenta nova circa Pan- 
 creas." — Hittcltinson's Bib. Med. 
 
 PEYRERA (Isaac la) a native of Bour- 
 deaux, born 1592. He was descended of Cal- 
 vinist parents, and professed the reformed 
 doctrines, but entertained many singular opi- 
 nions ; among others, the existence of a race of 
 pre -Adamites, and published a work in sup- 
 port of his theory. For this he was confined 
 a short time at Brussels, till the interference o» 
 the prince of Cond§ procured his release. 
 Pevrera afterwards became a convert to the 
 church of Rome, and abjured his heretica 
 
p E y 
 
 ojiinionB in presence of the j)ope liimself. Be- 
 sides the tract already mentioned, he was the 
 author of an " Account of (ireeidaiirl ;" " An 
 Account of Icelant.1 ;" " ()n tlie Keistoration 
 of the Jews," &c. His death look place in 
 1676. — Moreri, 
 
 PEVRON (Jean Francois Pikhhe) a 
 French historical painter, was born at Ai.v, in 
 the dei)artinent of the Bouciu'S-du- Rhone, in 
 17 i-l. He went early to Paris, where he be- 
 came the piij)il of Laurence the elder, and de- 
 voted himself to the stutly of the works of 
 f'oussin, to wlioso inspiration he owed the 
 first prize of i)ainting. which he obtained in 
 1773. He visited Rome, as a student of the 
 French school. In 1783 he was chosen a 
 meniber of the Royal Academy ; and in 1787, 
 directoi of the royal manufacture of the Go- 
 befius, of which situation he was deprived by 
 the Revolution. His principal works are, 
 Cimon devoting himself to prison, to obtain the 
 burial of his father, now in the Louvre ; So- 
 crates forcing Alcibiades from the house of a 
 courtezan ; young Athenians drawing lots to be 
 sacrificed to the minotaur, &c. His style is 
 grave, energetic, and generally correct ; his 
 colouring transparent and soft ; and his drape- 
 ries ample and graceful. He died in 1820. — 
 His brother, Jean FRANfois Peyron, born in 
 1740, and died in 1784, at Goudelourd, where 
 he was commissioner of the colonies. He is 
 the author of a work, entitled, " Essai sur 
 I'Espagne, et Voyage fait en 1777 et 1778," 
 &ic. Geneva, 1780, 'i vols, in which he dis- 
 plays great knowledge in antiquity and the 
 fine arts with such fidelity, as to render it still 
 very useful to travellers. — Biog. Univ. de$ 
 Contemp. 
 
 PEYSONNEL (Charles). There were 
 two scientific and ingenious French writers of 
 this name, father and son. The elder, born 
 in the winter of 1700, at Marseilles, is advan- 
 tageously known as the author of some valu- 
 able observations on the topography of 
 Asia IMinor, over great part of which he tra- 
 ve led, collecting rare coins and medals with 
 great success. He was secretary to the French 
 embassy at Constantinople, and afterwards 
 consul at Smyrna, in which latter situation he 
 was succeeded by his son. His other produc- 
 tions are, some commercial tracts, an encomium 
 on marshal Villars, and a dissertation on 
 coral ; besides some papers to be found in the 
 transactions of the Academie des Inscriptions, 
 of which he was a member. His death took 
 place in 1757. — The son, who died at an ad- 
 vanced age in 1790, was an industrious, as [ 
 well as an acute author, and published an ; 
 " Historical Account of the Antient Inhabi- 
 tants of the Banks of the Danube, and the 
 Borders of the Black Sea," 4to ; '* Remarks 
 on the Memoirs of De Tott," 8vo ; "On the 
 Commerce of the Euxine," 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 *' Les Numeros," a work which has gone 
 through several editions; " On Volney's 
 Considerations on the Turkish War ;" " On 
 the Alliance between France and Switzer- 
 land, the GrisoEs, &c." 8vo ; and, " Political 
 Situation of France," 8vo, 2 vols. — Biog.Vniv 
 
 1* FE 
 
 PICZAY ^Masson, marquis of) was hoir 
 at Paris, and was captain of dragoons, anj 
 had the honour of Ijcing the instructor oi 
 Louis X Vi in the art of tactics. He was ap- 
 pointed inspector- general of the coasts, hut 
 making himself eiieniies by the haughtiness 
 of his behaviour, he was banished to his 
 K'state, and he died soon after in 1778. His 
 poems are written with elegance, but some- 
 times with negligence : his works are, " Ze- 
 lie au Bain," a poem, in six cantos ; "A Let- 
 ter from Ovid to Julia ;" " Les Soirees Hel- 
 vctiennes Alsaciennes et Franc-Comioises ;" 
 " La Rosiere de Salency ;" " Les Campagnes 
 de Maillebois," 3 vols. 4to, now of great 
 value in France ; •• Several Fugitive Pieces 
 j)ublished in the Almanach des Muses ;" An 
 inditferent Translation of Catullus. There 
 is also said to be a MS. entitled, " Les Soirees 
 Provenjales," not inferior to the Soirees Hel- 
 vetiennes. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 PFANNER (Tobias) a learned German 
 antiquary of the seventeenth century, a na- 
 tive of Augsburg, where he was bom in 1641. 
 He became keeper of the archives to the duke 
 of Saxe Gotha, in whose capital he died in 
 1717. From his intimate acquaintance with 
 early German history, he had obtained the ap- 
 pellation of the Living Chronicle of Saxony. 
 His works are, " A History of the Assemblies 
 of 1652 ;" " History of the Peace of West- 
 idiaUa," 8vo ; " On the Principles of His- 
 toric Faith ;" and, " On Pagan Theology." — 
 Nouv. Diet. IJisi. 
 
 PFEFFEL (Christian Frederic) juris- 
 consult and diplomatist, was bom at Colmar 
 in 1726. He studied first under the celebrated 
 Schoefflin, whom he assisted in his " Alsaiin 
 Illiistrata." He became secretary to the count 
 de L'^':'^, ambassador from Saxony to France, 
 lie then became the friend of the count de 
 Bruhl, and was employed in several negocia- 
 tiotiS. In 1758 he was sent to Ratisbon, 
 during the diet, as counsellor of state and 
 charge-d'afFaires. Thence he proceeded to 
 the court of Bavaria, where he remained until 
 1768, when he was recalled to Versailles, and 
 became juris-consult to tha king. He also 
 obtained the charge of stett-mestre of Col- 
 mar, in conjunction with his son. He was sent 
 by the French ministry to Deux Ponts, to treat 
 of the indemnities of the duke, and other 
 German princes ; he was still there when 
 he received the order for his retirement from 
 his public functions ; his property was confis- 
 cated, and he was placed on the list of emi- 
 grants. He remained in the service of the 
 duke of Deux Ponts imtil the death of that 
 prince, when he retired to Nuremberg. He 
 died in 1807. His principal works are, 
 " Abrege Chronologique de I'Histoire, et du 
 Droit publique d'Allemagne ;" '• Recherches 
 Historiques concernant les Droits du Pape sur 
 la Ville etl'Etat d'Avignon, avec des Pieces 
 justificatives ;" " Etat de la Pologue ;" 
 " Dissertations Historiques." — Biog. Univ. 
 Biog. Xouv. des Contemp. 
 
 VFFAFYVAl. There were two of this 
 name. Augustus, a learned German writer. 
 
P fi M 
 
 was born in 1640, at Laweubourg, and became 
 celebrated botli as a scholar and a philosopher. 
 His familiar acquaintance with the ancient He- 
 brew, and other Oriental tongues, joined to an 
 acute and discriminating judgment, rendered 
 his biblical criticisms especially valuable. 
 They are contained in his " Critica Sacra ;" 
 " De Masora ;" " Pansophia Mosaica ;" 
 " SciagTaphia Systematica Antiquitatum He- 
 braeorum ;" " De trihagresi Judseorum," and 
 other tracts. He was also the author of some 
 philosophical treatises, a complete edition of 
 which, in two quarto volumes, was published 
 at U trecht. He was held in great esteem for 
 his literary attainments at Wittemberg and 
 Leipsic, in both v;hich universities he read 
 lectures on the study of the Oriental lan- 
 guages, and was afterwards placed at the head 
 of the ecclesiastical polity of Lubec, where he 
 died, in January 1698. — Lewis Pfeiffer, 
 bom 1530, at Lucerne, of which city he was 
 afterwards the chief magistrate, distinguished 
 himself as a gallant soldier and a skilful tac- 
 tician in the civil wars of Charles the Ninth 
 of France, especially at IMeaux and IMontcon- 
 tour, on the former of which occasions the 
 preservation of that monarch was mainly 
 owing to his prudence and ability. The ad- 
 herence of the Swiss cantons to the Guise 
 party was also materially promoted by his in- 
 strumentality. His death took place in 1594. 
 — Moreri. Biocr. Univ. 
 
 PH^DON, founder of the Elean school of 
 pliilosophy, so called from Elis, the place of 
 his birth. He flourished towards the close of 
 the fifth century before the Christian 'tera, and 
 from the condition of a slave, rose to be the 
 disciple of Socrates, and the friend of Plato. 
 By the latter he was held in such esteem, 
 that one of that sage's most celebrated trea- 
 tises, on the immortality of the soul, is called 
 after his name. When Socrates was put to 
 death by his countrymen, BC. 400, Phaedon 
 retired to Elis, where he passed the remainder 
 of his days. He was the author of some phi- 
 losophical dialogues ; and on his decease was 
 succeeded in his academy by Plisthenes of 
 Elis. — Bioe[. Laert. 
 
 PH/EDRUS, an elegant Latin writer, a 
 native of Thrace, born a few years previously 
 to the destruction of the liberties of Rome by 
 the first Ceesar. He was afterwards the slave 
 of Augustus, who manumitted him, but in the 
 following reign he fell into disgrace at court, 
 through the enmity of the favourite Sejauus. 
 The fables of this author, of which there are 
 five books, written in Iambic metre, are re- 
 markable for their wit and terseness, as well 
 as for the purity of their style. They were 
 first published by Pierre Pilhou, (Pithceus) 
 about the close of the sixteenth century, since 
 which time they have gone through many edi- 
 tions, and are generally used as an elementary 
 book in schools. Cicero mentions another of 
 tliis name, a follower of Epicurus. There was 
 also, in modern times, a rhetorician at Rome, 
 librarian at the Vatican, about the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, who assumed this name, 
 from having appeared at tlie theatre as 
 
 P II A 
 
 Phaedra, in a tragedy of Seneca's. He was a 
 man of considerable erudition, and left be- 
 hind him some tracts in manuscript, which his 
 untimely death, from an accident, prevented 
 his giving to the world. — Vossii Poet. Lat. 
 
 PHAER, MD. (Thomas) a native of Pem- 
 brokeshire, who in 1559 graduated at Oxford 
 as doctor of physic, having abandoned the 
 profession of the law, for which he wus origi- 
 nally intended, and in the study of which he 
 had made some progress at Lincoln's-inn. He 
 was the author of two legal tracts, on writs 
 and precedents ; but the work by which he is 
 principally known is his translation of the 
 first nine books of the ^neid, in Alexan- 
 drines. The rythm of this poem, which was 
 printed in black letter in 1562, is singularly 
 harmonious, little adapted as the metre may 
 be thought for heroic poetry. His death pre- 
 vented the completion of the translation, and 
 appears to have been unexpected, as we find 
 from the last page, that the concluding lines of 
 it were penned in a very short time before his 
 decease. Dr Twyne afterwards published a 
 continuation of the work, Dr Phaer was 
 also the author of the story of Owen Glen- 
 dower, in the " Mirror for Magistrates ;" and 
 of some metrical translations from the French, 
 of no gTeat merit. His death took place in 
 the summer of 1560. — Biog. Brit. tVarton's 
 Hist, of Eng. Poet. 
 
 PHALARIS, of Agrigentum, a Sicilian 
 tyrant, whose cruelty, and the horrid instru- 
 ment by which he wreaked his vengeance on 
 those who fell under his displeasure, have ren- 
 dered his very name a proverb to posterity. 
 He is said to have been by birth a Cretan, who 
 having arrived at supreme power in the coun- 
 try of his adoption, by the most iniquitous 
 practices, thought to secure it by the influence 
 of terror. A statuary, named Perillus, whose 
 sycophancy equalled his skill as an artist, 
 constructed for him an engine of torture, in tlie 
 shape of a hollow bull of brass, in which the 
 unfortunate victim being enclosed, and fire put 
 beneath, the cries of the miserable wretch 
 within produced sounds resembling the bel- 
 lo'R'ing of the animal. The only just act re- 
 corded of Phalaris is, that he made the con- 
 structor of this diabolical piece of machinery 
 the first sacrifice to his own invention. After 
 a sanguinary reign of eight years, the citizens 
 at length were driven into insurrection, the 
 tyrant was seized, and with a severe, but just, 
 retaliation, consumed by a slow fire in his own 
 bull, AC. 563. The story told of his presid- 
 ing at a disputation held between Abaris and 
 Pythagoras, is manifestly apocryphal, from 
 the anachronism it involves, and the letters 
 supposed to have passed between the former 
 of those philosophers and himself, of which 
 there are two editions, Paris 1470, and Oxford 
 1695, are no less so. The question of their 
 authenticity, however, gave rise to an ani- 
 mated discussion between Dr Bentley and 
 the hon C. Boyle. — Mereri. 
 
 PHAVORINUS (Varinus) the Latin ap- 
 pellation assumed by Guarini, a native of Fa- 
 vera, in the vicinity of Cameriuo, who, as- 
 
P H 1 
 
 6uuang the monastic habit at an rarly age, in a 
 <unvent of Benedictines, applied himself to 
 the cultivation of classical literature with 
 great perseverance and success. Politian and 
 Lascaris were anioni^^ his instructors, and Jolin 
 de JMedici, afterwards Leo the Tentli, was his 
 scholar. In 151^ he was apj)ointed to super- 
 intend the Florentine library, and two years 
 after was elevated to the bisliopric of Nocera. 
 This learned prelate translated the Apo[)hthegnis 
 of Stobieus, and was the author of a tract, en- 
 titled, " Cornucopiae et Florti Adonidis ;" but 
 the production by whicjj lie is most advantage- 
 ously known is his lexicon of the Greek lan- 
 guage, compiled with great care from Ilesy- 
 chius, Suidas, and other authorities. This 
 valuable work first appeared at Home in 15'23, 
 and was reprinted with many improvements, 
 by Bartoli, at Venice, in 1712. His death took 
 place in 15'i7. — Fabricii Bibt. Gntc. 
 
 PHER EC RATES, a Greek comic poet, 
 flourished about 420 BC. He was the in- 
 ventor of a measure called from him the Phe- 
 recratian, consisting of the three hist feet of 
 an hexameter, the first being invariably a 
 spondee. Some few fragments of his come- 
 dies have been preserved, and have been ele- 
 gantly translated into Latin, by Grotius ; and 
 a piece cited by Plutarch, relative to ancient 
 music, has been particularly noticed by M. 
 Burette in the memoirs of the academy of In- 
 scriptions. He wrote with the utmost purity 
 of style; and notwithstanding the license of 
 the ancient comedy, he is said never to have 
 injured any individual by the slightest allu- 
 sion. — Vossii Poet. Crrcsc. Moreri. Cumber- 
 land's Obsei-ver, 
 
 PHERECYDES, aphilosopherof theisleof 
 Scyros, was the first preceptor of Pythagoras, 
 and flourished about 600 BC. Josephus is of 
 opinion that he studied philosophy in Egypt, 
 and this is not improbable, as a strong resem- 
 blance may be discovered in his doctrines to 
 the dogmas of the Egyptian school. From 
 the circumstance of his predicting the events 
 of a storm and of an earthquake, both of 
 which took place, he has been regarded as 
 possessing supernatural powers, though he 
 only availed himself of his superior knowledge 
 of the phenomena of nature to impose upon 
 the multitude. He was the first who wrote a 
 theogony of the ancient gods in prose ; but 
 from his symbolical manner of delivering his 
 opinions, it is diflBcult to form any idea of his 
 doctrines. According to Cicero, he was the 
 first philosopher who wrote on the immortality 
 of the soul : he also taught the doctrine of the 
 transmigration of the soul, afterwards adopted 
 by Pythagoras. — Another Pherecydes wrote 
 a history of Athens, and flourished about -i56 
 BC. — Stanley's Hist. Phil. Cicero's Tusc. 
 Quccst. 
 
 PHIDIAS, an Athenian sculptor, who 
 flourished in the 90th Olympiad, celebrated 
 for works of art of unrivalled excellence, some 
 of which are supposed to be still existing. He 
 carved in ivory a famous statue of the <-)lvm- 
 pian Jove ; and also another of Minerva, sixty 
 cubits in height, on the shield of which were 
 
 V U 1 
 
 represented the wars of the Amazons, tha 
 giants, tlio L:.])ithai, aud the centaurs ; and 
 on the basis, the figures of thirty deities. 
 Being employcil by Pericles to cast a golden 
 statue of Aliii'Tva, he was accused by some 
 jealous rivals of having embezzled part of the 
 |)rociou3 metal entrusted to him, on which he 
 left Athens, and settled at Elis, where he exe- 
 cuted his admirable colossal statue of Jupiter. 
 He died BC. 432.— Pliuii Hist. N. Junii 
 Cat. Archit. Statuarios, (Sfc. 
 
 PHILELPHUS (Franciscus) a learned 
 but intemperate rhetorician and dij)lomati8t of 
 the middle ages. He was born at Tolentino, 
 in the march of Ancona, in 1398, and studied 
 at Padua, wliere he filled the professor's chair 
 in rhetoric till his removal to Venice. The 
 senate soon after took him into the service of 
 the republic, and sent him in the capacity of 
 their ambassador to John Palaeologus. While 
 in the East he married, in 1419, Theodora, 
 daughter to the learned Chrysoloras, and 
 through the interest of the latter, rose so high 
 in the confidence of the emperor, that he was 
 deputed by him to solicit succours from the 
 German courts against the Ottoman armies, 
 while his father-in-law sailed for England on a 
 similar errand to Richard the Second. He 
 afterwards returned to his native country, and 
 dedicating himself to literary pursuits, read 
 lectures in his favourite science at Venice, 
 Bologna, and other cities of Italy, till he 
 finally took up his abode at Florence, under 
 the auspices of the celebrated Cosmo de Me- 
 dicis. The popularity acquired by bis talents 
 was, however, at length lost by his arrogance, 
 and with it the favour of his patron. A charge 
 has been brought against him, arising perhaps, 
 merely out of his well known vanity, as the 
 foundation on which it is built seems very in- 
 sufficient, that he destroyed a unique manu- 
 script of one of Cicero's treatises, in order to 
 conceal his own plagiarisms. He was the au- 
 thor of a work " On Moral Discipline ;" "Ou 
 Exile;" " Convivial Facetias, Sec. ;" withseve- 
 ral other miscellaneous pieces, both in prose and 
 verse, a complete edition of which was printed at 
 Basle, in one folio volume, 1739. His death 
 took place in 1481. — Tiraboschi. 
 
 PHILEMON, of Athens, a Greek poet, 
 contemporary with INIenander, to whom only 
 he was considered as ranking second in dra- 
 matic composition. Plautus is said to hav.? 
 copied from his comedies, but as a few only of 
 his fragments have come down to posterity, 
 there is little opportunity of judging how far 
 the imitation was carried. Of these, which 
 were originally collected by Hugo Grotius, 
 Cumberland has printed an English translation. 
 The time of this author's birth has been as- 
 signed to the three hundred and seventy -third 
 year before the Christian asra ; and he is said 
 to have survived a whole century, dying at 
 length through excessive laughter, at seeing 
 an ass eat figs from a countryman's basket, 
 AC. '274. — Vossii Poet. Grcsc. 
 
 PHILIDOR ( Axdue) a musician of Dreux, 
 of some reputation in liis profession, but far 
 more celebrated as the best chess-player of liii 
 
PH I 
 
 own or any other age. His father, INIichael 
 Danican, was chamber musician to Louis XIII, 
 and changed his name to PliiUdor, from a 
 comphment paid him by that monarch, who 
 once called him so in allusion to a famous 
 hautbois player of that name. He procured 
 his son, who was born in 17^6, the situation 
 of a page in the royal band, where he made 
 so great a proficiency under Campra, that he 
 composed a very successful mottet, with full 
 choruses, before he had attained his twelfth 
 year. As he grew up, his fondness for the 
 game of chess increased into a passion, in 
 order to indulge which he travelled over great 
 part of Europe, engaging every where with the 
 best players, but by no means abandoning his 
 musical studies at the same time. In the 
 course of his progress be came to London, 
 about the year 1753, when he set to music 
 Dryden's " Alexander's Feast," which, al- 
 though it never was printed, is said to have 
 elicited the approbation of Handel himself. 
 He continued in England some time, during 
 which he printed his " Analysis of Chess/' a 
 book which has since gone through numerous 
 editions, and is considered a standard work. 
 On his return to France, being disappointed of 
 the situation of chapel-master to the queen, he 
 devoted his attention to the comic opera, of 
 which, in conjunction with Monsigny and 
 Duni, he may be considered the reviver. 
 There are twenty-one operatic pieces of his 
 composition, of which " Le Marechal," pro- 
 duced in 1761, ran more than a hundred nights. 
 Philidor afterwards returned to England, and 
 in 1779 set the " Carmen Seculare," esteemed 
 the best of his works. His death took place 
 in 1795 in London, where he was very gene- 
 rally esteemed for his integrity and suavity of 
 manners. A short time previously to his de- 
 cease, he played two games of chess at the 
 same time, blindfold, against two of the most 
 distinguished amateurs, one of which he won ; 
 the other was a drawn game. — Rees's Cyclop. 
 Biog. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 PHILIPPON DE LA MADELEINE 
 (Louis; a French writer, was born at Lyons 
 in 17o4. He studied the law at Besanfon, 
 where he settled, and filled some public of- 
 fices. In 1795 he was created librarian of the 
 ministry of the interior, and on the Restora- 
 tion, in 1814, he received a pension from 
 Monsieur, now Charles X, with the title of 
 honorary intendant of his finances. He died 
 in 1818. He published a great number of 
 works, of which the following are the prin- 
 cipal : " Jeux d'un Enfant du Vaudeville ;" 
 " Choix de Chansons de M. Philippon de la 
 Madeleine;" " L'Eleve d'Epicure ;" " Dis- 
 cours sur la Necessity et lesMoyens de suppri- 
 mer les Peines Capitales ;" " IManuel et uou- 
 veaux Guide du promeneur aux Tuilleries ;" 
 " Grammaire des Gens du Monde ;" " Dic- 
 tionnaire portatif des Poetes Fran^aises morts 
 depuis 1050, jusqu'en 1804," preceded by an 
 abridged history of French poetry ; " Dic- 
 tioiinaire portatif des Rimes ;" " Voyages de 
 Cyrus, par Ramsay ;" " Morceaux choisis des 
 Caracteres de la Bruyere," -pfith a notice on the 
 
 P II i 
 
 autlior. Philippon also wrote several come 
 dies, which were played at the Theatre Qf 
 Vaudeville, in conjunction with MM. Leger 
 Therigny, viscount Segur, and the prevost 
 d'Iray. — Biog. Noiiv. des Contemp. 
 
 PHILIPS (Ambrose) a poet and dramatic 
 writer, who was a native of Leicestershire, and 
 studied at St John's college, Cambridge, 
 where he obtained a fellowship. On quitting 
 the university he went to London, and be- 
 came one of the literary wits who frequented 
 Button's coflfee-house, and a friend of Steele 
 and Addison. The publication of his •' Pas- 
 torals," involved him in a war with Pope, who 
 ridiculed them in papers in the " Guardian ;" 
 in consequence of which Philips threatened to 
 inflict personal correction on the satirist. Soon 
 after the accession of George I, he was put into 
 the commission of the peace ; and in 1717 he 
 was appointed a commissioner of the lottery. 
 He was one of the writers of a periodical 
 paper, called " The Freethinker ;" and Dr 
 Boulton, the conductor, obtaining preferment 
 in Ireland, Philips went thither with him, and 
 was made registrar of the prerogative court at 
 Dublin. At length he purchased a life an- 
 nuity of 400/. and returned to England in 
 1748. He survived but a short time, dying in 
 consequence of a paralytic seizure at Vauxhall, 
 Surrey, June 18, 1749. He was the author of 
 " The Distrest Mother," a tragedy, 1712, 
 taken from Racine ; " The Briton," 1722 ; 
 and " Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester," 1723, 
 both tragedies also ; and he wrote " The Life 
 of Archbishop Williams." — Johnson's Lives of 
 the Poets. Bios:- Drain. 
 
 PHILIPS (Catherine) a literary lady, 
 much distinguished in her own time for her 
 wit aud accomplishments, was the daughter of 
 Mr Fowler, a merchant of London, where she 
 was born in 1631. She was educated with 
 great care, and when very young, became the 
 wife of James Philips, esq. a gentleman 
 of Cardiganshire ; and afterwards accompa- 
 nied the viscountess Duncannon to Ireland. 
 At the request of the earl of Orrery, she trans- 
 lated Corneille's tragedy of Pompey, which 
 was several times acted in Dublin. She was, 
 however, chiefly celebrated for her occasional 
 poems, which were not formally published 
 until after her death, which took place from 
 the small-pox in 1664, in the thirty-third 
 year of her age. They then appeared in folio, 
 under the title of " Poems by the most de- 
 servedly admired Mrs Catherine Philips, the 
 Matchless Orinda. To which are added M. 
 Corneille's Pompey and Horace Tragedies, 
 with several other Translations from the 
 French." Mrs Philips, who had assumed the 
 poetical name of Orinda, was highly esteemed 
 by the most eminent of lier contemporaries. 
 Bishop Taylor addressed to her his " Mea- 
 sures and Offices of Friendship ;" and Cowley 
 wrote an ode on her death. Posterity has by 
 no means sanctioned all this estimation, and 
 the poetry of this lady is at present scarcely 
 known or regarded. — Ballurd's British Ladies. 
 
 PHILIPS (Fabian) an English lawyer, was 
 bom at Prestbury in Gloucestershire, in 1601 
 
IMl I 
 
 lie studied at the Middle '^t?Inl)^<^ and became 
 learned in his profession, lie was a zealous 
 partizan of ('harlt's I, and wrote several po- 
 litical itaiiiphk'ts in liis favour, the jiriiicij)al of 
 which is entitled '* V^eritas inconcussa ; or, 
 Kiiii,^ Charles 1 no INIaii of 15Iood, hut a IMar- 
 tyr to his Peoj)le." Me was for some time 
 filazer, and spent much time and money in 
 Bearching reconls and writings in favour of the 
 royal prerogative, for which he was rewarded 
 by the place of one of the commissioners for 
 regulating the law, which he held only two 
 years. His other works are, " Considerations 
 against the dissolving and taking away the 
 Courts of Justice, by Oliver Cromwell," for 
 which he received the thanks of the speaker, 
 Lenthall ; " Tenenda non toUenda ; or the 
 necessity of ])reserving Tenures in Capite and 
 by the Knight's Service ;" " The Antiquity 
 and Necessity of pre-emption and purveyance 
 for the King." lie died in 1690.— Atli. Ox. 
 Biog. Brit. 
 
 PHILIPS (John) an English poet, who 
 was the son of the Rev. Stephen Philips, 
 archdeacon of Salop, and was born at Bamp- 
 ton, in Oxfordshire, December 30, 1676. He 
 was educated at Winchester School and 
 Christchurch, Oxford, and at the latter place 
 lie produced his poem, entitled " The Splendid 
 Shilling," in which the sonorous cadence of 
 the blank verse of Milton is adapted to fa- 
 miliar and ludicrous topics. He also wrote 
 " Blenheim," a poem, in celebration of the 
 Duke of jNIarlborough's victory ; but his prin- 
 cipal work is his " Cyder," a Georgical poem, 
 in imitation of Virgil. His early death, which 
 took place at Hereford, February 15, 1708, 
 probably deprived the world of some greater 
 efforts towards obtaining a niche in the temple 
 of Fame. A monument was erected for him 
 in Westminster Abbey, at the expense of his 
 patron, Sir Simon Harcourt. — Johnson s Lives 
 of the Poets. 
 
 PHILLIPS (Edward) one of the nephews 
 of Milton, was the son of Edward Phillips, 
 esq. of Sluewsbury, who married the poet's 
 sister Anne, and became secondary in the 
 crown office. He was born in London in 
 16S0, and was educated under his celebrated 
 uncle. The time of his decease is not certain. 
 He published two small works in Latin, one 
 on the ancient chorusses in tragedy and 
 comedy, and another of the most celebrated 
 poets of the age of Dante. He is, however, 
 better known by his compilations, and es- 
 pecially by his " Theatrum Poetarum, or a 
 complete Collection of the Poets." London, 
 167j, which Warton is of opinion was be- 
 nefited by the revision and correction of his 
 uncle Milton, who is especially traceable in 
 the preface. In 1800, a new edition of the 
 *' Theatrum," with valuable additions, was 
 published by Sir Egerton Brydges. W^ood 
 attributes to Edward Phillips a General Eng- 
 lish Dictionary ; a Supplement to Speed's 
 " Theatre ;" a Continuation of" Baker's Chro- 
 nicle ;" a compendious Latm Dictionary ; a 
 poem on the Coronation of James H ; an edi- 
 tion of the poems of Drummond of Hawthorn- 
 
 V 11 I 
 
 den, and siweral translations and compilatioris 
 which exhibit him as an author by profession 
 hut next to his " ilieatricum," his Life of hi^ 
 illustrious uncle is most esteemed. — John 
 Pii I LMPs, brother of the preceding, was also 
 educated by his uncle Milton, to whose opi- 
 nions, in the first instance, he professed him- 
 self a warm adherent, and published •' Mil- 
 ton's Defensio," in answer to the " Apologia 
 pro Kege." On the Restoration, he clianged 
 with the times, and wrote a " Satyr against 
 Hypocrites," in the spirit of the prevailing 
 ojnnions. His other writings are, " Alontelim, 
 or the Prophetic AlnKinack for 1660;" " Ma- 
 ronides, or Virgil Travestie ;" Duellum Mu- 
 sicum ;" " Mercurius Veiax;" " A Conti- 
 nuation of Heath's Chronicle ;" and various 
 temporary pamphlets, which have reached 
 merited obscurity. The death of this writer, 
 whose character and conduct seems to have 
 been very exceptionable, is not recorded. — 
 Athen. Oxon. Life of Edward Phillips, by Sir 
 E. Bnjdi^es. 
 
 PHILLIPS (Thomas) a Roman Catholic 
 divine, was born at Ickford, in Buckingham- 
 shire, and was educated at St. Omers. He 
 entered the society of the Jesuits, which he 
 afterwards quitted, and after travelling on the 
 Continent, he obtained a prebend in the colle- 
 giate Church of Tongres. In the decline of his 
 life he retired to the English college at Liege, 
 where he died in 1774. He wrote " Tlie 
 Life of Cardinal Pole," which, although a 
 work of considerable ability, from its natural 
 partiality, occasioned much violent contro- 
 versy ; •' The Study of Sacred Literature 
 Stated and Considered ;" and " Philemon," a 
 tract, giving an account of his own life. He 
 is also said to have been the author of 
 elegant verse translations of " Lauda Sion 
 Salvatorem," and " Censura Commentariorum 
 Cornelii a Lapide." His sister Elizabeth, to 
 whom he addressed some pleasing poetry, was 
 abbess of the Benedictine nuns at Ghent. — 
 Europ. Mag. 1796. Cole's MS. Ath. 
 
 PHILLIPOT, or PHILPOT (John) a he- 
 rald and antiquary, who was a native of Folk- 
 stone, in Kent. He was rouge dragon, and 
 afterwards Somerset herald. He made a vi- 
 sitation of his native county in the years 1619, 
 1620, and 16^21, as marshal and deputy to Cam- 
 den, then Clarencieux king-at-arms ; and 
 soon after he began to make an historical 
 survey of Kent, which he seems to hare con- 
 tinued till about the year 1640, soon after 
 which the civil war involved him in misfor- 
 tunes, tmd he lived some time in poverty and 
 obscurity till his death, which happened in 
 1645. — Thojias Phili-ipot, his son, was edu- 
 cated at Clare-hall, Cambridge, and died in 
 1682. He published, in 16.59, his father's 
 collections, under the title of " Villare Can- 
 tianum, or Kent Surveyed and Illustrated." 
 folio, a second edition of which appeared in 
 1778. T. Phillipot also publisiied poems; 
 and a Discourse on Heraldry. — Hasted's Hist, 
 of Kent, Pref. 
 
 PHILO, an architect of Byzantium, flou- 
 rished about the commeiicemeut of the third 
 
r) 
 
 ii 1 
 
 century before the Christian cvra, and distin- 
 guished himself as a military engineer. There 
 are two treatises ascribed to him yet extant, 
 one on the construction and management of 
 machines of war, another on " The Seven 
 Wonders of the World." — Philo-Jud*:us, a 
 Jew of Alexandria, bom of wealthy parents, 
 and equally well versed in the doctrines of 
 the Greek philosophers, as in the peculiar 
 tenets of his own people. The partiality which 
 he felt for the Platonists seems indeed to have 
 caused much confusion in his mind, through his 
 attempts to amalgamate their philosophy with 
 the Mosaic laws and institutions, and ren- 
 ders it difficult to decide how far his opinions 
 preponderated in favour of either. In the 
 year 45 of the Christian epoch, the citizens of 
 Alexandria, having lodged a complaint against 
 the Jews residing there, charging them, by the 
 mouth of their envoy, Apion, with disaffection 
 to the Roman sovereignty, Philo was selected 
 on the part of the accused, to defend their 
 cause before Caligula ; a service which he 
 found attended with considerable danger, and 
 narrowly escaped with his life, not being per- 
 mitted even to speak upon the subject of his 
 mission. This, however, did not prevent his 
 again visiting Rome in the succeeding reign. 
 There are several editions of his works, which 
 first appeared at Paris in 1552 ; the last and 
 best is that of Mangey, London, 2 vols, folio, 
 1742. The precise time of his decease is un- 
 certain, but he is reported to have embraced 
 Christianity before his death. — Cave. Dupin. 
 Moreri. 
 
 PHILOLAUS of Crotona, a celebrated Py- 
 thagorean philosopher, who flourished EC. 
 375. He was a disciple of Archytas, and 
 flourished in the time of Plato, who purchased 
 from him the written records of the Pythago- 
 rean system, contrary to an express oath 
 taken by the society of Pythagoras, to keep 
 secret the mysteries of their sect. It is pro- 
 bable that among these books, were the wTit- 
 ings of Timseus, upon which Plato formed the 
 dialogue which bore his name. Philolaus fell 
 a sacrifice to political jealousy, being suspected 
 of a design to acquire arbitrary power over his 
 countrymen. The Golden Verses of Pythago- 
 ras have been ascribed to this philosopher, 
 who treated the doctrine of nature with 
 great subtlety, but equal obscurity, referring 
 every tiling that exists to mathematical prin- 
 ciples. He has been erroneously deemed the 
 author of the true system of the world re- 
 vived by Copernicus, against unquestion- 
 able evidence, that Pythagoras acquired it in 
 Egypt. — Dlog. Laert. Briick. 
 
 FHILOPCEMEN. The last great com- 
 mander among the ancient Greeks. He was 
 the son of Granges, and was bom at INIegalo- 
 polis, in Arcadia, BC. 253. Although an 
 orphan, he was carefully educated, and early 
 distinguished himself by his skill in arms, and 
 in defence of his country against the Spartans. 
 Hr finally became praetor, or commander-in- 
 chief of the Acha;an league, and after a long 
 and hazardous course of warfare, he made the 
 Spartans tributary to the Achaeans, and abo- 
 
 P 11 I 
 
 lished the laws of Lycurgus, which had lasted 
 700 years. This severity was by no means 
 pleasing to the Romans, who had now for some 
 time interested themselves in the affairs of 
 Greece, and owing to their interference, this de- 
 cree of the Achaeans against Sparta was annull- 
 ed, and it was ordered that the Lacedaemonians 
 should be again admitted equal members of 
 the Achcean league. Philopcemen, assisted by 
 Lycortas, father of the historian Polybius, re- 
 sisted as long as he was able, but was obliged 
 to yield to the necessity of the times. The 
 end of this great man was very tragical. The 
 IVIessenians havincr seceded from the league, 
 he marched against them, and being obliged to 
 retreat, fell from his horse, and was taken 
 prisoner, on which event, Dinocrates, the 
 Messenian general, threw him into a dungeon, 
 and the ascendant faction ordered him to die 
 by poison. Just as he was about to take off 
 the fatal draught, he received intelligence that 
 the Achaeans had returned, and gained a vic- 
 tory, on which he uttered an exclamation of 
 joy, and calmly emptying the cup, expired, 
 BC. 183, at the age of seventy. His unwor- 
 thy fate excited great grief and resentment, 
 throughout the league, and the Achaeans hav- 
 ing taken Messene, the perpetrators of his 
 death were immolated on his tomb, and a 
 yearly sacrifice was instituted to commemorate 
 his heroism. Philopcemen received the em- 
 phatic appellation of the Last of the Greeks. 
 Plutarch. 
 
 PHILOSTORGIUS, an ancient ecclesias- 
 tical historian, was born in Cappadocia, in 388 
 He pursued his studies at Constantinople ; but 
 few particulars of his life, and no account of 
 his death, are recorded. He wrote an ecclesi- 
 astical history in twelve books, which begins 
 vath the contests between Arius and Alex- 
 ander, and terminates in the year 425. As he 
 was brought up an Arian, he was partial to 
 the opinions of that sect, but his work con- 
 tains many curious things in relation to the 
 antiquities of the church. An abridgment of 
 it is extant in Photius, which, with some ex- 
 tracts out of Suidas, and other authors, was 
 published by Gothofridus, Geneva, 1643, 4to. 
 and subsequently, after a short revision, by 
 Valesius, Paris, 1673, folio, and by Reading, 
 London, 1720, 3 vols, folio. Vossii Hist, 
 Grac. Diipiii. Caie. 
 
 PHILOSTRATUS (Flavius) an Athe 
 nian, or rather, according to Suidas, a Lem- 
 nian writer under Severus, who, with a view 
 to discredit Christianity, vrroie the Life, and 
 an account of the Miracles, of Apollonius Tya- 
 naeus. From the absurdities and contradictions 
 with which his book abounds, it is doubtful 
 how far the author, who undertook the task 
 at the special conmiand of the empress, fol- 
 lowed tradition, or drew on the stores of his 
 own invention. Charles Blount, in 1680, pub- 
 lished an English translation of part of this work, 
 which in the original has excited the attention 
 of many learned and acute critics. The best 
 edition of it is that by Gothofridus Olearius, 
 Leipsic. folio, 1700. — Fabricii Bibl. Gncc. 
 PHILOXENUS. The name of a lyric poe/ 
 
PH O 
 
 end musician of antiquity, bom in the island 
 of Cythera, and equally celebrated for liis wii 
 and gluttony. He was in great favour witli 
 Dionjsius of Syracuse, and is said to Lave 
 obtained a rine turbot from that prince by a 
 l)on mot. Seeint? the fisli jtlaced before the 
 sovereign, at a bamjuet, he feigned to enter 
 into conversation with a gudgeon on his own 
 j)Iate, and in reply to tlie monarch's in(|uiry 
 said, he was endeavouring to obtain some in- 
 formation respecting the Nereids, hut that his 
 little friend had excused himself, on account of 
 his youth, and referred him to the full-grown 
 fish hefore his majesty. A wish of his, that 
 " his throat were as long as that of a crane, 
 ■and all palate," has also been handed down to 
 posterity ; while his compositions, which though 
 *heir genius is admitted, were stigmatized by 
 Plutarch as innovations, are entirely lost. — 
 Biog. Diet, of' Mus. 
 
 PHLEGON, a Greek writer, bom at 
 Tralles, a city of Lydia. lie was one of the 
 learned freedmen of the emperor Adrian, and 
 (survived at least to the eitrhteenth of Antoni- 
 nus Pius. He was the author of various 
 works, of which the most important was that 
 entitled, " Olympiads, or Chronicles," in six- 
 teen books, brought down to the 129th Olym- 
 piad, AD. 137. One of these alone is extant 
 in Photius. He also wTote a treatise, " De 
 Mirabilibus," and another, " De Long?evis," 
 parts of both of which have reached modem 
 times. The best edition of these fragments 
 is that of Meursius, Gr. Lat. 4to. Leyden, 
 1620. The titles of his remaining works are 
 preserved by Suidas, but the history of 
 Adrian, published under his name, was written 
 by Adrian himself. An eclipse, mentioned by 
 Phlegon has been made the subject of much 
 controversy, having been deemed corroborative 
 of the miraculous darkness at the crucifixion ; 
 but Dr Sykes, in a " Dissertation on the 
 Eclipse mentioned by Phlegon," in answer to 
 Whiston, refers it to a natural eclipse of the 
 sun, which happened November 24, in the 
 first year of the 202d Olympiad, and not in 
 the fourth of that in which the crucifixion took 
 place. — Moreri. Lardner's Life of Whiston. 
 
 PHOCION, an Athenian commander, and 
 one of the most virtuous characters of anti- 
 quity, was of humble descent, but received a 
 liberal education under Plato and other philo- 
 sophers. He served his country with great 
 distinction, both in the cabinet and the field, 
 and especially against Philip of Macedon. 
 Although an able general, like all good pa- 
 triots, he was the friend of peace ; hence he 
 was a constant opposer of all the orators, and 
 of Demosthenes among the rest, who never 
 failed to discountenance all prospects of ac- 
 commodation. This unqualified censure and 
 opposition, caused Demosthenes once to ob- 
 serve to him, " The Athenians will certainly 
 some time or another, in a mad fit, put thee to 
 death ;" '* And thee, Demosthenes," he re- 
 plied, " in a sober one." His acknowledged 
 probity, notwithstanding his uncomplying dis- 
 position, caused him to be chosen general 
 forty-five times. When Philip entered Pho- 
 
 r 11 o 
 
 ci.4, with the intention of invading Altif a^ 
 I'bocion was desirous of an accommodation, (int 
 Ijeing over-ruled by Demosthenes, the fatal 
 battle of Cheronea ensued. On the death of 
 I'bilip hechecked the joy ofthe Athenians, and 
 disapproved of the contemptuous allusions to 
 the young Alexander. After the destruction of 
 Thebes, he was employed to assuage the anger 
 of Alexander, and succeeded. On the death 
 of the latter, IMiocion again discouraged the 
 attempts to throw ofF the Macedonian yoke, 
 which he perceived could not succeed. The 
 result proved the clearness of his foresight ; and 
 when in conse(juence the Athenians sued fur 
 peace, he was deputed to treat with Anti- 
 pater, and succeeded, but upon very hard 
 terms, comprising the surrender of the orators, 
 Hesperides and Demosthenes ; the disfran- 
 chisement of a great number of the lower ci- 
 tizens ; and the admission of a garrison into 
 IMunychia, a fort commanding the Piraeus. 
 Phocion was much employed in the conspiracy 
 which followed, but used his authority only 
 to alleviate the evils which had arisen from 
 the neglect of his councils. In the contest 
 between Cassander, the son of Antipater, and 
 Polysperchon, Phocion sided with the party 
 which opposed the latter, who affected to re- 
 store the democracy of Athens. The arrival 
 of Polysperchon with a powerful army, giving 
 the democratical party the ascendancy, with 
 the proverbial inconstancy of the Athenians, 
 Phocion, and a great number of his friends, 
 were condemned to die, and drank poison. 
 BC. 318. So great was the fury of hit; enemies, 
 that liLs body was denied a funeral in his own 
 country, and was carried by a slave, and burnt 
 in the territory of IMegara. Such was the 
 unmerited end of one of the most consistent, 
 disinterested, and virtuous men of antiquity. 
 After his death, his countrymen, repenting 
 their injustice, condemned his accusers, and 
 after having his ashes brought home at the 
 public expense, erected a brazen statue to 
 his memory. — Plutarch. Corn. Kepos. 
 
 PHOTIUS, a patriarch of Constantinople, 
 celebrated about the middle of the ninth cen- 
 tury for the brilliancy of his talents and the 
 depth of his erudition. He was a native of the ca- 
 pital, the ecclesiastical polity of which he was 
 afterwards called upon to superintend, and origi- 
 nally distinguished himself by his learning and 
 ability as a layman ; but having at length en- 
 tered the church, Asbestus, on the expulsion of 
 the patriarch Ignatius, by Bardas, consecrated 
 him to tlie vacant see. 858. During the suc- 
 ceeding ten years, a controversy was carried 
 on with much acrimony between him and the 
 bishop of Rome, each party excommunicating 
 and anathematizing the other ; the conse- 
 quence of which was the complete separation 
 of the eastern and westem churches. Bardas, 
 his patron, being at length taken off by his 
 nephew and associate in the empire, Michael 
 the third, tliat prince was in his turn as- 
 sassinated by Basilius, the Macedonian, who 
 then ascended the throne in 866. But Pho- 
 tius denouncing him for the murder, was in the 
 following year removed, to make way for tha 
 
P I A 
 
 restoration of his old enemy Ignatius, and was 
 forced to retire into banishment. On the 
 death of that patriarch in 878, Photius, by a 
 flattering exposition of a forged document 
 respecting the genealogy of the emperor, ac- 
 quired his favour, and being restored, main- 
 tained himself in the patriarchal chair during 
 the remainder of that reign ; but was at length 
 accused, on insufficient grounds, of conspiring 
 against the new sovereign, Leo the Philoso- 
 pher, when that prince once more removed 
 him, and sent him, in 886, into con- 
 finement in an Armenian monastery, where 
 he died in 891. This learned, though in- 
 triguing prelate, was the author of a Biblio- 
 theca, containing an examen of 280 writers ; 
 of the " Nomocanon," a digest of the ecclesi- 
 astical laws, acts of councils, &c. under four- 
 teen heads ; a " Lexicon of the Greek Lan- 
 guage ;" and numerous epistles. Of the 
 former of these works there are two editions, 
 that of Vienna, 1601, and that of Rouen, fol. 
 1653. Of the Lexicon, printed at Leipsic in 
 1808, there is a much more accurate copy 
 in manuscript at Cambridge. The Letters 
 appeared in one folio volume, in 1651. — Cave, 
 Fahricius. 
 
 PHll^AS, or FREAS (John) a learned 
 and ingenious ICnglish author, born in London 
 about the end of the fourteenth century, and 
 educated at Baliol college, Oxford, in which 
 society he obtained a fellowship, and was 
 subsequently inducted to the living of St. 
 Mary, Bristol. Soon after he went to the 
 Continent, and having continued his studies 
 with great perseverance and success at Fer- 
 rara, Florence, Padua, and other Italian uni- 
 versities, gave lectures in medicine and the 
 belles lettres, in all the above-named cities, 
 to the equal advantage of his reputation and 
 fortune. In 1465, pope Paul II offered him 
 the bishopric of Bath, which he accepted ; 
 but a rival candidate is said to have despatched 
 him by poison, previously to his consecration. 
 The acquisition of this piece of preferment, 
 which proved so fatal to him, is attributed 
 to his liaving dedicated a masterly translation 
 of Diodorus Siculus to the pontiff alluded to. 
 His other works are, " Translations of part of 
 Xenophon, and of Synesius de Laude Cal* 
 vitii," dedicated to John earl of Worcester, 
 v^ith some miscellaneous poems and epistles. 
 II arton's Hist, of Poetry. 
 
 PIA (P. N.) a distinguished chemist, was 
 born at Paris in 17!21. In 1770 he was made 
 echevin, or sheriff, and he determined to sig- 
 nalize his administration by useful establish- 
 ments, one of which was for the recovery of 
 drowned persons, and was eminently success- 
 ful, lie also perfected the instruments for 
 the conveyance of air to the lungs. His es- 
 tablishment was nearly destroyed during the 
 Revolution ; and Pia, losing a large fortune, 
 died in almost a state of indigence, in 1799. 
 He wrote " Description de la Boite d* Entrepot 
 pour les Secours des Noyes," 1770 ; " Details 
 des Succes de I'Etablissement que la Ville de 
 Paris a fait en Faveur des Personnes noyees," 
 1773. — Biocr. IJjiiv, des Contemp. 
 
 V I c 
 
 PIAR, a man of colour, general of tlie ith 
 dependents of, the state of Venezuela, distin- 
 guished himself in his military career by the 
 most indefatigable activity and brilliant va- 
 lour. When Bolivar, after his lauding at 
 Ocumare, marched on Caraccas, he confided to 
 Piar a considerable body of infantry, and when 
 the former was repulsed, Piar managed the 
 retreat with great skill, and afterwards beat 
 the enemy in several rencounters. He was the 
 idol of the soldiers, and his ambition increased 
 with his success. Tired of playing only a se- 
 condary part in the state, he aspired to that 
 of supreme rank. To arrive at this it was ne- 
 cessary to sacrifice the whites, and to com- 
 mence by Bolivar himself. His scheme was, 
 however, discovered, and being arrested, he was 
 tried by a court martial, and was declared 
 guilty of a conspiracy, tending to cause a 
 mutiny among the mulattoes and the In- 
 dians, exciting them to massacre the whites, 
 to possess himself of the supreme command, 
 and he was sentenced to be shot. Bolivar 
 made several vain efforts to save him, but was 
 at length obliged to sign his death warrant. 
 Arrived outside the gates of Angustuia, Piar 
 placed himself in front of the soldiers, and 
 opening his breast, he commanded them to 
 shoot. He fell, pierced with seven balls. 
 His ambitious projects were soon forgotten, 
 but his feats of arms are still celebrated by 
 the warriors of Colombia. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PIAZETTA (JoHxSL Baptist) an artist, 
 was born at Venice, in 1683. He was a great 
 follower of the style of Spagnoletti and Guer- 
 cino, exciting surprise and horror by his sud- 
 den contrasts of light and shade ; but his me- 
 thod of colouring produced dissonance and 
 spots on the canvas. His chief excellence 
 lay in caricatures, in which he was, perhaps, 
 unparalleled ; he also succeeded greatly in 
 busts and heads for cabinets. He died in 
 1754. — Pilkingtoji, by Fuseli, 
 
 PICARD (John) a distiguished French 
 astronomer and mathematician, who was a na- 
 tive of La Fleche. He embraced the ecclesi- 
 astical profession, and became prior of Rille, 
 in Anjou ; but subsequently settling at Paris, 
 he was made astronomer to the Academy of 
 Sciences. In 1671 he was sent by Louis XIV 
 to Uraniburg, in Denmark, to make astrono- 
 mical observations ; and on his return to 
 France, he brought with him the MSS. of 
 Tycho Brahe. He was the conductor of the 
 " Connoissance des Temps," for which he 
 made calculations from 1679 to 1683. Picard 
 commenced the measurement of a degree of 
 the meridian, in France ; and he first ap- 
 plied the telescope to quadrants ; and 
 also observed the phosphoretig light in the 
 vacuum of the barometer. He wrote on di- 
 optrics, mensuration, &c. — Uuttons Mathem. 
 Diet. 
 
 PICARETEL (O. N.) prior of Neuilly, a 
 member of the academy of Dijon, died in 
 1794. He wrote " Les Deux Abdalonymes, 
 Ilistoire Phenicienne ;" " L'Histoire M^teoro- 
 logique Nozologique, et Economique, pour 
 I'Anuee 1785." He commenced a urcat work, 
 
P IC 
 
 entitled " Gramle Apoloafetique," which was 
 to have contained the refutation of all the he- 
 resies which have arisen in the world since tlie 
 establishment of Christianity ; hut the decline 
 of his health ol)lif;^ed him to relinciuish it. J Us 
 brotiier, who died ai)out the same time, was 
 counsellor of the marble table of the jjalace of 
 Dijon, and also member of the academy of that 
 city. He was the author of a "Journal de« 
 Observations du Barometre de Lavoisier," and 
 of some estimable poems. Their sister, ma- 
 dame Guyton .Morveau, is known by several 
 German and Swedish translations. — i^iog. 
 Nour. des Contemp. 
 
 PICART (Bfrnaud) a French engraver, 
 born in 167;). He first studied the art of de- 
 sign under his father, and then applied himself 
 particularly to architectural engraving, in the 
 school of Sebastian Le Clerc. Being a Pro- 
 testant, he was induced to emigrate from 
 France, in consequence of the religious perse- 
 cutions which occurred under the government 
 of Louis XIV, wl-.en he settled at Amsterdam. 
 He worked chiefly for the booksellers ; and 
 the principal publications iu which he was con- 
 cerned were, " Histoire g6n6rale des Cere- 
 monies, ]Ma:urs, et Coutumes lleligieuses de 
 tons les Peuples representees, en 24-3 figures 
 dessinees de la Main de B. Picart," 9 vols. 
 folio; "Superstitions anciennes et modernes, 
 prejuges vulgaires qui ont induit les Peuples a 
 des Usages, a des Pratiques contraires a la 
 Peligion," 1733, 2 vols, folio ; another of his 
 works was entitled, " Le Temple des Muses." 
 His death happened in 1733. A posthumous 
 collection of his engravings was published at 
 Amsterdam. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 PICCINI (Nicolas) one of the most in- 
 dustrious and oiiginal composers of the Nea- 
 politan school of music. He was born at Bari, 
 near Naples, in 1728, and was intended for the 
 church, a destination which the decided talent 
 evinced by him for music, induced his father 
 reluctantly to forego. Having studied twelve 
 years at the conservatory of Sant Onofrio, 
 under the celebrated Durante, he commenced 
 his professional career in 17o4', with die comic 
 opera " Le Donne Dispettose," which was very 
 favourably received at the Florentini theatre 
 in Naples. He then went to Rome, where his 
 " La Buona Figluola" placed him at once at 
 the head of his profession, and met with a 
 success beyond all precedent, being performed 
 in a short time on the boards of every musical 
 theatre in Europe. For fifteen years he con- 
 tinued the rage at Rome, when the rising re- 
 putation of Anfossi, a far inferior composer, 
 induced him to quit that capital for France, 
 having already set to music, according to Sac- 
 chini, above 300 operas. On his arrival in 
 Paris, he began to study the language, under 
 Marmontel, and, by the assistance which he 
 afforded him, reset six operas of Quinault. The 
 opera of Roland, however, his first original 
 one in this country, was scarcely brought out, 
 before a contest commenced, one of the most 
 famous in musical annals. Gluck at this time 
 was in the zenith of his reputation, and the 
 dispute respecting the comparative cjcceiien- 
 
 PIC 
 
 cies of the German and Italian scliools, soon 
 (livid. (1 all I'aris into two parlies, the rival 
 eompos' IS being, perhaps, the only persons in 
 the capital who did not carry it on with .".cri- 
 mony, A singing school being soon after es- 
 tablished, Piccini was placed at its head, till 
 the breaking out of the K<'Volation, when he re- 
 tired to his native country, but was received 
 there with great coldness by the goverr'JK-nt, 
 and forbidden to appear in jjubLc. \ u re he 
 remained in comparative indigence and obscu- 
 rity till 1799, when Buonaparte invited him 
 again to Paris, and restored his emoluments, 
 appointing him also inspector of the national 
 conservatory. In this situation he remained 
 till his death, in 1801. — Life, bij Giuguen^. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI, the name of a noble Ita- 
 lian family, long seated at Sienna, which lias 
 in various ages produced eminent statesmen, 
 warriors, and scholars. Among the latter 
 class the most distinguished are, Alexander, 
 born in Sienna in 1508. He was an ecclesi- 
 astic of great ability and acuteness, as well as 
 of deep erudition, and is said to have been the 
 first who treated of philosophical subjects in 
 the modern Italian. His application to se- 
 verer studies did not, however, prevent the cul- 
 tivation of the belles lettres, and several dra- 
 matic pieces of his composition are said to 
 have been deservedly popular in their day. 
 He was also the author of a treatise "On the 
 Theory of the Planets ;" " Moral Institutes ;" 
 " On the Sphere;" and, "The Morality of 
 Nobles." A licentious dialogue, entitled, 
 " Delia bella Creanza delle Donne," has been 
 ascribed to him ; but the internal evidence 
 contained in the work renders the testimony, 
 to say the least, suspicious. He died in 1578, 
 archbishop of Patras, and coadjutor of Sienna. 
 — Francesco Piccolomini, born in 1520, in 
 the same city, acquired a great reputation over 
 all Italy for his learning, during the latter half 
 of the sixteenth century, and held various 
 professorships in different universities. His 
 principal works are, a treatise on " The Ge- 
 neral Philosophy of Morals," printed in folio ; 
 and some commentaries on the writintrs of 
 Aristotle. His death took place at Sienna in 
 160-1. — ^-Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini, after- 
 wards pope Pius II, (see Pius II,) was of this 
 family, in compliment to whom James Am- 
 mati, a Lucchese, successively bishop of 
 Massa and Frescati, assumed the name ou 
 being raised to the j)urple in l^ol. He wrote 
 an account of the transactions of his own 
 times, from 1464 to 1469, and at his death, 
 which took place a few years after the last 
 mentioned date, at the age of fifty-seven, 
 Sixtus the Fourth seized upon his property, 
 and with it founded and endowed the hospital 
 of Spirito Santo at Rome. — Tiraboschi. Morei-i. 
 PICHEGRU (Charles) a celebrated 
 French general, wiiose talents became deve- 
 loped during tlie jirogress of the wars which 
 
 I originated from the Revolution. He was born 
 at Arbois, in Franche Comte, in 1761, and his 
 
 j parents belonged to the lower lanks of society. 
 
 I He received his earlv education at the colli'se 
 
 I of Arbois, and studied philosophy among the 
 
P IC 
 
 friars minims at that place. Showing a de- 
 cided partiality for the exact sciences, those 
 fathers sent young Pichegru to learn mathe- 
 matics at their college of Brieune. He did 
 not, however, as was reported, enter into any 
 religious order ; but quitting Brienne, he en- 
 listed in the 1st regiment of artillery. His 
 merit soon attracted the notice of his oflEicers, 
 and he was raised from the ranks to be a ser- 
 geant. In 1789 lie had been made an adju- 
 tant ; and on the Revolution taking place, he 
 was still farther promoted. He was then ap- 
 pointed to the command of a battalion of the 
 National guards, among whom he introduced 
 order and subordination. In 179'i he served 
 on the staff of the army of the Rhine, and 
 rapidly advanced from the rank of general of 
 brigade, to that of general of division, till, in 
 1793, he took the chief command of that 
 army, just after it had been almost disorgan- 
 ized by the disasters which had occurred at the 
 lines of Weissembourg, and in the retreat to 
 Zorn. Notwithstanding he was interrupted 
 in liis plans by the jealousy of Hoche, who 
 ioined him with the army of the Moselle, and 
 assumed a superior authority, he succeeded in 
 restoring discipline and confidence among the 
 troops, the fruit of which was the victory of 
 Haguenau, gained December 23, 1793. In 
 February 1794, Pichegru took the command 
 of the army of the North, where he was em- 
 barrassed by many difficulties, arising from the 
 flight of generals Dumouriez and Lafayette, 
 and the pernicious influence of the conven- 
 tional commissioners, St Just and Lebas. But 
 Pichegru surmounted the obstacles thus op- 
 posed to him, recalled his soldiers to a sense 
 of their duty, and undertook the conquest of 
 Holland, the most brilliant of all his exploits. 
 On the 19th of January, 1793, he entered 
 Amsterdam ; and in the beginning of February 
 he bad made himself master of the whole 
 country, without any enemy to oppose him. 
 Soon after he received orders to direct the ope- 
 rations of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, 
 and as he still retained the chief command of 
 that of the North and of the Sambre and Meuse, 
 he had the control of a larger body of troops 
 than any other general who was not a sove- 
 reign prince. Going to Paris, the National 
 Convention appointed him commandant of 
 that city in April 1795, that he might resist 
 the designs of the Terrorists, which he hap- 
 ])ily effected. In the course of the same year 
 he obtained some advantages over the enemy 
 towards the Rhine, and took Manheim on the 
 20th of September; but having received a 
 check in November, his enemies took advan- 
 tage of the circumstance, and obliged him to 
 resign his command. He then retired to a 
 private life, and some time after he was of- 
 fered the post of ambassador to Sweden, 
 which he did not accept ; and in March 1797, 
 he was chosen deputy from the department of 
 Jura to the counsel of five hundred. He only 
 retained his office till the 4th of September, 
 when a new revolution taking place, he was 
 one of the sixty-five deputies, who, together 
 wi^hCamot and Barthelemy, two of thedirec- 
 
 PI c 
 
 tors, were declared by their coadjutors guilty 
 of a royalist conspiracy, and condenmed to de- 
 portation. Pichegru, with others, was sent to 
 Cayenne, whence he made his escape to Eng- 
 land. Engaging in the schemes of the emi- 
 grants against the government of Buonaparte, 
 he went to Paris in the early part of the year 
 1804. He was soon arrested, and committed 
 a prisoner to the Temple, where he was found 
 dead, (having been strangled,) on the 6th of 
 April. Whether Pichegru died by his own 
 hand, or by that of an assassin, employed by 
 the party into whose power he had fallen, is a 
 question which has been frequently and 
 warmly agitated between the admirers and 
 the enemies of Buonaparte, who, in this coun- 
 try at least, was openly accused of having or- 
 dered the murder of his captive. — Diet, cles H. 
 M. (ill 18me. S. Bios;. Univ. Bio^. Nouv. des 
 Con temp. 
 
 PICHON (Thomas John) doctor of divi- 
 nity, and administrator of the hospital of 
 Mans, where he was born in 1731. He at- 
 tached himself to M. d'Arincourt, bishop of 
 Figuera, who made him canon of the 
 church of Mans. He was also historiographer 
 to Monsieur. His works are numerous : the 
 principal are, " La Raison Triomphante des 
 Nouveautes ;" " Traite Historique et Critique 
 de la Nature de Dieu ;" " Cartel aux Philo- 
 sophes ;" "La Physique de I'Histoire ;" 
 ' ' Memoire sur les Abus d u Celibat dans I'Ordre 
 politique;" "Memoire sur les Abus dans les 
 Marriages;" " Des Etudes Theologiques," 
 which contain some philosophical ideas which 
 contrast very strongly vrith the spirit of his 
 other works, and have been severely repro- 
 bated; "Sacreet Couronnementde Louis XVI, 
 precede de Recherches sur le Sacre des Rois 
 de France, et suivi d'un Journal Historique 
 de ce qui s'est passe a cette Ceremonie,'* of 
 which the journal only is Pichon's ; " Exa- 
 men de I'Homme de Helvetius ;" " Les Ar- 
 guments de la Raison en faveur de la Reli- 
 gion et du Sacerdoce." Pichon died in 1812. 
 — Biflg. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 
 PICTET (Benedict) an ecclesiastic of 
 Geneva, born there in 1655. Having com- 
 pleted his studies in the college of his native 
 city, he travelled over a great part of the Eu- 
 ropean continent, and visited England. On 
 his return through the Low Countries his re- 
 putation as a theologian procured him an offer 
 of the divinity professorship at Leyden. This, 
 however, he thought proper to decline, in fa 
 vour of a similar situation at Geneva, which 
 he filled with great credit and ability till his 
 decease in the summer of 1724. Among his 
 works on devotional subjects are, " Christian 
 Morahty," l2mo, 8 vols. ; " Christian Theo- 
 logy," a Latin treatise, in 3 vols. 4to ; " On 
 Indifference in Matters of Religion ;" to^fe- 
 ther With a variety of sermons, religious 
 tracts, pastoral and other letters, &c. As an 
 historian, he is advantageously known by his 
 " Annals of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Cen. 
 turies," 4to, 2 vols, — Nouv. Diet. Hist 
 
 PICUS (John) or Giovanni Pico di Miran- 
 dola, one of the celebrated Italian literati c f 
 
I* I E 
 
 tlie fifteentli century, wlio contributed to the 
 revival and diffusion of learninj^ in Kuropc. 
 He was born in 1463, and was the Bon of the 
 prince of JMirandola and Concordia. Having 
 been deprived of his father when younjj, his 
 mother did not suffer his education to be ne- 
 glected ; and such was the progress he made 
 in his studies, that at the agje of fourteen he 
 was sent to the university of Bologna. He af- 
 terwards visited the most noted seats of learn- 
 ing in Italy and France. In 14B2 he erected, 
 on his own estate, a villii which he called 
 Fratta, in praise of which he wrote a Latin 
 poem. He is said to have been acquainted 
 with twenty- two languages when he was but 
 eighteen. Trithemius, his contemporary, says 
 he was master of all the liberal arts, that he 
 cultivated with success Latin, Greek, and He- 
 brew literature, was aa admirable poet, and 
 the most learned philosopher and skilful dis- 
 putant of the age. Settling at Florence, he 
 addressed a panegyric to Lorenzo de' Medici, 
 whose patronage he obtained. In 1486 he 
 went to Rome, where he published theses on 
 various sciences, challenging all the world to 
 debate with him the propositions contained in 
 them. But instead of opponents such as he 
 expected, he encountered an accusation of he- 
 resy, and tliirteea of his propositions being 
 censured by pope Innocent VIII, he was si- 
 lenced, and thought proper to leave Rome. 
 He theu returned to Florence, where he com- 
 posed an apology for his opinions ; and in 1488 
 he took up his residence on an estate near 
 Florence, given him by Lorenzo de' Medici, 
 devoting his time to various literary pursuits. 
 After the death of his friend Lorenzo, he re- 
 tired to Ferrara, having previously disposed of 
 the estate of Mirandola to his nephew. 'i"he 
 latter part of his life was dedicated to the study 
 of theology; and he wTOte a work, entitled 
 " Heptaplus," relating to the beginning of 
 Genesis ; and another on the Psalms. His 
 death took place at Florence, in 1496. Picus 
 is one of tlie learned men whom Naud^ has 
 thought it necessary to vindicate from the 
 charge of being a magician. He was cer- 
 tainly regarded by his contemporaries as a very 
 remarkable personage ; and the elder Scaliger 
 styles him, " Monstrum sine vitio ;" while 
 Politian says he was the phoenix among the 
 great geniuses of his time. His works were 
 published collectively in 1601, folio. — Life of 
 Picus by Gresswell. Biog, Univ. — John 
 Francis' Picus, nephew of the former, also 
 cultivated literature with great success. He 
 ■wrote a life of Jerome Savonarola ; works on 
 theology ; and Latin poetry. He was mur- 
 dered in his own castle of JMirandola, toge- 
 ther with his son, by his nephew Galeoti 
 Picus, in IbSo. — Freheri Theatr, Viror. Doct. 
 Tirnboschi. 
 
 PIERCE (Edward) an English painter in 
 the reigns of Charles I and II, was distin- 
 guished both in history and landscape. His 
 works consisted chieHy of altarpieces and 
 ceilings of churches, the greater part of which 
 were destroyed in the fire of London in 1666. 
 He worked some lime with Vandyke, and se- 
 
 P IG 
 
 1 vrral of his pieces are seen at Belvoir castle. 
 He had three suns, one of whom wa«an excel- 
 lent sculptor, and executed the statues of sir 
 Thomas Greshum and Edward 111 at the 
 royal exchange. — IValpole's Aiieciiolet. 
 
 PIERKK (CoKNEiLLE de la; or Cornelius 
 a Lapide, a Jesuit, bom in the bishopric of 
 Liege, who became professor of theology at 
 Louvaine, and afterwards at Rome. He was 
 the author of a great many religious works, in- 
 cluding commentaries on the Scrii)ture8, which 
 are much esteemed. The latter have been 
 published in ten volumes folio. He died at 
 Rome in 1657, aged seventy-one. — Diet. Hist, 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PIGALLE (John" Baptist) a celebrated 
 French sculptor. He was a native of Paris, 
 and studied his art in Italy, where he made 
 himself familiar with the famous monuments 
 of antiquity. Returning to France, he be- 
 came chancellor of the academy of painting at 
 Paris, and was made a knight of the order of 
 St Michael, and appointed sculptor to the, 
 king. He died in 1785. Pigalle executed 
 statues of Mercury and Venus, for the king of 
 Prussia ; a figure of a girl taking a thorn from 
 her foot ; the monument of marshal Saxe ; 
 besides many other works of less importance. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PIG HI US. There were two learned eccle- 
 siastics of this name, uncle and nephew, who 
 flourished in the sixteenth century. They 
 were both natives of Campen in the Dutch 
 province of Overyssel. — Albert, the elder, 
 born in 1490, received his education at Lou- 
 vaine and Cologne, and exerted himself stre- 
 nuously as a champion of the Romish church, 
 against the progress of the reformed doctrines. 
 His principal work, in which he enveighs with 
 much acrimony against Luther and Melanc- 
 thon, is entitled " Assertio Hierarchiae Eccle- 
 siasticae," folio. His other writings are, " Oii 
 the proper IMethod of celebrating the Easter 
 Festival ;" "A Defence of Astrology ;" and 
 a tract " On the Solstices, the Equinox, «Scc." 
 His death took place in 1542 at Utrecht, 
 where he was provost of the church of St 
 John. — Stephanus Vixandus, the younger 
 of the two, was born in 1520, and went early 
 in life to Rome, where he passed ten years in 
 devoting himself to the study of classical litera- 
 ture, and the antiquities in which that capital 
 abounds. The reputation he had acquired for 
 learning, induced the prince of Juliers and 
 Cleves to place his son Charles, a young 
 prince of great promise, under his tuition ; 
 but his pupil dying prematurely, Pighius cele- 
 brated his good qualities and talents, to the 
 full development of which time only was 
 wanting, in a eulogium, entitled " Hercules 
 Prodicus." His other works are, " Annales 
 seu Fasti Romanorum Magistratuum et Provin 
 ciarum," and the first good edition ever pub- 
 lished of the works of \'alerius Maximus ; the 
 latter is in 8vo, 1585. He eventually obtained 
 a canonry at Santen, where he was also mas- 
 ter of the grammar school, and died there in 
 1604. — Moieri. 
 
 PIGNA (Giovanni Battista) a rhetori- 
 
PIG 
 
 cian of Ferrara, born 1530. He received liis 
 education in the university of his native 
 place, and became professor of eloquence 
 there. Pigna was the aathor of a work enti- 
 tled " The Prince ;" a " History of the House 
 of Este ;" a " Treatise on the Life and Writ- 
 ings of Ariosto," and some miscellaneous 
 poems. His death took place in 1575. — Tira- 
 boschi. 
 
 PIGNEAUX (N.) bishop of Audran, was 
 born in the department of the Aisne, in 1740. 
 In 1770 he went as a missionary to Cochin 
 China, with the authority of the pope, and the 
 title of apostolical vicar of that country. He 
 gained the esteem of the king, Caung-Schung, 
 who confided to him the education of his only 
 son. M. Pigneaux, when bishop of Audran, 
 redoubled his zeal for the prosperity of his 
 flock ; but the troubles which disturbed the 
 empire of his protector, obliged him to fly to 
 the town of Sat-Gond, whence he proposed in- 
 voking the assist:ince of France. The king 
 of Cochin China was surprised by three am- 
 bitious brothers, who overthrew his empire, 
 and forced him to seek an asylum in the isle 
 of Pulo-Wa. The Ijishop departed for France 
 in 1787, taking his pupil with him. He formed 
 an offensive and defensive league between 
 France and Cochin China, and returned with 
 the title of ambassador extraordinary to the 
 court of that kingdom. Before his arrival at 
 Cochin China, the French Revolution broke 
 out, and all help was refused him. He did 
 not lose his courage, but going to the isle of 
 Pulo-Wa, he brought from thence Caung- 
 Schung, who profiting by the discontent of his 
 subjects, who were tired of the usurpers, re- 
 gained his empire in 1760. He created M. 
 Pigneaux his first minister, and under his di- 
 rection he founded several important manufac- 
 tories. The bishop translated for him a Trea- 
 tise on Tactics into Chinese, and instituted 
 schools, to which fathers of famiUes were ob- 
 liged to send their children at the age of four 
 years* He died in 1800, and was buried by 
 the missionaries, but Caung-Schung, dissatis- 
 fied with their ceremony, caused him to be 
 disinterred, and rendered him funeral honours 
 after the manner of the Cochin- Chinese. — 
 Biog. Nouv, des Contemp. 
 
 PIGNORIUS (Lorenzo) a learned eccle- 
 siastic of Padua, boi'n there in 1571. He 
 studied at the university of that city, and 
 having formed an intimate acquaintance 
 with the celebrated Galileo, that philosopher 
 procured him the offer of a professorship in 
 the belles lettres at Pisa, an appointment, 
 however, which his love of retirement and 
 af leisure for pursuing his studies in his own 
 way, induced him to decline. He was the au- 
 thor of several ingenious works, written in the 
 Latin language, particularly of a treatise in- 
 tended to throw a light on the ancient Egyp- 
 tian mysteries. This book, which evinces 
 much reading, is entitled " Mensa Isiaca." 
 He also wrote " On the treatment and offices 
 of the Slaves among the Ancients ;" " On the 
 early History of Padua ;" some miscellaneous 
 poetry, &c. Cardinal Francis Barberini, who 
 
 PI L 
 
 esteemed him much, obtained for him in 1630 
 a canonry at Treviso, where he died the fol- 
 lowing year, of the plague. — -Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PlGNOTTl (Lorenzo) an Italian histo- 
 rian and poet, was born at Figliena in Tus- 
 cany, in 1739. Being left an orphan, he was 
 brought up by an uncle at Arezzo, and was 
 placed at a seminary in that city, where, by 
 his brilliant progress, he attracted the notice 
 of the bishop, who encouraged him in his stu- 
 dies, and even offered him a chair in the se- 
 minary, which he declined, not being willing 
 to enter into the monastic state. In conse- 
 quence of his refusal, his uncle withdrew his 
 protection, and through the kindness of his 
 brother-in-law, Pignotti finished his studies in 
 the university of Pisa. After taking his de- 
 grees in medicine, he went to Florence, and 
 was created professor of j)hysic in the new 
 academy of the archduke Leopold. In the 
 midst of his more abstruse studies, Pignotti 
 amused himself with composing fables, which 
 have not the conciseness of those of ^sop or 
 Phccdrus, nor the naivete of La Fontaine, but 
 are piquant and elegant. He also published a 
 poem, entitled " La Treccia rapita," in which, 
 contrary to other comic poets, who make the 
 muses speak in the most vulgar language, he 
 has blended a kind of dignity v/itli the ridi- 
 culous. His great w'ork, the history of Tus- 
 cany, is divided into five books, in which he 
 depicts, in a striking manner, all the vicissi- 
 tudes of that country ; and. in five disserta- 
 tions, added to his history, he has treated of 
 important questions which throw a great light 
 on the epochs of which he writes. His health 
 declined under this great labour, and in 1801 
 his government dispensed with his public les- 
 sons, and he was afterwards created historio- 
 grapher of the court, member of the council of 
 public instruction, and finally rector of the 
 university of Pisa. He died in 1812, and was 
 buried in the Campo Santo of Pisa, where a 
 monument is erected to his memory. — Biog. 
 Univ. des Contenvp. 
 
 PILES (Roger de) a writer on painting, 
 was born at Clanieci in 1635, and was brought 
 up to the church ; but having a great taste for 
 painting, he became tutor to the son of M. 
 Amelot, whom he accompanied in a tour to 
 Italy, and when his pupil was appointed am- 
 bassador to Venice, Lisbon, and Switzerland, 
 De Piles accompanied him as his secretary. 
 In 1692 he was sent by the French ministry 
 into Holland, as a secret negociator ; but his 
 errand being discovered, he was imprisoned 
 for five years, during which period he com- 
 posed his" Lives of the Painters." His other 
 works are, " An Abridgment of Anatomy, for 
 the Use of Painters and Sculptors ;" •' Con- 
 versations on Painting ;" " Elements of Paint- 
 ing ;" and " Abregfe de la Vie des Peintres, 
 avec des Reflexions sur leurs Ouvrages et un 
 Traite du Peintre parfait," which has been 
 translated into English, with an appendix on. 
 the English school of painting. Piles died in 
 1709. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PILKINGTON (James) bishop of Dur- 
 ham in the sixteenth century. This learned 
 
PI N 
 
 PI N 
 
 prelate wag a native of lUvington, T.anra- i Dah.-lielim, an ancient king of InJia. lie Is 
 Fliire, where he was born in l.)2(),aiul stndii'd celehratfil for liis Look of Apoloj^ues, or F:i- 
 at St John's coIK-ge, CarnbriiKjre. ovtr wliich ' bics, a work replete witli moral ami political 
 society lie was afterwards selected to preside. I precepts, k is called in the Indian lanj^ua-je, 
 On the restoration to power of the Iloinisli ' Kclile W^idmuie, a name siijnif^iii},' " The 
 party in England, under IMary, doctor I'd- ' Fox," winch animal is ina.le the principal in- 
 kinifton was, in common with maiiy of his [ terlocutor. J t is said to have been written '2000 
 brethren, forced to Dee to the continent, where years 15C. ; but tiie work contaiiit. manv proofs 
 he remained, till the death of that princess and that it was of a much later period. It 
 
 the accession of Elizabeth paved tlie way for 
 Iiis return. Soon after this event he was ele- 
 
 has been translated into most modern Ian- 
 gua'^^es, and the best European version is paid 
 
 vated to the see of Durham, which valuable : to be that of !M. Galland, in French, 1714, 
 preferment he held till bis decease. Among I 2 vols. Another work attributed to Pilpav 
 ids writin.;3 is a valuable Commentary on the was also translated by the same writer, and 
 l^ooks of the Old and Xew 'IVstaments. His was entitled, " Le Naufra'^e des Isles Flot- 
 death took place in lo7o. — Biog. Jyrit. I tantes, on la I'asiliade." — D'llerbelot. Jlyde 
 
 Pli>KINGTON (L.tTiTiA) aspriijhtly and de Ludis Orient. 
 entertaininaf authoress, the friend of Swift, PIXDAU, the most famous lyric poet of 
 and intimate with many of the wits of the ancient Greece, was a native of Cynoscepbala, 
 period. Her maiden name was Van Lewen, near 'i'hebes, in Bocotia. The time of !iis birth 
 she being the daughter of a physician of that j is uncertain, but he was at the height of his 
 name, of Dutch extraction, but [uactisiiiij in ' reputation at the a^ra of the expedition of 
 ]J)ublin, where she was born in 1712. When Xerxes, BC.180. Of the particulars of bis life 
 
 very young, her mental as well as personal 
 cliarms obtained her many admirers, to one of 
 whom, tlie rev Matthew Pilkington, himself 
 a man of wit and talent, she was soon united ; 
 but the marriage proved an unhappy one, 
 through the jealousy of her husbaiul, which 
 apj)eared not to have been excited without 
 sufficient foundation. A temporary separation 
 was fol'iowi'd by a reconciliation, a;id the par- 
 tieb came together to London, where, similar 
 disagreement taking place, they finally parted. 
 The imputation thrown upon her character by 
 these too well-grounded suspicions, ap])eart:to 
 Lave seriously injured her in the opinion of 
 her friends, as we soon after find her confined 
 
 but little is known, but he appears to have 
 courted the gfat by encomiastic verses, which 
 were at the service of those who paid for 
 them. Two of his principal patrons were 
 Theron of Agrigentum, and Iliero, of Syra- 
 cuse ; and he also celebrated the city of 
 Athens, in a manner which excited the dis- 
 pleasure of his countrymen, who imposed a 
 fine upon him, which the Athenians doubly 
 repaid, and erected a statue to his honour. He 
 is said to have died in the public theatre, at 
 the age of fifty- five, and his memo.y was held 
 in such honour, that on the capture of Thebes, 
 first by the Lacedemonians, and afterwards by 
 Alexander, the house in which he had lived 
 
 for debt in the IMarshalsea, and depending en- ' was spared. Pindar compose d a great nun.ber 
 tirely for support upon her pen. On her libe- I and variety of pieces ; but those which have 
 ration she attempted to maintain herself by reached posterity are odes, celebrating the 
 the sale of books, and commenced business in p'ictora in the four great games of Greece j 
 St James's parish, with a cai)ital amounting, the O.ympian, Pythean, jNemean, and Isth- 
 it is saitl, to no more than five guineas. Such mian. These possess the characteristics of 
 
 a speculation failed, as might have been ami 
 cipated, and she was afterwards indebted for 
 her subsistence, ])artly to her writings and 
 partly to the bounty of her literary acquaint 
 
 fire, rapidity, a-id variety, for w hich he is so 
 praised by the ancients, but are frequently ob- 
 scure to the modern reader, from the difficulty 
 of comprehending the point and beauty of 
 
 ance. Among the latter, Colley Gibber was | much of the allusion, which must have been 
 eery kind to her, and assiitcd her materially j w-ell understood by his contemporaries. Xo 
 in the disposal of her works, one of wldch, poet has been more highly praised than Pin- 
 containing memoirs of her own life, was writ- ! i!ar, who is loftily extolled by Plato, Horace, 
 ten with much talent, and embracing anecdotes Quintilian, and Longinus. Besides his bold 
 of many of her contemiioiaiies, produced her ditiiyrambics, Horace notices his pathetic and 
 a handsome sum of money. She also wrote a ! moral commemorations of departed excellence, 
 variety of miscellaneous pieces, in a light and [ all which are unfortunately lost. Xo writer 
 
 elegant style, as well as two dramatic compo 
 sitions, " The Roman Father," a tragedy, 
 and " The Turkish Court, or London Ap- 
 prentice," a comedy. A habit of intempje- 
 rance in the use of spirituous liquors, con- 
 tracted during the period of her distresses, at 
 length undermined a coiistituiion naturally 
 good, and carried her ofi" in her thirty-eii;hth 
 yt^ar, at Dublin, during the summer of 17o0. — 
 Memoirs. Biog. Dram. 
 
 PILPAY, or BIDPAY, an ancient orien- 
 tal philosopher, of whom nothing is known, 
 except that he was the counsellor and vizier of 
 
 Bioo. DiCT. — Vol,. IT. 
 
 has been more miseialjly imitated by modern 
 poets than Pindar ; the failure in catching 
 ids peculiar spirit being so notorious, that a 
 Pindaric ode is degenerated into a sort of 
 burlescjue expression. The latest and best 
 edition of this admired poet is that of Heyne, 
 1798, 8vo. which contains the Greek Scholia. 
 Ihere is an English versiou of Pindar, by 
 Gilbert West, which is much esteemed. — • 
 Vosii Poet. Gra-c. Moreri. Preface to Odes, 
 t(/ Gilhert West. 
 
 PIXE (John) an eminent engiaver, was 
 born in 1690. Of his birth and education 
 2 U 
 
PIN 
 
 little Is known, except that he gave indica- 
 tijns of having been classically instructed. 
 He i-) besc known for h'.s admirable prints, ten 
 in number, representing die tapestry hangings 
 in tlie House of Lords, whicli were so highly 
 approved, that the parlianunt passed an act 
 to secure to him tlie einoluiuent arising from 
 them. He engraved live other plates to ac- 
 company them ; a view of die creation of 
 Charles Brandon, duke of Sufiblk ; the House 
 of Peers, with Henry VIll on the throne ; 
 the same, with the reigning king on the 
 throne and the Commons at tlie bar ; the 
 House of Commons ; and the Trial of Lord 
 Lovatin Westminster-hall. He also engraved 
 the whole text of Horace, and Virgil's Bu- 
 colics and Georgics, which he illustrated 
 with ancient bas-reliefs and gems. Tliese, 
 with ^lagna Cliarta; are his principal works. 
 In 1743, he was made Blue-mantle to the 
 Herald's college, and afterwards engraver of 
 signet seals and stamps. He died May 4, 
 1756. — Walpjle's Anec. 
 
 PINELLI (John Vincent) an ItaUan no- 
 bleman, celebrated as a book-collector. He 
 was descended of a Genoese family, but 
 was born at jS'aples in 1533. He stu- 
 died at Padua, and settling in that city, he 
 formed, at a vast expense, a most valuable 
 library of printed books and manuscripts. He 
 died in 1601. The library, after being vastly 
 augmented by his successors, was, on the 
 death of his descendant, Maffei Pine Hi, sold 
 to two London booksellers, Robson of Bond- 
 street, and Edwards of Pall-mall, who re- 
 moved the books to London in 1790, and sold 
 them by auction. An excellent catalogue of 
 this collection was compiled by the abbe Mo- 
 relli, and published in 5 vols. 8vo, from which 
 was made an abstract as a sale catalogue, 
 17; 0, Qvo.—Thaboschi. 
 
 PIXGERON (Jean-Claude) a French 
 writer, secretary of the museum of Paris, and 
 member of the academy of Barcelona, was 
 born at Lyons in 1730. He took arms in 
 the Polish service, in which he became captain 
 of artillery and engineers. He travelled a 
 great deal in Europe, and in 1776 he accom- 
 panied the abbe Sestini in his journey from 
 Catania to mount Gibel. In 1779 he was 
 concerned in the " Journal d'Agriculture, 
 du Commerce, des Arts, et des Finances," to 
 which he contributed more particularly ar- 
 ticles on public utility. He died at Versailles, 
 in 1795. His works are principally transla- 
 tions; they are, " Trait6 des Vertus et des 
 Recompenses," from the Italian of the mar- 
 quis of Hvne ; " Conseils d'une 3Iere a son 
 Fils," of Madame Piccolomini Gerardi ; " Es- 
 sai sur la Peinture," of Count Algarotti ; 
 " I'raite des Violences publiques et parti- 
 culieres, avec une Dissertation sur les Devoirs 
 des INIagistrats ;" "Les Abeilles" of Ruc- 
 celai ; " \'oyage dans la Grece Asiatique, of 
 the Abbe Sestini ;" Vies des Architecies an- 
 ciens et modernes," from Milizia ; with 
 numerous translations from the English, and 
 Dtlier languages, scit-ntitic and descriptive. — 
 ij/.i^. Koui. des Contemp. 
 
 P IN 
 
 PINGRE (Alexander Guy) a cele 
 brated modern astronomer and mathematicirai, 
 born at Paris in 1711. He adopted tne ec- 
 clesiastical profession, and entered among the 
 canons regular of St, Augustine, but quitted 
 that order to devote himself to the study of 
 mathematics. In 1749 he was elected a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences at Rouen; 
 and in 1753 a correspondent of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Paris, to the memoirs of which 
 learned society he furnished many important 
 contributions. At length he was made keej)er 
 of the library of St. Genevieve; and in 1760 
 he Wf ut on a voyage to the island of Die^o 
 Rodriguez, in the Indian Sea, to observe the 
 transit of Venus. In 1767 he published a 
 " jMemoire sur les Lieux ou le Passage de 
 Venus, le 3 Juin, 1769, pourra etre observe 
 avec le plus d'avantage," 4to ; and he went 
 himself to St. Domingo to observe that phe- 
 nomenon, of which voyage an account was 
 pubhshed in 1773. He subsequently under- 
 took another voyage for the promotion of 
 science, the particulars of which were also 
 laid before tlie public. JM, Pingre was for 
 several years employed in making calcrriations 
 for the Nautical Almanac ; and on the esta- 
 blishment of the National Institute he became 
 one of the members. His death took place 
 in 1796. Besides the works above noticed, 
 he published " Cometographie," 2 vols. 4to. 
 '• Memoire sur les Decouvertes faites dans le 
 IMer du Sud," 4to. ; and " Description de 
 Pekin." — Bios;. Uuiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PINKERtON.F.S.A. (John) an ingenious 
 and prolific, but eccentric wTiter, born in Edin- 
 burgh, Feb. 13, 1758. He was the third and 
 youngest son of James Pinkerton, a dealer in 
 hair, descended of a respectable family, origi- 
 nally settled at a village of the same name, in 
 the neighbourhood of Dunbar. After acquiring 
 the rudiments of education at a small school 
 in the suburbs of the Scottish metropolis, he 
 was removed, in 1764, to one of a more re- 
 spectabla character, at Lanark, kept by a 
 brother-in-law of the poet Thomson. Ou 
 arriving at a proper age, his father articled 
 him to a writer to the signet, in whose office 
 he continued live years, but did not neolect 
 the cultivation of a taste for poetry, which ho 
 had early imbibed, and of which the first 
 fruits appeared in 1776, in the shape of an 
 elegy, called " Craigmiller Castle." On the 
 death of his father, in 1780, he came to Lon- 
 don, where he settled the following year, and 
 published an octavo volume of miscellane- 
 ous poetry, under the unassuming title of 
 " Rhymes," with dissertations '• On the Oral 
 Tradition of Poetry," and " On the Tragic 
 Ballad," prefixed. This work he followed 
 up the succeeding year by two others ; one 
 in quarto, containing " Dithyrambic Odes, 
 &CC." the other entitled "Tales in Verse." 
 A. passion for collecting medals, accide«itally 
 excited iu his boyish days by coming into 
 possession of a small but rare one of the 
 emperor Constantine, drew his attention to 
 the imperfection of all books published on 
 the subject, and led him to draw up a manual 
 
P IN 
 
 for liis own use, which eventually grew into a 
 very excellent anil coniplcie " Kssay on Me- 
 dals," printed hy Dodsley, in 1784, in 2 vols. 
 8vo ; a compilation in which he was much in- 
 debted to the assistanc e of Messrs Douce and 
 Southgate. 'ihis book has since gone through 
 two other editions, the last by Mr llarwood. 
 Mr Pinkerton's other works are, " Letters on 
 Literature," pulili^hed in 17B.5, under the 
 assumed name of Ih'ron, in which he depre- 
 ciates the value of the ancient authors, and 
 recommends a new system of orthogriij)hy, 
 even more fantastical than that advocated by 
 his countryman Klphinstone. This hook, 
 however, obtained Inm the acquaintance of 
 Horace Walpole, of whose witticisms, &c. he 
 published a collection, after liis decease, 
 uiiiler the title of " Walpoliana," in two small 
 volumes, willi a portrait. " Ancient Scottisli 
 Poems, from the (pretended) IManuscript Col- 
 lection of Sir Richard Maitland, Kiit., Lord 
 Privy Seal of Scotland, (S<:c. com])rising Pieces 
 written from about !!';?() till L586, with Notes 
 and a Glossary." It is unnecessary to add, 
 that this " Collection" is a literary forgery. 
 " The Treasury of Wit," 1787, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 under the fictitious name of ]3ennet ; " Dis- 
 sertation on the Origin and Progress of the 
 Scythians, or Goths, being an Introduc- 
 tion to the Ancient and Modern History of 
 Europe ;" " A Collection of Latin Lives of 
 Scottish Saints," 8vo, 1789, now scarce ; an 
 edition of Barbour's old Scottish poem, " The 
 Bruce," 3 vols. 8vo. in the same year ; " The 
 Medallic History of England, 4toV* " An En- 
 quiry into the History of Scotland, preceding 
 the Reign of Malcolm the Third," 2 vols. 8vo. 
 1789, reprinted, with additions, 179.T ; 
 "Scottisli Poems, reprinted from scarce edi- 
 tions, 3 vols. 8vo ; " Icoiiographia Scotica, or 
 Portraits of Illustrious Personaij^es of Scotland, 
 with Notes, '■I vols. 8vo, 1793-1797 ; " The 
 Scottish Gallery," 8vo, 1799 ; '• Modern 
 Geography, digested on a New Plan," 2 vols. 
 4to, 1 802, reprinted 3 vols. 1807 ; " General 
 Collection of Voyages and Travel?," 19 vols. 
 4to ; " Recollections of Paris," 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 " New IModern Atlas," in parts, 1809; and 
 " Petralogy, or a Treatise on Rocks," 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1811 ; his last original work. i\Ir Pin- 
 kerton, of late years, resided almost entirely 
 at Paris, whither he had first proceeded in 
 1806, and where he died, March 10, 18'J6. — 
 Ann. Bio<:. 
 
 PINSSOM (Frax^ois") an eminent French 
 advocate., born in 1612, at Rourges. He was 
 the author of a number of works on subjects 
 connected with politics and jurisprudence. 
 The principal of these are, a "Treatise on the 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Louis the Ninth, and 
 of Charles the Seventh ;" another, " On Be- 
 nefices ; two volumes, " Des Regales," and 
 " Notes sommaires srr les Indults." His 
 ieath took place at Paris, in 1691. — Kouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PINTURICCIO (Bernardino^ an emi- 
 \tei\t painter, the disciple of Pietro Peru'j;ino, 
 was born at Perugia, in 1454. He painted chiefly 
 in history and grotesque ; but he also excelled 
 
 i* I o 
 
 in portraits. His chief work was the History 
 of Pope Pius II, in ten c')m|iHrtments, in the 
 library at Sienna.. His style was eflVclive, 
 but he made use of too splendid colours, and 
 introduced abundance of gilding. He is said 
 to have died of chagrin at the following tir- 
 cumsfancc. Bfing engagfd to paint a Na- 
 tivity for the monastery of St. Francis, at Si 
 enna, he pertinaciously insisted that every 
 thing shoukl he removed out of the room in 
 which he worked, and obliged the monks to 
 remove a great chest, become rotten from 
 age. In the attempt it burst, and discovered 
 a hoard of 500 pieces of gold, to the great 
 joy of the fathers, and the inoriificatieni of 
 Pinturiccio. His death took place in 1313. 
 Felibien Kntretiens. Pilkingtnn, 
 
 PIOMIK) (SriiASTrAN det.) also called 
 VENEZIANO, an eminent painter, was born 
 at Venice in 1485. He was the disciple of 
 John Bellini, and afterwards of Giorgionc, 
 from whom he took his fine style of colour- 
 ing. He arrived at great excellence as a 
 portrait painter. Being ii\duced to go to 
 Rome, to adorn the hous-; of a rich mer- 
 chant of Sienna, he became acquainted with 
 iNIichael Angelo, who encouraged him to 
 enter the lists with Raphael. His greatest 
 work is his Resurrection of Lazarus, now 
 contained in our National Gallery. This was 
 painted at the instigation of Michael Angelo, 
 who is said to have furnished him with the 
 design, and retouched it, when finished. He 
 was ofreatlv esteemed by Clement VII, who 
 gave him the ofiice of keeper of the signrt, 
 whence he was called del Piombo, in allu- 
 sion to the lead of the seal. This post 
 obliging him to take the religious habit, he 
 relinquished the profession of a painter, and 
 lived at his ease the remainder of his life. 
 Of his portraits, the most distinguished were, 
 a likeness of Julia Gonzaga, painted for car- 
 dinal Ippolito de Medici ; those of pope Paul 
 III ; of Aretino ; and of Clement VII. — D'Jr- 
 genville. Pilkino^tnn. 
 
 [ PIOZZl (Hkster LvNcrO an autliore?s, 
 I and great admirer of learned men, bom in 
 1739, the daughter of John Salisbury, esq. of 
 Bodvel, Carnarvonshire. Early in life slie 
 was distinguished in the fashionable world by 
 her beauty and accomplishments. In 1763.. 
 she accepted the hand o^ Henry Thrale, esq. a 
 brewer, of great opulenr*:, in Southwark, which 
 boTOuoh he then represented in parliament. 
 Soon after commenced her acquaintance with 
 Dr Johnson, of whom she, at a subsequent 
 period, published " Anecdotes," in one 8vo 
 volume, which appeared in 1786, being her 
 maiden eflbrt in authorship. Mr Thrale dying 
 in 1781, his lady retired to Bath, and, in 
 1784, accepted the addresses of sigiior Pio?^', 
 a Florentine, who taught music in that city. 
 A warm expostulation from lier old friend, 
 upon the subject, entirely dissolved their 
 friendship : and goon after her marriage sl.e 
 accompanied her husband on a visit to his 
 native citv. during her residence in which 
 she joined Messrs Alerry, Grealhed, and Par- 
 sons, in the production of a collection of 
 2U2 
 
1 IP 
 
 pi«es in verse and prose , entitled tlie "Flo- 
 rence Miscellany." Of this work a few copies 
 were printed in 1786, b-it it was never pub- 
 lished. Her other writings are, tlie " Tliree 
 Warnings," a tale, in imitation of La Fon- 
 taine, in which it lias been asserted, but on 
 insufficient authority, that she was assisted by 
 Johnson ; " A Translation of Boileau's Epistle 
 to liis Gardener, first printed in Mrs Wil- 
 liams's Miscellany, and a Prologue to tlie 
 Royal Suppliants ;" " Observations made in a 
 Jouniey through France, Italy, and Ger- 
 many," 2 vols. 8vo, 1789; " British Syno- 
 nymy, or an Attempt at regulating the Choice 
 of VVords in familiar Conversation," 2 vols. 
 Bvo, 1794; and " Retrospection of a 
 Review of the most striking Events, &c. 
 and their consequences, which the la?t 1800 
 Years have presented to the View of 
 INIankind," 2 vols. 4to, 1801. Airs Piozzi, 
 whose abilities were more lively and agreeable 
 than profound, became a second time a widow, 
 and died at Clifton, May 2, 18'^ 1, in her 
 eighty-second year. — Anti. Biog. Gent. ^Icig. 
 PIPER (Charles, Count) a Swedish se- 
 nator, wjio was the principal minister of 
 Charles XII. Born in obscurity, lie raised 
 himself to eminence iu the state, by his ta- 
 lents, and obtained the favour and confidence 
 of Charles XI, who placed him about his son 
 and successor, with whom he became a favour- 
 ite counsellor. He attended that prince in 
 all his campaigns, and is supposed to have re- 
 commended tlie expedition to Russia, the re- 
 sult of which vv-as so disastrous to the Swedish 
 monarch. Count Piper was present at the 
 battle of Pultowa, when he fell into the hands 
 of the Russians, who t'fated him with much 
 rigour ; and, after being removed from one 
 place of confinement to another, lie died in the 
 fortress of Schlusselburg, in 1716. — His son, 
 Charles Frederic, Count Piper, was the 
 favourite of king Adolphus Frederic, and ar- 
 rived at the first employments in the state ; 
 but his son-in-law, count Braho, having been 
 beheaded in 1756, he resigned his offices, and 
 retired into the country, where he died, in 
 1770.— 7^/'()^. Univ. 
 
 PIPER (Francis le) an Englisli comic 
 painter. He v.-as the son of a Kentish gen- 
 tleman of good estate, and succeeding to a 
 plentiful fortune, indulged his passion for hu- 
 mourous designing and caricature, without 
 seeking to derive emolument from his per- 
 formances. He had a talent for drawing faces 
 remaikable for singularity of expression, or 
 whimsical combination of feature ; and by a 
 transient view of any remarka!)le countenance 
 which he met in the street, would retain the 
 likeness so exactly in his memory, that it 
 might be supposed that the person liad sat 
 several times for it. He frequently made a 
 journey through tlie Continent on foot, to in- 
 crease his field of observation ; the result of 
 which was the production of many striking 
 pieces, iu liis own peculiar vein, which are 
 esteemed exceedingly curious. The greatest 
 part of them are uucoloured sketches, as lie 
 never applied regularly to the art. They 
 
 PIR 
 
 were, for the most part, collected by a sur- 
 viving brother. He died in 1740, by the mis- 
 take of a surgeon, who pricked an artery in 
 bleeding him. — Walpole's Anec. 
 
 PIPPI (Julio.) See Julio. 
 
 PIRANESI (John Baptist) a celebrated 
 architect, engraver, and antiquary, was born at 
 Venice, probably about 1711, although one 
 account says in 1721. He passed the greater 
 part of his life at Rome, of which capital, 
 witli its models of ancient and modern art, he 
 was an enthusiastic admirer. Being master 
 of a singularly bold and free manner of etch- 
 ing, lie executed a great number of plates, by 
 which he became well known to the curious 
 throughout Europe. The earliest of his works 
 appeared in 1743, and consist of designs of 
 his own, in a grand style, and decorated with 
 views of Rome, which show the magnificence 
 of his ideas. His other works are composed 
 iu the following list: " Antichita Romani," 
 or Roman Antiquities, contained in 218 plates, 
 on atlas paper, which, with descriptions in 
 Italian, form four volumes, folio ; " Fasti 
 Consulares, Triumphalescjue Romanorum ;" 
 " Del Castelle dell' Acqua Giulia," 21 folio 
 plates; " Antichita d' Albano e di Castel 
 Gandolfo," 55 plates; " Campus Martins An- 
 tiquae Urbis," with descriptions in Latin and 
 Italian, 54 plates ; " Archi Trionfali Anticlii 
 Tempii ed Amfiteatri," 31 plates ; " Trofei 
 d' Ottaviano Augusto," 10 plates; "Delia 
 Magnificenza ed Architettura di Romani," -i-l 
 ' plates, with above 200 pages of letter-press 
 in Italian and Latin ; " Architteture diverse," 
 27 plates; " Carceri d' Inventione," 16 plates, 
 full of wild and picturesque conceptions; about 
 130 Views of Rome, in its present state. 
 With respect to these works, it is allowed tliat 
 his inventions display much grandeur and fer- 
 tility, but that his real objects, although ex- 
 tremely picturesque, are not always faithful, 
 on account of the scope he was impelled to 
 give his imagination. Piranesi was extremely 
 iritated against lord Charlemont and hia 
 agents, for some real or imaginary neglect , 
 and in consequence composed letters of jus 
 tification, addressed to that nobleman, ac 
 of a singularly bold and free manner of etch- 
 ing, he executed a great number of jilates, by 
 which he became well known to the curious 
 throughout Europe. The earliest of his works 
 appeared in 1743, and consist of designs of 
 his own, in a grand style, and decorated with 
 views of Rome, which show the magnificence 
 of his ideas. His other works are composed 
 in the following list : " Antichiti Romani," 
 or Roman Antiquities, contained in 218 plates, 
 on atlas paper, which, with descriptions in 
 Italian, forms four volumes, folio; "Fasti 
 Consulares, 'J'riumphalesque Romanorum ;" 
 " Del Castelle dell' Acqua Giulia," 21 folio 
 plates ; " Antichita d' Albano e di Caste 
 Gaudolfo," 55 plates ; " Campus Martias An- 
 tiqua Urbis," with descriptions in Latin and 
 Itidian, 54 plates ; " Archi Trionfali Antichi 
 Tempii ed Amfiteatri," 31 plates ; " Trofei 
 d' Ottaviano Augusto," 10 plates; " Delia 
 Ma-nificenza ed Architettura di Romani," 44 
 
P IR 
 
 PIS 
 
 iome views in her father's manner ; and two Tor luunorous composition, Laving' written l»ur 
 sons, Fraiicis aiul Peter, setikil at I'aiis, cou- ] lesqiu; poetry in the Burgundiun dialect. 
 
 tiiiued his works, now amounting to 23 vo 
 lumes, folio. — Xouv. Diet, lliit. Biog. Univ. 
 
 riRCKilKniKR (I'.ii.iBALu) an histo- 
 rical and philoloj^ical writer, styh'd by the 
 German Prt)testauts the Xenoplion of Nurem- 
 berg, where he was born, in 117t). He was 
 tliH son of a counsellor of the bishop of Kich- 
 Btadt, among whose troops lie entered at the 
 
 wliich procured him much provincial noto- 
 riety. 'I'lie son received a good education, 
 and ilisphiycd his inclination for poetry very 
 early. \Vhtn he arrived at maturity, however, 
 he perceived the necessity of applying to se- 
 verer studies, and endeavoured to (jualify him- 
 self for the profession of an advocate. He 
 took his degrees in the faculty of law at Be- 
 
 age of eighteen ; but his father wishing him san^on, and was about to be admitted to prac 
 to adopt the profession of the law, he studied tice at Dijon, when his j)arents experienced a 
 
 \Mth that view, at Padua, and then at Pisa. 
 lie also applied himself to mathematics, theo- 
 logy, medicine, and the Greek language ; and 
 after seven years' residence in lialy, he re- 
 turned to Nuremberg. He then married, and 
 was admitted into the senate. In 1499 he 
 obtained the command of the troops sent by 
 his fellow-citizens to the succour of the em- 
 peror IMaximilian against the Swiss ; and on 
 the conclusion of peace he received the title 
 of imperial counsellor. Being dismissed from 
 the senate, through the influence of political 
 intrigue, he applied liimself to literaiy pur- 
 suits ; hut, on the death of his wife, he re- 
 sumed his magisterial situation. He died at 
 -Nuremberg, December 2-:2, 1530. Besides 
 Latin translations of some of the works of Plu- 
 tarch, Lucian, Plato, Xenoplion, and Ptolemv, 
 be pu^^-.ohed a tract sntitled " Apologia seuLaus 
 Podagra", "1522, 4to; and several works relating 
 to the history of Germany, (Sec. — ^^iog. Univ. 
 
 i IROJMALLI (Paul) an Italian Domini- 
 can nonk, in the sixteenth century, whose la- 
 bours have contributed to the promotion of 
 Oriental literature, was a native of Calabria. 
 He was sent as a missionary into the East, and 
 was stationed a considerable time in Armenia, 
 wlience he passed into Georgia and Persia. 
 Upon his return to Italy by sea, he was cap- 
 tured by a P>arbary corsair, and carried into 
 Tunis. Being ransomed, lie went to Rome, 
 
 reverse of fortune, which obliged him to reliii- 
 f|uish his design. He remained however for 
 some time at 13ijon, leading a life of di8si])a- 
 tion, in the midst of which his liteiary c^uiin 
 were confined to the production of a few ea- 
 tirical epigrams. At length lie became clerk 
 to a financier, whom he quitted to go to Paris, 
 where he found himself without money or 
 credit, and from the weakness of his eyes al- 
 most in a state of blindness. He was em- 
 ployed however as a copyist by the chevalier 
 de Bellisle, with a salary of forty sous a day, 
 vhich irksome situation he soon relincjuisheii ; 
 and it was with difiieulty that he obtained the 
 payment of his j)itiful salary. He was next 
 engaged to write for the Thealre of the Comic 
 Opera, and his first piece was " Arlequin 
 Deytalion," composed in two days. His suc- 
 cess induced him to persevere, and in 1728 
 appeared his comedy of " Les Fils ingrats," 
 the title of which he afterwards altered to 
 " L'Ecoie des Peres." His next dramatic 
 effort was a tragedy, " Callisthene," 1730 ; 
 followed by " Gustave Vasa," 1733 ; and ia 
 1738 he produced his chef-d'oeuvre, " INIetro- 
 manie," a comedy, which Laharpe charac- 
 terises as excelling in plot, style, humour, and 
 vivacity almost every other composition of the 
 kind. Piron afterwards wrote " Fernand 
 Cortes," a tragic drama, and some other 
 pieces, acted at the Theatre de la Foire. In 
 
 where he gave an account of his mission, and the latter p.^rt of his life he made repeated 
 was sent in the character of papal nuncio into . attempts to gain admission into the French 
 Poland, by pope Urban \T1I. The same pon- Academy ; but the satirical effusions in which 
 tiff employed him in revising the Armenian 1 he had indulged himself had made him so 
 version of the Bible, and afterwards sent him a I many enemies among the academicians, that 
 second time to the East, where he %vas, in 1655, j he was finally rejected. To recompense him 
 promoted to the bishopric of Nacksivan in for his disappointment, the king, at the solici- 
 Armenia. Over this see he presided nine tation of iNlontesquieu, gave Piron a pension of 
 years, and then returnetl to Italy, where iie 1000 livres. His death took place Jan. 21, 
 was nominated bishoj) of Bisignano in Calabria. 1 1773. His bons mots were collected and 
 
 l{e died at the latter place, in 1667 ; and is 
 highly commended for his religion, benevo- 
 lence, and other virtues, as well as for his ex- 
 
 published in one volume l8mo ; and his 
 " Poesies Diverses" were printed at Xeufchatel, 
 1775 and 1793, 8vo. His works entire form 
 
 tensiv erudition. He was the author of a seven volumes, octavo, in the edition of Rigo- 
 
 " Latin and Persian Dictionai}'," an " Arnie- ley de Juvigny, 1776. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 nian and Latin Dictionary," a"Rubrick" for PISAN (Christina de) an Italian lady. 
 
 the correction of Armenian books ; all which 
 productions have been esteemed of great uti- 
 lity. He was also the author of sevt ral theo- 
 
 the daughter of Thomas Pisan, an astrologer 
 of Bologna, was born at Venice in 1363. She 
 went to France at the age of five years, and 
 
 'ogical and controversial treatises, which have i was married to one Stephen Castel at fifteen, 
 been much valued by those of his own persua- ! Her husband died about ten years after, and 
 
 aion.--A'/nii;. Diet. Hist. 
 
 his fortune being much entangled in law. 
 
 PIRUX (Ai.KXis) a celebrated French j Christina depended upon her pen for subsist- 
 wi', poet, and dramatist, born at Dijon, July 9, ence. She was patronized by Charles ^ 1 of 
 
 1689. His fatlier, Aime Piron, who was an 
 kpothccary, manifested considerable talents 
 
 France, who provided for her children. Ihe 
 year of her death is uncertain. SLc v^ote 
 
PIS 
 
 " The Life of Charles V, King of Fiance," at 
 the desire of Philip the Good, duke of Bur- 
 gundy ; and it is considered her best prose 
 work. It was pubhshed by the abbe Le Beuf, 
 iu his " Dissertations on the Ecclesiastical 
 History of Paris." She was also the authoiess 
 of " An Hundred Stories of Troy," in llhyme ; 
 " The Treasure of the City of Dames ;" 
 " The Long Way ;" " The Moral Proverbs of 
 Christian of Pyse,'' translated by Anthony 
 Widville, earl Rivers ; and " Epistre d'Othea, 
 Deesse de Prudence, ii Hector, &c. mis en Vers 
 Fraiifois, et dedie a Charles V de France." — 
 Diet. Hist. Lord Orford's Works. 
 
 PISO (William) a Dutch naturalist, who, 
 ill the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 practised medicine at Leyilen, and then at 
 Amsterdam. He accompanied the prince of 
 Nassau in his voyage to Brazil, taking with 
 him two young German students, Marggrave 
 and Kranitz, to assist him in his researches 
 into natural history. After the death of his 
 patron, he a])pears to have entered into the 
 service of the elector of Brandenbourg, Fre- 
 deric William. The date of his d^th is not 
 known. The discoveries of Piso and Marg- 
 grave were published by Laet, under the ge- 
 neral title of " Historia Naturalis Brasilife," 
 164-8, folio ; and a more complete account ap- 
 peared in 1658, entitled, " De Indiae utriusq'ue 
 Be Naturali et Medica, lib. xiv." — Biog. Univ. 
 PISTOCCHl (Francesco Antonio) a mu- 
 sician of Bologna, considered by his country- 
 men as the father of the modern Italian school 
 of singing. He was born about the year 1660, 
 and originally attempted the stage, but failing, 
 in consequence of some personal defects, entered 
 into holy orders, and became chapel-master at 
 tlie court of Anspach. In 1700 he returned 
 to Bologna, wbere he established his academy 
 of singing, and reckoned among his pupils many 
 of the most distinguished vocalists of his time. 
 On a sudden his voice appears to have left 
 him, owing, it is said, to the irregularity of his 
 life ; but he eventually lived to recover it, and 
 after once more residing in his former capacity 
 in Germany, retired at length into a convent 
 in his native country, where he died in 1720. 
 He composed five operas, as well as some sa- 
 cred music, which has been much admired. — 
 Burney's Hist, oj Mus. 
 
 PISTORIUS (John) a polemic of the six- 
 teenth century, born in 1.546 at Nidda. His 
 education was originally directed with a view 
 to his becoming a physician ; but he speedily 
 ■.ibnndoned the study of medicine for that of 
 jurisprudence, and rose to be one of the coun- 
 sellors of state in the court of Baden Dour- 
 lach. His religious opinions at length under- 
 going a change, he reconciled himself to the 
 church of Rome, and taking holy orders, dis- 
 tinguished himself with all the ardour of a 
 proselyte, by writinnf against the tenets he had 
 abjured, in a variety of controversial tracts, 
 levelled agahist Lutheranism and its profes- 
 sors. He was also the author of some bio- 
 grajihical and miscellaneous works. Among 
 the former are his accounts of the historians of 
 Poland and of Gerinanv tthe latter a valuable 
 
 PIT 
 
 work) each contained in three folio volumes 
 His other and most curious production is 
 " Artis CabaUsticJS Scriptores," folio. Pisto- 
 rius liaving graduated as a doctor in theology, 
 obtained some valuable ecclesiastical jtrefer- 
 ment, and died iu 1603, prelate of the abbey 
 of Fiilda and provost of the cathedral of Bres- 
 law, with the rank of imperial counsellor. — 
 Moreri. Ntmv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PiTCAlRNE (Archibald) an eminent 
 physician, descended from an ancient Scottisii 
 family in the county of Fife, but bom at Edin- 
 burgh in 16.52. He was educated at a private 
 school at Dalkeith, wlience he removed to the 
 university of P^dinburgh, to study philosophy, 
 divinity, and the civil law. He afterwards 
 went to Paris, where he changed his pursuit, 
 and applied himself to medicine. He returned 
 to Edmburgli, and after a second visit to Paris, 
 he settled in his native country a short time 
 before the Revolution. He was admitted a 
 member of the College of Physicians at Edin- 
 burgh ; and in 1688 he published a tract, en- 
 titled " Solutio Problematis de Inventoribus ;" 
 relating to Harvey's discovery of the circula- 
 tion of the blood. In 1692 he accepted an in- 
 vitation to become professor of medicine at 
 Leyden; but returning to Scotland the follow- 
 ing year, to fulfil a matrimonial engagement, 
 he was prevailed on to remain at Edinburgh, 
 where he continued to practise as a physician 
 till his death, which happened October 13, 
 1713. His works are, " Disputationes Me- 
 dice ;" " Elementa INIedicina; Physico-mathe- 
 matica ;" " Dissertatio de Legibus Naturae ;" 
 besides the tract already mentioned, and his 
 Latin poems. A collective edition of his 
 writings appeared at Leyden, 1737, 4to. — 
 Hutchiiisna's B/.i"-. Med. Bioir. Brit. 
 
 PITHOU (Peter) an eminent French 
 writer on jurisprudence and philology, born at 
 I'royes in 1539. He studietl classical litera- 
 ture at Paris, under Turnebus, and the law 
 under Cujas at Bourges and at Valence. At 
 the age of twenty-one he was admitted an ad- 
 vocate ; but adopting the principles of Calvin- 
 ism, he returned to Troyes, whence he was 
 invited to Sedan by the duke of Bouillon, He 
 then went to Basil, where he published the 
 life of the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, by 
 Otho of Freisingen, and the history of Paulus 
 Diaconus. In 1570 he returned to France, 
 and he was at Paris during the massacre of 
 St Bartholomew's day, of which he narrowly 
 escaped becoming one of the victims. He af- 
 terwards returned to the Catholic church, and 
 became bailiftof Tonnerre and deputy attorney- 
 general to the chamber of ju-stice at Guienne. 
 He was employed in many public affairs ; and 
 he used all his influence to promote the sub- 
 mission of the city of Paris to the authority of 
 Henry IV. His death took ])lace, in conse- 
 quence of the plague, at Nogent-sur-Seine, 
 jNovember I, 1596. Besides many other 
 works, he published the first edition of the 
 fables of Phiedrus, the MS. of which had been 
 discovered by his brother, and also the " Per- 
 vigilium Veneris," of Catullus. — Pithoc 
 ^Francis) the brother of Peter, was a con*- 
 
P I T 
 
 P(IIor of the parliament of Paris, and one of 
 tlif most Icariu"! men of his lime. He was 
 born at Troyt's in laH^. Hicoiiiiuj; a C'alvin- 
 ist, he travelk'il in Germany, Italy, ami En\^- 
 land; l)iU n'tnrmii>^ tn Krance, lie was r'^con- 
 vtTled to the (.'iitliolic faith, lie was attor- 
 ney- general of the eliam!»er of justice, esta- 
 hiished under Henry IV; he assisted ai the 
 c.MifcreiK-e of Foniainehit-au between Dii Per- 
 n)n and IMornai ; and he was ai>[)oiiiicii one 
 of the commissioners to determine the bounda- 
 ries of Frame and the Neiherlantls. He died 
 in 1621. F. Pithou shared in the literary la- 
 bours of his brother, and was the author of 
 " Piihfeana." — Moieri. Biof!:- Univ. 
 
 PrriS(U'S (Pa UTnoLOM i.w) a German 
 inathematician, who was a native of Silesia, 
 and became tutor and afterwards chaplain to 
 the elector palatine Frederic IV^. He died at 
 Heiiielberi;, in 1613, aged fifty-two. Besides 
 some works on theology, he published " Tri- 
 goiiometria;, lib. v. ;" " Georg. Joach. Rhetici 
 JMa^^nus Canon DoctrinzeTriangulorum, emen- 
 datus a B. Pitisco ;" and, " Thesaurus Ma- 
 thematicus Rhetici, nunc primum in lucem 
 editus a B. Pitisco," l61o, which last work 
 Montucla strangely ascribes to Pitiscus as the 
 author. — Pixiscus (Samuel) a learned phi- 
 lologist, nephew of the preceding, was born 
 at Zulphen, in Dutch Guelderland, in 1637. 
 He studied at Deveuter, under J. F, Grono- 
 vius, and afterwards went through a course of 
 divinity at Groningen, and was admitted to 
 the ministry. Returning to Zutphen, he was 
 ])laced at the head of the Latin school there ; 
 and in 168.) he was nominated rector of the 
 college of St Jerome, at Utrecht, where he 
 presided thirty- two years. He died February 
 1, 1717. Besides publishing editions of 
 Quiutus Curtius, Suetonius, and other ancient 
 authors, he produced ** Lexicon Latino-Bel- 
 gicum," 170-1, 4to ; and " Lexicon Antiqui- 
 tatum Romanorum," 1713, 2 vols, folio, which 
 last is his principal work. — Biog. Uitiv. 
 
 PITOT (Henry) a French mathematician, 
 b )rn in 169o. Till the age of twenty, he 
 ]>aid no attention to learning ; and when he 
 was fifty, he obtained from the tutor of his 
 son instruction in Lairin, that he mit^ht be able 
 to read mathematical wt)rks in that lan^uaoe. 
 Accident having thrown in his way a book on 
 geometry, he was seized with a sudden incli- 
 nation for the study of that science, and lie 
 pur.-ued it with avidity. He was sent to 
 Paris, where Reaumur assisted him with ad- 
 vice, gave him the use of his library, and 
 sometimes associated him in his labours. In 
 17'^2 he began to make himself known to the 
 public by inserting in the Mercure Franfais his 
 calculation of the eclipse o. the sun of the 
 2'Jnd of ]May, 1724; and the exact j)recision 
 of his ileductions was verified by subsequent 
 oijservalions when the phenomenon took place. 
 He also solved the famous problem of Kepler, 
 relative to the first equation of the planets ; 
 and he invented an analytic method of tracing 
 lines corresponding to the minutes of the 
 grjtnd meridians in 1731. Being admitted 
 
 IM T 
 
 into tlie Academy of Sciences in 1726, he/ur- 
 nishcd many contribution!* to the memoirs of 
 that society, lu 1731 appeared his " Tiieorie 
 de la INIantcuvre des Vaisseaux," 4to, whicU 
 was translated into Knglish, and which pro- 
 <Mired him admissi(Mi into the Royal Society of 
 London. Ho was afterwards enijiloyed in 
 many public works as an engineer. His death 
 occurred December 27, 1771. — Biog. l^uii. 
 
 PI IS (Jchin; in Latin, I'itscus, an English 
 biographer, born at Alton, in Hampshire, 
 about lj60. He studied at Winchester 
 school, and New cjllege, Oxford, after which 
 he went to Douay and Rlieims, and then to 
 the English college at Rome, where he re- 
 mained seven years. Having taken lioly 
 orders, he returned to Rlieims to teach the 
 Greek language and rhetoric. The civil wais 
 in France obliged him to remove to Pont-a- 
 iMousson, Treves, and Ingolstadt, where he 
 took the degree of ]3D. The cardinal of 
 Lorraine gave him a canonry at Verdun, and 
 the duchess of Cleves afterwarils made him 
 her confessor. He was subsequently appoint- 
 ed dean of Liverdun, in Lorraine, where he 
 died, October 17, 1616. His works are, " De 
 Legibus I'ractatus Theologicus," Treves, 1.t92, 
 8vo ; "De Beatitudine," Ingolstadt, 1.595, 
 8vo ; "De Perigrinatione, lib. viii," Dusseldorf, 
 1604, 8vo ; " Relationum Historicarum de 
 Rebus Anglicis, sen de Academiis et ilhistri- 
 bus Angliii! Scriptoribus tomus primus," Paris, 
 1619, 4to. This volume was to have been fol- 
 lowed by two more, containing accounts of the 
 English kings, bishops, &c. — Wood's Atheiu 
 Oxon. 
 
 PITT (Chuistopiier) an English clergy- 
 man and poet of the last century, the friend of 
 Young. He was born in 1699, at Blandford, 
 in the county of Dorset, and received his 
 education at ^Vinchester, whence he was 
 elected oft" upon the foundation to New col- 
 lege, Oxford. In 1722, a relation of the 
 same name, residing at Strathfieldsay, pre- 
 sented him to the family living of Pimperne, 
 wliere he passed the remainder of his life in 
 the performance of his clerical duties, and the 
 pursuit of elegant hterature, equally respected 
 for his talents, and beloved for the suavity of 
 bis manners, and the benevolence of his dis- 
 position. The composition by which he is 
 principally distinguished is his translation of 
 the ^-Eneid, which, if inferior to that of Dry- 
 den in strength and sjiirit, may fairly vie with 
 it in taste, and the harmony of its versifica- 
 tion. ^'ida's "Art of Poetry" was also ren- 
 dered by him into English, in which he lias 
 been very successful in preserving the spirit of 
 the original. I\Ir Pitt died in 1748, and was 
 buried at Blandford, where there is a monu- 
 ment erected to his memory. — Johnson's Lives. 
 Preface to Wharton s Virgil, 
 
 PITT (Thomas) the founder of the noble 
 family of that name, was born at St Mary. 
 Blanaford, Dorsetshire, in 1653. Towards 
 the close of the same century he became go- 
 vernor of INIadras, where he resided many 
 years, and realised a large fortune, great part 
 
P 1 T 
 
 of wliich vras produced by the purchase of a 
 large diamond, for 20,400/., which he sold to 
 ttie kins of France for more than five times 
 that sum. A rumour prevailed in England 
 tliat governor Pitt had acquired this jewel, 
 called after him the Pitt diamond, unfairly ; 
 which re[)ort gained additional currency, by a 
 sort of poetical adoption of it, by Pope, in 
 a passage commencing with the following 
 couplet : 
 
 Asleep and naked as an Indian lay, 
 An honeat factor stole a gem away. 
 Such credit was ultimately given to tlie slan- 
 der that iNlr Pitt was induced to compose a 
 narrative of the manner in which he really be- 
 came possessed of the diamond. In 1716 he 
 was made governor of Jamaica, but did not 
 hold that situation for more than a year. He 
 sat in four parliaments, for Old Sarum and 
 Thirsk, and died in 17'J6. Governor Pitt was 
 the grandfather of the celebrated earl of 
 Chatham ; the latter being the otfspring of 
 Robert Pitt, esq. of Poconnoc, Cornwall, his 
 eldest son. — Brit. Peerai^e. 
 
 PI TT (William) earl of Chatham, a cele- 
 brated modern English statesman, was the sou 
 of Robert Pitc, esq. of Boconnoc, Cornwall, as 
 related in the preceding article. He was born 
 November 15, 1708, and educated at Eton, 
 whence, in January 17'J6, he went as a gen- 
 tleman commoner to Trinity college, Oxford. 
 On quilting the university he entered the 
 army as cornet in the Blues ; and in 173.5 be- 
 came representative in parliament of the family 
 borough of Old Sarura. His abilities soon dis- 
 ])laved themselves in a sphere so congenial 
 witlx their tendency ; and joining the opposi- 
 tion party, then heailed by Eredeiic, prince of 
 \Vales, he soon dis^tinguished himself as a 
 poweiful opponent of sir Robert Walpole, who 
 reven^'-ed himself bv taking away his commis- 
 sion. His senatorial elocjuence was first dis- 
 played on the Spanish convention in 1738, and 
 he rapidly attained the first rank as a parlia- 
 mentary orator, securing at the same time the 
 esteem of the nation as an able and vigilant 
 opposer of impolitic and uncoustitutional mea- 
 sures in general. To i)Oj)ular ajiplause was 
 added the solid bequest of 10,000/. by a codi- 
 cil added in 17'i4 to the will of the celebrated 
 Sarah, duchess of Marlborough. It was in 
 1745 that the duke of Newcastle first proj)Osed 
 him to George 11, for the jiost of secretary at 
 war ; but his opposition to Hanoverian predi- 
 lections had rendered him so distasteful to that, 
 monarch, that he was decidedly rejected, and 
 the resignation of the Pelham i)arty followed. 
 Necessity, however, soon produced tluir re- 
 instatement, and in 174u Mr Pitt was made 
 vice-treasurer of Ireland, and afterwards pay- 
 master-general of the forces; in which office 
 lie distinguished himself by his utter disdain 
 of eciuivocal official perquisites and private 
 emolument. In 1754 commenced the con- 
 nexion of the Pitt and Grenville families, by 
 the marriage of .Mr Pitt with Hester, daughter 
 of Richard Grenville, esq. of Wotton, Rucks. 
 lu 1755 he joined Mr Legge in opposing the 
 
 P 1 T 
 
 ratificaiion of the subsidiary treaties, with 
 Hesse Cassel and Russia, in defence of Ha- 
 nover ; on account of which step they and tho 
 Grenvilles were immediately dismissed. Su( h, 
 however, was his popularity, that in 1756 he 
 was recalled, and made secretary of state ; and 
 the vigour infused into the public councils by 
 his accession, soon displayed itself both at 
 liome and abroad. He was still hostile to the 
 war in Germany, at least under the conduct of 
 the duke of Cumberland, and thereby incurred 
 so large a portion of royal disjdeasure, that in 
 Ajiril 1757 he was again dismissed from office, 
 with his friends lord Temple and Mr Legge. 
 I'he public discontent v.-as manifested so 
 loudly on this occasion, that in the June 
 following, it was found necessary, not 
 only to re-instate him and his friends, but 
 to leave the formation of the new ministry 
 to their arrangement. Of this administra- 
 tion he was the soul, and he diffused his 
 own spirit through every department of the 
 state. The celebrated war administration 
 of this eminent statesman is a subject for 
 history rather than for biography, on which 
 account it is only necessary here to observe, 
 that under his vigorous auspices the years 
 1758, 1759, 1760, and 1761, were marked by 
 a series of the most signal successes ; France, 
 with her navy annihilated, scarcely possessing 
 a colony in any part of the world. In the 
 midst of these triumphs George II died, and 
 Mr Pitt, finding himself thwarted under the 
 nev/ monarch by the influence of the carl 
 of Bute, resigned in October 1761. On 
 his retirement his lady was created baroness 
 Chatham, and a pension of 3,000/. per an- 
 num was granted for the life of himself, lady, 
 and eldest son. In 1764 he higiily distin- 
 guished himself by the decided part which he 
 took against the unconstitutional em))loyment 
 of general warrants, the illegality of which 
 he maintained with his usual energy and elo- 
 quence. On tliis and other popular grounds 
 sir William Pynsent, of Somersetshire, be- 
 queathed him his estate. In 1766, owing to 
 the distraction of the public counsels, he was 
 again called to assist in the formation of a ca- 
 binet, under which arrangement he took to 
 himself tlie office of lord privy seal, and was 
 raised to the peerage by the title of earl of 
 Chatham. Unsupported by lord Temple, and 
 inadequately seconded otherwise, he resigned 
 in 1768, and sul'se()uently took a leading part 
 in many popular questions, and more especial- 
 ly attacked the proceedings of the house of 
 Commons in reference to the Middlesex elec- 
 tion, and the doctrine of lord I\Jansfield in re- 
 spect to libel. He opposed with all the force 
 of his eloquence tlie ignorant and infatuated 
 proceedings which led to the inglorious Ame- 
 rican contest, and made motion after motion 
 for closing the breach after it had been effect- 
 ed, prophesying the result with melancholy 
 accuracy. His anxiety on this subject may 
 even be deemed the immediate cause of his 
 dissolution, for in A])ril 1778, when the duke 
 of Richmond moved an address to the throne 
 
V 1 T 
 
 to acknowledi^c the indcpoiulcnco of ^\ineriia, 
 lord Cliatliiim was led to oppose it with so 
 much energy, tliivt in rising a second time to 
 advert to tlie rejily made by the duke to his 
 arguinenffl, he faiiil<'d and fell hack in his 
 seat. He was caught in the arms of some 
 ords wlio stood next to him, and conveyed 
 lome, and the house immediately adjourned. 
 From this state of exhaustion he never reco- 
 ered, but died on I\lay 11, 177H, in his se- 
 ventieth year. His deatli, reiulereil i>(tuharly 
 Jmj)ressive by the foregoing circumstance, ex- 
 cited general sympailiy ; his remains were 
 lionoured witli a public funeral, and a monu- 
 ment in Westminster abbey ; his debts were 
 ])aid by the nation ; and an annuity of 4,000/. 
 per annum, out of the civil list, was annexed 
 to the earldom of Chatham. Promptitude, 
 sagacity, and energy formed the leading out- 
 lines of this able statesman's character, which, 
 aided by an eloipience singularly bold, ardent, 
 and animated, rendered him peculiarly elec- 
 tive as a Hritish minister. All his sentiments 
 were liberal and elevated, but he was haughty 
 and impatient of contradiction, and possibly 
 exhibited a too great consciousness of his own 
 superiority. 1 1 is private was as estimable as 
 his public character ; to use the language of 
 lord Chesterfield, "it was stained by no vice, 
 nor sullied by any meanness." Upon the 
 whole, connected as he is with a brilliant na- 
 tional a^ra, which took its chief features from 
 his counsels, he will ever remain a highly 
 popular character in English estimation. No- 
 thing beyond a short poem or two by lord Chat- 
 ham had appeared, until the publication, by 
 'ord Grenville, in 1804, of his " Letters" to 
 his nei)hew, afterwards the first lord Camel- 
 ford, which contain much excellent advice to a 
 young man, clothed in easy and familiar dic- 
 tion, and reflecting equal honour on tlie au- 
 thor's head and heart. — Coliins's Peerage by 
 sir E. Bryclges. Ann. Reg. 
 
 PITT (William) second son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born JMay 28, 1759. He received 
 a private education in the first instance, and at 
 the age of fourteen was entered of Pembroke- 
 hall, Cambridge, under Dr Pretyman, now 
 bishop of Winchester. On quitting the uni- 
 versity, he visited Prance, and studied 
 at Rheims, and on his return became a 
 student of Lincoln's-inn ; and in 1780, 
 being then of age, was called to the bar. 
 He only attended the western circuit once 
 or twice, when he was introduced into 
 parliament by sir James Lowther, as represen- 
 tative for his borougli of Appleby. IIis maiden 
 speech was delivered in support of jNlr Burke's 
 financial reform bill, and lie also spoke with 
 considerable energy in favour of a reform in 
 parliament ; he was even chosen, and acted as 
 a delegate in one of the assemblies held in 
 Westminster for the promotion of tliat mea- 
 sure. On the breaking up of lord North's 
 administration, he took no share in that of the 
 marquis of Rockingham, but upon its dissolu- 
 tion became chancellor of the exchequer, at 
 ihfi Bge of twenty-three, under the premier- 
 ship of the earl of Shelburne. A general peace 
 
 V I T 
 
 soon followed, which being made the grounil 
 of censures by a strong opposition, the cabinet 
 was dissolved, and the memorable Fox and 
 North coalitifjn took its place. On his retire- 
 ment from oflice, Mr Pitt resumed liis efforts 
 for a reform in parliament, and submitted thn e 
 specific motions on the subject, which, although 
 supported by I\lr Fox, then secretary of state, 
 were rejected. On the failure of the celebrated 
 India bill of the latter, which produced the 
 dismissal of the ill-assorted coalition, I\Ir Pitt, 
 although at that lime oidyin his twenty-fourth 
 year, at once assumed the station of prime- 
 minister, by accepting the united posts of first 
 lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exche- 
 quer. Although strongly supj)orted by the so- 
 vereign, he stood opj)Osed to a large majority of 
 the House of Commons, aiid a dissolution took 
 |)lace in IMarcli 1780. At the general elec- 
 tion which followed, the voice of the nation 
 app''ared decidedly in his favour, and some 
 of the strongest aristocratical interests in the 
 country were thereby defeated ; Mr. Pitt him- 
 self being returned by the university of Cam- 
 bridge. His first measuie was the passin"' of 
 his India bill establishing the board of con- 
 trol, which was followed by much of that im- 
 portant fiscal and financial regulation, which 
 gave so much eclat to the early period of 
 his administration. The establishment of the 
 ingenious, but, as to direct consequences, de- 
 lusive scheme of a sinking fund followed in 
 1786, which machinery, supported and advo- 
 cated as it has Ijeen by some of the strongest 
 minds of the country, sui)plies one of the 
 most striking instances on record of the man- 
 ner in which the human intellect may be 
 caught in the chasm which separates the ab- 
 stract from the practical. Whatever the utility 
 of the sinking fund in the regulation of fuiieled 
 sale aiiel purchase, as a miraculous mode of 
 liquidating the public debt its pretensions are 
 now set at rest for ever. A commercial treaty 
 with France followetl in 1787, and soon after 
 the minister began to exhibit that jealousy of 
 Russian aggrandisement, v.hich, but for the ma- 
 nifest unpopularity of hostilities, \^ Inch shook 
 his resolution, might have involved the 
 two countries in war. A similar sjiirit was 
 displayed towarels Spain, respecting the free 
 trade at Nootka Sound ; anei in defence of 
 the stadtholder against the machinations of 
 France, which last interference met with ge- 
 neral approbation. In 1708 jMr Pitt displayed 
 his firmness by resisting the doctrine of the 
 op]iositie)n, that the regency, during the king's 
 indisposition, devolveel upon the ])rince of 
 Wales by right. The minister maintained, 
 and certainly more constitutionally, that it lay 
 in the two remaining branches cf the legisla- 
 ture to fill up the office :.c they shoulil think 
 proper ; admitting, at (ho same time, that the 
 prince could not be passeei over in nominatinsj 
 to this j>ost. By the adoptiem of this principle 
 be was enabled to pass a bill greatly restrict- 
 ing the regent's power, which the king's reco- 
 very rendered unnecessary. One of the most 
 momentous periods in modem history had now 
 arrived. Tlie French Revolution broke out, 
 
PIT 
 
 and produced a vibration on every neighbour- 
 ing state ; and a sensation was created iu 
 Great Britain, which, previously excited as 
 she had been on subjects of parliamentary and 
 general national reform, in a great measure 
 broke up the previous bearing of party. A 
 war against French principles was declared on 
 the one side, under which designation all 
 amelioration was opposed, without distinc- 
 tion ; while, on the other, the friends of ra- 
 tional rectification found themselves una- 
 voidably confounded with a great mass of 
 ignorant and heated characters, who espoused 
 some of the wildest and most visionary notions 
 of the innovators of France. Under this state 
 of things a vigilant eye and a steady liand were 
 obviously necessary to steer the vessel of state, 
 amid a conflict of opinions so violent and 
 alarming, and the manner in which Mr Pitt 
 exercised the almost unlimited power which 
 he possessed, will necessarily be judged of dif- 
 ferently by diflferent parties. To make alarm 
 as effective as possible ; to encourage the dis- 
 semination of high principles of government, 
 and involve in common obloquy all measures 
 of opposition, and all projects of reform; to 
 augment, according to the apparent urgency 
 of circumstances, restrictions upon personal 
 liberty, and make temporary sacrifices of the 
 spirit of the constitution to what he deemed 
 the public safety : such, according to one body 
 of judges, were the principles of IMr Pitt's 
 government at this important crisis ; while 
 others, and certainly the most influential, as 
 being the most rich and fearful, would have 
 had him gone much farther, and, purely on a 
 conservative principle, woidd, in a liberal or 
 constitutional sense, have left him nothing to 
 preserve. The measures which led to the war 
 with France are judged of iu a similar man- 
 ner ; but whatever the opinion entertained, 
 the minister certainly had the nation with 
 him in the commencement of hostilities. The 
 details of the momentous contest which fol- 
 lowed form no subject for the biographer. 
 Great Britain on the whole was triumphant 
 in her own element ; but daring the life of Mr 
 Pitt the conflict on the continent was fearfully 
 in favour of France. The suspencion of cash 
 payments in 1797, the necessity of attending 
 to home defence, the alarming mutiny in the 
 fleet, and the accumulation of the public bur- 
 dens, which still press so heavily on the na- 
 tion, weie some of the most bitter fruits of 
 this extraordinary struggle ; which were, how- 
 ever, on the other hand, alleviated by a com- 
 mercial monopoly, that, assisted by the tem- 
 l)orary operation of an unlimited paper issue, 
 materially modified consequences both in form 
 and in fact. In 1800 the grand project of the 
 Irish union was accomplished, the tiue policy 
 of which measure, presuming the implied ex- 
 tension of wise and good government to Ire- 
 land, can scarcely be questioned. Soon after 
 the accomplishment of this important event, the 
 hopeless aspect of the war with France, in re- 
 spect to the object with which it had com- 
 jnenced, began to turn the national attention 
 toward* peac3 ; and Mr Pitt, sensible that it 
 
 PI T 
 
 never could be accomplished correspondent 
 with the previous high terms of his councils, 
 determined to retire. The allei>ed reason foj 
 his retreat, not indeed publicly avowed, but 
 communicated to his friends, was the opposi- 
 tion he found in the highest quarter to all 
 farthfr concession to the Irish Catholics, in 
 conformity to the expectations held out by the 
 union. He accordingly resigned his post in 
 1801 ; and the crisis of revolutionary fervour 
 having for some time abated, he carried with 
 him into retirement the esteem of a strong and 
 po'.verful party, who hailed him as " the pilot 
 who had weathered the storm." The peace 
 of Amiens succeeded ; and the Addington 
 administration, which concluded it, Mr Pitt 
 supported for a time, and then joined the op- 
 position, and spoke on the same side with his old 
 antagonist, jNIr Fox. The new minister, who 
 had renewed the war, unable to maintain his 
 ground, resigned ; and iu ISO-t Mr Pitt once 
 more resumed his post at the treasury. Re- 
 turning to power as a war minister, he exerted 
 all the energy of his character to render the 
 arduous contest successful, and found means 
 to engage the two great military powers of 
 Russia and Austria in a new confederacy, 
 which was dissolved by the fatal battle of Aus- 
 terlitz. Mr Pitt, whose state of health was pre- 
 viously declining, was sensibly affected by this 
 event ; and his constitution, weakened by an he- 
 reditary gout, and injured by a too liberal use of 
 wine, by way of stimulant, rapidly yielded to 
 the joint attack of disease and mental anxiety. 
 The parliamentary attack upon his old asso- 
 siate, lord Melville, not to be wholly par- 
 ried either by ministerial influence, or the 
 defensive merits of the case, is thought to have 
 deeply wounded his feelings, and completed 
 his mental depression. A state of extreme 
 debility ensued, which terminated in death, 
 encountered with great calmness and resigna- 
 tion, on the 23d January, 1806. As a mi- 
 nister it would obviously be impossible to 
 sum up the character of Mr Pitt in terms that 
 would not encounter a host of predilections or 
 prejudices on every side. It is, however, 
 pretty generally conceded, that bis genius was 
 better adapted to the regulative process of 
 peaceable and domestic government, than for 
 the arrangement and conduct of that warlike 
 exertion, which his policy entailed upon the 
 country. At the same time it must be confessed, 
 that he had to encounter the career of over- 
 whelming and powerful energies ; the result of 
 a social crisis of extraordinary character and 
 excitement. If, therefore, he can l)e ac- 
 quittal of a political want of foresight in vo- 
 lunteering sucii a conflict, the disastrous 
 result of the warfare, in establishing French 
 ascendancy on the continent, may be re- 
 garded as the effect of causes, which no abi- 
 lities could have altogether controlled. What 
 might have been the character of his adminis- 
 tration had not the French revolution inter- 
 vened, it is somewhat difficult to ascertain. 
 According to the theories with which he set 
 out in life, and as the son of lord Ch^.thn'ti, 
 frtnch constitutional and political iRiprovenieut 
 
P IT 
 
 Wfts to be expected from him , ami imicli pru- 
 deiit and useful rei;uUitiou lie certainly <-f- 
 fected. In lii^luT ]»ointd he was possibly 
 more the man of ex|>editney than of |)rinii|)le. 
 It haa been seen how he advocati-d ami drop- 
 ped tlie siil)iect of pailiaineiitar^ reform. In a 
 similar spirit, he spoke and votrd in fivonr 
 of the abolition of the slave trade ; but al- 
 thoui:jh supported by the voice of a deciih-d 
 national majoritv, he would not make a minis- 
 terial measure of it, as was done wilhout dif- 
 Jicully by his immediate successor ; nor have 
 we to trace any decided social amelioration to 
 his influence, setting aside the contingent advan- 
 tages arising from the extension of trade aiid 
 manufacture. As a financier he was expert in 
 jiractice rather than scientifically grounded ; 
 while the waste and profusion of his warlike 
 expenditure were extreme, and will long be felt 
 in tlieir consequences. In respect to moral con- 
 stitution, although love of power was certainly 
 his ruling passion, he was altogether al)ove the 
 meanness of avarice, and bis personal disinte- 
 restedness was extreme. So far from making 
 use of his opportunities to acquire wealth, he 
 died involved in debt, whicli negligence and 
 the demands of his i)ublic station, rather than 
 extravagance, had led him to contract; his 
 tastes being simple, and disliking splendour 
 and parade. INIr Pitt possessed no advantages 
 of person and physiognomy ; a loftiness ap- 
 proaching to arrogance was the habitual ex- 
 pression of the latter in public, although in 
 private circles he has been described by an in- 
 timate friend as peculiarly complacent and ur- 
 bane. Ilis eloquence, if not more elevated 
 or profound, was upon the whole more perfect 
 than that of any other orator of his time ; be- 
 ing remarkably correct, copious, and well-ar- 
 ranged. Alchough neither illuminated by the 
 Hashes of genius which characterised las fa- 
 ther's oratory, or by the imagination which dis- 
 tinguished the eloquence of Burke, it was more 
 uniformly just and impressive than that of 
 either ; while the indignant severity and keen- 
 ness of his sarcasm were unequalled. On the 
 whole, iNIr Pitt was a minister of commanding 
 powers, and still loftier pretensions ; and, how- 
 ever numerous and respectable the dissentients, 
 he died in possession of the eateem and at- 
 tachment of a large niajori'iy of the more in- 
 liuential portion of his coantrymen. A oublic 
 funeral was decreed to his honour by par- 
 liament, as also a grant of 40,000/. to pay his 
 debts ; and monuments have been erected to 
 him in Westminster abbey, Guildbuil, and in 
 various ]>arts of the kingdom. Possibly the 
 exact rank that will be assigned to this cele- 
 brated statesman by impartial posterity cannot 
 yet be anticipated. — Giji'ord's Life of Pitt. Ann. 
 lle>iider. Aikiiis Bit)"-. Diet. 
 
 PITTACUS, a warrior and philosoi)her, 
 one of the seven sages of Greece, was born 
 at INIitylene, in Lesbos, about 6)0 BC. In a 
 wai' with the Athenians, he challenged and 
 vanquished in single combat their general 
 Phrymon, and wlien offered as a reward as 
 much of ihe enemy s land as he chose, he 
 wouli accept no more than he could measure 
 
 P I D 
 
 by a single cast of the javelin, and he conse- 
 crated half of that to A|)ollo. Having ex- 
 l)ellt'd the tyrant Mflanchriis from Mitylene, 
 be was placed at ibr brad of its government, 
 and distinguished himself by his wise admi- 
 nistration and useful laws. After ten yeais' 
 government he resigned his authority, and 
 going into retirement, he died in 570 IJC. 
 His maxims were many of them inscribed on 
 the walls of the temple at l)el[)hi. — Univers. 
 Hist. Jintchers Hist, of I'hiios. 
 
 PIUS II (/Enlas Svi.vius) was a member 
 of the noble family of Piccolomini. He was 
 born at Coisignano, in the Scennese, in the 
 year liO.j, and his abilities at a very early 
 age introduced him to the notice of cardinal 
 Dominico Cajjranica, as whose secretary he 
 officiated at the council of Basil, in 1431. His 
 diplomatic talents were afterwards employed 
 in mediating a jieace between the courts of 
 England and Scotland. On his return to the 
 Continent, he was appointed secretary to the 
 council of Basil, and obtained the benefice of 
 St Lawrence at Milan, in reward for bis de- 
 fence of that assembly against the usurpations 
 of the see of Rome. He was subsequently 
 employed in various embassies by the empe- 
 ror Frederic III, with whom he became a 
 great favourite, as well from his literary attain- 
 ments, as from his abilities as a statesman ; 
 and he received from his hands the public in- 
 vestiture of the laurel crown of poesy. I'ope 
 Calixtus III raised him to the pur])le in 14.)6, 
 in reward for his services, especially for bia 
 exertions in the diets called at Ratisbon and 
 Frankfort, to organize a league against the 
 Turks ; and tliis potentate dying, he succeeded 
 him in the pontifical chair in 1458, on which 
 occasion he assumed the name of Pius II. 
 One of the first acts of Iiis pontificate was 
 the appearance of a bull condemning all he 
 had previously written in defence cf the coun- 
 cil of Basil, while in the meditated crusade 
 he proceeded with much determination and 
 vigour, summoning all Christian princes to 
 assist him, and was actually proceeding to 
 place himself at the head of a considerable 
 body of bis own troops, when death put a 
 stojj to his enterprise, at Ancona, on the 14th 
 of August, 1464, in the seventh vear of his 
 reign, and fifty-ninth of his age. He appears 
 to have been a man of a strong mind and 
 lively and intriguing talents, principally bent 
 on confirming and extending the temporal 
 pouer of the papacy, in which design he was 
 very successful. Two editions of his works 
 have been published, one at Basil, in folio, 
 AD. lo.M ; another in 1700. at Helmstadt. 
 They consist principally of minutes of the 
 proceedii gs at the council of Basil, a poem on 
 the crucifixion, a history of Bohemia, a ro- 
 mance entitled " Kuryalus and Lucretia," 
 two books on cosmography, with memoirs of 
 his own life, letters, (S>;c. Gobelin, his secre- 
 tars , published a biographical memoir of him 
 after bis death, at Rome, which was reprinted 
 at Frankfort in 1614. Ilis ])ersonaI courage 
 as well as prudence were great ; of the latter 
 quidity several of his apoplithcgms which he 
 
PI u 
 
 left behind him give sufficient proof, and he 
 has been generally considered one of tlie best 
 scholars that ever wore the triple crown. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 PIUS VI (pope) whose secular name was 
 John Angelo Braschi, was born at Cesena in 
 1717. On the death of Clement XIV, in 
 1775, he succeeded to the papal throne; and 
 he shortly after made a reformation in the 
 financial department, and also improved the 
 museum of the Vatican. But the greatest of 
 his undertakings was the draining of the 
 Pontine marshes, a district between the Ap- 
 penine mountains and the sea, overflowed with 
 water, exhaling pestilential effluvia, which 
 gave rise to numerous diseases, and depopu- 
 lated the surrounding country. ^^ hile, how- 
 ever, this pontiff was successful in his domes- 
 tic administration, he had the mortification to 
 witness the absolute decay of the temporal 
 power of the holy see. In 1782 he made a 
 visit to the emperor Joseph II at \'ienna, to 
 endeavour to dissuade him from the prosecu- 
 tion of some ecclesiastical reforms which he 
 meditated ; but the journey was wholly use- 
 less, though the death of the emperor put a 
 stop to his schemes. Pius encountered many 
 other misfortunes. In France lie witnessed 
 the confiscation of the property of the church, 
 and the suppression of the religious orders, in 
 virtue of the decrees of the National Assem- 
 bly ; in Germany, the congress of Ems, for 
 the abolition of the nunciature, in 1785 ; in 
 Naples, the contempt of his authority, by 
 withholding the customary tribute of a horse ; 
 and, in 1791, he lost Avi^;non and the county 
 of Venaissin, which were reunited to France. 
 But all this was only the prelude to greater 
 adversity. In the first coalition against France, 
 the pope ranged himself among the enemies of 
 the republic. In January 1793, Basseville, 
 the French secretary of legation, was massacred 
 during a popular commotion at Rome. After 
 the victories of Buonaparte in Italy, in 1796, 
 general Augereau marched into the territories 
 of the pope, who, unable to resist, was glad to 
 accept of an armistice, which was signed at 
 Bologna, June 13. The pope having renewed 
 hostilities, Buonaparte attacked and beat his 
 troops at Senio, the 2nd of February, 1797, 
 and proceeded towards Borne. He stopped, 
 however, to treat with ministers sent by his 
 holiness : and on the 19th of February was 
 signed the treaty of Tolentino, by which the 
 pope lost Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 
 December 28, 1797, in consequence of ano- 
 ther commotion, in which general Duphot was 
 killed, Joseph Buonaparte, the French am- 
 bassador, quitted Rome. An army, com- 
 manded by general Berthier, entered that ca- 
 pital February 10, 1798, and on the 15th pro- 
 claimed the establishment of the Roman re- 
 public, governed by consuls, a senate, and a 
 tribunate. The pope, after tins deprivation of 
 his authority, was conveyed to France a;5 a pri- 
 soner, and he died at Valence, August 29, 
 1799. In 1802 his body was removed to 
 Rome, and solemnly interred. — Life of Pius 
 VI, 6y Duppa. 
 
 PIZ 
 
 PIUS VII (pope) or BARNABUS CHI- 
 ARAMON'l'E, the successor of l^ius VJ, 
 was born at Ceveua, August 14, 1740. IJa 
 
 was raised to the cardinahite in 1785, and he 
 held the bishopric of Imola, where ho was 
 visited by Buonaparte, in 1796 ; and having 
 conciliated the favour of that leader, he was, 
 through his influence, promoted to the papacy, 
 in March, 1800, and on the 15th of July, 
 1801, he signed the concordat, which termi- 
 nated the schism of the Galilean church. He 
 went to Paris in 1804', to assist at the corona- 
 tion of the French emperor ; and he after- 
 wards refused to confer a similar favour on 
 Louis XVIII. By a decree of the 17th of 
 iMay, 1809, the emperor Napoleon put an end 
 to the temporal power of the pope, uniting his 
 territories to the French empire ; and Pius VI I 
 himself was detained as a prisoner at Fon- 
 tainebleau, where he remained till the over- 
 tln'ow of Buonaparte, when he returned to 
 Rome to resume his authority. He died there 
 August 20, 1823 ; and was succeeded in the 
 pontificate by cardinal Sella Genga, who as- 
 sumed the appellation of Leo XII. — Gent. Mag. 
 PIZARRO (FuArcisco) the name of a 
 celebrated Spanish adventurer, one of the 
 conquerors of the New World. His origin 
 and early habits were sufficiently humble, he 
 being the fruit of an illicit connexion between 
 a peasant girl and an hidalgo of Truxiilo, in 
 the neighbourhood of which place he fii'st saw 
 the light, about the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Receiving neither support nor coun- 
 tenance from his father, lie was thrown en- 
 tirely upon his mother's resources, who so far 
 from being in circumstances to give him even 
 an ordinary education, employed him as a 
 swineherd, and left him totally illiterate. The 
 spirit of adventure which at that period per- 
 vaded Spain, induced him at length to quit his 
 inglorious occupation, and, in company with 
 sonre other soldiers of fortune, to seek an inr- 
 provement of his condition by a voyage of dis- 
 covery towards the newly-found continent of 
 America. In 1525, the adventurers, over 
 whom the enterprising disposition and daring- 
 temper of Pizarro had gained him considera- 
 ble influence, sailed from Panama. Drego 
 Almagro, a person of as obscure an origin as 
 himself, and Hernandez Lucque, an ecclesias- 
 tic, being joined with him in the command. 
 The Spaniards arrived, after experiencing se- 
 veral difficulties, in Peru, where taking advan- 
 tage of a civil war then raging in that coun- 
 try, they became the allies, and eventually the 
 enslavers, of Atahualpa, or Atabalipa, as he is 
 variously called, the reigning inca. IVeacher- 
 ously seizing upon the person of the monarch, 
 at a friendly banquet to which they had in- 
 vited him and his whole court, they first com- 
 pelled him to purchase, at an enormous price, 
 a temporary reprieve from a death which they 
 had determined he should eventually undergo; 
 and having succeeded in extorting from him, 
 it is said, a house full of the precious metilla 
 by way of ransom, after a mock trial for a 
 pretended conspiracy, condemned him to be 
 burnt, allowing hir^^ to be first strangled, a.s ,i 
 
PL A 
 
 reward for becoming a Christian. The news 
 of llieir success brouj^ht a coni^ideriible acces- 
 sion of strcr.gth from I'^urope to the invailtrs, 
 and Piz:irro, in order to consohdate his em- 
 pire, founded, in 1;>3.>, the city of Lima, 
 \vhi:;L he intended as the capital of his pos- 
 sessions ; but the discord between the chiefs 
 of tlie expedition, which even a sense of tlieir 
 common dan^tr had from the beginning failed 
 wholly to suppress, when this their sole bond 
 of union was withdrawn, broke out into oj)en 
 violence, and in the struggle which ensued 
 Ahnagro, now in his seventy-fifth year, was 
 lieft'ated, taken prisoner, and strangled by 
 Fenlinand Pizarro, brother to tiie general, 
 liiis catastrophe, which took ])Iace in 1537, 
 was avenged four years afterwards by the son 
 of the victim, and bearing the same name, who 
 having organized a conspiracy against the de- 
 stroyers of Ids father, broke into the palace at 
 Lima, and after an oljstmate resistance, suc- 
 ceeded in dispatching Francisco Pizarro. It 
 is im|)ossible to refuse to this adventurer the 
 credit of considerable military, as well as po- 
 litical talent, though the one was sullied by 
 his extreme barbarity, the other by his perfidy 
 and heartless dissimulation. His assassina- 
 tion took place June 26, 1541. — Robertson s 
 Hist, of America. 
 
 PLACCIUS (Vincent) a learned jurist, 
 was born at Hamburg in 1642. He studied at 
 ilelmstadt, and after travelling in France and 
 Italy, he returned to his native city, where he 
 practised at the bar, and was appointed pro- 
 fessor of morals and eloquence, which post he 
 held until his death in 1699. His principal 
 work is a curious bibliographical piece re- 
 specting anonymous and pseudonymous writers, 
 entitleil " De Scriptis et Scripcoribus anony- 
 mis atque pseudonymis Syntagma," together 
 Avith the " Catalogus Auctorum suppositio- 
 rum," of Rhodius. He also wrote " J)e Ju- 
 risconsulto perito," 8vo ; " De Arte excer- 
 ])endi," 8vo ; " Carndna Juvenilia." — Moreri. 
 I'nhlioir. Diet. 
 
 i'LACF2 (Fhancis) an engraver, was a na- 
 tive of Uinsdale in Durham. He was origi- 
 nally intended for the law, and came to Lon- 
 don to study ; but he was obliged to leave the 
 metropolis in 1665, on account of the plague. 
 He then went to York, and was at gieat ex- 
 ])cnse in attempting to make porcelaine, in 
 which he failed. He painted and engraved 
 only for his own amusement, and he refused 
 a pension of 500/. to draw the royal navy. He 
 died in 1728. His ])ioductions, which are 
 very rare, prove liim to have possessed great 
 abilities ; above all, his etchings from Griffier 
 are excellent ; his portraits in rnezzotinto are 
 also good. He executed the plate? for Goedar- 
 lius's Book of Insects ; wich views in York- 
 shire, Sec. — Strutt. Lord OrJ'ord's Catalogue 
 of Engravers. 
 
 PLACE (Joshua de la) a French protes- 
 tant liivine, was born about 1596. Losing his 
 ])arents at an early age, be was brought up by 
 four uncles, all mmisters. He studied in the 
 protestant seminary at Saumiir, where he be- 
 came professor of philosophy, and afterwards 
 
 P L A 
 
 of divinity. The opiidon of De la Place tipoa 
 original sin was condemned as erroneous in 
 164'J by the synod of (Jharenton, and several 
 learned theologians undertook to refute it ; 
 but De la Plate continued silent, ile dud in 
 1665, and his works are, " An Kxposiiioii of 
 the Song of Songs ;" •' A Treatise on Tyi>es ;" 
 " On the Order of the Divine Decrees ;" 
 " (Jn Free Will ;" " A Treatise concerning 
 the Imi)utation of Adam's First Sin ;" " A 
 Compendium of Diviidty ;" " Dialogues be- 
 tween a Father and Son relative to a Change 
 of Religion," 6cc. &c. The whole were pub- 
 lished at Franeker in 1699 and 1703, in 2 vols. 
 4to. — Mosfieim Hist. Eccles. iMoreri. Nonv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PLACE (Petf.r de la) Latin, Plateanus or 
 Platia, a French magistrate and writer, was 
 born at Angouieme in 1526. He was aj)pointed 
 by Francis I advocate of his court of aids at 
 Paris, and Henry H afterwards made him first 
 president of the same. On the death of Fran- 
 cis II he openly professed the protestant re- 
 ligion ; and when the first civil war broke 
 out, he retired into Picardy, but upon the 
 peace, in 1562, he ap})eared before the king, 
 and vindicated himself from many charges 
 which had been preferred against him. He 
 was then appointed by the prince of Conde 
 superintendent of his household ; but upon 
 the rupture of the prince and the court in 
 1566, he retired to the castle of Ve in ihe 
 Valois, where he remained until Charles IX 
 granted the Protestants a treacherous peace in 
 1569 ; he then returned to Paris, and resumed 
 his office, which he retained until he fell a 
 victim in the horrible massacre of St Bartho- 
 lomew. He was a man of sound judgment and 
 clear disci imination, of which he gave a proof 
 in his " Commentaries on the State of Ixeli- 
 gion and of the Commonwealth from 1556 to 
 1561." He also wrote " A Treatise on the 
 I'.xcellence of the Christian .Alan ;" a " Trea- 
 tise on the Right Use of Moral Piiilosophy in 
 Connection with the Christian Doctrine, iic." 
 — Moreri. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PLACE (Pierre Antoine de la) a French 
 writer, born at Calais in 1707. He was for 
 many years director of the " jMenure de 
 France ;" but he piiiicipally distinguiahed him- 
 self by his translations of iMigliih productions 
 He died in 1793. His literary hibours com- 
 prise, •' Theatre Anglais." 1746, 8 vols. 12ino. 
 on the model of the Theatre des Grecs of V. 
 Brumoy ; " Histoire de Tom Jones," 1767, 
 4 vols. l2mo, a free translation, often reprinted; 
 " L'Orpheline Anglaise ;" and several trage- 
 dies, including " Venise Sauvee," imitated 
 from Otwav. — Biog. Aoi/r. d^s Contemp. 
 
 PLACENTIUS or PLAISANT (John) an 
 ecclesiastic of the order of St Dominic, passe d 
 the greatest jiart of his life at JMaestricht. 
 where he is su])posed to have died about 1548. 
 He wrote an abridged history of the bishops of 
 Tongres and Liege, entitled " Caialogus an- 
 stititum Leodiensium," in which he displays* 
 his credulity, by admitting all the fables of tlie 
 ancient chronicles. He also published a j oem 
 called " Pugna Porcorum," of which all tiic 
 
P L A 
 
 words commenced with P. One Ubaldus, a 
 Benedictine under Charles le Chauve, made a 
 similar poem, with all the words beginning 
 by C. They were printed together at Louvain [ 
 in 1546. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 1 
 
 PLACETTE (John de la) a French Pro- ' 
 teslant divine, was born at Pontac in Bearne, 
 in 1639. On the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, he accepted an offer made him bj the 
 queen of Denmark, to become pastor of a 
 French church she had founded at Copenha- 
 gen. On tlie death of that princess he re- 
 moved into Holland, and died at Utrecht in 
 1718. He wrote " Essais de Morale," 6 vols. 
 I'imo ; " Traite de la Conscience ;" " Traite 
 de rOrgueil ;" " Traite de la Foi Divine ;" 
 " Traite de la Pvestitution ;" " La Mort des 
 Justes ;" &c. &c. Some of these have been 
 translated into English. He was also one of 
 the antagonists of Ba}le, against whom he 
 published some tracts. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 PLAXQUE (Francis) a physician, born 
 at Amiens in France, in 1696. He studied 
 medicine at Paris, after which he passed many 
 years in retirement, occupying himself with 
 scientific researches. He was more than fifty 
 years of age when he took, the degree of MD. 
 at Rlieims. Returning to Paris he continued 
 to devcte himself chietly to study, employing 
 his talents as a practitioner only for the benefit 
 of his friends. He died Spptemher 19, 176.5. 
 He was the author of several medical works, 
 among which the most important is " La Bib- 
 liotheque choisie de Meelicine, tiree des Ou- 
 vrages periodiques, tant Fran^ais qu'Etran- 
 gers," Paris, 1748-70, 10 vols. 4to, or 31 
 vols. 12mo. The sui)jects of this work are 
 arranged in alphabetical oider ; and the col- 
 lection was completed by Goulin, who j)laced 
 before the last volume a lite of the author. 
 Planque had ])rojected a Aledical Bibliogra- 
 phy, of which he printed a specimen only. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PLANTIN (Chrtstophf.r) an eminent 
 printer, was born at Mont- Louis near Tours, in 
 1514. He settled at Antwerp, where he 
 formed a large establishment, and printed a 
 great number of important works, to some of 
 which learned prefaces are added in his name ; 
 bur his claim to these is doubtful. His prin- 
 cipal performance is a Polyglot Bible, printed 
 after that of Alcala ; hut the rigour with which 
 Philip H recalled the money advanced for 
 this undertaking, nearly occasioned its failure. 
 He died at Antwerp in 1589, with the title of 
 arch-printer to the king of Spain. He pos- 
 sessed a fine library, which he bequeathed to 
 his grandson, Balthasar Moret. — Moreri. Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 PLANUDES (Maximus) a monk of Con- 
 stantinople, flourished in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. It is said by some that he was sent 
 ambassador to X'enice, by the emperor Andro- 
 aicus the elder ; but Posserin affirms that he 
 was living in the time of the council of Basil. 
 He was persecuted and imprisoned by the 
 Greek emperor, on account of his attachment 
 to the Romish church ; and as the price of 
 
 PL A 
 
 his liberty, he was obliged to write three trea- 
 tises against it. He compiled a Greek " An- 
 thologia," a collecti'jn of ejiigrarns from those 
 of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias; it was 
 printed at Florence in 1494, and at Frank- 
 fort in 1500. He also w? jte a romantic his- 
 tory of .?-2sop, and m.ade a collection of his 
 Fables, and translated several Latin works 
 into Greek. — Vossii Poet. Grcec. Baillet. 
 
 PLATER (Felix) a celebrated physician, 
 was born at Basil in 1536. He obtained the 
 medical chair in liis native place, and raised 
 the imiversity of Basil to high reputation, as a 
 medical school, by his learned lectures, for 
 fifty years. He was a skilful anatomist, and 
 well versed in botany and natural history. 
 He is said by Haller to have been the first 
 who taught that the crystalline humour of the 
 eye has the power of a convex lens, in bring- 
 ing the rays to a focus on the retina. His 
 works are, " De Partium Corporis Humani 
 Structura et Usu," lib. iii ; " Do JMulierum 
 Partibus Generationi Dicatis ;" •' De Fe- 
 bribus ;" " Praxeos Medicse," tom. iii ; " Ob- 
 servationum in Hominis Aflfectibus plerisque,'' 
 lib. iii ; " Questionum IMedicarum parailoxa- 
 rum et endoxarum Centuria posthuma," pub- 
 lished by his brother Thomas, in 1625. He 
 had two nephews, likewise physicians and pro- 
 fessors, one of whom wrote " Observationuni 
 selectiorum Mantissa," annexed to his uncle's 
 Observations in 1680. — Halleri Bibl. Med. et 
 A tin torn. Etoy Diet. 
 
 PLATINA (Bartolomeo) an historian, 
 whose family name was De Sacchi, but who 
 chose to be called Platina, the name of the 
 place of his nativity in 1421. He studied a 
 IVInntua, but going to Rome, Pius II ap- 
 pointed him one of the apostolical abbrevia- 
 tors. When Paul II dissolved this college, he 
 was dismissed with seventy other learned 
 men ; but venturing to complain, and even to 
 remonstrate too boldly with the pontiff, on this 
 proceeding, he was seized and imprisoned. 
 He was afterwards tortured and imprisoned 
 by the same pope on suspicion of being im- 
 plicated in conspiracy against him wuh 
 the other Roman academicians of Pomponius 
 L<Gtus; but nothing being discovered, they 
 were accused of disputing the immortality 
 of the soul, and w^re all remanded to prison, 
 and again put to the rack. His sufferings 
 were recompensed by Sixtus IV, who, in 
 1475, made him keeper of the Vatican li- 
 brary. Platina's principal work was Ids 
 " l^ives of the Homan PontifTs," com])osed in 
 elegant Latin, with a degree of force then 
 uncommon : his greatest fault is his partial 
 acrimony in speaking of some contemporary 
 popes, among \>hom he does not spare Paulll. 
 He also wrote a Latin " History of Mantua, 
 from its origin to the year 1464 ;" and a " Life 
 of Nerio (^apponi," with treatises on miscella- 
 neous topics. He died in 1481. — Tiraboschi, 
 Moreri. 
 
 PLATNER (Jonx Zaohary) a German 
 physician and oculist, born at Chemnitz, in 
 1694. He studied at Leipsic and Halle, and 
 took his doctor's degree in 1716. He after- 
 
P L A 
 
 H'ard-? travelled for improvoment, in Switzer- 
 hui(!, Savoy, France, and llollaiul; ii'ul, in 
 17'i!0, settled at I^ipsic, where the followinj.; 
 Vfar lie was appointed professor of anatomy 
 anil siirj;ery. In 1721, he olitained the chair 
 of physiology ; in 17;)7, that of pathology; 
 and in 1747, that of tlierapeutics. Abont the 
 same time lie was nominated porpetiial dean 
 of tlie facnitv, and consulting j)hvsician to tiie 
 ronrt of Saxony. Iks death took place in 
 1717. Besides a number of theses anil me- 
 moirs, he was tlie author of " Institiitionos 
 Chirurgifc turn medicie turn manuales, ad- 
 jectnr; Icones nonnullonmi ferranr'ntorum, 
 Ike." 17-1-5, 8vo, often rejMiblisheJ, and trans- 
 lateil into Dutch and German. — I'latneh 
 (Krnf.st) a physician and moralist, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Leipsic, Jariuary 1.^, 
 17lt. He took the degree of doctor of medi- 
 cine, and became professor in that faculty, and 
 perpetual dean ; and to those academical titles 
 lie added, in 1789, that of decemvir of the 
 university of Leipsic, and aulic counsellor to 
 the elector of Saxony. He was the oldest 
 among the professors ; and his numerous pu- 
 jiils, who regarded him with filial ati'ection, 
 styled him the Nestor of the university of 
 Leipsic. In 1816 the king of Saxony ap- 
 pointed him amemberof a commission charged 
 with the preparation of the outline of a new 
 law relating to the liberty of the press. His 
 death took place IMay 12, 1818. He published 
 a great number of important works on medi- 
 cine and philosophy. Among the former are, 
 " Anthropology for the Physicians and Philo- 
 sophers," ? vols. 8vo; and " Qua?stionum 
 Physiologicariim libri duo," 1794, 8vo ; and 
 among the latter, " Philosophical Aphorisms," 
 2 vols. Bvo ; " A Dialogue on Atheism;" 
 and " Elements of Logic and I\Ietaphysics," 
 Bvo. — ^ing. Univ. 
 
 PLATO, one of the most illustrious of the 
 Grecian philosophers, and the founder of the 
 academic sect, was an xAtheiiian by descent, 
 btit born in the island of .'Egina. He was 
 of illustrious origin, his father Aristo being 
 a descendant from Codrus, and his mother 
 IVricthione from Solon. The time of his 
 birth is fixed in the first year of the eighty- 
 eiglith Olympiad ; but Brucker thinks that it 
 may be more accurately assigned to the third 
 year of the eighty-seventh Olympiad, or BC. 
 4;>(). His parents first called him Aristocles, 
 but his name was subsequently changed to 
 Plato, on account of the breadth of his shoul- 
 ders. As he gave early indications of original 
 genius, he was educated with great care, and 
 in the first instance applied himself to the arts 
 of poetry and painting, which, after composing 
 an ejnc poem and a drama, he resigned for the 
 study of pbilosojihy, under Socrates. He re- 
 mained a regular pupil under that philosopher 
 t'or eight years, and, like his other disciples, 
 committed the substance of his master's doc- 
 trines to writing; but so intermingled them 
 with notions of his own, that Socrates would 
 scarcely acknowledge thfm. On the persecu- 
 tion of the latter, the conduct of Plato was 
 disinterested and noble in a high degree ; 
 
 P L A 
 
 and to his attendance on him during his 
 iniprisonnu'iit the world owes the beautiful 
 dialogue, entitled " Phiedi," which, with 
 some of the writer's own opinions, conveys 
 the substance of the sentiments of Socrati « 
 on the immortality of the soul. On the death 
 of his master, Plato repaired in the first in- 
 stance to iMegara, and afterwards visited 
 •Magna Gra-cia, where he attended the cele- 
 brated school of PythagoraS; whose doctnneg 
 he subsequently bleneled with the more simple 
 system of Socrates. Ho next studied math", 
 niatics under 'J'heodorus of Cyrene, and 
 thence repaired to Egypt, to acquire astronomy 
 and an insight into the Egy[>tian mysteries, 
 where, it is by some believed, that he derivi d' 
 his doctrines of transmigration and the immor- 
 tality of the soul. Others suppose that he at 
 tlie same time acipiired a knowledge of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures ; but all these suppositions 
 rest upon mere conjecture. On his return to 
 Athens he opened a school, for the instruc- 
 tion of youth in philosophy n a small garden, 
 which was his patrimony, •Jir-iate in the public 
 grove for gymnastic exercises, termed the 
 Academy. Here he was attended by a crowd 
 of hearers of every description, including per- 
 sons of the first distinction, and among other 
 illustrious names to be ranked among his dis- 
 ciples are those of Dion, Aristotle, Hyjie- 
 rides, Lycurgus, the orator Demosthenes, 
 and Tsocrates. Jealousy is necessarily atten- 
 dant on public admiration, and it is to be 
 regretted that the name of Xenophon is to 
 be joined to that of Diogenes the cynic, in the 
 list of his personal opponents and detractors. 
 A visit which he paid to the elder Dionysins 
 of Syracuse, at the age of forty, proved a con- 
 spicuous event in the lif« of Plato, whose in- 
 structions produced an excellent effect on the 
 king's brother-in-law, Dion ; but, as might be 
 expected, were lost upon the tyrant himself, 
 wiio contrived that in his passage home he 
 should be seized and sold as a slave to the in- 
 habitants of his native island of ^i'gina, then 
 at war with the Athenians. From this state 
 of servitude he was quickly removed by the 
 voluntary generosity of Aniceris, a Cvreneaii 
 philosopher ; and Dionysius, ashamed of the 
 odium produced by his low-minded proceed- 
 ing, wrote letters of apology, and besoiitjht 
 him to return to Syracuse. Plato noblv 
 replied, that philosophy would not allow 
 him leisure to think of Dionvsius. At 
 the request of Dion, liowever, he subse- 
 quently Tei>aired fo the court of Dionvsius the 
 younger ; moved, it is said, by the ho|)e that 
 he might induce that ruler to establish his 
 visionary republic. He was well received for 
 a time, but jealousy and distrust gradually 
 ensued, and a war following, he returned 
 home. When peace was restored, with a view 
 to ensure the return of his friend l^ion from 
 exile, he was a^ain induced to visit Sicily, at 
 the earnest request of Dionysius, in whom 
 jealousy of his friendship to his brother-in law 
 again jiroduced distrust ; and, after much ca- 
 pricious and some rigorous treatment, the phi- 
 losopher was allowed to finally dej)art, with 
 
PL A 
 
 iuagnificent presents. On his return to Athens 
 Plato resumed his school, and no persuasion 
 could afterwards induce him to quit his peace- 
 ful retirement, where lie resided enjoying the 
 benefits of his robust constitution and great 
 temperance, until his death, in his seventy- 
 ninth year, BC. 3^8. On the decease of this 
 celebrated pliilosopher, who passed his whole 
 life in celibacy, statues and altars were erected 
 to his memory ; the day of his birth was 
 adopted as a festival by his followers ; and it 
 was the fashion to engrave his head on gems, 
 some of which have reached modern times. 
 The personal character of Plato has been 
 differently represented ; but in the midst of 
 the excessive veneration of his admirers, and 
 the slander of his enemies, there is sufficient 
 evidence that he was highly and deservedly 
 esteemed for his moral worth and virtue, and 
 for his gentle, urbane, and courteous manners. 
 His writings consist of thirty-five dialogues 
 and twelve epistles, the style of which retains 
 a strong tincture of the poetical spirit which 
 pervaded his earliest productions. Some of his 
 dialogues are peculiarly elevated by sublime 
 and glowing conceptions, and enriched by a 
 copious, splendid, and harmonious flow of 
 diction. The better part of these, even when 
 ne is treating of abstract subjects, are beauti- 
 fully clear and simple ; but others arc unfor- 
 tunately turgid and tinctured with the obscu- 
 rity of the Pythagorean school. For an ac- 
 count of the philosophy of Plato we refer our 
 readers to the first two of our authorities, as 
 no adequate account of it will suit the limits of 
 a v/ork of this nature. Involved in a maze of 
 words, his doctrines mock the understanding, 
 after the most elaborate analysis ; and their par- 
 tial adoption by the Christian world has led to 
 endless speculation, often indeed ingenious 
 and beautiful ; but at the same time in quite 
 as great a degree perplexing and illusive. In 
 the seventeenth century. Gale, Cudworth, and 
 Henry IMore perplexed themselves with the 
 tlieories of Plato, which are now more so- 
 berly appreciated ; a n atural result of the 
 inductive and experimental spirit of later 
 times. So long, however, as genius and lofty 
 conception will delight, the reveries of a mind 
 like Plato's will retain no mean portioa of 
 admiration. His doctrine concerning God, 
 JMind, IMatter, the Immortality of the Soul, 
 Archetypal Forms, &c. exhibits that order of 
 temperament which may be philosophically 
 termed the devotional, and in consequence 
 there exists in a lari;e body of mankiud a strong 
 constitutional sympathy with its spirit and ten- 
 dency. The writings of Plato were originally ' 
 collected by HermoJorus, and published by 1 
 Aldus, in 1513, fol. An elegant and correct j 
 edition after the Greek text of Henry Ste- I 
 phens, and the Latin version of Ficinus, was ! 
 j)ublished at D?ux Fonts, 1788, 12 vols. 8vo. | 
 English versions of Plato's Dialogues have | 
 been published, at various periods; but the 
 best is that of Floyer Sydenham, 1767-8, I 
 4 vols. 4to, the whole of which have been re- ' 
 published, with the additional works of Plato, 
 by I'homas Taylor, v/ith copious i.otcs, 5 
 
 PL A 
 
 vols. 4tO. 180-i. — Bruckers Hist. Philos. En- 
 cyciop. Brit, Fabricii Bihl. Gicec. 
 
 PLATOFF, or PLATOVV, hetman of the 
 Cossacks, was born in the southern part o/ 
 Russia, about 1763. He entered young on 
 military service, and in 1806 and 1807 he had 
 the rank of lieutenant-general in the Russian 
 army sent to the assistance of Prussia. Ho 
 was afterwards employed against the Turks in 
 Moldavia, and was made a general of cavalry. 
 When the French invaded Russia, in 181^, 
 Platotf was again called into actual ser- 
 vice, and though he was defeated at Grod- 
 no, and obliged to retire into the interior, 
 he returned during the retreat of the enemy 
 from Moscow, and with twenty rei^iments 
 of Cossacks, he harassed them in their flight, 
 and contributed greatly to the advantages 
 gained over them. In 1813, after the 
 battle of Leipsic, he entered France, and 
 was at Paris with the emperor Alexander, 
 whom he accompanied to England. At Lon- 
 don he was the object of popular admiration, 
 and a magnificent sabre was presented to 
 him. In 181.5 he commanded the Cossacks 
 destined for the second invasion of France, 
 and he again made his appearance at Paris. 
 After the restoration of peace, he retired to 
 Tcherkash, where he died in February 1818, 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PLAYFAIP. (John) a distinguished natu- 
 ral philosopher and mathematician, born at 
 Bervie near Dundee in Scotland, in 1749. 
 His father was a parochial clergyman of the 
 Scottish church ; and having finished his edu- 
 cation at the university of St Andrews, he re- 
 ceived ordination, and succeeded to his father's 
 benefice in 1772. After holding it some 
 years he resigned it, and going to Edinburgh, 
 he obtained the mathematical chair in that 
 university. In 1778 he published in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions a paper *' On the 
 Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities;" and on 
 the establishment of the Royal Society of 
 Edinburgh, he was appointed one of the se- 
 cretaries. To t!ie first volume of its Transac- 
 tions he contributed an " Account of the Life 
 and Writings of Matt. Stewart, Prof, of iMa- 
 thematics at Edinburgh," and an essay " On 
 the Causes which afi^ect the Accuracy of Ba- 
 rometrical Measurements ;" and several other 
 communications from him appeared in the 
 subsequent volumes. Professor Playfair do 
 voted much time to the study of geology : and 
 in 1816 he visited the Aljis, for the purpose of 
 making geological observations on the struc- 
 ture of those mountains. He adopted the 
 opinions of Dr James Hutton, whicli he de- 
 fended in his " Illustrations of the Huttonian 
 Theory of the Earth," 4to. His death took 
 place at Edinburgh, July 20, i;U9. i5esides 
 the j)roductions already noticed, he was the 
 author of " Elements of Geometry," 8vo, and 
 '• Outlines of Natural Philosophy," 2 vols. 
 8vo. -Gent. Blair. Aim. Biorr. 
 
 PLAYFAl 'I ( Wii.i.iam) an ingenious me- 
 chanic, draughtsman, and author, born in the 
 neighbourhood of Dundee, 1759, and brotlu-jr 
 to the professor of that name. Discoveiin^; an 
 
P L A 
 
 Piirly ta^^te for metlianics, he was bouud to a 
 millwright of the nniiie of i\Iicklo, the cfic- 
 ljr;ited engineer, Joiiu lli'niiit', lieiii'^ liis fal- 
 low-apprentice. At the expiration of his in- 
 dentures he went to liirmingiiam, and was 
 eni;r«ged tiiere for .some time by I\Ir James 
 Watt, as a draughtsman, in the works at Soho. 
 Going to the continent he encountered acci- 
 dentally, at Frankfort-on-tlie-Maine, a mem- 
 ber of the parliament of liourdeaux ; and, 
 from his descri[)tion of a telegraph then lately 
 erected on the mountain of lielville, con- 
 structed two working models of tiie instru- 
 ment, wliich he sent to the duke of York, and 
 hence the plan and alphabet of the machine 
 cama to England. Although about this time 
 an eager desire to distinguish himself as a po- 
 litical writer became his ruling passion, he 
 did not yet abandon his taste for the arts, but 
 successively ol)t;nned several patents for use- 
 ful inventions. After residing some time in 
 London he repaired to Paris, where he erected 
 a rolling mill on a new plan, for which he ol)- 
 tained an exclusive privilege from the king ; 
 but, on the breaking out of the Revolution, 
 becoming obnoxious to Barrett, by the expres- 
 sion of anti-republican juinciples, he narrowly 
 escaped an arrest, and returned to England. 
 As scarcely a subject of public interest in po- 
 litics or political economy has occurred lat- 
 terly without eliciting a pamphlet from his 
 prolific pen, it becomes impossible to enume- 
 rate his productions. Those by wliich he is 
 more generally known are, " The Statistical 
 Breviary ;" " The Commercial and Political 
 Atlas," 1786; " The History of JacobinL^m," 
 179.) ; " Statistical Tallies, exhibiting a View 
 of all the States of P^urope," 4to, 1800; and 
 an " Inquiry into the Causes of the Decline 
 and Fall of wealthy and powerful Nations," 
 4to, 1805, reprinted in 1807; a new edition 
 of Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations," with 
 supplementary chapters, (kc.3 vols. Bvo, 1806 ; 
 " A Statistical Account of the United States 
 of America, translated from the French," 8vo, 
 1807 ; " British Family Antiquity," 9 vols. 
 4to ; " A Vindication of the Reign of George 
 111 ;" " Political Portraits in this new /Era," 
 2 vols. 1814 ; and " France as it is." In his 
 opinions Mr Playfair was strongly attached to 
 the Pitt school of politics ; his '• Breviary" 
 and " Atlas" display considerable ingenuity, 
 in simplifying statistical details, by means of 
 geometrical lines and figures. He died Fe- 
 bruary 11, 1823. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 PL-IYFORD (John) an ingenious writer 
 on musical subjects, born in 1613 at London. 
 He followed the business of a music-seller, 
 and in tlie course of his occupation became in- 
 timate with most of the eminent composers of 
 his time, whose works he was in the habit of 
 publishing. Being himself also an excellent 
 judge of music, and very induscrious, he con- 
 tributed much to the improvement of the art 
 of printing music, by an invention which he 
 called the " new tied note," the metal types 
 previously in use being all separate and dis- 
 tiiici. 'i he hint of this improvement he is sup- 
 posed to have taken from Matthew Lock, 
 
 BiOG. D1CT.--V0L. IL 
 
 P I. I 
 
 who, as early as 1673. joined the notes together 
 in hi.s " Me oiheria," I'layford lived to the 
 a!,'e of eighty ; and tliough a practical, rather 
 than a scientific mu>i«ian, was sufrKiently 
 versed in the rules of composition to write 
 good harmony. Besides a variety of boiigs ia 
 l)arts, printed in the " .Musical Companion," 
 he compiled a work, in 166.T, entitled " An In- 
 troduction to the Skill of Music," which ran 
 through ten editions. His death took place ja 
 1693. — Bioir. Diet, of Music. 
 
 PLEMPIUS (Vopiscus Foutunatus) a 
 Dutch physician, was born in I60I at .Amster- 
 dam, and graduated at Bologna, in which uni- 
 versity he had applied himself with great suc- 
 cess to the study of medicine. He became 
 afterwards professor of jihysic at Loiivaine, 
 and with all that prejudice which induces 
 many persons even of acknowledged ability to 
 set themselves against any thing which is not 
 sanctioned by long custom, exerted himself 
 vigorously against the useof tlie Peruvian bark, 
 then recently introduced into the Materia .Me- 
 dicaby the Jesuit Honore Fabri, under the as- 
 sumed name of Coningius. The treatise in which 
 he commenced his attack upon this invaluable 
 medicine is entitled " Antymus Coningius, 
 Peruviani Pulveris Defensor, repulsus a Me- 
 lippo Protymo." His other works are, " Oph- 
 thalmographia, sive de Oculi Fabrica, Actione, 
 (Sec." 4to ; " Fundamenta, seu Institutiones 
 Medicinae ;" " On the Diseases of tlie Hair 
 and Nails;" " On the Plague ;" " On the 
 Muscles," &c. ; and a Latin translation of the 
 two first books of Avicenna. He died in 1671, 
 — Moreri. Nnuv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PLINY THE ELDER, or CAIUS PLI- 
 NIUS SECUNDUS, a celebrated Roman na- 
 turalist, born .AD. 22, at Verona, or, accordino^ 
 to some, at Como. Going to Rome, he stu- 
 died nnder the philosopher Appion ; and he 
 is supposed in his youth to have belonged to 
 the court of Caligula. When about twenty- 
 one, he resided some time on the coast of 
 Africa, and he afterwards served in the army 
 in Germany. Returning to Rome at the age 
 of thirty, he became an advocate, and pleaded 
 several causes with reputation. He passed 
 part of his time at Como, in superintemiing 
 the education of his nephew ; and during 
 great part of the reign of Nero he seems to 
 have remained without public employment. 
 At length he was ap})Ointed procurator in 
 Spain, where he staid till after the accession of 
 Vespasian, who is supposed to have raised 
 him to the dignity of a senator. The latter 
 part of his life was dedicated to literature. He 
 wrote the " History of liisown Time," inthiny- 
 one books, which is lost, and his " Natural 
 History," in thirty-seven books, one of the 
 most precious monuments of antiquity extant. 
 Pliny became the victim of his attachment to 
 science ; for being at ^lisenura during an 
 eruption of Vesuvius, liis anxiety f) make ob- 
 servations on that phenomenon prevented him 
 from taking proper precautions for his own 
 safety, and he was suffocated by the sulphur- 
 eous vapour. The eruption which cause his 
 death appears to have been that in which the 
 2 X 
 
PLC 
 
 cities of llcrculaneum and Pompei were de- 
 stroyed, ill the first year of tlie emperor Titus. 
 'Jlie best editions of Pliny's Natural History 
 are those of llardouin, 1685, 5 vols. 4to, and 
 ir-i.), 5 vols, folio; and tliat of Franzius, 
 Loipsic, 1778-91, 10 vols. 8 vo. — Moreri. Ai- 
 kiii^s den. R/oif. 
 
 PI.INV niE YOUNGER, or CAIUS 
 C.^-:CIIJUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, ne- 
 phew ot the preceding. He was born at 
 Coino, where his father Ctecilius held an ho- 
 nourable station. His education was carefully 
 attended to, and such was his proficiency, that 
 at the age of fourteen he composed a Greek 
 tragedy. He studied rhetoric under the first 
 masters ; and having obtained a military com- 
 mand in Syria, he embraced the opportunity of 
 applying to philosophical researches, in con- 
 junction with his professional duties. Having 
 been adopted by his uncle, at the age of 
 eighteen he became an advocate, and soon 
 acquired great eminence in the forum. Under 
 the tyrannical reign of Domilian he distin- 
 guished himself by his patriotism and public 
 spirit ; and when that emperor proscribed the 
 professors of philosophy, Pliny assisted them 
 by his f"iendship and liberality. He became 
 tribune of the people, and exercised the office 
 of the priesthood ; and, after the death of 
 Domitian, he was prefect of the treasury, con- 
 sul, governor of Bithyuia and Pontus, commis- 
 sary of the ^milian way, and at length augur. 
 He held his government under Trajan, with 
 whom he was a great favourite. Returning to 
 Home, he divifled his time between public 
 affairs and the pleasures of society and litera- 
 ture, till his death, which happened about 
 A.D. 103. He wrote much which has perished, 
 nothing remaining extant except his deservedly 
 admired, but somewhat artificial " Letters" and 
 his " Panegyric on Trajan." Among the best 
 editions of his works are the Elzevir, 16-tO, 
 12mo ; Variorum, 1669, 8vo ; Oxford, 1703 ; 
 and Nuremberg, 1746, 4to. The Letters of 
 Pliny have been translated into English by lord 
 Orrery and by Melraoth. — Vosshis. Biog. Univ. 
 PLOT (Robert) an English naturalist, bora 
 in 1640. He was educated at Oxford, where 
 he was appointed professor of chemistry, in 
 1683, having been previously keeper of the 
 Ashmolsan museum, which he greatly aug- 
 mented. He conceived the plan of a complete 
 natural history of England, the only parts of 
 which that were properly executed were his 
 " Natural Flistory of Oxfordshire," 1 677, folio, 
 and " Natural History of StatFordshire." He 
 also collected materials for the counties of 
 Kent and Middlesex ; but these remain in 
 manuscript, except a " Notice of some Anti- 
 quities in Kent," 1714, 8vo. Having resigned 
 his professorship, Plot was made royal historio- 
 grapher by James 11 in 1686. Li 1694 he was 
 appointed IMowbray herald, and archivist of 
 the herald's office. He died of the stone in 
 1696. Dr Plot was a fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, and secretary to that body, in whose 
 Transactions are several of his communica- 
 tions. — Biocr. Brit. 
 
 PLOTINUS, a learned but visionary jdiilo- 
 
 PLC 
 
 sopher of the third century, born at Lycopolia 
 in Egypt, about the year i205. He had at- 
 tained the age of twenty-eight before he bc- 
 san to devote himself to the studv of ethics ; 
 when finding the best scholars at Alexandria 
 unable completely to settle his opinions, heat 
 length became the disciple of Ammonius, and 
 the most distinguished Platonist and leader of 
 the Eclectic school. With this master he spent 
 eleven years, when he embraced the opportunity 
 afforded him by the expedition of the emperor 
 Gordian against the Parthians, to travel into 
 Persia and India, and to make himself ac- 
 quainted with the Oriental philosophy. On the 
 death of his patron he remained a while in 
 Syria, after which he returned to Rome, about 
 the year !24.5, and then read lectures in philo- 
 sophy. Porphyry being one of his pupils. The 
 treatises of Plotinus, fifty-four in number, 
 were distributed by Porphyry in six classes, 
 called '* Euneads," the Greek text of which, 
 with a Latin version by Ficinus, was pub- 
 lished at Basil, 1580, folio. His death took 
 place in 270. — Brucker. 
 
 PLOWDEN (Edmund) an eminent Eng- 
 lish lawyer and reporter in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Shropshire, and 
 studied both at Oxford and Cambridge, where 
 he is said to have applied himself to medicine, 
 which he relinquished for the law, and be- 
 came reader at the Middle Temple. In the 
 reign of queen Mary he attained the rank of 
 sergeant at law ; but being a Catholic, he re- 
 ceived no farther promotion under Elizabeth. 
 His death took place in 1585, at the age of 
 sixty-seven. His works consist of " Com- 
 mentaries or Reports," containing law-cases 
 argued and determined in the reigns of Ed- 
 ward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth. Daines Bar- 
 rington styles Plowdeu the most accurate of all 
 reporters. — Wood. Bridgman. 
 
 PLOWDEN (Francis) an English eccle- 
 siastic, of a Catholic family, who followed 
 James II to France. His mother was maid of 
 honour to the wife of that prince, and the son 
 was educated at St Germain-en-Laye, and af- 
 terwards placed at the English seminary at 
 Paris. Having taken orders among the Ca- 
 tholics, he became connected with the abbe 
 Boursier, who persuaded him to omit taking 
 the degree of doctor, rather than sign the new 
 formulary at that time required from divines 
 of the Gallican church. His party connexions 
 are said to have prevented him from obtainino- 
 a cardinal's hat ; and the same cause hindered 
 him from being employed as a missionary in 
 England, where he resided three years. Re- 
 turning to France, he took up his residence 
 among the doctors of the house of St Charles, 
 at Paris, and continued there the greater part 
 of his life. There are several works extant of 
 the abbe Plowden, one of which, entitled, 
 "Traite du Sacrifice de J. C." 1778, 3 vols, 
 12mo, excited among his brethren a long con- 
 troversy, in which, however, the author himself 
 took no part. He died about 1787. — Plowden 
 (Charles) a Jesuit, of the same family with 
 the foregoing, born in England in 1743. He 
 was sent to Rome for education, and entered 
 
P LU 
 
 into the society in 1759. He return^'d to his 
 own country after the suppression of liis onh-r 
 in 1773, and applit-d himself to ecck-siastical 
 duties and hterary composition. He wrote 
 against lieriuijton and Butler, when the Je- 
 suits endeavoured to reunite ihoir society in 
 England, and he was one of the most zealous 
 advocates for that measure. He afterwards 
 became president of the Catholic colle'jje of 
 Stonyhursr, in Lancashire; and in liVJO he 
 took a journey to Rome, to transact some af- 
 fairs relative to his onler. His deatii took 
 place, on his return to England, at Jouojne, in 
 France, June 13, 1821. A list of his writings 
 may be found in the subjoined authority. — 
 Bio^. Univ. 
 
 PLUCHE (Noel Antoine) a learned 
 French writer, born in the diocese of Rheims 
 in 1688. In consequence of the death of his 
 father, he was left when young to the care of 
 liis mother, who procured for him the advan- 
 tage of a good education. At the age of 
 twenty-two he became professor of humanity 
 in the college of his native city, and lie af- 
 terwards filled the chair of rlietoric. He was 
 about to enter into holy orders, when the bi- 
 shop of Laon offered him the presidency of his 
 college, which he accepted ; but being de- 
 nounced as an opposer of the bull Unigenitus, 
 he diose rather to resign liis situation, than to 
 sign the formula of retractation which was 
 presented to him. He then retired into Nor- 
 mandy, and acted as a private tutor ; and af 
 terwards going to Paris, he supported himself 
 by giving lessons to young persons on history 
 and geograpliy. He relinquished this em- 
 ployment to devote himself to the composition 
 of his famous work, entitled, " Spectacle de 
 la Nature, ou Entretiens sur I'Histoire Na- 
 turelie et les Sciences," which was published 
 at Paris in 1732, 9 vols. 12mo. In conse- 
 quence of being afflicted with deafness he 
 quitted Paris in 1749, and retiring to Varenne 
 St iMaur, he passed the rest of his days in re- 
 ligious exercises and theological studies. He 
 difd of apoplexy, November 19, 1761. Be- 
 sides the " Spectacle de la Nature," which 
 has been translated into English, the abbe 
 Pluche was the author of " Histoire du Ciel, 
 consideree selon les Idees des Poetes, des 
 Philosophes, et de INIoise," 1739, 2 vols. 12mo : 
 •' La Rlecanique des Langues, et I'Art de les 
 Enseigner," 1751, 12mo ; and other works. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PLUKENET (Leonard) a medical profes- 
 sor and botanist of the seventeenth century. 
 bom in 16-1'2. Little is known of his origin 
 or education, except that the latter is sup- 
 posed to have been completed at Cambridge, 
 where he is said to have graduated. After- 
 wards he practised as an apothecary in the 
 city of Westminster, and raised a botanic gar- 
 den there, which gained him some notoriety. 
 and, after a life passed in struggles against ad- 
 versity, led at last to his being appointed, to- 
 wards its close, royal ])rofessor of botany at 
 Hampton-court, and superintendent of the 
 garden there. Plukenet differed much with 
 Petivier and Sbane, whom he speaks very 
 
 P L U 
 
 slightingly of, hut was of considerable service 
 to R;iy, of wliom iie thought highly. His 
 |)rinci|)al work, on which he bcstowj-d much 
 labour and expense, is his " Phytographia," 
 which fust apprared in four separate parts, 
 Ito. between the y»-ars 1691 and 1696, and 
 contains upwards of .JOO platts. His other 
 piodmtions are, " Almagestum Botanicum," 
 4to. 1696, a valuable work, enumerating six 
 thousand species ; " yXImagesti Botanici 
 Mantissa," 4to, 1700 ; " Amaliheum Botani- 
 cum," 4to, 170.') ; all of which were collected 
 and reprinted at Hamburgh, with a Linna^aii 
 index, in 4 vols. 4to, 1769. He died in 1706, 
 leaving an herbarium of 8,000 plants, now in 
 the British i\Iuseum. — Pulteneu's Sketches. 
 
 PLU-AIIER (Cjiaules) a French ecclesi- 
 astic of the seventeenth century, born in 1646, 
 at iMarseilles, and educated at Thoulouse. He 
 entered into the order of friars minim, but de- 
 voted his time and attention rather to the 
 study of botany than of theology ; and was so 
 absorbed in this his favourite science, that 
 after perambulating n great part of the south 
 of France, in the pursuit of indigenous plants, 
 he accepted an invitation made him by the 
 government of Louis XIV, to proceed to St 
 J)omingo, for the purpose of bringing home a 
 catalogue and specimens of the natural pro- 
 ductions of the island. He executed this 
 commission so much to the satisfaction of his 
 employers, that he was subsequently des- 
 patched on two several voyages to the West 
 Indies, having similar discoveries for their ob- 
 ject, and explored on these occasions not only 
 the French islands there, but part of the con- 
 tinent. He was preparing for a fourth expedi- 
 tion, when his progress was arrested by death 
 at Cadiz. Plumier, who had acquired a con- 
 siderable knowledge of mathematics and me- 
 chanics, as well as of botany, under Maignan, 
 at the time of his decease held the appoint- 
 ment of botanist-royal, with a pension. His 
 works are, " Nova Plantarum Americanarum 
 Genera," 4to, 1703 ; " On American Ferns," 
 folio ; a treatise " On Cochineal ;" and ano- 
 ther " On the Art of Turnery," 4to. Science 
 lost something by the abrupt termination of his 
 last undertaking, the main object of which was 
 to study the nature of the Peruvian bark in 
 its recent state. His death took place in 
 1706. — Bees' s Cuctop. 
 
 PLUNKET (Oliver) a Roman Catholic 
 divine, titular archbishop of Armagh, went to 
 Rome at an early age, and there took the de- 
 gree of doctor in divinity. He received the 
 title of primate of Ireland from pope Inno- 
 cent XI. In September, 1679, he was ar- 
 rested on a charge of treason, and being sent 
 to London, he was executed at Tyburn in 1681, 
 It is melancholy to add, that the life of this 
 unfortunate and respectable man, whose inno- 
 cence was subsequently established, fell a sa- 
 crifice to a base conspiracy in those plot- 
 making times, between some priests of a 
 scandalous life, whose disorders he had cen- 
 sured, and certain persons under sentence of 
 ileaih, who finally suffered for their perfidy.— 
 Nouv, Diet. Hist. 
 
 2X2 
 
P L U 
 
 PLUQUET (FRAN901S Andre) a French 
 philosopher, a native of Bayeux, where he 
 was born, in 1716, and where afterwards, on 
 entering into holy orders, he obtained a ca- 
 nonrv. This piece of preferment he vacated 
 on obtaining the historical professorship in the 
 university of Paris, for which appointment his 
 previous studies had admirably qualified him, 
 as is evinced in his edition of " Chinese 
 Classics," printed in seven duodecimo volumes. 
 His ethical works consist of " A I'reatise on 
 Sociability, 2 vols, in which he controverts 
 the doctrines of Hobbes, with regard to the 
 natural disposition of the human race. An- 
 other, " On Luxury," 12mo, 2 vols. ;" " A 
 Dictionary of Heresie?," 2 vols.; and " Fa- 
 talism Examined," l2mo, .S vols. ; His style 
 is at once nervous and elegant ; and he re- 
 tained his faculties till the advanced age of 
 seventy- four, when an apoplectic fit put a pe- 
 riod to his existence in 1790. — Koiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PLUTARCH, a celebrated Greek philoso- 
 pher and historian of the second century, who 
 was a native of Choeronea, a town of Boeotia. 
 He studied at Athens, under Ammonius, and 
 afterwards travelled in various parts of Greece, 
 and then went to Alexandria, in Egypt. At 
 every place he visited, he assiduously cultivat- 
 ed the acquaintance of the priests and other 
 learned men ; and from the result of his own 
 observations and their communications, he 
 collected those stores of intelligence which 
 are displayed in the various works which he 
 composed. At length he took up his resi- 
 dence at Rome, where he remained nearly 
 forty years. His lectures on philosophy ob- 
 tained for him much reputation ; and among 
 his hearers was Trajan, who afterwards be- 
 came emperor. That prince, as a mark of his 
 favour, invested Plutarch with the consular 
 dignity, and made him proconsul of lUyricum. 
 In the latter part of his life he retired to his 
 native place, where he was elected archon, or 
 chief magistrate ; and he also became a priest 
 of the Delphic Apollo. His death took place 
 in 1 19, at the age of sixty-nine. As an his- 
 torian, Plutarch has been the object of gene- 
 ral admiration, on account of his " Lives of 
 Illustrious Greeks and Romans," with regard 
 to which Vossius tells us, that Theodore 
 Gaza said, " If he was obliged to throw into 
 the sea all the books in the world, this should 
 be reserved as the last." The other works 
 of this writer, which are extremely numer- 
 ous, relate to moral and natural philosophy 
 and theology. Many of his compositions are 
 no longer extant. Among the most valuable 
 editions of the works of J lutarch, are those 
 of H. Stephen, Paris, 1572, lo vols. 8vo ; and 
 of Reiske, Leipsic, 1774 — 1782, 12 vols. 8vo. 
 The Lives have been published separately, 
 by Bryan. London, 1729, 5 vols. 4to ; and by 
 Coray, Paris, 1808, 7 vols. 8vo ; and the 
 INIorals, or Miscellaneous Treatises, were edited 
 collectively by Wyttenbach, Oxford, 179.5, 
 6 vols. 4to, reprinted in 13 vols. 8vo. The 
 best Engljiih translation of the Lives is that of 
 the Langhornes. — Vossius. Stollii hitrod. in 
 Hist. Lit. 
 
 POC 
 
 PLUVINPX (Antoine) a courtier of the 
 age of Henri Quatie, to whom he offii;iated as 
 grand equerry. He was born of a noble fa- 
 mily in Daupliine, and was entrusted by his 
 master with several diplomatic missions, es- 
 pecially one to the Low Countries. But it is 
 in his former capacity that he is principally 
 known to posterity, from his having been the 
 first who reduced the art of riding to a system 
 in France, and published a work on the sub- 
 ject, entitled " L'Art de monter a Cheval," 
 folio. His death took place in 1620. — Biog. 
 Univ. Moreri. 
 
 POCOCK (Edward) a learned English 
 divine and Oriental critic, who was a native 
 of Oxford. He was born November 8, 1604, 
 and was educated at Thame school, whence, 
 at the age of fourteen, he removed to jMag- 
 dalen-hall, Oxford, and two years after to a 
 scholarship at Corpus Christi. In 1622 he 
 took the degree of BA. and in 1626 he pro- 
 ceeded ISIA, Such was his proficiency in 
 the knowledge of the Eastern languages, that 
 he undertook to prepare for the press such 
 parts as had not previously been edited of the 
 Syriac New Testament, from a MS. in the 
 Bodleian library, and the work was printed at 
 Leyden, 16.30, 4to. In 1629 Pocock had been 
 ordained to the priesthood, by the bisljop of 
 Oxford ; and soon after he was appointed 
 chaplain to the English factory at Aleppo. 
 He arrived there in October 1630, and imme- 
 diately applied himself to the cultivation of 
 Oriental literature. He was employed by 
 archbishop Laud to make collections of va- 
 luable and curious MSS. and coins for the 
 university of Oxford ; and in 1 636 that pre- 
 late invited him to return to England to fill 
 his newly-founded Arabic professorship. A fter 
 giving a course of lectures at Oxford, part of 
 which he subsequently published, he undertook 
 a second voyage to the East, and remained 
 some time at Constantinople collecting ancient 
 MSS. He came home in 1640, and had the 
 mortification to find his generous patron a pri- 
 soner of state in the Tower ; and the death of 
 that prelate, and the political changes which 
 occurred,might have consigned him toobscuiity 
 if not to want, but for the protection of the 
 learned Selden, whom he assii^ted in the pub- 
 lication of part of the annals of Kutychins, 
 under the title of " Origines Alexandrinae," 
 1641. He was presented by his college to 
 the rectory of Childrey, in Berkshire, whither 
 he retired on being deprived of his professor- 
 ship, after the execution of archbishop Laud. 
 In 1647, however, Selden procured for him 
 the restoration of his salary ; and tJie following 
 year he was appointed Hebrew professor at 
 Oxford, to which the king, then a prisoner in 
 the Isle of Wight, added the rich canonry of 
 Christchurh, and the grant was confirmed by 
 the parliament. In 1649 he published "Spe- 
 cimen Historiae Arabum," 4to, one of the 
 best of his works, reprinted at Oxford in 
 1805. In 1650 he was deprived of his ca- 
 nonry, for refusing to subscril)e the engage- 
 ment required by the parliament ; and il wna 
 with Jireat solicitation on the part of the mem- 
 
I' O [i 
 
 ners of the university that lie was alloweil 
 to retain Iiis professorsljips. In 16.).') lie 
 published some of the writings of INIainio- 
 nides, under the title of" Porta iMosis ;" and 
 he assisted in Walton's Poiyglott liihle. in 
 1658 ajipeared his edition of the Annals of 
 Eutychius, in Arahic, with a Latin version, 
 2 vols. 4to. The Restoration, in 1660, enahled 
 him to recover his church jtrefernient ; and 
 the same year he printed an Arabic translation 
 of Grotius's work on the I'rulh of Christianitv. 
 Notwithstanding he experienced but little 
 patronage or encouragement, he continued 
 liis labours, and in 1663 produced an Arabic 
 and Latin edition of the " Historia Dynasti- 
 arum" of Abulfaragins. 2 vols. 4to. He 
 died at Oxford, September 12, 1691, leaving 
 Commentaries on the IMinor Pro[)hets, and 
 other works besides those above noticed. — 
 Edward Pocock, his eldest son, rector of 
 IVIinal, in Wiltshire, published, with the as- 
 sistance of his father, an Arabic work called 
 " Philosophus aiitodidactus, sive Epistola 
 Abu Jaafar Ebn Tophail, de Hai Ebn Yok- 
 dhan," 1671, 4to. — Thomas Pocock. another 
 son, translated into Englisli a work of Ma- 
 nasseh Ben Israel. — Bioi^. Brit. 
 
 POCOCKE (Richard) a divine and Ori- 
 ental traveller, distaritly related to the sub- 
 ject of the foregoing article. He was born in 
 1704, at Southampton, where his father was 
 master of a free-school ; and he received his 
 education at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, 
 and took the degree of LL.D. in 1733. He 
 engaged in a voyage to the Levant in 173'", 
 and after visiting Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, 
 and other countries, he returned home through 
 Italy and Germany in 1742. He published, 
 in 1743-45, " A Description of the East," 2 
 vols, folio, comprising an account of those 
 parts of the world in which he had travelled, 
 and containing much curious information. 
 He obtained preferment in Ireland, being 
 made precentor of Waterford, in 1744 ; and ac- 
 fompanying lord Chesterfield, as chaplain, to 
 Dublin, wlien that nobleman was lord lieute- 
 nant, he was made archdeacon of St Patrick's. 
 Under another viceroy, the duke of Devon- 
 shire, he was promoted to the see of Ossory, 
 in 1756 ; whence, in 1765, he was translated 
 to Elphin and Meath. He died of apoplexy, 
 in September, the same year. Dr Pococke 
 was the author of some papers in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, and the Archaaologia ; 
 and he was the donor of some manuscripts 
 to the British Museum. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 . ikins Gen. Bio^, 
 
 POELLNITZ, orPOLLNITZ (Cmari.es 
 Louis, Baron de) a German adventarer, 
 who published amusing Memoirs of his own 
 Life. He was the son of a military man, and 
 the grandson of a minister of state, and was 
 born in 1692, at Issouin, near Cologne. He re- 
 ceived his education ac a school founded by 
 ti e king of Prussia for noble orphans ; and 
 oi leaving that institution he made a cam- 
 paign ''n Flanders as a volunteer, in 1708. 
 Returning to Pru-sia. he was made a gentle- 
 mat? of th:; king's chamber, and beiw*: dis- 
 
 graced for his ill conduct, he left Berlin, and 
 commenced adventurer. The scenes through 
 which he passed are too numerous to admit of 
 any thing more than a general notice. He 
 visited various courts of (jermany ; those of 
 France, Spain, and the po[)e ; England and 
 Holland; every v?here adapting his rrli^ion to 
 the country in which he foutitl liiraself ; and 
 alternately turning court dependant, gambler, 
 and even swindler, as best suited his pur- 
 pose. At length, on the accession of Fre- 
 deric II to the throne of Prussia, Poellnitz 
 obtained permission to return home ; and he 
 was entertained at the court of that [)rin( e, as 
 a sort of licensed buffoon, holding, however, 
 the ofHces of chamberlain and master of the 
 ceremonies. He died in retirement in 1775. 
 His "Memoirs" were published in French, 
 at Liege, 1734, 3 vols. 8vo ; two additional 
 volumes appeared some time after ; and, 
 two more at Berlin, in 1791. He is also said 
 to have been the author of " La Saxe ga- 
 lante," 1737, Bvo, containing an account of 
 the amours of Augustus king of Poland ; and 
 other anonymous works. — J^iog. Univ. 
 
 POELNER (Charles William) a Ger- 
 man chemist, born at Leipsic in 1732. He 
 took the degree of MD. at the university of 
 his native place, and obtained the offices of 
 counsellor of the mines in Saxony, and che- 
 mical manager of the porcelaine manufactory of 
 Meissen . Besides some other works relatinsj to 
 medicine and chemistry, he published " Che- 
 mical Essays on the Art of Dyeing," Leipsic, 
 1772-73, 3 vols. Bvo; and " The Guide for 
 Dyers, especially in dyeing Woollen Cloth and 
 Stuffs," 1785, Bvo, which was translated into 
 French. He also wrote the articles on mine- 
 ralogy for the " New Survey of Nature,"' Leip- 
 sic, 1775, 1781. His death took place April 
 13. 1796. — B'mir. Unir. 
 
 POGGIO BR ACCIOLINI, one of the ear- 
 ly promoters of literature in Italy, was born at 
 Terranuova in the Florentine territory, in iSdO. 
 His father was a no'ary in depressed circum- 
 stances, but he was educated at the public 
 school of Jlorence, where he learned Latin 
 under John of Ravenna, and Gfeek under 
 iNIanuel Chrysoloras. On completing his 
 education he went to Rome, where he ob- 
 tained the office of writer of apostohcal letters; 
 and in 1414 attended John XXII to the council 
 of Constance, where he witnessed the barba- 
 rous trial and execution of Jerome of Prague, 
 of whose suffering and defence he gave an ac- 
 count, which proves that he regarded those 
 proceedings with a correct and philoso- 
 phical spirit. In 1416 he undertook the sa- 
 lutary task of searching the monasteries for 
 ancient manuscripts ; and in that of St 
 Gall discovered a complete copy of Quin- 
 tilian, with a part of the Arijonautics of \'ale- 
 rius Flaccus, and Pedianus's Commentary on 
 Cicero's Orations. In other religious housea 
 he discovered several of the Roman orator's 
 harangues, wliich had been given up as lost ; 
 and by himself or his friends obtained copies 
 of the works of Silius Italicus, Lactantius, Ve- 
 geiius, Nonius Marcellus .^mmianus Marcdi* 
 
PO 1 
 
 linus, Columella, and TertuUian. In 1418, on 
 the invitation of cardinal Beaufort, he visited 
 England ; but the comparative barbarism of the 
 country at that distracted period soon led him 
 to return, after being rewarded with the reve- 
 nues of a small benefice. Resuming his post 
 of secretary, he continued his studies, until 
 obliged to fly from Rome with pope Eugenius, 
 when he was taken prisoner ; and after paying 
 a heavy ransom, retired to Florence, and at- 
 tached himself to Cosmo de' Medici, whose pa- 
 tronage he obtained. In 1455 he put away a 
 concubine, by whom he had fourteen children, 
 a solace at that time common to the officers of 
 the Roman court, and married a beautiful girl of 
 eighteen, on the principle of reform. In 1440 
 he published his " Dialogues on Nobility," 
 one of the most finished of his works ; and new 
 productions from time to time followed, which, 
 however, led to no farther promotion, until 
 Nicholas V, a former friend, succeeded to the 
 papal chair, who rewarded him liberally, and 
 also warmly encouraged his attention to litera- 
 ture. In 1453 he was chosen chancellor to 
 the Florentine republic ; which office did not 
 impede his literary industry, which was sig- 
 nal Iv manifested by his latest production, a 
 " History of Florence," which had not received 
 its last polish at his death in 1459, at the ma- 
 ture age of seventy-seven. Little can be said 
 for the moral character of Poggio, who was 
 personally licentious, and quarielsome, and in- 
 temi)erate in controversy to a disgusting degree. 
 No imputation, however, seems to lie against 
 his integrity, and his sentiments are m general 
 liberal and manly. As a writer, he may be 
 deemed the most elegant composer in Latin, 
 (the language of all his works,) of thatperio) ; 
 and lie was also a considerable proficient in 
 Greek. His writings are numerous, and upon 
 various topics. Many are discussions on mo- 
 ral arguments, and in some of them he by no 
 means spares the vices of the clergy. A few 
 are philosophical, and several controversial : 
 the remainder are chiefly translations, ora- 
 tions, and letters, the chief fault of which is 
 diffuseness. His " Historia Florentina," which 
 comprises the period from 1350 to 1455, aims 
 at the style of composition of the ancient his- 
 torians, but is regarded as too partial to his 
 countrymen. It is to be found in the collec- 
 tions of Gra?vius and Muratori. The whole of 
 the works of Poggio were published together 
 at Basil, 1538, which edition is the most es- 
 teemed. — Life bu Shepherd. Tirahoschi. 
 
 POINSINET (Anthony Alexander 
 Henry) a French dramatist, who was the son 
 of a notary, and was born at Fontainebleau in 
 1735. His first production, a bad parody on 
 the opera of " Tithon et I'Aurore," appeared 
 as early as 1753 ; and in 1757 his comedy, 
 " L'Impatient," was represented. Though 
 the reception of these pieces was by no means 
 flattering, he persevered in his career, and 
 wrote at different times for all the Parisian 
 theatres. He likewise published poetical coni- 
 po.sitions, including an heroic epistle, entitled 
 '• Gabrielle d'Estree a Henri IV." In 1760 
 he went to Italy ; and on his return he visited 
 
 P O I 
 
 Ferney, where he was well received by Vol- 
 taire. He subsequently engaged a company 
 of actors, and made a journey into Spain, for 
 the professed purpose of introducing into that 
 country a taste for Italian music. But death 
 put an end to his projects, for he was drowned a 
 short time after his arrival in Spain, as he was 
 bathing in the Guadalquivir at Cordova, June 
 7, 1769. He was a member of the Arcadian 
 socie'ty at Rome and the academy of Dijon. 
 His principal dramatic work is " Le Cercle, 
 ou la Soiree a la mode," a comedy in one act, 
 displaying the fashionable manners of his 
 time ; but with regard to this piece, Palissot 
 has accused him of plagiarism. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 POINSINET DE SIVRY (Louis) cousin 
 of the foregoing, was born at Versailles, Fe- 
 bruary 20, 1733. After completing his stu- 
 dies with credit at the college de la IMarche, 
 he published a collection of poems, the success 
 of which encouraged him to adopt the profes- 
 sion of an autlior. His next literary produc- 
 tion was a translation in verse of the works of 
 Anacreon, Bion, and Moschus, which was fol- 
 lowed by a successful tragedy, entitled " Bri- 
 seis," the subject of which was taken from the 
 Iliad. His " Ajax," a tragedy, was not so 
 well received, and hv therefore quitted the 
 drama to write for the booksellers ; though 
 long after, in 1789, he published " Cato of 
 Utica," a tragedy, inferior to both his former 
 plays. The Revolution, of which he was an 
 ardent admirer, deprived him of a pension, 
 which he had enjoyed from the liberality of the 
 duke of Orleans, in whose family his father 
 had held a situation ; but he subsequently 
 obtained relief from the national convention, 
 being comprised among the men of letters to 
 whom their bounty was extended. He died 
 at Paris, March 11, 1804. His works, origi- 
 nal and translated, are numerous, including a 
 French version of Pliny's Natural History, 
 with critical notes, Paris, 1771-8S?, 12 vols. 
 4to ; the Comedies of Aristophanes, wi'h the 
 Fragments of Menander and Philemon, in 
 French, 1784, 4 vols. 8vo ; and " Nouvelles 
 Recherches sur la Science des IMedailles, In- 
 scriptions, et Hieroglyphes antiques," Maes- 
 tricbt, 1778, 4to. — Idem. 
 
 POIRET (Peter) a French enthusiast, was 
 born at Metz in 1646. After studying at Hei- 
 delberg and Basil, he became pastor of Am- 
 veil, in the duchy of Deux Ponts, where he 
 wrote his " Cogitationes rationales de Deo, 
 Anima, et IMalo," in which he principally fol- 
 lowed the maxims of Des Cartes. This work 
 created a great sensation in the philosophical 
 world, and w.ns censured by Bajle, and de- 
 fended by the author. In 1676, during the 
 troubles in which his country was involved by 
 the war, he withdrew into Holland, and meet- 
 ing with the celebrated Antoinette Bourianon. 
 he became her zealous disciple ; and from 
 that moment he became the most bitter enemy 
 to every kind of philosophy which was not 
 the effect of divine illumination, and inveigh- 
 ing most bitterly against the system of Des 
 Cartes. In 1688 M. Poiret removed to Rheins- 
 burg, not far from Ley den, where he passed his 
 
PO I 
 
 tiiue in writing mystical liooks, and in editinc^ 
 the reveries of nuidame Houritjiioii, inadanu' 
 (juyon, and others, lie died in 1719. Ilis 
 other works are, '• J)e CFAonomia Divina," 
 7 vols'. 8vo ; " l)e JCruditione tri|)li( i, solida 
 Buperticiaria, et falsa ; " " The Veate of Good 
 Men in all I'arts of Cluistondoin ; " " 'Ihe 
 Substantial I'rinciples of the Chris'.ian lleli- 
 gion, ^c. ;" " l)e Natura Idearum ex Ori^ine 
 8ua repetita, &c." &c. Sec. — Knjield's Hist. ^ 
 Phil, Mosheim. Moreri. I 
 
 POIS (Nicholas h ) Latin, Piso, an emi- ■ 
 nent physician, was born at Nancy in 1527, I 
 and became first pliysician to Charles duke of 
 Lorraine. He wrote a work entitled " De 
 Cognocendis et Curandis prajcipue Internis , 
 Corporis Humani Adfeciibus, lib. iii, ex Cla- j 
 rissimorum Medicorum tam Veterum cjuam 
 liecentiorum INlonumentis collecti," of which 
 Boerhaave had so high an opinion, that he re- j 
 publislied it at T^eydeu, 1736, with a preface ; 
 of ills own. — Ilis son, Charles lil Pois, was ! 
 bom at Nancy in 1563, and became consulting | 
 physician to duke Charles HI and to duke | 
 Henry 11, whom he induced to establish a 
 school of medicine at Pont-a-lMousson, of 
 which he beeame dean and first professor. He 
 died in 1633, a victim to his zealous efforts to 
 check the ravages of a pestilence at Nancy. 
 He wrote "Selectionum Observationumet Coiv- 
 siliorum de pra^teritis hactenus Morbis," re- 
 edited by Boerhaave in 1733, which contains 
 many valuable observations derived from long 
 experience ; " Discours de la Nature, Causes, 
 et Remedes des Maladies populaires, accom- 
 pagnees de Dyssenterie et autres Fluxes de | 
 Ventre," in which he particularly considers 
 the febrile nature of dyssentery ; " Physicum 
 CometcK Speculum," &.c. — Ilalleri Bibl. Med. 
 TJoy Diet, 
 
 I'OISSON (Raimond) a French actor and 
 dramatic writer of the seventeenth century. 
 He was the son of a mathematician, and losing 
 his father when young, he was patronized by 
 the duke of Crequi, governor of Paris ; but his 
 inclination induced hun to relinquish his pros- 
 l)ects of rising at court, and go on the stage. 
 He obtained great celebrity in low comedy, and 
 was noticed by Louis Xl\'. He died at Paris 
 in 1690, leaving a number of theatrical compo- 
 sitions, published collectively in 1687 and 1743, 
 2 vols. 12mo. — His son, Paul Poisson, also 
 eminent as a comic actor died at St Germain- 
 en- Laye, in 1795, having retired from the 
 stage about ten years before. — Philip Pois- 
 son, son of the preceding, was famous as a 
 dramatic performer, both in tragedy and co- 
 medy. He was born at Paris in 1682, and 
 died at St Germain in 1743. He wrote ten 
 comedies, of which " Le Procureur arbitre," 
 and " L' Impromptu de Campagne," are acted 
 occasionally. — His brother, F. Aunoult Pois- 
 son DE RoiNviLEE, supported the reputation 
 of his family as a comic performer. His fath.er 
 had procured him a commission in the army, 
 which he quitted ; and went to the East Indies: 
 and on his return to France he became an 
 iirtor,in spite of the opposition of bis father, 
 which however was withdrawn on perceiving 
 
 V () L 
 
 that he poRfiessed extraordinary talents for tlio 
 Btai-p. lie dud ill 175.). — lii»is. ('iiir. 
 
 PC)lSONNlKK(PKri K Isaac) an eminent 
 physuiiin, was born at Dijon in 17'.'(>, and in 
 17 46 he succeeded M. Dubois a6 profcs.sor o*" 
 physic in the college de France. In 1758, 
 being first physirian to the French army, he 
 went to Ilupsia, to attend the emjiress Kliza- 
 betli in her illness ; and while in that country 
 he assisted at the famous experiment relative 
 to the congelation of ciuicksilver, of which he 
 afterwards gave an account to the Academy of 
 Sciences. On his return to France, he was 
 made counsellor of state and inspector general 
 of physic, and his discovery of distillin;,' fresh 
 from sea-water ])rocured him a pension of 
 1 2,000 livres. During the ascendancy of Rf)- 
 bespierre he was imprisoned with liis family ; 
 but on his death he was released, and died in 
 1797 or 1798. He wrote several treatises on 
 the maladies incident to seamen, the fever of 
 St Domingo, &cc. — Diet. Hist, Cent. Mai^r, 
 
 POLE (Reginald, cardinal) an eminent 
 statesman and ecclesiastic, born in 1500, was 
 tiie son of sir Richard Pole, lord Montacute, 
 cousin to Henry VII, by Margaret, daughter 
 of the duke of Clarence, brother to Kdwanl 1\". 
 He received his early education under the Car- 
 thusians of Steene, whence he was removed to 
 Magdalen college, Oxford. He entered into 
 deacon's orders at an early age, and had se- 
 veral benefices conferred on him by Henry 
 VIII, with whom he was in the first instance 
 a great favourite. In 1519 he visited Italy, 
 and, taking up his abode at Padua, became 
 hiilhly distinguished for his attachment to ])0- 
 lite literature. He returned to England in 
 1525, but, on the breaking out of the aft'air of 
 the divorce from Catherine of Arragon. jjru- 
 dentlv withdrew to Paris. Nothing could ex- 
 ceed the solicitude of Henry to obtain the con- 
 currence of his kinsman in that measure ; but 
 he was so far from succeeding, that Pole, moie 
 thorouglily embiied with the maiims of the 
 church of Rome, drew up a treatise, " De 
 IMentale Ecclesiastica," in which he comtiaie d 
 the king to Nebuchadnezzar, and excited the 
 emperor Charles V to revenge the injury of 
 his aunt. The consequence of this conduct 
 was the loss of all his preferment in England, 
 in return for which, he endeavoured to form a 
 party against Henry in England ; a design 
 which terminated in the destruction of his 
 brother, lord iMontacufe, and of his a';ed mo- 
 ther, then become countess of Salisbury, who 
 fell victims to the vindictive spirit of Henry on 
 the public scaffold. The countenance of the 
 court of Rome was extemled to Pole precisely 
 in proportion ab the anger of that of England 
 was excited ; and besides being raised to the 
 dignity of cardinal, he was employed in va- 
 rious negociations, and, among others, in ne- 
 gociatinc a peace between the emperor and 
 France. He was also aj)pointed one of die 
 three papal legates to the council of Trent ; 
 and, at the death of pope Paul III, was se- 
 riously thought of for his successor. On the 
 accession of Mary I his attainder was reversed, 
 and he was invited to England, where he ho- 
 
POL 
 
 nourabl)- distinguished himself by endeavours 
 to moderate the rigour of Giudinerand others 
 against the reformers, and was an advocate for 
 lenient measures, and such a correction of cle- 
 rical abuses as would conciliate them. On the 
 death of Cranmer, Pole, then for the first time 
 ordained priest, became archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and was at the same time elected 
 chancellor of both the universities ; and while 
 he acted with much severity in what he 
 deemed the extirpation of heresy, he made 
 several salutary regulations for the advance- 
 ment of learning. He particularly opposed, 
 although in vain, the war with Franco, to aid 
 the views of Philip II, and seems to have 
 acted conscientiously even when most mis- 
 taken. He was lying ill of an intermittent 
 fever when Mary expired ; and it was thought 
 his death, which soon followed, in November 
 lo38, was hastened by his anticipation of the 
 ruin of the Catholic cause. Cardinal Pole, 
 seems not to have been a man of com- 
 manding talents, either in a political or lite- 
 rarv sense ; but he merited great esteem for his 
 mildness, generosity, and comparative modera- 
 tion, in an age when persecution was deemed 
 lawful on all sides. — Biog. Brit. Hume. 
 
 POLEMBUKG (Cornelius) a painter, 
 was born at Utrecht in l.->86, at seventy-four 
 years of age m.ade a journey into Italy, to per- 
 fect himself. He worked on a very small scale, 
 and his larger pictures are not much esteemed. 
 Charles I sent for him to England. Rubens 
 esteemed him much, and had several of his 
 paintings. He distinguished himself chiefly 
 by his landscapes, in which he treated nature 
 with much truth. His touch is light, and 
 his skies are particularly remarked for the 
 transparency of their colouring. He died in 
 1660. — Kouv. Diet. Hid. 
 
 PO LEMON, an eminent Platonic philoso- 
 pher, was born at CEta. In his youth he led 
 an exceedingly dissolute life ; but in one of 
 his fits of intoxication, happening to enter the 
 school of Xenocrates, who turned his discourse 
 to the miseries of intemperance, from that mo- 
 ment he changed his life, and devoted himself 
 to the study of philosophy, and ever after 
 practised the severest austerity. Such was his 
 progress, that on the death of Xenocrates he 
 succeeded him in the chair of the academy. 
 He died BC. 170. — There was also a rheto- 
 rician of the same name, who flourished in the 
 reign of Trajan, of whom some orations are ex- 
 tant, which were printed at Toulouse, in Greek 
 and Latia, in 1637. — Moreri. Suidas. Diogen. 
 Laert. 
 
 POLENI (John, marquis) a learned ma- 
 thematician and antiquary, was born at Padua 
 in 1683, and was appointed professor of astro- 
 nomy and mathematics in that city. He was 
 a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences 
 at Paris, the academies of Berlin, of the Pvicov- 
 rati at Padua, the Royal Society of London, 
 Hnd of the Institute at Bologna. He was also 
 named by the Venetian republic superinten- 
 dent of the rivers and waters throughout the 
 republic, and pope Benedict XIV made him 
 surveyor of St Peter 'Sf He possessed a lively 
 
 POL 
 
 and penetrating genius, and profound scien- 
 tific knowledge, and was in corresjiondence 
 with the greatest men of his dav. He wrote 
 " Supplement to the Antiquities of Grfevius 
 and Gronovius," 5 vols, folio ; " Dissertazione 
 sopra il Tempio di Diana di Efeso ;" " Exerci- 
 tationes Vitruvianaj." — Fabroni. Kouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 POLHEM (Christopher) a Swedish en- 
 gineer, born at Wisby, in Gothland, in 1661. 
 His talents having attracted attention, Charles 
 XI sent him to travel for improvement, when 
 he remained some time at Paris. George I 
 afterwards invited him to Hanover, to super- 
 intend the working of the mines of the Ilartz ; 
 and advantageous proposals were made to in- 
 duce him to remain in Germany, but he pre- 
 ferred returning to serve his native country^ 
 To him Sweden owes a great number of inge- 
 nious and useful inventions, serviceable in 
 mining, draining, and making docks and ca- 
 nals ; and he particularly displayed his genius, 
 and the extent of his conceptions, in the plan 
 which he gave for the construction of the ca- 
 nal of Troll haetta, and the basin of Carls- 
 crona. Polhem was rewarded for his servicer 
 with a patent of nobility, the title of coun- 
 sellor of commerce, and was created a com- 
 mander of the order of the polar star. He 
 was also a member of the academy of Sciences 
 at Stockholm, to whose Transactions he fur- 
 nished many interesting contributions. His 
 death took place August 31, 1751. — Bioga 
 Univ. 
 
 POLI (G. Saverio) an eminent naturalist, 
 was born at Molfetta, in Italy, in 1746, and 
 studied in the university of Pisa. He was a 
 member of the Royal Society of London, and 
 became director of the military academy of 
 Naples, where he died in 1825. He wrote a 
 " System of Natural Philosophy," which has 
 gone through teu editions ; and a work on 
 Testaceous animals, which is much esteemed, 
 — Gent. Mas. 
 
 POLI (Martin) a distinguished chemist, 
 was born at Lucca in 166'2. He went to 
 Rome, and there invented several new opera- 
 tions, and had a public laboratory. Poli hav- 
 ing discovered a secret in the art of war, 
 communicated it to Louis XIV, who rewarded 
 him with a ])ension, and the title of his engi- 
 neer, but he declined availing himself of it, 
 preferring the interest of mankind to liis own. 
 On his return to Italy, Poli was employed by 
 Clement XI, but he came back into France in 
 1713, and had sent for his family, when he 
 was attacked by a violent fever, which carried 
 him off in 1714. He wrote a work entitled, 
 " II Trionfo degli Acidi," to prove, that in- 
 stead of being the causes of a great number 
 of diseases, acids are, on the contrary, sove- 
 reign remedies. It contains a variety of re- 
 markable experiments and reasonings, which 
 render it worthy of attention. — Kouv, Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 POLIGNAC (Meixhior de) a statesman 
 
 and cardinal, was born of an illustrious family 
 
 at Puy-en-Velay, in Languedoc, in 1661. He 
 
 ; studied philosophy in the college of Har- 
 
POL 
 
 co'jr», but et^cretly attaclipd liim'5»'lf to the 
 Cartesian plulosojiliy, wliith was llit-n rjijor- 
 Ously prohibited in th" scliools. In 1692 he 
 Vds aj)|)ointfd anibhS'-ador to Pohmd, and on 
 thedeatli of Jolin Sobit-sky, he employed all 
 his address to procure the election of the 
 prince of Conii ; but liis elVorts proved unsuc- 
 cessful, and it was with threat difficulty that 
 he got back to France, liis failure incurred 
 the displeasure of Louis, and he retired for 
 some time to his abbey of r)0n Port, where 
 he composed his " Anti- Lucretius." In 1706 
 lie went to Rome, and was employed in va- 
 rious diplomatic concerns of importance, for 
 ■which lie was created cardinal in 1713, and 
 mast?r of the chapel-royal. On the death of 
 Louis XIV he connected himself with the 
 enemies of the regent, and was banislied in 
 1718 lo his al)bey of Anchin, and was not re- 
 called till 17'J0. In 1724 he went to Rome, 
 and was appointed agent for French afl'airs 
 there. He was nonunated to the archbi- 
 shopric of Auch, and made a commander of 
 the orler of the Holy Ghost. He died at 
 Paris in 1741. His Latin poem of " Anti- 
 Lucretius" has been frequently reprinted, and 
 translated into various languages. It is distin- 
 guished by the purity and elegance of its dic- 
 tion, and the hapjiy turn of its expressions. 
 He confutes the absurdities of the Epicurean 
 system, and puts in their place the reveries of 
 Des Cartes. Ihe cardinal possessed a large 
 collection of antiquities, dug up from the ruins 
 of Rome ; and formed a project of diverting 
 the course of the Tiber, in order to search for 
 the relics in its bed, but his finances did not 
 enable him to put it into execution. — Moreri. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hht. 
 
 POLITI (Alexander) a learned Italian, 
 was born at Florence in 1679. He completed 
 his ])hilosopbical studies in the college of the 
 Scuole Pie, where, in 1700, he v/as appointed 
 professor of rhetoiic ; and in 1708, for the use 
 of his class, he published a " Compendium of 
 Peripatetic Philosophy." In 1716 he was 
 sent by his order to teach theology at Genoa, 
 and he afterwards became professor of elo- 
 quence at Pisa. He died at Florence in 1752. 
 He wrote a book on jurisprudence, entitled, 
 " De Patria in Testamentis condendis Potes- 
 tate ;" but his ruling passion was Greek lite- 
 rature, and he devoted many years of his life 
 to a translation and illustration of Homer, with 
 the commentary of Eustathius. His other 
 works are, " JNIartyrologium Romanorum cas- 
 tio'atum, folio ; " Orationes ad Acad. Pisa- 
 nam." — Fahroni Vit. Italor. 
 
 POLITIANO (Ancelo) a learned and 
 elegant scholar of the fifteenth century, born 
 in 1454, at Monte Pulciano, in the Florentine 
 territories, whence he derived the appellation 
 by which he is more usually known than by 
 that of Cinis. his family name. The first pro- 
 duction which brought him into notice was a La- 
 tin poem on the tournament of Guliano de INIe- 
 dici. He assumed the ecclesiastical habit, and 
 acquiiea by his accomplishments the fa' our of 
 Lorenzo the iMafrniticent, who made hira tutor 
 tr his children, and presented him with a ca- 
 
 P () L 
 
 nonry in the cathedral of Florence, which ha 
 bild with the piofeh-orship of the Greek and 
 Latin languages. Among the most esteemed 
 of his wntm-s are, an " Account of the Con- 
 spiracy of the Pazzi ;" «' A Latin Tranhlatioa 
 of Herodian;" and, " A Collection of Greek 
 l'>l)igrams ;" besides some miscellaneous work* 
 in prose and verse, and a drama on the story 
 of ()rj)heus, printed in 1475. Ibis latter piece 
 was set to music, of which science he was bo 
 passionately fond, that liis death is said to have 
 been accelerated by his propensity. An un- 
 fortunate attachment to a lady of distinguished 
 rank had brought on a severe illness, which 
 he much increased by starting out of bed in 
 a fit of enthusiasm to celebrate her beauties on 
 his lute. His death was the consequence in 
 lioi . — Tirahoschi. Biofr. Univ. 
 
 T'^LT.EXFEN (sir Henry) an English 
 lawyer and judge of considerable practice 
 under Charles II, was born in Devonshire. In 
 1688 he sat as one of the members for the 
 city of Exeter, and he was retained as one of 
 the counsel for the bishops. After the Revo- 
 lution he was knighted, and was appointed 
 chief-justice of the common pleas ; but he 
 held this office a very short time, dvino^ in 
 1692. His "Arguments and Reports" were 
 published in 1702, in folio. Burnet calls him 
 " an honest and learned, but perplexed, law- 
 yer." — Bridoman's Legal BibL Princes 
 Worthies. 
 
 POLLIO f Caius Asinius) an eminent sol- 
 dier and scholar of the Augustan age, the 
 friend and patron of Virgil, Horace, and of 
 otlier literary men, and the intimate associate 
 of ]Meca;nas. He filled the office of consul 
 A.U.C. 714, and signalized his military talents 
 in Dalmatia. His literary productions are 
 stated to have been far above mediocrity ; but 
 unfortunately all these, dramatic, forensic, and 
 historical, have jerished in the lapse of atres. 
 His birth is supposed to have taken place 
 about seventy-six years before the Christian 
 lera, which epoch he survived .'our years, and 
 died at Tusculum, the modern Frescati. — Lite 
 by Masso77. 
 
 POLO (Marco) a celebrated traveller of 
 the thirteenth century, was the son of ^Nicolas 
 Polo, a Venetian merchant, who, accompanied 
 by bis brother Matthew, had penetrated to 
 the court of Kublai, the great khan of the 
 Tartars. This prince being highly entertained 
 with their account of Europe, made them his 
 ambassadors to the pope, on which thev tra- 
 velled back ^o Rome, and having obtained a 
 couple of missionaries, once more visited Tar- 
 tary, accompanied by the young I\Iarco, who 
 became a great favourite with the khan. Hav- 
 ing acquired the different dialects of Tartary, 
 he was employed on various embassies ; and 
 after a residence of seventeen years, all the 
 three Venetians returned to their own coun- 
 try, in 1295, with immense wealth. Marco 
 afterwards servi d his country at sea ao^ainst 
 the Genoese, and being taken prisoner, re- 
 mained many years in confinement, the te- 
 dium of which, he beguiled by composiwg 
 i the history of the travels of his father and 
 
POL 
 
 himself, under the title of " Deile Marviglie 
 del Mondo da lui vidute, &c." the first edition 
 of which appeared at Venice in 1496, 8vo. 
 Tt has been translated into various languages, 
 the best versions of which are one in Latin, Co- 
 logne, 1671, and another in French, published 
 at the Hague in 1675, in 2 vols. Polo re- 
 lates many incredible things, bat the greater 
 part of his narrative has been verified by suc- 
 ceeding travellers ; and it is thcughc, that 
 what he wrote from his own knowledge is 
 both curious and true. He not only gave a 
 better account of China than any previously 
 afforded, but likewise furnished an account of 
 Japan, of several islands in the East Indies, 
 of Madagascar, and of the coast of Africa. 
 He ultimately regained his liberty, but of his 
 subsequent history nothing is known. — Tira- 
 boschi. Rees's Cijclop. 
 
 POLLUX (J'jLius). There were two an- 
 cient writers of this name. The first and most 
 celebrated was an Egyptian by birth, born at 
 Naucratis in that country, in the latter part of 
 the second century. He devoted himself 
 early to letters, and settled at Athens, where 
 he read lectures on ethics and eloquence, till 
 his reputation as a scholar procured him the 
 appointment of preceptor to the emperor 
 Commodus. For the use of his illustrious 
 scholar he drew up the catalogue of Greek sy- 
 nonymes, in ten books, which, under the name 
 of " Onomasticon," is the only one of his 
 works that has come down to posterity, al- 
 though he was the author of several more. 
 His death took place AD. 238, when he had 
 nearly attained his sixtieth year. Of his 
 " Onomasticon" there are two editions, the 
 Aldine, printed at Venice in 1502, and that of 
 Amsterdam, 1706, folio. — The second, who 
 lived two centuries later, is known only as the 
 author of a medical treatise, entitled, " Histo- 
 ria Physica," of which there is an edition print- 
 ed in 1779 at Bologna. — Fabricii Bihl. Grtec. 
 
 POLYyENUS. There were more than 
 one writer of antiquity who bore this name, 
 the most celebrated of whom flourished under 
 Antoninus and Verus, in the second century. 
 He appears to have been by birth a Macedo- 
 nian, and is principally known as the author of 
 a work on military tactics, entitled, *' Strata- 
 gemata, &cc." Isaac Casaubon published an 
 edition of it, which was reprinted at Leyden 
 in 1690, on an improved scale, bearing on the 
 title page, " Polytcni Stratagematum, libri octo, 
 Justo Vulteio interprete, Pancratius Maasvi- 
 cius recensuit, Isaaci Casauboni necnon suas 
 Notas adjecit." This is by far the best edition. 
 There is also an Engl sh translation of it in 
 4to, 1793. Fragments of other works of the 
 same writer have descended to posterity in 
 quotations, but none of any length or interest. 
 —Ibid. 
 
 POLYBIUS, an eminent Greek historian, 
 was born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, abouv. 
 BC. 203. His father Lycortas was praetor of 
 the Achaean republic, and the friend of Philo- 
 poemen. He was brought up to arms and pub- 
 lic affairs, and was employed on several em- 
 bassiee. and among others to the Romana, 
 
 POL 
 
 whose views upon Greece he opposed. On 
 this account, when, after the defeat of Porseur, 
 it became unnecessary to preserve appear- 
 ances, he was one of the thousand suspicious 
 persons demanded of the Acheeans as hostages 
 to be detained under custody in Italy. His 
 reputation, however, preceded him to Rome ; 
 and by his learning, talents, and integrity, he 
 ingiatiated himself with the two sons of 
 Paulus /Emilius, adopted by the Scipio family, 
 through whose interest he obtained the release 
 of his countrymen, after a detention of seven- 
 teen years. He himself, however, chose to 
 remain at Rome, and afterwards to accompany 
 Scipio in his expedition into Africa. Wheu 
 the Achaeans were asfain involved in a war 
 with the Romans, he hastened to the army of 
 the consul JMumniius, in order to mediate in 
 their favour ; and by his probity and disinte- 
 restedness, secured so much credit from both 
 sides, that he was entrusted with the care of 
 settling a new form of government for the 
 cities of Greece. He afterwards accompa- 
 nied Scipio to Numantia, and upon the death 
 of his great friend and benefactor, returned to 
 his native country, where he died, in conse- 
 quence of a fall from his horse, in his eighty- 
 second year, BC. 181. Polybius was the au- 
 thor of a " Universal History," beginning at 
 the second Punic war, to the subversion of the 
 Macedonian kingdom, a period of 135 years. 
 Of this great work five complete books only 
 are extant, with considerable fragments of 
 twelve more. Their loss is much regretted, 
 no author of antiquity being more valuable for 
 accuracy, fidelity, and military and political 
 information, conveyed with little attention to 
 the graces of composition. The best editions 
 of Polybius are that of Casaubon, 1609, foMo ; 
 of Gronovius, 3 vols. Bvo, 1670 ; and of Leip- 
 sic, 1789, 9 vols. 8vo. Polybius has been 
 translated into English by Hampton. — Biog. 
 Clas. Vossii Hist. Gr(£C. 
 
 POLYCARP (St) a Christian father and 
 martyr, probably born at Smyrna during the 
 reign of ]\ero, was a disciple of the apostle 
 John, and was by him appointed bishop of 
 that city ; and he is thought to be the angel of 
 the church of Smyrna, to whom the epistle in 
 the second chapter of Revelations is addressed, 
 Ignatius also much esteemed Polycarp, who, 
 when he was condemned to die, comforted 
 and encouraged him in his sufferings. On the 
 event of a controversy between the Eastern 
 and Western churches, respecting the proper 
 time for celebrating Easter, Polycarp under- 
 took a journey to Rome to confer with Ani- 
 cetus ; but though nothing satisfactory took 
 place on that affair, whilst at Rome he vio- 
 lently opposed the heresies of IMarciou and 
 Valentinus, and converted many of their fol- 
 lowers. During the persecution of the Chris- 
 tians under Marcus Aurelius, Polycarp suffered 
 martyrdom with the most heroic fortitude, 
 AD."^169. His " Epistle to the Philippians," 
 the only one of his pieces which has been 
 preserved, is contained in archbishop Wake's 
 " Genuine Epistles." — Cave, Lardner, Mu- 
 heim. D%..pin, 
 
V ( ) M 
 
 POLVCr.KTUS, a famous fl(uli)tor of anii- 
 qaity, WHS born at Sicvon, and tlourislud IJC;. 
 4.3v>. He is consitlereJ to have attained per- 
 feciion in single figures ; and a statue of a life- 
 iruard of the kin^ of l*ersia was in such nice 
 proportion, that artists caine from all parts to 
 Btudy it as a model. A statue of a boy, exe- 
 cuteii [)\ Iiim, was valued at a hundred talents. 
 — Fliiiii Hist. Nat. 
 
 POLVGNOrUS, a painter of Thasos, flou- 
 rished about -i'JO 1U>. He painted the temple 
 of Delpbi, and part of the I'axile at Athens 
 grahiitouiiiy, for whicli it was decreed tluit he 
 should be supported at tlie ])ublic expense. 
 He was the first who, departing from the an- 
 ticjue liardness, painted women' in thin and 
 lucid garments, and separated their lips so as 
 to disclose their teeth. — Flinii Kat. Hist. 
 
 POLVMNESrES, a musician of ancient 
 Greece, born at Colophon, in Ionia, equally 
 celebrated for his performances on the lute 
 and Ivre. Plutarch speaks of him as the 
 inventor of the Hyper- Lydian measure, the 
 lowest of the five original modes, being half a 
 note below the Donau. This alteration he 
 accomplished bv relaxing the tension of the 
 strings more than had been previously prac- 
 tised. — Bitrney's Hist, of Mus. 
 
 PO-MBAL (Sebastian Joseph Cakvaliio 
 JMell">, count d'Oeyras, marcjuis de) a famous 
 Portuguese statesman, born at Soura, in the 
 territory of Coimbra, in 1699. He was the 
 son of Emanuel Carvalho, a gentleman of tlie 
 second class, and he studied the law at the 
 university of Coimbra ; but preferring a 
 military life to the magistracy, for which 
 he was intended, he procured a commission in 
 the royal guards. The natural violence of his 
 temper involved him in errors, which excited 
 the animadversions of his superiors, in conse- 
 quence of wiiich he thought proper to retire 
 from the service. He took up his residence 
 at his native place, and soon after married, in 
 opposition to the wishes of her friends, a lady 
 of a noble and ancient family. Tired of inac- 
 ticn, he obtained a new introduction to court, 
 nd through the patronage of the queen he 
 was appointed ambassador to the court of Lon- 
 don in 17o9. His residence in l^ngland ap- 
 pears to have had a decisive influence on his 
 future administration ; and it was here that he 
 became acquainted with the reciprocal int«- 
 -ests of England and Portugal, and gained 
 correct ideas of the power and prosperity to 
 which a nation may attain by industry. Here 
 likewise he acquired a just notion of the mer- 
 intile system, and of the measures best cal- 
 :ulated to support it ; and these he afterwards 
 endeavoured, with indefatigable zeal, and with 
 the most despotic authority, to put in practice 
 in his own country. He was recalled in 174.^, 
 and through the influence of his former pa- 
 troness was sent to Vienna to adjust a dispute 
 between pope Benedict XIV and the empress 
 Maria Theresa, relative to the patriarchate of 
 Aquilria. His wife dying, he now married the 
 young countess Von Uaun, niec^ of the cele- 
 brated marshal of that name ; and this union 
 established his ascendancy over the queen of 
 
 Portu^^'al, wlio wns an Austrian princess. On 
 the death of the kin<^, in 17.')(), she persuaded 
 her son, Joseph I. to appoint Carvalho secretary 
 of state for foreign atlairs The first care of 
 the new minister was toini|)rove the commer- 
 cial resources of the lingdom, and encourage 
 a sjiirit of industry among the people ; but he 
 also seems to have systf-maticidly emieavoured 
 to de])res3 the nobility, and he displayed a 
 marked enmity to the influential order of the 
 Jesuits ; whence arose a sj)irit of opposition to 
 his measures, which led to many public di.-:-."- 
 ters. He was, howe er, enabled to carry soi^e 
 of his plans into execution, and was proceed- 
 ing to prosecute them efl'eciualiy, when some 
 interruption occurred from the dreadful earth- 
 quake at Lisbon in 17o5. On this occasion 
 he displayed the most active benevolence to- 
 wards the distressed citizens, and did every 
 thing in his power to relieve their sufferings 
 and necessities. His services procured liim 
 deserved respect, and the king rewarded him 
 with the title of count d'Oeyras. In the fol- 
 lowing year he was made prime minister of 
 the country, and he now assumed a most unli- 
 mited power in every department of the state. 
 Many of his measures were arbitrary and se- 
 vere, but the licentiousness of the age, and the 
 character of the people, served to excuse, if 
 not to justify, his proceedings. The attempt 
 to assassinate the king, for which the duke of 
 Aveiro and others of the nobility suffered in 
 1758, was ascribed by the minister to the in- 
 stigations of the Jesuits, and it afforded him a 
 pretext for the banishment of those fathers 
 from Portug.-!. He persevered in the system 
 of policy which he adopted, notwithstanding 
 he was continually adding to the number of his 
 enemies ; till at length, on the death of the 
 king, in 1777, he was disgraced, and ordered to 
 retire to his estates ; and he died at Pombal, 
 the place of his exile, May 8, 1782. — Hiog. 
 Univ. Rees's Cjjclop. 
 
 'rOMET (Peter) a celebrated French 
 druggist, was bom in 1658, and exercised his 
 profession at Paris. He collected drugs from 
 all parts of th« world at a great expense, and 
 made a cat; iogue of all the druirs in his ma^a- 
 zine, and of all the varieties in his cabinet. 
 He died in 1699, on the very day on which a 
 pension was granted to him by Louis XI\', 
 He wrote an excellent work, entitled, '• His- 
 toire Generate des Drogues ;" the most com- 
 plete work that had ever been written on the 
 subject. — \ouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 POMEY (Francis) a Jesuit, and long 
 time prefect of the lower classes at Lyons, 
 died in 1673, at an advanced age. He was 
 well acquainted with the Latin writers, but 
 his works are deficient in correctness and me- 
 thod. They are, " A French- Latin Diction- 
 ary ;' " Flos Latinitatis," a good abridgment 
 of the dictionary of Robert Etienne ; " Indi- 
 culis Universalis ;" " Colloques Scolastiqties 
 et Moraux;" " Libitina?, ou I'raite des Fune- 
 railles des Anciens." a curious book in La- 
 tin ; " Traite des Particules ;" " Panth^uoi 
 iMythicum ;" " Novus Rhetoricae Candida- 
 tus." — Nouv. Diet. Hist, 
 
POM 
 
 POMMERAyE (dom. John Francis) a 
 
 iienedicdne of the congregation of St INlaur, 
 was born at Rouen in 1617, and renounced all 
 the charges of liis order to devote himself en- 
 tirely to study. His works abound with labo- 
 rious reoearcli ; the principal are, " L'Histoire 
 des Archev^ques de Rouen ;" " L'Histoire 
 de la Cathedrale de Rouen ;" *' Histoire de 
 I'Abbaye de St Ouen de Rouen, et ceiles de 
 St Amand, et de Sainte Catharine de la meme 
 ville ;" " Un Recueil des Conciles et Synodes 
 de Rouen." He died of apoplexy in 1687. — 
 Noiiv. Diet. His 
 
 POMFRET (John) a poet, was born in 
 Bedfordshire in 1667, and studied at Queen's 
 
 POM 
 
 of Theocritus. His tragedies of 
 
 Hvper- 
 mnestra" and " Callirhoe," were represented 
 several times with success. In 1774 he com- 
 pleted a translation of Plutarch's Lives, which 
 established his character as a scholar and prose 
 writer. He afterwards gave poetical versions 
 of the Hero and Leander of Alusteus ; two of 
 tlie Hymns of Callimachus, and the Epistles 
 of Ovid, and two volumes of " Nuove Can- 
 zoni Pastorali." Pompei was secretary to the 
 tribunal of public safety and the academy of 
 painting, and member of the Academies of the 
 Aletofili and the Fiiarmonici ; and he received 
 invitations from the duke of Parma and the 
 emperor Joseph II, but he declined all offers, 
 
 college, Cambridge, where he took his degrees [ and died at Verona in 1790. Au edition of 
 in aits ; and taking orders, he was presented to j all his works was published after his death, in 
 the living of JMalden in Bedfordshire. In 1703 I 6 vols. 8vo. — Athenaiim. 
 
 became to London for institution to a large j POMPEY THE GREAT, or CNETUS 
 and considerable living ; but he was stopped by \ POMPf^IUS MAGNUS, a celebrated Roman 
 
 Compton, bishop of London, who, on account 
 of an equivocal expression in his poem of the 
 " Choice," thought him unfit for the clerical 
 habit. He was, however, convinced of his 
 mistake, but too late ; for Pomfret, being conse- 
 quently detained in London, caught the small- 
 pox, and died of it in 1703. His " Choice" 
 has been highly popular, from its suitableness 
 to all tastes and ideas of comfort, and its 
 smooth metre. His poems weie published in 
 1699, and some additional pieces appeared 
 after his death. — Johnson s Poets. 
 
 POMPADOUR (Jeanne Antoinette 
 PoissoK, marquise oe) mistress of Louis XV, 
 was born in 1722. According to Voltaire, 
 she was the daughter of a farmer £t Ferte sous 
 Jouare, whose wife became the mistress of 
 M. Leiiormand de Tournehem, a farmer-gene- 
 ral. The mother, an unprincipled and in- 
 triguing woman, promoted the marriage of her 
 young and beautiful daughter with M. Lenor- 
 mand d'Etisle, the nephew of Tournehem, and I 
 afterwards procured her introduction to the 
 king, which led to her guilty elevation. She 
 succeeded in the king's favour the duchess de 
 Chateauroux, who died in 1744 ; and in 1745 
 she was created marchioness of Pompadour. 
 She used her influence with her lover in pro- 
 moling the progress of the fine arts, which she 
 herself cultivated with considerable success, 
 and part of the wealtli lavished on her was de- 
 voted to the collection of books, paintings, 
 and curiosities. But her cupidity and extrava- 
 gance were unbounded. She obtained a pen- 
 
 statesman and warrior, the contemporary and 
 rival of Julius Coesar. He was the son of Pom- 
 peius Strabo, of an illustrious family, and was 
 born 105 BC. After having studied the art of 
 war under his father, at the age of twenty- 
 three he raised tliree legions of troops, with 
 which he marched to the assistance of Sylla, 
 then carrying on war with Marius and his par- 
 tizans ; and three years after, having recovered 
 Sicily and Africa, he was honoured with a 
 triumph. After the death of Sylla he carried 
 on war against Sertorius, in Spain ; and havinor 
 conquered that leader, he ^ain triumphed, in 
 the year of Rome 681. He was then made 
 consul, and re-established the tribunate ; and 
 carrying the Roman arms into Asia, he van- 
 quished the kings of Armenia and Pontus, and 
 pursued his victorious course through I\Iedia, 
 Albania, Colchis, Judea, and other countries. 
 His services were rewarded with anotlier 
 triumph, which was celebrated during two 
 days with the utmost magnificence. Pompev 
 tlien, uniting with Cassar and Crassus, formed 
 the first triumvirate. This union was broken 
 by the death of Crassus and the mutual jea- 
 lousy of the surviving parties, which, after a 
 while, occasioned a civil war between them. 
 Pompey, on the approach of Cajsar to Rome, 
 with a hostile army of veteran troops, crossed 
 the Adriatic to Epirus, and a battle between 
 the rival chiefs taking place on the plains of 
 Pliarsalia, the former was utterly defeated. 
 He then fled to Egypt, where he was imme- 
 diately assassinated, by order of the ministers 
 
 sion of 240,000 francs, and in 1756 the place of Ptolemy, the king of that country, BC. 48. 
 
 of lady of the palace to the queen, who appears 
 to have made no opposition to the appoint- 
 ment. She interfered frequently in the affairs 
 of government, both as to domestic and foreign 
 policy ; and the seven years' war with Prussia, 
 so disastrous to France, was one of the mea- 
 sures she promoted. Her death took place 
 April 14, 1764. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 POMPEI (GiROi.AMo) an Italian writer, 
 was born at Verona in 1731. His first work 
 was " Canzoni Pastorali," 2 vols. 8vo, which 
 were much admired for their sweetness, sen- 
 sibility, and elegance. He next gave a very 
 
 Cicero says of this commander, that he was 
 born for greatness, and that he was capable of 
 attaining the highest eminence by his elo- 
 quence, but he -Jiose ratlier to seek for military 
 glory. — Plutarch. Moreri. 
 
 POMPIGNAN (Jean Jacqctes le Franc, 
 marquis de) a French man of letters, was born 
 of a noble family at Montauban in 1709. He 
 was brought up to the law, and became first 
 president of the court of yVides, at his native 
 place, where he indulged his taste for poetry, 
 and produced his tragedy of " Didon." Being 
 well versed in the learned languages, and some 
 
 delightful translation, in verse, of the Idylls , of the modern ones, he employed himself 
 
PC N 
 
 largely in translations, as well as original com- 
 po:>ition, and became distinguished in the hle- 
 rary circles of J'aiis. Jn 17(30 he was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy ; and in an 
 inaugural discourse on reception, made an open 
 attack upon the i)revalent tcejiticism of the 
 day, which drew upon liim the formidable 
 ridicule of Voltaire and liis associates, wlio 
 finally drove him into retirement, where he 
 died in 1784. ihe principal woiks of this 
 
 l>ON 
 
 Rut Ferdinand, inaenmible to this a-ffVont, uwn- 
 tinued him in his siiuation. lie died in 1.50J 
 or 1. ■)().>. Ilia biyle, ihou^^h elegant, is often 
 obscure ; and he made hiiitself a great many 
 enemies by the freedom of his judgment and 
 the biftcrness of his censures. He wrote 
 "The History of the Wars of Ferdinand I 
 and John of Anjou," and a great numlter of 
 works in verse and prose, collected at Bfile, in 
 1. ).")(), 4 vols. Bvo. Ills [)roHe works were af- 
 
 writer, wliose talent?- were resjjectable, consist terwards jiuid.shed separately, but both these 
 of dramatic |)ieces. Sacred Odes, Imitations collections are scarce. — Noiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 of the Georgics, Translations from yEschylus j PONl'AXlIS (John Isaac) historiogra- 
 and Lucian, and Dissertations. — His brother, plierofllie king of Denmark, and of the pro- 
 JoHN Geohgk, born in I7l5, became arch- [ vince of Guelders, died at Narderwick ia 
 bisiiop of V^iennes and almoner to Louis XVI. 1610. His works of research are most es- 
 Ile wa3 a prelate of con^iderable merit as an teemed ; he possessed very little imagination, 
 ecclesiastic, and the author of a great number and his po-try is little more than measured 
 of theological tracts, besides a " Critical Essay prose. His works are " Rerum Demicarum, 
 on the present state of the Republic of Let- Historia una cum chorographica ejusdem 
 ters," 1743 ; and " The Proper Use of Secular Regiii Urbiumque Descripiinne;" " Discepta- 
 
 Authority in Matters of Religion," 1753. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hi>t. 
 
 POMPON A ITUS (Pftku) a metaphysi- 
 cian, was born at Mantua in 1462, and deli- 
 vered lectures on the j)hilosopliy of Aristotle 
 and Averroes at Padua and liologna. He 
 composed a celebrated little treatise, " De 
 Immortalitate Aninife ;" in which he was sup- 
 posed to doubt the immortality of the soul, on 
 the ground that all natural reason was against 
 it ; and Leo X was induced to suppress the 
 
 tiones Chorographicae de Rheni divertiis atque 
 o>tiis et accolis Populis adveisus IMi. Cluve- 
 rum ;" " Observationes rn Tractatumde Giobis 
 Caelesti et I'errestri auctore Ilol^erto Huesio ;" 
 " Discussiones llistoricae ;" '• Ori^ines Fran- 
 cica;;" "Historia L'lrica ;" "Life of Fre- 
 derick II king of Denmark and Norway." — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PONTAT (John) a French ecclesiastic, 
 was born at St Helaise du Harcoeur, in the 
 diocese of Avranches, in 1638. He became 
 
 work by a bull, and caused Augustine Niphus vicar of the parish of St Genevieve des Ar- 
 to compose a treatise with the same title, in deus and penitentiary of the church of Paris, 
 refutation of it. 'J'his discussion was referred He died in 1728. He wrote a great "Die- 
 to the arbitration of Bembus, who sujiported tionnaire des Cas de Conscience ;" " Scrip- 
 Pomponalius, and obtained leave for him to ' tura Sacra ubique sibi constans ;" " Entre- 
 publisli a second edition. He also wrote a tiens Spirituels, pour instruire, exhorter, et 
 book, " De Incantationibus," and a treatise on I consoler les Malades ;" with several other re- 
 " Fate and Free Will." He died in 1525.- 
 Gen. Diet. Hrucker. Niceron. 
 
 POMPONIUS L.ETUS (Julius) some- 
 
 ligious tracts. — Nouv. Diet. Hibt. 
 
 PON FAULT (Sebastian Beaitlieu de) 
 
 an eminent French engineer, in the reign of 
 times styled Peter of Calabria, a learned anti- Louis XIV. He entered the armv at the age 
 quary of the fifieentli century, said to have ; of fifteen, and so distinguished himself bv his 
 been the natural son of a Neapolitan noble- j bravery at the seige of Rochelle, that the king 
 
 man. He prosecuted his studies at Rome, 
 under Laurentius Valla, whom he succeeded 
 as professor of rhetoric. He also founded an 
 academy, which was suppressed by pope Paul 
 
 gave him the post of commissary of artillery. 
 He wrote an important work, entitled " Les 
 glorieuses Couquetes de Louis le Grand,'"* 
 comprehending all the operations of war. from 
 
 11, and many of the members were imprisoned, the battle of Rocroi, in 1643, to the taking of 
 
 and some of them tortured ; but Sixtus IV re 
 leased them, and restored Pomponius to his 
 office. He wrote several works in Latin, re- 
 lative to Roman history and antiquities ; and 
 he adited the writings of Sallust, Pliny the 
 Younger, and Cicero ; and commented on 
 those of Quintilian and other classic authors. 
 His death took place at the age of seventy, in 
 1495. — Tiruboschi, Diet. Hist, 
 
 PONTANUS (John Jovianus) was born 
 
 Namur, in Ibi^l. 1 here were several edi- 
 tions of this ; the principal is called the Grand 
 Reaulieu. Pontault died in 1674, and the 
 work was cariied down to 1694 by other 
 hands. — Perruult, Les Homines lltnstres, 
 
 PONTE (Jacob da) called also IL BAS- 
 SANO, and IL BASS AN VECCHIO, was 
 born at Bassano in 1510, and was the pupil 
 of his father, I'rancis da Poiite, a respectable 
 painter. He afterwards went to \ euice, and 
 
 at Cerreto, in 1420, and became tutor to Al- j became the disciple of Bonifacio. On the 
 jihonso, the young king of Arragon. whose death of his father he settled at Bassano, 
 secretary and counsellor of state he afterwards where he died in 1592. His style so much 
 was. This prince rebelled against his father, resembles that of I'itian that he has even been 
 and Pontanus reconciled them ; but not being called his pupil. He commenced by aiming 
 recompensed as he conceived he deserved, he at grandeur of style, hoi he soon descended to 
 wrote a work ao^ainst Ferdinand, entitled subjects of less eiiergy ; and even in his altar- 
 " Dialogue sur I'lngratitude," in which he pieces, his figures are generally below tiie na- 
 praised excessively Charles VIII of France. ' tur?il size. His colouring and composition ara 
 
POO 
 
 fjcciiliar to himself, the first at a distance 
 presenting a beautiful effect, and in fact being 
 but a confused mass of paint, and the latter a 
 blending circular with triangular forms, and 
 the most contrasted postures with parallel 
 lines. His profane pieces consist of markets, 
 kitchens, larders, &c. He left four sons, 
 Francis, Leander, John Baptist, and Jerome, 
 ^11 of whom distinguished themselves in the 
 art. — Pilkington, hu Fuseli. D' Argenviile. 
 Sir J. Reunnlds's Works. 
 
 PONTEDERA (Julian) a native of Pisa, 
 and professor of botany at Padua, in the com- 
 mencement of the eigliteenth century, wrote, 
 " Compendium Tabularum Botanicarum in 
 quo PlantsB 272 in Italia iiuper detecttt recen- 
 sentur," 1718, 4to ; 2. " De Florum Natura," 
 1720; 3. " Antiquitatum Latinarum Grreca- 
 rumque enarrationes et Emendationes," Padua, 
 1740.— Noxw. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PONrOPPIDAN (Eric Ericson; a Da- 
 nish divine, born in 1616, in the isle of Funen. 
 He obtained vaiious preferments in the church, 
 and at length the bishopric of Drontlieim in 
 Norway, where he died in 1678. He was the 
 author of a Danish grammar, Latin poems, and 
 other works. — Pontoppidan (Louis) nephew 
 of the foregoing, died in 1706, aged fifty-eight. 
 He published " Theatrum Nobilitatis Da- 
 nicaj," 2 vols, folio ; besides some religious 
 pieces in his native language. — Pontoppidax 
 (Ekic) his son, was born in 1698, at Aarhus, 
 in Jutland, where the father held a clerical 
 office. He was educated partly at Copenha- 
 gen, and in that university he took his degrees 
 in theology in 1718. After having been em- 
 ployed as a private tutor to the sou of a Da- 
 nish officer, he was, in 1721 , appointed governor 
 to the young duke of flolstein Ploen. He 
 subsequently obtained ecclesiastical prefer- 
 ment. In 1735 he was chosen one of the 
 royal chaplains ; in 1738 professor extraordi- 
 nary of theology at Copenhagen ; and in 1747 
 he was elevated to the bishopric of Bergen. 
 He died in that city, December 20, 1764. 
 Pontoppidan wrote a great number of works, 
 the most important of which are noticed in the 
 BiographieUniverselle. Amongthem are, "An- 
 nales Ecclesise Danicat»," 1741 — 1732, 4 vols. 
 4to ; and " An Essay on the Natural History 
 of Norway," of which an English translation 
 was published iu London, 1755, folio. — Aikins 
 Gen. Biog. 
 
 POOL (Matthew) an eminent nonconfor- 
 mist divine, was born at York in 1624, and 
 educated at i ^: lanuel college, Cambridge, 
 where he took tne degree of INIA. Hav- 
 ing taken orders in 1648 he became minis- 
 ter of St Michael Le Querne, London. In 
 1654 he eng^aiied in a controversy airainst 
 the Socinian opinions of John Biddle ; and 
 in 1658, formed an institution for the main- 
 tenance of poor students at the university. 
 His sentiments being Piesbyterian, he was, in 
 1662, ejected from his living by the enforce- 
 ment of the Act of Uniformity, on which h^ 
 published a Latin treatise, entitled " Vox Cia- 
 mantiri in Deserto." Possessed of a small 
 independency, be occupied himself in bis retire- 
 
 POP 
 
 ment in tlie composition of his elaborate work, 
 the " Synopsis Oiticorum," which vast body 
 of bibilical criticism was first printed in live 
 volumes folio. While thus employed, he how- 
 ever found time to wiite some tracts against 
 popery, which excited much enmity on the 
 part of the Catholics ; and his name was put 
 down by the infamous Titus Oates in the list 
 of persons whom it was pretended they pur- 
 posed to assassinate. Alarmed by this circum- 
 stance, and the apparent intention of some 
 persons to waylay him, he retired to Amster- 
 dam, where he died in October 1679. Besides 
 the " Synopsis," whicli exhibits extensive 
 learning and great critical skill, Mr Pool was 
 author of " A Letter to the Lord Charles 
 Fleetwood :" of a brief Latin poem of much 
 elegance, and of several sermons and epitaphs. 
 He also commenced " Annotations on the 
 Bible," which were finished by other hands, 
 and published in 1685, in 2 vols, folio, and fre- 
 quently reprinted. — Atlien. Oxon, Biog. Brit. 
 POPE (Alexander) a celebrated English 
 poet, was bom May 22, 1688, in Lombard- 
 street, London, where his father, a linen dra- 
 per, acquired a considerable fortune. Both his 
 parents were Roman Catholics, and, as he 
 liimself asserts, of gentle blood. Soon after 
 the birth of his son, who was of very delicate 
 constitution, small and much deformed, the 
 father of Pope retired from business, to a 
 small house at Binfield near Windsor Forest, 
 and, owing to his attachment to the exiled king, 
 not choosing to vest his property in die public 
 securities, he lived frugally on the capital. 
 The subject of this article was taught to read 
 and write at home, and at the age of eight was 
 placed under the care of a Catholic priest, 
 named Taverner, from whom he learned the 
 rudiments of Latin and Greek. Beino^ fond of 
 reading, he became acquainted at this early 
 period with Ogilby's version of Homer, and 
 Sandys's translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, 
 which books first turned his attention to poetry^ 
 He was successively placed at two other schools: 
 the first at Twyford, and the second at Hyde- 
 park-corner, where he formed a play, taken 
 from Ogilby's Homer, intermixed with verses 
 of his own, and procured it to be acted by his 
 school-fellows. About his twelfth year he was 
 taken home, and privately instructed by an- 
 other priest ; and to this period is assigned his 
 earliest printed poem, the " Ode on Solitude.'' 
 He subsequently appears to have been the di- 
 rector of his own studies, in which the cultiva- 
 tion of poetry occupied his chief attention. 
 He particularly exercised himself in imitation 
 and translation ; of which his versions of the 
 first book of the " Thebais," and of the "Sap- 
 pho t-' Phaon," made at the age of fourteen, 
 afford a remarkable testimony. He was sixteen 
 wlien he wrote his *' Pastorals," which pro- 
 cured him the friendship or notice of several 
 eminent persons, including sir William Trum- 
 ball, Wvcheriv, Walsh, Drvden. and others 
 His " Ode for St Cecilia's Day," and " Essay 
 on Criticism," were his next performances of 
 note; the latter of which was written in 1709, 
 and published in 1711^ in which year .ais 
 
POP 
 
 i»pj>eared his " Elogy on an Unfortunate Lailv." 
 He haii now ac(]iiiie.l tliat height of reputation 
 which sehlomfails to ensure to successful auihor- 
 fliiip tlie alloy of disputes and jealousies, nor 
 was Pope of a disposition to avoid tliein. He 
 became embroiled with Aml)rose I*hilij)s in 
 consequence of an ironical comparison of that 
 writer's pastorals with his own, in the " (jiiar- 
 dian ;" and with the irascible critic John Den- 
 nis, owing to a humorous allusion to iiitn under 
 the name of Appius, in tlie " Essay on Criti- 
 cism." The " Klei^yon an Unfortunate f/ddy " 
 was rapidly followed by the justly ceU'brated 
 " Rape of the Lock," grouiuied on a trifling 
 incident in fashionable life. In this production 
 the poet displays admirable vivacity, and the 
 most polished wit ; but its imaginative power 
 is chiefly conspicuous in the exquisite machinery 
 of the Sylphs, wrought into it as an afterthought, 
 for the poem flrst appearetl without it. This 
 happy addition was dissuaded by ^ "Idison ; 
 a piece of advice which Pope subsfi^tiently, 
 upon no very direct evidence, attributed to 
 literary jealousy. He next published the 
 "Temple of Fame," altered and modernised 
 from Chaucer, which was followed, in 1713, by 
 his " Windsor Forest," commenced atsixteen. 
 In the same year he published proposals for a 
 translation of the Iliad, by subscription, which 
 were received witli rapid and S[)ontaneous en- 
 couragement ; and the first volume, containing 
 four books, appeared in 1715, in 4to. An 
 open breach wilii Addison preceded this pub- 
 lication, owing to an alleged jealousy on the 
 part of the latter, to whom a rival translation 
 cf Homer, published under the name of 
 Tickell, was attributed by Pope, who vented 
 his resentment in the keen and polished lines, 
 commencing:, " Curst be the verse," &c. 
 Whether by Addison or Tickell, the rival ver- 
 sion soon sank before that of Pope, who was 
 enabled, by the great success of his subscrip- 
 tion, to take a handsome house at Twicken- 
 ham, to which he removed with his father and 
 mother. About this time lie wrote his cele- 
 brated and impassioned " Epistle from Eloisa 
 to Abelard," one of the most vivid and im- 
 pressive of all amatory poems. In 1717 he 
 republished his poetry in a 4to volume, to 
 which he prefixed an elegant preface ; and in 
 1720 completed the Iliad, which he dedicated 
 to Congreve. In 1721, actuated, it is feared, 
 by the love of acquisition alone, he undertook 
 the editorship of Shakspeare's works, a task for 
 which he was wholly unfit ; and a severe cas- 
 tigation from Theobald, laid the foundation of 
 a lasting enmity between them. With the as- 
 sistance of Brome and Fenton, he also ac- 
 complished a translation of the Oilyssey, the 
 subscription to which brought him a con- 
 siderable sum. In the mean time he had 
 .oruied many friendsliips, and among others 
 one, which had the reputation of being tender, 
 with Martha Blount, the i'anghter of a Ca- 
 tholic gentleman near Reading, who lecame 
 his intimate confident and companion through 
 life. A sort of literary flirtation also com- 
 menced with the celebrated lady IMary Wort- 
 ley Montagu, which, after mucli intercourse 
 
 POP 
 
 and correspondence, terminated (»ee article, 
 MoN TAfiu, lady .M.\it Y Woim.r.v) in the bit- 
 terest enmity. In 17'^7 he joined Swift in a 
 publication <if Miscellanies, in which he in- 
 serted a treatise " Of the liathos, or Art of 
 Sinking," illustiatel by examples from the in- 
 ferior poets of the <lay. As a decisive stroke 
 in literary warfare, in 17C8 he sent out liie 
 first three books of his " Dunciad," a mock- 
 heroic poem, the object of which was to over, 
 whelm all his antagonists with imlelible ridi- 
 cule. It is a finished exami)le of diction and 
 versification, but displays so much irritability, 
 illiberality and occasional injustice, that on the 
 whole, he scarcely gains by it as a poet what 
 he loses as a man Personal satire, to which 
 he was first encouraged by bishop Atterbury, 
 appears in most of his subesquent productions. 
 One of these, an " Epistle on Taste," which 
 contained an attack on the duke of Chandos, 
 under the name of Timon, was deemed parti- 
 cularly ungracious and unprovoked, and he in 
 vain sought to clear himself from the cliarue 
 01 voluntary insult. Being particularly con- 
 nected with the tory party, he had necessarily 
 become intimate with lord Bolingbroke, to 
 whose suggestion the world is indebted for the 
 "Essay on Man," first published anonymously 
 in 1733, and the next year completed and 
 avowed by the author. This work will pos- 
 sibly always stand in the first class of ethical 
 poems, as demonstrative of an extraordinary 
 power to manage argumentation in verse ; al- 
 though not without prosaic lines, and betray- 
 ing indications that the author divl not fully 
 com.prehend the system which he was advanc- 
 ing. The " Essay on i\Ian" was followed by 
 " Imitations of Horace ;" accompanied by a 
 "Prologue and Epilogue to the Satires," and 
 by •' Moral Epistles or Essays," which exhibit 
 him as a satirist of the school of Boileau, with 
 more spirit and poetry, but at the same time 
 with greater negligence and equal causticity. 
 The persons whom, in these works, he treats 
 with most severity, are lady M, W. Montagu, 
 and lord Hervey. Curll, the bookseller, hav- 
 ing publishetl some letters written by Pope, 
 which had been secretly conveyed to him, the 
 latter affected great anger ; yet there is some 
 evidence to countenance the notion that he 
 contrived the plot himself in order to form an 
 excuse for the publication of a 4to volume of 
 letters in his own name, for which he took 
 subscriptions. In point of composition they 
 are elegant and sprightly, although studied and 
 artificial ; but as many characteristic epistles 
 are given from those of his correspondents, 
 the collection is on the whole interesting and 
 valuable. In I74i?, at the suggestion of War- 
 burton, he added a fourth book to his " Dun- 
 ciad." intended to ridicule useless and frivol- 
 ous studies, in which he thought fit to attack 
 Colley Cibber, then poet-laureat. Cibber reta- 
 liated by a pamphlet, which told some ludicrous 
 stories of his antagonist, and so irritated the 
 latter, that in a new edition of the " Dunciad*' 
 he deposed Theobald, its original hero, and 
 promoted Cibber in his place, who, akhougb a 
 great coxcomb, could scarcely be deemed a 
 
POP 
 
 dunce. An oppressive asthma began now to 
 indicate a commencing decline ; and in this 
 state of debility he was consoled by the affec- 
 tionate attention of his numerous friends, and 
 particularly of lord Bolingbroke, while he ex- 
 perienced the most shameful neglect from 
 jMartba Blount. When the last scene was 
 manifestly approaching, he allowed one of his 
 intimates, the liistorian Hooke, himself a Ca- 
 tholic, to send for a priest, not as essential, but 
 becoming ; and soon after quietly expired, on 
 May 30, 1744, at the age of lifty-sis. He was 
 interred at Tmckeuham, where a monument 
 was erected to him by bishop Warburton, his 
 latest literary champion and legatee. Both 
 the moral and poetical character of Pope has, 
 within these last few years, been assailed and 
 defended with peculiar animation. Vain and 
 irascible, he seems to have be«n equally open 
 to flattery, and prone to resentment ; but one 
 of his greatest weaknesses was a disposition to 
 artifice, in order to acquire reputation and ap- 
 plause, which is justly deemed indicative of 
 littleness of mind. He was not, however, in- 
 capable of generous and elevated sentiments, 
 and was as firm in his attachments as 
 implacable in his dislikes. He had al- 
 ways a dignified regard to his indepen- 
 dence, which, in one to whom money, high 
 connexions and the superfluities of life, more 
 especially the luxuries of the table, were by 
 no means indiflferent, is the more remarkable. 
 He has been accused of meanness towards 
 his literary coadjutors ; but certain stories 
 of a nature to impeach his integrit}', are 
 now no longer believed ; especially as some- 
 thing like an indisposition to do him justice, 
 either as a poet or a man, has been manifest in 
 those who related them. As a poet, while 
 his claim to invention is bounded, the endea- 
 vour to set him aside altogether, in compliment 
 to certain metaphysical distinctions, in regard to 
 the primary sources of poetical feeling, is fac- 
 titious and futile. No English writer has car- 
 rieil farther correctness of versification, splen- 
 dour of diction, and the truly poetical artof vivi- 
 fying and adorning every subject that he touch- 
 ed. Flis "Rape of the Lock," and "Epistle from 
 Eloisa to Abelard," are alone sufficient to im- 
 peach the exclusive theory which would deny 
 him the rank and povversof a poet, leaving his 
 wit, his brilliancy, and his satire to be ranked 
 as they may be. Of the various editions of 
 Pope's works, it is only necessary to mention 
 that of Warburton (excluding the Homer) 9 
 vols. 8vo ; and those of Johnson, Warton, 
 and Bowles, the last in 10 vols. 8vo, 1806. 
 Biog. Brit. Johnson, Warton, and Bowles's Lives. 
 POPE (sir Thomas) a statesman, was 
 6orn at Dedington, in Oxfordshire, about 1508, 
 »vas educated at Eton, whence he went to 
 Gray's-iim, and was called to the bar, and 
 in 1533, he became clerk to the crown in 
 chancery. He held several situations, and 
 received the honour of knighthood. On the 
 accession of Edward VI, being a Roman Ca- 
 tholic, Pope did not receive any grant or 
 favour, but in the reign of Mary he was made 
 privy counsellor and cofferer to the household. 
 
 POP 
 
 and was entrusted with the care of the prin- 
 cess, afterwards queen Elizabeth, towards 
 whom he behaved with. the greatest respect ; 
 but on her accession he was again dismissed 
 from political aflPairs, and died in 1559. Sir 
 Thomas Pope was the founder of Trinity col- 
 lege, Oxford. — Life by Warton. Chalmers's 
 Hist, of Oxford. 
 
 POPE (Walter) a physician, half-bro- 
 ther to Dr John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, 
 was born at Fawsley.in Northamptonshire, but 
 in what year is unknown. He was educated 
 first at Trinity college, Cambridge, and after- 
 wards at Wadham college, Oxford. He was 
 Gresham professor of astronomy in 1660, and 
 three years after lie was made one of the first 
 fellows of the Royal Society. He then tra- 
 velled for two years, and on his return he wag 
 made registrar of the diocese of Chester. He 
 received a penson of 100/. a-year from bishop 
 Ward, whose life he wrote. His other works 
 are, " The Old Man's Wish," an imitation of 
 Horace, with curious notes; " The iMemoirs 
 of Monsieur Du Vall, a notorious highway- 
 man ;" *' Select Novels from the Spanish and 
 Italian;" "Moral andPolitical Fables ;" " The 
 Catholic Ballad," &c. He died in 1714. — 
 Ward's Gresham Professors. Ath. Oxun. Ni- 
 chols's Poems. 
 
 POPHAM (sir Home Rigcs) a naval 
 ofiicer, and knight commander of the Bath, 
 was born in Ireland in 1762, and rose to tht 
 rank of lieutenant during the American war. 
 On the peace he employed himself in com- 
 mercial pursuits in tlie East Indies, and com- 
 manded a country ship, in which he disco- 
 vered a passage for navigation at Pulo Pe- 
 nang. In 1794 he returned to the service, 
 and, being considerably useful to the duke of 
 York in Holland, was appointed master and 
 commander, and soon after post-captain. He 
 was next employed in the Baltic, and, in 1800, 
 appointed to a command in the East Indies. la 
 1803 he entered the Red sea, and settled ad- 
 vantageous terms of commerce f ir the P^nglish 
 merchants. On his return home, however, 
 his conduct was rigorously attacked in the 
 House of Commons on the score of interested 
 views ; but in the sequel his proceedings were 
 adequately defended, and nothing farther took 
 place. He was afterwards engaged in an ex- 
 pedition against Buenos Ayres, as stated, i 
 without adequate authority ; and being brought 
 for it to a court martial, he was sentenced to 
 be reprimanded. He finally obtained the si- 
 tuation of commander-in-chief on the .Ja- 
 maica station ; and had but just returned to 
 England, when his decease took place at 
 Cheltenham, September 13, 1820. He pub- 
 lished " A Statement of his Treatment since 
 his Return from the Red Sea ;" and " A De- 
 cription of the Prince of Wales's Island." — 
 Gent. Mas;. 
 
 POPHA^I (sir John) an English lawyer, 
 was born at Huntworth, in Somersetshire, in 
 1531. In 1576 he was made sergeant at law, 
 solicitor general in 1579, attorney general in 
 1581, and in 1592 he was promoted to the 
 rank of chief justice of the Court of King's 
 
PO R 
 
 Pcuch, anil was knij^liled. lie was one of 
 the lawvtrs detained l)^' tlie '^arl of I'.ssrx, 
 when lie determined lo defend lainself in liia 
 own house ; and, on tlie trial of that noble- 
 man, he {rave evidence against Inin. Ilis 
 genercil cliaracter was not niiuh esteemed. 
 His works are, " Tleports and Cases adjudged 
 in the Time of Queen Elizabeth ;" " Kcbo- 
 lutions and Jud'j;nients upon Cases and Alat- 
 ters agitated in all the Courts of Westminster 
 in the latter end of Queen Elizabeth." — Ath. 
 Ox. T.loud's State Worthies. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 jn)RDENONE (John Antony Licinius) 
 an Italian painter, was born near Udino, in 
 1484. The beauty of his colouring and noble 
 and easy style caused him to be preferred by 
 many to T^tir^n ; and so great was the jealousy 
 of the latter, that Pordenone was obliged al- 
 wavs to carry arms for his defence. Me was 
 loaded with favours by Charles V, who gave 
 him the title of chevalier. He painted chiefly 
 in frescj, and his works enrich several of the 
 cities of Italy ; but he is particularly distin- 
 guished by his picture of St Augustine, and 
 two chapels painted in fresco, at Vicenza. — 
 His nephew, Julius Licinius Pordenone, 
 born at Venice, and died at Augsburg, in 1561, 
 was the pupil of his uncle, and painted in 
 fresco. The magistrates of Augsburg were 
 so pleased by the works which he executed 
 there, that they honoured his memory by a 
 particular inscription. — D'Argenville. 
 
 PORLIER (Juan Diaz) a Spanish officer, 
 wlio distinguished himself in the wars whicli 
 succeeded the occupation of Spain by Buona- 
 parte. He was descended from an ancient 
 family, of which a branch had been long set- 
 tled in the Canaries , but he was born at 
 Carthagena in South America, where his fa- 
 ther held a high public station. After having 
 been educated under the care of his uncle, 
 Antonio Porlier, marquis de Baxemar, who 
 was minister of justice under Charles IV, he 
 entered into the navy, and served as a mid- 
 shipman at the battle of Trafalgar. When 
 the cry of independence spread through the 
 Peninsula in 1808, Porlier was among the 
 first to obey the call of his country ; and hav- 
 ing joined a regiment stationed at Valencia, 
 his gallantry and enterprising spirit were dis- 
 played in an affair, in the vicinity of that city, 
 when he defeated a body of the enemy's 
 troops with a very inferior force, and took 
 many prisoners, for which exploit the Junta of 
 Asturias made hin; a colonel. Soon after this 
 event he raised a Guerilla corps, of which he 
 became the leader, and distinguished himself 
 in a series of brilliant actions. It was during 
 the warfare he carried on in Asturias that he 
 gained from his soldiers the appellation of El 
 Marquesito, or the Little Marquis, by wliich 
 he was afterwards known. His retreat from 
 Santander, closely pursued by a corps four 
 times more numerous than his own, excited 
 great admiration, and raised so high an opi- 
 nion of his talents, that the regency appointed 
 him captain-general of Asturias, in which 
 station he remained till the restoration of Fer- 
 dinand VII. After that event Porlier openly 
 
 Btoo. Dict. — Vol. II. 
 
 ro R 
 
 declared in favour of tlie constitution of the 
 Cortes, which he had Ho ably defended. An 
 attempt, which he made in September 181.'), 
 for proclaiming the constitution at Corunna, 
 was unsuccessful ; and being betrayed by his 
 unworthy associates, he was delivered to the 
 military authorities, condemned to death, and 
 executed October 3, 1815, Buffering with the 
 most heroic firmness for what he continued to 
 the last to consider as a just cau»e. — Hla- 
 quieres Hist. liev. of the Spaiiish Revolution. 
 Bios; Xoiir. (les Coiitemp. 
 
 PORPHYRIL'S, a philosopher of the Plo- 
 tinian school of philosophy, distinguished for 
 his enmity to the Christian faith, was born of 
 an honourable family at Tyre, AD. 233. He 
 was introduced at an early age to the study of 
 literature and philosophy, under the Ciiristian 
 Origen, while the latter was teaching at Cae- 
 sarea, in Palestine. He then went to Athens, 
 where he cultivated rhetoric, under the fa- 
 mous Longinus, who changed his Syrian 
 name, which was IMalchus (king), into that 
 of Porphyrins, as something synonymnus and 
 more pleasing to Grecian ears. It is chiefly 
 owing to this able teacher that the writings 
 of Porphyrius exhibit so many proofs of eru- 
 dition, and so much elegance of style. He 
 subsequently proceeded to Rome, where, at 
 thirty years of age, he heard Plotinus, under 
 whom he studied the eclectic system for six 
 years ; and being of a melanclioly tempera- 
 ment, was with difficulty ])ersuaded by his 
 master from putting an end to his existence, in 
 order, in the spirit of the Platonic doctrine, to 
 release his soul from its wretched prison, the 
 body. In order to divert his melancholy he 
 visited Sicily, and took up his abode at Lilv- 
 bajum ; where, according to Eusebius and Je- 
 rome, he composed those famous books against 
 the Christians, which, by reason of his name 
 and authority, and the acuteness and learning 
 with which they were written, were sup- 
 pressed by particular edicts, under (^onstan- 
 tine and Theodosius. The circumstances of 
 the life of Por])hyrius are little known after 
 his arrival in Sicily ; except that he died at 
 Rome at the end of the reign of Diocletian, 
 about the year 304. He wrote a great 
 number of books, the greater part of wliich, 
 in consequence of the mistaken zeal above 
 described, have perished. From the frag- 
 ments which remain, he appears to have 
 been a writer of great erudition and elo<juence, 
 neither of which can altogether atone for 
 his mysticism, his credulity, and the very 
 doubtful honesty of much of his fanaticism. 
 Of the pieces of Porphyrius whicli have es- 
 caped the depredations of time and religious 
 enmity, the four following, '* De Abstinentia 
 Osu Animalium," " De Vita Pythagorai," 
 " Senteutii! ad intelligibilia ducentes," " De 
 Antro Nympharum," with a fragment, '* De 
 Styge," were printed at Cambridge in 1655^ 
 • An Epistle to Anebo, an Egyptian priest ' 
 was published in Greek and Latin, at Oxford, 
 by Thomas Gale, together with lamblichus. 
 1678, folio. He also wrote " The Life of 
 Plotinus," prefixed to his " Enneads,'* wiiut 
 
 2 Y 
 
POR 
 
 contains many particulars concerning PorpLy- 
 rius himself. — Suidas- Fabricii Bibl. Grace. 
 Cave. Larduer. Brucher. 
 
 PORPORA (NicoLo) surnamed the " Pa- 
 triarch of Harmony," a celebrated musician, 
 born in 1689, at Naples. He was placed at 
 an early age under the famous Alessandro 
 Scarlatti, by whose instructions he made a 
 rapid progress towards excellence in the sci- 
 ence. On quitting the Conservatorio he tra- 
 velled into Germany; and in 1717 produced 
 liis first opera, " Ariaiie e Tesio," at Vienna, 
 which met with such success in that capital, 
 that it speedily found its way to the theatres 
 of Venice and London. The popularity it en- 
 joyed at Vienna was the more remarkable, 
 from the difficulties the composer had to en- 
 counter in the peculiar taste of the emperor 
 Charles VI. who at first thought his style too 
 ornate, but at length became one of his 
 warmest admirers. From Germany he went 
 to Venice, where, in 1726, he brought out his 
 " Siface," against the •' Giro" of Leonardo 
 "\'inci, to which it was considerably inferior, 
 but in his succeeding efforts he far surpassed 
 that composer. At Dresden, the Naples of 
 Germany, as far as regards music, his ca- 
 reer was still more prosperous ; and in this 
 city he first introduced to the public his pupil 
 Alingotti, whose personal charms and musical 
 abilities rendered her eventually celebrated 
 throughout Europe. In 1773 Porpora came 
 to England for the purpose of superintend- 
 ing the Italian opera, then established by cer- 
 tain of the nobility, in opposition to Handel ; 
 but although his efforts were worthy of his 
 reputation, and supported by the talents of his 
 great scholar Farinelli, their success was not 
 proportionate to their merit, and the composer 
 left this country in disgust. He became af- 
 terwards master of the Incurabili Conserva- 
 torio at Venice, whence he retired to Naples, 
 and died there, in 1767, in great indigence.! 
 Asa composer he was considered a model of i 
 style in recitative, and is said to have been i 
 the author of fifty operas, and a man of wit. — 
 Biog. Diet, of Music. 
 
 PORSON (Richard) a celebrated critic 
 and classical scholar, professor of Greek in the 
 university of Cambridge. He was born De- 
 cember 25, 1759, at East Ruston, in Nor- 
 folk, where his father was clerk of the parish, 
 and to him he was indebted for the first ru- 
 diments of his education. He received some 
 farther instruction at the village school, and 
 also from the vicar of Ruston : after which he 
 was sent to Eton, through the patronage of 
 some gentlemen, who witnessed and admired 
 bis early proficiency and inclination for the 
 study of classical Uterature. In 1777 he be- 
 came a student of Trinity college, Cambridge, 
 where he gained a prize medal ; and in 1781 
 he was chosen to a fellowship. He pro- 
 ceeded MA. m 1785; and not choosing to 
 take holy orders, he was obliged to relinquish 
 bis fellowship. In 1793 he was unanimously 
 elected Greek professor, and two years aftei 
 be began the publication of " The Tragedies 
 of Euripides," with valuable annotations. Un 
 
 POR 
 
 fortunately he continued bis labours onlj 
 through four of these dramas — " Hecuba," 
 " Orestes," " Phoenissae," and " Medea," 
 He also assisted in editing the Grenville 
 ' Homer, published at Oxford, 1800, 4 vols. 
 4to ; and he corrected the text of the tra- 
 gedies of ^schylus, for a splendid edition, 
 ' which appeared from the Glasgow press, in 
 i folio, also printed in two volumes octavo. He 
 I deservedly enjoyed the reputation of being one 
 ! of the best Greek scholars and critics of the 
 ' age ; notwithstanding which he experienced 
 I little patronage or support, a circumstance 
 ' partly attributable to his personal habits, 
 which were convivial, and not quite consistent 
 with the rules of sobriety. Towards the 
 latter part of his life, he was appointed li- 
 brarian to the London Institution, with a sa- 
 lary of 200/. a year ; and his death took 
 place September 25, 1808, at liis apart- 
 ments, in the house then belonging to that 
 establishment in the Old Jewry. His de- 
 cease was occasioned by apoplexy ; and his 
 body having been subjected to anatomical ex 
 amination, it was discovered that his skull was 
 one of the thickest that had ever been ob- 
 served. He was the author of " Letters to 
 Mr Archdeacon Travis, in Answer to his De- 
 fence of the Three Heavenly Witnesses,'' 
 1790, 8vo ; in which he is thought to have 
 completely invalidated the much contested 
 text, 1 John v. 7 ; and after his death Pro • 
 fessor Monk and Mr Blomfield published his 
 " Adversaria, or Notes and Emendations of 
 the Greek Poets ;" and his " Tracts and Mis- 
 cellanies" were edited by Mr Kidd. Many of 
 these are sallies of irony and humour of the 
 most racy and peculiar kind, which, with other 
 articles abounding with learning and critical 
 acumen, appeared in various of the literary 
 journals. Acuteness of discernment, solidity 
 of judgment united to intense application and 
 a stupendous memory, rendered professor Per- 
 son a complete critic in the most honourable 
 sense of that appellation. This eminent scho- 
 lar married Mrs Leman, sister to Mr Perrv. 
 the proprietor of the Morning Chronicle, which 
 journal had to boast of many of bis fugitive 
 pieces. It is pleasant to add, that the friend- 
 ship of his brother-in-law contributed much 
 to the alleviation of discomforts, which 
 bounded circumstances, and an independent 
 spirit, if not aided by a due share of prudence, 
 never fail to ensure. — Month. Mag, xxvi. 
 Brit. Crit. xxii. 
 
 PORTA. There were several of this name 
 eminent in the sister arts of painting and 
 music, as well as for their literary attainments. 
 13ACCI0 DELLA Porta, a Florentine monk of 
 the fifteenth century, called from his profes- 
 sion, II Frate, and sometimes Fra Bartolomeo, 
 was born about the year 1469, and was a 
 pupil of Roselii. He became intimate with 
 the celebrated Raffaelle d'U rhino ; and these 
 two great artists are said to have mutually 
 benefited by reciprocal instruction. Subli- 
 mity and grandeur of design and expressio i 
 are the principal characteristics of his pic- 
 tures, which are all taJ<en from scr ptiiral his 
 
P () u 
 
 toiy. His death took place ill 1517. — Giovanni 
 Hattista nia.i.A Poin a, ii learned NeHi)olitari, 
 horn in M l.">, distinijuislied Iiimscif as a jiliy- 
 fiician, mathematician, and natural liistoriaii, 
 and is said to liave been the ori'^inal in- 
 Tentor of the camera obscura. Tliis circuni- , 
 stance, together with his having entertained j 
 a select society of in;j;eiiious men, wlio met at 
 his Jiouse, with 8ome experiments in chemis- 
 trv, hroui^ht him uiuler tlie susjiicion of tlie i 
 ecclesiastical courts, as a )>ractiser in the I 
 black arts, and his asseinhlies were ordered to 
 be discontinued, lie was the author of se- 
 veral curious works, among the principal of . 
 wliich are a treatise " On Natural Magic," j 
 8vo ; " Physionomica," folio ; " De Distilla- j 
 tionibus," 4to ; " De Occultis Literarum j 
 Notis ;" " On Physiognomy, as connected : 
 with Astrology,'' &c. He had also projected , 
 an l^ncyclopaidia, as well as two literary so- j 
 cieties, and died in 1.515. — Joseph Pohta, 
 surnamed Salviati, from his instructor, was 
 born at Caslel Nuovo, in 1.53.5 ; he excelled { 
 as well in fresco as in oil painting, and died 
 at Venice, in 1585, — There was also an emi- 
 nent scholar, Simon Porta, a native of 
 Naples, who studied under Pomponatius. He 
 was born in 1497, and became professor of 
 philosophy at Pisa. His works are treatises 
 on " riie Colour of the Eyes ;" "On Pleasure 
 and Pain ;" " On the Human Mind," &c. 
 His death took place at Naples, in 1554. — 
 Moreri. Kouv. Diet, Ilist. 
 
 PORTALIS (Jean Etienne Marie) 
 counsellor of state, and minister for religious 
 affairs in France, under the reign of Napoleon. 
 He was born at Beausset, in Provence, April 
 1, 1746 ; and he was at the commencement 
 of the Revolution one of the most distinguished 
 advocates of the parliament of Aix. He was 
 no less eminent for his knowledge and taients 
 than for the liberality of his principles, which 
 he jiarticularly manifested in a memoir which 
 he published in 1770, entitled " Consultation 
 sur la Validite des INIarriages des Protestants 
 en France." He pleaded with success against 
 the count de iNlirabeau, in defence of the 
 countess, who wished to procure a separation 
 from her husband ; and he had signalized 
 himself repeatedly both as a lawyer and a 
 statesman, previously to 1790, when he re- 
 fused the oiter of his fellow-citizens to place 
 him at the head of tlie departmental adminis- 
 tration. Being disturbed in his retirement, 
 he took refuge at Lyons, and afterwards at 
 Paris, where he was arrested as a suspected 
 person, and imprisoned till the overthrow of 
 the tyranny of Robespierre. Under the re- 
 publican constitution of the year 3, he be- 
 came a member of the Council of the Ancients ; 
 and in November, 1795, he was chosen secre- 
 tary to that body, of which he was at length 
 made president. In this station he was the 
 advocate of moderation, and he recommended 
 the abrogation of many of the flagitious Jaws 
 which had been promulgated during are re- 
 volutionary frenzy. Opposing the violent 
 measures of the Directors, in 1797, he was 
 placed on the list of proscription ; but he 
 
 PO R 
 
 escaped to Holstein, ami took refug« in the 
 lastlc* of l',mk<'ndorf, wlicre he was jiroterted 
 by count Revcntlau, a ricli Danish nobleman. 
 Buonaparte becoming first consul, recalled Por- 
 talis, who arrived at Paris in February, IBOO, 
 and was immediately employed. I'owards the 
 end of the year lie waH made a counsellor of 
 state ; and he was also a member of the commiH- 
 sion for the arra::gement of the f ivil code. He 
 was afterwards charged with the (lirectif)n of 
 all affairs relating to public worship ; and he 
 was jirincipally concerned in the formation of 
 the Concordat with the jiope. In IBOy he 
 was elected a candidate for the Conservative 
 Senate; and in July, 1804, Napoleon nomi- 
 nated him minister for religious affairs, and 
 grand cordon of the Legion of Honour. His 
 death took place August 25, 1807. Portalis 
 was a member of the second class of the In- 
 stitute ; and in 1806 he read to that assen.bly 
 a eulogy on the attorney-general Seguier. He 
 left a posthunnous work, "Sur I'Usage et I'A- 
 bus de I'Esprit Philosophitpie pendant le dix- 
 huitiemeSiecle,"published at Paris, 1820,'. vols. 
 8vo. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv. dei Cnntemp. 
 
 PORTE DUTHEIL(Fran9oisJeav Ga- 
 briel dela) an ingenious French writer, bom 
 at Paris in 1742. He received a good educa- 
 tion, and entered young into the army. Afrer 
 serving with reputation as an officer in several 
 campaigns, and having ol)tained the cross of 
 St Louis, he retired, on peace taking place, and 
 devoted himself to classical studies. In 1770 
 he published a French translation of one of 
 the tragedies of ^Eschylus ; and in 1775 the 
 odes of Callimachus. The following year he 
 was appointed a member of a committee or- 
 dered by government to collect charters and 
 other historical monuments ; in consequence 
 of wliich he went to Italy, and after remaining 
 there several years, he returned, bringing a 
 multitude of valuable papers, part of which he 
 published in conjunction with I\L de Bre- 
 quigny. in 1791, 3 vols, folio. He also engaged 
 with Rochfort in a new edition of the 'J'heatre 
 des Grecs of father Brumoy, for which he fur- 
 nished a version of all the tragedies of /Eschy- 
 lus extant. In 1794 he published a new 
 translation of ^schylus, with the original text. 
 He also, in concert with M^L Gossellin ana 
 Coray, translated the Geography of Strabo ; 
 and produced several other works relatino^ 
 to ancient ;iteratuie. La Porte du Theil, who 
 was a member of the Legion of Honour, died, 
 after a long and painful illness, ]May28, 1815. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PORTEUS (Beii.by) a learned prelate, 
 bishop of London. He was a native of York, 
 being born in that city in 1731 ; and, liaving 
 received the rudiments of a classical education 
 at the grammar-school of Rijion in the West 
 Riding of the county, was admitted, in the 
 humble capacity of a sizar, at Christ's college, 
 Cambridge. At the university he distin- 
 guished himself by his talents and application, 
 and at length became fellow of his college. 
 Seeker, archbishop of Canterbury, made him 
 one of his domestic chaplains in 1762; soon 
 after which he resigned his fellowship and 
 2 Y 2 
 
POS 
 
 P o s 
 
 married on obtaining some preferment, wnich I of the gout, the visitor began to lament the 
 he exchanged afterwards for the living of | probable disappointment of his wishes ; but 
 
 Hunton, Kent. The steady patronage of the 
 archbishop gave him in succession a stall iu 
 Peterborough cathedral and the valuable rec- 
 tory of Lambeth, both which he held, vvith 
 
 Posidonius immediately began to deliver a lec- 
 ture on the principles of the Stoic philosojjhy, 
 in the course of which, as his disorder became 
 peculiarly distressing^ he occasionally ex- 
 
 some other benefices of minor importance, till i claimed, " O pain, pain, be as troublesome as 
 
 in 1776, he was raised to the see of Chester, 
 at the express instance, it is said, of Charlotte, 
 queen to George III. Eleven years after he 
 was tran!?lated to the bishopric of Loudon, 
 over which diocese he continued to preside 
 till his decease in 1808. Bishop Porteus was 
 a man of deep erudition and considerable 
 ability ; while, in his earlier years at least, he 
 appears to have possessed a poetical talent 
 much above mediocrity, as is evinced by his 
 poem " On Death," which gained the Seato- 
 nian prize in 1739. He is also said to have 
 assisted INIrs Hannah More iu the composition 
 of a religious novel, entitled " Coelebs iu 
 Search of a Wife;" a report to which greater 
 credence has been given from the close inti- 
 macy and presumed coincidence of religious 
 bias between the parties. His graver writings 
 are a life of his early patron, archbishop Seeker, 
 with a variety of sermons, charges, and other 
 devotional tracts, which have been collected 
 and published subsequent to his decease. — 
 Life of Hodson. An7i. Reg. 
 
 PORTUS. ^ There were two eminent scho- 
 lars of this name in the sixteenth century, fa- 
 ther and son. — Franciscus, the elder, a na- 
 tive of Candia, the ancient Crete, was born in 
 loll, and educated in the tenets of the Pto- 
 mish church, at the court of Hercules, duke of 
 Ferrara. The death of his patron and sove- 
 reign, and a change which had begun to take 
 jjlace in his religious opinions, induced him, in 
 1561, to retire to Geneva, where he afterwards 
 openlv embraced the doctrines of the reformed 
 faith, and became Greek professor. He was 
 the author of some very able and learned 
 annotations on the works of Xenophon, Thu- 
 cydides. Pindar, &c. and of a useful supple- 
 ment to Coustantine's lexicon. His death 
 took place in 1581. — ^mii.ius, the younger, 
 did not disgrace the reputation which his 
 father had acquired, and is advantageously 
 known as the compiler of a lexicon in Greek 
 and Latin, of the Doric and Ionic dialects, in 
 Iwo octavo volumes. He also translated 
 Suidas, and superintended the publication of 
 the works of some other ancient classics. He 
 held successively the Greek professorship at 
 Lausanne and Heidelberg, and died in 1610. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 POSIDONIUS, or POSSIDONIUS, a 
 Stoic philosopher, who was a native of Apa- 
 mea in Syria. His works are all lost ; and but 
 little more is known of him, except that he was 
 the contemporary of Pompey and Cicero, the 
 latter of whom, in the first book of his trea- 
 tise on the nature of the Gods, terms Posi- 
 donius his instructor and friend. This philoso 
 pher had his school at Rhodes, and Pompey, 
 
 thou wilt, thou shalt never induce me to 
 acknowledge thee to be an evil." — Posido- 
 nius, of Alexandria, a celebrated mathema- 
 tician who calculated the circumference of 
 the earth from astronomical observations is 
 supposed to have been the same with the 
 llhodian philosopher, though some consider 
 them as distinct individuals. Some fragments 
 of his writings remain, published in 1810, 
 under the following- title, " Possidonii Rhodii 
 Ueliqase Doctrinae coUegit atque illustravit 
 Jacob. Bake ; accedit Wittembachii Adno- 
 tatio." — Biflg. Univ. 
 
 POSSELT (Ernest Louis) an eminent 
 German historian, born about 1763, at Baden, 
 where his father held the oflSce of an auhc 
 counsellor. He was educated at Gottingen 
 and Strasburg, and having taken the degree 
 of LLD. he was called to the bar. This pro- 
 fession not suiting his taste, he obtained the 
 professorship of law and rhetoric at the gym- 
 nasium of Carlsruhe, and became private se- 
 cretary to the margrave of Baden. He then 
 devoted himself to the cultivation of German 
 historiography ; and his reputation procured 
 him the offer of employments iu Prussia, and 
 in 1791 he was made bailli of Gemsbach,near 
 Rastadt. He became a warm admirer of the 
 French Revolution, and wrote in Latin an 
 account of the early wars betvi-een France and 
 the coalesced powers ; and he published a 
 History of the Trial of Louis XVI, and various 
 other works, relating to contemporary history. 
 At length he became attached to general 
 JMoreau, and undertook to write the history 
 of his celebrated retreat from Bavaria. When 
 that officer was prosecuted in 1804, Posselt 
 became alarmed for his own safety, in conse- 
 quence of his connexion with him. He 
 quitted the territory of Baden, and wandered 
 from one place to another in a state of mental 
 distraction, which ultimately induced him to 
 throw himself out of a widow at Heidelberg, 
 when he fractured his skull, and died in a few 
 hours. This melancholy accident happened 
 June 11, ISO-l. A list of his works may be 
 found in the annexed authorities. — Biog. Univ, 
 Bitig. Kouv. des Ccmtemp. 
 
 POSSEVIN (Anthony) a learned Jesuit, 
 born at Mantua, in Italy, in 1533. After 
 finishing his studies, he went to Rome, where 
 he was employed as tutor to the nephew of 
 cardinal Hercules Gonzaga. In 1559 he was 
 admitted into the order of St. Ignatius, and he 
 was employed by his superiors as their agent 
 with Emanuel Phillibert,duke of Savoy, whom 
 he persuaded to admit the Jesuits to settle 
 in his states, and to ado{)t severe measures 
 ajjainst the W aldenses. 
 
 on his return from S\ 
 
 Pope Gregory Xlll. 
 yiia, visited the sage, sent him to settle the disputes which had 
 wishing to hear him discourse. Finding, how- arisen between the king of Poland and the 
 ever, that he was suffering under a severe fii(,crar of Muscovy, iu which he succeeded : 
 
P o s 
 
 and Fie was engaged in other di]>lnmatic af- 
 fairs in Swetien and Germany. He r^-lurned 
 to Italy in LifJ?, and reinaineii for sonu* time 
 at Padua, devoting his time to reh^ions du- 
 ties and literary undertakings. lie afterwards 
 went 10 Rome, where he interested himself so 
 warmly in the reconciliation of Henry JV of 
 Fiance witli the lioly see, as to give offence to 
 the pope, who forhade him to interfere any 
 farther in the business, lie died at Ferrara, 
 in 1611. His works are " Moscovia, sen de 
 Rebus INIoscoviticis." lo8(>, 8vo ; " l^iblio- 
 theca selecta de Ratione Studiorum," l;i9.>, 
 folio, 2 vols. ; and " ApparatusSacer," 1603-6, 
 3 vols, folio. — Anthovy Possfvin, nephew 
 of the preceding, practised witli reputation as 
 a i^hysician at INIantua, at the begiiming of 
 the 17th century. He was the author of 
 " Gonzagarum I\Iantua» et Montisf-'rrati Du- 
 cum Historia," 1617, folio, and other works. 
 — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Bioir. Univ. 
 
 POSTEL (GuiT.LAUMF.) a Norman Jesuit, 
 born at Dolerie, in 1510, of obscure pa- 
 rents, who left him an orphan at a very early 
 age. His docility, and the appearance of a 
 precocious talent, however, raised him friends, 
 tlirough whose assistance he reached the me- 
 tropolis, and there became a servitor in the 
 college of St Barbe. His reputation for ge- 
 neral learning and antiquarian research, pointed 
 him out to Francis I as a proper person to 
 he employed in a design he had formed of 
 introducing into France a more extensive ac- 
 quaintance with Oriental literature, and Postel 
 was in consequence despatched to tlie Levant, 
 for the purpose of procuring rare manuscripts, 
 &c. in the selection of which he displayed 
 much judgment, and acquired in consequence 
 the favour of the chancellor Poyet, who, at his 
 return, enriched him witli a handsome ap- 
 jiointment, and the title of Professor Royal of 
 Lanouases and Mathematics. The disgrace 
 of his patron, however, as is not unfrequently 
 the case, involving that of his dependants, 
 Postel was banished, and led for some time a 
 wandering life, during which period his re- 
 verses appear to have affected his intellects ; 
 and his ideas in their derangement turning to 
 religious enthusiasm, he became possessed 
 with many wild and extravagant notions, tlie 
 publication of which brought him under the 
 censure of the inquisition at Venice, and he 
 was thrown into a dungeon, but was at length 
 restored both to his senses and to liberty. 
 His cure, however, was far from complete, 
 inasmuch as though he held for a short time a 
 professorship at A'ienna, and even made his 
 peace with the French court, which permitted 
 liim to resume his functions at Paris, a return 
 of fanaticism induced him to flee from society 
 and shut himself up in a monastery, where he 
 died, in the autumn of 1581. The notorious 
 work " De Tribus Impostoribus," has been 
 attributed to him, but on insufficient evidence. 
 Of those to which his claim is better ascer- 
 tained, are " Clavis Absconditorum," 12mo. 
 1547 ; a curious treatise " On the Origin of 
 Nati 
 
 ions 
 
 ." <( 
 
 On the Learning of the Phoeni- 
 cians :*' " The Concord between tlie Gospel 
 
 POT 
 
 and tlie Koran ;" " On the Day of Judrr- 
 ment ;" " On the Hebrew Language;" " A 
 History of ihe (jauls ;" and " A Description 
 of Mesopotamia;" most of which are no\v 
 become scarce. — .V..(,i'. Dirt. lint. 
 
 POSTLKrHWAVTL (Malacii) a Lon- 
 don merchant of the last century, supfiosed to 
 have been born in 1707. Little is known of 
 his birth or education, but much acutenepu, 
 and some reading is displayed in liis writmgs, 
 the principal of which is his *• Dictionary of 
 Trade and Commerce," folio, 'j vols, a work 
 of considerable utility. His other jirodiictions 
 are, treatises " On the African Expedition;" 
 " On the Commercial Interests of Great Bri- 
 tain," 8vo. 2 vols. ; " Great Britain's True 
 System;" " The Merchant's Public Counting 
 Ffause,"and other Commercial Tracts. Mr. 
 Postlethwayte was a fellow of the Antiquarian 
 Society, and died 1767. — Censura Literuria, 
 vol. i. 
 
 POTENGER (5ouk) a poet and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born 1617. He was a native 
 of Winchester, where his father was head- 
 master of the grammar scliool, in which he was 
 educated. After graduating AB. at Corpus 
 Christi college, Oxford, he entered at the 
 Temple, and was in due course called to the 
 bar. Besides a variety of minor pieces, he 
 composed " A Pastoral Reflection on Death," 
 and translated Tacitus's " Life of Agricola." 
 He appears to have practised very little in 
 his profession ; but having married into the 
 family of Ernie, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 became comptroller of the {)ipe-office. His 
 death took place at Highworth, in Wiltshire, 
 in 1733. — 'lAoifcVs Memoirs. 
 
 POTHIER (Robert Joseph) an eminent 
 French lawyer, was born at Orleans, in 1699. 
 He became professor of law in the university 
 of his native city, and early distinguished him- 
 self by an edition of Justinian's pandects, 
 very accurately arranged, which he published 
 in 1718, 3 vols, folio. He died unmarried, in 
 1772. Although constantly engaged in his 
 profession, he found means to complete two very 
 elaborate works, entitled, " Coutumes d"Or- 
 leans," 1773-4, and "Coutumes du Duche, &c. 
 d'Orleans," 1772, 4to ; the introduction to 
 which last work is deemed masterly. He 
 was also author of various professional trea- 
 tises, all of which, with the productions 
 ust mentioned, were reprinted 1774, in 
 4 vols. 4to. " A Treatise on Fiefs" has also 
 been since printed from his IVISS., Orleans, 
 1776, 2 vols, folio. — Xour. Diet. Hiit. 
 
 POTOCKI (Count Ignatius) a Polish 
 nobleman,who was grand-marshal of Lithuania, 
 and member of the committee of public in- 
 struction, till the destruction of the Polish 
 monarchy. I Ic died in 1809, at the age of fifty- 
 eight. Count Potocki translated the Logic 
 of Condillac into the Polish language ; and was 
 the author of several other works, which were 
 collected and published by one of his friends. 
 He interested himself greatly in the attempts 
 to free Poland from the yoke of her more 
 powerful neighbours ; and after the overthrow 
 of Kosciusko, with whom he co-operated, he 
 
POT 
 
 WIS arrested and sent a prisoner to Russia. 
 — Dici. des H. M. diL 18/ne S, Biog. Nouv, des 
 Coniemp. 
 
 POTT (JoHV Hevry) an eminent Ger- 
 man chemist, born at Halberstadt, in 1692. 
 He studied theology, which he abandoned to 
 devote himself to medicine and chemistry ; 
 and he wa? admitted MD. in 1720. Having 
 pubhcly supported a thesis, he subsequently 
 printed it widi otliers, under the title of 
 *' Exercitationes Chiraicas de Sulphuribus 
 Metallorum," 1738, 4to. He settled at Ber- 
 lin, where he was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences ; and on the foundation of the 
 college of medicine and surgery, he was 
 called to the chair of chemistry, to which 
 was added the direction of the royal labora 
 lory. Pie made some important chemical dis- 
 coveries, and published " Chemical Resear- 
 ches on Lithogeognosy," and other works. He 
 died aiarch 20, 1777.— Biog. Univ. 
 
 POTT (Percival) an eminent practitioner 
 in surgery of the last century, to whom the 
 science is materially indebted for many va- 
 luable improvements both in its practice and 
 in the construction of instruments. He was 
 bom in 1713, in Threadneedle-street, London ; 
 and was intended by his friends for the church, 
 but feeling a strong bias towards the profes- 
 sion, in which he eventually so highly dis- 
 tinguished himself, they were prevailed upon 
 to place him under Mr Nourse, of St Bar- 
 tholomew's hospital, in which institution he 
 rose gradually to be first assistant, and after- 
 wards principal surgeon. This latter appoint- 
 ment he attained in 1749. In 1765, having 
 been elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 
 the course of the preceding year, he delivered 
 a course of lectures on anatomy and surgery, 
 which excited considerable attention. Be- 
 sides a great variety of valuable disquisitions, 
 " Oq Hernia," " On Fistula Lachrymalis," 
 " On Hydrocele," " On Cataract," " On 
 Wounds of tne Head," &c. he invented 
 manv '-w instruments, and improved others 
 with great ability and success, and was es- 
 pecially celebrated for the mildness and hu- 
 manity of his treatment. This scientific ope- 
 rator and ^^xcellf-nt man died at his house in 
 Hanover-square in the winter of 17u8, having 
 resigned his situation at St Bartholomew's 
 the year precedm^. Sir J. Earle, his son-in- 
 law, has published a complete edition of his 
 writings. — Lift prefixed to Works. 
 
 POTTER, a name of considerable note in 
 the annals of the English church, from the 
 number of learned and able divines who have 
 borne it. Of these Barnabas Potter, born 
 in the county of Westmoreland, in 1578, died 
 1642, was first fellow, and eventually provost, 
 of Queen's college, Oxford. He held also 
 some preferment in Devonshire, but in 1628, 
 being raised to the see of Carlisle, resigned 
 his iieadsliip in favour of his nephew, Chris- 
 topher Potter, a native of the same county 
 with himself, and born abo>it the year 1591. 
 The latter was brought up at the university 
 under his uncle, whose consecration sermon he 
 preached, and afterwards printed j and having 
 
 POT 
 
 obtained the appointment of king's chaplain, 
 wrote, at the special request of Charles i, 
 with whom he was a great favourite, an " An- 
 swer to a late popish Plot, entitled ' Charitj 
 Mistaken.' " Tliis tract appeared in 1633, tw.? 
 years after which he was raised to the deanerj 
 of Worcester. In 1640, being at that time 
 vice-chancellor of Oxford, his devotion to the 
 royal cause embroiled him with the parlia 
 ment ; and on the breaking out of hostilities, 
 he sacrificed all his plate for the king's ser- 
 vice. In 1645 he was advanced to the rich 
 deanery of Durham, but his unexpected death 
 within two months of his presentation pre- 
 vented his being ever installed. Besides the 
 pamphlet already mentioned, he was the au- 
 thor of a controversial treatise on predestina- 
 tion, and a translation of father Paul's history 
 of the disputes between the see of Rome 
 and the Venetian republic. — Johv Potter, 
 primate and metropolitan, the most celebrated 
 of the name, born in 1674, was a prelate of 
 great learning and exempiary manners, al- 
 though the general amiability of his private 
 character was somewhat sullied by a pride 
 which led him eventually to disinherit his 
 eldest son, for an unequal alliance. This 
 circumstance is perhaps the less excusable, 
 as hereditary premdices could have no share 
 in producing it, his own father having been u 
 linen-draper, in no great way of business, at 
 Wakefield, in Yorkshire, in the grammar 
 school belonging to which town he received 
 the rudiments of a classical education. At 
 the usual age he became a member of Uni- 
 versity college, Oxford, where, in his twentieth 
 year, he published a work in one octavo vo- 
 lume, entitled " Variantes Lectiones ot Notae 
 ad Plutarchi librum de audenuis Poetis ; el 
 r.d Basilii magni Orationem ad Juvenes, quo- 
 modo cum Fructu legere possint Grsecorum 
 libros.'' The next year he became fehow of 
 Lincoln college, where he distinguished him- 
 self at. au able and popular tutor, and in 1697, 
 printed a new edition of Lycophron, in folio, 
 .'hich is yet considered the best of that diflS- 
 cuit author. Soon after his literary reputa- 
 tion was established, by the appearance of his 
 " Archajologia Grasca, or t^e Antiquities of 
 Greece," in 2 vols. 8vo ; a standard work, 
 which has gone through a variety of editions, 
 and is considered an almost indispensable vade 
 mecum to tlie classical student. In 1704 he 
 became chaplain to Tenison, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and two years afterwards to queea 
 Anne, on which occasion he graduated a? 
 doctor in divinity. In 1715, being then regius 
 professor of divinity, he was raised to the see 
 of Oxford, and on the deatli of archbishop 
 Wake, in 1737, was advanced to the primacy. 
 Archbisiiop Potter sustained his high situa- 
 tion with much dignity and reputation, till 
 his death, in 1747. His works, in addition to 
 those already enumerated, are, " A Discourse 
 on Church Government," 1707 ; an edition 
 of " Clemens Alexandrinus, ' 1714 ; and & 
 variety of Charges, Sermons, and other theo- 
 logical works, printed together, in 3 vols. 8vo, 
 at Oxford, in 1753. — Francis Potter, son of 
 
P o u 
 
 n clergvnian of tli.1t name, rector of Kilminn;- 
 ton, in t!ie county of Sonu-rset, wna horn ;it 
 Meyre, Wilts, of which p.irish also his father 
 was llie incumbent, lie received his educa- 
 tion at Worcester and 'I'rinity colleges, ()x- 
 foril, and in 1637 succeeded his fatlu-r in his 
 Somersetshire living. Tlie presentation of a 
 newly invented hydraulic machine to the 
 Hoval Society procured him to be elected a 
 fellow of that body, which his talents as a 
 mathematician, and even as a painter, seem 
 amply to warrant ; althouijh an absurd treatise 
 wliich he wrote on the Number of the Beast 
 in the Revelations impeaches not only his 
 character as a sound divine, but also, to a cer- 
 tain extent, as a man of understanding. Some 
 time previously to his decease he had totally lost 
 his sight, and died at length at Kilmingttm, in 
 1678. — Robert Potter, AM. was a native 
 of the county of Norfolk, born in 17'21, gra- 
 duated at Emmanuel college, Cambridge, AB. 
 1741 ; AM. 1768. He was an admirable 
 classical scholar, and highly distinguished 
 himself by his excellent translations of the 
 works of ^^ilschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, all 
 equally remarkable for the spirit and fidelity 
 with which they are rendered. The first of 
 these appeared in 4to, 1777, reprinted in two 
 8vo, vols, in 1779; the second in 1781-2; 
 the last in 1788. His other writings consist 
 of some miscellaneous pieces in verse, which 
 exhibit the possession of a pleasing vein of 
 poetry, a translation of the Oracle concerning 
 Babylon, and a " Reply to Dr. Johnson's At- 
 tack on Gray, in his ' Lives of the Poets.' " 
 JMr Potter held a stall in Norwich cathedral, 
 with the livings of Kepingland and Lowstoffe, 
 in Suttblk, at the latter of which he died in 1 804. 
 — Fuller'i Worthies. Athen. Oxon. Biog. Brit. 
 
 POITER or POTER (Paul) a Dutch 
 painter, born in 1625 at Enckuysen, in the 
 province of Holland. His works, which are 
 become equally rare and valuable, are pe- 
 culiarly distinguished by the effect of his 
 sun rays upon his landscapes and cattle, in 
 producing which he has distanced all compe- 
 titors. He died young at Amsterdam, in 
 1654. The paintings of this artist are deemed 
 very valuable. For one small picture in the 
 collection of earl Grosvenor, that nobleman 
 gave 9000 guineas. — FUkiyigUm. D' Argeni'dle 
 Vies ties Peiut. 
 
 POUPART (FRAN901S) a French physi- 
 cian, celebrated as an entomologist and a gooa 
 anatomist. He was born at INIans, Hbou^ the 
 year 1660, and graduated in medicine at 
 Rheims. A ligament described by him still 
 bears his name ; and several of his tracts, es- 
 pecially those connected with tne history ot 
 insects, are accurate and ingenious. Among 
 these latter are a '' History of the Formica 
 Leo and the Formica Pulex ;" " On the Na- 
 tural History of the Leech;" " On Herma- 
 phrodite Insects," &c. He became a mem- 
 ber of the Academie des Sciences, and died 
 in indifferent circumstances at Paris, in the 
 autumn of 1709. — Eloy Diet. Hist, de la Med. 
 
 POURCHOT (Edmund) a learned Ori- 
 entalist and philosopher, born at ) ■juilly, in 
 
 r o u 
 
 ! the nf•i^'hbourho()d of Auxerre. in 1651 He 
 held the professorships of phiiosophv, i:. the 
 colleges of the (iraHsins and of Ma/.ani., and 
 lectured on the Hebrew tongue in that of St 
 Barbc. Poiirchot was the intimate associate 
 of llacinc, Montfau^on, ami many other sa- 
 vans of his time, who held him in high es- 
 teem for his learning. His " Instiiutionea 
 Philosojihicaj" have gone through four edi- 
 tions. He was also the author of some other 
 tracts on philoso|>hical subjects. His Uealh 
 took place in 17.'34. — Nauv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 POUSSIN (Nicholas) a painter of great 
 celebrity, was born in 1594, at Andely, in 
 Normanily, of an ancient but reduced family. 
 Having chosen painting for his profession, he 
 repaired to Paris, where he studied under dif- 
 ferent masters, and practised his art for a 
 while in tlie provinces with little celebrity. 
 At length, having attracted the notice of the 
 Italian poet, Marini, then at Paris, he was 
 encouraged to go and join him at Rome, 
 where he was introduced to cardinal Barbe- 
 rini. The death of INIarini, and the absence 
 of the cardinal, reduced him to great straits, 
 and he was forced to give away his works for 
 sums that would scarcely pay for the colours. 
 He was not, however, to be discouraged ; and 
 studied the works of Raphael and Donieni- 
 chino, and more especially those of I'ltian, 
 with great attention ; but his taste for the an- 
 tique at length prevailed, and lie gave himself 
 up to that learned style, by which he is so 
 much distinguished. On the return of car- 
 dinal Burberini to Rome, he painted for him 
 one of his finest {)erformances, the Death of 
 Germanicus, which, with other works, so 
 fully established his reputation, that cardinal 
 Richelieu induced Louis XIII to recal him to 
 France in 1640, in order to paint the gallery 
 of the Louvre. He was received with dis- 
 tinction, and honoured with the title of first 
 painter to the king, but was so much annoyed 
 by the envy and intrigue of competitors, that 
 he formed an excuse to return to Rome in 
 1642, and resided there for the remainder of 
 his life. He continued, however, to receive 
 his pension under Louis XIV; and the chief 
 part of his productions were purchased by his 
 countrymen with great avidity. He became 
 paralytic before his death, which took place 
 at Rome in 1665, at the age of seventy-one. 
 As an artist, Poussin is chieHy celebrated for a 
 style founded upon an assiduous study of ihe 
 antique. Hence a portion of the coldness 
 which an attention to nature at second hand 
 invariably produces ; which was, however, 
 often atoned for in his historical pieces by 
 pathos and sublimity of expression, and by a 
 most tasteful and accurate attention to cos- 
 tume. He had so studied the beauties of the 
 antique, and its elegance, grand gusto, cor- 
 rectness, and fine proportions in the remains 
 of ancient art, that nothing can exceed bis 
 accuracy in all these particulars. At the 
 same time, few painters of history have told 
 their stones with more force and perspicuity ; 
 and his works are deemed so full of mousht, 
 that he has been cahed " Le Peiutre Uei 
 
l^ o u 
 
 iists d' Esprit." His great attention to de- 
 sign led Ijim to neglect colouring, in which he 
 ia more deficient than any painter of equal ce- 
 lebrity. This great artist was of a retired 
 and philosophic character ; and charged so 
 moderately for his pictures, that he never be- 
 came rich. The following anecilote much il- i 
 lustrates his character. Having no servant, 
 Poussin took a candle in his hand and lighted 
 a prelate who had stayeil with him until dark 
 down stairs : " I much pity you, M. Poussin," 
 said the bishop (afterwards cardinal iMan- 
 cini), " that you have not one servant." 
 " And I you, my lord," replied the philoso- 
 phic artist, " that you have so many." 
 Poussin married the sister of Gaspar l)u- 
 ghet, but never had any offspring. The Ger- 
 manicus, and several other of his best pictures, 
 have been finely engraved. — WArgenvilie Vies 
 des Peiiit. Fiikington. 
 
 POUSSIN (Gaspar) a very eminent land- 
 scape painter, was born, according to some 
 authors, in France in 1600 ; and to others at 
 Rome in 1613. His real name was Dughet, 
 being the person whose sister was united to 
 Nicholas Poussin. The disposition which he 
 early showed for painting, caused him to be 
 placed under his brother-in-law, whose sur- 
 name he assumed ; and being a lover of the 
 country and its sports, he devoted himself to 
 rural sketches, and became one of the greatest 
 masters of landscape upon record. He prac- 
 tised his art with great distinction in various 
 parts of Italy, but chiefly at Rome, where 
 he lived a life of celibacy, and freely exjjended 
 his gains in hospitable attentions to his friends. 
 He worked with extreme celerity, although 
 nothing can exceed the beauty of his scenery, 
 and the precision of his perspective. He par- 
 ticularly excelled in the representation of 
 land-storms, in which every tree seems agi- 
 tated, and every leaf in motion. In his 
 figures he was less happy, and they were fre- 
 quently supplied by Nicholas. This skilful 
 artist, whose performances are deemed very 
 valuable, died, according to D'Argenville, in 
 1675, and to others in 1663, but the former 
 date is preferred. He engraved eight of his 
 own landscapes. — D' Argenville. Piikingtoii. 
 
 POUTEAU (Claude) a celebrated sur- 
 geon, born at Lyons in 1725, who was the 
 son of a member of the same profession. He 
 studied at the college of the Jesuits in his 
 native city, and afterwards went to Paris, 
 where he became the pupil of Morand, Ledran, 
 and J. L. Petit. Returning to Lyons, he was 
 employed at the Hotel Difu, where he be- 
 came surgeon-major in 1747. In this situa- 
 tion he greatly distinguished himself by his 
 practical skill, especially in the operation of 
 lithotomy, in which he made some improve- 
 ments. On resigning his office at the Hotel 
 Dieu, he was chosen a member of the aca- 
 demy of Lyons, and he engaged in practice as 
 a physician. He died in 1775. Besides his 
 ■■' Dissertation sur I'Operation de la Pierre," 
 and " Melanges de Chirurgie," and otner 
 works which appeared during his life, he left 
 Bome valuable pieces, published in 1783, by 
 
 P o vv 
 
 Dr Columbier, under the title of *' Gluvrea 
 Posthumes de M. Pouteau," 3 vols. 8vu. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 POWEL (David) a learned divine and 
 historian of the sixteenth century, who was a 
 native of Denbighshire, in North Wales In 
 1568 he was sent for edacation to Oxford ; and 
 on the foundation of Jesus college, in 1571, 
 he removed thither, and the following year 
 took the degree of BA. and that of MA. in 
 1576. Having entered into holy orders, he 
 obtained the livings of Ruabon and Llan- 
 fyllin, in his native county ; ar.d he also held 
 some office in the cathedral of St Asaph. In 
 1582 he commenced BD. and the next year 
 DD. ; soon after which he was made chaplain 
 to sir Henry Sidney, then president of Wales, 
 He died in 1598. Dr Powel published '• Ca- 
 radoc's History of Cambria, with Annota- 
 tions," 1581, 4to ; " Annotations on the Itine- 
 rary and Description of Wales, by Giraldus 
 Cambrensis ;" " Pontic! Virunii Historia Bri- 
 tannica," 1585, 8vo ; and *' De Britannica 
 Historia recte intelligenda, Epist. ad Gul, 
 Fleetwood, Civ. Lond. Recordatorem." An- 
 thony a W^oodsays, that Dr Powel also under- 
 took the compilation of a Welsh dictionary, 
 but died before it v/as completed. — Berken- 
 hout's Biflg. Lit. 
 
 POWELL (John Joseph) an English 
 barrister, who distinguished himself by his 
 professional writings. In 1785 he published 
 his " Law of Mortgages," 8vo, greatly en- 
 larged in the edition of 1799, 2 vols. His 
 other works are, an " Essay on the Learning 
 respecting the Creation and Execution of 
 Powers, and also respecting the Nature and 
 Effect of Leasing Powers," 1787, 8vo ; " Es- 
 say on the Learning of Devises from their In- 
 ception by Writing to the Consummation by 
 the Death of the Devisor," 1783, 8vo ; " Es- 
 say on the Law of Contracts and Agree- 
 ments," 1790, 2 vols. 8vo. These works 
 have been reprinted, and are considered as 
 highly valuable. Mr Powel died June 21, 
 1801. — Bridgrnans Leg. Bihl, 
 
 POWELL (William Samuel) a learned 
 divine of the last century, who received his 
 education at St John's college, Cambridge, 
 where he obtained a fellowship. Having been 
 ordained, he was presented to the living of 
 Colkirk, in Norfolk, in 1741 ; and after hold- 
 ing other preferment, he was chosen master 
 of St John's college, in 1765 ; and he subse- 
 quently became vice-chancellor of the univer- 
 sity. He was also archdeacon of Colchester, 
 and rector of Freshwater in the Isle of Wisiht. 
 Dr Powell attracted some notice by the publi- 
 cation of a sermon on subscription to articles 
 of faith, though he no further interested 
 himself in the controversy which arose in the 
 church on that subject. He likewise pub- 
 lished, " Observations on the Miscellanea 
 Analytica" of Dr Waring. His death took 
 place in 1775 ; and a posthumous volume of 
 his " Sermons on various Subjects," 8vo, 
 shortly after appeared, with a biographical 
 memoir of the author, by his friend Dr Tho- 
 mas Balguy. — Gent. Mng. 
 
P O Y 
 
 POWELL (W1T.T.1AM) an pminent KntjHsh 
 actor, tlie pupil ami protege of (Jairick, wlio 
 made his first appearance on tlje stage at 
 Drury-Iane, October 17G3, in the cliaracter of 
 Philaster. lie was received with ^^reat ap- 
 plause, and he continued to be the chief sup- 
 port of the tlieatre duriiij^ the period of (jar- 
 rick's temporary retreat, in tiie course of his 
 tour on the continent. In 1767 he became 
 one of the managers of Covent-garden theatre ; 
 and he afterwards entjaged in the management 
 of a new theatre at Bristol, where, going to 
 perform with his company in tlie sunmier of 
 1769, he was attacked with inflammation of 
 the bowels, and died July 3, that year, at the 
 age of tliirty-tliree. He was interrt'd in 
 Bristol cathedral, and his widow erected a 
 monument to his memory, with a poetical in- 
 scription, from the pen of the elder Colman. — 
 Davies's Life of Garrick. Evans's Hht. of' 
 Bristol, vol. ii. — Geoiice Powell, an actor 
 of considerable talent, who was the contem- 
 porary of Betterton and Colley Gibber, is 
 mentioned with commendation by Steele, in 
 the Spectator. He was also a dramatic writer, 
 and died in 1714. — Biog. Didin. 
 
 POWNALL (Thomas) a learned anti- 
 quary and politician, born at Lincoln in 172i. 
 He obtained the office of secretary to the com- 
 missioners for trade and plantations in 1745 ; 
 and he liad a situation in the commisisariat of 
 the army in Germany. In 17r>3 he went to 
 America, where he successfully exerted him- 
 self to suppress the rising spirit of discontent 
 among the colonists against the British go- 
 vernment. In 17.^7 he was appointed go- 
 vernor of iMassachusett's bay, and subse- 
 quently of South Carolina. He remained 
 there till 1761, when, returning to England, 
 he was nominated director- general of the 
 office of control, with the military rank of 
 colonel. The latter part of his life was spent 
 in literary retirement ; and he died at Bath, 
 April 25, 1805. Governor Pownall, as he 
 was termed, was a fellow of the Society of An- 
 tiquaries, and a considerable contributor to the 
 Archceologia. He was also the author of 
 " Notices and Descriptions of Antiquities of 
 the Provincia Romana of Gaul," 1788, 4to ; 
 " Descriptions of Roman Antiquities dug up 
 at Bath," 4to ; " Hydraulic and Nautical Ob- 
 servations on the Currents in the Atlantic 
 Ocean," 1787, 4to ; and, " Intellectual Phy- 
 sics," 4to ; besides many political tracts. — 
 John Pownall, brother of the preceding, 
 who died in 1795, was also an antiquary, and 
 was the author of a paper in the Archajologia 
 " On a Roman Tile found at Reculver, in 
 Kent." — A'ic/io/s's Lit. Anec. Reuss. Biog. 
 Utiiv. 
 
 POYNET (John) an English prelate, was 
 born i& Kent in 1516, and became successively 
 bishop of Rochester and of Winchester. He 
 presented to Henry VIII a dock which 
 pointed the hour of the day, the signs of the 
 zodiac, the lunar variations, and the tides. It 
 was by Edward VI that he was advanced to 
 the episcopacy ; and it was Poynet who drew 
 u the catechism called king Edward's, 
 
 V K A 
 
 printed in Latin and English in 1553. On 
 the accessiun of Mary he is said, by Dod, to 
 have favoured the rebellion of Wyat, in conse- 
 (jiience of which he withdrew to Strasburgh , 
 but it is obvious, that whether this was the 
 case or not, as a prelate zealous for the R«-fortn- 
 ati(ni. he could not have safely remained in 
 j England. He died in exile in 155(5. liesides 
 his catechism, he was the author of a Latin 
 j treatise on the Eucharist, and of some theolo- 
 I gical tracts and sermons, besides a work en- 
 titled " A Treatise of Politique Power,' 
 1556, 8vo ; and another, cj^jled " A Defence 
 of the Marriage of Priests," 1519, Bvo.— 
 Godicin (ie Prccsul. Bale. 
 
 PR^TOIUUS (Michael) a German ec- 
 clesiastic, bom in 1571, at Creutzberg, in Thu- 
 riugia. He became prior of the Benedictine 
 monastery of Ringhelm, in the bishopric of 
 Hildesheim, and was at one period of his life 
 chapel-master to the elector of Saxony. Praj- 
 torius was an excellent musician, and the au- 
 thor of three quarto volumes, entitled " Syn- 
 tagma Musicum," containing a history of the 
 origin and progress of ecclesiastical music to 
 his own time. His death took place at Wolf- 
 enbuttel, in 1621. — There was also another of 
 this name, professor of philosophy at Wittem- 
 berg. He was born in 1524, and became 
 rector of the school at Magdeburg. This 
 Praetorius (whose other name is variously 
 called oodescalrus and Abdias) is said to 
 have understood fourteen languages. A trea- 
 tise on singing was composed by him, in con- 
 junction with Martin Agricola, for the use of 
 his school. He died in 1573. — Biog. Dict.of'Mus. 
 
 PRAM (Christian) a Danish poet, born 
 in Norway in 1756. He obtained, when 
 young, the prize of poetry from the Royal 
 Society of Belles Lettres of Copenhagen ; and 
 in 1785 he published an epic poem in foui 
 cantos, called Stairkadder, from the name of 
 the principal personage, one of the heroes of 
 northern antiquity. He was also the author of 
 three tragedies, Damon and Pythias, 1789 ; 
 Froda and Fingal, 1790; and Olinda and So- 
 phronius ; besides other works. In his old 
 age Pram obtained a lucrative employment in 
 the island of St Thomas in the West Indies, 
 wliere he died in 1821. — Bio^. Univ. 
 
 PRATT (Charles) earl Camden, a dis- 
 tinguished British lawyer and statesman of 
 the last century. He was the son of sir John 
 Pratt, chief justice of the King's Bench ; and 
 he was bom in 1713. After studying at Eton 
 and King's college, Cambridge, where he took 
 the degree of MA. in 1739, and obtained a 
 fellowship, he entered as a student at Lin- 
 coln's-inn, and in due time was called to the 
 bar. In 1754 he was chosen MP. for the 
 borough of Down ton. After acquiring great 
 reputation as an advocate, he was, in 1759, ap- 
 pointed attorney-general, having the same year 
 \ been elected recorder of the city of Bath. In 
 j January 1762 he was called to the dignity of 
 a sergeant-at-law, and elevated to the office of 
 I chief justice of the Common Pleas, when he 
 received the honour of knighthood. It was 
 while he presided in this court that Wilkea 
 
P II A 
 
 was arrested on a general warrant, as the au- 
 thor of the North Briton, a periodical paper, 
 which gave offence to government. He was 
 committed to the Tower, as a state prisoner, 
 and being brought, in obedience to a writ of ha- 
 beas corpus, before the court of Common Pleas, 
 the lord-chief-justice Pratt discharged liim 
 from his confinement, on May 6,1763. The firm, 
 temperate, and constitutional behaviour of the 
 judge on this occasion, and in the consequent 
 judicial proceedings between the printers of the 
 North Briton and the messengers of the House 
 of Commons, and other agents of tlie ministry, 
 was so acceptable to the friends of liberty in 
 the metropolis, that the city of London pre- 
 sented him with the freedom of the corpora- 
 tion in a gold box, and requested to have liis 
 picture, wliich was put up in Guildhall, with 
 the following inscription : — 
 Hanc Iconem 
 Caroli Pratt, Eq. 
 
 Surami Judicis C.P. 
 
 In Honorem tanti Viri, 
 
 Anglicas Libertatis, Lege, 
 
 Assertoris fidi 
 
 P. Q. L. 
 
 In Curia jNIunicipali 
 Poni jusserunt 
 Nono Kal. Mart. AD. MDCCLXIV. 
 Gulielmo Bridgen, Arm. Praes. Urb. 
 Similar honours were also paid to the chief- 
 justice by the corporations of Dublin, Bath, 
 Exeter, and Norwich. In July 1765 he was 
 raised to the peerage, by the title of baron 
 Camden ; and about a year after he was made 
 lord chancellor. In this capacity he presided 
 at the decision of a suit against the messen- 
 gers who arrested Mr Wilkes ; when he made 
 a speech, in which he stated, that " it was 
 the unanimous opinion of tlie court that ge- 
 neral warrants, except in cases of high trea- 
 son, were illegal, oppressive, and unwarrant- 
 able." He conducted himself in his high sta- 
 tion so as to give very general satisfaction ; 
 but on his opposing the taxation of our Ame- 
 rican colonies, he was deprived of the seals in 
 1770. He came into office again, as president 
 of the council, under the administration of the 
 marquis of Rockingham, in IMarch 1782 ; on 
 whose death he resigned the following year. 
 He soon after, however, resumed his place 
 under Mr Pitt ; and in 1786 he was raised to 
 the title of earl Camden. He died April 18, 
 1794. This respectable nobleman and up- 
 right lawyer is said to have been the author of 
 a pamphlet, entitled " An Inquiry into the 
 Nature and Effect of the Writ of Habeas Cor- 
 pus," 8vo. — Biocr. Peerage. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PRA'l'T (Samuel Jackson) a novelist, poet, 
 and dramatic writer of the last century. He 
 was born at St Ives, in Huntingdonshire, in 
 1749. Early in life he went on the stage ; but 
 not finding his talents adapted to that pursuit, 
 he relinquished it, and became successively an 
 itinerant lecturer, and a bookseller and writer 
 for the press. He settled at Bath, wliere, un- 
 der the fictitious appellation of Courtney Mel- 
 moth, he published several novels, which dis- 
 played some originality of manner, but were 
 
 PRE 
 
 more distinguished by a kind of mawkish af- 
 fectation of sensibility, which, perhaps, con- 
 tributed not a little to their popularity ndth a 
 certain class of readers. As a poet he belonged 
 to the Delia Cruscan school, which was crushed 
 by the powerful satire of the author of the Ba- 
 viad and IMfeviad. Mr Pratt died at Bir- 
 mingham, in 1814. Among his most success- 
 ful productions are, " Landscapes in Verse ;" 
 " Emma Corbet, or the Miseries of Civil War, 
 a Novel ;" " Family Secrets, a Novel ;" 
 " Gleanings, or Travels Abroad and in Eng- 
 land ;" and " Harvest Home," including some 
 dramatic pieces. He also wrote, " The Fair 
 Circassian, a Tragedy ;" besides a Comedy 
 and a Farce. — Gent. Mag. Biog. Dram. 
 
 PRAXITELES, a Grecian sculptor, who 
 was one of the most celebrated artists of anti- 
 quity. Neither his age nor his country is 
 distinctly recorded ; but he is supposed to 
 have been a native of Athens, where he re- 
 sided ; and he appears to have been born 
 about 361 BC. He worked chiefly in marble, 
 and executed many admirable statues, espe- 
 cially two of the goddess Venus, one of which, 
 belonging to the inhabitants of Cnidus, king 
 Nicomedes in vain offered to purchase, by pay- 
 ing all the public debts of the city. Praxiteles 
 was a favourite admirer of the famous courte- 
 zan Phryne, who afforded a model for the sta- 
 tues of Venus, and other beautiful female 
 figures. Many others of his works are speci- 
 fied by Pliny ; but none of them are certainly 
 known to be at present in existence. — There 
 was another sculptor named Praxiteles, who 
 was contemporary with Pompey, and who cast 
 statues in metal, particularly silver. — Orlandi 
 Abeced. Pitt. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PREMONTVAL (Andre Pierre le 
 GuAY de) a French writer, born at Cbarenton 
 in 1716. After receiving a good education, he 
 rejected the opportunity of becoming an ec- 
 clesiastic or an advocate, the choice of which 
 professions had been offered him by his father, 
 and quitting his family be went to Paris, taking 
 the name of Premontval, which he subse- 
 quently used. His taste for the mathematics 
 induced him to open a school for that science 
 at Paris in 1740. But pecuniary difficulties 
 induced him, ere long, to leave Paris for Ge- 
 neva, whither he went on foot, accompanied by 
 the daughter of a mechanic named Pigeon, 
 who had been one of his scholars, and whom 
 he afterwards married. After wandering in 
 Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, he settled 
 at Berlin, where his wife obtained the office 
 of reader to the princess Wilhelmina of Prus- 
 sia. Premontval himself was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences, and he employed him- 
 self in literary composition ; but his impatient 
 temper engaged him in quarrels with his con- 
 temporaries, and he died in a state of mental 
 delirium, September 3, 1764. Besides me- 
 moirs and dissertations on metaphysical ques- 
 tions, in the Transactions of the Academy of 
 Berlin, he published " Preservatif contre la 
 Corruption de la Langue Franfaise en Alle- 
 raagne," and various other works, specified in 
 the annexed authority. — Biog. Univ. 
 
PR E 
 
 PRESTON (John) an English divi , wna 
 born at Keyforil in Norlliamj)lonsliirc, in 1587, 
 ami became fellow of Queen's collej^e, where 
 he was celebrateil as a subtle disputant, after 
 the manner of tlie old scliooimen. He parti- 
 cularly distinguisheil iiimself in an acaileniic 
 iliscussion, held by James 1 when he visited 
 Cambridge, in which he undertook to j)rove 
 that dogs could make syllogisms, and was as- 
 sisted bv James himself, wlio contended for 
 the affirmative. For liis ingenuity on this 
 occasion l)r Preston was rewarded by a pen- 
 sion of .")()/. per annum from lord Brook. His 
 jiuritanism, however, subsequently involved 
 liim with the court, notwithstanding which he 
 was made chaplain to prince Charles and mas- 
 ter of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, with a 
 view to detach him from his party, but without 
 success. He died in 162B. He was the au- 
 thor of several sermons and theological tracts, 
 the principal of whicli is a " Treatise on the 
 Covenant." — Neaie's Purita/is. Fuller's Wor- 
 thies. 
 
 PRESTON (Thomas) an English dramatic 
 writer, who flourislied in the earlier part of 
 the reign of Elizabeth. He was educated at 
 Eton, whence he proceeded to King's college, 
 Cambridge, where he graduated MA. and suc- 
 ceeded to a fellowship. He afterwards was 
 created a doctor of civil law, and appointed 
 master of Trinity-hall, over which he pre- 
 sided fourteen years. Queen Elizabetli, on 
 her visit to the university in 1564, was so 
 pleased with his performance in the Latin 
 tragedy of Dido, that she settled on him a 
 pension of 'iOl. per annum. He wrote one 
 dramatic piece, in old metre, entitled " A 
 Lamentable Tragedy, full of pleasant iNIirth, 
 conteyning the Life of Cambises, King of 
 Percia, from the Beginning of his Kingdom 
 unto his Death, Sec." A sad tissue of fustian, 
 wliich escaped not the satire of Shakespeare, 
 who, in Henry IV, makes Falstaff talk of 
 epeakmg in king Cambyses' vein. Preston 
 died in 1.598. — Bioor. Dram. Peck's Desiderata. 
 
 PREVILLE (Pierre Louis Dubus de) a 
 distmguished French actor, born at Paris, No- 
 vember 17, 1721. His inclination prompted 
 him to relinquish the profession of a notary, 
 for tlie stage, on which he made his first ap- 
 pearance at Lyons, in 1733. when he changed 
 liis family name of Dubus for that of Preville, 
 by wliich he was ever afterwards known. He 
 soon gained great reputation as a comic per- 
 former, and was called to Paris, where his 
 talents attracted the favour of Louis XV. Tlie 
 mmister of the king's household having founded 
 a royal school of declamation in 177-i, I'reville 
 was appointed the director. After a theatrical 
 career of thirty-five years, he obtained permis- 
 sion to retire, only retaining the title of pro- 
 fessor of the art wliich he had exercised with 
 so much distinction. Twice after he appeared 
 on the stage, from motives of benevolence to- 
 wards his bretliren, who had sutTered from the 
 storms of the Revolution. He retired at length 
 to Beauvais, where he died in a state of blind- 
 ness in 1800. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PREVOST (Isaac Bsnf.dict) a celebrated 
 
 p a E 
 
 naturalist and philosopher, born at Geneva, 
 of j)oi>r parents, in 17.).'). After receiving an 
 irregular education, ami making some ab..>rlive 
 attempts to j)rocure hterary employment, he 
 oljtaiiicd the situation of tutor to the son of 
 iM. Helmas of .Moutauban, in 1777. At that 
 time he was little ac(iuaiuted with the exact 
 sciences, but having a great taste for them, he 
 in a few years made a great progress in mathe- 
 matics. Physics and natural history were the 
 principal objects of his researclies, and he be- 
 came connected with many eminent cultivators 
 of those sciences among his contemporaries, 
 including Le Sage, Senebier, Jurine, Huber, 
 and INlaunoir, with some of whom he was 
 connected in the foundation of the academy of 
 Montauban, where he r»hided. He was also 
 a member of tlie Society of Physics and Natural 
 History at Geneva, and of some other learned 
 associations. In 1810 he became professor of 
 pliilosophy in the Protestant university of 
 Montauban, and he attended with unremitting 
 zeal to the duties of his station till his death, 
 which took place June 18, 1819. Prevost 
 was the author of only one distinct work, 
 which relates to the vegetable disease called 
 the smut in wheat, published at Paris in 1807. 
 He wrote a number of memoirs, which appej 
 in various scientific collections, including ac- 
 counts of some ingenious and important expe- 
 riments relative to the cause of dew, and 
 others concerning the phenomena of light. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PREVOST (Peter) a French painter, said 
 to have been the inventor of panoramas. He 
 was born at Montigni, near Chateaudun, iu 
 1764; and he studied under an artist at Va- 
 lenciennes ; but he owed his merit chiefly to 
 the imitation of nature, and of the works of 
 Claude Lorrain and Poussin. His first pano- 
 rama was a view of Paris, and he afterwards 
 painted seventeen others, including Rome, 
 Naples, Amsterdam, Boulogne, Tilsit, \Va- 
 gram, Antwerp, London, Jerusalem, and 
 Athens. The last two were the fruits of a 
 visit to Greece and Asia, made in 1817. He 
 was engaged in painting a view of Constanti- 
 nople, when he died, of a pulmonic disease, 
 January 9, 18'23. MM. Bouton and Daguerre, 
 the painters of the views exhibited at the Dio- 
 rama; were assistants of PrevosU — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PREVOT D'EXILES (Antony Francis; 
 a very fertile French writer, was born at Hes- 
 din, a small town of Artois, in 1697. He stu- 
 died with the Jesuits, and took tlie habit of 
 the society, which he quitted to bear arms ; 
 and as an officer, freely indulged his uaiural 
 turn for gallantry. The unfortunate issue of 
 an amour, at length induced him to seek a re- 
 treat among the Benedictines of Si jNIaur, 
 which, however, lie quitted in 17'29, and re- 
 tired into Holland, and having no other re- 
 source, applied himself to literature for a live- 
 lihood. His first jiroductiou was *' Ulemoirea 
 d'un Homme de Qualite, qui s'est retire du 
 Monde," a romance, which procured bim both 
 money and rei)utatiou. In 1733 be withdrew 
 to London, wliere, meeting with but iitiie en- 
 couragement, he returned to France, and as- 
 
p ill 
 
 numing the costume of an abbe, lived undei 
 the protection of the prince de Conde, as his 
 chaplain and secretary. His industry was dis- 
 played in a number of works, amounting, with 
 translations, to 156 volumes; includiug a Ge- 
 Deral History of Voyages, in 64 vois. J2!mo, 
 composed at the instance, and under the pa- 
 tronaiie of chancellor d'Aguesseau. His death 
 was attended with shocking circumstances. 
 On the 23d of November 1763 he was dis- 
 covered by some peasants in an apoplectic fit, 
 in the forest of Chan til ly. An ignorant ma- 
 gistrate being called in, ordered a surgeon, as 
 precipitate as himself, immediately to open the 
 abbe, who was apparently dead, when a loud 
 shriek from thu victim convinced the specta- 
 tors of their error. The instrument was in- 
 stantly withdrawn, but having penetrated a 
 vital part, the unfortunate abbe only opened his 
 eyes to expire. As an original writer, the abbe 
 Prevot is most distinguished for his novels and 
 works, in which history is blended with fiction. 
 The principal of these, besides that already 
 mentioned, are " Histoire de JM. Cleveland, 
 Fils nature! d'Oliver Cromwell," 1732, 6 vols. 
 12mo: " Histoire de Chevalier Grieux et de 
 Manon I'Escaut," 1733, 12rao ; " Le Doyen 
 de Killerine," 1735, 6 vols. ; " Histoire de 
 Marguerite d'Anjou," 1740, 2 vols. ; " His- 
 toire d'une Grecque JModerne," 1741, 2 vols. ; 
 " Campagnes Philosophiques, ou les Memoires 
 de M. Montcalm, " 1741, 2 vols. ; all which ex- 
 hibit character, sentiment, and striking situa- 
 tions, but are prolix and ill-planned. Their 
 general air is also heavy ; and in endeavouring 
 to be sprightly, the author usually fails. He 
 likewise conducted a periodical literary and 
 critical work, entitled" Pour et Contre." His 
 translations consist of the first volume of De 
 Thou's History, Cicero's Familiar Epistles, and 
 several English works, including the Clarissa 
 and Sir Charles Grandison of Richardson, 
 whose manner may be traced in his own pro- 
 ductions. To these various labours is also to 
 be added '• A Portable French Dictionary of 
 W ords not in common Use ; witli an Abridg- 
 ment of French Grammar." — Necrologie Fr. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PRICE (John) a learned critic, who was 
 of Welsh extraction, but born in London in 
 1600. He studied at Westminster school, 
 whence he removed to Christchurch, Oxford; 
 but having embraced the Catholic religion he 
 went to Florence, and was tlure admitted a 
 doctor of civil law. Returning home, he 
 visited Ireland in the train of the earl of Straf- 
 ford, the lord deputy ; and on the disgrace of 
 his patron, he went again to Florence, and 
 became keeper of the ducal cabinet of medals 
 and antiquities, and afterwards professor of 
 Greek at Pisa. He passed the latter part of 
 his life in a convent at Rome, where he died 
 in 1676. His works consist of commentaries 
 on the New Testament ; notes on Apuleius, 
 &c. — IVood's Athen. Oxon, 
 
 PRICE (Richard) a dissenting minister, 
 distinguished as a mathematician and statis- 
 tical writer. He was born at Llangunnor, in 
 Glamorganshire, in 1723, and wcs educated at 
 
 PR I 
 
 Talgarth, in his native county, whence lie 
 removed to a Presbyterian academy in Lon- 
 don. After having for some time resided in 
 the family of a gentleman at Stoke Newington, 
 he became pastor of a Nonconformist congre- 
 i^ation of Arian, or semi-Arian principles, at 
 Hackney, where he continued as long as he 
 lived. He commenced his literary career in 
 1758, by publishing a " Review of the prin- 
 cipal Questions and Difficulties in Morals," 
 8vo ; which was followed by " Four Disserta- 
 tions, on Providence, on Prayer, on the Rea- 
 sons for expecting that virtuous Men shall 
 meet after Death, in a State of Happiness, 
 and on the Importance of Christianity, the 
 Nature of Historical Evidence and Miracles," 
 1767, 8vo. In 1769 he was complimented 
 vi'ith the diploma of DD.from the university 
 of Glasgow ; and in 1771 appeared his " Ob- 
 servations on Reversionary Payments and 
 Annuities," Bvo, which established his cha- 
 racter as a mathematical calculator. He next 
 published an " Appeal to the Public on the 
 Subject of the National Debt ;" and during 
 the progress of the contest with our North 
 American colonies, Dr Price advocated their 
 cause in " Observations on the Nature of 
 Civil Liberty, the Principles of Government, 
 and the Justice and Policy of the War with 
 America," 1776, 8vo ; " Additional Observa- 
 tions ;" and a " Supplement." These tracts 
 provoked the animadversions of a number of 
 writers on the opposite side of the question, 
 and exposed him to some obloquy ; but they 
 also procured him a vote of thanks from the 
 corporation of London, presented in a gold 
 box. He engaged in an epistolary correspon- 
 dence with his friend Dr Joseph Priestley, on 
 the subjects of materialism and necessity, the 
 substance of which was laid before the pub- 
 lic, in an octavo volume, in 1778. After the 
 conclusion of the war, when Mr Pitt became 
 prime minister, he availed himself of the abi- 
 lities of Dr Price, in his schemes for the 
 reduction of the national debt ; and the 
 establishment of the sinking fund was the 
 result of his recommendation. At the com- 
 mencement of the French Revolution, ho, in 
 common with most advocates for freedom, 
 viewed that event as the source of unmixed 
 benefit to society, and in a sermon which he 
 published in 1789, " On the Love of our 
 Country," he warmly expressed his delight at 
 tlie emancipation of the French people. This 
 discourse excited Mr Burke to the publication 
 of his famous " Reflections," in which, with 
 little justice, he treated Dr Price as a political 
 incendiary. He died April 19, 1791. Besides 
 many papers in the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society, of which he was a fellow, he 
 published " Sermons on the Christian Doc- 
 trine, as received by the different Denomina- 
 tions of Christians," 8vo ; and several sin^^le 
 sermons, and political pamphlets. Dr Price 
 was an amiable and able man, of an enthu- 
 siastic temperament, a fact as deducible from 
 much of his reasoning in regard to a sinking 
 fund, and the miraculous effects of comoouna 
 interest, as in reference to points which were 
 
V n I 
 
 p R I 
 
 '«<>£• 
 
 hoUiT calculateil to excite it. — Aikin'.'. ^ir./t. [ ournstanct-s, but ho was tauglit to read and 
 
 write when ycjuiii;, iiml witli llicse ullairitnents 
 he became a candidate for tlie ofTjce of parinh 
 clerk at Uj^borou^'h, in liis native county. 
 Beiiijij disappointed, he travelled on foot to 
 Oxford, and from the mean station of aar^isiant 
 in the kitchen of Exeter college, he rose to be 
 one of till' fellows of that society, and in 1612 
 he was chosen rector. In 161 j he became 
 re;^ius professor of divinity, and canon of 
 Christchunh ; and he subsecjucntly filled the 
 station of vice-chancellor. In UMl he ob- 
 tained the bishopric of Worcester, through 
 the influence of the marquis of Hamilton, who 
 had been his pu])il ; but in the course of the 
 civil war he was deprived as a loyalist, and 
 died in distressed circumstances in 1650. He 
 was the author of " Fasciculus Controver- 
 siarum ;" " Theologiae Scholastica; Synta;^ma 
 Mnemonicum ;" and other works. He is also 
 supposed to hiive written " An easy and com- 
 pendious Introduction to reading all Sorts of 
 
 PRICE (James) a physician at Guildford, 
 in Surrey, who professed himself to be in pos- 
 8es><ion of the philosopher's stone, or at least 
 of the secret of making gold. He presented 
 some of this manufactured metal to the king, 
 and to the Royal Society, of which he was a 
 fellow; and he also j)ublished "An Account 
 of Kxperiments on Mercury, Silver, and Gold, 
 made at Guildford in May 178'1, in the Labo- 
 ratory of Janu's I'rice, MD. FRS. ; to which 
 is prefixed, an Abridgment of Boyle's vVccount 
 of a Degradation of Gold," Oxford, 178^:!, 
 4to. These pretended productions of precious 
 metals were stated to be effected by means of 
 n red and white powder, the composition of 
 which the author kept a secret. Being com- 
 pelled by the Royal Society, on pain of exclu- 
 sion, to repeat his experiments before Kirwan 
 and Woulfe, two skilful chemists, his art for- 
 sook him, and after the failure of several ope- 
 
 rations, he begged for delay previously to an- \ Histories," which has been ascribed to his 
 other exhibition. Dreading the exposure which ! son, Matthias Prideaux, who died in 1646. — 
 he knew awaited him, he soon after put an end i Fuller s Worthies. Biog. Brit. 
 to his life, August 3, 1783, as it is stated, by | PRIDEAUX (HtTMPHREY) a learned di- 
 drinking laurel-water. He was possessed of a I vine and historian, born at Padstow, in Corn- 
 handsome fortune, bequeathed to him by a re- { wall, in 1648. He was educated at West- 
 
 lation, in conformity with whose will he had 
 exchanged his original name of Higginbotham 
 for that of Price, iu 1781. He appears to 
 have been a man of considerable talents, but 
 of greater ambition, who sacrificed his life to 
 nn absurd rage for personal distinction. — 
 Land. Med. Journ. Gurney's Led. on Che- 
 mist rxj. 
 
 minster school, and Christchurch, Oxford ; 
 and while at the university he published the 
 ancient inscriptions from the Arundel mar- 
 bles, under the title of " xMarmora Oxonien- 
 sia." This work recommended him to the 
 patronage of the Lord Chancellor Finch, after- 
 wards earl of Nottingham, who gave 1dm a 
 living near Oxford, and afterwards a prebend 
 
 PRIDDP^N, A^L FSA. f John) tlie son of in Norwich cathedral. The lord keeper North 
 a respectable bookseller in Fleet- street, Lou- | bestowed on him the rectory of Bladen, with 
 don, where he was born in January 1758, and ' the chapelry of Woodstock ; the former of 
 continued to reside till his decease, in the • which, ou taking the degree of DD. he ex- 
 April of 18^25. He was first placed at St Paul's 1 cliangedfor the benefice of Soham in Norfolk. 
 
 £xhool, whence he removed in 1777 to Queen's 
 college, Oxford, and graduated there in 1781. 
 The following year, having taken holy orders, 
 he was elected a minor canon of St Paul's 
 cathedral, and employed the opportunities, 
 which a residence in the metropolis afforded 
 him, of consulting rare books and records in 
 the cultivation of a taste for antiquarian re- 
 search, which afterwards formed his principal 
 pursuit. From tlie dean and chapter of St 
 Paul's he obtained the livings of Caddington, 
 Berkshire, and St George, Botolph-lane, in 
 the city of London, both which he retained 
 till his death. He was also a minor canon of 
 
 He was subsequently promoted to the archdea- 
 conry of Suflblk ; and in 1702 made dean of 
 Norwich. I'his was his highest preferment, 
 for havinsT the misfortune to be afflicted with 
 stone in the bladder, he submitted to an ope- 
 ration for its removal, which being unskilfully 
 performed, or not followed uj) by proper 
 treatment, produced such incurable weakness 
 as incapacitated him for the public offices of 
 the ministry, in consequence of which he con- 
 scientiously resigned his livings, and dedicated 
 his time to the study of sacred literature. He 
 was highly respected, and often consulted ou 
 the affairs of the church ; and but for the in- 
 
 Westminster and a priest of the chapel royal. | firmity under which he laboured, he would 
 Mr Pridden had produced a plan for the unit- | have been raised to a bishopric. His death 
 ing Holborn-bill with Snow-hill, by means of "' 
 
 a street raised on arches, which was much ap- 
 proved, but abandoned on account of the ex- 
 pense. He was also the author of several 
 tracts connected with antiquarian subjects ; 
 but the principal monument of his labours is a 
 curious Index to the Rolls of Parliament, in 
 six volumes, which occupied the last thirty 
 vears of his life. — A7in. Biog. 
 
 PRIDEAUX (John) a learned English 
 prelate, born at Harford iu Devonshire', in 
 1578. His parents were persons in lov cir- 
 
 took place November 1, 1724; and his re- 
 mains were interred in the cathedral of Nor- 
 wich. Besides his great work, entitled " The 
 Old and New Testament connected iu the 
 History of the Jews and neighbouring Na- 
 tions," of whidi there are many editions, he 
 was the author of " The Life of Mahomet, 
 with a Letter to the Deists." Bvo ; " Direc- 
 tions to Churchwardens," I'Jmo ; " Tr.e Ori- 
 giiialand Ri^ht of Tvthes." 8vo ; " Ecclesias- 
 tical i'racts," 8vo, 6cc. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 PRIESTLEY, LED. FRS. (Joseph) an 
 
PR I 
 
 eminent philosopher and dissenting divine, 
 was bom in March 1733, at Fieldhead, near 
 Leeds. His father was a clothier, of the Cal- 
 viuistic persuasion, in which he was also him- 
 self brought up, under the protection of an 
 aunt, who, after he had attained a respectable 
 degree of classical acquirement in several 
 schools of the neighbourhood, finally placed 
 hira at the dissenting academy at Daveutry, 
 ■with a view to the ministry. He spent three 
 years at this school, when he became ac- 
 quainted with the writmgs of Dr Hartley, 
 which made a great impression upon his mind, 
 and he was gradually led into a partiaUty for 
 the Arian hypothesis. On quitting the aca- 
 demy, he accepted an invitation to become 
 minister of Needham Market in Suft'olk, when 
 being suspected of heretical opinions, he re- 
 ceived little encouragement, and after a resi- 
 dence of three years, he undertook the charge 
 of a congregation at Namptwich, in Cheshire, 
 to which he joined a school. Here his repu- 
 tation increased, and in 1761 he was invited 
 by the trustees of the dissenting academy at 
 Warrington, to occupy the post of tutor in the 
 languages, soon after the acceptance of which 
 post he married the daughter of Mr Wilkin- 
 son, an iron-master near Wrexham. At War- 
 rington his political opinions found vent in an 
 " Essay on Government;" he also published 
 an " Essay on a Course of liberal Education;" 
 and his useful " Chart of Biography." A 
 visit to London having introduced him to Drs 
 Franklin, Watson, and Price, he was encou- 
 raged to compose a " History of Electricity," 
 which first appeared in 1767, and procured 
 him an admission into the Royal Society, hav- 
 ing previously obtained the title of doctor of 
 laws from the university of Edinburgh. In 
 the same year he accepted an invitation to 
 preside over a large and respectable congrega- 
 tion at Leeds, where his religious opinions 
 became decidedly Socinian, and he gradually 
 became one of the most strenuous oppugners 
 of the authority of the establishment. It was 
 at Leeds that his attention was first drawn to 
 tlie properties of fixed air ; and here he also 
 composed his "History and ])resent State of 
 Discoveries relating to Vision, Light, and Co- 
 lours." After a residence of six years at 
 Leeds, he accepted an invitation from the 
 earl of Shelburne, afterwards marquis of Lans- 
 down, to reside with him as a companion, in 
 the nominal capacity of librarian. While 
 forming a part of the t-stablishment of this no- 
 bleman, he occupied himself in scientific pur- 
 suits, and in 1773 gave to the Philosophical 
 'iransactions a paper on the different kinds of 
 air, which obtained the prize of Copley's gold 
 medal. This was followed by three volumes, 
 the publication of which forms an aera in the 
 history of aeriform fluids, and has made him 
 known to the scientific of every country of 
 Europe. . In 1775, while still resident with 
 Lord Shelburne, he published his examination 
 of the common-s^ense theory maintained by 
 the Scottish doctors, Reid, Beattie, and Os- 
 wald ; and soon after published tliat of Dr 
 Hartley. He had already declared himself a 
 
 PR I 
 
 believer in the doctrine of philosophical neces- 
 sity, and in a dissertation annexed to his edi- 
 tion of Hartley, expressed some doubts of the 
 immateriality of the sentient principle in man. 
 This doctrine he still more forcibly sup- 
 ported in his " Disquisitions on Matter and 
 Spirit," 1777 ; and the obloquy which these 
 works brought on him, producing a coolness 
 in his noble patron, the connexion was dis- 
 solved, the doctor retaining an annuity of 150/. 
 per annum by original agreement. He next 
 removed to Birmingham, where he became 
 once more minister of a dissenting congrega- 
 tion, and occupied himself in his •' History of 
 the Corruptions of Christianity," and " His- 
 tory of the early Opinions concerning Jesus 
 Christ;" both which productions proved fer- 
 tile sources of controversy ; as did also his 
 " Famihar Letter to the Inhabitants of Bir- 
 mingham," chiefly written in support of the 
 claims of the dissenters for a repeal of the test 
 acts. The aera of the French Revolution had 
 now arrived, which adding bo the usual animo- 
 sity of theological dispute, the consequence 
 proved very fatal to the repose of Dr Priest- 
 ley. The anniversary of the capture of the 
 Bastile being celebrated at Birmingham by a 
 party who looked favourably upon that event, 
 an opposing mob assembled, and although Dr 
 Priestley was not present, they proceeded to 
 his house, which, with his library, MSS. and 
 apparatus, was riotously made a prey to the 
 flames. It is too certain that the outrage was 
 at least not discountenanced by too many ex- 
 ercising both lay and clerical influence ; but, 
 on the other hand, Dr Priestley had necessa- 
 rily excited exceeding animosity by the undis- 
 guised nature of his attacks, without regard 
 either to caution or policy. The legal com- 
 pensation which he obtained for this injury 
 fell considerably short of his real losses ; and 
 quitting Birmingham, he was chosen to suc- 
 ceed his friend Dr Price at Hackney, where 
 he remained some time in the cultivation of 
 his scientific pursuits, until finally goaded by 
 party enmity to seek an asylum in the United 
 States, which he reached in 1794, and took 
 up his residence at Northumberland, in Penn- 
 sylvania. Even in America he endured some 
 uneasiness on account of his opinions, until 
 Mr Jefferson became president, when he 
 had the good fortune to outlive all disquiet on 
 this head. In America he dedicated his whole 
 time to his accustomed pursuits, until a severe 
 illness laid the foundation of a debility in his 
 digestive organs, and a gradual decay fol- 
 lowed, which terminated his existence Feb. 6, 
 1804, in his seventy-first year, Dr Priestley 
 it will be seen, was a forward and ardent con- 
 troversialist, chiefly in consequence of extreme 
 simplicity and openness of cb.aracter, but no 
 man felt less animosity towards his opponents 
 than he did ; and many who entertained the 
 strongest antipathy to his opinions, were con- 
 verted into friends by his gentleness and urba- 
 nity in personal intercourse. As a man of 
 science he stands high in the walk of inven- 
 tion and discovery, and possibly to no one has 
 pneumatic chemistry been so much indebted- 
 
P R I 
 
 As a metaphysician Dr. Priestley will be dif- 
 ftrt'iitly estimated by opposing theorists, hut 
 his labours in elucidation of Hartley's theory 
 of association, upon philosophical necessity, 
 and upon materialism, will always ensure the 
 attention of those to whom these subjects may 
 prove attractive. As a theologist Dr. Priestley, 
 who always ft-arlessly followed his convictions 
 wherever they led him, passed through all the 
 changes from Calvinism to a Unitarian system 
 in some measure his own, but to the last re- 
 mained a zealous opposer of infidelity. Of 
 his very numerous theoloijical controversial 
 works, those most generally esteemed are his 
 " Institutes of Natural and Revealed Reli- 
 gion ;" and " Letters to a Philosophical Un- 
 believer ;" and he also pul)lished many works 
 on practical divinity. The principal works of 
 this able and active-minded writer have been 
 enumerated in the preceding sketcli, but the 
 wliole amount to about seventy volumes or 
 tracts in octavo, analyses of which will be 
 found in our authorities.— Li/e by HirnselJ and 
 So?i, Rees s Cucbp. 
 
 PRINCE (John) an English divine and 
 biogra[;her, was born in 1643 at Axminster, 
 in Devonshire, and was educated at Rrazen- 
 nose-college, Oxford, where he took his bache- 
 lor's degree in 1664. On entering orders he 
 became curate of Biddeford, and was after- 
 wards chosen minister of St. Martin's church 
 at Exeter, on which he graduated M A. at 
 Caius-college, Cambridge. From Exeter he 
 removed to the vicarage of Totnesp, and next 
 to that of Berry-Pomeroy, where he died in 
 1723. He is chiefly known by a work of much 
 accuracy and research, entitled " Danmonii 
 Orientales lllustres, or the Worthies of De- 
 von," printed in 1710, folio, and again in 
 1810, 4lo.— rfood. 
 
 PRINGLE (sir John) an eminent physi- 
 cian and natural philosopher, was the young- 
 est son of sir John Pringle, of Sticliel, in the 
 county of Roxburgh, North Britain, where he 
 was born April 10, 1707. After studying at 
 home under a private tutor, he was sent to 
 the university of St Andrews, whence he re- 
 moved, in October 1727, to Edinburgh, for the 
 purpose of cultivating medical science. He 
 staid there only a year, being desirous of pur- 
 suing his studies under Boerhaave at Leydeu, 
 where he became acquainted with Van Swie- 
 ten ; and in July 1730 he was admitted to the 
 degree of M b. Returning home, he settled 
 as a physician at Edinburgh, where he was 
 appointed adjunct professor of pneumatology 
 and ethics, on which subjects he gave lec- 
 tures, using as a text-book the treatise of 
 PufTendorff, " De Olfacio Hominis et (.'ivis." 
 In 1742 he was nominated physician to the 
 earl of Stair, w^ho then commanded the British 
 army on the continent : and soon after phy- 
 sician to the military hospital in Flanders. In 
 A arch 174;) he received from the duke of 
 Cumberland the appointment of physician- 
 general to the British forces in the Nether- 
 lands, and also the royal hospitals abroad. In 
 consequence of these promotions he resigned 
 his professorship, the duties of which he had 
 
 P R I 
 
 hitherto been allowed to iliscliarge by deputj 
 In 1745 he returned home with the army, in 
 consequence of the invasion of Scotland by 
 the Pretender. He was, in October, the same 
 year, elected a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 After the battle of (.'ulloden he returned to 
 the continent, and continued there till the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, after which lie took 
 up his residence in London, and engaged in 
 medical practice. In April I7'l'.», Dr. Prin-^le 
 was appointed physician to the duke of Cum- 
 berland, and soon became known on account 
 of his professional talents, as well as his scien- 
 tific acquirements. In 17.^)0 he published, in 
 a letter to Dr. Mead, " Observations on the 
 Gaol or Hos]ntal Fever;" and he also com- 
 municated to the Royal Society " Experi- 
 ments on Septic and Antiseptic Substances, 
 with Remarks relative to their Use in the 
 Theory of !\ledicine." In 1732 first appeared 
 Dr. Pringle's j)rinciple work, " Observations 
 on the Diseases of the Army ;" and in 1753, 
 he published in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions an important paper on the Gaol Fever. 
 In 1758 he entirely quitted the army ; and in 
 July, the same year, he was admitted a li- 
 centiate of the college of physicians. He was 
 made physician to the queen's household in 
 1761, which honour was succeeded by that of 
 physician extraordinary to her majesty ; and 
 in 1764 he became physician in ordinary to 
 the queen. In 1766 he was created a ba- 
 ronet ; and in November 1772, on the death 
 of Mr. West, he was chosen president of the 
 Royal Society. Ill health induced him to 
 resign this office in 1778; and in April 1781 
 he removed from London to settle at Edin- 
 burgh. But he staid there only a few 
 months, and returning to London, died there 
 January 18, 1782. He was a member of the 
 Society of Antiquaries, and of many other 
 learned associations at home and abroad. His 
 " Six Discourses" before the Royal Society, 
 on delivering the Copleian medal, were pub- 
 lished, witli a Biographical Memoir, by Dr 
 Kippis, in 178L — Hutchinson's Biog. Med. 
 
 PRINTZ (Wolfgang Caspar) a native 
 of Weiidthurn, in the upper Palatinate, bom 
 in 1664. His father, a magistrate of tlie town, 
 being forced to quit it on account of his reli- 
 gious opinions, retired to Vohenstraus, in the 
 territory of Furstenburg, where his son, who 
 had earlv discovered a strong taste for music, 
 received his first instructions in the princqiles 
 of that science. Having studied for three 
 years at Altdorff, lie became director of the 
 music to count Promnitz at Dresden, and ac- 
 companied that nobleman in his travels through 
 great parr of Germany. On the death of his 
 patron, after spending a year at Triebel, he 
 marred, and accepted the situation of director 
 of the choir at Sarau in Upper Saxony, where 
 ne remained till his death in 1717. Among 
 his works, which are numerous, the principal 
 is a ' History of Vocal and Instrumental i\lu- 
 sic.'' prnted in 1690 at Dresden ; in which he 
 commences with the invention of the har[> by 
 Jubal, ai.d treats at considerable length of the 
 ancient Greek and Hebrew music. Theinven- 
 
PR I 
 
 tion of music in consonance he ascribes to St 
 JJunstan, in 940 ; asserting, however, that he 
 proceeded no farther than simple counter- 
 point. He also wrote a book " De Instru- 
 mentis." — Biog. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 PRIOLO, or PRIOLI (Benjamin^ a 
 French historian, was born at St Jean d'An- 
 geli in 16()2, and was descended from a Vene- 
 tian family. He studied at Leyden and at 
 Padua. He became the confidant of the duke 
 de Rohan, then in the service of Venice, who 
 twice sent him to Spain as his negociator. He 
 was afterwards in the service of the duke of 
 Longueville, from whom finally receiving a 
 pension, he determined to settle at Paris. He 
 was educated in the Protestant religion, but 
 meeting with cardinal Barberitii, he was by 
 him converted to the Catholic faith. In the 
 ensuing troubles of France, taking part with 
 the prince of Conde, his property was confis- 
 cated, and his family exiled. On his return 
 to Paris, he began his history, which much 
 displeased the ministers, who tlireatened to 
 oppose its publication ; but Prioli remon- 
 strating with the king, was suffered to print 
 his work in 1665. It is entitled " Benjamini 
 Prioli ab Excessu Ludovici XHI de Rebus 
 Gallicis Historiarum, lib. xii ;" the best edi- 
 tion is that of Leipsic, 1686. It presents a 
 clear and impartial relation of the war of the 
 Fronde and the administration of cardinal 
 JMazarin ; its style imitates that of Tacitus, 
 and it is replete with characters and portraits. 
 In 1667 he was charged with a secret commis- 
 sion to the republic of Venice, but he died on 
 the way, at Lyons, of apoplexy. — Xiceron. 
 Baijle, Moreri. 
 
 PRIOR (Matthew) a distinguished Eng- 
 lish poet, was born in 1664, according to one 
 account in London, where his father was a 
 citizen and joiner, and to another at Winborne 
 in Dorsetshire. His father dying when he was 
 young, he was brought up by an uncle, who 
 kept the Rummer tavern at Charing-cross, 
 who acted with great paternal kindness, and 
 at a proper age sent him to Westminster 
 school. He early imbibed a strong taste for 
 classical literature, and when taken from 
 school, with a view of being brought up in 
 the business of his uncle, he attracted the 
 notice of the earl of Dorset, who enabled him 
 to enter himself in 1682 at St John's college, 
 Cambridge, where he proceeded BA. in 1686, 
 and was shortly after chosen fellow. At col- 
 lege he contracted an intimacy with Charles 
 Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax, in con- 
 cert with whom, in 1688, he composed the 
 '• Country Mouse and City Mouse," a parody 
 on Dryden's " Hind and Panther." He had 
 previously written an " Ode to the Deity" as 
 a college exercise. In 1690 he repaired to 
 Loudon, and was introduced at court by the 
 earl of Dorset, at whose recommendation he 
 was appointed secretary to the English pleni- 
 potentiaries at the Hague. With this post he 
 also lieid the title of gentleman of the king's 
 bed-cliamber ; and being thus enlisted in the 
 service of the court, he presented an ode to 
 king William in 1695, on the death of queen 
 
 P K I 
 
 INIary ; and soon after displayed his humorouj, 
 vein in a burlesque parody of Boileau's ode 
 on the taking of Namur, when it was recap- 
 tured by William. In 1697 he was nominated 
 secretary to the commissioners for the treaty 
 of Ryswick ; and on his return from that em- 
 ployment, was made secretary to the lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed secretary to the earls of Portland 
 and Jersey, successively ambassadors to 
 France. At length he was made under- 
 secretary of state ; and while holding that 
 office, was sent to France to assist in the form- 
 ation of the partition treaty. In 1701 he suc- 
 ceeded Locke as a commissioner at the board 
 of trade, but soon after deserted the Whigs, 
 who had introduced him into life, and joined 
 the Tories, for which no very satisfactory rea- 
 sons have been assigned. At the beginning 
 of the reign of Anne, besides commemorating 
 the battles of Blenheim and Ramillies, he pub- 
 lished a volume of poems, and took some share 
 in the Examiner. When the Tories as:ain 
 obtained the ascendancy, his diplomatic ta- 
 lents were once more called into action, and 
 he was employed in secretly negociating at 
 Paris the terms of the celebrated treaty of 
 Utrecht. He remained in France with the 
 authority and appointment of ambassador, and 
 after the departure of the duke of Shrews- 
 bury, in 1713, publicly assumed that charac- 
 ter. On the accession of George I he was re- 
 called home, and encountered on his return a 
 warrant from the house of Commons, which 
 placed him in the custody of a messenger. 
 He was examined before the privy council in 
 respect to his share in negociating the treaty 
 of Utrecht, and treated with great rigour for 
 some time, although ultimately discharged 
 without trial. Being reduced to a private sta- 
 tion, without any provision for his declining 
 years, except his fellowship, he again applied 
 himself assiduously to poetry ; and having 
 finished his " Solomon," he published the 
 whole of his poems by subscription, in a quarto 
 volume, at two guineas. This publication being 
 liberally encouraged by party zeal, produced 
 a considerable sum, which was handsomely 
 doubled by the earl of Oxford, at whose seat 
 the author died, after a lingering illness, in 
 1721, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. He 
 was interred in Westminster abbey, under a 
 monument, for which " last piece of human 
 vanity" (as he styles it in his will) he left 
 the sum of 500/. Prior seems to have made 
 his way by wit, aptitude, and companionable 
 qualities, rather than by moral or political en- 
 dowments of a superior order. Notwithstand- 
 ing his admission into the best company, he is 
 said to have always retained a taste for coarse 
 intercourse, and gross enjoyments. As a 
 poet, his rejmtation has declined of late years, 
 owing probably to the talent in which he prin- 
 cipally excels being overloaded with attempts 
 of a more serious class, which although, as in 
 the instances of his " Solomon," and " Henry 
 and Emma," splendid and correct in dic- 
 tion, harmonious in versification, and copi- 
 ous in poetical imagery, fail in movincr either 
 
P R 1 
 
 the feelings or the fancy. The great art of 
 Prior consists in Celling a story with a degree 
 of pot'ticul ease and vivacity, which iierhaj)s, 
 setting asiile La Fontaine, lias never bieu ex- 
 celleii. His " Alma," a piece of i)hiloso|)hi- 
 cal pleasantry of a kindred nature, e.xhibits also 
 a very felicitous vein uf innnour, and for these 
 lij^luer j)ieies he now chielly is, anil most likely 
 always will be, read. A " History of his Own 
 'limes " was eoinjiiled from his IMSS. ; but 
 it contains little from his pen, and is of 
 small value. His poems were published in 
 17S3, in 3 vols. 8vo, and are also in all the 
 collections. — ^^iog- Brit. JohnSiVt's Lives, 
 
 PKISCILLIAN. a heretic of the fourth 
 century, wlio was a native of Spain. He is 
 t>aid to have uniteil in his system the errors of 
 the Cinostics, the Manicheans, the Arians, 
 and the Sabellians ; to which he added dog- 
 mas of his own, viz. that the children of pro- 
 mise were born of tlieir motliers by the ope- 
 ration of the Holy Ghost, whence he inferred 
 that marriage was an al)omination ; that souls 
 were of the substance of God ; that they were 
 sent to inhabit bodies on earth, a? a punish- 
 ment for sins committed in heaven ; and that 
 men could not resist the influence of their 
 stars. The Priscillianists are charged with in- 
 famous practices, resulting from these opinions; 
 and it is stated that no tortures availed to pro- 
 duce a confession of their errors. Hence it ap- 
 pears that the accusations against tliem must 
 rest principally on the testimony of their ene- 
 mies ; and, for the honour of human nature, we 
 may conclude that they are exaggerated. At 
 the council of Saragossa in Spain, in S80, 
 Priscillian was condemned as a heretic ; his 
 party, however, was sufficiently powerful to 
 make him bishop of Avila ; but he was, with 
 some of his followers, put to death in 387. — 
 Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
 
 Pill SCI AN, a celebrated grammarian of 
 Ca^sarea, who flourished at the commence- 
 ment of the fourth century. He was a disci- 
 ple of Theoctistes, a famous rhetorician ; and, 
 as appears from many passages Of his writings, 
 he had embraced Christianity. Little more is 
 known of him than that he presided over a 
 school at Constantinople in 525. He was the 
 author of " De Octo Pariibus Orationis, libri 
 xvi. deque Constructione earumdem libri ii. ;" 
 and several other works on grammar, published 
 by Putsch, in the " Grammatical Latinai Aucto- 
 res Antiqui," Hanau, 1605, -ito ; and of a trea- 
 tise on ancient money and weights. All his 
 writings are comprised in Krehl's edition of 
 the works of Priscian, Leipsic, 1819-23, 2 vols. 
 8vo. — Biog. Li^niv. 
 
 PRrrCHARD (HannaiO a celebrated 
 English actress, born in 171 1, whose family 
 name was Vaughan. She was, when very 
 young, recommended to the notice of Booth, 
 as a candidate for the stage, and he encou- 
 raged her in that pursuit ; but she made her 
 first appearance before the public at the little 
 theatre in the Haymarket, in one of ?'ield- 
 ing's dramas. She afterwards acted at Good- 
 man's fields, and even at Bartholomew fair, 
 where she obtained great applause for her na- 
 
 Bioo 
 
 Dicr.- 
 
 Voi.lL 
 
 V R (.) 
 
 tural and unafl'ected manner and lively drollery. 
 At length she obtained an engagement at 
 Drury-lune, where she appeared as Rosalind, 
 in As \ ou like It, and at once confirmecl 
 the favourable opinion of her admirers, liut 
 her chief excellence was in the personification 
 of trai^ic characters ; and in lady Macbeth, 
 and other heroines of a similar cast, she wa» 
 almost without a rival among her contempora- 
 ries. After remaining on tlie stage thirty-six 
 years, she retired to liath in 1768, where she 
 died, in August that year, in consecjuence of a 
 mortification in the foot. — Thesp. Diet. 
 
 VRllZ (John Giorge) a German Luthe- 
 ran divine, was born at Leipsic, in 1662, in 
 which university he was educated. In 1698 
 he was created doctor of divinity, and became 
 professor of divinity and metaphysics, as well 
 as minister at Zerbst, in Saxony ; he held the 
 same situations at Griefswalde, in Pomerania, 
 and in 1711 he finally removed to Frankfort 
 on the INIain, where he was principal minister 
 until his death, which took place in 1732. 
 He published " Introductio in Lectionem 
 Novi Testamenti," much esteemed ; an edition 
 of the Greek Testament ; " De Immortali- 
 tate Anim;e ;" an edition of the Works of 
 St. INIacarius ; an edition of JMilton's Latin 
 Letters. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PROCACCINI (Camillo) an eminent 
 painter, was born at Bologna in 1516. He 
 received his first instructions from his father 
 Ercole, and frequented the school of the Ca- 
 racci. He went to IMilan, where he contri- 
 buted to the founding of an academy of paint- 
 ing. He also went to Rome, where the works 
 of Parmegiano and of Michael An gelo formed 
 his chief study. He obtained a high reputa- 
 tion for the beauty of his colouring, the fire of 
 his invention, and lightness of his touch. He 
 was appointed by the duke of Parma to paint 
 in the cathedral of Placentia, in conjunction 
 with Ludovico Caracci. He died at iMilan, 
 in 1626. — His brother, Giulio Cesare, also 
 a distinguished painter, was born at Bologna, 
 in 1548, and was brought up as a sculptor, 
 which profession he quitted for that of a pain- 
 ter. He attaclied himself to the style of 
 Correggio, and surpassed all his other imita- 
 tors. He ranks among the greatest artists of 
 his time for vigour of concei)tion and variety and 
 grandeur of colouring. 1 le became head of the 
 academy of Milan, and died there in 1626. 
 — Another brother, Caiuo Anionio, was a 
 good landscape, fruit, ami fiower-iiaiiuer ; and 
 his son Kucoi.E was eminent in the samo 
 branches. — D' Argem illc. I'ilkiiigtou. 
 
 PROCLUS, a Platonic philosopher and 
 mathematician of the fifth century. He is said 
 to have been denominated Lycius, from his 
 birth-place, Lycea ; but some state him to 
 have been born at Constantinople, AD. 110. 
 He studied at Alexandria, and afterwards at 
 Athens, under Syrianus, a Platonist, to the 
 superintendence of whose school he suc- 
 ceeded. He wrote against Christianity, and 
 was answered by Johannes Grammaticus ; ho 
 was al.-^o the author of a treatise on the Doc- 
 trines of the Sphere ; another on the Con<- 
 
 2 I 
 
PRO 
 
 Btruction of the Astrolabe ; Commentaries on 
 the Works of Plato, Honaer, and Hesiod ; and 
 Hymns to the Sun, Venus, and the Muses. 
 He died iu 485. The character of Proclus, 
 like that of all the later Platonists, was enthu- 
 siastic, and disposed to mysticism ; nor did he 
 adhere so religiously as Porphyry and Julian 
 to the doctrines and principles of his master ; 
 so that, in the opinion of Cud worth, he was 
 aconfounder of the Platonic theology, the su- 
 premacy of which he maintained. — Bayle. 
 Fahricii Bibl. GrcEC. 
 
 PROCOPF, COUTEAU, or MICHEL 
 COLTELLI, a physician, born at Paris, in 
 1684, who was the son of Francis Procope, a 
 Palermitan of a noble family, the first who 
 established a coffee-house in France, which 
 became famous as the resort of men of letters. 
 Youn"" Procope was destined for the church, 
 but he preferred the medical profession, and 
 having finished his studies, he received the 
 decree of doctor, in 1708. He was deformed, 
 notwithstanding wliich, his yni and r ' ♦■y ren- 
 dered him a great favourite with tlu women ; 
 a circumstance which contributed much to his 
 reputation at Paris. His professional writings 
 consist of satirical and humorous tracts, in- 
 cluding " Analyse du Systeme de la Tritura- 
 tion," designed to explode Hecquet's opi- 
 nions relative to digestion ; and " L'Art de 
 faire des Gar9ons," a lively piece of badinage, 
 which another writer, J. A. Millot, in a work 
 on the same subject, was dull enough to treat 
 as a serious production. But Procope was 
 chiefly distinguished as a dramatist ; and he 
 was the author of " Arlequin Balourd," a 
 comedy, in five acts, performed in London, 
 in 1719 ;" " Pygmalion," a comedy, 1741 ; 
 and other comic dramas. His death took 
 place at Chaillot, December 21, 1753. Gi- 
 raud published in the following year a bur- 
 lesque poem, entitled, " La Procopiade, ou I'A- 
 potlieose du Docteur Procope," 1754, li^mo. 
 — B'log. Univ. 
 
 PROCOPIUS of Cffisarea, a Greek his- 
 torian, who was a native of Csssarea, in Pales- 
 tine. He went to Constantinople, where he 
 practised as an advocate in the reign of the 
 emperor Anastasias, to whom he became one 
 of the imperial counsellors, as he was after- 
 wards under .Tustin and Justinian. He at length 
 held the office of secretary to the famous ge- 
 neral Belisarius, whom he attended in his 
 various expeditions, of which he wrote the 
 history, Procopius was subsequently ad- 
 mitted into the senate, and appointed prefect 
 of Constantinople, where he is supposed to 
 liave died, about 560. His works consist of a 
 " History of his Own Times," in eight books, 
 the first two relating tc the Persian war, the 
 two following to the war with the Vandals, and 
 the remaining four to the Gothic war; and a 
 "History of the Edifices built or repaired by 
 Justinian." But besides these, there is extant a 
 kind of scandalous chronicle of the court of Jus- 
 tinian,including a most degrading account of the 
 personal history of the emperor, the empress 
 Theodora, and many other individuals. This 
 work, which is entitled " Anecdota," has 
 
 P R O 
 
 occasioned warm disputes among the learned, 
 some of wiiom deny that it was written by 
 Procopius, while others, who admit its authen- 
 ticity, account for its disagreement with the 
 historian's other works, iu which Justinian 
 and Theodora are higldy panegyrized, by 
 supposing that the Anecdotes were compiled 
 subsequently to the history, at a period when 
 the writer was offended by the disappointment 
 of his expectations of court favour, and beino- 
 afterwards gratified, he endeavoured to make 
 amends by composing his Treatise on Edi- 
 fices. The works of Procopius were pub- 
 lished at Paris, 1662, folio. — Fahriciiis. Bioo-. 
 Univ. 
 
 PROCOPIUSof Gaza, a Greek rhetorician 
 of the 6th century, who was a native of Pa- 
 lestine. He was the author of a number of 
 orations or declamations, founded on passao^es 
 from the works of Homer, two of which only are 
 extant, viz. a " Eulogy on the enijieror Ana- 
 stasius," and a " Monody on the r.uin of the 
 Church of St Sophia, at Constantinople, over- 
 thrown by an Earthquake." He also wrote 
 Commentaries on some of the books of the 
 Old Testament. — Bioi^. Univ. 
 
 PROCOPUIS (E>EMETRius) a native of 
 Moscopolis, in Macedonia, who flourished at 
 the commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 He was a zealous cultivator of literature, and 
 in 1720 he published an excellent work, en- 
 titled 'EiriTeTiXTJixspr] lirapi9f.irj(nQ, &c. " An 
 Abridged Account of the Greek Literati of 
 the past Century, and of some of those of tlie 
 present Century." This treatise is inserted 
 ; by Fabricius, with a Latin translation, in his 
 j Bibliotheca Grteca ; and a Greek merchant of 
 I Pesth, named Zavira, a well-informed indivi- 
 j dual, who died a few years since, composed a 
 supplement to the work of Procopius, which 
 j has never been printed, though copies are 
 ' common in Greece. — Biog. Univ. 
 I PROCOPOWITZ (Theophanes) a learn- 
 I ed Russian prelate, born atKiowin 1681. He 
 studied in the academy of that city, of which 
 I his uncle was rector ; and he afterwards 
 visited Pvome, to apply himself to theology, 
 philosophy, and the languages. Returning 
 home, he was appointed to the chair of poetry 
 [ at Kiow, and in 1705 he took the monastic 
 vows, adopting at the same time the name of 
 J Theophanes. He subsequently became pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric, philosophy, and other 
 I sciences ; and at length he taught theology, 
 introducing much more liberal views of the 
 subject than had previously existed among the 
 Russian clergy. Becoming a favourite with 
 Peter the Great, he was made abbot of the 
 monastery of Bratakow, and rector of the 
 academy of Kiow. In 1718 he was raised to 
 ths episcopal see of Plaskow and Narva ; and 
 two years after to the archbishopric of Novo- 
 gorod. He died September 8, 1736. Many 
 of his theological productions were printed in 
 Germany after his death. Among these are, 
 " Christiana orthodoxa Doctrina de Gratuita 
 Peccatoris per Christum Justificatione," Bres- 
 lau, 1768-69 ; " Christina; orthodoxae Theo- 
 logize," torn. i. — V. Konigsberg, 1773, &c. He 
 
P fl o 
 
 also wroto political memoirs, Latin verses, and 
 3iitiris. To this eiilii;liteiiecl prelate tlie Kus- 
 siaus are iiiilebt< d for the fmiudatiuii of oue of 
 the largest I'braiies in the einj)ire, now be- 
 longing to the university of iS'ovoijorod. — 
 Biofj;. Ihtiv. 
 
 PRONOMUS, an ancient musician of 
 Thebes, celebrated as the inventor of a pecu- 
 liar kinil of flute, on whicli the performer 
 could play in three dillerent keys, every instru- 
 ment of lliis sort previous to his time being 
 adapted only for one. lie was held in great 
 esteem by his countrymen, who erected a tomb 
 to his memory near that of llpaminondas. 
 Pausanias speaks of a hymn composed by him 
 for the citizens of Chalcis, as extant, both 
 words and music, in his time. — Biog. Diet, of 
 Mus. 
 
 PIIOPERTIUS (Sextus Aurelius) an 
 ancient Roman poet, was born at IMevania in 
 Unibria, about the year of Rome 700. It is 
 said that his father was a Roman knight, who 
 joined the party of Anthony, and bemg made 
 prisoner ac the ca[)ture of Perusia, was put to 
 death by Augustus, his estate of course being 
 forfeited. This catastrophe, which happened 
 when the poet was young, did not prevent his 
 acquiring the patronage of Mjecenas and Cal- 
 lus ; and among tlie poets of his day, he was 
 very intimate with Ovid and Tibuilus. The 
 time of his death is not recorded, but it 
 is usually placed BC. 10. Of this poet 
 there are a few books of elegies remaining, in 
 which branch of composition he was an imi- 
 tator of the Grecian Callimachus, and he has 
 always been ranked among the most eminent 
 of the Latin elegists. Inferior to Tibuilus in 
 tenderness, and to Ovid in variety, he is more 
 learned, various, and ornamented than the 
 former, and certainly gave the first specimen 
 of the poetical epistle, whicli Ovid afterwards 
 claimed as his own invention. The works of 
 this poet have been printed with almost all the 
 editions of Tibuilus and Catullus, and also 
 separately by Broukhusius, 4to, Amsterdam, 
 1702 ; by Vulpius, 1755 ; by Barthius, 1777 ; 
 by Burmann and Santelius, 1780 ; and by 
 Kuinoelius, Leipsic, 1805, 8vo, — Crusius, Lives 
 of the Ihmtan Poets. Fabricii Bibl. Lat. 
 
 PROTAGORAS, a Creek philosopher, 
 who was a disciple of Democritus. lie was a 
 native of Abdera, and is said to have been a 
 porter before he studied philosophy, in which 
 he however became so eminent, that he opened 
 a school at Athens. Me is principally noted 
 on account of his having incurred the charge 
 of atheism, from the extreme licentiousness 
 of his public discourses ; and being banished 
 from Athens, he went to Ejiirus, and after- 
 wards took a voyage to Sicily, in the course of 
 which he died, but in what year is not known. 
 He belonged to the Eleac sect of philosophers, 
 and he flourished BC. 423. — Stanley's liist. of 
 Philos. ^Enjield. 
 
 PROTOCENES, a famous ancient pahiter, 
 was a native of Cannus in Caria, a city subject 
 to Rhodes, and he flourished about three cen- 
 turies before Cliribt. -The early })art of his life 
 was passed in obscurity, but his merit coming 
 
 PR U 
 
 to the knowledge of Apellea, that artiit, 
 superior to jealousy, encouraged him in every 
 way. Pliny tells a curious story of the way in 
 winch these two artists letame acquainted. 
 Ajielles having lauded at RhodeB, went to the 
 house of Protogenes, who was from home. 
 Jieinj asked by tlie servant what name he 
 would leave, he took a pencil, and drew a 
 coloured line of extreme tenuity upon a board, 
 and bid her show that to her master. Pro- 
 togenes, on his return, drew within it another 
 coloured line, and again went out. Apellea 
 re-newed his visit, and with a third colour di- 
 vided this line by so fine a stroke, that it wad 
 impossible to subdivide it. Protogenes was 
 then convinced that it was Apelles, and has- 
 tened to meet him. On the siege of Rhodes 
 by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Protogenes is ^aid 
 to have continued tianquiliy working at his 
 house in the suburbs; and being asked by De- 
 metrius why he ventured to remain without 
 the walls of the city, he answered, that he 
 well knew that the king was at war with the 
 Rhodians, but not with the arts ; with which 
 answer Demetrius was so pleased, that he 
 gave him a guard for his protection. Proto- 
 genes was also a sculptor, and his bronze 
 figures were much esteemed, fie wrote two 
 books on design and painting. — Plinii Hist 
 Nat. Dati Pittori Antichi. 
 
 PROYART (LiEVAix Bonaventure) a 
 French historical writer, born in 1743, in the 
 province of Artois. After having finished his 
 studies in the seminary of St Louis at Paris, 
 he adopted the ecclesiastical profession, and 
 devoted his time to public instruction. For a 
 long while he discharged the functions of sub- 
 principal of the college of Louis le Grand : 
 and he was afterwards employed to organize 
 the college of Puy, which, under his direction, 
 became one of the most flourishing schools in 
 the kingdom. At the commencement of the 
 Revolution, the abbe Proyart, w^ho had ob- 
 tained a canonrv in the catliedral of Arras, 
 was deprived of his preferment, and obliged 
 to emigrate to the Netherlands. He returned 
 to France on the conclusion of the concordat ; 
 and on the publication of his work, entitled 
 " Louis XVI et ses A'^ertus aux Prises avec la 
 Perversite de son Siecle," Paris, 1808, 5 vols. 
 8vo, he was arrested and confined in the Bi- 
 cetre. Being attacked with dropsy on the 
 chest, his friends procured leave for him to be 
 transferred to the seminary of Arras, where 
 he died, March 22, 1808. His works are 
 numerous, amounting to 17 vols. 8vo, and in- 
 cluding " Histoire de Loango, Kakongo, et 
 autres Royaumes d'Afrique," 1776 ; " La Vie 
 du Dauphin, Pere de Louis XV," 1783; 
 " Histoire de Stanislaus, Roi de Pologne, 
 Due de Lorraine et de Bar," 1784 ; and " La 
 Vie de Marie Leczinska, Heine de France." — 
 Bios;. Nouv. dcs Contemp. Biog. lUiiv. 
 
 PRUDENTIUS, or CLEMENS PRU- 
 DENTIUS AURELIUS, a Spanish poet, 
 soldier, and judge of the fourth century. He 
 was born at Saragossa about the year 348, and 
 being a Christian, began in his fifty-seventh 
 year to write devotional poems, which, liow- 
 
 2 Z 2 
 
P R Y 
 
 ever, exhibit more zeal than harmonj. There 
 are several editions of his writings, especially 
 the A Mine, 1506 ; that of l">lzevir, with 
 Heinsius's notes, 1667 ; and one printed at 
 Rome in 1788, 4to. The emperor Honorius 
 patronized, him, and retained him about his 
 pnrson, but the time of his decease is uncer- 
 tain. — Moreri.. Cave. 
 
 PRYCE (William) a Cornish antiquary 
 and naturalist, who jiractised as a physician at 
 Redruth in Cornwall, and died about the end 
 of the last century. He was the author of a 
 work, entitled " Mineralogia Cornubiensis," 
 1778, folio, relating to the subterranean riches 
 of the county which he inhabited ; and of "Ar- 
 chajologia Cornu-Britannica, or an Essay to pre- 
 serve the Ancient Cornish Language," 1790, 
 4to. Among the materials which he had col- 
 lected lor the improvement of the latter trea- 
 tise, was a curious relic of British antiquity, 
 consisting of five plays or interludes, in the old 
 Cornish dialect, founded on the scripture his- 
 tory of Jesus Christ. An account of these 
 productions was published in the Archsologia, 
 by Daines Barrington, and they are now pre- 
 served in the British Museum. — Medical Re- 
 Krister for 1779. Biog. Univ. 
 
 PR YN N E ( Willi A M ) a learned lawyer and 
 antiquary, was born of a good family at Swans- 
 wick in Somersetshire, in 1600. After an ele- 
 mentary education at the grammar-school at 
 Bath, he was placed at Oriel college, Oxford, 
 where he remained until he graduated BA. in 
 1620. He then removed to Lincoln's-inn to 
 study the law, and l)ecame barrister, bencher, 
 and reader of that society. His attendance upon 
 the lectures of Dr Preston, a distinguished pu- 
 ritan, strongly attached him to that sect, and he 
 began to write books in the spirit of his party 
 so early as 1627, successively attacking the 
 drinking of healths, love locks, popery, and 
 Arminianism, all which he deemed the enor- 
 mities of the age. About the close of 1632 
 he published, in a kindred spirit., his elaborate 
 work against theatrical exhibitions, entitled 
 " His trio- Mas tix ;" which book, although li- 
 censed by archbishop Abbot's chaplain, in 
 consequence of some reflections upon female 
 actors, that were construed to be levelled at 
 the queen (who had acted in a pastoral after 
 the publication of the work), brought a per- 
 secution upon the author in the star-chamber. 
 The sentence pronounced upon him affords a 
 memorable instance of the oppressive sjjiric of 
 that arbitrary tribunal, which condemned him 
 to a fine of 5,000/., to be expelled the univer- 
 sity of Oxford and I>iiicoln's-inn, to be de- 
 graded and disenabled from his profession of 
 the law, to stand twice in the pillory, losing 
 an ear each time, and to remain a prisoner for 
 life. All this was iuHictcd with rigour, chieflv 
 at the instigation of Laud, who revenged in it 
 the attacks on Arminianism and episcopacy. 
 Prynne bore his sufferings with extraordinary 
 fortitude, and continued writing against [)re- 
 lacy in prison ; until, for a virulent piece, en- 
 titled " News from Ipswich," he was again 
 sentenced by the star-chamber to a fine of 
 5,000/., to lose the remainder of his ears in the 
 
 PRZ 
 
 pillory, and to be branded in each cheek with 
 the letters S L (seditious libeller). TLis 
 sentence was also executed, and he was re- 
 moved for imprisonment to Caernarvon castle, 
 and afterwards to the island of Jersey. His 
 spirit was not, however, to be subdued, and 
 he continued to write until the meeting of 
 parliaineut in 1640, when, being chosen repre- 
 sentative for Newport in Cornwall, the house 
 of Commons issued an order for his release. 
 He entered London, with other sufferers, in 
 triumphant procession, and petitioned the 
 Commons for damages against his prosecutors. 
 On the impeachment of Laud, he was em- 
 ployed as chief manager of the prosecution, 
 and when the parliament became victorious, 
 was appointed one of the visitors to the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, where he laboured strenu- 
 ously to advance the cause of presbyterianism. 
 He warmly opposed the independents when 
 they acquired ascendancy, and used all his in- 
 fluence to produce an accommodation with the 
 king, being one of the members who were ex- 
 cluded and imprisoned on that account. He 
 afterwards became a bitter enemv to Crom- 
 well, who confined him more than once. With 
 the other excluded members, he resumed his 
 seat in 1659, and displayed so much zeal fot 
 the Restoration, that general Monk was ob- 
 liged to check his impetuosity. He sat in the 
 healing parliament as member for Bath, and 
 on the Restoration was appointed to the office 
 of cliief keeper of the records in the Tower. 
 He was likewise made one of the commis- 
 sioners for appeals, and for regulating the ex- 
 cise. He laudably occupied his later years in 
 writings connected with his office in the Tower 
 and finished his laborious life at his chambers 
 in Lincoln's-inn in 1669. He was a man of 
 extensive learning and indefatigable industry, 
 but wairted genius and judgment. His works, 
 of which Wood has given a catalogue, amount 
 to 40 vols, folio and 4to, the most valuable of 
 which is his " Collection of Records," S vols, 
 folio. As a man, he possessed the ungovern- 
 able zeal, party spirit, and personal disinte- 
 restedness which were not uncommon during 
 that eventful period ; and although of an un- 
 amiable temper, he must be respected as an un- 
 daunted assertor of liberty, and a conspicuous 
 suff'erer in its cause. — Biog. Brit. Hume. 
 Grander. 
 
 PRZIPCOVIUS (Samuel) aPolish knight 
 and distinguished writer among the Unitarians 
 of the seventeenth century, was descended 
 from a noble family, and born about the year 
 1592. He studied at Altdorff", until his adhe- 
 rence to unitarian doctrines obliged him to re- 
 ; move to Leyden. On his return to Poland, he 
 I was advanced to several posts of honour, and 
 made use of his influence to encourage the 
 propagation of his own opinions, and the es- 
 ! tablibhment of unitarian churches throughout 
 ! Poland. Their flourishing state, induced him 
 ; to compose a " History of the Unitarian 
 j Churches in Poland ;" but his work was 
 , lost during the persecutions which they after- 
 1 wards endured. On these reverses, he him 
 I self procured an asvlum with the elector of 
 
VS A 
 
 Ikai)denbiirtjli, who gave liirn tho appointment 
 of privy rouiisellor ; ami in 1(J6;> a synod of 
 unitarians in Silesia employed liini to condijct 
 tlie correspondence willi their brethren in 
 other nnticjns, ihe ohjert of which was to ad- 
 vance their niutnul purposes. He died in 1670, 
 at the aj^e of seventy- eii;ht, just as the elector 
 of Braudenbiirgh, at the instance of tlie senate 
 of I'russia, but ajjainsl his own inclinations, 
 was about to banisli him from his dominions. 
 The works of l'rzii)Covins, wliich are very nu- 
 merous, were colk'cied in one volume, folio, in 
 169<?, and may be considered as the seventh 
 vohnne of tlie collection, entitled " Hildiotheca 
 l'"ralruni Polonorum." — LiJ'c pirjiiedto Works. 
 Toulmin's Life of Socinus. 
 
 PSAI.MANAZAll ((jeorge) the assumed 
 name of a man of letters, wlio is cliielly known 
 as a literary impostor. He was bom of Ca- 
 tholic parents, in the south of France, in 
 1679. His mother, being abandoned by her 
 husband, sent her son to a school kept by some 
 Franciscan friars, in the neighbourhood of the 
 place where she lived ; and he was afterwards 
 placed in a college of the Jesuits. He then 
 studied among the Dominicans, and having 
 finished his education, he acted as a private 
 tutor. Leaving his situation, he engaged in 
 several adventures ; and at length, having 
 stolen from a cliurch, where it had been dedi- 
 cated, the habit of a pilgrim, he roved about 
 in that character, subsisting on charity. After- 
 wards he descended to the condition of a com- 
 mon vagrant," and then became servant to the 
 keeper of a tavern, whose house he left clan- 
 destinely, and renewing his wandering mode 
 of life, he conceived the project of professing 
 liimself to be a Japanese convert to Christi- 
 anity who had found his way to Europe. As 
 he did not find this scheme very profitable, he 
 adopted the more romantic character of a 
 lieathen native of tlie island of Formosa, and 
 in order to support his pretensions he contrived 
 a new language, which he called the Formo- 
 san. At this time he became acquainted with 
 a clers:vman named Innes, who was chaplain 
 to a Scotch officer in Flanders. Psalmanazar, 
 for that was the name he now adopted, was 
 not able to impose on this person ; but IMr 
 Innes, conceiving he could turn the imposture 
 to good account, persuaded the pretended 
 Formosan to suffer himself to be converted to 
 the church of England, which being agreed to, 
 the clergyman and his new discijile went to 
 London, where the latter was presented to bi- 
 shop Compton, Dr Gibson, and others, and 
 the former was rewarded for his zeal with 
 church preferment. Psalmanazar had the 
 daring effronterv to translate the Church Ca- 
 techism into his newly-invented Formosan 
 language ; and he published a history of For- 
 mosa, which, favovired by the gullibility of the 
 public, passed tlirough two editions. In the 
 meantime he was sent to study at Oxford ; and 
 a controversy was carried on between iiis pa- 
 trons and Dr Halley, Dr IMead, and some 
 other less credulous persons, who had from 
 the beginning refused to admit his pretensions. 
 The imposture at length became clearly ma- 
 
 PT O 
 
 nifcst ; and the culprit, deserted by thoiS 
 whom he had deceived, was obliged to rely on 
 the fair exercise of his literary abilities for hia 
 support. He settled in London, where he re- 
 sided many years, ami was much employed by 
 the booksellers, particularly in the former part 
 of the " Universal History," {luldi-shed in 
 1717. Towards the close of his life, he drew 
 up an autobiographical memoir, in whicli liy 
 expresses much contrition for the deceptions 
 which he had allowed himself to f>ractise. His 
 death took place in 1763. — Ailun's Cen. 73(.i.r. 
 Bioo^. Univ. 
 
 PSELLUS (MiCHAEr.) a Greek writer of 
 the eleventh century, was tutor to iMichael, 
 the son of the emperor Constantine D.icas. 
 He wrote in a variety of branches, theological, 
 legal, mathematical, medical, and political, and 
 his works are highly eulogized. On the de- 
 thronement of his pupil, in 1078, by Nicepho- 
 rus Botoniates, he was sent to a monastery, 
 where ho died the same year. He wrote " JJe 
 Victus Ratione ;" '• Dialogus de Energia et 
 Operatione Deemonum -," " De Sanctissiraa 
 Trinitate, cum Cyrillo contra Xestorianos ;" 
 " Paraphrasis in Cantica Canticorum ;" " Sy- 
 nopsis Legum Versibus Gr.'pcis ;" " Compen- 
 dium quatuor Artium, s. de quatuor Mathema- 
 ticis Scientiis." — Vossii Hist. Gr<£c. Biblio£. 
 Dirt. 
 
 PTOLE:\rY (Claudius) a celebrated as- 
 tronomer, musician, and philosopher of anti- 
 quity, born at Pelusium, in Egypt, about the 
 year 70 of the Christian {era. Although sub- 
 sequent discoveries have overturned his solar 
 system, the basis of which was the revolution 
 of the sun round the earth as its centre, yet 
 it is impossible to deny him the ])raise of 
 being a bold arid original thinker, far superior 
 both in intellect and acute reasoning to most 
 of his predecessors. As a geographer his 
 merits are undisputed, and many of his ob- 
 servations appear to have been the result of 
 a personal knowledge of the countries he de- 
 ! scribes. AA ith music as a science, his ac- 
 , quaintance was familiar and extensive, al- 
 though his writings on this subject are in 
 j parts unintelligible to modorn comprehension. 
 i For this science, indeed, he betrays a degree 
 ' of passionate fondness, amounting to absolute 
 I enthusiasm, and disposes with very little ce- 
 remony of the opinions of all former writers 
 who treat of it. Of eight different forms of 
 the diatonic scale, however, which he gives 
 us (three of which he himself lays claim to), 
 but one is at all compatil>le with modern 
 ideas. His Treatise on Harmonics was 
 I printed at Oxford, in 1682, by Dr Wallis, 
 who executed his task with great learning 
 , and assiduity. An edition of his geographical 
 works appeared at Basil, in 4to, in 13.33, and 
 i at Amsterdam, in folio, 1618 ; while his 
 1 " Magna Constructio," a compilation from 
 i anterior writers on astronomical subjects 
 was long held in especial esteem by the judi, 
 ^ cial astrologers and adepts of the middle ages, 
 ' under its name of " Almagestum," so called 
 from its Arabic version. There is a Latin 
 translation of this work. In his " Plaui- 
 
P U F 
 
 sphaeiium" he corrects and enlarges the astro- 
 nomical catalogue of Hipparchus ; and indeed 
 his whole hypothesis of the universe, though 
 erroneous, is, to say the least, ingenious. 
 Ptolemy is supposed to hare died at Alexan- 
 dria, where he had an observatory in the 
 reion of Antoninus Philosophus. — Huttoii's 
 Math. Diet. Bnrneii's Hist, of Mus. 
 
 PUBLICS SYPvUS, so named from the 
 cbuniry of which he was a native. He was 
 originally a slave at Rome in the last days of 
 the republic, but having exhibited a taste for 
 literature, joined to considerable poetic talent, 
 was manumitted by his master, and rose to 
 some eminence as a dramatist. Of his writ- 
 ings for the stage, which were of that de- 
 scription of comic pieces then known by the 
 name of " IMimes," none have survived the 
 lapse of time. A collection of his " Moral 
 Sentences" has been more fortunate, and was 
 printed towards the close of the s-ixteenth cen- 
 tury under the superintendence of the learned 
 John Gruter. He is said to have been an 
 especial favourite with the first Cassar, and to 
 have reached the zenith of his reputation 
 something less than half a century before the 
 birth of Christ. — Vussii Poet. Lat. 
 
 PUFFENDORFF (Samuel) a celebrated 
 German professor and writer on history and 
 jurisprudence. He was born in 1631, at a 
 village near Chemnitz, in IMisnia, where his 
 father was minister. He received his educa- 
 tion at the universities of Leipsic and Jena ; 
 after which he engaged in the office of private 
 tutor in the family of the Swedish resident 
 at tlie court of Copenhagen. War took place 
 between Sweden and Denmark, aud on the 
 sudden expedition of Cliarles X. against Co- 
 penhagen, in 1657, the Swedish envoy, with 
 all his suite were committed to close custody. 
 While in prison, PuffendorfF employed him- 
 self in writing his " Elementa Jurisprudentiie 
 Universas," which he published at the Hague, 
 in 1660, with a dedication to Charles Louis, 
 the elector palatine. That prince soon after 
 appointed him professor of the law of nature 
 and of nations, in the university of Heidelberg, 
 where he remained till 1668, when he re- 
 moved to a similar station in the then newly- 
 founded university of Lund, in Sweden. 
 There, in 1672, he published his capital 
 work, " De Jure Naturae et Gentium," 4to, in 
 which he improved on the speculations of 
 Grotius ; and as he opposed the prevailing 
 ethical doctrines of the schoolmen, he met 
 with many antagonists ; but the value of this 
 treatise has been long since acknowledged, 
 and it has even been eulogized by pope Inno- 
 cent XL The king of Sweden, Charles XI, 
 nominated Puffendorff a royal counsellor, 
 and made him his historiographer, when 
 he produced his commentaries, " De Re- 
 bus Suecicis sub Gustavo Adolpho usque 
 Hd Abdicationem Christinae, et de Rebus a 
 Carolo Gustavo gestis," 2 vols, folio. Owing 
 to the credit he obtained by this work, he 
 was invited to Berlin, whitlier he went in 
 1688 to write the life of the great elector of 
 Bran , aburgh, Frederic William, in conse- 
 
 P U L 
 
 quence of which he was honoured with tha 
 title of an electoral privy counsellor. In 
 1694 he was raised to the dignity of a baron 
 of Sweden; and he was solicited by the em- 
 peror Leopold I to visit Vienna, and become 
 the imperial historiographer, but he decUned 
 accepting the proposal ; and his death took 
 place October 26, in the year above men- 
 tioned. Puffendorff was the author of several 
 works besides those already noticed, among 
 which the most important are, " Compendium 
 Officii Hominis et Civis ;" and his Intioduc- 
 tion to the History of Europe." The latter 
 has been translated into English, and published 
 in one volume, and afterwards with additions, 
 in two volumes, octavo ; and it has also been 
 extended in French into a body of universal his- 
 tory, of which the most complete edition is that 
 of Paris, 1753, 8 vols. 4to, entitled " Introduc- 
 tion a I'Histoire de I'Univers, par Puffendorff, 
 augmentee et continuee par De Grace." The 
 " Treatise on the Law of Nature and Nations," 
 was translated into English by Basil Kennett, 
 1703, 8vo. and several times reprinted ; and 
 it subsequently appeared, with the notes aud 
 prefatory discourse of Barbeyrac, translated 
 by Carew, 1749, folio. — Moreri. Stollii Intrcd. 
 in Hist. Lit. Biog.Univ. 
 
 PUJOULX (John Baptist) an ingenious 
 French writer, born in 1762, at Saint Macaire 
 in Guienne. He went to Paris when young, 
 and acquired the reputation of taste and intel- 
 ligence by the articles which he furnished to 
 periodical works. He became a contributor 
 to the " Journal de Litterature Franpaise et 
 Etrangere," published at Deux Ponts ; and he 
 composed for different theatres a great num- 
 ber of dramatic pieces, which were well re- 
 ceived. Taking no part in politics, he escaped 
 molestation during the reign of terror ; and 
 in the latter part of his life he was much oc- 
 cupied with the study of natural history ;^nd 
 philosophy. He was engaged in several lite- 
 rary undertakings, among which were the 
 " Journal de TEmpire ;" and the " Biographie 
 Universelle." He died at Paris, April 17, 
 1821. A list of his numerous dramatic and 
 other works may be found in the annexed au- 
 thorities. — Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 PULCI (LuiGi) an Italian poet, born at 
 Florence in 1431, of whose life little is known, 
 except that he was upon intimate terms with 
 Lorenzo de' Medici and Angelo Poliziano. 
 His principal work is a poem, entitled " Mor- 
 gante JMaggiore," written at the instigation 
 of Lucrezia, the mother of Lorenzo, printed 
 at Venice in 1488. It has been doubted 
 whether this nr the Orlando Innamorato of 
 Boyardo was first written ; but it is certain 
 that the latter was not published until 1496, 
 and it may therefore be justly considered as the 
 prototype of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. The 
 admirers of the " Morgante " have been ex- 
 travagant in their prai?e, as its opponents have 
 been violent in their censures. It displays 
 much poetical fire and invention, and purity of 
 style, but at the same time is so unconnected 
 and irregular, as to be tedious to a modem 
 
P U L 
 
 reader, thougli it is still read with deliglit by 
 the lovers of the Florenliiie diulect. A spi- 
 rited translation of it, by lord Byron, was 
 given in " I'he Lilieral," from whicli its cIih- 
 racter may be well understood. The best edi- 
 tion is that of Paris, with tlie date London, 
 1768. Amongst some other printed poems of 
 Luigi Pulci are three burlesque sonnets, writ- 
 ten in conjunction with Matteo Franco. Their 
 sonnets were published together, under the 
 title of " Sonetti di iMesere IMatteo Fianco e 
 di Luigi Pulci jocosi e faceti, cioe da ridere." 
 He had two brothers, also poets. BEnNAUoo 
 was the author of a translation of the Eclogues 
 of Virgil, of a poem on Christ's passion, and of 
 two elegies upon Cosmo de' Medici and the 
 beautiful Simanetta. — Luca wrote a pastoral 
 romance, entitled " Driadee d'Amore ;"an epic 
 romance, the first of the kind that appeared in 
 Italy, entitled " II Ciiiftb Calvaneo ;" stanzas 
 on the tournament of Lorenzo de' IMedici, 
 epistles, &cc. — Roscoe's Lorenzo de' Medici. 
 Tiriil)0:^chi. 
 
 PULLEN or PULLUS (Robert) an Englisli 
 cardinal of tlie twelfth century, is supposed to 
 have been a native of Oxfordshire. He studied 
 at Paris, and in 1130 he returned to J^ngland, 
 where he contributed to the restoration of the 
 university of Oxford, neglected since, ravaged by 
 the Danes. He spared no pains for the diifu- 
 sion of learning among the British youth, and 
 fur five years he publicly read the Scriptures, 
 wliich had been neglected in England, and in 
 reward he was presented to the archdeaconry 
 of Rochester. After this he returned to Paris, 
 and became professor of divinity ; but lie was 
 recalled by his metropolitan, and the revenues 
 of his benefice sequestered, until he obeyed 
 the summons ; but on appealing to the see of 
 Rome, he gained a decision in his favour. He 
 was invited to Rome, and was created cardinal 
 by Celestine II, and afterwards chancellor of 
 the Roman church by pope Lucius II. He 
 died about 1 150. His only work now extant is 
 his "Sententiarum Liber," Paris, 1655, which, 
 though somewhat obscure, possesses much 
 judgment, and, contrary to the custom of the 
 time, he prefers the authority of reason and 
 tlie Scriptures to the testimony of the fathers, 
 or the subtlety of metaphysics. — Dupin. Cave. 
 Leland. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 P U II 
 
 livered a thesis, " De Cincliona officinali. 
 sive Corlice Pi-ruviano ;"' and soon after he 
 seillt'd at lilandford in J^orsetshire, where he 
 practised as physician during the remainder of 
 his life. In 17[il he publislied " A General 
 View of the Writings of Linna»us," 8vo ; and 
 in 1790 appeared his priiicij-al work, " Histo- 
 rical and Biographical Sketches of the Pro- 
 gress of Botany in England, from its Origin to 
 the Introduction of the Linnajan System," 
 2 vols. 8vo. He also was tlie author of some 
 papers in the London Medical Journal, and the 
 Memoirs of the JMedical Society. His death 
 took [)Iace October 13, 1801.— /Jees's Cyclop. 
 Bio'j^. Univ. 
 
 ^ PULTENEY (V^iLLiAM)earl of Bath, an 
 English statesman, who distinguislied himself 
 as the political antagonist of sir Robert Wal- 
 pole. He was descended from an ancient 
 family, and was born in 1682. After receiving 
 part of his education at Westminster .'^chool, 
 he became a student of Christchurch, Oxford ; 
 and when queen Anne made a visit to the 
 university, he addressed to her majesty a con- 
 gratulatory speech on the occasion. After 
 having travelled abroad, he returned to his 
 native country, to devote himself to politics ; 
 and being chosen a member of the house of 
 Commons, he joined the party of the whigs, 
 in the later years of the reign of Anne. Under 
 George I he obtained a seat at the council- 
 board, and was made secretary at war. A 
 dispute with sir Robert Walpole caused his 
 removal to the ranks of the opposition ; when 
 he joined lord Bolinghroke in conducting an 
 anti-ministerial journal, called " The Crafts- 
 man." In 1731 he fought a bloodless duel 
 wiih lord Hervey, which gave offence to the 
 king, who removed Mr Pulteney from the of- 
 fice of privy counsellor, which he had hitherto 
 held ; and also from the commission of the 
 peace. These and other marks of the dis- 
 pleasure of his majesty or his advisers, only 
 served to increase the popularity of this lea- 
 der of the opposition, who at length succeeded 
 in procuring the resignation of his rival, Wal- 
 pole, in 1741. The party with which he had 
 acted then came into power, and he was him- 
 self raised to the peerage, by the title of earl of 
 Bath. From that period his favour with the 
 people entirely ceased, and he became more 
 
 PULTENEY (Richard) an ingenious phy- | completely the object of public contempt tlian 
 
 sician and botanist, bom at Loughborough in 
 Leicestershire, in 1730. He was educated for 
 the medical profession, and settled as a sur- 
 geon at Leicester, devoting his leisure to 
 scientific inquiries. In 1759 he published in 
 the Philosophical Transactions " An Account 
 of some rare Plants found in Leicestershire ;" 
 
 perhaps any other political leader of his time. 
 His death took place June 8, 1761. — Tiiog, 
 Peerage. 
 
 PURBACH or PURBACIHUS (George) 
 a learned German of the fifteenth centurj', so 
 named from the place of his nativity. He was 
 born in 1423, and received his education at 
 
 and the following year, " Observations upon' Vienna, where he distinguished himself both 
 the Sleep of Plants, with an Account of that I as a good mathematician and a sound clas- 
 Faculty which Linnaeus calls Vigiliac Florum, ; sical scholar. He rose to be mathematical 
 and an Enumeration of several Plants, which \ professor in the university belonging to that 
 are subject to that Law." In 1762 he was capital ; and the science is indebted to him for 
 chosen a fellow of the Royal Society ; and he ' several improvements, theoretical as well as 
 then communicated " A Case of a Man whose practical, especially as far as regards some of 
 Heart was enlarged to a very uncommon its instruments, and the construction of some 
 Size." He took the degree of MD. at the , useful tables in trigonometry, &c. He was one 
 universitv of Edinburgh in 1764, when he de- of the best astronotners of his dfiy, and had set 
 
P U 11 
 
 PUR 
 
 a!>ou<: a translation of Ptolemy's " Almages- I during his life, but many of them were pub- 
 luin." from the Arabic version, but was pre- lished afterwards by his widow, under the 
 rentetl by death from completing it. He was title of " Orpheus Britannicus." " Ye twice 
 also the author of a treatise, entitled " A ' ten hundred Deities," contained in this col- 
 Theory of the Planets." His death took place lection, is considered the finest piece of recita- 
 in 1 161 . — llullons Math. Diet. i tive in the language ; while his music in " King 
 
 J'UKCELL (IIenuy) an English musical Arthur " has maintained its popularity undi- 
 composer of first-rate skill and eminence, minished above a century. In 1695, the year 
 He was the son of an able musician and gen- ; of his death, he set to music " Bonduca," and 
 tieman of the chapel royal, of the same name, ' "The Prophetess," an opera altered by Dryden 
 who dying, in 1664, left him an orphan in his from Beaumont and Fletcher; and, besides 
 sixth year. He was admitted at an early age the works already enumerated, he was tbe 
 a chorister in the king's chapel, where he stu- author of a vast variety of Catches, Rounds, 
 died music under captain Cook and his sue- Glees, &c. not less remarkable for their me- 
 cessor. Pel ham Humphrey ; and afterwards lody than for their spirit, humour, and origi- 
 completed his education under doctor Blow, nality. The works of no musical composer 
 who was so proud of his scholar, that at were, perhaps, ever more congenial with the 
 his death his friends thought it worthy of na'.ional taste of this country, which displayed 
 bein-^- inscribed on the monument of the de- its gratitude by a monument erected to his 
 ceased, that he was " INlaster to the famous honour, in Westminster abbey. His death 
 jVIr Henry Purcell." In 1676, when only eigh- took place November 21, 1695. — Uamel 
 teen years old, he obtained the situation of or- ' Pukcell, his younger brother, was also a mu- 
 ganist to Westminster abbey, and six years sician, but of far inferior reputation. He was 
 afterwards succeeded Dr Edward Law in a organist of Magdalen college, Oxford ; and 
 similar capacity at the chapel royal, St James's, composed an opera, entitled " Brutus of 
 From this period his fame seems to have in- : Alba," as well as another, called " The Grove, 
 creased with a rapidity proportioned to his or Love's Paradise." His fame, however, 
 merit, his anthems and churcli music in gene- rests principally on his character as the most 
 ral being especially popular in all the cathe- ; facetious punster of his day ; and many spe- 
 drals of the kingdom. Nor were his compo- ' cimens of this kind of wit are attributed to him 
 sitions for the stage and music-room less sue- in the jest books of the period. — Burney's 
 cessful ; no other vocal music being listened -fizst. o/"Mus. 
 
 to with pleasure in this country, comparatively ' PURCHAS (Samuel) an English divine, 
 speaking, till the rise of Handel, nearly thirty ' was born in 1577, at Thaxtead in Essex. He 
 years after his decease. The unlimited powers was educated at Cambridge, where he took 
 of his genius embraced every species of com- the degree of BD. His principal work was 
 position with equal facility ; and with respect entitled " Purchas his Pilgrimages, or Bela- 
 to chamber music, all prior productions seem tions of the World," 5 vols, folio, which was 
 to have been at once and totally superseded, well received ; and with Hakluyt's Voyages, 
 Of his numerous compositions his celebrated led the way to all other collections of the same 
 "■ Te Deum " and " Jubilate" have been er- ' kind, and have been much valued and esteem- 
 roueously supposed, by Tudway and others, to ed. He also wrote ' Microcosmos, or the 
 have been written for the opening of new St History of Man," 8vo ; " The King's Tower 
 Paul's, although the author did not live to see and Triumphal Arch of London." J\Ir Pur- 
 the building finished ; the fact, however, ap- ' chas was rector of St Martin's in Ludgate, and 
 pears, from a copy preserved in the library cha])laiQ to Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 of Christchurch, Oxford, to have been, that He died in London in 1628. — His son, Sa- 
 they were composed for the celebration of St bujel, wrote " A Theatre of Political Flying 
 Cecilia's day, 1694. Among his other works Insects," 1657. A cojjy of the I'ilgrim 
 of a sacred nature are three full and six verse, ! of Purchas is now deemed very valuable. — 
 anthems, to be found in Dr J?oyce's collection; : Biog. Brit, 
 
 a whole service in the key of B fiat; with eight \ PURA'ER (Anthony) a native of Hamp- 
 anthems preserved in the British museum ; and shire, who distinguished himself by a transla- 
 Hymns, Psalms, Motets, (Sec. of a singularly I tion of the Bible. He was born in low life, 
 sublime cast, in a manuscript bequeathed by and was apprenticed to a shoemaker : being 
 dean Aldrich to Christchurch library. Of i afterwards emiiloyed as a shepherd, he found 
 these, the " Te Deum " was constantly per- | leisure for study, to wiiich he was excited by 
 formed at St Paul's, on the feast of the sons of the perusal of a tract, in which some inaccura- 
 
 the clergy, till it was superseded by that of 
 Handel, written on the occasion of the peace of 
 Utrecht, which in its turn yielded to that for 
 the victory at Dettingen, by the same com- 
 poser, which still maintains its ground, and 
 constantly forms a part of the solemnity on the 
 occasion. Of his instrumental music a collec- 
 tion was published two years after his decease, 
 by Frances Purcell, his executrix, containing 
 •eirs in four part.s for two •'iolins, tenor, and bass, 
 i-c'.v of hi3 songs appeal to have been printed 
 
 cies in the authorized version of the Bible were 
 pointed out. He then endeavoured to acquire 
 a knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
 languages, which he did with very little as- 
 sistance ; and having settled at Antiover as a 
 schoolmaster, he completed a translation of the 
 Old and New Testaments into English, which 
 work was publisbed at the expense of Dr Fo- 
 thergill in 1765, 2 vols, folio. As the produc- 
 tion of a self-eaucated scholar, it deserves con- 
 siderable approbation, the author having ge- 
 
P {] T 
 
 Derally succeeded in giving a more literal 
 translation of tbe Scriptures than tliose who 
 preceded him. He belonged to the sect of tlie 
 Quakers, among whom lie was an occasional 
 preacher. His death took place in August 
 1777. — Chalmers's Biog. Did. 
 
 PUTEANUS (Erycius) or Vander Put- 
 ten, a learned writer, was born at Vanloo in 
 lo74. He went to Italy, and became professor 
 of rhetoric at Milan, and historiogra})her to the 
 king of Spain, and was made a citizen of Rome. 
 He returned to Louvaine, and succeeded Lip- 
 fiius as professor of belles lettres. He was 
 also counsellor to the archduke Albert, and 
 governor of the citadel of Louvaine, where lie 
 died in 1646. His works are, " Statera Belli 
 et Pacis ;" " Historia Insubrica ;" " Or- 
 chestra Bur£:undica ;" " Theatrum Historicum 
 Imperatorum ;" " Comas, seu de Luxu Som- 
 nium ;" " De Usu Bibliothecai Ambrosiana;," 
 &c. — Bayle. Moreri. -.Saxii Ono7n(ist. 
 
 PUTTENHAM (George) an English poet, 
 was born about 1530, and educated at Oxford. 
 He distinguished himself in the court of Ed- 
 ward VI by an eclogue, entitled " Elpine." 
 He then made one or two tours on the conti- 
 nent, and on his return he became one of the 
 gentlemen pensioners of queen Elizabeth. The 
 only pieces of his extant are, " The Art of 
 Poesie," and " The Partheniades ;" the latter 
 of which was presented to queen Elizabeth, 
 as a new-year's gift, in 1379. The Art of 
 Poesie proves the soundness of his judgment, 
 and his candour as a critic, and is a curious 
 and entertaining work. It was reprinted by 
 Haslewood in 1811. — Censwa Lit. Walton's 
 Hist, of Poetry. Gent. Mag. 
 
 PUTNAM (Israel) a major-general in 
 the service of the United States of America, 
 bom at Salem, in the province of IMassachu- 
 setts, about 1718. He was principally noted 
 for his daring courage, which he displayed in 
 a singular combat with a wolf in 1739. He 
 was at that time a farmer, residing at Pomfret in 
 Connecticut ; and his flocks, as well as those of 
 his neighbours, being terribly thinned by the 
 ravages of a monstrous she-wolf, Putnam, with 
 a few associates, traced the ferocious animal to 
 her den, which was a deep cavern in a rock. 
 Into that place he crept alone, with a torch in 
 one hand and a musket in the other, and, at the 
 utmost personal risk, destroyed the creature, 
 according to some accounts, by strangling her 
 in his arms, after he had wounded her. In the 
 war with France, in 1755, he obtained the com- 
 mand of a company ; and he served in the ex- 
 pedition against Ticonderago in the following 
 year. He was afterwards taken prisoner, and 
 conveyed to INIontreal ; but was released on 
 peace taking place, when he retired to his 
 farm. On the commencement of hostilities 
 between this country and the colonies, he 
 raised a regiment, and soon was appointed a 
 major-general, in which capacity he com- 
 manded at the battle of Bunktr's-hill. He 
 was afterwards employed at New York, Phi- 
 ladelphia, and various other places, where he 
 maintained his reputation as a bold and ekilful 
 oiiicer. Illness obliged him to retire from the 
 Vol. II. 
 
 P (J Y 
 
 service, and he died in 1790, much regretted 
 by his fcllow-citizt'ns. — Biog. Notiv. des Con. 
 
 PUT'lER (John Stephen) an eminent 
 (jerinan writer on history and national policy, 
 who was a native of Iserlohn in Westjjhalia. 
 His father was a merchant, and he studied at 
 IMarpurg, Halle, and Jena, whence he removed 
 again to Marpurg in 1742. In 1744 he com- 
 menced his academical career, by a course of 
 lectures on the history of the empire ; and in 
 1746 he became professor at Gottingen. In 
 1762 he went to Gotha, to deliver lectures to 
 the hereditary prince, inconsequence of which 
 he was introduced to the great Frederic of 
 Prussia; and in 1764, on the election of Jo- 
 seph II as king of the Romans, this learned 
 professor was appointed counsellor to the Ha- 
 noverian legation at Frankfort. He was of- 
 fered the title of aulic counsellor at Vienna in 
 1766, but nothing could induce him to leave 
 Gottingen, where he obtained the office of dean 
 of the faculty of jurisprudence in 1797, on 
 the death of Boehmer. He died August 12, 
 1807, at the age of eighty-two. His principal 
 works are, " Institutiones Juris Publici Ger- 
 manici ;" "A Sketch of the History of Ger- 
 many;" " An Historical Developement of the 
 Constitution of the Germanic Empire," which 
 was translated into I^nglish by Dr Dornford, 
 and published in 3 vols. 8vo, 1790 ; " An Es- 
 say toward an Academical History of the 
 learned Men belonging to the University of 
 Gottingen;" "The Literature of German 
 Public Law;" and his "Autobiography." — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 PUY(du). There were several learned and 
 ingenious French writers of this name, whose 
 famiily was connected by the ties of consan- 
 guinity with that of the celebrated Thuanus. 
 Of these, Claude ou Puy, an advocate of 
 some eminence, had Jiree sons : Pierre, bom 
 in 1512, at Agen, followed the profession of his 
 father, became keeper of the royal library and 
 a counsellor to the king, in which capacity he 
 contended for the civil privileges of the sove- 
 reign in the bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, &c. 
 and published a treatise on the French /aws, 
 respecting succession to the crown. He was 
 also a sound antiquarian, and besides an edi- 
 tion of Thuanus, which he superintended, was 
 the author of a variety of valuable works, on 
 subjects connected with politics and history. 
 The principal of these are, •' A Treatise on 
 the Rights and Liberties of the Gallicau 
 Church," folio, 3 vols.; " Historical Remarks 
 ou certain Events in French History, the 
 Condemnation of the Knights Templars, the 
 Schism of Avignon, &c." 4to ; " A History of 
 the principal Favourites, &c." " On the Ma- 
 jority of the Kings of France, Regencies, ficc." 
 He died in 1651, and is highly complimented 
 for his talents by Voltaire. — Cmkistophfr, 
 the second brother, took holy orders, and is 
 known as the publisher of " Perroniana." He 
 survived his brother Pierre about three years. 
 — Jacques, the third brother, was also an ec- 
 clesiastic, and obtained the priory of St Sa- 
 viour's. He was the author of a Glossary to 
 the names in the history of his kinsman De 
 
 3 A 
 
P Y E 
 
 Thou, and died in 1657. — Louis du Puy, de- 
 •cended of the same family, was born in 1709 
 at Bugey, and becoming librarian to the prince 
 de Soubise, published under the auspices of 
 that nobleman a translation of the tragedies of 
 Sophocles. He was also for many years editor 
 of the Journal des Savans, and the author of 
 a treatise on geometry, ber^ides sundry philo- 
 sophical papers in the Transactions of the Aca- 
 demie des Inscriptions, of which he was a 
 member. — Bio^. Univ. 
 
 PUY-SEGUR (Jacques de Chastenet, 
 lord of) the name of two celebrated French 
 commanders, father and son. The elder de- 
 scended of a noble family of Armagnac, was 
 born at the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century, and entering the army at an early 
 age, served forty-three campaigns, in the 
 course of which he was present in thirty bat- 
 tles, and assisted at a hundred and twenty 
 sieges ; yet such was his good fortune, that 
 though he always exposed his person with be- 
 coming bravery, he never oace received a 
 wound. On retiring from the service, he 
 amused his leisure hours by compiling his own 
 memoirs, which appeared at Paris, about eight 
 years after his decease, and are remarkable for 
 their accuracy as well as interest. They em- 
 fcrace a period of more than forty years, ex- 
 tending from 1617 to 1658. He enjoyed the 
 rank of lieutenant-general, and died in 1682, 
 at his estate in the neighbourhood of Guise. — 
 His son, born in 1655, was also an excellent 
 officer, and rose to <lie dignity of a mar- 
 ehal of France. He was the author of a 
 treatise on tactics, whiv.b went through two 
 editions, the first of which was in foUo ; the 
 latter, printed in two quarto volumes, appeared 
 five years after his death, v/hich took place in 
 1743. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 PUZOS (Nicholas) a celebrated accou- 
 cheur, bom at Paris in 1686. He was the son 
 of an army surn-eon, and after having gone 
 through a course of philosophy at the university 
 of Paris, he served in the military hospitals, 
 made several campaigns, and arrived at the rank 
 of assistant surgeon -major. He afterwards set- 
 tled at Paris, and devoted himself to the ob- 
 stetrical branch of his profession. Becoming 
 one of the first members of the Academy of 
 Surgery, he was, in 1741, made a vice-director, 
 and soon after director. The office of censor- 
 royal for books on surgery was conferred on 
 him on the death of Petit; and in 1751 the 
 king gave him letters of nobility. He died 
 June 7, 1753. . Puzos was chiefly eminent as 
 a practitioner ; but he was also the author of 
 a valuable memoir on Haemorrhages, in the 
 Transactions of the Academy of Surgery, and 
 of " Traite des Accouchments, coutenaut des 
 Observations importantes pour la Pratique de 
 cetArt," published posthumously, Paris, 1759. 
 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 PYE (Henhy James) an ingenious English 
 writer, born in London 1745, and educated at 
 Magdalen college, Oxford, where he gra- 
 duated LLD. in 1772. On quitting the uni- 
 versity he obtained a commibsion in the Berk- 
 shire militia, his family being connected with 
 
 P Y M 
 
 that county, which at a subsequent period be 
 became a candidate to represent in parliament, 
 but lost his election after an expensive contest. 
 Mr Pye was the author of a great variety of 
 poetical pieces, the principal of which are an 
 heroic poem, entitled '• Alfred ;" " Farring- 
 don Hill ;" " The Progress of Refinement ;" 
 " The Aristocrat ;" " The Democrat;" and 
 four volumes of miscellaneous poetry, besides 
 translations from Homer, Pindar, Aristotle, 
 Bvirger, &c. together with several Birth- day 
 Odes, written in his capacity of poet-laureat. 
 To this situation he was appointed in 1790, 
 and two years afterwards obtained that of a 
 stipendiary magistrate of police, both which 
 he filled till his death in 1813. — An7i. Biog. 
 
 PYLE (Thomas) a learned and able po- 
 lemic of the last century, a native of Stodey in 
 the county of Norfolk, born 1674. From 
 Caius college, Cambridge, he removed, on the 
 completion of his university education, to 
 King's Lynn ; and having taken holy orders, 
 became minister of a chapel there, distinguish- 
 ing himself both by his eloquence in the pulpit 
 and the exemplary tenor of his life. Bishop 
 Hoadly presented him at length with a stall 
 in Salisbury cathedral, in consequence of the 
 talent and zeal which he displayed in the ce- 
 lebrated Bangorian controversy ; and in 1732 
 his revenues were farther increased by the ad- 
 dition of the vicarage of St Margaret's at Lynn. 
 He was the author of valuable Paraphrases of 
 the Old Testament, and of the Epistles con- 
 tained in the New, as well as of the Acts and 
 Revelations, which have gone through several 
 editions. Two years after his decease, which 
 took place in 1755, his son, Philip Pyle, pre- 
 bendary of Winchester, published a collection 
 of upwards of sixty of his father's sermons, in 
 three 8vo volumes. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 PYM (John) a noted parliamentarian in 
 the reign of Charles I, was descended of a 
 good family in Somersetshire, where he was 
 born in 1584. He was educated at Pembroke 
 college, Oxford, whence he removed to one of 
 the inns of court, and was called to the bar, 
 and placed as a clerk in the office of the ex- 
 chequer. He was early elected member of 
 parliament for Tavistock in the reign of James 
 I, and in 1626 was one of the managers of the 
 articles of impeachment against the duke of 
 Buckingham. He was also a great opposer of 
 Arminianism, being himself strongly attached 
 to Calvinistic principles. In 1639 he, with 
 several other commoners and lords, held a 
 close correspondence with the commissioners 
 sent to London by the Scottish covenanters ; 
 and in the parliament of 1640 he was one of 
 the most active and leading members. On the 
 meeting of the next, or long parliament, he 
 made an able and elaborate speech on griev- 
 ances, and impeached the earl of Strafford, at 
 whose trial he was one of the managers of the 
 house of Commons. It was the zeal and ear- 
 nestness of Pym which chiefly led Charles 
 into the imprudent measure of comins: to the 
 parliament in person, to seize him and four 
 other members. Nothing intimidated, he con- 
 tinued firm in the interest* of parliament, but 
 
PVR 
 
 thought it necessary, some time before his 
 death, to draw up a defence of his conduct, 
 which leaves it doubtful what part he would 
 have taken had he lived until hostilities com- 
 menced. In November, 1643, he was ap- 
 pointed licuteuaiit of the ordnance, and would 
 probribly have risen to greater distinction, iiad 
 he not died of an impostliume m liis liowels, 
 Decenibf r 8. 1643. Tlie abditieti of tlii* ,>ar- 
 liamcntary leader are acknowledged on all 
 sides ; nor does there appear any solid reason 
 to impeach his integrity in what he deemed a 
 conscientious discharge of hi« duty, beyond 
 the imputations and surmises of the opposing 
 party, wiiich, as may l^ seen in Clarendon, 
 amount to little beyor.u rumours, and the infe- 
 rences drawn from the fact of his dying rich. — 
 Clarendon s Hist, of' Rebell. Manhaii's Fun. 
 Sermon, Birch's Lives. 
 
 PYNAKEll (Adam) an eminent Dutch 
 painter, was born at Pynaker in Holland, in 
 I6';il. He went to Rome for improvement, 
 and became a distinguished landscape painter. 
 His management of light and shade, liveliness 
 of colourin;::, and architectural emnellisliments 
 are much admired. He died in 1673. His 
 small pictures are most valued. — Pilkingtoa's 
 Diet. 
 
 PYNSON (Richard) a printer, was born 
 in Normandy, but was naturalized in England 
 by the patent of Hen'y VII, whose printer he 
 became. He was the first who introduced the 
 Roman letter into this country, and he was 
 eminently successful in his publications, which 
 consist chiefly of law books. He is supposed 
 to have died about 1329. — Dibdin's Typogra- 
 phical Antiquities. 
 
 PYRRHO,aii eminent Greek philosopher, 
 and founder of the sect of Pyrrhonists, or 
 sceptics, was the son of Piibtarchus, of the 
 city of Elea, in the Peloponnesus. He flou- 
 rished about the 1 lOth Olympiad, or PC. 340, 
 and applieii himself first to painting, but as- 
 piring to philosophy, became the disciple of 
 Anaxarchus, whom he accompanied to India 
 in the train of Alexander the Great. Here 
 he made himself acquainted with the opinions 
 of the Brahmins, Gymnosophists, and JMagi, 
 from whom he imhibed whatever seemed fa- 
 vourable to his own natural dis])Osition for 
 doubting. As he advanced in this career he 
 gradually arrived at the conclusion, that all 
 is to be doubted, and nothing atlirnied ; and 
 formed a new school to establish the principle 
 that every thing is involved in uncertainty. 
 According- to Diogenes Laertius, he carried 
 his principles to a ridiculous extreme even in 
 common life ; but the respect i)aid to him 
 by ancient writers, makes it probable that 
 these stories were mere calumnies of the Stoics, 
 his opponents, especially as he was highly es- 
 teemed by his countrymen ; and after his death 
 the Athenians honoured his memory with a 
 statue. He died about BC. 288, in the nine- 
 tieth year of his age. The scepticism of 
 Pyrrho is in a great measure ascribed to his 
 early acquaintance with the system of Demo- 
 chtUB, and strong distaste for the endless 
 cavxls of the dogmatists. He Ic.'t uo wntiugs 
 
 J, V T 
 
 bflund him, but the tenets of his school may 
 be collected from the " Pyrrhonje Hypoty- 
 poses" of Sextus Empiricus. — Diog. Laert» 
 Br>>ckers llUt. ¥ kilos. Ruijle. 
 
 PYRRHUS, king of Epirus, one of the 
 most C'lebrated warriors of anfi(piitv, sup- 
 posed to be descemleii from Ac luiies. was the 
 son of /Kacides, ilriven fr<rn Ins kingdom bv a 
 revolt. By the assi.-tance of Glaucins. king 
 of Illyria, he recovered his father's kiimiom 
 at the age of twelve, hut was evpelled t«v Ins 
 great-uncle Neoptolrmus afi^^r he had oci u- 
 pied it five years. He returned to his broiher- 
 in-law, Dt^metrius Poliorcetes, and greatly dis- 
 tinguishc'd himself As a warrior at the batti*- of 
 Ijisus, BC. 301. At length, by the assistancv> 
 of Ptolemy, king of E;^ypt, he recovered his 
 throne, and immediately commenced the ca- 
 reer of restless ambition, in which his whole 
 future life was occupied. Of his various con- 
 tests, that wiih the Roman republic occupies 
 the most distin;4uished jihice in history. On 
 this occasion, he acted at the head of a gene- 
 
 j ral Greek confederacy, whii h deternuTied to 
 assist the Tarentines against the Romans. 
 Leaving his son regent of Epirus. he laiuic d 
 in Italy, DC 280, with an array of 2.t,():)0 men, 
 
 ; including 7.000 of the veieiaii troojisof Aiex- 
 ander, with a number of war elt-pliants. Tht- 
 course of this eventful war belongs to history, 
 of which, as illustrative of the great military 
 abilities of the contending parties, and the 
 rising loftiness of the Romans, it forms a 
 S[)Iendid [)ortion. When obliged to reiiirn 
 from Italy, Pyrrlms gladly seized a pretext to 
 retire to Sicily, where he ent' red into a siini- 
 
 I lar contest with the Carthaginians, and with 
 a like final result. A second expeilition to 
 Italy ami Sicily, after much arduous and spi- 
 rited warfare, ended very much like the former. 
 Attacks upon S{>arta and Argos followed, in 
 the latter of which this restless, hut accom- 
 plished warrior, was struck from his horse bv 
 a tile thrown at him from the top of a hoiise 
 by an Argive woman, and killed while he hiy 
 stunned senseless from the blow. Pyirhus, 
 who was regarded as the greatest captain of his 
 day, was unhappily one of those leailers who 
 love war for its own sake. J he Romans en- 
 tertained the highest opinion of his miiitar}" 
 skill, and Hannibal is said to have placed him 
 next to Alexander. He has been accounted 
 the first who perfectly understood the art of 
 
 I encamping, and of drawing up an army ; and 
 several volumes whi<h he wrote upon the sub- 
 ject are mentioned by the ancients. He was 
 fond of glory, and personally brave even to 
 rashness ; but his faults, both of ambition and 
 love of war, were counterbalanced by a gener- 
 ous nature, which disposed him to acts of 
 
 j kindness, and the peiformance of many cour- 
 teous and benevolent actions. — Plutarch, 
 Univ. Hiit. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, the first of the ancient 
 sa'j:es who assumed the on^nnal modest title of 
 philosopher, and the founder of the Italic 
 school. The date of his birth is contested, 
 but the roost probable a?ra assigned is BC. 586 
 
 I His father, Mnemarchus, was an engraver o. 
 
PYT 
 
 Siimos, who travelled with his wife into Phoa- 
 nicia. where, in the town of Sidon, Pytha|^oras 
 was bi)rn. He was subsequently brought to 
 Samos, where his first master was Creophilas ; 
 and he afterwards received instructions from 
 Pherecydes, in the island of Soyros, whence, 
 it is a>serted. that he went to Miletus, and 
 conversed witii Tiiales, who recommended him 
 to visit E^ypt. He was received in the lat- 
 ter country with ejreat kindness by Amasis, its 
 kiufif ; and he remained there twenty-five years, 
 during which time he became deeply versed in 
 the science and mysteries of the Kgyptian 
 priesthood. From Egypt he is said by many 
 writers, both Pagan and Christian, to have 
 visited the East : but this is contradicted by 
 the express authority of Antiphon, quoted 
 by Porphyry, which states that he returned 
 directly frona Egypt to Ionia, and opened a 
 school at Samos, which, after a while, he 
 quitted, disgusted, as it is said, with the ty- 
 ranny of Polycrates. Be the motive what it 
 may, he passed over into that part of Italy de- 
 nominated Magna Graecia, and settled at Cro- 
 tona, a city in the bay of Tarentum, where he 
 jiened a school with great success. He also 
 taui^ht his doctrine in many other cities of 
 Magna Graecia, as well as in other parts of Italy, 
 and obtained numerous disciples, who held 
 him in a degree of respect little short of adora- 
 tion. At the same time, as he was a strenuous 
 political reforiiiist, and urged the inha!)itants, 
 not only of Crotona, but of several other places, 
 to assert their rights and resist the encroach- 
 ments of their rulers, he raised a powerful op- 
 position against himself, which ultimately led 
 to his destruction. Among the most vicious 
 and powerful of his enemies was Cylon, a 
 wealthy leader of Crotona, whom he refused 
 to enrol among his disciples ; in revenge for 
 which repulse, the latter surrounded the house 
 in which the Pythagoreans were assembled, 
 with a body of adherents, and brutally set It 
 on fire. By this wicked outrage, about forty 
 persons lost their lives ; but Pythagoras, not 
 being present, escaped. After the commission 
 of an act of this kind with impunity, he 
 deemed it expedient to withdraw, and endea- 
 voured to obtain an asylum among the Lo- 
 crians, who would not allow him to reside in 
 their country, and he returned to Metapontum 
 Here also finding himself surrounded with 
 enemies, he took refuge in the temple of the 
 Muses, where not being able to procure the 
 necessary supply of food, he is said to have 
 perished with hunger at the age of eighty. The 
 particulars concerning Pythagoras are mixed 
 with incredible fictions and extravagant tales of 
 the wildest description, the propagation of which, 
 there is strong reason to susjiect, that he him- 
 self promoted. His supernatural pretensions 
 were numerous and extraordinary, and could 
 only originate in the arts of imposture. Such 
 were his pretended adventures in tlie cave of 
 Crete, his assumption of tiie cbaiacter of 
 Ajwllo, and assertion that bis soul had lived 
 in the bodies of several persons of preceding 
 ages, whom he specified by name. VVe must 
 jeier to our authorities for an adequate account 
 
 PVT 
 
 of the doctrines of Pythagoras, who. in imi- 
 tation of the Egyptian priests, subjected his 
 pupils to a strict course of discipline. They 
 were in the first instance enjoined a silence of 
 five j'ears, in which tiiey were only to listen, 
 and even afterwards they were to talk with 
 great moderation. They were also obliged to 
 give up th>-*ir fortunes to the common stock, 
 and to abstain from certain articles of food, 
 and especially beans. With the greatest scru- 
 pulosity. In the way of communication, he 
 adopted the symbolical plan of the Egyptians, 
 in which veiled manner he treated of God 
 and the human soul, and delivered a vast 
 number of precepts relating to the conduct of 
 life, political as well as civil. He also made 
 considerable advances in the arts and sciences. 
 In arithmetic, the common multiplication-table 
 is to this day called Pythagorean ; and in geo- 
 metry he discovered many theorems, and parti- 
 cularly the famous one that in every right- 
 angled triangle the square of the largest side is 
 equal to the sum of the squares of thetwo shorter 
 ones, for which discovery he made a solemn 
 sacrifice. In astronomy, also, he made con- 
 siderable progress, and even maintained some- 
 thing respecting the true system of the world, 
 which places the sun in the centre, a science 
 established by Copernicus and Newton. The 
 musical chords are also said to have been di.s- 
 covered by Pythagoras, to whom is attributed 
 the invention of the musical canon, or mono> 
 chord. To show his veneration for the mar- 
 riage state, this philosopher took a wife at 
 Crotona, by whom he had two sons, who as- 
 sumed the direction of his school on his death. 
 Whether Pythagoras left any writings behind 
 him has been doubted by the ancients ; but 
 the soundest opinions are against the authenti 
 city of several which have been attributed tt 
 him. The " Golden Verses," which pass under 
 his name, are supposed to have been written 
 either by Epicharmus or Empedocles. Not- 
 withstanding the high encomiums bestowed 
 upon this j)hilosopher, Brucker is of opinion 
 that he owed much of his celebrity to impos- 
 ture ; but merited as this stricture probably is, 
 his genius was undisputably of the highest 
 order. The sect of Pythagoras subsisted until 
 the end of the reign of Alexander the Great, 
 when it }'ielded to the influence of the Aca- 
 demy and Lyceum, or at least cea.sed as a so- 
 ciety. The " Golden Veises," which may be 
 considered as a brief summary of his popular 
 doctrines, were translated by the dramatist 
 R)we, in 1707, 8vo. — Diog. Laertius. Stanley. 
 Brucker 
 
 PYTHEAS, a celebrated ancient traveller, 
 was a native of Massilia (now Marseilles) a 
 colony of the Phoceans, and flourished in the 
 time of Ari>totle and of Alexander the Great. 
 He was sent by his iellow-citizens to make new 
 discoveries in the North, and explored all the 
 sea-coasts from Cadiz to Thule, or Iceland. 
 H.s principal work, '•'• The Tour of the Earth," 
 is not extant, and has been avated by Polybius 
 and Strabo as fabulous, while other geographers 
 have confirmed his observations. — Fossii Hisi. 
 Grce'j. (iasscndi Oper. Ba^le. Nouv. Did. Hist, 
 
QUA 
 
 QUE 
 
 QUADRATUS, an early Christian writer, 
 flourished under the reigns of Trajan 
 and Adrian, and accordini; to Eusebius 
 and Jerome he was a disciple oi' the apostles, 
 and bishop of Athens. He succeeded Pub- 
 lius, who was martyred in the persecution under 
 Adrian ; and on the visit of that emperor to 
 Athens, Quadratus presented to him, in the 
 year 126, " An Apology for the Christian Re- 
 ligion," of which we have only a small frag- 
 ment preserved in Eusebius' s history, but 
 which, he says, was written with much ability, 
 and produced the desired effect, occasioning a 
 temporary cessation of the persecution. The 
 existing fragment is curious for the testimony 
 it gives to the realitj' of the miracles of Christ 
 and his apostles, asserting, that in his time 
 several of the persons were living in whose 
 favour these prodigies were wrought. There 
 's no certain information of the death of Qua- 
 dratus, but he is supposed to have been ba- 
 nished from Athens, and to have been greatly 
 tdrmented. — Eusebii Hist. Eccl. Cave. Lard- 
 ner, Saxii Onomast. Fubricii Bib/, Grcec. 
 
 QUADRIO (FuANcis Xavier) an Itahan 
 critic and historian, who was born in the Val- 
 teline in 1695, and died in 1756. He entered 
 into the society of the Jesuits, and distinguish- 
 ed himself by the cultivation of literature. He 
 was the author of *' Dissertations on the Val- 
 teline," 3 vols. ; a " History of Poetry," 7 
 vols. 4to. ; and a " Treatise on Italian Poetry," 
 published under the name of Joseph Maria 
 Andrucci. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 QUAG LI ATI (Paolo) a celebrated Ro- 
 man contrapuntist, who flourished about the 
 commencement of the seventeenth century, 
 and, according to his pupil Delia Valle, the first 
 who produced dramatic action or representa- 
 tion in music ever witnessed in Rome. This 
 he did in a cart, or ambulatory stage, during 
 the carnival of 1606. This circumstance co- 
 incides curiously with the first [production of 
 tragedy among the Greeks, the theatre of 
 which is said to have been a cart. — Biog. Diet, 
 of Mus. 
 
 QUARl.ES (Fkancis) an English poet of 
 *ome fame in his own day, was born in 1592, 
 near Rumford, in Essex, being the son of 
 James Quarles, clerk of the green cloth imder 
 queen Elizabeth. He was educated at Cam- 
 brulge, and entered at Lincoln's-inn. Ha ob- 
 tained the place of cup-bearer to the queen of 
 Bohemia, daughter of James I., which was 
 probably a mere sinecure. He wat» afterwards 
 under secretavy to archbishop Usher, in Ire- 
 land, from which country he was driven, with 
 the loss of hij uropertv by '.he rebellion of 
 
 Vol.. III. * ^ - •> 
 
 1641, and was appointed chronologor to the 
 city of London. At the commencement f)f tha 
 civil wars, he wrote a work entitled tho 
 " Loyal Convert," which gave great offence 
 to the Parliament, so that when he afterwards 
 joined the king at Oxford, occasion was taken 
 to sequestrate his property, and plunder him 
 of his books and MSS. He was so much af- 
 fected by his losses, that his grief is supposed 
 to have hastened his death, which__ tuuk place 
 in 1644, at the age of fifty-two. Of the nu- 
 merous works of Quarles, in prose and verse, 
 the most celebrated is his '• Emblems,'' a set 
 of designs exhibited in prints, and illustrated 
 by a copy [of verses to each. Few works have 
 been more popular in their own time, or more 
 neglected in the sequel. A great part of them 
 are borrowed fxom " The Emblems of Her- 
 mannus Hugo ;" but the verses are his own, 
 and certainly, as well shown by Mr. Jacksoa 
 of Exeter, they merit not the contempt which 
 they have experienced ; in the midst of much 
 false taste and conceit frequent bursts of fancy 
 and strokes of pathos being aflforded. His 
 other works, consisting of various miscellane- 
 ous productions in poetry and prose, many of 
 which are on scriptural subjects, with one or 
 two romances, and a comedy, are now seldom 
 mentioned, but are well described in the Bib- 
 liotheca Anglo-Poetica. — Biog. Brit. Head- 
 ley's Beauties. Restituta. 
 
 QUATROMANNI (Sektorio) an Italian 
 writer, was born at Cosenza in 1551, and died 
 in 1606. He rendered himself odious fo the 
 literati of his time by his vindictive and sa- 
 tirical disposition. His life was passed in 
 the cultivation of poetry and literature. His 
 works, consisting of Italian and Latin poems, 
 and letters, were published at Naples in 1714 : 
 some of them are worthy of attention, Sannaza 
 rius was his model, but the copyist was very 
 inferior. — Tiraboschi. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 QUELLINUS (Er.\:-«mls) an eminent 
 painter, was born at Antwerp in 1G07. He 
 was the disciple of Rubens, and became dis- 
 tinguished both in history and landscape. His 
 ideas are learned and elevated, his colouring 
 rich, and his execution bold and vigorous. His 
 principal painting is in the grand dining-hal! 
 at Antwerp, and represents Mary Magdalene 
 wa-shing the feet of Christ. He died in 1678. 
 — His son, John Erasmus, the younger, wa» 
 born at Antwerp in 1630. He visiti-d Italy 
 for improvement, and left several of his pr-'- 
 ductious in the capitals of that countiy. He 
 was employed in oainting historical pieces for 
 churches and convents, and was considered 
 one of the best Flemisn painteis. His mo*! 
 ♦ A 
 
Ql E 
 
 celebrated piece is Christ healing the sick, in 
 the abbey church of St Micliael at Antwerp. 
 He died in 1715. — D' Argenville. Pilkington. 
 
 QUENSTEDT (John Anduew) a German 
 Lutheran divine, was bom at Quedlinburgh in 
 1617. He was professor of divinity in the 
 university of Wittemberg for many years with 
 great reputation. He died in 1688. He 
 wrote a " System of Divinity," in 4 vols. ; 
 " De Sacrse Scripturas Divinitate ;" " Exer- 
 dtatio de Puritate Fontium Hebraei Veteris et 
 Graeci Novi Testament! ;" " De Sacra Scrip- 
 tura ejusque Attributis et Scopo praecipuo ;" 
 " Exe'rcitationes Theologicae ;" " Dialogus de 
 Patriis illustrium Doctrina et Scriptia Vi- 
 rorum ab Initio Mundi ad An. 1600 ;" •• Se- 
 pultura Veterum ;" and several other works 
 exhibiting proofs of learning, but deficient in 
 ' taste and correctness. — Le Long's Bibl. Sacra, 
 "^loreri. 
 
 QUERENGHI (Antonio) an Italian \^Tite^ 
 was born at Padua in 15'i6. He acquired a 
 vast knowledge of the languages, civil laws, 
 and philosophy ; and at an early age distin- 
 guished himself in the belles lettres. He 
 went to Rome, and entered into the service of 
 several cardinals, and was made secretary of 
 the sacred college. Clement VIII made him 
 a canon of Padua, but Paul V recalled him to 
 Rome, and made him his private chamberlain 
 and referendary of both signatures. ~ He re- 
 ceived several invitations from different princes, 
 but declined them all ; and remaining at Rome, 
 died there in 1 633. His Latin poems were 
 printed at Rome in 1629, and his Italian poe- 
 try in 1616. — Baillet, Tiraboschi. Moi-eri. 
 
 QUERLON (Anne Gabriel Meusnier 
 de) acelebrated journalist, was born atNemtes 
 in 1702. He was for two- and- twenty years 
 conductor of a periodical paper in Britanny, 
 called Les Petites Affiches, and was also 
 employed in the Gazette de France, and the 
 Journal Etrangere ; and he was one of the 
 co-operators of the Journal Encyclopedique. 
 He distinguished himself by his sound judg- 
 ment, and bis style was nervous and precise, 
 but sometimes cold and obscure. His works 
 are, " Les Impostures Innocentes ;" " Le 
 Testament de I'Abb^ des Fontaines ;" " Le 
 Code Lyrique, ou Reglement pour I'Opera de 
 Paris;" "Collection Historique ;" " A Con- 
 tinuation of the Abbe Prevot's History of 
 Voyages ;" "An elegant Translation of the 
 Abbe Marsy's Latin Poem on Painting." He 
 also published editions of Lucretius, Phaedrus, 
 and Anacreon, with notes. —Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 QUERNO (Camillo) an Italian poet, was 
 born in the kingdom of Naples, at the latter 
 end of the fifteenth century. He acquired 
 great fame by his facility in extempore versifi- 
 cation ; and in 1514 visited Rome, where he 
 was crowned aich-poet by some friendly bon- 
 vivans in a frolic, and was ever afterwards so 
 denominated. He pleased Leo X by his buf- 
 foonery, and was obliged to make a distich oflf 
 hand upon any subject which might be given 
 him. Once, when the fit was on him, he made 
 this verse : " Archipoeta facit versus pro 
 millepoetifl;" and as he hesitated to proceed. 
 
 QUE 
 
 the pope wittily added, " Et pro mille aliii 
 archipoeta bibit." Querno hastening to re- 
 paij his fault, cried, " Porrige quod facit ab 
 mihicarmina, docta Falernum ;" to which the 
 pope instantly replied, ♦' Hoc vinum enervat, 
 debilitatque pedes;" alluding either to the gout, 
 to which Querno was subject, or to the feet of 
 his verses. After the taking of Rome, he re- 
 turned to Naples, where he died in a hospi- 
 tal. Querno was the Italian Mac Flecknoe of 
 his day, and as such is often alluded to by 
 Pope and other satirists. — Roscoe's Life oj 
 Leo X. Saiii Onom. 
 
 QUESNAY (Francis) a French physician 
 of some eminence, but chiefly noted as a wri- 
 ter on political economy. He was born in 
 1694, near Montfort I'Amaury, in the isle of 
 France, and died at Paris in 1774. His father 
 I was a farmer, and he acquired the rudiments 
 of his profession under a country surgeon ; 
 after which, going to the metropolis, he be- 
 came secretary to a society established for the 
 improvement of surgery. At length he took 
 the degree of MD. and obtained the situation 
 of physician to madame de Pompadour, the 
 mistress of Louis XV, and through her interest 
 he became physician to the king also. Amid 
 the intrigues of a licentious court, he observed 
 a simplicity of manners and apparent dis- 
 interestedness which formed a strong contrast 
 with the characters of those around him. To- 
 wards the latter part of his life he became a 
 leader of the political sect of the economists, 
 to the influence of whose principles some have 
 unjustly attributed the occurrence of the French 
 Revolution. Quesnay, however, by no means 
 anticipated such a result of his doctrines ; and 
 he was much attached to the royal family, and 
 especially to the king, with whom he was i- 
 favourite, and who, in allusion to his turn for 
 speculation, called him his thinker, " pen- 
 seur." He was the author of " A Philoso- 
 phical Essay on the Animal Economy," 5 
 vols. 12mo ; and various surgical and medica. 
 ' works, besides several articles in the Encyclo- 
 pedie, and tracts on politics, including a trea- 
 ^ tise on " Physiocrasy, or the Government 
 ' most advantageous to the Human Race," 
 I 1768, Bvo. — Hutchinson's Biog. Med. Biog, 
 j Univ. 
 
 I QUESNE (Abraham du) a distinguished 
 , French oflScer, was born of a noble family in 
 Normandy in 1610, and was brought up to the 
 marine service by his father, who gave him the 
 I command of a vessel at the age of seventeen. 
 I In 1614 he went into Sweden, and was there 
 ' made vice-admiral of the fleet, and he distin 
 I guished himself in the battle in which the 
 Danes were defeated. In 1647 having been 
 recalled to France, he commanded a squadron 
 sent ou the Neapolitan expedition ; and the 
 French navy being very low, he fitted out some 
 ships at his own expense, with which he as- 
 sisted in the reduction of Bourdeaux. He de- 
 feated the Dutch in three engagements, in the 
 last of which the celebrated De Ruyter wa« 
 killed ; and he struck such terror into the 
 statps of Tunis and Tripoli, that he compellflW 
 them to seek a peace with France by submiis- 
 
QUE 
 
 gjon. His being a Protestant prevented him 
 from obtaining the recompence due to his im- 
 portant services. He however received a 
 foyal gift of a fine estate, which was erected 
 into a marquisate ; and on tlie repeal of the 
 edict of Naiitts, he was the only person ex- 
 empted from its penalties. lie died in 1688. 
 — His son, Henuv, was the author of " Re- 
 flections on the Eudiarist," a work much es- 
 teemed by tlie French l^rotestants. He died 
 in 1723. — Ferrault les Hommes Illustres. Mo- 
 •eri. Mod. Univ. Hist. 
 
 QUESNEL (I'asquif.r) a French Catholic 
 divine, who belonged to the congregation of 
 the Oratory, distinguished on account of the 
 dissensions in the church, to which his writings 
 gave rise. He was bom at Paris in 1634. 
 Ilaving entered among the fathers of the Ora- 
 tory, he devoted himself to literary studies 
 and the duties of his profession. He gave 
 otfence to the court of Rome by an edition of 
 the works of pope Leo the Great, which he 
 published in 1675 ; but the production which 
 excited the greatest animosity against him was 
 his New Testament, with moral reflections, in 
 eight volumes, 8vo ; from which one hundred 
 and one propositions were extracted, which 
 were condemned by the bull Unigenitus, as 
 favouring the erroneous doctrines of the Jan- 
 senists. Father Quesnel retired to Brussels, 
 and afterwards to Amsterdam, where he died 
 in 1719. His " New Testament, with Moral 
 Reflections upon every Verse," was translated 
 into English by Mr Russell, and published in 
 1729, 4 vols. 8vo. Dr Adam Clarke recom- 
 mends this work on account of the profoundly 
 pious spirit which it exhibits, though he ob- 
 jects to the rigid predestinarianism by which 
 the author was influenced. — Moreri. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 QUESNOY (Francis du) also called Fla- 
 mand, or the Fleming, was born at Brussels in 
 1594. He distinguished himself as a sculptor 
 at a very early age, and was patronized by the 
 archduke Albert and the constable Colonna. 
 He particularly excelled in making models and 
 bas-reliefs of Cupid« and children ; but being 
 reproaclied by the Italians for the unimport- 
 ance of his works, he undertook St Susanna in 
 marble, for the chapel of Loretto, which, witli 
 a St Andrew in St Peters, established his re- 
 putation. He was, however, in a state of great 
 indigence, owing to the slowness of liis exe- 
 cution, when Louis XHI appointed him as his 
 sculptor, and as the head of an intended school 
 for that art, at a liberal salary ; and he was 
 preparing for his journey to France when he 
 sank into a melancholy derangement, from 
 which he never recovered, but died at Leg- 
 horn in 1646. His works are highly valued, 
 particularly his infantile groups, which are 
 finished with peculiar grace and delicacy. — 
 y Argentine Vies des Sculpteurs. 
 
 QUEVEDO VILLEGAS (Francisco de) 
 
 Spanish satirist, born at Madrid in 1570. 
 5e was a knight of the order of St Jago ; and 
 naving attacked in his writings count Olivarez, 
 the favourite mii>i=fe o^ Philip IV, he was 
 thrown into prison; but on the disgrace of 
 
 QV I 
 
 that statesman, in 1643, lie was released. Hi« 
 death t(X)k place in 1647. Quevedo published 
 a Spaiuah tran^iaiiou of JCpictetus, together 
 with an apology for that writer ; " The Spa- 
 nish l^arnaspus ;" "Visions of Hell;" which 
 last work, by the peculiarity of its humour, has 
 made the author best known in foreign coun- 
 tries ; and various other works, satirical and 
 religious, both in verse and prose. Several of 
 his productions have been translated into Eng- 
 lish, of which the Visions, by sir R(#ger L'Es- 
 trange, have been repeatedly printed. — Moreri. 
 Bio<r. Unto. 
 
 QUICK (John) an eminent nonconformist 
 divine, was born at Plymouth in 1636, and 
 was educated at Exeter college, Oxford. 
 After ofliciating at various places, he was made 
 minister of Brixton, whence he was ejected in 
 1662; but he liad some valuable preferments 
 offered him, if he would conform, which 
 he refused to do. He continued to preach 
 for some time after his ejection, but being fre- 
 quently prosecuted, he accepted an invitation 
 to be pastor of the English church at Zealand, 
 where, however, meeting with some dissen- 
 sions, he returned to Eng^land in 1681, and 
 preached privately during the remainder of the 
 reign of Charles II. On the toleration of 
 king James, he formed a congregation in Bar- 
 tholomew Close. He died in 1706. His 
 principal work is his " Synodicon in Gallia 
 Reformata, or the Acts, Decisions, Decrees, 
 and Laws, of the famous National Councils of 
 the Reformed Churches in France." It is 
 composed of interesting and authentic mate- 
 rials, and is well worth attention. He also 
 left three folio volumes of MS. lives of emi- 
 nent Protestant divines, sermons, tracts, &:c. 
 — Calamy. Wilson's History of Dissentinir 
 Churches. Williams's and Freke's Funeral Ser- 
 mons, 
 
 QUIEN (Michael le) a learned French 
 Dominican, was born at Boulogne in 1661. He 
 was the zealous adversary of father Pezron, 
 and published a book against his Antiquity 
 des Tems retablie, entitled " Antiquite des 
 Tems detruite." He also wrote against Cou- 
 rayer, upon the validity of the ordinations of 
 Englisli bishops. His pnntipal work, and one 
 which did him honour, was an edition of the 
 works of Joannes Damascenus, in Greek and 
 Latin, which prove him to have been one of 
 the most learned men of his time. He pub- 
 lished a work called " Panoplia contra Schisma 
 Grfccorum," in which he refutes the accusa- 
 tions that have been brought against the Ro- 
 mish church. He was prevented by his death, 
 which took place in 1733, from the completion 
 of a very large work, of which he had already 
 published one volume, entitled " Oriens Chris- 
 tianus in Africa," or an account of all the pre- 
 lates of Africa and the East. — Moreri. Kouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 QUIEN DE LA NEUFVILLE (James 
 le) an historian, was bom at Paris in 1647. 
 He entered the army, wliich he soon quitted, 
 and repaired to the bar ; but disappointment 
 also meeting him here, he turned to literature, 
 and applied himself to history. In 1700 h« 
 
^ t 
 
 published a History of Portuga., down to the 
 death of Emanuel 1, in which INI. de la Clede, 
 who continued it, says, that he omitted seve- 
 ral important facts, and related otliers par- 
 tially. In 1713 he accompanied the abb6 de 
 Mornay, when he was appointed ambassador 
 to Portugal ; and tlie king of Portugal settled 
 upon him a pension of 1500 livres, and created 
 him a knight of the order of Christ. The suc- 
 cess of his Portuguese history induced him to 
 attempt its conclusion ; but his too close study 
 brought on a disorder, of which he died in 
 1728. Le Quien also wrote a treatise on 
 " L' Usages des Postes chez les Anciens et 
 es Modemes," Paris, 1734, 12mo. — Niceron. 
 Moreri, Suxii Ouo7nast. Diet. Hist. 
 
 QUILLET (Claude) a modern Latin poet, 
 was bom at Chinon in Touraine, in 1602 ; and 
 was brought up to the medical profession. 
 When JM. de Laubardemont, counsellor of state 
 and a creature of cardinal Richelieu's, was sent 
 to take cognizance of the famous pretended 
 possession of the ruins of Loudun, with in- 
 structions to find them real. Quillet exerted 
 himself so strenuously in detecting the impos- 
 tures, that a warrant was issued against him, 
 and he retired into Italy. He became secre- 
 tary to the marshal d'Etrees, the French am- 
 bassador at Rome, with whom he returned to 
 France, after the death of cardinal Richelieu. 
 In 1655 he published the first edition of his 
 poem, entitled " Callipredia sive de Pulchras 
 Prolis habendse Ratione," in which were some 
 satirical lines against Mazariu. The cardinal 
 Bent for Quillec, and remonstrating with him 
 for treating his friends with severity, promised 
 liim the next vacant abbey. Quillet oblite- 
 rated the offensive lines, and dedicated the next 
 edition to the cardinal. Ihe sprightliness of 
 Its style, and variety of its episodes, procured 
 this poem some popularity ; but the diction is 
 frequently impure and incorrect. He com- 
 posed a version of Juvenal, in French verse, 
 and a Latin poem called " Heuriades," or the 
 actions of Henry IV^. He died in 1661.-— 
 Buiile. Buillet. Moreri. 
 
 QUIN (James) an eminent actor, was born 
 ia London in 1693. Being the son of an 
 Irish barrister, he was educated in Dublin. 
 His father had unfortunately married a sup- 
 posed widow, whose husband, after a long ab- 
 sence, returned and claimed her ; on which 
 account Quin, who was the offspring of the 
 connexion, was deemed illegitimate, and upon 
 his father's death, in 1710, was left without a 
 fortune. The interruption of his prospects 
 prevented him from being adequately educated 
 for a profession, and he had recourse to the 
 Dublin stage in 1715, and in a year after se- 
 cured an engagement at Drury-lane theatre in 
 the metropolis. Here he remained some time 
 without much distinction, and in 1717 quitted 
 Drury-lane for the theatre in Lincoln's-inn- 
 fields, where he remained seventeen years, 
 and gradually acquired considerable celebrity 
 ia grave, dignified, and sententious tragedy, 
 such as in Cato, Zanga, and Coriolanus, and in 
 characters of strong sarcastic comic humour, 
 »s Falstaff, Volpoue, and ar .'ohn Brute.- In 
 
 Q U 1 
 
 1732 he removed with the same company to 
 Covent-garden ; but in 1735 was induced to 
 join that of Fleetwood at Drury-lane, on such 
 terms, according to Cibber, as no actor had 
 previously received ; and he retained the pre- 
 eminence until the appearance of Garrick in 
 1741. The success of the new performer 
 much annoyed him, and in his usual pithy 
 way he observed, that " Garrick, like Whit- 
 field, was a new religion, but all would come 
 to church again ;" a remark which extorted a 
 well-known epigram from his rival. In 1747 
 he was engaged at Covent-garden with Gar- 
 rick ; but the new actor obtained so dispro- 
 portionate a share of attention, that it may be 
 said to have gradually induced him to retire. 
 After the death of the poet Thomson, to whom 
 he had acted with great generosity, he appear- 
 ed in his play of Coriolanus, and spoke a pro- 
 logue v/ritten on the occasion by lord Lyttel- 
 ton, with a sensibility that did him honour. 
 His last perfonnance was FalstafF, in 1733, for 
 the benefit of his friend Ryan, in which cha- 
 racter he is supposed never to have been ex- 
 ceeded. He survived his retreat several 
 years, which he spent chiefly at Bath, where 
 his fund of anecdote, and pointed sense, made 
 him much sought after. Quin, who was con- 
 vivial, and too fond of the bottle, was often 
 coarse and quarrelsome on these occasions, 
 which led to two or three hostile encounters, 
 one of which proved fatal to his antagonist. 
 He was otherwise manly, sensible, and gener- 
 ous ; and his deliverance of Thomson from an 
 arrest, by a spontaneous present of 100/., al- 
 though then unknown to him, has often been 
 told to his honour. He died at Bath in 1766, 
 aged seventy- three. Garrick, once his rival, and 
 afterwards his friend, wrote the epitaph for his 
 monument in Bath cathedral. — Biog. Dram. 
 
 QUINAULT (Philip) a French dramatist, 
 of eminence as a writer of comic operas. He 
 was born at Paris in 1636, and was educated 
 for the bar ; but such was his peculiar incli- 
 nation for poetry, that he is said to have writ- 
 ten comedies at the age of fifteen. He be- 
 came auditor of accounts, and obtained a seat 
 in the French Academy ; and his great merit 
 as a lyric dramatist, rendered him an extraor- 
 dinary favourite with the public, and excited 
 the envy and satirical abuse of Boileau. He 
 was the author of a variety of light and lively 
 poems ; and in the latter part of his life he 
 repented of having written them, and endea* 
 voured to make atonement for his error, by a 
 serious poem, " On the Destruction of He- 
 resy." He died in 1688. Collections of his 
 operas, entitled •' Le Theatre de Quiuault," 
 have been repeatedly published ; and " Les 
 (Euvres choisies de Quinault," were printed 
 by Didot, 2 vols. 12mo. — Perranlt Homm 
 lUust. Biog. Univ. 
 
 QUINCY (John) an English physician and 
 medical writer of the last century. He prac 
 tised his profession, and delivered lectures on 
 tlje materia medica and pharmacy in London, 
 and died there in 1723. Among his works 
 are, " Medicina Slatica, or the Aphorisms o 
 J'^anttorius," 8vo j " The I^ispensatoiy of th« 
 
Q U I 
 
 Royal College of Physicians, translated with 
 Kctes and llernarks ;" " Lectures on Phar- 
 macy ;" 4to ; and " Lexicon Physico-lMedi- 
 
 cum, or a New Pliysical IJictionary," 8vo. 
 
 These have all become obsolete, exce])t the 
 
 last, which has st-rved as the foumlatioii of 
 Dr Hooper's Medical Dictionary, 179i, 8vo. — 
 
 Biiif^. Brit. 
 
 QUliXQUAPBOllEUS, or in French, 
 
 ClNt^AUBRLS (John) a learned Hebrew 
 
 schohir, was born at Aurillaciu AuvtTgne, and 
 
 became professor of Hebrew and Syriac in the 
 
 college of France in loa-i, and dean of the 
 
 royal professors. He died in 1587. His He- 
 brew Cirammar has been often reprinted, with 
 
 the title" Lingua3 Hebraicaj Institutiones ab- 
 
 solutissim;e." He also translated into Latin, 
 
 with notes, the •' Targum of Jonathan, Son of 
 
 Uzziel on Jeremiah,'" and several of the works 
 
 of Avicenna into Latin; and in 15.H he pub- 
 lished the Gospel of St Matthew in Hebrew, 
 with the version and notes of Sebastian iNIun- 
 ster. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 QUlNTILLiN (Mahcus Fabius Quin- 
 TiLiANus) a celebrated critic and teacher of 
 eloquence, was born in the year 42. He is sup- 
 posed to have been of S])aiiish origin, but he 
 was educated from his childhood at Rome, 
 where he studied rhetoric under Domitius 
 Afer. He is thought to have accompanied 
 Galba into Spain, and to have opened a school 
 at Calagurra. On the return of that leader 
 to Rome, on the death of Nero, he went back 
 with liim, and taught rhetoric at the expense 
 
 of the state, being allowed a salary out of the 1 which he obtained the management of the 
 public treasury. He pursued this occupation royal garden at Versailles, with the office of 
 for twenty years, joining with it the occasional director- general of fruit and kitchen gardens 
 j)leadingof causes in the forum. In the reign j to his most Christian majesty. His fame ex- 
 of Domitian, the education of two of the em- j tended to England, whither he made two voy- 
 peior's grand-nephews was entrusted to him, ages, and refused advantageous proposals, 
 and he is said to have been honoured with the which were presented to induce him to remain 
 
 i^ U 1 
 
 the current literature of the age. lie aiso 
 wrote a treatise on the causes of corruption 
 in eIo(iuen(e, which is lost ; and his name is 
 fixed to ceitain '♦ Dtclamatioud," nineteen 
 in numb<r, which are however deemed un- 
 worthy of him. 'i he first entire co[)y of the 
 " Institutiones Oratoriai," was discovered by 
 Poggio in the monastery of St (Jail, 'i'he 
 most useful editions of his works are those of 
 Hiirmann, 17i20, 2 vols. 4to ; of Capperone- 
 rius, folio, 1723 ; of Gesner, 17oB, 4to, beau- 
 tifully reprinted at Oxford in 1805, 2 vols. 
 8vo. — Lije by Burmann. Saiii Onom. Blair's 
 Lectures. 
 
 QUINTINIE (John de la) a celebrated 
 French horticulturist. He was born near Poic- 
 tiers in 1626, and studied at a seminary of the 
 Jesuits in that city. Having finished a course 
 of philosophy and jurisprudence, he went to 
 Paris, and was admitted an advocate. Pos- 
 sessing natural eloquence and considerable 
 knowledge, he iiad already attained some re- 
 putation, when he accepted the office of tutor 
 to the son of j\I. Tambonneau, president of 
 the chamber of accounts, with whom he tra- 
 velled into Italy. Having made himself ac- 
 quainted with the georgical works of Colu- 
 mella, Varro, and Virgil, he employed him- 
 self in making observations on planting in the 
 native country of those authors ; and on his 
 return to France, he instituted experiments 
 for the farther improvement of that branch of 
 rural economy. He acquired great eminence 
 for his horticultural skill, in consequence of 
 
 consular ornaments. Juvenal rej)resents him 
 to have been rich ; but Pliny the Younger 
 speaks of him as a man of very moderate for- 
 tune. He endured great affliction from the 
 premature loss of his wife and two sons, 
 whom be laments in terms which show some 
 
 in this country. He wrote a treatise on gar- 
 dening, of which there is an English transla- 
 tion. — Perrault. Biocr. Univ. 
 
 QUINTUS CALABER, or rather QUIX- 
 TUS SMYRNEUS, wasa Greek poet, who 
 wrote a Supplement to Homer's Iliad, i 
 
 want of fortitude. He was, however, a man j fourteen books, in which a relation is given of 
 of excellent morals, and all his writings are the Trojan war, from the death of Hector to 
 
 favourable to virtue. The only stain in his 
 literary character arises from his gross adula 
 
 the destruction of Troy. He is supposed to 
 have lived in the fifth century, and to have 
 
 tion of the emperor Domitian, a disgrace been a native of Smvrna ; but his poem being 
 which he shared with several other men of j discovered by Cardinal Bessarion, in the 
 eminence of his time. It is pretty clearly church of St. Nicholas near Otranto in Ca- 
 ascertained that he reached the age of four- labria, he was thence caUed Calaber. It was 
 score, but the exact time of his decease is i published at Venice, by Aldus, supposed in 
 
 uncertam. The work of Quinlilian which 
 has reached modeni times, is deemed one of 
 tlie most valuable remains of antiquity. It 
 was composed for the use of one of his sons, 
 whom lie lost, a youth described by him as a 
 prodiiiy of early excellence. Few works more 
 abound in good sense, or discover a greater 
 
 1.Y21 ; and the other editions are tliose of 
 Freigius 1569; of Rhodomannus, 1604; of 
 De Pauw, 1734 ; and of Pandurius, 1765. — 
 J'ossii Poet. Grtrc. 
 
 QUIRINI (Angelo jMaria) a Venetian 
 cardmal, was born in 1680. He went early 
 mto a convent of Benedictines, where he laid 
 
 degree of just and accurate taste ; and almost ' in a vast store of knowledge. He set out on 
 all the principles of good criticism are to be , his travels in 1700, and visited Germany, 
 found in it. There is perhaps no great depth j Holland, Flanders, England, and France, 
 
 of thought in his principles of rhetoric, but 
 his observations are marked with sound sense. 
 
 forming acquaintance with every distinguislied 
 literary character. Being created a cardinal, 
 
 and he affords much useful information on | he waited on Benedict XIIT, to thank him fc? 
 Biog. Dicr. — Vol. III. ■" 
 
QU I 
 
 iLat distinction. " It is not for you," said the 
 pope, " to thank me for raising you to tlxis 
 elevation ; it is ratlier my part to thank you 
 for having, by your merit, reduced me lo the 
 necessity of making you a cardinal." He was 
 also appointed librarian to the Vatican, and 
 prefect of the congregation of the Index. He 
 died in 1755, regretted by all ranks and sects ; 
 for though a zealous champion of the papacy, 
 he wrote with a candour and moderation, 
 which gained the applause of the Protestants 
 themselves. His principal works are, " An 
 Account of his Travels ;" " A Collection of 
 his Letters;" " Cardinal Pole's Letters;" 
 " A Work on the Lives of certain Bishops of 
 Bresse, eminent for Sanctity ;" " Specimen 
 variae Literature quae in Urbe Brixia ejusque 
 ditione paulo post Incunabula Typographiae 
 florebat, &c. ;" " Primordia Corcyraj ;" " An 
 edition of the Works of St Ephreni, in Greek, 
 Syriac, and Latin," &c. — Noui. Diet. Hist. 
 Moi-eri. 
 
 Q UI 
 
 QUISTORP (John) a German Lutheran 
 diviiie and professor, was born at Rostock in 
 1584. In 1614 he was made professor of di- 
 vinity in his native place, and in 1645 was aj)- 
 pointed pastor of St IMary's, and superintead- 
 ant of all the churches in the district df that 
 city. He attended the celebrated Grotius in 
 his last illness, and from him we have the par- 
 ticulars of his latest moments, in which be 
 rendered every tender service to tbat great 
 man. Quistorp died in 1648. He wrote " An- 
 notationes in omues Libros Biblicos ;" " Com- 
 mentarius in Epistolas Sancti Pauli :" " Ma- 
 nuductio ad Studium Theologicum ;" " Arti- 
 culi Formulae Concordiae illustrati ;" "Ser- 
 mons;" " Dissertations," &c. — He haa a son 
 of the same name, who was rector of the uni- 
 versity of Rostock, and died in 1669. He 
 wrote several controversial papers against the 
 papists. — Moreri. Nouv, Diet. Hist. 
 
 R A B 
 
 RABANUS MAURUS I^LAGISEXTIUS, 
 a learned German prelate, was born in the 
 year 785, atFulda, in which abbey he received 
 his first instructions, and he afterwards be- 
 came the disciple of the famous Alcuin, at 
 Tours. In 822 he was made abbot of Fulda, 
 and eight years afterwards he was instrumen- 
 tal in bringing about a reconciliation between 
 Louis le Debonnaire and his children. In 
 839 the monks of his abbey expelled him, al- 
 leging as a reason, that in consequence of his 
 devoting so much time to his studies the af- 
 fairs of the monastery were neglected. They 
 afterwards wished him to resume the govern- 
 ment, but he declined, and remained in retire- 
 ment until 847, when he was made arch- 
 bishop of Mentz. One of his first acts was to 
 summon a council, in which he procured the 
 condemnation of Godeschalc, for maintaining 
 the doctrine of St. Augustine respecting pre- 
 destination and grace. Rabanus died in 856. 
 He was a man of great learning, which he dis- 
 played in several Treatises and Commenta- 
 ries, which were all published in 1627, at Co- 
 logne, in 3 vols, folio. — Cave. Dupin. Mos- 
 heim. Moreri. 
 
 RABAUT DE ST. ETIENNE (John 
 Paul) a French Protestant clergyman and 
 advocate who was a native of Nismes, for 
 which city he was chosen a deputy to the 
 Constituent Assembly, at the commencement 
 of the Revolution. He had previously ob- 
 tained some reputation by his writings ; and 
 possessing eloquence and address, he ap])eared 
 with advantage .is a public speaker. He dis- 
 tinguislied himself at first as one of the warm- 
 est advocates for innovation ; but on being 
 elected a member of the National Convention, 
 his ardour in some degree subsided. He 
 had the courage to declaim against the right 
 
 R AB 
 
 of the convention to sit in judgment on Louis 
 XV L ; and on the debate in tliat subiect, lie 
 said, " I am weary of my share of the present 
 tyranny, and I sigh for the period when a na- 
 tional tribunal will oblige us to lay aside the 
 forms and manners of despots." These sen- 
 timents, and his connexions with the Giron- 
 dists, proved his destruction. Being im- 
 peached, he was arrested June 2, 1793 ; but 
 he made his escape, and took refuge in the 
 neighbourhood of Versailles. He was de- 
 clared an outlaw on the 28th of July ; when 
 he returned to Paris, and found an asylum ia 
 the house of his brother. Being discovered 
 by accident, he was seized and guillotined 
 December 5, 1793. He published several 
 historical and political works, among which 
 are " Lettres a Bailly sur I'Histoire primitive 
 de la Grece," Paris. 1787, 8vo ; and «' Pre- 
 cis de I'Histoire de la Revolution de France," 
 1791, 8vo. — James Anthony Rabaut Po- 
 MiER, younger brother of the preceding, was 
 also a Protestant minister, and a member of 
 the National Convention. He was impri- 
 soned in December, 1793, but recoverinsr his 
 liberty after the overthrow of the Terrorists, 
 he regained his seat in the Convention, and 
 afterwards became a member of the Council 
 of Ancients, and also held other offices. He 
 relinquished politics in 1803, and was ap- 
 pointed pastor of a Protestant church at Paris. 
 His death took place in 1820. He published 
 in 1810, " Napoleon Liberateur Discours Re- 
 ligieux," 8vo ; and in 1814, "Sermon d'Ac- 
 tion de Graces sur le Retour de Louis 
 XVIII." He is said to have made observa- 
 tions on the cow-pock, and its preservative 
 eflect against the smallpox, in 1786.- An- 
 other brother of the same family, Rabaut 
 Dup'Ti.s, was a merchant at Nismes, who tak- 
 
R A B 
 
 iTig an active part in public affairs, was j)ro- 
 scribed under the tyraiiiiy of Kobcspiorrc Wo 
 couceak'il himself liil the storm was over, ami 
 afterwards lield several emphjynients. lie died 
 in t80;l. Kabaut Dtipuis publitjhed "His- 
 torical Details and Collections relating to the 
 various Projects set on foot since tiie Refor- 
 mation for Re-union among the Christian 
 Communities," 18{)(), 8vo. — Diet, des 11. M. 
 du \i\mc S. Bio^. Univ. 
 
 RABELAlS(FnANcis)a celebratod French 
 wit, was the son of an apothecary at Cliinon, 
 in the province of Touraine, where he was 
 born about lU!."). lie was bred up in a con- 
 vent of Franciscan friars, in Poictou, and re- 
 ceived into their or^ler. His strong inclination 
 and taste for literature rendered him not only 
 very learned in the languages, but skilful in all 
 the science of the time. His conduct, how- 
 ever, was not so creditable as his abilities, and 
 an adventure of his, which caused scandal in 
 the monastery, was punished by imprisonment 
 in the cloister. At length he obtained his li- 
 beration by the interest of some persons of 
 rank, with permission to quit his order, and 
 ,nin that of St IVnedict. Not able to recon- 
 cile himself to any restraint, he threw aside 
 his religious habit altogether in lo30, and 
 went to study medicine at Montpellier. After 
 spending some time iii that school, he removed 
 to Lyons, where he printed a collection of Latin 
 translations of Hippocrates and Galen, as well 
 as some of the books of his famous history of 
 Pantagruel. In lo.'io he was taken under the 
 protection of cardinal John du Bellay, who re- 
 ceived him into his house as physician, libra- 
 rian, and steward. The cardinal being nomi- 
 nated ambassador to Kome the next year, was 
 accompanied by Rabelais, who so much amu- 
 sed the papal court with his wit and buffoonery, 
 that he obtained a plenary absolution for the 
 crime of apostacy. In 1537 he took the de- 
 gree of doctor of physic, at INIontpellier ; and 
 in 1538 was presented by cardinal T>\\ Bellay 
 with a prebendary. lie afterwards became 
 cure, or parochial priest, of JMeudon, which 
 office he lield from 1545 until his death. His 
 Pantagruel, which was finished about the time 
 he became pastor of INIeudon, excited much 
 enmity against him on the part of the monks, 
 who caused the condemnation of his work by 
 the Sorbonue and the parliament ; but in 
 other respects it rendered him popular as the 
 greatest wit of his time, a reputation which he 
 fully maintained by his companionable quali- 
 ties, and the iuexlraustible store of ludicrous 
 ideas which he displayed in conversation. He 
 died in 1553, at the age of seventy. The 
 " History of Gargantua and Pantagruel," of 
 Rabelais, is an extravagant and whimsical sa- 
 tire in the form of a romance, attacking all 
 sorts of monkish, and other follies, which it 
 ■would not have been safe to seriously expose. 
 Wit and learning are scattered in great profu- 
 sion, but in a very wild and irregular manner, 
 and with a strong mixture of coarseness and 
 obscenity. Ilis satire, when intelligible, is often 
 just and ingenious ; but the obscurity of his 
 language, and the eccentricity of his concep- 
 
 R A C 
 
 tions, have always bafiled commentators in 
 their attempts at explanation ; and he is now 
 nad more for the i»ure whimsicality of his 
 joke and allusion, than with a view to the ob- 
 jects of his satire. Many editions have been 
 given of Rabelais, the most conq)lete of which 
 is that printed at I belaud, with cuts, and notes 
 by Duchat, in 5 vols. 12mo, 1716 ; and that of 
 l)e la Monnoye, 171-1, :> vols. Ito, with jjiates 
 by Picart. iMotteux j)uijiished an Knglish 
 translation in London, 1708, with a preface 
 and notes, in which he endeavoured to show 
 that Rabelais intended a sort of burlestpie 
 history of his own times. This was followed 
 by another by Ozell, in 4 vols. The letters of 
 Rabelais have been published in 8vo, witli 
 notes by St Marthe. Every careful reader of 
 the one and the other, must perceive that the 
 Tristram Shandy of Sterne originated in a 
 Z'.-alous perusal of the principal work of Ra- 
 belais. — Moreri. Cltaiif'epie. Xnnv. Diet. Hist, 
 RABENER (Gottlier William) a Ger- 
 man writer, born at Wacbau, near Leipsic, in 
 1714. lie was educated for the legal profes- 
 sion, and obtained the office of comptroller of 
 the taxes in the district of Leipsic, He made 
 himself known as a satirist and a letter- writer ; 
 and he is reckoned among the classic authors of 
 Germany, but his reputation is rather on the 
 decline. He died at Dresden, in 1771. His 
 satires have been often printed, and have been 
 translated into French ; and his Letters have 
 appeared in an English dress. There is a 
 collective edition of the works of Rabener, 
 published at Leipsic, 1777, 6 vols. Bvo. — Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 RABUTIN" (Roger) Count de Bussy, 
 a French wit and satirist, born of an ancient 
 family, in the province of Burgundy, in 1618. 
 He entered into the army at the age of twelve, 
 and served under his father ; and he miorht 
 have probably attained high military rank, if 
 he had not offended persons in power by the 
 carelessness of his conduct, and by the com- 
 position of scandalous lampoons. His " His- 
 toire Amoureuse des Gaules," a work of this 
 description, occasioned his being im]>risoned 
 in the Bastile in 1665; and on his release he 
 was banished from the court, whither he was 
 not permitted to return till 1681. Plis death 
 took place in 161*3. Among his principal 
 works are " Lettres, avec les Reponses," re- 
 published at Amsterdam, 1782, 6 vols. 12mo; 
 and '• Memoires," 2 vols. l2mo. — Fuancis 
 Rabutin, count de Bussy, of the same family 
 with the preceding, was the author of " Mi- 
 litary Memoirs," which are much esteemed. 
 He lived in the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. — Niceroii. Diet. Hist. Bioir. Univ. 
 
 RACAN (HoNORAT UE BuEiL, marquis 
 of) a French poet, was born in Tourraine, in 
 1589. He was one of the first members of 
 the French Academy, and wrote pastorals and 
 odes, which were esteemed. He also pub- 
 lished a •' Life of ^lalherbe," his friend and 
 poetical instructor. Boileau says, that he 
 excels in saying little things in the manner 
 of the ancients. In his youth he was one of 
 the pages of Henry IV ; he then entered the 
 
 A 2 
 
R A C 
 
 ftrmy, but finally lie mar :ed, and devoted 
 himself to literature. He died in 1670, and 
 a new edition of his works was published at 
 Paris in 172-i, 2 vols, lijmo. — Moreri. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 RACINE (Boxaventure) a French Ca- 
 tholic divine, who became principal of the 
 college of Harcourt, which he was obliged to 
 leave on account of his disputes with the 
 Jesuits. lie afterwards obtained a canoury 
 in the cathedral of Auxerre, where he died 
 in 1755. He is known as author of " Abrege 
 de I'Histoire Ecclesiastique," Cologne, 1754, 
 13 vols. I'imo ; republished in 1762, 13 vols. 
 4to. — Diet, fliit. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RACINE (John) a very eminent French 
 dramatic poet, was born at La Ferte Milon in 
 1639. Ilis father, who had a small place 
 under the government, dying when he was 
 very young, Racine, who had likewise lost his 
 mother, was brought up by a grandfather at 
 the convent of Port Royal, whence he re- 
 move I to the college of Harcourt, where he 
 passed through a course of philosophy. He 
 first made himself known to the public by an 
 ode on the marriage of Louis XIV, for which, 
 through the patronage of Colbert, he was re- 
 warded with a small pension. This success 
 determined him to follow poetry, and rejecting 
 an invitation to take orders, he fixed his resi- 
 dence in Paris. In 1664 he brought upon the 
 stage his first tragedy, entitled " La The- 
 baide," which, in 1666 and 1668 was followed 
 b\ his "Alexandra," and his "Andromaque," 
 the latter of which established his character 
 as a tragic dramatist. His comedy of " Les 
 Piaideurs" succeeded, which, although ob- 
 jected to in the first instance, obtained the li- 
 beral praise of iNIoliere. From 1670 to 1677, 
 appeared in succession his tragedies of " Bri- 
 tannicus," " Berenice," '* Bajazet," " Mith- 
 ridate," " Iphigene," and " Phedre j" the 
 last of which produced a similar attempt on the 
 part of Pradon, that gave extreme uneasiness 
 to Racine, and inspired him with the notion of 
 turning Carthusian. His director, however, 
 gave him the better advice of marrying, which 
 he followed, and at the same time reconciled 
 himself to his old friends of the Port Royal, by 
 ceasing to write for the stage. Always an as- 
 siduous courtier, he paid particular attention to 
 the king, to whom he was gentleman in ordi- 
 nary, and in whose apartments he slept during 
 the monarch's indispositions, in order to en- 
 tertain him with reading and recitations, in 
 which he excelled. He was nominated joint 
 liistoriograpber-royal with Boileau, but no re- 
 sult of this appointment ever appeared. Al- 
 though he had renounced the profane drama, 
 he was prevailed upon by madame INIaintenon 
 to write " Esther," and " Athalie," to be 
 acted by the ladies of St Cyr. The same 
 lady also induced him to draw up a memoir 
 upon the miseries of the people in the latter 
 years of the reiirn of Louis XIV ; and he ex- 
 ecuted the task with so free a pen in regard to 
 the faults of administration, that the oli'euded 
 monarch forbade him his presence. Racine 
 Iiad not sufficient ])hilosophy to endure this 
 
 RAD 
 
 disgrace v^ith fortitude, and sinking into a 
 state of melancholy, a fever ensued, which tei- 
 minated his existence in J 699, in his fifty - 
 ninth year. The dramatic characteristics of 
 Racine are tenderness, elegance, good taste, 
 refined sentiment, and perfection in the ar*" 
 of versification. In reference to the higher 
 essentials of the drama, he wants verisimi- 
 litude, and rather describes feeling than 
 expresses it. The introduction of love into 
 all his dramas necessarily adds to these de- 
 fects, which do not appear in " Athalie," and 
 in the more elevated portion of his best pieces. 
 Besides his dramatic works, Racine was the 
 author of " Cantiques, for the use of St Cyr ;" 
 " L'Histoire de Port Royal ;" " Idylle sur la 
 Paix ;" some " Epigrams," of merit ; •' l^et- 
 ters ;" and a few " Opuscules," publislied in 
 his son's memoirs of his life. He was a mem- 
 ber of the French Academy from 1673. This 
 celebrated poet was of an agreeable figure, 
 with an open countenance, and was polite and 
 soft in manners, while in reality splenetic 
 and fastidious. He was also witty and eloquent, 
 althoufrh grave and devotional in his later 
 years. The editions of Racine are too nu- 
 merous to particularize ; the most distinguish- 
 ed are the later ones from the press of Didot. 
 — Moreri. D'Alembert. Hist. Acad. Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 RACINE (Louis) son of the preceding, 
 and also a poet, was born at Paris in 1692. Of 
 a pious tendency, he was led to adopt the ec- 
 clesiastical habit, and he was in a state of re- 
 tirement with the fathers of the Oratory when 
 he published his poem " On Grace," in 1720. 
 He was,bowever,induced to quit the clerical pro- 
 fession and marry ; and he lived happily with his 
 family until the death of an only son revived the 
 sombre melancholy which was inherent in his 
 disposition. He died in 1763, at the age of 
 seventy-one. His principal poems are these : 
 " On Religion and Grace," which convey the 
 thoughts of Pascal and Bossuet with fine 
 lines and striking passages. He is also au- 
 thor of " Epistles;" and a translation of Pa- 
 radise Lost. His prose works are, " Me- 
 moires sur la Vie de Jean Racine ;" " Re- 
 marques sur les Tragedies de J. Racine ;" 
 and several dissertations in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. His " (Euvres Di- 
 verses" are oublished in 6 vols. 12mo. — Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 RADCLIFFE (Ann) an eminent female 
 novelist, was born in London, July 9, 1764. 
 Her maiden name was Ward, and at the age 
 of twenty-three she was married to William 
 RadclifFe, esq. a graduate of Oxford, and a 
 student-at-law in one of the inns of court ; 
 which profession, however, he never followed 
 but became v/roprietor and editor of a news- 
 paper, called the *' Englisli Chronicle." Soon 
 after her marriage Mrs Radclitl'e he/^an to 
 essay her powers iu works of imagination. 
 Her first performance was a romance, entitled 
 " The Castles of A thlen and Dumblaine, ' and 
 the next " The Sicilian Romance ;" but iiie 
 I first of her works wliich attracted much atten- 
 tion was " The Romance of the Forest," which 
 
RAD 
 
 was followed by " The Mysteries of Udol- 
 j)lio,'' a tale at once powerfully conceived and 
 tasU'fuIly txccutetl, which i>laced her at the 
 head of a department of liction which was 
 tiien rising into considerahle esteem. Her 
 last work of this kind, '' i'he Italian," pro- 
 duccil the sum of l.)0()/. ; and allhough of less 
 varied interest than tliat dispkiyed by its i)re- 
 decessors exhibited great j)Ower, esj)ecially in 
 the delineation of the principal character. 
 Besides these publications she piiblisheil a 
 (juarto volume of "Travels through Holland 
 and along the Rhine," in I79j. As a writer 
 of ronianc*^ I\Irs Kadclifl'e possessed, in a 
 high degree, the art of dallying with the ex- 
 ])ectation, and exciting a high degree of inte- 
 rest in her narrative. Her descriptive powers 
 were of a superior order, especially in the d*-^ 
 lineation of scenes of terror, and in those as- 
 pects of nature which excite sentiment, and 
 suggest a variety of tender or melancholy as- 
 sociations. She suffered much in the latter 
 part of her life from a spasmodic asthma, of 
 which she died in London, January 9, 1.823. — 
 A)in. Biog. 
 
 RADCLIFFE (John) a celebrate'^, -.-rliral 
 practitioner, born in 16.30, at Wakeiicia in 
 Yorkshire, where his father possessed a mo- 
 derate estate. After a classical education at 
 Lis native place, he was, at the age of tifteen, 
 sent to University college, Oxford. In 1669 
 he took his first degree in arts ; and after- 
 wards removing to Lincoln college, was elected 
 to a fellowship. He proceeded MA. in 1672, 
 and having ai)plied himself to the study of me- 
 dicine, he obtained the degree of MB. in 
 l(i75, and immediately began to practise as a 
 physician. Two years after he resigned his 
 fellowship, not being permitted to retain it 
 without taking holy orders ; and having be- 
 come MD. in 1682, he removed to London in 
 1681, and settled in Bow-street, Covent-gar- 
 den. He soon acquired great reputation, to 
 which his conversational powers contributed, 
 perhaps, more than his professional skill ; for 
 having a ready wit and a strong tincture of 
 pleasantry, he was a very diverting companion. 
 In 1686 he was appointed pliysician to the 
 princess Anne of Denmark ; and after the Re- 
 volution he was often consulted by king Wil- 
 liam III, whose favour he lost in consequence 
 of the freedom of speech in which he indulged 
 himself. In 1699 the king, on his return from 
 Holland, finding himself very unwell, sent for 
 \)t Radclille, and showing him his ancles, 
 swollen and ocdematous, while his body was 
 much emaciated, said, " What do vou think 
 of these ?" " Why, truly," replied the phy- 
 sician, " I wotdd not have your majesty's two 
 legs for your three kingdoms." He was no 
 more consulted by that jjrince ; and when Anne I 
 succeeded to the crown, lord Godolphin in i 
 vain endeavoured to get him reinstated in his 
 post of chief physician, as he had given her 
 offence by telling her that her ailments were 
 nothing but the vapours. But though de- | 
 prived of office, he was consulted in all cases of ; 
 emergency, and received a large sum of secret j 
 bfiute money fyr hi.> i)rescriplious. hi 1713 ■ 
 
 RAF 
 
 I he waachosen IMP. for the bor.)Ugh of Buck- 
 ingham ; and he acted with the tory party, 
 but without taking any vt-ry decided p irt in 
 contemporary political intrigues. In the last 
 illness of (jueen Anne, Hr llailcliffo was sent 
 for ; but either through indolence or extreme 
 caution, he excused himself, on the alleged 
 score of his own indibjujsition. Her maiesty 
 died on the following day, and a motion for 
 censuring the doctor was made in tlu- house of 
 I Commons. This circumstance, added to threat- 
 j ening letters which he received, deeply a*"- 
 fected his mind, and, peihajis, hastened his 
 death, which took place three months after that 
 I of the queen, November 1, 1714. Dr llad- 
 j cliffe never published any thing, and he ap- 
 I pears to have been personally but little con- 
 versant with literature ; yet he testified his re- 
 } gard for it by the noble beijuest of 40,000/. to 
 I the university of Oxford, for the foundation o 
 , a public library of medical and philosophical 
 i science, which was conse(iuentIy erected, and 
 was opened with much ceremony April 13, 
 1749. Dr Garth , in allusion to the literary or 
 rather non-literary character of the doctor, sa- 
 tirically remarked, that " for Radcliffe to found 
 a library was as if an eunuch should establish a 
 seraglio." — I{utchinso}i's. Biog. Med. Pointer's 
 Antiq. of Oxford. 
 
 RAEBURN (sir Henry) an artist of emi- 
 nence, first portrait- painter to the kini^ in 
 Scotland, an appointment which he only re- 
 ceived a few days before his death. He" wa' 
 president of the academy at Edinburgh, ant 
 member of that in London. As a portrait 
 painter he was considered second only to sir 
 Thomas Lawrence ; and was not only an 
 artist himself, but a liberal patron of art in 
 others. He received the honour of knighthood 
 from his present majesty, during his visit to 
 Edinburgh, and died July 6, 1823, at Ber- 
 nard's Stockbridge, in the vicinity of ihat 
 capital. — Ann, Biog. 
 
 RAFFLES (sir Thomas Stamford) an able 
 and philanthropic public officer of our own 
 time. He was the son of Benjamin Raffles, 
 a captain in the \Ve?t India trade, and was 
 born at sea in the ship Anne, of London, of} 
 Port IMorant in Jamaica, July 6, 178 L On 
 his arrival in England, his father ])laced him 
 for education with Dr Anderson, of Hammer- 
 smith, under whose tuition he remained till he 
 was appointed to a clerkship in the India 
 house. In 1805 the interest of Mr Ramsav, 
 secretary to the board, procured hitn the situa- 
 tion of assistant-secretary to the newly-formed 
 government of Pulo Penang, in the straits of 
 ^lalacca, now Prince of Wales's Island, whi- 
 ther he accompanied governor Dundas in the 
 course of the same year. He applieil himself 
 to the study of the INIalay language with such 
 success, that he was soon after appointed iNIa- 
 lay translatoi to the government. In 1807 he 
 was made secretary to the council and regis- 
 trar of the r c* ider's court ; but the following 
 year was coiiip'lled, by serious indisposition, to 
 retire to Mala ca. In 1810 his reputation, for 
 talents and . haracter procured him the appoint- 
 ment of avei t of the go"crnor- general with 
 
RAF 
 
 the IMalay States ; and tlie following year, on 
 the reduction of Batavia and Java, he was no- 
 minated lieutenant-governor of the latter 
 island. In this capacity he continued till the 
 spring of 1816, having, in the interval, not 
 only brought the hostilities commenced against 
 the native chiefs to a successful termination, 
 nut completed a statistical survey and map of 
 Java, and introduced material reforms into 
 its code of laws, and the method of adminis- 
 tering justice. In 1816, having lost his wife, 
 he returned to England, bringing with him a 
 Javanese prince and a most extensive collec- 
 tion of specimens of the {)roductions, costume, 
 &c. of the Eastern archipelago. The year fol- 
 lowing appeared his " History of Java," in 
 two thick quartos, with plates. "While in this 
 country Mr Kaffles entered a second time 
 into a matrimonial engagement, and sailed 
 from Falmouth in the winter of 1817, hav- 
 ing been nominated to the residency of Ben- 
 coolen in Sumatra^ with the honour of 
 knighthood and the lieutenant-governor 
 ship of Fort Marlborough. On reaching the 
 seat of his government in March 1818, he 
 set himself forthwith to remedy many dis- 
 graceful abuses, and did much towards car- 
 rying into efifect the abolition of slavery 
 throughout the settlement. He also distin- 
 guished himself by his political arrangements 
 with the Dutch commissioners in the interest 
 of the sultan of Palembang, and by the occu- 
 pation of the island of Singapore, with a view 
 to the taking it under British protection, an 
 event equally advantageous for the inhabitants 
 and for the commercial objects of this country. 
 On liis last visit to the island in 1823, he laid 
 the foundation of a literary institution, consist- 
 ing of a college for the encouragement of 
 Anglo-Chiuese literature, with a library, mu- 
 seum, branch schools, &c. and a grant of five 
 hundred acres of uncleared ground for its sup- 
 port ; but in the following year the impaired 
 state of his constitution induced him to return 
 to Europe. AVith this view he embarked his 
 family on board the Fame, on the 2d February 
 1824 ; but a fire breaking out in the ship on 
 the evening of the same day, both the vessel 
 and cargo, including property of his own to 
 the amount of nearly 30,000/. with many va- 
 luable papers, were destroyed at sea ; the 
 crew and passengers saving their lives with 
 difficulty in the boats, and relanding in a state 
 of utter destitution, about fifteen miles from 
 Bencoolen, after passing a whole ni>iht on the 
 ocean, in a state of the utmost privatiou and 
 anxiety, as well as comparative nakedness. 
 Of this calamity an interesting document re- 
 mains, in a letter written by sir Thomas to a 
 friend in England, dated the day after the ac- 
 cident, and since printed. In April the fa- 
 mily embarked again on board the Mariner, 
 which landed them in London, in tlie August 
 of the same year. Sir Thomas, however, sur- 
 vived his return to England not quite two 
 years, dying of an apoplectic attack in July 
 1826. In addition to the work already al- 
 luded to, he left behind him a memoir of Sin- 
 gapore, iu manuscript; besides editing " Fin- 
 
 R A 1 
 
 layson's INIission to Siarn, with Memoirs of 
 the Author," 8vo, 1822 ; and Dr Leyden's 
 " Malav Annals," with an introduction. — Ann. 
 Biog, 
 
 RAGOTSKI (Francis) second of the 
 name, prince of Transylvania, was born at the 
 castle of Borshi in Hungary, in 1676. On the 
 death of his father, he was carefully watched 
 by the house of Austria, and forced to break 
 off all correspondence with his mother ; but 
 zealous for the independence of his country, 
 he secretly entered into a negociation with 
 Louis XIV, whicli being betrayed, he was 
 arrested, and found guilty of high treason ; how- 
 ever, by the affection of his wife, the princess 
 of Hesse Khinfelds, who gained over his 
 keeper, he made his escape from prison ; and 
 having received assurances of succour from 
 France, he entered Hungary, and published a 
 manifesto, urging the people to free them- 
 selves from the tyranny of the Austrians. He 
 was joined by a great number, and stormed 
 some fortresses, taking a severe revenge upon 
 the imperialists, who had given no quarter to 
 the Hungarian insurgents. The crown of Po- 
 land being then vacant, it was offered to Ra- 
 gotski, who declined it; and pursuing his suc- 
 cesses, reduced Tokay and took Agria, in con- 
 sequence of which, in 1704, he was pro- 
 claimed prince of Transylvania and protector 
 of Hungary ; he also received a public em- 
 bassy from Louis XIV. He soon, however, 
 felt the difficulty of opposing the arms and 
 policy of a powerful sovereign, especially as 
 Louis could not render liim much assistance. 
 He also found a rival in his friend and asso- 
 ciate, count Bercheni ; and, in c<>of equence of 
 a severe check received by his troops, they 
 began to desert. The crown of Poland was 
 again offered to him by the czar, Peter, and 
 was again refused. In 1711 a treaty was con- 
 cluded between the Hungarian states and the 
 emperor, to which he refused to accede, though 
 the first article secured his life and property, 
 with the title of prince of Transylvania. 
 Deeply wounded at this defeat of his patriotic 
 exertions, he renounced liis estates, and with- 
 drew into Turkey, where he died, at his castle 
 of Rodosto, on the shore of the sea of Mar- 
 mora, in 1735. He wrote " JMemoirs of his 
 Life," published in the " Revolutions de 
 Hongrie," Hague, 1739. There is also a work, 
 but of doubtful authenticity, entitled " Testa- 
 ment politique et moral du Prince Ragotski." 
 Aloreri. &ucy, Hist, de Hongrie. 
 
 RAIKES (Robert) a printer and philan- 
 thropist, was born at Gloucester in 1735. His 
 father was proprietor of the " Gloucester 
 Journal," and the sou succeeded him in the 
 j)rinting business, and having realized a good 
 property, he employed it with his pen and his 
 influence in relieving such objects as stood in 
 need of his benevolent assistance. He is, 
 however, best known for his institution of 
 Sunday schools, which he planned conjointly 
 with the rev Mr Stock in 1781. INIr Raikes 
 died at Gloucester in 1811. — Gent. 
 Nichols's Bowyer. 
 
 RAIMONDI (Marc Antonio) a cele 
 
 
R AL 
 
 brated old engraver, was born at Bologna in 
 1487 or 14BU. Ue studied umlcr Francesco 
 Francia. lie wcutto \ enice for iniproveineiit, 
 and wiiile there copied a set of wood-cuts by 
 Albert J^urer with so much exactness that 
 they were sold for the originals ; and Albert 
 J)urer complaining of the injury, it was or- 
 dered that Raimondi should never again add 
 the cyjiher of l^urer to any of his copies. From 
 Venice he went to Rome, and was employed 
 by Rai)hael to engrave several of his designs, 
 l^ainiondi soon formed a school at Rome, 
 which ecli])sed those of Germany, and the 
 Italian style of engraviiig became the standard 
 of excellence. On the death of Ra}>hael he 
 was employed by Julio Romano, and he dis- 
 graced himself by engraving his abominable 
 designs in illustration of Aretine's verses. For 
 this conduct Clement Vll sent him to piison, 
 from which he was released with great diffi- 
 culty ; he, however, procured favour by his 
 exquisite Martyrdom of St Lawrence, and the 
 pope became his protector. In 1527, wlien 
 Rome was taken by tlie Spaniards, he lost all 
 Lis wealth, and retired to Bologna, wliere he 
 died in 15-10. He is distinguished for the 
 purity and correctness of his outlines ; the 
 character and execution of the heads also 
 prove his judgment ^nl proficiency. — Strutt. 
 Roicoe*s Leo X. 
 
 iiAliNOLDS (John) a learned divine, was 
 bcrn at Pinho, in Devonshire, in lo-19, and 
 became a scholar and fellow of Corpus Christi 
 college, Oxford, where he read lectures en 
 Aristotle. Jn loS.) he took the degree of 
 DD, and the year following was appointed 
 rsader of the theological lecture founded by 
 sir Francis Walsingham. In 1593 he was 
 made dean of Lincoln, which preferment he 
 resigned on being chosen president of his col- 
 lege. He was deemed tlie leader of the puri- 
 tan party, and distinguished himself greatly at 
 the Hampton-court conference in 1603, where 
 he suggested the necessity of that new trans- 
 lation of the Bible which is now the standard 
 one, and in which he himself actively en- 
 gaged. He died in 1607. Several of his 
 orations, and other works, have been printed. 
 — His brother, William, was educated at 
 AVinchester, and became a fellow of New col- 
 lege, Oxford, but afterwards turned Romanist, 
 and proceeding to Rheims, obtained a profes- 
 sorship. He wrote some books against the 
 Protestants, and died at Antwerp in 1594. — 
 A then. Oxou. 
 
 RALEGH or RALEIGH (sir Walter) a 
 distinguished warrior, statesman, and writer, 
 in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, was 
 the second son of a gentleman of ancient fa- 
 mily in Devonshire. He was born in 1552, 
 at the parish of Budley in that county, and 
 was sent to Oriel college, Oxford, where his 
 proficiency in his academical studies inspired a 
 high opinion of his capacity. His active dis- 
 position and martial ardour led him, at the 
 age of seventeen, to form one in a body of a 
 jiundred gentlemen voluntttrs, which was 
 raised to assist the French Protestants. He 
 subsequently accompanied the forces sent 
 
 UAL 
 
 under general Norris to assist the Dutch, and 
 afterwards accuinpanied his half- bi other, sir 
 Humphrey Gilbtrt, in a vo\age to iSewlound- 
 land. On his return he di.stin^uished hiinstdf 
 against the Irish rebellion, headed by Des- 
 mond, and suppoited by Spain, and was joined 
 in a <ommission for the government of Muu- 
 ster, and rewarded for his active and able ser- 
 vices by a consiiltrabie estate in Ireland. His 
 favour at the court of JClizabeth was much ad- 
 vanced by an act of gallantry, of a nature \)nr- 
 ticularly adajfted to flatter and excite the at- 
 tention of that sovereign. Once attending the 
 queen in a walk among a crowd of courtiers, 
 she came to a spot in which the path was ob- 
 structed by mire, which being observed by 
 Ralegh, he immediately took off his rich plush 
 cloak, and spread it on the ground for a foot- 
 cloth. He was subsequently much distin- 
 guished and employed, until, in 1584, his ac- 
 tive and enterprising dis])Osition was manifest- 
 ed in a scheme for the discovery and settlement 
 of all those jiarts of North America that were 
 not already appropriated to Christian states. 
 By his interest he obtained a very extensive 
 patent for this purpose, and by tlie help of a so- 
 ciety of friends two ships were fitted out. 'J'hese 
 vessels having brought home cargoes that sold 
 well, a second expedition of seven vessels fol- 
 lowed, under the command of sir Richard 
 Greenville, Ralegh's kinsman. The latter en- 
 terprise terminated in the settlement of Vir- 
 ginia, so called in honour of queen Elizabeth ; 
 and is said to have first introduced tobacco and 
 potatoes to Europe. In the mean time his 
 personal consequence increased at home, being 
 chosen knight of the shire for the county of 
 Devon, honoured with kniglithood, and made 
 warden of the Stannaries. Fle was also re- 
 warded by several lucrative grants, including 
 a large share of the forfeited Irish estates, and 
 he secured so high a degree of favour, that the 
 earl of Leicester became jealous, and brought 
 forward the earl of Essex as a competitor. He 
 was one of the council to whom the considera- 
 tion of the best means of opposing the Spanish 
 armada wa^ entrusted ; and was among the 
 number of gallant volunteers who joined the 
 English fleet with ships of their own. and as- 
 sisted in its defeat. In 1589 he accompanied 
 the expelled king of Portugal in his attemjit to 
 reinstate himself, for which service he leceived 
 several additional marks of favour and emolu- 
 ment, for although fond of glory, he was al«> 
 most equally so of gain. He rendered himself 
 obnoxious by taking bribes for the exertion of 
 his influence ; and hisnever-ending solicitations 
 at length extorted a reproof from Elizabeth 
 herself, which he parried with his usual ad- 
 dress. On his return from Portugal he visited 
 Ireland, and contracted an intimate friendship 
 with the poet Spenser, then residing upon a 
 property conferred upon him in that country. 
 Spenser celebrated sir Walter under the title 
 of •' The Shepherd of the Ocean ;" and to his 
 great work, the '' Faery Queen, ^' prefixed a 
 letter to him, explanatory of its plan and de- 
 sign, and the latter in return introduced the 
 poet to Elizabeth. In 1592 he commanded 
 
II A L 
 
 an expedition with a view of attacking Pa- 
 nama, but was recalled by the qneen, and soon 
 after incurred her deep displeasure by an illi- 
 cit amour with one of her maids of honour, the 
 daughter of sir Nicholas Throckmorton ; and 
 although he made the best reparation in his 
 power, by maming that lady, he was impri- 
 sonetl for some months, and banished the 
 queen's presence. In order to recover favour, 
 he then planned an expedition to Guiana, in 
 which he embarked in person in February 
 1595, and reached the great river Orinoco, but 
 was obliged by sickness and contrary winds to 
 return, after having done little more than 
 taken a formal possession of the country in 
 tlie name of Elizabeth. In 1596 he had so 
 far regained favour, that he had a naval com- 
 mand under the earl of Essex in the attack on 
 Cadiz, with which asoiring nobleman a differ- 
 ence ensued, that laid the foundation of a last- 
 ing enmity between them. Sir Walter was 
 subsequently fully restored to the good graces 
 of Elizabeth, who nominated him to the go- 
 vernment of Jersey. He witnessed the ruin 
 of his antagonist, the earl of Essex, whose ex- 
 ecution he indecently urged, and personally 
 viewed from a window in the armoury. The 
 rapid decease of the queen, which this very 
 catastrophe hastened, put a period to his pro- 
 sperity. James I, whom, in conjunction with 
 tiome other courtiers, he sought to limit in his 
 power of introducing the Scots into England, 
 naturally resented that attempt, and otherwise 
 disliked him as the enemy of his friend the 
 earl of Essex. Although he received him 
 witli external civility at court, he was de- 
 prived of his post of captain of the guards, 
 and evidently discountenanced. Tliis treat- 
 ment naturally preyed upon a man of his high 
 spirit, and a mysterious conspiracy having been 
 formed for the purpose of placing upon the 
 throne the lady Arabella Stuart, sir Walter 
 was accused of participating in it, by lord 
 Cobhain, a man of unsteady character, to 
 whose idle proposals he had given ear with- 
 out approving them. For this offence, by the 
 base subservience of the jury to the wishes of 
 the court, he was brought in guilty of high- 
 treason, even to the surprise of the attorney- 
 general Coke himself, who declared that he 
 had only charged him with misprision of trea- 
 son. Three were executed for this plot, and 
 Ralegh reprieved and committed to theTower, 
 where his wife, at her earnest solicitation, was 
 allowed to reside with him, and where his 
 youngest son was born. Though his estates 
 in general were preserved to him, the rapacity 
 of the king's minion, the infamous Car, seized 
 on his fine manor of Sherborne, upon a flaw 
 found in his prior conveyance of it to his son. 
 It was not until after twelve years' confine- 
 ment that he obtained his liberation, during 
 which interval he composed the greater part 
 of his works, and especially his " History of 
 the World." He was only released at last by 
 the advance of a large sum of money to the 
 n';w favourite, Villiers ; and to retrieve his 
 Ivoken fortunes, he planned another expedition 
 to America. He obtained a patent under the 
 
 11 AL 
 
 great seal for making a settlement in Guiana ; 
 but in order to retain a power over him, the 
 king did not grant him a pardon for the sen- 
 tence passed upon him for his alleged treason. 
 How far Ralegh knowingly deceived t)je 
 court by his representations of rich discove- 
 ries and gold mines, it is impossible now to 
 ascertain ; but although certain that he was 
 not authorised to commit hostilities against 
 Spanish settlements, the asserted title of 
 England to Guiana left him a -wide latitude of 
 intei-pretation. Be this as it may, having 
 reached the Orinoco, he despatched a portion 
 of his force to attack the new Spanish settlement 
 of St Thomas, which was captured with the loss 
 of his eldest son. The expected plunder, 
 however, proved of little value, and sirWalter, 
 after having in vain attempted to induce his 
 captains to attack other Spanish settlements, 
 returned home with a heavy heart, and arrived 
 at Plymouth in July 1618. In the mean 
 time, the complaints and influence of the Span- 
 ish ambassador had produced such an effect 
 upon James, who was seeking the hand of the 
 infanta for his son Charles, that Ralegh was 
 arrested on his journey to London, and carried 
 back to Plymouth. He there laid a plan of 
 escaping to France, which failing, he was 
 brought to the metropolis, and committed to 
 the Tower. James had reason to be offended 
 with the conduct of Ralegh against a power 
 in amity with himself, and might have tried 
 him for this new offence ; but with his usual 
 mean and inconsistent pusillanimity, he de- 
 termined to execute him on his former sen- 
 tence. Being brought before the court of 
 King's Bench, his plea of an implied pardon by 
 his subsequent command, was overruled ; and 
 the doom of death being pronounced against 
 him, it was carried into execution the follow- 
 ing day, October29, 1618, in Old Palace-yard. 
 His behaviour at the scaffold was calm, intre- 
 pid, and worthy his vigorous character; and 
 after addressing the people at some length in 
 his own justification, he received the stroke of 
 death with the most perfect composure. Thus 
 fell sir Walter Ralegh, in the sixty -sixth year 
 of his age, by a sentence which has justly 
 been regarded as one of the most odious acts 
 of the weak and inglorious reign of James I. 
 As a politician and public character, this emi- 
 nent person is open to much severe animad- 
 version ; and it would be an abuse of terras to 
 denominate him a pure patriot : but, in extent 
 of capacity, and vigour of mind, he had few 
 equals, even in an age of great men. His long 
 imprisonment has placed him high among the 
 writers, as well as among the great captains 
 and leaders of his country. His writings are 
 on a variety of topics, poetical, military, mari- 
 time, geographical, political, and historical. 
 His poetry is now nearly obsolete, and most 
 of his miscellaneous pieces have ceased to in- 
 terest ; but his " History of the World" is 
 still read, and is regarded as one of the best 
 specimens of the English of his day, being at 
 once the style of the statesman and the scho- 
 lar. The compass of the work did not admit 
 that fulness of narrative which amount& t6» 
 
R A L 
 
 RAM 
 
 history in ils most pcriVct ibriii ; but he is death took place in 1762. 
 often an acute ruul eUxjuent rt asoner on histo- mentioned, be puhiislied 
 rical events. 'I'lie be.-t edition is that of 
 
 events. 1 lie Lie.-t euition is 
 Oldya, 1736, 2 vols, folio. Of bis numerous 
 miscellaneous works, an edition by i)r Birch 
 was published in 171B, in 2 vols. Uvo. — Ca- 
 niiw IvAi.EGii, the younger son of sir Walter, 
 born in the Tower in ItiOi, was reston'd in 
 blood, but with extreme meanness : the resi<^'- 
 uation of all claim to his estate of Sherborne 
 was made the price of this royal favour. In 
 l(i.i9 he was made i^overnor of Jersey ; and 
 tlying- in Kkid, ho was buried in the same 
 yrave with bis father. Charles II would have 
 knighted him, but he declined thehonoiir. lie 
 was the autlior of some sonnets, and other 
 minor compositions. — LiJ'e by Cayley. Biog. 
 Brit. Hume. 
 
 RALEIGH, DD. (Wattir) an English 
 divine, was born at Downcon, in Wiltshire, in 
 1 b?>6, and was the nephew of sir Walter, being 
 the son of his elder brother. lie was educated 
 at Winchester, and thence removed to Ox- 
 ford. On receiving orders he obtained the living 
 of Chedzoy in Somersetshire, and in i630 be- 
 came chaplain to the king. In l6il he was 
 made dean of Wells, but lost all his prefer- 
 ments and property during the subsequent civil 
 contests, his own deanery being converted into 
 a prison. He lost his life by the brutality of 
 his gaoler, who stabbed him while endeavour- 
 ing to conceal a letter which he had been 
 writing to his wife. Of this wound he died, 
 October 10, 1646. He left behind him in MS. 
 discourses and sermons on several subjects, 
 published in 1679 by Dr Patrick, bishop of 
 Ely, under the title of" Reliquiae Raleghanje ;" 
 4to. — Allien. Oxon. Preface to Reliquite. 
 
 RALPH (James) a multiforious writer of 
 the last century. He was a native of Phila- 
 del|.bia, in North America, and came to Eng- 
 land as a literary adventurer in 1725, in com- 
 pany with the afterwards celebrated Benjamin 
 Pranklin. In 1728 Ralph published a poem, 
 entitled " Night," to which Pope thus alludes 
 in the Dunciad : — 
 
 " Ralph to Cynthia howls, 
 
 Makins: night hideous — answer him, ve owls'" 
 He afterwards attempted the drama, but with- 
 out success ; and having produced a tragedy, 
 a comedy, an opera, and a farce, he took up 
 ihe employment of a party writer. In 1742 
 ie published an Answer to the Memoirs of 
 Sarah, Duchess of JMarlborough ; and in 1744 
 apjieared his " History of England, during the 
 Reigns of Charles II, James II, William III, 
 &c." 2 vols, folio, which, as a work of research, 
 is by no means destitute of merit. He was at 
 length connected with the politicians and lite- 
 rary men who were attached to the service of 
 Frederic, prince of Wales ; in consequence of 
 which Ralph is said to have become possessed 
 of a manuscript written by the prince, or under 
 his direction, to which so much importance 
 was attributed, that a gratuity or a pension 
 was bestowed on the holder, as a compensa- 
 Jion for surrendering it. He certainly obtained 
 pension after the accession of bis late ma- 
 jesty ', but he did not long enjoy it, as his 
 
 o 
 
 Besides the worl.a 
 a treatise on the 
 Use and Abubc of Parliaments," 2 vols. 
 8vo ; " The Case of AutlK-rn iiy Profession ;" 
 8vo ; and a number of political pumi)hlets. — 
 Daiies's I Afc of Gar rick. Chiilmen's J'ing. Diet. 
 RAMAZZINI (IjKriNAitoiN) an Italian 
 physician, born of a good family, at Carpi near 
 Modena, in 16;);j. He studied at Parma, where 
 he took the degree of MD. in loo'J ; after 
 which he went to Rome for farther improve- 
 ment, and then settled as a physician in the 
 duchy of Castro. He subsecjuently removed 
 to his native place, and thence to IModena, 
 where, in 1682, he was made professor of me- 
 dicine in the university then recently founded 
 by duke Francis IT. In 1700 he accepted of 
 a professorship at Padua, and notwithstanding 
 he was afflicted with blindness, he afterwards 
 became rector of the university. He died 
 November 5, 1714. He wrote on many me- 
 dical and philosophical subjects ; and his trea- 
 tise on the Diseases of INlechanics has been 
 translated into English. — Hatchinsoas Biol 
 Med. 
 
 RAMEAU (Jean Philippf) sometimes 
 styled by his countrymen " 'ihe Newton of 
 Harmony," an able French theorist, univer- 
 sally admitted to rank far above all his pre- 
 decessors or contemporaries in the philosophi- 
 cal view he took of the science of music. ».He 
 was a native of Dijon, born September 25, 
 1683; and having, at a very early age, ac- 
 quired some skill and great taste in music, 
 joined a strolling company of performers, 
 whom he accompanied into Germany and else- 
 where, and by whose assistance a musical en- 
 tertainment of his composition was represented 
 at Avignon, in the eighteenth year of its 
 author. Anxious at length to obtain some 
 more settled situation, Rameau became a can- 
 didate for that of organist to a church in Paris, 
 but failing, was on the point of relinquishing 
 the profession, when he fortunately obtained a 
 similar appointment in Clermont cathedral. 
 Here he aj)plied himself with great ])erseve- 
 rance and success to the study of the princi- 
 ples of his profession, and in 1722 printed the 
 first fruits of his investigation in an able trea- 
 tise, entitled " Traite de I'llarmonie," Four 
 years after appeared his second work, " Nou- 
 veau Systeme de Musique Theorique," which 
 was afterwards followed by his " Generation 
 Harmonique," and a tract upon the art of ac- 
 companiment; but it was not till the year 
 1750 that he pul-lished his celebrated " Dis- 
 sertation sur le Principe de ITIarmonie," which 
 not only acquired for liim the respect of all suc- 
 ceeding harmonists, and of Handel especially, 
 but stamped his character with the world as a 
 man of science and general talent. In this work 
 he reduces harmony to one single principle, the 
 fundamental bass, on which he proves all the 
 rest to depend. The reputation which this 
 work procured him was the means of his re- 
 ceiving an invitation from the court to super- 
 intend the opera at Paris, which he brought 
 to a state of comparative perfection, by the 
 pains which lie bestowed on the selection oi 
 
RAM 
 
 rerformers and the production of original mu- 
 *Fic. He possessed a great facility in adapting 
 words to music, and ))iqued himself so mucli 
 upon this talent, that he is said to have declared 
 lie would set a Dutch gazette, if it was re- 
 quired of him. His remaining tlieoretical 
 works are, " Remarks on the Demonstration 
 of the Principles of Harmony ;" " Reply to a 
 Letter of M. Euler," botli printed in 17.52 ; 
 " On the Instinctive Love of Music in Man,'' 
 1754 ; " On the Mistakes of the Encyclopa?dia 
 with respect to Music," l7oo ; and a " Prac- 
 tical Code of Music," 1760. He was also the 
 author of six operas, " Hippolyte et Aricie," 
 " Castor et Pollux," *' Dardanus," "Samson," 
 " Pvffmaiion," and " Zoroaster," besides a 
 great variety of ballets and other minor pieces. 
 Louis XV acknowledged his merits by the 
 grant of a patent of nobility and the order of 
 St Michaeh Rameau did not, however, long 
 enjoy his new honours, dying at Paris in the 
 autumn of 1764. — Bwneys llhi. of Music, 
 Bio^. Diet, of Mns. 
 
 RAMLKR (CiiAUT.ES William) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Colberg in Pomerania, in 
 1725. He was educated at an orj)]ian school 
 at Stettin, and afterwards at the university of 
 Halle, where he became intimate with Gleim 
 and Uz, two contemporary poets. The former, 
 in 1746, procured him the situation of a pri- 
 vate tutor at Ik'rhn, He soon made himself 
 known by his wTitings, and was appointed jiro- 
 fessor of logic and belles lettres to the royal 
 corps of cadets in that city. In 1787 he was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and, 
 in conjunction with Kngel, he had the direc- 
 tion of the national lliealre. He resigned his 
 ])rofessorship in 17'.'0, and his theatrical office 
 in 1796, soon after which he was attacked 
 with a ])uImonary discasi-, which caused his 
 death April II, 17 98. Ills works consist of 
 Songs, Odes, Fables, and Tales, original and 
 translated ; besiiles which he ])ublished an 
 Abridgment of Mythology, and a translation 
 of ibe abbe Batteux's Course of I'olite Litera- 
 ture. — f^i'ijs;. ihiiv. 
 
 RAMSAY (Allan) called the Scottish 
 Theocritus, was born in 1685, in a little vil- 
 lage on the high mountains that divide Clydes- 
 dale and Annandale, in the south of Scotland. 
 He was the son of a j)easant, and probably re- 
 ceived sucii instruction as his parish school 
 afforded, and the poverty of his parents ad- 
 mitted. He made his a})pearance at Edin- 
 burgh at the beginning of the last century, in 
 tlie humble character of an apprentice to a 
 barber or peruke-maker. By degrees he ob- 
 tained notice for his social disposition and his 
 talent for the composition of verses in tlie Scot- 
 tish idiom ; and changing his occupation for 
 tbat of a bookseller, he became intimate with 
 many of the literary, as well as many of the 
 gay and fashionable characters of his time. 
 Having published, in 1721, a volume of his 
 own poetii al compositions, which was favoura- 
 bly received, he undertook to make a collec- 
 tion of ancient Scottish poems, which appeared 
 under the title of " The Evergreen." And 
 be was afterwards encouraged to present to 
 
 RAM 
 
 the world a collection of Scottish Songs. From 
 what source he procured the latter is uncer- 
 tain ; but as in the Evergreen he made rash 
 attempts to improve on the originals of his an- 
 cient poems, lie probably used still greater 
 freedom with the songs and ballads. To se- 
 veral tunes, which either wanted words, or 
 had words which were improper or imperfect, 
 words were adap.ted highly worthy cf the de- 
 lightful melodies they accompanied. In the 
 execution of this part of his undertaking, Ram- 
 say associated with himself several men of wit 
 and talent among his contemporaries, who at- 
 tempted to write poetry in liis manner ; but 
 these individuals in general do not seem to 
 have been ambitious of poetical fame, and the 
 respective shares of the editor of the Scottish 
 Songs and his coadjutors, in the original com- 
 positions which th^y include, cannot now be 
 distinctly ascertained. Ramsay's principal 
 productions are, " The Gentle Shepherd," 
 and two additional cantos of " Christis Kirk 
 of tlie Grene," a tale, the first part of which 
 is attributed to James 1 of Scotland. The 
 latter, though objectionable in point of deli- 
 cacy, has been regarded as the happiest of the 
 author's effusions. His chief excellence, in- 
 deed, lay in the description of rural charac- 
 ters, incidents, and scenery ; for he did not 
 possess any very high ])owers, either of imagi- 
 nation or of understanding. He was well ac- 
 quainted with the peasantry of Scotland, their 
 lives and opinions. The subject was in a great 
 measure new ; his talents were equal to the 
 subject ; and he has shown that it may be hap- 
 pily adapted to pastoral ])oetry. In his Gen- 
 tle Shepherd, a rural drama, the characters 
 are delineations from nature ; tlie descriptive 
 parts are in the genuine style of beautiful sim- 
 plicity ; the jjassions and aflections of rural 
 life are finely tlelineated, and the heart is 
 agreeably interested in the haj)j)iness that is 
 represented as the reward of innocence and 
 ; virtue. 'J'hroughout the whole there is an 
 I air of reality which cannot but strike the most 
 I careless reader; and, in fact, no poem per- 
 haps ever acquired so high a rejmtation, in 
 I which truth received so little embellishment 
 I from the imagination. In his pastoral ^cngs, 
 I and in his rural tales, Ramsay aj>j>ears to less 
 ! advantage, but still with considerable attrac- 
 tion. His tales exhibit both the faults and the 
 beauties of those of Prior and La Fontaine. 
 When he attempts descriptions of high life, 
 and aims at pure English com))osition, he 
 fails entirely, becoming feeble and uninterest- 
 j ing ; neither are his familiar epistles and ele- 
 gies in the Scottish dialect entitled to much 
 approbation. 1 his poet died January 5, 1758. 
 ' — Dr Citrrie' s Life of Ihn-ns. Aikins Gen. Biog, 
 \ — Ramsay (Allan) son of the foregoing, 
 1 born at Eilinburgh in 1709, was instructed in 
 ' j)ortrait-painting, in which art he attained 
 I considerable eminence. He prosecuted his 
 ' studies at Rome, and on his return to Scot- 
 i land, he settled at his native place, where he 
 I became the founder of a literary society. He 
 I subsequently removed to London, and was ap- 
 ! pohited to the oiTice of portrait-painter to tlie 
 
R A JM 
 
 king. He published a tract on " The Present 
 State of the Arts in England ;" and also a 
 vohime of Essays. His death took phut? in 
 17iil, just after his return from a visit to 
 Italy. — I'illdngtons Diet. />«/ Fiiseli. 
 
 liAIMSAY (AxDuiiw IMiciiAEi.) an inge- 
 nious writer, horn of an ancient family, at Ayr, 
 in Scotland, in 1()86. lie studied at lOdiu- 
 burgh, and afterwards going to St Andrew's, 
 lie became tutor to the son of lord Wemys. 
 Having doubts of the truth of the Proif-stant 
 doctrines, he consulted several eminent di- 
 vines of the Scottish and I'.nglish churches, 
 without receiving any satisfaction, in conse- 
 quence of which he at leuirth became an abso- 
 lute sceptic. He then went to Holland, where 
 he met with the famous mystic l^oiret, whose 
 conversation excited afresli his attention to 
 religious inquiries, and afterwards visiting the 
 amiable Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, lie 
 was by that prelate converted to the Catholic 
 faith in 1709. Through his recommendation 
 Kamsay was appointeil governor to the duke 
 de Chateau Thierri, and to the ])rince de Tu- 
 renne, and was made a knight of the order of 
 St Lazarus, whence he is frequently termed 
 the chevalier Ramsay. He was subsequently 
 enqiloyed in the education of the children 
 of the pretender, called James III, who had 
 taken refuge at Rome. This office he lost, 
 through the intrigues of other persons belong- 
 ing to the little court of the exiled prince ; 
 and in 1730 he went to England, where he 
 was admitted a fellow of the Royal society, 
 and had the decree of doctor conferred on him 
 by the university of Oxford. Returning to 
 France, he became iutendant to the prince de 
 Turenne, afterwards duke de Bouillon ; and 
 he died at St Germain-en- Laie, May 6, 1743. 
 ilis jirincipal works are a " Philosophical Es- 
 say on Civil Ciovernment ;" "The Life of 
 Fenelon ;" " The History of Marshal Tu- 
 renne ;" " The Travels of Cyrus," an imita- 
 tion of Fenelon's 'J'elemachus, which is the 
 best known and most admired of all his pro- 
 ductions ; and '* Philosophical Principles of 
 Natural and Revealed Religion," published 
 posthumously, — Aikins G. Biog. Biog. ihiiv. 
 
 RAMSAY (David) an American physi- 
 cian and historical writer, who was a native of 
 Charlestown, in South Caroliua. He engaged 
 in the practice of medicine at the place of his 
 birth ; aud he was a member of the congress 
 of the United States from 1782 till l'78o. 
 Having gone to visit the patients in a lunatic 
 asylum, in 1815, he was unfortunately killed 
 by one of the insane objects of his professional 
 attentions. Dr Ramsay was the author of "A 
 History of the American Revolution, so far 
 as respects the State of S. Caroliua," 1791, 
 2 vols. 8vo 5 " The Life of George Washing- 
 ton," 1807, 8vo ; both which works were trans- 
 lated into French : *' A Discourse delivered 
 en the Anniversary of American Indepen- 
 dence," 1800 ; ana •' A View of the Im- 
 pTOvementa made in INIedicine during the 
 Eighteenth Century," 1802, 8vo. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 HAMS AY (^ .r.'Es)the name of a Scottish 
 
 R Ax\l 
 
 divine, a native of Abetdeensliire, born 1733, 
 and bred a surgeon, in which cajiacity he 
 
 served sonie years on board a king's .•<hip, but 
 becoming disabled through an accident, entered 
 the church, and obtained abini-lice in the island 
 of St Kitts. 'I'his he afterwards resigned, and 
 returning to this country, was preferred to the 
 rectory of Teston, near Maidstone, which he 
 held with the living of Nettlestead. Besides 
 a vohime c)f sermons, adapted f(jr the use of 
 the navy, he was the author of atreatise " On 
 Signals;" "On the Duties of a Naval Of- 
 liccr ;" " On the 'I'reatment, Civil and Reli- 
 gious, of the Negro Slaves," &c. His death 
 took place in 1789. — Naval Chronicle. 
 
 RAiMSDEN (Jessk) an eminent mechanist 
 and optician, was born at Halifax in York- 
 shire, in 1738. He came to London, and ap- 
 plied himself to engraving, and in the course 
 of his eni])loyment having to engrave several 
 mathematical instruments, he finally con- 
 structed them himself. He married a daughter 
 of Mr Holland, the celebrated optician, and 
 opened a shop in the Haymarket, whence he 
 removed to Piccadilly, where he remained 
 until his death, which took place in 1800. 
 He early obtained a premium from the 
 board of longitude, for the invention of a cu- 
 rious machine for the division of mathematical 
 instruments ; he also improved the construc- 
 tion of the theodolite, the pyrometer for mea- 
 suring the dilatation of bodies by heat, the 
 barometer for measuring the height of mouu- 
 tains, &c. ; also the refracting micrometer aud 
 transit instrument and quadrant. He made 
 great improvements in Hadley's quadrant and 
 sextant, and he ])rocured a ]>atent for an 
 amended equatorial. Mr Ramsdeu, who was 
 chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1786, 
 was distinguished during the whole of his life 
 by an enthusiastic attention to his own profes- 
 sion, which formed his amusement as well as 
 his occupation ; and such was his reputation, 
 that his instruments were bespoken from every 
 part of F^urojje ; and ultimately, altliough he 
 employed sixty men, to obtain the fulfilment of 
 an order was deemed a high favour. His 
 death, in fact, originated in his too sedulous 
 application upon a slender frame of body and 
 delicate constitution. — Huttou's i\Iitt}t. Diet. 
 
 RAMUS (Petek) a philosojiher of tha 
 sixteenth century, who was a native of the 
 county of Vermandois, in France. He went 
 to Paris about 1o'J3, Avhen he was but eight 
 years old, and became a laquey in the college 
 of Navarre. Such was his strong inclinat^.n 
 for learning, that he not only devoted to study 
 all the time he could sjiare in the day, but also 
 employed a part of the night in the same man- 
 ner. After attending a course of philosophy 
 in the schools for three years and a half, he 
 was admitted to the degree of iMA, on which 
 occasion he maintained a thesis, in which he 
 contested the infallibility of Aristotle. His 
 opinions excited violent opposition, which had 
 the usual eftect of rendering him more zealous 
 in supporting and publishing them. The par- 
 tizans of the Aristotelian philosophy displaye-i 
 the weakness of their cause, by having re- 
 
RAN 
 
 course to the civil power, in order to silence 
 their adversarv. Charoes ag;ainst Ramus 
 were prosecuted before the parliament of 
 Paris, and afterwards before the king's coun- 
 cil ; the result of which was that his publica- 
 tions were censured, prohibited, and ordered 
 to be burnt before the royal college of Cam- 
 bray, and he was commanded to abstain from 
 teaching his doctrines, in 1543. He became 
 the subject of much public obloquy, and was 
 even ridiculed on the stage. Plaving obtained 
 the patronage of the cardinal de Lorraine, the 
 prohibition of lecturing was withdrawn in 
 1547; and in 1551 he was appointed royal 
 professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Paris. 
 In this situation he might perhaps have en- 
 joyed tranquillity, if he had not entered into a 
 violent controversy with the doctors of the 
 Sorbonne, relative to the pronunciation of the 
 letter Q in Latin words, which was at last set- 
 tled by a decree of parliament in favour of 
 Ramus. His spirit of free inquiry ultimately 
 led him to relinquish the faith in which he 
 had been educated, and become a Protestant. 
 This change exposed him to persecution, and 
 he Avas obliged to flee from Paris ; but in 
 1563, peace being concluded between Charles 
 IX and the Huguenots, he was restored to his 
 professorial chair, and he employed himself in 
 the cultivation of matiiematical science, till 
 1567, when he again consulted his safety by 
 flight, and putting himself under the protec- 
 tion of the army of the prince of Conde, he 
 was present at the battle of St Denis ; and 
 soon after he was re-established in his situa- 
 tion. 7'he approaching renewal of hostilities 
 induced him to demand the king's permission 
 to visit the German universities ; and having 
 obtained it, he went to Gerir.any in 1568, and 
 was everywhere received with the respect due 
 
 RAN 
 
 his tutor, he published a new edition of " The 
 Poems of Anacreon, in Greek, with learned 
 Annotations." In 1651 he was ordained 
 priest, and three years after he received the 
 desrree of DD. He was a great favourite at 
 court, and became almoner to the duke of Or- 
 leans, and one of the deputies of the seconj 
 order in the assembly of the clergy in 1655. 
 The causes to which is attributed his reun-- 
 ment from the world are various ; one writer 
 says, that it was the consequence of a visit 
 paid to a favourite lady, whom he found dead 
 of the small-pox, and frightfully disfigured. 
 He retired to his abbey of La Trappe, where 
 he instituted the severe discipline for which 
 that monastery is so celebrated. In this re 
 treat he lived, observing all its austere regula- 
 tions, until his death, which took place inl700 
 His works are " Reflexions Morales sur les 
 Quatre Evangiles," 4 vols. 12mo ; " Confer- 
 ences sur les Evangiles," 4 vols. 12mo ; " Con- 
 duite Ciiretienne ;" " Accounts of the Lives 
 and Deaths of some IMonks of La Trappe ;" 
 " Tiie Constitutions and Rules of the xVbbey 
 of La Tra})pe ;" " Spiritual Letters;" " De 
 la Saintete des Devoirs de I'Etat Monastique ;'' 
 " Eclaircissements sur ce Livre ;" " Explica- 
 tion sur la Regie de S. Benoit," 12mo. — 
 Moreri. Diet. Hist. Seward's Anecdotes. 
 Gent. Maor. 
 
 RANDOLPH (Thomas) an English di- 
 vine, was born in 1523. He was a native of 
 the county of Kent, and received his educa- 
 tion at Christchurch, Oxford, in which uni- 
 versity he rose to be head of Broadgate-hall, 
 1548. From this situation he was deposed by 
 queen Mary, on account of his adherence to 
 the reformed church, and found it advisable to 
 imitate the example set him by many of his 
 brethren, and retire to the continent. In the 
 
 to his talents. He returaed to Paris after the i succeeding reign he returned to England, and 
 third pacification between Charles IX and his j was employed by the court in several diplo- 
 Protestant subjects ; and in the infamous mas- \ matic missions to Paris, Edinburgh, IMoscow, 
 sacre which took place on St Bartholomew's 1 tScc. in which latter capital he fought a duel 
 day, 1571, Ramus was one of the victims. His I vvith the French envoy, to revenge a slight of- 
 works, relating to grammar, logic, mathema- ' fered his royal mistress Elizabeth in conversa- 
 tics, &c. are numerous, as appears by the list tion. His services on these occasions were 
 in the first of the following authorities. — Teis- I eventually rewarded by the honour of knight- 
 sier Eloges des H, S. Martin s Bl. g. Phiios. hood, and the post of chamberlain to the ex- 
 
 Aikin^s Gen, Binir. 
 
 chequer. Besides his correspondence, which 
 
 RAxMUSlO (Giovanni Battisva) a Ve- has been printed, he was the author of a cu- 
 
 netian diplomatist of the sixteenth century, born 
 about the year 1486. He was ap})ointed to 
 the post of secretary to the council of Ten, 
 and served the republic in various embassies to 
 the courts of Rome, Paris, the Swiss Can- 
 tons, &c. As a writer, he is advantageously 
 known by a valuable collection of voyages, in 
 three folio volumes. He also published a trea- 
 tise on the overflowing of the iSile. His 
 
 rious account of his Russian embassy, to be 
 found in Hakluyt. His death took place in 
 1590. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 RANDOLPH (Thomas) a poet and dra- 
 matist, was a native of Newnham, Northants, 
 and born in 1605. His father, who acted in 
 the capacity of steward to a nol)leman, placed 
 him on the foundation at Westminster, whence 
 he removed to Trinity college, Cambridge, and 
 
 death took place in 1557, at Padua • — Moreri. was eventually elected a fellow of that society. 
 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. i The possession of a lively genius and poetic 
 
 RANGE (Armand John LE Bo, THii.LiF.R talents, much above mediocrity, introduced 
 
 de) the reformer of La Trappe, wae born of a him into the society of most of the wits of the 
 
 noble family at Paris, in 1626. At the age of age, by many of whom, especially by the cele- 
 
 tcn he was nominated a canon of Notre J5ame brated Ben Jonson, he was much caressed. 
 
 Rt Paris, and soon after the king ga re him the Unfortunately a strong natural disposition to- 
 
 sinecure prit^ry of Boulogne, near Chambor. wards the pleasures of a town life, by this moans 
 
 At twelve or tbirteeii, with the a.'-sistance of received encouragement rather than that 
 
11 A N 
 
 RAP 
 
 wholesome check which tlie delicacy of his ' noachi iic of Marli for the SMpply of Versailles 
 constitution requinil, and lie siink. under thi^ with he water of the river Seine. His proper 
 
 ihroiigii 
 Biflir. Drum. 
 
 O 
 
 eilVcts of dissipation before he had attained 
 his thirtieth year. He was the author of 
 " The iM uses' Looking-glass," and of five 
 other coiiudies, all possessed of consiJerahle 
 merit, winch were collected and [)ublished 
 after liis decease by his brother llobert, rector 
 of Donnington, together with his niiscellane- 
 ous poems. Tliey have since gone 
 several editions. — iJ/o^'. Ihit. 
 LUis's Specinictis. 
 
 RANDOLPH (Thomas) an eminent di- 
 vine, was the son of a banister of some emi- 
 nence, recorder of the city of Canterbury, 
 where he was burn about the commencement 
 of the last century ; and having received the 
 rudiments of a classical education at the 
 king's school, went oft" upon the foundation to 
 Corpus Christi college, Oxford, of wluch society 
 he eventually became president in 1718. Be- 
 sides the valuable benefices of Petham, Walt- 
 ham, and Saltwood, all in the immediate 
 neighbourliood of his native city, his distin- 
 guished talents as a theologian raised him to 
 the lady ALirgaret divinity chair, and the 
 archdeaconry of Oxford, to which latter dig- 
 nity he was elevated in 1768. As a contro- 
 versialist he acquired considerable reputation 
 by his " Vindication of the Doctrine of the 
 I'rinity," (Sec. His other works consist of " A 
 View of the JMinistry of our Saviour Jesus 
 Christ,'' 8vo, 2 vols. ; " The Christian's 
 Faith a rational Assent j" "Citations from 
 the Old Testament contained in the New;" 
 and a volume of sermons preached at St 
 I\Iary's, Oxford, lie died in 1783, leaving 
 behind him two sons ; of these, John Ran- 
 dolph was afterwards bishop of London. 
 This learned prelate was born in the year 
 1749, and obtained, at the usual age, a stu- 
 dentship at Christchurcli, Oxford, where he 
 graduated, and having become highly distin- 
 guished in the university by his industry and 
 talents, was elected to the regius professorship 
 of divinity in 1783. In 1799 he was raised 
 to the episcopal bench as bishop of Oxford, 
 over which see he presided about seven years, 
 and was then translated to the more lucrative 
 diocese of Bangor. Two years afterwards he 
 was farther promoted to the bishoi)]ic of Lon- 
 don, but t^njoyed this accession of dignity not 
 quite four years, being carried off by a fit of 
 apoplexy in the summer of 1813. Several 
 monuments of his classical, as well as theolo- 
 gical attainments, exist in his " Pntlectio de 
 Linguae Grscje Studio," 6cc ; his " Sylloge 
 Confessionum ;" " Concio ad Clerum," &cc. 
 'i'hough austere, and even rough in his man- 
 ners, bishop Randolph was equally distin- 
 guished by the soundness of his abilities, the 
 real benevolence of his disposition, and the 
 uncompromising firmness which he displayed 
 in the regulation of his diocese, and the exe- 
 cution of his clerical duties.— L//e of HimsclJ 
 by l)f T. Randolph. Gent. M^ig- 
 
 RANNEQUIN or RENISLQUIN, the 
 usual appellation of an engineer, who render- 
 ed himself famous bv the construction of the 
 
 name was Swalm Reukin, and he was the aoa 
 of a ( ajpenter of i^iege, where he was bora in 
 1611. He was brought up to his father's oc- 
 cupation, and, like our countrvman Brindley, 
 he a; )pears to have acquired his niechanic<ii 
 skill by means of native genius and self-in- 
 struction. The machine which he constructed 
 consisted of a vast series of pumps and canals, 
 by means of which the water was raised 47d 
 feet aljove the mean height of the river. It 
 was commenced in 167.5. under the ministry 
 of Colbert, and comjdeted under that of Lou- 
 vois in 1682. Some improvements were made 
 in tl e works in the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury ; and the machine has been since en- 
 tirely destroyed. Rannequin died July 29, 
 170;'.. — Biofr- Univ. 
 
 R APHAEL (Raifaeli-o Sanzio da Ur- 
 binc ) the most eminent of modern painters, 
 was born at Urbino in 1483, being the sou of a 
 pair ter of no great estimation. He was the 
 pup 1 of Pietro Perugino for three years, at the 
 end of which time, in 1499, he went with 
 Pin uriccio to Sienna, to assist him in paint- 
 ing the history of Pius II, for the library of the 
 catl.edral. lie next went to Florence, to pur- 
 sue his studies in that great school ; and in 
 l.)( 8 he was invited to Rome by pope Julius 
 II, who employed him in jjainting in fresco the 
 chiimbers of the Vatican ; and it was liere that 
 he painted his famous picture of the School of 
 Athens. On the accession of Leo X, he pro- 
 sec uted his labours with increased spirit, and 
 executed his Attila, and the Deliverance of 
 St Peter. He was also employed by the rich 
 banker, Agostino Chigi, for whose family cha- 
 pel he painted some of his most beautiful 
 pieces ; but a passion which he conceived for 
 a oeautiful young woman, the daughter of a 
 ba ;er, who thence took the name of La Bella 
 Fornarina, causing him to withdraw to her 
 house, Chigi invited her to his palace, that the 
 painter might undergo no interruption. Ra- 
 phael was also distinguished as an arcliitect ; 
 and on the death ofBramante, Leo confided to 
 him the completion of the galleries or loggie 
 of the Vatican, in which he displayed great 
 and elegant invention. He was also superin- 
 tendant of the building of St Peter's, in con- 
 junction with Fra Giocondo, and was employ- 
 ed by the pontiff to make designs for some 
 tapestry to be executed in Flanders, whence 
 those famous cartoons, obtained by Charles I, 
 still in royal possession. The result of a 
 rivalry with Sebastian del Piombo was the ce- 
 lebrated Transfiguration, in which he fully de- 
 monstrated his superiority. He also commen- 
 ced an apartment in the Vatican, called the 
 hall of Constantine, but was prevented from 
 finishing it by his untimely death, which took 
 place on his thirty-seventh birth-day, 1520. 
 Leo testified great emotion at the news of his 
 decease, and caused liis body to lie in state, in 
 a hall in which was placed his picture of the 
 Transfiguration. He was buried in the church 
 of tlie Rotondo at Rome, and cardinal Berabo 
 wrote his epitaph. Raphael was handsome. 
 
RAP 
 
 and of a mild and amiable character ; but his 
 immoderate attachment to the fair sex induced 
 him to decline matrimony, though cardinal 
 Bibliena oftered him one of his nieces. The 
 superiority which he possessed above any 
 other painter, consists of his mastery in 
 every branch of the art, united with his own 
 peculiar excellencies. According to Fuseli, 
 tlie drama, or in other words the representation 
 of characters in conflict with passions, was his 
 sphere, in respect to which his invention in 
 the choice of the moment, his composition in 
 the arrangement of the actors, and his expres- 
 sion in the dehnoation of their emotions, he 
 has always been deemed unrivalled. To all 
 this he added a style of design dictated by the 
 subject itself, a colouring suited to it, and as 
 much chiaro-scuro as was compatible with his 
 ruhng regard to perspicuity and force. His 
 greatest works remaining are the frescoes in 
 the Vatican. His od pictures are every where 
 most liighly prized, and more than 740 pieces 
 have been engraved from the desig-ns of Ra- 
 phael. — D^Argenville. E.oscoe's Leo X. Pil' 
 kinston by Fuseli. 
 
 RAPHELENGIUS (Francis) a Flemish 
 professor of the sixteenth century, one of the 
 most distinguished Orientalists of his day. He 
 was a native of Lanoy, born 1539, and received 
 his education in the university of Paris. Ra- 
 phelengius afterwards came to this country, 
 and supported himself for some time by giving 
 lectures on the Greek language at Cambridge. 
 Returning to Flanders, he settled at Antwerp, 
 where he married, and superintended the press 
 of his father-in-law, the well-known Christo- 
 pher Plantin. While in this situation, he as- 
 sisted in the production of the Antwerp Bible, 
 1571 ; and published two lexicons of the Ara- 
 bic and Chaldee languages, a Hebrew gram- 
 mar, and some learned " Remarks on the 
 Chaldee Paraphrase." His death took place 
 in 1597, at Leyden, where, for the last twelve 
 years of his life, he had filled the chair as pro- 
 fessor of Eastern languaoes. He left behind 
 him a son of the same name, who was also a 
 good classical scholar, and is known as the 
 author of an elegiac poem to tlie memory of il- 
 lustrious scholars, and some able notes on Se- 
 neca. — Moreri. Tirahoschi. 
 
 RAPIN (Rene) a French Jesuit and man 
 of letters, born at Tours in iG'il. He entered 
 into the order of Jesus in 1639, taught during 
 nine years tlie belles lettres, and published be- 
 tween 1657 and 1687 a great number of works 
 in prose and verse, both in the Latin and 
 French languages. His contemporaries have 
 praised him for the urbanity of his manners 
 and his agreeable disposition, which did not, 
 however, prevent him from engaging in warm 
 controversies with Maimbourg and father Va- 
 vasseur, nor from the display of an immoderate 
 degree of zeal against the Jansenists. Among 
 his principal works are his Latin poem on gar- 
 dens ; " Hortorum, libri iv," translated into 
 English hy Evelyn, and by Gardiner ; "Odes;" 
 *' Reflections on Eloquence ;" " Reflections 
 on the Poetics of Aristotle ;" and " Compa- 
 risjna between the great Writers of Antiquity." 
 
 R A P 
 
 He died at Paris, October 27, 1687. An 
 English translation of the critical works of 
 Ilapia was published by Basil Kennet, 2 vols. 
 8vo. — Diet. Hist. Bing. Univ. 
 
 RAP IX DE THOYRAS (Pavl) a re- 
 spectable historian, born at Castres in Lan- 
 guedoc, in 1661. He was the younger son of 
 James Rapin, sieur de Thoyras, descended 
 from a noble family of Savoy, ■which came into 
 France in the reign of Francis I, for the sake 
 of professing the reformed religion. He re- 
 ceived his education at Puvlaurens and Sau- 
 njur, and then studied the law under his fa- 
 ther, who was an advocate, until the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantz drove him to Eng- 
 land, and subsequently to Holland, where he 
 entered into a company of French cadets at 
 Utrecht, commanded by his cousin. In 1689 
 he followed the prince of Orange into England, 
 and obtained an ensigncy in Lord Kingston's 
 regiment, which he accompanied to Ireland, 
 and so much distinguished himself at the 
 battle of the Boyne, that he was rewarded 
 with a company. He left Ireland in 1693, 
 upon being ajtpointed tutor to the son of the 
 earl of Portland, and resigning his commission, 
 received a pension from the crown of 100/. per 
 annum. He accompanied his pupil to France 
 and Holland, and then returned to the Hague, 
 where he married. Having lost his pension 
 by the death of king William, in 1707 he set- 
 tled at Wesel, in the duchy of Cleves, and de- 
 voted himself to the composition of his well- 
 known " History of England." He died at 
 Wesel in 1725. His great work, " L'Histoire 
 d'Angleterre," was printed at the Hague in 
 10 vols. 4to, 1725-17!^6. He lived himself to 
 publish the eighth volume, which ends with 
 the death of Charles I. His two remaining 
 volumes, left in MS. did not appear until 1726. 
 Ibis laborious work has been twice translated 
 into English ; and Tindal, who corrected 
 some of its errors and added valuable notes, 
 continued it up to 1760. It is written in a 
 prolix and unanimated manner, but deserves 
 the praise of much solid information, and of a 
 far higher degree of impartiality than had been 
 exhibited by any of the historians who pre- 
 ceded him. He uniformly shows himself the 
 steady friend of civil and religious liberty ; and 
 upon tlie wbole his History may be regarded 
 as meriting the popularity which it acquired 
 before the publication of Hume's, and which 
 it still partly retains. Besides this long work, 
 he published, iu 1717, a " Dissertation sur les 
 Whigs et Torys," and undertook an abridg 
 ment of Rymer's '' Foedera," which was pub- 
 lished in Le Clerc's " Bibliotheque Choisie." 
 — Biog. Brit. Life prejixed to History. 
 
 RAPIN (Nicholas) a French poet, was 
 born at Fontenai-le-Comte in Poictou, in 
 1535. He was vice-seneschal of his native 
 province, and went afterwards to Paris, and 
 obtained a y)0st under government. He died 
 in 1679. His Latin epigrams are much ad- 
 mired, as also the principal of his French 
 poems, entitled " Les Plaisirs da Gentil- 
 iiomine Champetre." He made a vain attempt 
 to compose French blank verse, anil was one of 
 
R AS 
 
 (lie writers concerned in the celebrated '* Sa- 
 tire IVIenippee." All liis works were printed 
 at Paris in lolO, 4io. — Xiceroii. Mun'ri. 
 
 RAi'l' (John) a French general ollii er, 
 who was born of an obscure family at Cohnar, 
 in Alsace, in 177'J. He enga^jed in military 
 service in 178!?, and attractetl notice durinij 
 the first revolutionary wars, by his bravery and 
 intelligence. Havinir become a lieutenant in 
 tlie tenth regiment of chasseurs, he was made 
 aid-de-camp to general Desaix, with whom he 
 served in the campaigns of 1796 and 1797, 
 and afterwards in Ivuypt. After the battle of 
 iNlarengo he was appomted aid-de-camp to the 
 first consul Buonaparte. In 1802 he was em - 
 jiloyed in the subjui;ation of Switzerland ; and 
 returning to Paris the following year, he ac- 
 companied Buonaparte in his journey to Bel- 
 gium. At the battle of Austerlitz he defeated 
 the Ilussian ini])erial guard, and took prisoner 
 jnince llepnia, for which service he was made 
 general of a division in December 1805. He 
 ■was appointed governor of Dantzic in 1807 ; 
 and after the campaign of 1812 he also com- 
 manded the garrison of that city, which he 
 defended with consummate skill and valour, 
 but lie was at length obliged to capitulate. He 
 submitted to the royal authority in 1814, bc.t 
 joined Napoleou on his return from Elba. Hav- 
 ing afterwards been received into favour by- 
 Louis X\'lll, he was made a member of the 
 chamber of Peers. His death took place in 
 1821. Posthumous " Memoires du General 
 Rapp," appeared at Paris in 1823, 8vo. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 ■ RASCHE(Joiiv Christopiikr; an emi- 
 nent writer on numismatics, born in Saxony in 
 1733. Few particulars of his life have been 
 recorded, except that he was created a master 
 .in philosophy, and nominated a-djunct to the 
 ecclesiastical tribunal of the bailiiage of iMaas- 
 field, and pastor of Lower Maasfield, near 
 Meiningen. He was also member of the lite- 
 rary societies of Altorf, Halle, Jena, Cassel, 
 &c. After having exercised his ministerial 
 office more than forty years he died, April 21, 
 1805. His works are extremely numerous, in- 
 cluding " Lexicon Abruptionum quaj in Nu- 
 mismatibus Romanorum occurunt," Nurem- 
 berg, 1777, 8vo ; " Numismata rarissima Ro- 
 manorum a JulioCa?Pare ad lleraclium usque ;" 
 1777, 8vo ; " The Science of Ancient jMedals, 
 according to the Principles of Joubert and La 
 Bastie," 1778, 1779, 3 vols. 8vo ; and " Lexi- 
 con Universal Rei XummariajVeterum, et pra;- 
 cique Gr.Pcorum ac Romanurum, cum Obser- 
 vationibus," Leipsic, 1785 — 1794, 12 vols. 
 8vo j a supplement to which valuable work 
 apjiearcd in 1C02 — 1805, 2 vols. — Biog. Univ. 
 RASPE (RoDOLPH Eric) a German anti- 
 quary, born at Hai:over in 1737. He studied 
 at Gottingen and Leipsic ; and was succes- 
 sively employed in the libraries of Gottingen 
 and Hanover. In 1767 the landgrave of Hesse 
 appointed him professor of arclia;ology at Cas- 
 sel, and afterwards inspector of his cabinet of 
 antiques and medals, and a counsellor. At 
 length he left the service of the landgrave, 
 uedei circumstauccs of disgrace, being accused 
 
 Jl AT 
 
 of having purloined part of the valuable cu- 
 riosities under his care. He fled, and took re- 
 fuge in Fn'^laml, where lie supported hiin.-self 
 by his literary exertions. He published an 
 " Account of German Vojcauoes," 1776, anil 
 a translation of baron Horn's I'reatise on the 
 process of Amalgamation. J'his ingenious, but 
 unprincipled man, after experiencing many 
 
 vicissitudes, died in Ireland, in 1794. liiog. 
 
 Uiiir. 
 
 RASTAL or RASTALL. There were 
 three of this name, father and sons. Jony 
 Rastai,, the elder, is known as an eminent 
 Jirinter and historian, who flourished in London, 
 of which city he was a native, during the earlt 
 part of the sixteenth century. He aj)pears to 
 have received a classical education at Oxford, 
 and although bred a member of the Romish 
 church, to have eventually abjured its tenets 
 in favour of the Lutheran communion. His 
 conversion is said to have been the result of a 
 polemical controversy carried on between him 
 and the celebrated John Fryth, wliom lord 
 chancellor More sent to the stake as a recu- 
 sant, and is the more remarkable, inasmuch as 
 Rastai had previously married the chaucelloi'a 
 sister. His share of the disputations is vet 
 extant, in two treatises, entitled " An Apology 
 against John Fryth," and " Dialogues con- 
 cerning Purgatory." He was also the com- 
 piler of some law book?, which go under the 
 name of " Rastal's Entries," and have been 
 erroneously ascribed to one of his sons. It is, 
 however, as an historian that he is principally 
 distinguished, his " Anglorum Kegum Chro- 
 nicon " having gone through two editions. 
 His other works consist of a curious " Dra- 
 matic Description of the World ;" " Rules for 
 a good Life ;" " Canones Astrologici," &:c. 
 His deatli took place in 1536. — William, the 
 elder son, went to the bar, and rose to be a 
 judge of the Common Pleas; but declining to 
 follow his father's example, in embracing Pro- 
 testantism, the ultimate ascendancy of that 
 church under Elizabeth, induced him to retire 
 to the continent, where he passed the latter 
 period of his life. He was the author of a life 
 of his uncle, sir Thomas More, and compiled 
 a Chronological Table of Events from the Con- 
 quest downwards; a Chartuary ; " English 
 Law Terms." iScc. The time of liis decease, 
 which took place at Louvaine, was about the 
 year 1565. — Of John Rastai., his younger 
 brother, little is known, but that he was for 
 many years an active magistrate in the com- 
 mission of the peace. — Bing. Brit. 
 
 RATTl'- (Etienne Hyacinthe de) an as- 
 tronomer, born in 1722, of a noble family, at 
 Montpellier. He displayed, when young, a 
 decided taste for mathematics, which he stu- 
 died with such success as to astonish his 
 learned contemporaries. At the age of nine- 
 teen he was admitted into the academy of 
 iMontpellier. of which the next year h" became 
 perpetual secretary ; and lie zealously attended 
 to the duties of his office till the suppression 
 of academies, at the commencement of t'ne 
 Revolution. On the re-establishment of that 
 of IMontpellier, in 1796, he resumed his place 
 
RA U 
 
 of secretary, and was subsequently president. 
 fie was also chosen a corresponding member 
 of the Institute, and nominated a member of 
 the legion of liouour. His death took place 
 April 15, 1805. De Ratte made important 
 observations on the transit of Venus in 1761, 
 which served as the basis of his laborious cal- 
 culations on the parallax of the sun. He fur- 
 nished many articles on natural philosophy to 
 the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique, and various 
 contributions to the memoirs of the academy 
 to which he belonged. His astronomical ob- 
 servations were posthumously published by his 
 nephew, iM. de Flauguergues. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RAU (John James) a distinguished Ger- 
 man pbysician and anatomist, born in 1668, 
 at Baden in Suabia. He was at the age of 
 fourteen apprenticed to a surgeon at Strasburg, 
 and afterwards entered into the Dutch naval 
 service in a professional character. He then 
 engaged in a course of academical studies at 
 Levden ; and having passed some time at 
 Paris in anatomical and surgical investigations, 
 he returned to Leyden, and took the degree of 
 i\ID. in 1694. He fixed his residence at Am- 
 sterdam, where he gave anatomical lectures 
 and demonstrations, for which he was allowed 
 the use of the public amphitheatre in 1696. 
 He succeeded Bidloo at Leyden, in 1713, in 
 the professorship of anatomy ; and in 1718 lie 
 was made rector of the university. His death 
 took place September 18, 1719. Rau pub- 
 lished " Epistoles dufe de Septo Scroti ad 
 Ruyschium," 1689, 4to ; and " Oratio de Me- 
 thodo discendi Anatomen," 1713, 4to : but 
 though he wrote so little for the press, he 
 obtained high reputation as a practical anato- 
 mist. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RAU (Seeald Fulco John) a Dutch theo- 
 logian and Orientalist, born at Utrecht in 1765. 
 He was educated at the university of his na- 
 tive place ; and such was his proficiency, that 
 at eighteen years of age he published " Spe- 
 cimen Arabicum, continens Descriptionem et 
 Excerpta libri Ahmedis Teufachii de Gemmis 
 et Lapidibus." Having completed his studies, 
 lie became a French preacher ; and in 1787 he 
 was appointed minister of the Walloon church 
 of Harderwyck, and the following year of that 
 of Leyden. To his pastoral office was added 
 the chair of theology at Leyden ; and in 1790 
 he succeeded Everaid Scheidius as professor 
 of the Oriental languages and antiquities. He 
 was deprived of his office in 1795, in conse- I 
 ^uence of changes in the constitution of the 
 university ; but he was restored in 17 99. His ^ 
 death took place December 1, 1807. His 
 works consist of six academical discourses, ' 
 distinguished for learned research and inge- I 
 Luity ; and three volumes of Sermons, which 
 ppeared posthumously. — Bipg. Univ. Biog. ; 
 Ko'iv. des Contemp. I 
 
 RAUCOURT (Sophia) a French actress 
 of eminence, whose proper name was Sauce- 
 'ote. She was born at Nanci in 1756, and 
 was the daughter of a theatrical performer. 
 She first appeared on the stage at Paris, in 
 1772, in the character of Dido. She soon 
 acquired great professional reputation, which 
 
 R A V 
 
 she enjoyed till 1776, when she suddenly fl.-^tj 
 from France to avoid her creditors. She re- 
 turned to the Parisian stage in 1779, and 
 continued to be one of its principal ornaments, 
 till her imprisonment during the reign of terror 
 in 1793. She was discharged after six months' 
 confinement ; but she experienced other per- 
 secutions till she obtained the protection of 
 Buonaparte. Her death happened January 15, 
 1815. A disgraceful scene occurred at her 
 funeral. The clergy of the parish of St Roch 
 having refused to admit the corpse into the 
 church, the populace assembledin great force, 
 and after exhibiting some violence, escorted 
 the body to the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, 
 where the interment took place. — Biog. Univ, 
 
 RAU WOLF (Leonard) a distinguished 
 Oriental traveller and botanist, who was a na- 
 tive of Augsburg in Germany. After having 
 studied under the celebrated physician and 
 naturalist Rondelet, at Montpellier, he set ofT 
 in 1573 on a joumey through Diarbeck, Syria, 
 Palestine, Egypt, ice. ; and after his return he 
 became a physician in the Austrian army. He 
 died in 1606. The observations made by Rau- 
 wolf in his tour through the East were pub- 
 lished in Ray's " Collection of curious Travels 
 and Voyages into Eastern Countries," London, 
 1693, 2 vols. 8vo ; and the Herbarium of 
 Rauwolf was used by Gronovius, in drawing 
 up his " Flora Orientalis."' — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RAVENET (Simon Francis) a French 
 engraver, came to England in 1750, and set- 
 tled in London. He lived in the latter part of 
 his life in Kentish Town, where he died in 
 1774. His principal prints are, " The Pro- 
 digal Son," from Sal. Rosa; " Lucretia de- 
 ploring her INlisfortune ;" and " The ]\Iani- 
 festation of the Innocence of the Princess 
 Gunhilda," from A. Casali ; " The Death of 
 Seneca," from Luca Giordano, &c. — Strutt'i 
 Diet. 
 
 RAVENSCROFT (Thomas) an English 
 musician, died in 1640. In 1614 he published 
 " A ]3riefe Discourse of the true but ne- 
 glected Use of characterizing the Degrees bv 
 their Perfection, Imperfection, and Diminu- 
 tion, in measureable JMusicke, against the 
 Common Practice and Custom of the Times," 
 4to ; which exploded doctrines he continued 
 to practise ineffectually. He also edited a 
 collection of Psalm Tunes, among which were 
 several of his own, many of which are still in 
 use. Finally, he was the author of a collection 
 of songs, entitled " INIelcimata TMusical Pban- 
 cies, fitting the Court, City, and Country Hu- 
 mours, in three, four, and five Voices," 1611. 
 — Nankins' and Bnrneu's Hint, of Mnsic. 
 
 RAVIUS. The Latin designation of Chris- 
 tian Rau, a learned German professor, born 
 in 1613 at Berlin. He received his education 
 in the university of Rostock, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself by his early proficiency in 
 Oriental as well as classical literature. Com- 
 ing to England, he was recommended to the 
 notice of Usher, archbishop of Armagh, and 
 under the auspices of that munificent encou- 
 rager of learning, took a voyage in the Levant, 
 for the purpose of procuring manuscripts. 
 
R A VV 
 
 Whle iu the East he much iiicreasei] his fa- 
 luiliarity with the vernacular hmgu;i{^es, es- 
 pecially the Pfrbian aial iurkish. On his 
 return to l^urope, he iDok up liis tenijiorarv 
 al)ode at Utrecht, where he read lectures in 
 Aral)ic, and emi)!oyed liiniself in tiie compo- 
 sition of several useful treatises connected 
 with his favourite course of study, esjjecially in 
 constructing Grammars of tlie Hebrew, Sama- 
 ritan, and Chaldaic dialects, the Syriac, Arabic, 
 &;c. liis other works are, " l^isputatio (Jhro- 
 nolot;ica de Plenitudine 'J'enij)t)ri3 Christi ;" 
 " Chronoloi;ia infallibilis de Annis Christi ;" 
 " ChronoU)gia lUbiica ;" " De J)udaim llu- 
 benis Dissertatio philologica ;" " Orbis Ilie- 
 raticiis l-evitarum;" " Obtestatio ad Europam 
 pro discendis Rebus et Linguis Orientalibus ;" 
 a l^lan for accjuiring the Orthography and Ety- 
 mology of tlie Hebrew Tongue ; and a 'I'rans- 
 latiou of the Writings of Apollonius of Perga, 
 from the Arai)ic into Latin. Ivavius main- 
 tained an extensive correspondence with the 
 learned and their patrons, especially with 
 Christina of Sweden, wlio held his talents in 
 great respect. After reading his lectures at 
 Upsal, Kiel, &c. he at length died at the latter 
 place, or, as others say, at Frankfort-sur- 
 JNIaine, in 1677. — Johannks Ravius, his son, 
 published an edition of Cornelius Nepos with 
 notes, and filled the situation of librarian to 
 the elector of Brandenburg. — Athen. Oxon. 
 Moreri. 
 
 RAWLEY (Wii.i.tam) an English divine, 
 known as the editor of some of the works of 
 Bacon, lord Verulam. He studied at Bennet 
 college, Cambiidge, where he obtained a fel- 
 lowship, and took the degree of DD. Ik'com- 
 ing chaplain and secretary to Bacon, the inte- 
 rest of his patron procured him the living of 
 Landbeach in Cambridgeshire. He collected 
 irom the papers of the great philosopher ♦'o 
 whose service he had been attached, several 
 tracts, which he j)ublished under the title of 
 *' Resuscitatio ;" and to his care we are also 
 indebted for " Bacon's Remains," published 
 by archbishop Tenison. Dr Rawley died in 
 1667. — Chalmers's Biog. Diet, 
 
 RAWLINSON ( ChuistophkiO a critic and 
 Saxon scholar, born in Lancashire in 1677. 
 He received his education at Queen's college, 
 Oxford, where he ajiplied himself particularly 
 to the study of the Saxon language. He died 
 in 1733, leaving a monument of his erudition 
 in his ])ul)lication of king Alfred's Saxon ver- 
 sion of Boetliius's Treatise on the Consolations 
 of I'hiJosophv. — CJutlmers's Biog. Diet. 
 
 RAWLINSON (Thomas) a distinguished 
 bibliomaniac, or book-collector, in the early 
 part of the last century. He was the son of 
 sir T. Rawlinson, knight, who was lord-mayor 
 of London, and he was educated for the legal 
 profession ; but his claims to notice depend 
 solely on his passion for the accumulation of 
 books, which he indulged to a greater extent 
 than almost any other private individual. 
 While he resided in chambers at Gray's-inn, 
 his library occupied four rooms, and he slept 
 in a closet or passage. He subsequently re- 
 moved his collection to a large liou.se in Al- 
 Bioo. Out.— Vol.. Ill, 
 
 R A \' 
 
 dersgate-street, where he made great addition 
 to it ; l)iil it was at length dispersed by salo 
 \>y aiiciion in 17'J'.'. The Catalogues of Kaw- 
 hnson's library, consisting of a number of 
 parts, separately published, are rarely to be 
 met with compU-le. iMr Rawlinson's deatJi 
 took place in 17'2'y, at the age of forty fcjur. 
 He is satirized, in the Taller, under the appel- 
 lation of Tom Folio ; and he appears to have 
 exhibited many singularities of character be- 
 sides his inordinate fondness for books. — Raw- 
 linson (Richard) younger brother of the 
 |)receding, an eminent anticpiary and t()j)o- 
 grapher. He was educated at Si John's col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he graduated as LL.D. iu 
 1719. He founded in the university an An- 
 glo-Saxon lectureship ; and he formed a large 
 collection of books, printed and manuscrij)t, 
 engravings, drawings, &:c. which were sold 
 after his death. Dr Rawlinson published an 
 improved translation of Lenglet du Fresnoy's 
 " IMethod of studying History," 2 vols. 8vo, 
 and " 'J'he English Topographer, or an His- 
 torical Account of all the Pieces that have been 
 written relative to the Natural History or 
 Topograi)hical Description of England," 8vo ; 
 and he edited Aubrey's " I'erambulation of 
 Surrey." He died in 1755. — Dibdin's Bibliom. 
 Nichnls'b Lit. Anec. 
 
 RAY (John) a celebrated English natu- 
 ralist and philosopher, born at lilack Notley, 
 in Essex, November 29, 1628. His father 
 exercised the humble occupation of a black- 
 smith, notwithstanding which, the son received 
 a regular education, having studied at a gram- 
 mar school at Braintree, and afterwards at 
 Catherine hall, Cambridge. Thence he removed 
 to Trinity college, where he obtained a fellow- 
 ship during the period that the university was 
 subject to the influence of tlie puritans, after the 
 death of Charles 1. This did not prevent 
 Mr Ray from procuring episcopal ordination, 
 when the restoration of Charles H had made 
 way for the re-establishment of the church of 
 England. But though he thus far became a 
 conformist, he conscientiously objected to 
 signing the declaration against the solemn 
 league and covenant, and chose rather to 
 resign his fellowship. He thenceforth devoted 
 himself to the cultivation of science and lite- 
 rature, and published many works, chiefly 
 relating to theology and natural history. In 
 1663 he accom])anied Francis Willughbv, a 
 gentleman of congenial taste, in a journey 
 through France, Germany, Italy, and Spain ; 
 and after his return home in 1667, he was 
 chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, to whose 
 Transactions he was a frequent contributor. 
 In 1670 he published a " Catalogue of Eng'- 
 lish Plants." which was followed by a " CrJ- 
 lection of English Proverbs ;" and in 1673 he 
 produced an account of his continental tour 
 On the death of IMr Willughbv, in 167'J, Mr 
 Ray became tutor to his sons ; and he soon 
 after married and settled at his native place. 
 He now contiimed his labours in the cause o» 
 science with unremitting ardour, and riarticu 
 larly distinguished himself by his improve 
 ments in the classical arrangement of plant' 
 
 B 
 
RAY 
 
 ai.J animals, in his " Metliodus Plantarum 
 Nova," 8vo ; " Historia Plantarum," 3 vols, 
 folio ;" " Synopsis iMethodica Stirpium," 8vo ; 
 ** Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadru])e- 
 dum ;" and a '• Sylioge Stirpium Europearum 
 extra Britanniam crescentium ;" besides which 
 he published his friend Mr Willughby's Orni- 
 thology, and History of Fishes. He was also 
 the author of a very popular work on physico- 
 theology, entitled " The Wisdom of God ma- 
 nifested in the Works of Creation," 8vo ; and 
 of " Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the 
 Dissolution and Changes of the World," 8vo. 
 His death took place January 17, 170.5. 
 " The Philosophical Letters of Ray, and 
 those of his Correspondents, to which are 
 added those of Willughby," were published 
 in 1718, by Dr W. Derham. — Brit. Biog. 
 Aikin's Gen. Biog. Pulteney's Sketches of the 
 Pros:, of Botanii in England. 
 
 RAYiMOND (Robert, baron) an eminent 
 English lawyer, who ilourished in great repu- 
 tation about the time of the Hanover succes- 
 sion. His father, sir Thomas Raymond, him- 
 self a judge in the King's Bench, educated 
 him for his own profession, in which he rose 
 rapidly to the highest honours. Being ap- 
 pointed solicitor-general about the close of 
 queen Anne's reign, he became first attorney- 
 general, and eventually lord-chief-justice, and 
 a commissioner of the great seal, with an 
 English peerage, under her two succes- 
 sors. In the discharge of his high calling he 
 distinguished himself as a sound constitu- 
 tional lawyer and an upright judge, following 
 the example of his father in compiling " Re- 
 ports," which have gone through two editions, 
 the first in two volumes folio, and subsequently 
 in octavo. He was also the author of a folio 
 volume of " Rubrics." Lord Raymond sur- 
 vived his elevation to the upper house little 
 more than a year, dying in 1732. — Brldgmans 
 Leo-al Bibliosr. 
 
 RAYNAL (William Francis) a French 
 writer of celebrity, was born at St Genies, in 
 the Rovergue, in 1718. He entered at an 
 early age among the Jesuits, whom however 
 he quitted in 1748, and fixed his abode in 
 Paris, where he became an historical, poli- 
 tical, and a miscellaneous writer, and distin- 
 guished himself by a bold and decisive turn of 
 sentiment, and an animated style. For a time 
 he forsook literary for convivial pursuits, which 
 might possibly lead him to the composition of 
 the work for which he is indebted for his 
 principal share of fame, entitled " Histoire 
 Philosophique et Politique des Etablissemens 
 et du Commerce des Europeens dans les deux 
 Indes," first printed in 1770. This work was 
 for a while extremely popular for its freedom 
 of opinion and brilliancy of style, but upon a 
 closer examination it was found replete with 
 dubious and incorrect statements, and disfi- 
 gured with much empty declamation and un- 
 sound opinion. Sensible of these faults, the 
 abbe travelled throusfh Eng^Iand and Holland, 
 to obtam correct mercantile information, and 
 on his return published an improved edition 
 ut Geneva, in ten volumes octavo. It still 
 
 RE 
 
 however retained so much freedom of opinion, 
 and such bold remarks on authority of every 
 description, that the parliament of Paris ordered 
 it to be burnt, and the author to be arrested. 
 He retired to Spain, and made the tour of 
 Germany, but subsequently ventured to return 
 to France, and lived unmolested in the south- 
 ern provinces. In 1788 the national assem- 
 bly cancelled the decree passed against him, 
 and in 1791 lie addressed a letter to the con- 
 stituent assembly in defence of the risj;hts of 
 property, and to strengthen the bands of civil 
 authority, which he now fully perceived the 
 necessity of supporting. He however per- 
 sonally escaped the tyranny of Robespierre, 
 possibly on account of his great age, but was 
 stripped of his property, and died in indigence 
 at Passy, in 1794, aged eighty-five. He also 
 wrote, " Histoire du Stadhouderat," 1748 ; 
 and " Histoire du Parlenient d'Angleterre," 
 a weak and prejudiced performance ; with 
 other treatises, historical and political. He is 
 likewise said to have left in MS. a history of 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Few 
 authors who were so celebrated, have sooner 
 sunk into neglect. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Monthly 
 Rev. 
 
 RAYNAUD (Theopuilus) a celebrated 
 Jesuit, was born at Sospello, in the county of 
 Nice, in 1583. His singular opinions and bad 
 temper involved him in several quarrels with 
 his society, with which nevertheless he conti- 
 nued to reside until his death, which took placfi 
 at Lyons in 1663. His works amount to twenty 
 volumes folio, and display great learning ; but 
 all his subjects are treated in a singular man 
 ner, which rendered them unpopular. The 
 two best are, " Erotema de bonis et nialis 
 Libris ;" and " Symbola Antoniana," Rome, 
 1648, 8vo, relating to St Anthony's fire. — 
 Dupin. Kiceron. Gen. Diet. 
 
 RE (Philip) a distinguished Italian agri 
 culturist, botn of a noble family, at Reggio, in 
 1763. He studied in the college of his native 
 city, and acquired a taste for agriculture from 
 the perusal of Virgil's Georgics, In 1793 an 
 agricultural professorship was founded in his 
 favour at Reggio ; and he was subsequently 
 appointed rector of the university there ; and 
 at length a member of the regency of Modena 
 on the suppression of which he returned to 
 private life, accompanied by the lespect anC 
 esteem of his fellow-citizens. In 1803 he 
 was called to the chair of agriculture at Bo- 
 locrna, and on the reorcranization of the univer- 
 sity of Modena in 1814, he became professor 
 of airriculture and botanv, to which was added 
 the superintendence of the royal gardens. His 
 death took place IMarch 26, 1817. Among 
 the numerous valuable works which he pub- 
 lished, are, " Elementa di Agricoltura," the 
 first Italian treatise in which the principles of 
 chemistry are applied to ihe improvement of 
 agricTiltural science ; ** Dizionario ragionato 
 de' libri d' Agricoltura, Yeterinaria, e di altri 
 rami d'Economia campestre," 4 vols. 16mo ; 
 and " Annali d'Agricoltura," 1807 — 1814, a 
 periodical journal. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv, 
 des Contemp. 
 
KEC 
 
 K?JAIIMUII (Rr-NE Antoine Fercdault 
 (5e) one of tlie most ingenious philosoi)hic nu- 
 iumlists which Fiunce ever ])ioduted. lie 
 was born in lOliJ at llochelle, and was the 
 son of a counsellor of the presidial court of 
 that city. lie studied under the Jesuits at 
 Poitiers, and afterwards went throu^^h a course 
 of law at Bourses ; but a j)redonuuant taste 
 Jed him to the observation of nature, and as 
 lie possL-ssed an ample fortmie, he !,^ave way 
 to his iiiclinaiioii. Having- made himself ac- 
 quainted with the mathematical sciences, he 
 went to Paris in 170.}, and by means of his 
 relative, the president Ilenault, he was speed- 
 ily introduced to the literati of the metrojiolis, 
 and in 1708 he was chosen a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, to which he had pre- 
 sented some memoirs on geometry. For 
 nearly fifty years he continued to be one of 
 the most active and useful members of this 
 ceielnated association ; his labours alternately 
 embracing the arts of industry, natural philo- 
 sophy, and natural history ; and from his first 
 entrance into the academy, scarcely a year 
 elaj)sed in which he did not publish memoirs 
 or sejjarate works, both interesting and im- 
 portant, lie was apjjointed to assist in the 
 descriptive accounts of arts and trades pub- 
 lished by the academy ; and in executing his 
 ])art of the undertaking, he did not confine 
 himself to the mere history of the difterent 
 processes, bat pointen.1 out the way to various 
 improvements, by the application of tlie prin- 
 cij)les of physics and natural history, lie 
 made important observations on the formation 
 of pearls ; and he discovered in Languedoc, 
 mines of the Turquoise, which substance he 
 demonstrated to be the fossilized teeth of an 
 animal, since called the mastodon ; but among 
 his most useful researches must: be reckoned 
 those of wliicli he gave an account in his 
 " Traite sur I'Artde convertir le Fer en Acier, 
 et d'adoucir le Fer fondu," 1722. As a na- 
 tural philosopher the name of Reaumur is 
 principally celebrated for the invention of an 
 improved thermometer, which he made known 
 in 1731. The fabrication of porcelain also 
 occupied much of his attention, and led liim 
 
 R E C 
 
 was elected fellow of All Souls college, Ox- 
 ford, in l.'j.jl. He devoted liimself to llie 
 .studv of phvhic, and g"ing to Cambridge, waa 
 admitted doctor of that faculty in 1 j 1.5. Re- 
 turning to Oxford, he publicly taught mathe- 
 matics with much reputation. He next re 
 moved to London, where ne is said to have 
 been jjhysician to Edward VI and i\Iarv, but 
 becoming embarrassed in his circumstancerf, 
 he was confined for debt in the King's Bench 
 {)rison, where he died in 1,5.58. He wrote 
 several mathematical works, the jirincipal of 
 which are, " The Pathway to Knowledge, 
 containing the first Principles of Geometric, 
 tkc." " The Ground of Arts, corrected and 
 augmented by Dr John Dee, aiid afterwards 
 by John Millis, 1.590, 16l», Robert Norton, 
 Robert Hartwell, and finally by R. C. ;" " The 
 Castle of Knowledge, containing the Expli- 
 cation of the Sphere, both Celestial 1 and 
 ■Materiall, &c ;" " The Whetstone of Witte, 
 which is the second Part of Arithmetic, con- 
 taining the Extraction of Rootes, the Cossike 
 Practice, with the Rules of Equation, and 
 the Works of Surde N^ombers," 15.57 ; an 
 analysis of this work is given in Dr Ilntton's 
 Dictionary — art. Algebra; " 'Jhe Urinal of 
 Physic, &c." According to Sherburne he also 
 published, " CosmographicXi Isagoge ;" " De 
 Arte faciendi Ilorologium ;" " De Usu Glo- 
 borura ;" and " De Statu Temporum." — Tan- 
 ner. Bale. Pits. Athen. Oxon. Hiiiton's 
 Diet. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 RECUPERO (Alexander) a learned an- 
 tiquary and medalist, born about 1740, at Ca- 
 tanea in Sicily. He was of a noble family, 
 and being obliged to quit bis native country, 
 he took the name of Alexis Motta, under 
 which appellation he travelled through the 
 principal cities of Italy, and employed himself 
 in forming a rich collection of the consular 
 medals of the ancient Romans. 'Tlie exami- 
 nation and classification of these relics of an- 
 tiquity occupied him during more than thirty 
 years, in the course of which he obtained an 
 almost unrivalled acquaintance with the family 
 history of the illustrious Romans, as appeals 
 fiom the following works. " Institutio Stem- 
 
 to the discovery of a kind of enamel, called j matica, sive de Vera Stemmatum pra'Sertim 
 
 the porcelain of Reaumur, in 1739. But his 
 experiments and investigations concerning arti- 
 ficial incubation as practised in Egypt, at- 
 tracted more popular notice than most of his 
 undertakings. Of all his literary productions 
 the most considerable is that entitled " JMe- 
 nioires pour servir a I'Histoire des Insectes," 
 173-1 — 42, 6 vols. 4to, which placed him in 
 
 Roiaanorum Natuia atijue DuTerentia ;" "An- 
 nales familiarnm Romanorum ;" and "Annales 
 Gentium Historico-Numisniaticie, sive de Ori- 
 gine Gentium seu F'amiliarum Rcmanorum 
 Dissertatio." He also wrote on the Roman 
 weights, and manner of nun.uering. He was 
 a member of the anti(iuarian academies ot 
 Veletri and Cortona. His death took place 
 
 the first rank of modern naturalists. He had j at Rome, in October 1803. — Recuteho (dom 
 no public employment except that of intendant [ Joseph) brother of the preceding, a learned, 
 of the order of St Louis, which he held only ; mineralogist, embraced the ecclesiastical pro- 
 for the benefit of a relation, who was unable | fession, and obtained a canonry in the cathe- 
 to retain it ; and his time was entirely devoted ; dral of Catanea. He particularly distin- 
 to his favourite scientific pursuits. " He died | guished himself by his researches concerning 
 October 18, 1757, in consetpience of injury the volcanic mountain of Etna ; and some 
 arising from an accidental fall. He left to the details which he communicated to the Fhiglish 
 Academy of Sciences his manuscripts and his : traveller Brydone, relative to the ])robable age 
 cabinet of natural history. — Biog. Univ. ; of the mountain, as deduced from the appear- 
 
 BECORDE (Rouert) a learned physician ances of the difierent layers of lava ejected 
 and mathematician of the sixteenth century, from it, gave rise to much misrepresentation, 
 
 B 2 
 
RAY 
 
 ai.i animals, in his " Rletliodus Plantarum 
 Nova," 8ro ; " Historia Plantarum," 3 vols, 
 folio ;" " Synopsis IMethodica Stirpium," 8vo ; 
 ** Synopsis Metliodica Animaliiim Quadruue- 
 dum ;" and a " Sylloge Stirpium Europearum 
 extra Britanniam crescentium ;" besides which 
 he published his friend Mr Willughby's Orni- 
 thology, and History of Fishes. He was also 
 the author of a very popular work on physico- 
 theoloav. entitled " The Wisdom of God ma- 
 nifested in the Works of Creation," 8vo ; and 
 of " IMiscellaneous Discourses concerning the 
 Dissolution and Changes of the World," 8vo. 
 His death took place January 17, 1705. 
 •' The Philosophical Letters of Ray, and 
 those of his Correspondents, to which are 
 added those of Willughby," were published 
 in 1718, by Dr W. Derham. — Brit. Biog. 
 Aikin's Gen. Biog. Pulteney's Sketches of the 
 Prog, of Botany in England. 
 
 RAYjMOND (Robert, baron) an eminent 
 English lawyer, who flourished in great repu- 
 tation about the time of the Hanover succes- 
 sion. His father, sir Thomas Raymond, him- 
 self a judge in the King's Bench, educated 
 him for his own profession, in which he rose 
 rapidly to the highest honours. Being ap- 
 pointed solicitor-general about the close of 
 queen Anne's reign, he became first attorney- 
 general, and eventually lord-chief-justice, and 
 a commissioner of the great seal, with an 
 English peerage, under her two succes- 
 sors. In the discharge of his high calling he 
 distinguished himself as a sound constitu- 
 tional lawyer and an upright judge, following 
 the example of his father in compiling " Re- 
 ports," which have gone through two editions, 
 the first in two volumes folio, and subsequently 
 in octavo. He was also the author of a folio 
 volume of " Rubrics." Lord Raymond sur- 
 vived his elevation to the upper house little 
 more than a year, dying in 1732. — Bridgmans 
 Le"-al Bihlioir. 
 
 RAYNAL (William Francis) a French 
 writer of celebrity, was born at St Genies, in 
 the Rovergue, in 1718. He entered at an 
 early age among the Jesuits, whom however 
 he quitted in 1748, and fixed his abode in 
 Paris, where he became an historical, poli- 
 tical, and a miscellaneous writer, and distin- 
 guished himself by a bold and decisive turn of 
 sentiment, and an animated style. For a time 
 he forsook literary for convivial pursuits, which 
 might possibly lead him to the composition of 
 the work for which he is indebted for his 
 principal share of fame, entitled " Histoire 
 Philosophique et Politique des Etablissemens 
 et du Commerce des Europeens dans les deux 
 Indes," first printed in 1770. This work was 
 for a while extremely popular for its freedom 
 of opinion and brilliancy of style, but upon a 
 closer examination it was found replete with 
 dubious and incorrect statements, and disfi- 
 gured with much empty declamation and un- 
 sound opinion. Sensible of these faults, the 
 abbe travelled through England and Holland, 
 to obtain correct mercantile information, and 
 on his return published an improved edition 
 at Geneva, in ten volumes octavo. It still 
 
 RE 
 
 however retained so much freedom of opinion, 
 and such bold remarks on authority of every 
 description, that the pariiauient of Paris ordered 
 it to be burnt, and the author to be arrested. 
 He retired to Spain, and made the tour of 
 Germany, but subsequently ventured to return 
 to France, and lived unmolested in the south- 
 ern provinces. In 1788 the national assem- 
 bly cancelled the decree passed against him, 
 and in 1791 he addressed a letter to the con- 
 stituent assembly in defence of the rights of 
 property, and to strengthen the bands of civil 
 authority, which he now fully perceived the 
 necessity of supporting. He ho-.vever per- 
 sonally escaped the tyranny of Robespierre, 
 possibly on account of his great age, but was 
 stripped of his property, and died in indigence 
 at Passy, in 1794, aged eighty-five. He also 
 ^^'rote, " Histoire du Stadhouderat," 1748 ; 
 and " Histoire du Parlement d'Angleterre," 
 a weak and prejudiced performance ; with 
 other treatises, historical and political. He is 
 likewise said to have left in MS. a history of 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Few 
 authors who were so celebrated, have sooner 
 sunk into neglect. — Noiiv. Diet. Hist. Monthly 
 Rec. 
 
 RAYNAUD (Theopuilus) a celebrated 
 Jesuit, was born at Sospello, in the county of 
 Nice, in 1583. His singular opinions and bad 
 temper involved him in several quarrels with 
 his society, with which nevertheless he conti- 
 nued to reside until his death, which took placfi 
 at Lyons in 1663. His works amount to twenty 
 volumes folio, and display great learning ; but 
 all his subjects are treated in a singular man 
 ner, which rendered them unpopular. The 
 two best are, " Erotema de bonis et malis 
 Libris ;" and " Symbola Antoniana," Rome, 
 1648, 8vo, relating to St Anthony's fire. — 
 Dupin. Kicero7i. Gen. Diet, 
 
 RE (Philip) a distinguished Italian agri 
 culturist, boin of a noble family, at Reggio, in 
 1763. He studied in the college of his native 
 city, and acquired a taste for agriculture from 
 the perusal of Virgil's Georgics, In 1793 an 
 agricultural professorship was founded in his 
 favour at Reggio ; and he was subsequently 
 appointed rector of the university there ; and 
 at length a member of the regency of Mc-dena 
 on the suppression of which he returned to 
 private life, accompanied by the lespect an«.' 
 esteem of his fellow-citizens. In 1803 he 
 was called to the chair of agriculture at Bo- 
 logna, and on the reorganization of the univer- 
 sity of Modena in IB 14, he became professor 
 of atjriculture and botanv, to which was added 
 the superintendence of the royal gardens. His 
 death took place March 26, 1817. Among 
 the numerous valuable works which he pub- 
 lished, are, " Elementa di Agricoltura," the 
 first Italian treatise in which the principles of 
 chemistry are applied to the improvement of 
 agricultural science ; " Dizionario ragionato 
 de' libri d' Agricoltura, Veterinaria, e di altri 
 rami d'Economia campestre," 4 vols. 16mo ; 
 and " Annali d'Agricoltura," 1807 — 1814, a 
 periodical journal. — Biog. Univ. Biog, Nouv» 
 des Contemp. 
 
UEC 
 
 I'.EAUMUll (Rr.NE A.ntoine FEnciiAi'LT 
 tie) one of llie most ingenious philosoj)hic na- 
 iunilisis which France ever pioi.hjcecl. lit' 
 was born in KJH.J at Rochcllf, ami was thf 
 Ron of a counsellor of the presidial court of 
 that city. lie studied under the Jesuits at 
 I'oitiers, and afterwards went throuj;h a course 
 of hnv at liourges ; but a predominant taste 
 led liim to the observation of nature, and as 
 lie possessed an ample fortune, he i,^ave way 
 to his inclination. Jlavingniade himself ac- 
 quainted with the mathematical sciences, he 
 went to Paris in IZO.'), and by means of his 
 relative, the presiilent ILnault, he was speed- 
 ily introduced to the literati of the metropolis, 
 and in 1708 he was chosen a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, to which he had pre- 
 sented some memoirs on geometry. For 
 nearly fifty years he continued to be one of 
 the most active and useful members of this 
 celebrated association ; his labours alternately 
 embracing the arts of industry, natural philo- 
 sopliy, and natural history ; and from his first 
 entrance into the academy, scarcely a year 
 elapsed in which he did not publish memoirs 
 or sejiarate works, both interesting and im- 
 portant. He was appointed to assist in the 
 descriptive accounts of arts and trades pub- 
 lished by the academy ; and in executing his 
 part of the undertaking, he did not confine 
 himself to the mere history of the different 
 processes, bat pointed out the way to various 
 improvements, by t!ie application of the prin- 
 ciples of physics and natural history. He 
 made important observations on the formation 
 of pearls ; and he discovered in Languedoc, 
 mines of the Turquoise, whicli substance he 
 demonstrated to be the fossilized teeth of an 
 animal, since called the mastodon ; but among 
 his most useful researches must be reckoned 
 those of wluch he gave an account in his 
 " Traite sur I'Artde convertir le Fer en Acier, 
 et d'adoucir le Fer fondu," 1722. As a na- 
 tural i)hilosopher the name of Reaumur is 
 principally celebrated for the invention of an 
 improved thermometer, which he made known 
 in 1731. The fabrication of porcelain also 
 occu{)ied much of his attention, and led him 
 
 R E C 
 
 was elected fellow of AH Souls college, Ox- 
 ford, in 1.'>:31. He lUvoted himst-lf to tlie 
 •Ntudv of jdiyhic, and g"ing to Caiubiidge, was 
 admitted doctor of that faculty in 1.')1j. Re- 
 turning to Oxford, he publicly taught mathe- 
 matics with much reputation. He next re 
 niovi'd to I^ondon, whire ne is said to Ijave 
 been physician to ICdward VI and i\Iary, but 
 becoming cnibarrassi'd in his circumstanced, 
 he was confined for debt in the King's lii-nch 
 prison, where he died in 1.5.58. He wrote 
 several mathematical works, the principal of 
 which are, " 'i'he Pathway to Knowledge, 
 containing the first Principles of Geometric, 
 &c." " The Ground of Arts, corrected and 
 augmented by Dr .John Dee, and afterwards 
 by John Millis, 1590, 1618, liobert Norton, 
 Robert Hartwell, and finally by R. C. ;" " The 
 Castle of Knowledge, containing the Expli- 
 cation of the Sphere, both Celestial 1 and 
 Alateriall, &:c ;" " The Whetstone of Witte, 
 which is the second Part of Aritlimetic, con- 
 taining the Extraction of Rootes, the Cossike 
 Practice, with the Rules of Equation, and 
 the Works of Surde Nombers," 1557 ; an 
 analysis of this work is given in Dr Ilutton's 
 Dictionary — art. Algebra; " 'J'lie Urinal of 
 Physic, &c." According to Sherburne he also 
 published, " Cosmographiai Isagoge ;" " De 
 Arte faciendi Horologium ;" " De Usu Glo- 
 borura ;" and " De Statu Temporum." — Tan- 
 ner. Bale, Pits. Athen. Oxon, Hutton's 
 Dirt. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 RECUPERO (Alexanuer) a learned an- 
 tiquary and medalist, born about 1740, at Ca- 
 tanea in Sicily. He was of a noble family, 
 and being obliged to quit his native countrv, 
 he took the name of Alexis Motta, under 
 which appellation he travelled through the 
 principal cities of Italy, and employed himself 
 in forming a rich collection of the consular 
 medals of the ancient Romans. 'J"he exami- 
 nation and classification of these relics of an- 
 tiquity occupied him during more than thirty 
 years, in the course of which he obtained an 
 almost unrivalled acquaintance with the family 
 history of the illustrious Romans, as appeais 
 fiom the following works. " liistitutio Stem- 
 
 to the discovery of a kind of enamel, called j matica, sive de Vera Stemmatum pra-sertira 
 
 the porcelain of Reaumur, in 1739. But his 
 experiments and investigations concerning arti- 
 ficial incubation as practised in Egypt, at- 
 tracted more popular notice than most of his 
 undertakings. Of all his literary productions 
 the most considerable is that entitled " JNle- 
 moires j)Our servir a I'Histoire des Insectes," 
 1734 — 12, 6 vols. 4to, which placed him in 
 the first rank of modern naturalists. He had 
 
 Romanoruin Natura atijue Differentia ;" "An- 
 nales familiarum Romanorum ;" and "Annales 
 Gentium llistorico-Numismaiicie, sive de Ori- 
 gine Gentium sen Familiarum Rcmanorum 
 Dissertatio." He also wr..te on the Roman 
 weights, and manner of inm.bering. He was 
 a member of the antiiiuarian academies ot 
 Veletri and Cortona. His death took j)lace 
 at Rome, in October 1803. — Recupeuo (dom 
 
 no public employment except that of intendantj vToseph) brother of the preceding, a learned 
 of the order of St Louis, which he held only ; mineralogist, embraced the ecclesiastical pro- 
 forthe benefit of a relation, who was unable i fession, and obtained a canonry in the cathe- 
 to retain it ; and his time was entirely devoted I dral of Catanea. He j>articularly distin- 
 to his favourite scientific pursuits. He died ' guished himself by his researches concerning 
 October 18, 1757, in consecpience of injury the volcanic mountain of Etna ; and some 
 arising from an accidental fall. He left to the , details which he communicated to the English 
 Academy of Sciences his manuscripts and his ; traveller Brydone, relative lo the jirobable age 
 cabinet of natural hisiory. — Biog. Univ. \ of the mountain, as deduced from the appear- 
 
 RECORDE (Rouert) a learned physician ances of the different layers of lava ejected 
 and mathematician of the sixteenth century, ' from it, gave rise to much misrepresentation, 
 
 B 2 
 
REE 
 
 and occasioned tlie Canonico Kecupero, as be 
 was called, to be considered as a freetbinker. 
 He publisbed an oryctograpbical cbart of 
 Monte Gbibello, or Etna; and left a work on 
 tbe same subject in manuscript. His deatb 
 took place in 1787. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 IlEDI (Francis) an Italian pbysician and 
 naturalist of great eminence in tbe seventeeutb 
 century. He was bom at Arezzo in Tuscany, 
 in 1626, and he studied first at Florence, and 
 then at Pisa, wbere be was admitted doctor of 
 medicine and pbilosopby. He obtained the 
 office of first physician to Ferdinand II, duke 
 of Tuscany ; and be employed his leisure in 
 cultivating not only tbe sciences, but also tbe 
 belles lettres, having been a considerable con- 
 tributor to the Italian dictionary of the aca- 
 demy of La Crusca ; and assisted Menage in 
 his " Oricrines de la Langue Italienne." He 
 likewise enjoyed much reputation as a poet ; 
 and as a man of science he is chiefly known 
 on account of his experiments on the poison 
 of the viper, and on tbe generation of insects. 
 Redi belonged to tbe academies of La Crusca 
 at Florence, of tbe Gelati at Bologna, of the 
 Arcadi at Rome, as well as other learned so- 
 cieties. He died in 1698. His works were 
 publisbed collectively at Milan, 1809, 9 vols. 
 8vo. — Hutchinson^s Biog. Med. 
 
 REDING (Aloys, baron von) landa- 
 niann and general of the Swiss, was born in 
 1755. He entered into the Spanish army, and 
 obtained the rank of colonel ; but he relin- 
 quished that service in 1783, and retired into 
 the canton of Scbwitz, where he was nomi- 
 nated to the office of lands-bauptmann. On 
 the invasion of Switzerland by tbe French in 
 1798, Reding commanded tbe troops raised 
 for the defence of the country, and obtained 
 some advantages over the enemy, especially 
 on tbe memorable field uf IMorgarten ; but his 
 forces were unequal to the contest, and tbe 
 Swiss were compelled to submission. He af- 
 terwards had a considerable share in the poli- 
 tical commotions which took place ; and at 
 length, in November 1801, he was chosen the 
 first landamann of Switzerland. By various 
 operations be endeavoured to secure some de- 
 gree of independence for bis country, which 
 gave so much offence to Buonaparte, that he 
 had Reding arrested and confined in the for- 
 tress of xVrbourg ; but he was set at liberty in 
 a few months. In 1803 he was elected landa- 
 mann of the canton of Scbwitz, in which qua- 
 lity he assisted June b, 1809, at the diet of 
 Fribourg. After tbe disasters which befel 
 France in 1812 and 1813, he was at no pains 
 to conceal his antipathy to Buonaparte , and 
 he is supposed to have favoured the passage of 
 the allied troops through the Swiss territories, 
 over the Rhine. His death took place in 
 February 1818. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv. des 
 Contemp. 
 
 REED (Joseph) the name of one of the 
 minor dramatic poets of the last century, none 
 of whose writings, though attended with some 
 temporary success, have kept possession of the 
 stage. He was born in 1723, atStockton-upon- 
 Teex Tbe most prominent of his works are 
 
 REE 
 
 *' Dido," a tragedy ; " Tom Jones," an operft ; 
 " Tbe Register Office," and " The Impos- 
 tors," farces ; with a burlesque piece, entitled 
 " Madrigal and Trulletta." Mr Reed died 
 in 1787, at Stepney, wbere he had been en- 
 gaged in trade as a ropemaker for many years 
 — Biog. Dram. 
 
 REED (Isaac) an acute and ingenious 
 critic, distinguished by his intimate acquaint- 
 ance with early English literature, a native of 
 London, born 1742. Fie was educated for the 
 legal profession, and in the earlier part of his 
 life practised as a conveyancer in one of tlie in- 
 ferior inns of court, but eventually gave himself 
 up entirely to the cultivation of tbe belles lettres 
 and general literature. Fie was the author of 
 a history of the English stage, prefixed to his 
 edition of tbe " Biographia Dramatica ;" 
 " The Repository," a collection of humorous 
 and miscellaneous pieces, 4 vols. 1783 ; be- 
 sides superintending the publication of lady 
 Mary Wortley Montagu's poetical effusions, 
 and an improved edition of Dodsley's collec- 
 tion of old plays. The works, however, by 
 which be is most advantageously known are 
 bis splendid editions of Shakespeare, in 10, 
 and subsequently in 21 vols. 8vo, of which the 
 latter is justly considered the most perfect ex- 
 tant, embodying in its pages all the most valu- 
 able notes and elucidations of preceding com- 
 mentators, with much original information. 
 As a book collector, also, he displayed consi- 
 derable judgment and perseverance, and had 
 amassed a library of classical and miscella- 
 neous literature inferior to few private col- 
 lections. This became dispersed at his de- 
 cease, and occupied thirty-nine days in the 
 disposal of it by public auction. In addition 
 to tbe literary labours already enumerated, the 
 periodical miscellany known by the name of 
 the " European Magazine," of which he was 
 partly the owner, was for many years carried 
 on under his own conduct. His death took 
 place in the commencement of the year 1807 
 — Gent, and Europ. Magazines. 
 
 REES, DD. (Abraham) a dissenting 
 clergyman, who held a distinguished rank in 
 tbe literary and scientific world. He was the 
 son of a \\'elch nonconformist minister, and 
 was born at, or in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of, Montgomery, in 1743. Being in- 
 tended by his father for tbe ministry, he was 
 placed first under Dr Jenkins of Carmarthen, 
 and afterwards at the lloxton academy founded 
 by JNIr Coward, wbere his progress in his 
 studies was so rapid, that in his nineteenth 
 year he was appointed mathematical tutor to 
 tbe institution, and soon after resident tutor, in 
 which caj)acity he continued upwards of 
 twenty-two years. In 1768 he succeeded Mr 
 Read as pastor to the presbyterian congrega- 
 tion of St Thomas's, Southwark (since re- 
 moved to Stamford- street), and continued in 
 that situation till 1783, when, on the death of 
 Mr White, he accepted an invitation to be- 
 come minister of a congregation in tbe Old 
 Jewry, whose spiritual concerns he superin- 
 tended till his death. On tbe establishment 
 of tlie dissenting seminary at Hackney, ia 
 
II E G 
 
 1786, Dr Ilees, who had, toi^ether witli \hs 
 Savage and Kippis, soci-ded from that at llov- 
 ton two years l)t lore, was elected to tlie situa- 
 tion of residt'iiL- tutor in the natural sciences, 
 which he held till the dissolution of the aca- 
 demy, which took place on the death of l)r 
 Kipjtis. liut akhoiiij;h J)r Ilees, ihroiighont 
 las long life, distinguished himself as an ahle, 
 an indefatijiable, and practical, rather than 
 controversial divine, it is in his literary cajia- 
 city that he is principally and most advanta<^e- 
 ously known to society in general. In 1776 
 he was applied toby the proptietorsof Kphraini 
 Chambers's C'yclopa'dia as the person best 
 (jualified to superintend a new and enlarged 
 edition of that valual>le compilation, which, 
 after nine years incessant labour, he com- 
 ])leted in four folio volumes. 'J'lie success of 
 this work stimulated the ])ro})rietors to still 
 farther exertions ; a new undertaking, similar 
 in its nature, hut much more comprehensive in 
 its plan, was projected and carried on by him, 
 and he had at length the satisfaction to see 
 the new " Cyclop;vdia," now generally known 
 by his name, proceed from the publication of 
 its first volume in 1802, to its completion in 
 forty-five volumes, with undiminished reputa- 
 tion. His other works are, " Economy Illus- 
 trated and llecommended," 1800; "Antidote 
 to the Alarm of Invasion," 1805 ; " Practical 
 Sermons," 2 vols. Bvo, 1809—1812 ; " The 
 Principles of Protestant Dissenters stated and 
 vindicated ;" besides a variety of occasional 
 discourses. Dr Rees obtained his degree from 
 the university of Edinburgh at the express re- 
 commendation of Robertson the historian. He 
 was also a fellow of the Royal and Linna?an 
 societies. His death took place June 9, 1825. 
 — Aim. Biog. 
 
 REEVE (Ci-ara) an ingenious lady, was 
 born at Ipswich in 1738, and died there in 
 1808. She possessed great learning and re- 
 search, which she displayed in a translation of 
 Barclay's Latin romance of Argenis, publish- 
 ed under the title of " The Phoenix, or the 
 History of Polyarchus and Argenis," 4 vols. 
 12mo, 1772 ; and " The Progress of Ro- 
 mance." Her other works are the well- 
 known tale of " The Old English Baron ;" 
 " The Two Mentors, a modern Story ;" '•' The 
 Exile ;" the " School for Widows ;" " A 
 
 REG 
 
 Toyal ordonnance. The press, however, wae 
 Btill open to him, and through this channel he 
 fontiiiue<l, with great energy, to pron.nlgate 
 and di'fend his doctrines against tht- attacks of 
 JJu llamel and the bishopof Soissons, the latter 
 of w horn especially had in his treatise, Censura 
 l'hilosoj)hiie Cariesianiu, ably ex|)osed the 
 errors of a system to which in his youth he 
 had been hiinself a convert. I'esidcs a re- 
 ply to bishop lluet. Regis i)ublished a more 
 iletailed account of his tenets in his " System 
 of Philosophy," contained in three (juarto vo- 
 lumes ; and in a work entitled " 'i'lie Use of 
 Reason and Faith," writings which, thou"h 
 l)opular in their day, are now become as obso- 
 lete as the hypothesis they were written to 
 advocate. His death took place in 1707. — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 RKGIUS. The Latin designation of Urban 
 le Roy, a learned German professor, ])oet, 
 and controversialist of the sixteenth century 
 He was a native of Langenargen, and having 
 previously studied at Fribourg, Basle, and 
 other universities, completed his education 
 under the celebrated Johannes Eckius, at In- 
 golstadt. The doctrines of the reformed 
 church having, however, operated strongly 
 upon his conviction, he sided with Luther 
 against his old tutor in the polemical contests 
 carried on in 1519 and 1521 at Leipsic and 
 Worms between those zealous disputants. la 
 pursuance of this change in his religious sen- 
 timents, he afterwards retired to Augsburg, 
 where he became pastor to a Lutheran con- 
 gregation, but in 1530 exchanged his cure for 
 one of a similar description at Lunenburg 
 whither he had been invited by the duke. An 
 a scholar, Regius held a distinguished rank 
 among his contemporaries, while his talents 
 as a rhetorician and a poet procured him on 
 one occasion the honour of a laurel crown from 
 the hands of the emperor iMaximilian. There 
 is a complete edition of his writings extant, in 
 three folio volumes. His death took place 
 suddenly at Zell, in the year 1541. — Moreri. 
 Nouv. Dirt. Hist. 
 
 REGNARU (John Francis) a comic 
 poet, born at Paris, Februarys, 16.') j. Hav- 
 ing received a good education, and l>eing set 
 free from restraint by the death of his father, 
 he went to Italy in 1676, or 1677. He was 
 
 Plan of Education ;" and " Memoirs of Sir i fond of play, and being very fortunate, he was 
 
 Roger de Clarendon," 4 vols. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 returning home with 
 
 a considerable addi- 
 
 REGIS (Pierre Syi.vaix) an eminent tion of property, when he was captured by 
 Cartesian philosopher of Agenois in France, | an Algerine corsair, and behig sold for a slave, 
 born 1632. From the Jesuits' college at Ca- i he was carried to Constantinople. His skill 
 hors, at which seminary he had received the in the art of cookery rendered him a favourite 
 earlier part of his education, he removed to , with his master ; but at length he was ran- 
 Thoidouse in 1665, and five years afterwards somed, and returned home. He did not, how- 
 to Paris, where he attracted considerable no- j ever, remain there long, for in April 1681, he 
 tice by the zeal with which he espoused the set oft' in company with others, on a journey 
 system then lately broached by Des Cartes, to Lapland, and after going as far north as 
 the principles of which he had originally stu- I Torneo, he returned through Sweden, Po- 
 died under Jacques Rohault. The popularity land, and Germany. Regnard then retired to 
 which he acquired, and the numerous audi- an estate near Dourdan, eleven leagues from 
 ences which attended him. excited the jealousy Paris, where he died, in September 1709. He 
 of his opponents, who prevailed on the king, wrote an account of his Northern Tour ; a 
 tlirough the interference of the archbishop of number of dramatic jdeces, pof-ms, and other 
 Palis," to put a stoj* to his prot eedings by a j work*., which Ua^e been often published^ ia 
 
RE I 
 
 6 vols. 8vo, and 4 vols. 12«io- — ^'^f- ^'"^ 
 -Sjn;§'. Univ. 
 
 REGXAULT (Noel) a French philoso- 
 pher and mathematician of tlie last century, 
 born at Arras, in 1683. lie belonged to the 
 order of Jesuits, and is advantageously known 
 as the author of several scientific and meta- 
 physical works, the principal of which are his 
 " Philosophical Conversations," 12mo, 3 vols, 
 of which there is an English translation ; 
 " Mathematical Conversations," 3 vols. ; '* A 
 System of Logic," in the form of a dialogue, 
 12mo ; and '• Ancient Orisin of the New 
 Philosophy," 3 vols. He was a man of ex- 
 emplary moral character, as well as deep eru- 
 dition, and died in 1762, in the French me- 
 tro{)oUs. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 REGNIER DES MA RETS (F. S.) See 
 Des xAIarets. 
 
 REGNIER (IMatuurix) a French poet, 
 was born at Chartres, in .1.573. His satires 
 form an epoch in French poetry, and procured 
 him the patronage of cardinal Francis de 
 Joyeuse, and Philip de Bethc^e, botli of 
 whom he accompanied to Rome ; and they 
 obtained for him several benefices, which, 
 however, he did not suffer to be any 
 check upon his licentious life. He died in 
 1613. Boileau greatly admired the Satires 
 of Regnier. His poems have been frequently 
 printed ; the best editions are those of Rouen, 
 8vo, 1729, and of London, Ito, 1734. — Moreri. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 REID (Thomas) a Scottish divine, and 
 eminent metaphysician, was bom April 26, 
 1710, at Strachen, in Kincardineshire, of 
 which parish his father was minister for fifty 
 years. His education commenced at the pa- 
 rish school of Kincardine, and was com- 
 pleted at Marischal college, Aberdeen. His 
 residence at the university was prolonged 
 beyond the usual time, in consequence of 
 being appointed librarian, but, in 1736, he 
 resigned that oflfice, and visited England. In 
 1737 he was presented by King's college, 
 Aberdeen, with the living of New Machar, in 
 the same county, where the greater part of 
 his life was spent in the most intense study. 
 In 1752 he was elected professor of moral 
 philosophy, at King's college, Aberdeen, and 
 in 1763 accepted the same office at Glasgow. 
 In 1764 he published his celebrated " In- 
 quiry into the Human INIind on the Princi- 
 ple of Common Sense," which was succeeded 
 after a long interval, in 1786, by his "Essays on 
 the intellectual Powers of Man," and that again 
 in 1788, by his " Essay on the Active Powers." 
 These, with a masterly '* Analysis of Aristotle's 
 Logic," and an " E^^say on Quantity," winch 
 appeared in the Philosophical Transactions in 
 1748, comprehend the whole of his publications; 
 the interval between the first and the last of 
 which amounted to forty years. After an 
 active and useful life, Dr. Reid, who survived 
 his wife, and a numerous family of children, 
 with the exception of one daughter, died of 
 ••epeated attacks of the palsy, on the 7th of 
 October, 1796, in his eighty -sixth year, witli a 
 high character for benevolence and integrity. 
 
 R E I 
 
 as well .is for talents. The principal object 
 of the " Inquiry" of Dr. Reid was to refute 
 the philosophy of Locke and Hartley, by de- 
 nying the connexion which they supposed to 
 exist between the several phenomena, powers, 
 and operations of the human mind, and by 
 seeking to account for the foundation of all 
 human knowledge, on a system of instinctive 
 principles. Although strongly supported, it 
 has also been objected to on various grounds, 
 the principal of which are, that he assumes no 
 small part of the theory which it is his bu- 
 siness to prove ; that by multiplying instinc- 
 tive principles, he has brought the science of 
 mind into greater confusion than before ; and 
 that his views tend to damp the ardour of 
 philosophical inquiry, by stating as ultimate 
 facts, phenomena which may be resolved into 
 principles more simple and general. These 
 objections are ably stated and answered by 
 professor Dugald Stewart, who regards the 
 writings of Dr Reid, as forming the finest 
 school for the acquirement of reflecting on the 
 operation of our own minds, that has hitherto 
 appeared. — Life, by Professor Stewart. Forbes's 
 Life of Beattie. 
 
 REIGNY (Louis Abel Beffroi) com- 
 monly called Cousin Jaques, a French writer, 
 was born at Laon, in 17.57. He taught rhe- 
 toric and the belles lettres in several colleges, 
 and in 1770 he came to Paris, where he was 
 made a member of the Musee, and of the 
 Lyceum of Arts. He died at Charenton, in 
 1810. He was a very eccentric and fer- 
 tile writer, and composed several plays, which 
 were very successful ; these were, '♦ Les 
 Ailes de I'Amour ;" " Le Club des Bona 
 Gens;" " Histoire Universelle ; " Nico- 
 derae dans la Lune ;" La Petite Nanette," 
 &c. His other works were, " Petites Mai- 
 sons du Paniasse ;" Marlborough Tarlututa 
 Hurlaberla;" "Les Lunes ;" " Le Courier 
 des Planetes ;" " Les Nouvelles Lunes ;" 
 " La Constitution de la Lune ;" " Precis His- 
 torique de la Prise de la Bastille," &c. &c He 
 also com.menced a periodical work, entitled 
 '* Dictionnaire des Hommes et des Choses," 
 which was suppressed, on account of its poli- 
 tical opinions. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 REIL (John Christian) professor of 
 medicine, counsellor, knight of the red eagle 
 of Prussia, &c. was born in East Friezland, in 
 1769. His father was a clergyman, and he 
 was intended for the same profession ; but he 
 was permitted to follow his inclination, and 
 became a physician. He studied at the col- 
 lesre of Naerden, and afterwards at the univer- 
 sities of Gottingen and Halle, and proceeded 
 Ml), in 1782. He became chemical profes- 
 sor at Halle in 1787, and also medical super- 
 intendant of the poor of that city ; the func- 
 tions belonging to wliich offices he discharged 
 in a manner highly creditable to his zeal and 
 -a.jacity till 1810, when the king invited lum 
 to Berlin ; and in 1813 he was nominated di- 
 rector of the military hospitals, established in 
 consequence of the battle of Leipsic. He 
 died of typhus fever, November 1 2th, tlie 
 i-.xmi' year. Among the principal works of 
 
II E I 
 
 profeesor Reil, aro, " IMcmorahilium Clini- 
 coriim Mectico-practiconiin ;" " Arcliives of 
 I'liysioloj^y," a pciiodical journal in CJennan, 
 17y.'>, (^c. continutil after his dealli;" lOxt-rcita- 
 tionum Analoniicarum fasciculus primus, de 
 Structura Ncrviiruni," 17'.'(), folio ; and a 
 number of IMtinoirs jiuljlishcil collectively 
 at Vienna, 1»11, "i vols, ami at Halle, 1817, 
 1 vol. — /J/oif. i'liiv. 
 
 K KIiM Alius (IIf.um AN Samuei.) a learned 
 j)liilosopher and classical scholar, born at 
 Hamburg, in 1694. He studied at Wittem- 
 berg, and aftrr\v;irds travelled in Germany, 
 and remained some time at Weimar, where 
 lie published some tracts under the title of 
 *' Primitia \Vi^^mariensia," 17L'.'3, 4to. lie- 
 turning to IIaml)urg, he obtained the chair of 
 j)hilosopliy in that city, of which he was one 
 of the princiiial literary ornaments during 
 more than forty years. He married one of 
 tlie daughters of John Albert Fabricius, and 
 he assisted in the philological labours of that 
 erudite scholar, lleimarus, who was a mem- 
 ber of the imperial academy at Petersburg, 
 and of many learned societies in Germany, 
 died March 1, 1768. He published an ad- 
 mirable edition of Dion Cassius, 2 vols, folio ; 
 an Account of rhe Life and \Vritings of his 
 fatlier-in-lav>', Fabricius ; " A Treatise on the 
 Principal Truths of Naturil Fveligion ;" and 
 " Observations iMoral and Pliilosopliical, on 
 the Instinct of Animals, their Industry, and 
 their Planners," of which there is a French 
 translation, with Notes, Amsterdam, 1770, 
 2 vols. l^mo. — Bioir. Univ. 
 
 RFIMMANN (Jabies FREOFnicK) an in- 
 dustrious bibliographer, born at Groeningen, 
 in the principality of Halberstadt, in 1668. 
 He was educated at Jena, and was admitted 
 a Protestant minister ; but his inclination 
 led him at first to prefer the office of a 
 tutor. In 1692 he was appointed, rector of 
 the gymnasium of Osterwick, and after hold- 
 ing other situations, he relincjuished tliem, 
 and in 1704 was chosen first pastor of the 
 province of Frinsleben. A great part of a 
 library which he had collected was destroyed 
 by a fire, in 1710, on which he commenced a 
 new and more extensive collection of valuable 
 books. In 1714 he became librarian to the 
 chapter of Magdeburg ; and in 1717 pastor of 
 ilildesheim, and soon after superintendant of 
 the churches, and inspector of the Lutheran 
 schools of that district. His death happened 
 February 1, 1743. Among his principal 
 works are", " Ilistoria Literaria de Fatis Studii 
 Genealogici a])ucl Hebra^os, Gra^cos, llomanos, 
 et Germanos," 1702, 8vo, of which a second 
 edition, with a second part, or continuation, 
 was published in 1710, at Leipsic ; " Idea 
 Systematis Antiquicatis Literariaj generalis 
 et specialioris, desiderati adhuc in Ilepublica 
 Eruditorum literaria," H-ildesheim, 1718, 
 8vo ; " Histoiia universalis Atlieismi et Athe- 
 orum falso et merito suspectorum apud Ju- 
 iLtos, Ethnicos, Christianos, &c." 1725, 8vo ; 
 " Historia Literaria 13abyloniorum et Sinen- 
 sinm," Brunswick, 1741, 8vo ; besides valua- 
 ble catalogues of his own librarv. — Idem. 
 
 RE I 
 
 f REINECCH'S (llEiNEn) a learned histo- 
 
 ' rian and genealogist, was a native of Stein- 
 
 heim, in the diocese of Paderborn, and was a 
 
 I disciple of .Meianclhon. He taught the belleg 
 
 ; lettres in the universities of Helmatadt and 
 
 1 Fi;iiikf(Mt, and died in l.')9.>. He wrote " His- 
 
 toriii (Jrieutalis ;" " 1 listoria Julia," 3 vols, 
 
 folio; " iMethodus legeiidi Historiam ; " 
 
 " Chroiiicon Hierosolymitarium Familia; He- 
 
 guin Ju'lx'orum ;" " Syntagma de Fanuliis 
 
 JMonarchiarum trium priorum." — Thuuni llht. 
 
 Sa.iii Dnom. Moreri, 
 
 RlJiSl'^SIlJS (Thomas) a German physi- 
 cian and classical scholar of eminence in the 
 17th century. He was born at Gotha, in 
 Saxony, in 1,587; and after having completed 
 his education, he ])ractised as a physician in 
 difierent parts of Germany. According to his 
 own testimony in his letters, he suffered many 
 domestic and other misfortunes, and refused 
 to accept of academical professorships from an 
 apprehension of meeting with disagreeable 
 associates. He was settled at length at Al- 
 tenbourg, where he became a burgomaster ; 
 and afterwards removing to Leipsic, he was 
 appointed counsellor to the elector of Saxony, 
 lie died in 1667. He wrote some profes- 
 sional tracts ; but his principal works are, 
 " Variarum Lectionum, libri iii ;" and his 
 Letters. — Bavle. Hulchmson's Biog. Med. 
 
 REINHARD (Francis Vv'olr.mau) a ce- 
 lebrated Protestant preacher, who was a na- 
 tive of the duchy of Sul;-bach, in Germany. 
 He was instructed by his father (who was 
 a clergyman) till he was sixteen, when 
 he was admitted into the gymnasium of Ra- 
 tisbon, where he remained five years, and in 
 1773 he was removed to the university of 
 Wittemberg. The study of sacred eloquence 
 especially attracted his attention ; and his 
 reputation procured him, in 1782, the chair of 
 theology, to which, in 1781 was added the 
 offices of preacher at the university church, 
 and assessor of the consistory. In 1792 he 
 was invited to Dresden to become first preacher 
 to the court of Saxony, ecclesiastical counsel- 
 lor, and member of the supreme consistory. 
 After filling these stations with high renown 
 for about twenty vears, he died September 6, 
 1812. His principal works are, " A System 
 of Christian Morality ;" " An Essay on the 
 Plan formed by the Founder of Christianity 
 for the Happiness of the Human Race;" " Ser- 
 mons ;" " Letters of F. W. Reinhard on his 
 Studies, and on his Career as a Preacher :" 
 " Lectures on Dogmatic Theology," — Biog, 
 KomK des Contemp. Biog. Uiiic. 
 
 REIMIOLD (Erasmus) a German ma- 
 thematician and astronomer of the sixteenth 
 century. He was educated at the university 
 of VViltemberg, where he at length became 
 professor of mathematics, and acquired great 
 reputation by his lectures and his writings. 
 He died in lo53, in the forty- second year of 
 his age. His works comprise " Theoriai 
 Nova; Fianeturum G. Purbachii, cum Scho- 
 liis," 1542, 8vo ; the First Book of Ptolemy's 
 Almagest, with a Latin version and scholia. 
 1549, 8vo; " Prutenicae Tabulae Calestiu;n 
 
R E L 
 
 Motuum," 1551, 4to ; besides which lie pre- 
 pared editions of several astronomical and 
 mathematical tn-atises. — Teissier. Moreri. 
 Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 
 REISKE (John James) a most learned 
 and laborious philologist, bom at Zorbig, in 
 Saxony, December 25, 1716. At the age of 
 twelve he was sent to the orphan school at 
 Halle, and in 1733 he went to the university 
 of Leipsic, being intended for the clerical pro- 
 fession, and he spent five years in desultory 
 studies, in the course of which he became ex- 
 tremely partial to Oriental literature. Tlie first 
 specimen he gave of his abilities was the pub- 
 lication of one of the Narratives of Hariri, with 
 Arabic scholia, iiuda Latin version, 1737, 4to. 
 He then went to Holland, that he might have 
 an opportunity of examining the stores of East- 
 ern literature preserved in the library of the 
 university of Leyden. In spite of his poverty, 
 which obliged him to become a corrector of the 
 press, he in some measure effected his object ; 
 and having also made use of the advantages 
 which Leyden afforded for the study of medi- 
 cine, he obtained the degree of I\ID. on his 
 return to Leipsic. His habits and manners, 
 however, by no means qualified him for suc- 
 cess as a physician ; and he was therefore 
 obliged to rely on his literary occupations for 
 the means of supporting himself and his family. 
 He was continually employed in writing, trans- 
 lating, and performing other tasks for the book- 
 sellers ; and besides a multitude of less im- 
 portant undertakings, he produced valuable 
 editions of the Moslem Annals of Abulfeda ; of 
 the Greek Anthology ; of the Greek Orators ; 
 of the Works of Plutarch ; and of the treatise 
 of Constantine Porphyrogenitus on the Cere- 
 monies of the Byzantine Court. His hard fate 
 soured his temper, and by his incautious criti- 
 cisms he made himself many enemies. In 
 1758 he was ajipointed rector of the College 
 of St Nicholas, at Leipsic, which office he held 
 till his death in August 1774.— His wife, Er- 
 nestine Chuistixa MuLLER, instructed by 
 her husband in the learned languages, assisted 
 him in his researches, and after his death 
 completed some of his undertakings. She also 
 published his autobiography, with a list of his 
 verv numerous works. This lady, who printed 
 ftome productions of her own comj)Osition, died 
 at Kemberg, in July 1798. — Aikiii's Gen, 
 Bi(>£. Biotr. Univ. 
 
 UEIZ or REITZ (Frederic Wolfgang) 
 a German yihilologist, born in Franconia, in 
 1733. After having completed his studies at 
 Leipsic, he became a private tutor, and tlitn a 
 corrector of the press in the printing-office of 
 Breitkopf. He successively held the profes- 
 sorships of philosophy, Latin and Greek, and 
 poetry, and was director of the library belong- 
 ing to the university of l^eipsic. He died Fe- 
 bruary 2, 1790. Reiz is principally known as 
 the editor of Herodotus ; but he also publit^licd 
 editions of other classics, and two Disserta- 
 tions on Prosodv. — Bioir. Univ. 
 
 llELAND (Adrian) a very learned Ori- 
 entalist, was the son of a Di.tch minister, and 
 was btrn n-rar Alkmaer, in North Holland, in 
 
 R E M 
 
 167(5. He was educated first at Amsterdam, 
 and then at the university of Utrecht, where, 
 at t*ie early age of seventeen, he was admitted 
 to the degree of doctor in philosophy. After 
 staying there six years, he removed to Leyden. 
 and soon after he was chosen tutor to the son 
 of Bentinck, earl of Portland, the favourite of 
 William IIL That nobleman was desirous of 
 taking Belaud to England, but the declining 
 health of his father induced him rather to give 
 up his engagement. In 1699 he became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Harderwyk, which place 
 he soon after quitted for the chair of the 
 Oriental languages and ecclesiastical antiqui- 
 ties at Utrecht. He remained there seventeen 
 years, and died of the small-pox, February 5, 
 1718. Among his more important works are, 
 " Dissertationes quinque de Numis Veterum 
 Hebr?eorum, qui ab Inscriptarum literarum 
 Forma Samaritani appellantur," 1709, 8vo ; 
 " De Religione Muhamedica libri duo," 1705, 
 8vo ; " Autiquitates sacrae Veterum Hebrajo- 
 rum," 1712, 8vo ; and " Pala:>stina ex IMonu- 
 mentis veteribus illustrata," 1714, 2 vols. 4to. 
 He also published Latin poems, orations, &c. — 
 Peter Reland, brother of the preceding, an 
 advocate at Haerlem, who died in 1715, com- 
 piled a useful work, entitled " Fasti Consu- 
 lares," printed after his death at Utrecht, 
 1715, 8vo. — Moreri. Saxii Ononi. Bios'. Univ. 
 
 RELHAN (Richard) a divine and natu- 
 ralist, was educated at Cambridge, and be- 
 came a fellow of King's college. In 1791 he 
 attained the rectory of Hunningsby, in Lin- 
 colnshire. His works are, " Flora Canta- 
 brigensis," in w^hicli he describes his discovery 
 of a new species of lichen and of the atha- 
 manta libanotis ; and '* Tacitus de JMoribus 
 Germanorum et de Vita Agricolaj," 8vo. Mr 
 Relhan was a fellow of the Royal and Linnaean 
 Societies. He died in 1823. — Gent. IMao-. 
 
 REMBRANDT VAN RHYN (Paul) a 
 very celebrated painter, was born in 1606, at 
 a mill on the Rhine, near Leyden. His father, 
 observing in him an extraordinary talent for 
 the arts of design, placed him for six months 
 under Eastman, and as many with Pinas, from 
 whom he is said to have imbibed that taste for 
 strong contrasts of light and shade, for which 
 his pictures are so much distinguished. Na- 
 ture was, however, his principal study ; and 
 one of his designs attracting the notice of a 
 connoisseur, his reputation soon increased ; and 
 in 1630 he settled at Amsterdam, and at once 
 came into full employment, both as a portrait 
 and as a general painter. He also opened a 
 school, and had a number of pupils, who 
 paid him very liberally ; and, being greedy of 
 gain, it was often his practice to touch up their 
 designs and sell them for his own. He like- 
 wise made numerous etchings, consisting of 
 Avhat appeared a few random sketches, but so 
 managed as to produce a surprising effect. His 
 first style of painting had much of the delicate 
 finishing of Mieiis, but this he changed for a 
 bold and forcible manner, with a vast body of 
 colour, and masses of deep shade reheved oy 
 bright lights, tlip effect of whicli was, coarse- 
 ness and confusion when viewed near, but at 9 
 
REN 
 
 distance notljiug could appear more mellow 
 and harmonious. He was a perfect master of 
 tolominy aiul in the majjic of cliair' oscuro, 
 but he possessed few ideas of grace and beauty 
 and was very incorrect in tlie naked human 
 form. lie married the handsome daughter of 
 a ])easant, who used to sit to him as a model, 
 as (lid likewise his servant maiil. Ilis man- 
 ners were rude and coarse, and unfortunately 
 he could relish no company ])ut what resembled 
 liimself. Notwithstanding hisgreat gain, want \ 
 of economy made him a bankrupt, and he se- j 
 cretly quitted Amsterdam to repair to tlie king , 
 of Sweden, wlio employed him a considerable 
 time. He finally, however, returned to Am- 
 sterdam, where, according to one account, he 
 died in 1674, and to another, in 1688. Rem- 
 brantlt is deemed a genius of the first class in 
 whatever is not immediately related to form 
 and taste. He painted history, portraits, and 
 landscape ; and his works iu all branches are 
 highly valued. Many of his portraits are ad- 
 miral)le, combining minute exactness with ex- 
 traordinary force and animation. His etchings 
 amount to two hundred and eighty, and are 
 extremely prized by all collectors. Many of 
 his works have been engraved by other artists. 
 — D'Avi'enviUe Vies des Feint. Pilkina-ton's 
 Diet. 
 
 REMIGTUS or REMI (St.) a celebrated 
 French prelate, was archbishop of Rheims, and 
 was the converter and baptiser of king Clovis. 
 He died in 533. He wrote some "Letters," and 
 a " Testament," in the Library of the Fathers. 
 — Cave. Fahricius. 
 
 REMIGIUS, of Auxerre, a learned Bene- 
 dictine of the ninth century, was educated in 
 the abbey of St. Germain at that place. He 
 taught at Rheims, and attained great celebrity ; 
 and at length he went to Paris, and opened the 
 first public school in that city after the ra- 
 vages of the Normans. He wrote " Commen- 
 tarius in oranes Davidis Psalmos," Cologne, 
 1536; " Enarrationes in posteriores XL J\li- 
 nores Prophetas," Antwerp, 1545; witli the 
 " Commentaries of CEcnmenius upon the Acts 
 of the Apostles and their Epistles, and those 
 of Arethas upon the Book of Revelation ;" 
 and " Expositio Missfe," &c. — Cave. Dupin. 
 
 REMIGIUS, a Roman saint and Gallic 
 prelate iu the ninth century, was a native of 
 Gaul, and was grand Almoner to the emperor 
 Lotharius, who, about 853, promoted him to 
 the archiepiscopal see of Lyons. He was a 
 zealous defender of the opinions of Godeschalc, 
 or of St. Augustine, on the subjects of grace and 
 predestination ; and condemned the canons 
 decreed against that monk, as he also did the 
 propositions of John Scotus Erigena, relating 
 to the same subject. He died in 875. He 
 wrote some pieces, which may be found in the 
 Bibl. Patr. in " Maguin's Collect. Script, de 
 Prasdestmat. et Gratia." — Cave. Dupin. Mo- 
 ver i. 
 
 IlENAU D'ELISAGARY (Bernard) 
 an able French naval architect, was born at 
 Beam in 1652, of an ancient family of Navarre. 
 At an early age he attained the patronage of 
 M. du Terron, intendant of Rochefort, who 
 
 REN 
 
 educated Inm with a view to the naval service. 
 He was Sdon after made known to the minister 
 of the marine, and h<? much distinguished 
 liimself by his plans for the better construction 
 of vessels. In 16H() he conceived the idea of 
 bomb-vessels, which w«'re first employed by 
 Du Qui'sne. in the siege of Algiers ; and he 
 subsequently acted as engineer with V^auban, 
 in fortifying the frontiers of Flanders and Ger- 
 many, and also servedin Spain. In the midst 
 of these occupations, he found time to write his 
 " Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," 
 1689, 8vo, which in respect to one of its main 
 propositions, was refuted by Iluygens. As a 
 reward for his able and active services, Louis 
 XIV made him captain of a ship, with the 
 authority of an inspector of the navy at plea- 
 sure, with a pension of 1^,000 livres. The 
 grand-master of Malta requested his assistance 
 to defend the island against the Turks, but the 
 expected siege not taking place, he returned 
 to France, and was honoured with the cross 
 of St Louis. He died September 30, 1699. 
 M. Renau, who in stature was almost a dwarf, 
 is deemed the best engineer produced by 
 France after M. de Vauban. — Nouv. Diet. Hist, 
 RENADOT (EusKBius) a French di- 
 vine, celebrated for the cultivation of Oriental 
 literature, who was the son of Dr. E. Renau- 
 dot, mentioned in the next article. He was 
 born at Paris, July 20, 1646, and educated 
 among the Jesuits, and at the college of Har- 
 court. He entered into the ecclesiastical state, 
 that he might have leisure for study ; and his 
 attention was particularly directed to the East- 
 ern languages, and especially the Arabic and 
 others which would serve to illustrate the his- 
 tory and antiquities of the Christian church. 
 His merit and connexions procured him the pa- 
 tronage of the prince of Conde, the duke de 
 Montausier, Colbert, Bossuet, and other per- 
 sons of rank and talents. He was admitted, 
 into the French Academy in 1689 ; and two 
 years after he succeeded Quinault, as a mem 
 her of the Academy of Inscrij)tions. In 1700 
 he accompanied cardinal Noailies to Rome, 
 at the election of Clement XI, when thu 
 abb6 Renaudot, as he was commonly styled, 
 received an appointment from the new pope to 
 a priory in Bretagne, which was the only pre- 
 ferment he could be prevailed on to accept. 
 On his return home through Florence be was 
 well received by the grand duke ; and he was 
 cboseu an associate of the Academia della 
 Crusca. He died at Paris, September 1, 17:^0, 
 leaving to the abbey of St. Germain des Pres, 
 a valuable collection of Oriental MSS., now in 
 the royal library. He assisted, by his trans- 
 lations of Eastern documents, iu the great 
 work of Arnauld and Nicole, " Perpetuite de 
 la Foi," of which he also published a " De- 
 fence," and a continuation in three supple 
 mental volumes. Among his other literary 
 labours are " Historia Patriarcharum Alexan- 
 drinorum Jacobitarum," 1713, 4to ; " An- 
 ciennes Relations des Indes et de la Chine de 
 deux A^oyageurs Mahometans, dans le 9 eiecle," 
 1711, 8vo : " Liturgiarum Orientalium Col- 
 lectio," 1716, 2 vols. 4to ; besides several dis- 
 
REN 
 
 ■p 
 
 EN 
 
 the works of 
 Aikiii's Gen. Biotr, Bio'>-. 
 
 sertations in the itlemoirs of the 
 Inscriptions, and contributions to 
 others. — Saxii Onom 
 Univ. 
 
 RENATIDOT (Theophrastus) a French 
 physician and political writer, born at Loudun, 
 in 1584. He went to Paris when quite young-, 
 and studied surgery ; and in 1606 he removed 
 to IMontpellier, and took tlie degree of MD. 
 After having improved his stock of knowledge 
 by travelling for several years, he settled at 
 
 Academy of jDeThou, and others of his eminent contem- 
 
 poraries ; and Plumier gave the name of Re- 
 nealmia to a genus of plants, in commemora- 
 tion of him. His death took place about 1624 
 — B'log. Univ. 
 
 RENNELL, BD. FRS. (Thomas) son of 
 the rev Dr Rennell, dean of Winchester, mas- 
 ter of the Temple, &c. and grandson by the mo- 
 ther's side to the celebrated sir William Black- 
 stone, was boru at Winchester in 1787. At 
 an early age he was placed upon the 'ounda- 
 
 Loudun, and practised as a physician with tion at Eton, where he distinguislied himself 
 great success. In 1612 he established himself 
 at Paris, where he obtained the appointment 
 of physician to the king, with a pension of 
 eight hundred livres. He became known to 
 cardinal Richelieu, whose interest procured 
 him the post of commissary- general of the 
 healthy and sick poor of th.e whole kingdom, 
 for whose benefit he erected a kind of dispen- 
 sary and register office ; and also the moi-e 
 profitable privilege of establishing a " Ga- 
 zette," being the earliest publication of the 
 kind known in France, and whicli first ap- 
 peared in 1631. His medical projects excited 
 great opposition from the faculty of Paris and 
 the whole profession, in consequence of which 
 Renaudot was prosecuted in the court of Cha- 
 telet for the alleged irregularity of his practice, 
 and sentence being given against him in De- 
 cember, 1643, he was prohibited from holding 
 consultations or continuing his establishments. 
 His appeal to the parliament against this de- 
 cree was unavailing ; for the decree was con- 
 firmed, with circumstances of additional seve- 
 rity. He continued, however, to practise pri- 
 vately, and he lived long enough to see the 
 utility of antimonial medicines (the employ- 
 ment of which had been condemned by his an- 
 tagonists) generally admitted. He likewise 
 proceeded with the publication of his Gazette, 
 which was his best resource, till his death, in 
 1653. He was the author of a Life of Henry 
 II, prince of Cond6, and other biograpliical 
 works ; and he continued the " jNIercure 
 Franfais," from 1635 to 1643 ; but he wTote 
 nothing on his own profession. — His two sons, 
 Isaac and Euseeius, who were both physi- 
 cians, continued the " Gazette de France," 
 after the death of their father. The latter, who 
 became first physician to the dauphiness, was 
 the author of some medical tracts. He died in 
 1679. — Moreri. Eloy Diet. Hist, de la Med. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 RENEAULME (Paui.). a French physi- 
 cian and botanist, born at Blois, about 1560. 
 He was the author of a curious work, entitled 
 " P. Reneaulmi, MD. Specimen Historipe 
 Plantarum/' Paris, 1611, 8vo, with plate?, in 
 which he exhibits the outline of a botanical 
 arrangement, founded, like that of Linnajus, 
 on those organs which serve for the propaga- 
 tion of plants. He also published" De Cu- 
 rationibus Observationum liber," 1606, 8vo; 
 from which it appears that he introtluced into 
 practice the use of hemlock and other active 
 medicines, which involved him in disputes with 
 the Parisian faculty. He was known and es- 
 'eejned by cardinal Puperron. the president , 
 
 by his rapid progress in classical litertaure, and 
 carried off Dr Buchanan's prize for the best 
 Greek Sapphic ode " On the Propagation of 
 the Gospel in India." About the same period 
 he joined with three of his contemporaries in 
 the publication of a series of essays, under the 
 name of the '• ]\Iiniature," a Vv'ork on the plan 
 of the " Microcosm," which went throusrh two 
 editions, and which, considered as the exclu- 
 sive production of boys, exhibits striking evi- 
 dence of early genius. In 1806 he removed 
 in due course to King's college, Cambridge, 
 where he completed his education, and gave 
 additional proof of his increasing literary at- 
 tainments, by gaining, in 1808, sir William 
 Browne's annual Greek medal for a Greek 
 ode entitled *' VerisComites," as well as by his 
 contributions to the " Museum Criticum," a 
 work occasionally published by some eminent 
 scholars of the university. Having taken or- 
 ders at the usual age, he became assistant 
 preacher to his father at the Temple church, 
 and in 1811 published his " Animadversions 
 on tlie Unitarian Translation, or Improved 
 Version of the New Testament," under the 
 modest designation of " A Student in Divi- 
 nity," and about the same tim.e undertook the 
 edi'torship of the " British Critic." In 181 6 the 
 bishop of London conferred on him the vicarage 
 of Kensington, and in the same year he was 
 elected Christian advocate in the university of 
 Cambridge. In this latter capacity he pro- 
 duced his •' Remarks on Scepticism, espe- 
 cially as it is connected with the subjects of 
 Organization and Life." This treatise was 
 written in reply to opinions of sir T. C. Mor- 
 gan, jMr Lawrence, &c. on those points: and 
 Mr Rennell was, perhaps, the rather induced 
 to enter into the inquiry, inasmuch as he had 
 himself made no slight progress in the study 
 of anatomy and medicine. It was first printed 
 in 1819, and %vent rapidly through six edi- 
 tions. His other work, undertaken in the 
 same character, was occasioned by the publi- 
 cation of the "Apocryphal New Testament," 
 and is entitled " Proofs of Inspiration, or the 
 Grounds of Distinction between the New Tes- 
 tament and the Apocryphal Volume." In 
 1823 he obtained from the bishop of Salisbury 
 the mastership of St Nicholas' hospital, with a 
 stall in Salisbury cathedral ; and in the same 
 year a pamphlet appeared from his pen, ad- 
 dressed to H. Brougham, esq. IMP. on the sub- 
 ject of a speech made by that gentleman at 
 Durham, taken in connexion with some arti- 
 cles in the Edinburgh Review on ecclesiastical 
 subjects. In the autumn of 1823 Mr Rennell 
 
REN 
 
 marrit'tl a Miss DelafiuKl of Kensington ; but j 
 not many wrt-ks after a violent attack of ftver [ 
 terinuiated in a gradual deelinc, which carried : 
 hiin olVin the June of the foliowin'^ year, just 
 as he had completed his last work, a new 
 translation of " Miuiter's ISiarraiive of the 
 Conversion of Count Siruensee." In jirivate 
 life he was highly esteemed, especially by his 
 parishioners, at whose expense a monument 
 lias been erected to his memory in their parish 
 church. — Ann. Jiioir. Christian Remembrancer. 
 
 lvKNNK\'l[.LI'. (Rkne Augustus Con- 
 ST.wriNP. de) a French writer, niore distin- 
 guished on account of the accidents of his life 
 llian on the score of his talents, or Ins literary 
 iiiuiortakings. He was born at Caen in Nor- 
 mandy, about 16r>() ; and after serving for some 
 time in the army, he obtained a civil office at 
 (^arentan. through the influence of I\l. de 
 Cbamillart. Having become a Calvinist, he 
 left his native country, and settled m Holland 
 in 1699. His patron, de Cbamillart, invited 
 him to return to France, with the promise of 
 employment ; and on his acceptance of the 
 oficr, in 170'2, he was well received by that 
 minister, who gave him a pension, atid en- 
 gaged to procure him a lucrative situation. He 
 was soon after denounced to INI. de Torcy, in 
 k-tters from Holland, as a s})y ; and was also 
 accused of having written verses injurious to 
 France. He was, therefore, arrested, his 
 })apers were seized, and he was committed to 
 the Bastile in i\Iay 1702. At first he was 
 well treated, but being suspected of liaving 
 favoured the escape of count Bucquoi, he was 
 thrown into a dungeon, and afterwards more 
 rigourously confined. He contrived, however, 
 to procure books, and also employed himself in 
 writing ; according to his own account, making 
 his ink with soot mixed with wine, and using 
 pointed bones instead of pens. In June 17 13 
 he was released, and ordered to quit France ; 
 on which he went to England, where he wrote 
 a workj entitled " L'Inquisition Franyaise, ou 
 Histoire de la Bastille," Amsterdam, 1715, 
 I'imo, which he republished with additions in 
 1724, 5 vols. 12mo. He likewise compiled a 
 collection of voyages, and pul)Iished some re- 
 ligious works. The time of his death is not 
 known. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RENNIE (John) a celebrated engineer, 
 was bora near Linton in East Lothian, in 1760. 
 His father was a respectable farmer, who gave 
 him a good education, and placed him with an 
 eminent millwright. After serving outhis arti- 
 cles, he commenced business on Ids own ac- 
 count, but in 1783 was induced to remove to 
 London, where he first distinguished himself 
 by the construction of the Albion mill. His 
 next work of magnitude was the f( rmation and 
 erection of the machinery of Whitbread's 
 brewery. His reputation from this time ra- 
 pidly increased, until he was finally regarded 
 as standing at the head of the civil engineers 
 of this country. Among his public works may 
 b'^ mentioned Hamscrate harbour, Waterloo and 
 Sontiiwark bridges, at least as to construction ; 
 the Breakwater at Plymouth, and the Ikdl 
 Hock Lighthouse, erected on the same prin- 
 
 R EN 
 
 ciples as that of the Eddystone, whidi last 
 proof of his great bkill h:is excited general ad- 
 miration. Mr llennie was admirably adapted, 
 by steady resolution and inflexible perseve- 
 rance, to contend with the great physical ope- 
 rations of nature which he was called on to 
 control or guard a^anist ; and accordingly^ no 
 one has effected greater performances in tliat 
 branch of Ins jirofession. He was, at the 
 same time, in the liighest degree punctual and 
 steady in all his engagements ; and altbout'h 
 in some respects a self-lauglit man, he ac- 
 (}uired the respect of the most distinguished 
 men of science and learning in his day, and 
 was elected a member of the Royal Society. 
 His death took place at his house in Stamford- 
 street, Blackfriars, October 4, 1821, m his 
 sixty-first year, and he was buried with the 
 respect due to his eminent talents in St Paul's 
 cathedral. — Ann. Bioir, 
 
 RENNIGER or RHANGER (Michael) 
 a learned divine and Latin poet, was bom in 
 Hampshire in lo29, and took his degrees at 
 i\Iagdalen college, Oxford. On the accession 
 of Mary, being of the reformed religion, he 
 left F^ngland, but afterwards returned, and 
 became one of the chaplains of queen Eliza- 
 beth. He obtained the archdeaconry of ^Vin- 
 chi ster and a prebend in St Paul's. He died 
 in 1609. His works are, " Carmina in i\Ior- 
 tem duorum Fratrum Sufiblcieusium Henrici et 
 Caroli Pirandon," London, 1552; " De Pii V 
 et Gregorii XIII Furoribus contra Elizabe- 
 tham Reginam Angliie ; " An Exhortation 
 to true Love, Loyalty, and Fidelity to her 
 IMajesty ;" " Syntagma Hortationnm ad Ja- 
 cobum Regem Angli;e, (Sec." and some MSS. 
 in Bennet college library. — Tanner. Bale. 
 Ath. Ox. Strvpe's Life of Parker, 
 
 RENTI (Gaston John Baptist, baron de) 
 a French nobleman, remarkable for his ascetic 
 piety. He was born of an ancient family, at 
 the castle of Beni, in the diocese of Baieux, in 
 1611. After studying at the college of jS'a- 
 varre, and under the Jesuits at Caen, he re- 
 turned to Paris, to complete his education at 
 the school of the young ncbilit}', where he ac- 
 quired skill in all fashionable and niAnly exer- 
 cises. He also learnt mathematics, and wrote 
 on that science. His natural disposition for 
 a secluded life made him desirous to enter 
 into the religious order of the Carthusians j 
 but being an only son, he was prevented by 
 bis parents from indulging his wishes, and 
 induced to marry, and accept a commission in 
 the army. He served with distinction in the 
 wars of Lorraine, and obtained the approba- 
 tion of his sovereign. At length he deter- 
 mined to retire from the world, and at the age 
 of twenty-seven he gave up all his employ- 
 raents, and devoted the ren\aiiider of his lite 
 to works of charity, religious exercises, and 
 mortification. He carried his austerities so far 
 as to injure his liealth, and he died at Paris in 
 1649. He is said to have been tlie author of 
 " Infrodurteuren la Cosinographie," published 
 at i'nris 1645, 2 vols. 8vo. His life, written 
 by father de St Jure, a Jesuit, has been chen 
 printed, and translated into Italian and En?- 
 
REQ 
 
 .Ush. An abridgment of it was publislied by 
 the fanjous Jolm Wesley. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 REPNIN (Nicholas W asiliewitscii, 
 prince) a Russian field -marshal, the son of a 
 prince of the same name, who served in the 
 aimy of Peter 1. He was born in 17;34, and 
 Jiaving adopted the profession of arms, he dis- 
 tinguished himself in the seven years' war, as 
 a volunteer in the French army, when he passed 
 his winters at Paris. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed by Catherine II assistant to the Rus- 
 sian ambassador at the elevation of Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski to the throne of Poland in 1764; 
 and on the death of his principal immediately 
 after, he became Russian mmister at Warsaw. 
 He remained there some years, governing the 
 Poles in effect, and suppressing their various 
 efforts for freedom. In 1774 he was sent am- 
 bassador to Constantinople ; and in 1778 to 
 Breslau, in the double capacity of general and 
 negociator, when he displayed his talents by 
 contributing to the treaty of Teschen. In 
 1789 he succeeded count Pvomanzoff in the 
 command of the army of the Ukraine, when he 
 formed the blockade of Ismael, afterwards 
 taken by Suwarrow ; and in July 1791 he de- 
 feated the grand visir Yusuf, Having offended 
 prince Potemkin, he was disgraced and ba- 
 nished to ftloscow, whence, however, he 
 was recalled to be made governor of Livo- 
 nia. After the last partition of Poland, he 
 received the government of Lithuania ; and he 
 sal)sequently submitted to serve under Suwar- 
 row. Paul I, in 1796. promoted prince Kep- 
 nin to the rank of a field-marshal, and 1798 
 sent him on a secret mission to Berlin. Not 
 having succeeded in his endeavours to prevail 
 on the Prussians to join in the meditated coa- 
 lition against France, on his return to Peters- 
 burg, Repnin was ordered to retire to Moscow, 
 where he died in May 1801. — Biog. Univ. 
 Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 
 REP TON (HuMPHREv) a private gentle- 
 man, distinguished by his skill in the art of 
 ornamental gardening. He was a native of 
 Bury St Edmund's in Suffolk, where he was 
 born in 1752. Having acquired the friendship 
 of the late Mr Windham, he accompanied 
 that gentleman to Ireland in 1783, and ob- 
 tained a lucrative situation in the castle of 
 Dublin, which, however, he gave up when 
 his friend quitted Ireland. On his return to 
 London, he professionally applied himself to 
 the improvement of gardens and pleasure 
 grounds, in which pursuit he was extensively 
 employed. He published several works on 
 miscellaneous subjects, but his principal pro- 
 ductions are on landscape gardening ; and 
 these have secured a very wide attention. He 
 died in 1818, leaving several sons, one of 
 whom is married to a daughter of the earl of 
 Eldon. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 REQUI^NO (Vincente) a learned Spanish 
 Jesuit, was born in Grenada about 1730. Hav- 
 ing a great taste for the fine arts, on the expul- 
 .sion of his order he went to Italy, and in 1782 
 he sent to the society opened in Madrid for 
 the fine arts, a memoir, which ot)tained the 
 first prize. He ac(juired great fame by an 
 
 RET 
 
 elaborate work, printed at Seville in 1766, on 
 the " Roman Antiquities in Spain." But he 
 is best known by his " Saggi sul Ristabili- 
 mento dell' Antica Arte de' Greci e de' Romani 
 Pittori ;" the object of which was to restore 
 tlie ancient art of Greek and Roman painting, 
 and describing the manner of encaustic paint- 
 ing used by them, and the materials employed 
 therein. His opinions were supported by 
 many professors of eminence, but artists were 
 very backward in adopting tliem. Requeno 
 died at Venice in 1792. — Diet. Hist. Swpple- 
 inent. 
 
 RESENIUS (Peter) a learned and indus- 
 trious writer, born at Copenhagen in 1625. 
 His father, John Resenius, was professor of 
 ethics at Copenhagen, and afterwards bishop 
 of Zealand. The son, having studied philosoj)hy 
 and theology, became rector of a gymnasium, 
 which office he quitted in 1647, and went to 
 Leyden, where he remained four years, attend- 
 ing the lectures of Heinsius, Boxhorn, Vin- 
 jiius, and other celebrated jtrofessors of that 
 university. He then travelled in France, 
 Spain, and Italy, and remained some time at 
 Padua, where, in 1653, he received the di- 
 ploma of LL.D. Returning to Copenhagen, 
 he engaged in the study of Danish antiquities, 
 and collected a great number of ancient re- 
 lics, books, and MSS. relating to the north 
 of Europe. In 1657 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of ethics, and in 1662 he obtained the 
 second chair of jurisprudence in the univer- 
 sity. He was besides invested with several 
 honourable offices ; and he died June 1, 1688. 
 Having no family, he left his rich library to 
 the university of Copenhagen ; and of his col- 
 lection he published a Catalogue in 1685, 4to, 
 preceded by an interesting sketch of his life. 
 His jirincipal publications are, editions of the 
 Islandic Edda ; " Inscriptiones Havnienses ;" 
 "Lexicon Islandicum Gudmundi Andreas;" 
 " Jus Aulicum vetus Regum Norvigorum ;** 
 " Leges Cimbricfe Valdemari secundi Regis 
 Danici ;" and "Leges civiles et ecclesiastici 
 Christiani secundi." — Biog. Un. — John Paul 
 Resenius, a Danish divine, who became bishop 
 of Roschild, translated the Bible into his 
 native language. He died in 1638. — Moreri. 
 
 RI^STAUT (Peter) a grammarian, was 
 born at Beauvais in 1694. He was an advo- 
 cate in the parliament of Paris, and became a 
 protege of the chancellor d'Aguesseau. He 
 wrote an excellent work, entitled " Principes 
 generaux et raisonnes de la Grammaire Fran 
 9aise ;" and " Traite de rOrthographie, en 
 forme de Dictionuaire,'' 8vo. He died iu 
 1764.— Dicf. Hist. 
 
 RETZ (John Francis Paul de Gondi. 
 cardinal de) a celebrated political character 
 v/as born at Montmirel in 1614. He was the 
 son of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, general of 
 the gallies, descended from a Florentine fa- 
 mily. His father obliged him, against his will, 
 to embrace the ecclesiastical profession, and 
 he was placed under the tuition of the famou.s 
 Vincent de Paul. Several abbacies were con- 
 ferral upon him at an early age, and in 1627 
 he was presented to a canonry of Notre Dame, 
 
ri i: I) 
 
 He passed througli his course of study witli 
 distinction, and in 1643 was appointed co- 
 adjutor to tlic arclil)isliop of Paris, Ids uiicle. 
 His ili'iiortnu'iit was by no moans adapted to 
 his profession ; he foui^ht duels, entered into 
 every species of dissijjation, and so early de- 
 voted himself to poUtical intrigue, tliat, ac- 
 cording to \'^oItaire, he was the soul of a con- 
 spiracy against the life of caniinal Kichelieu 
 at the age of twenty -three. 'i"he ministry of 
 IMazarin was, however, the period of his great 
 party consequence, and lie was the source of all 
 the factious cahals which led to tlu' petty civil 
 war of the Fronde. It was he who induceii 
 the Parisians to take up arms on the day of 
 the Barricades, and for some time he was the 
 Catiline of tliis sedition. At length the 
 court was induced to buy him off by a cardi- 
 nalate, to which he was nominated by the 
 kino in 16.51. Like other deserters he imme- 
 diately lost his poi)ularity, and for the future 
 acted only a secondary part. He could not, 
 however, cease from caballing, and at last IMa- 
 zarin, who both hated and feared him, impri- 
 soned him in the castle of Vincennes, whence 
 he was removed to Nantes, from which he 
 contrived to escape into Spain, and thence pro- 
 ceeded to Rome. He subsequently travelled 
 through Holland, Flanders, and F^ngland, and 
 on the death of Mazarin, in 1661, made his 
 peace with the court, by the renunciation of 
 the archbishopric of Paris, to which he had 
 succeeded by the death of his uncle. He had 
 hitherto lived with great magnificence, which 
 had plunged him deeply in debt, but he ho- 
 nourably determined to live upon a small 
 income until he paid his debts, which, althougli 
 enormously large, he effected. In 1675 he 
 wished to give up his cardinal's hat, and retire 
 from the world, but the pope would not receive 
 it. The later years of his life procured him 
 respect, and he died regretted at Paris, in 
 1679, at the age of sixty-six. The character 
 of cardinal de Retz has been drawn by several 
 eminent writers, all of whom agree in its 
 principal features. Daring, turbulent, and in- 
 triguing, with designs rather romantic than 
 elevated, and conducted with more adroitness 
 than ability, he seemed exactly fitted to act 
 tlie part which he sustained in what IMarmon- 
 tel calls the tragi-comedy of the Fronde. His 
 " JMemoirs " are well worthy perusal; they 
 were written by himself in his retreat, with 
 considerable impartiality; for he neither spares 
 himself nor others, and his portraits of those 
 who acted parts in the intrigues of the Fronde, 
 are very curious. He was the author of several 
 other writings relative to the affairs of the 
 time and the party, which are now but little 
 read. — Siecle de Louis XIV. Moreri 
 
 REUCHLIN (John) a celebrated German 
 philologist, born at Pfortzheim, in 1-1.")5. His 
 early proficiency in learning recommended him 
 to the margrave of Baden, who sent him with 
 his own son to study at Paris. He returned 
 to Germany with his patron, but a wish to 
 apply himself to Greek literature induced him 
 to go again to the French metropolis alone, 
 where be supported himself by copying Greek 
 
 R U 
 
 manuscripts, in 117 1 he went to Basil, and 
 took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and 
 afterwards studied the* law at ()i leans, and iii 
 1 liU hf obtained the diploma of licentiate in 
 that faculty at J^oitiers. Having accompanied 
 Kveraril, count of Wurtendjerg, to Home as 
 his private secretary, in llH'i, he was received 
 wall the distinction due to his talents, and he 
 was particularly noticed by Lorenzo de' I\Ie- 
 dici, at Florence. Returning to Germany 
 with his patron, who became duke of Suabia, 
 he established himself at Stuttgard. In 1184 
 he was nominated assessor of the supreme 
 court ; and the next year he proceeded doctor 
 of law at Tubingen. In 1486 he was sent to 
 the diet of Frankfort ; and in 1487 he was at 
 the coronation of the emperor Frederic ill. 
 He was afterwards employed in some di[>lo- 
 matic affairs, and his services were recom- 
 pensed with the title of count Palatine. He 
 made use of the opjiortunity afforded by his 
 residence at the imperial court, to study He- 
 brew under Loans, a Jew, who was pln>ician 
 to the emperor. After the death of duke 
 Everard, he retired to Worms, where lie re- 
 mained under the protection of the bishop, 
 till he was employed by the elector palatine 
 in negociations at Rome. After the renewal 
 of the league of Suabia, in 1500, Reuchlin 
 was appointed judge of a tribunal at Tubin- 
 gen, in 1502, and he held the office eleven 
 years. The latter part of his life was embit- 
 tered by d dispute with the theologians of 
 Cologne, who had obtained from the t^mperor 
 a decree authorizing the destruction of all the 
 books of the Jews, except the Bible, at the 
 instance of Pfeffercorn, a convert from Judaism 
 Reuchlin wished to restrict this order to such 
 books only as had been written against Chris- 
 tianity ; and wrote an answer to a publication 
 of Pfeffercorn on the subject, which subjected 
 him to much illiberal abuse and persecution. 
 His death took place at Stuttgard, in 1522. 
 He composed the first Hebrew grammar and 
 lexicon for the use of Christians ; and he was 
 the author of a treatise " De Verbo mirifico ;" 
 another, in three books, " De Arte Cabbalis- 
 tica;" a Latin comedy, &cc. This learned 
 man, in compliance with the taste of his age, 
 called himself Cajmio, a Greek translation of 
 bis German family name, which signifies 
 smoke. — Stollii Introd. in Hist. Litt. Biog. 
 Univ, 
 
 REUSNER (Nicholas) a learned jurist, 
 poet, and miscellaneous writer of the sixteenth 
 century. He was a native of Silesia, and stu- 
 died at Wittemberg and Leipsic. Going to 
 Augsburg in 1565 to see the ceremonies of 
 the diet, he produced some pieces of Latin 
 poetry, which procured him the notice of the 
 (Juke of Bavaria, who nominated him profes- 
 sor in the college of Liningen, of which he 
 afterwards became rector. In 158o be took 
 the degree of doctor of laws at Basil ; and he 
 was invested with the dignity of ass ssor of 
 the imperial chamber of Spires, and appointed 
 professor in the academy of Strajsburg. His 
 reputation caused him to be invited to Jena 
 in 1589, and h«5 was twice rector of that urd- 
 
REV 
 
 versity. The emperor llodolph II bestowed 
 on him publicly the laureate crown, and created 
 him count palatine ; and in 1393 he was de- 
 puty fi"om the electorate of Saxony to the diet 
 of Poland, He died at Jena, in 1602, aged 
 fiftv-seveu. A list of the works of Reusner 
 may be found in Nicerou's Memoirs. Among 
 the most important are, " Hodocporicorum, 
 sive Itinerum totius fere Orbis, lib. vii." 1380, 
 8vo, a curious compilation ; " Icones seu 
 Imajrines Yirorum Literis illustrium, aduitis 
 eorundem Elogiis diversorum Auctorum," 
 1587, 8vo ; a second part, 1389, 8vo ;" 
 " .Enigmatologia, seu Sylloge ^'Enigmatum et 
 Gryphorum convivialium," 1389, 8vo ; and 
 *' Opera Poetica," 1393, 8vo. — Reusneu 
 (Elias) an antiquary and historian, brother of 
 the preceding, was professor of philosophy at 
 Jena, where he died in 1612. He was the 
 autbor of" Genealogicon Romanum de Fami- 
 liis prKcipuis Regura, Principum, Cffisarum, 
 &c." 1390, folio ; and other works relative to 
 history and genealogy. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 REUVENS (John Everard) one of the 
 most celebrated lawyers Holland ever pro- 
 duced, was born at Haerlem in 1763, and 
 studied at the university of Leyden. Having 
 taken his degrees, he established himself at 
 the Hao-ue as an advocate ; and after acquir- 
 ing great reputation, he was appomted,m 17;-5, 
 counsellor to the court of justice of the pro- 
 vince of Holland. When the Revolution had 
 changed the form of the government, he was 
 placed at the head of the judicial department 
 of the state, with the title of agent of justice ; 
 and on the occurrence of new political altera- 
 tions in 1801, he was made president of the 
 high court of justice. Under the regal go- 
 vgrnment, in 1806, M. Reuvens was nomi- 
 nated counsellor of state extraordinary, then 
 president of the first section, and at length 
 vice-president of the council. On the union 
 of Holland, to France in 1810, he became pre- 
 sident of the court of appeal at the Hague ; 
 but was soon after invited to Paris, and made 
 counsellor of the court of cassation. When 
 his native country recovered its independence 
 in 18 14, he returned home, and was nominated 
 president of the court of appeal at the Hague, 
 and commander of the order of the Union. 
 The criminal code of the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands is almost entirely his work, and 
 it has obtained the approbation of the most 
 eminent lawyers. Being a member of the 
 commission appointed to present projects for 
 the other codes of law, he went to Brussels in 
 July 1816, where he perished, the victim of a 
 dark conspiracy, the authors of which have 
 never been discovered. He was the author of 
 an inaugural dissertation " De Cautione i\Iu- 
 ciana." — Biog. Kouv. des Coniemp. 
 
 REVAI (Nicholas) a learned Hungarian, 
 born in 1751. He was educated in the Pious 
 Schools, and became an ecclesiastic. Having 
 cultivated literature with success, he made 
 himself known as a poet, a philologist, and a 
 grammariiin. Among his prose works are, 
 "Hungarian Antiqui ies ;" and " Elaboratior 
 Grammatica Hungarica, ad genuinam patrii 
 
 RE W 
 
 Sermonis indulem fideliter exacta, afiiniuni- 
 ; que linguarum adminicalis locupletius illus- 
 trata," Pesth, 1803, 2 vols. 4to. He was 
 professor of the Hungarian language and lite- 
 rature at Pesth ; and he contributed much to 
 I excite a spirit of critical research among his 
 countrymen. His death took place April 1, 
 ' 1807. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Kouv. des Contemp. 
 } REVELEY (Willey) an ingenious Eng- 
 lisli architect and antiquary, who studied 
 I under sir William Chambers. He travelled in 
 I Greece and the Levant to observe the remains 
 i of ancient art, and brought home a valuable 
 collection of drawings, the fruits of his talents 
 and industry. As an artist, he distinguished 
 himself by the erection of the church of All 
 Saints at Southampton, and various other 
 structures. He prepared for the press the 
 last volume of Stuart's " Antiquities of 
 Athens;" and he died in the prime of life, 
 July 6, 1799.— Europ. Mag. 
 
 REWBELL (John Baptist) one of the 
 directors of the French republic, bom at Col- 
 mar in Alsace, in 1746. He was an advocate 
 in the sovereign council of his native province 
 in 1789, and being devoted to the popular in- 
 terest, he was chosen a deputy from the tiers- 
 etat to the states-general. On his arrival at 
 Paris he displayed a violent spirit of innova- 
 tion, and a decided enmity to the existing go- 
 vernment. After the dissolution of the first 
 assembly, Rewbell became attorney-general 
 S3'ndic of the department of the Upper Rhine, 
 and he exercised that function during the 
 whole continuance of the legislative assembly. 
 Being nominated by his department a deputy 
 to the Convention, in September 1792, he 
 voted for the establishment of a republic, and 
 warmly pressed the trial of Louis XVT, though 
 he did not vote on that occasion, being absent 
 on a mission to IMayence. He was afterwards 
 employed as a commissary of the Convention 
 in La Vendee ; and he remained in similar si- 
 tuations during the reign of terror. In Octo- 
 ber, 1794, he was apj)ointed a member of the 
 committee of public safety ; and in December 
 following he was elected president of the Con^ 
 vention. Under the new constitution of tlit 
 year 3 (1793), he became a member of the 
 council of five hundred, and soon after he was 
 raised by his colleagues to the highest magis- 
 tracy of the state, being first nominated one 
 of the five directors of the republic, of which 
 he thus obtained the presidency. During the 
 four years he was director, he is said to have 
 given great ofTence by his pride and obstinacy ; 
 and, together with Barras and La Reveilliere 
 Lepeaux, he formed a majority which over- 
 ruled the opinions of his two remaining col- 
 leagues. In March 1799, he was replaced by 
 the abbe Sieyes, when he was nominated by 
 his department a member of the council of 
 ancients, in which he was the object of violent 
 denunciations, from which, however, he de- 
 fended himself. After Buonaparte overturned 
 the government, Rewbell held no office, ile 
 died in obscurity in 1801. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 REWICZKY (Charles Emerance pb 
 RtvissiNCE, count) a celebrated bibliogra- 
 
II EY 
 
 jiher, born in Ilimgary in 1737. After having 
 linisbed liis studies at Vienna, lie visited tlie 
 principal fourts of Jlurope, and the cluisic re- 
 gions of Asia. He act|uired a knowledge of 
 languages with singuhir faiility ; and he sj)oke 
 and wroie French, German, Italian, Kn;^lisli, 
 Spanish, and most of the .Xorthi'in and Ori- 
 ental dialects. The emj)res3 JMaria Theresa 
 np|)ointed him anibatsador-extraordinary to 
 \Varsaw ; and Joseph II afterwards sent liim 
 to Berlin. He was subsequently employed ou 
 a mission to the court of London, 17'.)0 ; and 
 also resided in England in a private capacity : 
 hut his death took place at Vienna in 
 1793. Count llewiczky i>ublished an edi- 
 tion of the works of Petronius, and of the 
 odes of the Persian poet llafiz ; but his 
 principal production was a catalogue of his 
 own library, which he published under the 
 name of " Periergus I)elto])hilus." — Biog. 
 
 KEY (John) a philosopher of the seven- 
 teenth century, who was one of the ])rccursors 
 of the science of pneumatic chemistry, which 
 has made such advances towards perfection in 
 our times. He was a native of Bugue.in the 
 province of Perigord, and after having received 
 the degree of MD, he went to reside v.ich his 
 brother at Rochebeaurant, devoting his leisure 
 to the study of chemistry and physical science. 
 In 1630 he published the result of his re- 
 searches, under the title of " Essais sur la 
 Recherche de la Cause pour laquelle I'Etain 
 et le Plomb augmentent de Poids quand on les 
 calcine," 8vo. This interesting work shows 
 that Rey had in some degree forestalled the 
 grand discoveries of the moderns relative to 
 the influence of oxygen gas in the calcination 
 of metals, on which the antiphlogistic theory 
 of chemistry is, in a great measure, founded. 
 Rey, who corresponded with father jMersenne, 
 and others of his scientific contemporaries, 
 died in 1645. His treatise, just mentioned, 
 was reiniblished by Gobet at Paris, 1777, 
 8vo. — Tiiloch's Pliilos. ^lag. Biog, Univ. 
 
 REY (Jean Bai'Tiste) an eminent French 
 musician, born in 1734, at Lauzerte, in the 
 department of tlie I'arn and Garonne. He re- 
 ceived the rudiments of a musical education 
 in a monastic establishment at Thonlouse, 
 whence, at the age of seventeen, he removed 
 as a chorister, to the cathedral at Auch. In 
 his fortieth year, his reputation as a composer 
 having reached the ears of the court, a lettre- 
 de-cacliet brought him from Nantes, where he 
 was at that time settled, to Paris, and the aj)- 
 pointment of chamber-musician to the king 
 was conferred upon him, with a salary of 2000 
 francs. His promised advancement in the royal 
 household was prevented by the Revolution ; 
 he still, however, continued to direct the 
 opera orchestra for more than tliirty-five 
 years, and under Napoleon was appointed to 
 superintend that of the chapel-royal. Besides 
 a variety of operas of his own composition, 
 some of which are still popular, he completed 
 the '• Arvire et Eveline " of his friend Sac- 
 cliini, at the express request of that composer. 
 He died iu 1810, of grief, it is said, occasioned 
 
 REV 
 
 by the loss of a favourite daughter. — Uiog. 
 Diet, of Mils. 
 
 REVHIUl (Sam III.) a Gern.-iu uner uj. 
 inutheuiatics and giiural litt-iaiure, boiu at 
 Schlussingen in U..i.). He htuJicd at the 
 university of Leyden, afier which he becamtj 
 tutor to tlie prince of i axe Gollia. He next 
 obtained the niat':einatiial chair, and at length 
 that of jurisprudence, in tlie univerbity of 
 Kiel. In 167t he published a dissertation, 
 " De IMundo," relating to the different sys- 
 tems of astronomy ; and afterwards a uni- 
 versal history of jurisprudence ; a German 
 translation of Euclid's Geometry ; " Matbesis 
 Biblica ;" and other works. He died at Kiel, 
 in 1711. — Moreri. Biog, Univ. 
 
 REYNEAU (CuARLKs Rene) known by 
 the appellation of father Reyneau, an eminent 
 French mathematician, who was the son of a 
 surgeon at Brissac, in the province of Anjou. 
 He was born in 1656, and having finished his 
 studies, at the age of twenty he entered into 
 the congregatio:i of the Oratory. He studied 
 the then jirevailing system of Cartesian philo- 
 sophy, in conjunction with which he acquired 
 an intimate acquaintance with geometry ; and 
 he was sent by his superiors to teach mathe- 
 matics and physics first at Pezenas, and after- 
 wards at Toulon and Angers. In 1708 he 
 published, for the use of his pupils, a treatise 
 entitled *' Analyse Demontr^e," Ji vols. 4to ; 
 which was followed by " Science du Calcul 
 des Grandeurs ;" and in 1716 he was chosen 
 an associate of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Paris. He suffered a great deal from sickness 
 in the decline of life, and, on account of his 
 learning and his virtues, died much regretted, 
 in 1728. — Martins Biog. Philos. Biog. Univ. 
 
 REYNIER (John Louis Ebenezer) a 
 French general and man of science, bom at 
 Lausanne, in 1771. He had received a good 
 education, and was preparing to enter into the 
 corps of engineers, when the French Revolu- 
 tion facilitated his views. In 1792 he made a 
 campaign iu Belgium, attached to the staff of 
 the army ; and being raised to the rank of ad- 
 jutant-general, he contributed to the success 
 of the French, under Pichegru. Appointed 
 general of a brigade during the conquest of 
 Holland in 1794, he distinguished himself at 
 the passage of the Wahal. He then served 
 under IMoreau, as chief of the staff, in the 
 army of the Rhine ; and in the memorable re- 
 treat in 1796, as well as on several other oc- 
 casions, he signalized his talents. In 1798 he 
 went with Buonaparte to Egypt, where he was 
 present at the battle of the Pyramids ; and he 
 joined in the Syrian expedition, laid siege to 
 El Arisch, and commanded for a time at that 
 of Acre. He overthrew the janizaries, and 
 thus contributed greatly to the victory of He- 
 liopolis ; but having subsequently quarrelled 
 with general Menou, he was not well received 
 by Buonaparte on his return to France. In 
 1802 he published a work, entitled " De 
 rEgyi)te apresla Bataille d'Heliopolis, et Con- 
 siderations generales sur I'Organisation phy- 
 sique et politique de ce Pays," Paris, 1802, 
 8vo ,; V. hich involved him in a dispute with ge- 
 
RE Y 
 
 nsral D'Estaign, witli whom he fought a duel, 
 when, having killed his antagonist, he was ex- 
 iled from Paris. In 1805 he was recalled, and 
 employed in Italy. Soon after, he entered into 
 the service of Joseph Buonaparte, then king 
 of Naples, and in July 1806 he was defeated 
 by the English, under general Stewart, at the 
 battle of Maida. In 1809 he served in Ger- 
 many, and commanded the Saxons at the battle 
 of Wagram ; and in 1812 he was engaged in 
 the Russian campaign, and appointed to cover 
 the right of the grand army in Poland. In 1813 
 he was made prisoner at the battle of Leipsic ; 
 and, on being exchanged, he went to Paris, 
 where he died of gout, February 27, 1814. 
 Besides the work already mentioned, he was 
 the author of " Conjectures sur les anciens ha- 
 bitants de TEgypte," 180-1, 8vo ; and "Sur 
 les Sphynx qui acconipagnent les Pyramides 
 d'Egypte," 180.5. — Biog. Univ. Biog. Nouv. 
 des Contemp, 
 
 REYNOLDS (Edward) bishop of Nor- 
 ■\vich in the seventeenth century, a prelate of 
 considerable talent and polemical ability. He 
 was a native of Southampton, born about the 
 year 1569, and having received the rudiments 
 of a classical education in the grammar-school 
 there, removed to Merton college, Oxford, of 
 which society he became fellow, and eventually 
 warden. A strong Calvinist in his religious 
 opinions, he entered the ministry, and obtained 
 the living of Braynton, Northants, with the 
 preachership of Lincoln's-inn ; and, on the 
 breaking out of the civil commotions, distin- 
 guished himself by the zeal of his animadver- 
 sions against the court j)arty. This procured 
 him to be elected one of tlie assembly of di- 
 vines who met at Westminster ; and he also 
 assisted at the conference held in the Savoy, 
 which was follo'.ved by his advancement 
 to the deanery of Christchurch. From this 
 preferment he was. however, ejected for de- 
 clining the test in 1651, and returned to the 
 metropolis, where he resided for nearly eight 
 years, till he was replaced in his former situa- 
 tion. In 1660, much to the scandal of the low 
 cliurch party with wliich he had hitherto act- 
 ed, he accepted a seat upon the episcopal 
 bench, and continued to preside over the dio- 
 cese of Norwich till his death in 1676. There 
 is a foho volume of his devotional and contro- 
 versial writings extant, which breathe through- 
 out the spirit of the reformer of Geneva.— jBio», 
 Brit. Wand, 
 
 REYNOLDS (sir Joshua) an eminent 
 English painter, was born at Piympton, in 
 Devonsliire, in 172.3, being the tenth child of 
 the reverend Samuel Reynolds, master of the 
 grammar-school of that town. He early dis- 
 covered a predilection for the art of drawing, 
 whicli induced his father to place him, at the 
 age of seventeen, with Hudson, then the most 
 famous portrait painter in London, with whom 
 he remained three years, and then, upon some 
 trifling disagreement, returned into Devon- 
 shire. He passed some time without any de- 
 terminate plan, and from 1746 to 1749 pur- 
 sued his profession in Devonshire and London, 
 Bad acquired numerous friends and patrons. 
 
 RE Y 
 
 I Among the latter was captain, afterwards lord, 
 Keppel, whom he accompanied on a cruise in 
 the Mediterranean, and proceeded to Rome 
 in which . apital and other parts of Italy, he 
 spent three years. On his return to London 
 he painted a full length portrait of captain 
 Keppel, which was very much admired, and 
 at once placed him at the head of the English 
 portrait painters. Rejecting the stiff, unva- 
 ried, and unmeaning attitudes of former artists, 
 he gave to his figures air and action adapted 
 
 i to their characters, and thereby displayed 
 something of the dignity and invention of his- 
 tory. Although, from want of early practice, 
 
 ; he never attained to perfect correctness in the 
 naked figure, he has seldom been excelled in 
 the ease and elegance of his faces, and the 
 beauty and adaptation of his fancy draperies. 
 His colouring may be said to be at once his 
 excellence and his defect. Combining, in a 
 high degree, the qualities of richness, brilliancy, 
 and freshness, he was often led, by a restless 
 love of experiment, to try modes which, pro- 
 bably from want of a due knowledge in che- 
 niistry and the mechanism of colours, fre- 
 quently failed, and left his pictures after 
 a while in a faded state. He rapidly acquired 
 opulence, and being universally regarded as 
 at the head of his profession, he kept a 
 splendid table, which was frequented by 
 the best company in the kingdom, in re- 
 spect to talents, learning, and distinctioa. 
 On the institution of the Royal Academy, 
 in 1769, he was unanimously elected pre- 
 sident, on which occasion the king con» 
 ferred upon him the honour of knighthood. 
 Although it was no prescribed part of his 
 duty to read lectures, yec his zeal for the ad- 
 vancement of the fine arts induced him to 
 deliver annual or biennial discourses before 
 the academy on the principles and practice of 
 painting. Of these he pronounced fifteen, 
 from 1769 to 1790, which were published in 
 two sets, and form a standard work. In 
 1781 and 1783 he made tours into Holland 
 and Flanders, and wrote an account of his 
 " Journey," which consists only of short notes 
 of the pictures which he saw, with an elabo- 
 rate character of Rubens. He was a distin- 
 guished member of the celebrated club which 
 contained the names of Johnson, Garrick, 
 Burke, and others of the first rank of literary 
 eminence, and seems to have been universally 
 beloved and respected by his associates. He is 
 the favourite character in Goldsmith's poem of 
 " Retaliation," and Johnson characterised him 
 as one whom he should find the most difficulty 
 how to abuse. In 178 1 he succeeded Ramsay 
 as portrait-painter to the king, and continued 
 to follow his profession, of which he was en- 
 thusiastically fond, until he lost the sight of 
 one of his eyes. He however retained his 
 equable spirits until threatened, in 1791, with 
 the loss of his other eye ; which apprehension, 
 added to his habitual deafness, exceedingly 
 depressed him. He was not, however, a prey 
 to lingering illness, being carried oft' by a 
 disease in the liver in 1792, in h'S sixtieth 
 year. lie died unmarried, and was nterred ia 
 
R E Z 
 
 St Paul's cathedral, with an attendance of 
 nobility and otlier ptrsons of eminence whicli 
 baa seMoin been ecjualletl at the obsetpiies of 
 a private person. He left a larye pro])ertv, 
 the bulk of which went to a niece niarruil to 
 the earl of Iiichiquin. Sir Joshua KeynoKla, 
 although there was scarcely a year in which 
 Lis peiicil did not produce some work of tlie 
 historical kind, ranks chiitiy in tlie class of ( 
 portrait painters. His " Ujjolino," and his I 
 *' i)eatli of Cardinal l?eauf(jrt," are, however, 
 deemed, in grandeur of composition, and force 
 of expression, among the first performances of 
 the English school. JJut on tlie whole his 
 powers of invention were inadequate to the 
 iiigher flights of historic painting, although in- 
 exhaustible in portrait, to which he gave the 
 most delightful variety. His character as a 
 rolourist has been already mentioned, and if 
 not a thorough master in drawing, he gave 
 much frrace to the turn of his figures, and dig- 
 nity to the airs of his h^ads. To conclude, 
 although he did not reach that grand style 
 M-hich in his writings he almost exclusively 
 liolds up to admiration, his works are highly 
 pleasing ; and the engravings from his por- 
 traits and other works have contributed much 
 to the perfection of that branch of art in Eng- 
 land. As a writer he obtained great credit by 
 his " Discourses," whicli are elegant and 
 agreeable compositions, although sometimes 
 vague and inconsistent. He also added notes 
 to " Dufresnoy's Art of Painting," and gave 
 three papers on ])ainting to the " Idler." The 
 whole of " The Literary Works of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds " were edited by IMr JMalone in two 
 volumes, quarto, 1797, with a life of the i 
 author. — IJfe by Malone, Pilhiugton, 
 
 REYRAC (Francis Philip Laurens de) 
 a Frencli ecclesiastic, was born at Layville, in 
 the Limousin, in 1734. He became prior of 
 St Maclou, at Orleans, and an associate of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. He is principally 
 known by his ** Hymns to the Sun," 8vo. in 
 the flowery prose of Fenelon. His other 
 works are, " Idylls in Prose," 8vo ; ♦' Sacred 
 I'oems;" and " INIanuale Clericorum," l2rao. 
 The abbe Reyrac, who was much admired 
 for the purity of his morals and the gentle- 
 ness of his disposition, died in 1782. — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 REYS (Antonio dos) a Portuguese di- 
 vine, who distinguished himself by his atten- 
 tion to literature. He was born at Pernes, 
 near Santarem, in 1690 ; and died at Lisbon, 
 in 1738. He entered into the congregation of 
 the fathers of the Oratory, and was historio- 
 grapher to the order, and qualiricator to the 
 inquisition. He was a member of the Aca- I 
 demy of History at Lisbon, and chronologist 
 of the kingdom. He published a great num- 
 ber of his works, among which are Latin 
 Poems ; the Life of Don Ferdinand de iMe- 
 razes ; a collection of Portuguese poetry ; and 
 a collection of Latin poetry, by Portuguese 
 authors. — Tiiot;. Univ. 
 
 REZZONICO (Anthony Joseph, count) 
 marshal of the camp, chamberlain to the infant 
 O'lke of Parma, and governor of that ciu'ie I 
 
 bi:>o. DlCT. — \'oL. IIL 
 
 R H E 
 
 was born at Como, in 1709, and died in l7ri,*». 
 lie devoted much of his time to litrrary 
 jtursuits, and jiroduced the following works, 
 " J)is(piisitiones Phniana-, nive de utriu.Mjne 
 Plinii atria, scrijitis, codicibus, edilioiubns, 
 atque interpretibiis," 2 vols. fol. whn h is 
 much esteemed ; " De Stip|...sitis .Militarilni!* 
 siipendiis Renedicti Odeschulci (pii Toniifi-x 
 Maximus, anno 1676 Innoccntii pntMioinino 
 fuit renunciatus ;" " INIusarum Lpinicia," &c. 
 His son, the count Gastone della Torre ]U'zz(»- 
 nico, was born in Parma, in 1740. and din- 
 tinguished himself by his literary attainments. 
 At a very early age he was clioscn a member 
 of the Acadeinia degli Arcadi. ami was ap- 
 pointed president of an academy of fine arts at 
 Parma ; but falling into disgrace at court, 
 he journeyed for some time throngli I'uropt-, 
 and on his return to Italy he settled at Uonie. 
 His poetical works were printed in 2 vols, at 
 Parma, and are much admired for their no- 
 bleness of expression, lively imagery, and 
 propriety of diction. He died in 1795. — 
 Diet. Hist. Sax. Oiiom. 
 
 RHAZES or RAZI, an Arabian phvsiciaa 
 of the ninth century, who was a native of 
 Korasan, and became superintendant of a 
 public hospital at Bagdat, where he long re- 
 sided with the highest reputation as a medi- 
 cal practitioner, fie wrote a " Discourse of 
 the Pestilence," by which term he designated 
 the small-pox ; and he is the earliest author 
 extaut«who has treated of that disease, which 
 made its first appearance in Egypt in the reign 
 of the caliph Omar, the successor of Maho- 
 met. R hazes died in 932, at the age of 
 eighty. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. Moren. 
 
 RHEIXEK (Christopher) a German 
 com])oser and musician of some note, bom in 
 1748, at IMemmingen. He perfected his mu- 
 sical education at Lyons, in which city he 
 produced his first opera, " Le Nouveau Pyg- 
 malion," \\ hich met with great success, and 
 procured him the notice of Turgot, who in- 
 vited him to the metropolis, with the promise 
 of a suitable provision. The disgrace of that 
 minister, however, which took j)lace before 
 the arrival of his proteg^ in Paris, prevented 
 the realization of the hopes held out, and the 
 latter retired at length to his native place, 
 v'here he commenced business as an innkeeper. 
 Two other operas of his composition, " Le 
 Fils Reconnaissant," and " Rinaldo," with 
 Stadele's poetry, are much admired, as well 
 as his oratorio, " Der Todgesang Jesu." He 
 also published a collection of songs, in 4 vols. 
 He died in 1796. — Bii^g. Diet, of Mu$. 
 
 RHESE (John David) or John Rhese 
 Davis, a physician, was born in 1.^3^■, in the 
 isle of Anglesea, and ditd in 1609. 1 le studied 
 at Christchurch, Oxford, whence he went to 
 Sienna, where he took liis doctor's degree. 
 His works are, " De Italica; Lingua Pronim- 
 ciatione," Padua; "Rules for Obtaining the 
 Latin Tongue," printed in Italian at Venice ; 
 " Ombro-Britannicaj, Cymer^cneve Linguje 
 Institutioneset Rudimenta, \c."foIio.— U'otd. 
 
 RHEITCUS or JOACHIM (George) 
 wjo derived the form«ir aj.^j>ellatio/j from the 
 
 C 
 
RHO 
 
 ancient name of his native country, (Rhastia,) 
 was an eminent mathematician of the six- 
 teenth century. He was born at Feldkirchen, 
 in the Valtehiie, in 1514 ; and he studied at 
 the university of Wittemberg, where he ob- 
 tained the chair of mathematics and astrono- 
 my. Having heard of the discoveries of Co- 
 pernicus, he quitted his situation, and went to 
 Thome to visit chat celebrated astronomer, and 
 having adopted his doctrines, he pubhshed an 
 account of them. He died of a catarrh, at 
 Cassau in Hungary, in 1576. His works are, 
 '• Ephemerides ;" " Orationes de Astrono- 
 mia, Geometria, et Physica ;" "Canon Doc- 
 trinai Triangulorum ;" " Narratio de Libris 
 Revolutionum, &c. "Nicolai Copernici." Be- 
 sides which he left a great number of valuable 
 manuscripts. — Teissier Eloges des H. S. 
 
 RHIGAS or RIGAS ( ) a modern 
 
 Greek patriot, born about 1753, at Velestini, 
 a small town of Tbessaly. He studied in the 
 colleges of his native country, and was early 
 distinguished for his ready apprehension and 
 extensive acquirements. While yet young he 
 repaired to Bucharest, and resided there till 
 1790, dividing his time between commercial 
 pursuits and his studies. He became inti- 
 mately acquainted with the ancient literature 
 of Greece, and made himself familiar with 
 the Latin, French, German, and Italian lan- 
 guages. He conceived the project of a grand 
 secret society, in opposition to the domination 
 of the Turks, and among the discontented 
 chiefs who became associated with him was 
 the pacha Passwan Oglou. He proceeded to 
 Vienna, where he met with a number of rich 
 Greek merchants, and some learned emigrants 
 of the same nation. From that metropolis he 
 extended his correspondence to various parts 
 of Europe. He commenced a Greek journal 
 for the instruction of his countrymen, and 
 translated the Travels of Anacharsis the 
 Younger, and other French works ; and com- 
 posed a treatise on military tactics, and an 
 elementary treatise on natural philosophy ; 
 and he likewise drew up a grand chart of all 
 Greece, in twelve divisions, wherein he noted 
 not only the present, but also the ancient 
 names of all places celebrated in Grecian his- 
 tory. At length he fell a sacrifice to trea- 
 chery, being, together with eight of his friends, 
 denounced by one of his associates to the 
 Austrian government as a conspirator against 
 the state. He was arrested at Trieste, and 
 ordered to be delivered up to the Ottoman 
 Porte ; but he was, with his companions, 
 drowned in the Danube, his conductors fear- 
 ing to be intercepted by Passwan Oglou. This 
 catastrophe took place in INIay 1798, when 
 Rhigas was about five-and-forty years of age. 
 — Mo7ith. Mag. vol. Ivii. Biog. Vniv. 
 
 RHODIGINUS (CcELius) a learned Ita- 
 lian, whose real name was Ludovico Celio Ri- 
 chieri, was born at Rovigo in 1480, and stu- 
 died at Ferrara and Padua. He was public 
 professor at Rovigo for some years, and in 1503 
 he opened a school at Vicenza, where he re- 
 mained until 1508, when he was invited ro 
 Ferrara by duke Alfonso I. In 1515 lie was 
 
 RH U 
 
 named to the chair of Greek and Latin elo- 
 quence, by Francis I : six years after he re- 
 turned to Padua, whence he was deputed to 
 Venice to congratulate the new doge. He 
 died in 1525 of grief, on account of the de- 
 feat and capture of Francis I at the battle of 
 Pavia. He wrote a work, entitled " Antiqua; 
 Lectiones," in 30 books, which displays great 
 research and erudition, and excites wonder 
 that it should be so little known. Julius Cas- 
 sar Scaliger called Rhodiginus "the Varro of 
 the age." — Vosdi Hist. Lat. Tiruboschi^ 
 
 RHODIUS (John) a learned physician and 
 antiquary, was born in 1587, at Copenhagen. 
 In 1614 he w^ent to Padua, where he fixed his 
 residence, but refused all appointments which 
 were offered to him in order to devote himself 
 entirely to study. His works are, " Notae et 
 Lexicon in Scribouium Largumde Compositione 
 Medicamentorum," a very erudite work, and 
 useful for the elucidation of the works of the 
 early medical writers ; " Analecta et Notse in 
 Lud. Septalii Animadversion es et Cautiones 
 Medicas, 1652 ;" " Oratio de Ponderibus et 
 Mensuris, et Vita Celsi ;" " De Acia Disser- 
 tatio ad Cornelii Celsi mentem," Patav. 
 1639; " Observationum Medicinalium Cen- 
 turis tres ;" " JMantissa Anatomica ad T. 
 Bartholinum ;" and " Observationes Poste- 
 riores." — Hallerii BibL Med. et Anatom. Eloy 
 Diet. 
 
 RHODOMAN (Laurence) a learned Ger- 
 man, was born at Sassowerf, in Upper Saxo- 
 ny, in 1546, and studied at the college of II- 
 feld, under Michael Neander. He waa pro- 
 fessor of Greek at Jena for some years, and of 
 history at Wittemberg, where he died in 
 1606. He was deeply learned in the Gieek 
 language, in which he wrote some very good 
 poetry, particularly a history of JMartiu Lu- 
 ther in Greek verse. His other works are, 
 " Troica seu Historiae Trojanas Epitome," 
 Gr. et Lat. verse; " Historic Ecclesiae ejus- 
 que Politise," Greek verse, with a Latin trans- 
 lation ; " Historiai Sacrae, Gr. Lat. lib. ix." 
 &c. — Bayle. Baillet. MorerL 
 
 RHUNKEN, RUHNKEN, or RHUN- 
 KENIUS (David) a celebrated critical scho- 
 lar and philological wTiter, born at Stolpen in 
 Pomerania, in 1723. He was intended for 
 the ecclesiastical profession, but he consulted 
 bis inclination in devoting himself to the study 
 of classical literature. Having passed some 
 time at the university of Konigsberg, he re- 
 moved to Wittemberg, where he took the de- 
 gree of LLD, and afterwards going to Leyden 
 he attended the lectures of Hemsterhuis, who 
 procured him the situation of a tutor, and 
 through whose advice he published an edition 
 of the Greek lexicon of Timaeus. He subse- 
 quently vi'ent to Paris, where he availed him- 
 self of the stores of learning contained in the 
 royal library. In 1757 he became assistant to 
 Hemsterhuis at Leyden ; and in 1761 he suc- 
 ceeded Oudendorp as professor of the Latin 
 language and history. After having been long 
 the great ornament of the university, to the 
 reputation of which he contributed bv his 
 witings and lectures, he died much regretted 
 
R I C 
 
 the sam«; proftssion, was sent to Holland for 
 cilucatioii. At an eailv a<,'e lie offciiclt'ii his 
 fricinls. by uniiiiiy lijiiihflf in marriagf with 
 Miss Wilkinson, a (juakcress, whose relations 
 were equally displcaseil at tli« lenu-rity of the 
 young coii|)le, who wt-rc thus, with few re- 
 sources hut their own industry, left iinsurt- 
 ported on all sides. Mr Kicardo, however, 
 young as he was, had established auioiip his 
 lather's connexions a character for probity, 
 
 III c 
 
 in 1798. He published a eulogium on his 
 friend Ih-insterhuis ; an edition of llutilius 
 Lupus on Rhetoric ; anil an admirable tdilion 
 of the lustory of Velleius Paterculus. — Bion-. 
 Univ. 
 
 RllJADKNEIRA (rETKn) a celebrated 
 Spanish Jesuit, was born at Toledo in 1527, 
 and was one of the favourite disciples of St 
 Ignatius. He studied at Paris, whence he 
 went to Padua, and afterwards to Palermo, 
 
 where he became a teacher of rhetoric. He i industry, and talent, which procured him iriri- 
 died at iMadrid in 1611 . He is chiefly distiii- j nudiate offers of assistance and sujiport, of 
 guished for his lives of various saints and je- which he availed himself; and becoming a 
 suits, particularly that of St Ignatius de Lo- , member of the Stock Exchange, he gradually 
 yola, written with candour and i;ood sense. I accumulated immense proj)erty. In IBIO he 
 'J'his work, and his " Lives of the Saints," I first ajjpeared before tlie public as a writer in 
 were both translated into English, the latter I the IMoming Chronicle, on the subject of the 
 in 2 vols. 8vo. In lo58 Pvibadeneira visited [depreciation of our national currency; and he 
 En<;land with the duke of Feria, and the re- I afterwards embodied his ideas in a distinct 
 suit of his inquiries was a treatise " On the i work, and defended liis opinions against the 
 pjiglish Schism," containing many curious per- ; animadversions to which they were subjected ; 
 sonal anecdotes of tpieen Mary. — Alegamhe. \ and he had the satisfaction to see his reason- 
 Doui^las'sCriicriuii. Fieheri Tlieatrum. jL)icf. : ings adopted and confirmed in the Report of 
 
 Hist. 
 
 RIBERA f Joseph) called Lo Spagnoletto, 
 an eminent painter, was boru at Xativa in Va- 
 Jencia, about lo89, and was a pupil of Cara- 
 vaggio. He went to Rome, and studied the 
 works of Raphael, the Caracci, and others. 
 He lived in a state of extreme poverty there, 
 but one day, as he was painting some 
 ornaments outside of a house, a cardinal 
 passing by and observing his distressed ap- 
 pearance, gave him a home in his palace ; but 
 finding that he became indolent and voluptuous 
 in his new situation, he had the strength of 
 
 the liuUion Committee of the house of Com- 
 mons. He published " An Essay on Rent," 
 in which he advocated the principles of Mr 
 Malthus concerning population ; and he also 
 entered on an examination of the affairs of the 
 Bank of England, the result of which was his 
 proposal for an economical currency ; and he 
 adciressed a letter on the subject to JNlr Percival, 
 but his j)lan was not adopted. His most im- 
 portant production is his treatise on " Political 
 Economy and Taxation," Avhich affords a lu- 
 minous exposition of the origin and fluctuations 
 of national wealth and expenditure, and which 
 mind to witlidraw himself from the house of ! deserves to be ranked with the celebrated 
 
 his protector, and return to labour and iadi- 
 geace. He then visited Parma and Modena, 
 and thence went to Naples, where the viceroy 
 named him his own painter, and his fame ex- 
 tending to Rome, t!ie pope created him a 
 knight of the order of Christ, and the acade- 
 my of St Luke elected him one of its mem- 
 bers. In 1618, when don John of Austria 
 visited Naples, Ribera imprudently boasted to 
 him of the beauty of his daughters, which 
 led to an intrigue with one of them, and the 
 prince finally carried her off. The disgrace 
 and the reproaches of his wife so affected 
 Ribera, that one day, in 1649, he left his 
 house, near Posilippo, to go to Naples, and 
 was never more heard of. Other accounts, 
 however, say that he died at Naples in 1656. 
 lie wrote a MS. tract upon the principles of 
 painting, which was much esteemed. Spag- 
 noletto revelled in scenes of horror and seve- 
 rity. His historical pictures are chiefly repre- 
 sentations of martyrdoms, executions, and 
 
 work of Dr Adam Smith. In 1819 JMr Ri- 
 cardo obtained a seat in Parliament for the 
 Irish borough of Portarlington. and displayed 
 as a senator the same liberality, good sense, 
 and clear argumentation whicli are to be found 
 in his published works, so that he attracted the 
 respect and esteem of all parties. He died of 
 inflammation of the brain, arising from an ab- 
 scess in the ear, at his seat of Gatcomb Park, 
 near Miuchin Hampton in Gloucestersbire, 
 September 11, 18'23, and he was interred at 
 Hainish, near Chippenham, in ^^'iltshire. Mr 
 Ricardo, in relinquishing the religious senti- 
 ments of his ancestors, is said to have adopted 
 the principles of Unitarianism, but he usually 
 attended the service of the established church. 
 — Ann. Biog. Ediub.Ann. licg. 
 
 RICAUT (sir Paul). See Rycavt. 
 
 RICCI (INIicHAEL Angei-o") an Italian car- 
 dinal, was born at Rome in 1619. He con- 
 ceived a great inclination for the study of ma- 
 thematics, which was cultivated bv Torricelli, 
 
 tortures, which he represented with a painful and had not his studies been interrupted, he 
 force. His anchorites ai> I fathers of the ] promised to be one of the greatest geometri- 
 church were all distinguisned for their Severity I cians in Euroj)e. In 1666 he published a 
 
 and dignity. — D'Ai'trenville. Filkington. Cum- 
 berland's Painters i)i Spain. 
 
 little work, entitled " Exerciiatio Geometrica, 
 &CC." in which he determined, in a purely geo- 
 
 PcICARDO (Uavid) a celebrated writer i metrical manner, the tangents and the maxima 
 on finance and statistics. He was of a Jewish ■ and minima of curves, chiefly compared with 
 family, and was born in London, April li', | conic sections of tbe first ordt^r. This treatise 
 1772. His father wa.s a Dutch merchant and was eminently successful, and was reprinted 
 stockbroker; and the sou being intended for by the Royal Society of London. In 1681 he 
 
 ' C 2 
 
RIC 
 
 was created a cardinal by pope Innocent XI, 
 a dignity which he enjoyed but a sliort time, 
 dying iu 1682. He vvrote several Dissertations 
 and Letters. — Landl Hist, de Lit. de Vltalie. 
 Baiile. MarevL 
 
 illCCI (Sebastian) an eminent painter, 
 was born in 1659 at Belluno, in tlie Venetian 
 territory. He was for some time patronised by 
 Rannuccio II, duke of Parma, who maintained 
 him liberally at Rome, where he completed 
 his studies. He was invited to the court of 
 Vienna, to decorate the palace of Schosnbrun, 
 whence he went, at the invitation of the duke 
 of Tuscany, to Florence, and afterwards he 
 visited England, where he remained ten years. 
 He died at Venice in 1734. He was grand in 
 his ideas, and an agreeable colourist, but he 
 is deficient in correctness, the number of his 
 works obliging him rather to consult his ima- 
 gination than nature. His principal perform- 
 ances are in the churches of Venice. — D'Ar- 
 genvilLe. Pilkingtoiu 
 
 RlCCIOLI( Giovanni Battista) a learned 
 Ferrarese philosopher and mathematician, born 
 in 1598. He became a member of the college 
 of Jesuits, and read lectures in philosophy and 
 rhetoric in the universities of Bologna and 
 Parma. It is, however, upon his proficiency 
 in the science of astronomy that his reputation 
 principally rests, on which subject he pub- 
 lished some valuable works. These consist of 
 his " Astronomia Reformata," folio ; " Chro- 
 nologia Reformata," folio ; and the " New 
 Almagest," folio, 2 vols. ; besides twelve books 
 on Geography, printed in 1672. His death 
 took place in 1671. — Tiraboschi. 
 
 RICCOBONI (Louis) an Italian actor and 
 writer ou the history of the stage. He was a 
 native of Modena, but resided at Paris, where 
 he was long considered as one of the best per- 
 formers at the Italian opera. At length, from 
 religious motives, he relinquished his profes- 
 sion, and he died in 1753, aged seventy-eight. 
 Riccoboni published several \vorkt5, the most 
 important of which is " Hietoire du Theatre 
 Italien, depuis la Decadence de la Comedie 
 Latine, avec une Catalogue des Tragedies et 
 Comedies Italiennes depuis 1500 jusqu'a 
 1660," 2 vols. 8vo. — Anthony Francis 
 RiccoBONi, son of Louis, also a dramatic writer, 
 died in 1772. — His wife, madame Riccoboni, 
 was the writer of several popular novels or 
 romances, the principal of which are, " Let- 
 tres de Miladi Catesby ;" " Lettres de la 
 Coraptesse de Sancerre ;" " Lettres de Sophie 
 de Valiere ;" " Ernestine ;" " Lettres de Mi- 
 lord Rivers ;" she also translated Fielding's 
 novel of " Amelia." Her works were printed 
 collectively in 10 vols. 12mo, Neufchatel, and 
 9 vols. 12mo, Paris. They display much know- 
 ledge of the heart, with vivacity and elegance, 
 and several of them were translated into Eng- 
 lish. Madame Riccoboni was in habits of cor- 
 respondence with Garrick. She died in 1792, 
 in a state approaching to want. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 RICH (Claudius Jamks) an Orientalist, 
 was born at or near Bristol in 1786. His pro- 
 ficiency in the Eastern languages was so 
 
 RIC 
 
 great, tliat he was made a writer to the East 
 India Company at tlie age of seventeen, and 
 he finally became their resident at Bagdad. 
 He displayed his literary tulenLs in two me- 
 moirs on the Ruins of Babylon ; and his va- 
 luable collection of Oriental MSS. was pur- 
 chased by parliament for public use, jNIr P.ich 
 died in 1821. — Asiatic Register. 
 
 RICH (John) a celebrated pantomimic 
 actor of the last century, was the son of Chris- 
 topher Rich, the patentee of a theatre in Lin- 
 coln's-inn-fields, to the management of which 
 he succeeded in 1714. When young he at- 
 tracted general admiration by his performance 
 of Harlequin ; and under the sobriquet of Lua 
 he received the frequent tribute of applause 
 from contemporary critics and prologue-wri- 
 ters. In expressing the feelings of the mind 
 by dumb show, his power was almost inimita- 
 ble ; and the speaking attitudes which he gave 
 to the motley hero of the stage, superseded tlie 
 necessity of vocal language to give interest to 
 the scene. He rendered pantomime a most 
 fascinating amusement, and through his abili- 
 ties, was frequently enabled, with the assist- 
 ance of an indifferent company, to secure a 
 large share of the public attention, though op- 
 posed by the dramatic genius of Garrick at the 
 rival theatre. In 1733 he removed his com- 
 pany to Covent Garden, where he was mana- 
 ger till his death, which happened in Decem- 
 ber 1761, during the run of a grand s,pectacle, 
 which he exhibited in honour of the corona- 
 tion of his late majesty. His education had 
 been so grossly neglected, that he could nei 
 ther write nor speak with grammatical pro- 
 priety, which circumstance gave occasion for 
 a coarse repartee of Foote. Am.ong various 
 peculiarities of expression. Rich had a habit 
 of addressing persons to whom he was speak- 
 ing, by the appellation of " Mister," and, on 
 his applying it to Foote, the latter angrily 
 asked him, why he could not call him by his 
 proper name. " Don't be offended," said 
 Rich, "for 1 sometimes forget my own name." 
 " Indeed !" replied Foote, " I knew you could 
 not write your own name ; but I could not 
 have supposed it possible you should forget 
 it." — Davies's Life of Garrick. Thesp. Diet. 
 
 RICHARD 1, king of England, surnamed 
 Cosur de Lion, second son of Henry II by 
 Eleanor of Guienne, was born in 1157. In 
 1173 he was induced by his mother to unite 
 with his brothers, Henry and Geoffry, and 
 other confederates, in a rebellion against his 
 father, which, however, that active prince soon 
 quelled. This conduct he repeated on more 
 than one occasion, until, in 1189, he openly 
 joined the king of France, and, in the %var 
 which ensued, pursued the unhappy Henry 
 from place to place, who, being at the same 
 time deserted by his youngest son, died worn 
 out with chagrin and affliction at Chinon, curs- 
 ing his undutiful and ungrateful children with 
 his latest breath. — (See Hknuy II.) — On this 
 event, Richard succeeded to the throne of 
 England, and visiting his father's corpse the 
 day after his decease, expressed great remorse 
 at his own conduct. Having settled his aiTairs 
 
K IC 
 
 in Frajiro, lio s.iilcd to England, and waft 
 crowned at Westminster. lie prudently ^nve 
 liis confidence to liis failier's ministers, and 
 tiiscountenanced all wIjo had abetted Ids own 
 rebellion, lie immeiiiately released his mo- 
 ther, (jueen Ideanor, wlio had been lonj; under 
 confinement, and made the most ample yrants 
 to his brother John. He had taken the cross 
 previously to his accession, and now bent all h^ 
 views to the gratification of his martial ardour 
 in the fields of the Kast. He raised money by 
 the sale of the crown pr()])erty and offices, and 
 by every other means he could devise, includ- 
 ing the remission of a large sum of the vassal- 
 age imjiosed by his father upon Scotland. He 
 then sought an interview with Phili)) of France, 
 who hail also taken the cross, in which mutual 
 conditions respecting their joint operations were 
 agreed upon. A great number of English 
 barons and otliers took the cross on this occa- 
 sion, to which pious enterjjrise a horrible 
 jniisaacre of tlie Jews in several of the princi- 
 D.il towns of the kingdom had formed a 
 singular prelude. At midsummer 1190, 
 Richard anxl Philip united 10(),(X)0 of their 
 bravest subjects on the plains of Vezelai. 
 Ricliard then proceeded to embark at Mar- 
 seilles, and the two kings met at JMessina, where 
 they spent the winter. Here Richard was joined 
 by Berengaria, daughter of Sanchez, king of 
 Navarre, bis intended wife, but without stay- 
 ing to celebrate his ntrptials, he once more put 
 to soa with his fleet, which was soon after dis- 
 jiersed by a storm. The king got into Crete, 
 but iliose of his ships with his bride and his 
 sister, the queen of Sicily on board, were 
 driven into Cyprus, where Isaac, the king of 
 that island, basely imprisoned the crew, and 
 refused to deliver up the princesses. In re- 
 venge for this insult, Richard landed his army, 
 and soon obliged the miserable Isaac, to sur- 
 render himself, his only daughter, and his so- 
 vereignty. In Cyprus be consummated his 
 nuptials, and then embarked with his queen 
 and the Cypriot princess for Palestine. At 
 this period the siege of Acre was carrying on 
 by the remnant of the army of the emperor Fre- 
 denck and other Christian adventurers ; and 
 defended by a Saracen garrison, supported by 
 the celebrated Saladin, at the head of a nume- 
 rous army in the field. The arrival of the two 
 kings infused new vigour into the besiegers, 
 and the place was brought to a surrender in 
 July 1191. This advantage was, however, 
 raj>idly succeeded by mutual jealousies, more 
 especially exciied by a contest for the crown 
 of Jerusalem, between Lusignan, widower of 
 the late queen Sybilla, and Conrad of Mont- 
 ferrat, the husband of her younger sister ; the 
 former being supported by Richard, and the 
 latter by the king of F'rance. At length, dis- 
 gusted with a warfare in which he only acted 
 a secondary character, the latter returned to 
 Europe, leaving 10,000 men with Richard. 
 Some active warfare ensued, until at length a 
 general engagement took place, in which 
 llichaid, by the most heroic exertion of bra- 
 very and consummate military skill, gained a 
 complete victory, which was followed by the 
 
 II i c 
 
 lioss.?»sioii of J<)p})a, .'\>calon, and varioos 
 other places. Richanl advanced within bight 
 of Jerusalem, but the greater |>art of the aux- 
 iliarien refusing to concur in the siege of the 
 capital, he retired to Ascalon, ami perceiving 
 liirt difliculties increase, concluded a truce with 
 Saladin, on condition that Acre, .loppa, and 
 the other sea- ports of Palestine sbouid remain 
 in tlie bands of the Christians, wlio were alsa 
 to enjoy full libiTty of perfornuu;^ pilgriina^i-s 
 to Jerusalem, llii bard was the more readily 
 induced to quit a field where he had at least 
 ac(juired an extraordinary share of j)ersonal 
 glory, by the knowledge he now accjtiired of 
 the intrigues against him of Philip of France^ 
 and bis new ally, his brother John. He ac- 
 cordingly prepared to return to England, but 
 previously concurred in the election of Conrad, 
 (almost immediately after assassinated), to the 
 nominal swav of Jerusalem, and bestowed his 
 conquered kingdom of Cyprus upon Lusignan. 
 He embarked at Acre in October 1192, and 
 sailed for tb.e Adriatic ; but his voyage was te- 
 dious and uiiprosperous, and he was finally 
 wrecked near Aquileia. Thence taking the dis- 
 guise of a pilgrim, he pursued his way through 
 Germany, until being discovered by the profu- 
 sion of his expenses near Vienna, he was arrest- 
 ed by the order of Leopold duke of Austria,^ 
 who havin>r received an affront from him in 
 Palestine, seized this ofijyoriunity to gratify his 
 avarice and revenge. The emperor, Henry \'l, 
 who had also aquarrel with Richard, for his al- 
 liance with Tancred, uie usurper oi tne crown 
 of Sicily, hearing of his captivity, demanded 
 him from Leopold, who gave him up, on the 
 stipulation of a portion of his ransom. While 
 Richard was thus unwortlnlv imprisoned, his 
 brother John, with his usual baseness, had 
 taken up arms in England, in concert with the 
 king of France, who made himself master of 
 a great portion of Normandy. The progress 
 of the former was, however, quickly terminated 
 by the vigour of the justiciary, while Philip, 
 who was forced to raise the siege of Rouen by 
 the earl of Leicester, and was, moreover, 
 threatened by the pope with an interdict, con- 
 sented to a truce. Richard, in the mean time, 
 bore his misfortunes and indignities with un- 
 daunted courage, and when the emperor, in 
 order to justify his unworthy treatment, charged 
 him before the diet at \Vorms, with various 
 imaginary offences, he refuted these accusa- 
 tions with so much spirit and eloquence, that 
 the assembly loudly exclaimed against his de- 
 tention. At length a treaty was concluded 
 for his liberation, on the payment of a ransom 
 of l.^(),000 marks, which being raised in Eng- 
 land by great exertions, Richard obtained his 
 liberty. Happily the negociation was con- 
 cluded, and the money paid before the em- 
 peror received great pecuniary offers from 
 Philip and John, to protract his confinement, 
 which that sordid prince would have accepted, 
 and actually sought to arrest Richard agaiji, 
 but he had fortunately embarked at the mouth 
 of the Scheldt, and safely reached England in 
 March 1194, to the great joy of his subjects. 
 When king Philip was acquainted with the 
 
RIC 
 
 Ciease of Ricnard, he wrote to John — " Take 
 care of yourself, the great devil has broken 
 loose ;" and, as was reasonable, the fresh storm 
 of the king's anger fell upon that depvorable 
 prince, all of whose property was declared for- 
 feited, unless he appeared in forty days. After 
 being re-crowned in England, he landed in 
 France, in May 1194, where he was met by 
 his brother John, wbo threw himself at his 
 feet, with tears, and under the mediation of 
 his mother, intreated forgiveness. " I forgive 
 him," said Richard, with the caustic levity 
 which was natural to him, " and I hope I 
 shall as easily forget his injuries as he will my 
 pardon." In the ensuing war with Philip, 
 Richard gained some advantages, but a truce 
 soon suspended their hostilities. About this 
 time, Leopold of Austria having received an 
 accidental hurt which proved mortal, expressed 
 great remorse for his base treatment of Richard, 
 and gave up all claim to the remainder of his 
 ransom. The emperor also offered to remit 
 the remainder of his debt, provided he would 
 join him in an offensive alliance against France, 
 which was readily agreed to. Nothing, how- 
 ever, of any consequence followed, but the in- 
 fliction of much mutual injury, until terminated 
 by another truce. England, during this period 
 of useless foreign contention, partly by distur- 
 bances, created by the needy rapacity of go- 
 vernment, and partly through unpropitious 
 seasons, productive of famine and pestilence, 
 was in a state of great depression. A lasting 
 accommodation with France was in agitation, 
 preparatory to another crusade, when the life 
 and reign of Richard were suddenly brought to 
 a close. A considerable treasure having been 
 found in the land of the viscount of Limoges, 
 he sent part of it to Richard as his feudal so- 
 vereign. The latter, however, demanded the 
 whole, which being refused, he invested the 
 castle of Chalus, where the treasure was con- 
 cealed, and having savagely refused terms of sur- 
 render to the garrison, in the openly expressed 
 determination of hanging the whole of them, 
 was wounded by a shot from the cross-bow of 
 one Bertrand de Gourdon, while in the act of 
 reconnoitring. The assault was, however, suc- 
 cessfully made, and all the garrison hanged, 
 as the king had threatened, with the exception 
 of Gourdon, who was reserved for a more cruel 
 death. Richard, apprised that his wound was 
 mortal, commanded Gourdon to be brought 
 into his presence, and asked him what had 
 induced him to attempt his life. The man 
 boldly replied, " You killed my father and my 
 Orother with your own hand, and designed to 
 put me to an ignominious death." The pros- 
 pect of death had inspired Richard with senti- 
 ments of moderation and justice, and he or- 
 dered Gourdon to be set at liberty, and allowed 
 a sum of money ; but the savage Marcadee, who 
 commanded the Braban^ons, which the king had 
 hired for the expedition, caused the unhappy 
 man to be flayed alive. Richard died of his 
 wound on the^Gth of April, 1199, in the forty - 
 second year of his age and tenth of his reign, 
 leaving no issue. The character of this king 
 was strongly marked. He was certainly the 
 
 RIC 
 
 bravest among the brave, and reached tlie 
 summit of that renown which is obtained by 
 martial exploits and great personal daring. 
 Nor was he destitute of some of the laudable 
 qualities which usually attend the warrior ; he 
 was often frank and liberal, and when his 
 feelings were properly addressed, not devoid 
 of generosity. At the same time he was 
 haughty, violent, unjust, rapacious, and san- 
 guinary ; and, to use the strong expression of 
 Gibbon, united the ferocity of a gladiator to 
 the cruelty of a tyrant. His talents were con- 
 siderable, both in the cabinet and the field, 
 and he was shrewd in observation, eloquent, 
 and very happy at sarcasm, of which some 
 pithy examples are afforded. He was also 
 addicted to poetry, and some of his reputed 
 compositions are preserved among those of the 
 Troubadours. On the whole, a sort of romantic 
 interest is attached to the character and ex- 
 ploits of tliis prince, which, in the cool eye of 
 reason, they little merit, as the career of 
 Richard produced calamities to his country 
 which were but poorly atoned for, by the mere 
 military reputation which alone attended it. — 
 Hume. Henry, 
 
 RICHARD II, king of England, son of 
 Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of 
 Edward III, was born in 1366. He succeeded 
 the latter in 1377, in his eleventh year, at 
 which time the chief authority of the state was 
 in the hands of his three uncles, John of 
 Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund, earl of 
 Cambridge, afterwards duke of York, and 
 Thomas of Woodstock, subsequently duke of 
 Gloucester. The earlier years of the kind's 
 minority passed in wars with France and Scot- 
 land, the expense of which led to exactions 
 that produced the formidable insurrection 
 headed by Wat Tyler. The details of this 
 popular revolt belong to history, but its ter- 
 mination in the death of its chief leader in 
 Smithfield, by the hand of W^alworth, lord 
 mayor of London, in the presence of the young 
 king, afforded the latter an opportunity to ex- 
 hibit a degree of address and presence of 
 mind which, in a youth of fifteen, was very 
 remarkable. Whilst the rioters stood asto- 
 nished with the fall of their leader, the young 
 king calmly rode up to them, and declaring 
 that he would be their leader, drew them off, 
 almost involuntarily, into the neighbouring 
 fields. In the mean time an armed force was 
 collected by the lord mayor and others, at the 
 sight of which the rioters fell on their knees, 
 and demanded pardon, which was granted 
 them, on the condition of their immediate dis- 
 persion. Similar insurrections took place in 
 various parts of the kingdom, all of which 
 were, however, put down, and Richard, now 
 master of an army of 40,000 men, collected by 
 a general summons to all the retainers of the 
 crown, found himself strong enough to punish 
 the ringleaders with great severity, and to re- 
 voke all the charters and manumissions which 
 he had granted, as extorted and illegal. The 
 promise of conduct and capacity which lie dis- 
 played on this emergency, was unhappily but 
 ill answered in the sequel, and he very 
 
II IC 
 
 early showeJ a predilection for weak and 
 dissolute com|)aTiy, and the vicious indul^'cnccs 
 so common to youthful royalty. In his six- 
 teenth year he married Anne, daughter to the 
 emperor Charles IV, and soon after was so 
 injudicious as to take the great seal from 
 Scroop, for refusing to sanction certain extra- 
 vagant grants of lands to his courtiers. Wars 
 with France and Scotland, and the ambitious 
 intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, disquieted 
 some succeeding years. In 1385 he marched 
 with a great army into Scotland, where he 
 committed destructive ravages, and burnt 
 Edinburgh and Perth. In the mean time, 
 a Scotti>^h army made a similar inroad 
 into England, mutual devastation being the 
 only result of these useless expeditions. 
 The principal favourites of Richard were, 
 Michael de la Pole, earl of Sutiblk and 
 chancellor, and Robert de Vere, earl of Ox- 
 ford, the latter of whom he created duke of 
 Ireland, with entire sovereignty in that island 
 for life. The duke of Lancaster being then 
 absent, prosecuting his claim to the crown of 
 Castile, the king's younger uncle, the duke of 
 Gloucester, a prince of popular manners, and 
 unprincipled ambition, became the leader of 
 a formidable opposition, which procured an 
 impeachment of the chancellor, and influenced 
 the parliament so far that it proceeded to strip 
 the king of all authority, and obliged him to 
 sign a commission appointing a council of 
 regency for a year. Being now in his twenty- 
 first year, this measure was naturally very 
 galling to Richard, who, in concert witli the 
 duke of Ireland, fmmd means to assemble a 
 council of his friends at Nottingham, where 
 the judges unanimously declared against the 
 legality of the extorted commission. Glouces- 
 ter, at these proceedings, mustered an army 
 in the vicinity of London, which being inef- 
 fectually opposed by a body of forces under 
 the duke of Ireland, several of the king's 
 friends were executed, and tlie judges who 
 had given their opinion in his favour, were all 
 found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to 
 imprisonment for life in Ireland. As usual on 
 such occasions, a reaction was soon produced 
 by the tyranny of the ascendant party, so that 
 in 1389 Richard was encouraged to enter the 
 council, and in a resolute tone to declare that 
 he was of full age to take the government into 
 his own hands, and ro opposition being ven- 
 tured upon, he proceeded to turn out the duke 
 of Gloucester and all his adherents. This act 
 he rendered palatable to the nation by pub- 
 lishing a general amnesty, and remitting the 
 grants of money made by the late parliament. 
 Several years of internal tranquillity en- 
 sued, which was promoted by the return of 
 the duke of Lancaster, who formed a counter- 
 balance to the influence of the duke of Glou- 
 cester, and Richard prudently kej)t on the best 
 terms with him. In 1394 the king visited 
 Ireland, and held a j arliament in Dublin, and 
 on his return, having; become a widower, made 
 proposals of marriage to Isabella, daughter of 
 Charles VI, king rf France, who was only 
 between seven and ( ight years of age. These 
 
 U IC 
 
 overtures were accepted, and a truce of 
 twenty-five years aurt ed upon between the two 
 nations. In the mean time, although guilty 
 of no acts of very notorious niisgovernment 
 for a considerable interval, by his fondness for 
 low company, by spcnduig all his time in con- 
 viviality and amusement with jesters, and per- 
 sons of mean station and light behaviour, the 
 king forfeited all respect from his sui^ject*, 
 while his weak attachment to his favourites 
 placed ail things at their disposal, and made a 
 mere cypher of himself. Encouraged by these 
 follies, the duke of Gloucester once more be- 
 gan to exercise his sinister influence, and the 
 most criminal designs being imputed to him, 
 Richard caused him and his two chief sup- 
 porters, tlie earls of Arundel and Warwick, to 
 be arrested. The earl of Arundel was soon 
 after tried and executed, and the earl of War- 
 wick and the archbishop of Canterbury, bro- 
 ther to Arundel, were condemned to perpe- 
 tual banishment. The duke of Gloucester 
 had been sent over to Calais for safe custody, 
 and when the warrant was issued to brine him 
 over for trial, an answer was returned by the 
 governor that he had died of an apoplexy. 
 Suspicion of his murder immediately arose, 
 and it afterwards appeared that he had been 
 suffocated. As is often the case with weak 
 administrations, it was thought safer to take 
 oflp a potent adversary by a crime than by open 
 course of law. A quarrel which soon after 
 arose between the duke of Hereford, son of 
 John of Gaunt, and the duke of Norfolk, in 
 consequence of tlie former accusing the latter 
 of slanderous expressions concerning tlie king, 
 may be deemed the incidental cause of the 
 revolution which terminated this unsettled 
 reign. Mutual defiance being exchanged, a 
 single combat was appointed, but when the 
 lists were prepared before the royal court at 
 Coventry, the king interposed, and by a sen- 
 tence, the justice of which it is not easy to 
 discover, banished both the dukes, Norfolk for 
 life, and Hereford for ten, afterwards reduced 
 to six years. It was however expressly de- 
 clared, that each of them should be duly en- 
 titled to any inheritance which might fall to 
 them during their absence. Instead however 
 of fulfilling this stipulation, on the death of 
 John of Gaunt in 1399, when the duke of 
 Hereford became heir to his vast estates, the 
 unprincipled and impolitic Richard, with the 
 assistance of a parliamentary committee, 
 seized all his proyierty as forfeited to the 
 crown. Whilst the kingdom was full of dis- 
 content at this tyranny, the king was so im- 
 prudent as to embark for Ireland, to revenge 
 the death of his lousin, the earl of March, 
 who had been killed in a skirmish with the 
 natives. Invited by his numerous partisans, 
 Henry of Bolingbrc ke, as the duke of Here- 
 ford was now invaiiably called, made use of 
 this opportunity to land at Ravenshaw in 
 Yorkshire, with a f-mall body of forces, and 
 being joined by the earls of Northumberland 
 and \VestmoTeland. and other influential lea- 
 ders, he proceeded southward at the head of 
 60,000 men, nominally to recover his duchy of 
 
1? 
 
 ^ I C R I C 
 
 The duke of York, who had been ! is said to have personally aided in tlie slaugX 
 
 Lancaster. 
 
 left regent, uuable to oppose Bolingbroke, 
 joined him, and when Richard, upon this in- 
 telligence, landed at Milford haven, he found 
 himself so much deserted, that he withdrew 
 to North Wales with a design to escape to 
 France. He was however decoyed to agree 
 to a conference with Henry, and on the road 
 
 ter of Edward prince of \V'ales, after th^ 
 battle of Tewkesbury, and to have been tha 
 author, if not the perpetrator of the murder 
 of Henry VI in the Tower. This bloody dis- 
 position was however united in him with deep 
 policy and dissimulation, which only rendered 
 him still more dangerous. He married in 1473, 
 
 was seized by an armed force, and conveyed Anne, who had been betrothed to the murdered 
 to Flint castle, and thence led by his success- j prince of Wales, joint heiress of the gieatearl of 
 
 ful rival to Loudon. As they entered the 
 capital together on horseback, their diiferent 
 reception strongly marked the difterent feel- 
 ings of the people towards them, Henry being 
 hailed with the loudest acclamations, and the 
 unfortunate Richard treated with neglect and 
 even contumely. His deposition was now re- 
 solved upon, to be preceded by a forced resig- 
 nation of the crown. Thirty-five articles of 
 accusation were accordingly drawn up against 
 him, of which several were exaggerated, false, 
 and frivolous, but others contained real in- 
 stances of tyranny and misgovernment. The 
 proceedings that followed, a modern liistorian 
 is of opinion, have never been sufficiently 
 studied in the various discussions which have 
 taken place in respect to the limits and respon- 
 sibility of the kingly office in England. They 
 were opposed only by the bishop of Carlisle, 
 who made a dignified and eloquent speech 
 asaitist them, which had no other eifect than 
 to produce his own arrest, and king Richard 
 was solemnly deposed September 30, 1399. 
 Henry then stood forward and claimed the 
 t'rown, which was immediately awarded to 
 him, and he declared his intention to spare 
 the life of the unfortunate prince whom he 
 supplanted. Richard was then committed for 
 safe custody to the castle of Pomfret, where 
 tlie usual fate of dethroned princes awaited 
 liim. Of the manner of his death no certain 
 Account has been given, but a popular notion 
 (■Jre vailed, that his keeper and guards killed 
 'iim with halberds. It is more probable that 
 starvation or poison was liad recourse to, for 
 /lis body, when exposed, exhibited no marks 
 of violence. He died in the thirty-fourth 
 year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. 
 The character of Richard II is sufficiently ex- 
 hibited by the tenor of his unhappy reign ; but 
 in the midst of his weakness, folly, caprice, 
 and political incapacity, there is reason to be- 
 lieve that he indulged a share of taste for let- 
 ters and the arts ; and his ordering some trees 
 to be cut down at Sbene, because they too for- 
 cibly remmded him of his deceased wife Anne, 
 h\ whose company he used to walk under 
 them, affords a favourable testimony of his 
 eusceptibility of the social affections. — Hume. 
 Henry. Jlapin. 
 
 RICHARD III, king of England, born in 
 1450, was the youngest son of Richard duke 
 of York. On the accession of his brother, 
 Edward IV, he was created duke of Glouces- 
 ter, and dming the vicissitudes in the early 
 part of Edward's reign, he served him with 
 great courage and fidelity. He partook of the 
 ferocity which has ever been a dark feature in 
 tlie family character of the Plantagenets ; and 
 
 Warwick, whose other daughter was united to 
 the duke of Clarence. Quarrels arose between 
 the brothers on the division of the inheritance 
 of their wives, and Richard, who otherwise 
 found his elder brother an obstacle to his 
 views of aggrandisement, combined in the ac- 
 cusations against that weak and versatile 
 prince, which brought him to destruction. On 
 the death of Edward in 1483, the duke oi 
 Gloucester was appointed protector of the 
 kingdom, and he immediately caused his 
 nephew, the young Edward V, to be declared 
 king, and took an oath of fealty to him. The 
 two ascendant factions, that of the queen's 
 relatives, headed by her brother, earl Rivers, 
 and that of the more ancient nobility, who 
 were led by the duke of Buckingham and lord 
 Hastings, courted the favour of the protector, 
 who dissembled with each apart, while he was 
 secretly pursuing the schemes of his own dark 
 ambition. His first object was to get rid of 
 those who were connected with the vouno- 
 king by blood, and after spending a convivial 
 evening with Riveis, Grey, and sir Thomas 
 Vaughan, he had them arrested the next 
 morning, and conveyed to Pomfret, where they 
 >vere soon after executed without trial. 
 Alarmed at the arrest of her relatives, the 
 queen dowager took refuge in the sanctuary at 
 Westminster, with her younger son, the duke 
 of York, and her daughter. As it was neces- 
 sary for the protector's purposes to get both 
 his nephews into his hands, he persuaded two 
 prelates to urge the queen to deliver the duke 
 of York into his hands, upon the most solemn 
 assurances of safety. Lord Hastings, althouoh 
 opposed to the queen's relatives, being the 
 steady friend of her children, was next ar 
 rested while sitting in council, and led to 
 immediate execution. After this bold and 
 bloody commencement, he proceeded in an 
 attempt to establish the illegitimacy of Ed- 
 ward's children, on the pretence of a previous 
 marriage with the lady Eleanor Talbot, daugh- 
 ter of the earl of Shrewsbury ; and as if even 
 this imputation, if proved, could not super- 
 sede the claims of the children of the duke of 
 Clarence, he scrupled not to countenance an 
 attack on the character of his own mother, 
 who was affirmed to have given other fathers 
 to Edward and Clarence, and to have been 
 true to her husband only in the birth of Ri- 
 chard. All these pleas were dwelt upon in a 
 sermon preached at St Paul's cross, by ])r 
 Shaw, brother to the lord mayor of London. 
 The duke of Buckingham afterwards, in a 
 speech before the corporation and citizens of 
 London, enlarged upon the title and virtues of 
 the protector, and then ventured to ask ihcni 
 
11 I c 
 
 11 I c 
 
 whetlier tliey chose the duke of Glouceater 
 for king. On their silence, he repealed ihe 
 cjuestion, and a few prepared voices exclaiin- 
 iug, "God Hiive kiii;^ Richard," this was ac- 
 cepted as the j)uhhc voice, and Buckingham, 
 with the lord mayor, re|)aired to the j)ro'.ector 
 villi a lender of ihe crown, lie lirsi allVctcd 
 alarm and suspicion, and then pretended loy- 
 ahy to his nepliew, and unwillingness to take 
 such a hurlhen upon hin\self ; but finally ac- 
 ceded, and he was proclaimed king on the 
 i?7th of June, 1415.3, the mock election being 
 secured by bodies of armed men, brought to 
 the metropolis by himself and Buckingham. 
 The deposed young king and his brother were 
 never more heard of, and according to general 
 belief, they were smoiliered in the Tower of 
 London, by order of their uncle. Whether 
 this was precisely the manner of their death, 
 has been dis|)uted ; but t!ie discovery of the 
 bodies of two children of corresj)ondent ages, 
 buried beneath a staircase in the lower, in the 
 reign of Charles II. countenances the tradition 
 resting on tlie authority of sir Thomas Alore, 
 especially as they were removed to Westmin- 
 ster abbey on that presumption. The new 
 reign commenced with rewards to tliose who 
 Jiad been instrumental to the change, and with 
 endeavours to obtain popularity. Richard, 
 with a splendid retinue, made a progress- 
 through several provincial towns, and was 
 crowned a second time at York, on which 
 occasion he created his only son prince of 
 Wales. Happily, however, for t)ie welfare of 
 society, the moral feelings of an entire popula- 
 tion are not wholly to be conquered. The su 
 percessioii of a youth of unknown character, by 
 a usurper of abilities, might be of little moment 
 itself to the people of England, but a total 
 insensibility to such a course of brutality, in- 
 justice, and tynany, was uncongenial even 
 with the barbarous civilization of those days, 
 and hatred and abhorrence of Richard became 
 the general sentiment of the nation. In look- 
 ing out for a successor to the crown, after the 
 dentil of the two princes in the Tower, over- 
 looking the daughter of Edward IV'. and the 
 cliildren of the duke of Clarence, then too 
 young and powerless, all men's eyes were 
 turned towards Henry, earl of Richmond, ma- 
 ternally descended from the l^^gitimated, or 
 Somerset branch of the house of Lancaster. 
 Richard's first danger, however, arose from 
 the discontent of his execrable accomplice 
 Buckingham, who, not thinking himself ade- 
 quately rewarded, entered into a conspiracy 
 against him, with several other malcontents 
 in tlie south and west of England. The stan- 
 dard of revolt was, in consequence, hoisted in 
 several places on tlie same day, in October, 
 1483; but a very unusual flood having pre- 
 vented Buckingham, who was in Wales, from 
 crossing tiie Severn, he was suddenly deserted 
 by his followers, and betrayed by an old re- 
 tainer, with whom he had sought refuge, into 
 the hands of authority. Whatever the base- 
 ness exhibited towards this very contemjitible 
 nobleman, in could not e.xceed his own ; and 
 it is rather satisfactory than otherwise to learn 
 
 that he was conducted to Salisbury, and exe- 
 cuted without trial, like Rivers, Grey, ami 
 \'aiiglian, whuse execution in the same; law- 
 less manner, he hatl so strenously jiromoted. 
 Hichard'h allairs, at this time looked promi- 
 sing, for about the same liiiu; the earl of Rich- 
 mouil, who had embarkt-d in a lieet from Sr. 
 Malo, encountered a violent storm, and wa»» 
 obliged to return to Britanny. Ricbard, with 
 great policy, took advantage of tins favourable 
 interval to call a ])arliament, and pass several 
 pojiulnr laws, and to bastardize the issue of 
 Edward IV. He also negotiated at the court 
 of Britanny for the delirery inio his hands of 
 the earl of Richmond ; but the latter escaped 
 the danger, by taking refuge in the immediate 
 territories of the French monarch. The death 
 of his son, the prince of Wales, was a severe 
 stroke to Richard in the midst of his prospe- 
 rity ; and such was the odium attached to Ins 
 character, that the death of his wife, which 
 followed soon after, was, without the least evi- 
 dence, attributed to poison. His character, 
 however, justified any suspicion : and his al- 
 most immediate determination to marry his 
 niece Elizabeth, the daughter of his brother 
 Edward, and legitimate lieiress of the crown, 
 to prevent lier union with Richmond, gave 
 countenance to the presumption. It supfilies 
 a melancholy picture of human nature to learn 
 that the consent of the queen dowager to this 
 marriage of her daughter to the murderer of 
 her sons, was either obtained or extorted. As 
 this union, which could only take place by dis- 
 pensation, would have been extremely detri- 
 mental to the earl's interest, the latter has- 
 tened his preparations, and in August li8.>, 
 landed with a small army at INlilford-haven. 
 Richard, not knowing in what quarter to ex- 
 pect him, was thrown into much perplexity, 
 which was aggravated by his suspicion of the 
 fidelity of his nobles, and especially the Stan- 
 leys, the chief of whom had become the se- 
 cond husband of Margaret the earl of Rich- 
 mond's mother. When informed of the ad- 
 vance of his rival, he, however, took the field 
 with great expedition, and met him with an 
 army of 15,000 men at Bosworth in Leices- 
 tershire. Richmond had only 6,000 men, but 
 relied on tlie secret assurances of aid from 
 Stanley, who commanded a separate force of 
 7,000. The battle vas fought on the ^3d of 
 August, 148.5 ; and in the midst of it, Stan- 
 ley, by falling on the flank of the royal army, 
 secured the victory to Richmond. Richard, 
 finding his situation desperate, rushed against 
 his competitor, slew his standard-bearer, and 
 was on the point of encountering Richmond 
 himself, when he sunk under the number of 
 his assailants. His troops were also totally 
 defeated, with the loss of all their principal 
 leaders. The body of Richard was found in 
 the field stripped naked, in which condition it 
 was carried across a horse to Leicester, and in- 
 terred in the grey friars' churchyard. Thus 
 fell this odious prince, in his thirty-fifth year, 
 after possessing the crown, which he had ac- 
 cjuired by so many crimes, for two years and 
 two months. It is allowed on all hands, that 
 
RIC 
 
 ^.B ]tossessed courage, capacity, eloquence, and 
 most of the talents wliicU would Lave adorn- 
 ed a lawful throne. It may be also admitted, 
 tliat in conformity with the tendency of man- 
 kind to aggravate the vices of known delin- 
 quents, that many of his baleful qualities have 
 probably been exaggerated. But it isnot proper, 
 in compliment to the curiosity and scepticism 
 of individuals, to be reasoned out of the 
 conviction which so many undeniable facts 
 tend to establish, of his cruelty, dissimula- 
 tion, treachery, and relentless ambition. It 
 is, doubtless, worthy the philosophy of history 
 to correct unjust imputation, even in regard to 
 bad men ; but it must steer clear of the para- 
 dox of resting their defence upon suppositions 
 and presumptions, far more paradoxical than 
 those they are employed to supersede ; and in a 
 few calm pages Gibbon has for ever set at rest, 
 the " Historic Doubts" of Horace Walpole. 
 On the character of Richard III, too, the 
 genius of Shakspeare has stamped an eternal 
 impression, which no merely curious or conjec- 
 tural erudition can assail. John, and Richard 
 III, in fact, are the royal villains of English 
 history, the one from weakness and innate 
 baseness of mind, the other from unprin- 
 cipled ambition, and the fearful misapplication 
 of great talents. Richard III has been re- 
 presented as of small stature, deformed, and 
 of a forbidding aspect ; but there is some di- 
 rect testimony to prove, that his personal, like 
 his mental defects, have been magnified by 
 the general detestation of his character. — 
 Hume. Rapiri. Henrij. 
 
 RICHARD, abbot" of St Victor, in the 
 twelfth century. He was a native of Scot- 
 land, who went to pursue his studies in the 
 university of Paris, after which he entered 
 into the abbey of St Victor, of which he be- 
 came the superior in 1164. He died in 1173. 
 His works, which consist of critical remarks 
 on some of the historical parts of the Old 
 Testament, with commentaries on tlie Psalms, 
 the Song of Solomon, the Apocalypse, and the 
 Epistles of St Paid, have been frequently 
 printed ; but the best edition is that of Rouen, 
 1650, 2 vols, folio. — Cave. Dupin. 
 
 RICHARD, commonly called Armachanus, 
 but sometimes Fitz-Ralph, his family name, 
 is said by some to have been a native of De- 
 vonshire, and by others of Ireland. He stu- 
 died at Oxford, and in 1333 became commis- 
 sary-general of that university. He subse- 
 quently became dean of Lichfield, and in 
 1347 was advanced to the Irish see of Armagrh. 
 "While at Oxford, he honourably distinguished 
 himself by his opposition to the mendicant 
 orders ; whose affectation of poverty, and 
 other superstitious practices and irregu- 
 larities, he exposed in his lectures. After 
 being raised to the see of Armagh, he also 
 strenuously argued against the encroachments 
 of the friars on the duties of the parish 
 priests, and endeavoured to show, that al- 
 though Jesus Christ was poor, he never af- 
 fected mendicancy, or taught men to make 
 choice of beggary as a thing agreeable to 
 God, Doctrines so opposed to the principles 
 
 K 1 C 
 
 ■ of the mendicant orders, were of course forci- 
 bly resisted by them, and he was obliged to 
 repair to Avignon, to defend himself before 
 pope Innocent VI, who deciiled in favour of 
 the friars. This able and sensible prelate died 
 at Avignon in 1360. His printed works are, 
 " Sermonesquatuorad Crucem Londinensem,' 
 Paris, 1612 ; and " Defensio Curatorum ad- 
 versus Fratres Mendicantes," Paris, 1496, 
 being the substance of the defence of his prin- 
 ciples at Avignon. He also translated the 
 Bible, or at least the New Testament, into 
 Irish, which translation was found in the wall 
 of his cathedral in 1530. — Collier's Diet. 
 Bayle, 
 
 RICHARD of CIRENCESTER, so named 
 from his birth-place, was an English historian 
 of the fourteenth century. No traces remain 
 of his family history, and little more is known 
 of him than that he became a Benedictine 
 monk of the abbey of St Peter at Westminster 
 in 1350, and that his name occurs in various 
 documents of that monastery in the years 
 1387, 1397, and 1399. Towards the close of 
 his life he visited Rome ; but he returned to 
 Westminster, and died there in 1401. He 
 devoted his leisure to the study of our na- 
 tional history and antiquities ; and he wrote 
 " Historia ab Hengista ad an. 1348," in two 
 parts, still remaining in manuscript ; but his 
 principal work is " The Description of Bri- 
 tain," first published in Latin at Co])enhagen, 
 in 1767, and more recently in Latin and Eng- 
 lish, with a commentary and maps by Mr Hat- 
 cher, 1809, 8vo. Richard of Cirencester also 
 was the author of some theological tracts. — 
 Life pref. to Desc. of Brit. 
 
 RICHARD or REICHARD (Bartholo- 
 mew Christian) a learned writer on philo- 
 logy and bibliography, in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century. He was a native of Cor- 
 bey in Westphalia, and became professor of 
 history and philology in the university of Wit- 
 temberg, and afterwards in that of Jena. He 
 died in 1721, at the age of forty-one. He 
 was the author of " Dissertatio de Toga Qui- 
 ritium," 1702, 4to ; " De Censu Aigusti 
 Universe indicto," 1704 ; " De Roma ante 
 Romulum condita," Jense, 1706, 4to ; " Com- 
 raentatio de Vita et Scriptis Professorum hodie 
 in Academia Jenensi publice docentium," 
 1710, 8vo ; and " Historia Bibliothecje Cae- 
 sarese Vindobonensis ad nostra tempora de- 
 ducta," 1712, Bvo ; besides which he publish- 
 ed an edition of the epistles of Libanius. — 
 Saxii Onom. Stollii Introd. in Hist. Lit. 
 
 RICHARD (Charles Louis) a theolo- 
 gical writer, born at Blainville-sur-l'Eau in 
 Lorraine, in 1711. He was descended from a 
 noble but reduced family, and at the age of 
 sixteen he took the habit of St Dominic, and 
 having finished his studies at Paris, he was 
 admitted a doctor of the Sorbonne. He con- 
 secrated his talents at first to preaching, but 
 not meeting with the success he anticipated, 
 he had recourse to his pen, and produced a 
 number of works, some of which attracted 
 considerable attention. When the Revolutiou 
 took place, he opposed its progress, and was 
 
R I C 
 
 obliged to seek an asylum in the Netliorlands ; 
 and when that country was entered by the 
 French troops in 1794, ho was arrested at 
 JMons. He was tried before a military com- 
 mission, and coniiemned to death for haviti^^ 
 published a tract, entitled " Parallele des Juifs 
 qui out crucifie Jesus Christ, avec les Fran- 
 pais qui one tue leur lloi ;" and pursuant to 
 his sentence he was shot the 16th of August, 
 1794. Ho was the author of " Dictionnaire 
 Universelle des Sciences Kcclesiastiques," 
 1760, &c. 6 vols, folio, in which he was as- 
 sisted by father Giraud ; and " Analyse des 
 Conciles generaux et particuliers," l77'2-77, 
 5 vols. 4to. — f^iog- Univ. Biog. Nouv. des 
 Contemp. 
 
 RICHARD (Louis Claude 1\Iarie) one 
 of tlie most eminent botanists of the present 
 age, born at Versailles September 4, 1754. 
 lie was the son of the keeper of the royal 
 gardens at Auteuil, and he studied at the col- 
 lege of Vernon, and afterwards went through 
 a course of rhetoric and philosophy at the IVIa- 
 zarin college at Paris. Whilst there, he partly 
 supported liimself by making drawings for ar- 
 chitects, and at the same time assiduously ap- 
 plied himself to the study of botany, compara- 
 tive anatomy, zoology, and mineralogy. While 
 yet very young, he presented to the Academy 
 of Sciences several memoirs, which attracted 
 the notice of the celebrated Bernard de Jus- 
 sieu, who gave him the use of his library and 
 cabinet. In 1781 he sailed from France with 
 the title of naturalist to the king, on a voyage 
 of research to Frencli Guyana and the An- 
 tilles. He returned home in 1789, bringing 
 with him a herbal of one thousand plants, most 
 of which were newly discovered, and a great 
 number of cases filled with shells, insects, 
 birds, and quadrupeds, besides a valuable col- 
 lection of minerals and geological specimens. 
 The political disturbances of that period 
 caused his labours to be neglected ; but on the 
 restoration of order, when the school of medi- 
 cine was established, he was appointed pro- 
 •"essor of botany ; and on the formation of the 
 
 nstitute, he was chosen a member of the first 
 class in the section of zoology and comparative 
 anatomy. He was also a corresponding mem- 
 ber of the Royal Society of London ; and was 
 onade a member of the legion of honour. He 
 
 lied June 7, 1821. The researches of this 
 botanist were chiefly directed to the anatomy 
 of plants, and the discpvery of their natural 
 characters, on which subjects he published a 
 multitude of valuable memoirs iu periodical 
 works, besides which he was the autlior of 
 " Demonstrations Botaniques, ou Analyse du 
 Fruit considere en general," 1808, 8vo.' — 
 Bioi^;. Univ. 
 
 RICHARDSON (Jonathan) a painter 
 and author, was born about 1665. He was 
 apprenticed to a scrivener in London, but 
 when released by tlie death of his master, he 
 pursued his natural inclination for the arts of 
 design, and entered as a pupil with Riley the 
 portrait painter, whose niece he subsequently 
 married. He never attained much excellence 
 in his profession, but in the then state of the 
 
 R I C 
 
 art was «lecmed at its head, after the death of 
 Kneller and Dahl. As a writer he is entitled 
 to more consideration, and two discourses 
 which he published in 1719, entitled " An 
 Essay on the whole Art of Criticism in rela- 
 tion to Painting," and " An Argument in be- 
 half of the Science of a Connoisseur," dis- 
 play considerable judgment and feeling. He 
 had a son, who, with greater advantages in tlie 
 way of education than himself, travelled into 
 Italy, the result of which journey was a joint 
 production, published in 1722, under the title 
 of " An Account of some of the Statues, 
 lias- Reliefs, Drawings, and Pictures in Italy, 
 with Remarks, by INIessrs Richardson senior 
 and junior." The father and son also pub- 
 lished, in 1734, " Explanatory Notes and Re- 
 marks on JMilton's Paradise Lost," 8vo, an 
 unequal, but not unraeritorious performance. 
 In 1776 IVIr Richardson sen. published a vo- 
 lume of poems, which possess a very slight 
 degree of poetical merit, although indicative 
 of the pious and amiable character of the 
 writer. He died of a paralytic stroke in 
 1745, aged eighty. His son, wlio practised 
 painting occasionally, and who was also an ex- 
 tremely worthy man, died in 1771. — Wal- 
 pole's Anec. Newton's Miltoji. 
 
 RICHARDSON (Joseph) a man of let- 
 ters, was born at Hexham in Northumberland, 
 and was entered of St John's college, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1774. He became a student of the 
 Middle Temple in 1779, and was called to the 
 bar in 1784. His literary pursuits, however, 
 prev^ted him from the exercise of his profes- 
 sion. He took a consjncuous part iu the cele- 
 brated political satires, "The Rolliad " and 
 the " Probationary Odes." He also wrote the 
 popular comedy of " The Fugitive." Ho was 
 brought into parliament by the duke of Nor- 
 thumberland, by whose means he was also 
 enabled to become proprietor of a fourth part 
 of Drury-lane theatre. He died in 1803. — 
 Gent. Mag. 
 
 RICHARDSON (Samuel) a very distin- 
 guished F^nglish novelist, was bom in 1689, in 
 Derbyshire, to which county his father retired 
 from the businessof a joiner, in London. He was 
 destined for the church, but owing to losses in 
 trade, the expense of a learned education 
 could not be supported, and the learning of a 
 common school was all that he ever attained. 
 He early discovered a talent for story-telling 
 and letter-writing ; and those who take plea- 
 sure in tracing the dawning indications of ta- 
 lent and propensities, which are the ground- 
 work of future celebrity, will learn with plea- 
 sure that at the age of thirteen he was the 
 confident of three young women in their love 
 secrets, and was emj)loycd by them, unknown 
 to each other, in the construction of their 
 amatory correspondence. At the proper age 
 he wa- boui;d apprentice to Mr John Wilde, 
 of Stationers' hall, London, a printer of some 
 eminence iu his day ; and after the expiration 
 of a laborious apprenticeshij), passed five or 
 six years as foreman in a printing-office, until 
 at length lie found means to set up for himself 
 in a court in Fleet-street. The habits of dili- 
 
RIC 
 
 gcnce, accuracy, and honourable dealing, soon 
 acquired him an extensive business, and be- 
 ginning to thrive in the world he married the 
 daughter of his former master. Among other 
 tilings, he printed a publication called tlie 
 True Briton, for the profligate duke of W bar- 
 ton ; the Daily Gazetteer ; and, through the 
 interest of the speaker Onslow, the first edi- 
 tion of the Journals of the House of Com- 
 mons. His " Pamela," the first work which 
 gave him distinction as a writer, was publish- 
 ed in 1741, and arose out of a proposal to him 
 by the booksellers to compose a volume of 
 " Familiar Letters," which suggested the idea- 
 Such was the readiness of his invention and 
 his pen, the first two volumes were completed 
 in two months, and so great was its popularity, 
 that it ran through five editions in one year, 
 and was even recommended from the pulpit. 
 The novelty of his plan, with many passages 
 of great beauty and interesting traits of cha- 
 racter, may account for much of this recep- 
 tion ; but even at that time critics existed, who 
 entertained those opinions of its imperfections, 
 and doubts of its salutary^ tendency, which 
 have since become almost general. He was 
 led by a spurious continuation by another wri- 
 ter to add two volumes to his " Pamela,'' 
 which were deemed very inferior to the for- 
 mer ; but in 1748, the appearance of the first 
 two volumes of his " Clarissa," fully esta- 
 blished his literary rej^utation. This is un- 
 questionably the production upon wliich his 
 fame is chiefly founded ; and although it has 
 lost much of its original popularity, owing to 
 a change in the taste of novel readers, its pa- 
 thos, its variety of character, and minute de- 
 velopment of the movements of the human 
 heart, will cause it ever to be regarded as a 
 noble monument of its author's genius. The 
 interest created by its progressive aj)pearance 
 wiis immense ; and when made known to the 
 continent by translation, it raised the reputa- 
 tion of Richardson to a level with the most 
 applauded writers of the age. " The History 
 of sir Charles Grandison," his concluding 
 performance, appeared in 1753. The interest 
 taken in this work, was not equal to that pro- 
 duced by the former, although possibly exhi- 
 biting more compass, invention, and enter- 
 tainment ; but the character of the hero, like 
 all assumed perfection, is in some degree re- 
 pulsive, and the lengthy mode of tlie author 
 began to engender satiety, 'ihe character of 
 Clementina is allowed to be a masterly exam- 
 ple of delicate delineation. This work was 
 also translated into foreign languages, and re- 
 ceived with great applause. With respect to 
 all the productions of Richardson, it is agreed 
 that the matter receives little assistance from 
 the style, which is inelegant, gossiping and 
 verbose, and that he seldom knows when to 
 leave off. Writing as he did so much and so 
 rapidly, this was to be expected, not to men- 
 tion his paucity of original education, the 
 chief source of refinement of style. While 
 adyancing in the career of literary fame, he 
 was by no means inattentive to the improve- 
 ment of Lis fortune. In 1754 he rose to he 
 
 R IC 
 
 I master of the Stationers' company ; and in 
 1760 purchased a moiety of the patent of la»v 
 ])rinter to the king. As he grew rich, he in- 
 dulged himself with a country residence at 
 Parson's-green, Middlesex, where he lived 
 surrounded with a circle of affectionate ad- 
 mirers, particularly females, to whom it was 
 his delight to read his work in the progress of 
 composition. In mixed company he was ra- 
 ther silent and reserved, and never got over 
 the bashfulness incident to a man of feeling 
 of early origin, which reserve was rather 
 strengthened than otherwise by a great love of 
 independence. Nothing, however, could ex- 
 ceed his piety, moral worth, and general be- 
 nevolence. This estimable person was carried 
 off by au apoplexy, in 1761, at the age of 
 seventy-two, and was buried in the church of 
 St Bride in Fleet- street. He was twice mar- 
 ried, and out of a large family reared four 
 daughters, who survived him. The writings 
 of Ricliardson, exclusive of his three novels, 
 are " Familiar Letters," au " Edition of ^sop's 
 Fables, with Reflections ;" his " Case," on 
 the piracy of his Grandison by the Dublin 
 booksellers ; " The Duties of Wives to Hus- 
 bands," printed on a large single sheet ; and 
 several fugitive pieces in various periodical 
 publications, one of which is No. XCVII of 
 the Rambler, describing the progress of a vir- 
 tuous courtship. His correspondence, selected 
 from his original MSS. was published in 1804, 
 in 6 vols. Svo, with an excellent life and cri- 
 ticism bv Mrs Barbauld. It will not add to 
 his reputation, unhappily exhibiting an uncom- 
 mon share of the vanity that was his principal 
 foible, and v/hich appears to have been the 
 only unfavourable result of that exclusive pre- 
 dilection for female society and approbation, 
 which had been one of his earliest and un- 
 ceasing characteristics. — Life by Mrs Bar- 
 bauld. Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 RICHARDSON, FAS. OVilliam) a 
 learned divine and ecclesiastical antiquary, 
 born at Wilsbarastead in Bedfordshire, in 
 1698. He received his education at West- 
 minster school and Emmanuel college, Cam- 
 bridge ; an I having been episcopally ordained, 
 he became curate and lecturer of the parish of 
 St Olave, Southwark. Having returned to the 
 university, and taken the degree of LL.D, he 
 obtained the mastership of the college in 
 which he had been educated. On the death 
 of archbishop Potter, in 1747, he had a dis- 
 pute with Dr Chapman, relative to the pre- 
 centorship of Lincoln, of which the latter had 
 taken to himself the presentation, as executor 
 to the primate, to whom the right of nomina- 
 tion had appertained, but his claim was de- 
 feated. Dr Richardson's principal literary 
 undertaking was a new and much improved 
 edition of bishop Godwin's treatise, " De 
 Pra-'suiibus Anglorum," folio, 1743. He also 
 published some Sermons. His death took 
 place in 1775. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 RICHARDSON, DD. (William ) an Irish 
 clergyman, distinguished as an agriculturist. 
 He was born in 1740, and entering: into the 
 established church, be became rector of Clon- 
 
R I C 
 
 fuckk', in the county of Antrim. AH liis lei- 
 sure was devoted to tiie culture of the Agrostis 
 stolonit'era, or tiorin grass, on which he made 
 a greftt lunnher of experiments, tending to 
 sliow its sujH'riority ovtr most otiier kinds of 
 herbage for feeding cutlio. lie publislit-il " A 
 Letter to the Right Hon. Isaac Corry, on the 
 Properties of I'iorin Grass," 1809, I'imo ; 
 " An Essay on Fiorin Grass," 1810, 8vo ; 
 " A new Essay on Fiorin Grass," 1813 ; be- 
 sides a Alemoir on the Ciiants Causeway, and 
 other paj)ers in the Philosojihical JVansac- 
 tions. — l3r Richardson died in 1820. — London 
 ]\[(iv. Bioir. Kouv. des Coutemp. 
 
 R1CIIA11[)S(3N (Wim.iam) an ingenious 
 Scottish writer, who was educated at tlie uni- 
 versity of Glasgow, where he took the degree 
 of MA. I lavinor finished his studies, he ob- 
 tained the otfice of tutor to a young nobleman, 
 with whom he went to Russia. Returning to 
 Scotland, he was chosen professor of humanity 
 or classical literature (litterai humaniores), at 
 Glasgow, and he held that station for more 
 than forty years. He published " An Analysis 
 and Illustration of some of Shakespeare's most 
 remarkable Characters," 1774, 8vo ; " Poems, 
 chiefly rural ;" 1774, Bvo ; " Essays on Shake- 
 speare's Dramatic Characters of Richard III, 
 Lear, and Timon of Athens," 1783, Bvo ; 
 " Anecdotes of the Russian Empire, in a 
 series of Letters," 1784, 8vo ; "The Ca- 
 cique of Ontario, an Indian Tale," 1786, 
 4to ; " Essays on Shakespeare's dramatic 
 Character of Sir John Falstaff, and on his 
 Imitation of Female Characters, with some 
 general Observations on the Study of Shake- 
 speare," 1788, 8vo ; and " The INIaid of 
 Lochlin, a Tale," 12mo. He also published 
 papers in the Transactions of the Royal So- 
 ciety of Edinburgh, to which he belonged. 
 He died at an advanced age, in 1814. — Reiiss. 
 Gent. Man;. 
 
 RICHK (Claude Antoine Gaspau) a 
 distinguished French physician and naturalist, 
 bom in 176'2. After studying at a college of 
 the Benedictines, he went to IMontpellier, 
 where he took the degree of MD, in 1787. 
 He then visited the mountains of Languedoc, 
 to improve his acquaintance with botany and 
 geology ; and in 1788 he went to Paris, and 
 became the first secretary to the newly- founded 
 Philomathic Society. On the fitting out an 
 expedition under M. d'Entrecasteaux, for the 
 double purpose of inquiry into the fate of La 
 Perouse, and the prosecution of researches 
 relative to geography and natural history, 
 Riche obtained an appointment, and sailed 
 on board the Esperance, one of the two fri- 
 gates destined for the voyage, in September 
 1791. After visiting New Holland, and many 
 of the islands of the South Sea, and making 
 numerous collections of specimens and obser- 
 rations, jNI. Riche and bis ct lleagues, Vente- 
 .lat. La Billardiere, Deschamps, Cmc. arrived 
 frith the vessels at Java, in October 1793. 
 %e French republican government being then 
 itwarwith the Dutch, the journals, charts, &c. 
 of the squadron were seized ; and after fruit- 
 less attempts to recover them, and a voyage to 
 
 RIC 
 
 the Isle of France, iNL Riche returned to Eu- 
 rope. He landed at liourdeaux, in an ill state 
 of health, and died soon after, Septt-mber ;>, 
 1797. The papers of this naturalist were sub- 
 seipuMitly given up by the Dutch government, 
 and they were usetl in j)reparing an account 
 of tlie Voyage of D'Entrecasteaux. He was 
 the author of an ingenious treatise, " Siir la 
 Cliimie des Vegetaux," and he read before the 
 Pbilomathic Society, a number of memoirs, 
 some of which have been published. — liiotr. 
 A (»»('. des Contemp. liioir. Univ. 
 
 RICHELET (Cesao" Pikrre) a French 
 lexicographer of the seventeenth century, the 
 value of whose writings is much deteriorated 
 by the acrimony and ribaldry with which they 
 are intermingled, a circumstance the more to 
 be regretted, inasmuch as the less exception- 
 able parts evince much talent, and are replete 
 with useful information. He was a native of 
 Cheminon, born there in 1631, and m 1680 
 printed at Geneva the first edition of the Dic- 
 tionary that bears his name, in one quarto 
 volume. A second edition, in two vols, folio, 
 appeared at Lyons in 1721, and a third, with 
 many additions and improvements, in the same 
 city in 1755. He was also the author of a 
 Rhyming Dictionary, and a translation of 
 Vega's " History of the Conquest of Florida." 
 He died in 1698. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 RICHELIEU (Armand John du Plessis, 
 cardinal, duke de) a celebrated French states- 
 man, born of a noble family, September 5, 
 1585, in the city of Paris. He was the son 
 of Francis du Plessis Richelieu, grand provost 
 of France, and ca})tain of the guards to Henry 
 IV, who died when the subject of this article 
 was but five years old. He was originally in- 
 tended for the military profession ; but hia 
 elder brother having resigned the bishopric 
 of Luyon to become a Carthusian, Armand en- 
 gaged in a course of study to fit himself for 
 the benefice ; and having finished his educa- 
 tion at the college of the Sorbonne, he went to 
 Rome, and was consecrated bishop of Lufon 
 in 1607. He at first occupied himself with 
 his pastoral duties, and edified his flock and 
 the court by liis preaching, devoting liimself 
 entirely to religious affairs till the assembly of 
 the States General in 1614, in which he was a 
 deputy from the clergy of Poitou. He therein 
 supported the interest of the cpieen mother^ 
 INIary de' IMedici, who appointed him her 
 grand almoner, and through whose interest he 
 became secretary of state. On the destruction 
 of the queen's favourite, the marshal d'Ancre, 
 Richelieu accompanied her majesty in her 
 exile to Blois, whence, by his intrigues with 
 the duke de Luynes, he procured her return 
 and reconciliation with her son. Luynes, in re- 
 ward of his services, procured him a cardinal's 
 hat, and after the death of that minister in 1622, 
 he arrived at unbounded ))ower, through his in- 
 fluence over his weak master, Louis XIII. In 
 1624 be was placed in the arduous office of 
 prime minister, and his government assumed 
 a tone of vigour and decision which the e.\i- 
 gencies of that period required. FVance was 
 agitated by contending factions, both religious 
 
RIC 
 
 &nd political ; and it was the policy of the car- 
 dinal to suppress them, by preventing their 
 permanent union, and giving a preponderant 
 influence to ilie royal authority, which had 
 been so often set at defiance by the religious 
 fanatics of various classes, and by the powerful 
 and turbulent nobility. It is true.that in effecting 
 these objects, he pursued a course of despotic 
 severity which has entailed on his administra- 
 tion the stigma of tyranny ; yet his vigour was 
 in many instances justified by the criminality 
 of its subjects ; and it must be acknowledged 
 that the French monarchy dates from his as- 
 cendancy its strength and independence. He 
 turned liis arms against the Calvinist insur- 
 gents, and having secured the alliance of Eng- 
 land and Holland, he expelled them from the 
 Isle of Rhe. His schemes were often tra- 
 versed by the restless ambition of the weak 
 and unprincipled duke of Orleans, the king's 
 brother, who entered into a conspiracy to as- 
 sassinate Richelieu, and to effect great political 
 alterations. But the discovery of the plot 
 served only to strengthen the power of the 
 minister, and increase his influence over the 
 royal councils. Pie proceeded to attack the 
 Calvinists in their strong hold of Rochelle, 
 which city, after a year's siege, opened her 
 gates to the conqueror, October 28, 1628 ; and 
 proud of his success, he advanced to the sub- 
 jugation of the Protestants in other parts of 
 the kingdom. In 1629 he was nominated 
 lieutenant-general of the army employed in 
 Italy, and minister with powers so extensive, 
 as to place every department of the state un- 
 der his control. Mary de' Medici having be- 
 come his enemy, and indisposed the king 
 against hira, he contrived to recover his ascen- 
 dancy, and after taking severe vengeance on 
 her partizans, he procured the exile of the 
 (jueen mother to Cologne, where she continued 
 till her death. Gaston, duke of Orleans, hav- 
 ino- renewed his intrigues against the cardinal, 
 and engaged the duke of Montraorenci in an 
 insurrection, its failure was followed by the 
 execution of the latter, and the disgraceful 
 humiliation of Orleans. In 1635 war was de- 
 clared against Spain, when the invasion of 
 Picardy, and the sudden alarm which took 
 place in the metropolis, induced the minister 
 to think of resigning his post. In this emer- 
 gency he owed his safety to his confidant, 
 fatlier Joseph, who advised him to make his 
 appearance in the streets of Paris unguarded, 
 and with an air of tranquillity and confidence ; 
 which had the desired eflfect of changing the ' 
 inward curses of the populace into benedic- 
 tions, and the storm was dissipated. The 
 war was carried on more prosperously, and the 
 great power of Richelieu vv'as experienced 
 both at home and abroad. The perpetual 
 plots of the duke of Orleans, though they often 
 endangered the life of the cardinal, had no 
 other ultimate effect than to confirm his power, 
 cover the prince with disgrace, and occasion 
 the destruction of his associates. The Jesuit 
 Caussin, who was the king's confessor, having 
 imprudently attempted to render the minister's 
 policy odious to his master, was exiled from 
 
 R 1 C 
 
 court ; and the confessor of the duchess of 
 Savoy, the king's sister, underwent a similar 
 disgrace. The cardinal even braved the papal 
 court ; and the French clergy were forced to 
 yield to his will the same submission which 
 was displayed by the other orders of the state. 
 One of the last events of his life was the dis- 
 covery and punishment of the conspiracy of 
 Cinque-IMars, in which, as usual, the duke of 
 Orleans was a party ; and which proved fatal 
 to the son of the celebrated president De 
 Thou, who was executed for concealing his 
 knowledge of the plot. Cardinal Richelieu 
 died December 4, 1642, exhibiting in his last 
 moments a degree of calmness and resignation 
 which would have been characteristic of a well 
 spent life. On receiving the sacrament, he 
 declared that in all his actions he had solely 
 had in view nothing but the welfare of reli- 
 gion and the state ; justifying ts himself pro- 
 bably the severities he had exercised on the 
 plea of political necessity, for on being asked 
 if he forgave his enemies, he replied, '* I have 
 no enemies but those of the state." Besides 
 some theological works, he was the author of 
 " Memoires sur les Evenements du Regne de 
 Louis XIII," published by Mezeray ; <• Testa- 
 ment politique du Cardinal de Richelieu," the 
 authenticity of which was attacked by Voltaire, 
 and defended by M. Foncemagne, who publish- 
 ed an edition of this piece in 1764; and" Jour- 
 nal de M. le Cardinal de Richelieu, qu'il a 
 fait durant le grand Orage de la Cour, en 1630 
 et 1631," 1649, 8vo. He aspired to fame as 
 a poet, but his dramatic attempts and his cri- 
 tical enmity to Corneille, are alike discredita- 
 ble to his literary reputation. As a benefactor 
 of science and literature he deserves to be no- 
 ticed, for having rebuilt the Sorbonne college, 
 founded the royal printing-house at Paris, and 
 the botanic garden ; and especially for the es- 
 tablishment of the French Academy, which 
 last repaid him with copious offerings of in- 
 cense during his life and long after his decease. 
 — His elder brother, Alphonse Louis du 
 Plessis de Richelieu, noticed in the begin- 
 ning of this article, w^as commonly known by 
 the title of the cardinal of Lyons. He became 
 archbishop of Aix, and afterwards of Lyons, 
 and grand almoner to the king. He seems to 
 have possessed none of the ambition of his 
 brother, and is said to have often regretted the 
 loss of the tranquillity of the cloister. He 
 died in 1653. Some of his letters have been 
 published. — Pere Griffet Hist, de Louis XIII. 
 Voltaire Hist. Gen. Morei'i. Aikin's Gen. 
 Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RICHELIEU (Louis Francis Armand 
 DuPLEssis de) marshal of France, a member 
 of the French Academy and of the Academy 
 of Sciences, was descended from the same 
 family with the subject of the preceding article, 
 and was born at Paris in 1696. He was in- 
 troduced at court in 1710, and though so 
 oung he attracted great notice. Becoming a 
 avourite with the duchess of Burgundy, his 
 father thought proper to procure an order for 
 confining him in the Bastile ; and. on his 
 liberation, he made a campaign in Flanders, 
 
11 IC 
 
 R«> judr.-de-camp to maishiil \'il.ars. After llu- 
 lifalli nf J^ouis XI \', llicheliiu was atlinitlccl 
 into the court of the rej^eut, duke of Orleans, 
 and he largely participated in its prolli';ate 
 hixury. He was sent to the IJasiile in 1716, 
 for fiirhtinir a duel with the count de Gace, 
 and aj^ain in 1719, as an accomplice with the 
 Sitanish ambassador, the ]>rince of Cellamare, 
 in a consjiiracy against the re>;ent. He subse- 
 quently again engaged in military service, and 
 gained nuuli repuiatii)n at the battles of Det- 
 tingen, Fontenoi, llaucoux, and Lafeldt. In 
 1756, war having taken place between the 
 French and Kn<j;lish, marshal Richelieu was 
 em})loyed in an expedition against iMiuorca ; 
 and after conquering tliat island, he was sent 
 to Germany, where he forced the duke of 
 Cumberland to submit to the capitulation of 
 Closterseven. In 1781 he obtained the rank 
 of dean of the French marshals ; and he con- 
 cluded his long career, as a man of wit and 
 gallantry in every sense of the word, at the 
 advanced age of ninety-two, in August 1788. 
 The " Memoires du INIarcchal de Richelieu," 
 ajipeared in 4 vols. 8vo, in 1720, and " Vie 
 pnvee du INI. Richelieu," in 1790-92, 3 vols. 
 8to ; but neither of these works is considered 
 as perfectly authentic. — Diet. Hist. Biog, 
 Utiiv. 
 
 RICHELIEU (Armaxd Emanuel du 
 Plessis, due de) minister of state under 
 Louis XVIIT, was the grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. He was born at Paris in 1767, and 
 after studying in the college of Plessy, he 
 travelled in Italy, whence he returned at the 
 commencement of the Revolution in 1789. He 
 soon after obtained permission from the king 
 to go to Vienna, where he was well received 
 by the emperor Joseph II ; but he soon quitted 
 that capital with the young prince de Ligne, 
 and entered into the service of Catherine II, 
 then at war with the Turks. He distinguished 
 himself at the taking of Ismail by Suwarrow, 
 and was rewarded with the rank of major- 
 general. In 179-i he was with Louis XVIII 
 in England, whence he returned to Russia ; 
 but not being well treated by the emperor 
 Paul, he quitted that country, and after the 
 peace of 1801 he revisited France, where Buo- 
 naparte in vain attempted to attach him to his 
 service. He went again to St Petersburg, and 
 at the commencement of 1803 he was nomi- 
 nated civil and military governor of Odessa, a 
 Russian colony on the Black Sea, which flou- 
 rished greatly under his superintendance. On 
 the restoration of Louis XVIII, the duke de 
 Richelieu took his seat in the chamber of 
 peers, and resumed his functions as first gen- 
 tleman of the bedchamber. In March 1815 
 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and re- 
 turning with him to Paris, after the battle of 
 Waterloo, he was appointed president of the 
 council of ministeis, and placed at the head of 
 the foreign department. He presided at the 
 installation of tlie four academies in April 
 1818, and in September following he was 
 made president of the French Academy. In 
 the same month he appeared at the congress 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. He subse(juently resigned 
 
 RIC 
 
 bis oflice as minister of stale ; but in 1820 he 
 again became j)re.sident of the council. He 
 fruitlessly opposed the establishment of the 
 cens(irsbij) of tlie press, and findin;^ he had 
 lost his uiUutnce, he again retired from oflice, 
 and died soon after, in May 182s;. — }Sio<r. 
 Niiur. (les Cnutemp. liiair. Univ. 
 
 RICHER (Ci.Auni;) a learned French ec- 
 clesiastic and mathematician of the eighteenth 
 century. He was a native of Auxerre, and waa 
 educated at Paris, where, in 1701, he published 
 " Universal Gnomonics, or the Science of 
 Dialling." Having taken the order of priest- 
 hood, he for a long series of years devoted his 
 time to the religious duties of his profession, 
 and the education of youth. Jn 1730 he re- 
 sumed his mathematical studies, in conse- 
 quence of his acquaintance with M. Fantet de 
 Lagny, of the Academy of Sciences; and in 
 1733 he published his " General Analysis, 
 containing new Methods of resolving all kinds 
 of Problems," 4to. He intended to have con- 
 tinued this work, but his attention was diverted 
 from it by a new pursuit, whicli occupied the 
 remainder of his life. This was the irrvesti- 
 gation of the relics of Egyptian History, on 
 which obscure subject he produced two im- 
 mense folio volumes, but a specimen only of 
 his researches was printed. He died about 
 1755. — Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 
 RICHER (Edmund) a learned French di- 
 vine, was born at Chaource, in the diocese of 
 Langres, in 1560, and became grand master 
 of the college of Le Moine, and afterwards 
 syndic of the faculty of divinity at Paris, in 
 which situation he strenuously opposed the 
 pope's infallibility in a tract ♦' On the Civil 
 and Ecclesiastical Power," 8vo. This work 
 caused a great commotion, and was censured 
 by a council of bishops, from which Richer 
 entered an appeal to the parliament, but he 
 was finally proscribed and condemned at Rome. 
 He was deposed from his office, and retired 
 into solitude, whence he was dragged and sent 
 to the prisons of St Victor. In 1620 he pub- 
 lished a declaration, protesting that he was 
 ready to explain his work in an orthodox sense, 
 and to submit it to the judgment of the holy 
 see, and of the Catholic church. He then 
 published a second ; and in 1629 he printed a 
 new edition of his book, with the proofs of 
 the propositions advanced in it, and the two 
 declarations, to which, at the command of car- 
 dinal Richelieu, he added a third. He died 
 in 1631. Richer also wrote a " History of 
 General Councils," 4 vols. 4to ; and a " His- 
 tory of his Syndicate," &c. — Dupiu. I^iceron. 
 Mosheim. 
 
 RICHER (Francis) a French lawyer and 
 man of letters, who was a native of Avran- 
 ches. After having completed his studies, he 
 was admitted an advocate about 1740 ; and 
 having established himself at Paris, he re- 
 sided there till his death in 1790, at the age 
 of seventy-two. Besides improved editions 
 of the works of Montesquieu and other wri- 
 ters, h« published " Traite de la Mort Ci- 
 vile," 1755, 4to; " De I'Autorite du Cierg^, 
 et du Pouvoir du Magistral Politique sur V hx- 
 
H IC 
 
 ercist' liea roncuons du Ministere Ecclesias- 
 tique," 1767, 2 vols. l2mo ; and " Causes 
 Celebres et Interessantes," 1772 — 88, 22 vols. 
 12mo, awork which has superseded that of 
 Gayot de Pitaval, under the same title. — Ri- 
 cher (Adrian) brother of the preceding, was 
 the author of many useful compihuions. He 
 died at Paris, in 1798. Among his works are 
 " Vies des Hommes lUustres." 1756, 2 vols. 
 12mo; " Essai sur les Grands Evenements 
 par les Petites Causes, tire de I'Histoire," 
 1758, 12mo ; " Nouvelle Essai sur les Grands 
 Evenements, &c." 1759, 12mo ; and '• Vies 
 des plus Celebres Marins," 1784— 89, ISvols. 
 12mo. — Ring. KoHV. dps Contemp. 
 
 RICHER (John) a French astronomer and 
 mathematician in the seventeenth century, 
 who was admitted a member of the academy 
 of Sciences at Paris in 1666. In 1672 he 
 was sent to Cayenne, in South America, by 
 Louis XIV, for the purpose of making obser- 
 vations which might contribute to the improve- 
 ment of astronomy. He was the first who 
 observed the contraction of the pendulum in 
 the equatorial regions, whence Newton and 
 Huyo^ens derived evidence of the oblate sphe- 
 roidal figure of the earth. After three years 
 Richer returned to France, and gave the re- 
 sult of his labours in " Astronomical and Phy- 
 sical Observations made at the Island of Cay- 
 enne," which are inserted in the seventh vo- 
 lume of the IMemoirs of the academy of Sci- 
 ences. He died in 1696. — Diet. Hist. Aikins 
 Gen. Biog. 
 
 RICHER DE BELLEVAL (Pierre) an 
 eminent French physician and botanist, born 
 at Chalons in Champagne, in 1558. He may 
 be reo-arded as the first professor of botany in 
 France, who taught that science as distinct 
 from medicine. He studied at JMontpellier, 
 rind took his degrees at Avignon, and having 
 rendered great services to the public during 
 the prevalence of a contagious disease at Pe- 
 zenas, he was patronized by the duke de 
 ]\Iontmorenci, through whose recommendation 
 Henry IV appointed him to a professorship of 
 botany and anatomy, which he founded in the 
 university of Montpelher towards the end of 
 the sixteenth century. He published " Ono- 
 matologia, seu Nomeiiclatura Stirpium quaj in 
 i lorto Regio Monspellii recens constructo co- 
 hmtur," 1598, 12mo ; and at the time of liis 
 death, in 1623, he was preparing for the press 
 an extensive botanical work, the MSS. and 
 tngraved plates for which were dispersed and 
 destroyed through the careless folly of his de- 
 Kcendants. Villars, in his Flore du Dauphine, 
 has consecrated to the memory of this bota- 
 nist a genus of plants called Richeria ; and 
 similar honours have been paid to him by Sco- 
 poli and Bruguiere. — Aikins Gen. Biog. Biog. 
 Ujiiv. 
 
 RICHER SERISY ( ) a French 
 
 iournalist, born at Caen, about 1764. He went 
 to Paris when young, and was employed in the 
 office of an attorney of the ]);irlianient. He 
 had acquired consiilerable popularity as a pub- 
 lic writer when the Revolution took place, 
 and he exerted his influence in opposing inuo- 
 
 RIC 
 
 vation, notwithstanding he was on terras of 
 friendship with Camille Desmoulins and other 
 popular demagogues. He published " Actea 
 des Apotres," a periodical work ; and after 
 the fall of Robesj)ierre, by whom he had been 
 imprisoned, he set up a journal, entitled 
 *' L'Accusateur Public," which gave him a _ 
 distinguished place among the political writers ^ 
 of the day. Under the Directory he was sen- 
 tenced to deportation to Cayenne, but he es- 
 caped ; and at length taking refuge in England, 
 he died in London in 1803. — Biog. Univ, 
 
 RICHEY (Michael) a native of Ham- 
 burgh, who studied at the gymnasium of that 
 city, and afterwards at the university of Wit- 
 femberg. He then travelled in various parts 
 of Germany, and in 1704 he became rector of 
 the gynnasium of Stade, whence he removed 
 to Hamburgh ; and in 1717 he was appointed 
 professor of Mstory and the Greek language. 
 He retained his c^ice till his death, in 1761. 
 He wrote poems, published by Weicbmann, in 
 his collection of the poetry of Lower Saxony ; 
 and a piece which he composed on the return 
 of Charles XII of Sweden from Turkey, was 
 rewarded by the countess Lewenhaupt with a 
 laurel crown, a silver pen, an embossed cup, 
 and a present of wine. Richey also was the 
 author of " Gallorum quorundam de Germa- 
 norum ingeniis judicia iniquitatis convicta ;" 
 and other works : and he engaged, in concert 
 with Weichmann and others, in publishing a 
 periodical paper, entitled " The Patriot," in 
 imitation of the English Spectator. — His son, 
 John Richey, wrote some law- tracts, and died 
 at Vienna, where he held the office of syndic 
 of the city of Hamburgh, at the court of Aus- 
 tria. He wrote an apology for the city of 
 Hamburgh, against Voltaire's History of 
 Charles XII. — B'wg. Univ. 
 
 RTCHMAN (George William) a mem- 
 ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at 
 Petersburgh, was born at Pernau in 1711, 
 and is chiefly remarkable for the manner of his 
 death. He was devoted to the study of elec- 
 tricity, especially that of thunder-clouds, and 
 he composed a treatise on the discoveries he 
 had made in this science. On the 26th of 
 July, 1753, the day of his death, observing 
 that it thundered at a great distance, whilst the 
 sky was clear and the day bright, in hope of 
 being able to continue his observations he hur- 
 ried home, with Sokolefan, engraver, to his 
 electrical apparatus ; but, whilst anxiously ex- 
 amining it, with his head inclined towards it, 
 he received so violent a shock as to deprive 
 him instantly of life. The electric fluid en- 
 tered at the head, and made its way out at the 
 foot. — P/i Ho$. Transactions. 
 
 RICHTER (Otto Frederic von) an East- 
 ern traveller, was born at Doipat in Livonia, 
 in 1792. After acquiring a knowledge of 
 classical learning and archaeology, he went to 
 Moscow at the age of sixteen to study the mo- 
 dern Greek language, and afterwards to Hei 
 delberg, where he applied himself to the Ara- 
 bic and Persian under professor Wilken. He 
 then travelled in Switzerland and Italy, an<t 
 continued his studies under tiie celebrated 
 
Rl D 
 
 Orientalist Hammer, at Vienna. Having tljus 
 laid in a stock of information, he went, with 
 Liiiileniaiin, the secretary to the Swedish em- 
 bassy, to Ei;yi)t, where they were well re- 
 ceived hy Mohained Ali ; and having travelled 
 up the jSile as far as Ibrim in Nuhiu, they re- 
 turned to Alexandria wiili a rich collection of 
 drawings, descriptions, &c. Being at Cairo in 
 August iyi;>, they narrowly escaped destruc- 
 tion durincj a muniiy of the troops. They then 
 proceeded to jalVa by sea, and thence they tra- 
 velled to Acre, where the friends separated, 
 and Richter alone travelled through Palestine, 
 Syria, Asia Minor and the Isles, and then 
 went to Constantinople to deposit his collec- 
 tions in safety. Having done so, he re -em- 
 barked for Asia, and arriving at Smyrna he 
 was there seized with a fever, which proved 
 fatal, August 13, 1816. His papers bein» sent 
 home, M. Ewers, who had been his tutor, 
 published from them " O. F. Von Richter's 
 Wallfahrten im Morgenlande," Berlin, 1822, 
 8vn, witli a folio atlas. — riiog. Univ. 
 
 RIDDKLL (Robert) of Glenriddell, a 
 Scottish gentleman of an ancient family, who 
 distinguished himself by his researches con- 
 cerning the antiquities of his native country. 
 He was a member of the Philosophical Society 
 of Manchester, and a fellow of the Antiqua- 
 riar Societies of Edinburgh and London He 
 published in the Archasologia a " Dissertation 
 on the Ancient Modes of Fortification in Scot- 
 land ;" another " On the Vitrified Fortifica- 
 tions in Scotland;" besides other papers. Mr 
 Riddell, who was an early and active patron 
 of the poet Burns, died April 21. 1794. — 
 Gent. ]\Iafr. 
 
 RIDEIl (.Tohn) bishop of Killaloe in Ire- 
 land, a native of Cairiugtou, in the county pa- 
 latine of Chester, He was born about the 
 year 1562, and received his education at Jesus 
 college, Oxford, where he graduated. On tak- 
 ing holv orders he became successively rector 
 of Win wick, Lancashire, and dean of St Pa- 
 trick's in the sister island, which latter prefer- 
 ment he vacated in 1612, on being raised to 
 the episcopal bench. Besides a useful Latin 
 dictionary which still goes under his name, 
 and is well known in most of our principal semi- 
 naries, he was the author of a tract vindi- 
 cating the claims of the reformed religion, on 
 tlie ground of its genuineness and antiquity ; 
 and also of a political pamphlet on " The 
 News out of Ireland, the Spanish Invasion, 
 &c." 4to. His death took place in 1632. — 
 William RinER, an English clergyman of 
 the last century, distinouished himself both 
 as a biblical critic and a general scholar. He 
 was for some years a junior master in St Paul's 
 school; on dean Colet's foundation, and held 
 the lectureship of t!ie adjoining parish, St Ve- 
 dast, Foster-lane. He published some valuable 
 notes on the Old Testament ; and a " History of 
 England ;"' and died in 1785. — Biog, Brit. 
 
 RIDLEY (Nicholas) bishop of Loudon 
 in the reii^s of Edward VI and his successor 
 Mary. He was a native of Wilmonswick, in 
 the county of Northumberland, born about the 
 commencement of the sixteenth ceutur^' ; and 
 
 BzvQ DicT. — Vol. 111. 
 
 11 I b 
 
 having received the. rudiments of a clapgical 
 education at the foundation-school of New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne, remov<(i thence to Pem- 
 broke-hall, Cambridge, of which society ho 
 became a fellow in 1.524, and eventually pre- 
 sident. Declining an advantageous ofl'er made 
 him on account of his reputation as a classical 
 and theological scholar hy the members of 
 University college, Oxford, he travelled over 
 a considerable part of the European continent, 
 during a three-years' absence from his native 
 country, in the course of which period he he- 
 came personally acquainted with several of the 
 early reformers, whose doctrines he afterwards 
 so warmly and perseveringly espoused. Re- 
 turning to Cambridge, he filled the responsible 
 oflice of proctor to the university, and as such 
 protested against the claims of the papal see 
 to the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction in 
 these realms. He was also chosen public 
 orator, and through the patronage of his friend 
 archbishop Cranmer, became one of the king's 
 chaplains, with the vicarage of Hearne, in 
 East Kent. This preferment was followed by 
 a stall at Westminster, till, in the second year 
 of Edward VI, he was elevated to the see of 
 Rochester. Three years after, on the disgrace 
 and deprivation of Bonner, llidley was made 
 bishop of London, and distinguished himself 
 in this ofl5ce as much by his moderation, 
 learning, and munificence, as by his tempered 
 zeal in favour of the Protestant church, and 
 especially by his liberality and kindness to- 
 wards the family of his predecessor. During 
 the whole of this short reign, bishop llidley 
 exerted the credit he possessed at court in a 
 way which has been productive of the hap- 
 piest effects to posterity, "both in a religious 
 and a moral point of view. To his sugges- 
 tions and active superintendance may be 
 mainly attributed the foundation of those noble 
 monuments of national munificence, the hos- 
 pital of Christ, of St Bartholomew, and of St 
 Thomas, in Southwark ; the former as eminent 
 for its utility in promoting the study of classi- 
 cal and general literature, as the two latter are 
 in constituting a school of medicine, and in 
 the benevolent application of their supernu- 
 merary funds. On the death of his royal pa- 
 tron, a dread of the consequences to be appre- 
 hended from the succession of a Roman Catho- 
 lic sovereign, induced him to listen with too 
 great facility to those who, actuated by more 
 questionable motives, made a daring but ill- 
 concerted attempt to secure the Protestant 
 ascendancy, by placing the lady Jane Grey 
 upon the throne. The defeat of this ill-ad- 
 vised scheme, his known connexion with it, 
 and above all, the active part he had taken in 
 the establishment of the new discipline, and 
 the construction of the Liturgy, together with 
 his intimate connexion with Cranmer, marked 
 llidley out as one of the most promuient vic- 
 tims to the temporary restoration of papal 
 authority. The form of a trial was indeed 
 granted him, and a deputation of popish bi- 
 shops was appointed to hold a formal disputa- 
 tion on the controverted points with him at 
 Oxford. In order to be present at this c:)n« 
 
RID 
 
 ference, he was released from an eight months' 
 imprisonment in the Tower ; but the result, 
 as might have been anticipated from the com- 
 parative strength and credit of the contending 
 parties, was unfavourable to him, and he was 
 condemned as a recusant and obstinate heretic 
 to the stake. This sentence he underwent 
 with the greatest fortitude, in company with 
 his friend and fellow-sufierer Hugh Latimer, 
 bishop of Worcester, on the 15th of October, 
 1555, in the centre of what is now called 
 Broad-street, Oxford, nearly fronting the gate 
 of Baliol college. A few of his discourses, 
 and a treatise against the Romish doctrine of 
 transubstantiation, are yet extant, as well as 
 his life, written by the rev. Ur Gloster Ridley, 
 prebendary of Salisbury, and a descendant of 
 the same family. — Biog. Brit. Fox's Acts and 
 Man. 
 
 RIDLEY, LLD. (Gloster) an English 
 divine, who derived his Christian name from 
 the circumstance of his having been born at 
 sea, in 1702, on board the Gloster Indiaman. 
 He was educated at Winchester school and 
 New college, Oxford, where he obtained a fel- 
 lowship, and in 1729 took the degree of BCL. 
 In his younger years he had a great partiality 
 for the stage, and, in conjunction with some 
 friends, he wrote a tragedy in four acts, which 
 was never published. He also distinguished 
 himself as a poet, and two of his productions, 
 " Jovi Eleutherio, or an Offering to Liberty;" 
 and " Psyche," were printed in Dodsley's 
 Collection. A sequel to the latter, entitled 
 " IMelanipus," was afterwards published by 
 subscription. He for many years held the 
 college benefice of Weston Longueville, in 
 Norfolk, and the donative of Poplar in Mid- 
 dlesex ; and afterwards the donative of Rom- 
 ford in Essex. In 1740 and 1742 he preached 
 a course of sermons at lady IMoyer's lecture, 
 afterwards published. In 1743 appeared his 
 " Review of Phillips's Life of Cardinal Pole ;" 
 and in 1768 he was presented to a golden pre- 
 bend at Salisbury by archbishop Seeker, in re- 
 ward of his labours in the controversy occa- 
 sioned by archdeacon Blackburne's " Confes- 
 sional." He died in 1744. Besides the works 
 referred to, he wrote " The Life of Bishop 
 Nicholas Ridley," of whose family he was a 
 descendant. — Aikin's Gen. Biog. 
 
 RIDLEY (James) son of the preceding. 
 The date of his birth is unknown, but he was 
 educated at Winchester and New college, 
 Oxford, and after taking orders succeeded his 
 father in the living of Rumford in Essex. In 
 1761, while attending to his duty, as chaplain 
 to a marching regiment, at the siege of Bel- 
 lisle, he laid the foundation of a disease from 
 which he never recovered, and which some 
 years after, when happily married and preferred 
 in the church, carried him off in the prime of 
 life, to the great grief of his family. This 
 event took place in 1765. Mr Ridley was 
 author of " The Schemer," a very liu- 
 morous periodical paper ; and of " The His- 
 tory of James Lovegrove, Esq." But his li- 
 terary fame principally rests on his " Tales of 
 the Genii," in which the wildness of the East- 
 
 RIE 
 
 em tale is happily tempered by some very 
 noble moral lessons, and which in many parts 
 exhibit imaginative genius of so high an order, 
 that the premature death of the author may 
 be deemed a great loss to polite literature.^ 
 Xichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 RIDLEY (sir Thomas) an eminent civi- I 
 lian in the reign of James I. He w^as a native 
 of the isle of Ely, and became provost of Eton 
 college. He also obtained the oflBces of mas- 
 ter in chancery, chancellor to the bishop of 
 Winchester, and vicar-general to the archbi- 
 shop of Canterbury. His death occurred in 
 1629. He was the author of an esteemed 
 work, entitled " A View of the Civil and Ec- 
 clesiastical Law ;" for writing whicb James I 
 bestowed on him the honour of knighthood. — 
 Wood's Athen. Oxon. 
 
 RIDLEY (Humphrey) a physician and 
 anatomist, who lived in the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, was a fellow of the college 
 of physicians, and a practitioner in the metro- 
 polis. In 1695 he published " The Anatomy 
 of the Brain, containing its Mechanism and 
 Physiology," 8vo ; and in 1703 " Observa- 
 tiones quaedam INIedico-practicae et Physiolo- 
 gicce." The former work exhibits a more ac- 
 curate description than had previously appeared 
 of the circular sinus of the dura mater, or ex- 
 ternal coat of the brain. The time of his 
 death is uncertain. — Aikins G. Biog. 
 
 RIDOLFI (Carlo) an Italian painter, 
 poet, and historian of the arts. He was born 
 at Vicenza in 1602, and studied rhetoric, phi- 
 losophy, architecture, and the art of design, as 
 well as painting, in which he was instructed 
 by Antonio Basilico, a Greek. He executed 
 some pictures at Rome, for which pope Inno- 
 cent X bestowed on him the order of knight- 
 hood of the Golden Cross; and he published a 
 work, entitled " Le Maraviglie dell' Arte, 
 overo delle Vite dei Pittori Veneti e dello 
 Stato, ove sono raccolte 1' Opere insigni, i Cos- 
 tumi, i Ritratti loro," 1648, 4to, for which the 
 repi'blic of Venice gave him a chain of gold 
 and a medal of St Mark. He also wrote the 
 life of the painter, Jacopo Robusti, called Tin- 
 toretto. He died in 1670. — Orlandi. Biog, 
 Univ. 
 
 RIEDESEL (FREDERtcA Charlotte 
 Louisa, baroness) the daughter of the Prus- 
 sian minister iMasson, was born at Branden- 
 burg in 1746. At the age of sixteen she was 
 married to lieutenant-colonel Riedesel, who 
 commanded the troops of Brunswick employed 
 in the English service in America in 1777. 
 Madame Riedesel, who accompanied her hus- 
 band, wrote an interesting account of her ad- 
 ventures, published by her son-in-law% the 
 count de Reuss, under the title of " Voyage 
 de IMission en Amerique, ou Lettres de INla- 
 dame de Riedesel," Berlin, 1799, reprinted in 
 1801. She returned to Europe in 1783; and 
 having lost her husband (who had been made 
 a general) in 1800, she fixed her residence at 
 Berlin, where she died Marv'h 29, 1808. — 
 Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog Univ. 
 
 RIEDESEL (Joseph Herman) a German 
 nobleman, who was the son of a Prussian 
 
RI E 
 
 general, and wns born in 1710. He became 
 cliinnberlain lo Frederic 11, who scut bini am- 
 bassador plenipotentiary to Vienna, and in 
 tbat (juality he appeared at the congress of 
 Tescheu. JJut baruii Kiedesel is better known 
 as an author than as a diplomatist. A taste for 
 the fine arts induced him to go to Italy, where 
 he became ac<piainled with Winkelmann ; and 
 he afterwards travelled in Sicily, Greece, and 
 the Levant. The fruit of his observations 
 appeared in his " Journey in Sicily and Magna 
 Graecia," 1771, 8vo ; and " The Remarks of 
 a modt^rn Traveller in the Levant," 1773, 8vo, 
 republished toi;eiher at Paris in 180'J. llie- 
 de.-el died near \'ienna in 1785. — Biog. Univ, 
 lllLUINGKR (John Elias) a painter of 
 animals, born at LIm in Snalna, in 1695. He 
 received the first lessons in his art from his 
 fath.er, and was afterwards the pupil of Chr. 
 llesdi. He settled at Augsburg, where he 
 employed himself in making designs and en- 
 ffravin^s for the booksellers. He excelled in 
 his figures of all kinds of animals, both wild 
 and tame ; and whether his works exhibit 
 single figures or groups, his accuiate attention 
 to anatomy and just expression of character, 
 give him a manifest superiority over all other 
 masters. JNJany of his paintings are liistorical, 
 displaying the different kinds of animals con- 
 nected with the cbace. He died at Augs- 
 burg in 1767, leaving two sons, JNIaktin 
 Et.ias and John James, botli eminent en- 
 gravers. — Biocr. Univ. 
 
 RIKGO (RAniAEi. del) a modern Sj)ani5h 
 patriot officer, born of a noble family, in the 
 province of Asturias. After having been libe- 
 rally educated, he entered into the army, and 
 served during the invasion of Spain by Buo- 
 naparte. He was taken prisoner, and on his 
 liberation, the constitutional general Abisbal 
 gave him a stafi" appointment ; and when that 
 chief betrayed the cause of independance, 
 Riego retired from the service in disgust, and 
 for a time led a private life. In tlie beginning 
 of 18'J0, et the head of a battalion, he pro- 
 claimed the Spanish constitution, and travers- 
 ing a large extent of country, he shut himself 
 uj) in a fortress with the small number of 
 troops who had the patriotism and courage to 
 follow his example. Several days elapsed 
 without Riego's call being answered by bis 
 countrymen ; and at tlie same time be was 
 threatened by a powerful army. Aware of the 
 danger of delay, he sallied forth from the isle 
 of Leon with a few hundred brave men, made 
 his way through the forces that opposed his 
 passage, visited several large towns, intimi- 
 dated the authorities, fouglit obstinately, lost 
 the greater part of his troops, and retired to 
 the mountains with the determination to de- 
 fend himself to the last extremity rather than 
 submit to the mercy of his enemies. But the 
 s])irit of freedom which he had excited was 
 not extinguished : the provinces ranged them- 
 selves under the banners of independance, and 
 Eiego received the homage of national grati- 
 tude which his services deserved. His popu- 
 larity e--? cited the jealousy of those in power, 
 and he was calumniated as a promoter of 
 
 11 I E 
 
 anarchy and disorder, liis army was dissolved, 
 ami lie was proscribed, iiut he preserved 
 the confidence of the people, and he was ap- 
 pointed a deputy to the C'orten of 18'Ji;, of 
 which assend>ly he became tlie ])ret.ident ; and 
 in this arduous station he dihplayed prudence 
 and firmness with a conciliatory disposition 
 that did him honour. When king Ferdinand 
 refused to maintain the constitution which he 
 had sworn to observe, Riego again appeared 
 in arms to assert the liberty of his country, but 
 it was destined to fall before foreign foes. He 
 was taken prisoner after the surrender of Ca- 
 diz to the French, under the duke d'Angou- 
 lerne, and being conveyed to Madrid, was 
 executed as a traitor, October 7, 1823. His 
 widow, who sought refuge in England, died at 
 Chelsea, June 19, 1824. — Lit. Mus. Gent. 
 Mag. Biog. Nouv. des Cimtemp. 
 
 RIEM (John) a German agriculturist, bora 
 at Frankenthal on the Rhine in 1739. He 
 studied pharmacy, of which he continued to 
 be a practitioner till 1774. Having obtained 
 a prize from the Academy of Sciences of Man- 
 beim, in 1768, for a dissertation on the ma- 
 nagement of bees, he employed himself in 
 establishing a society of apiology at Kaiser- 
 slautern, the plan of which being subsequently 
 enlarged so as to form a physico-economical 
 society, it was transferred to Heidelberg, and 
 lectures were regularly delivered by professors 
 appointed for the purpose, and a collection of 
 memoirs was published. Riem was director 
 of this institution ; but he at length relin- 
 quished his connexion with it, and went to 
 Prussia, where he was nominated commissary 
 of economy, and sent in 1776 into Silesia, as 
 an inspector of the bee -hives in that country. 
 In 1783 he received a prize from the econo- 
 mical society of St Petersburgh, for a treatise 
 on feeding cattle ; and in 1785 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary to the economical society of 
 Dresden. le was afterwards made a coun- 
 sellor of mission, and he died at Dresden in 
 1807. The management of bees was the 
 principal object of his researches, but be jiub- 
 lished several useful works on other branches 
 of rural economy. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RIENZI (iSicHOLAs GABRiNide) a native 
 of Rome, who in the fourteenth century be- 
 came celebrated by bis attempts to restore the 
 Roman republic. Although the son only of 
 one of the lowest order of tavern keepers, he 
 received a literary education, and early dis- 
 tinguished himself by the quickness of his 
 parts, and the elevation of his sentiments. The 
 glory of ancient Rome, compared with exist- 
 ing abject states, appears to liave excited a 
 real enthusiasm in bis breast, and he was gra- 
 dually regarded by the common people as aa 
 extraordinary person, who might be destined 
 to rescue them from the oppressive tvranny of 
 the aristocracy, who, on the removal of papacy 
 to Avignon, were in the highest degree inso- 
 lent and oppressive. He obtained the post of 
 public scribe or notary, and in 1346 was joined 
 in a deputation to pope Clement VI at Avig- 
 non, to exhort him to bring back the papal 
 court to its original seat. He acted on this 
 
 D 2 
 
li I p 
 
 months, till the overthrow of his enemies, 
 ^vhen he was set at liberty. He then pub- 
 lii^hed " Memoires d'un Detenu pour servir a 
 I'Histoire de la Tyrannie de Robespierre," an 
 interesting work, which became very popular. 
 In 1800 Riouffe was made a member of the 
 tribunate ; in 180-i he was nominated prefect 
 of the department of the Cote d'Or ; and he 
 obtained from Buonaparte the title of baron, 
 on the creation of the new nobility. Having 
 been removed to the prefecture of La Meurthe 
 in 1808, he was there when the military hos- 
 pitals of Nanci were filled with the victims of 
 Napoleon's Russian expedition ; and typhus 
 fever prevailing among the soldiers, RioufFe 
 thought it his duty to inspect and assist them, 
 when he caught the disease, and died in No- 
 vember 1813. Besides his memoirs, he wrote a 
 poem on the death of the prince of Brunswick, 
 who was drowned in 178.5, in attempting to 
 rescue some peasants during an inundation of 
 the Oder ; and other pieces in prose. — Biog. 
 Kouv. des Contemp. Biog. Univ, 
 
 RIPLEY (George) a poetical writer on 
 alchemy in the latter part of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He was canon of Bridlington in York- 
 shire, travelled much, and pursued his mysti- 
 cal studies in France and Italy. His " Com- 
 pound of Alchemie," dedicated to Edward I Y, 
 possesses little merit in point of versification ; 
 but as an exposition of the science of which 
 it treats, it is sufficiently intelligible, though un- 
 fortunately the information it affords is worth- 
 less, notwithstanding the assertion of its com- 
 mentator Ashmole, who states that Ripley 
 gave from the treasures procured by his art, 
 100,000/. to assist the knights of Rhodes 
 against the Turks. He became a Carmelite, 
 and died in 1490. His poem may be found in 
 " Ashmole's Theatrum Chemicum Britanni- 
 cum." — Wartons Hist, of Poetry. Journal of 
 R. Institut. vol. ix. 
 
 RIPPERDA (John William, baron of) 
 was born in 1680, of a noble family in Gro- 
 uingen, and was educated under the Jesuits of 
 Cologne, but on marrying a Protestant lady, 
 he conformed to her religion. He rose to the 
 rank of colonel in the Dutch service, and in 
 1715 he was sent on a mission to Philip V of 
 Spain, when he returned to tlie Catholic reli- 
 gion, and settled at Madrid, and the king 
 finally made him duke of Ripperda, and his 
 prime minister, but from his inefficiency incur- 
 ring the displeasure of the king, he was dis- 
 missed, and confined in the castle of Segovia, 
 whence he escaped, and came into England, 
 where he remained until 1730, when he went 
 to the Hague, and resumed the Protestant j 
 relicrion. But his "restless and ambitious dis- 
 position would not allow him to remain tran- 
 quil, and in 1731 he went to Morocco, where 
 be was favourably received by Muley Abdalla, 
 and declaring himself a convert to the IMaho- 
 metan religion, and taking the name of Osman, 
 he obtained the chief command of the Moor- 
 ish army at the siege of Ceuta. On the de- 
 feat of the Moors he fell under the displea- 
 sure of the emperor, and for a time he lived in 
 retirement. He then formed a new project 
 
 R 
 
 IS 
 
 for the consolidation of different religions, 
 particularly the Jewish and IMahometau, and 
 it is said that he even made some converts. 
 He finally retired to Tetuan, but his project- 
 ing spirit animated liim to the last, and he ad- 
 vanced considerable sums to Theodore, baron 
 Newhoff, to assist his attempts on the ciown 
 of Corsica. His death took place in 1737. — 
 Moore's Life of Ripperda. Univers. Hist, 
 Moreri. 
 
 RIQUET (Peter Paul de) a French en- 
 gineer, born at Beziers in 1604. He was 
 remotely descended from the same Florentine 
 family with tlie marquis de Mirabeau ; and 
 the branch to v/hich he belonged was esta- 
 blished in Languedoc, in the sixteenth century. 
 He conceived the idea of formmg the canal of 
 Languedoc, which opens a communication 
 between the JNIediterranean and the bay of 
 Biscay ; and having communicated his plan to 
 Colbert, an edict for the construction of the 
 canal was issued in October 1666. The work 
 was soon commenced, and carried on during 
 the remnioder of tlie life of Riquet, who died 
 October 1, 1680. — He had associated in his 
 labours his son John IVIathias de Riquet 
 DE BoNREPOS, master of requests, and presi- 
 dent of the parliament of Uhoulouse, who, 
 with the assistance of his brother, Peter 
 Paul de Riquet de Caraman, and others, 
 completed the work. The navigation of the 
 canal was established in 1681, but it was not 
 till 17^4 that it proved profitable to the family 
 of the projector. Besides his great work, he 
 conducted improvements in the port of Cette, 
 where he built two jetties, and was carrying 
 on his operations at the time of his decease. — • 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 RISBECK, or RIESBECK (Caspar) a 
 German traveller, born at Hoecbst, near 
 Frankfort, in 1750. He studied the law, but 
 the works of Klopstock and of Goethe suited 
 his taste better than those of professional 
 authors, and having dissipated the fortune he 
 had derived from his father, who was a mer- 
 chant, he established himself at Saltzburg, 
 and commenced writer for the press. There 
 he published a continuation of the " Letters 
 on the Monks," attributed to M. de la Roche, 
 which attracted a good deal of temporary no- 
 tice. He then went to Zurich in Switzerland, 
 and became co-operator in the political jour- 
 nal printed there ; and he also published 
 Coxe's Swiss Travels ; and " Letters of a 
 French traveller in Germany to his brother at 
 Paris, translated by K. R." Zurich, 1783, 
 2 vols. 8vo. This German work, which was 
 very successful, was a complete mystification, 
 being an orii;inal production of Risbeck. He 
 retired to the little town of Arau, where he 
 died m 1786 ; and a " History of Germany," 
 
 which was the last work he composed, ap- 
 peared posthumously in 1787, and in 1788-89 
 was published a continuation of the history, 
 from the pen of professor Milbiller, of Passau. 
 — Biog, Unit. 
 
 RISDON (Tristram) an English topo- 
 grapher and provincial historian, born at 
 Winscot, near Great Torrington, in Devon- 
 
11 IT 
 
 eliirc, in 1580. He received liis education at 
 Broadgute hall, now JVinbroke college, Ox- 
 ford ; and on leaving tlie university he took 
 up his residence on his estate in his native 
 county, and devoted mucli of his time to the 
 illustration of Devonian anticjuities and topo- 
 graphy. He died in 16-10, leaving in manu- 
 script, a " Descrijuion or Survey of the 
 County of Devon," first j)ublished in 172'>, 
 8vo, and reprinted in 1811, 8vo. — Cough's 
 Brit. Topng. 
 
 RISHTON (Edward) a learned Catholic 
 divine and historian, who was a native of Lan- 
 cashire. He studied for a short time at Brazen- 
 nose college, Oxford, and then removed to 
 Douay, where he proceeded IMA. Thence 
 he went to Kome, and after passing four years 
 in the study of divinity at the English college, 
 he was ordained a missionary priest in 1580. 
 lleturning to England to exercise his function, 
 he was arrested as a recusant, and detained in 
 prison three years. The legal sentence of 
 death which he had incurred being commuted 
 for banishment, he went to France, where he 
 was seized with the plague, and died at St 
 Menehond in 1585 or 1586. He published 
 Sanders's " History of the English Schism," 
 with a continuation ; and he also wrote " Sy- 
 no])sis Rerum Ecclesiasticarum ad Annum 
 1577. — Fader's Worthies. Dodd's Church 
 Hist. 
 
 RITCHIE (JosKPii) an English traveller, 
 born at Otley in Yorkshire. He obtained a 
 situation in the office of the English consul at 
 Paris ; and having become acquainted with 
 the plans of the African association in Lon- 
 don, he oftVred his services to explore the in- 
 terior of Africa. In conjunction with captain 
 G.F. Lyon, R.N. he went to Tripoli, and in 
 JMarch 1819 the party set out for Mourzouk, 
 the capital of Fezzan, under the escort of Muk- 
 ni, the bey of that country, who was returning 
 home. They resided at Mourzouk for some 
 months in circumstances of distress, arising 
 from the want of funds, and heightened by 
 the treacherous conduct of the bey, who seems 
 to have speculated on the chance of becoming 
 possessed of the property of the travellers on 
 their dying in his dominions. Mr Ritchie 
 actually" fell a sacrifice to hardship and vexation 
 of mind, dying in iSlovember, 1819. Captain 
 Lvon then returned to England, and in 18'21 
 published " A Narrative of Travels in North- 
 ern Africa, in 1818, 19, and 20, accompanied 
 by Geographical Notices of Soudan, and of 
 the Course of the Niger," 4to. — Lit. Gaz. 
 Nos. 218, 219. Biog. Unit. 
 
 RITSON (Isaac) a poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, born near Penrith in Cumberland, in 
 1761. He became a teacher in a scliool at 
 the age of sixteen ; but he afterwards went to 
 Edinburgh, and received a medical education, 
 supporting himself by writing inaugural theses 
 for indolent or illiterate students. Removing 
 to London, he became an author by profession, 
 and for a time he was a contributor of criti- 
 cisms on medical works to the Monthly Re- 
 view. He died at Islington in 1789. The only 
 piece published with his name is a translation | 
 
 R 1 T 
 
 of Homer's Hymn to Venus, 1788, 4to ; uut 
 he is said to liaic written the prefatory intro- 
 duction to Clarke's •• Survey of the j.akes." 
 — Hu(chiiis,ni's I list, of Cumberland. D' Israeli's 
 Calitni, of Auth. 
 
 Rll SON (Joseph) an English lawyer and 
 antiquary, who was a native of Stockton, in 
 the county of Durham. He setth-d in I»ndon 
 as a conveyancer, and held the purchased 
 office of de])uty high-bailiff of the duchy of 
 Lancaster. As an antnpiary he exhibited 
 much industry and intelligence, especially with 
 regard to our early national poetry ; but his 
 acrimony and ill-will in his critical remarks 
 on Thomas Warton, Dr Percy, and other men 
 of learning ; and his morbid singularities of 
 temper, and avowed contempt of religion, ad- 
 mit of no excuse but a degree of insanity 
 under which he seems to have long laboured, 
 and which issued in violent derangement. He 
 died in a mad-house at Hoxton, in September, 
 1803. His principal publications are, " A 
 Collection of English Songs," 3 vols. ; " The 
 English Anthology," 3 vols. ; " Metrical Ro- 
 mances," 3 vols. ; '* Jjibliographia Poetica, a 
 Catalogue of English Poets ;"' and " Robiu 
 Hood, a Collection of Ballads." He also 
 wrote a tract on abstinence from animal food, 
 for which he was an advocate. — Gent. Ma(r. 
 Ann. Reg. 
 
 RITTANGELIUS, the Latin designation 
 of John Stephen Rithangel, a native of Bam- 
 berg in Germany, who filled the chair of pro- 
 fessor of the Eastern languages in the univer- 
 sity of Kcinigsberg, about the middle of the 
 seventeenth century. Of his personal history, 
 and even of the religion in which he was ori- 
 ginally brought up, but little is known, although 
 his treatise " De Veritate Religionis Christi- 
 ana;," evinces him to have at length become a 
 convert to the doctrines of the reformed 
 church. That he once professed Judaism is 
 also certain, but whether, as some assert, he 
 in the first instance apostatized from the Ca- 
 tliolic faith remains doubtful. Besides the 
 book already mentioned, he was the author ot 
 another, entitled " Libra Veritatis," and ot 
 some learned remarks on the Apocryphal work 
 " Jetzirah." His death took place in 1652. — 
 Bai/le. Aloreri. 
 
 illTTENHOUSE (David) a celebrated 
 American philosopher, of a Dutch family, but 
 born at Germantown, in Pennsylvania, in 
 1732. He was destined for the occupations 
 of agriculture, and received but an indiflerent 
 education, notwitlistanding which he showed 
 so strong a disposition for mechanical pur- 
 suits, that his parents apprenticed him to a 
 watchmaker, and by his own exertions he ac- 
 quired a knowledge of mathematics and astro- 
 nomy. His intelligence introduced him to the 
 notice of the Philosophical Society of Phila- 
 delphia; and in 17('>9 he was sent toNorriton, 
 in the county of Montgomery, to observe the 
 transit of Venus. He was afterwards chosen 
 a member of tliat society, for which he con- 
 structed an observatory. In 1770 he esta- 
 blished himself at Philadelpliia as a watch- 
 maker and mathematical instrument-maker 
 
HIT 
 
 11 
 
 V 
 
 and he soon rose to great eminence as an I 8vo ; and he also assisted in some sci(?ntiftf_ 
 artist and a natural philosopher. He was ap- I journals. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 pointed to the office of treasurer of the state of i HITTER (John William) one of the 
 Pennsylvania, and director of the mint, after | most celebrated philosophers of modern Ger- 
 the American revolution. The university of many, born at Samitz in Silesia, December 16, 
 Philadelphia conferred on him the degree of 1776. He studied medicine at Jena, and em- 
 LL.D. ; and he succeeded Dr Franklin as pre- I ployed himself in physical expeiiments, parti- 
 sident of the American Philosophical Society, j cularly relative to galvanism. Being dis- 
 to whose Transactions he was a considerable j tressed by the narrowness of his circumstances, 
 contributor. He died July 10, 1796. Rit- he fortunately obtained the patronage of the 
 
 tenhouse was employed in mak.ng geometri- 
 cal surveys, in order to determine the relative 
 limits of some of the American states ; and 
 
 duke of Saxe Gotha, who assisted liim with the 
 means for procuring the expensive apparatus 
 necessary for his researches. In 1798 he 
 
 his exertions in the cause of science appear ] started the idea that the phenomena of ani- 
 to have greatly pronioted the diffusion of a I mal life are connected with galvanic action. 
 
 taste for mathematical and physical knowledge 
 among his countrymen, who, with excusable 
 patriotism, regard him as the Newton of the 
 new world. — Hutton's Math. Diet. Aikin's G. 
 Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 IIITTER (Albert) a German naturalist of 
 the last century, who desei'ves to be noticed 
 for his researches concerning oryctology. He 
 published " Lucubratiuncula de Alabastris 
 Hohnsteinensibus, nonnullisque uliis ejusdem 
 Loci Rebus naturalibus," Helmstad. 173i, 
 4to ; " Lucubratiuncula II de Alabastris 
 Schwartzburgicis," 1732, 4to ; '• Epistolica 
 Listorico-physica Oryctographia Goslariensis," 
 1733, 4to ; " Commentatio Epistolaris I. de 
 Fossilibus et Naturae mirabilibus Osterodanis," 
 Sondershusae, 1734, 4to ; " Commentatio 
 Epist. II. de Zou.itho," 1736, 4to ; " Relatio 
 historica curiosa de iterato Itinere in Hercy- 
 nias JMontemfamosissimum Bructerum," 1740, 
 4to ; besides other curious works rt- lating to 
 the fossils and minerals of his native country. 
 — Gronovii Blhl. Regn. Anim. et Lapid. 
 
 RITTER (John Daniel) a learned wri- 
 ter, born at Breslau, in 1709. He became 
 professor of history and philosophy at Leipsic, 
 and afterwards at Wittemberg ; and he dis- 
 tinguished himself by the publication of a 
 number of works relating to civil law, history, 
 and archcEology. Among these are, " Disser- 
 tatio de Cognitoribus," Lips. 1735, 4to ; " Ob- 
 servationes Historicas," Witeb. 1742, 4to ; 
 " Historia Prcefecturae Prajtoriae ab Origine 
 Dignitatis ad Const. M. recensens," 1745, 
 4to ; " De falsis Barbaricaj Philosophise Fon- 
 tibus," 1745, 4to ; besides a new edition of 
 the Theodosian code, and a translation from 
 the English of Guthrie's History of the World. 
 He died in 1775. — Saxii Onom. Lit. 
 
 RITTER (Jeremiah Benjamin) an emi- 
 nent chemist and physician, who was a native 
 of Silesia. He studied at Kbnigsberg, and 
 when he graduated sustained a thesis, " De 
 Usu Matheseos in Chymia." In 1795 he was 
 placed as secretary and verificator in the ad- 
 ministration of the mines of Silesia ; and some 
 years after he was called to Berlin, where he 
 was arcanist to the porcelain manufactory, and 
 director of the Pharmaceutical Society. He 
 died April 4, 1807, aged forty-five. His prin- 
 cipal works are a treatise " On the new Objects 
 of Chemistry," 179 1-180SJ, 2 parts, 8vo; " Ele- 
 ments of Stoechiometry, or the Art of measur- 
 ing Chemical Elements," 1792-94, 3 vols. 
 
 and he inserted several memoirs on the subject 
 in the Physical Journal of Gehlen. He was 
 of an ardent disposition, not always under the 
 direction of sound judgment, as appeared from 
 his advocating the reveries of animal mao'ne- 
 tism, and other quackeries of his time. In 
 1805 he was chosen a member of the academy 
 of Munich, which was the only scientific dis- 
 tinction he enjoyed. He died at Munich, Ja- 
 nuary 23, 1810. Besides numerous papers in 
 journals of science, he was the author of 
 '• Contributions towards a more particular 
 Knowledge of Galvanism," Jena, 1801, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; " Physico-Medical Memoirs," Leipsic, 
 1806, 3 vols. ; and " Fragments taken from the 
 inheritance of a Young Physician," Heidel- 
 berg, 1810, 2 vols. Bvo. — Biug. Nouv. des Cow 
 temp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RITTERSHUYS (Conrad) a learned 
 writer on jurisprudence and philology, born 
 at Brunswick in 1560. After having stu- 
 died at Helmstadt, Altorff, and Ingoldstadt, 
 and taking the degree of doctor of law at 
 Basil, in 1591, he was nominated to the 
 professorship of law at Altorff, where he 
 remained till his death, in 16l3. He wrote 
 notes and comments on the works of Petro- 
 ni'is, Phaedrus, Oppian, and Salvian ; pub- 
 lished the History of the Emperor Frederic I, 
 by Guntherus, in Latin ; and was the author 
 of several dissertations, and of a work entitled 
 ** Jus Justinianeum sive Novellarum Expo- 
 sitio Methodica," published posthumously by 
 his son, Nicholas Rittershuys, who was 
 professor of feudal law at Altorff, and died in 
 1670. The latter was the author of a Dis- 
 sertation on the Periplu3 of Hanno ; and of 
 a large work on the Genealogy of Illustrious 
 Families. — Saxii Onom. Lit. Aikin's G. Biog. 
 RIVAROL (Antoine de) a native of Bag- 
 nols, in the province of Languedoc, born April 
 17, 1757. He possessed a lively wit, well 
 cultivated by a good education, and held a very 
 respectable rank among the savans of the 
 French metropolis, in which he became a re- 
 sident. Voltaire, D'Alembert, Buffon, &:c. 
 were among his contidential associates ; but 
 his principles becoming suspected in the early 
 stage of the Revolution, he found it necessary 
 to emigrate, and seek an asylum i:\ Germany, 
 Hamburg was his first retreat, which he at 
 length quitted for the capital of the Prussian 
 dominions, where he was much patronized by 
 some braucLts of the royal family, especially 
 
!l 1 V 
 
 Lv the prince royal. I lis works consist of a 
 " Treatise on the Universality of the French 
 Language ;" " J^etters on lleli.;ion and Mo- 
 rality ;" " An Account of tlie I'ulilical Lift- of 
 ]M. de la Fayette ;" " Prospectus of a new 
 J'rench Dictionary ;" " On the F'aculties of 
 ]\Ian, !\Ioral and Intellectual ;" " r.clters to 
 the French Nobility ;" a satirical work, enti- 
 tled " A little Almanac of Great IMen ;" some 
 original poems on miscellaneous subjects, and 
 a translation of the " Inferno" of Jiante. Of 
 these the first- mentioned treatise was written 
 as a prize essay for the academy at Berlin in 
 178}-, and was the successful composition. A 
 Biographical Sketch of this ingenious writer 
 appeared in two liimo vols, in 180;^, the year 
 Bucceeding that of his decease. — Bioo-. Univ. 
 
 RIX'AULT (David) a French mathemati- 
 cian of the age of Louis XIII, to which mo- 
 narch he was military tutor, and afterwards a 
 counsellor of state. He is known as the au- 
 thor of a treatise, entitled " Les Etats," and 
 of another " On the Principles of Gunnery," 
 and he died at Tours in the forty-fifth year of 
 his age. An edition of the Remains of Ar- 
 chimedes, with a Latin version annexed, was 
 printed at Paris in folio, under his superiutend- 
 ance. — Nouv. Diet. Hint. 
 
 RI\'AZ (Peter Joseph de) a skilful me- 
 chanician and chronologer, born in the Lower 
 Valais, in 1711. He made an extraordinary 
 progress in mathematical learning when young, 
 and he also studied history and antiquities. 
 In 1740 he submitted to the examination of 
 Danie Bernoulli a watch, which had the sin- 
 gular property of winding up spontaneously. 
 Eight years after he went to Paris, and pre- 
 sented to the Academy of Sciences watches 
 constructed according to his principle, with an 
 escapement of his own invention. He also 
 contrived an improved pendulum, for wliicli he 
 obtained an exclusive privilege, a circumstance 
 which involved him in disputes with his Pa- 
 risian rivals, in the art of horology. In 1752 
 he drained the mines of Pontpean m Britanny ; 
 and in 1760 he went to Switzerland, and made 
 improvements in the salt-works of Bex. He 
 passed the latter part of his life at iM on tiers, 
 and died in )77'2. His mechanical discoveries 
 are recorded in the collections of the Academy 
 of Sciences, and in the journals of his time. 
 He left many historical works in manuscript, 
 but it does not appear that any of them have 
 been published. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RIVE (John Joseph) a celebrated French 
 bibliographer, born at Aptin Provence, in 1730. 
 His father, who was a goldsmith, gave him an 
 education suited to the ecclesiastical profes- 
 sion, of which he became a member. After 
 having been professor of philosophy in the 
 seminary of St Charles at Avignon, he was 
 appointed, cure of Molleges, in the diocese of 
 Aries. He quitted this situation, and in 1767 
 he went to Paris, where he obtained the office 
 of librarian to the duke de la \ alliere. On 
 the death of that nobleman, in 1780, Rive 
 wished to have been employed to draw up 
 a catalogue of his library ; but the task 
 was confided to MM. G. Debure and Vai.- 
 
 R I V 
 
 praet, who, in consequeuce, incurred the 
 violent displeasure and abuse of the disaj)- 
 pointetl bibliographer. Returning to his 
 native province at the commencement of 
 the Revolution, he made himself conspi- 
 cuous as a parti/an of the new political doc- 
 trines then in vogue, though his zeal appears 
 to have depended a good deal on feelings of 
 personal resentment against individuals be- 
 longing to the j)rivileged orders. He died of 
 apoplexy in 1792. The list of his works, 
 j)riiited and manuscript, given by some writers, 
 is almost inteiminable, including apparently 
 among the latter, the titles of man v which Rive 
 probably had only projected. Of liis ijublis^hed 
 productions the most important is " La C'hasso 
 aux Bibliographes et Anti(iuaires mal ad- 
 vises," a Londres (Aix) chez Aphobe (^Sans 
 Peur), 1788 and 1789. 2 vols. 8vo. It con- 
 sists principally of criticisms on Lelong, I\Ier- 
 cier de St Leger, Debure, Vanpraet, and other 
 bibliographers. — Biog. Nouv. cles Cmttemp. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 RIVERIUS, or RIVIERE (Lazarus) an 
 eminent physician, born at IMontpellier ia 
 1589. He studied medicine in the university 
 of his native place, and in 1611 he was admit- 
 ted MD. He obtained the medical chair at 
 Moutpellier in 1622, and occupied it during 
 thirty-three years, refusing flattering invita- 
 tions which he had received from Bologna and 
 Toulouse. He died in 1655. Ri verms first 
 established the use of chemical remedies in 
 the IMontpellier school ; and he published se- 
 veral works, principally relating to the prac- 
 tice of medicine, which have been repeatedly 
 printed, together and separately. — HuU-eri 
 Bibl. Med. Eloy Diet. H. de la Med, Biog, 
 Univ. 
 
 RIVET (Andrew) a learned ecclesiastic, 
 who filled the divinity chair at Leydeu with 
 great reputation, in the earlier part of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was a Poicteviu by birth, 
 having first seen the light at St JMaxent in 
 1572, and having taken holy orders, was pre- 
 ferred to a benefice at Thouars, which he held 
 till 1620. In this year he quitted France, and 
 after visiting this country, settled finally on 
 the professorship to which he had been elected 
 in the Dutch university alluded to. Three 
 volumes of his devotional and controversial 
 writings have been published ; and the English 
 universitv of Oxford ranks his name amone 
 those of her public benefactor", having re- 
 ceived from him a variety of valuable books, 
 in return for which she complimented him with 
 the honorary degree of DD. His death took 
 place in 1647. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RIVEF DE LA GRANGE (Antoine) a 
 learned and ingenious French author, who 
 flourished during the earlier part of the last 
 century. He was born in l68o at Consolens 
 in Poicou, and became early in life a monk of 
 the order of St Benedict. The work by which 
 be is principally known, and in the compilation 
 of which he spent upwards of thirty years, is 
 a valuable history of the Progress of Litera- 
 I tore in France, first published in nine quarto 
 I volumesj but since continued by Clemences, 
 
R 1 V 
 
 vliose additions swell it to thirteen. He was 
 a" so the author of biographical sketches of 
 some of the members of the society of Port 
 Jloyal. His death took place in 1749. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 RIVIERE ( Meucier de la) a ce- 
 lebrated political economist, who was born in 
 France about 1720. He obtained the post of 
 counsellor of the parliament of Paris in 1747, 
 and was soon after made intendant ofMartinique. 
 On his return from that colony, he became one 
 of the disciples of Quesnay, and he made him- 
 self known by the publication of a work, enti- 
 tled " L'Ordre naturel et essentiel des So- 
 cistes politiques," which his party-admirers 
 represented as superior to Montesquieu's Spirit 
 of Laws. Prince Galitzin, the Russian mi- 
 nister at Paris, recommended Riviere to the 
 empress Catherine as a political philosopher, 
 who might with advantage assist in preparing 
 the new legal code she wished to bestow on 
 her subjects. He went to Russia, bat not ar- 
 riving so soon as he was expected, he was 
 treated with neglect, and he soon returned 
 liome without exercising liis talents as a le- 
 gislator. The singularity of his schemes and 
 Lis high pretensions exposed him to the ridi- 
 cule of Voltaire, Grimm, and the abbe Ga- 
 liani, who amused themselves at the expense 
 of the would-be Solon. He witnessed the 
 misfortunes of the Revolution, which he had 
 predicted in pointing out the most proper 
 methods of preventing them. He escaped 
 unnoticed during the reign of terror, and died 
 in obscurity in 1794. His principal works, 
 besides that already mentioned, are, " De 
 rinstruction publique, ou Considerations mo- 
 rales et politiques sur la Necessite, la Nature, 
 et la Source de cette Instruction," 177.5, 8vo ; 
 " Lettre sur les Economistes," 8vo, also in- 
 serted in the Encyclopedic Methodique. — 
 Bios. Kouv.des Contemp. Bii>g. Univ. 
 
 RIVINUS (Andreas) or Andrew Bach- 
 man (of which German appellation the former 
 name is a Latin translation), was a learned 
 Saxon physician of the seventeenth century. 
 He studied medicine und philosophy at Jena, 
 and then travelled foi improvement in England, 
 France, and the Netherlands. Returning to 
 Saxony, he becam ^ rector of the college of 
 Nordhausen ; and he afterwards took the de- 
 gree of doctor of physic at Leipsic, and was ap- 
 pointed professor of poetry in that university. 
 In 1655 he changed his professorship for that of 
 medicine, and he died April 4, in the following 
 year. He edited the poetical works of Gre- 
 gory Nazianzen, Tertuliian, Lactantius, and 
 other ancient Christian writers ; and he pub- 
 lished a number of medical and philosophical 
 theses, and philological dissertations ; and 
 executed many other literary undertakings. — 
 Niceron. Saxii Onom, Lit, Biog. Univ. 
 
 RI\TNUS (Augustus Quirinus) an emi- 
 nent botanist and physician, who was the third 
 son of the preceding, and was bom at Leipsic 
 in 165S;, Having lost his father when young, 
 lie owed his education to the munificence of 
 the elector of Saxony. He studied at Helm- 
 stadt, and took the degree of doctor in 1676. 
 
 Rl Z 
 
 In 1691 he was nominated professor of phy 
 siology and botany at Leipsic, he became dean 
 of the f;ic-ulty in 1709, and he died of j)leurisy 
 December 30, 1723. Rivinus is chiefly dis- 
 tinguished as a botanist. He proposed a new 
 method of arrangement of plants in his " In- 
 troductio generalis in Rem Herbariam," first 
 pui)lished in 1690. His scheme is founded on 
 the structure of flowers, and he distributes all 
 plants into eighteen classes, distinguished by 
 the number and form of their petals. He also 
 publislied splendid botanical plates to illustrate 
 his system, which was adopted by Gouan in 
 France, and by sir John Hill in England ; and 
 after being variously modified by other bota- 
 nists, was at length superseded by that of Lin- 
 naeus. The medical writings of Rivinus are 
 not destitute of merit, and he made some ana- 
 tomical discoveries. — Halleri Bib, Med. et Bot, 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 RIZZIO, RIZZI, or, as his nai;ac is some- 
 times written, RICCI (David) the son of a 
 professor of the same name, who taught music 
 and dancing at Turin, in which capital the 
 subject of this article was born, in the earlier 
 part of the sixteenth century. His abilities as 
 a musician procured him some notice at the 
 court of Savoy, while his talents as a linguist 
 eventually raised him to the fatal honour of 
 bemg selected by the ambassador from the 
 grand duke to Mary, queen of Scots, as a com- 
 ponent part of his suite. In 1564 he first 
 made his appearance at Holy Rood House, 
 where he soon became so great a favourite 
 with the queen, that he was taken from the 
 service of his own sovereign and appointed her 
 secretary for foreign languages. The distinc- 
 tion with which he was treated by his unhappy 
 mistress, soon excited both the envy of the 
 nobles, and the jealousy of Darnley himself; 
 the hatred of the former being, perhaps, in 
 creased as much by the religion, as by the ar- 
 rogant deportment of the new favourite, while 
 the suspicions of the latter were excited by 
 his address and accomplishments. A con- 
 spiracy, with the king at its head, was soon 
 formed, for the destruction of the presuming 
 foreigner, and before he had enjoyed two years 
 of court favour, the lord Ruthven, and other? 
 of his party, were introduced by Darnley him- 
 self into the queen's apartment, where they 
 despatched the unfortunate object of their re- 
 venge by no less than fifty-six stabs, in the 
 very presence, and clinging to the robes of his 
 scarcely less defenceless mistress, AD. 1566. 
 Popular tradition assigns to llizzio the ame- 
 lioration, not to say the invention, of the Scot- 
 tish style of music ; and it appears unquestion- 
 able that his skill in the performance of the 
 national melodies on his favourite instrument, 
 the lute, tended not a little to their general 
 improvement and popularity with the higher 
 classes ; still it is evident that the style of 
 Scottish music was determined long before the 
 time of Mary, and many of the airs which have 
 been ascribed to Rizzio, such as " Cowden 
 Knowes ;" "Gala Water;" and others of 
 the same class, are easily traced to more dis 
 tant periods. — Burney. Roherisoiu 
 
 i 
 
ROB 
 
 ROBERT I, king of Scotland, of tlie fa- 
 milv of Bruce, memorable as the restorer of 
 the in{le|)enciaiice of his country, was jrrand- 
 8on of that Rohert Bruce who was the uiisuc- 
 ces>ful couifietitor with John Baliol for the 
 crown of Scotlanti. lie was l)orn in l^";"), 
 and appears to have served in his youth in the 
 army of Kdward 1. The dtath of liis father, 
 who left liiin heir to his estate and [)retensions, 
 toi^ether with that of John Baliol, inspired 
 him with high designs for himself and his 
 country, then in complete subjection to the 
 English. In l;U).) he quitted the English 
 court, to which, it is said, his purposes had 
 been betraved hv Coniyn or (^ummin>i, earl of 
 Badenoch, whom, in an interview at Dum- 
 fries, in February 1306, he stabbed with his 
 own hand. He immediately followed wp this 
 daring action bv seizing tlie castle of Dumfries, 
 confining the English judges assembled theie, 
 and openly asserting his claim to the crown. 
 He was soon at the head ©f a body of troo[>s, 
 with which he penetrated as far as Perth, the 
 English flying every where before him ; and 
 in "the following .March he was solemnly 
 crowned at Scone. J'he king of England, 
 highly enraged, ordered all his Northern 
 forces to join the followers of Comyn, in order 
 to take vengeance ; in consequence of which 
 the earl of Pembroke marched to Perth, 
 where he surprised and beat tl:e troops of 
 Bruce, who escaped with difficulty, being 
 obliged to seek refuge in an unfrequented isle 
 of the Hebrides. His family and friends par- 
 took of liis adverse fortune ; three of his bro- 
 thers were executed as traitors, and his queen, 
 his daughter, and tw^o sisters, made captives, 
 and committed to prison. Neither friends nor 
 foes were acquainted with the fate of Bruce, 
 when he suddenly made his appearance with 
 a small band of followers, but on the approach 
 of an Englisli force he 'retired. In a second 
 incursion, with augmented force, he defeated 
 the earl of Pembroke in his turn, and was soon 
 after delivered by the death of that warrior from 
 his most formidable foe, Edward I. The weak 
 son of the latter, Edward II, although he 
 obeyed the dying injunction of his father, to 
 march into Scotland, pursued the war with so 
 little vigour, that Robert gradually reduced the 
 ■whole of Scotland, with the exception of a few 
 fortresses, to an acknowledgment of his autho- 
 rity. Several weak attempts v;ere subsequently 
 made by the English king, which ended iu a 
 truce ; and Robert actively employed this in- 
 terval of hostilities in consolidating his power, 
 and regulating his civil government. In the 
 mean time, Edward, after the death of his fa- 
 vourite, Gaveston, having reconciled himself 
 to his rebellious barons, entered Scotland at 
 the head of the largest army that had ever 
 been employed against it, and marched 
 to Stirling, to relieve the castle, then be- 
 sieged by Robert. The Scotch army, which 
 was much inferior in number to the En- 
 glish, but composed of veteran troops, 
 awaited the approach of the enemy on the 
 banks of the Bannock, which rivulet gave 
 name to the famous battle of Banuockburn. 
 
 ROB 
 
 Througli the able disposition and conduct of 
 Robert, the Scots <in this occasion obtained 
 over the lOnglish the most decisive vic'ory of 
 which their annals can boast. Eilward him- 
 self narrowly escaped, and the niiml)er of no- 
 ble prisoners was so gn-at as to enable Robert 
 to recover in exchange, his wife, daughter, 
 sisters, and several fuher jirisnners of high 
 rank, lie then thought himself strong enough 
 to assail the English government in return, 
 and sent over his brother with a body of troops 
 to the north of Ireland. In 1316 he himself 
 followed, but was obliged by famine to return ; 
 and soon after liis brother was defeated, and 
 fell in battle. The papal influence was resorted 
 to in order to effect a {)eace betrteen the hos- 
 tile nations, but as the legates employed 
 would not give Robert his regal title, he re- 
 jected their proposals with scorn. At length 
 a second truce for two years was agreed upon, 
 on the expiration of which, Edwartl undertook 
 a new expedition into Scotland, and in 1322 
 advanced as far as Edinburgh, but was soon 
 obliged to retreat, with Robert in his rear, who 
 sur[)rised part of the army, and even took the 
 king's baggage. Both parlies becoming de- 
 sirous of repose, a third truce for thirteen 
 years was agreed upon, which left Robert in 
 full possession of Scotland, although without 
 acknowledging him as lawful king. On the 
 deposition and death of Edward II in 1327, 
 the king of Scotland, who seems not to have 
 considered himself bound to the new govern- 
 ment of England, renewed hostilities, by 
 marching an army into Northumberland, which 
 was however soon obliged to retire, on the 
 approach of an English force under the youth- 
 ful Edward 111. The same year a peace was 
 concluded, in which the king of England re- 
 nounced all claim to superiority over the kinos 
 or kingdom of Scotland, and David, the son 
 of Robert, was affianced to Joan, the sister of 
 Edward. Thus, the great object of Robert's 
 patriotic exertions, the independance of liis 
 country, was finally established. Worn out 
 with the cares and fatigues of his active life, 
 this able and warlike prince expired in 1329, 
 at his castle of Cardross, in the liftv-fourih 
 year of his age, leaving a name eternally me- 
 morable in the annals of Scotland, which he 
 rescued by his courage and wisdom from a 
 foreign yoke, and restored to its rank among 
 nations. — Hume. Henry, Eobertsott. 
 
 ROBERT (Hubert) a Trench painter, 
 was born at Paris in 1732. He resideil in 
 Italy for several years, and duirng that time 
 he painted the gardens and cascades at Rome 
 in a most masterly manner, managing his aerial 
 perspective with a skill nearly approaching to 
 illusion. On his return to France he was ad- 
 mitted into the academy. During the horrors 
 of the Revolution he was seized and thrown 
 into prison, where he amused himself by his 
 profession. On bis release he regained his 
 patronage and reputation, which he preserved 
 until his death, April 14, 1808. — Galerie des 
 Pei litres Ctlebres. 
 
 ROBERT (Francis) a modem geogra- 
 pher, who was a native of Chalons in France . 
 
ROB 
 
 lie bv'came professor of pliilosophy and mathe- 
 matics at the colleoe of Chalons, and in 1780 
 lie obtained the title of royal geographer. In 
 1789 he joined the advocates for revolution, 
 and condemned tithes and other rights of the 
 privileged classes. He was nominated mayor of 
 the coximune of Besnote in 1793, and after the 
 Revolution of the 31st of May, that year he was 
 appointed administrator of the department of 
 Cote d'Or. In 1 797 he was cliosen a member of 
 the Council of Five Hundred, in which he dis- 
 played a decided alteration in his political opi- 
 nions. Having escaped the proscription, which 
 overtook many of his coadjutors, he retired 
 into the country. In his old age he became a 
 traveller, and died at Heiligenstadt in Saxony, 
 in 1819, aged eighty-six. He was the author 
 of Travels in Switzerland ; a Description of 
 France ; some useful elementary works on 
 geography ; and a Memoir on a method of 
 Guidino Air-balloons. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROBERTS (Peter) a Welsh divine, and 
 ■writer on British history and controversial 
 theology. He was a native of North Wales, 
 and received his education at Trinity college, 
 Dublin, where he proceeded to the degree of 
 MA. H.iving taken orders in the church of 
 England, he obtained the living of Halkin, in 
 the county of Flint. He published, " Let- 
 ters to M. Volney, in Answer to his Book on 
 the Revolution of Empires," 8vo ; " A Har- 
 mony of the Epistles," 4to ; " A Sketch of 
 the Early History of the Ancient Britons," 
 8vo ; and " A Review of the Policy and pe- 
 culiar Doctrines of the Modern Church of 
 Rome," 1809, 8vo, in which he displays 
 abuudant zeal against the Catholics. But his 
 most considerable work is " The Chronicle of 
 the Kings of Britain," 1810, 4to, a translation 
 from the ancient Welsh Chronicles, with co- 
 pious notes and illustrations. His death 
 took place in 1819. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 ROBERTSON (Joseph) an English di- 
 vine, was born at Knipe in Westmoreland, in 
 1726, and was educated at tlie grammar school 
 of Appleby, whence he was removed to 
 Queen's college, Oxford. In 1738 he obtained 
 the living of Herriard in Hampshire ; in 1770 
 that of Sutton in Essex ; and in 1779 the 
 vicarage of Horncastle in Lincolnshire, where 
 lie dietl in 1802. Mr Robertson, who was for 
 many years a writer in the Critical Review, is 
 best known by his tract, entitled " The Parian 
 Clironicle, or the Chronicle of the Arundelian 
 Marbles ; with a Dissertation concerning its 
 Authenticity," in which he strives to render 
 its authority questionable. He also wrote 
 Essays on Punctuation, on Female Educa- 
 tion, and on the nature of English Verse, with 
 some small productions of a kindred nature, 
 including an " Introduction to the Study of 
 Polite Literature." — Xiclwls's Lit. Anec. 
 
 ROBERTSON, DD. (William) an emi- 
 nent divine, was born at Dublin in 1705. His 
 father, who was a linen manufacturer, being a 
 native of Scotland, sent him to the university 
 of Glasgow, from which he was exj)elled for 
 the strong part he took in asserting the 
 light of the students to choose their rector. 
 
 ROB 
 
 By the inteiest of the duko of Argyle and bis 
 brother, the earl of Hay, a commission wa= on 
 this occasion appointed to visit the university 
 of Glasgow, the result of which was the fdi 
 establishment of the right claimed by Mr Ro- 
 bertson, whose expulsion was removed, and 
 the election to which he obiected declared void. 
 On taking orders he enjoyed the patronage 
 of Dr John Hoadly, bishop of Ferns and 
 Leighlin, and obtained the rectories of Ravilly 
 in the county of Carlow, and of Kelravell in 
 the county of Wicklow. He was subsequently 
 presented to other preferments, but altoirether 
 of a very small amount. He distinguished him- 
 self by a successful suit for the tithes of herbage 
 for black cattle ; but Irish parliamentary in- 
 terference soon put an end to that demand. 
 The ill-will produced by these proceedinirs in- 
 duced him to write a tract, entitled " A Scheme 
 for utterly abolishing the present heavy and 
 vexatious Tax of Tithe," which publication 
 advocated the substitution of an equivalent 
 land-tax, and excited much attention at the 
 time. In 1754 he was presented to another 
 benefice by the bishop of Ferns, but previously 
 to accepting it, he had imbibed doubts on the 
 subject of tiie Atlianasian creed, and declined 
 induction, on the score that he could not con- 
 scientiously quaUfy for the preferment. In 
 1764 he deemed it more honest to resign all 
 his livings in submission to the same scruples 
 of conscience, and by way of explanation, in 
 1766, published a small volume, entitled " An 
 Attempt to explain the Words, Reason, Sub- 
 stance, Person, Creeds, Orthodoxy, Catholic 
 Church, Subscription, &c." This book he 
 presented to the university of Glasgow, which 
 in return complimented him with the degree 
 of DD. In 1768 he was made master of 
 the free grammar school of Wolverhampton, 
 and in 1772 was a distinguished member of 
 the Committee of Clergymen, employed to 
 form and present the famous petition to Par- 
 liament, to be relieved from the obligation of 
 subscribing to the thirty-nine articles. He died 
 at Wolverhampton, much respected, in 1783, 
 in the seventy-ninth year of his age. — Life in 
 Gent. Mag. for 1783. 
 
 ROBEiRTSON, DD. (WrLLiAM) a cele- 
 brated modern historian, was born at Borth- 
 wick, where his father was minister, in 1721. 
 He received his early education at the school 
 of Dalkeith ; but in 1733 accompanied his 
 father, on his removal to Edinburgh, as mi- 
 nister of the Grey Friars in that city, and soon 
 after entered on his academical studies. After 
 the completion of his course in the theological 
 class of Edinburgh, he obtained a license to 
 preach in 1741, and in 1743 was presented 
 by the earl of Hopeton to the living of Glads- 
 muir in East Lothian. In 1751 he married a 
 lady of the name of Nisbet, his cousin-germau, 
 and began to be distinguished by his eloquence 
 and good taste as a preacher. About the same 
 time he became known as a powerful speaker 
 in the General Assembly of the church of 
 Scotland, in which he obtained an ascendancy 
 by his eloquence and great talents for public 
 business, which, exerted as they were ou the 
 
ROB 
 
 BJile of authority, gave him for a long time the 
 Jeiul in the ecch'siastical pohtica of Scotland. 
 In 17 ji he became a membt-r of tlie ci'K-- 
 bratetl "Select Society" of Etlinbur^li, and 
 signalized liimself by supporting Mr Home, 
 the clerical author of the trageiiy of Douj^las, 
 against the censures of the Scottish ri|;orists. I n 
 the mean time, he had occupied himself in his 
 *' History of Scotland, during the Keigns of 
 Queen Niary an»l King .lames V^I," which 
 work appeared early in 1759, in two vols. 4to, 
 and was received with immediate and general 
 applause. In tliis j)raise no one more heartily 
 concurred than the celebrated David Hume, 
 between whom and l)r Robertson, notwith- 
 standing religious and political ditlerences, a 
 faithful and intimate friendship was maintained 
 throughout life. The distinction and patron- 
 age acquired by this work, which reached a 
 fourteenth edition before his death, soon ap- 
 peared in the author's nomination to the chap- 
 lainship of Stirling Castle in 17.')9, in being ap- 
 pointed one of the king'schaplains in 1761, and 
 becoming principal of the university of Edin- 
 burgh in 176'i. 'I'wo years after he was made 
 historiographer royal of Scotland, with a salary 
 of 200/. per annum, and was altogether the 
 best beneficed clergyman of the Scottish church. 
 His emoluments, however, fell far short of 
 what mere private patronage, or political and 
 family interest, will frequently bestow on 
 the most undistinguished clergy of the south. 
 But his influence was not to be measured 
 by his income, and it was equally to his ho- 
 nour that it derived little support from those 
 who managed the political affairs of Scotland, 
 but was in a great degree personal and indepen- 
 dent. As head of a flourisliing seat of educa- 
 tion, he was minutely attentive to all its du- 
 ties ; and undebased by a prejudiced and nar- 
 row-minded opposition to amendment under the 
 name of innovation, he co-operated with the 
 greatest liberality in all the improvements 
 which have raised Edinburgh to its present 
 celebrity. In the midst of those numerous 
 pursuits and official avocations, he found time 
 to employ himself in his celebrated " History 
 of tlxe Reign of the Emperor Charles V," 
 which work appeared in 1769, in 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 ROB 
 
 gratitude for the liberality of the Spanish court, 
 in the way of communication, he has too Btii- 
 diously extenuated the cruelty of the early 
 concpierors of the new world. 'I'he latest work 
 of this able writer ai)pf'ared in 1791, under the 
 title of " An Historical Di8c|uisition concern- 
 ing the Knowledge which llie Ancients had 
 of India, and the I'rogress of Trade with that 
 Country ])rior to the IJiscovery of the Cape of 
 Good Ho|)e," 4to. It exhibits his characte- 
 ristic industry and skill in composition ; but 
 owing to the critical nature of the subject, 
 and the superior lights in Indian history 
 and antiquities, since attained by writers 
 with greater local advantages, it has never 
 attained the popularity of hia other perform- 
 ances. The health of Dr Robertson began 
 visibly to decline in 1791, and he retired to a 
 country-house in the neighbourhood of Edin- 
 burgh, where he expired in the bosom of an 
 affectionate family in June 1793, in his seventy- 
 second year. As a historian, Dr Robertson 
 is admired for skilful and luminous arrange- 
 ment, distinct mode of narrative, and highly 
 graphical description. His style is pure, dig- 
 nified, and singularly perspicuous ; and al- 
 though there may be less glow in his expres- 
 sion of moral and political feelings, than some 
 eminent writers in a free country have mani- 
 fested, it is atoned for by the calm sagacity 
 attendant upon a cool temper, when enlight- 
 ened by knowledge and directed by principle. 
 Dr Robertson, besides being a member of 
 the Royal Society of Edinburgh from its 
 foundation, belonged to those of Madrid, 
 Padua, and Petersburg!!. — Account of Life and 
 WritinsiS hij Professor Dugald Sieaart. 
 
 ROBERVAL (Giles Personne de) an 
 eminent French mathematician, was born in 
 1602 at Roberval, a parish in the diocese of 
 Beauvais, and he was first professor at the 
 college of Maitre Gervais, and afterwards at 
 the college-royal. In 1666 he was chosen a 
 member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 
 to wliich he communicated some curious ex- 
 periments on the Torricellian vacuum. He also 
 invented two new kinds of balances, one of 
 which was for the weighing of air. The Ro- 
 bervallian lines also were Ins, for the transfor- 
 
 Though high expectations were formed, it was mation of figures. He was iuTolved in a dis- 
 received with even more than correspondent ap- pute with lies Cartes, which, from his at- 
 plause. The introductory volume, containing a tem{)ts to depreciate him, and disputing with 
 view of the progress of society in Europe, from him the credit of his analytical inventions, did 
 the subversion of the Roman empire to the be- I not terminate to his credit. Roberval died in 
 
 ginning of the sixteenth century, met with 
 particular approbation. This work being more 
 calculated for foreign perusal than the History 
 of Scotland, rendered the historian as popular 
 abroad as at home, and among other testimo- 
 nies of respect, he received a valuable diamond 
 snuff-box from the empress of Russia. Thus 
 encouraged, he proceeded to the composition 
 of his " History of America," which appeared 
 in 1777, in 2 vols. 4to. On the whole, this 
 third attempt was worthy his high reputation, 
 although later writers are of opinion, that he 
 ought to have consulted some authorities which 
 lie neglected ; and it has been thought, that, 
 either led by natural candour, or impelled by 
 
 1675. His works are treatises, " On INIathe- 
 matics," '• On the Mundane System," and 
 one in Latin, which he attributes to Arislar- 
 clius of Samos ; and the following pieces in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, " Trea- 
 tise on Indivisibles ;" " On the Trochoid or 
 Cycloid ;" " A Letter to Father Mersenne ;*" 
 " Observations on the Composition of Motion 
 and on the Tangents of Curve Lines ;" " The 
 Recognition of Equations ;" " Experiments 
 concerning the Pressure of the Air ;" and 
 " The Geometrical Resolution of Plane and 
 Cubic Equations," — Muttons Math. Diet. 
 Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE (Maximilian Isidork) 
 
ROB 
 
 was born at Arras, in French Flanders in 1759, 
 and was the eldest son of an advocate of the 
 superior council of Artois. His father dying 
 when he was young, he was indebted for his 
 education to the biohop of Arras, who gave 
 him an exhibition at the college of Louis le 
 Grand, at Paris. He completed his youthful 
 studies in a manner creditable to his talents 
 and application ; and at this period he is said 
 to have derived an attachment to republican- 
 ism, and which may have influenced his future 
 conduct, from the lessons of one of his tutors, 
 M. Herivaux, who was an enthusiastic ad- 
 mirer of the heroes of ancient Greece and 
 Rome. In 1775, when Louis XVI, after his 
 accession to the crown, made his entry into 
 Paris, Robespierre was deputed by his fellow- 
 students to present their homage to the new 
 sovereign. Having adopted the law as a pro- 
 fession, he became an advocate of the council 
 of Artois ; and the first cause in which he 
 distinofuished himself was as the defender of 
 M. Vissery, who was prosecuted for erecting a 
 conductor to preserve his house from lightning. 
 Previously to the Revolution he was advan- 
 tageously known, both on account of his pro- 
 fessional abilities, and the liberal and enlight- 
 ened spirit which he exhibited in his conduct 
 and writings. In 1789 he was elected a de- 
 puty, from the Tiers Etat of the province of 
 Artois to the States General. In that assembly 
 he advocated the liberty of the press, and 
 other popular topics of discussion ; but his 
 eloquence did not attract much attention, and 
 he attached himself in the first instance so 
 closely to Mirabeau, that he acquired the 
 epithet of " Le Singe de Mirabeau." At this 
 time, however, he frequented the Jacobin as- 
 semblies and clubs of the lower orders, over 
 whom he gained an ascendancy, of which he 
 afterwards availed himself to make his way to 
 despotic power. In January 1791 he spoke 
 repeatedly on criminal legislation ; and he sub- 
 sequently displayed so much moderation in 
 discussions relative to the emigrants and the 
 priests, as led to suspicions that he was ac- 
 tuated by some secret motives. In a speech 
 on the 30th of May, he recommended the abo- 
 lition of capital punishments. He is said to 
 have been much alarmed at the flight of the 
 king from Paris, and equally rejoiced at his 
 forced return from Yarennes ; and from that 
 period he seems to have used all his influence 
 in overturning the monarchy. His projects 
 now gradually became developed, and at the 
 tumultuary meeting in the Champ de Mars, on 
 the 17th of July, an altar, with the inscrip- 
 tion " A celui qui a bien merite de laPatrie," 
 and below it the name of " Robespierre," tes- 
 tified his high favour with the people. The 
 closing of the Constituent Assembly, on the 
 oOth of September, afibrded him another 
 triumph, when the mob presented him with a 
 garland of oak-leaves, and taking the horses 
 from his carriage, drew him through the 
 Btreets, exclaiming, *' Behokl the friend of the 
 people, the great defender of liberty !" It 
 does not appear that he actively interfered in 
 the riot of the 10th of August 1792, or in the ^ 
 
 ROB 
 
 massacres which took place in the prisons of 
 Paris, in the beginning of September ; but he 
 was connected with Marat and Dan ton, of 
 whose crimes, and those of their associates, he 
 had sufficient address to reap the fruits, and, 
 like other tyrants, he at length made his in- 
 struments his victims. After the trial and 
 execution of the king, in promoting which, the 
 Brissotins, or Girondists, co-operated with 
 Robespierre and the Jacobins, the former were 
 speedily sacrificed to the ascendancy of the 
 latter. The Hebertists, who had joined in 
 this work of destruction, were the next 
 victims to the jealousy of the dictator, who 
 had no sooner sent them to the scaffold, witli 
 the assistance of Danton and his friends, than 
 he adopted measures for the ruin of that po- 
 pular demagogue, whom he dreaded as his 
 most dangerous rival. His next measure was 
 to throw the imputation of atheism and irreli- 
 gion on those whom he had destroyed, and to 
 establish a species of religions worship. Bar- 
 rere, by his direction, promulgated his new 
 system of worship ; and on the 8th of June, 
 1794, Robespierre, in person, celebrated what 
 he termed " the Feast of the Supreme Be- 
 ing." His power seemed now to be com- 
 pletely established, and the reign of terror 
 was at its height ; but his cruel tyranny and 
 mysterious denunciations had alarmed many 
 of those who had been most intimately con- 
 nected with him, and a conspiracy was formed 
 for his destruction. At this critical juncture, 
 far from acting with the decision which pre- 
 viously marked his conduct, he waited for 
 the attack of his enemies, and most unac- 
 countably secluded himself from the public for 
 more than a month, during which period he is 
 said to have been employed in preparing an 
 elaborate defence of his conduct, to be deli- 
 vered in the National Convention, where he 
 made his appearance for that purpose on the 
 26th of July (the 8th of Thermidor, in the re- 
 volutionary calendar) 1794. He was indi- 
 rectly attacked by Bourdon de I'Oise ; after 
 which Vadier, Cambon, Billaud Varennes, and 
 several other members spoke against him. He 
 now perceived the extent of his danger, and 
 the ensuing night was passed in consultation 
 with St Just and others of his most intimate 
 partizans; but their deliberations It-d to no de- 
 cisive results. The next day, when they ap- 
 peared in the Convention, Tallien and Billaud 
 openly accused Robespierre of despotism ; a 
 tumult ensued, and amidst cries of " a has le 
 tyran," he in vain endeavoured to obtain a 
 hearing. At length a decree of arrest was 
 carried against him ; and his brother, and his 
 friends St Just, Couthon, and Le Bas, were 
 included in it. Robespierre was sent to the 
 Luxembourg prison, but in the night he was 
 set free by the keeper, and was conducted to 
 the hall of the commune of Paris, where Hen- 
 riot, commander of the national guard, Fleu- 
 riot, the mayor of Paris, and others of his 
 creatures, had assembled forces for his de- 
 fence. This was the critical moment ; but 
 neither Henriot, nor Robespierre himself, had 
 spirit sufiicient to head the mob and lead it 
 
ROB 
 
 agaiiijst the Convention. While tliey delibe- 
 rated, their ojiponents proceeded to action. 
 Barras and others having been appointed tom- 
 missioncis to direct the ;irnii-d force of the 
 metroi>o]is, they, without dilficuhy, secured 
 the persons of the fallen tyiant and his asso- 
 ciates, who were all >;iiillotined the next day, 
 July 28, 1794. Robespierre endeavoured in 
 vain to escape a public execution, by shootinor 
 himself wiili a pistol at the moment of his 
 seizure ; but he only fractured his lower jaw, 
 and thus subjecetl himself to protracted suf- 
 fering, which excited neither sympathy nor 
 compassion. Of all the wretches defiled by 
 the crimes which accompanied tlie Revolu- 
 tion, Robespierre has excited the liighest ab- 
 horrence, and entailed on his name the great- 
 est degree of infamy. He was not, however, 
 tlie author of all the enonnities with whicli he 
 has leen charged. Among his colleagues of 
 the committees, and especially those who were 
 sent into the departments, many exercised 
 cruelties which far exceeded their instructions. 
 Those who contributed most to his overthrow, 
 and were loudest in their accusations against 
 kirn, liad profited by liis crimes, in wliich they 
 were deeply involved ; and, like the scape- 
 goat of the Jews, lie was charged with the sins 
 of the whole nation, or rather of the jacobin 
 government. In the Memorial from St He- 
 lena, Buonaparte is stated to have said, tliat 
 Robespierre displayed in his conduct more ex- 
 tensive and enlightened views than have been 
 generally ascribed to him ; and that he 
 intended to re-estabhsh order after he had 
 overturned the contending factions ; but not 
 being powerful enough to arrest the progress 
 of the Revolution, he suffered himself to he 
 carried away hy the torrent, as was the case 
 with all before Napoleon himself, who en- 
 gaged in a similar attempt. As a proof of this, 
 the ex-emperor asserted, that when with the 
 army at Nice, he had seen in the hands of the 
 brother of Maximilian Robespierre, letters, in 
 which that demagogue expressed an intention 
 to put an end to the reign of terror. On the 
 wliole, it may be reasonable to conclude that 
 something like principle and genuine enthu- 
 siasm guided this hateful and unhappy man 
 in the first instance, but, wholly unable to go- 
 vern the elements of wild disorder afloat around 
 him, the characteristic cruelty of perplexed 
 cowardice at length became his only instru- 
 ment, either of action or self-defence. How- 
 ever stimulated, his career exhibits one of the 
 most signal instances of theoretical and prac- 
 tical cruelty upon record. Among tlie pub- 
 lished works of Robespierre are, " Plaidoyer 
 pour le Sieur Vissery," in favour of the right 
 of setting up electrical conductors against 
 lightning, 1783, 8vo ; " Discours couronne 
 par la Soc. Roy. de INIetz, sur les Peines infa- 
 mantes," 1785, 8vo ; " Eloge de Cresset," 
 in which the author displays an attachment 
 to monarchical government and religious in- 
 stitutions ; " Eloge de Pres, Dupaty ;" and 
 a political journal, called " Le Defenseur 
 de la Constitution." — Diet, de H. M. dn 
 \8me S, Bwg. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. 
 
 HOB 
 
 Univ. Sir Waller Scott's Life of Napoleon 
 Buonajmrte. 
 
 ROIULANT (Kspiirr Bknoit Nicoi.is 
 de) lieutenant-general of infantry, and com- 
 mander-in-chief of the royal corps of military 
 engineers of the king of Sardinia, was boru 
 at Turin in 17'Jt. His father, the count de 
 Robilant, was accjuainted with military affairs 
 and civil architecture, and was the author of a 
 treatise on the art of war. The son studied 
 under Bertola, the \'auban of Piedmont, and 
 entering into the corps of artillery, he served 
 as a lieutenant in the war carried on by Charles 
 Emanuel ill, against the Spaniards, Ijetweea 
 174!iJand 1748. Peace taking place, the king sent 
 him to Germany to survey the mines of Saxo- 
 ny, Hanover, Bohemia, 6cc. ; and he returned 
 home in 1752 with a valuable collection of 
 plans and memoirs. He was then a])pointed 
 inspector-general of mines in all the Sardinian 
 states, and he established at Turin a school of 
 mineralogy, subterranean geometry, and doci- 
 mastics ; and he founded a chemical laboratory 
 in the arsenal. In 1769 he travelled in the 
 Alps and Appennines ; and he was subse- 
 quently employed in mineralogical lesearches 
 by pope Clement XI \'. He succeeded count 
 Pinto, in 1787, as first engineer ; and he was 
 promoted by his Sardinian majesty to several 
 other oflfices. He died May 1, 1801. He was 
 the author of " Experiments on Platina,"and 
 other important essays in the memoirs of the 
 academy of Turin ; besic'.f s which he wrote, 
 " On the different Processes employed at the 
 Mint for the Improvement of INletallurgic 
 Operations;" and "On the Utility and Im- 
 portance of Travels in One's own Couutiy." — 
 Biog, Univ. 
 
 ROBIN (Jean) a French botanist, bom in 
 15.50. He had a garden at Paris, in which 
 many curious plants were cultivated, of which 
 lie published a list. On the institution of the 
 Jardin des Plantes, it was confided to his care 
 by a decree of the Parisian faculty of medi- 
 cine in 1597. — Vespasian Robin, who was 
 either the son or the nepliew of the preced- 
 ing, was associated with him i" the diiectioa 
 of this garden in 1621, as ap|.;iars by a cata- 
 logue, entitled " Enchiridion Isagogicum ad 
 facilem Notitiam Stirpium, tam liidigenarum 
 quam Exoticarum, qua^ coluntur in Horto 
 UD. Joan, et \'esp. Robin, Botanicorum Re- 
 giorum," Paris, 12mo. V^. Robin appears to 
 have been alive in 1640, as l)r ^lorison, who 
 visited France at that period, was one of his 
 pupils. The beautiful tree called Robinia, or 
 pseudo-acacia, derives its name from these 
 botanists. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROBINS (Benjamin) an eminent mathe- 
 matician., who was the son of a tailor at Bath, 
 where he was born in 1707. He received but 
 a limited education, which he improved by his 
 own industry, and qualified himself to become 
 a teacher of matlicinatics, which employment 
 he exercised first at Bath, and then in Lon- 
 don. In 1742 he published a small treatise^ 
 entitled " New Priucij)les of Gunnery," con- 
 taining the result of experiments whicli he had 
 made relative to the force of gr.npowder and 
 
ROB 
 
 tlie resistance of the atmosphere. On the re- 
 turn of commodore Anson from his famous 
 voyage round the world, JMr Robins was em- 
 ployed to prepare the narrative of the enter- 
 prise, which he drew up in the name of the 
 rev. Richard Walter, chaplain of the Centu- 
 rion, and produced one of the most popular 
 works of the kind in our language. In 1750 
 he obtained the office of engmeer- general to 
 fhe East India company, and he went out in 
 that capacity : but he did not long enjoy the 
 appointment, dying at Fort St David's, July 
 29, 1751. His mathematical tracts, with an 
 account of his life, were published in 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1761. — Martvi's Bing. Philos. 
 
 ROBINSON (iMary) a female whose great 
 personal attractions, combined with some lite- 
 rary as well as histrionic talent, procured her 
 in the latter part of the last century a degree 
 of public attention, much increased by the no- 
 toriety of a temporary connexion established 
 between her and the then heir-apparent to the 
 throne. Her father, an American by birth, 
 of the name of Darby, commanded a trading 
 •vessel belonging to the port of Bristol, in 
 which city the subject of this article was born 
 in 1758. At an early age she was placed 
 under the care of the Misses More, one of 
 whom, Hannah, has since acquired so much 
 celebrity, and with them she continued till, in 
 her fifteenth year, she became the wife of an 
 extravagant and profligate attorney, named 
 Robinson, whose vices having at length im- 
 mured him within the walls of a prison, his 
 young wife was compelled to adopt some me- 
 thod of procuring for herself that support 
 which her husband ought to have afforded 
 her. The stage appeared the only probable 
 means of success, and to this she had re- 
 course. Garrick saw and fostered her rising 
 talent. Her personal beauty was a powerful 
 co-operative, and after appearing with great 
 success in Imogen, Juliet, Ophelia, and other 
 of Shakspeare's heroines, her greatest tri- 
 umph was exhibited in her representation of 
 Perdita in the Winter's Tale, in which cha- 
 racter she is supposed to have achieved the 
 conquest already alluded to, and whence slie 
 derived the appellation by which she was af- 
 terwards generally distinguished in the world 
 of fasljion. This illicit amour, the conducting 
 of which will ever reflect disgrace on the 
 courtly panders, who ought to have checked, 
 yet unblushmgly encouraged it, was even 
 more brief than usual. A general officer, 
 whose services in the American war have 
 been favourably mentioned, and who was at 
 least as remarkable for the elegance of his 
 person and manners as for his military abili- 
 ties, was her next protector, or rather favourite, 
 for she lavished on him all her disposable pro- 
 perty, and caught a violent rheumatism by 
 suddenly following him to the sea-side to re- 
 lease him from a temporary embarrassment. 
 She subsequently retired to the continent, and 
 on her return in 1788 commenced her literary 
 career, in which she had considerable succes;-. 
 •' Vancenza," " Hubert de Sevrac," " 1 he 
 Widow," "Angelina," " W'alsingham," "The 
 
 ROB 
 
 Natural Daughter," " Modern Manners," to- 
 gether witli some other novels 5 a tragedy, en- 
 titled the " Sicilian Lovers;" " Nobody," a 
 farce ; and two volumes of miscellaneous poe- 
 try ; some " Lyrical i'ales ;" and an autobio- 
 graphical sketch of her own life, remain to at- 
 test her possession of at least considerable 
 feeling and talent, and so far to add to her 
 misfortunes. In 1800 her health began to 
 decline rapidly, principally owing to her in- 
 sbility to take exercise, having never recovered 
 the use of her limbs ; and she died at her 
 house at Englefield green, December 28 in the 
 same year, in the forty-second year of her age. 
 — Metnoirs by Herself. Gent. Mag. 
 
 ROBINSON (RicHAnn) first baron Roke- 
 by, and archbishop of Armagh in Ireland. He 
 was the lineal descendant of the elder branch 
 of an ancient family of that name in York- 
 shire, in which county he was born in 1709. 
 From Westminster school he removed on the 
 foundation to Christchurch, Oxford ; and hav- 
 ing taken holy orders, became domestic chap- 
 lain to archbishop Blackburne, through whose 
 patronage he obtained the vicarage of Aldbo- 
 rough, with a stall in York JMinster. In 1751 
 he accompanied the duke of Dorset, the new 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to Dublin, in the 
 capacity of chaplain, and before the expira- 
 tion of the year was preferred by him to the 
 see of Killala. Over this diocese he presided 
 eight years, when he was translated to tbat of 
 Ferns. In 1761 he was again removed toKil- 
 dare, which he resigned in 1765, on being ad- 
 vanced to the Irish })rimacy. In this elevated 
 situation he distinguished himself by his mu- 
 nificence, especially in erecting an archiepis- 
 copal palace, with a public library, observatory, 
 &c. annexed, which he not only founded but 
 endowed, and in building four new churches in 
 his diocese. His elder brother dying in 1785, 
 he succeeded to the family baronetcy, which 
 then merged in the Irish barony, to which he 
 had been previously elevated in 1777, by the 
 title of baron Rokeby, with remainder to his 
 nephew, the eccentric Matthew Robinson, of 
 MonkshortOD in Kent, who, on the death of 
 the primate at Clifton, in 1794, succeeded to 
 the title. Matthew, the second baron, was 
 brother to the celebrated Mrs Montagu, and 
 retained till his death his predilection in fa- 
 vour of a venerable beard of suowy whiteness, 
 which descended to his chest, and rendered 
 him one of the most cgnspicuous characters of 
 the county in which he lived. At his decease 
 he was succeeded in his titles by the present 
 baron, a nephew. — Ency. Brit. 
 
 ROBINSON (Robert) an eminent dis- 
 senting divine. He was the son of a native 
 of Scotland, and was born at SwafTham in 
 Norfolk, in October 1735. He was educated 
 at a respectable grammar-school at Scarning, 
 in his native county ; but owing to the loss of 
 his father, and the humble circumstances of 
 his mother, at the age of fourteen he was 
 apprenticed to a hair-dresser in London, 
 who gave up hi*^ indentures when he was 
 about twenty. Having zealously attached 
 himself to George Whitefield, he became a 
 
ROB 
 
 preacher among the Calvinistic mctliodists, 
 and occuj)i('il tliat office at Mildenhall in Suf- 
 folk, and afterwards at the Tabernacle at Nor- 
 wich, and oilier ])laces. He subsequently re- 
 linqui.shed his connexion with the niethodists, 
 and, although with the forfeiture of the coun- 
 tenance of a rich relation, established an inde- 
 pendent congregation at Norwich, over which 
 lie presided. In 1759 he married, and was soon 
 after chosen pastor to a small anabaptist con- 
 gregation at Caml)ridge, which increased 
 very much under his care, and he retained 
 tliis situation during the remainder of his 
 life. In 1773 he removed his residence to 
 the village of Chesterton, near Cambridge, 
 where he engaged in trade as a farmer, corn- 
 dealer, and coal-meichant. His learning and 
 abilities, displayed in his sermons and his pub- 
 lished works, procured him much respect from 
 the members of the university and other per- 
 sons belonging to the established church ; and 
 he is said to have received oflTers of promotion 
 if he would become a conformist, which he 
 declined. Tie was first known as an author 
 m 177-i', by a publication under the title of 
 " The Arcana, or the Principles of the late 
 Petitioners to Parliament, for Relief in Mat- 
 ters of Subscription, in eight Letters to a 
 Friend," 8vo. These letters discovering con- 
 siderable controversial ability, much advanced 
 his character among the dissenters. In the 
 same year he published a spirited translation 
 of the sermons of the celebrated French 
 preacher Saurin, to which he prefixed an in- 
 troduction, containing very interesting memoirs 
 of the reformation in France, the life of iM. 
 Saurin, together with some observations on 
 Christian liberty, and the moral influence of 
 the Gospel, which acquired him much attrac- 
 tion, even from the dignitaries of the esta- 
 blishment. In 1776 he entered into contro- 
 versy respecting the divinity of Christ, and 
 published " A Plea for the Divinity of our 
 Tord Jesus Christ, &c." which was received 
 with great approbation, and again obtained 
 him the countenance of several members of 
 the episcopacy. He would not however be 
 led into farther discussion on this subject, and 
 declined every solicitation to answer Mr. Lind- 
 say's published " Examination " of his argu- 
 ment. In 1777 he produced a small tract on 
 the observance of Good Friday ; in which, 
 with considerable learning, and still more 
 ))oint and humour, he attacked the observance 
 of similar commemorations. 'I'liis tract, from 
 its piquancy, has been repeatedly reiJublished. 
 In 177r) he j)ublished '• A Plan of Lectures 
 on the Principles of Nonconformity," 8vo ; a 
 work which contains outlines of the whole 
 controversy between the church of England 
 and the dissenters. Towards the close of the 
 same year, he translated the celebrated 
 Claude's " Essay on the Composition of a 
 Sermon," 2 vols. 8vo, which he was subse- 
 quently induced to illustrate on a larger scale, 
 for the benefit of dissenting students. In 
 1780 he paid a visit to Edinburgh, and de- 
 clined the proffered diploma of doctor of divi- 
 nity'. On ids return to Cambridge he pub- 
 Bioo. ricT.-^VoL. III. 
 
 ROB 
 
 lished a well-written tract, entitled •' ThO 
 general Doctriiie of Toleration ;" and sooa 
 after preached and published an able sermon, 
 entitled '* Shivery inconsistent with Chris- 
 tianity ;" and was the author of an excellert 
 petition from the gentry, freeholders, and 
 others of the county of Cambridge, against 
 the slave-trade. In 1781 he began to collect 
 materials for his " History of liajitism ;" and 
 in 1782 aj)peared his " Political (Jatechism," 
 in 8vo, intended to convey just ideas of civil 
 government and of the Priti.sh constitution. 
 In 1784 he jiublished " Sixteen Discourses," 
 which had been delivered extempore to jilain 
 and illiterate audiences in the vicinity of Cam- 
 bridge. These being very liberal on doctrinal 
 points, excited much apprehension among bis 
 orthodox friends ; and his tendency to Unita- 
 rian principles soon became known, although 
 ht 8';ill continued his ministerial labours at 
 Cambridge. During the latter years of his 
 lif'. the intense apjjlication he bestowed on 
 his history of baptism undermined his health, 
 and it was hoped by his family that a journey 
 to Birmingham, and an interview with Dr 
 Priestley, might benefit him. He accordingly 
 arrived in that town, and ventured to preach 
 twice on the same Sunday. The following 
 Tuesday he spent a cheerful evening with 
 some friends, but died, as is supposed, soon 
 after he retired to rest, on the 8th of June, 
 1790, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. This 
 able reasoner and eminent controversialist died 
 before he completed the work to which his 
 labour had for several years been confined. 
 One part of it however was published in 1790, 
 under the title of *' The History of Baptism," 
 4to. This was to be followed by a " History 
 of the Baptists;" and what he had prepared 
 with that view, with the exception of some 
 trifling omissions, was published in 1792, 
 under the title of " Ecclesiastical Researches." 
 The ability displayed in both these works is 
 generally admitted, but of course with excep- 
 tions and qualification, according to the various 
 creeds of those who pronounce judgment. A 
 detail of the subjects of some of his most ad- 
 mired sermons, with the titles of several minor 
 works, will be found in the first of our authori- 
 ties. — Duer^s Lije of Rohiiisoti. }{ees's Ci/clop. 
 ROBINSON (Thomas) an eminent divine, 
 was born at \\'akefield, in Yorkshire, in 1749. 
 After receiving the rudiments of a classical 
 education at the foundation school there, he 
 removed to Trinity college, Cambridge, and 
 obtained a fellowshij) of that society in 1772. 
 He was the author of several devotional works, 
 the princij)al of which are his " Christian 
 System unfolded," 8vo, 3 vols. ; and " Scrip- 
 ture Characters," 8vo, 4 vols. He also pub- 
 lished some sermons, ikc. and died in 1813 at 
 Leicester, in which town he held the living of 
 St i\Iary's for thirty-five years. — Chalmers's 
 Bio'^. Diet. 
 
 IIOIUSON (John) an eminent Scottish 
 mathematician and natural philosopbei;, bora 
 at Bogball, in Stirlingshire, in 1739. He stu- 
 died at Glasgow, where he applied himself 
 particularly to algebra and geometry. After 
 
 £ 
 
ROC 
 
 being disappointed of the office of assistant to 
 Dr Dick, the professor of natural philosophy, 
 he went to sea as tutor to the eldest son of 
 admiral Knowles, who was a lieutenant in the 
 navy, and Mr Robison was at his own request 
 rated as a midshipman. He afterwards sailed 
 to Quebec ; and while in the river St Law- 
 rence, he observed the connexion between 
 the aurora borealis and the direction of the 
 maenetic needle. In 1762 he went to Jamaica, 
 to ascertain the accuracy of Harrison's time- 
 keeper. On his return he resumed his stu- 
 dies at Glasgow, and his pupil having died, he 
 undertook to direct tlie studies of admiral 
 Knowles's younger son. In 1767 he succeeded 
 Dr Black as professor of chemistry, and in 
 1770 he went with his patron, sir C Knowles, 
 to St Petersburgh, where he was appointed 
 inspector-general of the corps of marine ca- 
 dets. He held that post four years, and then 
 accepted an invitation to become professor 
 of natural philosophy at Edinburgh. On the 
 institution of the Royal Society in that city in 
 1783, he was chosen secretary, and he fur- 
 nished many contributions to the Transactions 
 of that association. He also wrote many ar- 
 ticles on natural philosophy for the Encyclo- 
 pfedia Britannica. In 1798 he published a 
 work, entitled " Proofs of a Conspiracy 
 ao'ainst the Religion and Governments of Eu- 
 rope," 8vo, in which he denounced the conti- 
 nental freemasons as revolutionary conspira- 
 tors. The book attracted much temporary 
 notice, but is now fallen into deserved obli- 
 vion. He published the " Chemical Lec- 
 tures " of Dr Black, with valuable notes, in 
 two volumes, quarto; and " Elements of Me- 
 chanical Philosophy," . 8vo. His death took 
 place in 1805. — Philos. Mag. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROBORTELLO (Francesco) a philolo- 
 gical writer, born at Udina, in Italy, in 1516. 
 He studied at Bologna, and about 1538 he 
 became professor of the belles lettresat Lucca, 
 whence he removed to Pisa in 154'3. The 
 senate of Venice, in 1549, invited him to suc- 
 ceed the celebrated Baptist Egnatius, whose 
 oreat age prevented him from continuing his 
 lectures. In 1552 he became professor of 
 Greek and Latin literature at Padua, whence 
 he went to Bologna in 1557, but returning 
 to Padua in 1560, he died there March 18, 
 1567, Robortello seems to have been of a 
 very contentions temper, as in most of the 
 situations he held he was involved in disputes 
 with hi9 learned contemporaries, and his 
 writings are replete with invective against 
 them. He edited the poetics of Aristotle, 
 the tragedies of ^schylus, the treatise of 
 Longinus on the Sublime, and other works of 
 ancient writers ; and composed many original 
 essays and treatises, of which a catalogue is 
 given by Teissier. — Tiraboschi. Biog. Univ. 
 Teissier, Eloga tics Hommes Suvans. 
 
 ROCABEKTI (John Thomas de) a Spa- 
 nish prelate, was born of a noble family at 
 Peselada, on the frontiers of Catalonia, in 
 1624. In 1666 he was made provincial of 
 Arragon ; in 1670, general of the order of St 
 Dominic, archbishop of Valencia, and finally, 
 
 ROC 
 
 in 1695, inquisitor-general of Spain. He was 
 twice appointed by the king viceroy of Valen- 
 cia. He was very zealous in his devotion to 
 the church of Rome, in defence of the claims 
 of which, he wrote a treatise " De Romani 
 Pontificis Auctoritate," 3 vols, folio, 1693. He 
 also procured all the treatises written in de- 
 fence of the pope's authority, and caused them 
 to be printed in a uniform collection, entitled 
 " Bibliotheca maxima Pontificia," &c. 21 vols, 
 folio. He also wrote some devotional pieces. 
 His death took place in 1699. — Moreri. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 ROCCA (ANGELxrs) a learned Italian, was 
 born at Rocca Contrata, in the marche of An- 
 cona, in 1545. He took the habit among the 
 hermits of St Augustine, at Camerino, and 
 studied at Rome, Venice, Perugia, and Padua, 
 where he took the degree of DD. In 1579 
 he was invited to Rome by Firizani, the vicar- 
 general of the Augustines, to be his secretary; 
 and Sixtus V placed him in the Vatican, and 
 made him superintendent of the editions of 
 the Bible, the Councils, and the Fathers, which 
 appeared during his pontificate : in 1595 
 Clement VIII made him apostolical sacristan 
 and titular bishop of Tagaste, in Wumidia. 
 He died in 1620. He collected an excellent 
 library, called after him the Angelical library, 
 which he left to the Augustinian monastery at 
 Rome, on condition that it should be open to 
 tlie public. Rocca displayed his learning and 
 industry in several works on divinity, morals, 
 and history, the principal of which are " Bib- 
 liotheca Theologica et Scripturalis ;" " Notas 
 in Novum Testamentum ;" " De Patientia ;" 
 " De Cometis ;" *' Observationes in VI Libros 
 Elegantiarum Laur. Valla^ ;" " Observationes 
 de Lingua Latina," collected in two volumes 
 folio, 1719. A curious collection was made 
 from his MSS. entitled " Thesaurus Pontifi- 
 ciarum Antiquitatum, necnon Rituum ac Cae- 
 remoniarum," 2 vols, folio. — Landi. Moreri. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ROCHAMBEAU (Jean Baptiste Dona- 
 TiEN DE ViMEUR, comte do) marshal of 
 France, was born at Vendome, July 1, 1725. 
 He entered into the army at the age of six- 
 teen, and served in Germany under marshal 
 Broglio. In 1746 he became aide-de-camp to 
 Louis Philip, duke of Orleans ; and after- 
 wards obtaining the command of the regiment 
 of La Marche, he distmguished himself at 
 the battle of Lafeldt, where he was wounded. 
 He obtained fresh laurels at Creveldt, Minden, 
 Corbach, and Clostercarap. Having been 
 made lieutenant-general, he was in 1780 sent 
 with an army to the assistance of the United 
 States of America, and they rewarded his ser- 
 vices by a present of two cannons taken from 
 lord Cornwallis. After the revolution, Ro- 
 chambeau was raised to the rank of a marshal 
 by Louis XVI, and he was appointed to the 
 command of the army of the North. He was 
 soon superseded by more active officers, and 
 bemg calumniated by the popular journalists, 
 he addressed to the legislative assembly a vin- 
 dication of his conduct. A decree of appro- 
 bation was consequently passed in May, 179^2, 
 
HOC 
 
 nnd Ik^ retired to liis estate near Vendome, 
 with a determination to interfere no more with 
 piiMic affairs. He was subseciueutly arrested, 
 and narrowly escaped suflVvini; deatli under 
 tlie tyranny of Robespierre. In 1803 lie was 
 presented to lUionaparte, who, in the year fol- 
 Jowinvr. trave liim a pension, and the cross of 
 ^•rand otiicer of tlie lei;[ion of honour, liis 
 death took phico in 1807. He wrote, in tlie 
 latter part of his life, " INIemoirs," puhlished 
 in 1809. 8ro. — Rochamukau ( Ddn vtien Jo- 
 sKPfi Marie de Vimeur, viscount de) son of 
 the former, entered into the army, and served 
 ae:^ainst the Englisli in the West Indies in 1793 
 and 1794. He was afterwards einj)loyed in 
 Italy, and in laO'i he went to St Domingo 
 with general Leclerc, whom he succeeded. 
 He disgraced liimself by his cruelties to the 
 Negroes ; and being taken prisoner by the 
 Knglish, he did not return to France till 1811. 
 He was killed at the battle of Leipsic in 1813. 
 — Bin^. Xouv. des Contemp. Bio^. Univ. 
 
 ROCHE (Sophia de la) a German romance 
 writer, was the daughter of Dr Guttermann, 
 who was related to the celebrated Wieland, 
 and was born in Suabia, in 1730. She dis- 
 played an earlv disposition for literature ; and 
 her father being resident at Augsburg, as 
 dean of the faculty of medicine, Bianconi, 
 pliysician to the prince -bishop of Augsburg, 
 was so struck with tlie mental charms of the 
 young lady, that he demanded her in marriage. 
 The union, however, did not take place, in con- 
 sequence of the lover requiring that the chil- 
 dren which might arise from it sliould he edu- 
 cated in the Catholic religion. She was 
 therefore forced to break off the connexion, in 
 obedience to the commands of her father ; and 
 while suffering from the disappointment, she 
 became an inmate with her relative Wieland, 
 then mhiister of Biberach. He also offered 
 her his hand, but considerations of interest 
 prevented their marriage, and she at length 
 became the wife of a counsellor of Mayence, 
 whose name was Frank, better known by the 
 Gallicized name of La Roche, given him by 
 the minister, count Stadion, under whom he 
 held an office. He made himself known as a 
 man of letters, by a satirical work, entitled 
 " Letters on IMonachism, written by a Catho- 
 lic Parisli Priest to a Friend," 1771. He 
 afterwards retired with his wife to Otrenbacli, 
 where he died in 1789. IMadame La Roche 
 long survived her husband, dying at the same 
 place, February 18, 18()7. She wrote several 
 works of imagination, in the style of Richard- 
 son, the first and best of which, " The History 
 of Lady Sophia Steniheim," was translated 
 into Enghsh, by J. Collyer, and published in 
 two volumes, octavo, 1776. — Bioq. Univ. i 
 
 ROCHEFORT (Wii.i.iam de) a French j 
 writer, was born in 1730 at Lyons, and had a j 
 small employment in the finances at Cette in 
 Languedoc. His inclinations leading him to 
 literature, he went to Paris, and composed 
 three tragedies upon the Greek model, which 
 did not please the public taste, though a comedy 
 which he wrote had more success. His other 
 works are, "A Refutation of the Systeme de 
 
 la Nature ;" " A Critical History of the Opi- 
 nions of the Ancients concerning Hai)pine.->s ;" 
 " A complete Translation of the Plays of So- 
 phocles," much esteemed for its elegance and 
 fidelity, and for the excellent notes atta'died 
 to it. He also trani^laled Homer's Iliad and 
 Odyssey, the notes to which were most ad- 
 mireil. He was a member of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions and Belles Lettrea, to which he 
 presfiitcd several learned memoirs. He died 
 in 1788, much esteemed for his amiabl" pri- 
 vate character. — Noiiv. Diet. Hint. 
 
 ROCHEKOIJCAULT (Francis, duke of) 
 prince of IMarsillac, a distinguished wit and 
 nobleman of the reign of l^ouis XIV, was 
 born in 1613. He distinguished himself as 
 the most brilliant nobleman about the court, 
 and by his share in the good gi-aces of the ce- 
 lebrated duchess of Longueville, W'as involved 
 in the civil war of the Fronde. He signahzed 
 his courage at the battle of St Antoine in Pa- 
 ris, and received a shot which for some time 
 deprived him of sight. At a more advanced 
 period liis house was the resort of the best 
 company at Paris, including Boileau. Racine, 
 and the mesdames Sevigne and La Fayette. 
 By the former of these ladies he is spoken of 
 as holding the first rank in "courage, merit, 
 tenderness, and good sense." The letters of 
 madame de Maintenon also speak of him 
 with high but inconsistent praise. Huet de- 
 scribes him as possessing a nervous tempera- 
 ment, which would not allow him to accept a 
 seat in the French academy, owing to his want 
 of courage to make a public speech. The 
 duke de Rochefoucault died with philosophic 
 tranquillity at Paris in 1680, in his sixty- 
 eighth year. This nobleman wrote " Me- 
 moires de la Regne d'Anne d'Autriche," 2 
 vols. 12mo, 1713, an energetic and faithful 
 representation of that fretful period ; but he 
 is chiefly famous for a work, entitled " Re- 
 flexions et j\Iaximes," which have been abun- 
 dantly both praised and criticised. Founded 
 on the principle that self-love is the founda- 
 tion of all our actions, it is deemed by some 
 writers to be rather a satire upon, than an ex- 
 position of, human nature, and unfavouraide 
 to virtue, by giving it a jirinciple in common 
 with vice. Possibly a somewliat deeper in- 
 sight into the sources of human conduct, would 
 show not only that self-love is the mainspring 
 of all action, but that all which is admirable 
 in performance is best promoted and explained 
 by it. As regards the " IMaxims" of Itoche- 
 foucault, they receive a portion of their pecu- 
 liar point from the very courtly scene of con- 
 teinjilation, and from the delicacy and finesse 
 with which the veil is pt-netrated that is 
 spread over the surface of refined society. It 
 is well known that Swift was a deciiled ad- 
 mirer of Rochefoucault, and his celebrated 
 poem on his own death commences with an 
 avowal of the fact. The misanthropy of that 
 great man renders his suffrage any thing but 
 popular ; but possibly, as in the doctrine of 
 the invariable predominance of the stroncref 
 motive, that of self-love simply bespeaks a 
 more strict attention to early cultivation and 
 
 E2 
 
ROC 
 
 discipline, to render it not only compatible with 
 virtue, but strictly and pbilosopbically con- 
 nectftd with the highest, the noblest, and, in 
 common language, the most disinterested ful- 
 filment of all our duties. — Nuuv. Diet. Hist. 
 Voltaire, Steele de Louis XIV. 
 
 ROCHEJAQUELEIN (Henry de la) a 
 French royaUst officer, who distinguished 
 himself in the war of La Vendee. He was 
 born in 1773, and was the son of the marquis 
 de la Rochejaquelein, a nobleman of Poitou, 
 who was colonel of a regiment of cavalry. 
 Having been educated at the military school of 
 Soreze, he entered into the constitutional 
 guard of Louis XVL His father having be- 
 come an emigrant, he quitted Paris after the 
 insurrection of the lOlh of August, 1792, and 
 retired to Poitou. He resided with his rela- 
 tive, the marquis de Lescure, near Parthenay, 
 in March 1793, when the inhabitants of the 
 surrounding country took arms in favour of the 
 royal cause, and La Rochejaquelein putting 
 himself at their head, joined Bonchamps and 
 d'Elbee. They attacked and defeated the re- 
 publicans under general Quetineau, at Au- 
 biers. The marquis de Lescure then took the 
 field with the royalists, who were at first very 
 successful ; but on the 18tli of October they 
 were defeated at Chollet, and their generals, 
 Lescure, Bonchamps, and d'Elbee, were mor- 
 tally wounded. La Rochejaquelein was 
 chosen commander-in-chief of the Vendean 
 troops, and he was obliged, against his own 
 judgment, to retreat beyond the Loire. He 
 continued, under great disadvantages, for 
 some time to oppose the republicans with va- 
 rious success ; but he was at length killed in 
 defending the village of Nouaille, near Chol- 
 let, March 4, 1794-. In the " Memoires " of 
 the marchioness de la Rochejaquelein, the 
 widow of his younger brother, published at 
 Paris in 1815, dug young soldier is represented 
 as resembhng a knight of chivalry, or a hero 
 of romance ; and after making all the requi- 
 site allowances for the partial friendship of 
 his historian, he really a])pears to have pos- 
 sessed extraordinary military talents. — Biog. 
 Nouv. des Coutemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROCHON (Alexis Marie de) a French 
 astronomer and distinguished navigator, born 
 in the castle of Brest, where his father held a 
 military office, in 1741. He was destined for 
 the clerical profession, and was promoted to 
 the priory of St Mai tin, near Mantes ; but an 
 irresistible passion for the sciences prevented 
 him from entering into holy orders. In 1765 
 he was appointed librarian of the royal ma- 
 rine academy of Brest, and admitted a corres- 
 ponding member of the Parisian Academy of 
 Sciences, to which he had addressed several 
 memoirs on optics. In 1767 he obtained the 
 title of astronomer of the marine, and in that 
 quality he embarked on board a vessel which 
 conveyed to Morocco the French ambassador, 
 general Breugnon. He made some curious 
 astronomical observations at Cadiz and Mo- 
 rocco, and determined the longitudes of va- 
 rious places. In 1768 he was sent by the go- 
 vernment on a scientific voyage to the East 
 
 ROD 
 
 Indies, and elsewhere, of which an account 
 appeared in his " Voyages a Madagascar, et 
 aux Indes Orientales," Paris, 1791, 8vo. In 
 1787 he was nominated astronomical optician 
 of the marine in the room of father Bosco- 
 vich ; and he was sent to London, in 1790, by 
 the minister for foreign affairs, to make inqui- 
 ries previously to the introduction of anew sys- 
 tem of weights and measures in France. On 
 the foundation of the Institute, in 1795, Ro- 
 chon was one of the first members, and he 
 was employed in a great variety of researches 
 connected with the improvement of the arts 
 and sciences till his death, which happened 
 April 5, 1817. His scientific works, which 
 are very numerous, are specified in the an- 
 nexed authorities. The most important of his 
 discoveries is his micrometer of rock crystal, 
 which he invented in 1777 ; and an account 
 of it may be found in a memoir which he read 
 before the Institute, April 1, 1811. — Biog, 
 Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RODNEY (George Brydges, baron) a 
 gallant and successful naval commander, de- 
 scended of a good family in Somersetshire, 
 born 1717. His father, Henry Rodney, was 
 a captain in the royal navy, and educated his 
 son for the same profession. He first obtained 
 a ship in 1742, and seven years after was sent 
 out to Newfoundland as governor, which si- 
 tuation he filled upwards of three years. In 
 1759, having been promoted to the rank of ad- 
 miral, he took the command of the expedition 
 destined for the bombardment of Havre de 
 Grace, a service which he executed with 
 much success, destroying a great quantity of 
 warlike stores collected there by the French 
 government. Two years after lie sailed with 
 a fleet under his command to the West Indies, 
 where he distinguished himself in the reduc- 
 tion of Martinique, and on his return was re 
 warded with the red ribbon and a baronetcy. 
 A contested election for the borough of Nor- 
 thampton, m 1768, having very much im- 
 paired his finances, he found it necessary to 
 retire to the continent, in order to escape tlie 
 importunities of his creditors. While in this 
 state of self-banishment, the French govern- 
 ment, aware of his necessities, and fully ap- 
 preciating his talents as a naval tactician, made 
 some overtures to him, which, had he accepted 
 them, would have recruited his fortune at the 
 expense of his reputation. These the honest 
 sailor rejected, not only without hesitation, 
 but in such terms as marked his sense of the 
 insult offered him by the proposal ; and the 
 fact having transpired through the French am- 
 bassador in London, the earl of Sandwich, 
 then at the head of the Admiridty, sent him 
 an invitation to take the command of a squa- 
 dron destined for the Mediterranean. In 
 1780, having previously intercepted a valua- 
 ble Spanish convoy, he fell in with admiral 
 Langara's fleet off cape St Vincent, and after 
 an obstinate engagement, completely defeated 
 it, bringing home five ships of the line as the 
 fruits of his victory. In 1781 he again sailed 
 for the West Indies, and reduced the Dutch 
 island of St Eustathius : but his greatest tri- 
 
]l O D 
 
 umph was achieved on the 12th of April the \ 
 fullov%'iiig year, when lie obtained a decisive 
 victory over tlie French fleet under De Grasse, 
 capturing five, and sinking one of his hirgest 
 vessels. A barony, and a pension of two , 
 thousand pounds, were tlie rewards bestowed 
 upon him by bis country for services of such i 
 importance ; and on liis decease, in tlie spring 
 of 179'2, a monument was voted to bis me- 
 mory at the national exi)ense, which has since 
 been erected in the north transept of St Paul's 
 cathedral. J.ord Roilney is described by some 
 writers on naval aftairs as the Hrst who put in 
 practice the system of tactics afterwards 
 adopted with such success by Nelson and 
 other commanders, the principal feature of 
 which consists in breaking through the centre 
 of the enemy's line. — British Peerufre. Naval 
 Chronicle. 
 
 RODOLPII I, emperor of Germany, foun- 
 der of the imperial house of Austria, was born 
 in 1218, being the eldest son of Albert IV, 
 count of Hapsburgb, and landgrave of Alsace. 
 He was brought up in the court and camp of 
 the emperor Frederick II ; and on the death of 
 his father he succeeded to territories of a very 
 moderate extent, which, in the spirit of the 
 times, he sought to augment by military en- 
 terprises. In 1245 he married a daughter of 
 the count of Hohenburgh, by which lie ac- 
 quired an accession of territory ; and some 
 years after served under Ottocar, king of Bo- 
 hemia, against the Pagan Prussians. Several 
 years of active warfare ensued, in which he 
 much distinguislied himself by his prudence, 
 valour, and the spirit of justice witli which he 
 protected the inhabitants of the towns from 
 their baronial oppressors. In 1273, as he was 
 encamped before the walls of Basil, lie re- 
 ceived the unexpected intelligence that he was 
 elected king of the Romans, and emperor, in 
 preference to Alphonso king of Castile, and 
 Ottocar king of Bohemia. Rodolph, then in 
 his fifty- fifth year, willingly accepted the prof- 
 fered elevation ; and being crowned at Aix- i 
 la-Chapelle, immediately strengthened himself ! 
 by marrying two of his daughters to the count ! 
 palatine of Bavaria, and the duke of Saxony, j 
 He also took measures to ingratiate liimself i 
 with pope Gregory X, who induced the king | 
 of Castile to withdraw his pretensions. The > 
 king of Bohemia, however, at that time one of ] 
 the most powerful princes in Europe, persisted | 
 in his opposition, and a war ensued, in which 
 he was defeated, and compelled to sue for 1 
 peace, and agree to pay homage. Stung by this ; 
 disgrace, the Bohemian king broke the treaty 
 in 1277, and the following year Ottocar was 
 again defeated and slain. By the treaty with 
 his successor which followed, Rodoli)h was to 
 hold INIoravia for five years, and retain the 
 Austrian provinces which had been previously 
 yielded by Ottocar, and the securing of 
 which to his family was henceforward his 
 primary object. After some abortive at- 
 tempts to restore the influence of tlie em- 
 pire in Tuscany, he contented himself with 
 drawing large sums from Lucca and other 
 cities, for the confirraatioa and extensioa of j 
 
 RO E 
 
 their privileges. No foreign foe remaining, he 
 assiduously employt-d himself to restore peaco 
 and order to Germany, and wisely j)ut down 
 the private fortresses, whicli served ha a 
 retreat to banditti, and to ferocious nobles, 
 who were little better than their leaders. For 
 these and other eminent services in the same 
 spirit, he obtained the title of " a living law," 
 and was regarded as a second founder of the 
 German empire. He subseeiuently engaged 
 in war with tbe counts of Savoy and of 1 bur- 
 gundy, and delivered the young king of Bo- 
 hemia from the captivity to which he bud 
 been subjected by the regent Otho, and mar- 
 ried him to one of his claugbters. The final 
 object of the emperor was to secure the im- 
 perial succession to his son Albert ; but tlio 
 electors, jealous of the rapid rise of the family, 
 could not be made to concur, and Rodolph 
 felt the disappointment severely. He liad 
 however laid a permanent foundation for the 
 lasting prosperity of his race, and after a 
 reign of nineteen years, exjiired in July 121)1, 
 in the seventy-third year of his age. Tliere 
 is scarcely an excellency either of body or 
 mind which the biographers of the house of 
 Austria have not attributed to its founder ; and 
 he appears to l;ave merited no small por- 
 tion of their panegyric. Few princes have 
 surpassed him in energy of character and in 
 civil and military talents. He was personally 
 brave, almost to rashness, indefatigable, sim- 
 ple and unaffected in his manners, affable, and 
 magnanimous. In the be^-inning of bis career 
 he seems to have shared in the usual licence 
 of the period in pursuit of aggrandisement ; 
 but as an emperor he has been regarded for 
 the most part as equitable and just as he was 
 brave and intelligent. — Mod. Univ. Hist. 
 
 RODON (DAviDde)or DAVID DERO- 
 DON, a French divine and philosopher of the 
 seventeenth century. He was a native of 
 Dauphiny, and appears to have been brought 
 up in the Catholic faith, which he afterwards 
 renounced, and became a zealous Protestant. 
 He filled the philosophical chair successively 
 at Die, at Orange, and at Nismes, where he 
 published a tract, entitled " The Tonib of the 
 jMass,"in 1632; which so exasperated the Ca- 
 tholics, that they procured his banishment 
 from France, and lie died about two years 
 after at Geneva. He was the author of a 
 course of philoso])hy, of wliich he published 
 a pojiular abridgment, entitled " Pliilosophia 
 Contracta," and other works, besides that 
 above noticed. — Aikin's G. l^iog. Bio>^. ['niv. 
 
 ROE (sir Thomas) a distinguished travel- 
 ler and negociator, was born at L<uv Lavton, 
 in Essex, about trie year 1580. He was ad- 
 mitted into iNlagdaltn college, Oxford, in 
 1593, but quitted it without taking a degree, 
 and after spending some time at one of the 
 inns of court, was made an esquire of the 
 body to queen Elizalieth. In lo()4 he was 
 knighted by king dames, and soon after ap- 
 pointed to command an expedition sent Ity 
 prince Henry to make discoveries in America. 
 On his return, by the desire of the East India 
 Company he wa.s sent an ambassador to tlie 
 
ROE 
 
 Great Mogul in 1614 ; at whose court hf re- 
 sided uutil 1618, and made many curious ob- 
 servations upon the court and people, speci- 
 mens of which may he found in Purchas's 
 Pilgrim, and in Churchill's Collection of Voy- 
 ages. On quitting India he visited the court 
 of Shah Abbas, in Persia, with whom he 
 negociated a treaty for a free trade with that 
 country. On his return home, in 1620, he was 
 elected a burgess for Cirencester, and tbe fol- 
 lowing year was nominated ambassador to the 
 Ottoman Porte, which post he held under five 
 successive sultans, and rendered numerous and 
 imj>ortant services to the commercial interests 
 of his country. Daring his embassy, sir Tho- 
 mas drew up " A true and faithful Relation of 
 what lately happened in Constantinople, con- 
 cerning; the Death of Sultan Osman, and the 
 setting up of his uncle INIustapha," 1622, 
 London, 4to. He also kept minutes of his 
 negociations, which remained in manuscript 
 until 1740, and then were published, under 
 the title of" The Netrociations of Sir Thomas 
 Roe, in his Embassy to the Ottoman Porte." 
 During his residence in the East he also made 
 a valuable collection of Greek and. Oriental 
 MSS. v/hich he presented to the Bodleian 
 library, and was constituted the bearer of the 
 fine Alexandrian IMS. of the Greek J^ible 
 sent by Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, as 
 a present to Charles I. In 1629 he was sent 
 ambassador to mediate a peace between the 
 kings of Poland and Sweden ; and gained so 
 much credit with Gustavus Adolphus, that he 
 was mainly instrumental to the design formed 
 by that spirited prince in 1650, to head an 
 expedition into Germany, to restore the free- 
 dom of the empire. He was subsequently 
 employed in other missions to the German 
 princes, and was present at the congress of 
 Hamburg, and on its removals to Ratisbon 
 and Vienna. In 1640 he was elected repre- 
 sentative for the university of Oxford ; and in 
 1641 was sent to the diet at Ratisbon to ne- 
 gociate for the restoration of the ex-king of 
 Bohemia. On his return the king created him 
 a privy counsellor and chancellor of the order 
 of the garter. He died in 1 644, his close of 
 life being much embittered by the national dis- 
 turbances of the period ; and he left behind bim 
 the character of an able and upright minister, 
 a true patriot, and an accomplislied gentleman. 
 Besides the writings before mentioned, he left 
 in MS. " A compendious Relation of the Pro- 
 ceedings of the Diet held at Ratisbon in 1640 
 and 1641 ;" and a " Journal of several Pro- 
 
 ceedings of the Knights of the Garter."- 
 
 -Biofr. 
 o 
 
 Brit. Athen, Oxo7i. 
 
 ROEBUCK (John) an eminent physician 
 and natural philosopher, born at Shefheld in 
 Yorkshire, in 1718. He studied at Edmburgh 
 and Leyden, where he was admitted MD. in 
 1743. He then engaged in practice at Bir- 
 mingham, and devoted much of his time to 
 cliemical researches, which led to some im- 
 provements in various operations. In 1749 he 
 established a manufactory of sulphuric acid, 
 at Preston Pans, in Scotland, in which under- 
 taking he was joined by Mr Garbet The 
 
 ROE 
 
 scheme proved very advantageous, and Dr 
 Roebuck, relinquishing his medical business, 
 devoted himself to the cultivation of the useful 
 arts. In conjunction with his partner, tiie 
 iron-foundry of Carron was established, and 
 carried on with great success. But the pro- 
 fits of these speculations were sunk in an at- 
 tempt to work mines of coal and salt at Bor- 
 rowstonness, on the estate of the duke of 
 Hamilton. This disastrous project swallowed 
 up all the property which Dr Roebuck had 
 acquired by liis other establishments ; and the 
 last twenty years of his life were passed in a 
 state of indigence, only relieved by a small 
 annuity, granted him by his creditors. He 
 died July 17, 1794. He was a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, to whicli lie communicated 
 some philosophical papers ; and he was also 
 the author of two political pamphlets. — Biog. 
 NoiLV. des Contpmp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROEDERER (John George) an eminent 
 physician, born at Strasburg, in 1726. He 
 passed through a course of medical studies in 
 the university of his native city, and took the 
 degree of doctor in 1750. He afterwards tra- 
 velled for improvement in France, England, 
 and Holland ; and on his return home, he de- 
 voted his attention especially to the obstetri- 
 cal branch of his profession. In 17.54 he be- 
 came professor of midwifery at Gottingen, and 
 he soon acquired great reputation as a public 
 lecturer. Ill health obliged him to resign his 
 situation, and returning to Strasburg, he died 
 in 1763. Besides his " Elementa Artis Ob- 
 stetricfe, in Usum Praelectionum Academica- 
 rum," 8vo, and other works on the same sub- 
 ject, he was the author of a number of disser- 
 tations, whicli were collected and published 
 under the title of " Opuscula Medica, spar- 
 sim prius edita, nunc demum collecta, aucta 
 et recusa," Gotting. 1764, 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROEiMER (Olaus) a Danish astronomer 
 and mathematician, born in 1644. He became 
 a student of the university of Copenhagen in 
 1662, and making a rapid progress in mathe- 
 matical knowledge, under Bartholin, he was 
 employed by that professor to arrange the ma- 
 nuscripts of Tycho Brahe. "When Picard, 
 from the French Academy of Sciences, visited 
 Sweden, he persuaded Roemer to accompany 
 him back to France in 1672. He was ex- 
 tremely well received, and was engaged to 
 teach mathematics to the dauphin, and ad- 
 mitted into the Academy of Sciences. He 
 remained at Paiis ten years, and acquired 
 high reputation by his scientific discoveries, 
 the most important of which was that of the 
 velocity of light, from the observation of the 
 eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. In 1681 Roe- 
 mer was recalled to Denmark, having Ceen 
 nominated professor of mathematics in the 
 university of Co{)euhagen, and he was also 
 made royal astronomer. He was likewise em- 
 ployed in the improvement of the coinage, 
 the regulation of weights and measures, and 
 other public undertakings. In 1687 the king 
 sent him to travel in Germany, Enoland, 
 France, and Holland, to collect information 
 relative to arts and manufactures. On his 
 
HOG 
 
 return he was made a counsellor of the chan- 
 cellery, and in 1693 assessor of the supreme 
 court of juslice. Ife was apiioiiittMl by Fre- 
 derick. 1 \ counsellor of state, and first magis- 
 trate of Copenhagen. lie nevertheless con- 
 tinued his astronomical pursuits, and particu- 
 larly made observations to determine tJie 
 parallax of the fixed stars. He was about to 
 pul)lish the result of his researches, when he 
 died of the stone, September 19, 1710. The 
 greater part of his INISS. was destroyed when 
 the observatory of Copenhagen was burnt, 
 October 20, 17'28. Some of his comnmiiica- 
 tions were published in the IMemoirs of the 
 Parisian Academy of Sciences; and Morrebow, 
 his disciple and successor, gave an account of 
 his discoveries in a work entitled " Basis As- 
 tronomiaj," 1735, 4to. — lIiitto)i's Math. Diet. 
 Bintr. Univ. 
 
 ROEISEL (Ai'GUSTiN ,Tc>hn^ a German 
 painter and naturalist, who was ennobled un- 
 der the appellation of Von Rosenhof. He 
 was born in 170.3, and was instructed in his 
 art by a relation, who was a painter of ani- 
 mals anil frescos. Having also learnt the art 
 of engraving, he settled at Nuremberg in 1725. 
 He continued there as long as he lived, with 
 the exception of two years passed at Copen- 
 hagen, where lie went to execute some paint- 
 ings for the court. He particularly applied 
 himself to the delineation of insects, and other 
 animals of the lower orders, and published 
 two curious works, one on the natural history 
 of insects, 4 vols. 4to. 1746 — 61 ; and the 
 other relating to frogs, in folio. His death 
 took place March 27", 1759. — Biof:;. Univ. 
 
 ROGER, or rather RICHARD OF HEX- 
 HAM, a monkish historian, was brought up 
 in the priory of Hexham, where he embraced 
 the monastic life, and was elected prior some 
 time before 1138, as he saw the Scottish army 
 march into Yorkshire under David, previously 
 to the battle of the Standard, which was 
 fought in that year. He wrote the history of 
 the campaign, in which, in a very declamatory 
 style, he describes the ravages committed by 
 the Scottish arm}'. — Tanner, Wharton's An- 
 glia Sacra. 
 
 ROGER OF HOVEDEN. See Hoveden. 
 
 ROGERS, Mus. Doc. (Benjamin) an 
 eminent Englisli composer of the seven- 
 teenth century, educated under Dr Giles as 
 a chorister in St George's chapel, Windsor, 
 where he afterwards held the situation of a 
 lay -clerk. Rogers was for some time organist 
 of Christchurch, Dublin, but lost his situation 
 on account of his politics, on the breaking out 
 of the rebellion in 1641. From this period 
 he supported himself by teaching music at 
 Windsor, till the interest of Dr Ingels, chap- 
 lain to commissioner Whitelock, procured him 
 a recommendation to the imiversity of Cam- 
 bridge, wliere he took his degree as bachelor 
 in music in 1658. Four years after he was 
 re-appointed to his former situation, in the 
 chapel royal of St George at Windsor, with an 
 increase of salary, and was also chosen organist 
 to the neighbouring college of Eton ; but he gave 
 up botii these appointments in 1669, on ob- 
 
 Jl O G 
 
 taiiiiiig one of the same description at Mag- 
 dalen college, Oxford, or which occasion he 
 took his doctor's decree. From this last sta- 
 tion he was expelled by James il in 1685. and 
 owed his supf»ort subsequently to a email pen- 
 sion allowed him by the college. Hjs compo- 
 sitions, consisting princijiaily of church mubic, 
 though few in number, are remarkable for tho 
 sweetness of their melody and the correclnesn 
 of their harmony. Most of them, especially 
 a fine service in the key of D, are to be found 
 in the majority of our cathedrals and collegiate 
 choirs, 'i'he i)recise time of IiIr decease is 
 uncertain, but he is known to have reached a 
 great age in indigence and obscurity. — Biog, 
 Diet, of Music. 
 
 ROGERS (Daniel) an English diploma- 
 tist of the sixteenth century, a native of Ash- 
 ton, Warwickshire, born 1540. In early life 
 he went into Germany, and was there brou'Mit 
 up in the principles of the reformed religion. 
 On the re-establishment of Protestantism in 
 his native countrv under Elizabeth he re- 
 turned to England, and was employed by that 
 princess in several negociations with foreign 
 powers. His writings consist of an " Epistle 
 to George Buchanan ;" an " Elegy addressed 
 to William Cecil Lord Burleigh ;" a collection 
 of " Odes, Epigrams, and Panegyrics in praise 
 of Bishop Sewell ;" and some other poems, all 
 composed in the Latin language. He was a 
 graduate of the university of Oxford, and died 
 in 1590. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 ROGERS (John) an eminent English di- 
 vine, who flourished about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century, and was a graduate of the 
 university of Cambridge. Going to Antwerp 
 in the capacity of chaplain to the Englisli fac- 
 tory established in that city, he there asso- 
 ciated himself with Tindal and others, at that 
 time engaged in translating the Scriptures into 
 English. He returned to England in the early 
 part of Edward VI's reign, and obtained a 
 stall in St Paul's cathedral, in which situation 
 he eminently distinguished himself by his elo- 
 quence and ability. This circumstance ren- 
 dered him highly obnoxious to the Romish 
 party, who in the following rtign marked him 
 out as one of the first objects of their resent- 
 ment. He was seized and tried for heresy, 
 and refusing to recant his opinions, was con- 
 demned to the stake, a punishment which he 
 underwent with great fortitude on the 4th of 
 February 1555, being the protomartyr of the 
 Lutheran church, in the persecutions under 
 Mary. — Fo.r's Acts and Mon. Strype. 
 
 ROGERS (John) also a celebrated divine, 
 was born in 1679 at Ensham in Oxfordshire, 
 a parish of which his father was the incum- 
 bent ; and after receiving the rudiments of a 
 classical education at home, was entered of 
 New college, Oxford, but on taking his bache 
 lor's degree in arts, quitted that society for 
 Corpus Christi, where he obtained a fellow- 
 ship. Having taken holy orders, he was pre- 
 ferred to the living of Buckland, Berks, but 
 did not reside upon it, settling in the metro- 
 polis in 1712, and beingelected lecturer to the 
 parishes of Christchurch, Newgate-ftreet, and 
 
R OH 
 
 St Clement Danes. He was afterwards insU- 
 tuted successively to the rectory of Wrington, 
 Somersetshire, with a stall in Wells cathe- 
 dral, and the vicarage of St Giles, Cripplegate ; 
 to which last benefice he was inducted in 
 3 728, having previously been presented with 
 the honorary degree of doctor in divinity by 
 the university of Oxford, in compliment to his 
 exertions in the memorable Bangorian contro- 
 versy. Dr Rogers survived this last promo- 
 tion but a few months, dying in the spring of 
 1729. His works consist of "A Discourse 
 on the Visible and Invisible Church of 
 Christ," 1719 ; " Sermons on the Necessity 
 of a Divine Revelation ;" " The Civil Esta- 
 blishment of Religion Vindicated," in answer 
 to Collins, all printed in his life-time ; after 
 his decease appeared four more volumes of 
 Sermons, and ' A Persuasive to Conformity." 
 He was nearly connected by marriage with the 
 Coleraine family, and for a short time previously 
 to his death held the appointment of domestic 
 chaplain to the prince of Wales. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 ROGERS (Woods) an English naval offi- 
 cer and circumnavigator. He belonged to the 
 royal navy in 1708, when he was invited by 
 the merchants of Bristol to take the command 
 of an expedition to the South Sea. He set 
 sail with two vessels, the Duke and the 
 Duchess, taking out the celebrated Dampier as 
 a pilot. Passing to the south of the Island of 
 Terra del Fuego in January 1709, they entered 
 on the Pacific Ocean, and on the 1st of Fe- 
 bruary arrived at the Isle of Juan Fernandez, 
 where they found Alexander Selkirk, the 
 supposed prototype of Robinson Crusoe. They 
 afterwards captured some Spanish vessels, and 
 having visited the coast of California, they 
 crossed the Pacific, and returned to England 
 in October 1711. Captain Rogers was ap- 
 pointed governor of the Isle of Providence, 
 one of the Bahamas, in 1717 ; and was em- 
 ployed with a squadron to extirpate the pirates 
 who infested the West Indies. He died in 
 1732. Though he made no new discoveries, 
 yet his " Voyage round the World," pub- 
 lished in 1712, contains some interesting in- 
 formation. — Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 ROHAN (Henrv, duke of) was born at 
 the castle of Blein in Britanny, in 1579. At 
 the age of sixteen he distinguished himself at 
 the siege of Amiens, under the eyes of Henry 
 IV, who had a great affection for him. After 
 the death of Henry he was at the head of the 
 Calvinistic party in France, and remained so 
 until the reduction of Rochelle by cardinal de 
 Richelieu, soon after which he was obliged to 
 make terms and quit the kingdom. In the 
 first instance he retired to Venice, which re- 
 public nominated him its general-in-chief 
 against the Imperialists ; but he was recalled 
 home, and sent ambassador to the Swiss and 
 Orisons, and at the head of the troops of the 
 latter, in 1633, he drove the Spaniards and 
 Germans out of the Valteline. He afterwards 
 defeated the Spaniards on the banks of the 
 lake Como ; but the Grisons becoming suspi- 
 cious of the intentions of the French troops to 
 remain in their country, took up arms, and 
 
 ROL 
 
 obliged the duke to make a separate treaty 
 with them in 1637. Fearful of the resent- 
 ment of Richelieu, on this account he retired 
 to Geneva, and thence went to join his friend, 
 the duke of Saxe Weimar, with whom he 
 fought against the Imperialists, and received 
 hurts of which he died some weeks after in 
 Switzerland, at the age of fifty-nine. The 
 duke of Rohan was esteemed one of the 
 greatest captains of his times, and possessed 
 all the magnanimity and amenity requisite to 
 render the head of a party popular. He was 
 the author of several works, military and po- 
 litical. These are, " Les luterets des Princes;" 
 " Le parfait Capitaine," an abridgment of 
 the Commentaries of Caesar ; " Un Traite de 
 la Corruption de la INIiiice Ancienne ;" " Un 
 Traite du Gouvernement des Treize Cantons ;" 
 " Recneil de quelques Discours politiques 
 sur les Aflfaires de I'Etat ;" *• Memoires et 
 Lettres de Henri due de Rohan, sur la Guerre 
 de la Valteline." — His wife, Margaret de 
 Bethune, the worthy daughter of the duke 
 of Sully, warmly espoused the interests of her 
 liusbaud ; and his brother, Benjamin de Ro- 
 han, lord of Soubise, also took a distinguished 
 part in the Huguenot contest, and finally 
 sought refuge in England, where he died iu 
 1640. — Moreri. Koav. Diet. Hist, • 
 
 ROHAULT (James) a French mathema- 
 tician and natural philo3oj)her of some emi- 
 nence in the seventeenth century. He was 
 the son of a merchant of Amiens, where he 
 was born in 1620. Having gone through his 
 preliminary studies at home, he went to Paris, 
 where he acquired a knowledge of the Carte- 
 sian philosophy, and formed an intimacy with 
 Clersellier, editor of the works of Descartes, 
 who gave him his daughter in marriage, Ro- 
 hault composed a treatise on " Physics or 
 Natural Philosophy," on Cartesian princi- 
 ples, which was long a popular text book 
 among the French professors. An English 
 translation of this work, by Dr John Clarke, 
 was published with notes, correcting the prin- 
 ciples of the author according to the Newto- 
 nian system. Rohault also published " Ele- 
 ments of the IMathematics," and " Dialogues 
 concerning Philosophy." He died in 1675, 
 and a posthumous publication from his MSS. 
 appeared in 1690, relating to geometry, tri- 
 gonometry, mechanics, Sec. — Moreri, Aikin's 
 Gen. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE (Jean 
 Marie) a French revolutionary statesman, 
 born at Villefranche, near Lyons, in 1732. 
 He obtained a situation under a relation, who 
 was inspector of manufactories at Rouen, and 
 having distinguished himself by his industry 
 and ability, ho at length became inspector 
 general at Amiens, where, in 1770, he mar- 
 ried Jeanne Phlipon, to whose splendid talents 
 he was indebted for his future distinction. 
 They travelled together in Italy and Switzer- 
 land, and in 1784 visited England. Ha'^ing 
 been removed from Amiens to a similar situa- 
 tion at Lyons, he was there when the Revo- 
 lution commenced, and it was hailed with en- 
 thusiasm by him and Madame Roland as the 
 
RO L 
 
 bpi;iniiing of a golden age. Going to Paris on 
 orticial business in 1791, he became connected 
 with JJrissot and otlier po])uhir leaders ; and 
 iu March 1792, tliroui^h their influence, he 
 was appointed minister of the interior. He 
 was in the course of a few months dismissed 
 with all his colleagues, except Dumouriez, for 
 urging the king to sanction decrees which he 
 disapproved. On the al)olition of the mo- 
 narchy he was restored to his place, which he 
 held till he was involved in the proscription of 
 the Girondists, when he made his escape from 
 Paris, and took refuge at Rouen. On hearing 
 of tlie condemnation and death of his wife, he 
 lefc his retreat November 15, 1793 ; and tak- 
 ing the road to Paris, he sat down on a bank 
 some miles from Rouen, and deliberately put 
 an end to his life with a sword, which he car- 
 ried in a walking cane. Roland is generally 
 admitted to have been a man of strict inte- 
 grity and considerable abilities, but he was 
 materially assisted by his wife in the compo- 
 sition of his Letter to the King on his dismis- 
 sion, and other political writings. Among his 
 own works are the Dictionary of Arts and 
 Manufactures, making part of the Kncyclo- 
 pedie Methodique ; and " Lettres ecrites de 
 Suisse, d'ltalie, de Sicile, et de jNIalte, en 
 1776-78," rt vols. 12mo. — Diet, des H. M. du 
 18 we 6'. Biog. Univ, 
 
 ROLAND (INIanon Jeanne Phlipon) 
 wife of the preceding, was born at Paris in 
 1754, and was the daughter of an engraver and 
 jeweller. Prom her earliest years she was 
 inspired by a passion for study, and the Lives 
 of Plutarch especially attracted her attention. 
 She had already become learned and accom- 
 plished, when at the age of sixteen she lost her 
 mother, by whom she had been tenderly 
 treated. To add to her misfortune, her father 
 contracted habits of dissipation, and in a 
 few years squandered great part of his own 
 and his daughter's property. With what 
 she was able to save she retired into a con- 
 vent, where she resided till her marriage with 
 ]M. Roland, who was twenty years her senior. 
 With him she travelled in England, &c. and 
 afterwards settled at Lyons. In 1787 she 
 went to Italy, and passing through Geneva, 
 she was not a little scandalized to observe 
 that the citizens had not erected a statue of 
 their celebrated countryman, J. J. Rousseau, 
 of whom she was a warm admirer. She ac- 
 companied her husband to Paris, where she 
 not only shared largely in his political labours, 
 but also contributed much to his elevation to 
 the ministry. Under these circumstances, 
 she necessarily shared in the perils attending 
 such distinction as he enjoyed. On the 7th 
 of December, 1792, she appeared at the bar 
 of the Convention, to defend her conduct 
 against the denunciations of her enemies ; 
 when her exculpation was satisfactorily re- 
 ceived, and she was admitted to the honours 
 of the session. She a second time presented 
 herself before the National Convention, when 
 her husband was accused, but she could not 
 then obtaui a hearing, and was herself ar- 
 rested and shut up iix the jirison of the abbey. 
 
 ROL 
 
 She was, however, liberated from this confine- 
 ment, but soon after again arrested, and pro- 
 secuted before the revolutionary tribunal ; and 
 being condemned to death as a conspirator 
 against the unity and indivisibility of the re- 
 public, she was guillotined November!, 1793. 
 Hit writings consist of Essays, Travels in 
 England and Switzerland, and an historical 
 apology for lier conduct, which she composed 
 in prison, and which was j)ublihlud under the 
 title of " Appel a ITmpartiale Posterite," Ovo. 
 This work, composed under such ai)palliiig 
 circumstances, exhibits much energy and viva- 
 city ; and with an occasional exhibition of 
 personal vanity and carelessness of style, pre- 
 sents many well-drawn portraits of the lead- 
 ing characters of the period. Her works have 
 been collected in 3 vols. 8vo. — Aikins G, Bioir, 
 
 ROLANDINO, an early Italian historian, 
 was born in 1200, at Padua, and studied at 
 Bologna. His father, who was a notary, had 
 been in the habit of keeping a chronicle of me- 
 morable events as they occurred. 'wliich he put 
 into his son's hands, charging Jiim to continue 
 it, which he did to twelve books, in Latin, 
 which in 1262 were read before the university 
 of Padua and solemnly approved. Thouoh 
 not free from the barbarisms of the time, his 
 narrative is clear and well arranged, and this 
 history is considered the most faithful record 
 of that time. Vossius speaks highly of Ro- 
 landino as possessing much perspicuity, order, 
 and judgment. His history was reprinted by 
 Muratori, in the seventh volume of his Italian 
 historians. — Vussii Hist. Lat, Tiraboschi. Mo- 
 reri. 
 
 ROLEWINCK (Wehner) a chronicler of 
 the fifteenth century, who was bom at Laer 
 in the bishopric of Munster in Westphalia, 
 whence he is sometimes called Werner de 
 Laer. In 1447 he entered into a Carthusian 
 monastery at Cologne, and after having ac- 
 quired great reputation by his writings, he died 
 in 1502, aged seventy-seven. He wrote a 
 great number of theological works, besides a 
 treatise on universal history, entitled " Fasci- 
 culus Temporum," Colon. 1474, folio, fre- 
 quently reprinted. — Trithemius. Biog. Utiiv. 
 
 ROLFINCK (Guerner) a physician, who 
 was a native of Hamburgh, and became 
 professor at Jena, where he died in 1673. 
 He travelled in various parts of Europe, and 
 was well acquainted with the Oriental lan- 
 guages. Being invited to Jena, he occupied 
 the first chemical professorship founded in 
 Germany ; and he procured the establishment 
 of an anatomical theatre and a botanic garden, 
 and delivered lectures on botany, in 1631. He 
 was the author of " De Vegetabilibus Plantis, 
 Suffructibus et Arboribus in genere, lib. ii." 
 1670, 4to ; and he also wrote on chemistry 
 and anatomy, and in the latter science he is 
 said to have made some discoveries. — B/o". 
 U?iiv. 
 
 ROLLE (llENitY; an eminent lawyer and 
 judge, was the second son of Robert Rolle, 
 esq. of Ileanton, Devonshire, where he was 
 born in 1589. He received his academical 
 education at Exeter college, Oxford, and was 
 
ROL 
 
 subsequently admitted a student of the Inner 
 Temple. When called to the bar, he became 
 a lawyer of leading reputation in the court of 
 king's bench, and was chosen a member for 
 Callington in Cornwall. On the accession of 
 Charles I, in 1640, he was made sergeant-at- 
 law ; and on the breaking out of hostilities, he 
 took the covenant. In 1645 he was made one 
 of the judges, and in 1648 was promoted to 
 be lord chief-justice of the king's bench, in 
 which office his integrity was acknowledged 
 even by the opposing party. He resigned this 
 office some time before his death, which took 
 place in 1656. He wrote " Reports of sir 
 Henry Rolle," and other learned works, in 2 
 vols, folio, French ; and " An Abridgment of 
 Cases and Resolutions of the Law," also in 
 French, which was published by sir Matthew 
 Hale, and is highly esteemed. — Bridgmans 
 Legal Bibliog. 
 
 ROLLE (Michf.l) an eminent French ma- 
 thematician, was born in 1652, at Anibert in 
 Auvergne. He came to Paris, where he pur- 
 sued the occupation of a writing-master, but 
 being noticed by the minister Colbert, was en- 
 abled to give himself up entirely to the study 
 of algebra and the matbematics. His con- 
 duct in life gained him much esteem ; in 1685 
 he was chosen member of the ancient Aca- 
 demy of Sciences, and in 1699 second geo- 
 metrical pensionary, which office he enjoyed 
 until his death in 1719. The principal works 
 of Rolle consist of " A Treatise on Algebra," 
 4to, 1690 ; " A Demonstration of a Method 
 for the Resolution of Equations of all De- 
 grees ;" and " A Method of Resolving Inde- 
 terminate Quantities in Algebra," all of which 
 are much esteemed. He was also author of a 
 great many curious pieces, inserted in the me- 
 moirs of the Academy of Sciences. — Hutton's 
 Math. Dirt. 
 
 ROLLI (Paul Axtonio) a learned Italian, 
 was born at Rome in 1687, and was a pupil of 
 the celebrated Gravina. He came to England, 
 and was introduced by lord Bolingbroke to the 
 female branches of the royal family as their 
 master in the Tuscan language. In 1729 he 
 was elected a fellow of tbt Royal Society. 
 He returned to Italy in 1747, where he died 
 in 1767. Rolli was considered one of the 
 best Italian poets of his day, his principal 
 works, consisting of odes, elegies, songs, &c. 
 were published in London in 1735, 8vo. A 
 collection of his epigrams was printed at Flo- 
 rence. He translated into Italian INIilton's Pa- 
 radise Lost, and Anacreon. He also edited 
 the Satires of Ariosto, the burlesque works of 
 Berni, Varchi, &c. 2 vols. 8vo ; the Decame- 
 ron, and the Lucretius of Marchetti. — Encyc. 
 Brit. Diet. Hist, Burney's Hist, of Miis. • 
 
 ROLLIN (Charles) an eloquent writer 
 and professor, was born at Paris in 1661. His 
 father was a cutl^^r, and intended him for the 
 same business ; but having obtained the notice 
 of a learned 13enedictine, who procured him 
 an exhibition in the college of Du Plessis, he 
 was suffered to pursue the natural bent of his 
 inclination for learning. He went through a 
 course of academical study with great ap- 
 
 ROL 
 
 plause, and having also taken a course of theo 
 logy at the Sorbonne, received the tonsure. He 
 became assistant professor to his master, pro- 
 fessor Hersant, in 1685 ; and in 1687 suc- 
 ceeded bim. In 1687 he obtained the chair of 
 eloquence in the Royal College, of which he 
 became rector in 1694, and held tbat post for 
 two years, during which time he reformed the 
 academical course in many striking particulars, 
 and revived the study of the Greek language. 
 In 1698 he was chosen coadjutor of the col- 
 lege of Beauvais, which was also much bene- 
 fitted by his attention. In 1720 he was again 
 chosen rector of the university of Paris ; but 
 in consequence of his connexion with the Jan- 
 senists, was displaced by alettre de cachet, on 
 which he proceeded to occupy himself in tlie 
 composition of the various works which have 
 rendered his name so celebrated. The first of 
 his productions, *' De la Maniere d'Etudier et 
 d'Enseigner les Belles Lettres," appeared in 
 1726 ; and, encouraged by its great success, he 
 composed his popular '* Histoire Ancienne," 
 which he published in 13 vols. Bvo, between 
 1730 and 1738. While the last volumes of 
 this work were printing, he commenced his 
 " Roman History," which he lived lone 
 enough to carry down to the war against the 
 Cimbri. The remainder, to the battle of Ac- 
 tium, the extent of the original plan, was 
 completed by Crevier, the whole amounting to 
 16 vols. 12mo. This respectable and eloquent 
 writer died September 14, 1741, at the age of 
 eighty. All the works of Rollin are com- 
 mendable for eloquence and purity of senti- 
 ment, although often too diffuse and prolix in 
 the way of reflection. As a writer of history, 
 he is also eloquent and ingenious, but gives too 
 much credit to the exaggerations and puerili- 
 ties of the ancient historians, and exhibits a 
 great want of philosophy and critical sagacity. 
 His own piety, indeed, was tinged by super- 
 stition and credulitv, being a firm believer in 
 the miracles of the Jansenist, abbe Paris, at 
 whose tomb he was accustomed to pray. 
 Until lately, the " Ancient History" of Rol- 
 lin has been used in the education of a great 
 part of the youth of Europe. — Biog. Uriiv. 
 
 ROLLOCH (Robert) a learned Scotch di- 
 vine, was born near Stirling in 1555. He was 
 educated at St Andrew's, where he became 
 reader in philosophy, and in 1582 he was ap- 
 pointed the first principal of the new univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh, and professor of divinity 
 In 1596 he was nominated one of the com- 
 missioners for the visitation of colleges ; and 
 in 1597 moderator of the general assembly. 
 He died in 1598, in his forty-third year. He 
 was the author of several tbeological works, 
 which are much esteemed by the church to 
 which he belonged, consisting of " Sermons 
 on tbe Epistles ;" " Commentaries on the 
 Scriptures;" " Tractatus de Providentia ;" 
 " Tractatus de Excommunications," &c. — 
 Mackenzie's Sent. Writers. 
 
 ROLT (Richard) the compiler of several 
 usefid publications for the booksellers, by 
 which he is principally known. He was a 
 native of Shrewsbury, born 1724 and held an 
 
ROM 
 
 inferior office in tho customs, of wliicli lio was 
 afterwards deprived on joining the rebel army 
 iiiuler tlie jouiig Pretender. It was to liis pen 
 tliat he sul)se(]uently owed his support, until 
 his death, wliich took i)Iace in 1770. Anjotij; 
 his writings are, " A Dictionary of 'I'rade and 
 Commerce," foho ; "A History of Knoland," 
 4 vols. ; " Northall's 'J'ravt-ls in Italy ;" " A 
 History of the War wliich terminated in 
 1748," 4 vols. ; " Lives of the Reformers," 
 folio ; and " Biographical Memoirs of John 
 Earl of Craufurd," Hvo.— Europ. Mavr. 1S03. 
 
 KOiMAINE (William) a popular Calvi- 
 nistic divine of the last century, descended of 
 a French family settled at Hartlepool, in the 
 palatinate of Durham, where lie was born in 
 1714. He became successively a member of 
 Hertford college and Christchurch, Oxford, 
 where he graduated and took holy orders. His 
 strong attachment to the peculiar opinions of 
 the reformer of Geneva, made his discourses 
 as unpopular at the university as they were af- 
 terwards the contrary in the metropolis, to 
 which he removed in 1749, on obtaining the 
 lectureships of St Dunstan's in the \Vest and 
 St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. The year follow- 
 ing he became one of the morning preachers 
 at St George's, Hanover-square, and obtained 
 from the mercers' company the appointment 
 of professor of astronomy on sir Thomas Gre- 
 sham's foundation. This latter situation, 
 however, he soon resigned, and in 1764 was 
 elected by the ])arishioners, in whom the pa- 
 tronage of St Anne's Blackfriars is vested, to 
 the rectory of that parish ; which he enjoyed 
 till his decease, attracting numerous congre- 
 gations by his eloquent and enthusiastic man- 
 ner of preaching, and occasionally engaging 
 in itinerant labours of the same description, 
 which placed him in the foremost rank of Cal- 
 vinistic methodists. His zeal, indeed, was 
 sometimes indulged at the expense of his can- 
 dour ; and in some particulars he has been ac- 
 cused of very unwarrantable alterations intro- 
 duced into liis edition of Calasio's Concord- 
 ance (published 1749, in four folio volumes), 
 for the purpose of serving the Hutchinsonian 
 interpretation of particular passages in the 
 Bible. His other works consist of eight vo- 
 lumes of sermons, and other religious tracts, 
 one of which, on the Divine Legation of the 
 Jewish Lawgiver, drew a very warm reply from 
 bishop Warburton, whose opinions he liad 
 Tery unceremoniously attacked in it. He ob- 
 tained such popularity by his opposition to the 
 bill for the naturalization of the Jews, that his 
 publications on that subject were printed by 
 the corporation of London. ]Mr Romaine 
 died at the rectory-house of St Anne's Black- 
 friars, July 26, 1795. — Life by Cadogan. 
 
 ROMANO (Julio). See Julio Romano. 
 
 ROMANZOFF (Peteu Alexandrowitz, 
 count) a Russian general and field-marshal, 
 born about 1730. He was descended from an 
 illustrious family, and having entered into the 
 army when very young, his courage and abi- 
 lities soon procured him promotion. He com- 
 manded at the taking of Colberg in 1761 ; and 
 in the following year the death of Peter III 
 
 ROM 
 
 prevented tlie invasion of Holstein, which he 
 was about to undertake at the head of -iO/nn) 
 nuMi. Catherine II made peace with the 
 Danes; and in 1769 she employed Koman/ofT 
 aghinsi the Turks. He succeeded prince A. 
 Galat/in, as comniander-in-chicf, in 1770, and 
 obtaineil many advantages over the enemy ifi 
 that and the following years previously to tbe 
 treaty into which he forced tlie grand vi/ir to 
 enter in his camp at Kainardgi, in Jidy 1774, 
 'i'lie empress magnificently rewardetl h(r suc- 
 cessful general, who soon after set out for liir 
 government of the Ukraine. He was recalled 
 to attend the grand duke Paul to Berlin , o* 
 his marriage with the princess of Wurtem 
 berg, when he was treated with great distinc- 
 tion by the king of JVussia, Frederick II. 
 Romanzoff served against the Turks in the 
 war which commenced in 1787 ; but being 
 disgusted with the conduct of prince Potem- 
 kin, who had the chief command, he retired 
 to his estate in the Ukraine in the beginning of 
 the year 1789, and there lie passed the latter 
 part of his life. He died in December 1796. 
 Posthumous honours were paid to him by Paul 
 I, and his successor Alexander, who erected a 
 statue of the marshal, with the inscription 
 "To theX'ictories of Romanzoff." — Bioa.Uiiiv. 
 
 RO.ME DE LISLE (Jonx Baptist 
 Louis) a distinguished writer ou mineralogy, 
 born at Grai, in the department of Upper 
 Saone, in 1736. After having studied at 
 Paris, he went to the East Indies, as secretary 
 to a company of artillery and engineers ; and 
 being taken prisoner by the English at Pondi- 
 cberry, he visited China, and returned to 
 France in 1764. Assisted by the counsels of 
 M. Sage, he devoted himself to the cultivation 
 of natural history, and especially of minera- 
 logy ; and he became domesticated with M. 
 Ennery, a rich amateur at Paris, who pos- 
 sessed a valuable cabinet of medals. After 
 the death of that gentleman he subsisted on a 
 small pension from the king, which he ob- 
 tained in 1785, and which was augmented by 
 Lous XVI a short time before the decease of 
 Rome de Lisle, which occurred March 7, 
 1790. His principal works are, " Cristallo- 
 graphie, ou Description des Formes pro])res a 
 tons les Corps de Regne Minerale dans I'Jaat 
 de Combinaison Saline, Pierreuse, ou Metal- 
 lique," 1783, 4 vols. 8vo ; " Des Caracteres 
 exterieurs des Mineraux," 1785, a supj)Iement 
 to the foregoing treatise ; and " Metrologie, 
 ou Tables pour servir ii ITiitelligence des Poids 
 et iMesures des Anciens, et principalement ;"i 
 determiner la Valeur ties Monnaies Grecques 
 etRomaines," 1789, 4to. — Hiog. Uttiv. 
 
 ROMILLV (John) an emir.ent horologist, 
 born at Geneva in 1714. I'o a j^ractical 
 knowledge of his art, he joined an intimate 
 acquaintance with its theory, which he deve- 
 loped in a number of articles in the French 
 Encyclopedie. In 1755 he presented to the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris a watch, which 
 required winding up but once in eight days, 
 and be afterwards constructed one which kept 
 going a year. In conjunction with his son- 
 in-Li'.v, Coranccz, he set up, in 1777, the 
 
ROM 
 
 "Journal cle Paris," in which he published me- 
 teorological observations and scientific essays. 
 He died suddenly, February 16, 1796. — Ro- 
 MiLLY (John Edward) only son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1739, and adopting the 
 ecclesiastical profession, he was ordained in 
 1763, and three years after was chosen pastor 
 of a French church in Loudon. A delicate 
 state of health induced him to return to Ge- 
 neva, where he was appointed minister of the 
 small parish of Sacconai, and he died there, 
 after ten years' illness, in October 1799. He 
 wrote the articles Vertu and Tolerance in the 
 ** Dictionnaire Encyclopedique ;" and fur- 
 nished contributions to the " Memoires de 
 la Litterature " of Palissot. He acquired dis- 
 tinction as a preacher, and two volumes of his 
 " Sei-mous " appeared after his death. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ROMILLY (sir Samuel) an eminent law- 
 yer, was the son of a jeweller, of French ex- 
 traction, wlio carried on business in Frith- 
 street, Soho, where he was born March 1, 
 1757. He received a private education, and 
 in the first instance was placed in the office of 
 a solicitor, which he quMted to study for the 
 bar, to which he was called in 1783. For 
 some years his practice was chiefly confined 
 to draughts in equity, but he gradually rose to 
 distinction in the court of chancery, in which 
 he ultimately took tlie lead, being equally dis- 
 tinguished by his profound legal information, 
 and logical and forcible flow of eloquence as a 
 pleader. His general politics agreeing with 
 those of the whigs, during the sliort adminis- 
 tration of Mr Fox and lord Grenville, he was 
 appointed solicitor-general, and knighted. 
 When his party went out of office he also re- 
 tired, but remained in parliament, where lie 
 became highly distinguished by his talent in 
 debate, and by the argumentative skill and c lo- 
 quence with which he pleaded the necessity 
 of a revision of the criminal code, with a view 
 to the limitation of capital punishment, and a 
 more aopropriate regulation of the scale of pe- 
 nalties. On this subject he also composed a very 
 able pamphlet, and to his exertion in this direc- 
 tion may be traced the final determination oV 
 the executive to the reforms and condensation 
 of the various acts in regard to crime, which 
 have since taken place under the superinten- 
 dence of IMr Peel. Sir Samuel Romilly also 
 published an energetic remonstrance against 
 the creation of the office of vice-chancellor ; 
 and was in the height of popularity and repu- 
 tation, when a nervous disorder, produced by 
 grief at the death of his lady, to whom he was 
 devotedly attached, deprived him of reason, 
 and in a fit of temporary frenzy he terminated 
 his useful and philanthropic existence, No- 
 vember 2, 1818, to the great regret of the in- 
 telligent and humane of every party. — Ann. 
 Biog. 
 
 ROMNEY (George) a painter, was born 
 at Dalton in Lancashire, in 1734. After some 
 attempts by his father to settle him in trade, 
 he consented to let him become a painter, and 
 placed him with an artist named Steele. In 
 176^ he came to London, where he met with 
 
 RON 
 
 great encouragement ; and in 1765 he gained 
 a prize from the Society for the Encourage- 
 ment of Arts and Sciences, for an historical 
 picture of the " Death of King Edmund." In 
 1773 he went to Italy, 
 
 where 
 
 he staid two 
 
 years ; and on his return to England he en- 
 joyed the most uninterrupted success in his 
 profession, in one. year painting portraits to 
 the value of 3,635/. He also gave some fine 
 specimens of his talents in history, in the illus- 
 trations of Boydell's Shakspeare. Romney 
 died in 1802. In the composition of his 
 figures and the arrangement of the drapery, 
 Romney displayed his study of the antique. 
 His style of colouring is broad and simple, 
 and in his flesh he was very successful ; but 
 he is not always happy in blendmg his shades, 
 particularly in his back-grounds. — Life by 
 Hayleij. PilkingtoJi by Fuseli. 
 
 RONDELET (William) an eminent 
 French physician and naturalist, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1507. He studied at his native 
 place, and then at Paris, after which he be- 
 came a schoolmaster at Pertuis, in Provence. 
 At length he obtained the chair of medicine, 
 and ultimately the chancellorship of the uni- 
 versity of I\Iontpellier. He contributed, by 
 his influence, to the establishment of an ana- 
 tomical theatre in the seminary over which 
 he presided ; and he otherwise endeavoured 
 to promote the improvement of anatomy ; but 
 he is principally known as a writer on ich- 
 thyology. In the prosecution of his researches 
 into the natural history of fishes, he travelled 
 in France and Flanders ; and he died in 1566, 
 on his return from a journey to Toulouse. He 
 was the author of " Libri de Piscibus marinis, 
 in quibus veraePiscium Effigies exprimuntur," 
 Lugdun. 1554, folio; and " Universas Aqua- 
 tilium Historiae, cum veris ipsorum Imagini- 
 bus," 1554-55, 2 vols, folio. Both these 
 works have wood-cuts i and the latter was re- 
 
 i 
 
 Rondelet also 
 Teissier, Eloges 
 
 published in French, in 1558. 
 wrote on medicine. — Niceron. 
 des H. S. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RONSARD (Pierre) an early French 
 poet, who contributed considerably to the im- 
 provement of the language and literature of 
 his native country. He was born of a noble 
 family of Vendome, in 1524. In his youth 
 he was page to the duke of Orleans, and hav- 
 ing finished his education, he went to Scot- 
 land, and resided some time at the court of 
 James V. On his return from his travels, he 
 was employed in a diplomatic capacity in Ger- 
 many. He afterwards applied himself for 
 several years to the cultivation of his talents 
 for poetry, under the direction of the celebrated 
 Dorat. Becoming a candidate for the poetical 
 prize at the Floral games, at Toulouse, he tri- 
 umphed over his competitors ; when, instead of 
 a silver eglantine, which was the usual object 
 of contest, the parliament bestowed on Ron- 
 sard a silver statue of Minerva, which he pre- 
 sented to Henry II. He was greatly esteemed 
 bv that prince, and also by his successors, 
 Francis II and Charles IX, the latter of whom 
 he attended to Bayonne, when he went there 
 to receive his sister, the queen of Spain. He 
 
RO O 
 
 distioguished liimself in the wars against the 
 lluijueiiot insurgents; and as the reward of 
 iiis courage or his taU'nts, he obtained he 
 abbey of liellozane. He was also j)nor of 
 the monastery of St Cosme, near 1 ours, where 
 he died December SJ7, l.)8o. His writings 
 consist of sonnets, mathigals, eclogues, Ivnc 
 pieces, elegies, ami s:uires; besides an epic 
 poem, entitled " La Franciade," which is said 
 to be the worst of liis productions, ?"d iiis 
 hymns and odes are reckon^-d the best. — 
 Teissier, Elogcs des H. S. ^^'i-^- Univ. 
 
 ROOKK (sir Ge «ge) a gallant and suc- 
 cessful Knolisli admiral, descended of an 
 ancient faindy of the same name, in the county 
 of Kent, where he was born in 1650. Although 
 originally intended by his friends for one of 
 the liberal professions, his strong predilection 
 for a seafaring life induced them to yield to his 
 entreaties, and to permit him to enter tlie royal 
 navy at an early age, in which he rose by rapid 
 but regular gradation to the highest situations. 
 His conduct in a variety of naval expeditions 
 under king William and queen Anne placed 
 his name in the foremost rank of the defen- 
 ders of his country ; especially the gallantry 
 which he displayed in the destruction of the 
 French and Spanish fleets in Vigo bay, 170'2, 
 and the capture of that highly important for- 
 tress, Gibraltar, in 1704, a place then deemed 
 impregnable, and which has since, in the 
 hands of the English, defied all efl:orts made 
 to reduce it. In the intervals afforded him 
 from active service abroad, sir George occupied 
 a seat during several successive parliaments 
 for the borough of Portsmouth, as well as 
 another at the council-board of the lord high 
 admiral, prince George of Denmark. The 
 independent spirit, however, of the honest 
 sailor, rendered him less successful in his civil 
 than in his martial career; and his votes on 
 several occasions, particularly one in favour of 
 the appointment of IMr Harley to the speaker- 
 ship of the house of Commons in 1701, ob- 
 scured all his merits in the eyes of the court 
 party, and he was repeatedly attacked with 
 much acrimony, the value of his services de- 
 preciated, and his good fortune ascribed to 
 accident. Party spirit prevailed, and the gal- 
 lant officer at length retired in disgust from 
 the service to his family seat in Kent, where 
 he died January 24, 1709 ; declaring, in allu- 
 sion to the contracted fortutie which he left 
 behind him, that " though small, it was ho- 
 nestly acquired, and had never cost a sailor a 
 tear nor the nation a farthing." A handsome 
 monument is erected to his memory in Can- 
 terbury cathedral, the ])lace of his interment. 
 — Campbetrs Lives of the Admirals. 
 
 ROOKED (Laurence) an eminent geome- 
 trician and astronomer of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, born at Deptford in Kent, IG'JS. From 
 Eton college he removed on a foundation fel- 
 lowship to King's college, Cambridge, where 
 he graduated, and was afterwards admitted ad 
 eundem at Wadham college, in the sister uni- 
 versity, in 1630. Two years after he was 
 elected to the astronomical professorship in 
 Gresham college, which he exchanged in 1655 
 
 RO Q 
 
 for that of geometry on the sanitj f«Jundation. 
 iMr Kooke was one of the original members 
 of the Royal Society, and published several 
 jdiilosophical treatises *' On the Eclipses of 
 the INloon, and of the Satellites of Jujutfr ;" 
 '* Directions ibr Sailors going to India ;" " On 
 Comets," ^c. among the Transactions of the 
 Society. His death took place in 1662. — 
 Ward's Gresham Projessnrs. 
 
 HOOKER (MifiiAKi.) an ingenious engra- 
 ver, son to an artist in the same line, and born 
 in 1743. He studied under his fatlier and the 
 celebrated Paul Sandby, who highly esteemed 
 Jiis talents, and from his success in the execu- 
 tion of architectural subjects more especial Iv, 
 used to designate him the Michael Angelo of 
 engraving. Some fine specimens of his art 
 are to be seen in the plates to some of the ear- 
 lier Oxford almanacs, delineating many of the 
 principal buildings in that university. IVJr 
 Hooker died in 1801. — Sirutt. 
 
 ROQUE (Anthony de la) chevalier de St 
 Louis, a native of Marseilles, known as a man 
 of letters in the early part of the last century. 
 He entered into the army, and served in the 
 gendarmerie ; but having lost a leg at the bat- 
 tle of Malplaquet, he cumed his attention to 
 literature, and becoming conductor of the 
 " Mercure de France," he carried it on in 
 conjunction with his brother, the subject of the 
 following article. Anthony de la Roque also 
 wrote " Histoire des Spectacles ancieus et 
 modernes ;" and " Memoires pour servir a 
 r Histoire des Personnes qui se sont distin- 
 guees dans les Arts et dans les Metiers." He 
 died at Paris in 1744. — Camusat, Hist, des 
 
 !oiir}}aux. Biflfr. Univ. 
 
 ROQUE (John de la) brother and coad- 
 jutor of the preceding, was born at Marseilles, 
 and died at Paris in 1745, aged eighty-four. 
 He was acquainted with the Oriental lan- 
 guages, and made several voyages to the Le- 
 vant, of which he gave an account in his 
 ** Voyage de 1' Arable Heureuse," 12mo ; 
 " Voyage de la Palestine," 12mo ; and" Voy- 
 age deSyrie et du IMont Liban," 12mo ; which 
 works alibrd much interesting information. — 
 Eadem. 
 
 ROQUE (Giles Andrew de la) a French 
 writer on heraldry, bom of a noble family in 
 Normandy, in 1597. He at first adopted the 
 ecclesiastical profession, and took orders as a 
 sub-deacon ; but repenting of his engagement, 
 he obtained from Rome a dispensation to enter 
 into wedlock. Having taken a wife, he be- 
 came again discontented with his situation, 
 and procured a separation by allowing her a 
 pension. He then devoted liimself to study, 
 paying particular attention to genealogy ; and 
 his acquaintance with the family history of 
 the Norman nobility and gentry was most mi- 
 nute and extensive. On losing his wife, he 
 resumed his clerical station ; but, somewhat 
 inconsistently, he continued to take the title 
 a*" chevalier, sieur de la Lontiere. He died 
 at Paris, in 1686. Among his principal works 
 are " Histoire genealogique de la ]\Iaison 
 d'llarcourt, avec les Preuves," Paris, 1662, 
 4 vols, foho 3 •' Traite singulier du Blason,** 
 
ROS 
 
 tSmo; " Traite du Ban et Arrierehan, de 
 son Origine et de ses Convocations," 1676, 
 l2mo ; and " Trait6 de la Noblesse, et de 
 ses differentos Especes," 1678, 4to. — Huet, 
 Orin-. de Caen. Biotr. Univ. 
 
 BOSA (Salvator) a celebrated painter, 
 distinguished likewise as a musician and a 
 poet. He was the son of an architect and sur- 
 veyor, and was born at the village of Renella, 
 in the kingdom of Naples, in 1615. He was 
 intended for the church ; but leaving of his 
 own accord the seminary in which he had 
 been placed for education, at the age of six- 
 teen, he devoted himself to the study of music, 
 and with such success that he became a skilful 
 composer. His eldest sister having married 
 Francisco Francanzani, a painter of conside- 
 rable talent, Salvator, from frequenting his 
 work-room, acquired a predilection for the 
 art, in which he afterwards excelled. He at 
 first amused himself with copying whatever 
 pleased his fancy in the paintings of his bro- 
 ther-in-law ; and his latent genius being thus 
 awakened, his sketches were so much ad- 
 mired that he was easily persuaded to adopt 
 painting as a profession. But his taste was 
 formed more from the study of nature among 
 the wilds of the Appenines than from the les- 
 sons of other artists ; and he delighted iu de- 
 lineating scenes of gloomy grandeur and ter- 
 rible magnificence, to which the boldness of 
 his conceptions, and the fidelity of his repre- 
 sentations, communicate a peculiar degree of 
 interest. He worked for some time at Naples 
 in obscurity, till one of his pictures being ob- 
 served by the famous painter Lan franco, he 
 generously recommended Salvator to notice, 
 and was the means of his procuring effectual 
 patronage and support. He removed to Rome, 
 where he established his reputation, and 
 raised himself to celebrity and independance. 
 He afterwards went to Florence, where he 
 was patronized and employed by the grand 
 duke and other members of the family of 
 IMedici. At length returning to Rome, he 
 painted many pictures for the churches in that 
 city, where he died in 1673. His satires and 
 other poetical productions have been often 
 printed under the title of " Rime di Salvatore 
 Rosa, Pittore e Poeta Napolitana."— Orlandi. 
 Lad\i Moro^ans Life and Times of Rosa^ 
 
 ROSALBA. "See Caruiera. 
 
 ROSCELLINUS, founder of the scholastic 
 sect of the nominalists, was a native of Bri- 
 tanny, where he flourished towards the end of 
 the eleventh and the commencement of the 
 twelfth century. He distinguished himself by 
 his proficiency in logic and metaphysics, and 
 being presented with a canonry in the diocese 
 of Soissons, he delivered lectures at the re- 
 quest of the chapter, in which, contrary to the 
 principles of Aristotle, he taught that univer- 
 s;ils subsist, not prior to individual bodies, nor 
 after them, but within them, and that they 
 are mere names or words by which kinds of 
 individuals are expressed. Hence he and his 
 followers obtained the name of nominalists, 
 and their opponents that of realists. By ap- 
 plying this doctrine to the trinity he brought 
 
 ROS 
 
 on himself a suspicion of heresy and of tri- 
 theism, and was obliged to retract. Fatigued 
 at length with controversy and persecution, 
 he retired into Aquitaine, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his piety and charity. The 
 time of his death is unknown. — Brucker 
 Mosheim. 
 
 ROSCIUS (QuiNTus) a famous Roman 
 actor, was a native of Narbonnensian Gaul, 
 and was contemporary at Rome with the tra- 
 gedian iEsopus. Cicero states that he carried 
 his art to perfection, and that he was no less 
 esteemed for his moral conduct and liberality 
 than for his professional talents. His person 
 is said to have been agreeable, but he had a 
 slight obliquity of vision, which however did 
 not prevent him from playing without a mask. 
 He was raised to the senatorial rank, and died 
 at Rome, BC. 61. He wrote a " Parallel be- 
 tween the theatrical and oratorical Action," 
 which is lost. — Ciceronis Opera, Pliny. 
 Moreri. 
 
 ROSE (George) a well-known statesman 
 and political writer, was born at Brechin in 
 xlngusshire, in 1744. He entered the navy, 
 and became a purser, but through the interest 
 of the earl of IMarchmont he was afterwards 
 made keeper of the records in the exchequer. 
 He next superintended the publication of the 
 Domesday Book, and completed the Journals 
 of the Lords. On the return of Mr Pitt to 
 power, Mr Rose was made president of the 
 board of trade, and treasurer of the navy, 
 which situations he lost on the death of tlmt 
 minister, but afterwards he regained them, 
 and held them until his death, which took 
 place at Cuifnells, liis seat in Hampshire, in 
 1818. He published "Observations on the 
 Poor Laws ;" " A Pamphlet on Friendly So- 
 cieties ;" " Considerations on the Debt Due 
 by the Civil List;" " Observations on the 
 Historical Work of the late Right Hon. 
 Charles James Fox, &c. ;" " A Letter to 
 Lord ^Melville relative to the Creation of a 
 Naval Arsenal at Northfleet ;" " A Report 
 on the Records ;" " A Brief Examination 
 into the Increase of the Revenues, Commerce, 
 and Navigation of Great Britain ;" " Obser- 
 vations respecting the Public Expenditure, 
 and the Influence of the Crown ;" speeches 
 on various occasions, &c. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 ROSEN DE ROSENSTEIN (Nicholas) 
 a Swedish physician, born in West Gothland 
 in 1706. He studied at Lund, and afterwards 
 at Upsal, and then travelled with the young 
 count Posse. In Germany he attended the 
 lectures of Hoff-rian, and in Holland those of 
 Muschenbroek and Boerhaave ; and at the 
 university of Harderwyk he took the degree of 
 MD. and published an academical thesis. 
 Returning in 1731 to Upsal, where lie had 
 been appointed adjunct-professor of medicine, 
 he entered on the duties of his station, in 
 whicli he attained great eminence. He was 
 at length made physician to the king, asses-or 
 of the college of medicine, professor and ar- 
 chiater ; and he was ennobled and honoured 
 with the knighthood of the polar star. He con- 
 tiibuted greatly to the introduction of innocu* 
 
KOS 
 
 iation for the small-pox into Sweden, for which 
 he received from the government a gratuity 
 of 100,000 rix-dollars. Rosen died at I'psal 
 in 1773. He publisJied several jjrofessional 
 works, the best- known of which is his " 'J'rea- 
 tise on the Diseases of Children," whicli lias 
 been translated into several languages. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ROSENMULLEll (John GEoncE) a 
 learned German divine and theological writer, 
 born at Ummerstadl, in the county of ilild- 
 burghausen, in 1736. Having finished his 
 studies, he entered on the pastoral office, and 
 in 1773 he became professor of divinity in the 
 university of Erlangen. After remaining in 
 that situation ten years, he removed to Gies- 
 sen ; and in 1785 he obtained the tlieological 
 chair at Leipsic. His death took place in 1815. 
 The principal works of professor Rosenmuller 
 are, " Emendationes et Supplementa ad Nov. 
 Test." Nuremb. 1789—91, 2 vols. 8vo ; " His- 
 toria Interpretationes sacr. Libror. in Eccles 
 Christ." Lips. 1795 — 1814, 5 vols. 8vo; 
 " Scholia in Novum Testamentura," Nuremb. 
 1801 — 8, 5 vols. 8vo , and Sermons or Homi- 
 lies, 1814, 8vo. — Month. Mag. 
 
 ROSS (Alexander) a professed autlior 
 of the seventeenth century, whose numerous 
 works display more industry than talent. He 
 seems, however, to have enjoyed considerable 
 popular reputation as a sort of encyclopaedical 
 writer, for to him Butler alludes in the often- 
 quoted couplet, in his Hudibras : — 
 
 " There was an ancient sage philosopher. 
 And he had read Alexander Ross over." 
 Ross was a native of Scotland, and having 
 been episcopally ordained, he became master 
 of a free-school at Southampton, where he died 
 in 1654, aged sixty-three. Among his pro- 
 ductions are, " Virgilius Evangelizans," a 
 cento from the ^Eneis, on the Gospel history ; 
 '* The Muse's Interpreter, a Key to Mytho- 
 logy ;" a continuation of sir W. Raleigh's 
 " History of the World j" and '* A View of 
 ail Religions," which went through many 
 editions. — Chalmers's Biog. Diet. 
 
 ROSS (David) a theatrical performer, who 
 was contemporary with Garrick. He was born 
 in 1768, and was educated at Westminster 
 school. Going on the stage when young, in 
 opposition to the will of his father, he was dis- 
 inherited ; notwithstanding which the general 
 respectability of his character secured him the 
 countenance of other friends. He made his 
 first appearance at Drury-lane, in 1751, and 
 ■was well received. His talents were not of 
 the highest order, but having the advantages 
 of a good figure and a classical education, he 
 succeeded in acquiring reputation both as a 
 tragic and a con)ic actor. His personification 
 of George Barnwell, at Christmas in 1752, 
 is said to have made such an extraordinary 
 impression on one of the spectators, a mer- 
 chant's clerk, who had been guilty of pecula- 
 tion to supply the demands of a mistress, as 
 not only to produce a reformation in the youth, 
 but also an annual present from him of ten 
 guineas, to his theatrical monitor. Mr Ross 
 left Drury-lant in 1778 ; and he subsisted in 
 
 H O S 
 
 the latter part of his life on an ill-paid annuity 
 arising from a mortgage on the Edinburgh 
 theatre, of which he had bti-n manager. He 
 died in London, September, 14, 1790. — 
 Thes]). Diet. 
 
 ROSS (Jofin) a learned jirelat**, was bora 
 in Herefordshire, and became fellow of St 
 John's college, Candjridge, where ho took his 
 doctor's degree in 1756. He was vicar of 
 Fronie in Somersetshire, and in 1778 he was 
 niaile bishoj) of Exeter. He wrote a defence 
 of the epistles said to have been written by 
 Cicero to Brutus, and published an edition of 
 the " Epistolaj Familiares," 2 vols. 8vo ; also 
 some sermons on tlifFerent occasions. Dr Ross 
 died at Exeter in 1792. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 ROSSI CGiAN ViTTORio) Latin, JAM'S 
 NICIUS ERYTHR^US) a learned Italian, 
 was born at Rome in 1577, and was educated 
 under the Jesuits of the Roman college. He 
 afterwards entered the academy degli Umo- 
 risti, of which he was a zealous promoter. 
 He became secretary to cardinal Andrea Pe- 
 retti, on whose death he retired to a villa on 
 mount Sant' Onofrio, where he died in 1647. 
 He was much esteemed by the learned men 
 of his time, but is now best known by his 
 classical name of Erythraeus. He wrote four, 
 volumes of epistles to various persons ; " Pin- 
 acotheca Imaginum illustrium Virorum," or 
 biographical accounts of several of his learned 
 contemporaries ; a satire on the corrupt man- 
 ners of the Romans, entitled " Eudemia, 
 lib. X. ;" 8vo ; dialogues, &c. Sec. — Tirabosclii. 
 
 ROSTGAARD^Fredkrick) a learned 
 Dane, born in Zealand, in 1671. From his 
 early years he applied himself to the study of 
 old manuscripts ; and after residing some time 
 at the university of Copenhagen, he visited 
 Giessen, Leyden, and Oxford ; and from 1695 
 to 1698 he took up his abode at Paris, where 
 he copied many MSS. in the Royal Library. 
 After a journey to Italy, lie returned home in 
 1699, and was raised to various employments, 
 such as archivist, counsellor of justice, iScc. 
 In 1735 he obtained the title of counsellor of 
 conference, having previously had a pension 
 from the king. He died in 1745. He col- 
 lected a multitude of valuable books and ma- 
 nuscripts, and in 1726 he published, under 
 the title of " Bibliotheca Rostgardiana," a 
 catalogue of his library, which he afterwards 
 sold. He resumed the task of collection, and 
 at his death left his books and INISS. to the 
 university of Copenhagen. His original pub- 
 lications are few and unim[)ortant ; but he 
 drew from obscurity and committed to the 
 press many valuable works, among which may 
 be mentioned, " Lex Regia." Copenh. 1709, 
 folio. He left in manuscript a Danish Latin 
 Dictionary; and a " i hesaurus genealogicus 
 Familiarum nobilium Regni Daniie." — B'log, 
 Univ. 
 
 ROSWEIDE (Heribert) a learned jesuit, 
 was born at Utrecht in 1569. He was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and divinity, first at 
 Douav, and afterwards at Antwerp. He died 
 in 16'J9. He v.iote various philosophical and 
 ecclesiastical works, the principal of which are 
 
KO U 
 
 the following, *' An Account of the Hermits 
 of Egypt and Palesune ;" " The History of the 
 Eelgic Church ;" " An Ecclesiastical History 
 from the time of Christ to Pope Urban VIII," 
 2 vols, folio ; " Fasti Sanctorum quorum Vitae 
 in Belgicis Bibliothecis Manuscriptae asser- 
 vantur," which he intended as a specimen of 
 a larger work, and which was the prelude to 
 the immense collection of " Acta Sanctorum," 
 by Bollandus and others. — Burman Traject. 
 Eriidit. Alegambe. Foppens Bibl. Belg. 
 
 ROTGANS (Luke) one of the most distin- 
 guished of the Dutch poets, was born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1645. Having been initiated in 
 classical literature, he entered into the army 
 as an ensign in 1672 ; but after two years' 
 service, not meeting with promotion, he re- 
 tired to his country house, between Amster- 
 dam and Utrecht, where he renewed his stu- 
 dies. Subsequent to the peace of Nimeguen, 
 he took a journey to Paris ; and on his return 
 home he married Anne Adriana Sallengre, 
 who died in 1689, leaving two daughters. 
 Rotgans spent the rest of his life in retirement 
 in the country, employing himself in poetical 
 composition. He died in 1710. Rotgans 
 was the author of an epic poem, in eight 
 books, the hero of which was William III ; 
 besides several pieces of minor importance. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROTHSCHOLZ (Frederick) a learned 
 German bookseller, born in Lower Silesia, in 
 1687. He was from his youth destined for 
 commerce, though his taste prompted him to 
 prefer literature. After attending some courses 
 of lectures at Leipsic and Halle, he engaged in 
 business, and at length settled at Nuremberg, 
 He carried on an extensive correspondence 
 with men of learning, and published a vast 
 number of works, of which he was the author 
 or editor. Among the most important are, 
 " Icones Eruditorum Academiee Altdorfina?," 
 1721, folio; " Icones Virorum omnium ordi- 
 num Eruditione meritorum," 1725, 1731, folio; 
 " Memoirs for a History of Learned ]\Ien," 
 1725 — 26, 3 vols. 8vo ; and " Bibliotheca Che- 
 niica Rothscholziana," 1727 — 1733, in five 
 parts. He died in 1736. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 IIOTROU (John de) a French dramatic 
 writer, was born at Dreux, in 1609. He made 
 great improvements in the composition of 
 dramatic pieces, both tragic and comic, whence 
 he is called by A'oltaire " the founder of the 
 theatre ;" and Peter Corneille used to call him 
 his father. He died in 1650, at Ureux, where 
 lie held the office of lieutenant-particular. His 
 chefs-d'ueuvre are " Chosroes," "Antigone," 
 and"Wenceslaus." — Morevi. Nouv.Dict. Hist. 
 
 ROUBAUD (Peter Joseph Andrew) a 
 miscellaneous writer, born at Avignon, in 
 1730. He was from his youth destined for 
 the church, into which he entered more for 
 convenience than from inclination. Going to 
 Paris, his talents and agreeable disposition 
 procured him friends, but unwilling to be de- 
 pendent on others for his support, he had 
 recourse to his pen. He became connected 
 with the sect of the Economists, of whose 
 plans he was an ardent admirer and panegy- 
 
 ROU 
 
 rist. His first work was an essay on syno- 
 nyms, which was well received. He then en- 
 gaged with Camus," in the " Journal du Com- 
 merce," from 1759 to 1762, Brussels, 24 vols. 
 12mo ; next with Dupont de Nemours, Ques- 
 nay, INIirabeau, and others, in " Journal de 
 I'Agriculture, du Commerce, et des Finances," 
 1764 — 1774 ; and afterwards with Ameilhon, 
 in another journal. He was also the author 
 of " Histoire de I'Asie, de I'Afrique, et de 
 I'Amerique," Paris, 1770 — 75, 15 vols. 12mo ; 
 and " Nouveaux Synonyraes Fran9ais," 
 1785, 4 vols. 8vo, of which a new and en- 
 larged edition appeared in 1796. He died at 
 Paris in November 1792. His last work was 
 a defence of the right of the pope to the ter- 
 ritory of Avignon, for which he received a 
 present from the papal nuncio. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROUBILLIAC (Louis Francis) an emi- 
 nent sculptor, who was a native of Lyons in 
 France. He settled in England in the reign 
 of George I ; and in the absolute dearth of na- 
 tive talent which prevailed at that period, he 
 long stood at the head of his profession. He 
 executed a statue of Handel for Vauxhall- 
 gardens, and another of sir Isaac Newton 
 erected at Trinity college, Cambridge ; but he 
 was chiefly employed on sepulchral monu- 
 ments, among which may be particularized 
 that for John duke of Ar^yle in Westminster 
 abbey. His statues of George I, and of the 
 duke of Somerset, in the senate-house at Cam- 
 bridge ; and his monuments for the duke and 
 duchess of Montagu, at Boughton in Nor- 
 thamptonshire, also deserve to be noticed with 
 approbation. Lord Chesterfield said of him, 
 " Roubilliac was our only statuary, and that 
 other artists were mere stone-cutters." He 
 had some talent for poetry, and wrote satires 
 in his native language. His death took place 
 January 11, 1762, at his residence in St Mar- 
 tin's-lane, London. — Walpuie's Anec. 
 
 ROUGHER (John Anthony) a French 
 poet and man of letters, born at INIontpellier 
 in 1745. He studied among the Jesuits, who 
 endeavoured to attach him to their society, 
 but in vain. At the age of twenty he went to 
 Paris to continue his studies at the Sorbonne, 
 with a view to the church ; but he renounced 
 his hopes of ecclesiastical promotion, to de- 
 vote himself entirely to literature. He pub- 
 lished many poetical compositions in the "Al- 
 manach des Muses," from 1772 to 1787 ; and 
 a poem, entitled " La France et I'Autriche au 
 Temple de I'Hymen," on occasion of tlie mar- 
 riage of Louis XVI and iNIarie Antoinette, 
 procured him the patronage of Turgot, and 
 the office of receiver of gabelles, at INIontfort 
 I'Aniauri. \Vhen the Revolution took place, 
 he opposed the excesses of the more violent 
 politicians ; and during the reign of terror he 
 was obliged to conceal himself. He was dis- 
 covered and arrested ; being set free, he was 
 arrested again in October 1793, and after 
 more than seven months' confinement he suf- 
 fered under the guillotine. His principal pro- 
 duction is a poem, entitled " Les iMcis," 
 1779, 2 vols. 4to ; and he translated Adam 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations. — Biotr. Univ. 
 
no u 
 
 nOUELLR (Wii.MAM Krancis) a cole- 
 brated French cliemist, born near Caen in 
 1703. He sUulied in tlie nnivt-rsity of that 
 city, but he owed the jjriiicipul part of liis sci- 
 entific ac(iuirements to his own exertions. He 
 went to Paris when young, and entered into 
 the service of a German apothecary, iiatned 
 Spitzley, who had succeedeil Lemt-iy. He re- 
 mained in this situation seven years, during' 
 wliich he devoted liis time to researches in 
 chemistry, pharmacy, botany, and natural his- 
 tory. At h*n;4th lie engaged in tlie professi<m 
 of pharmacy on liis own account, aud at the 
 same time gave lectures on cheniisiry. His 
 reputation soon became extended, and in 1712 
 lie obtained the professorship of chemistry at 
 the royal garden of plants ; and two years 
 after he was admitted an adjunct member of 
 the Academy of Sciences. . He presented to 
 that learned body a memoir on Neutral Salts, 
 followed in 1745 by another on the Crystalliz- 
 ation of Marine Salt. He also wrote on acid 
 salts, on the inflammation of nitric acid and 
 oil of turpentine, &c. He held the office of 
 inspector-general of pharmacy at the Hotel 
 Dieii ; and having resigned his place of de- 
 monstrating professor at the Jardin du Roi.in 
 1768, on account of bad health, he died Au- 
 gust 3, 1770. — Bhg. Univ. 
 
 ROUELLE (Hilary Mauinus) usually 
 designated Rouelle the Younger, to distin- 
 guish him from his brother, the subject of the 
 last article, was born in 1718. He applied 
 himself to the study of chemistry, and became 
 one of tlie most industrious and accurate ex- 
 j)erimental philosophers of his time. He as- 
 sisted his brother in his lectures, and suc- 
 ceeded him as ])rofessor at the royal garden. 
 He distinguislied himself by his researches 
 concerning tartaric acid, phosphoric acid, Li- 
 bavius's spirit, and by his analysis of animal 
 and vegetable substances, published in various 
 periodical works, by means of which he con- 
 tributed materially to the advancement of sci- 
 ence. His death took place at Paris, April 7, 
 1779.— /(/. 
 
 ROUILLE (Peter Julian) a learned Je- 
 suit, who was a native of Tours in France. 
 He studied in a college of that city, and enter- 
 ing into the order of St Ignatius, he was em- 
 ployed in teaching, in various seminaries, 
 classical literature, philosophy, and mathema- 
 tics. He afterwards assisted father Catrou in 
 his voluminous Roman History, and Brumoy 
 in the History of the Revolutions of S]>ain ; 
 and at length he was appointed princij)al con- 
 ductor of the '* Journal de Trevoux," which 
 he carried on from December 1733 to Febru- 
 ary 1737. His death took place in 1740, at 
 the age of fifty-nine. He was the author of 
 " Discours stir 1' Excellence et I'Utilite des 
 JMathematiques," 1716. — /(/. 
 
 ROUSSEAU (John Baptist) an eminent 
 French lyric poet, born at Paris, April 6, 
 1670. 'Ihougli he was the son of a shoe- 
 maker }ie receiveel a good education, aiul at 
 an early period he displayed a strong taste for 
 poetry. In 168P. he obtained a situation in 
 the service of the French ambassador at Co- 
 Bioo. Dicx. — Vol. III. 
 
 no u 
 
 penliagen ; and ho subsoquently acconipaniod 
 marshal 'i'allard to England as his serretaiy. 
 He wrote several pieces for the theatre, on the 
 succfss of one of which, having, according to 
 the Parisian custom, appeared on t!ie stage to 
 receive the congratulations of the audience, lie 
 had the aljonuiiable meanness and ingratitude 
 to disown his father, wben the old man, re- 
 joicing at his son's triumph, came forward to 
 speak to him In-fore the frienilH wlio sur- 
 rounded him. In 1701 he obtained admission 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions and IWIles 
 Lettres ; and his lyric compositions procured 
 him high reputation among the French literati ; 
 but his turn for satire, and '[r.irrelsome tem- 
 per, at length involved him in disgrace. Some 
 abusive and indecent verses having been cir- 
 culated at Paris, which Rousseau was accused 
 of having written, but which he disclaimed, 
 he after a time profes.sed to have discovered 
 the author in the person of his enemy Saurin. 
 'J'o relieve himself from the load of obloquy 
 under which he laboured, he commenced a 
 prosecution of that academician, for compos- 
 ing the defamatory couplets in question, 
 and having failed in substantiating the allega- 
 tion, he was exiled from France in 17l'J. He 
 went to Switzerland, and afterwards resi- 
 ded at \'ienna, under the patronage of 
 prince Eugene. The latter part of his life 
 was spent in the Netherlands, where he 
 obtained a pension from the duke of Arem- 
 berg, which he resigned on having for- 
 feited the favour of that nobleman. His 
 death took place at Brussels, in 1711. 'i'he 
 odes of liousseaa are reckoned superior to 
 those of any other French poet ; but he is 
 chiefly distinguished in literary history under 
 the discreditable character of a personal sa 
 tiiist. An edition of his works was published 
 under liis own inspection, by'l'onson, London, 
 1723. 2 vols. -Ito ; and since his death they 
 have been often printed, in various forms. — 
 Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROUSSEAU (Jean Jaqi'Es) the most elo- 
 quent writer and singular character of Jiis a^-e, 
 was born at Geneva in 1712. His father was 
 a watchmaker, and like most of the citizens 
 of Geneva, tinctured with a taste for litera- 
 ture. This taste he communicated to his son, 
 with whom lie read romances until he was 
 eight vears of age, and then introduced him 
 to Plutarch with such observations as might 
 be expected from a zealous republican. A 
 taste for romantic adventure, and a high ad- 
 miration of free and patriotic principles, were 
 therefore amalgamated in liis mind from his 
 earliest infancy; and in his celebrated " Con- 
 fessions," he has mentioned many other 
 incidents, which, in his ojiinion, exerted .% 
 lasting influence on his character. His school 
 education was very imperfect, and never en- 
 abled him to read Latin with facility ; and his 
 picture of himself in childhood, represents him 
 as of a warm and sensual temperament, and 
 replete with mental and corporeal susceptibi- 
 lity. He was first placed with an attorney, 
 who soon discharged him for negligence ; and 
 he was then sent to an engraver, from whom 
 
 F 
 
KO U 
 
 the following, " An Account of the Hermits 
 of Egypt and Palestine ;" " The History of the 
 Eelglc Church ;" " An Ecclesiastical History 
 froni the time of Christ to Pope Urban VIII," 
 2 vols, folio; " Fasti Sanctorum quorum Vitae 
 in Belgicis Bibliothecis Manuscriptas asser- 
 vantur," which he intended as a specimen of 
 a larger work, and which was the prelude to 
 the immense collection of " Acta Sanctorum," 
 by Bollandus and others. — Burman Traject. 
 Eritdit. Alegamhe. Foppens Bibl. Belg. 
 
 ROTGANS (Luke) one of the most distin- 
 guished of the Dutch poets, was born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1645. Having been initiated in 
 classical literature, he entered into the army 
 as an ensign in 1672 ; but after two years' 
 service, not meeting with promotion, he re- 
 tired to his country house, between Amster- 
 dam and Utrecht, where he renewed his stu- 
 dies. Subsequent to the peace of Nimeguen, 
 he took a journey to Paris; and on his return 
 home he married Anne Adriana Sallengre, 
 who died in 1689, leaving two daughters. 
 Rotgans spent the rest of his life in retirement 
 in the country, employing himself in poetical 
 composition. He died in 1710. Rotgans 
 was the author of an epic poem, in eight 
 books, the hero of which was William 111 ; 
 besides several pieces of minor importance. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROTHSCHOLZ (Frederick) a learned 
 German bookseller, born in Lower Silesia, in 
 1687. He was from his youth destined for 
 commerce, though his taste prompted him to 
 prefer literature. After attending some courses 
 of lectures at Leipsic and Halle, he engaged in 
 business, and at length settled at Nuremberg. 
 He carried on an extensive correspondence 
 with men of learning, and published a vast 
 number of works, of which he was the author 
 or editor. Among the most important are, 
 " Icones Eruditorum Academiaj Altdorfinae," 
 1721, folio ; " Icones Virorum omnium ordi- 
 num Eruditione meritorum," 1725, 1731, folio; 
 " Memoirs for a History of Learned Men," 
 1725 — 26, 3 vols. 8vo ; and " Bibliotheca Che- 
 niica Rothscholziana," 1727 — 1733, in five 
 parts. He died in 1736. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROTllOU (JoiJM de) a French dramatic 
 writer, was born at Dreux, in 1609. He made 
 great improvements in the composition of 
 dramatic pieces, both tragic and comic, whence 
 he is called by Voltaire " the founder of the 
 theatre ;" and Peter Corneille used to call him 
 his fatlier. He died in 1650, at Dreux, where 
 he held the office of lieutenant-particular. His 
 chefs-d'oeuvre are " Cho.sroes," "Antigone," 
 and"Wenceslaus." — Moreri. Nouv.Dict. Hist. 
 
 ROUBAUD (Peter Joseph Andrew) a 
 miscellaneous writer, born at Avignon, in 
 1730. He was from his youth destined for 
 the church, into which he entered more for 
 convenience than from inclination. Going to 
 Paris, his talents and agreeable disposition 
 procured him friends, but unwilling to be de- 
 pendent on others for his support, he had 
 recourse to his pen. He became connected 
 with the sect of the Economists, of whose 
 plans he was an ardent admirer and panegy- 
 
 ROU 
 
 rist. His first work was an essay on syno- 
 nyms, which was well received. He then en- 
 gaged with Camus," in the " Journal du Com- 
 merce," from 1759 to 1762, Brussels, 24 vols. 
 12mo ; next with Dupont de Nemours, Ques- 
 nay, INIirabeau, and others, in " Journal de 
 I'Agriculture, du Commerce, et des Finances," 
 1764 — 1774 ; and afterwards with Ameilhon, 
 in another journal. He was also the author 
 of " Histoire de I'Asie, de I'Afrique, et de 
 I'Amerique," Paris, 1770 — 75, 15 vols. 12mo; 
 and " Nouveaux Synonymes Fran^ais," 
 1785, 4 vols. 8vo, of which a new and en- 
 larged edition appeared in 1796. He died at 
 Paris in November 1792. His last work was 
 a defence of the right of the pope to the ter- 
 ritory of Avignon, for which he received a 
 present from the papal nuncio. — Biog. Unio. 
 
 ROUBILLIAC (Louis Francis) an emi- 
 nent sculptor, who was a native of Lyons in 
 France. He settled in England in the reign 
 of George I ; and in the absolute dearth of na- 
 tive talent which prevailed at that period, he 
 long stood at the head of his profession. He 
 executed a statue of Handel for Vauxhall- 
 gardens, and another of sir Isaac Newton 
 erected at Trinity college, Cambridge ; but he 
 was chiefly employed on sepulchral monu- 
 ments, among which may be particularized 
 that for John duke of Argyle in Westminster 
 abbey. His statues of George I, and of the 
 duke of Somerset, in the senate-house at Cam- 
 bridge ; and his monuments for the duke and 
 duchess of Montagu, at Boughton in Nor- 
 thamptonsbire, also deserve to be noticed with 
 approbation. Lord Chesterfield said of him, 
 " Roubilliac was our only statuary, and that 
 other artists were mere stone-cutters." He 
 had some talent for poetry, and wrote satires 
 in his native language. His death took place 
 January 11, 1762, at his residence in St Mar- 
 tin's-lane, London. — Walpuie's Anec. 
 
 ROUGHER (John Anthony) a French 
 poet and man of letters, born at Montpellier 
 in 1745. He studied among the Jesuits, who 
 endeavoured to attach him to their society, 
 but in vain. At the age of twenty he went to 
 Paris to continue his studies at the Sorbonne, 
 with a view to the church ; but he renounced 
 his hopes of ecclesiastical promotion, to de- 
 vote himself entirely to literature. He pub- 
 lished many poetical compositions in the "Al- 
 manach des Muses," from 1772 to 1787 ; and 
 a poem, entitled " La France et I'Autriche au 
 Temple de I'Hymen," on occasion of the mar- 
 riage of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, 
 procured him tlie patronage of Turgot, and 
 the office of receiver of gabelles, at ^lontfort 
 I'Aniauri. When the Revolution took place, 
 lie opposed the excesses of the more violent 
 politicians ; and during the reign of terror he 
 was obliged to conceal himself. He was dis- 
 covered and arrested ; being set free, he wan 
 arrested again in October 1793, and after 
 more than seven months' confinement he suf- 
 fered under the guillotine. His principal pro- 
 duction is a poem, entitled " Les Mcis," 
 1779, 2 vols. 4to ; and he translated Adam 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations. — Biog, UniiK 
 
R O V 
 
 nOUKLLR (Wii.MAM FnANcis) a celo- 
 brated Frcncli clicmist, born near Caen in 
 17():>. He sUiilicd in tlie nnivi-rsity of that 
 city, but he owed the iJriiuipul part of his sci- 
 entific ac(]uirenients to his own exertions. He 
 went to I'aris when yoiin'^s and entered into 
 the service of a German apothecary, named 
 Spitzley, wlio liad succeeded Lemery. Hi' re- 
 mained in tliis situation seven years, during' 
 which lie lievoted liis time to researches in 
 chemistry, pharmacy, botany, and natural his- 
 tory. At Ieni;th he engaged in the profession 
 of pharmacy on liis own account, and at tlie 
 same time gave lectures on chemistry. His 
 reputation soon became extended, and in 1742 
 lie obtained the ])rofessoiship of chemistry at 
 the royal garden of plants ; and tuo years 
 after he was admitted an adjunct meml)er of 
 the Acailemy of Sciences. . He presented to 
 that learned body a memoir on Neutral Salts, 
 folioweil in 174.5 by another on the Crystaliiz- 
 atioa of IMavine Salt. He also wrote on acid 
 salts, on the inflammation of nitric acid and 
 oil of turpentine, «S:c. He held the office of 
 inspector-general of pharmacy at the H(")tel 
 Dieii ; and liaving resigned his place of de- 
 monstrating professor at the Jardin du Roi.in 
 1768, on account of bad health, he died Au- 
 gust 3, 1770. — Bhg. Univ. 
 
 ROUELLE (Hilary Marinus) usually 
 designated Rouelle tlie Younger, to distin- 
 guish him from his brother, the subject of the 
 last article, was born in 1718. lie aj)plied 
 himself to the study of chemistry, and became 
 one of the most industrious and accurate ex- 
 perimental philosophers of his time. He as- 
 sisted his brother in his lectures, and suc- 
 ceeded him as professor at the royal garden. 
 He distinguished himself by his researches 
 concerning tartaric acid, phosphoric acid, Li- 
 bavius's spirit, and by his analysis of animal 
 and vegetable substances, pubiislied in various 
 periodical works, by means of which he con- 
 tributed materially to the advancement of sci- 
 ence. His death took place at Paris, April 7, 
 1779.— 7f/. 
 
 ROUILLE (Peter Julian) a learned Je- 
 suit, who was a native of Tours in France. 
 He studied in a college of that city, and enter- 
 ing into the order of St Ignatius, he was era- 
 ployed in teaching, in various seminaries, 
 classical literature, philosophy, and mathema- 
 tics. He afterwards assisted father Catrou in 
 his voluminous Roman History, and Brumoy 
 in the History of the Revolutions of Spain; 
 and at length he was appointed principal con- 
 ductor of the "Journal de Trevoux," which 
 lie carried on from December 1733 to Febru- 
 ary 1737. His death took place in 1740, at 
 the age of fifty-nine. He was the author of 
 " l^iscours siir I'Excellence et FUtilite des 
 Mathematiques," 1716. — Id. 
 
 HOUSSEAU (John 15aptist) an eminent 
 French lyric poet, born at Paris, April 6, 
 1670. 'riiough he was the son of a shoe- 
 maker he received a good education, and at 
 an early period he displayed a strong taste for 
 poetry. In 1688 he obtained a situation in 
 the service of the French ambassador at Co- 
 Bioo. DicT. — Vox.. III. 
 
 KO U 
 
 penliagen ; and he subHcqnently accompanied 
 marshal 'I'allard to Ilngland as hi.s secretary. 
 He wrote several picct-s for the theatre, on the 
 succiss of one of which, having, according to 
 the Parisian custouj, appeared on t!ie stage to 
 receive the congratulations of the aUilicnce, lie 
 had the aljondnable nu-anness and in'4ralitude 
 to disown his father, wiicn the old man, re- 
 joicing at hiH son's triumph, came forward to 
 speak to him befon- the friends wlio sur- 
 rounded him. In 1701 he obtaiiud admission 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions and I W lies 
 Lettres ; and his lyric compositions procured 
 him high rej)utation among the French literati ; 
 but his turn for satire, and qiMrrelsome tem- 
 per, at length involved him in disgrace. Some 
 abusive and indecent verses having been cir- 
 culated at Paris, which Rousseau was accused 
 of having written, but which he disclaimed, 
 he after a time profes>ed to have discovereil 
 the author in the person of his enemy Saurin. 
 'Jo relieve himself from the load of obloquy 
 under which he laboured, he commenced a 
 prosecution of that academician, for compos- 
 ing the defamatory couplets in question, 
 and having failed in substantiating the allega- 
 tion, he was exiled from France in 171 'J. He 
 went to Switzerland, and afterwards resi- 
 ded at ^'ienna, under the patronage of 
 prince Eugene. The latter part of his life 
 was spent in the Netherlands, where he 
 obtained a pension from the duke of Arem- 
 berg, which he resigned on having for- 
 feited the favour of that nobleman. His 
 death took place at Brussels, in 1741. The 
 odes of Rousseau are reckoned superior to 
 those of any other French poet ; but he is 
 chiefly distinguished in literary history under 
 the discreditable character of a personal sa 
 tiiist. An edition of his works was published 
 under his own inspection, byTonson, London, 
 1723. 2 vols. 4to ; and since his death they 
 have been often printed, in various forms. — 
 Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROUSSEAU (Jean Jaqi-es) the most elo- 
 quent writer and singular character of his age, 
 was born at Geneva in 1712. His father was 
 a watchmaker, and like most of the citizens 
 of Geneva, tinctured witli a taste for litera- 
 ture. This taste he communicated to his son, 
 with whom lie read romances until he was 
 eight years of age, and then introduced him 
 to Plutarch with such observations as miirht 
 be expected from a zealous repuldicau. A 
 taste for romantic adventure, and a high ad- 
 miration of free and patriotic princi|des, were 
 therefore amalgamated in Ids mind from hi^ 
 earliest infancy; and in his celebrated " Con- 
 fessions," he has mentioned many other 
 incidents, which, in his opinion, e\erted a 
 lasting influence on his character. His school 
 education was very imperfect, and never en- 
 abled him to read Latin with facility ; and Ida 
 picture of himself in childhood, represents him 
 as of a warm and sensual temperament, and 
 replete with mental and corporeal susceptibi- 
 lity. He was first placed with an attorney, 
 who foon discharged him for negligence ; and 
 he was then sent to an engraver, from whom 
 
 F 
 
RO U 
 
 ROC 
 
 be eloped in Lis sixteenth year, and strolled ' sur la IMusique Fran^oise," to prove that, from 
 away to the territory of Savoy. Here he v/as the defects of their language, the French 
 hospitably entertained by a Savoyard priest, could have no such thing as vocal music. This 
 who, wiib the idea of converting him from the ■ letter was written with great taste and know- 
 creed of Geneva, sent him to Aimecy, to a [ ledge of the subject ; but the severity with 
 Madame de Warens, a new convert to the Ca- j which he treated the national idol, the French 
 tholic church, who had left her husband at opera, drew upon him a torrent of resentment, 
 Lausanne, and employed herself in the pious | and in 1754 he returned to Geneva, and giving 
 work of proselytism. A beautiful woman of j up the Roman Catholic religion, was restored 
 twenty-eight was well calculated to operate i to his citizenship. This favour he returned 
 convictions upon a boy of sixteen of the sus- by an eloquent dedication to the republic, of 
 ceptible temperament of Rousseau, whose his " Discours sur le Cause de I'lnegalite 
 convefjiion was completed at Turin, and parmi les Hommes," a rhetorical rather than an 
 twenty florins given him in exchange with his argumentative prize-dissertation, upon another 
 
 new religion. 
 
 When this money was spent 
 he entered into the service of a countess de 
 Vercelli, on whose death he was received into 
 that of a nobleman, whose son, a man of let- 
 ters, took great pains to instruct him. He 
 Boon forfeited this protection by misconduct, 
 and after passing some time in a wandering 
 manner, returned to madame de Warens, who 
 contrived to unite devotional feelings with 
 amorous propensities, of which her protege in 
 his turn became the object. Through the in- 
 terest of this coarse and sensual woman, he 
 obtained a place as secretary to a commission, 
 appointed by the king of Sardinia for survey- 
 ing lands. Music, however, which be had 
 already taught, became his passion ; and giving 
 up his post, he took up the profession of a 
 music-master at Chamberry, where he passed 
 eight years more, very intimately connected 
 with madame de Warens, delicacy or con- 
 stancy being attended to on neither side. At 
 length a coldness taking place, he was recom- 
 mended by her to be a tutor in a family at 
 Lyons, which situation he soon forfeited, and 
 went to Paris, where he resided in great ob- 
 scurity until 1743, when he was appointed se- 
 cretary to the French ambassador at Venice. 
 As usual he soon quarrelled with his superior, 
 and returned to Paris, where he supported 
 himself by copying music, and also became 
 clerk to a fanner general. In 1749 he was 
 engaged to compose the musical articles in the 
 Encyclopedie, and the following year distin- 
 guished himself for the first time, under his 
 own name, in the world of letters. Che aca- 
 demy of Dijon had proposed for a prize- ques- 
 tion, " Whether the re-establishment of the 
 arts and sciences has contributed to purify 
 morals'?" Rousseau, who at first intended to 
 espouse the aflirmative, was, as it is said, in- 
 duced by the persuasion of Diderot, to adopt 
 the negative, as more likely "o attract notice. 
 Whether this assertion be true or not, he dis- 
 played so much ingenuity and eloquence in his 
 discourse on the occasion, that it was crowned 
 by the academy; and read with all the interest 
 inspired by a splendid paradox, and it seems 
 at least to have made a convert of the philoso- 
 pher himself. In 1752 he wrote a comedy, 
 entitled " Narcisse," and also composed his 
 musical entertainment of " Le Devin du Vil- 
 lage," both words and music, which was much 
 admired for its attractive simplicity. In the 
 
 question, proposed by the academy of Dijon 
 In 1758 he published his letter to M. D'Alem- 
 bert, on the design of establishing a theatre 
 at Geneva, which piece contained much for- 
 cible and just observation, so far as applied to 
 Geneva. It produced a great sensation, and 
 was replied to by Marmontel and D'Alem- 
 bert. The dislike of Voltaire for Rousseau 
 is said to have originated in this production. 
 In 1762 he published his famous novel, enti- 
 tled " Lettres des deux Amants," but more 
 commonly known by the title of " Julie, ou 
 la Nouveile Heloise." In warmth of painting 
 and eloquence of sentiment, it has probably no 
 superior ; but with occasional deep knowledge 
 of the human heart, it abounds with much in- 
 consistency and improbability. The affecta- 
 tion and bad faith of the preface are very 
 disgusting. He therein observes that a young 
 girl cannot read a single page of it without 
 being undone, and grieves that he did not live 
 in an age when it ought to be thrown into the 
 fire ; but " romances are necessary for a cor- 
 rupt people." His next performance was, 
 *' Du Contrat Social," a closely reasoned dis- 
 sertation on the fundamental principles of civil 
 polity, in which he excludes from the rank of 
 free governments all but pure democracies. 
 The impression made by this work has brought 
 upon Rousseau the imputation of Jiaving has- 
 tened the French revolution. It was prohi- 
 bited in France, and even in the republics of 
 Switzerland ; and from its appearance may be 
 dated that warfare between the author and 
 the supporters of existing authority, civil and 
 religious, which exposed nearly all the rest of 
 his life to persecution and annoyance. The 
 ♦' Emile, ou de I'Education," of this extraor- 
 dinary genius was published in 1762, and in 
 a certain sense it may be regarded as his prin- 
 cipal work. His fundamental idea on educa- 
 tion is, to suflfer the young mind to develope 
 itself, attending rather to the prevention of 
 evil, than to direct inculcation, until a founda- 
 tion is laid for the operation of reason, un- 
 biassed by habit or prejudice. That many of 
 his observations may be applied to great ad- 
 vantage in the business of education, will be 
 admitted by every candid and well-informed 
 reader ; but they are alloyed by so much that is 
 absurd, sophisticated, and impracticable, that 
 as a system his views are altogether visionary. 
 The freedom with which all received opinions 
 
 midst of tlie applause tons excited the para- are treated in this remarkable production, pro 
 doxical author took occasioa in his " Lettre cured him a host of enemies, and the cele 
 
KG U 
 
 brated profession of faith, whicii he puis into 
 tlie mouth of a Savoyard vicar, was alti-nded 
 with the singular result of e.xcitini; the ire of 
 both devotees aud philosopheis. It was ana- 
 tliematized by the archbisliop of J'aris, and 
 ordered to be burnt both by the parliament of 
 Paris and the authorities of (Jeneva. Oldi^'ed 
 to flee from France and Switzerland, the author 
 took shelter in the principality of Neufcliatel, 
 where lie enjoyed the protection of marshal 
 Keith. He there publislied his " Letter to 
 the ArdibisJiop of I'aris," in answer to his 
 " Mandemeitti' an^ " I^ttres de la Mon- 
 tagne," a remonstrance against tho i)roceed- 
 ings of the republic ot Geneva, the citizen- 
 ship of which he renounced. The excitement 
 produced by these works obliged their author 
 to seek another asylum at Strasburgh, where 
 he was kindly received by mar^hal de Con- 
 tades. Thence he ventured to proceed to 
 Paris, w'nere he api)eared in an American 
 habit, and was introduced to J\Ir Hume, under 
 whose advice and counsel he sought an asylum 
 in England in l766. At this period the per 
 secutions which he had undergone, had so agi- 
 tated his susceptible mind witli notions of his 
 own importance, and the consequence attached 
 to his proceedings, that a sort of perversion of 
 temper and intellect was produced, which bor- 
 dered upon insanity. Such an excuse can 
 alone account for iiis baseness and ingratitude 
 to Mr Hume, who not only procured a hos- 
 pitable asylum for him and his gouvernante, 
 but, on condition of secrecy, a pension from 
 the crown. It happened that in the preceding 
 winter Mr Horace Walpole had wTitten a let- 
 ter in the person of the king of Prussia, in 
 ridicule of Rousseau. This letter, which had 
 been widely circulated, at length appeared from 
 the English press, and the morbid mind of 
 the Genevese philosopher, without reason or 
 common sense, attributed its appearance to 
 Mr Hume, whose friendship he solemnly re- 
 nounced, and beliaved with so much extrava- 
 gance, that his departure from England very 
 quickly followed, and in 1767 he returned to 
 France, and abode chiefly in the provinces. In 
 this year he published his " Dictionnaire ile 
 Musique," a performance of taste and science. 
 In 1769 he married his gouvernante, or mis- 
 tress, a coarse, illiterate woman, who had pro- 
 duced him five children, all of whom, with 
 most unfeeling dereliction of nature and duty, 
 he consigned to the orphan hospital. During 
 the summer of 1770 he again appeared pub- 
 licly in Paris ; for while always praising soli- 
 tude, he could never bear to be long out of the 
 general gaze. In 1775 his '• Pygmalion" was 
 acted with success at the Comedie Franfaise, 
 and he appears to have passed some of the 
 following years with comparative tranquillity, 
 having consented to renounce all farther dis- 
 cussion on the topics which had involved him 
 in so many hostilities. Still, however, suspi- 
 cious of the machinations of a supposed con- 
 federacy, he accepted, in March 1777, the 
 invitation of the marquis de Girardin, to re- 
 side with his wife in a small house near the 
 lattci'.: beautifal seat of Ennenonville. In 
 
 llO u 
 
 this retreat he died the fijUowiug July, of un 
 apoplectic ultaik, at the age of sixty-hix, and 
 was buried by tlie niarciuin in the iitle of Pop- 
 lars, in Iii;i pleahure groundis, where a monu- 
 ment was erected to his meniorv, wiili the 
 inscription ** Ici repose I'Homnie de la Nature 
 et de la \'erile ;" the correclnes-s of which, 
 like that of much other monumental praise, in 
 by no means coua{)icuou8. After the death of 
 l(ouHSeau, appeared his celebrated " Confes- 
 sions," in six books, in which he ha^ given a 
 minute account of his life until his tlurlieth 
 year. This singular piece of autobiography 
 forms in itself a very striking exeinplilica- 
 tion of the character of the author. \\ uh the 
 exception, possibly, of Cardan, no writer ever 
 related circumstances so humiliating and de- 
 grading of liimself ; but while ostensibly exe- 
 cuted as a self-imposed task of contrition, it 
 was evidently a tribute to vanity and self-im- 
 portance. Although abounding with excellent 
 analyses of sentiment and action, it is dange- 
 rous, for the manner in which the virtues aud 
 vices are constantly confounded, not to men- 
 tion the disgusting nature of a soecies of men- 
 tal exposure, as nauseous as a similar display 
 of bodily infirmities would be, if made with 
 equal minuteness, and as little necessity. A 
 sense of shame has many beautiful uses, and 
 a cynical contempt for it has a very equivocal 
 pretension to the name of philosoj)hy. An- 
 other posthumous work, entitled " Les Reve- 
 ries du Promeneur solitaire," which gives a 
 view of his thoughts and sentiments at a later 
 period, is also a very characteristic produc- 
 tion, aud with several other smaller pieces in 
 vindication of himself, may be studied with a 
 view to a due understanding of this moral ami 
 literary phenomenon, who after all was possi- 
 bly moved by two or three very simple springs 
 of action, from first to last, the principal of 
 whicli was utter and entire self-engrossment. 
 To the list of his writings already enumerated, 
 many more might be added, whicli equally 
 mark Ids peculiar warmth and energy of style, 
 and vigour of thinking. Rousseau exercised 
 great influence over the theoretical opinions of 
 the age, at the period of the French Revo- 
 lution, v.'hen his "Social Contract" was a 
 favourite political authority. His reputation 
 has since greatly declined ; but while the 
 French language exists, he must always be 
 regarded as one of the greatest authors to be 
 found in it. His works have been pubUshed 
 in seventeen volumes quarto, and in numerous 
 editions of a small size, the last and finest of 
 which is that of Uidot, 1796—1801, in 25 
 vols, royal 18mo. — Roiisieau, Confei'S. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. Senebier, Hist. lAt.de Geneve. 
 
 ROUSSEAU (Samuel) a humble and me- 
 ritorious, but unfortunate retainer of litera- 
 ture, who was a native of London. He be- 
 came an ai)preutice to Mr John Nichols, the 
 printer, in whose oflice he continued after the 
 expiration of his indentures. While thus si- 
 tuated, he applied himself to the acquisition 
 of Latin, Greek, and the Oriental languages ; 
 aud his skill in the latter appears in his publi- 
 cation of " Flowers of Persian Literature 
 
 F5 
 
RO U 
 
 containing Extracts from the most celebrated 
 Authors in Prose and Verse, with Enghsh 
 Translations," 1801, 4to. He also produced 
 a Dictionary of Words used in the East Indies; 
 a Persian and English Vocabulary ; and a Per- 
 sian Grammar. At length lie engaged in 
 business on his own account in the neighbour- 
 hood of Clerkenwell, where he printed in 
 1813 an ingenious tract, entitled " Punctua- 
 tion, or an Attempt to facihtate the Art of 
 Pointing, on the Principles of Grammar and 
 Reason," 12mo. He was unsuccessful as a 
 tradesman, and died in distress, in the year 
 18'20. — Gent. Mag. Edit. 
 
 ROUSSEL (Peter) an ingenious French 
 physician, who was a native of Ax, in the 
 diocese of Pamiers, and received his education 
 in the university of INIontpellier. Having 
 taken the degree of MD. he settled as a phy- 
 sician at Paris, whence he removed to Cha- 
 teaudun, where he died in 1802. He was the 
 author of an ingenious work, entitled " Sys- 
 teme physique et moral de I'Homme et de la 
 Femme," which passed through several edi- 
 tions ; and he Ukewise published " Eloge de 
 M. Bordeu," and other pieces. — Dict^ Hist. 
 Blog. Univ. 
 
 ROUSSEL (William) a learned Benedic- 
 tine of the congregation of St Maur, bom at 
 Conches, in the diocese of Evreux, in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1658. He entered into the order 
 of St Benedict, at the abbey of Notre Dame, 
 at Lire, in 1680 ; and he soon distinguished 
 himself among his brethren, by his learning 
 and ability. Though qualified to shine as an 
 orator, he preferred the cultivation of litera- 
 ture ; and retiring into a monastery at Rheims, 
 he occupied himself in making a French 
 translation of the " IMoral and Devotional 
 Letters "of St Jerome, which he published in 
 1703. This work was followed by the " Cri- 
 tical Letters on the Sacred Scriptures," of the 
 same father, 1707. Roussel afterwards en- 
 gaged in the arduous task of preparing a his- 
 tury of French literature, on the plan of the 
 Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique of Du Pin ; but 
 he did not live to complete it, and the work 
 was afterwards executed by Rivet de la Grange. 
 The death of Roussel took place at the mo- 
 nastery of Argenteuil, October 5, 1717. — Le 
 Cerf Biblioth. Bio<>:. Univ. 
 
 ROUSSET DE MISSY (Jean) a native of 
 Laon, in the province of Picardy, born 1686. 
 Of his early life little is known till he appears 
 at Amsterdam in the capacity of historiogra- 
 pher to the prince of Orange, who also admit- 
 ted him to his confidence. This, however, he 
 at length forfeited, and found it advisable to 
 retire to Brussels. He is known as the author 
 of a " History of the Campaigns of Prince 
 Eugene, the Duke of Marlborough, and the 
 Prince of Orange," in three folio volumes ; 
 an •• Historical Account of the Grand Revolu- 
 tion in the United Provinces," 4to ; " On the 
 Interest of the Powers of Europe," 4to, 2 vols ; 
 " An Historical Collection of Public Acts and 
 Treaties," in twenty-one volumes ; " A De- 
 scription of Sardinia ;" and a supplement to 
 
 ROW 
 
 volumes folio. His death took place in 1762. 
 
 — Nouv. Diet. Hi^t. 
 
 ROUX (Augustin) a French physician, 
 who was a native of Bordeaux, and died at 
 Paris in 1776. He published several useful 
 works, among which are " Recherches sur le 
 Moyen de refroidir les Liqueurs," 12mo ; 
 " Memoires de Chimie, extraits de ceuxd'Up- 
 sal," 2 vols. l2mo ; " Traite de la Culture et 
 de la Plantation des Arbres a ouvrer," 12mo ; 
 and '• Encyclopedie Portative," 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 — Biog. Vniv. 
 
 ROWE (Elizabeth) a lady distinguished 
 for her piety and literary and poetical talents, 
 was the daughter of I\Ir Walter Singer, a dis- 
 senting minister of Ilchester, where she was 
 born September 11, 1674. Her father, who 
 possessed a competent estate, encouraged her 
 early display of talent by adequate instruc- 
 tion, and she became accomplished in music 
 and painting at a very tender age, and even 
 attempted versification in her twelfth year. 
 Being very devoutly educated, she accustomed 
 herself to the composition of pious exercises ; 
 and by the advice of bishop Ken, who knew 
 and admired her, composed a paraphrase on 
 the 38th chapter of Job. In 1696, being then 
 in her twenty-second year, she published a 
 volume of " Poems on several Occasions, by 
 Philomela." The charms of her person and 
 conversation procured her many admirers, 
 among whom, it is said, was the poet Prior. 
 She did not, however, marry until the age 
 of twenty- six, when she chose Mr Thomas 
 Rowe, the son of a dissenting minister, a gen- 
 tleman of considerable literary attainments, 
 who was some years her junior, and whom, 
 to her great grief, she lost a few years after 
 marriage, by a consumption, at the early age 
 of twenty-eight. On this event she retired to 
 Frome, where she resided for the remainder 
 of her life, with the exception of occasional 
 visits to the countess of Hertford, and a few 
 other friends of rank and talent, to whom her 
 merit, elegance of manners, and literary ac- 
 complishments, rendered her society valuable. 
 It was at Frome that Mrs Rowe produced 
 the greatest part of her works, the most popu- 
 lar of which was her " Friendship in Death, 
 or Twenty Letters from the Dead to the Liv- 
 ing," a work of a lively and florid imagina- 
 tion, strongly imbued with devotional feeling 
 and tenderness of heart. This production, 
 which was published in 1728, was followed in 
 1729 and 1731, by " Letters, moral and en- 
 tertaining, in Prose and Verse." In 1736 she 
 published " A History of Joseph," a poem, 
 which she had composed in early life. In both 
 poetry and prose she wrote without labour, 
 and with no great attention to correctness ; 
 but she is often striking and luxuriant, although 
 not un frequently too florid for a just taste to 
 approve. In 1737 Dr Isaac Watts revised 
 and published her " Devout Exercises of the 
 [Heart;" and in 1739 her "Miscellaneous 
 Works, in Prose and Verse," appeared in 2 
 vols. 8vo, with an account of her life and 
 writings prefixed. This collection, which has 
 
 the •' Corps Diplomatique" of Duraont, in five ^ been repeatedly reprinted, contained several 
 
Jl o \v 
 
 poems and original translations by her deccasocl 
 husband. i\Irs Howe died of an apoplectic 
 attack in lier sixty-tliird year.hi'jbly estt'fjnt'd 
 for tlie amiable and inipresi-.ive cliaractcr, 
 wliicb she had borne througli life. — /i/o-r. ]i,it. 
 Life prefixed to Works. 
 
 ROWE (Nicholas) an eminent En'^lish 
 dramatist and poet, was born in 167;>, at the 
 house of his maternal {grandfather aJt Little 
 Berkford, Bedfordshire. He was the son of 
 John Rowe, es(]. serjeant-at-law, a gentleman 
 of an ancient family in Devonshire. After a 
 preliminary education at a private school, he 
 was sent to that of NVestminster as kintr's 
 scholar, where he jiursued his classical studies 
 under the celebrated Dr Busby. At the age 
 of sixteen he was entered a student at tlie 
 Middle Temple, and proceeded so far as to be 
 called to the bar ; but on the death of his fa- 
 ther he partially gave up the law, and gradually 
 turned his chief attention to poetry and polite 
 literature. At the aj^e of twenty-four he pro- 
 duced his first tragedy of " The Ambitious 
 Stepmotlier," the success of which induced 
 him to altogether abandon the bar. His 
 " Tamerlane " fit.'lowed, which was intended 
 as a compliment to king William, who was 
 figured under the conquering- Tartar ; while 
 Louis XIV, with almost equal want of veri- 
 similitude, ranked as the Turkish Bajazet. It 
 was, however, a successful piece ; and indeed, 
 with little nature, contains many elevated and 
 manly sentiments. His next dramatic per- 
 formance was the " Fair Penitent," remodelled 
 from the Fatal Dowry of IMassinger, with 
 some abatement of moral effect and correct- 
 ness of character, but rendered otherwise in- 
 teresting by poetry, situation, and sentiment. 
 In I7l)6 he wrote " The Biter," a comedy ; 
 which being altogether a faUure, he was pru- 
 dent enough to keep to his own line, and from 
 that time to 1715 his " L'lysses," "Royal 
 Convert," "Jane Shore," and "Lady Jane 
 Grey," appeared in succession, of which 
 " Jane Sbore " still, and probal)ly long will, 
 keep the stage. Being a decided whig, 
 when the duke of Queensbury was made se- 
 cretary of state, he appointed Mr Rowe his 
 under-secretary. This post he lost by the 
 death of his patron ; and on the accession of 
 George T he was made poet-laureat in place 
 of Tate, and also obtained the several posts of 
 one of the land-surveyors of the |)ort of Lon- 
 don, clerk of the closet to the [)rince of Wales, 
 and secretary of presentations under the lord 
 chancellor Parker. The emoluments of these 
 offices, aided by his paternal fortune, enabled 
 him to live respectably. He was twice mar- 
 ried to women of good family, and had a son 
 by his first wife and a daughter by Ids second. 
 He died (of what disorder is not recorded), in 
 De.jemht>v 17 18, in his forty-fifth year, and was 
 buried among the poets in Westminster abbey, 
 where his widow has erected a superb monumen t 
 to his memory. The personal character of 
 Rowe seems to have been very respectable, 
 and, according to Pope, he possessed tlie 
 most agreeable talents for society. Asa tra- 
 gic poet he may possibly be deemed the most 
 
 ROW 
 
 successful writer on the Frrnch model, in 
 which cdoijucnce and sentirm-iu hupjdy the 
 place of nice discrimination of cliaracter, and 
 a skilful development of the passions. HlH 
 dramatic fables are, however, generally inte- 
 resting, and the situations striking ; whi( h, 
 i>eing aided by a singularly sweet and poetical 
 diction in the dialogue, his pieces forcibly ar- 
 rest attention, although they but slightly ailcct 
 the heart. As an original poet, Rowe a|)peari 
 to most advantage in a few tender and pathetic 
 ballads, but as a translator he assumed a hidier 
 character. His version of " Lucan'a Piiarsa- 
 lia," not publislicd until after his ileath, al- 
 though somewhat too diffuse, Dr Johnson es- 
 teems a masterpiece. He also gave transla- 
 tions of the first book of Quillet's Callipa-dia, 
 and of tlie Golden Verses of Pythagoras. The 
 poetical works of Rowe were published col- 
 lectively, in 3 vols. 12mo, 1719.— 7Jje^. Brit. 
 Jolnisoii's Licea of the Poets. 
 
 ROWLANDS (Henry) a Cambrian anti- 
 quary, distinguished for his researches con- 
 cerning the existing memorials of the ancient 
 Cimbric population of Britain. He was a na- 
 tive of the Isle of Anglesey, and having re- 
 ceived a classical education, he became a mem- 
 ber of the clerical order, and obtained the 
 living of Llanfadden in Anglesey. Much of 
 his time was devoted to the investigation of 
 the remains of stone circles, cromlechs, and 
 other structures of former ages, which abound 
 in the principality of Wales, and especially in 
 the island in which Mr Rowlands resided, 
 'llie result of his inquiries was a treatise, en- 
 titled " iMona Antiqua Restaurata, an Ar- 
 chaeological Discourse on the Antiquities of 
 the Isle of Anglesey," which was first pub- 
 lished at Dublin in" 1723, the year after the 
 death of the author, and reprinted in London 
 1766, 4to. Together with much learned spe- 
 culation and fanciful theory, this volume con- 
 tains important nifonnation relative to the lan- 
 guage, arts, and manners of the Cambro- 
 British inbabitants of this island. — 0;(V. 
 
 RUWLKV (William) a dramatic writer 
 in the reign of James I, who was one of the 
 company of players under the protection of 
 the prince of Wales. He is said to have ex- 
 celled chiefiy as a comic actor ; but of his per- 
 sonal history little or nothing is known. His 
 productions, including those in whicl; he as- 
 sisted other dramatists, are numerous. AinonEf 
 his own works are, " A New Wonder, a Wo- 
 man never Vext," com. 1632. Ito; "All's 
 Lost by Lust," trag. 1633, -ito ; " Match at 
 Midnight," com. 1633, 4to ; "A Shoe- 
 maker 's a (jenlleman," com. 1638, Ito ; 
 " The Witch of Edmonton," tragicom. 16.'>8, 
 4to ; "The Birth of .Merlin," tragi-com. 
 1662. 'ito ; besides which he wrote five plays, 
 which were never jirinted ; and he was en- 
 gaged in the composition of nine more dra- 
 matic pieces with Massinger, Middleton, Web- 
 ster, Thomas Heywood, and others. — Biog, 
 Drum, 
 
 ROWLEY (William) an eminent ])hysi- 
 cian, of Irish descent, but born in London, in 
 17 13. After completing bis studies, he served 
 
ROY 
 
 as a surgeon in the army, and was at the siege 
 of Bellisle and at the taking of Havannah, 
 wliere his conduct was so highly approved 
 that he was employed, througli the patronage 
 of admiral Keppel, to make professional visits 
 to Cuba, and all the leeward islands, for wliich 
 he was handsomely rewarded. Returning 
 liome he settled in London, and acquired ex- 
 tensive piactice as a physician. Tliough he 
 Jiad received the (diploma of ]MD. from St 
 Andrew's, and had been admitted a bachelor 
 of medicine at Alban-hall, Oxford, some ob- 
 jections occurred which prevented his taking 
 tJie next degree in the latter university. He 
 obtained considerable reputation as a practi- 
 tioner, and was respected for his benevolence 
 and humanity ; but he unfavourably distin- 
 guished himself by opposing vaccine innocula- 
 tion on its first introduction. His death took 
 place March 17, 1806. He published several 
 tracts on diseases of the eyes, ulcers of the 
 legs, and other subjects ; besides a treatise on 
 the practice of physic, and " Schola IMedi- 
 cinae universalis nova, containing the History 
 of Medicine, Anatomy, Physiology, and Spe- 
 cial Pathology," 1797, 2 vols. 4to. — Lem- 
 priere. Heuss, 
 
 ROXBURGH (William) an eminent 
 English physician and naturalist, who was ori- 
 ginally a surgeon in the service of the East- 
 India company. He exercised his profession 
 for several years at IMadras, and having dis- 
 tinguished himself by his investigation of the 
 vegetable productions of India, he was at 
 length removed to Calcutta, as superintendant 
 of the noble botanic garden founded by the 
 company. He contributed much to the im- 
 ])rovement of that establishment ; and he was, 
 in consequence of his spirited exertions for the 
 promotion of science, nominated principal bo- 
 tanist to the company in the East Indies. ]{e- 
 tuming to Europe, he died at Edinburgh, in the 
 beginning of the year 1815. He was intimately 
 connected with sir William Jones, Warren Has- 
 tings, and lord Teignmouth ; and he enriched 
 various periodical works with valuable com- 
 munications. He was the aiithor of an ac- 
 count of the " Plants of the Coast of Coro- 
 mandel," with plates and descriptions, Lon- 
 don, 179.5—98, 3 vols, folio ; a " Botanical 
 Description of a New Species of Swietenia, 
 or Mahogany," 1797, 4to ; and an " Essay on 
 the Natural Order of the ScitaminecE," Cal- 
 cutta, 4to ; besides various papers in Dalrym- 
 ple's Oriental Repository, the Asiatic Re- 
 searches, and the Philosophical Transactions. 
 — Gent. Mag. Biog. Ihiiv. 
 
 ROY (Julian David le) an architect and 
 antiquary, who was the son of a celebrated 
 horoioger, of the same name, and was born at 
 Paris in 1728. He studied architecture as a 
 profession, and having travelled into Greece 
 for improvement, he published the result of 
 his observations in his " Ruines des plus 
 beaux Monumens de la Grece," 1758, folio, 
 of which a second edition appeared in 1769. 
 This work procured him admission into the 
 Academy of Inscriptirns, and he subsequently 
 became a member of the Institute. He died 
 
 ROY 
 
 at Paris, in January, 1803. Among liis other 
 works are " Histoire de la Disposition et des 
 Formes differentes des Temples des Chre- 
 tiens," 1764, 8vo ; and " Observations sur 
 les Edifices des anciens Peuples," 1767, 8vo j 
 besides some pieces on naval architecture. — 
 Julian le Roy, his father, who was a native 
 of Tours, settled at Paris as a watchmaker, 
 and arrived at the highest eminence in his 
 profession. He died in 1759. — Pfter le Rov, 
 son of the preceding, who died in 1785, was 
 skilful in the same art. His marine time- 
 keepers were remarkable for the simplicity of 
 their construction, as well as for their accu- 
 racy. He published '* Memoires pour les 
 Horlogers de Paris," 1750, 4to ; *' Etrennes 
 Chronometriques," 1758 ; " Precis des Re- 
 cherches pour la Determination des Longi- 
 tudes par la Mesure artificielle du Temps," 
 1773, 4to, &c. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROY (Peter Charles) a satiiical and 
 dramatic poet of eminence, born at Paris in 
 1683. He was the son of an attorney of the 
 Chatelet, and he purchased the office of coun- 
 sellor in the same court ; but he devoted him- 
 self entirely to literature, neglecting his pro- 
 fession. Having gained poetical prizes at the 
 French Academy, and at the Floral Games, 
 he turned his attention to lyric composition 
 for the theatre. In 17 J 2 he produced the 
 opera of " Callirhoe," which was followed by 
 that of " Semiramis ," the ballets of the 
 " Elements ;" the " Senses ;" and the comedy 
 of the " Captives," imitated from Plautus ; 
 besides many more pieces of less importance. 
 His satires against the members of the French 
 Academy, whom he abused individually as 
 well as collectively, prevente<l his obtaining a 
 seat in that assembly, though he made re- 
 peated attempts to gain admission. He died 
 October 23, 1764. A collection of his poeti- 
 cal and miscellaneous works was published in 
 1727, 2 vols. 8vo.— Dic^ Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ROYE (Guy le) a French prelate of the 
 fourteenth century, principally known as the 
 author of a work, entitled " Doctrinale Sapi- 
 entias," of which there is a translation by Wil- 
 liam Caxton, printed by him as early as 1489. 
 The scarceness of this treatise is now its prin- 
 cipal merit. The author was elevated to the 
 archbishopric of Rheims, and at length fell in 
 a popular commotion in Italy AD. 1409. — 
 Noitv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ROY'EN (Adrian van) a physician and 
 botanist, born, probably in Holland, in 1705. 
 He succeeded Boerhaave in the botanical 
 chair of the university of Leyden, and in the 
 direction of its academical garden, which was 
 highly enriched under his care. In 1728 he 
 printed an inaugural dissertation, " De Ana- 
 tomia et G-X'ouomia Plantarum," and farther 
 contributed to recommend botanical science by 
 his " Carmen de Amoribus et Connubiis Plan- 
 tarum," 1732. When Linnaeus was in Hol- 
 land, Van Iloyen prevailed upon him to pass a 
 few months with him, for the purpose of as- 
 sisting in the compilation of " Flora? Leide- 
 nensis Prodromus," which appeared in 1740, 
 being one of the first works which adopted 
 
RO Z 
 
 the nomenclature, although not the classifica- 
 tion, of J^inujcus. The attempt was well re- 
 ceived, and the cataloy;ue deemed arnoni^ tlie 
 richest of the kind. Van Koyen lUed in 1779. 
 — Halleri Bihl. Hot. 
 
 ROVOU (Thomas IMAniF.) a French jour- 
 nahst, who distinijuishfd himself as one of 
 the most courageous defenders of received 
 doctrines in politics and literature among the 
 writers of tlic eighteenth century. He was 
 born at Quimper ahout 1741, anil becoming 
 an ecclesiastic, he went to Paris, where, for 
 twenty years, he was professor of j)hd()sophy 
 at the college of Louis le Grand. After the 
 death of his brother-in-law, Freron, he was 
 one of the conductors of the " Annee Litte- 
 raire ;" and in 1778 he engaged with Geof- 
 froy in editing a ])eriodiral work, called the 
 " Journal de Monsieur." Royou opposed 
 the principles of the Revolution, which he 
 combated in a journal commenced June 1, 
 1790, entitled " Ami du Roi." The boldness 
 with which he attacked the anarchists, ex- 
 ])osed him to their dis]>leasure, and after hav- 
 ing been repeatedly denounced, his journal 
 was supjiressed in JMay 1792. He was at that 
 time labouring under illness, and having ob- 
 tained an asylum in the house of a friend, he 
 died about two months afterwards. Besides 
 his periodical productions, he published *' Le 
 Monde de Verre reduit en Poudre, ou Ana- 
 lyse et Refutation des Epoques de la Nature, 
 par Buffon," 1780, l2mo ; and other tracts. — 
 Biocr. U/iiv. 
 
 IIOZIER (John) an eminent writer on 
 agriculture, rural econom}', and natural history. 
 He was born at Lyons in France, in 1734 ; 
 and he received a clerical education among 
 the Jesuits at Villefranche and Lyons. In 
 1757, on the death of his father, who had 
 been engaged in commerce, he obtained the 
 management of a considerable estate in Dau- 
 phiny, which became the property of his elder 
 brother, and he immediately applied himself 
 to experimental farming, putting in practice 
 the precepts he found in the works of 
 various agriculturists, ancient and modern, 
 which he had attentively studied. A veteri- 
 nary school having been established at Lyons, 
 in 1761, Rozier soon after was appointed to 
 the direction of that institution ; when, in 
 conjunction with his countryman and friend 
 Latourette,he composed " Les Demonstrations 
 Elementaires de Botanique," 1766, 2 vols. 
 8vo, one of the best works of the kind then 
 extant. A dispute with Bourgelat, through 
 whose influence he had obtained his situation, 
 was the cause of his removal. He then went 
 to Paris, and was employed in editing the 
 " Journal de Physique et d'Histoire Natu- 
 relle," of which he at length became the pro- 
 prietor, when he continued it in a new form, 
 under the title of '• Observations sur la Phy- 
 sique, sur I'Histoire Naturelle, et sur les Arts." 
 He was invited by Stanislaus Augustus, king 
 of Poland, to assist in the establishment of an 
 institution for the improvement of botany at 
 Grodno ; and as he declined removing from 
 his native country, the king testified his es- 
 
 RUB 
 
 I teem by procuring for Rozier, through hia in- 
 I terest at the court of France, the rich priory 
 I of Nauteuille-llaudouin. Thus placed in 
 easy circumstanc es. lie confiigned the manage- 
 ment of his Journal to his nej)hpw, the abb^ 
 IMongez, and <levoled himself to the compo- 
 sition of a work, entitled " ('ours d'Agricul- 
 ture," in the form of a dicti')nary, extending 
 to ten volumes quarto, which occupied the re- 
 mainiler of hi:-i life. He purchased an estate 
 near lieziers, where he made exp°iimentH in 
 rural economics ; but after remaining there 
 about six years, he sold the property an«l re- 
 tired to Lyons in 17H8, and he was admitteil 
 a member of the Acaibmy of Sciences in that 
 city. His death took place September 29, 
 179.'?, when he was killed bv a bomb, which 
 destroyed his house during the siege of the 
 city of Lyons. Besides his principal works, 
 already noticed, he published tracts on making 
 wine, on oil-presses, &c. — Biog. AWr. des 
 Co II tern J). Biofj^. Univ. 
 
 RUBENS (l^ETER Paul) the most emi- 
 nent painter of the Flemish school, was the 
 son of a doctor of laws, and a sheriff of Ant- 
 werp, who during tlie troubles of the Low 
 Countries retired to Cologne, where bis cele- 
 brated son was born in 1577. The family 
 subsequently returned to Antwerp, where the 
 subject of this article received a literary edu- 
 cation, and early displayed a talent for design, 
 which induced bis mother, then a widow, to 
 place him with the painter Van Oort, whom 
 he left for the school of Otto Venius. His 
 rising talent having made him known to the 
 archduke Albert, governor of the Nether- 
 lands, that prince employed him on several 
 pictures, and recommended him to the duke of 
 Mantua, at whose court he remained six years, 
 studying the works of Julio Romano, and 
 other great artists, and paying a particular at- 
 tention to the colouring of the ^'enetian 
 S£hool. In the interval he also visited Ma- 
 drid, on a commission for the duke, where he 
 saw some of the finest works of Titian and 
 otlier masters. On leaving Mantua he visited 
 Rome and other cities of Italy, copying some 
 of the best pictures, and perfecting himself in 
 every branch of his profession. After a resi- 
 dence of seven years in It?.ly he returned to 
 Antwerp, being recalled by the illness of his 
 mother, who died before his arrival. Tbis 
 event induced him to retire to the abbey of St 
 Michael, where he gave himself up for a time 
 to solitary study. His reputation now stood so 
 bigh, that he was called to the court of the 
 archduke, and pensioned ; soon after which, 
 he married his first wife, and lived in a style 
 of great magnificence, which excited much 
 envy among inferior artists, who sought to 
 lower bis reputation by attributing the best 
 parts of his pictures to his numerous pupils, 
 riiese calumnies he treated witn great disre- 
 gard, and aware of the source of much of the 
 ill-will, relieved the necessities of some of 
 bis principal decriers. He continued to exe- 
 cute many great works with surprising facility, 
 until, in '1620, he was employed by Mary de' 
 Medici to adorn the gallery of tlae Luxem- 
 
RUB 
 
 bourg, for whicli he painted a well-known 
 series of magnificent pictures, allegorically ex- 
 hibiting the principal events in tlie life of that 
 princess. Such was the opinion of his general 
 talents, that he was chosen, at the recommen- 
 dation of the archduchess Isabella, to be the 
 private ncgociator of a peace between Spain 
 and England, for which purpose he visited 
 JMadrid in 1628, where he was treated with 
 great distinction. He painted for Philip IV, 
 and his minister Olivarez, twelve or fourteen 
 of his most celebrated pictures, in the short 
 space of nine months ; and in 1629 he return- 
 ed to Flanders with a secret commission, and 
 proceeded to England. Although not received 
 openly as a minister, Charles I, who was both 
 a patron and judge of the fine arts, was much 
 gratified by his visit ; and during his stay in 
 Kni^land, where he succeeded in his negocia- 
 tion, he was engaged to paint the ceiling of 
 the banqueting-house at Whitehall. He also 
 executed several other pictures for the Eng- 
 lish nobility, some of which are to be found 
 at Blenheim, Wilton, Easton, &c. He re- 
 mained in England about a year, during which 
 time he received the honour of knighthood, 
 and then returned to Flanders, where he mar- 
 ried the beautiful Helen Forman, his second 
 wife, and was nominated secretary to the 
 council for the Low Countries. He maintain- 
 ed a highly dignified station through the rest j 
 of his life, which was one of continued pros- 1 
 perity, until his death at Antwerp in 1640, in 
 the sixty-lhird year of his age. Kubens, be- 
 yond all comparison, was the most rapid of the 
 great masters ; and so many pictures bear his 
 name, it is impossible not to credit a part of 
 the assertion in his own days, that the greater 
 portion of many of them was performed by his 
 pupils. His merits as an artist have been so 
 copiously dwelt upon by various writers, and in 
 our own country have produced so much obser- 
 vation from sir Joshua Reynolds, lord Orford, 
 and iMr Fuseli, that the limits of this work will 
 allow of little beyond a reference to them and 
 our other authorities. According to all these 
 judges, his great characteristics are freedom, 
 animation, and striking brilliancy and disposi- 
 tion of colouring, the favourite tone of which 
 is that of a gay magnificence, from which, 
 whatever the subject, he never deviated. Be- 
 sides the excellency of his general powers, he 
 saw all the objects of nature with a painter's 
 eye, and instantly caught the predominating 
 feature by which the object is known and dis- 
 tinguished, and as soon as seen, he executed it 
 with a facility that was astonishing. Accord- 
 ing to sir Tosliua Reynolds, he was the great- 
 est master of the mechanical part of his art 
 tliat ever existed. His chief defects consist 
 in inelegance and incorrectness of form, a want 
 of grace in his female figures, and in the re- 
 presentation of youth in general, and an al- 
 most total absence of sublime or poetical con- 
 ception of character. The works of Rubens 
 are found in churches, palaces, and galleries 
 throughout Europe ; for his universal a|»titude 
 rendering no branch of the art uncultivated 
 by him, the amateurs of history, landscape, 
 
 RUC 
 
 portrait, and even common life, have all a mo- 
 tive for possessing some of his works. The 
 spoils of the French victories placed many of 
 them in the gallery of the Louvre ; but on the 
 visit of the allies to Paris, several were re- 
 claimed, and occupy their former situations. 
 His celebrated Rape of the Sabines is placed 
 in the newly-formed national aallerv of Great 
 Britain. The number of ensravinsis from the 
 designs of Rubens exceed three hundred. 
 This great painter, who was no mean scholar, 
 wrote some treatises on his art in very good 
 Latin. — Rubens (Aleeut) a man of letters, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Antwerp in 
 1614, and succeeded his father as secretary to 
 the council. He devoted his time to iiterar}' 
 pursuits, and was the author of several learned 
 works, the principal of which are entitled 
 " Regum et Imperatorum Romanorum Nu- 
 mismata," 1654, folio ; " ]3e Re Vestiaria Ve- 
 terum ;" " Dissertatio de Gemma Tiberiana 
 etAugustea; de Urbibus Neocoris ; de Natali 
 Die Cc-Esaris Augusti ;" whicli last two works 
 were published by Gra?vius in the Thesaurus 
 Antiq. Roman. The same critic also edited 
 his " Dissertatio de Yita Mallii Theodori," 
 1694, 12mo. — Pilkins;ton. V Aro^euville. Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds's ]Vo7'ks. Walpole's Anec. 
 Fiisr-li's T,eclures. Xotiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 RUBINI (Peteti) a physician, born at 
 Parma in 1760. Having completed his stu- 
 dies at the university of his native city, and 
 taken his doctor's degree, lie became pension- 
 ary physician at the small village of Com- 
 piano. He was afterwards enabled to travel 
 for improvement, at the expense of the go- 
 vernment ; and having visited Pavia, Mont- 
 pellier, Paris, Edinburgh, &c. he was, on his 
 return, made professor of clinical medicine at 
 Parma. In 1804 he contributed greatly to the 
 foundation of a medical and surgical society, 
 on the plan of that of Edinburgh, of which 
 he was a member; and in 1816 the arch- 
 duchess ^laria Louisa appointed him her con- 
 sulting physician and archiater. He died May 
 15, 1819. Rubini claims notice principally as 
 the promulgator of a new system of medicine, 
 which appears to have been a modification of 
 that of Dr John Brown, and which he deve- 
 loped in his lectures, and in his treatises on 
 periodical (intermittent) fevers, and on the 
 yellow fever, published in 1805. He produced 
 many other professional works, noticed in the 
 aimexed authorities. — Biog. A'ouv. des Contemp. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 RUCELLAI (Beunard) an Italian states- 
 man and historian, born at Florence in 1449. 
 At the age of seventeen he married the sister 
 of Lorenzo de' INIedici ; and this connexion 
 made way for his promotion to the office of 
 gonfalonier of justice in 1480 ; and four years 
 after he was sent ambassador to Genoa. He 
 subsequently went in the same capacity to 
 Xajtk's and to France, and several emj)loy- 
 ments were confided to him during the revolu- 
 tionary commotions which disturbed Florence 
 towards the close of the fifteenth century. 
 After the death of Lorenzo de' Medici, be 
 j)rot.ccted the members of the new Platonic 
 
RU D 
 
 Academy, for whose use he erected a palace 
 fv'ith gardens, embellished with noble monu- 
 ments of ancient and modern art. He ilied at 
 Florence in loll. His principal work is his 
 hook " De Urbe Uoma," reprinted in ** llerum 
 Italicariun Scriptores Floreiitini." Ih- idso 
 wrote a history of the I'isan war and tlie in- 
 vasion of Italy by Charles VI II of France, 
 entitled " De Bello It:ilico," London, 1724, 
 4to ; and other works. — Uucki.lai (John) 
 the fourth son of licrnardo, was bom at Flo- 
 rence in 147.TI. lie became a distinguished 
 scholar, having studied muler IVIarsiiio Ficino, 
 Polilian, and other celobrated literati of the 
 Platonic Academy. He was sent ambassador 
 to A'enice in loOj ; and in 1.512 he took an 
 active part in the measures which issued in 
 the restoration of the IMedici family. On the 
 elevation of Leo X to the ]>apal throne, Ru- 
 cellai repaired to Rome, and took orders in the 
 church. He accompanied the pope when 
 he went to Bologna to conclude the con- 
 cordat with Francis I, and be was afterwards 
 sent as nuncio to the French court. Clement 
 VII made him apostolic prothonotary, and 
 governor of the castle of St Angelo ; but the 
 great object of his ambition was a cardinal's 
 hat, which he never obtained. His death oc- 
 curred in 1525. As an author, he is known 
 by his poem " Le Api," the Bees, a didactic 
 piece, in blank verse, which is much esteemed. 
 He also wrote " Rosmonda," and " Orestes," 
 tragedies, which are imitations of the " He- 
 cuba" and " Iphigenia in Tauris " of Euri- 
 pides. — Roscoe's Lives of Lorenzo de' Medici 
 and Leo X. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RUCHAT (Abraham) a Protestant Swiss 
 clergyman and historical writer, born in the 
 canton of Berne, about 1680. Having stu- 
 died classical literature, theology, and the 
 Oriental languages, he endeavoured to obtain 
 the professorship of Greek and Hebrew at the 
 academy of Lausanne ; but he was disap- 
 pointed. After having for some years held 
 the small benefice of Aubonne, devoting his 
 leisure to the cultivation of letters, he became 
 professor of belles lettres at Lausanne in 1721. 
 About twelve years after he quitted that post 
 for the chair of theology, which he occupied 
 till his death in 1750. Besides a great num- 
 ber of dissertations in the *' Bibliotheque Ita- 
 lique," and the " Journal Helvetique," Ru- 
 chat published " Les Delices de la Suisse," 
 Leyden, 1714, 4 vols. 12mo, reprinted at Am- 
 sterdam, and elsewhere ; " llistoire de la 
 Reformation de la Suisse," Geneva, 1727, 6 
 vols. 12mo ; and other works. Among his 
 MSS. preserved in the public library at Berne, 
 is a •' General History of Switzerland, from 
 the Orii:;in of the Helvetic Nation to the Year 
 1516," 5 vols. 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RUDBECK (Olaus). There were two 
 eminent physicians and natural philosophers 
 of this name, father and son, descended of a 
 noble Swedisli family, and more immediately 
 from Rudbeck, bishop of Vesteras. The elder, 
 born 1650, became a member of the university 
 of L'psal, in which he afterwards filled the 
 chair of professor of medicine many years 
 
 RU D 
 
 ! with great reputation and ability. His prin- 
 ' cipal work is entitled '« Kxercitalio Aiiato- 
 nuca,"4to, in wbich he defends his claim to 
 I the discovery of the l^mjibauc vessels in tlie 
 Jiver, &lc. against the rival pretenhiong of Iho- 
 mas Barlholine. He was also the author of a 
 catalogue of plants in the botanical garden at 
 Upsal, and of two other treatises on similar 
 subjects, " Campi Klysii," and " iJelicia 
 X'ajlis Jacobaa; ;" but his most curious pro- 
 duction is a whimsical yet h ariied work on the 
 locality of Paradise, which he places in Swe- 
 den, and assigns that country as the common pa- 
 rent of the German, English, Danish, and even 
 Greek and Latin nations. Notwithstanding 
 the numerous and absurd paradoxes which he 
 broaches in this treatise, it is written with 
 much ability, and exhibits the deep erudition 
 of the author, though certainly at the exj)ense 
 of his judgment; it is entitled " Allantica, 
 sive Manheim vera Japheti Pusteriorum Sedes 
 ac Patria," and occupies four folio volumes. 
 His death took place in 1702. — His son, horn 
 in 1660, emulated the reputation uf his father, 
 whom he succeeded in his anatomical and bo- 
 tanical professorships, liaving graduated in 
 medicine at Utrecht. He was one of the ori- 
 ginal members of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Stockholm, in the formation of which he as- 
 sisted the learned Benzelius. A variety of 
 papers, on philosophical subjects, from his 
 pen, are to be fouud in the transactions of the 
 society ; and he is also known as the author of 
 a work on the natural history of the Bible. He 
 died at Upsal in 1740. — liees's Cvclop. 
 
 RUDBORNE (Thomas) bishop of St Da- 
 vid's in the fifteenth century, a native c,*" 
 Hertfordshire, or as some say, of the county 
 of Wilts. He was a member, and afterwards 
 warden of INIerton college, Oxford, the creat 
 gateway and tower of which edifice were buil! 
 under his auspices, and it is said after his own 
 design. In the earlier part of his life he had 
 been one of the clerical advisers who insti- 
 gated Henry the Fifth in enforcing liis jire- 
 tensions to the French crown, and had even 
 accompanied that monarch in quality of chaji- 
 lain on the celebrated expedition which termi- 
 nated in the victory of Agincourt. In the fol- 
 lowing reign he was elevated to the mitre, 
 which he wore something less than ten years 
 dying about the year 1442. He must not be 
 confounded with a monkish author of the same 
 name, who wrote a " History of Winchester." 
 Bavle. Fits. Tanner. 
 
 RUDDIMAN (Thomas) a distinguished 
 grammarian and critic, born in the jiarish of 
 Boyndie, in BamlVshire, in Scotland, in 1674. 
 He was sent in 1690 to King's college, Aber- 
 deen, where he obtained a bursary. He took 
 the degree of MA. in 1691, and the t:e.\t year 
 he was chosen master of the school of Law- 
 rencekirk. He removed to ICdinburgh in 1701), 
 and in 1702 he was appointed librarian to the 
 faculty of advocates. In 171."-) he set up a 
 printing-office, in conjunction \vith his brother ; 
 and from their press issued many accurate and 
 valuable editions of the works of ancient wri- 
 ters, among which were a Greek Testumeut, 
 
XiUF 
 
 and the Roman History of Livy. lie became 
 one of the founders of the earUest literary 
 society in Scotland in 1718, Towards the 
 close of his life his eye-sight became impaired, 
 and in 175^ he resigned his post of librarian 
 to the celebrated David Hume. He died 
 January 19, 1757. Of bis original produc- 
 tions the most distinguished if his " Rudi- 
 ments of the Latin Tongue," long used as an 
 elementary book in schools. He also wrote 
 ** GrammaticJe Latinfe Institutiones ;" and 
 " Grammatical Exercises ;" and he edited the 
 works of George Buchanan, in Latin, 1725, 
 2 vols, folio ; the " Diplomata et Numis- 
 mata Scotiai," of James Anderson, to which 
 he prefixed a learned preface ; besides other 
 works. He also established a newspaper, 
 " The Caledonian Mercury." — Rees's Cyclop. 
 
 Bioa;. Univ. 
 
 RUE (Charles de la). There were two 
 learned ecclesiastics of tliis name in the seven- 
 teenth century. The elder, born in l6-i3,was 
 a native of the French meti-opolis, and distin- 
 guished himself early in life by his ability both 
 as a preacher and a poet. In the latter capa- 
 city especially, he acquired the approbation of 
 the celebrated Corneille, no mean critic, who 
 was so plea'^ed witli a Latin poem of de la 
 Rue's composition, having for its subject the 
 victories of Louis the Fourteenth, that he 
 translated it into the French heroic metre, and 
 presented it in person to the king. The scho- 
 larsliip and elegant Latinity displayed in the 
 original, still farther recommended him to the 
 monarch, and he was appointed one of the 
 number of learned men, to whom the publica- 
 tion of the edition of the classics for the use 
 of the dauphin was committed. The works of 
 Viro-il fell to his share, his commentary on 
 which, and the life of the poet prefixed, are 
 justly admired. He was also the author of 
 several tragedies both in the Latin and French 
 languages, popular in their day, as well as of 
 some encomia and other panegyrical writings. 
 His death took place in the college of Jesuits, 
 of which order he was a member, in 1725. 
 — Tlie second, born in 1685, was a Benedic- 
 tine monk, celebrated for his piety and theo- 
 loo^ical learning. He commenced an edition 
 of the works of Origen, of which two volumes, 
 f )lio, were published in his lifetime, and gained 
 him great and deserved reputation. His death 
 took place in 1739, before the completion of 
 the third ; it was, however, afterwards conti- 
 nued, and a fourth added by his nephew, \'in- 
 cent. — Moreri. 
 
 KUFFHEAD (Owen) the son of a baker in 
 Piccadilly, whose father having purchased a 
 lottery-ticket in his son's name during his in- 
 fancy, employed the 500/. which it produced in 
 educating him for the law. He was born about 
 the year 1723, and became a member of the so- 
 ciety of the Middle Temple, by which he was in 
 due time called to the bar. His practice, however, 
 seems to have been principally confined to his 
 chambers, and the only result of his profes- 
 sional labours now extant is an edition of the 
 " Statutes at Large," iu 4to, which he super- 
 intended with diligence and accuracy. It is 
 
 RUF 
 
 as a political writer and partizan that he i« 
 principally known, especially by " The Con- 
 test," a periodical work which excited consi- 
 derable attention in its day, and his defence 
 of the ministry against the celebrated John 
 Wilkes, which he published under the title of 
 " The Case of the late Election for the County 
 of Middlesex considered." For this pam- 
 phlet he was promised a place in the Trea- 
 sury, but died before he obtained it, in the 
 year 1769. A " Life of Alexander Pope," 
 which he undertook at the suggestion of bishop 
 Warburton, ■vras considered, even in his life- 
 time, as a failure ; but whether, owing to the 
 deficiency in the requisites of a critic and bio- 
 grapher, or, as he himself averred, to the 
 scantiness of his materials, is a question which 
 still remains undecided.-- AWf/iouc/c's Biog.Dict. 
 
 RUFFI (Anthony de) the historian of 
 Marseilles, was born there in 1607, and bred 
 to the law. Being appointed counsellor to the 
 seneschalschy of his native place, he practised 
 there with great integrity, but employed much 
 of his time in collecting materials for his 
 " History of Marseilles," which he published 
 in 1642. He was also author of a " Life of 
 the Chevalier de la Coste ;" and of the 
 *' Counts of Provence from 934 to 1480." 
 He died in 1689. — His son, Louis Anthony, 
 who followed similar pursuits, added a second 
 volume to his father's " History of Mar- 
 seilles ;" and was also author of " Disserta- 
 tions Historiques et Critiques sur I'Origine 
 des Comtes de Provence, &c." and of a simi- 
 lar work on the bishops of Marseilles. He 
 died in 1724. — Moreri. 
 
 RUFFINUS or RUFINUS, a celebrated 
 priest of Aquileia, called by some Toranius, 
 was born about the middle of the fourth cen- 
 tury, at Concordia, a small city in Italy. He 
 retired to a monastery in Aquileia, which was 
 visited by St Jerome, to whom he became so 
 much attached, that when the latter retired into 
 the East, he soon after determined to follow 
 him. He accordingly embarked for Egypt, 
 where he visited the hermits who inhabitetl 
 the deserts, and became the friend and confi- 
 dant of St JMelauia the Elder. Being perse- 
 cuted by the Arians under Valens, he was 
 banished into one of the most desolate parts 
 of Palestine, but was ransomed by Melania. 
 He built a monastery on moun' Olivet, and 
 made many converts ; but at length, in trans- 
 lating what he deemed the most interesting 
 parts of Origen, a rupture took place between 
 him and his former friend St Jerome. He 
 subsequently visited Home, and soon after 
 l)ublislied a Latin version of his " Apology for 
 Origen," which wholly alienated his former 
 friend, and a most rancorous controversy on 
 the ])art of the latter ensued. Kufinus was 
 cited to Rome by pope Anastasius, and being 
 accused of heresy, published some very or- 
 thodox apologies for his translations from Ori- 
 gen, whose opinions he alleged that he did 
 not wish to support in any thing that was re- 
 prehensible. i\ot satisfied with this declara- 
 tion, the pope condemned him as a heretic, a 
 ;ensure that seems to have produced little 
 
RUG 
 
 effect on RiiHnus, as he continued 'liis contro- 
 versy with St .lerome, and heinir driven from 
 Aquileia by an irruption of the Visifjoihs, he 
 retired into Sicily, where lie died about the 
 yearHO. He translated " Joscphus,' from 
 Greek into Latin ; as likewise the ** Kcclesi- 
 astical History of Musebius," to which he 
 added two bookn. He also supplied v<t- 
 fiions of tlie writings of Origen, Gregory Na- 
 zianzen, and St Basil ; and left a tract in de- 
 fence of Origen, two apologies against St .le- 
 rome, and various other ])ioces, which were 
 printed collectively at Paris in 1380, folio. 
 Joitiii tliinks that he might have been quite as 
 good a saint, although not so good a scholar, 
 as Jerome. — Cave. Dupiti. 
 
 lU) FUS THE EPHKSIAN, a physician and 
 naturalist in the reign of the emperor Trajan, or 
 as others say, of Nero, who was esteemed by 
 Galen to have been one of the ablest of the 
 physicians who had preceded him. Ha ap- 
 pears to have cultivated anatomy by dissecting 
 brutes, with great success. He traced the 
 origin of the nerves in the brain, and even ob- 
 served the capsule of the crystalline lens in 
 the eye. He wrote treatises on the diseases 
 of the urinary organs, on purgative medicines, 
 and according to Galen, a materia medica in 
 verse. What remains of his works are to be 
 found in the " Artis IMedicfe Principis " of 
 Stephens, and printed separately at London 
 Gr. and Lat. 4to, by William Clinch, 1726. — 
 Rees's Cyclop. 
 
 JIUGENDAS (Geokge Ph'lip) a famous 
 battle-painter, who was the son of a clock- 
 maker at Augsburg, and was born in 1666. 
 He studied under Isaac Fischer, and after- 
 wards copied the works of Bourguignon and 
 Lembke, and the engravings of Tempesta. 
 Having injured his right hand, lie learned to 
 paint with his left with great facility, though 
 lie afterwards recovered the use of his right 
 hand. He visited for improvement Vienna, 
 Venice, and Rome, and then settled at Augs- 
 burg. He practised engraving as well as 
 painting, and arrived at great excellence in the 
 representation of military engagements. Such 
 was his zeal for the advancement of his art, 
 that during the siege of Augsburg he freely 
 exposed himself amidst the fire and carnage, 
 that he might obtain opportunities for sketch- 
 ing the scenes around him, and trans^'er them 
 to his canvas. He died May 10, 1742, leav- 
 ing a great number of the productions of his 
 pencil, as well as of his burin, many of which 
 are highly esteemed. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RUGGLE (Gr.oRGF.) author of a celebrated 
 dramatic satire, was bom at Lavenham in Suf- 
 folk, where his father was a clothier, in No- 
 vember 1575. He was educated at the free 
 grammar-school of his native place, whence 
 he was removed to St John's college, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1589, and thence to Trinity college, 
 where he obtained a scholarship in 1593, and 
 the degree of ARE in 1597. From Trinity 
 college he removed to Clare-hall, and was 
 elected a fellow of that society, to which he 
 nfterwards became a benefactor. In conse- 
 cjuence of a legal dispute carried on between 
 
 II U L 
 
 the university ami the mayor and corporation 
 of (Janihridge, Ruggle, who was one of the 
 taxcrs of the univerbity, completed bis comedy 
 call.'d " Ignoramus," which in a satire on tlia 
 lawyers, and not destitute of humour. In 
 1()14 it was performed before James I, who 
 was highly delighf-d with it ; and the law- 
 yers, who felt the force of the ridicule, were 
 proportionably angry. J\Ir Haggle resigned 
 his fellowshij) in 1626, and died the followinr 
 year. A very correct edition of "IgnoramuB'"' 
 was published in 17B7, 8vo. Two other i)lav3 
 are ascribed to the sanie author; " (Jlub 
 Law, 'ana" Reveries on \'erity," which have 
 never been printe — Preface to Ignnramus. 
 
 RUHNEKEN. See Rih-nkev. 
 
 Rl'IlS (Fredfrick) a German historian, 
 born in Swedish Pomerania in 1780. He stu- 
 died at Gottingen, wliere Schlegel persuaded 
 him to devote himself to the investigation of 
 the history of Scandinavia, for which he was 
 peculiarly qualified by his acquaintance with 
 the Swedish language. In 1801 he published 
 an " Essay towards the History of the Reli. 
 gion, the Constitution, and the- Civilization of 
 Ancient Scandinavia." Being made professor 
 at Griefswald, in his native province, he be- 
 gan the " History of Sweden," Halle, 1801 
 
 1810, 4 vols. 8vo, which is the most important 
 of his works, and is highly esteemed. Beino- 
 deprived of his office, through the political re° 
 volutions which took place in Pomerania, Rubs 
 obtained the professorship of history at Ber- 
 lin. Having taken a voyage to Italy, on ac- 
 count of his health, he died of a consumptive 
 
 complaint at Leghorn, February 1, 1820. 
 
 Bios;. Nintv. des Coniemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ilUINARr (Thierry) a French theolo- 
 gian, was born at Rheims June 10, 1657, and 
 became a Benedictine monk in 1674. j-Ie 
 studied the Scriptures, the fathers, and ecclesi- 
 astical writers with so much zeal, that I\labilIon 
 chose him for a companion in his literary la- 
 bours. In 1689 appeared his "Acta Primo- 
 rum INIartyrum," 4to, being an account of the 
 martyrs of the first four centuries, a new edi- 
 tion of which work, with alterations and addi- 
 tions, was published in 17]. "3. He was also 
 the author of several other learned works, the 
 principal of which are, " Hist. Persecuiionis 
 \^andalicJE ;" " Iter Literarium in Alsatiam et 
 Lotharingiam,"' &c. He also gave an excel- 
 lent edition of the works of Gregory of Tours ; 
 and when Mabillon died, in 1707, was ap- 
 pointed to continue the work in which they 
 had been jointly engaged. This learned and 
 industrious Benedictine died in 1707. — Mcc- 
 ron, vol. ii. 
 
 RILHIERE (CiAVDE Caulovas- de) a 
 French poet and historian, born in 1735, at 
 Bondi, near Paris. Having studied at the 
 college of Louis le Grand, he entered into the 
 corps of gendarmes, and in 1758 and 1759 
 he was at Bordeaux, in quality of aide-de- 
 camp to marshal Richelieu, then governor of 
 Guienne. He afterwards went with the mi- 
 nister plenipotentiary, baron Breteuil, to St 
 Petersburg, where he witnessed the dethrone- 
 ment of Peter III, and the elevation of Ca- 
 
RU N 
 
 tlierine II to the throne of Russia in 1762. 
 Keturning to Fiance in 1765, he drew up an 
 account of the interesting events which he 
 liad witnessed, publislied in 1797, under the 
 title of " Histoire, ou Anecdotes sur la Revo- 
 lution de Russie, en l76t'," 8vo. In 1768 he 
 was employed to write tlie history of the 
 troubles in Poland, for the use of the dauphin, 
 for which he was allowed a pension of 6000 
 francs. His " Histoire de I'Anarchie de Po- 
 logne, et du Demembrement de cette Repub- 
 lique," which he did not live to publish, ap- 
 peared in 1807, 4 vols. 8vo. Rulhiere was 
 admitted a member of the French Academy 
 in 1787, and he died in January, 1791. His 
 poems, consisting of epistles in verse, and 
 other light pieces, were published collectively 
 in 1801 and 1808. He wrote historical re- 
 marks on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 and other works, besides those already men- 
 tioned. — Biog. Nouv. (les Coiitemp. Biog. Ihiiv. 
 RUMFOllD. See Thompson'. 
 RUMPH (George Kveuard) a doctor of 
 physic in the university of Hanau, in which 
 city he was born in 1637. He went to Am- 
 boyna as consul and senior merchant, wliich 
 occupation did not prevent him from making 
 a collection of the plants of the country, wliich 
 he composed in twelve books, and dedicated 
 to the East India company. These were pub- 
 lished after his death by Burman, under tlic 
 title of " Herbarium Amboinense." He also 
 left beliind him " Imagines Piscium Testace- 
 orum," Leyden, 1711 ; and a " Political His- 
 tory of Amboyna," which has never been pub- 
 lished. 'Jhis ingenious man became blind in 
 his forty-third year, but could distinguish 
 herbs by the taste and touch. The date of 
 his death is not recorded. — liees's Cyclop. 
 
 RUNCLMAN (Ai.exandeu) a Scottish 
 painter, was born at Ediuburgh in 1736. His 
 father, who was an architect, taught him some 
 of tlie jirinciples of his art, and he was after- 
 wards ])laced with a portrait-painter of the 
 name of Noriies, under v.-hom he made a 
 rapid improvement. About 1766 he accom- 
 j)aiiied his younger brother, John, to ]{ome, 
 where the latter, who had excited far higher 
 expectations as an artist, died of a consump- 
 tion. On his return tr Scotland in 1771, 
 Alexander, who was warmly patronized by 
 sir James Clerk, of Pennecuik, was employed 
 by that gentleman to paint a series of subjects 
 from Ossian, for his hall at Pennecuik. In the 
 course of a few years he was maJe master of 
 a public institution for promoting designs. He 
 died in October, 1785. His best pictures are, 
 an altar-piece in the episcopal chapel, Edin- 
 burgh ; his " Lear ;" his " Andromeda ;" and 
 his " Agrippina landing with the Ashe?j2f.Ger- 
 nianicus." — Stark's Biog. Scot. 
 
 RUNDLE (Thomas) an English divine, 
 was bom at Rlilburn Abbot, in Devonshire, in 
 1686, and educated at Exeter collo;ie, Oxford, 
 whfre he took the degree of bachelor of laws 
 in 1710. According to Whiston, he soon after 
 bpcame a convert to Arianism, which seems 
 not to Lave been the case, as he was ordained 
 ny bishop Talbot, and under the patronage of 
 
 RUP 
 
 the same family would have reached the Eng- 
 lish bench of bishops, but for the opposition 
 of Gibson, bishop of London, in consequence 
 of the suspicions entertained of his orthodoxy 
 The controversy produced by this resistance, 
 by making his name conspicuous, alone ten 
 ders this notice necessary. Dr Rundle 
 finally became bishop of Derry in Ireland. 
 He died in 17-13. He printed a few sermons ; 
 and his letters, with memoirs prefixed, were 
 published in 1790. — Memoirs as above. 
 
 RUNIUS (John) one of the most cele- 
 brated of the Swedish poets, was born in West 
 Gothland in 1679. He received the rudiments 
 of his education at Skara, where he gave early 
 proofs of his genius, and particularly distin- 
 guished himself by his proficiency in the 
 Greek language. In 1700 he went to Upsal, 
 and after completing his studies, was taken 
 by count Stromberg to be his secretary. He 
 died after a life of indigence and perplexity, 
 of a consumption, in 1713, at the age of 
 thirty-four. Runius is accounted by the 
 Swedes one of the best of their poets. His 
 poems were published after his death, under 
 the title of " Dudaim," Stockholm, 1714, in 
 two parts ; the first containing sacred poems, 
 and the second epithalamia, epitaphs, odes. &c. 
 on ditterent subjects, interspersed with several 
 ingenious jVieces in Greek, Latin, French, and 
 German. — Gezelii Biographiska Lexicon. 
 
 RUNNINGION (Charles) serjeant-at- 
 law, was born in Hertfordshire in 1751. His 
 education was private, and in 1768 he was 
 placed with a special pleader, who employed 
 him in a digest of the law of England. He 
 was railed to the bar in 1778, and in 1787 to 
 the degree of seijeant-at-law. In 1815 he 
 was apj)ointed commissioner for the relief of 
 insolvent debtors, which office he resigned in 
 1819. He died at Brighton, January 18, 1321. 
 Serjeant Runnington published " Hale's His- 
 
 tory of the Common Law," 2 vols. 
 
 Gil- 
 
 bert's Law of Ejectments," 8vo; " Rufthead's 
 Statutes at Large," 4 vols. 4to ; " History of 
 the legal Remedy by lyectment, and the re- 
 sulting Action for Mesne Process," 8vo. — 
 Gent. I\I(ig 
 
 RUPERT, or ROBERT OF BAVARIA 
 (prince) tlie third son of Frederick V, elector 
 palatine and titular king of Bohemia, by the 
 princess Elizabeth of England, daughter of 
 James I. He was born in 1619, and like most 
 German princes, he received a military educa- 
 tion. Becoming an exile in his early years, 
 through the misfortunes of his father, he came 
 to England at the commencement of the civil 
 war, and oflered his services to his uncle 
 Charles I. He was accepted, and had the 
 command of a corps of cavalry, at the head 
 of which he distinguished himself at the 
 battle of j'.dgehill, in Octoljcr 1612 ; and at 
 Chalgrave Field in July 1643. Soon after he 
 took Bristol, and obliged the enemy to raise 
 the sieges of Newark and of York. He ilis- 
 played his courage at INIarston Moor and at 
 Naseby, but his impetuosity and imprudence 
 contributed to the disastrnus result of those 
 engagemeuts. He afterwards shut himself up 
 
RUS 
 
 ii) the city of Ikistol, and liavln;:,' sunendorod 
 that place, after a short sit'ge, to general 
 Fairfax, bis conduct so much disjileased the 
 king, that he dismissed the prince from liis ser- 
 vice. IIo then went a])road, but returning 
 after the deatb of Cliarles 1, be was made 
 commander of that part of the fleet which ad- 
 liered to Charles II in 1648. Prince Rupert 
 for some time carried on a predatory warfare 
 against the English ; and after narrowly es- 
 caping from the pursuit of admiral lilake on 
 the coast of Portugal, he at lengtli sailed to 
 France with bis jirizes and sbi])S, and having 
 sold them, joined Charles 11 at the court of 
 Versailles. His time was chiefly devoted to 
 scientific studies, till tlie Restoration, when 
 he returned to England. In April 1662 be 
 was admitted a member of the privy council, 
 and in December following, a fellow of the 
 newly founded Royal Society. In 1666 be was 
 appointed, in conjunction witb Monk, duke of 
 Albemarle, to the command of a fleet fitted 
 out against the Dutch ; and in the next war 
 witb Holland in 167S, be was made admiral 
 of the fleet. In 1679 be was nominated a 
 member of the new privy-council ; but from 
 tbat period be interfered but little in public 
 aflTairs. He led a retired life, and spent mucb 
 of his time at Windsor castle, of which be 
 was governor. Many useful inventions re- 
 suited from bis studies, among which are the 
 invention of the compound called " Prince's 
 Metal ;" and also the discovery of the method 
 of engraving in mezzo-tinto. He was an 
 active member of the Board of Trade ; and to 
 his influence is ascribed the establishment of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company, of which he was 
 the first governor. This public-spirited and 
 patriotic prince died at his house in Spring 
 Gardens, London, November 29, 1682. He 
 was never married, but he left one natural son, 
 Dudley Tlupert, or Dudley Bard, whose mo- 
 ther was the daughter of Henry Bard, viscount 
 Bellemont. He was educated at Eton, and 
 was killed at the siege of Buda, in Hungary, 
 in 1686. — Rees's Cyclop. Biog. Brit. 
 
 RUPPIUS (Henry BERNAno) a medical 
 student, a native of Giessen, who was enthu- 
 siastically attached to botanical investigations. 
 Haller characterizes him as " of a short ro- 
 bust stature, witb the eyes of a lynx, unwea- 
 ried limbs, a penetrating genius, and a most 
 tenacious memory." He travelled through 
 various parts of Germany, subjecting himself 
 to many privations for the sake of indulging 
 in his favourite pursuits. He seems to have 
 died at an early age. The " Flora Jenensis," 
 compiled from bis papers, was published in 
 1718, by J. H. Schutte, and reprinted with 
 additions in 1726 and 1745. — llees's Ci/ctop. 
 
 RUSH (Benjamin) an eminent American 
 physician and medical writer, was born near 
 Bristol, in the state of Pennsylvania, Jan. 5, 
 1745. His parents, who were quakers, were 
 descended from a family who had accompanied 
 the celebrated William Penn. He studied at 
 the college of Princeton, and was placed 
 under the care of Dr Redman, of Philadel- 
 phia, in order to acquire a knowledge of the 
 
 K U S 
 
 modical profession. After spending some time 
 with ilial experienceil phys^ician, lie repaired 
 to Edinburgh, where he look bis doctor's de- 
 gree in 1768. On hip return to Philadelphia, 
 an attempt b(ing made to form a meilical 
 school, he became profesHor of chemistry 
 therein. . On the breaking out of boslilitiea 
 hetween (Jreat Britain :uid the coloiiien, Dr 
 Rush sided with the great majority of his coun- 
 trymen, and in 1776 was chosen a membcfr of 
 the congress for the state of Pennsylvania, 
 and was appointed physician-general to the 
 military hospital, which office, in consecjuence 
 of some misunderstanding, be soon resigned. 
 When the medical colleges of Philadelphia 
 became united under the name of the univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania, he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of the institutes of medicine and clini- 
 cal practice, and ahout this time gave to the 
 public bis " Lectures upon the Cause of Ani- 
 mal Life." In 1793, a year memorable in the 
 medical annals of the United States, on ac- 
 count of the devastation produced by the yel- 
 low fever, Dr Rush extremely distinguished 
 himself ; and the history of that epidemic, 
 which he published the following year, cannot 
 be too highly valued, both for an accurate de- 
 scription of the disease, and for the many impor- 
 tant facts which the author has recorded in rela- 
 tion to it. This eminent and indefatigable man 
 died of a typhus fever, in the month of April, 
 1813. The tracts of Dr Rush are exceedingly 
 numerous, and highly and deservedly esteemed 
 by his countrymen. The principal of these 
 are contained in an octavo volume, entitled 
 " Essays, Literary, Moral, and Philosophi- 
 cal ;" while his medical papers are collected 
 in four volumes, octavo, under the title of 
 " INIedical Enquiries," a third edition of which 
 he publislied in 1807. The reputation of Dr 
 Rush will permanently depend on bis history 
 of the several epidemics of the United States, 
 which is a book of authority in every quarter, 
 and principally contributed to make him a 
 member of many of the most distinguished 
 literary associations of Europe. — American 
 Ann. and Phitos. Register. 
 
 RUSHTON. See Rishto.v. 
 RUSIIWORTH (John) an industrious 
 and useful collector of historical matter, was 
 born in 1607 in the county of Northumberland. 
 His parents were natives of Yorkshire, and 
 related to the Fairfaxes. He was for some time 
 a studentat Oxford, which he quilted forLin- 
 coln's-inn, where he remained until he was 
 called to the bar. He was however more 
 attached to politics than to law, and made it 
 his business to attend parliament, the star- 
 chamber, and other courts, when important 
 business was transacting, in order to take 
 notes of what be saw and heard. Being 
 attached to the parliamentary and presbyterian 
 parlies, in 1640 be was admitted assistant to 
 ^Ir Elsynge, clerk of the house of Commons ; 
 and for bis activity in conveying addresses and 
 messages to the king, at York, recommended 
 to a place in the Excise. In 1613 be took the 
 covenant, and when his relation, sir Thomas 
 Fairfax became general of the parliamentary 
 
RU S 
 
 forces, be was appointed his secretary. When 
 Fairfax resigned his commission, i\lr Hush- 
 worth took up his residence at Lincohi's-inn, 
 and was one of tlie commissioners appointed 
 in 1652 to reform abuses at common law. 
 About the same time he was much engaged in 
 his " Historical Collections," the first part of 
 which was submitted to Oliver Cromwell, and 
 pu!)lished in 1659. He was chosen member 
 for Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1658, and was 
 appointed one of the clerks of the new coun- 
 cil of state. In 1660 he was re-elected for 
 Berwick in the healing parliament ; and at the 
 Restoration he endeavoured to ingratiate him- 
 self with Charles II, by presenting to him 
 •everal books of the privy council of the for- 
 mer reii^n ; but he only received the king's 
 thanks, without any farther notice. In 1667 
 he was made secretary to sir Orlando Bridges, 
 keeper of the great seal, but after the decease 
 of that lawyer, having taken no care of his 
 private affairs, he fell into great distress. He 
 still, however, assiduously employed himself 
 in his collections, until arrested for debt, and 
 committed to the King's Bench prison, where 
 he remained for six years, and died with im- 
 paired memory and understanding in 1690, at 
 the a'>e of eighty-three. His " Historical 
 Collection of private Passages in State, 
 wei^^htv Matters in Law, and remarkable Pro- 
 ceednigs in Parliament," was published at dif- 
 ferent times, in folio, until it amounted to 
 eight volumes, including the trial of the earl 
 of Strafford, published in 1680 ; the first seven 
 volumes of tliese were reprinted uniformly in 
 1721. Of this laborious and highly useful 
 compilation different opinions have been 
 formed by the partizans friendly to, or opposed 
 to the cause of Charles I. Rushworth pro- 
 fesses great impartiality, but Dr Nalson, a 
 writer employed by Charles II to publish a 
 collection of public transactions, made a for- 
 mal attack upon his credit, and a long list of 
 his mistakes have been recorded by the au- 
 thors of the Parliamentary History, which are 
 attributed rather to transcribers than to him- 
 self. It is reasonable, however, to believe, 
 that like most of the writers of the dav, he 
 was occasionally biassed by his opinions, a 
 fact which will still leave his work the credit 
 of much industry and utility. — Blog. Brit. 
 
 RUSSEL (Alexander) an eminent phy- 
 sician and naturalist, who was a native of 
 iMlinbursrh. He received his education at the 
 university in that city, and having taken the 
 degree of MD.he removed to London, whence 
 lie soon after embarked for the Levant, and 
 settled at Aleppo, as physician to the Knglish 
 factory. In this situation he assiduously ap- 
 plied himself to the study of the language and 
 manners of the people, and of the natural pro- 
 ductions of the country. The result of his 
 inquiries was the publication of his " Natural 
 History of Aleppo, and the Parts adjacent," 
 1756, 4lo, which, together with other impor- 
 tant information, contained some interesting 
 observations on the j)lague. Dr Russel re- 
 turned to England in 1759, and taking up his 
 residence in the metropolis, he was choieu 
 
 RUS 
 
 one of the physicians to St Thomas's hospital, 
 which office he held till his death in 1770. 
 He was a fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 the contributor of some valuable papers to 
 the Philosophical Transactions. — Hutchinson's 
 Biog. Med. — Russell (Patrick) younger 
 brother of the preceding, was likewise a phy- 
 sician, and a cultivator of the science of 
 natural history. He exercised his profession 
 for a time at Aleppo, and afterwards held a 
 medical situation in the East Indies, whence 
 he returned to his native country, and died ia 
 r^ondon, July 2, 1805, at the age of seventy. 
 He published an " Account of the Tabasheer," 
 a siliceous concretion found in the joints of 
 canes, in the Philosophical Transactions for 
 1790 ; a " Treatise on the Plague," 1791, 
 4to ; an enlarged edition of Dr A. Russel's 
 History of Aleppo ; and " Descriptions and 
 Figures of Two Hundred Fishes collected on 
 the Coast of Coromandel," 1803, 2 vols, folio. 
 — Gent. Mag. 
 
 RUSSEL (William) fifth earl, and first 
 duke, of Bedford, was the eldest son of Fran- 
 cis, the fourth earl. He was bom in 1614, 
 and received his education at Magdalen col- 
 lege, Oxford. He was a member of the long 
 parliament which met at Westminster in 1640, 
 but soon after succeeded his father in his title 
 and honours. In 1642, having declared against 
 the measures of the court, he commanded the 
 reserve of horse at the battle of Edije-hill ; 
 but in 1643 he joined the royal standard, and 
 fought with great bravery at the battle of New- 
 bury, together with the earls of Holland and 
 Clare. Although treated with civility by the 
 king, the retainers of the court acted in such 
 a manner as to iinluce the three earls to retire 
 to the earl of Essex at St Albans ; soon after 
 which the earl of Bedford was taken into cus- 
 tody by order of parliament, and his estate se- 
 questrated, which sequestration was, however, 
 on his submission in 1644, removed, and he 
 led a private life until the Restoration, when 
 he assisted at the coronation, and was elected 
 a knight of the garter. The head of a family 
 which favoured the Revolution, he also attend- 
 ed the coronation of William and Mary, who 
 made him lord-lieutenant of the counties of 
 Bedford, Cambridge, and Middlesex; and ia 
 1694 exalted him to the rank of marquis of J'a- 
 vistock and duke of Bedford. In the enume- 
 ration of hi? merits in the patent, it was ex- 
 pressed, that not the least of them consisted 
 in being the father of the executed lord Rus- 
 sel, the ornament of his age, whose loss it 
 was intended to solace by the accession of dig- 
 nity. This influential nobleman died in 1700, 
 in his eighty-seventh year. — CoUins's Peerage, 
 RUSSEL (lord \Villiam) third son of the 
 preceding, and a distinguished and aiimired 
 supporter of liberty, was born about 1641. 
 He was brought up in the principles of consti- 
 tutional freedom espoused by his father, and 
 he appears to have yielded to the vortex of 
 dissipation introduced by the llebtoration, 
 until his marriage with Rachel, second daugh- 
 ter and co-heiress of the earl of Southamp- 
 ton, (then_ widow of lord Vaughan), which 
 
uuiun wholly reclaimed liiin. Ife represented 
 die county of Hedford iu four p<irlianu'iit8, ami 
 bein^ Iiiy,hly esteemed for [)airioti.siu and iiidf- 
 pendeiice was regarded as one of the heads of 
 the whi^ P^'ty- NVhen Charles II was exas- 
 perated at the court of France for withdrawing 
 the pension which his meanness and pioiligacy 
 induced him to accept, hi' apjjcared really de- 
 sirous of joining the continental confederacy 
 against Louis XIV, and a French war beir)g ge- 
 nerally popular in Etigland, the parliament 
 voted a large sup])ly of men and money. The 
 whigs, aware of the king's character, dreaded 
 giving him an army which might as probably 
 be employed against liberty at liome as against 
 France, raised an opposition to the measure. 
 This party movement being acceptable to tlie 
 French kmg, an intrigue commenced between 
 the leading whigs and Barillon, the French am- 
 bassador, the consequence of which was the 
 receipt on the part of some of them of pecu- 
 niary assistance, in order to thwart the intend- 
 ed war. From that minister's private despat- 
 ches, sir John Dalrymple, in his Memoirs of 
 Great Britain, has published a list of the 
 members whom he had really bribed ; but as 
 the lords Russel and Holland are specified as 
 directly refusing to receive money on this ac- 
 count, the circumstances will hereafter claim 
 notice more regularly in the article Algf.rnon 
 Sidney. That he was aware of this intrigue 
 can scarcely be doubted, and however pure the 
 object, such proceedings can never be po- 
 litically justifiable. In 1679, when Charles 
 II found it necessary to ingratiate himself with 
 the whigs, lord Russel was appointed one of 
 the members of the privy council. He 
 soon, however, found that his party was 
 not in the king's confidence, and the recal of 
 the duke of York, without their concurrence, 
 induced him to resign. Although his temper 
 was in other respects mild and moderate, his 
 fear for the Protestant religion, and of a Ca- 
 tholic succession, induced him to lake very 
 decisive steps iu the promotion of the exclu- 
 sion of the duke of Y'ork. In June 1680 he 
 went publicly to Westminster-hall, and at 
 the court of King's Bench, presented the duke 
 as a recusant ; and on the November follow- 
 ing, carried up the exclusion bill to the house 
 of Lords, at the head of two hundred mem- 
 bers of parliament. The lead which he took 
 in this matter of course highly disjdeased the 
 court, and was equally operative in a contrary 
 sense upon the public. The king therefore 
 dissolved the parliament, and resolved hence- 
 forward to govern without one ; and in the 
 spirit of this determination, arbitrary princi- 
 ples were openly avowed by the partii'ans of 
 the court. Alarmed at the state of things, 
 many of the whig leaders indulged in propor- 
 tionately strong expedients, in the way of coun- 
 teraction, and a plan of insurrection was 
 formed for a simultaneous rising both iu Eng- 
 land and Scotland. Among these leaders, in- 
 cluding the dukes of Monmouth and Argyll, 
 the lords Russel, Essex, and Howard, Alger- 
 non Sidney and Hampden, ditlerent views 
 prevailed ; but it is admitted that lord Russel 
 
 11 US 
 
 looked only to the exclusion of the duke of 
 \ urk. While these plans v.'ere ripeniu", a 
 subaltern j)lot waa laid by some inferior con- 
 spirators, for assassinating the king on his re- 
 turn from XewmarLet, at u lone farm called 
 the llyehouse. whit h gave a name to the con- 
 spiracy. Although this plan sKjod <|uite apart 
 fr(Jiu the great scheme of the insurrection, the 
 detection of the one led to that of the other, 
 and lf)rd Russel was in consequ'-nce committed 
 to the Tower. After some of the llyehouse 
 conspirators had been executed, advantage waH 
 taken of the national feeling, to bring him to 
 trial, in July, iu'63 ; and paina being taken to 
 pack a jury of partisans, he was, after very 
 little deliberation, brought in guilty of high 
 treason. " It was proved," says Hume, after 
 describing the evidence produced on the trial, 
 " tha^ the insurrection had been deliberated 
 on by the prisoner ; the surprisal of the guards 
 deliberated, but not fully resolved upon ; and 
 that an assassination of the king had not been 
 once mentioned or imagined by him." The 
 same author goes on to say, that the English 
 law of treason requiring direct testimony of 
 an overt act, there arose some difficulty, but the 
 crown lawyers, " partly desirous of paying 
 court to the sovereign, and partly convinced 
 of the ill consequence which might attend 
 such narrow limitations, introduced a greater 
 latitude, both in the proof and the definition of 
 the crime." Stripped of the apologetical tone 
 which this historian always employs to palliate 
 illegality under the Stuarts, the law was, on 
 this occasion, stretched to the prisoner's de- 
 struction. It is certain at least, that his con- 
 demnation was deemed illegal by judge Atkins 
 and many other authorities, not to dwell on 
 the act which on this ground reversed his at- 
 tainder. Once condemned, such a victim was 
 too agreeable to the court, and to the cold, 
 vindictive feelings of the duke of Vork, to 
 meet with mercy ; and the oft'er of a large sum 
 of money from his father, whose only son he 
 had now become, to the duchess of Ports- 
 mouth, and the pathetic solicitations of his ex- 
 cellent wife, all proved in vain, and he ob- 
 tained remission only of the more ignominious 
 parts of his sentence. He was too firm to be 
 induced by the divines who attended him to 
 subscribe to the doctrine of non-resistance, 
 then the favourite court tenet of the day ; and 
 it is to be regretted that he was induced to 
 write a petitionary letter to the duke of York, 
 promising to forbear all future opposition, and 
 to live abroad, should his life be spared. It is 
 presumed that this letter was written in com- 
 pliance with the solicitations of his friends, for 
 he nobly refused the generous ofier of lord 
 Cavendish to favour his escape by exchanging 
 clothes ; and with equal generosity declined 
 the proposal of the d.ike of IMonmouth (then 
 in concealment) to delirer himself up if he 
 thought the step would be serviceable to him. 
 Conjugal aflection was the feeling that clung 
 closest to his heart ; and when he had taken 
 the last farewell of hi.s wife, he exclauned, 
 that the bitterness of death was past. He 
 w-as beheaded in Liicoln's-inn Fields, on the 
 
RUS 
 
 21st of July, 1683, in the forty-second year 
 of liis aire. To the character of this regretted 
 
 ... 1 
 
 nobleman for probity, sincerity, and private 
 worth, even the enemies to his public prin- 
 ciples have borne ample testimony. Of liis 
 talents Burnet observes, that he was of a 
 slow but sound understanding ; and few im- 
 partial persons will agree with Ilume, that he 
 was a man blinded by party zeal, as the course 
 of proceeding which characterized the years 
 which immediately followed his death, com- 
 pletely justified the apprehensions wliich had 
 actuated him. With respect to the more jiro- 
 blematical points of his public conduct, his 
 best apology is formed by the difficulty in 
 which every honest lover of liberty is neces- 
 sarily placed, when the extreme case of sub- 
 mission to arbitrary machination is opposed 
 by the difikulty of a perfectly unobjectionable 
 resistance to them. Possibly the honestest 
 man in such cases is in the greatest danger, 
 and posterity upon the whole has not failed to 
 do justice to this estimable, patriotic, and ill- 
 fated nobleman. — llussEL (lady Rachel) the 
 excellent wife of the preceding. Her parent- 
 age has been already mentioned ; and the afFec- 
 tionate zeal with which she assisted her hus- 
 band, and the magnanimity with which she 
 bore his loss, obtained the respect and admira- 
 tion of all tlie world. Upon his trial she 
 accompanied liim into court; and when he was 
 refused counsel, and allowed only an amanu- 
 ensis, she stood farth as that assistant, and 
 excited the respect and sympathy of all who 
 behe/d her. After his death she wrote a 
 touching letter to the king, in which she as- 
 serted that the paper delivered by him to the 
 sheriff, declaratory of his innocence, was hisown 
 comi)osition, and not, as charged by the court 
 (which •li'as much offended at it), dictated by 
 any other person. She spent the remainder of 
 her life in the exercise of pious and social duties. 
 A collection of letters between her and her 
 correspondents was published in 1773, 4to, 
 whicli gave farther evidence of her calm mag- 
 nanimity. There appears no triumph in the 
 expression with wliich she records the flight of 
 James II ; and she passes over in silence the 
 merited fate of the infamous Jeffries, who had 
 behaved with his usual coarseness as a crown 
 lawyer on her husband's trial. Iliis exem- 
 plary woman died in 1723, aged eighty-seven. 
 — Biog. Brit. Hume. Lady li, Russel's Cor- 
 respoiulence. 
 
 RUSSEL (Francis) the fifth duke of Bed- 
 ford, was the eldest son of Francis, marquis of 
 Tavistock, who died JMarch 22, 1767, in con- 
 sequence of a fall from his horse while hunt- 
 ing, lie was born July 22, 1765, and was 
 educated at Westminster school and the uni- 
 versity of Oxford. On entering into public 
 life he became intimately connected with C. J. 
 Fox and the whig party ; and in 1791 he dis- 
 played his talents in the house of Lords, in 
 opposing hostilities against France and the de- 
 signs of the ministry to form a corps of emi- 
 grants in the pay of this country. In 1796 he 
 retired from parliament, with the rest of the 
 'Abigs ; and lie seldom made his appearance 
 
 RUS 
 
 again in the house of Lords, till after the 
 change of ministry in liiOl. He was a sin- 
 cere advocate for the conclusion of peace with 
 the French ; but he did not live to witness its 
 final settlement, dying of strangulated hernia, 
 February 26, 1802. The duke of Bedford 
 was distinguished rather for solid than bril- 
 liant qualities ; and his integrity, patriotism, 
 and regard for civil liberty, constitute his most 
 decisive claims to the favourable recollection 
 of posterity. Of the large fortune which he 
 possessed, a considerable portion was directed 
 to the improvement of agriculture and rural 
 economy. By the institution of a public fes- 
 tival, and the distribution of prizes at the sea- 
 son of sheep-shearing, at his seat at Woburn 
 Abbey, and by his influence and example he 
 contributed greatly to the establishment of a 
 taste for georgical pursuits among the nobility 
 and gentry of this country, and their depend- 
 ants. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 RUSSEL (Edward) earl of Orford, was 
 the grandson of Francis Russel, the fourth 
 earl of Bedford, and was born in 1651. He 
 became gentleman of the bed-chamber to 
 James, duke of York ; but on the execution 
 of his cousin, lord William Russel, he retired 
 from court ; and when James II succeeded to 
 the crown, he opposed the measures of his go- 
 vernment, and used all his influence in pro- 
 moting the Revolution. Under William 111 
 he was a privy-counsellor; and in 1690 he 
 was apjiointed admiral of the blue, advanced 
 to the command of the navy, and made first 
 lord of the Admiralty. On the 19th of May, 
 1692, he obtained a signal victory over the 
 French fleet under Tourville, off cape La 
 Hogue ; and in 1695 he prevented the inva- 
 sion of Britain by the French, under the ex- 
 pelled monarch James II. His services were 
 rewarded with promotion to the peerage, by 
 tlie titles of baron of Shingey, viscount Bar- 
 fleur, and carl of Orford. In 1701 he was 
 impeached by the house of Commons, and 
 was tried on the charges of corruption and 
 malversation with regard to the supply of the 
 fleet, but he was acquitted. He died without 
 issue, November 26, 1727. — Collins's Peerage. 
 
 RUSSEL (Richard) a physician, who was 
 the son of a London bookseller, and received 
 his education in the university of Padua, 
 where he graduated as MD. He settled as a 
 medical practitioner at Reading, in Berkshire, 
 where he attracted some notice bv a disjmte 
 with Dr Addington, the father of lord Sid- 
 mouth, who had refused to meet him in con- 
 sultation, on the alleged ground of his having 
 obtained his diploma at a foreign university. 
 The quarrel, however, seems to have rather 
 originated in difference of politics, Dr Adding- 
 ton being a zealous whig, and Dr Russel a 
 tory or a Jacobite. He removed to London, 
 and at length to Brighton, and died in 1768. 
 He was the author of a treatise " On the Use 
 of Sea \Vater in Diseases of the Glands," 8vo. 
 — His bn)lher, John Russkl, who was an 
 artist, publi.-hed " Letters from a young Pain- 
 ter abroad [in Italy] to his Friends in Eng- 
 land," 1750, 2 vols, hvo ; and •' Elements of 
 
R U T 
 
 RUT 
 
 1772, 4io.—Riog. 
 
 Painting with Crayons, 
 U)iiv. Renss. 
 
 KUSSEL (Wilmam) :m liistoricnl writer ! Virtue," «vo ; " A l.-ttir ui IVft-nce 
 of some tMninence in the last tfiitury. He i Hisliop Slicrlock on rrophfcy," Hvo ; 
 
 System of Natural Pliil(.soj)hy," 2 toU. 4to , 
 " All l)8.«ay on the Nature aiul Obli-alions of 
 
 in Defence of 
 V 
 
 was born in the county of .Miil Lothian in , Disconrfc on Mirat Its ;" " Iiihtitutet of Sn- 
 Scollanil, in 1716 ; antl after having b( en idu- j tuial Law," ii vols. Uvo ; " I'wo Letters to 
 cateil at a school at Inverkeithing, he became 
 Hti ap])rentice to u bookseller and |)i inter. On 
 the tenniiiHtion of his itideiitures, he jjuldished 
 a " Collection of modern Poems;" auvl re- 
 movinsf to London, he eni;ai;ed in biisiness as 
 a jirinter, but ai'terwards em[)loyed his time in 
 writing for the [)ress. lie was the author of 
 the " History of America, from its Discovery 
 by Columbus to the Conclusion of the late 
 War," l'^78, 2 vols. 4to ; and the " History 
 of Modern Kurope, with an Account of the De- 
 cline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in a 
 Series of Letters," 1779, 4 vols. 8vo, a very 
 popular work, since augmented and republished 
 by Dr Charles Coote. Mr Russcl obtained 
 the diploma of LLI). from a Scottish univer- 
 sity, and engaged in other hterary undertak- 
 ings, particularly the " History of Ancient 
 Europe," as an introduction to his former 
 work, the completion of which being inter- 
 rupted by his death in 1793, owing to a para- 
 lytic stroke, the work was finished by Dr 
 Coote, and was printed in three volumes, 
 octavo. — Chalmers's Biog. Diet. licuss. 
 
 RUTHERFORD (Daniel) a physician 
 and natural philosopher of eminence, born at 
 Edinburgh, November o, 1749. He studied 
 at the university there, and on taking the de- 
 gree of MD. in 1772, he read a thesis " De 
 AereFixo," in which he first indicated the ex- 
 istence of a new gaseous body, since called 
 azote or nitrogen. He was admitted a fellow 
 of tlie Collejre of Physicians at Edinburgh, 
 May 6, 1777. In a paper on nitric acid, read 
 before the Philosoj)hical Society in 1778, he 
 described, under the name of vital air, wl)at 
 is now termed oxygen gas, which he repre- 
 sented as the necessary constituent of all 
 acids. In 1786 he succeeded Dr Jolm Hope 
 as professor of botany and keeper of the bo- 
 tanic garden ; and he retained those offices till 
 his death, which happened November 15, 
 1819. 'Lhough not distinguished as an author, 
 Dr Rutherford lias ac(]uired a permanent title 
 to fame on account of his discovery of nitro- 
 gen, which forms a component part of atmo- 
 spheric air, animal substances, 6tc. — FAlinhuigli 
 Pliilos, Jourii. vol. iii. 
 
 RUTHERFOR'ril (Thomas) an English 
 divine, was born at Papworth Everard in the 
 county of Cambridge, of which parish his 
 father was rector, in 1712. He was entered 
 of St John's college, Cambridge, where he ob- 
 tained a fellowshij) in 1740. Two years after, 
 be was cliosen a fellow of the Royal Society; 
 and in 1745, on being ap])oiiited professor of 
 divinity, he took liis doctor's degree, and was 
 appointed chaplain to the prince of Wales. 
 His cliurch preferments were successively the 
 rectories of Barrow in Suffolk, of Stanfield in 
 Essex, and of Parley in Hertfordshire, with 
 the archdeaconry of Essex. Dr Rutherforth, 
 who died in 1771, was tlie a'.thor of " A J of the Vicinity of Dublin 
 
 Biocj. DicT. — Vol. IIT G 
 
 Dr Kennicott ;" " A Vindication of the Right 
 of l*rot<slaiit (Jhurcbes to refpiire SubscrijUion 
 from the ("lergy," Bvo ; " A Letter to Arch- 
 deacon Hlackburne ;" "SermonHandChargeg." 
 — Xichiils's Lit. Atiec. 
 
 RU TCiEllS (John) an able critic and nego- 
 ciator, was born of an ancient family, at iJort 
 in Holland, in 1589. He was educated for a 
 time under (Jerard Vossius, and completed 
 his education at the university of Leyden, 
 whence he proceeded to France, and took the 
 degree of licentiate of law at Orleans. He 
 returned to J^ort, and soon after accepted the 
 invitation of the Swedish ambassador to ac- 
 company him to Sweden, where he was made 
 a counsellor of state by (Justavus Adolphus. 
 He was subsequently employed by that mon- 
 arch on various embassies, and ennobled. He 
 finally resided at the Hague, as minister from 
 that sovereign to the republic, where he died 
 ia 1625 at the early age of thirty-six. His 
 works are, " Nota) in Horatium," added to 
 an edition of that poet by Robert Stephens ; 
 " Varite Lectiones," published at Leyden in 
 1618, and justly esteemed a very learned 
 work; noteson iNlartial, Apuleius, and Quintus 
 Curtius, &c. with several Latin poems, j)ub. 
 lished by Nicholas Heinsius in 1666, in con. 
 junction with his own. — Moreri. 
 
 RUTILILS NUMATIANUS, a Latin 
 poet of the fifth century, who, about the year 
 414, was prefect of Rome. In order to succour 
 his country, then overrun bv the Visio^oths. 
 he took a journey into Gaul, of which he wrote 
 a description in elegiac verse. It consisted of 
 two books, of which the latter is lost, and 
 what remains gives a favourable opinion of 
 the writer, who was a pagan, although he has 
 undergone censure from Christian writers, for 
 his reflections on the works of Capraria, and 
 as the cominemorator of the Jewish Sabbath. 
 The " Itinerarium" of Rutilius, which was dis- 
 covered in 1694, in a monastery at Robbio, has 
 been several times printed, and is, besides, 
 contained in Burman's '• Poetae Minores," and 
 Mattaire's "Corpus Poetarum." — Vossii. Hist. 
 Lat. Moreri, 
 
 RUTTY (John) a physician, was born iu 
 Ireland, of quaker parents, in 1698. He was 
 educated first in Dublin and next in London, 
 whence he proceeded to Holland, when hav- 
 ing taken his doctor's degree, he returned 
 to Dublin, where he practised with great 
 credit to his death iu 1775. He was the au- 
 thor of several works, which display consider- 
 able ability, and much eccentricity of cha- 
 racter, riie principal of these are, " His- 
 tory of the Quakers ;" " An Essay on Women'a 
 preaching ;" " A Synopsis of Mineral Wa- 
 ters ;" " A Chronological History of the Wea- 
 ther and Seasons, and of the Diseases of Duo- 
 " An Essay towards a Natural History 
 
 ' 2 vols ; " Obser- 
 
 iin 
 
RU Y 
 
 R \ 
 
 r^ 
 Ky 
 
 vations on the London and Edinlnirgh Dispen- 
 satories ;" " Materia Medica Antiqua et 
 Nova ;" " Spiritual Diary and Soliloquies," 
 2 vols. 8vo, which last production forms a 
 curious picture of mental singularity. — Chal- 
 mers's Biog. Diet, 
 
 RUYSCH. There were two celebrated 
 Dutch physicians of this name, father and son. 
 Fredeuick, the elder and more eminent, born 
 in 1638 at the Hague, was the son of a com- 
 missary in the service of the Slates General, 
 and rose by his abilities and perseverance to 
 be one of the most distinguished anatomists of 
 modern times. Having studied medicine and 
 surgery at Leyden and Franeker, in which 
 latter university he graduated, he returned to 
 his native city, and there practised with great 
 success, till the publication of his treatise on 
 the lymphatic vessels, in 1665, procured him 
 an invitation to fill the anatomical chair at 
 Amsterdam. Here be continued to pursue his 
 course of dissection, minutely scrutinizing every 
 part of the human frame, and occasionally pub- 
 lishing the result of his discoveries, some of 
 which, however, appear to have been even 
 then already known, a fact with which his 
 studies, rather of a practical than a theore- 
 tical nature, do not seem to have made him 
 sufficiently acquainted. While engaged in 
 this pursuit, be gradually amassed an im- 
 mense collection of anatomical specimens and 
 preparations, the wliole of wliich were pur- 
 chased from him at the price of 30,000 florins, 
 by the eccentric czar, Peter of Russia, then on 
 his travels, who often amused himself by at- 
 tending the professor's demonstrations, and at 
 length bought his museum, for the purpose of 
 encouraging the study of surgery in his new 
 capital. Kuysch was afterwards appointed 
 professor of physic in the same university, and 
 was elected a member of the Koyal Society of 
 London, and of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Paris. He continued to enjoy his faculties, 
 with the exception of sight, to a very advanced 
 age, when he died in the spring of 1731, hav- 
 ing survived by four years his son Henry, who 
 was himself an excellent anatomist, and author 
 of the " Iheatrum Universale Animalium," 
 folio, 2 vols. 1718, a standard work of great 
 value. The works of Frederick Ruysch were 
 collected into five quarto volumes, and printed 
 at Amsterdam four years after his decease. 
 They are entitled " Opera Omnia Anatomico- 
 jMedico-Chirurgica F. Ruysch. — Ilulleri Bibl. 
 Anat. Eloges de Fonlenelle. 
 
 UUYSDAAL. The name of two Flemish 
 artists, brothers, and natives of Haerlem, both, 
 though in different brandies of the art, dis- 
 tinguished in tl e annals of jtainting. Solo- 
 mon, the elder was born in 1616, and is prin- 
 cipally famou? for the beauty and accur.'cy of 
 his representation of marbles, &:c. ; his land- 
 scapes, though good, are far inferior to those 
 of his brother Jacob. The latter was born in 
 1636, and ranks among the best painters o( 
 the Dutch ?chool, especially in the delineation 
 of wood an'l water, which he gives with great 
 spirit and Lorrectness. He died in bis native 
 oity in 1681, having survived his brother 
 
 about eleven years. — D'Argeniitle, Viei, it 
 Pehit. 
 
 RUYTER (IMkhakl Fitz Adriav") a ce- 
 lehrhted Dutch admiral, born at Flushing in 
 1607. He entered young into the naval ser 
 vice of his country, and rose from the situation 
 of cabin-boy to that of captain in 1635. He was 
 sent in 16U to the assistance of the Portu- 
 guese, wiio had thrown off the yoke of Spain ; 
 on which occasion he was appointed rear- 
 admiral , and two years after he was em- 
 ployetl against the Barbary corsairs. In the 
 war between the Dutch and English, which 
 commenced in 1652, Ruyter repeatedly dis- 
 tinguished himself, especially in the terrible 
 battle fought in February 1653, near the mouth 
 of the Channel, wlien Blake commanded tlie 
 English, and Tromp and Ruyter the Dutch. 
 He afterwards served against the Portuguese, 
 the Swedes, and the Algerines, prpviously to 
 the naval warfare between England and Hol- 
 land, in the reign of Charles II. He com- 
 manded in the great battle fought in the 
 Downs, in June 1666, against prince Rupert 
 and the duke of Albemarle ; and, in the fol- 
 lowing year, he insulted the English by big 
 memorable expedition up the Thames, when 
 he destroyed Upnor castle, and burnt some 
 ships at Chatham. He was admiral of the 
 Dutch fleet at the battle of Solebay in 1672 ; 
 and he signalized his skill and courage on 
 several other occasions. He died in the port 
 of Syracuse, April 29, 1676, in consequence 
 of a wound received in an engagement with 
 the French, a few days before, off Messina. — 
 Moreri. Rees's Cuclop. Biog. Univ. 
 
 RYAN (Lacy) an actor and dramatic au- 
 thor of the last century. He was born in 
 Westminster, about 1 694, and was the son of 
 a tailor, who intending him for the profession 
 of the law, sent him to St Paul's school, and 
 afterwards placed him in an attorney's office. 
 This situation he left to go on the stage at the 
 age of sixteen ; and two years after he ac- 
 quired some reputation in the character of 
 Marcus, in Addison's Cato. An accid^-ntal 
 wound in his mouth impeded hi* utterance, 
 and rendered his voice disagreeable ; but pre- 
 viously to that misfortune, he displayed so 
 much ability, that Garrick is said to have 
 derived his excellence in the part of Richard 
 the Third from his observation of Rvan's 
 manner of playing it. He was the author of 
 a little piece, in one act, called " The Cob- 
 ler's Opera." His death took place August 
 15, 17t)(). — Biog. Dratn. Thesp. Diet. 
 
 RYCAUTorRlCAUT(sirPAUL)an Eng- 
 lish traveller and historical writer of eminence, 
 who was the ycungest son of sir Peter Rvcaut, 
 knight, a merchant of Loudon. He was edu- 
 cated at Trinity college, Cambridge ; and in 
 1661 he went to Constantinople, as secretary 
 to the earl of \\ inchelsea, ambassador extra- 
 ordinary from Charles II to the grand seignor. 
 He visited various parts of Asia and Africa 
 while he held this situation, and travelled 
 twice between London and Constantinople, 
 going the second time over land through Ihin- 
 gary, when he remained for a whiie in '.he 
 
R Y E 
 
 riirkish camp of the vir.ior Iviipriogli. Tie wns 
 ufteiwarcis ina<le Entrlisli rnnsul atSrnvitia; 
 aiul having exercist-d iliat office about ele-vcn 
 years, he was recalled at liia own request. 
 He theii api)ears to have led a private hfe at 
 liome, till the reign of .lames 11. under wjjoin 
 he became secietary for tlie provinces of I.ein- 
 ster and Connaught to ihe earl of Clarendon, 
 Iord-lieuteii:\nt of Irelanil; and was also one 
 of tlie Irish privy council, and a jud^R of the 
 liiijh court of admiralty, all which offices he 
 held till the Revolution. He, notwithstanding, 
 was appointeil English resident at the Hanse 
 Towns, Hund)urgh, Lubeck, and Bremen, 
 where he continued ten years, and returning 
 to England, died soon after, November 16, 
 1700. Sir Paul Rvcaut was the autlior of a 
 paper in the Philosophical Transactions, rela- 
 tive to the a]ipearance of swarms of Norway 
 rats, or sable mice, in Poland ; and he pub- 
 lished several historical and political tracts ; 
 but his principal productions are, " The Pre- 
 sent State of the Ottoman Empire," 1670, 
 folio, and a continuation of Knolles's " His- 
 tory of the Turks," from 1623 to 1700, form- 
 ing, together with that work, 3 vols, folio. 
 He translated from the Latin, Platina's " Lives 
 of the Popes ;" and from the Spanish, Garci- 
 lasso de la Vega's " History of Peru." — Le 
 Neie's Mouumenta Anglicana. Biog. Brit. 
 
 RYCKIUS or DE RYCKE (THEooonE) 
 a Dutch advocate of the seventeenth century, 
 born about the year 1640. He became pro- 
 fessor of history in the university of Leyden ; 
 and besides superintending the publication of 
 excellent editions of Tacitus, in 2 vols. l2mo, 
 and of Stepiien of Byzantium, folio, was the 
 author of two original treatises, on the first 
 colonization of Italy, and on the giants of 
 antiquity. His death took place at Leyden in 
 1690.— 5a rn' Onom. 
 
 RYDER (sir Dudley) an eminent English 
 lawver, bom in 1691. He was descended 
 from an ancient Yorkshire family, and having 
 received a liberal education, he entered on the 
 study of i)is profession. In 1733 he was ap- 
 pointed solicitor-general ; and in 1736 ad- 
 vanced to the office of attorney-general. 
 After holding that post eighteen years, he was 
 made lord-chief-jusiice of the King's Bench ; 
 and he was about to be elevated to the peerage, 
 by the title of lord Ryder, bar'^n of Harrowby, 
 in Leicestershire, when he died, while the 
 patent was preparing, I\Iay 2.3, 17;)6. — His 
 son, Nathaniel Ryder, was created baron 
 Harrowby in 1776, and died in 1803. He 
 was succeeded by his eldest son, since created 
 earl of Harrowbv and viscount Sandon. — Biog. 
 Peer. Rees's Cyclop. 
 
 RYER. The name of two ingenious French 
 writers, who both flourished about the middle 
 of the seventeenth century. Pierre du 
 Ryer, born at Paris in 160o, held, in the 
 early part of his life, a small post at t!ie 
 court of Louis XHL which the poverty of his 
 circumst inces compelled him to dispose of. 
 He eventually became secretary to the duke 
 of Vendome, and historiographer to the king, 
 being at the same time a member of the Aca- 
 
 R Y M 
 
 demy. He was tlie author of nineteen ori- 
 gitiiil compositions for the stage, and the trans- 
 lator and adapter of several others, most of 
 which were eminently successful in their day. 
 His death look place in l(j.")J{. — .Andrew dw 
 Rvi II, sieur de Malesais, born at Marcignv, 
 held a place about the king's person, having 
 been for some time previously resident in a 
 mercantile situation in Turkey. Of the lan- 
 guage of this country he afterwards j)ublished 
 a compendious (jrammar, together with a 
 French version of the Koran. He also trans- 
 lated the " Gulistan " of the Persian poet 
 
 Sadi. His death took place in 1610 Buijle. 
 
 Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 RYLAND (William Wynne) an eminent 
 engraver, was born in London, in the year 
 1732. His genius for the fine arts manifested 
 itself early in life, and he was placed under 
 Ravenet. At the expiration of his engage- 
 ment, he was patronized by sir Watkin Wil- 
 liams Wynne, liis godfather, and went to Paris, 
 where lie studied for five years under Boucher, 
 from whose design he engraved his best work 
 of Jupiter and Leda. He gave other proofs of 
 ability, which gained him the gold medal, 
 and, in consequence, liberty to pursue his 
 studies in the academy at Rome, whieh he 
 did very successfully. From Boucher he how- 
 ever acquiretl a false and meretricious taste, 
 from which he never fully recovered ; and 
 this error was heightened by the fashion of 
 stippling, which he introduced with modifica- 
 tions of his own into England, where his en- 
 gravings in this way, for the most part printed 
 in red, for a time entirely caught the taste of 
 the public. His principal pieces were after 
 Angelica KaufFman. The end of this able 
 artist was very melancholy, being executed 
 for a forgery on the East India Company, to 
 which rash act he was induced by temporary 
 embarrassment. This event took place in 
 August 1783. — Strutt. Life of Rijland. 
 
 RYjMER (Thomas) a critic and antiquary, 
 was probably a native of Yorkshire, as he re- 
 ceived his early education at Northallerton 
 grammar-school. He afterwards studied at 
 Cambridge, and on quitting the university en- 
 tered at Gray's-inn. In 1678 he published 
 " Edgar, a Tragedy," and wrote a work en- 
 titled «' A View of the Tragedies of the last 
 Age," in which he severely criticised our 
 earliest dramatists, not excepting Shakspeare. 
 It is, however, as an historical antiquary that 
 he is chiefly celebrated. Succeedins. Shad- 
 well, in 1692, as royal historiographer, he 
 meritoriously employed the opportunities af- 
 forded him by his office, to make a collection 
 of public treaties and compacts, which he 
 began to publish in 1704', under the title of 
 " Foedera, Conventiones, et cujuscunque ge- 
 neris Acta Publica, inter Reges Angliie et 
 alios Principes, ab an. 1101,"' of which he 
 completed 13 vols, folio, five more being added 
 by Robert Sanderson. Although confused and 
 ill -digested, it is a publication of great value 
 and fundamental to an accurate knowledge of 
 English history. Rymer died in 1713. Some 
 specimens of his poetry may be found in the 
 
 G 8 
 
S A 
 
 first volume of Nichols's Select Collection of 
 Miscellaneous Poems. Besides the " Foedera," 
 ii^ left an unpublished collection relating to 
 ttiglish history, iu 58 volumes, now in the 
 Vritish Museum. — Aikin's Bioer, Diet. Saxii 
 V/jow, See Sanderson (R.) No. 2. 
 
 RYSBRACH (John Michael) a statuary 
 of great eminence, the son of a painter of 
 Antwerp, in which city he was born in 1694. 
 He came to England early in life, and derived 
 considerable reputation and profit from the 
 exercise of his art, of whicli Westminster 
 abbey, and other of our cathedral churches, 
 contain many admirable specimens, among 
 which may be mentioned the monuments of 
 sir Isaac Newton and the duke of Mirlborough ; 
 while others, and especially busts, enrich our 
 best private collections, the heads of J2nglish 
 worthies at Stowe, and in the Hermitage at 
 Richmond, being of the number. His death 
 took place in 1770. Some other members of 
 Lis family distinguished themselves in the 
 sister art of painting. — ]Valpole's Aiiec. 
 
 RYVES. There were two learned and dis- 
 tinguished characters of this name in the reign 
 of the first Charles, natives of Dorsetshire, 
 and descended of the same family. Of these 
 Dr Bruno Ryvks received his education at the 
 university of Oxford, being first a fellow of New 
 college, and afterwards chaplain of JNIagdalen. 
 His attachment to the royal cause drew on him 
 the persecution which so many of his brethren 
 shared witli him in common ; and during the 
 commotions, he was exposed to considerable 
 inconvenience and deprivation, especially with 
 regard to the profits of his ecclesiastical pre- 
 ferment, the livings of Stanwell, and St Mar- 
 tin by the, Vintry, London. For much of this 
 he was indebted to his publication of a pe- 
 riodical work, entitled" Mercurius Rusticus," 
 commenced by him in the autumn of 1642, 
 and levelled strongly against the parliament. 
 He was also the author of an " Account of the 
 Lords and Personsof Quality Slain or Executed 
 during the Civil Wars ;" a pamphlet entitled 
 " Querela Cantabrigiensis ;" and a few ser- 
 mons ; and assisted in the compilation of 
 Walton's Polyglott Bible. On the return of 
 Charles the Second, his exertions were re- 
 warded with the living of Acton in Middlesex, 
 and the deanery of Windsor. His death took 
 place in 1677. — Sir Thomas Ryves, his con- 
 temporary, was a civilian of considerable ta- 
 lent and learning, to which he appears to have 
 joined all the loyalty of his relative. He re- 
 ceived the rudiments of a classical education 
 on the foundation at Westminster, which he 
 
 S A 
 
 completed at New College, Oxford, where he 
 graduated in civil law, and afterwards did 
 good service to the king, both with his pen and 
 sword, for which he received the honour of 
 knighthood. In 1618 he was made a master 
 in chancery, and subsequently went to Uub- 
 lin as judge of the prerogative court. He was 
 a man of considerable classical and anticua- 
 rian research, as is evinced by his " Historia 
 Navalis Anti(]ua ;" " Historia Navalis Me- 
 dia ;" " A Defence of the English Sway in 
 Ireland ;" " A Defence of the Emperor Jus- 
 tinian ;" "The Vicar's Plea;" and other 
 learned works. He died in 1651, and lies bu- 
 ried in the church of St Clement Danes, Lon- 
 don. — Allien. Oxon. Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 RZEWUSKY(Wenceslai's) aPolish no- 
 bleman of an ancient family, born in 1705. 
 He was educated at the college of Beltz, and 
 afterwards travelled through the principal 
 countries of Europe. Returning to Poland, 
 he was placed at the head of the chancellery ; 
 and his leisure was devoted to the study of 
 public law and history. After the death of 
 king Augustus II, in 1733, he declared in fa- 
 vour of Stanislaus Lecziiiski, and on the 
 failure of his attempts to secure the crown, 
 Rzewusky went into voluntary exile. He 
 subsequently accepted of the office of grand- 
 marshal of the diet, under Augustus III, who 
 recompensed his services by the palatinate of 
 Podolia, and soon after appointed him marshal 
 of the tribunal of Lublin. He distinguished 
 himself against the Tartars, on their invasion 
 of Poland in 1739, when he was created ge- 
 neral of the crown. His endeavours to pre- 
 serve the independence of his country, on tJie 
 election of Stanislaus Poniatowski, under the 
 influence of Russia, gave oflence to the em- 
 press, and he was arrested and conveyed to 
 Smolensk, and afterwards to Kaluga. In his 
 confinement he employed himself in translat- 
 ing into Polish verse, the Psalms of David, and 
 the Odes of Horace, Six years elapsed be- 
 fore he was permitted to return home, when 
 he retired to a small estate at Siedliska, and, 
 rejecting all offers of court favour, he remained 
 there till his death in November 1779. Count 
 Rzewusky possessed an extensive acquaint- 
 ance with natural philosophy, botany, and me- 
 dicine ; and he cultivated with ecjual success 
 literature, music, and architecture. Besides 
 discourses, letters, and dissertations in Latin, 
 he comjjosed, in his native language, " A New 
 Art of Poetry •," two tragedies, two come- 
 dies, &c. — Hif>£' Univ. 
 
 S A 
 
 SA or DE' SAA CEmanuel) alearned Por- 
 tuguese Jesuit, was born at Conde, in the 
 province of Douro, in 1530, and he entered 
 the society in 1545 ; and after the usual 
 
 S A 
 
 anew edition of the Bible. He died in 1596. 
 His chief works are, " Scholia in Quatuor 
 Evangplia," 1596, 4to ; " Notationes in to- 
 tam Sarram Scripturam," 1598. 4to, botli 
 
 course of studies at Coimbra, he proceeded to which works are mucli praised by Dnpin. He 
 Rome, where he was employed ly Pius V on i was also author of another small work, en- 
 
S A A 
 
 t:t!e«i " Aphorismi Coufessarioruni," Venice, 
 l.SMH, a set of rules for confessor? in cases of 
 conscience, which, like many other works of the 
 same kiiul, has been thoa^'ht occa.sionallv 
 loose and dangerous botli as to morals and 
 })o)icy. It unilerwent njany corrections before 
 the po])e would allow it to be licensed, in the 
 year preceding the death of the author. — 
 Dnpin, Morcti, 
 
 SAAD KDDIN MOII AMMF.l) 1U:N 
 HASSAN", the most celebrated among the 
 Turkish liistorians, also known by the appel- 
 lation of Khodja Ettendi. He became pre- 
 ceptor to the sultan Amurat 111; and was 
 subsecpiently appointed mufti, which otlice he 
 held till his death, about the year 1600. He 
 was the author of a work entitled " The Crown 
 of Histories," containing an account of all 
 the Turkish emperors to his own times. This 
 Chronicle was translated into Italian by Vin- 
 cent IJrattuti, and into Latin by Kollar. A. L. 
 Scidoezer, in his Critico- Historical Amuse- 
 ments, Cotlingen, 1797, 8vo, has given full 
 details of the Chronicle of Saad I'ddin, which 
 has been continued from lolO, where the au- 
 thor concluded it, to 1751, by five other his- 
 toriographers appointed for that purpose by the 
 sultans. — ^i"jg« C'/a'c. 
 
 SAADI. SeeSADi. 
 
 SAADIAS-GAON, a learned rabbi, and 
 the chief of the academy of the Jews, was 
 born at Pothim in Egypt, in 892. In 9ii7 he 
 was invited by David-ben-Chair, prince of 
 the captivity, to ])reside over the academy of 
 Sora near Babylon, which ofhoe, with some 
 interruption, lie held until his deatii in the 
 year 942. His principal works are, " Sepher 
 Haemimah," a treatise concerning the Jewish 
 articles of faith ; "A Commentary on the 
 book Jezirah;" "An Arabic version of the 
 entire Old Testament," of which the Penta- 
 teuch is inserted in Jay's and Walton's Poly- 
 glotts, accom|)anied by tlie Latin version of 
 Sionita ; " Commentaries " on the Song of 
 Songs, and on Daniel, in Hebrew ; and on the 
 book of Job, in Arabic. — Moveri. Simon Hist. 
 Crit. 
 
 S Axis (John) a learned French writer on 
 bibliograpliy, born in 1703. He studied at 
 Rouen in Normandy, and having adopted the 
 ecclesiastical jirofession, he became secretary 
 to the archbishop of Rouen, and afterwards 
 librarian to the metropolitan chapter, a situa- 
 tion which afforded him an opportunity for 
 indulging his taste for literary research. In 
 1751 he obtained a canonry, as a recompense 
 for his zeal in defence of the privileges of his 
 church, which had been invaded by the Bene- 
 dictine monks of the abbey of St Ouen at 
 Rouen. He intended to publish a supplement 
 to Moreri's Historical Dictionary, but ill 
 liealth obliged him to lay aside the undertak- 
 ing ; and after having languished some years, 
 he died of apoplexy, April 20, 1774. He 
 was the author of " Notice des MSS. de la 
 Bibliolheque de I'Eglise MetropoUtaine de 
 Rouen," 1746. 12mo ; " Abrege de Cosmo- 
 graphie ;" " Remarks on the Dictionaries of 
 Chaufepi^, Ladvocat, and Moreii j" " Let- 
 
 8 A B 
 
 ters on the Encyclopedie ;" and various other 
 works. — liini;. I'liii', 
 
 SAAVEiniA FAXARDO (Dif.go d^) 
 
 a Sjianish author, descended of a noble family, 
 scllled at Algezares, in the kin^jdom of Mur- 
 cia, where he was born in 158 L His talents 
 as a diplomatist, which first displayed them- 
 selves during his secretaryship to the embassy 
 at Rome, occasioned his being afterwards en- 
 trusted with the entire management of the 
 Sjianish interests in that capital. He was af- 
 terwards employed in several other missions, 
 especially in conducting a negociation with 
 the Swiss cantons, and received as a reward 
 for his services the collar of St Jago, a lay 
 canonry lielonging to the order, and a seat at 
 the suprenie council-board for the Indies 
 Among his writings are, " The Idea of a Po 
 litic Christian Prince," since translateil into 
 Latin ; " The Literary Republic," which has 
 also been translated both into the French and 
 English languages ; and " The Gothic Crown, 
 &C-." His death took place in 1618. — Anton. 
 Bibl. Hisp. 
 
 SAAVEDRA. See Ckhvaxtes. 
 SABATAI SEVI, a Jewish impostor of 
 the seventeenth century, who aspired to the 
 character of the JMessiah. He entered on his 
 pretended mission in Turkey, and deluded 
 great multitudes of his countrymen, who eagerly 
 flocked to him as their expected leader to the 
 promised land. The government becoming 
 alarmed at his progress, he was seized and 
 sent prisoner to Constantinople. Being 
 brought before the grand seignor, lie was in- 
 terrogated as to his claims to the JMessiahship 
 of the Jews, when he persisted in asserting' 
 his right to the character, and declared that 
 he was endowed with the power of workino- 
 miracles. The sultan told him he should 
 have an immediate opportunity of displavinor 
 his supernatural powers, if he possessed any ; 
 and ordered him to be fastened to a post, op- 
 posite to which a dozen jani:;aries were drawn 
 up ready to fire at him. Sabatai, finding mat- 
 ters so serious, was glad to save his life at the 
 expense of his religion, and turned ]Maho- 
 metan. This pretender, who made his ap- 
 pearance about the year 1666, was the last of 
 a long train of false JNIessiahs, who, from the 
 time of Judas of Galilee and Barcochab, liad 
 deluded the credulous posterity of Jacob. — 
 Bp, Kidder's Demonstration of the Messiah. 
 
 SABATIER ( ANTOiNE)'called Sabatier de 
 Castres, from the place of his birth, which 
 occurred in 1742. Having finished his stu- 
 dies he assumed the clerical tonsure, and the 
 title of abbe ; but he devoted himself to the 
 profession of literature. At lirst lie was pro- 
 tected by Helvetius, and connected with the 
 philosophical party of the French literati, 
 whose society he left, and manifested his en- 
 mity to them as a public opponent. His work, 
 entitled " Les Trois Siecles de la Litterature 
 Franfais, ou Tableau de I'Esprit de nos Ecri- 
 vains, depuis Fran^-ois I, jusqu'en 1772," pro- 
 cured him a great many enemies, and brought 
 him into notice. In 1775 the count deVergennes 
 invited him tio Versailles, procured him a cou- 
 
S A B 
 
 »iJt,rab!e income, and gave him an apartment 
 in tlie palace. He assumed the character of 
 in crdent defender of religion and morality, 
 while his own conduct was very discreditable, 
 and becoming generally despised, he emi- 
 grated at the llevolution. After a few years, 
 having exhausted his means of subsistence, 
 and had recourse to some very unfair metliods 
 of raising money from the booksellers, he en- 
 deavoured to get permission from the imperial 
 government to return to France. In vain he 
 lavished on Buonaparte the titles of Saviour 
 of France, hero, ami demi-god ; his flatteries 
 liad no eflect, and it was not till after the re- 
 storation of the king that he again appeared in 
 his native country. Instead of recovering, as 
 he had expected, his pensions and arrears, he 
 could obtain only :3,3()0 francs a-year ; and he 
 therefore resumed liis trade as a libeller, freely 
 censuring the court and the clergy. Age aug- 
 mented his necessities, and being seized with 
 sickness, he was taken to the house of the 
 Cljaritable Sisters at Paris, where he died 
 June 15, 1817. His works are very numer- 
 ous, including " Les Siecles Paiens, ou Dic- 
 tionnaire Mvthologique, Heroique, Politique, 
 Litteraire, et Geographique de I'Antiquite 
 PaVenne," 1784, 9 vols. 12mo; and "Les 
 Caprices de la Fortune, par M. I'Abbe Saba- 
 tier de Castres, precedes d'une Notice sur la 
 \ie de ce Critique celebre," 1805, 3 vols. 
 12mo. — T^iog. Univ. 
 
 SABATIER (Fran9ois) born in 1755 at 
 Condom, was a tutor in the college of Cha- 
 lons, and is known as the author of several 
 tracts on historical and miscellaneous sub- 
 jects, the principal of which are his disser- 
 tations " Ou the Manners, Habits, and Cus- 
 toms of the Ancients," S vols.; "The Chil- 
 dren's INIanual ;" " On the Rise and Progress 
 of the Temporal Power of the Popes ;" a trea- 
 tise *' On various Subjects connected with the 
 History of France ;" and a compendious clas- 
 sical dictionary, in 36 octavo volumes. Au 
 unfortunate speculation in a paper manufac- 
 tory reduced him to indigence a short time 
 before his death, which took place iu 1807. — 
 Id. 
 
 SABATIER or SABATHIER (Pierre) 
 a French writer of the last century, was a na- 
 tive of Poictiers, and eiitering the church, as- 
 sumed the habit of the order of St Benedict 
 at St IMaur. His " Jjibliorum Sacrorum Latina; 
 ^'ersiones Antiqure," which appeared in 1743, 
 in three folio volumes, is a work of great la- 
 bour, which occupied twenty years in the 
 compilation, and contains a complete collection 
 of all the old Latin versions of the Scriptures. 
 Sabatier did not live to witness its publication, 
 dying at Rheims in the spring of 1742, after 
 W'hich De la Rue continued and produced it. 
 — Nouv. Diet. Iliii. 
 
 SABATIER (Raphael Bienvenu) an 
 eminent French surgeon, was born in the me- 
 tropolis in 1732, and became an associate both 
 of tlie Institute and the Academy of Sciences. 
 He was the author of a variety of able trf-a- 
 tises connected with his profession, especially 
 of a valuable work on the anatomy of the hu- 
 
 S A B 
 
 man frame, in three volumes, octavo. Among 
 his writings are, " On the various iNIethods of 
 Extracting the Catarait," 4to ; " Theses Ana- 
 tomico Chirurgica",'" 4to ; '* De la Medecine 
 Operatoire ;" and *' De la INIedecine Expec- 
 taiive ;" each in 3 vols. 8vo. His death took 
 place at Paris in 1811. — Id. 
 
 SABBATIM (Andrew) known by the 
 name of Andrea del Salerno, was born about 
 1480, and is deemed the first artist claimitig 
 notice in the Neapolitan school. He studied 
 under Raphael, whose manner he imitated with 
 success. Of his numerous works at Naples, 
 the altar-pieces at St Marie delle Grazie are 
 deemed the most valuable. He painted like- 
 wise at Salerno, Geeta, and other places, for 
 churches and private collections, where his 
 madonnas often rival those of Raphael. — Lo- 
 renzo Sabbatini, also Lorenzo di Bologna, 
 another admired painter, of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, executed many good pictures, which are 
 often mistaken for those of Andrew. — Pil~ 
 kington by Fuseli, 
 
 SABBATINI (P. LuD. Ant.) commonly 
 known by the designation of Sabbatini of Pa- 
 dua, an able writer on the science of music, 
 of which he was a distinguished professor, 
 having studied counter-point under Padre 
 Martini and Vallotti. His princij)al work 
 is entitled " Li vera Idea delle Musicali Nu- 
 mereche Signature," printed at Venice in 
 1799. Among his other writings on this sub- 
 ject are " Elementi tecretici e pratici di Mu- 
 sica," Rome, 1790 ; a " Treatise on Fugue," 
 2 vols. Venice, 1801 ; and a great variety of 
 church music ; especially a grand mass com- 
 posed for the funeral of Jomelli. His death 
 took place in 1809, in his native city, where 
 he held the situation of chapel master to the 
 church of St Anthony. — Biog. Diet, of Mits. 
 
 SABELLICUS (Marcus Antonics Coc- 
 cnjs) an Italian historian and critic, was born 
 m 1436, in Roma Campagna. In 1475 he 
 became professor of eloquence at l\Uno, and 
 afterwards at Venice, where he obtained a 
 pension for writing the history of the republic, 
 entitled " Rerum Venetiarum ab L'rbe con- 
 dita," folio, which was published in 1487, and 
 forms a very beautiful specimen of early 
 printing. He also published a " Description 
 of Venice ;" " A Dialogue on the Venetian 
 Magistrates ;" and " Rhapsodiaj Historiarum 
 Enneades," comprising a general history from 
 the creation of the world. His other works, 
 consisting of discourses, moral, philosophical, 
 and historical, with several Latin poems, are 
 printed in 4 vols, folio, Basil, 1560. He died 
 in 1506- — Tiruhoschi, 
 
 SABELLIUS, an heresiarch of the third 
 century, a native of Ptolemais, in Libya, and 
 the disciple of Noetus of Smyrna. He be- 
 came the founder of a sect which ac(]uired 
 many proselytes both in Palestine and in 
 Rome. Jts peculiar doctrines were, the ab- 
 solute identity of the persons of the Trinity, 
 consequently that the Father and the Holy 
 Ghost suffered death upon the cross, as well 
 as the Son, the two latter being in fact mere 
 qualities. These opinions were first promul- 
 
SAC 
 
 g^med about the year 260, and continued to 
 niake ronsideruble j)rogre9.H till St Dcnys 
 wrote alily a'^aiiist tlieni, ami tlit-y were at 
 leni;tli formally coiuh'iiuKd at a <:en(TaI cuuii- 
 cii lield at Cou8tauliiioi)le in ;}B1. — Moiheiin. 
 Dupiii. 
 
 8A BINDS (Gf.ouoi:) whose German name 
 was Schalten, a modern Latin poet, was born 
 in the electorate of ikandenburg in 1. ■>()». At 
 tlj"? age of fifteen he was sent to Witteniber^, 
 where he wa-* privately instructed by iMehmc- 
 thon. In his twenty-second year he j)nb- 
 lished a poem, entitleil " Res Cie»t;e C;esaruin 
 Germanoruni," which procured iiini <,'reat 
 rejnUation. He afterwards travelled into Italy, 
 and on his return married the daughter of 
 JNIelancthon. He sul)se(]Mentlv became jiro- 
 fessor of belles leltres at Frankfort on the 
 Oder, and rector of the new university at 
 Konit;sburg, wliich was opened in 1.5 M. 
 His leaniiuj; and reputation liavini; made him 
 known to Charles V, he was ennobled by that 
 sovereign, who al.~o einjiloved him in several 
 embassies. He died in I.tOO. His poems 
 were published at Leipsic, in 1.558 and 1597. 
 He also published other works, which are 
 enumerated bv NiceroTi. — 'Niceron, vol. xxvi. 
 
 SACCHETTI (Francis) an Italian novel- 
 ist, born at Florence, of an ancient family, 
 about 1335. Raised by his merit and con- 
 nexions to the first civii offices in his native 
 city, he acquired by his conduct tlie reputation 
 of beinz an lionest and enlightened mat-is- 
 trate. In 1385 he was nominated podestat of 
 Bibbiena, and there he is supposed to have 
 written his tales, which are esteemed next to 
 those of Boccaccio, though far from equalling 
 the Decameron, wliicli however they rival in 
 licentiousness. Sacchetti travelled, and be- 
 came acquainted with Boccaccio, whose deatli 
 he lamented in an elegy. His own death is 
 supposed to have happened about 1410. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 SACCHI (Andrea) an eminent painter, 
 born at Rome in 1594. He was a pupil of 
 Francis Albano, whose beauty of design and 
 colouring, and whose facility of execution he 
 successfully imitated. He was employed in 
 ornamenting the Vatican ; and twelve of the 
 principal Roman churches exhibited specimens 
 of his works. Pope Urban \'lll. patronized 
 Sacchi, who derived celebrity, not only from 
 his own productions, but also from those of 
 his numerous disciples. He closed his long 
 career of professional excellence at the age of 
 seventy. JNIany of his paintings are described 
 by the abbe Titi, in his account of the works 
 of art in the churches and palaces of Rome. 
 — Orlandi Aheced. Pktor. 
 
 SACCHIM (Antonio Maria Gasparo) 
 a celebrated Italian composer, was born in 
 1735, at Naples, and studied under Durante, 
 at the conservatory of St Onofrio, in that ca- 
 pital, where he acquired great skill in the 
 practical as well as theoretical part of his pro- 
 fession, particularly in the management of tlie 
 violin. On leaving this excellent seminary he 
 goon raised himself into notice, and in l7(j'J 
 obtained an engagement as composer to the 
 
 S A ( 
 
 principal theatre in Rome. Ihis n-.u^r 
 filled about seven j.ar.s, wh.u he j.i t 
 
 to \ enice, and there •ucceeded Galuppi in the 
 Ruperinieniianceof iheconii. ' ofl/()»|M- 
 
 daletto. In thiA hchuol. V ^ deduatej 
 
 entirely to the ioktruttion of f.-malrg. he had 
 among Win pupils tin- afi.Tw,,rd« highly reje. 
 bral.d (jabn.lli. I'aMj-iali, and CaiiH. la 177J 
 he came to Knt^land, where he remained mue 
 years ; but a ca al b.-ing formed 3^:uun\. hun, 
 at the head of wlm h waH hiH (juondim frnii f 
 Rauzzini, he Huflered, though very und. m r- 
 vedly, both iq rejiutation and fortune, the for- 
 mer being especially affected for a time by a 
 report encouraged, if not circulat.-d, by "hit 
 enemies, that Rauzzini was the real anilior of 
 many of the pieces to which .'^at chini had B.-t 
 liis name. In 178 1- he (putted this country 
 finally for Pans, where he soon rose to the 
 hei-;ht of his fame, and received a pension 
 from the (pieen, but did not long enjf)y this 
 return of prosperity, d\ing in 1786. Of his 
 dramatic pieces, whi( h are upwards of eighty, 
 the principal are his oj)eras, " 'lameilane ;" 
 " The Cid ;" and " Evelina."— /j«r/u-i/'» IliU. 
 of ]\l,is. liioif. Diet, of Mas. 
 
 SACHKX KRKLL.DD.nfFNKY) a divine 
 of the establishment, exalted into temporary 
 importance by the conflicting spirit of j»artv, 
 w-as the son of a clergyman at Maribon.ugli. 
 The date of his birth is not recorded, but he 
 was chamber-fellow at .Alagdalen-college. Ox- 
 ford, with Addison, who addressed to him his 
 " Account of Kiiglisli P(,et>." He distin- 
 guished Idmself while at ihe university, by 
 some able Latin poetry, and became fellow of 
 his college, and ultimately obtained the degree 
 of DD.in 1708. In 1705 he was aj)pointed 
 preacher of St Saviour's, Southwark, and 
 while in this station, i)reac]-.ed his two famous 
 sermons, one at Derby, on August 14, 1709, 
 and the other at St Paul's, on the 9th of No- 
 vember following. The object of these, in 
 reality weak ami incendiary compositions, was 
 to rouse apprehensions for the safety of the 
 church, and to excite a rancorous hostility 
 against the dissenters. Being foolishly im- 
 peached in the house of Commons, he was 
 brought to trial on the '27ih of February, 
 1709-10, and after a h-aring of six days, sen- 
 tenced to be suspended from preaching for 
 three years. This prosecution however excited 
 such a si)irit in the high church parly, that 
 it ultimately overthrew the ininistrv, and to 
 complete the satire, established the fortune of 
 Dr Sacheverell, who, during )iis suspension, 
 made a sort of triumphal progress throii.,h 
 the kingdom, and was collated to a living near 
 Shrewsbury. The fame month that his sus- 
 pension terniinated, he was ajipointed to the 
 valuable rectory of St Andrt-w, ilolhom, by 
 queen Anne ; and such was his reputation, 
 that the copy-ri^ht of the first sermon which 
 he afterwards was allowed to preach, soKl for 
 100.'. He had also sufficient interest with the 
 new ministry to provide h.'xndsomely for a 
 brother ; and, to crown his g')0<l fortune, had a 
 considerable estate left him by a relation. 
 Little was heard of him after this party eoul- 
 
SAC 
 
 lition sibsided, except by his numerous 
 equabbles witb his parishioners. The abihties 
 of this turbulent divine, even according to 
 writers on his own side, were contemptible, 
 and, if we may credit Dr Swift, he was de- , 
 spised and hated by the very ministry whom 
 his accidental notoriety so much contributed to 
 support. IIediedinl7'Ji. — Chalmers's Biog. Die. 
 SACHS (John) one of the most celebrated 
 of the early German poets, termed Master- | 
 singers. (See Foi.cz, J.) John, in German 
 Hans Sachs, was the son of a tailor of Xuiem- 
 berg, where he was born November 5, 149-i. 
 He was sent to a Latin school at the age of | 
 seven, and in his fifteenth year apprenticed to j 
 a shoemaker. Two years after, he became 
 the pupil of Xunnenbeck, a weaver, who be- 
 loui^ed to the corporation of the .Mastersingers; 
 and having been instructed in the art of poe- 
 try, he set off on his travels in search of 
 op])ortiinities for improvement in tlie gentle 
 crafts of making verses and making shoes. 
 Such was his industry and success, that on 
 his return to Nuremberg in 1516, he was ad- 
 mitted a master-shoemaker ; and he obtained 
 }iii;h reputation as a poet. He studied inde- 
 fatigably the works of the ancient German 
 bards, and those of tlie great Italian writers, 
 especially I'etrarch and Boccaccio ; but, above 
 all, he devoted himself to the study of the 
 Bible, and the works of Luther, whose doc- 
 trines he embraced, and whose cause he ma- 
 terially as^isted by his compositions. His 
 death occurred January 19, 1578. A collec- 
 tive edition of his works appeared at Nurem- 
 berg, 1576 — 79, 5 vols, folio ; and they were 
 republished at Kempten, 1616, 5 vols. 4to. 
 Selections from the ])oems of Ilans Sachs have 
 been published by J. G. Busching, at Nurem- 
 berg, 1816 ; and by F. Furchau, at Leipsic, 
 1818. Goethe, in one of his legendary tales, 
 has professedly imitated this prince of the 
 Mastersingers. Many of his pieces are dra- 
 matic, and he is regarded as the inventor of 
 both tragedy and comedy among the Germans. 
 — Hetrniipect. Usv. Biog, Univ, 
 
 SACKVILLE (Thomas) lord Buckhurst 
 and earl of Dorset, an accomj)lished states- 
 man and poet, was the son of sir llichard 
 Sackville, of Buckliurst, in the parish of 
 AVitham, in Sussex, where he was born in 
 15'J7. He was lirst of the university of Ox- 
 ford, and as it is supposed of Hart-hall, now 
 Magdalen-hall ; but taking no degree there, 
 he removed to Caml)ridge, at which university 
 he graduated IMA. and afterwards became a 
 student of the Inner Temple. At both uni- 
 versities he was distinguished for his per- 
 formances in Latin and J'^nglish poetry, and 
 he carried the same taste and talents to the 
 Temj)le, where he wrote his tragedy of " Gor- 
 bodu;."' He was a lepresentative in parlia- 
 ment for Westmoreland, in the fourth and fifth 
 years of queen JNIary, and about the same 
 time laid tlie plan of a ])oem intended to com- 
 prehend a view of all the illustrious but un- 
 fortunate characters in English history, which 
 Le^ entitled the " Mirrour of Magistrates." 
 or this work he fiuished a poetical preface, 
 
 SA C 
 
 and one legend on the life of Henry StaflTorJ, 
 duke of Buckingham. In 1561 his tragedy 
 of Gorboduc was performed iu the Inner 
 Temple, and subsequently before queen FJiza- 
 beth at Whitehall. He was member in the 
 two first parliaments of the latter sovereign, 
 for Sussex, and for Bucks, after which he tra- 
 velled, and was, for some cause or other, in 
 prison at Rome, in 1566, where he received 
 an account of the death of his father, and 
 his succession to a large inheritance. 1 le soon 
 obtained his litjeration, and iu the following 
 year was knighted, and raised to the peerage 
 by the title of baron Buckhurst. He was em- 
 ployed by Elizabeth as the head of an em- 
 bassy to compliment Charles IX on his acces- 
 sion to the throne of France, but fell into dis- 
 grace, and was imprisoned, owing to the in- 
 liuence of the favourite, Leicester, in con- 
 sequence of his honest report in his disfavour, 
 when sent on an embassy of inipiiry into his 
 conduct iu Holland. On the death of Leices- 
 ter, he was released, made a knight of the 
 garter, and by royal influence chosen chan- 
 cellor of the university of Oxford. In 1598 
 he was joined with Burleigh in negociations 
 for peace with Spain, and signed the treaty 
 which followed with the States General. On 
 the death of that sagacious minister, he also 
 succeeded him as lord high treasurer. In this 
 situation he was instrumental in discoverinof 
 the daugerous projects of the earl of Essex, 
 at whose trial he presided as high steward, iu 
 which office he conducted himself with great 
 prudence and humanity. On the accession of 
 James I, his post of treasurer was confirmed 
 to him, and in 1604 he was created earl of 
 Dorset. He died suddenly, at the council- 
 table, in April, 16()8, at the age of eighty. 
 This nobleman ranks among the most prudent 
 and able, if not among the most eminent of 
 the ministers of Elizabeth, and was a good 
 speaker, and a still better writer. As a poet, he 
 may be deemed the first who approached to 
 ))erfection in the English heroic stanza, and 
 for having given the lirst example of regular 
 tragedy in blank verse. His tragedy of " Gor- 
 boduc," or, as entitled when ]>rinted in 1671, 
 " The Tragedie of Ferrex and Porrex," is a 
 sanguinary story from early British historv, 
 composed with Utile pathos or attention to 
 dramatic rules ■, b\it with considerable force of 
 l)oetical conception, aud moral sentiment. 
 Ihe language is also pure and persj)icuoiis, 
 and free from the turgidity which soon after 
 prevailed. This tragedy has been several 
 times pnnted, but as a drama has never been 
 very popular. Several of the letters of the 
 earl of Dorset are in the Cabala, and there 
 is also a Latin letter by him to Dr Bartholo- 
 mew Clarke, prefixed to that writer's transla- 
 tion from the Italian of the " Courtier" of 
 Castiglione, jjrinted in 1571. — CoUins's Peerm 
 age. ]Varti>ii's Hist, oj' Eng, Poetri/. 
 
 SACK\1LLE (Chaui.ks) sixth earl of 
 Dorset and Middlesex, descended in a direct 
 line from the preceding, was born January !2!4, 
 1637. He received his education under a 
 private tutor, and after making the tour of 
 
SAC 
 
 Italy, was chosen member for P'ast Grinstr d 
 in the first parliament wliicli asseinljled after 
 the Ke.sioiatu)!!. He iiiaiie u L;reat ligure aH a 
 speaker, but detlinecl all public employment. 
 beiii>; wholly eiiirrossed with ^aliamry umi 
 })leasure. He however served as a voluiiteir 
 ill tlie first Dutih war in I6<i."), and the niyht 
 before the engagement composed his cele- i 
 brated song of " J'o all you ladies now at 
 land," wliieli is esteemed one of liie happiest 
 of liis proiluctions. He succeeded to the ch- | 
 tate of his uncle, James Cianlield, earl of Mid- 
 dlesex, in 1(17 l-, and in Iti?.) to his title by 
 creation. In 1677, on the death of bis fa- | 
 ther, he also succeeded him in his estate an<l 
 the title of Dorset. He utterly disliked and 
 discountenanced the violent measures of 
 James II, and early engaged for the prince of 
 Orange, who made liim lord chamberlain of 
 the household. In Uii'8,on tlie decline of his 
 health, he retired from public allairs, and died 
 January 19, 1705-6, leaving a son and daugh- 
 ter, the tirst of whom was created duke of 
 Dorset in 17'J(). Lord Dorset wrote several 
 small {)oems, which are included in Chalmers's 
 collection, but ihey are not numerous enough 
 to make a volume of themselves. He was 
 still more celebrated as a patron of poets, and 
 of men of wit, who in their turn have been 
 very copious in their panegyric ; and Prior, 
 Dryden, Cougreve, and Addison, all bear tes- 
 timony to his merit. He was a very aide cri- 
 tic ; and Butler owed it to him that the court 
 relished his Hudibras. His own brief produc- 
 tions are those of a man of wit. gay, vigor- 
 ous, and airv. — I^ioiT' Brit. CoUifn's Feeruire. 
 SACKVILLE (Geoiige) viscount Sack- 
 ville, an English military officer and states- 
 man, who was the third son of tlie first duke 
 of Dorset, and was born in 1716. He was 
 educated at Westminster school and Trinity 
 college, Dublin, whither he removed while his 
 father was lortl lieutenant of Ireland. Enter- 
 ing into the army, lie served with reputation 
 at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen ; 
 and in 1758 he had attained the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general. The following year he com- 
 manded the British cavalry at the battle of 
 Minden, under prince Ferdinand of I 'runs- 
 wick, whose orders to advance with his troops 
 during the engagement he disobeyed, either 
 from cowardice or misajiprehension. His be- 
 haviour was generally attributed at home to 
 the former cause, and a violent outcry was 
 raised against him, in the midst of which lie 
 was tried by a court-martial, convicted of de 
 reliction of duty, and sentenced to be dis- 
 missed from the service, with peculiar marks 
 of the royal displeasure. Under the adminis 
 tration of lord Bute, he was restored to favour. 
 In 1775 he was appointed colonial secretary of 
 state, and he held that office during the pro- 
 gress of the disastrous war with America. On 
 relinquishing his post in 178'2, he was created 
 a viscount ; and he survived his elevation to 
 the peerage about three years, dying in 1785. 
 To this nobleman has been ascribed the com- 
 position of the " Letters of Junius." He was 
 •uspected of being th«ir author by sir William 
 
 SAD 
 
 Drap<r ; his tah-ntji appear to have been 
 etju il to the pr i of aui h a work, and 
 
 his poltical piii..,...n ltd bill) to the »ame 
 side of the (picHtioii as was e»puu»< d by Ju- 
 iiiuri. It in Maid, indeed, thai uu one occasion 
 bin lordship privately oh»<rved to a fri<iid of 
 hiM, " 1 hhould be prou.l to be tapald- of 
 writing as JuniuH has done ; but there are 
 many passages in bin l.-ttt-rs 1 should be tery 
 sorry to have written. ' I his declaration, 
 however, is not quite incon»ii»tenl with the 
 circumstance of his having been the author; 
 but the fact that lord G. Sackville in roundly 
 accused of want of courage by Junius is c«r- 
 tainly adverse to the imputation of authorship. 
 For a couhiderable |)art of bis life this n<jl-it - 
 man was called lord (j. Germaine, having tak'ii 
 that name on succeeding to an estate left him 
 by lady IJizabeth Gemiainc, the friend and 
 correspondent of Swift and I'ope, who died in 
 1769. — Wuoil/uU's y.dit. nj the Letters p/ J u- 
 nitts, Vref. Kurt'p. Mn/^. 
 
 SADE (Jamis FuANcts I'.m i, Ai.nioNso 
 de) the third son of the marquis de Sade, wa« 
 born in 1705. Having adopted the clerical 
 profession, he became vicar- general of tlie 
 archbishop of Toulouse, and afterwards of the 
 archbishop of Narbonne. The states of Lan- 
 guedoc having employed him on a mission to 
 the court, be resided several yrars at i'aris ; 
 and in 171-1 he was nominated abbot of 
 Kbreuil, in Auvergne. About 175y he re- 
 tired to Saumane, a league from "N'aucluse, 
 where lie devoted liimself entirely to study, 
 and wrote his " ^Nlemoires sur la \'ie de Pe- 
 trarque," 1761, o vols. Ito, on which his lite- 
 rary reputation depends. He died December 
 31, 1778. J5esides the preceding, he was 
 the author of " Ilemarques sur les premiers 
 Poetes Fran^ais et les i'roubadours." — Bii'g, 
 Utiiv. 
 
 SADE (DoxATiAN At.pmonso Francis, 
 count de) nephew of the preceding, was born 
 at Paris in 1740. He was educateil in ilie 
 college of Louis le Grand, and afterwards en- 
 tering into the army, he served during the 
 seven years' war in Germany. He returned, 
 in 1766, to Paris, and married the daughter 
 of a president of the court of Aids. His con- 
 duct became most disgracefullv dissipated, and 
 after having escaped by flight from justice, 
 and wandered for some time in Italy, he re- 
 turned to France, and was taken and con- 
 fined in the castle of \'iiicenne9. He was 
 afterwauls transfern- 1 to the Baslile, where 
 he remained at the devolution. Bein;j then 
 set free, he continued his infamous cart-er, (ill 
 at length his friends procured his conlinement 
 in the madhouse at Charenlon, where he died 
 December -2, 1811. This abandoned noble- 
 man wrote a number of licentioii:. novels, &c, 
 which disj)lay a sad perversion of extraordi- 
 nary talents. — /(/. 
 
 SADEKL (Antoine) a learned French 
 Humienot of tlie sixteentli century, chaplain 
 to Henri Quatre, whom he accorapatiied dur- 
 ing his %vars with the League. He was de- 
 scended of a nol)le family, born about the ye^^r 
 1531. Having early in life dedicated himsel 
 
S A D 
 
 SAD 
 
 to Xk inhiistry, he was thrown into prison on | Gladwin's Persian IMoonshee," 1801. 4to, &:c. 
 account of \ui> tenets, and was only liberated | — Biog. Univ. 
 
 at lenotli through the personal interference of I SADLER (John) an English law-writer 
 the royal patron, to whose service he after- ' in tlie seventeenth century, who was a native 
 wards attached himself. On tlie reconciliation of Shropshire. He was educated at EinanueJ 
 of Henri to the church of Rome, Sadeel re- j college, Cambridge, where he obtained a fel- 
 ured from Paris to Geneva, where he obtained lowship, and distinguished himself by his 
 the Hebrew professorship, and continued to knowK-dge of Oriental literature. He then 
 
 officiate as a Protestant pastor till his death in 
 1591. His theological writings were collected 
 
 entered as a student at Lincoln's-inn, and ia 
 1614 he became a master in chancery, as also 
 
 at his decease, and appeared in the course of: one of the two masters of retjuests. In l(')4-9 
 
 he was chosen town-clerk of the city of L 
 
 on- 
 
 tlie following year. — Freheri Iheulnun. 
 
 SADELER (.Ioiin) the first of a family of , don ; and the same year he published his 
 distinguished engravers, was born at Jirussels " Rights of the Kingdom, or Customs of our 
 in lojo. He applied early in life to drawing Ancestors." He was in great favour with 
 and engraving, and liaving executed some \ Oliver Cromwell, who offered him the chief- 
 masterly works, found a liberal patron in the justiceship of Munster, in Ireland, which he 
 elector of liavaria. He went afterwards to declined. In 1658 he was chosen MP. for 
 Rome and \enice, at which latter caj-ital he \ Yarmouth ; but soon after the Restoration he 
 died in 1600, leaving a son named John, by '"st all his employments, and liaving suffered 
 whom there are also some good prints. — Ra- from the destruction of property in the fire in 
 phaelSadeler, brother and pupil to John, was Eondon, in 1666, he retired to his estate at 
 born in 1555. He accompanied his brother to i Warmwell in Dorsetshire, where lie died in 
 Rome and Venice, and they worked in con- ' April, 1674, aged fifty-nine. Besides the 
 junction several collections of religious sub- ' work already noticed, lie wrote a political ro- 
 jects, amounting to more than five hundred mance, entitled " Olbia, or the new Island 
 prints, in two volumes, folio. — Giles Sade- j lately discovered, "4to. — Chalmers's Biog. Diet. 
 LEn, the nephew and pupil of the two last, Kncijc. Brit. 
 
 excelled them in correctness and taste, and ' SADLER (William Windham) an inge- 
 engraved " Vestigi dell' Antichita di Roma," "ious natural philosopher, wlio fell a victim to 
 
 which appeared in 1660, folio. — Strutt. 
 
 the practice of aerostation. On the 30th of 
 
 SADl, or SAADl, a celebrated Persian September, 1824, he ascended in a balloon 
 poet, who was a native of Shiraz. He studied from the neighbourhood of Blackburn in Lan- 
 at Bagdad, at a college founded by Nizam al cashire ; and in the descent the car was driven 
 INIoluk, and adopting a religious life under the against a chimney, and Mr Sadler was thrown 
 direction of the famous sopbi Abd al Kadir out, at the height of about forty yards from the 
 Ghilani, he accompanied him in a pilgrimage ground, when his skull was fractured, and he 
 to Mecca. He is said to have repeated that was otherwise injured so as to occasion hia 
 act of religion forty times, and to have always death. He tlius jierished in the twenty- 
 taken the journey on foot. The author of the eighth year of his age, after having made thirty 
 History of the Persian Poets states that Sadi aerial voyages, in one of wliich he crossed the 
 passed thirty years of his life in S'tudy, thirty Irish channel, ascending at Dublin and alight- 
 years in travelling, and thirty years more in ing on the Welsh coast. He possessed con- 
 retirement and devotion. He fulfilled the com- siderable talents as a chemist and an en opi- 
 nion duty of the i\Ioslems in combating the neer, in which capacities he was em})Ioyed 
 infidels, and carried arms in India and in Asia by the first gas comjiany established at Liver- 
 Minor. He was at length made a prisoner by j pool. He resided at that sea- port, where lie 
 the crusaders in Syria, and employed in dig- j iiad fitted up accommodations for the use of 
 ging the trenches at the siege of Tripoli. A j warm, medicated, and vapour baths ; and be- 
 rich merchant of Aleppo ransomed him, and ! fore he had time to reap the profits of this 
 gave him his daughter for a wife ; but, accord- ! useful institution, his life was terminated by 
 ing to the testimony of the poet, her behaviour , the terrible accident already noticed. — Biocr, 
 
 was such as to make him regret the slavery 
 from which he had been rescued. Towards 
 the close of his life, wliich is said to have ex- 
 tended beyond a century, he built a heruiitage 
 near the wails of Shiraz, where he passed his 
 time in exercises of piety. He died in l!^96, 
 and his tomb, on the spot where he had lived, 
 was long visited with dtvotion by the admirers 
 of his piety and his genius. His works con- 
 sist of •• Gulistan." or the Garden of Koses, 
 of which there is a French translation by An- 
 drew Duryer ; and Engli.-«h translations by 
 FrancisGladwin, London, 1808,2 vols.8vo, and 
 by .lanjps Duraoulin. Calcutta. 1807. 4io, both 
 printed with the original text ; " Bostan," or 
 the Garden of Fruits ; " Pend-nameh," pub- 
 li-^led. with an English version, in Mr F. 
 
 Koiiv. ties Cinitemp. Ann. linr, 
 
 SADLER or SAl)LIER°(sir Ralph) an 
 English dijilomatist, born at Hackney in Mid- 
 dlesex, in 1507. Early in life he obtained the 
 j)atronage of Cromwell, earl of Essex ; and 
 Henry VIII employed him in various political 
 affairs, gave hin. a seat at the council-board, 
 and made him secretary of state. He was 
 present at the battle of Musselburgh in Scot- 
 land, in 1547, when he was dubbed a knight 
 banneret, in reward of his services ; liavinor 
 been previously engaged in the negotiations 
 which were carried on between the English 
 and Scottish goveinments. In tlie reiyn of 
 queen Elizabeth lie was again sent ambassador 
 to Scotland ; and he resided for some time at 
 tlie court of queen Mary, who, when she took 
 
S A L) 
 
 refuge in Kugiund, was (oiiimitteiJ to Ua' cus- 
 tody of sir llalj)h SaJlt-r. His deatli took 
 plate ill l.)87. A collection of llie " Lt-tlera 
 and \c;^otiati()iis of Sir R. Sadler," was pub- 
 lished at Kdiiibiirj^h, in 17'J0, Hvo ; and in 
 1809 INlr Arthur Clitlbrd puhlished a more 
 complete collection of his diplomatic jiaperH, 
 &c. in 2 vols. Ito. — Fullfrs W'orlhies. Me- 
 moir .'/(/ .Sir ]\\tlU'r Scult, j>irfi.ii(l to the Letters. 
 SADOC, a famous Jewish doctor in the 
 third century V>(\ He was the di.s(i|tle of 
 Antigonus Sochieus, |)resiilent of the Sanhe- 
 drim, who, disgusted with the great stress laid 
 on the mere ceremonial law, and the doctrine 
 of works of supererogation, strenuously main- 
 tained that men ought to serve (jod on a i>ure 
 principle of piety, without h(jj)e of reward or 
 fear of punishment. Sadoc, with liaithosus, 
 another t)f the tlisciples of Socluvus, refining 
 upon this doctrine, were led to deny the re- 
 surrection, and hence the rise of the Jewish 
 sect of Sadducees, so named after Sadoc. He- 
 sides the denial of a resurrection, his followers 
 disclaimed the existence of angels or s|)irits, 
 as well as the doctrine of an irresistible fa- 
 tality. Their denial of a future state of re- 
 wards and punishments seems to have flowed 
 as a consequence from their belief in the ho- 
 mogeneous nature of man, which implies the 
 absence of any distinct principle like the soul. 
 — Joseplius. Eiijietd's Hist, of Pliil. 
 
 SADOLET (^Jami-.s) a learned Italian car- 
 dinal, bom at Modena in 1477. He was the 
 son of an eminent lawyer, ])rofessor of juris- 
 prudence at Fefrara, under whom he was 
 partly educated. Having acquired a know- 
 ledge of classical literature, rhetoric, and phi- 
 losophy, he went to Rome, and became secre- 
 laty to cardinal Oliver Caratt'a, who procured 
 him a canonry in the church of St Lawrence. 
 His talents and learning raised him to emi- 
 mence, and Leo X, on ascending the pajial 
 throne, nominated Sadolet one of his secreta- 
 ries. Tn 1517 he was made bishop of Car- 
 pentias. which dignity he ^ery unwillingly 
 accepted. Pooe Adrian VL ^vho had but 
 little taste for the belles Ipttres, neglected this 
 accomplished scholar, who retired to his dio- 
 cese, whence he was recalled, and restored to 
 his office by the succeeding pontiff, Clement 
 VIL His advice to the pope, not to enter 
 into the le:igue against the emperor Charles \', 
 being neglected, he obtained leave to retire to 
 his see ; and having quitted Rome only twt-ntv 
 days before the sack of that city by the troops 
 of the constable de Bourbon, his palace was 
 plundered, and his valuable library, which had 
 been put on board a vessel to be conveyed to 
 France, was lost. At Carj-.entras he emj)loyed 
 himself in ecclesiastical duties, and in various 
 exertions for the benefit of those under his 
 pastoral care. Paul 111 recalled him t« Home 
 iu 15o6, created him a member of the congre- 
 gation of reform, and gave him a cardinal's 
 hat. In 1542 he was sent legate to France 
 for the purpose of negotiating a pacification 
 Vtween Francis I and Cliailes V. Returning 
 'o Rome, he died October 18, 1547. The 
 ft-orks of Sadolet, besides theological treatises. 
 
 s A f; 
 
 couMfht of poems, diiicouriws, letters, ami mis 
 ctllatuoui* tract)*, all in Latin, mid diBtii*. 
 j,Mii«hfd for purity and clitMiual fl<-j^aiic<- <» 
 Btylw. liiH work.li were pnnlcd at X'erona, 
 •1 voIm. 4to. — Tiraboschi. Aihin'i Cen. liu^ 
 liioi^, Univ. 
 
 SAKMUND SHJFrssON. a ctrlchrat^i 
 
 Icelandic |iri«ht, legislator, lun'orian. ai.d jKj^t, 
 who ilourisb'-d in the elevemh and twclt'ih 
 centuries. He appears to have b«'«-n born 
 about the yi-ar 1045, and to liavc PstaMihhed 
 a seminary at Odd.i. which enjoyed consider- 
 able reputation. Tiie collection of Scandina- 
 vian poetry, known und<-r the name of " The 
 Kdda," of which an edition a|>peared at Co- 
 J)enhagen in 1787, was ccjnipiieii by him ; as 
 was also a code of laws for the government 
 of the Icelandic church, and a " lli!*torv of 
 Norway." His dratli took place in 11.5). — 
 Analytical llev. vol. ii. 
 
 SAG L ( Hai.tii A/All Gtonf;K> an eminent 
 natural philosopher, the founder of the scif-nc'^ 
 of mineralogy in France. He was born at 
 Paris in 1740, and after a domestic education, 
 he completed his studies at the .Mazarin col- 
 lege. Chemistry and mineralogy became the 
 favourite ol>jects of his reseaiches ; and at the 
 age of twenty he opened a gratuitous cour.se of 
 lectures on those topics. Louis X\ I bestowed 
 on him a small pension ; and he succeeded 
 Rouelle as a memlier of the Academy of 
 Sciences. To his intluence and recommenda- 
 tion was owing the establishment of the Ruval 
 School of IMiues in 17 Uo ; and it was placed 
 under the direction of M. Sage, who jusiitied 
 the confidence of his sovereign by his laborioim 
 and successful exertions for the promotion of 
 scientific improvements. The Revolution iu- 
 teirupted his useful labours ; but under Na|>o- 
 leon he was enabled to resume and extend 
 them. I\I. Sage, who was a kni:4ht of the 
 order of St IMichael, administrator of the mint, 
 and a member of the Institute, died at Paris, 
 September 9, 1824. He made some impor- 
 tant discoveries, and published a Catalogue of 
 a Cabinet of Minerals, as well as nianv Dis- 
 sertatior^ in the Mmnoir.'j of tlie Academy of 
 Sciences. His disciple, Dr Dcmesle, also de- 
 veloped some ingenious speculations, whicJi 
 he had advanced relative to the theory of 
 chemistry, in a work entitled " Lettres a 
 Docteur Bernard sur laChimie et la PhvsKjue 
 en general," Paris, 1779. 2 vols. l2mo. .Among 
 tl:c later v.orks of .M. Sage are, •• Theorie de 
 rOrigine des .Monta;;nes," 1809, Bvo ; " Ob- 
 servations surrFmploidu Zinc," 8vo ; " Kx 
 periences sur les Nioitiers," bvo ; " Institu- 
 tions de Physique," 1811. ovols. 8voi "Sup- 
 plement," 1812. Bvo; " Opus<ules de Phy- 
 sique," 1813, Bvo; and "Tableau comj»ar^ 
 de la Conduite qu'ont tenue envers moi les 
 .Ministres de I'ancien Regime avec celle des 
 INIinistres du nouveau Regime," 1814, Bvo. — 
 Bios;. \i>in. dt's Coitteiiip. F.iiit, 
 
 S.\G K (John) bishop of Kdinburgh. an 
 able and enlightened Scottish prelate, distin- 
 guished as an eloipient defender of episcopac? 
 in that kingdom. He was a native of Kiie- 
 shire, born 1652, and received a hberal eiutu- 
 
S A I 
 
 lion in the iinirersity of St Andrew's. From 
 Glasgow, where he had for several years offi- 
 ciated, he removed, on the estahlishment of 
 presbyterianism, to Edinburgh, of which ca- 
 pital he was made the diocesan in 1705, but 
 survived his elevation little more than five 
 \ears. His principal theological writings are, 
 tract entitled " The Principles of the Cypri- 
 *ic Age," in which he warmly advocates the 
 episcopal form of church government, as well 
 as in a vindication which he subsequently 
 published of the original treatise ; and " The 
 Charter of Presbytery." He was also the 
 author of an Introduction to Drummond's 
 History of Scotland during the Reigns of the 
 first five Jameses, and a biographical memoir 
 of Dou'jias, bishop of Dunkeld. — Enciic Brit. 
 SAGITIAKILS (Gaspahd) a learned 
 German historian and divine, who flourished 
 during tlie latter part of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Luuenberg, born 
 1643, and became historiograplier to the duke 
 of Saxony, with the liistorical professorship in 
 the university of Halle. As a tlieologian he 
 distinguished himself by several able treatises 
 in favour of the reformed church, and by his 
 " Dissertation on Oracles :" while as an anti- 
 quary and liisiorian he is advantageously 
 known by his " Antiquities of Thuringia ;" 
 " The Ancient History of Norway ;" " 'I'he 
 History of Lubec ;" " The History of Harde- 
 wyck ;" "The Genealogy of the Dukes of 
 Brunswick ;" " The Succession of the Princes 
 of Orange ;" a " Life of St Norbert ;" and a 
 treatise " On the most Beneficial Method of 
 Reading History." His death took place at 
 Halle in 1694. — Xiceron. Mm-pri. 
 
 ST ANDRE (Nathaniel) a native of 
 Switzerland, who came to England in a menial 
 situation early in life, and tlirough the kind- 
 ness of friends was educated for the profession 
 of surgery. Having entered on business in 
 the metroj)olis, he made his way to eminence 
 rather by industry and assurance, than by his 
 professional abilities. He became a favourite 
 with king George I, and was appointed surgeon 
 to the royal household ; and he held that of- 
 fice in 17t.^6,when the ridiculous case occurred 
 of the rabbit-woman of Godalming, of whom 
 St Andre was either the accomplice or the 
 dupe, most probably the latter. The impostor 
 in question, iNIary Tofts, pretetided to have 
 given birth to a number of rabbits. She was 
 attended by John Howard, a surgeon of Guil- 
 ford, who introduced his patient to the notice 
 of St Andr6 ; and under the sanction of these 
 two professional men, tlie case was laid before 
 the puldic, and was productive of general con- 
 •ternation. A number of pam])hlet9, ballads. 
 »nd caricatures were publislied on the subject ; 
 »nd the atl'air ended in the exposure of this 
 gross delusion, and the disgrace of those who 
 uad contributed to support it, especially of St 
 Andr^. Throui;!) tliis tran.-action he lost the 
 iing's favour, and was no longer received at 
 court, though his practice still continued to be 
 try extensive. In IToO lie added largely to 
 bis income by his marriage with lady I?etty 
 Molyneux, a richly-jointured widow, whom, 
 
 S A I 
 
 however, he long survived ; and at his death, 
 in March 1776, he left but a small portion of 
 wealth behind hiin. Besides tracts on the 
 case of M. Tofts, he wrote a pamphlet against 
 Dr IMead. — Nichols's Aiiecd. of Hogarth 
 llutcJiinson's Biog. Med. 
 
 ST ANDRE (Jean Bon). See Jean 
 Bon St Andre. 
 
 ST ANGE (Ange Fran9ois Fariau de) 
 a French poet, born at Blois, October 13, 
 1747. He studied among tlie Jesuits, and 
 afterwards at the college of St Barbe at Paris. 
 When the king of Denmark was in that me- 
 trofiolis in 1768, St Ange attracted some 
 notice by a congratulatory ode, which he pre- 
 sented to that prince. Turgot, the financier, 
 became his patron, and procured him a pen- 
 sion ; and the poet manifested his gratitude, 
 by dedicating to the manes of his benefactor a 
 translation of Ovid's ^letamorphoses. The 
 Revolution deprived him of his income, and 
 reduced him to want ; but after the 9th of 
 Thermidor 1794, he obtained a civil employ- 
 ment, which he exchanged at length for the 
 professorship of grammar, and afterwards of 
 belles lettres, in one of the central schools. His 
 health was injured by his attention to the du- 
 ties of his station, which he resigned, and was 
 allowed to retain his salary. In September 
 1810 he was admitted a member of the Insti- 
 tute ; but he enjoyed that honour but a short 
 time, dying December 8th, the same year. 
 Besides his principal work, the translation of 
 the " Metamorphoses," he also produced ver- 
 sions of tlie " Fasti;" " The Art of Love ;" 
 " The Remedy of Love ;" and of some of the 
 Elegies and the Heroic Epistles of Ovid ; and 
 he published " The School for Fathers," a 
 comedy ; a volume of " Fugitive Poetry," and 
 other works. — Bios- Uuiv. 
 
 ST BEUVE (Jacques de) a celebrated 
 theological casuist, born at Paris in 1613. 
 Having studied at the Sorbonne, he was ad- 
 mitted doctor in 1638 ; and in 1643 he be- 
 came royal professor of theology in that col- 
 lege, having previously attained great emi- 
 nence as a preacher. He entered into the dis- 
 putes relative to the doctrines of grace and 
 jiredestination, which agitated the French 
 church in the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; and on his refusal to subscribe to the 
 censure of Dr Arnauld, he was dismissed from 
 his professorship in 1658. He afterwards 
 signed the required formulary, and was ap- 
 pointed theologian to the clergy of France, 
 with a pension. He then opened a sort 
 of cabinet of consultations at Paris ; and as a 
 casuist he obtained great eminence, and was 
 applied to from all quarters of the kingiiom, 
 on the part of bishops, chapters, religious 
 communities, magistrates, persons ef rank, 
 and even princes. He died of apoplexy, De- 
 cember 15, 1677. Of liis numerous consul- 
 tations nothing appeared during his life ; but 
 his brother published a collection of his deci- 
 sions at Paris, 1689-1704, 3 vols. 4to ; and 
 there are many subsecpient editions. He was 
 llie author of two tracts " De Confirniatione 
 et de Extrema Uuctione," Geneva, 1669, 4to 
 
S A 1 
 
 Many of his works remain in manuBcript, in 
 ili<* lif)rary of tlio Sorhonnc, \vlii(li display |)r(i- 
 foutiti critical juJginei. I iiiul cxti'ii.sivf ieariiiiig. 
 "--/{/(»"■. Univ. Mdieri. A thin. 
 
 ST CROIX (Gi'it.t-AUMK Kmanukl Jo- 
 iKPH Gi'ii.iiFM DI-. ('i.F.ioioNT LooivK, bart)n 
 if) was bom at Mornioiroii, tit'ar ('ar|i<'iiira«, 
 Di the south of France, in 1716. H«' stuiiieii 
 at a i-olleijt^ of the jc^tiits at (ireiiohlc ; atai 
 afterwarils enttriny into tlif army, lit' went 
 witlj his uncle, the chevalier tie St Croix, to 
 the West Imlifs, where tlie latter had hei-n 
 appointed coinniander of the French troops in 
 the Windward islands, lie returned home 
 in 1762, witli the rank of cajtiain of grena- 
 diers, and for several years he devotetl the 
 leisure of a military life to literary stutiies. 
 The first fruit of his researches was " Examen 
 criticjue dcs Ilistoriens d'Alexaiulre," for 
 whicli he obtained a prize from the Academy 
 of Inscriptions, ii\ 1772 ; and in 177r) and 
 1777 two more of his essays were similarly re- 
 warded. He was elected an associate of the 
 Academy ; and at a subsetpient perit)d he be- 
 came a member of the Institute, in the class 
 of history and ancient literature. During the 
 Revolution he suffered greatly in his pro- 
 perty ; and in 1792 he was imprisoned, but 
 he made his escape, and survived the restora- 
 tion of order, tiying March 11, 1809. Besides 
 a great number of academical memoirs, he 
 pubiislied " L'Ezour-Vedam, ou ancien Com- 
 mentaire du Vedam," with Notes, Observa- 
 tions, &c. Yverdun, 1778, 2 vols. 12mo ; 
 " H-istoire des Progres de la Puissance Navale 
 d'Angleterre," 171^2, 2 vols. 12mo ; and 
 " Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Re- 
 ligion secrete des anciens Peuples, ou l\c- 
 cherches Historitjues sur les ^lysteres du I'a- 
 ganisme," 1784, 8vo, of which an enlarged 
 edition appeared in 1817, 2 vole. Bvo. The 
 baron de St Croix is chiefly known as the 
 author of the " Critical Examination of the 
 Historians of Alexander the Great," of which 
 he published an enlarged edition in 1801, 4to. 
 There is an P^nglish translation of this work 
 by sir R. Clayton. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ST EVREMOND (Charles de MARtiUE- 
 TEL DE St Denis, seigneur de) a French man 
 of letters, of great temporary celebrity, was 
 born of a noble family of Constance in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1613. He studied the law at 
 Paris, but quitted it in order to enter the 
 army, and served under the prince of Cont3e 
 at Friburg and Nordlingen ; but lost his com- 
 mission in consequence of having exercised his 
 talent for satire, at the expense of the j)rince. 
 He was favoured by the friendship of the mi- 
 nister, Foucquet ; but his propensity to sar- 
 casm involved liim with cardinal iMazarin, and 
 cost him three months' imprisonment in the 
 Bastille. In the war of the Fronde lie em- 
 braced the side of the court, and obtained pro- 
 motion and a pension ; but in consequence 
 of a letter addressed to M. Crequi, censuring 
 the peace of the Pyrenees, he became once 
 more embroiled with the ministry, and to <?s- 
 cape the Bastille, repaired to England. He was 
 well received at the gay court of Charles II, 
 
 S A I 
 
 and nil ■(jliritationii for Ui» recal proving frui^ 
 l< HH, lie passetl thf re^t of his life in thi* 
 country, in an «Mi»y Epicurean Btvlf of fiii»t- 
 enci-, wliich w:ii4 luiitii promoted bv ihi- na- 
 turul vivnciiy of lim t* niperanienl mid f:;nd- 
 ru-Hs for the fompanv <»f y \\« 
 
 waH hutnanc and •^•miitouk, ;,: i. by no 
 
 means a ri^id moralist, he wait ff^ardfd iiii a 
 man of lionour. lie died in l7<i;J, at i' 
 of eighty, and was inii-rrt'd in \\ eitu.. . u r 
 aiibey, where a monument is frectfU to hi« 
 memory. Ills works, whith cormint of essavM, 
 letters, poems, and ilramatic pieces, have U'en 
 printed in 4 vols, and 7 vols. 12mo. 17().i, 
 Iht-y were much read, when firBt [niMihlied, 
 in consecjuence of having been handed about in 
 MS, among persons of fashion, during the life 
 of the author. St Evremond is a lively but 
 insipid writer, althou-^h not dt-stifule of »en»« 
 and jienetraiion. 1 Ihtc is an Ijiglisli trans- 
 lation of his works by Dcs Maizeaux. — -Vi>- 
 nri. Nonr. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ST FAKGEAU ( Loiis IMkiifl Lfpri.- 
 LETiER de) a French statesman, descended 
 from ancestors tlistinguished in the magis- 
 tracy, who was born at Paris in 17t)0. H© 
 became successively advocate-general and pre- 
 sident a mortier of the jiarliament of Paris ; 
 and being a deputy to the states-general, he 
 voted with the majority of his order ; and 
 when Louis XVI enjoined the nobility to unite 
 with the Tiers Etat, St Fargcau refused to 
 obey him, he and the count de .Mirejxiix alone 
 remaining in the chamber of the nobility. Af- 
 terwards, becoming connected with the duke 
 of Orleans, he changed his principles, and 
 employeil his influence in forwauhng the Re- 
 volution ; yet in his behaviour and language 
 he displayed more moderation than most of his 
 associates. Being appointed to present to the 
 Assembly a report on the penal code from the 
 Committee of Criminal Jurisprudence, he pro- 
 posed that capital punishment should be com- 
 muted for twenty-four years' confinement in 
 irons. He sat in the Convention as a deputy 
 from the department of the Yonne, and voted 
 for the death of Louis X\T, which proceeding 
 occasioned his own destruction. On the 20tb 
 of January, 1793, the day before the king was 
 executed, Lepelletiei de St Fargeau was assas- 
 sinated at a tavern in the Palais Royal, by a 
 man named Paris, who had belonged to the 
 royal guard ; and whose avowed motive was the 
 determination to avenge the fate of his sore- 
 reign, by the sacrifice of some member of the 
 Convention who had voted for his death. The 
 corpse was pompously interred in the Pan- 
 theon, now the church of St Genevieve ; and 
 ; the nation adopted the daughter of their mur- 
 dered representative. Robespierre read from 
 I the tribune of the Convention a discourse 
 wliich he had left on national education. — 
 I Diet, det U. 3/. du \^nie. \ Diet. Hist. 
 
 ST FOIX (Germain Francois Poim.laim 
 de) a French dramatist and miscellaneous 
 writer, who was desctndeii of a noble family at 
 Reniies in Britanny. He was born in 1698. 
 and having studied amoi^g the Jesuits, he 
 adopted the profession of anns, and entered 
 
S A I 
 
 into tlie corps of rnousquetaires, whence he was ' 
 dischaf^ed on obtaining;- a lieutenant's com- , 
 mission in a regiment of cavalry. He culti- j 
 rated literature at his leisure ; and wliile a 
 youth he produced two or tliree light dramatic 
 pieces. He went to Italy with marshal Bro- 
 glio, and distinguished himself by his courage 
 at the battle of Guastalla (l7o4-) ; but not 
 being able to obtain promotion, he left the 
 army, and purchased the office of master of 
 waters and forests. In 1740 he settled at 
 Paris, %vhere he acquired notoriety by tlie 
 numerous duels which he fought, and the mul- 
 titude of plays which he wrote. Among the 
 best of these are, " Le Sylphe," 1743 ; " Les 
 Graces," 1744; and" L'Oracle," which last is 
 the only one that has kept possession of the 
 statue. St Foi.x also was the author of " Let- 
 tres 'I'urques ;" " Histoire de I'Ordre du Saint 
 Esprit ;" and ** T^ttre an Sujct de I'Homme 
 au Masque de Fer ;" but his principal work, 
 is entitled " Essais Historiques sur Paris," 
 first published in five parts, duodecimo, Paris, 
 1754, of wliich there is an English transla- 
 tion. He died at l^aris, August S?5, 1776. — 
 His nephew, Augustus de St Foix, pub- 
 lished " Nouveanx Essais sur Paris," 1805, 
 2 vols. 8vo ; and there is an earlier work ex- 
 tant with the same title. — Diet. Hist. Biog. 
 
 Univ. 
 
 ST GERMAIN (Claude Louis, count de) 
 minister at war under Louis XVI, was born of 
 a noble but indigent family, in 1707, near 
 Lons-le-Saulnier in Franche Compte. He 
 entered young among the Jesuits, but left their 
 society for the army, and served with distinc- 
 tion in Hungary, in the war of 1737, against 
 the Turks. When hostilities took place be- 
 tween the French and Austrians, he left the 
 imperial service for that of the elector of Ba- 
 varia. He afterwards returned to France, and 
 served in Flanders in 1746, 1747, and 1748, 
 in which last year he was made a lieutenant- 
 general. He displayed his talents to advan- 
 tage in the war with the king of Prussia, at 
 the battle of Ilosi)ack in 1757, when he saved 
 the remains of the French army, and pro- 
 tected the retreat. He also distinguished him- 
 self on other occasions ; but having quarrelled 
 with the duke de Broglio, he left the French 
 service, and went to Denmark, where lie was 
 placed at the head of the army, made a field- 
 marshal and knight of the order of the ele- 
 phant. The death of count Struensee, and the 
 changes in the Danish government, which 
 took place in 1772, imhiced St Germain to re- 
 tire to an estate near Lauterbach, in Alsace, 
 where he devoted his time to the cultivation 
 of his garden and the study of botany. The 
 failure of a banker at llamburi;h, to whom he 
 had entrusted his property, would have reduced 
 him to poverty, but for the kindness of his 
 friends. At length, on the death of marshal 
 dn Muy, he was invited to become war- minis- 
 ter to Louis XVI; and in October 1775 he 
 made his appearance at court. After executing 
 several advantageous plans of reform in the 
 dej)artment over whic'a he presided, he found 
 BO much obstruction to his proceedings after 
 
 S A 1 
 
 the retreat of his colleagues, Turgot and Ma- 
 leslierbes, that he thought proper to resign his 
 office in September 1777. His death took 
 place January 15, 1778. There is extant a 
 volume of memoirs under his name, printed at 
 Amsterdam, 1779, Bvo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ST GFJIMAIN (count de) an adventurer, 
 whose real name and family have never been 
 satisfactorily ascertained. IMarshal Belle- 
 Isle, becoming acquainted with him in Ger- 
 many, took him to France, where he succeeded 
 in obtainincf the confidence of madame de 
 Pompadour, who presented him to the king, 
 Louis XV. He professed to be acquainted 
 with the secret of immortality ; and was ac- 
 customed to talk familiarly of his intercourse 
 with the emperor Charles V, Francis I, and 
 their contemporaries. He appeared also to 
 possess immense wealth, often making an os- 
 tentatious display of valuable jewels. After 
 having long interested and amused the Pari- 
 sians, he retired to Hamburgh, and subse- 
 quently resided with the prince of Hesse 
 Cassel. He died in obscurity at Sleswirk, in 
 1784. He is said to have been the son of a 
 Portuguese Jew ; and ic is most probable that 
 he was employed as a spy by different minis- 
 ters, which occupation was the source of t!iat 
 wealth whence he derived much of his import- 
 ance in the public estimation. — (Euvres inedites 
 de Grnsleu, torn. iii. Ri"^. Univ. 
 
 S A I NT G i: Tl M AN or S El NTG E R M A N 
 (Chuistopueu) an English barrister and 
 writer on jurisprudence, who was the son of 
 sir Henry St German, and was a native of 
 Sliilton, in Warwickshire. He was educated 
 at Oxfo-d, whence he removed to the Inner 
 Temple ; and being called to the bar, he be- 
 came eminent for his knowledge of the laws of 
 his country. He died in London in 1540. St 
 German was the author of a very valuable 
 work, entitled " The Doctor and Student, or 
 Dialogues between a Doctor of Divinity and a 
 Student in the Laws of England, concerning 
 the Grounds of those Laws," first published in 
 Latin in 15-'3, and subsecjuently in an English 
 translaticm, of which there have been many edi- 
 tions. One of the latest is that of 1787, Bvo, 
 with questions and cast, s concerning the equity 
 of the law, corrected and improved by U'il- 
 liam Machall. Several other tracts are as- 
 cribed to this writer, who engaged in a con- 
 troversy with sir Thomas More, relative to 
 ecclesiastical jurisrliction. — Berkenhout'i Biog. 
 Lit. Bridgmtni's Le<f. Bibl. 
 
 ST HUBKRTI (Antoixi-tte Cecilf, Ci.a- 
 VEI-, commonly called madame) a celebratei^ 
 French opera-singer and actress, born at Toul, 
 about 1756. After having travelled in Ger- 
 many, Poland, and Prussia, slie returned to 
 France, with the chevalier de Croisy, to whom 
 she is saiil to have been married. After actingf 
 three years at Strasburgh, she made her debut 
 at the opera at Paris in 1777. At first she 
 attracted little notice ; but on the retreat of 
 Sophia Arnouldandde la Beaumesnil, she be- 
 came distinguished as the first operatic actress 
 on the French stage. After having long en- 
 joyed high leputaiion for her talent*, she 
 
S A I 
 
 quitted France in April 171'(), to join the count 
 D'Entraii;ues, at Laufanno, where they vere 
 married in December tliac year, tliough tLe 
 union was not acknowledged till some years 
 after. She was assassinated, t()i;eth;*r with 
 lier hushaiid, in 181'J. — (See art. Dklaunkv.) 
 — The motive of this oulrai;e, which waa per- 
 petrated hy the count's footman, is said (o have 
 been the apprehenpion tlio man was under of 
 the discovery of his having been corrupted by 
 agents of liuonaparte, to whom he had be- 
 trayed his master's correspondence with the 
 English ministry. — fiii^g' i'niv. 
 
 ST JOFiN (Henry) viscount Bolingbroke, 
 a nobleman of great celebrity, both in the |)0- 
 litical ami literary world, was the son of sir 
 Henry St .John, of the ancient family of that 
 name. He was born at Battersea, in Surrey, 
 in 1672, and his early education seems to have 
 been j)rincipally directed by his grandfather 
 aud grandmother. I'he latter being a rigid 
 presbyterian, he seems to have imbibed a dis- 
 gust at the comparative austerity of this sect, 
 which never afterwards forsook liim. At a 
 proper age he was sent to Eton, and thence 
 transferred to Christchurcli college, Oxford, 
 and at both places gave indications of extra- 
 ordinary talent. He appeared in the world 
 with all the advantages of a fine person and 
 fascinating address, and for some years ran a 
 career of pleasure and gaiety, not however 
 unmixed with study, and an attention to let- 
 ters. With a view to reclaim him from a 
 course of extravagance and licentiousness, his 
 parents united him, in liis twenty-second year, 
 to the dauglner and co-heiress of sir Henry 
 Winchcombe, and he soon afterward entered 
 parliament for Wotton Basset, a borough be- 
 longing to his family. He joined ilie Tories, 
 and in particular attached himself to Harley 
 (afterwards earl of Oxford). His abilities 
 appeared so conspicuous, that in 170-i he was 
 made secretary at war, which office he re- 
 tained until 1707, when Harley resigned the 
 seals. Upon the restoration of the latter 
 minister to power in 1710, Mr St John was 
 appointed secretary of state, and had the 
 principal sliare in negotiating and defending 
 the treaty of Utrecht. His services were re- 
 warded in 17 r2 with the title of baron St John 
 and viscount Bolingbroke, with which honour, 
 expecting a higher rank, he expressed himself 
 strongly dissati.-fied. Conscious of possessing 
 superior abilities, lie became weary of acting 
 under Harley, and the greatest animosity grew 
 up between them. On the accession of 
 George I, the seals were taken from him, and 
 his papers secured ; on which, conceiving 
 these measures were preparatory to an im- 
 peachment, he withdrew to France, and after 
 a while accepted the seals of secretary of 
 state from the pretender. As he liad no here- 
 ditary prejudices in favour of the Stuirts, and 
 had even promoted the accession of the house 
 of Hanover, he seems to have been solely 
 guided in his conduct by resentment. A bill 
 of attainder against him soon ff)ll()wed ; and 
 he otherwise found occasion to repent his new 
 engagement, as nothing could be worse planned 
 
 S A I 
 
 than the attempt of 17 1 » in favour of the ex. 
 lied family, and hit« guod ^eu^e and cducati .>q 
 '«d hiru to be eijualiy Hnhatui-d of tiiu |)«T»onal 
 (juahijes of boili Iih nominal iMjv«rei|;ii and 
 his tu'W ai«Hociale«. The retuni of ilie pre- 
 tender from Sc(itlitn<l was f<illowrd by the du- 
 charge of B()hngbr<»ke from bin |M>*t of n-cr«?- 
 tury, and iliat by articleH of impeacbm»-ut, 
 HO that he had the hin-nlar fur«iitie to 
 hohl the safue office on b(Hh hides, and I > lo»o 
 it with marks of displeasure from each. While 
 in France he wrote his " ll.flrxionii oa 
 ilxile ;" anil also vindicated hims.-lf from the 
 charges brought against liim by the pre- 
 tender's adherents. He likewise dr«*w up a 
 " Letter to Sir William Wyn.iiiam." in which 
 he defended his whole conduct with icspecttp 
 the Tory party, and gave so striking a picture 
 of the bigotry of the jiretender. and the ab- 
 surdity of those around him, as must have 
 done much to estrange the more reflective 
 Tories from his cause. Having become a 
 widower, he took for his second wife the mar- 
 chioness de Villette, niece to niadame Main- 
 tenon, a lady of great sense and merit. lu 
 1723 he obtained a full pardon, and returned 
 to England, and t'.vo years afterwards an act 
 of parliament restored to him his family in- 
 heritance. He then jiurchased an estate at 
 Dawley, near Uxbridge, and lived in retire- 
 ment ; but being offended with the minister 
 Walpole, to whom he attributed his inability 
 to procure a restoration to his seat in the house 
 of Lords, he commenced an active opposition 
 as a writer. In various papers in the Crafts- 
 man, as well as in separate pamphlets, he 
 attacked the ministry with great boldness and 
 vigour for a period of ten years, until disagree- 
 ing with Pulteney and others in 17:55, he aj^ain 
 withdrew to France, and gave himself up to 
 literature. His " Letters on the Study of 
 History," and " Letter on the true Use of Re- 
 tirement," with other productions of a j)hilo- 
 sophic and speculative kind, were the fruits of 
 this resolution. His father, who had been 
 created viscount St John during- the exile of 
 his son, dying in 174'J, the latter once more 
 returned to England, and passed the remain- 
 der of his life m dignified retirement, at the 
 family mansion at Battersea. 11 e last work 
 published during his life was, " Letters on the 
 Sj)irit of Patriotism, and Idea of a Patriot 
 King," 1749, the preface to which expresses 
 great indignation at the conduct of I'ope, then 
 deceased, who had j>rivately caused it to be 
 jirinted unknown to the author. He died at 
 Batter.«ea, in 17.'il, 3t the age of seventy-nine. 
 By his will he left all his MSS. to David .'Mal- 
 let, who, in 17.^:5 and 17.S4, i>nbiished " Ihe 
 Works of the late Bight Hon. Henry St John, 
 \'iscount Bolingbroke," 3 vols. 4to. (.)f these, 
 besides the pieces already mentioned, a con- 
 siderable part was occupied by letters, or 
 " Essavs written to A. I'ope, Esq. on Behgion 
 and IMulosophy," in which the writer declares 
 himself the avowed opponent of revelation. 
 These essays and letteis produced a conside- 
 rable sensation at the moment of publication, 
 but in the sequel secured less attention tha." 
 
S A 1 
 
 was expected eitlier by the opposers or parti- 
 tans of similar opinions. Of the character of 
 lord Bolingbroke as a poHtician, sufficient is 
 elucidated by the events of his life. He was 
 vider.tly an ambitious man, wlio could ill 
 » ook a superior, and was little scrupulous, 
 either in the pursuit of power, or the gratifi- 
 cation of resentment. As a conspicuous figure 
 in the literary annals of his time he demands 
 more consideration, it being agreed that for 
 elegance, persjiicuity, and strength, few of 
 our prose writers have equalled him. In the 
 correspondence of Pope and Swift he is hap- 
 pily distinguished among a constellation of 
 wits, by his polished freedom and tone of good 
 company, and in the estimation of lord Chester- 
 field his eloquence was of the highest order, 
 iiis political writings being on temporary mat- 
 ters, have lost their interest ; but his letters 
 on Patriotism and History, which are of more 
 general imjiort, are deemed more superticial 
 and declamatory than solid or profound. As 
 a pliilosopliica! moralist his sentiments are dis- 
 played with great brilliancy by Pope, in his 
 " Essay on ]\lan," the plan of which celebrated 
 poem was avowedly supplied by him. On 
 the whole this eminent nobleman may be re- 
 garded as a man of high attainments and lofty 
 powers, not always directed with corres- 
 jiondent utility, and otherwise rendered sub- 
 servient to party and personal feelings, in a 
 manner which demands and has ensured but 
 little respect from posterity. — liiog. Brit. 
 SiiilVs Works. Iceland's Deist. Writers. 
 
 ST .fOHN (John) a writer on statistics, 
 who was the youngest son of John, lord St 
 John, of Battersea, and nephew of the cele- 
 brated lord Bolingbroke. lie had a seat in 
 the house of Commons during three succes- 
 sive parliaments ; and for several years he held 
 ilie office of surveyor-general of the crown 
 '.anils. His death took })lace November 8, 
 1793, in the forty-eighth year of his age. He 
 was the author of a valuable work, entitled 
 '• Observations on the Land Revenue of the 
 Crown, containine the Orisfin and Sources of 
 the Land Revenue of England," 1787, 4to, 
 republished in octavo in 1790 and 1792. — 
 Henuy St John, brother of the preceding, 
 became a lieutenant-general in the army. He 
 wrote a tragedy, entitled " Mary, Queen of 
 Scots," acted at Drury-lane theatre in 1788, 
 and afterwards published ; and " 1 he Lsle of 
 St Marguerite," a musical drama. — JVatl's 
 Jill). Brit. Biotr. Dram. 
 
 ST JUST (Anthony) a political agent and 
 writer of considerable talents, wlio was asso- 
 ciated in the crimes and punishment of Robes- 
 ])ierre. He was born in ]7t)8, and was edu- 
 cated for the legal profession. At the com- 
 mencement of the lu'voluiion, he eagerly 
 entered into the measures of the enemies of 
 monarchical government ; and being chosen a 
 deputy to the Convention from the depart- 
 ment of the Aisne, he voted for the death of 
 T^uis XVI. He assisted materially in the 
 destructitm of the (Jirondists, and he wasBub- 
 sequently sent, as a commissioner of the Na- 
 tional Convention, to the arniy in Alsace, 
 
 S AI 
 
 op])Osed to the Austrians, when, in conjunction 
 with Leba*. he carried to a great extent the 
 system of 'i^nor both among the troops and 
 the inhabitants of the country ; and his seve- 
 I rity, execrable as it was, seems to have infused 
 an eneriiv into the army, which contributed 
 j much to its future victories. St Just, on his 
 I return to Paris, towards the close of 1793, 
 ; obtained great influence with the ruling party, 
 ; and he formed an intimate connexion with 
 Robespierre, who was principally guided by 
 his counsels. After assisting in the overthrow 
 I of Danton and his friends, he became involved 
 in the ruin of Robespierre, wlio rejected his 
 advice in the last struggle for power. He was 
 guillotined July 28, 1794. St Just was the 
 author of " Organt," a poem in twenty 
 cantos, 1789, 2 vols. 8vo, said to be a feeble 
 imitation of the Pucelle of Voltaire; " Mes 
 Passe-temps, ou le Nouvel Organt de 1792," 
 another licentious poem ; and '• Fragmefls 
 sur les Institutions Republicaines," a post- 
 humous work, 1800, l2mo ; besides reports to 
 the National Convention, from the Commit- 
 tees of General Surety and of Public Safety. 
 — This demagogue has been sometimes con- 
 founded with Louis Lkon St Just, who 
 called himself the marquis de Fontvielle, and 
 was the author of a work, entitled " Esprit 
 de la Revolution, et de la Constitution de 
 France." — Diet, des H. M. du 18/ne.S. Biog. 
 Xouv. des Contemp. Biog, Univ. 
 
 ST LA^IBER.T (Charles Frances de) an 
 eminent man of letters, was born at Nancy, 
 December 16, 1717. He was educate*! by the 
 Jesuits at Pont-a-Mousson, but subsequently 
 entered tlie army, which he quitted at the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and joined the gay 
 circle assembled by Stanislaus, the ex-king of 
 Poland, at Luneville. He soon after became 
 a devoted adherent of Voltaire's, and a fa- 
 voured admirer of madame de Chatelet. He 
 did not commence his literary career until he 
 had exceeded the age of forty, when he jiro- 
 duced a theatrical ])iece, entitled " Les Fetes 
 de I'Amour et de I'llymen," 1760. His poem, 
 entitled " Les Quatres Parties du Jour," ap- 
 peared in 1764, and the same year he pub- 
 lished his " Essai sur le Luxe," 8ro. His 
 celebrated poem of " Les Saisous " followed 
 in 1769. His other works are, " Fables 
 Orientales ;" " Consolations de la Vieillesse ;" 
 and a philosophical work in prose, whic h ap- 
 peared in 1798. in 3 vols. 8vo, under tiie title 
 of " Catechisme Universelle." It was in- 
 tended to exhibit a system of morals grounded 
 on human nature, the ]>rincipal object of the 
 author being to confute the doctrine of a moral 
 sense as advocated by Shaftesbury, Hutche- 
 8on, and their succsssors. He also wrote some 
 articles in the Encyclopedie, and many fugi- 
 tive jiieces in the literary journals. This able 
 writer was one of the few men of emineiice 
 who escaped the annoyance and dangerj of 
 the Revolution ; his death taking place Feb. 
 9. 180.'i, in his eighty-eighth year. — Xouv, 
 Did. Hint. 
 
 ST MARC (CiiAnirs Ilfciirs Liniu-ui 
 de) a learned and industrious wnier, born at 
 
S A I 
 
 Paris in 1698. He studied at the college du 
 I'lcssis, and afterwards became a sub-lieute- 
 iiaiit in tlie regiuient of Aiinis, which he 
 quitted to take orders in the church. Disap- 
 pointed in his expectations of preferment, he 
 engaged in the education of youtli ; and he- 
 coming connected with the abbe Gouj't, he 
 was encouraged to devote himself to hlerary 
 j)ursuits. In 173.) he coinj)Osed a lyrjc drama, 
 entitled " l.e Pouvoir de I'Amour," wiiitli 
 was represented with some success. lUit he 
 relinquished the drama for more serious stu- 
 dies, and his next ])roduction was a supple- 
 ment to the necrology of the Port Uoyal So- 
 ciety, lie afterwards published editions of the 
 works of lioileau, Pavilion, Chaulieu, Mal- 
 herbe, &€. ; but he is principally known as the 
 author of " Abrege Chronologique de lllis- 
 toire d'ltalie, depuis la Chute de rEmjjire 
 d'Occident," Paris, 1761—70, 6 vols. 8vo. a 
 work on the plan of ])resident Henault's His- 
 tory of France. St Marc died November 20, 
 1769, and the sixth volume of his History of 
 Italy was published by Lefevre de Beauvray, 
 with a biographical memoir of the author. — 
 Biog. U)iiv. 
 
 ST MARC (Jean Paul Andre des Rai- 
 sins, marquis de) a French lyric poet, born 
 of a noble family in the province of Guienne, 
 in 1728. He was admitted into the French 
 guards in 1744, but being obliged through an 
 accident to quit the service in 1762, he em- 
 ployed himself in the cultivation of the lighter 
 kinds of literature. In 1770 was represented 
 his pastoral drama, " La Fete de Flore," 
 which was followed by " Adele de Ponthieu," 
 founded on a story of chivalry. St Marc 
 wrote the verses which were recited at the 
 Iheatre Fran9ais, when the bust of Voltaire 
 was crowned on the stage in 1778. He died 
 at Bordeaux, October 11, 1818. His works 
 have been often printed collectively, in 2 vols. 
 8vo. — Id. 
 
 ST MARTHE, the name of a family in 
 France, which jiroduced several men of letters, 
 among whom is to be ranked Charles St 
 Marthe, who became physician to Francis I. 
 He was remarkable for his eloquence, and com- 
 posed the eulogium of his master in elegant 
 Latin. He was also author of several poems. 
 He died in 1.556. — Sca.vola, nephew of the 
 })receding, was born in 1536, and wa3 distin- 
 guished as a poet, orator, and historian. In 
 1.579 he was made governor of Poictou, 
 which province he reduced to subjection to 
 Henry IV. He died universally regretted in 
 lti23. He was author of" LaLouange de laVille 
 de Poictiers," 1573 ; " Opt-ra Poetica," 1575; 
 " Gallorum Doctrina illustrium Elogia ;" and 
 * Pa>dotiophia, seu de Puerorum Educatione," 
 J.584, a Latin poem, of considerable merit, 
 t\iiich has passed through many editions. 1 
 was neatly printed in Loudon, in 12mo, 1708, 
 together with the " Callipajdia " of Quillet.— 
 His sou Abel became librarian to the king, 
 fcnd wrote " Opuscula Varia," 1645. — His 
 tecond and third sons, Sc.tvoi.A and Louis, 
 were also men of literature, and composed in 
 ci ajunction " Gallia ChiistiaAa eeu Series 
 Biog Dict. — Vol.. HI. 
 
 S A I 
 
 omnium I'.pisc. &;c. Franciu.-," of which tin n 
 is an tditioii in thirteen volumes, folio, 17l.i 
 to \7H(,.~ M.neri. Souv. Diet. Unl. 
 
 ST MA K'J IN ( Louis Ci-audi. de ) a vmicn- 
 ary of the laht century, whoht^led l^iln^elf •' Jx- 
 Philo.iophe inconnu." He wan bom of a noble 
 family, at Amboise, in 1743. Having' reieivrd 
 a collegiate educatirjii to (jualify hjm fur the 
 magistracy, he preferred enterin,^ into the 
 army, for the sake of ai)plymg JiirriM-lf to 
 study in the intervals of military duty. \\ hil« 
 a subaltern in garrison at Bordeaux, he be 
 came a follower of Martinez Pasqualis, foundei 
 of the sect of Martinist.n, whose school, aftei 
 the death of their leader in 1779, was tran»- 
 ferred to Lyons, where St Martin published 
 his work " Des Erreurs et de la \'erite. ou 
 les Hommes rappeles au Principe universel de 
 la Science," 8vo. 'i his was followed by a 
 number of other j)ubIications, iru hiding trans- 
 lations of many of the })roductions of Jacob 
 Boehmen, of whom he was a great admirer. 
 He ([uitted the aimy, that he might be at 
 liberty to j)rosecute his favourite studies, and 
 travelled, like Pythagoras, in search of know- 
 ledge. In 1787 he visited England, and the 
 following year he went to Italy, with the 
 Russian prince Alexis Galitzin, whom he made 
 a convert to his opinions. On his return to 
 France he received the cross of St Louis, iu 
 reward of his military services ; but the Revo- 
 lution shortly after deprived him of this as 
 well as his other aristocratic privileges. In 
 other respects he was but little affected by the 
 political changes which he witnessed, continu- 
 ing Ins philosophical speculations till the close 
 of his life, He died of apoplexy, October 13, 
 1803. — Biog. Nouv. des Cuntetup. Biog. Uuii. 
 ST PALAYE (Jean Baptibte de la 
 CuRNE de) a French writer, was born at 
 Auxerre in 1697. His father %\ as gentleman 
 to the duke of Orleans. The delicacv of his 
 health iu his childhood interrupted his educa- 
 tion, and he was fifteen years old before he 
 began to learn Latin and Greek ; but he made 
 a rajnd progress in his studies, and soon ex- 
 celled his masters. In 1724 he was admitttd 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions, and the fol- 
 lowing year he was employed by his court to 
 conduct the correspondence with Stanislaus, 
 king of Poland, then at W eissenibouig. Ihat 
 prince wished to have attached him to his ser- 
 vice as a diplomatist ; but the love of litera- 
 ture induced him to forego the brilliant pro- 
 spect which this overture presented. He 
 resolved to devote his talents to the study of 
 the history of France ; and after perusing the 
 chronicles of the third race of French kings, 
 he communicated his observations to the aca- 
 demy in a number of interesting memoirs. He 
 afterwardsattached himself more particularly to 
 the illustration of the institutions of chivalry. 
 Having visited many of the pul)lic libraries in 
 France, in search of information, he took two 
 journeys to Italy, whence he returned with a 
 real number of M.SS. He had intended publish- 
 ing a " History of tlie Troubadours ;" but liP 
 put the materials he had collected into the hands 
 I of the abbe Millot, who prejiared them for the 
 ' H 
 
S A I 
 
 press. In 1758 be was chosen a member of 
 the French Academy ; and he belonged to 
 that of La Crusca, and other learned societies 
 ia France and Italy. He died March 1, 1781. 
 Among the works which he had projected 
 were, a " Dictionary of French Antiquities," 
 and a " Glossary of the ancient French Lan- 
 guage," neither of which was completed ; hut 
 lie published " Mtmoires sur I'ancienne Che- 
 valerie consideree comme im Etablissement 
 politique et militaire," Paris, 1759-81, 3 vols. 
 12mo; and he k*lt a voluminous collection of 
 MSS. — Bio-r. Cnic. 
 
 ST PAVIN (])envs i)E Sanguin de) a 
 French poet, born at Paris in 1610. From 
 his father, who was provost of the merchants of 
 tlie metropolis, he inherited a moderate for- 
 tune, which enabled him to devote his time 
 to the cultivation of literature. He obtained 
 some distinction as a satirist and epigram wri- 
 ter, and directed his wit against Boileau, whose 
 severe retaliation contributed not a little to 
 lower the fame of his adversary, and reduce 
 him to comparative obscurity. His death took 
 place in 1670. A collection of his poems was 
 published in 1759, 12mo. — Diet. Hist. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ST PIERRE (Chaui.es Irenee C'-STELde) 
 a French moral and political writer, was born 
 at St Pierre in Normandy, in 1658. He was 
 brought up to the church, and studied at the 
 college of Caen, hut he is best known as a po- 
 litician. In 1695, having written some ob- 
 servations on philosophical grammar, he was 
 admitted a member of the Academy. He ac- 
 companied cardinal de Polignac tos.he congress 
 of Utrecht, where he proposed the establishment 
 of a kind of European diet, in order to secure 
 a perpetual peacf . This, as was tlie case with 
 most of his schemes, was good in theory, but 
 attended by great practical difficulties, which 
 prevented its being carried into effect, though 
 it was received with good liumour. St Pierre 
 censured the government of Louis Xl\'; and 
 on the death of that monarch he published his 
 sentiments in a pamphlet, entitled " La Po- 
 lysyiiodie," which caused his expulsion from 
 the Academy, Fonlenelle alone giving a vote 
 in his favour. Another of his works was " A 
 JMemorial on the Establisbment of a propor- 
 tional Taille," which is said to have amelio- 
 rated the state of taxation in France. St 
 Pierre died in 174-3, and an edition of his 
 works was publishe-d in Holland, 1711, 18 vols. 
 liJmo. — FA<i<re 6v D'Alembert. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ST PIKKRE (.Iacqves Henui 1ji.ii n a u- 
 DiN de) a French writer of some genius and 
 notoriety, was born at Havre de Grace, 19th 
 .Tanuary, 1737. His father, who claimed de- 
 scent from a noble family, ranked among his 
 ancestors the celebrated mayor of Calais, 
 Eustache de St Pierre, who exiiibited so much 
 jiatnotism when that town was captured by 
 Edward III. The subject of this article re- 
 ceived a liberal education, which he finished 
 at the college of Rouen, wliere he obtained 
 the first mathematical prize in 1757. Of an 
 enthusiastic and adventurous disposition, a 
 great part of his early life was spent in ram- 
 
 S A I 
 
 bling from one country to another, until ai. 
 length he entered into the corps of military 
 engineers, which he was soon obliged to quit ; 
 and he then proceeded with very little either of 
 money or recommendation to Russia, where he 
 obtained a commission as lieutenant. At the 
 expiration of eighteen months, he was led by 
 his restless enthusiasm to quit the Russians 
 for the Poles, in whose service he was taken 
 prisoner; but being soon released, after pass- 
 ing some time in Germany he returned to 
 Paris, His next removal was to the Isle of 
 France, in quality of engineer, where he re- 
 mained upwards of two years, much dissatis- 
 fied with his situation ; and in 1774 returned 
 to his native country, and published a relation 
 of his voyage. In 1784 he gave to the world 
 his eloquent, but not very philosophical work, 
 entitled "Studies of Nature," which obtained 
 him considerable reputation, and ultimately 
 acquired him the office of intendant of the 
 botanical garden at Paris, with a liberal salary. 
 In 1789 came out his beautiful tale of " Paul 
 and Virginia ;" which was soon followed, in 
 1791, by his "Indian Cottage," on which 
 productions his lasting reputation will proba- 
 bly chiefly depend. He lost his post of in- 
 tendant in the Revolution, and having previ- 
 ously married, was reduced to considerable dis- 
 tress. He however retained a small patri- 
 mony, and survived the storms of that period. 
 His death took place in 1814. when he left 
 behind him a work entitled " Harmonies de 
 la Nature," which, with all the rest of bis 
 works, have been translated into English. A. 
 memoir of the life of this amiable and eccen- 
 tric writer has been published by way of intro- 
 duction to his correspondence ; but it is com- 
 posed in so bad a taste, and admits personal 
 adventure so very kindred to romance, that 
 however it may merit confidence, it but very 
 poorly inspires it. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 ST PRESTorST PRET(Jkan Yvrs de) 
 ( ounsellor of the grand council, and director 
 of the depot of archives of foreign affairs in 
 France, in the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. He was the author of a woik jiub- 
 lished anonymously at Amsterdam about 1726, 
 under the title of " Histoire des Traitcs fails 
 entre les Diverses Puissances de I'Europe.d^- 
 puis le Regne d'llenri IV, jusqu'a la Paix de 
 Nimegue en 1679," 2 vols, folio ; and he 
 wrote several other political treatises, which 
 were never printed. His literary labours were 
 intended for the benefit of the students of a 
 jjolitical academy fouiulcd by the French mi- 
 nister De Tt)rcy, in 1710, over which St Prest 
 presided from that period till his death, in the 
 beginning of 1720. — Bioir. CTnii. 
 
 Sr PRIEST (FnANcis I'.manvfl Gi'i- 
 r.NA no, count de) a French statesman, born at 
 Grenoble, March 12, 1735. After receiving 
 an excellent education, he entered into the 
 army, and he was also admitted among the 
 knights of Malta. He served with reputation 
 in Germany, and attained the rank of niaro- 
 chal de-camp ; and after being employed on a 
 diplomatic mission to Portugal, he was, iu 1768, 
 Bent ambassador to Constantinople. He wan 
 
S A I 
 
 subsequently Frencli minister at tlie Hatjue, 
 where he reniainiHl at the (■omiiieiueiiient of 
 the llevolution. In July 1789 he succeeded 
 baron de 15reteuil as ininisttT of the royal 
 household, including' tiie nian:ii;enient of do 
 mestic art'airs of state ; and afier encounteiin;^ 
 repeated dt'iiuncialioiis, he was ohlii^ed to re- 
 sii;n this ollice in Deceuiher 171)0, soon after 
 which he quitteil France. In 1795 lie was 
 one of the four ministers whom Louis Will 
 had assemhled at Verona, and he accompa- 
 nied that prince to Blaukcnbourg and to iMit- 
 tau ; but he afterwards left him, and resided 
 some years in Sweden. His sons haviii;^ en- 
 tered into the service of Russia, he suuy;ht an 
 asylum in that country, and afterwards at Ge- 
 neva. Returning to France at the restoration 
 of the Bourbons, he was raised to the peerage 
 in August 1815. He retired to an estate near 
 Lyons, where he died February '26, lfi2l. He 
 was the author of " Kxamen des Assemblees 
 Provinciates," forming part of the observa- 
 tions presented to the assembly of the Not- 
 ables, Paris, 1787, 8vo ; and he left in manu- 
 script " Memoires," containing an account of' 
 the whole of his military and political career. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ST IIFLVL (CiCSAR VicHARD de) an able 
 writer of the seventeenth century, was the son 
 of a counsellor to the senate of Chamberri in 
 Savoy, where he was born, but in what year 
 is not ascertained. He came young to France, 
 and was some time a disciple of M. Yarillas, 
 and in 1675 accompanied the duchess of ]Ma- 
 zarin to England. He died at Chamberri in 
 1692. The abbe de St Real was much attached 
 to the study of history, and wrote a piece to 
 advance a philosophical consideration of it, 
 which he entitled, " De 1' Usage del' Histoire," 
 Paris, 1672, l2mo. He also published, in 
 1674, " Conjurations des Espagnoles contre 
 la Republique de Venice en 1618," 12mo ; j 
 and a similar work on the imputed conspiracy I 
 of Don Carlos, prince of Spain. Voltaire com- 
 pares the style of the first of these productions ! 
 to that of Sallust ; but it is to be regretted that 
 in both of them the author infuses a portion of 
 romance, for which there was little foundation. 
 They, however, on this very account aftbrded 
 scope for the tragic muse of Otway, whose 
 dramas of " Don Carlos " and " Venice Pre- 
 served," are founded principally on the narra- 
 tives of the abbe St Real. He wrote several other 
 pieces upon the Roman history and subjects 
 of philosophy, politics, and morals ; all of 
 which are comprised in the Paris edition of 
 his works of 1745, in 3 vols. 4to, and 6 vols. 
 l2mo. — Niceron, vol. ii. and x. 
 
 ST SIMON (Louis de Rouvroi, duke of ) 
 a French writer of memoirs, was the sou of a 
 nobleman of the same title, and born in 1675. 
 He was introduced to the court of Louis XIV 
 in his fifteenth year, and maintained fair mo- 
 ral reputation both as a courtier and a soldier. 
 In i721 he was appointed ambassador-extra- 
 ordinary to the court of Spam, for the pur- 
 pose of soliciting the infanta in marriage for 
 Louis XV. He was much in the confidence of 
 the regent duke of Orleans, and after acting 
 
 S A I. 
 
 a resjiect^ible part iu hU-, \,i- retired to his 
 «state. wht-n- he ni:«intaiii«-d tlie character of 
 a elrict devotee, and dw-d at ;in iidvanc«'d n<i*- 
 about th«- year 17(i7. liiiH aobleman was the 
 author of " jMcrnoira of ili*. Court of Lom« 
 XIV, and of the Re^enr. ," which be com- 
 poned in hiri retreat, and vilnd) has been pub- 
 lished siiK-e his death. 'n„.y counM of a 
 great variety of anccdoteH rela'tive to persoim 
 and incidents, intt-rspersed with portnuts 
 ilrawn wiih a stronj/ hut dark ji<-nril. They 
 f.xhibit many of the author's natural preju- 
 dices in favour of nobility, and are often oh- 
 scure, incorrect, and involved ; but, neverthe- 
 less, make a valuable addition to the Herr<t 
 history and biography of the times. This 
 work was published in a mutilated state in the 
 first instance in 1788; but a complete edition 
 was printed at Strasburgh in l.'J vol.s, 8vo. 
 1791.— iVoia. Diet. Hist. Anqiictil Hist, de 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 SALA (NicoLo) a Neapolitan musician, 
 born about the commencement of the last cen- 
 tury. He was master of the conservatory of 
 La Pieta at Naples, and is advantageou>lv 
 known as the author of an immense and labo'- 
 rious work, to the compilation of which he 
 dedicated the whole of a life prolonged far be- 
 yond the ])eriod usually allotted to man. This 
 book was printed at length at the expense of 
 the king, under the title of " Regole del Con- 
 trapunto prattico," when tlie author died, in- 
 consolable at seeing the whole impression sa- 
 crificed by the fury of the populace, wlio set 
 fire to the royal printing-house in the Revolu- 
 tion of 1799. J:igbc years after, however, the 
 treatise, which is a truly valuable one, was re- 
 produced by M. Choron, in his " Principes 
 de Composition des Ecoles d'lialie." — Biocr, 
 Diet, of Mils. 
 
 SALAIIEDDIN YUSEPH BEN AYUB, 
 usually called Saladin, a celebrated sultan of 
 Egypt and Syria, was bom in the year 1137, 
 in the castle of Tecnib, of wliich liis father, a 
 native of Curdistan, was governor. In 1168 
 he was chosen to succeed his uncle Siracouh 
 in the command of the armies of the Fatimite 
 caliph Adhed, or rather of the sultan Nou- 
 reddin, his immediate superior. He termi- 
 nated the liynasty of the Fa;emite caliphs of 
 Egypt, at the command of the latter, and sub- 
 sequently endeavoured to supersede the minor 
 son of Noureddin himself, but did not succeed 
 until after his death, when he was recoguizeil 
 sultan of Syria and 1-gypt by the caliph of 
 Bagdat. 'The great object both of his religion 
 and his politics was now to expel the Chris- 
 tians from Palestine, and to recover the cilv of 
 Jerusalem. An atrocious massacre of Maho- 
 metan jjilgrims by the French lord, I)u Clia- 
 tillon, added still more to his ardour ; and his 
 vow of revenge against the perpetrator he 
 was -^^nabled to make good by his famous vic- 
 tory on the plain of Tiberias in 1187, where he 
 captured Guy de Lusignan, with the chieftain 
 Chatillon (^whom he cut down after the bat- 
 tie with his own scimitar), and many more. 
 The fruits of this victory were the towns of 
 Acre, Seid, and Barout ; after which he laid 
 
 H 2 
 
SAL 
 
 6ip"-e to Jerusalem, which yielded in a capitu- 
 lacion to the articles of which Saladin faith- 
 fully adhered. He then proceeded against 
 Tyre, but failed, in consequence of the de- 
 struction of his fleet by ihe Franks. The in- 
 tellio-ence of the loss of Jerusalem reachiuor 
 Europe, produced the crusade under the em- 
 peror Frederick Barbarossa, whose deatli in- 
 spired the ^lussulman with hopes which were 
 soon damped by the arrival, with a mighty 
 host, ( f l\ichard C(Eur-de- l.ion of England, 
 and of Philip Augustus of France. A reco- 
 very of Acre, by the two kings, took place in 
 1191, ui>on which event Philip returned to 
 France, and Richard, after twice defeating the 
 sultan, took Cassarea ami Jaffa, and spread 
 alarm as far as Jerusalem. At length a truce 
 was concluded between Richard and Saladin, 
 by the terms of which the coast from Jaffa to 
 Tyre waa ceded to the Christians, while the 
 rest of Palestine remained to the sultan. The 
 departure of Richard freed Saladin from his 
 most formidable foe ; but his own death, 
 which took place at Damascus in 1 193, in the 
 fifty-sixth year of his age, suddenly terminated 
 the career of this active and able prince, and 
 plunged his subjects of Syria and Egypt into 
 deep mourning. Though chargeable in the 
 outset of life with unjustifiable means of ac- 
 quiring power, Saladin employed it, when ob- 
 tained, very usefully for his subjects, whose 
 burthens he lightened, whilst he benefited 
 them by a great number of useful works and 
 establishments. Whilst matrnificent in his 
 erections, and in public undertakings, he was 
 altogether frugal in his personal expenses. In 
 religion he was zealous for liis creed, almost 
 to fanaticism, but was faithful to his engage- 
 nients, and administered justice with ddigence 
 and impartiality. A lasting proof of the ter- 
 ror which his name inspired, was given by the 
 Saladin tenth, imj)Osed by the authority of 
 poj)e Innocent X on both clergy and laity, for 
 the support of the holy war. Saladin left a 
 family of seventeen sons and one daughter, ?.nd 
 was the founder of the dynasty of the A"JU- 
 bites. — Mod. Univ. Hist. Gibbon. 
 
 SALDEX (William) an ingetlous philo- 
 logical writer, who was a native of Utrecht, 
 where he died in 169-i. He was the author of 
 *' Otia Theologica," 4to ; " Concionator Sa- 
 cer," l2mo; " Chr. Liberii (Gul. Salden) 
 Bibliophilia, sive de Scribendis, Legendis, et 
 ajstimandis Libris, Exercitatio parajnetica ; 
 interjecta sunt qua^dam de l^lagio Litterario, 
 T/jrasonismo Theologorum, 6tc." L'ltraj. 1681, 
 12mo; and a treatise " De Libris, variotjue 
 eorum Usu et Abusu," Amst. 1688, l'2mo. — 
 ]\'iitt. Stollii Introd. in Hist. Lit. 
 
 SALE (Georoi.) a learned English Oriental 
 scholar, and various writer, of the eighteenth 
 century. Unfortunately nothing of his parti- 
 cular liistory is known, notwithstanding his ser- 
 vices to literature ; but it is ascertained that he 
 w'as a married man, and had a son educated at 
 iVcw colh-ge, Oxford, of which he became a 
 fellow. Our author was one of the founders, 
 and (,f the first committee, of a Society for the 
 Encoiiragemont of Learning, founded in 1736. 
 
 SAL 
 
 His services were, however, but of short du- 
 ration, as he died the same year. Mr Sal« 
 was one of the compilers of the great " Ge- 
 neral Dictionary;" as also a principal writer 
 in the " Universal History," of which he sup- 
 plied the cosmogony, and a small part of the 
 history which follows it. The most important 
 oi his performances, however, is a translation 
 of the Koran into English from the original 
 Arabic, with explanatory nott s from the most 
 approved commentators. To this version is 
 prefixed a preliminary discourse on the state 
 of the Arabs, Jews, and Christians at the 
 time of Mahommed's appearance ; on the doc- 
 trine and positive precepts of the Koran ; and 
 on various other points connected with Is- 
 lamism, of a nature to merit a separate publi- 
 cation. — Gent. Mag. fm- 1736 and 1781. Bos- 
 wetl's Life of Johnson. 
 
 SyVLlCETI (Christopher) was born at 
 Bastia in Corsica, in 1737, and was educated 
 at a college of the Barnabites at his native 
 place, whence he removed to study the law at 
 Pisa. Returning home, he became an advo- 
 cate of the superior council of Corsica ; and 
 in 1789 he was aeputy from the tiers etat of 
 his native country to the states-general of 
 France ; and in 1792 a member of the Na- 
 tional Convention, in which he voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI. Having opposed the 
 projects of Paoli.he left Corsica precipitately; 
 and subsecjueutlj he was employed as commis- 
 sary to the French army in Italy. In 1797 he 
 had a seat in the Council of Five Hundred ; and 
 on the assumpfion of power by Buonaparte he 
 was proscribed. His talents restored him to 
 favour ; and under the consulate he was sent 
 ambassador to Genoa, when he aided in the 
 union of that republic to France. When Jo- 
 seph Buonaparte was raised to the throne of 
 Naples, Saliceti was appointed his minister of 
 police, to which was united the office of minis- 
 ter at war. Under king Joachim (IMurat) 
 he was dismissed, but was afterwards recalled 
 on the invasion of Italy by the English. He 
 died suddenly, not without suspicion of poi- 
 son, in December 1809. — Diet, des H. M. du 
 18me S. Bio^r. Univ. 
 
 SALINAS (Franciscus) professor of mu- 
 sic in the university of Salamanca. This ex- 
 traordinary man was the son of the treasurer of 
 Burgos, in which city he was born in lolo. 
 Though blind from his birth, he acquired no 
 inconsiderable share of knowledge of the 
 Greek and Latin languages, as well as of phi- 
 losophy and the arts, especially of music. Sar- 
 mentus, archbishop of Compostella, struck 
 with the genius he displayed, rescued him 
 from the poverty in which he found him, and 
 on being elected a cardinal took him with hirn 
 to Rome, where he continued to prosecute his 
 studies with great success. He was eventu- 
 ally invited to Salamanca, where he idled the 
 situation already alluded to with great credit, 
 and obtained from pope Paul the Fourth the 
 abbey of St Pancratio del la Rocca Salegna in 
 the Neapolitan dominions. His principal 
 work is a treatise, " De JMusica," in seven 
 books, in which he exposes very happily some 
 
S A I. 
 
 of the errors of the ancientt vvitli respect fo 
 Iiannony, and enters into a copious exaniiiia- 
 lion of tlie metres used by the Greek, Ro- 
 man, and S|.anisli poets. His death took place 
 iu lr>\H). — liioi:;. Diet, of Mas. 
 
 SAl.lSHURY (John of) an Auirustine 
 canon of the twelftli century, supposed to 
 have been l)orn at Old Saruni about the year 
 1 1 1(). After havin>^ studied in the universities 
 of I'aris and Oxford, he assumed the cowl in 
 the monastery of St Augustine at (Canterbury, 
 where he aicpiireil llie friendship of the pri- 
 mate Thomas a JJecket. On tlie murder of 
 this prelate, in 1171, by Fitzurse and his asso- 
 ciates, of which deed he is said to have been a 
 witness, he retired to France, and there ob- 
 tained the bislio])ric of Chartres from tlie 
 pope. As an autlior he is known by his " l^o- 
 lycraticon, seu de Nugis Curiaiium et Vestii;-iis 
 Philosophorum ;" as well as by some other 
 tracts, both curious and valuable, on subjects 
 connected with anti(]uity and critical research, 
 being well versed in all the learning of the 
 age, and tlie order to which he belonged. His 
 death took place in 1182. — LelavtL Tanner. 
 
 SALISBURY (VVilmam) a Welsh lawyer 
 of the age of Elizabeth, a native of the county 
 of Denbigh, and a graduate of Oxford. He 
 is principally known as the first translator of 
 the Liturgy of the church of F^ngland into the 
 Welsh language, of which tongue he also pub- 
 lished a Dictionary, in 1 vol. 4to, 1547 ; and 
 a complete version of the Scriptures. His 
 death took place in 1570. — Athen. Oxon. 
 
 SALKELD (William) an eminent writer 
 on the statute law, who practised as an advo- 
 cate in the beginning of the last century, and 
 attained to the rank of king's serjeant. His 
 " lleports of Cases Adjudged in all the Courts 
 from 1 Will, and Mary to 10 Anne," are 
 highly esteemed by professional men ; and 
 since their first publication, in 1717, they have 
 passed through several editions, the sixth of 
 tvhich, with large additions and references 
 to modern determinations, by William David 
 Evans, esq. appeared in 1795, 3 vols, royal 
 Bvo. — Bridtrinans Len;. Bibl. 
 
 SALLENGRE (Albert Henry de) an 
 ingenious and lal)orious Dutch author, de- 
 scended of a good family in Holland, and son 
 to the receiver-general of \\'alloon Flanders. 
 He was born in 1694 at tlie Hague, and after 
 receiving an excellent education at Leyden 
 was admitted an advocate at the Dutch bar. 
 Here liis abilities, aided by family connexion, 
 made his rise a rapid one, and in 1716 he re- 
 ceived the appointment of counsellor to the 
 princess of Nassau, which was soon followed 
 by that of commissary of finance, and auditor 
 of the bank of Holland. The hours of relax- 
 ation from public business he diligently em- 
 ployed iu the cultivation of literary pursuits, 
 and besides a periodical work which he edited, 
 under tlie name of the " Licerary Journal," 
 has the author of a " Commentary on Ovid's 
 Epistles," "The History of Peter Mont- 
 niaur," 8vo, i> toIs. ; " A Treasury of Roman 
 !^ntiquiiies," folio, 3 vols. ; and " L'Ehge 
 <e rVvresse." He was carried otT by the 
 
 S A L 
 
 small- pox in the thirtieth year of his aj;.-, 
 while buMly emi)l<jyed in compilmj,' a " }\in'. 
 tory of the Lnit.d Provinces, fn^ni the Vtar 
 16(>'.» to the Peace of Munstor." Of ihia 
 work one vohitnr only, in Ho, a|ip« arcd fiv»! 
 years after his deceoiie, jirinted at the llai^ue. 
 — \'iceroit. Moreri, 
 
 S ALLO (Dknis de) a man of letters, dis- 
 tinguished as the ori'^inal (onduclor of the 
 oldest critical journal esiablihhed in Lurope. 
 He was descended from an ancient family of tlie 
 province of Poitou, and was the son of a « oun- 
 sellor of the jiarliainent of Paris, in whu h 
 metropolis he was bom in 16y6. He went 
 through his youthful studies with great credit, 
 and having afterwartls aj)plied himself to juris- 
 prudence, he was admitted a counsellor of the 
 })arliament in 1652. He soon attained emi- 
 nence in his profession, and he gave a proof 
 of his talents in a work entitled " 'i'raite de 
 I'Origine des Cardinaux du S. Si6ge, et parti- 
 culierement des Franfois, avec (leux 'J raiiei» 
 curieux des Legats a Latere, 6»;c." 1665. 
 ]2mo. He was frequently consulted by the 
 minister Colbert, for whose use he drew up a 
 number of important memoirs relative to naval 
 aflairs, and other subjects. In 1665 he com- 
 menced the publication of the " Journal des 
 Savans," which appeared in weekly numbers, 
 the editor concealing himself under the title 
 of the sieur d'Hedouville. He is said to hare 
 been assisted by several men of learning, 
 among whom were Cha|)elain, and the abbe 
 Gallois. Thirteen numbers only had been 
 published when the work was suppressed, 
 through the interest of persons who had taken 
 oflence at the severity of critical animadver- 
 sion displayed by these self-constituted arbiters 
 of literary reputation. After a short interval, 
 the abbe Gallois obtained permission to re- 
 sume the journal, which has been continued, 
 though not without interruption, to the pre- 
 sent lime. INI. de Sallo died in 1669. — Catnu- 
 sat Hint, des Jouruaux. Biog. Unii. 
 
 SALLUST (Caius Cnispus Sallustius) 
 an eminent Roman historian, was born at 
 Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines, 
 BC. 85. He was educated at Rome, where 
 he became almost equally distinguished for 
 abilities and licentiousness of manners. His 
 extravagance and debauchery even caused him 
 to be expunged by the censors from the list of 
 senators, but he was restored by Julius Ca?sar, 
 who promoted him to the digmtits of questor 
 and pra'tor, and nominated him to the govern- 
 ment of Numidia. In this office he so en- 
 riched himself by pillage and rapine, which 
 it is supposed he shared with Ca'>ar. that on 
 his return to Rome he was enabled not only 
 to purchase a large estate, but a magnificent 
 mansion on the Quirinai hill, with the exten- 
 sive gardens which still bear his name. He is 
 suppo.sed to have died BC. 35, at the age of 
 fifty. The vices of Sallust weiv curiously con- 
 trasted by the rigid morality which pervades 
 his writings, and iu other respects the author 
 is as valuable as the man was the contrary. 
 His principal work was a histoiy of the Roman 
 republic, from the death of Sylla to Catiline's 
 
SAL 
 
 conspiracy, of which some fragments alone 
 exist ; Injt liapj)ily two entire historical 
 pieces of his composition remain, " On the 
 Ju^urthine War," and " On the Catilinarian 
 Cons})iracy," in whicii it is agreed that the 
 concise energy of the Latin language is dis- 
 phiyed with considerahle skill and mastery. 
 I'he matter also exhibits great vigour of sen- 
 timent and force of narrative ; and his high 
 literary reputatioi. at Kome is established by 
 the testimony of Martial, Tacitus, and Quin- 
 tillian, although his neglect of Cicero, and 
 partiality to Cssar, justly detract from his 
 liistorical fidelity. The most valuable modern 
 editions of Sallust are those of Gronovius, 
 Leyden, 1690 ; of Wasse, Cambridge, 1710 ; 
 and of Homer, Levden, 1769. There are four 
 English translations, one by Gordon, another 
 by I)r Rose, a third by Ur Murphy, and a 
 fourth by Dr Steuart, in two volumes, quarto, 
 to which are prefixed, essays on his life and 
 writings. — Life bij Steuart. Vosaii Hist. Lat. 
 SALMASIUS' (Claudius). See Sau- 
 MAisE (Claude"). 
 
 SALMON. There were several ingenious 
 Enolish authors of this name. Thomas Sal- 
 MON, who held the living of Mepsall, Bedford- 
 shire, in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, is advantageously known in the mu- 
 sical world as the author of some clever trea- 
 tises on the science. The principal of these 
 is entitled " An Essav to the Advancement of 
 Music by casting away the Perplexity of dif- 
 ferent Clefs," printed in London in 1672. — 
 His eldest son, Thomas, entered the navy, in 
 which he spent some years, but afterwards 
 quitted the service, and opened a house of 
 ])ubiic entertainment at Cambridge. Proving 
 unsuccessful in business, he came to London, 
 and there commenced author by profession, in 
 which capacity he compiled several works for 
 the booksellers. Of these the principal are, 
 " An Examination of Burnet's History of his 
 own Times ;' " The Chronological Historian," 
 8vn, 2 vols, ' A Geographical Grammar," 
 afterwards improved by Guthrie ; a •' His- 
 tory of England," 12 vols. ; " Modern His- 
 tory," folio, 3 vols, reprinted in thirty-two 
 volumes, octavo ; " Essay on Marriage," 8vo ; 
 " General Description of England," 2 vols ; 
 " J'oreigner's Companion through Oxford end 
 Cambridge ;" " Universal Gazetteer." His 
 death took place in April, 1743. — His brother 
 Nathaniel, the most celebrated of the three, 
 was born at his father's parsonage, and re- 
 ceived his education at Pjene't college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he graduated, and entering the 
 church, obtained some preferment in Suffolk. 
 On the accession of queen Anne to the throne, 
 lie refused to take the oath of allegiance, al- 
 though he had made no scruple of doing so to 
 her jiredecessor ; this caused his ejectment 
 from Ills benefice, and all hoi)es of advance- 
 ment in his profession being now closed 
 against him. he assumed tlie habit of a lay- 
 man, and practised physic first at St Ives and 
 afterwards at Bishop's Stortford, where he died 
 in 1742. As an antiquarian he is esteemed for 
 -he accuracy of his deductions, the patience 
 
 S A L 
 
 I and perseverance of his in(]uiry, and his active 
 and industrious research. His writing's con- 
 sist of •' A History of Hertfordshire," in 
 folio ; " Antiquities of Surrey," 8vo ; " Anti- 
 quities of Essex," folio ; " Roman Antiqui- 
 ties in the Midland Counties," 8vo ; " Roman 
 Stations in Great Britain ;" " Lives of the 
 English Bishops, from the Time of the Resto- 
 ration to the Revolution in 1688." — Gongh's 
 Topog. Geut, Mag. vol. Ixvi. 
 
 SALOMON (William) an empirical physi- 
 cian and medical writer of considerable note in 
 the latter part of the seventeenth century. He 
 was engaged for a long course of years in the 
 practice of physic in London, but probably 
 with no great success, as the multitude of works 
 which he published must have required indus- 
 trious application, and left but little time for 
 other employment. Among his productions 
 are, " The complete Physician, or Druggist's 
 Shop opened." an octavo volume, containing 
 more than twelve hundred pages; a" Uni- 
 versal Herbal," folio ; and various other pro- 
 fessional works, besides a treatise on drawing, 
 engraving, tScc. entitled " Polygraphice," of 
 which the tenth edition appeared in 1701. 
 His death took place about the end of the se- 
 venteenth century. — Hutch inanns Biog. Med. 
 
 SALOMON (Johann Peter) a native of 
 Bonn, in the electorate of Cologne, born 1745. 
 He was educated by his parents with a vie-w 
 to make the law his profession, but an invin- 
 cible passion which he displayed f(jr the 
 science of music, at length induced them to 
 relinquish the idea, and to suflfer him to fol- 
 low the bent of his genius. After acquiring 
 considerable reputation as a musician both in 
 Germany and France, he came to England in 
 1781, and besides proving himself incontesta- 
 bly the greatest violinist of the age, had the 
 merit of first introducing into this country, at 
 a great pecuniary risk, the celebrated Haydn, 
 whose symphonies, written for Salomon's 
 concerts, are considered ihe standard of per- 
 fection for this species of composition. Among 
 his pupils, Pinto proved the extent of his 
 master's skill, and his ability in communi- 
 cating it ; but unfortunately this extraordinary 
 young man, whose musical progress reflected 
 so much honour on his master, possessed qua- 
 lities wliich are not unusually the concomi- 
 tants of genius, and perished just as he was 
 ripening into unrivalled excellence. Salomon, 
 whose respectable literary attainments, and po- 
 lished manners, had always secured him an en- 
 trance into the very first circles, died in London, 
 in 1815, after a long illness, occasioned by a 
 severe fall from his horse, and lies bviried in 
 Westminster abbey. — Biog. Dict.ofMus. Bur- 
 nsu's Hist, if Mus. 
 
 SALVIAN, a native of Cologne, one of the 
 early fathers of the Christian church. He led 
 a religious life at IMarseilles during the greater 
 part of the fifth century, and died in that city 
 about the year 48 J. Salvian was the author 
 of several works on devotional subjects, of 
 which tliere are yet extant a treatise on " The 
 Providence of God," in ei^ht books ; another 
 in four books, written " Against Avarice. es» 
 
S A M 
 
 perjally in Priests and cltiicril I'ersons ;" and 
 nine pastoral U'tteia. His reniJiins were col- 
 lected and juiiited togetlier in two volumes 
 octavo, by lialuzius, at Paris, in 1 66 j. — Care. 
 Dupin. 
 
 SAL\'1AT1, thename by wliicb two Italian 
 painters, of considerable merit, are usually 
 known. Fhancksco llossi, the elder of these, 
 was a native of Florence, born in l.'ilO. lie 
 studied under Del Sarto and JJaccio Handi- 
 nelli, and was much patronized by cardinal 
 Salviati, wliose family name lie in consecpience 
 assumed. He was an excellent artist, both in 
 fresco aud oils, and iu his style of designing 
 came very near llapliael liiniself, thouj^'h he 
 fell short in sublimity and grandeur of com- 
 j)Osition. His naked figures and dra|)eries are 
 also much admired. Unfortunately an irri- 
 table and peevisli disposition not only made 
 him unjust to the claims of rival talent, but 
 at length alienated the regard of many of his 
 most attached friends. In loji he visited 
 Paris, but made no long stay in that capital, 
 and at length died in Italy in 1563. Most of 
 his best pieces are to be found in Florence, 
 Rome, and Venice. — The second, whose family 
 name was Joseph Porta, was a Venetian by 
 birth, and became a pupil of the former, 
 whose name he took. His colouring and de- 
 signs were highly esteemed by the citizens of 
 Venice, where he died in 1.385. — Pilkingtoii. 
 Bees's Cyclop. 
 
 SA]MBUCUS (John) a learned physician, 
 born atTirnau in Hungary, in 1531. He held 
 the offices of counsellor and historiograjiher to 
 the emperors Maximilian II and llodolph 11, 
 and he wrote a continuation of the Hungarian 
 history of Boufinius, dialogues, orations, and 
 other works ; but he distinguished himself 
 principally as an editor and commentator on 
 the WTitings of the ancients. De Thou praises 
 him for his liberality ; and says that he ex- 
 pended immense suras in procuring and pub- 
 lishing the works of ancient authors, among 
 which were the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, the 
 Epistles of Aristena3tus, Eunapius, Hesychius, 
 &c. He died at Vienna iu 1584. — Teissier 
 Eloges des H. S. 
 
 SAMMES (Aylett) an antiquary and law- 
 yer, who studied at Christ's college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he proceeded IMA, and he was 
 afterwards admitted to the same degree at Ox- 
 ford in 1677. He died in 1679. His literary 
 reputation depends on a work entitled '• 15ri- 
 tannia Antiqua lllustrata, or the Antiquities 
 of Ancient Britain derived from the Ph(rni- 
 cians," 1676, folio, the real author of which, 
 according to Wood, was Robert Aylett, LLD. 
 a master in chancery, who wrote a poem en- 
 titled " Susanna, or the Arraignment of the 
 'I'wo Elders," and other poetical pieces. 
 Sammes, who was the nephew of Dr Aylett, 
 is supposed to have obtained the materials for 
 his Britannia from the papers of his deceased 
 relative. — Wood's Atheii. Oxon. 
 
 SANADON (Noel Stephen) a learned 
 French Jesuit, born at Rouen in Normandy, 
 1676. He dedicated himself to the study of 
 oratory, on which he gave lectures at Caen, in 
 
 S A N 
 
 his native province, and afterwards held tha 
 professor.-hip of the same hciente in '.he uni- 
 versity of Bans. i o this siiuatKm was even- 
 tually added those of keeper of the royal 
 library and preceptc^r to the young j)rince of 
 Conli. Bebidea Bome elegant poems and ora- 
 tions, written in the Latin language, he pub- 
 lished a new translation of Horace, with valu- 
 able notes. I'his work firi't appeared at Burin, 
 in two (pjarto volumes, and was afterwar«l» 
 reprinted at Amsterdam, in 17.35, in eight 
 volumes, rjmo, with consiib-rable additionn, 
 including the commentary of Dacier. Sanadon 
 died at Paris, September i^l, 1732. — Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 SANCIIES(Antonio Ni-nes RiBnno)an 
 eminent Portuguese physician, born at Penna 
 .Alacor, in 16<J7. He was the son of an opu- 
 lent merchant, in opposition to whose wishe.s 
 he adoj)teil the profession of medicine ; and 
 he was indebted to the liberality of his ma- 
 ternal uncle, Dr Nunes Kibeiro, of Lisbon, 
 for the means of prosecuting his studies at 
 Coimbra and at Salamanca. At the latter 
 university he took the liegree of MD. in 17'.^L 
 and the following year became stipendiary 
 physician at Benavente. He soon after re- 
 moved to London, but the climate of this 
 country afl'ecting his health he went to Ley- 
 den, where he remained till 1731, when, 
 through the recommendation of Boerhaave, he 
 obtained an advantageous appointment in Rus- 
 sia. He served as physician to the army at 
 the siege of Azoph ; and in 1740 he was no- 
 minated one of the imperial physici tns. He 
 attended the empress Anne in her last illness ; 
 and he was favoured by the regent in the reigu 
 of Iwan in, but on the deposition of that 
 })rince, and the advancement of Elizabeth the 
 daughter of Peter the Great, he lost his ap- 
 pointments. Being apprehensive for his per- 
 sonal safety, he obtained leave to retire from 
 Russia, and in 1747 he took up his residence 
 at Paris, where he passed the remainder of his 
 life. While at St Petersburg he carried on a 
 correspondence with the Jesuits settled in 
 China, through whom he jirocured the seeds 
 of the officinal rhubarb, and introduced the 
 culture of that plant into Europe. He contri- 
 buted in various ways to the advancement of 
 science, and left several works on medi':al sub- 
 jects. His death took }>lace October 14. 1783. 
 — Lmid. bled.Jouni. Hutchinson's Bio". Med. 
 
 SANCHEZ. There are several learned 
 Spanish writers of this name, of which it will 
 be necessary only to mention four. Francis 
 Sanchez, or Sanctius Brocensis, was born in 
 15123, at Estremadura, aud became professor 
 of rhetoric at Salamanca, where he died in 
 16t)0. He published editions of several^* he 
 (lassie auttiors, and some dissertations on clas- 
 sical subjects; but his principal work is a 
 grammatical treatis*-, entitled *' .Minerva, seude 
 Causis Lingua? Latina?," printed tirst at Sala- 
 manca in 1587, 8vo, and many times since, 
 with improvements. — Peter Anthony San- 
 chez, an eminent Spanish divine, was born at 
 Vigo in 1740, and became canon of the cathe- 
 dral of St James, and professor of rhetoric in 
 
S A N 
 
 liis native place, where be was much admired 
 botli for his talents and benevolence. His 
 works are, " Snmma Tbeologiae Sacrae," 4 
 vols. ; " Annates Sacri," 2 vols ; " A Treatise 
 on Toleration," 3 vols. ; «' History of the 
 Church of Africa ;" " Essay on the Eloquence 
 of the Pulpit;" " Sermons," 5 vols.; and 
 " On the Means of encouraging Industry." — 
 KoDERiGO Sanchez, a Spanish prelate, was 
 born in the diocese of Segovia in 1404. He 
 studied law at Salamanca, oi)tained succes- 
 sively the bishoprics of Zamora, Calahorra, 
 and Valencia, and was much employed in 
 embassies. He died at Rome in 1470. His 
 works are, " Historia Hispaniie ;" " Speculum 
 Vila; Human<e.'" folio ; " Epistola de E.xpug- 
 natione Nigropontis." — Thomas Anthony 
 Sanchez, a learned Spaniard, and librarian 
 to the king, was born in 1730, and distin- 
 guished himself by his researches into the 
 literary history of his country, and published 
 a new and improved edition of the " Bibl. 
 Hispan. of Antonio." His most celebrated 
 work, however, is his collection of Castilian 
 poetry anterior to the fifteenth century, to 
 which is prefixed a letter on the origin of 
 Spanish poetry, Madrid, 1779—1782, 5 vols. 
 8vo. He was also the author of an " Apology 
 for Cervantes." He died in 1798. — Antonio 
 Bihl. Hh^puii. Nouv. Diet. hist. 
 
 SANCHO (IcNATiirs) the name given to a 
 singular negro, whose abilities presented a 
 strong contrast to the presumed incapacity of 
 those of his nation and colour. He was bom 
 in 1729, at sea, on board a slave-ship, in its 
 passage to the Spanish INIain, and on his arri- 
 val at Carthagena, received from the owner 
 the name of Ignatius at the font. Accompa- 
 nying his master to this country, he was given 
 by the latter to three maiden sisters residing 
 at Greenwich, who employed him in menial 
 offices, and bestowed on him his second name 
 of Sancho, in allusion, it is said, to the cele- 
 brated squire of Cervantes. While residing 
 in this family, he appears to have been treated 
 with great and unnecessary harshness ; but 
 beino' at length fortunate enough to attract the 
 notice of the duke of Montagu, that benevo- 
 lent nobleman not only rescued him from his 
 unpleasant situation, but took him into his 
 own service, and continued his steady friend. 
 On the deaths of the duke and duchess, by 
 the latter of whom he was becjueathed a pen- 
 sion of thirty pounds for his life, Sancho was 
 again thrown upon the world, the little pro- 
 perty left him proving, as is too often the case 
 in similar circumstances, an unfortunate pre- 
 sent, and leading him into irregular habits, by 
 the indulgence of which ii was soon dissi- 
 pated. As a resource lie determined to try 
 the stage, and actually appeared in Othello 
 and Oronooko. The experiment did not suc- 
 ceed, as he appears to have had few requisites 
 for ihe characters, except his colour. A mar- 
 riage, however, which he soon after contracted 
 with a young Creole, ])0ssessed of a small pro- 
 perty, and the continued kindnet-s of the fa- 
 mily of his late patron, once more restored 
 him to comfort and respectability. He com- 
 
 SAN 
 
 menced business as a grocer, and succeeded 
 in making some provision for a large family, 
 before his decease, which took place about 
 the Christmas of 1780. This extraordinary 
 man was the author of some well-written let- 
 ters published after his death, and was much 
 noticed by many of tlie literary characters of the 
 day; especially by Garrick and Sterne. A few 
 pieces of miscellaneous poetry, and a tract on 
 music, are also ascribed to him. — Life by Jekyl. 
 SANCHOMATHON, an ancient Phoeni- 
 cian writer, who is generally supposed to have 
 been a native of Berytus, though Athen<eus 
 and Suidas affirm that he was a Tyrian. 'Ihe 
 age in which he lived is uncertain, but it is 
 jirobablft that he flourished about the time of 
 the Trojan war. He composed, in the Phcrni- 
 cian language, a history of his native country, 
 which was translated into Greek by Philo 
 Byblius, in the reigu of the emperor Adrian, 
 and of this version some fragments have been 
 preserved by Porphyry and Eusebius. Sniuas 
 mentions other works of Sanchoniathon, which 
 are entirely lost. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SANCROFT (Wilmam) a learned and 
 distinguished English prelate of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was born at Fresingfield 
 in Suffolk, in I6l6, and after studying at a 
 grammar-school at St P2draundsburv, he was 
 admitted into Emanuel college, Cambridge, in 
 1633. In 1642 he obtained a fellowship, 
 from which he was ejected in 1649 for refusing 
 to take the covenant. He then visited France 
 and Italy ; and retuniing home on the Resto- 
 ration, he was chosen one of the university 
 preachers, and in 1661 he assisted in revising 
 the Liturgy. In 1664 he was made dean of 
 York, and towards the closg of that year he 
 was removed to the deanery of St Paul's, 
 London. In this station he distinguished 
 himself by his munificent contributions to- 
 wards the repair, and afterwards of the re- 
 building of the cathedral. In 166^ he was 
 presented by the king to the archdeaconry ot 
 Canterbury, which preferment he resigned 
 after he liad held it two years. He was 
 chosen prolocutor of the lower house of con- 
 vocation, which station he held in 1677, when 
 he was unexpectedly raised to the metro]iolitan 
 see of Canterbury. His conduct as primate 
 displays a conscientious regard for the laws of 
 his country, and the rights of the church over 
 which he presided. In 1687 he was, with six 
 other prelates, committed to the Tower for 
 presenting to king Jeimes II a remonstrance 
 against the declaration of indulgence ordered 
 to be read in churches ; and being tried in the 
 court of King's Bench, the archbishop and his 
 colleagues were acquitted. On the secession 
 of the king, he concurred with the lords, s])i- 
 ritual and temporal, assembled at Guildhall, 
 December 11, 1688, in signing an address to 
 the prince of Orange, demanding a free par- 
 liament, the security of laws, liberty, and j)ro- 
 perty, and recommending indulgence to I'ro 
 testant dissenters. He subsequently refnstj 
 to take the oath of allegiance to William 111 
 and his consort, in consequence of whicli l4 
 was removed from his high station in th? 
 
SAN 
 
 church, in February 1689 ; and a few montliK 
 after ho retired to Fresingfield, wliere }ie dit-il 
 in November 169.S. Sancroft was a tiiaii of 
 great industry and learning,', of which he K'ft 
 evidence in a large collection of niainiscripts. 
 His printed works consist of a Latin (iiidogue, 
 entitled " Fur Prredestinatns, sive Diajogis- 
 nius inter qnendam Ordinis Pranlicantiuni Cal- 
 vinistam et Fare m ad Laqricum damnatnm ha- 
 bitus," 16.t1, liinio, reprinted a few years 
 since ; " Modern Politics, taken from IMachi- 
 avel, IJorofia, and other INIodern Authors, l)y 
 an Eye- Witness," U).i2, 12mo; " Sermons," 
 " Letters," i5«:c. An interesting account of 
 the Hfe of archbishop Sancroft was published 
 by the rev. G. D'Oyley, 1818, 2 vols. 8vo.— 
 Biotr. Brit, 
 
 SANCTOUIUS or SANTORIO, an emi- 
 nent physician, was born in 1561, at Capo 
 d'Istria. He studied and graduated at Padua, 
 and after practising for some years at Venice, 
 was invited in 1611 to the first theoretical 
 chair in the university of the former city, 
 where he commenced a series of observations 
 on insensible perspiration, wliich made his 
 name famous throughout Europe. He conti- 
 nued to lecture in tliis capacity for thirteen 
 years to numerous audiences, when lie was in- 
 duced by fatigue to resign, and to fix his resi- 
 dence in Venice, i'he senate, however, con- 
 tinued his salary undiminished until his death 
 in 1636, at the age of seventy-five. The 
 name of Sanctorius is rendered memorable by 
 his work, entitled " Ars de Statica iNIedicina," 
 first printed at Venice in 1614, and many 
 times reprinted and translated into the modern 
 .anguagps. It consists of seven sections of 
 aphorisms relative to insensible perspiration, 
 ^vhich excretion this anchor was the firsr, to 
 reduce to certain laws, and place in a striking 
 light by experiment. Jn this work he esta- 
 blished many important facts, but like most 
 writers on a particular topic, has overcliarged 
 their practical importance. He was the author 
 of several useful inventions : besides his sta- 
 tical chair for the measure of perspiration, he 
 invented another for ascertaining the force of 
 the pulse, and several useful instruments of 
 surgery. He was also the first physician who 
 endeavoured to measure the heat of the sk.n 
 by a, thermometer. His writings were })ub- 
 lished collectively at Venice, in 4 vols. 4to, 
 1660. — Halleri Bibl. Anut. et Med. Tira- 
 boschi. 
 
 SANDBY (Paul) an ingenious artist, was 
 born at Nottingham in 1732. At the age of 
 fourteen he became a student in the drawing- 
 room at the Tower, and in 1748 was sent into 
 the Higlilands of Scotland to take views for the 
 duke of Cumberland. Of these he made 
 small etchings, which were afterwards pub- 
 lished ; after which he was much employed in 
 Wales, under the patronage of sir Watkin 
 Williams Wynne, in taking scenes which he 
 transferred to copper-plates, and executed 
 puinls in imitation of drawings in Indian ink, 
 which art of atiuatinta he carried to great 
 perfection. On the institution of the Royal 
 Academy he was elected an academii iau, and 
 
 S A N 
 
 in 17r)8 the marquis of Cjranby apjK)int*>d him 
 chief drawin',^-ma!,t>r at Woolwich. IIedi<-J 
 at hid house at I'addington, NoTember 7. 
 Uinn.— Ktirnp. Mas. 
 
 S\\l)|•;^^\^' ( Konmr) in wliom ilie wet 
 (ailed Satid'MnaMiaiia oriijinateJ, wan horn at 
 Perth in Scotland in 175:;>. lb- studied at 
 F-'diidiurgh, and afterwards engaged in tin? 
 linen trade. On marrying tlie dau^-hter of tlie 
 rev. John Glass, he became an elder in hiH 
 congregation, and soon after puhlistied a series 
 of letters addressed to Mr Hervey, on hm 
 Tlieron and Aspasio, in which he endeavf)iirg 
 to sliow, in opposition to tliat divine, that a 
 justifying faith meant nothing more than a 
 simple assent to the divine mission of Christ. 
 This position caused much controversy, and 
 those who adopted it were called Sande- 
 nianians, and formed themselves into church 
 order, in strict fellowship with the church of 
 Scotland, but holding communion with no 
 other. The chief opinions and practices in 
 which this sect differs from others, are tlieir 
 weekly administration of the Lord's Snppj-r, 
 washing each other's feet, &c. In 1764 Mr 
 Sandeman accepted an invitation to New Entr- 
 land, where he died in 1771. His sect still 
 subsists in Great Britain. He was author of 
 some other theological tracts, besides his 
 " Letters on Theron and Asiiasio." — Kncuc. 
 Bril. 
 
 SANDERS (NirnoLAs) an ecclesiastical 
 historian, born about 1.')'27, at Charlewood in 
 Surrey. He was professor of canon law at 
 Oxford in the reign of queen Mary, who ap- 
 pointed him her secretary for Latin correspon- 
 dence. On the accession of Elizabeth he re- 
 tired to Rome, was ordained a priest, and 
 created DD. Cardinal Hosius took him to 
 the council of Trent as his secretary ; and he 
 was afterwards employed by that prelate iu 
 various affairs in Poland, Prussia, and Lithu- 
 ania. He subsequently became professor of 
 divinity at Louvain, where he publi>hed. in 
 1751, Ids work " De Visibili Monarchia Ec- 
 clesix'," in defence of the supremacy of the 
 holy see. In 1579 he was sent as papal nun- 
 cio to Ireland, and he died there in the following 
 year. Camden states, that Sanders having 
 promoted the rebellion of the earl of Desmond 
 against the English government, was forced to 
 wander as a futjitive among the mountains after 
 the defeat of the insurgents, and tliat he pe- 
 rished with hunger ; but Wood attributes hi? 
 death to dysentery, and says that he expired 
 in the arms of the bishop of Killaloe. lie- 
 sides the work already mentioned, he was tlie 
 author of a history "Of the Origin and Pro 
 gress of the English Schism," as he styles the 
 Reformation, which has been severely ani 
 mad verted on by Rayle and bishop Huniet, 
 He also wrote asainst Jewel and Nowel, in 
 defence of transubstantiaiion. and on various 
 other siil>jects. — Moreri. Aikiit's Gen, Bio^. 
 
 SANDERS (RoBi nr) a native of Scotland, 
 born in 1727, who was apprenticed to a pain- 
 ter, which emjdoyment he relinquished for 
 that of a writer for the press. Having tra 
 veiled over a great part of the country, lie 
 
SAN 
 
 jtrodured a work, entitled " The Complete 
 Kngiish Traveller," which passed through se- 
 veral editions. At one time he was employed 
 as an amanuensis by lord Lyttelton, whom he 
 assisted in preparing for the press his " His- 
 tory of Henry 11." He was the compiler of 
 Notes on tlie Hible, published under the name 
 of Dr Henry Southwell ; and he was engaged 
 on a treatise on general chronology, when he 
 died of an asthma in IMarch 178^5. Among 
 the productions of his pea are, " The New- 
 gate Calendar;" " The Adventures of GafFer 
 Greybeard," a satirical novel ; and a " His- 
 tory of Rome, in a series of Letters." — Gen. 
 Biog. Diet. 
 
 SANDERSON (Robert) a learned Eng- 
 lish divine and theological casuist, born at 
 l^otherham in Yorkshire, in 1.587. He stutlied 
 at Lincoln college, Oxford, where he obtained 
 a fellowsliip in 1606, and the following year 
 lie proceeded INIA. In 1618 he was presented 
 to the rectory of \Vibberton, near Boston, in 
 Lincolnshire, which he resigned the ensuing 
 year for that of Boothby Pagnel, in the same 
 county. He was afterwards made a prebend 
 of the collegiate church of Southwell ; and in 
 1631, through tlie recommendation of Laud, 
 then bishop of London, he was appointed a 
 chaplain to the king. In 1656 he was created 
 DD. ; and in 16 It? chosen regius professor of 
 divinity at Oxford, and made canon of Christ- 
 church. His attachment to the royal cause, 
 during the civil war, occasioned the loss of 
 part of his preferment, and exposed him to 
 much persecution. He was, however, allowed 
 to retain his living, and he resided amonii his 
 parishioners till the Restoration, soon after 
 which he was elevated to the bishopric of Lin- 
 coln. He was one of the commissioners at the 
 Savoy conference in 1661, and he contributed 
 much to the alterations then made in the 
 liturgy. He died January 29, 1662-3, and 
 was privately buried at Buckden. His prin- 
 cipal works are, *' Nine Cases of Conscienre 
 resolved," 1678, 8vo ; " Logicse Ards Com- 
 pendium ;" " De Juraraenti Promissorii Ob- 
 ligatione Praelectiones Septem ;" " De Obliga- 
 tione Conscieniia; Prael. Sept. ;" " A Dis- 
 course concerning the Church in these Parti- 
 culars ; 1 . concerning the Visibility of the True 
 Church ; 2. concerning the Churcli of Rome," 
 4to ; and " Sermons," folio. — Biog. Brit. Wal- 
 ton's Lives, edited by Zouch. 
 
 SANDERSON,' FAS. (RoBEm) uf^her of 
 the Court of Chancery and clerk of the Rolls 
 chapel, an intelligent and lal)orious antiquary 
 and historian. He assisted Ilymer in the 
 compilation of that great national work, the 
 " Fctdera ;" and his name is included in a 
 royal warrant issued May 3, 1707, empower- 
 ing Rymer and Sanderson to search public 
 offices, and transcribe materials for the work 
 in which they were engaged. After the death 
 of Rymer, the seventeenth and three following 
 volumes of the " Focdera," were published by 
 liis coadjutor, who also assisted in a second 
 edition of the work, 1727-35. He died De- [ 
 cember 2.5, 1741. An improved and aug- 
 meuted edition of the Fuedera is now in pro- 
 
 S A 
 
 N 
 
 gress of publication, edited by Dr Adam 
 j ('larke and Mr Frederick Holbrooke. — Lein- 
 ' jiiiere's U, B. Edit. 
 
 SANDERUS (Anthony) a Dutch ecclesi- 
 astic, born lo86. He was a native of Ant- 
 werp, and liaving graduated at the college of 
 Douai, entered the ministry, and obtained a 
 i canonry at Ypres. Sanderus was the author 
 I of several valuable works connected with the 
 
 1 topography of his native country. Of these 
 the principal are, his " Flandria Iliustrata," 
 folio, 2 vols.; and " Chronographia Sacra 
 Rrabantiai," folio, 2 vols, with numerous en- 
 gravings. His other writings are, " Hagiolo- 
 gium Flandriae ;" and two quarto volumes, the 
 one containing an account of the principal 
 Flemish authors, the other biographi'.al no- 
 tices of citizens of Ghent distinguished for 
 their progress in literature. His death took 
 place in 1664. — Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SANDFOKD (Francis) a celebrated ge- 
 nealogist and herald of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, an Irishman by birth, who filled the of- 
 [ fice of a pursuivant-at-arms in the Heralds' 
 college during the reigns of Charles the Se- 
 cond and James the Second. He published 
 an account of the ceremonies observed at the 
 coronation of the latter monarch, in one vo- 
 lume folio, as well as several other tracts con- 
 nected with his profession. Of these the prin- 
 cipal are, a " Genealogical History of the 
 Kings of England and Monarchs of Great 
 Britciin," folio, to which a supplement has 
 since been added by Stebbing ; "A Genealo- 
 gical History of the Royal House of Portu- 
 gal," folio ; and an account of the " Order of 
 the Ceremonies observed at the Funeral of 
 George Monk, Duke of Albemarle." In 1688 
 Mr Sandford resigned his situation, but sur- 
 vived it little more than four years, when he 
 died in his sixty-fourth year. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 SANDINI (Antonio) a native of the Ve- 
 netian states, born in the year 1692. He ob- 
 tained the professorship of ecclesiastical his- 
 tory in the university of Padua, and is known 
 as the author of " 'I'lie Lives of the Popes ;" 
 " A Dissertation on the Lives of the Popes, 
 extracted from the History of the Church ;" 
 " The History of the Holy Family ;" and 
 " Tiie Lives of the Apostles." His death 
 took place at Padua about the middle of the 
 last century. — Koitv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SANDIUS (Christopher) a German po- 
 lemic of the seventeenth century, born in 1644 
 at Konigsberg. He wrote against the Tri- 
 nity, and was a warm defender of the opinions 
 of Socinus. His principal works consist of a 
 " Treatise on the Nature and Origin of the 
 Soul ;" '• Bibliotheca Anti-'J'rinitariorum," 
 12mo ; "Nucleus Historiaj IkclesiasticEe," 
 
 2 vols. 8vo ; some remarks on the writings of 
 Gerard Vossius, and a volume of epigram.s. 
 Sandius retired into Holland, and settled at 
 Amsterdam, wliere he died in 1680. — Saxii 
 Onom. 
 
 S.AXDRART (Joachim) a German artist 
 and author of celebrity, who flourished in tlie 
 seventeenth century. He was a native of 
 Frankfort-sur- Maine, where he was born iu 
 
S A N 
 
 1606, and became especially eniiiKMit as a 
 portrait ami historical painter. I lavin^F stu- 
 died tlie principles of his art under J)e, Hry, 
 ]\Ierian, and Giles Sadfler, all engravers of 
 considerable merit, be accompanied Cierard 
 Hontborst to London, where br wan much no- 
 ticed by Viiliers duke of r)uckini;bani. The 
 assassination of bis ])atron in \6'ji7 indiued 
 him to return to the continent, where, after 
 visitinjj the principal cities of S|»ain and Italy, 
 lie settled at bis native place. Marrviru^' some 
 time after, be took up liia abode at Nurem- 
 berg;, where he founded a scliool of paintinjr, 
 and acquired both reputation and wealth. As 
 an autlior, Sandrart is advantatjeously known 
 by bis " Lives of the Painters," a work which 
 he compiled with great care principally from 
 the writinojs of Uidolfi, Vasari, and \'^an 
 Mander. His other woiks, all on professional 
 subjects, consist of " llomanorum Fonti- 
 nalia ;" " Academia Tedesca della Architet- 
 tura, Scultura, e Pittura," folio, 2 vols. ; "Ad- 
 miranda Sculptural Veteris." folio; " Icono- 
 logia Deorum," folio; and " Romai Anliqua^ 
 et Novje Theatrum," folio. His death took 
 place at Nuremberi^ in 1683; or, as others 
 say, in 1688. — Saxii Onom. 
 
 SANDYS (Edwin) an eminent Eiit;lisli 
 prelate, was born of an ancient family of the 
 same name near Hawkshead, Lancashire in 
 1519. He received his education at St John's 
 college, Cambridge, where he end)raced the 
 doctrines of the Reformation. In 1547 be 
 was elected master of Catherine-hall, and 
 in 1553 served the office of vice-chancellor. 
 Having been induced by tbe duke of Northum- 
 berland to preach a sermon in favour of lady 
 Jane Grey, on tbe defeat of that ill-judged 
 attempt, be was committed to the Tower, 
 whence he was removed to the Marslialsea ; 
 but finally released at the intercession of sir 
 Thomas Holcroft, knight marshal. He was, 
 however, no sooner at liberty, than Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, being informed of his 
 zeal for tbe reformed doctrines, sought to ar- 
 rest him again, but he safely reached the con- 
 tinent, where he remained until tlie accession 
 of Elizabeth, when he returned, and in Dec. 
 1559 was consecrated bishop of AVorcester. 
 In 1570 he succeeded bishop Grindal, in tbe 
 see of London, and in 1576 followed tbe same 
 ])relate in that of York. In 1582 a plot was 
 laid by sir Robert Stapleton, to ruin him by a 
 charge of adultery ; but the conspiracy was 
 discovered, and the parties concerned in it pu- 
 nished. The abilities of this prelate were of 
 a high order, but his disposition to amass 
 wealth for his numerous family, and continual 
 conflicts and altercations with both Protestants 
 and Papists, bis own clergy and neigbbouis 
 included, injured bis general character. A 
 volume of his sermons was printed after bis 
 death, and reprinted in 1812, with a biogra- 
 phical memoir by Dr Whitaker. Archbishop 
 Sandys, who died in 1588, in his sixty-ninth 
 year, was one of the tratLslators of the Bible of 
 1565. — Life bu Wkitaker, Bing. Brit. 
 
 SANDYS (sir Edwin ") second son of tbe 
 preceding, was born in Worcestershire about 
 
 S A N 
 
 L561, and educated at Corpus Cbri.sti colle|,'e 
 Oxff.rd. In 1579 he obluiiied a fellowslup', 
 and in 1581 was collated to a prebend in tin- 
 church of ^'ork, though not in orders, (hi 
 griidualintr MA. be went abroad, and whib- in 
 Paris, wrote a work, cutitUd " Kurop;e Spe- 
 culum," which bein^ printed BurreptiiiouHJy, 
 he ])ublish('d an ami-nd.d edition in lf;29 
 with largi! additions, uudfr the title of " Lu- 
 ropii! Speculum ; or a View and Survey of 
 lleligion in the Western Parts of the World." 
 In 1602 be resigned bis preU-nd, and tli.- fol- 
 lowing year was knighted by James I, and 
 was emjdoyed by him in much important public 
 business, although subsequently imprisoned for 
 opposition to the court. He was afterwards 
 treasurer of the Western plantations. He died 
 in 1()29. He founded a metaphysical lecture 
 at Oxford. — Fuller's Wurtliies. 
 
 SANDYS (George) second son of tbe 
 arcbl)ishop of that name, born in the eircbi- 
 episcopal palace at Jiishop's Thorpe, in 1577. 
 In 1589 he was placeil at St .Mary -hall, Ox- 
 ford, but does not appear to have taken any 
 degree. In t6l0 he commenced bis travel's 
 through tlie Levant and other parts of the 
 Turkish empire, reluming home through Italy, 
 and staying some time at Rome, where he ap- 
 plied himself diligently to the study of the 
 classical remains yet visible in that capital. 
 This journey occupied him upwards of two 
 years. On his return to England he amused 
 himself by digesting his notes, and publishing, 
 in 1615, an account of the countries through 
 which he liad passed. This work was followed 
 by several poetical prodoctioiis, the first of 
 which, a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, 
 originally printed in London in 1627, with the 
 first book of the yEneid annexed, is bi-blv 
 spoken of by Dryden, who styles the author 
 " the best versifier of the last age ;" and with 
 regard to his version of Virgil, declares, that 
 had Mr Sandys gone before him in the whole 
 translation, he himself would never have at- 
 tempted it. His other works are a " Para- 
 jihrase on the Psalms and upon the Hvmns 
 dispersed through the Old and New Testa- 
 ments," London, 1636, reprinted in folio, 
 1638. This book was a great favourite with 
 Charles I, who ke])t it constantly with him 
 while confined at Carisbrooke castle : " A Pa- 
 raphraseon tbe DivinePoems," with a thorough 
 bass for an organ by the two Lawes, 4 vols. 
 4to, 1637 ; and translation of the " Chris- 
 tus Patiens " of Hugo Grotius, 1640. His 
 death took place in 1613, at tbe house of bis 
 nephew, .Mr Wiat, of Hoxlev abbey, near 
 Maidstone, in Kent, in the church of which 
 parish be lies buried without any monument ; 
 but the following complimentary entry is in- 
 serted in tbe register: " Georuius Sand\s, 
 Poetarum Anglorum sui Sieculi ]'rince]>.«, se- 
 pultus fuit ^Maitii 7. Stilo .\ngIico, Anno Dom. 
 l6iS.—Life hij Cihher. 
 
 SANGALLO (.Antonio) an eminent archi- 
 tect of the sixteenth century. He was bom 
 in the environs of Florence, and was intended 
 for the business of a carpenter : but happily 
 visiting Rome, where he had two uncles who 
 
SAN 
 
 wore architects, he was instructed by them in 
 their art, his knowledge of which he per- 
 fected under Brainante, whom he succeeded 
 as architect of the church of St Peter. He 
 was mucli employed under the popes Leo X, 
 Clement Vll, and Paul III, both in fortifying 
 places, and in the construction of public build- 
 ings, the grandeur and solidity of wliich have 
 been much admired. He died in 1346. — ^ouv. 
 Diet. Hist. See Giamberti. 
 
 S ANiMICH ELI (iMicHAEi.) a distinguished 
 Italian architect, bom at Verona, in 1484. 
 He adopted the profession of liis father, and 
 at the age of sixteen went to Rome for im- 
 provement. He was intimate with iNIichael 
 Angelo, Braraante, Sausovino, and Sangallo, 
 in whose fame lie participated. His first erec- 
 tions were the cathedrals of Orvieto and 
 Montefiascone. }5eing called to Home before 
 he had finished these works, he entered into 
 the service of pope Clement VII, and was 
 employed at l^arma and Placentia as an engi- 
 neer. The Venetians subsequently engaged 
 his services in the fortification of the city of 
 Verona, where he also built a bridge over the 
 Adige, and the palaces of Bevilacqua, Torre, 
 Pompei, and Canossa. He died at Verona, 
 in 15o9. — Maffei Verona Illustrata. JMilizia 
 Memorie desH Architetti antichi e moderni. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 SAXXAZARIUS (Actius Sincerus) or 
 Giacopo Sanazario, a celebrated Italian poet, 
 born at NaplfS, July 28, 1458. He was pa- 
 tronized by Frederick king of Naples, and 
 when that prince was dethroned, he attended 
 him iu his retreat to France, and remained 
 there till his majesty died. Sanaazarius then 
 returning to Italy dedicated his time to the 
 cultivation of elegant literature. His wit and 
 gaiety rendered him the object of general ad- 
 miration, and he passed several years in the 
 society of his friends. At length his country 
 Beat at iMersrO'zlino being destroyed bv the 
 imperial army, under the })rince of Orange, he 
 was so affected with the disaster, that it oc- 
 casioned his death in Aj^ril 1330. The works 
 of Sannazarius are " Arcadia," a pastoral ro- 
 mance ; " Sonnetti e Canzoni ; both in Ita- 
 lian ; and poems " De Partu Virginis, lib.iii." 
 " Eclogai v. ;" " Salices ;" and " Lamentatio 
 de Morte Christi." — Tintboschi. Aikin's G. 
 Biflg. Biog. Utiiv. 
 
 SANSON (Nicholas) a celebrated French 
 geographer, mathematician, and engineer, born 
 at Abbeville, iu Picardy, on December 12, 
 loi'9. Tli0U;.'h destined by his friends for a 
 commercial life, in wliich he actually engaged, 
 yet, even while a youth, the peculiar bent of 
 his genius displayed itself in the construction 
 of a map of ancient Gaul, remarkable fur 
 its excellence and accuracy. The reputation 
 W'hich this work procured him, and some se- 
 vere losses in trade, induced him to forsake 
 commerce altogether, and to devote himself to 
 the study of gf'ography, in which he soon rose 
 to the greatest eminence. Settling in the me- 
 tropolis, he obtained the patronage both ol 
 Richelieu and Mazarin, and was made geo- 
 
 SAN 
 
 ancient and modern, all of wliich are on a 
 large scale, exceed three hundred in number, 
 and are highly valuable. They were collected 
 and published by his two sons, themselves 
 good geographers, in an Atlas, which ajipeared 
 at Paris, in two volumes, folio, 1693, twenty- 
 six years after the decease of their father. The 
 elder Sanson is also known as the author of a 
 " History of Abbeville ;" descriptions of 
 France, Spain, Italy, the Roman empire, &c. 
 and other tracts, accompanying, and illustra- 
 tive of his maps, — Xouik Diet. Hist. 
 
 SANSOVINO. or TATTI (Giacopo) a 
 celebrated sculptor and architect, born at Flo- 
 rence about 1479. He studied under the Flo- 
 rentine sculptor Contucci, of Mont-Sanso- 
 vino, from whom he derived the name by 
 which he is commonly known ; and he was 
 afterwards taken to Rome by the architect 
 Julio di Sangallo, where he was employed in 
 designing and in modelling antiques. Ill 
 health induced him to return to Florence, and 
 being recovered, he executed several works, 
 among which was a triumphal arch, erected 
 for the entrance of pope Leo X into Florence 
 in 1515. He again visited Rome, where he 
 built the church of St John the Baptist, and 
 engaged in various other undertakings. On 
 the death of the pope he went to Venice ; but 
 returning when Clement VII was raised to the 
 pontifical throne, he renewed his labours, 
 which were interrupted by the sacking of Rome 
 in 1527. Having received an invitation to 
 visit France, he proceeded to Venice in his 
 way thither, and the favourable reception 
 he experienced induced him to remain in that 
 city. He was appointed first architect of the 
 church of St JMark, and he exercised his ta- 
 lents in the erection of churches, palaces, the 
 mint, and the public library. Many works of 
 sculpture were also executed by Sansovino at 
 A'enice, where he resided till his death in No- 
 vember, 1570. lioth as an architect and a 
 sculptor this artist ranks with the most cele- 
 brated of his contemporaries. — Vasari. IMUizia 
 Memorie degli Architetti antichi e 7noder)ii. 
 Biog. Uriiv. 
 
 SANSOVINO (Francesco) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Rome in 1521. He was 
 sent to study the law at Padua ; but he pre- 
 ferred polite literature, and procured admis- 
 sion into the newly founded academy of the 
 Infiammati. This conduct offended his father, 
 who persuaded him to resume his legal stu- 
 dies at Bologna, where he was admitted doc- 
 tor of laws. He did not, however, engage in 
 professional practice, and ultimately attached 
 himself to the study of poetry and history. 
 On the accession of pope Julius HI, who was 
 his goilfather, he hastened to Rome iu the 
 hope of obtaining his patronage ; but being 
 disappointed, he returned to Venice, and de- 
 dicated his time to literary occupations. He 
 died in 1586. His principal works are, " Del 
 Governo de' Regni e delle Repubbliche an- 
 tiche emoderne," 1561, 4to ; " Ritratto delle 
 j)iu nobilo e famose Citta d'ltalia," 1575, 4to ; 
 " Dell' Orjgine e F itti deile Famiglie illustri 
 
 giapher and engineer to the king. His maps [ d Italia," 1582, 4to. —Nireron, xxii. Bio^. Uni. 
 
S A P 
 
 SANTKUL or SANTOI^UIS (Jnus de) 
 erroii<'ou>-ly styk'il .lolin ISapUst Saiilcuil, tli<! 
 most celebrated iiioLleni l-;ttiu poet Fiaiite liaa 
 proiluced. was born at I'aris, May )'2, U53(». 
 Hfi Rtuilied under the Jesuits, and at a proper 
 ai;e entered among llic canons rej^^ular of llie 
 abbey of St Victor, and devoted himself to 
 the cultivation of hterature, never havini; pro- 
 ceeded beyond the rank of a sub-deacon in 
 tlie cluirch. Me soon acquired fame by ilie 
 productions of his pen; and among his works 
 were inscriptions for public edifico at l*aris, 
 for which he received a pension from the city. 
 His personal character was singular in the ex- 
 treme, exiiibiiintj all the violence, impatience, 
 and caprice of an eccentric wit and humourist. 
 His moral conduct was liable to great repre- 
 hension ; yet he had occasional fits of devo- 
 tion, in which he endeavoured to atone for his 
 irregularities by writing Latin odes and canti- 
 cles for the church. Tliose which he composed 
 for that of Paris, were so much applauded, 
 that many other churches wished to employ 
 him in a similar task. He spent mucli of his 
 time in society, and was patronised by the two 
 jirinces of Conde, the duke of Bourbon, and 
 other i)ersons of distinction. He was also no- 
 ticed by Louis XIV. who granted him a pen- 
 sion, on condition of devoting his talents en- 
 tirely to sacred poetry. His death took place 
 at i)ijon, whither he had accompanied the 
 duke of Bourbon, in August, 1697. A com- 
 plete edition of his works was published in 
 1729, 3 vols. 12mo. — His elder brother, 
 Claude Santeul, who belonged to the semi- 
 nary of St INIagloire, at Paris, was also a wri- 
 ter of Latin poetry. He died in 1664. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SAPPHO, a celebrated Lesbian poetess, 
 who flourished about the forty-fourth Olym- 
 piad, in the fifth century before the Christian 
 ajra. She was the wife of Cercolaus, by whom 
 she had a daughter, but appears to have been 
 more remarkable for her wit and talents than 
 for her personal charms. It appears to have 
 been after she became a widow that she ren- 
 dered herself so distinguished by her poetry 
 and amorous j)ropensiiies. Her verses were 
 chiefly of the lyric kind, and love was their 
 general subject, which she treated with so 
 much warmth of nature, and beauty of poeti- 
 cal expression, as to acquire the title of the 
 tenth muse. Her morals, however, have been 
 as much depreciated as her genius has been 
 exalted ; and besides her desperate attach- 
 ment to Phaon, which Ovid has imiuortalized, 
 she has been accused of improper attachments 
 to several of her own sex. There are various 
 accounts of her death, but that most generally 
 received states, that unable to bear the neg- 
 lect of Phaon, she repaired to the famous pre- 
 cipice of Leucate, popularly called the Lover's 
 Leap, and threw herself iulo the sea, which ter- 
 minated at once both her life and her love. 
 Of the works of Sappho there remain only a 
 ■' Hymn to Venus," two epigrams, an ode, 
 dnd some trifling fragments. Of the ode an 
 elegant veisionis given by Catullus ; and both 
 that and the hymn are known to the English 
 
 s A i: 
 
 reailer by the vcrMionH of Ambrose Philips. 
 Sappho IS regarded as the inventor of the 
 siaiua calleil after her name, aii alwo of the 
 measure den(jininated myxo-Lydian. — I'ouii 
 
 I'tlCl. (hue. liilljlf. 
 
 SAKA/IN (Jamks) an eminent French 
 8cul|)tor, born at Noyon in 1;>00. After htu- 
 dying at I'aris, he went to Home, where h« 
 contracted a friendship with Donu-nichino, tht 
 painter, who assisted him wkli his ailvice. lla 
 resiiled at Pome eighteen years, and then re- 
 turned home through Florence and Lyrjns, at 
 both which places lie left some of his produc- 
 tions. He was employed by cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, and he made a group in silver and gold, 
 representing the presentation of the dauphin 
 to the \'irgin M-Ary, intended as an ofl'ering 
 from the queen, Anne of Austria, to the cha- 
 pel of Loretto. He also executed several 
 works which atlorded greater scope for his ta- 
 lents, and particularly a much-admired group 
 of two children ami a goat, at .MarH. His best 
 production was the mausoleum of Henry de 
 Bourbon, prince of Conde, who died in 1646. 
 His works display grace and elegance, but his 
 figures are said to want dignity and correct- 
 ness, and his draperies are heavy. He died at 
 Paris in 1660. — fHog. Univ. 
 
 SARBILWSKl (Matthias Casimir) 
 commonly known by the name of Casimir, was 
 born in 1595, of a noble family in Poland. He 
 entered into the society of Jesus in 1612, and 
 being sent to Rome, devoted himself to the 
 study of classical antiquities and poetry. (Ja 
 his return to Poland he was successively pro- 
 fessor of classic philosophy and theology at 
 Wilna, and when he took his doctor's degree, 
 Ladislaus IV assisted at the ceremony, and 
 placed his own ring on his finger. 'J'he same 
 king afterwards nominated him his preacher, 
 and made him the companion of his journies. 
 He was cut off in the prime of life, dying 
 at Warsaw, in 1640, at the age of forty-five, 
 at which time he had begun an epic poem on 
 the history of Poland, entitled " 'J'he Les- 
 chiad." His finished Latin j)oems, wliich con- 
 sist of odes, epodes, dithyrambics, epigrams, 
 and miscellaneous pieces, liave accjuired him 
 a high reputation, and the emphatic praise of 
 (jrotius, Heinsius, and Borrichius, Several 
 of his odes relate to national events, and are 
 touched with great fire and spirit. He lias 
 been criticised for impurity of diction and oc- 
 casional extravagance ; but, upon the whole, 
 few modern Latin poets have exhibited equal 
 force and fertility. His works have been se- 
 veral times printed, and an elegant edition 
 was given by Barbou in 1759, 12mo. — liaillft. 
 Claifsical Journal, No. xxv. Boicring's I'oliih 
 I'oeti 
 
 SARXELLI (PoMPEio) a learned Italian 
 prelate, bom at Polignano in 1649, and studied 
 ])rinci|);dly at Nai)les. In 1675, after he had 
 been admitted to priest's orders, pope Cle- 
 ment X made him honorary prothonotary ; and 
 in 1679 he was appointed grand vicar to car- 
 dinal Orsino, and obtaine«l other preferment, 
 being ultimately nominated bishop of Biseglia. 
 He died in 1724. He was author of more than 
 
S A U 
 
 tliirty works, enumerated by Niceroa and 
 Rloreri, of wliich the principal are " Lettere 
 Ecciesiastiche," 9 vols. 4to ; " II Ciero seco- 
 lare nel suo Splendore, overo della Vila com- 
 mune clericaie," 1638, 4to ; " Bestiarum 
 Scliola ad Homines f>udiendo3 ab ipsa Rerum 
 Natura provide inatituta," 6cc. ; " Memorie 
 Chronologicbe dt.'' Vescovi et Arcivescovi di 
 Benevento ;" the lives of J^aptista Porta, Bol- 
 doni. and others. — Niceron. Moreri. 
 
 SARRASIX, (John Fiiancis) an eminent 
 French poet, born in Normandy about 1604. 
 He studied at the university of Caen, and 
 afterwards froin^ to Paris, obtained an intro- 
 duction to the first society, and married a rich 
 wife, whose age and ill-tem|)er so disgusted 
 him, that he procured a separation. He then 
 entered into the service of llie prince of Conti, 
 as Ills secretary, but falling into disgrace with 
 that nobleman, whom he had persuaded to 
 marrv tlie niece of cardinal Mazarin, he was 
 dismissed, and died soon after iu 16o5. His 
 poetical works were published at Paris, in 
 1663, l2mo ; and two more volumes aj)[ieared 
 in 1675. — Unet, Oi-ig. de Caen. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SAIiri (Joseph) an able and graceful com- 
 poser, was born at Faenza, in 1730. In 1756 
 he went to Copenhagen, and held the situa- 
 tion of .Alaestro di Capella to the young king 
 of Denmark, for whose theatre he published 
 an opera, wliich was but moderately success- 
 ful. He then went to Venice, where he was 
 appointed master of the conservatorio of I .a 
 Pieta, and composed his opera of " Guilio 
 Sabino," wliich obtained so much reputation 
 that he was invited to St Petersburgli, where 
 the empress Catharine appointed him director 
 of tlie conservatory of music at Cathurineslaff, 
 with a munificent salary, to which she after- 
 wards added a title of nobility and an estate. 
 He resided in Russia eighteen years, and re- 
 tired in 1801, with a ])ension, with a view of 
 seeking a warmer climate, but died the follow- 
 ing year at Berlin. Sarti composed nearly a 
 score of operas, with some pieces of church 
 music, which are very highly esteemed, espe- 
 cially a " Miserere," from wliich there is an 
 exquisitely beautiful trio, to be found in the 
 second volume of the sacred music of Latrobe. 
 — Hi,>i:. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 SAUiMAISE (Claude) one of the most 
 learned and indefatigable classical scholars of 
 the seventeenth century. He was born at Se- 
 mur in France, April 15, 1588. He com- 
 menced his studies under his father, and af- 
 terwards pursued them at Paris and Heidel- 
 berg. In 1610 he entered as an advocate of 
 the parliament of Dijon, but he never ajipeared 
 at the bar, being wholly engrossetl by the 
 study of ancient literature. He succeeded 
 loseph Scaliger as professor of history at Ley- 
 den, where he remained, in spite of the tempt- 
 ing oft'ers made by cardinals Richelieu and M a- 
 7,ariri to induce him to return to France. He 
 however received marks of favour from the 
 king, who appointed him a counsellor of state. 
 fn 1619 he wrote a defence of Charles 1 of 
 England, at the retjuest of his son ; and this 
 wrork involved him in a literary contest with 
 
 S A U 
 
 tlie celebrated ]Milton,from whom it produced 
 his forcible but virulent " Dt-fensio pro Populo 
 Anglicano," which was so much more popular 
 than the work of Saumaise, that the latter was 
 greatly mortified ; nor could he justly com- 
 plain on the score of rancour and scurrility, 
 the indecorum in tliis respect being mutual. 
 He twice visited the court of Christina, queen 
 of Sweden ; and the second time he was re- 
 called by the curators of the university of Lev- 
 den, who, in their address to Christina, in- 
 formed her that " as the world could not suo- 
 sist without the presence of the sun, neither 
 could their university without that of Sau- 
 maise." On his journey homeward he was 
 admitted to tlie table of the king of Denmark, 
 and conducted, loaded with presents, to the 
 frontiers of the kingdom. But the fatigue he 
 had encountered debilitated his constitution, 
 and occasioned his death, which took place at 
 Spa, September 6, 1653. The Swedish queen 
 composed a funeral oration for him, and un- 
 dertook the education of his third son. Among 
 his works are treatises, " De LTsuris ;" " De 
 Modo Usurarum ;" •' De Fcenore Trapezi- 
 tico ;" *' Diatriba de Mutuo non esse Aliena- 
 tionem ;" " De Re JNIilitari Romanorum ;" 
 and " De Hellenistica." But he is chiefly 
 celebrated for his commentaries on the Scrip- 
 tores Historiae Augustae ; Solinus : Florus ; 
 Epictetus, (Sec. Though violent as a contro- 
 versial writer, Saumaise was mild and unas- 
 suming in private life. His mind was a vast 
 magazine of various knowledge, tlie result of a 
 retentive memory and great industry, but little 
 improved by taste or judgment. — Biog. Univ. 
 Aikin's Gen. Biog. 
 
 SAUNDERS (sir Edmund) an English 
 judge and legal reporter of eminence in the 
 reign of Charles II. He was originally an 
 errand-boy at the inns of court, who being 
 employed to copy ])recedeuts, gradually ac- 
 quired so much knowledge as to qualify him 
 for an attorney. He was subsequently called 
 to the bar, and in 1682 he was made chief- 
 justice of the court of King's Bench. His death 
 took place suddenly in the course of the same 
 year. His " Reports of several Pleadings and 
 Cases in B. R. temp\ Car. II." were first pub- 
 lished in French, 1686,2 vols, folio ; and the third 
 eilition, with notes and references by Serjeant 
 Williams, appeared in 1799, 2 vols, large 8vo. 
 These Reports are considered as peculiarly 
 valuable, on account of the correct state of 
 the pleadings in the several cases. — North's 
 Life of lord Guilford. Bridgnuins Leg. Bih. 
 
 SAUNDERSON (Nicholas) a celebrated 
 blind mathematician, born at Thurlston in 
 Yoikshire, in l(i82. ^^'hen a year old he en- 
 tirely lost his eye-sight through the small- 
 pox. Notwithstanding this privation, he ac- 
 (juired at a grammar-school a knowledge of 
 Latin and Greek, which he afterwards so much 
 improved as to be aide to understand the 
 works of Kuclid, Archimedes, and other an- 
 cient geometers when read to him in the ori- 
 ginal languages. Having pursued his studies 
 for some time with the assistance of friends 
 who admired his talents, he was, in 1707, 
 
S A [J 
 
 Bent to Cambridge. He took up liis residence 
 at Christ's college, wiihout beiiii; ailinitteil 
 a member of tliat society, notwithstanding 
 which he was allowed a room and the use of 
 tlie library ; and he soon conuuenctd givinir 
 lectures. Numberstiock< d to hear him, partly 
 from curiosity, to observe how a hiind man 
 would explain tlie ])henomeiia of lii^bt and co- 
 lours, as the subject on which he lectured was 
 optics. He became acquainted with sir Isaac 
 Newton, with whom he carried on an inte- 
 resting correspomUiice ; and on the ejection of 
 Mr Winston from the mathematical professor- 
 ship, Saunilerson was chosen to the vacant 
 chair. He applied himself closely to the du- 
 ties of his station, and continued to reside at 
 Christ's college till 1723, when he took a 
 house, and married the daughter of a clergy- 
 man, by whom he had a son and a daughter. 
 In 17'J8, when George IT visited the univer- 
 sity, he was created doctor of laws, by the 
 royal mandate. 'I'hough naturally of a strong 
 constitution, he suffered at length from too 
 close application to study ; and after some 
 years' illness, he died from mortification of the 
 foot, April 19, 1739 As an author he is 
 principally known on account of an elaborate 
 treatise on algebra, published after his death 
 at Cambridge, 1740, 2 vols. 4to. He left 
 other works in an imperfect state, among 
 which were comments on Newton's Principia, 
 which were published at the end of his post- 
 humous treatise on Fluxions, 1756, 8vo. — 
 Life prefixed to his Algebra. Rees^s Cyclop. 
 Martin s Biog. Fhilos. 
 
 SAURIN (Elias) an eminent Piedmontese 
 Protestant minister, born in the year 1639, at 
 Visseaux, on the borders of Dauphiny. He 
 was educated by his father, the minister of his 
 native place, and successively attended the 
 Protestant seminaries of Die, Nismes, and 
 Geneva. He was admitted to the ministry in 
 1661, and would have been made professor of 
 divinity at Die, had he not been driven from 
 his country by persecution. He took refuge 
 in Holland, and became pastor of the Wal- 
 loon church at Delft, and retained that situa- 
 tion in 1671, when he accepted tlie same of- 
 fice at Utrecht. He was one of the learned 
 and moderate ministers who were accused of 
 heresy by the furious J urieu, whose bigotry 
 and fanaticism he very ably exjiosed. He had 
 also a contest with Bayle, on the subject of his 
 " Philosophical Commentary." He died in 
 1703. He was author of an " Examination 
 of the Divinity of M. Jurieu," 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 " Reflections on the Rights of Conscience ;" 
 " A 'J reatise on the Love of God ;" "A 
 'I'reatise on the Love of our Neighbour," \c. 
 — Moreri. 
 
 SAURIN (James) a learned French Pro- 
 testant divine and very celebrated preacher, 
 was the son of an eminent Protestant lawyer 
 at Nismes, where he was born in 1677. Upon 
 the revocation of the edict of Nautz in 1685, 
 his failier retired with his family to Geneva, 
 where tiie subject of this article made a consi- 
 derable progress in learning, but quitted his 
 studies and went into the army. He made a 
 
 S A U 
 
 camp-rti^n as a cndet in the regiment of lord 
 tiallowuy in 1691; l)ut vvhfti tjie duke of Sa- 
 voy, under whom he herved, made a peace in 
 1696, he renounced the tiulitary |)ri)fe88ion, 
 ami r»'turned to Geneva with a view to en<ra^e 
 in the ministry. When he ha<i finished hi* 
 studies, in the year 1700 he visiti-il Holland 
 anil England, in the latter of which countrn-K 
 he conlinuinl nearly five years, and preaclu'd 
 with great acceptance among iiitt fellow- refu- 
 gees in London. In 1703 he married a lady 
 by whom he had a son, who survived Jiini • 
 and two years afterwards he returned to llol- 
 land, and in the first instance obtained a chap- 
 laincy to some of the nobility at the Hague. 
 He subse(|uently became one of the [lastors to 
 a congregation of French refugees, who were 
 permitted to assemble in a chapel belonging to 
 tUe palace of the prince of Orange, in the 
 same place. Here he officiated for the re- 
 mainder of his life, and was constantly at- 
 tended by a crowded and brilliant audience, 
 attracted by his powerful and persuasive ta- 
 lents as a preaclier. When the princess of 
 Wales, aftervvards queen Caroline, passed 
 through the Hague, slie received hiin with the 
 greatest condescension ; and afieiwards, with 
 a view to the benefit of Frederick, prince of 
 Wales, commissioned him to write a " Treatise 
 on the Education of Princes," For this work, 
 which has never been printed, he received a 
 handsome present ; and afterwards, by the 
 same influence, a pension was conferred upon 
 him by George II, to whom he dedicated a 
 volume of his sermons. His celebritv excited 
 the envy of some of his brethren, and his mo- 
 deration the bigotry of others ; and their ill- 
 will involved him in disputes which much em- 
 bittered the latter end of his life. He died in 
 1730, at the age of fifty-three. This eminent 
 preacher and exemplary man possessed great 
 talents, and a fine address ; his voice was 
 strong, clear, and harmonious, and his style 
 pious, unaffected, and eloquent. He had the 
 happy art of adapting his arguments with 
 great skill to the understanding of the audi- 
 ences before whom he spoke, and was persua- 
 sive and pathetic, or plain, clear, and argu- 
 mentative, as best suited his subjects or his 
 
 I hearers. His principles were those of mode- 
 
 I rate Calvinism. He was the author of twelve 
 volumes of Sermons, 8vo, selections from 
 which were translated into English, and pub- 
 
 I lished between 1775 and 1784, in 5 vols, by 
 Mr Robert Robinson, a sixth being added, in 
 1796, by Dr Henry Hunter. His other works 
 are, " The State of Christianity in France," 
 Bvo, which work treats of many points of con- 
 troversy between the French Catholics and 
 Protectants; "A Comj)endiura of Chiistian 
 Divinity and IVIorality. in the Catechistical 
 
 1 Form," 8vo ; " Discourses, Historical, Criti- 
 cal, and Moral, ou the most Remarkable 
 
 i Events of the Old and New Testaments." Of 
 this, his most considerable work, he had neariv 
 completed 3 vols, folio, when he died ; to 
 which Roques added a fourth on the Old 'Tes- 
 tament, and M. Reausobre two more on the 
 New Testament, making tiie whole ainouni to 
 
S A U 
 
 6 ?ols. folio. It was a dissertation in the se- 
 cond volume, " On the Expediency of some- 
 times Disguising the Truth," that gave a pre- 
 tence for the controversy, which eventually 
 so much annoyed him. He conceived that 
 in the diaracter of liistorian he was entitled 
 to state the arguments of those who main- 
 tained tlie affirmative of the position, as well 
 as of those who denied it ; and, without for- 
 mally deciding the point, he was thou»ht to 
 favour tlie sentiments of the former. On this 
 account he was assailed with furious clamours, 
 but met with zealous defenders, as well as ran- 
 corous opponents ; and after giving a satisfac- 
 tory explanation of his sentiments, the synods 
 decided the dispute in his favour. In other 
 respects, this elaborate work is replete with 
 learning ; and throughout tlie author shows 
 himself a complete friend to toleration. — 
 ]ivbinso)i's Memoirs prefired to Sermons. ChanJ'e- 
 pie. ]\Inreri. 
 
 SAURIN (Joseph) a French mathemati- 
 cian, was born in lO.^P, at Courtuson, in the 
 principality of Orange. He was educated by 
 his father, a Protestant minister at Grenoble, 
 and at a very early age was admitted to the 
 ministry, at Eure in Dauphiny. Here he 
 gave offence to the Catholics by the freedom 
 of his language ; and in 1683 he was obliged 
 to retire to Geneva, whence he removed to 
 Berne, and was appointed pastor of the church 
 of Berchen, in the bailiwick of Yverdun. 
 Being peaceably settled in his living, he mar- 
 ried a lady of noble birth ; but was soon after 
 obliged to withdraw to Holland, in conse- 
 quence of having preached against some of 
 th<^ doctrines of the formulary, subscription to 
 which was then required in Switzerland from 
 all French refugee ministers. He now deter- 
 mined to quit the Protestant communion, and 
 having made his intention known to the cele- 
 brated Bossuf't, bisliop of Meaux, he made 
 Lis abjuratioa hefore that prelate in 1690. How 
 far conviction, resentment, or the desire of ad- ' 
 vancement, oj)er;ited towards his conversion , 
 has been much disputed, but he immediately 
 received a j)cnsion from Louis XIV ; and de • ^ 
 voting himself to mathematical studies with I 
 great ardour and success, was, in 1707, ad- ' 
 nutted a member of the Academy of Sciences. I 
 .Some years afterwards he was involved in a dis- | 
 jiute with the jioet Rousseau, on the subject of [ 
 some virulent satirical songs, which dispute 
 caused him much troulde, and a short impri- 
 sonment ; but in 1712 an arret of parliament 
 decided in his favour, and banished his anta- j 
 gonist from the kingdom. He died of a lethar- I 
 gic fever in 1737. He was a lively, impetuous, ) 
 and indeptniden t character ; and thereby created i 
 to himself many enemies, who assailed him ■ 
 while liviiiu, and blackened his reputation after 
 death. His mathematical and pliilosoj)liicaI 
 papers, wliich are esteemed very able, will be 
 found in the IMemoirs of the Acailemy o*" 
 Sciences, from 1709 to 1727. — iMoreri. Hut- [ 
 ton's Math. Diet. i 
 
 SAl llIX ( P)ERNATtD Joseph) a dramatic 
 writer, the son of the subject of the ])receding 
 article, was brought up to the law, which he ^ 
 
 S A U 
 
 forsook for the drama. His tragedy of " Spar 
 tacus," acted at Paris in 1760, raised 'lim to 
 reputation, wliicli was fartlier advanced by his 
 " jNIocurs du Temps," a lively comedy in prose. 
 Various other dramas followed, as well as se- 
 veral pieces of poetry and a number of " Cou- 
 plets Bacchicjues," which are gay and inge- 
 nious. He was intimate with Montesquieu, 
 Voltaire, and Helvetius ; the latter of whom 
 gave him a pension of a thousand crowns, and 
 presented him a sum equivalent to the capital 
 of that annuity on his marriage. He was a 
 member of the French Academy, and died in 
 1781. The " riicatre de Sauriu " was printed 
 in 1783, in 2 vols. 8vo. — Notiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SAUSSURE (Horace Bknedict de) a dis- 
 tinguished natural philoso])her, born at Ge- 
 neva, February 17, 1740, From his father, 
 who was a member of the Council of Two 
 Hundred and the author of works on a'^ricul- 
 ture, he imbibed a taste for the studv jf nature. 
 Such were his early attainments, that he be- 
 came professor of jihilosophy at Geneva at the 
 age of twenty-two. He travelled in search of 
 knowledge in France, England, and other 
 parts of Europe. In 1760 he began exploring 
 the Glaciers of the Alps, among which he long 
 continued to make annual excursions. In 1779 
 he had crossed the Alps fourteen times, in 
 eight different tracks ; and that year he pub- 
 lished the first volume of his " Voyages dans 
 les Alpes," which was followed by three more 
 in 1786—1796. In July 1788 he succeeded in 
 reaching the summit of Mont Blanc, the most 
 elevated peak of the Alpine chain ; and in t)ie 
 following year he explored Mont Rose, in the 
 Pennine Alps. When Geneva was united to 
 the French Republic, he was chosen a deputy 
 to the National Assembly ; but the consequent 
 troubles which ensued, both public and domes- 
 tic, contributed to disturb the tranquillity of 
 his life, and hastened his decease, which lian- 
 pened January 22, 1799. Saussure was the 
 author of many essays and papers, relating to 
 natural philosophy and natural history ; and 
 he displayed his ingenuity by the construction 
 of a thermometer for measuring the tempera- 
 ture of water at various depths, of a hygro- 
 meter, to determine the quantity of aqueous 
 vapour in the air, of a eudiometer, to ascertain 
 the purity of the atmosphere, of an electro- 
 meter, an anemometer, and other philosophical 
 instruments. He carried on an extensive cor- 
 respondence with men of science in various 
 countries, and contributed greatly to the dif- 
 fusion of natural knowledge. — liees's Cyclop. 
 Bios;. Univ. 
 
 SAUVEUR (Joseph) a native of La 
 Fleche, born 16r)3. He was dumb from his 
 birth, till he had ])assed liis seventh year, 
 when he at length attained the faculty of 
 speech, and became eventually one of the 
 ablest mathematicians of his day. He was 
 professor of the science in the college of Paris, 
 as well as a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, among whose transactions are to be 
 found several valual)le treatises by him, espe- 
 cially on the subject of music. He was -ntfo 
 the iuverXor of a musical chronometer. Among 
 
SA V 
 
 other eccentricities, he refused (o ste the 
 woman lie had selected for his wife, til! after 
 the contract was mutually hij^'ueil. IJy this 
 fady he had a son, who labouieii under a sinii- 
 Far impediment with reijard to speech as his 
 father, and for a similar period, liis death 
 took, place in 1716. — ^'mtv. Diet. Hist, 
 
 SAUVAGKS (Francis Boissikr de) the 
 inventor of modern nosolog;y. He was born 
 at Alais, in f.ower I.anguedoc, in 1706, and 
 was the son of 15oissier, lord of Sauva<;es, a 
 captain in the army. After a preliminary edu- 
 cation at Alais, he entered at IMoiitpeliier 
 upon a course of medical study, and was ad- 
 mitted to the degree of doctor in 1726. In 
 1750 lie visited Paris, where he formed the 
 plan of an arrangement of diseases according 
 to tlie botanical method of classes, genus, and 
 Bpecies. He published a sketch of his design 
 in 1732, under the title of" Nouvelles Classes 
 des IMaladies, dans un Ordre semblable a celui 
 des Botanistes." On his return to Montpel- 
 lier lie obtaineil the survivorsliip of the medi- 
 cal chair, which he soon after occupied. I lis 
 reputation was rapidly extended by his writ- 
 ings and lectures, and in 1740 he was nomi- 
 nated demonstrator of botany in the royal 
 gardens at IMont{)ellier, and in l7ol he pub- 
 hshed his "INIethodus Foliorum," 8vo. A 
 number of dissertations, and other works, at- 
 tested his diligence, among which the princi- 
 pal was " Nosologia INIethodica," 5 rols. 8vo, 
 1763, and since his death in S! vols. 4to, 1768, 
 being the completion of his system. Tlie 
 classification of diseases, according to their 
 obvious symptoms, is regarded as a great im- 
 provement in nosology, although it offers a 
 temptation to multiply diseases by forming new 
 species from trifling circumstances. It is, 
 however, a valuable performance, and, as 
 
 S A V 
 
 Westminster foundation, whom his fretjuent 
 visits had much attached, raiHcd a tablet to his 
 memory , in tbe eastern pait of the abbey 
 cloistero. — Gent. A/<//,'. 
 
 SAVAGK (RiciiAiiu) an Kngliali poet of 
 tlu' last century, celebrated f ^r hiH geniun, ir- 
 regularities, and misfortunes, lie wa.-i born 
 January 10, 1698, being tbe natural son of 
 Anne, countess of Mactlesfield, who, anxious 
 to procure a divorce from her husband, with 
 whom she had long lived on the wor^t of 
 terms, publicly and shamelessly declared that 
 the child witli which she was then pregnant 
 was the offspring of an adulterous intercourse 
 carried on between herself and earl Rivers. 
 No sooner did the boy, whose misfortunes may 
 thus be considered to have commenced even 
 before his birth, see the liglit, than a violent 
 and most unnatural hatred seems to have taken 
 complete possession of his mother. He was 
 not only at once disowned, but placed by her 
 with an old woman in the lowest state of ia, 
 digence, with directions that he should be 
 brought up in utter ignorance of his birth, and 
 in the meanest condition. The interference of 
 his maternal grandmother, the lady .Mason, a 
 little alleviated his lot ; and through her kind- 
 ness t!ie boy was placed at a grammar-school 
 in the neighbourliood of St Alban's, during 
 wliich jieriod earl Rivers, who seems unques- 
 tionaiily to have considered him as his son, 
 died, revoking a bequest he liad made him of 
 6000/. on being positively assured by tli€ 
 countess herself that ilie child had been some 
 time dead. The same cruelty soon after in- 
 fluenced this wretched woman to endeavour to 
 have liim kidnapped, and sent as a slave to the 
 plantations, a fate he verv narrowly escaped. 
 Young Savage was now apprenticed to a shoe- 
 maker, when the woman, whom he Iwd been 
 
 might be imagined, was much admired by Lin- taught to consider his mother, dying suddenly 
 
 r .... ^J T „f 1.:.. „ „„ „ „ri.,J.. 1\T '^ l„.i. _^ » -11 f 
 
 naeus, who formed a nosology of his own on 
 the same plan. After a life spent in an assi- 
 duous attention to his duties as a physician 
 and professor, he died in 1767, in the sixty - 
 first year of his age. He was much beloved 
 by his numerous pupils, and his reputation 
 procured him an accumulation of hterary ho- 
 nours both at home and abroad. He was mar- 
 ried, and left two sons and four daughters. — 
 Ebv Diet. Hist, de Med. 
 
 SAVAGE, DI). (John) an English clergy- 
 man of the last century, educated at West- 
 minster school, whence he removed to Ema- 
 nuel college, Cambridge, and there gra- 
 duated in divinity. He was a man of conside- 
 rable talent, but of rather eccentric manners. 
 
 some of lady Mason's letters, which he found 
 among her papers, discovered to hira the secret 
 of his birth. From this moment his attempts to 
 see, and, if possible, obtain the notice of his real 
 parent were incessant^ and he is known to 
 have perambulated for Iiours at a time before 
 her residence, merely with the hope of ob- 
 taining a glimpse of her person ; but all hi* 
 assiduity and applications were unavailing, 
 while necessity compelled him to become an 
 author for the means of bodily subsistence. 
 His first work was a pamphlet on the Ban- 
 gorian controversy, which then engaged Uie 
 public attention ; a crude effort, of which he 
 was afterwards ashamed. This he followed 
 up with two comedies, " Woman's a Riddle," 
 
 which more especially displayed themselves in ^ and " Love in a Veil," which, however, pro- 
 the exhibition of a singular attachment to the j cured him little advantage beyond the ac- 
 
 seminary in which he had been brought up. j quaintance of sir Richard Steele and Mr 
 Lord Salisbury, to whom he had acted in the j Wilkes ; the former of whom used to declare, 
 capacity of travelling tutor, gave him the liv- | that " the inhumanity of his mother had given 
 ing of Clothall in Hertfordshire, which, toge- him a right to find a fatlier in every good 
 ther with the lectureship of St George's, Ha- ' man ;" while the interposition of ihe laUer 
 nover-square, he enjoyed till his death, IMarch was so far effectual, as to procure him on one 
 24,1747. He is known as the author of " The occasion fifty pounds from his mother, with 
 Turkish History," 8vo, 2 vols. ; " Letters of the promise of a farther sum, which was never 
 the Antients," 8to, and two occasional ser- performed. In 172;? his tragedy, on the sub- 
 mons. After his decease, the scholars on the . jectof sir Thomas Overbury, waa brought out. 
 Bigg. Dict.— Vol. III. ' I 
 
S A V 
 
 under the auspices of Aaron Hill. This gentle- 
 man wrote the prologue and epilogue, in which 
 lie alludes very happily to the circumstances 
 of the author, who himself performed the 
 principal character, but with little success ; 
 the profits of the piece, however, appear to 
 have amounted to about 200/. Nor did Mr 
 Hill's kindness stop here, as he not only con- 
 tributed to a volume of •' Miscellanies," which 
 Savage edited soon after, but by his exertions 
 procured him a subscription of seventy gui- 
 neas, towards the publication. The poet was 
 now rising fast in reputation, when, in 1727, 
 in a broil in a house of ill-fame, he killed a 
 Mr Sinclair ; and being tried for murder, a 
 verdict of guilty was pronounced against him 
 and Gregory, one of his companions ; while 
 Marchant, another of them, was found guilty 
 of manslaughter only, as having had no sword 
 on at the time. Savage had now no hope of 
 life but from the royal mercy, which his mo- 
 ther exerted herself personally and strenuously 
 with the queen to intercept ; the joint in- 
 fluence, however, of lady Hertford, lord Tyr- 
 connel, and Mrs. Oldfield, counteracted her 
 unnatural attempts, and the king's pardon was 
 pleaded by her unfortunate son, on the 9th of 
 ]\Iarch, 1728. A pleasing instance of the 
 forgiving temper of poor Savage, is found in 
 his afterwards changing his last guinea to 
 relieve a common woman, whose evidence 
 liad weighed heaviest against him ; the only 
 ebullition of his resentment on the occasion 
 being a severe satire upon the judge (Page) 
 who tried him. The threat of a lampoon upon 
 his mother, whose late conduct had quenched 
 the last spark of filial aflfection in his bosom, 
 now procured him some attention from her re- 
 lation, lord Tyrconnel, who, on his agreeing to 
 abandon his design, received him into his 
 house, and allowed him two hundred a year. 
 This ^vas the golden age of Savage's life, and 
 during its contintiance, in 1729, he published 
 Lis "Wanderer, a Moral Poem," always con- 
 sidered by himself as his chef-d'oeuvre, though 
 its sale produced him only ten guineas, the 
 copyright being disposed of by him in all pro- 
 bability during some irregular freak, to dis- 
 charge a tavern reckoning. 'Jhe sunshine 
 of his prosperity was soon overcast by a quarrel 
 with his patron ; and once more turned adrift 
 upon the world, he revenged himself by the 
 publication of " The Bastard," a poem of such 
 severity and incontestible merit, as to have 
 the effect of shutting his mother out of all re- 
 spectable society. A Birth-day ode, addres- 
 sed to the queen, soon after procured him a 
 pension of 50/. from her majesty, to which he 
 was eventually mainly indebted for his sup- 
 port. A satire against the clergy, entitled the 
 " Progress of a Divine," next caused a prose- 
 cution to be instituted against him ; but the 
 information was dismissed by sirl'liilip Yorke, 
 on the ground of the general morality of the 
 work. From this period he appears to have 
 gradually and irretrievably sunk into the 
 lowest misery. The death of the queen, and 
 the consrquent loss of his pension, completed 
 his ruin , and although a few friends raised a 
 
 S A V 
 
 subscription with the view of enabling him to 
 reside in Wales, the same incurable propen- 
 sity to dissipation induced him, not only to 
 squander the money advanced to him, but to 
 incur a debt of eight pounds at Bristol, for 
 which he was arrested, thrown into the county 
 jail, and evental'y removed to Newgate, where 
 he died miserably on the Ist of August, 1743, 
 exhibiting, in the memorable words of his 
 great biographer, Johnson, a lamentable proof 
 that '* nothing can supply the want of pru- 
 dence ; and that negligence and irregularity, 
 long continued, will make knowledge useless, 
 wit ridiculous, and genius contemptible. — Life 
 by Jolinson. 
 
 SAVARY. There were several ingenious 
 French writers of this name. Of these Ja^ies, 
 the elder, was a native of Doue, in the pro- 
 vince of Anjou, born 1622. Till the age of 
 thirty-six, he was actively engaged in com- 
 mercial pursuits, when he began to turn his 
 attention from the practice to the theory of 
 trade, in which latter study he appears to have 
 been little more successful at first than in per- 
 sonally carrying his ideas into execution, in- 
 asmuch as the poverty of his circumstances 
 induced him, in 1667, to solicit and obtain one 
 of the pensions granted by the court to such 
 subjects of France as had twelve living chil- 
 dren. The qualifications of Savary for this 
 mark of the royal bounty were unquestionable, 
 he having no fewer than seventeen by one wife, 
 eleven of whom survived him. In 1670 he 
 was appointed one of the commissioners for 
 the reformation and encouragement of trade ; 
 in which capacity he was mainly instrumental 
 in drawing up the orders and instructions 
 issued in that year. Five years afterwards he 
 was induced to give the result of his observa- 
 tion and experience to the public, in a quarto 
 volume, entitled " Le Parfait Negociaut," a 
 valuable treatise, which was translated into 
 most of the European languages, and went 
 through eight editions in the original. He 
 subsecjuently published a second work on 
 similar subjects, " Aviset Conseils sur les plus 
 importances Matieres du Commerce," also in 
 one vol. 4to. His death took place in 1690. — Of 
 the children already alluded to, James obtained 
 the post of inspector-general of manufactures 
 at Paris, and apj>ears to have inherited much 
 of his father's peculiar talents and turn of 
 mind. He commenced a very laborious but 
 useful work, entitled " A Universal Dictionary 
 of Commerce," in the compilation of which he 
 was much assisted by his brother, Philemon 
 Lewis, a canon of St Maur. The latter 
 finished this work, which the death of James, 
 in 17 16, had threatened to put a stop to ; and 
 the first edition appeared ai Paris in 1723, in 
 2 vols, folio. Philemon afterwards added a 
 supplement, which was printed in 1718, nine- 
 teen years after the author's decease, in a new 
 edition of the original book, occupying altoge- 
 ther three folio volumes. This last and most 
 complete impression appeared at Copenhagen. 
 — A<)»(. Did. Hist. 
 
 . SA\ARY (Nicholas) an observant and 
 acute traveller of the last century, was a ua- 
 
S A V 
 
 tive of Vitre in Britanny, and educated at 
 Rennts. From the y»'ar l77t) to 17110, lie 
 *nij)lo}ed his time in visiting K^yjit and tin- 
 Levant. Of these travels he puhlished an in- 
 terestint^ account, in an epistolary foini, on hib 
 return to France in 1780. i he anliiiuitits, 
 manners, customs, and languatjes of tlie coun- 
 tries he visited on this occasion, were espe- 
 cially the objects of his observation ; and ot 
 his proficiency in the latter respect a very 
 fair specimen is exhil)ited in his version of the 
 Koran, and abrnlgment of ilie same work, enti- 
 tled " J.a iMorale de Mahomet." His letters 
 liave been translated into most modern lan- 
 guages. He died in 1788. — Bio^. Uiiiu. 
 
 SAVILE. The name of an ancient English 
 family, long settled in Yorkshire, which has 
 produced several eminent men, variously dis- 
 tinguished. Of these, Henuy Savii.e, after- 
 wards knighted by James the First in 1604, 
 was one of the most profound Sud elegant 
 scholars of the age in which he lived. He 
 was born at Ikadley, near Halifax, November 
 30, 1549, and after graduating at Brasennose 
 college, Oxford, removed on a fellowship to 
 TNIerton college, in the same university. In his 
 twenty-ninth year he made a tour on the con 
 
 S A V 
 
 of the writings of St ChrysoBtoni, in eight 
 folio volunii-s, \%hi(h. incluiliiig the hum» paid 
 by him foi the colliilion of ditJeieiit inuiiuscriplfl 
 both in Jlngland and on the toniim-iit, wan not 
 produced at a lt»» «-xpni8e than B,OU0/. Sir 
 Ih-nry Savile was ihf intimate iiifiul and cor- 
 respondent of .1. Scahgir, M.ibomiu.s, Isaac 
 Causabon, and most of tlie harned men of Ins 
 day. His deatli took place at Kion college, 
 l-ebruaiy ID, lb'J2, and his remains lie buried 
 in the chapel belonging to that establishment. 
 — He hud two brothers, .Iohn Saviie, after- 
 wards knighted, who died in 1606, one of the 
 barons of the exchequer, and a lawyer of con- 
 siderable talent, whose reports in the courts of 
 the exchetjuer and common pleas are yet re- 
 ferred to as books of authority : aiuri'iioMAs, an 
 erudite and elegant scholar, who held a fellow- 
 ship at IMerton college, and afterwards atKton. 
 Thomas was a great friend of Camden the an- 
 tiquary, and died in 1593, at London. — liioir. 
 Brit. 
 
 SAVILE (Giorge) marquis of Halifax, 
 descended of the same family as the preced- 
 ing, an illustrious statesman and elegant wri- 
 ter, was born in 1630. On the death of 
 Cromwell he distinguished himself by his ex- 
 
 tinent, for tlie purpose of perfecting himself in ertions in favour of the absent king, which, on 
 elegant literature, and on his return was ap- | the restoration of that monarch to the throne, 
 
 pointed tutor in Greek and mathematics to 
 queen Elizabeth, ^^ho held his abilities in 
 great estimation. Seven years after, the war 
 denship of his college becoming vacant, he was 
 
 were rewarded by a coronet. In 1672 he was 
 joined in commission with the duke of Buck- 
 ingham and lord Arlington to conduct the ne- 
 gociation witli France for a general peace. 
 
 elected to fill that situation, which he held for j With this view he accompanied his colleagues 
 about six-and-thirty years, the provostship of to Holland, but the object of their mission 
 Eton being added to it in 1596. On the ac- | failing, returned to this country, and resumed 
 cession of James to the throne of the united j his seat at the council-board. From this situ- 
 kingdoms, several dignified offices were offered ation, however, he was removed in 1675, 
 to his acceptance by the new king, who af- , through the influence of the duke of York, af- 
 fected to patronize all men of eminent classical | terwards James the Second, in consequence of 
 attainments. The moderation of IMr Savile | his violent opposition to that prince's measures 
 was, however, as conspicuous on this occasion | in favour of the Roman Catholic religion. But 
 as his erudition ; and although he accepted j although he appears to have been a deter- 
 ihe order of knighthood, he steadily declined mined enemy to that church, his loyalty to tha 
 all other proposals, either of honour or emolu- Stuart family operated no less forcibly on him 
 ment. In fact, the loss of an only son soon when the bill for excluding the duke from the 
 made him utterly indifierent to promotion of succession was in agitation, his strongly ma- 
 any kind, and from that moment he appears to nifested repugnance to which measure brought 
 have dedicated both his time and fortune him greatly into disgrace with the party with 
 solely to the advancement and encouragement which he had hitherto acted ; so much so, that 
 of literature. In 1619 he founded two profts- they carried a vote through the Commons that 
 sorships in geometry and astronomy in the a petition should be presented to the king, 
 university of which he was a member, besides praying him again to dismiss the obnoxious 
 conferring several other valuable benefactions peer from the post to which he had been but 
 both in property and books, many of the latter recently restored. The dissolution of the par- 
 forming still a part of the Bodleian library, liament, so hostile to him, soon followed, and 
 He was the author of several learned works, he was raised a step higher in the peerage. In 
 of which the principal are his" Commentaries lOB'J he experienced a still farther elevation. 
 
 on Roman Warfare;' " Rerum Anglicarum being created marquis of Halifax, keeper of the 
 post Bedam Scriptores," folio, to which is privy seal, and j^resident of the council, which 
 added a chronological account of events from dignities he retained in the early part of the 
 esar to the Conquest ; " Pra.-lectiones tre- succeeding reign, till his opposition to the 
 cem in Elementa Euclidis Oxoniai habitas ;" proposed repeal of the test acts excited the new 
 
 king's displeasure, and caused his abrupt dis- 
 
 Cassar 
 
 de 
 
 " Oratio coram Elizabetha Regiiia habita ;" a 
 
 translation of four books of Tacitus, and that missal 
 
 writer's life of Agricola, with a commentary, 
 
 in one folio volume. He also edited Bradwar- 
 
 din " De Causa Dei ;" but the work by which 
 
 From this moment lord Halifax conti- 
 nued in opposition, till the flightof James, wheu 
 he was cliosen speaker of the house of Lords, 
 in what is known as the convention parliament. 
 
 he is principally known is his celebrated edition and in tliat capacity contributed mainly to tha 
 
 IS 
 
S A V 
 
 elevation of William to the throne. His 
 predilection for the new government, however, 
 did not long continue ; and the year following, 
 that of the Revolutiou, he resigned in disgust 
 the privy seal, which had once more been com- 
 mitted to his keeping, and during the wliole 
 remainder of his life spoke and voted against 
 the court. A mortification in the bowels car- 
 ried him off in 1 1)9.5. Lord 1 lalifax was a man 
 of great and uncjuestioned talents ; as an orator, 
 though powerful and convincing, his elocjuence 
 wanted that refinement which is found in his 
 writings, his style being occasionally low, and 
 Vis humour coarse. Bishop Burnet denies the 
 then generally received opinion of his having 
 jeen a freethinker, and affirms that he died a 
 sincere Christian from conviction. He was 
 the author of a treatise, entitled "Advice to a 
 Daughter," as well as of a variety of political 
 tracts, the princijial of which are, " Itlaxims 
 of State ;" " The Character of a Trimmer ;" 
 *•' Character of King Charles II ;" " Anatomy 
 of an Equivalent;" "Letter to a Dissenter," 
 &c. Many of these were collected after his 
 decease, and printed together in one octavo vo- 
 lume ; an enlarged edition appeared some years 
 after. He was succeeded in his titles atid es- 
 tates by his only son, William, who survived 
 his father little more tlian four years, and by 
 whose dt-atli, without issue, tlie marquisate 
 became extinct. — Biog. Brit. Collins' s Peerage. 
 SAVONAROLA (Jerome) a famous Ita- 
 lian monk and religious enthusiast, born at 
 Ferrara in 1-15'2. He took the habit of St 
 Dominic at Bologna, at the age of fourteen. 
 In 1483 he went to Florence, and was ap- 
 pointed prior of the convent of St Mark. Sa- 
 vonarola, inspired by an enthusiastic love of 
 liberty, and possessing great talents as an 
 orator, declaimed warmly against the domi- 
 nion of the IMedici family over the state. Lo- 
 renzo de' Medici respected the virtues of the 
 monk, who had assumed the cliaracter of a 
 prophet, and was regarded by some as an en- 
 thusiast, and by others as an impostor, not- 
 withstanding which he was protected during 
 the life of Lorenzo, whom he attended in his 
 last illness. After his death the credit of Sa- 
 vonarola increased with the populace ; and he 
 took a leading i)art in the affairs of the repub- 
 lic subst^quent to the expulsion of Pietro de' 
 IMedici. He promoted the schemes of those 
 citizens who aimed at changing the govern- 
 ment to a democracy, professing to be favoured 
 with a divine revelation, pur])orting that Christ 
 would be king of the Florentines, and that the 
 legislative power should be extended to all the 
 citizens. He continued to maintain his repu- 
 tation till the violence of his denunciations 
 against tlie court of Rome called down on him 
 the sentence of excommunication. Being af- 
 terwards imprisoned, and tried for sedition and 
 blasphemy, he defended himself with P])iiit ; 
 but being tortured into confession of his guilt, 
 he was, pursuant to his sentence, strangled 
 and burnt, May T3, 1498. He wrote a work 
 entiiled " Triuinphus Crucis," Florence, 1492, 
 folio ; and his writings have been printed col- 
 lectively at Leyden, in 6 vols. iivo,—Bi,^g, 
 
 l iini 
 
 SAX 
 
 SAXE (M.AUHicE, count de) a celebrated 
 military officer, was the natural son of Augus- 
 tus, king of Poland, by the countess of Ko- 
 nigsmark. He was born at Dresden in 1696, 
 and even in childbood he displayed some pre- 
 sages of his warlike genius. At the age of 
 twelve he joined tlie allied army under the 
 duke of Marlborough and the prince Eugene ; 
 and he was present at the sieges of Lisle and 
 Toumay, and at the ba'.tle of Malplaquet. His 
 father then gave him a regiment of cavalry, 
 with which he served in Sweden, and was at 
 the taking of Stralsund. His mother procured 
 his marriage with a German lady of rank, when 
 he was but fifteen ; but the inconstancy of his 
 temper occ-asioned a divorce after a few years. 
 He was with prince Eugence in Hungary, in 
 the war with the Turks ; but after the treaties 
 of Utrecht and Passarowitz, he withdrew to 
 France, and he was permanently attached to 
 the service of that country by a brevet of 
 mareschal-de-camp, given him in 1720, by the 
 regent duke of Orleans. He applied himself 
 to study at Paris, and made himself intimately 
 acquainted with professional tactics. In 1726 
 he was a candidate for the duchy of Courland ; 
 and he formed various other schemes of am- 
 bition at different periods. On the death of his 
 father he declined the command of the Saxon 
 army, offered him by his brother, Augustus III, 
 and joined the French on the Rhine, under 
 the duke of Berwick. He distinguished him- 
 self at Dettingen and Philipsburg ; and in 
 1744 he was rewarded with the staff of a 
 marshal of France. He was employed in the 
 war that followed the death of tlie emperor 
 Cliarles VI ; and in 174."> he gained the fa- 
 mous battle of Fontenoy, which was followed 
 by the capture of Brussels and many other 
 places in Flanders. In 1747 he was victorious 
 at Lafeldt, and in the following year he took 
 iMaestricht, soon after which the peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle was concluded. Marshal Saxe 
 survived that event a little more than two 
 years, dying November 30, 1750. He wrote 
 a treatise, entitled " Mes Reveries," on the 
 art of war, 2 vols. 4to. General Grimoard. in 
 1794, pnbhshed " Lett;es ei IMemoires choisis 
 [)arnii 1-es Papiers originaax du M. de Saxe, 
 depuis 1733 jusqu'en 1750," 5 vols. 8vo. — 
 Bidg. Univ. 
 
 SAXIUS or SACHSIUS, the Latin name 
 of Cliristopher Goltlob Sachs, a learned Ger- 
 man, born in 1714, at Epi)eiidorf in Saxony. 
 He graduated in the university of Leipsic, 
 which \fG quilted in 1752, on being appointed 
 to the professor's chair in antiquities, history, 
 and rhetoric at I'treiht. He is known as the 
 author of an elaborate reply to father Har- 
 (louin's objections against the authenticity of 
 the .lOneid, which he f)ublished in 1737, under 
 the title of " \'indici;ii secundum libertatem 
 pro Maronis /Eneide, cui manum Johannes 
 Harduinus nuper assertor injecerat," and of 
 a catalogue of authors, entitled " Onomasti- 
 con Litterarium," 8 vols, besides some papers 
 in the " Acta Eruditorum." He reached the 
 advanced age of eighty- eight, dying at Ulretht 
 in 1806. — Bio<;. Univ. 
 
SC A 
 
 SAXO GnAiMMATicus a learned antiqiia- 
 rian and liistoriaii, who floiirislunl duniij^ tlie 
 greater part of the twelfth, and tiie coniinctice- 
 nieiit of the thirteenth century. Of his orij^in 
 notliing authentic is known, hut he is sup- 
 posed to have been a native of Denmark, of 
 whu:h kingdom and its dependeniies he com- 
 piled an elaborate history, under the auspicen 
 of Absalom, hisliop of Koschild. This work, 
 wliich is said to iiave occupied him twenty 
 years in its composition, has gone through se- 
 veral editions, es])ecially thoae of Paris, 1.t14, 
 Basle, l.ij-i, and Sora in Denmark, 1G41, 
 folio ; of these the latter is by far the most 
 perfect. Saxo was a priest in the cathedral of 
 Iloschild, and is said to have been deputed 
 on a mission to I'aris in 1161, for the purpose 
 of inducing some of the monks of that capital 
 to visit his native country, and assist in re- 
 forming the discipline of the religious orders 
 there. He lies buried in the churcli of which 
 he was a member, where a monument was 
 erected to his memory aliout three hundred 
 years after his death, which took place in 
 i'208. — Noiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SCALA (BARTnai.oMEw) a learned Flo- 
 rentine of the fifteenth century, eminent as a 
 lawyer, liistorian, and diplomatist. He was of 
 humble origin, being the son of a miller, and 
 was born about the year l-i24. The steady 
 patronage of Cosmo de' Medici, who duly ap- 
 preciated, and made use of his talents, raised 
 him to some of the niost important offices in 
 the state, in the execution of which he was 
 repeatedly employed in conducting negocia- 
 tions with various foreign courts. He was 
 equally fortunate in acquiring and retaining the 
 favour of Pietro de' Medici, who succeeded 
 Cosmo, and who continued him in his digni- 
 ties of chancellor and grand standard bearer to 
 the Florentine republic. Pope Innocent XII 
 also, who held him in high esteem, for ser- 
 vices rendered to the lioly see, conferred on 
 him a collar of knighthood and the dignity of 
 a senator of Rome. He was the author of a 
 valuable history of Florence, in twenty books, 
 four only of which have been printed ; "A 
 Life of Vitaliani Borromeo," 4to, Rome, 1677; 
 with some miscellaneous letters, poems, and 
 orations. His death took place in 1497. — 
 Tiraboschi. 
 
 SCALIGER. The name of two most pro- 
 found scholars and celebrated critics, father 
 and son, who flourished in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Julius C«sar, commonly called the 
 Elder Scaliger, was descended of the princely 
 house Delia Scala, lords of Verona, and was 
 born April 23, 1484, at Ripa, a town in the 
 Veronese. His immediate ancestor, Benedict 
 Scaliger, was a general olficer in the army of 
 Matthias Corvinns, king of Hungary, whose 
 interests at the German courts placed this, his 
 favourite son, about the person of the emperor 
 Blaximilian, in quality of page of tlie bed- 
 chamber, when only twelve years of age. In 
 tlie household of this monarcli he remained 
 till his twenty-ninth year, when having in the 
 interim attended his imperial master on several 
 of his expeditions, the loss of his father and 
 
 SC A 
 
 brother at one stroke in the sanptiinary batti* 
 of Ravenna, fought in LSI 2. dingusti-d hiiu 
 with the service, and indu< <- J hirn to «'nt»r- 
 tain serious intentions ((f hlmlting hiniM-if up 
 in a cloiHler. From the adoption of the habit 
 of Si FraiH is he wan, howTvcr, at h-n^jth ef- 
 fectually liiSHuaded by his friendit, and bin 
 next ten years were paiwed aa before, amidHt 
 tin- bustle and dangers of a military hfr-. At 
 the age of forty he (piiltrd a a^aiii, and for 
 ever, devoting his time to the Htudy of medi- 
 cine as a profession, and of the hanied lan- 
 guages as a matter of taste. In \n'JG he 
 commenced ])ractice as a physician at A gen, 
 in Guienne, where within three years he mar- 
 ried a young lady of noble birth, whose age 
 bore to his own the projiorlion of sixteen to 
 forty- five. In the course of a cohabitation of 
 nearly thirty years, his wife bore him fifteen 
 children, of whom seven survived him ; and 
 one eclipsed, as a scholar and a critic, evea 
 the fame of his father, whose biograjihy he 
 gave to the world after liis decease. I'his 
 event took place in la-"i8, of a suppression of 
 urine. The private character of the elder 
 Scaliger appears to have been composed of 
 jarring materials ; as a scholar it is impossible 
 that" his claims to consideration should be rated 
 below the highest rank. Of this his commen- 
 taries " On Theophrastus," " On Aristotle," 
 " On Hippocrates," and even the contests 
 which he carried on against Cardanus and 
 Scioppius, though disfigured by the coarseness 
 of bis expressions, and the virulence of bis at- 
 tacks, afford abundant proofs ; as well as his 
 still more valuable treatise, " De Caussis Lin- 
 guJE Latinae," his seven books on poetry, and 
 his own poems and miscellaneous epistles. 
 But the vanity and asperity of his disposition, 
 notwithstanding all his son says of his amia- 
 bility of temper and general benevolence, is 
 also but too evidently manifested in the strain 
 of invective used by him towards Erasmus and 
 others on the subject of Cicero's Latinity. — 
 LiJ'e III] his Son. ISIoreri. 
 
 SCALIGER (Joseph Justus) son of the 
 subject of the preceding article, was liorn at 
 Asien in 1540. He commenced his education 
 in the college of Hourdeaux, which he conti- 
 nued under his father, and after his decease 
 completed at Paris, under the celebrated Tur- 
 nebus. He possessed an uncommon facility of 
 acquiring even the most difficult languages, 
 and is said to have made himself master of no 
 less tlian thirteen, Greek and Hebrew among 
 the number, in which two he had no other in- 
 structor or assistant than his own genius and 
 assiduity. I'he fame of his great learning, 
 and scientitic as wt II as classical attainments, 
 procured him, in 1.S9.), an invitation to fill tlie 
 professor's chair in the belles leltres at Ley- 
 den, which he accepted, and retained till hid 
 death in 160'.'. He was, with great justice, 
 considered by far the most learned man of tlie 
 age, but seems to liave inherited much of his 
 father's haughtiness, self-sufficiency, anil illi- 
 berality towards his oi)ponents, with his ac- 
 knowledged talents and ability. Of his writ- 
 ings, which are replete with the most extensive 
 
SC A 
 
 erndition, and perfect familiarity with all tlie 
 works of the best Greek and Roman authors, 
 the most conspicuous are, his treatise '* De 
 EmenJatione Tempnruni," conveying, hy his 
 invention of the Julian period, the principles 
 of a regular and systematic chronology, of 
 which he has, not undeservedly, been styled 
 the fatlier. His other works are, " Thesaurus 
 Temporum," folio, 2 vols. ; a Latin translation 
 of the Arabian proverbs in Erpenius' collec- 
 tion, " De Tribus Sectis Jutlaeorum," 4to, 
 2 vols. ; " Canones Isagogici ;" a great variety 
 of epistles, poems, &cc. ; besides valuable 
 commentaries on the works of Seneca, Varro, 
 Pompeius Festus, Ausonius, and other clas- 
 sical authors ; the Chronicon of Eusebius, (S:c. 
 In their religious opinions, the elder Scaliger 
 was a Roman Catholic, the younger a Hugue- 
 not. — Xdtiv. Diet.' Hist. Moreri. 
 
 SCAMOZZI (ViNCENTio) a celebrated Ita- 
 lian architect of the sixteenth century, the con- 
 temporary and rival of Palladio, who was, like 
 himself, a native of Vicenza in Lombardy. 
 ScamoEzi was bom in 1550, and after learning 
 the rudiments of the art under his father, who 
 was of the same profession, travelled for im- 
 provement through France and over a large 
 proportion of the north of Europe. On his 
 return to Italy, he followed the example of his 
 great compatriot in taking up his abode at Ve- 
 nice, then the principal seat of the arts, where 
 there are yet in existence several noble monu- 
 ments of his genius. The citadel of Parma is 
 also one of his greatest works. As an author 
 Scamozzi is known by several tracts on profes- 
 sional subjects, of which the principal are 
 " A Treatise on the Antiquities of Rome," 
 folio ; and " L'Idea dell' Architettura Uni- 
 versale," in ten books, left incomplete by his 
 death. Of this valuable work only six books 
 appeared, in two folio volumes. His death 
 took place in 1616. — Tirabo&chi. 
 
 SCANDERBEG, prince of Albania, whose 
 proper name was George Castriot, sou of John, 
 prince of that country, was born in 14-()4. Be- 
 ing given by his father as a hostage to sultan 
 Amurath II , he was educated in the [Mahometan 
 religion, and at the age of eighteen was placed 
 at the head of a body of troops, with the title 
 of Sanjiac. After the death of his father, in 
 1432, he formed the design of possessing 
 liimself of his principality ; and having accom- 
 panied the Turkish army to Hungary, he en- 
 tered into a secret agreement with the famous 
 Hunniades to desert to the Christians, during 
 the first baitle which should occur, 'ibis de- 
 sign he put into execution ; and having de- 
 feated the Turks, and taken Amurath s secre- 
 tary prisoner, he compelled him to sign an 
 order for the governor of Croia, the cajjital of 
 Albania, to deliver that place and the citadel 
 to its bearer. This stratagem succeeding, he 
 ascended the throne of his fathers, and re- 
 nounced tlie Mahometan relicrion. A lono^ 
 warfare followed ; but although frequently 
 obliged to retire to the fastnesses of mountains, 
 he always renewed his assaults upon the first 
 favourable occasion, and destroyed a vast num- 
 ber of his enemies. A similar course of war- 
 
 SC A 
 
 fare was continued for eleven years, under JMa 
 hornet 11, until that powerful sultan proposed 
 terms of peace to him, which were accepted. 
 At the request of the pope, Scanderbeg then re- 
 paired to Italy, to the succour of Ferdinand II, 
 king of Naj)les, besieged at Bari ; and having 
 caused the siege to be raised, he contributed 
 greatly to Ferdinand's subsequent victory over 
 the count of Anjou. The Venetians having 
 entered into a war with IMahomet II, induced 
 ScanderbesT to renounce his treaty with that 
 sultan, and to make an inroad into his domi- 
 nions. He again obtained repeated victories 
 over the Turkish generals, and saved his own ca- 
 |)ital, although invested by an army commanded 
 by Mahomet himself. He was at length car- 
 ried off by sickness at Lissa, in the Venetian 
 territories, in 1467, in his sixty-tliird year. 
 His death was considered by the sultan as re- 
 lieving him from the most formidable of his 
 enemies ; and it was soon followed by the sub- 
 mission of all Albania to the Turkish domi- 
 nion. Scanderbeg was one of the greatest war- 
 riors of his time, and his personal strength and 
 address were such, as to make his prowess in 
 the field resemble that of a knight of romance ; 
 whilst his enterprise and military skill consti- 
 tuted him one of the most able and successful 
 of generals. His Jesuit historian, Poncet, has 
 painted him as a genuine Christian hero ; but 
 there was little but his cause to sanction this 
 character, as he often exhibited both cruelty 
 and perfidy. His private life was, however, 
 praiseworthy, and he preached continence and 
 sobriety to his soldiery. When the Turks 
 took Lissa, they dug up his bones, of which 
 they formed amulets, to transfer his courage to 
 themselves ; an absurd, but sincere testimony 
 of involuntary admiration. — Mod. Univ. Hist. 
 
 SCAPUL.A. (Jon ANN) the author of a va- 
 luable lexicon of the Greek language, pub- 
 lished originally in quarto, in 1583, which has 
 since gone through a variety of editions, par- 
 ticularly an excellent one from the Elzevir 
 press. This work, useful as it is, is scarcely 
 more a monument of the compiler's learning 
 and diligence than of his treachery, Henry 
 Stephens, while completing his laborious and 
 voluminous " Thesaurus," having employed 
 Scapula to correct the press, the latter took 
 advantage of the opportunities afforded by his 
 occupation, secretly to abridge the work, and 
 ])rinted the essence of its contents in the dic- 
 tionary which now bears his name. The 
 cheapness and comparative portability of his 
 book, ruined the sale of that of his employer, 
 who failed in consequence, and has left a 
 proof of the indignant feelings which this 
 breach of confidence occasioned, in his " l^a- 
 tinity of Lipsius." Of the birth or decease 
 of Scapula little is known. — Moyhoff. 
 
 SCAR150R0UGH (sir Charles) a skil- 
 ful physician and good mathematiral scholar, 
 born in 1616, and educated at ('aius college, 
 Cambridge, in which society he obtained a fel- 
 lowship, and while there is said to have been 
 blessed with so retentive a memory, that he 
 had all the problems of Euclid and Archi- 
 medes by heart. During the civil wars, his 
 
SC A 
 
 nttachment to the royal party CiUi^cd tlip do- 
 privation of his fellowship, on which, after a 
 temporary retreat to the sister university, he 
 finally took up his abode in the metropolis, 
 wliere lie soon obtained sjreat practice in liin 
 profession. After the Kestoratioii he becDim^ 
 plivsician to the court, and continued so during 
 tliat anil tlsc two followini; reii;iis, havin;^ re- 
 ceived thi' Iionour of knightliood froni the 
 hand of Charles II. He assisted Harvey in 
 the compilation of his work " l)e Generatione 
 Animaiium," and succeeded him as anatoujical 
 and surgical lecturer at Surfreon's-hall. Jk'- 
 sides a translation of Kuclid, he {'.ublished an 
 orig;inal treatise on trigonometry, an elegy on 
 the death of the poet Cowley, an abridgment 
 of Lily's grammar, " Syllabus Musculorum," 
 &c. Hia death took place in 1696. — Biog. 
 Brit. 
 
 SCARLATTI. There were three cele- 
 brated Italian composers of this name, the 
 first, and by far the most famous of whom was 
 Alessandro, justly considered as the great 
 regenerator of the Neapolitan school of music. 
 He was born at Naples in 1650, and although 
 the name of his master is unknown, made, at 
 an early age, a very surprising progress in his 
 favourite science. The reputation of Caris- 
 simi, the head of the Roman school, having 
 reached Naples, Scarlatti, at that time confes- 
 sedly the greatest harpist of his day, went to 
 Rome, and by means of his instrument, intro- 
 duced himself to the acquaintance of that ac- 
 complished master, which ripened into a sin- 
 cere friendship, and tended much to their 
 mutual improvement. From the metropolis of 
 the arts he visited Bologna, Florence, Venice, 
 and eventually Vienna, wliere he made the 
 tirst essay of his talents for composition both 
 in sacred and theatrical music, and in both 
 kinds was equally successful. On his return 
 to Naples, he directed the whole of his atten- 
 tion to the improvement of the national taste 
 in music ; and to his exertions is owing the 
 reformation produced in the overture, which, 
 from a mere obligate symphony, became in 
 his hands a species of musical prologue or 
 programme of the action of the opera. He 
 vi'as also the most original, as well as the most 
 voluminous composer of cantatas ; and there 
 are few of the musicians of the early part of 
 the last century, who have not benefited more 
 largely by his talents than they have had the 
 candour to avow. Alessandro Scarlatti was 
 the instructor of the celebrated Durante, and is 
 said to have produced nearly a hundred operas 
 (of which his " Prhicipessa Fidele " is quoted 
 as the best), besides oratorios, and near two 
 hundred masses, composing faster than any 
 ordinary copyist could write. He died in 
 172>i, and is still spoken of by his countrymen 
 as the " glory of the art." — His son, Dome- 
 xico Scarlatti, born in 1683, was the suc- 
 cessor rather than the disciple of his father. 
 He was educated under Francisco Gaspari, 
 and after visiting the various schools of Italy, 
 especially that of Venice, then in the zenith 
 of its reputation, acquired in this last nien- 
 ^oned city the friendship of Handel, whom he 
 
 S C f 1 
 
 uccomj)anied to Home, and continued to enjoy 
 his society and instru< tions till the offer r)f the 
 
 ! Miastcrship of tiie t liap<'l to the kiiii,' of i'or- 
 tiigal induced him to repair to Lisbon. In this 
 capital he remained till 17'.'«i, producing in 
 the interim si vcral <>p< ran, an w«-ll a» some 
 sacred music, after whidi he visited R«mn am) 
 Naples, but peliird finally at Madrid on tli»« 
 appointment of chapel mast'-r to the queen of 
 Spain, whom he also instructed in the rnuna|^e- 
 meiit of the harp. Heie he produced his 
 " Merope," the most celebrated of all bin 
 dramatic com[)osition8, and passed the remain- 
 der of his life. At what time it terminated 
 is uncertain. — Giuseppe Scart aiti, a grand- 
 son of Alessandro, was also b(jrn at Naples in 
 1718, but passeil the greater portion of hw 
 time at Vienna, in which city and at \'eTiice 
 he produced thirteen operas. He died at 
 Vienna in 1776. — Burneu's Hist, of Mas. 
 Biog. Dirt, of Mits. 
 
 SCAR RON (Paul) nicknamed Cul de 
 Jatte, from his singular deformity, a comic wri- 
 ter of great wit and humour, born at Paris in 
 1610. His father, a Frencli advocate, de- 
 signed him for the church, and a canonry at 
 Mans was actually procured for him ; but he 
 was compelled to relinquish all ide^t of taking 
 holy orders, by a severe attack of palsy, 
 brought on by dissipation, which, in his 
 twenty-seventh year, deprived him of the use 
 of his limbs. His mental faculties were, how- 
 ever, still unimpaired, and he not only induced 
 cardinal Richelieu to become reconciled to his 
 father, who had offended tliat haughty minis- 
 ter, but procured himself a pension of five 
 hundred crowns from the court ; and what is 
 still more extraordinary, the hand of tlie beau- 
 tiful and witty mademoiselle d'Aubigne, after 
 his death known as the widow Scarron, and 
 eventually rendered still more famous as ma- 
 dame de Maintenon. His principal writings 
 are his " Comic Romance," and his " Virgile 
 Traresti," works of unquestionable talent, 
 but aboundinsjin that licentious style of thou>;ht 
 and expression, which is said to have been 
 but too faithful a transcript of his early life. 
 After his marriage, his o\\n wit and that of his 
 wife drew around him all the choicest society 
 of France, till his death, which took pUice in 
 1660. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHAAF (Chari.es) an eminent Orien- 
 talist, who was bom in the territory of Co- 
 logne in Germany, in 1646, and died at Ley- 
 den in 17'29. He studied at Augsl)urgli, was 
 professor of tlie Eastern languages at Duis- 
 bourg, and afterwards at Leyden ; and he dis- 
 tinguished himself by the publication of the 
 New Testament, in Syriac, with a Latin ver- 
 sion, and a Syriac Lexicon and Concordance, 
 printed in 1717, 2 vols. 4to. He was also the 
 author of " Opus Arama-um complectens 
 Grammaticam Ch:ddaico-Syriacum, et Lexi- 
 con," L. Hat. 1686. Bvo ; and " Epitome 
 Grammatics Hebrajaj," 8vo. — Sicerou, xxxix. 
 Biog. liiiv. 
 
 SCHADOW (ZoNo RiDOLFo) a sculptor, 
 boni at Rome, in 1786. His father in 1788 
 
 ' removed to Berlin, where he was ajijKiinted 
 
SCH 
 
 sc ri 
 
 sculptor io the king-, and afterwardfl director in finisiiing. Pie cliiefly excelled in printing 
 of the Academy of tlie Fine Arts. Kidolfo >. <• . . • . . ^ . 
 
 and his younger brotlier, who is one of the 
 most distinguished painters in Germany, re- 
 ceived from their father their first instruction 
 in the art of dpsign ; and the former continued 
 to study at liome till the age of eighteen, 
 wlhen he was sent with a pension from the 
 king to continue his studies at Rome. There 
 he was noticed by Canova and Tliorwaldsen, 
 under whom \ie made great iraprovemeul. 
 
 Wis first important work was a statue of Paris ' pole's Anec. 
 
 candle-lights, on which occasion lie uspd to 
 place the object and candle in a dark. room. 
 H« also drew portraits, and witli that view 
 came to England, where he painted Wiiliaia 
 III. As the piece was to be by candle-light, 
 he gave the king the candle to hold, until the 
 tallow ran down upon his Angers. Many 
 similar anecdotes are related of his rudeness 
 and inattention to the forms of polished so- 
 ciety. He died at the Ila^uein 1706. — ITa/- 
 
 deliberating on the judgment lie was to pro 
 nonnce between the rival goddesses. He af- 
 terwards executed many admired sculptures 
 and bas-reliefs ; and among the latter, a mo- 
 nument for the marquis of Lansdown. He 
 was enoaged on a colossal group of Achilles 
 defending the body of Penthesilea, in marble, 
 when he wa* cut off by death, January 31, 
 IS*.'?. — Biog. L'niv. 
 
 SCHAEFFER (Jacob Christian) born 
 at Querfurt in Germany, in 1718, was one of 
 the most distinguished philosophers of his 
 time. He was the son of a clergyman, but 
 losing his father when he was young, it was 
 with difficulty that he supported himself while 
 8tud)-ing at the university of Halle, where he 
 completed his education. Professor Baum- 
 garten then procured for him the office of tutor 
 to the son of a merchant at Ratisbon, where 
 he v;as chosen minister of one of the churches 
 in 1741. He published several theological 
 dissertations and other religious works, in 
 consequence of which he obtained the diploma 
 of DD. from the university of Wittemberg. 
 He died at Ilatisbon, January 5, 1790. Among 
 liis numerous publications, chiefly relating to 
 natnral history, are " Fungorum qui in Bava- 
 ria nascuntur Icones," 176^2—70, 4 vols, 4to ; 
 " Icones Insectorum circa Ratisbonam indi- 
 genorum," 1766, 5 vols. 4to ; " Elementa 
 Entomologica," 1766, 4to ; " Botanica expe- 
 ditior," 1762, 8vo. Persoon published a vo- 
 lume of commentaries on the work of Schaeffer 
 relating to the Bavarian Fungi, in 1800; and 
 in 1804 Panzer publislied " Iconum Insectorum 
 Schac fferi circa Ratisbonam indigenarum Enu- 
 meratio systematica," 4to. — Bio'r- Univ. 
 
 SCHAFEI (Abu Abdali.a Mohammed 
 Bf.n Edris al) a celebrated Mahometan doc- 
 tor, born at Gaza in Palestine, AD. 767. Hf 
 visited Bagdad and Mecca, and afterv\%ir(ls 
 going to Egypt, to visit a famous iman, ]t€ 
 died there in 819. He was the first of the 
 moslem theologians who wrote on jurispru- 
 dence ; and he was the author of a treatise en- 
 titled " Ossoul," or the fundamentals of Isla- 
 mism, comprising the entire code of the Ma- 
 hometans, civil and sacred. He composi-d like- 
 wise two other works on legal topics ; and his 
 doctrine is generally received among the or 
 thodox moslems. Sultan Saladin founded at 
 Cairo a college for the exclusive inculcation of 
 the principles of Al Schafei. — Rees's Cpclop. 
 
 SCHALKEN (GonrnEv) a painter of emi- 
 nent talents and eccentric manners, was born 
 at Dort in 1643, and studied under Gerard 
 Dow. from whom he caught a great delicacy 
 
 SCHEELE (Charles William) a cele- 
 brated chemist, who contributed greatly to the 
 improvement of the science which he culti- 
 vated. He was born at Stralsund in Sweden, 
 December 19, 1742, and he was apprenticed to 
 an apothecary at Gothecburgh. He Ijecame 
 his own instructor in chemistry, and read the 
 works of Lencery, Neumann, Kunckel, and 
 Stahl.; at the eanve time making experiments 
 which added greatly to the knowledge he had 
 acquired. After occupying different situations 
 as an assistant in pharmacy, he went to Upsal 
 in 1773, where his abilities introduced him to 
 the notice of professor Bergmann ; and being 
 employed to perform some chemical experi- 
 ments before prince Henry of Prussia and the 
 duke of Sudermania, when they visited the 
 laboratory of the academy of Upsal, Ids merit 
 became known, and he was admitted an asso- 
 ciate of the Academy. He subsequently be- 
 came director of a pharmaceutical establish- 
 ment at Kioping ; where, notwithstanding 
 some advantageous projiosals which he re- 
 ceived to induce him to settle in England, he 
 continued to the close of his life. The ser- 
 vices which he rendered to the cause of 
 science were numerous and important. He 
 discovered the fluoric acid and the acids of 
 tungsten and molybden ; and his experiments 
 on barytes, chlorine, various animal and vege- 
 table acids, on the composition of water, and 
 several other subjects, are in the highest 
 degree curious and iini>ortant. He carried on 
 a correspondence with men of science ; and he 
 was a member of the electoral scientific so- 
 ciety at Erfurt, and of the physical society of 
 Berlin. lie died May 24, 1736. A volume 
 of Chemical I^ssays, by Scheele, translated 
 into English, was published in 1786, Bvo ; and 
 a " Collection of the Researches of C. W. 
 Scheele on Physics and Chemistry," edited by 
 S. F. Hermbstaedt. appeared at Berlin, 1793, 
 2 vols. 8vo. — Aikin$ Gen. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCH EFFEIl (John) a learned antiquary, 
 born at Strasburgh, in 1621, and according to 
 some authors descinded in a right line from 
 Peter Schoeff'er oi Gemslieim, one of the in- 
 ventors of typogtriphy. John Scheffer, after 
 having actpiired the reputation of great erudi- 
 tion by a work on the ships of the ancients, 
 removed to Sweden, and in 1618 be obtained 
 the chair of rhetoric and public law at Upsal. 
 He was afier» ards nominated honorary profes- 
 sor, assessor of the royal college of antiqui- 
 ties, and librarian to the university. He died 
 March 26, 1679. Besides many tracts on 
 classical archaeology, published in the collec- 
 
sen 
 
 tions of Gra-viug anJ (Irorioviiis, he was llic 
 author of a work entitlt-il " J.apponjii, sou 
 Gentis lU'gioniscjue l.aj)j)oinLK- Descriptio 
 accurata," of whiclj tliere are Kijijlish, Frentli, 
 and Gorman translations ; and he produced 
 several troatises on Swedish history and anti- 
 quities ; and edited the works of J-Jian, Ar- 
 rian, I'ha-drus, and Pacatus. — Moreri. Bio<:. 
 Univ. — ScHKFFKR (IIiNHY Tnioi'mi.us) 
 grandson of the j)recedinij, was an cininent 
 chemist. He was horn at Stockholm in 1710, 
 
 SC H 
 
 flvo ; " Do R'.hijioni* Kvangelica; in Provin. 
 «ia Sali«.tmri;iMihi Ortu, l*r'>J;ft.^nu, t-l Katis,' 
 17 JJ, Ito; '• iJe ttiiti(|uiftMHja I.atinoruni I5ih. 
 liornrn Kditione. ecu piimo Ariih 1 vp<.^;raphi- 
 c;l- Fatu et rariorum i.iMorum rijo-nice." 
 1760, 4to ; and " Commcrcii K] - ' , \'(. 
 fenbachiani mdecta, varu* Ob- Mibu* 
 
 illustrata," I Im, I7h3—b(i. 5 voI». 8fO.-- 
 liii'i;. Vnii. 
 
 and having lost his parents when youii};, his 
 uncle, baron Seheffer, provided for his educa- 
 tion. He studied mathematics and natural 
 philosophy at l^sal, under professor Andrfw 
 Celsius ; and he afterwards received lessons 
 on chemistry from George l)randt, at Stock- 
 holm. He then visited the Swedish mines, 
 and having established a laboratory at Stock- 
 holm, he made some useful experiments on 
 the art of dyeing, and on the analysis of mine- 
 lals. He was admitted into the Academy of 
 Sciences in the Swedisli metropolis, and he 
 contributed largely to the memoirs of that 
 learned society. In 1740 he was appointed 
 assay- master in the royal college of mines ; 
 and having been ennobled in 1756, he died 
 three years afterwards. Scheffer's lectures on 
 chemistry were thought deserving of publica- 
 tion by Bergmann in 1776. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 Aikhi's G. Biog. 
 
 SCHELHAMINIER (Gunther Chuisto- 
 pher) a physician and anatomist, born at 
 
 Jena, where his father was professor of medi- 
 cine, in l6-i9. He studied at Leipsic, and 
 
 afterwards at Ley den ; and having visited 
 
 England, France, and Italy, he returned home 
 
 in 1677, and took the degree of MD. He 
 
 subsequently became professor of botany, at 
 
 Heliustadt, whence he removed to Jena, and 
 
 at lengtli obtained the medical chair at Kiel, 
 
 where he died in 1716. He was the author 
 
 of several works on natural history, anatomy, 
 
 and medicine, among which are " The Ana- 
 tomy of the Sword-fish," Hamburg, 1707, 
 
 4to ; " The Anatomy of the Seal," 1707, 4to ; 
 
 and a treatise entitled " Ars INIedendi uni- 
 
 versa," 3 vols. 4to. — Grouov. Bibl, Reg. Aiii- 
 
 mal. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHELHORN (John George) one of the 
 
 most celebrated bibliographers of Germany, 
 
 born at iNIemmingen, December 8, 1694. He 
 
 studied at Jena, and then at Nuremberg ; and 
 
 returning to his native place, he took holy 
 
 orders, and was attached as a preacher to one 
 
 of the principal churches. Becoming known 
 
 for his erudition, he was in 17i24 appointed 
 
 librarian of the academy of Memmingen, of 
 
 which he soon after became co-rector. At the 
 
 age of sixty he received the degree of doctor 
 
 of theology, which was necessary in order to _ 
 
 his obtaining the office of ecclesiastical super- j and a rich museum of natural history, the 
 
 intendant, which he held till his death, May [result of his own researciies. Besirteg his 
 
 31, 1773. He was a member of the imperial Alpine itineraries, he was the author of " Sjje- 
 
 academy of Roveredo, and of the ducal so- cimen Lithoh>^i.-e Helvetica: turios.T." 170'^, 
 
 ciety of Jena. Among his publications may 8vo , " Herbarium Diluvianum," 1709. folio; 
 
 be noticed " Anurnitates Litteraria?," 17^4-^ " Bibliolheca Scriptonim Historian Xaturalis," 
 
 1731, 14 vols. 8vo ; " Amo^nitates Historiw 1716, 8vo ; ".Museum Diluvianum." 1716, 
 
 Errlesiasticae et Litterariaj," 1737, 4 vols. 8vo; " Phymca Sacra," \7:'r>, 4 vols, folir, 
 
 S(;|||;lij:R (l.MANtji. John GiitAi<b> 
 a philolo-ical writer, who waj» a native of Sax- 
 oiiy. He Htiidi.<l at I.eipBic, wh<-re he sup- 
 ported himself by acting an a private tuffif 
 and assisting in literary joumaU, In 1760 
 he published a (lissertation " De Historia- an- 
 tiipuj' utilitate ;"and in 1761 he was appointed 
 rector of a school in Lf)wer Lu.-iaLiu. which 
 place he exchanged in 1771 for that of rector 
 of the gymnasium of I'rieg in Sih-hia. In 
 1778 he j)ublished a valuable work, entitled 
 " Pr;ecepta Styli bene Latini, in jtrimis Cice- 
 roniaiii, sen Elotpientin; Romame," 2 vol«. 
 8vo ; and he was also the author of a Latin and 
 German dictionary, 7 vols. 8vo ; and a Latin 
 grammar. He died' July 5, lW)3.~Iiiog. Uuiv. 
 SCHERZ (John Giorgk) one of the wri- 
 ters who principally contributed to exjdain 
 the ancient monuments of the German lan- 
 guage. He was born at Strasburgh in 1678, 
 and he studied at his native place, and in the 
 university of Halle. In 170'^ he obtained the 
 philosophical chair, and in 1711 that of juris- 
 prudence at Strasburg, where he died .April 1, 
 17o4. His principal work appeared posthu- 
 mously, under the title of " Glossarium Ger- 
 manicum medii A'.\'\, potissimum Dialetti 
 Suevica?," publisned with the notes and sup- 
 plements of Oberlin, in two volumes, folio, 
 1781 — 84. Scherz was a contributor to Schil- 
 ter's " Thesaurus," and he edited the third 
 volume of that work. — ^^iog. Univ. 
 
 SCHELCHZER (John James) a physi- 
 cian and naturalist, the son of a physician of 
 the same name at Zurich, in Svvitzerlaml, 
 where he was born in 1672. He vras educated 
 partly at Altorf, and then went to I'trechf, 
 and took the degree of IMD. in 1694. He set- 
 tled at Zurich, where he became one of the 
 public stipriidiary physicians, and professor of 
 mathematics and natural philosophy. Botany 
 was his favourite study, in the j>ursuit of which 
 he made excursions in diflerent parts of the 
 Alps in 170-J, 1703, 1704. and 1711, and pub- 
 lished an account of his researches, entuleil 
 " Itinera per Helvetia* Alpinos Re^iones 
 facta, Annis 170i? — U," 4to. In 17I2 he 
 received an invitation from Peter the Great to 
 settle in Iiu>sia ; but he was prevented from 
 accepting it by oflers of additional emolument 
 from the council of Zurich. He diet! in 1733, 
 leaving a valuable library, a cabinet of medaltt. 
 
SC H 
 
 SCH 
 
 published the same year at Amsterdam, with at Venice, where at his leisure liours he s^u- 
 descriptions in Dutch, fifteen volumes. — Gro- [ died the works of Parmegiano, Giorgione, 
 
 nov. Bihl. RefT. Animal. Biog. Univ. 
 
 and Titian. The latter threat painter, informed 
 
 SCHEUCHZER (John) brother of the of his talents, generously took him under his 
 subject of the last article, was distinguished j care, and soon after employed him in the li- 
 as a botanist. He was born in 168 1, and after | brary of St Mark, where he is said to have 
 completing his studies at Zurich, he engaged painted three entire ceilings. He was ac- 
 in military service in Holland, and was secre- | counted one of the finest colourists of the Ve- 
 tary to count INIarsigli, whom he accompanied j netian school. Two of his compositions are 
 to Italy. Returning home he applied himself in the church of the Padre Teatini at Rimini, 
 to mechanics and fortification; and in 1712 j representing the Nativity, and the Assumption 
 he was appointed engineer of the canton of j of the Virgin. His Perseus and Andromeda, 
 
 Zurich. In 1718 he became professor of bo- 
 tany at Padua, which office he lost on account 
 of iiis being a Protestant. He then travelled 
 in Holland, France. Italy, and Germany ; and 
 in 1732 he was made secretary of the states 
 of the county of Baden. On the death of his 
 brother he succeeded him as professor of na- 
 tural history and pliysician at Zurich, where 
 he died March 8, 1738. He published a work, 
 entitled " Historia Graminum," 1719, 4to; 
 " Dissertatio philosophica de Tesseris Baden- 
 sibus," 1735, 4to ; " Agrostographia," and 
 
 and the Apostles at the Sepulchre, are in the 
 royal collection at Windsor. He died at Ve- 
 nice in 1582. — D'Arseniille Vies de Peint. 
 
 SCHIEL (Ferdinand von) a Prussian of- 
 ficer, distinguished for his military talents and 
 daring courage. He was born in 177.3, at 
 Sotthotf in Silesia, of a noble family, originally 
 from Hungary. He studied at the college of 
 Breslau, and in 1789 he entered into a regi- 
 ment of hussars as a cadet. He afterwards 
 removed into the regiment of the queen of 
 Prussia's dragoons, in which he served at the 
 
 other works. — John Caspar Scheuchzer, the j battle of Jena, where he was badly wounded, 
 son of J. J. Scheuchzer, became a physician, [ On ]his recovery, he formed a free corps, at 
 
 and resided many years in England, where he 
 died in 1792, at the age of ninety. He was 
 the author of an academical thesis " De Di- 
 luvio," Tiguri, 1722, 4to ; and he translated 
 into English Koempfer's " History of Japan." 
 — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHIAVONETTl (Louis) a very ingeni- 
 ous artist, was born at Bassano, in the Vene- 
 tian territory, April 1, 1765. His father, wlio 
 was a stationer, could give him but a limited 
 
 the head of which he displayed great ability 
 as a partizan officer. The peace of Tilsit put 
 an end to his operations ; and being appointed 
 major, and afterwards colonel, he went with 
 his regiment to Berlin, where he was much 
 noticed by the court. Nourishing in his breast 
 a profound hatred against the French, he was 
 extremely dissatisfied at the subjection of his 
 country to the influence of Buonaparte. He 
 therefore boldly resolved to erect the standard 
 
 education, but having shown an early taste for : of revolt, and make an effort for the libera- 
 drawing, he was placed under an able painter tion of Germany. He set off from Berlin at 
 named Golini. who, after affording him three the head of his regiment on the 29th of April, 
 years of useful instruction, died in his arms, j 1809. He visited Wittemberg, Dessau, and 
 He subsequently obtained employment from [ other places, seizing the public money, and 
 count Renaudini, whose extensive typogra- f everywhere replacing the arms of Westphalia 
 phical and chalcographical concerns had pre- j by those of Prussia. Near Magdebourg lie 
 viously given occu|)ation to Bartolozzi and j gained some advantage over a body of French 
 A^olpato. He was ultimately induced to ! troops ; and after various manoeuvres he ar- 
 come to England, where he became acquaint- '■ rived at Stralsund, which place he entered the 
 ed with Bartolozzi, and lived in his house j 25th of May. He had not time to repair the 
 until enabled to work upon his own account, fortifications, wliich had been destroyed, when 
 He cultivated his genius with a success com- he was attacked by a numerous detachment of 
 mensurate with the expectation formed of him, Dutch and Danish forces, under generals Gra- 
 and acted with a degree of uprightness and tian and Ewald. His little army, in spite of 
 integrity that made him universally esteemed, the obstinate valour of their leader, was over- 
 He died at Brom{)ton, June 7, 1810, in the whelmed and almost extirpated. Schill himself 
 forty-fourth year of his age. Some of his was found under a heap of dead, after he had, 
 principal i:erformances are the Madre Dolo- with his own hand, killed the Dutch general, 
 rosa, after Vandyck ; Michael Angelo's cele- Carteret. He thus perished, May 31, 1809. 
 brated cartoon of the Surprise of the Soldiers . — Lnnd. Mag. vol. iv. Biog. Univ. 
 on the Banks of the Arno ; the Landing of j SCHILLER (Fp.ederick) one of the most 
 the British Troops in Egypt, from Louther- illustrious of the German poets, was the son 
 bourg ; and the etching of Stothard's Canler- j of a major in the Bavarian service, and was 
 bury Pilgrimage, from Chaucer, which he left born at the little town of Marbach, in theWur- 
 
 unfinished. Schiavonetti, in the estimation 
 of his biographer, ranks with Andrews, Ede- 
 linck. Strange, and WooUet. — Life by Cromek, 
 in Gent. Mag. vol. xxx, 
 
 SCHIAVONl (Andrea) an eminent ar- 
 
 temburgh territories, November 10, 1759. He 
 was distinguished in his childhood for g'eat 
 ardour of imagination, and one of his favourite 
 books was tliat of Ezekiel, in the Old Testa- 
 ment. His father, whose circumstances were 
 
 tist, was born at ?ebenico in Dalmatia, in far from flourishing, being extremely anxiuos 
 1522. His parents, who were in humble cir- j that the boy ehould be brought up to the mi- 
 cumstances, placed him with a house-painter nistry, placed him at an early age ur der the 
 
sc n 
 
 Ptiperiiitendance of the jmstor of Lore h, frfjn 
 whose tuition he removed liim al the expira- 
 tion of three years to the j)ul>hc hcIiooI at 
 Ludwi^shurg, the routine of wliich neither 
 suited his temper nor g^enius. In t hissical 
 ac(piireinents he is said to liavc exliil)it('d no 
 premature or extraordinary progress, and in 
 tlie opinion of his instructors, ranked by jio 
 means su[)enor to the rest of his schoolfi-IIows. 
 A fondness for solitary conteniplation, and for 
 witnessing tlie grander oi)erations of Nature, 
 as exhibited in storms and tempests, seems 
 even at this period of liis life to have disco- 
 vered the future and j)eculiar bent of his ge- 
 nius. Notwithstanding his repugnance to 
 scholastic discipline, lie remaineil at school for 
 upwards of six years, when the invincible dis- 
 like whicli lie manifested towards his destined 
 profession, wrung from his fother a reluctant 
 consent that his studies should be hencefor- 
 ward directed to that of medicine. The 
 works of Shakspeare, Goethe, Klopstock, and 
 Lessing, continued however to occupy all his 
 attention to the exclusion of the materia me- 
 dica ; and even at the early age of fourteen, 
 like our own Pope, he became the author of 
 an epic poem, which was subsequently most 
 judiciously consigned to the flames. Five 
 years after appeared his tragedy of " The 
 Robbers," which at once raised him to the 
 foremost raidi. among the dramatists of his 
 country ; it is so powerfully conceived, that it 
 is said to have induced several students at 
 Leipsic to desert their college, in order to 
 form a troop of banditti in the woods of Bohe- 
 mia. This play, wild and extravagant as it 
 is, displays, according to madame de Stael, 
 much of " the intoxication of genius," and is, 
 perhaps, only to be considered inferior to the 
 " Wallenstein" of his maturer years. The 
 reputation he acquired by this, and two dramas 
 whicli succeeded it, "Fiesco," and " Cabal and 
 Love," induced the Manheim theatre, then the 
 most flourishing in Germany, to offer him the 
 post of dramatic composer, for which he gladly 
 resigned his situation as surgeon to a regiment. 
 Here he completed bis translation of " iMac- 
 beth," and commenced his tragedy of " Don 
 Carlos," which, however, was not published 
 until ten years afterwards. His " Philosoj)hi 
 cal Letters" were commenced about the same 
 period ; and on the termination of his INI an - 
 heim engagement he retired to Leipsic, where 
 lie commenced his labours as a historian. 
 His first jiroduction in that capacity was a 
 " History of the Remarkable Conspiracies and 
 Revolutions in the Middle and Later Ages." 
 A volume of poems having gained him the 
 patronage of the duke of Saxe- Weimar, he 
 removed to Weimar in 1787, and became ac- 
 quainted with Wieland, Herder, and Goetlie. 
 His new patron also conferred upon him the 
 title of auhc counsellor, and nominated him to 
 the professorship of history and pliilosophy at 
 Jena. He accordingly took up his residence in 
 that university, and soon after niairied a wo- 
 man of family and fortune, who is said to have 
 fallen in love with him througli his writings, 
 and to have sent him a matrimonial cballenge, 
 
 SC II 
 
 which he immediately acceptml. A'. Weimnr 
 commenced hirt " History of the Thirty Ye»r»' 
 Wur." which work ;ip|)«Mred in 1791, aiiti i« 
 tonsidend liiH chef-d'<iuvr»i us a tii'<toriiin. 
 Ill the ( ourHe of the naiite year lie urHlirwtnt 
 H severe pulmonary attack, from which he 
 never entirely recovered ; for althouijh he ex- 
 perienced a partial and temitorart reMr)raii()n, 
 <luriiig wliich he cornpo»ed " \\ slh-nntfin,''' 
 the most elaborate and sjileiuli,! of his dramas, 
 as well as some (jllur of the mont finislu d of 
 his productions, lie was carrieil off by a re- 
 lapse on the 9th of .May, IHO.i. and was in- 
 terred with great solemnity. In his private cha- 
 racter Schiller wasfriendly, candid, and sincere- 
 l)ut in youth he affected eccentricity in his man- 
 ners and appearance, an<l a degree of singularity 
 seems always to have appertained to him. As 
 a dramatist he lias some pretensions to head 
 the school which looks inward for chanicter 
 and sentiment ; and is more or less disp )sed 
 to give the metaphysical hue of the author to 
 the creation of his fancy, than to enter into 
 the real varieties of human existence, and to 
 lose self in a borrowed train of associations. 
 In his earlier dramatic proiluctions, the bril- 
 liancy of his genius concealed its extravai^anc, 
 and to the last he went to the extreme of 
 the taste of his country for high wrought 
 representations of passion, to the violation of 
 nature and probability, to support which viola- 
 tion, an ingenious theory has in the mean time 
 been expressly adopted. Both in this and 
 every other department in which he engaged, 
 however, his claims to exalted genius are unde- 
 niable. Resides the works already men- 
 tioned, Schiller wrote a singular romance, en- 
 titled " The Ghost Seer," which displayed his 
 peculiar turn of mind as much as his other 
 productions. Schiller was made a citizen of 
 France without his solicitation, as also a Ger- 
 man noble ; but so little was he flattered by 
 this sort of distinction, that he never adopted 
 the title of baron, thereby conferred on him. 
 It will be seen that this distinguished man of 
 genius died in the prime of mental life, hav- 
 ing fallen short of completing his forty-sixth 
 year. — Ann. liiog. M'^nth. Mag. 
 
 SCHILTER (John) a German antiquarian 
 and juridical writer, l)om at Pegau in Misnia, 
 in 1(J:j'J. He studied at Leipsic and Naum- 
 bourg, and afterwards at Jena. In 16«)2 !ie 
 entered into the service of the duke of Saxe 
 Zeitz, who nominated !din bailli of Suhl in 
 1668. Some years after, he became privy 
 counsellor to the duke of Saxe Weimar, and 
 on the death of that price, in 1678, he went 
 to Jena ; but being disappointeil of a profes- 
 sorship there, he removed to I'rankfort-on- 
 the-iNIayne, and afterwards to Sirasburgh, 
 where lie was nominated counsellor of the 
 city and honorary professor. He died there 
 I in 1705. Resides some works of less imporl- 
 ; :ince, he produced " Codex Juris Allemannici 
 I Feudalis,'" 3 vols. 4to ; and " Thesaurus Atui- 
 I quitatum Teutonicarum." .*» vols, folio. — See 
 ' Scwi nz (J. G) — /J/-'ir. Univ. 
 1 SCHLOKZEHorStHLOTZER(Acr.rsTi's 
 ! Louia von) knight of the order of St Wlaili- 
 
SC II 
 
 mir. and professor of liistory at Gotfinprer., 
 where he died September 10, 1809. fie dis- 
 tinguished himself by a number of vnhiable 
 works on the history of the nortli of Europe, 
 among which may be mentioned his " Uui- 
 versaf History of the North," 4to ; " History 
 of Lithuania," 4to ; " The INIonetary and Me- 
 tal hir^ic History of Russia, from 1700 to 
 1789," 8vo, in which he was assisted by his 
 learned daughter, the wife of the senator Rodde 
 of Ltibeck ; and a critical edition of ihe An- 
 nals of the Russian Chronicler Nestor. He 
 has related by what means he was enabled to 
 cultivate with so much success the study of 
 rlussian history and antiquities in his Oeffent- 
 liclien nnd Privatleben," (Public and Private 
 Life) during his residence in Russia, from 1761 
 to 176.5. J'his autobiographical work is highly | 
 interesting to philologists and historians, con- 
 tainin^r much information relative to Russia, 
 and anecdotes of Catherine II. Schloezer 
 published, under the title of " Correspon- 
 dence," a political, historical, and statistical 
 journal, from 1776 to 1782, 10 vols. 8vo, 
 which was continued to 1794, under the title 
 of " Staalsanziegen," 18 vols. 8vo. He was 
 also one of the conductors of the " Literary 
 Gazette of Gottingen," reckoned the most 
 learned of the German journals. — Zopf Hist. 
 Univ. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHNEBBELIE (Jacob) an architectural 
 drauglitsman, born in 1760 in Westminster, 
 where his father carried on business as a con- 
 fectioner. He was brought up to the same em- 
 ployment, but having a taste for drawiug. he 
 relinquished his business, and applied himself 
 particularly to the delineation of buildings and 
 antiquities. He was appointed draughtsman 
 to the Society of Antiquaries, and his ])encil 
 was employed in decoratmg their publications, 
 and those of JMr Gough. He also conducted 
 the " Antiquaries' Museum," and assisted in a 
 collection of " Antique English ]3resses." 
 His death took place in 1792. — Gent Mag. 
 
 SCHNEIDEIl(EuLOGUE)aGerman|)riest, 
 who was vicar to the constitutional bishop of 
 Strasburg, and afterwards civil commissary to 
 the French republican army at Alsace, and 
 public accuser before the criminal tribunal of 
 the Lower Rhine. This wretch was one of 
 the most pernicious agents of Robespierre 
 and his confederates, whose tyranny was ren- 
 dered more intolerable by his vindictive ma- 
 lice and wanton cruelty. Armed with the au- 
 thority of St Just and Lebas, commissioners 
 from the Convention at Strasburg, Schneider 
 proceeded tlirough the department with a body 
 of troops, and followed by the guillotine, on 
 which he immolated citizens of every rank, 
 sex, and age, where interest or revenge fur- 
 nished the slightest motive for their execution. 
 In oiie of his progresses he arrived at the vil- 
 lage of Epsig, where he found the local ma^^is- 
 trate, M. Kuhn, about to sit down to dinner 
 v,-iih some friends. Sclineider was invited to 
 join them ; and he appeared for a time to be 
 much pleased with his host and his entertain- 
 ment. At length, suddenly starting up from tlie 
 table, lie asked the master of the house if he 
 
 sen 
 
 liad any more wiiie such as they were drink- 
 ing. Kuhn replied, that he had a few bottles, 
 which were much at his service. " Well, 
 then," said the monster, " make haste, and 
 fetch us one more, for in three quarters of an 
 hour your drinking will be entirely at an end.' 
 He then ordered the guillotine "to be drawn 
 into the court-yard of his host, and on the pre- 
 text that he had been receiver-general to the 
 cardinal de Rohan, formerly archbishop of 
 Strasburg, he had him beheaded, in the pre- 
 sence of his family, friends, and domestics 
 who in vain begged for his life. Schneider 
 \'-as about to set on foot novades at Strasburg, 
 similar to those of Nantes, when he was cut 
 short in his career through the jealous policy 
 of the conventional commissioners, whose pride 
 he had insulted by making a pompous entry 
 into Strasburg, in a carriage drawn bv six 
 horses, preceded by couriers, and surrounded 
 by guards with drawn swords. St Just and 
 Lebas displeased, not by his crimes, but bv 
 his arrogance, had him arrested on tlie 20th 
 of December, 1793, and shortly after con- 
 veyed to Paris, where he was condemned bv 
 the revolutionary tribunal and guillotined, at 
 the age of thirty-seven. His sentence pur- 
 ported that he had been convicted of havino-, 
 by cruel and immoral violence, and vexatious 
 proceedings, and by the most revolting and 
 most sanguinary abuse of the name and autho- 
 rity of a revolutionary commissary, oppressed, 
 robbed, assassinated, and ravished the honour, 
 the fortune, and the tranquillity of peaceable 
 families. Sucli were the miscreants to whom 
 tlie French republicans delegated their power, 
 and thus made themselves answerable for the 
 enormities of their instruments. — Diet, des H 
 M. (in 1 Bme .S'. 
 
 SCHOEPFLIN (John Daniel) a learned 
 German historian, who was born at Sultz- 
 bourg, in the territory of Baden Dourlach, in 
 1694. He became professor of rhetoric and 
 history at Strasburg ; and his vast erudition 
 procured him the title of historiographer to 
 Louis XV. He published a number of works 
 of research, among which may be noticed his 
 " Alsatia iilustrata," 2 vols, folio ; " Alsatia 
 diplomatica," 4 vols, folio • " Vindicia^ Ty- 
 pographicae/' 1760, 4to ; and " Historia Za- 
 ringo-Badensis," 7 vols. 4to. This last work, 
 which has been praised for the elegance of its 
 style, was prepared for the press by JM. Koch, 
 a pujiil of Schoepflin. This learned and in- 
 dustrious author, after having for more than 
 half a century been the great ornament of the 
 university of Strasburg, died in that city in 
 1771. He left to the public his valuable li- 
 brary and museum.— DJV^ hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHMIDT. I'here are three German wri- 
 ters of this name, of whom some brief mention 
 may be desirable. Christopher Schmidt, a 
 learned German, was born at Nordheim in 
 1740, and studied law at Gottingen. in 1762 
 he visited Russia, in the train of count Mu- 
 nich ; and contracted so great a fondness for 
 that country, and its language, that he em- 
 ployed much of his future time on its history. 
 He produced various works, published in 
 
sen 
 
 German; " Letters on Uusdia;" " Material*) 
 for a Kiiowlege of the (Joverniiioiit aiul Con- 
 stitution of Kus.-'ia ;" " liitruJiiciion to tin* 
 History of llussia," &c. He was nho author 
 of •• Histurical .Miscillanies," and a " IliHtoiy 
 of Germany," wliitli is well spoken of. On 
 his return from Kussia, he lectured on history, 
 pnhlic law, and statistics, in the Caroline 
 colieije at liruiiswick ; and in 177'.i was 
 made keej)er of the archives at Wolfenbutiel, 
 He died in IBOl. — I-^hasmus Sciimiot, an 
 'excellent Greek scholar, was born at Di-iitzch, 
 in JMisnia, in l.')6(). lie became eminent 
 for his skill in the Greek tongue, and lectured 
 in that language, and on mathematics, in the 
 university of Gottingen. lie died in 16;>7. 
 He published an edition of I'iniiar, in 1616, 
 ■410, with a Latin version and learned notes, 
 which, with some exceptions, is well sj)oken 
 of by Ileyne. He also wrote notes uj)on l^y- 
 cophron, Dionysius Periegetes, and llesiod ; 
 and was author of an able " Concordance to 
 the Greek Testament, " the best edition of 
 ■which is that of 1717. — John Anduevv 
 Schmidt, a learned Lutheran divine, was 
 born at Worms in 16,)2. He wrote various 
 ■works upon subjects connected with ecclesias- 
 tical history, and is highly spoken of by Mo- 
 sheim. — Miveri, Nonv. Diet. Hht. 
 
 SCHMJTTS (Nicholas) a learned Jesuit 
 of the last century, was a native of Glden- 
 burgh, in Hungary, and taught the belles lettres 
 and theology in the schools of his order with 
 great reputation. He died 1767, leaving se- 
 veral works, the principal ofwliich is, " Impe- 
 ratores Ottomaiiici, a Capta Constantinopoli 
 cum Epitome Principum Turcarum, ad Annum 
 1718," 2 vols, folio, 1760. All his works are 
 purely and. elegantly written, but the forego- 
 ing 'Turkish history is particularly esteemed. 
 — Xoiiv. Diet. Iliii. 
 
 SCHOMBERG (Alexander Crowcher) 
 an eminent writer on jurisprudence, who stu- 
 died at Mairdalen college, Oxford, where he 
 proceeded MA. in 1781, and also obtained a 
 fellowship. He took clerical orders, but never 
 held any preferment in the church. In 1785 
 he published an ingenious tract, entitled " An 
 Historical and Chronological \'iew of the Ro- 
 man I^aw," 8vo ; which was followed by " A 
 Treatise on the Maritime Laws of Rhodes," 
 8vo ; " Remarks on the Commercial Treaty 
 with France ;" and a " Sea Manual, recom- 
 mended to the young Officers of the British 
 Navy," 1789, 8vo. He died in 1792, at the 
 age of thirty-five. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 SCHOMBERG (Frederic duke of) a dis- 
 tinguished military officer, who was a nativ-e 
 of Germany. He was born about 1619, and 
 was the son of count Schomberg, a German 
 nobleman, by the daughter of Edmund, barou 
 Dudley. He commenced his military career 
 under Frederick Henry, prince of Orange ; 
 and he afterwards went to France, where he 
 became acquainted with the prince of Conde 
 and marshal Turenne. He was then employed 
 in Portugal, and he established the indepen- 
 dence of that kingdom, obliging the Spaniards 
 e<) recoguiae the claims of the house of Bra- 
 
 3C II 
 
 ganza. Ho con.manded the French »rray in 
 (.'atalonia in 1672; and waH aft«-rward» em- 
 ploye il in the Neilu-rhtndii, where Jie oblij^ed 
 the jdince of (Grange to ninf the «ego of 
 MacHtrKht. For ihrjje Bervjce* he wan re- 
 warded with the staff of a inuftthal of France 
 in 1<)7;'); but on the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, niarhhal Schomberg', who wa« u 
 Protestant, (juitled the Frencli hervjce, am) 
 went to Portugal. Being also ilijven from that 
 country on account of hia religion, he retired 
 to Hollaiul, and subsecpicntly engaged in the 
 service of the elector i){ Brandenburg. Ho 
 came to England in 1688 with William 111; 
 and after the Revolution he wax created a duke, 
 and obtained a grant of one hundred thou- 
 sand pounds. He was sent t') Ireland in the 
 fcdlowing year to 0|)pose the jjartizans of 
 James 11. JJeing joined by king \Nilliam, liB 
 was present at the battle of the Bo\ne, in 
 which he lost his life, July 1, 1690, owing, it 
 is said, to an accidental shot from hin owu 
 troops, as he was passing the river to attack 
 the enemy. — Aihiii\ Gen. Biog. 
 
 SCHO-MBERG (Isaac) a Jewish physi- 
 cian, who was a native of Cologne, but settled 
 as a practitioner of medicine in London, where 
 he died in 1761. He was the author of 
 " Aphorismi Practici," 17.VJ, 8vo ; and other 
 professional publications. He had two sous 
 who were physicians. — Isaac Schombeiig, 
 junior, studied at Leyden, where he obtained 
 the degree of MD. He aftewards procured 
 a diploma from Cambridge, and endeavoured 
 to get admission into the Royal College of 
 Physicians. Dr Battie, then one of the cen- 
 sors, distinguished himself by bis opposition 
 to Schomberg, who instituted a lawsuit against 
 his oi)ponent, and being unsuccessful, he took 
 his revenge on Dr Battie by publishing a mock, 
 heroic poem, entitled the " Baltiad," which 
 he appears to have written in conjunction with 
 Moses Mendez and Paul Whitehead. He 
 died in 1780. — Ralph Schomherg, brother 
 of the preceding, practised medicine at Bath, 
 and afterwards at Reading, where he died in 
 1792. Tie was the author of a life of Meca;- 
 nas. — A'ichoU's Lit. Anec. 
 
 SCHOMBERG (Isaac) a naval oflBcer and 
 historian, who died at Chelsea, January 'JH, 
 1813. He served as a lieutenant in the Ame- 
 rican war, and distinguished himself in the 
 victory gained by admiral Rodney over count 
 de Grasse. During the subsKjuent peace he 
 commanded a frigate in the East Indies, where 
 his health became imjniired, and he contracted 
 a disease of the liver, from which he never 
 entirely recovered. He was captain of the 
 Culloden, which belonged to the fleet of lord 
 Howe, in his engagement with the French, 
 June 1, 1794; and when hostilities com- 
 menced after the peace of Amiens, he com- 
 manded the sea-fencibles at Hastings. Ha 
 sub.setiuently retired from the maritime ser- 
 vice, and obtained a seat as a commissioner at 
 tlie navy-board. His leisure in the latter part 
 of his life was devoted to the composition of 
 a work entitled " Naval Chronology " 1802, 
 5 vols. 8vo, containing an •'f-rouut of maritime 
 
SCH 
 
 affairs iVom the origin of the British navy to 
 the peace of 1783. — Gent. Mac;;. 
 
 SCHONxMNG, or SCHOENING (Ge- 
 kaud) a learned Norwegian, was bom in 
 Nonilancl in iT'Jt^. He was educated at Co- 
 penhagen, and became a member of the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences in that capital, in 1758. In 
 176-4 he was appointed professor of history at 
 Sora, and received literary honours from various 
 societies. He died in 1780. His works are 
 numerous, but many of tliem are academical 
 dissertations. Among those of a more per- 
 manent form, are " An Essay towards the 
 ancient Geography of tlie Northern Countries ;" 
 *' Observations on the oKl Northern Mar- 
 riages;" " De Anno Rationale apud Veteres 
 Septentrionales ;" " A History of Norway," 
 1771 — 1781, 4vols. 4to; " Travels through 
 Norway," \c. — Nouv. Diet. Ifht. 
 
 SCliOUWALOF (Peter Iwanof, count) 
 a field-marshal in the Russian service, who 
 was one of the first favourites of the empress 
 Elizabeth. His services in promoting her ac 
 cession to the throne were rewarded with the 
 rank of major-general in 1741 ; and in 1746 he 
 received the title of nobility, to which was 
 added an ample fortune. Being an oflicer of 
 the artillery, he contributed mucli to the im- 
 provement of that branch of the Russian 
 army. He enjoyed the confidence of Ins im- 
 perial patroness till his death, and he survived 
 her only two days, dying January 9, 1762. — 
 His son, count Andrew Sciiouwalof, suc- 
 ceeded to his titles and fortune. He was 
 chamberlain to the empress Elizabeth, and 
 was in great favour with her and with Cathe- 
 rine II. He travelled in various European 
 countries, and resided a long time at Paris, 
 where he acquired an intimate knowledge of 
 French literature, and he wrote tlie ]aiigu^>;t 
 witli facility. INlany of his poetical Composi- 
 tions are extant, the most remarkable of which 
 are " Epitre a Voltaire," and " Ejjitre a x\i- 
 non," tlie latter of which attracted much no- 
 tice. Count Schouwalof corresponded with 
 Voltaire, whom he visited at Ferney, and who 
 gave him the title of the Russian IMeca^nas. 
 His death took place in 1789. — Count Paul 
 Schouwalof, son of the last mentioned, lieu- 
 tenant-general and aide-de-camp to the empe- 
 ror Alexander, attended him iu his last war 
 against the F^rench. He was one of the com- 
 missaries who conducted Buonaparte to the 
 Isle of Elba; and in 1817 he was ])resent at 
 the congress of Aix-la Chapelle. He died 
 December 12, 1823. — -Rio^-. Univ. Biog. 
 I\onv. des Contemp. 
 
 SCHOT r (Andrew ) a learned Jesuit, bom 
 at Antwerp in 1552. He studied at the uni- 
 versity of Louvaine, and afterwards at Paris, 
 where he became accpiainted with Duf>uy, 
 Scaliger, Passerat, and Pithou. He then went 
 to Spain, and obtained theprofessorshij) of the 
 Greek language at Toledo, whence in 1584 he 
 removed to Saragossa. At length he entered 
 into the order of the Jesuits, and was sent to 
 Rome, where, for three years, he taught rhe- 
 toric iu the college of his order. He died at 
 Antwerp, according to Niceron in 1629, 
 
 SCH 
 
 though other authors place his death in leicr. 
 Sciioitus published a collection of Gr*'ek pro- 
 verbs, with annotations ; a work entitled " His- 
 pania illustrata," 4 vols, folio ; and editions of 
 several of the classics, with notes. — Niceron, 
 xxvi. Freheri Tlieutr. Moreri. 
 
 SCHOTT (Caspar) an ingenious philoso- 
 pher, born in the diocese of Wurtsburg, iu 
 Germany, in 1608. He was the disciple of 
 the celebrated Kircher, taught philosophy and 
 mathematics at Palermo and at Rome, and 
 died in 1666. He belonged to the order of 
 St Ignatius. His works are " Physica curiosa, 
 sen Mirabilia Naturse et Artis, lib. xii," Her- 
 bipol. 1662, 4to ; " Magia universalis Naturje 
 et Artis," 1658-59, 4 vols. 4to ; " Organum 
 JMathematicum ;" "Anatomia Physico-hvdro- 
 staiica Fontium et F'luminum ;" and " Tech- 
 nica curiosa." In these works he has collected 
 with great industry the wonders of natural 
 philosophy and natural history ; but amidst 
 the multiplicity of his details are inserted 
 many questionable narratives, and not a few 
 which are obviously erroneous, so that his 
 authority can seldom be implicitly relied ou. 
 — Reimman. Hiit. Lit. vol. iv. Diet. Hist, 
 Bioo^. Univ. 
 
 SCHIIADER (John) a modem Latin poet 
 and philological writer, born in Friseland, in 
 1721. He studied at Leeuwarden, whence 
 he removed in 1738 to F'raneker, and subse- 
 quently to the university of Leyden. He be- 
 came professor of rhetoric and history at 
 Franeker, and in 1754 he was promoted to 
 the chair of national history. He died No- 
 vember 26, 1782. His works are •• Obser- 
 vationum Liber," 1761, 4to ; " Liber Emen- 
 dationum," 1776, 4to ; " Carmina," pub- 
 lished collectively after his death at Leeu- 
 warden, 1786, 8vo ; and '* Epistola Critica," 
 addressed to Peter Burman : and he also edi- 
 ted " MusajiHero et Leander," 1742, 8vo. — 
 Bio£. Univ. 
 
 SCHREBER (John Christian Daniel, 
 von) a German naturalist, born in 1739. He 
 studied medicine at Halle ; but being inspired 
 with an extraordinary passion for natural his- 
 tory, he went to Upsal in 1758, that he might 
 attend the lectures of Linnaius. Having taken 
 his doctor's degree, and greatly extended his 
 acquaintance with the science of nature, he 
 returned to Germany, and was appointed phy- 
 sician to the school of Butzow. In 1764 he 
 removed to Leipsic, where he became secre- 
 tary to the Economical Society ; and in 1769 
 he was called to the university of ICrlangen, 
 as ordinary professor of medicine, natural his- 
 tory, and botany, with the title of aulic coun- 
 sellor. Twenty-two years after, he was nomi- 
 nated jiresident of the imperial academy ot 
 naturalists, imj)erial counsellor, &c. ; and he 
 received from tlie emperor of Germany letters 
 of nobility. He died December 10, 1810. 
 Schreber, who was a member of forty learned 
 societies, was the author of " Icones Planta- 
 rum minus cognitarum Decas,"' 1766. folio ; 
 a treatise on grasses, in German ; " Spicile- 
 gium Flora; Lipsicap." 1771, 8vo; " Planta- 
 rum Verticillatarum Unilabiatarum Genera et 
 
sen 
 
 Specifs," l*?!, 4to : a treatise on raunimi- 
 feinus animals, in Cierinan, &:c. ; and li»- pub- 
 lished the ei;4lilli edition of the " Genera 
 Phintaruni Linna'i," Frankfort, 1789, 8vo, in 
 wliicJi lie made considerable akeraiioiis. His 
 principal work is that on grasses, (" I'eschrei- 
 bung der Gra-'ser,") whicli is illustrated by co- 
 loured [)lates. A ^reat nunil)er of disserta- 
 tions by Sthreber are printed in the Acta Soc. 
 Natura? Curiosorum. — Bio:^. Univ. 
 
 SCHRKVHMrS (CoitNiMus) a h-arned 
 critic, was the son of 'I'heodore Schrevehus, 
 rector of the school at Ilaerlem, where he was 
 probably born in 16'2!2. His father afterwards 
 became rector of the school of Leyden, in 
 which office he was succeeded by Cornelius in 
 164^. The latter had taken his degree in 
 medicine ; but on liis [iromotion to the school 
 he turned his attention exclusively to classical 
 pursuits, in the course of which he published 
 several variorum editions of the classics, winch 
 display more industry than taste or judgment. 
 His name is now principally known by a 
 manual Greek and Latin Dictionary, which 
 lias been reprinted in most countries of Eu- 
 rope, and in England has been improved by 
 Hill, Bowycr, and others. He died in 1667. 
 — Foj^pens Bibl. Bcltr. Moreri. 
 
 SCHROEDER (John Joachim) a learned 
 Orientalist, distinguislied for his knowledge of 
 the Armenian language. He was born in the 
 territory of Hesse Cassel,in lo'oO, and he stu- 
 died at INIarpurg. His strong predilection for 
 Eastern literature induced him to undertake a 
 journey to Armenia ; but various accidents im- 
 peded his progress, and he reached no farther 
 than Moscow. He returned to Holland, where 
 lie had been previously studying under Schul 
 tens and Surenhusius. He prosecuted his re- 
 searches concerning the Armenian language 
 with the assistance of an Armenian settled at 
 Amsterdam, where he published his " The- 
 saurus Liiigua; Armenicae," 4to ; he also com- 
 posed a dictionary of the language, the MS. of 
 which is preserved in the public library of Cas- 
 sel. In 1713 he was nominated professor of 
 the Oriental tongues, and of ecelesiastical 
 history, at iNIarpurg ; and in 1737 he obtained 
 the chair of theology. He died in 1756, 
 leaving four sons, wlio all cultivated with suc- 
 cess Eastern literature. — Nicolas William 
 ScHROEDER, bom at Marpurg in 17:21, was 
 professor of the Oriental languages at his na- 
 tive place, and in 1748 became professor ()f 
 Greek and the Oriental languages at Gronin- 
 gen. He died in 1798. He published various 
 academical opuscula ; and his " Institutiones 
 ad Kundamenta Linguaj Hebroea;," 1768, 8vo, is 
 one of the most complete and philosophical 
 works extant on Hebrew philology. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SCHROEDER (Philip George) a Ger- 
 man plivsician. brother of N. W. Schroeder, 
 was born at Marpurg in 1729. He studied 
 there, and at Jena and Halle ; and in 1754 he 
 was chosen professor of anatomy and surgery 
 at Rinteln. In 1763 he obtained the title of 
 first professor at Marpurg, and the following 
 • ear he removed to fill the same office at Got- 
 
 S C II 
 
 lingrn, where he died March 11. 177?. His 
 
 acHdtiuical u'rifinjjK, rich iu hcientifu; obsrrva- 
 tions, wer«' publi^ll.•^l cuIIim ijvt-ly, under tli« 
 title of " 1'. (i. Schroederi OpiucuU Medica." 
 Nurenilicru, 11 toIh. Rvo. — /</. 
 
 SCIlROKlEll (John Samibl) a Luthe- 
 ran minister, born in 1735, at KwHienburj; iu 
 'riiuringia. whtre his father wai« rector of the 
 public school. He waH educati-d at Jena, and 
 became rector of the hcho(il of Dornburg m 
 1756, and in 1763 pastor at Ihaugelbiaedl. 
 He subsecpiently removed to Weimar, where 
 he became inspector of llie cabinet of natural 
 history, and at length superintendant and first 
 |)astor at Hukstaedt. His deatii took place 
 March 24, 1808. Scbroeter cultivated ua- 
 tunil history, and distinguiubcd himself espe- 
 cially as a conchologist and mineralogist. 
 Among his works, alll iu German, are a '* Li- 
 thological Dictioiiary," iJerlin, 1772 — 88, 
 8 vols. 8vo ; " An Intr.iduction to Concho- 
 logy," Halle', 178.3—86, 3 vols. 8vo ; and 
 " Remarks and Observations on Natural His- 
 tory, particularly relating to Shells and Fos- 
 sils," Leipsic, 'l784— 87, 4 vols. 8\o.— hal- 
 dinger's Biog. of Living Natnruliits. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SCHULTENS (Albert) a learned divine, 
 was born at Groningen about 1680. He stu- 
 died at Leyden and Utrecht, and entering the 
 ministry was chosen pastor of Wassemaer, and 
 afterwards professor of the Oriental languages 
 at Franeker, and next at Leyden, where he 
 died in 1750. Of the numerous learned works 
 of Scliultens tlie most considerable are " A 
 Commentary on the Book of Job," 2 vols. 4to ; 
 " Vetus et Regia Via Hebrazandi ;" " Origines 
 Ilebraicaj ;" and a Latin version of the " Life 
 of Saladin," from the Arabic of Hariri. — He 
 was succeeded by his son, John Jacoh 
 Schultens, who died in 1778. — Xouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 SCHULTENS (Henry Albert) son of 
 John Jacob Schultens, and grandson of the 
 above, was born at Herborn in 1749. He was 
 educated at Leyden, where he studied Arabic 
 and Hebrew. He also made himself master 
 of the F2nglish language, and in I77i? pub- 
 lished his "Anthologia Sententiarum Arabi- 
 carum." He soon after visitetl England, and 
 became a commoner in Wadham college, Ox- 
 ford, where he received the degree of master 
 of aits. He also acquired the friendship of 
 sir William Jones, who recommended him to 
 study the Persian. On his return to Holland 
 he was chosen j>rofessor of the Oriental lan- 
 guaoes at Amsterdam, where he resided until 
 the death of his father, whom he succeeded at 
 Levden, and where he died in 1793. Resides 
 the' work already mentioned, he j)ublislied an 
 eiiition of Pil pay's Fables, and a supplement 
 to the " Bibliothequp Oriental" of D'Her- 
 belot. After his deatli appeared his transla- 
 tion of the Rook of Job, and an edition of 
 Me danius. — Monthly liei. vol. xv. N. S. 
 
 SCHILZE (nENJAMiN')a Danish mission- 
 ary of the Lutheran church, who, havii'^^ 
 finished his studies at Halle, was sent to the 
 East Indies. He arrived at Tranquebar, Se > 
 
SC H 
 
 tember 16, 1719, shortly after the death of 
 Ziegenbalg, the chief of the mission. He 
 Btudied the Mahibar language, and received 
 ordination in 1720. He continued a transla- 
 tion of the Bible into the Tamul dialect, which 
 ]iad been commenced by Ziegenbalg, and the 
 work was fiuislied in 1725. He removed in 
 1726 to Madras, and engaged in the service 
 of the English Society for the Propagation of 
 the Gospel, under whose auspices he founded 
 a new church. He then studied the Teliuga 
 and the Sanscrit ; and into the former language 
 he translated the Bible, and Arndt's True 
 Christianity," and " Garden of Paradise." 
 Ill health induced him to return to Europe in 
 1743. 'Ihe following year he settled at Halle, 
 where he employed himself till his death in 
 1760, in the printing of his translations and 
 other learned labours, among which are "Con- 
 spectus Litteraturs Telingica;, vulgo \\'aru- 
 gicEE," 1747, 4to ; and " The INIaster for the 
 Oriental and Occidental Languages, containing 
 One Hundred Alphabets, Polyglott 'Jables, 
 &:c." Leipsic, 1738, 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHULZE (John Henry) professor of 
 medicine in the university of Halle, was born 
 at Colbitz, in the duchy of Magdebourg, in 
 1687. His father, who was a tailor, was unable 
 to afford him the means of education ; but he 
 was fortunate enouirh to meet with friends who 
 procured him admission into the orphan house 
 at Halle, where he afterwards assisted as a 
 tutor. In 1704 he was received into the uni- 
 versity, where he studied medicine. He be- 
 came, in 1708, teacher at the Paedagogium at 
 Halle, in which situation he remained seven 
 years. He then resumed the medical profes- 
 sion, and in 1720 obtained the anatomical 
 chair at Altorf. In 1732 he was appointed 
 professor of rhetoric and antiquities at Halle, 
 where he died October 10, 1744. He was 
 the author of " Historia Medicinal a Re- 
 rum Initio ad An. Urbis llomaj r>35 deducta," 
 1728, 4to ; and other works which display 
 great erudition. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHURiMANN (Anna Maiua de) a lady 
 who gained a high literary reputation in the 
 latter part of the seventeenth century. She 
 was descended from a noble family of the Pro- 
 testant religion, and was born at Cologne, 
 November 5, 1607. From her earliest years 
 she displayed a taste for study, and to a know- 
 ledge of classical literature she added a great 
 degree of skill in music, painting, sculpture, 
 and engraving, which union of talents pro- 
 cured her the aj)pellation of the modern 
 •Sappho. She knew enough of Greek and 
 Hebrew to read the Bible in the original text; 
 and she studied P2thiopic sufficiently to com- 
 pose a grammar of that tongue. After the 
 death of her father, in 1623, slie settled with 
 her mother at Utrecht, where she devoted her 
 time to the cultivation of learning and the 
 arts. She corresponded with men of letters 
 at home and abroad, and she was visited by 
 Christina, queen of Sweden, and other distin- 
 guished personages. Tbis erudite female at 
 length became the victim of fanatical delusion. 
 In 1633 she retired to a country seat at Lex- 
 
 SC H 
 
 1 round, near Viauen, wliere she gave an asylum 
 to the entliusiast Labadie, to whom she is 
 SEud to have been secretly married. After his 
 death she assembled his followers, and con- 
 ducted them to Wiverl in Friseland, where 
 she died in 1678. Mademoiselle Schurmana 
 wrote " Opuscula Hebra^a, Gra3ca, Latina, 
 Gallica, prosaica et metrica," edited by Fred. 
 Spanheim, Leyden, 1648, 8vo ; a dissertatioa 
 " De Ingenii Muliebris ad Doctrinam et me- 
 liores Litteras Aptitudine," 1641, 8vo, which 
 was translated into Frencli by Colletet ; and 
 " EvKXyjvia, seu melioris Partis Electio brevem 
 Religionis ac Vitae ejus Delineationem exhi- 
 bens," Altona, 1673, 8vo, a defence of the 
 opinions of the Labadists. — Kiceron, vol. xxxiii. 
 Chaufepie. Aikin. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SCHURTZFLEISCH (Conrad Samuel) 
 one of the most industrious philological writers 
 Germany bas ever produced. He was born 
 in 1641, at Corbach, in the county of Wal- 
 deck ; and he studied at his native place, at 
 Giessen and at Wiltemberg, where, at the age 
 of twenty-three, he took the degree of doctor 
 of philosophy. Returning to Corbach, he 
 assisted his father, who was rector of a school, 
 and afterwards he visited several German uni- 
 versities. In 1667 he engaged in the study of 
 jurisprudence, and in private tuition, at Leip- 
 sic ; where, in 1669, he gave offence by the 
 freedom with which he expressed his oj)inion 
 relative to the most celebrated German jurists, 
 in a pamphlet, which he published under the 
 Latinized appellation of Eubulus I'heosdatus 
 Sarcmasius. This affair obliged him to remove 
 to \\ ittemberg, where he became in 1671 ex- 
 traordinary professor of history ; four years 
 after, he succeeded Carpzow in the chair of 
 poetry ; and in 1678 he obtained the ordinary 
 professorship of bistory, to which was added 
 that of Greek. He travelled afterwards in the 
 Low Countries, England, and Italy ; and re- 
 turning to Wittemberg, he in 1700 exchanged 
 the Greek chair for that of rhetoric. He was 
 also counsellor of the duke of Saxe Weimar, 
 who made him his librarian. He died .Tuly 7, 
 1708, leaving to his brother a valuable collec- 
 tion of books, a cabinet of medals, and his 
 MSS. Among his numerous works may be 
 specified " Disnutationes Historicai Civiles," 
 
 1699, 4to; " Dissertationes Academica3,"4to; 
 " Uisputationes Philologico-philosophicse," 
 
 1700, 4to ; " Epistolae selectiores," 1712, 
 8vo ; •' Epistohii Arcanze varii," 1711-12, 
 
 2 vols. 8vo ; and he continued Sleidan's trea- 
 tise " De Quatuor Imperiis." — Henry Lso- 
 naud Scni'RizFLEiscH, youngpr brother of 
 the preceding, followed his example in his 
 api)hcation to the study of classical and his- 
 torical literature. Li 1700 he succeeded him 
 in the chair of history at Wittemberg, and he 
 also, on his death, became librarian at Wei- 
 mar. He died in 1723. He was tbe author 
 of " Historia Ensiferorum Ordinis Teutonici 
 Livonorum," 1701, 8vo ; " Notitia Biblio- 
 thecje principalis Vimariensis," 1712, 4to, re- 
 published with additions at Jena, in 1714 ; and 
 other learned works. — Biog. Univ. Saiii Onom, 
 
 SCHWARTZ (Bertjiold) or Bartolmi 
 
S C II 
 
 Nir;er, n Fnincistim friitr of Fribiiri^, or, ac- 
 cordiiiji; to some, a monk of Col()i,'ne, wlio iins 
 been rej^nrded as ihe inventor of gtiiipowiU-r 
 and fire-arms. He is said to have been mix- 
 ing tot;ether the ini^rcdiciiis of gnnj)o\v(l('r, 
 VIZ. nitre, sniphiir, ami charcoal, in an iron 
 mortar, in the prosecution of some alchymical 
 researches, when the composition explwiU-d 
 from an accidental spark occasioned by the 
 collision of the pestle and mortar. The for- 
 mer beini; driven forcibly to a distance, Her- 
 tliold thence conceived the idea of forming 
 pieces of artillery. Such is the story com- 
 monly told of the invention of gunpowder, said 
 to have occurred m the early jmrt of the four- 
 teenth centurv. There is however much dis- 
 crepancy in the accounts of this discovery ; 
 and it is certain that Roger Dacon, who died 
 in 129'2, was acquainted with an inllammable 
 composition similar to gunpowder, the know- 
 ledge of which Europeans appear to have de- 
 rived from the Orientals. — Orig, 
 
 SCHWARTZ (Christian Frederic) a 
 G'erman missionary to the East Indies, born at 
 Sonnenburg, in the Newmarck, October 26, 
 1726. He went to Halle in 1746, and entered 
 at the university, by the advice of the ex- 
 missionary Schulze ; and he was selected with 
 another student to learn the Tamul language, 
 that they might assist in the intended publi- 
 cation of Ziefrenbalij and Schulze's Tamulian 
 translation of the Bible. — (See Schi'LZe, Ben- 
 jamin.) — The printing of this work was re- 
 linquished ; and Schwartz, who had continued 
 his Oriental studies for a-year and a half, was 
 persuaded to go as a missionary to the East 
 Indies. He proceeded to England with two 
 other gentlemen destined for the same ser- 
 vice ; and in July 1730 they arrived at 
 Tranquebar. In 1767 Mr Schwartz was em- 
 ployed by the English Society for the Pro- 
 motion of Christian Knowledge, when he 
 removed to Trichinopoly ; and there and at 
 Tanjore lie passed the remainder of his life, 
 labouring with great assiduity in preaching 
 the gospel to the infidels of Hindostan. At 
 both places he received from the govern- 
 ment of Madias 100/. a year, as garrison 
 preacher, which sum he is said to have ex- 
 pended in building a church at Trichinopoly 
 and otherwise promoting the purposes of the 
 mission. He was lit Id in high esteem for his 
 character by the Hindoos ; and the rajah of 
 Tanjore made him tutor to his son. He died 
 February 13, 1798, at Tanjore, where lii? body 
 was interred in the church which he had 
 erected. — Memoir in Evang. Mag. vol. xv, 
 
 SCHWARZ (Christopher Tiieophilus) 
 a learned and laborious writer in philology, 
 bom at Leisnig, in Saxony, in 1675. He stu- 
 died at Leipsic and Wittemberg ; and having 
 taken his doctor's degree, he returned to Leij)- 
 sic, and subsequently became professor of mo- 
 rals and then of history at Altorf. His repu- 
 tation attracted numerous pupils from all parts 
 of Germany ; ami he had very advantageous 
 offers made to induce him to remove elsewhere, 
 but he refused them, and died at Altorf, Ke- 
 binary 24, 1751. Among his works are, " Dii*- 
 BioG. UicT — Vol. HI. 
 
 S C I 
 
 seitutiont'B de OrtiamfiitiH Librorum apud Vw- 
 It-res usitatiH," 17U» 6, t-o . " I)e Eibris pli- 
 catilibuH \ ii<rum." 17 17 ; " !)<• vari:i Sciprl- 
 Ifctile Uei Ijbrariiu Vflerum," l7J.'>,4to; and 
 " I'rimari.i <pi;rdam I)ocum<-iiia d«- Otigiruj 
 Typo^raphia*," 1740, Uii. — HaiUt I'iia^ I'hi- 
 lologitr. liiog, Univ. 
 
 S{'|()IM'H:S (Ca^vkh .Sdiopj., Lnowii 
 under the Latinized name of) a v«-ry li'arncil 
 grammarian and philologiHl, di»tiiij;uiah<d a« 
 one of the moHt sitirical writers i,{ Iuh age. 
 He was born at Newmarck in the Talntinate, 
 in 1576. His family waa obicure. and he 
 owed his initiation in learning to liis own in- 
 dustry ; such being his profR-iency. that at the 
 age of seventeen he published Latin poetry. 
 Being at Ferrara in 1598, when pope Clement 
 Vni went to take ()ossession of that city, lie 
 wrote a ))anegyric on the pope and the king of 
 Spain ; and following to Rome the poniifT, 
 whose patronage he had thus obtained, he thf-re 
 abjured the Protestant faith. He was created 
 a knight of St Peter, and received the aposto- 
 lic title of count Claravalle. He jtublished an 
 edition of \'arro, notes on ApuU-ius, and a 
 commentary on the Priapeia, which last he 
 had the decency to disavow. He became, 
 from an admirer, the most virulent adversary 
 of Joseph Scaiiger ; and the history of litera- 
 ture scarcely affords an instance of a polemical 
 writer so widely engaged in liostihties with 
 his contemporaries as Scioppius, or of one who 
 conducted controversy with such diseraceful 
 violence and rancour. In 1611 he published 
 his " Ecclesiasticus," directed principally 
 against oar king James I ; and his aljuse of 
 the memory of Henry I\', occasioned the burn- 
 ing of his writings at Paris, by the hand of the 
 common hangman, November 2 I-, 1612. He 
 went to Spain in 1613 ; and at Madrid he re- 
 ceived from the servants of the English am- 
 bassador a cudgelling for his invective against 
 James I. In 1618 he published at Milan 
 *• Classicum Belli sacri," against the Protes- 
 tants ; and he aftt'rwards wrote a number of 
 satirical works against the Jesuits. In his 
 latter years he turned commentator on the 
 Apocalypse; and he endeavoured, but in vain, 
 to interest in his speculations cardinal Maza- 
 rin, whose protection he wished to secure. 
 He died at Padua, November 19, 1619. Be- 
 sides his controversial productions, he wrote 
 notes on the " iMmerva" of Sanctius, and other 
 philological pieces, which may still be con- 
 suJted with advantage. — Raule, i>aiii Oiton. 
 Niceioii, vol. xxxv. Biog. Uitiv. 
 
 SCIPIO AFRICANUS (Pi/blius Cor- 
 NELii's) an illustrious Roman general, de- 
 scended from the patrician family of the Cor- 
 nelii. He served under his father against 
 Hannibal in Italy, and was present at the 
 battle of Tesino. when he earned his father, 
 who was wounded, off the field. He sup- 
 ported the sinking sj)irits of the Romans after 
 their defeat at Canna\ and proposed tLe bold 
 measure of invading the territories of the Car- 
 tliaginians, that they might be obliged to reeal 
 Hannibal. He was accordingly sent with an 
 array into Sj>ain, where he took. New Car- 
 
SCI SCO 
 
 thage, and was generally successful. It was ' posed to liave fallen the victim of party r«- 
 li) tLis campaign that he (iisp!a\e(J an example I ven^e, being in the lifty sixth jear of his age 
 of generosity, in restoring the bride or be- at the time of bis decease. — SciPio NAsit7A, 
 trothed mistress of Allucius, a Spnuish prince, the son of Cornelius Scipio, and the cousin of 
 who had been taken captive. The coniinence | the last-mentioned Afiicanus. was a Roman 
 and justice of Scipio. in not appropriating *^o senator, d'stingui.«hed for his eloijuence, wis- 
 Jjimself his beautiful female prisoner, has bt-en dom, and courage ; and such was his reputa- 
 the sul)ject of abundant panegyric, in poetry, tion for those vi-tu ^s that he was cons ituted 
 declamation, and sculpture : a circumstance the guard'an of the sacred image of the mother 
 which indicates the low s?ate of moral senti- of ibe gods, which was always committed to 
 ment among the Romans, while ic augments the cui^tody o-' a ci.izen of singol.ir probity. 
 the glory of Scipio, 'bat he was uncontami- i He opposed the destruction of Carth?ge in th« 
 nated by the vicious practice of his contempo- sena'e, !hou;^h wi bout success. His death 
 ties. Keturniiig from Spain, he was elected took oluce about 100 years BC. — Plutarch. 
 to the consulship ; after which he headed an Morei L 
 
 exjiedition to Africa, and in two engagements I SCOPAS. a celebrated Grecian sculptor 
 he vanquished the Carthaginians under As- and arrbitect, who flourished in the fifth cen- 
 drubal and Syphax, king of Numidia. The tury befoie the Chiistian ?era. He was a native 
 next year he beat HanDil)al at the battle of of tlie island of Paros, and the beasiiiful marble 
 Zama, and obliged the Carthaginians to submit which it produced was the material of some of 
 to huniiiiiting terms of peace. Sci])io return- his most admii-ed productions, particularly of 
 ing home tiiumphantiy, was regarded as the a statue of Venus, whirh having been removed 
 saviour of Rome, and honoured with the sur- from Greece to Rome, was, according to Pliny 
 name of Africaiius. Notwithstanding his great reckoned superior to one executed by Praxi- 
 eervices, he became subsequeutlv ibe object teles. Scopas erected the famous sepulchral 
 of public jealousy, being charged wi'.h carry- monument consecrated by Artemisia, queen 
 ing on a correspondence with Antiochus, king of Caria, to the memory of her husband Mau- 
 of Syria, prejudit ial to the interests of the re- solus, and thence termed the " Mausoleum ;" 
 public. Though he justified himself from this ' and he likewise constructed one of the marble 
 imputation, he was so disgusted at the ingra- columns for the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 
 titude of bis countrymen, in listening to his -—Plinii Hist. Nat. Oilancli Aheced. Pittor. 
 accusers, that he retired from the manage- I SCOPOLI (John AxTnoNv) an Italian na- 
 meut of public affairs, and passed the re- turalist and philosopher, born at Cavalese near 
 nininder of his life in literary seclusion at Li- Trent, in V72o. He was educated at Ins- 
 ternum. His death took place 189 BC. — pruck, where he graduated as Ml).; and he 
 Lucius Cornelius Scipio, brother of the practised as a physician at his native place, 
 preceding, was also a celebrated military com- He aftei wards went to Venice, where he ex- 
 mander. He was employed against kitig An- tended his acquaintance with science ; and an 
 tiochus, whom he defeated near Magnesia; excursion among the mountains of the Tyrol, 
 and he was rewarded with a triumph, and the suggested his Flora and his Entomology of 
 title of Asiaiicus. He. like his brothei, ixpe- Carniola. In 1754 he attached himself to the 
 rienced the uncertainty of popular favoui, and prince bishop the count de Firmian, whom he 
 was the object of political persecution. — Pub- accompanied to Gratz and Vienna ; and he 
 Lies Scipio ^milianus, called Africanus subsequently was appointed first physician to 
 IMinor, was the sou of Paulus .'Emilius, and the mines of I'yrol. In 1766 he was nomi- 
 was, according to the cut^tom of the Romans, nated counsellor in the department of the 
 adopted by the son of the elder Afiicanus. In mines, and professor of mineralogy at Schem- 
 Lis youth he served in the army in Spain, nitz, where he published his " Auni tres 
 when he obtained a mural crown for scaling Historico-naturales." At length he obtained 
 the walls of a besieged city, and conquered in the chair of chemistry and botany at Pavia ; 
 single combat a Spaniard of gigantic stature, and he died iu that city, May 8, 1788. He 
 He afterwards carried on the ib'rd punic war, published a Journal of Natural History ; Ele- 
 wLich terminated in the destruction of Car- ments of Chemistry ; and " Deliciaj Florae et 
 thage, and the subjugation of the Carthagi- Faun* Insubricaj." — Biog. Univ. 
 nians. He also took and destroyed the city SCOTT (Daniel) a dissenting minister, 
 of Numautia in Spain. He was both a culii- was the son of a merchant of London ; the 
 vator and a patron of literature ; and Po^bius time of his birth is not recorded. He was 
 the historian, and the philosopher Panatius, educated wi'h Butler and Seeker, afterwards 
 were among his intimate associates, 'ibe ce- eminent jirelates, under the learned Mr. Jones 
 lebrated dialogue of Cicero, " de Amicitia," of Tewkesbury, whence he was removed to 
 has immortalized the inttrcourse between tlie university of Utrecht, where he took the 
 Scipio and L?elius, who partook in the mili- degree of doctor of laws. On his return to 
 tary expeditions, and the learned recreations England, he divided his residence between 
 of his illustrious friend ; and to their correc- London and Colchester, having previously be- 
 tioiis and improvements the dramatist Terence come a baptist. In 1725 he published an 
 is believed to have been indebted for the po- " Essay towards a demonstration of the Sciip- 
 lislied elegance of language which adorns his ture 'i'rini;y." He is also author of " A New 
 comic scenes. Scipio .^^milianus was found Version of St. Matthew's Gosi)el, with Notes," 
 dead in his bed, 129 BC ; and he was sup and of an "Appendix to H. Stephens's Greei 
 
SCO 
 
 Loxicon," in 9 vols, folio, 17 l.i, a work exhi- 
 biting great diligence aiul erudition. He ili»-,| 
 March V9, 17.VJ. — lie had an elder hiother. 
 Thomas ScoiT, who i)nl)lis!uil several occa- 
 sional sermons, and " A Poetical X'ersion of 
 the Book of Job," a second edition of «vhi( h 
 t\as printed in 1774 — Anotlu-r brotlier, Dr 
 Joseph Nicor. Scott, was (irst a minister and 
 aftt rwards a physician. Me published two 
 vohimts of sermons, jireaclied in defence of 
 all religions, whether natural or revealed. lie 
 died in 1771. — Chalmers's liiog. Dirt. 
 
 SCOTT ((jKtiu.K Lkwis) a mathemati 
 cum, was borri at Hanover, where his fa- 
 tlier resided in a jjublic character, in the 
 reign of the elector, afterwards CJeorge I, 
 from whom tlie subject of this article re- 
 ceived his Christian names. lie received 
 a liberal education, and was appointed sub- 
 preceptor for the Latin languajie to his late 
 Majesty. He distinguished liimself highly as 
 a mathematician, and became a fellow of the 
 Roval Society, a member of the Board of Lon- 
 gitude, and ultimately a commissioner of ex- 
 cise. He assisted in tlie " Supplement to 
 Chambers's Dictionary," in two folio volumes. 
 He died in 17H0. His widow, who died in 
 l79o, was sister to the celebrated Mrs Mon- 
 tagu. She wrote several novels, and the lives 
 of Gustavus Ericson, king of Sweden, and of 
 'Theodore Agrippad'Aubigne. — Iluttoii's Math. 
 Did. Gent. Muor. vol. l.vviii. and l.vxv. 
 
 SCOTT (John) a learned English divine, 
 was the son of Mr Thomas Scott, a substantial 
 grazier, and was bom at Chippenham in Wilt- 
 shire, in 1638. He was apprenticed in Lon- 
 don much against liis will ; but after a servi- 
 tude of three years, he was allowed to enter 
 himself a commoner of New-inn, Oxford. 
 Having taken orders, in 1677 he was presented 
 to the rectory of St Peter-le-Poor, and in 1681 
 col! a ted to a prebend of St Paul's cathedra i. 
 In 1691 he obtained the valuable rectory of St 
 Cliles in the Fields, and was made a canon of 
 Windsor. He died in 1694. Besides various 
 sermons and controversial pieces, chiefly in 
 rpposition both to the church of Rome and the 
 dissenters, he wrote a work held in much es- 
 teem, entitled " 'The Christian Life." All his 
 works have been printed in two volumes folio. 
 — Biog. Brit. 
 
 SCOTT (John) a pleasing poet, was the 
 youngest son of a respectable quaker trades- 
 man resident in Grange-walk, Bermoiidsey, 
 where he was born 9th January, 1739. In his 
 tenth year his father retired witli liis family 
 to Amwell, in Hertfordshire, where he carried 
 on the malting trade. He was educated at a 
 private day school, and received little or no 
 classical instruction. At the age of seventeen 
 he discovered an inclination to cultivate poetry, 
 and transmitted some of his earliest attemi)ts 
 to the Gentleman's INIagazine. In 1760 he 
 published " FouF Elt-gies Descriptive and Mo- 
 ral," which were favourably received, and 
 acciuired him tire valuable praise of Dr Young, 
 Miss Talbot, and Mrs Carter. In 1766 he be- 
 came known to Dr Johnson, and the following 
 year married a lady who died in childbed, a 
 
 s c o 
 
 misfoitune whicli produced an H. g y from Ut-x 
 huhbanti, tl.Mt oblmnrd cotjoidi-rnljje adnum- 
 tion. In 177(i |„. publuli-d hu " .Amwell." « 
 
 de.^cripliv.- [ rv m, the mnH l,i : ' ' „{ h.i 
 poeiiial pro«luiUon«. He did n ■ .,- J.^ 
 
 intention to poetry, but u said to bare writipn 
 auHwirH to Dr Jolinson'i " I'niivn," " F«Iim» 
 .Alarm," and " Taxaiion no I yruitiy." 1„ 
 177» he aino publiah#-d a work of j»r«at utility, 
 enlith.i •• A Dl-est r.f the lli-bwjiy and tie.' 
 neral Turnpike I.aw»;" and in 1711-.' M>rit out 
 a volume of poetry, includinj; •' .Amwe-ll," de. 
 corated with beautiful en^ravin^ja. Jj,- Ji^J 
 in London, of a putrid fever, on the lyth of 
 December, 1783. A vf.lume of " Critual 
 E>8ays," written, it is said, in consequence of 
 his dissatisfaction with some of the live* of 
 Dr Johnson, was publislied in l7H.'j by Mr 
 Hoole, who composed a life of the author, from 
 which these particulars are taken. Am a pofi 
 he may be regardt-d as [lOBhessing no mean 
 descriptive powers, and a pleading rein of 
 pathos and moral sensibility ; while in the 
 active duties of life he was r< gard-d an a 
 useful, conscientious, and benevolent man. — 
 Life hij Hodtc. 
 
 SCOTT (Mif H.\f r) a ceh bra ed Scoiiihh 
 philosopher of the thirteenth century, and a re- 
 puted magician, was bom at Balwine, liis pater- 
 nal estate in Fife, about tlie Ifegwminkj of the 
 reign of Alexander II. He made an ear!) pro- 
 gressin tbelanguagesand the n.atln niatic.*-, and 
 after residing in France some years, repaired 
 to the court of the em[)eror Frederick II, and 
 applied closely to the study of medicine and 
 chemistry. On quitting Gertnany he pro- 
 ceeded to England, and was received witli 
 great favour by Edward II. \\ hen he returned 
 to his native country, he received the honour 
 of knighthood from Alexander HI, by whom 
 he was also confidentially employed He died 
 at an advanced age in I'l'91. Michael Scott 
 was a man of considerable learinir for his 
 time and being much addicted to the study of 
 the occult sciences, jiassed ani' ng his contem- 
 poraries for a magician, and as such is men- 
 tioned by Pictus of Mirandula, Boccaccio, 
 Folenga, and Dante. Kesjucting the place 
 of his burial there is some difference of opi- 
 nion, but the major part declare for Melro»e 
 abbey, and all agree thathi^ l)ooks wtre either 
 interred in his grave or preserved in the ablx'y 
 where he died, of winch tradition sir Waltt-r 
 Scott has availed lumself in his Lay of the 
 Last Minstrel. A Latin translatjcn of the 
 works of Aristotle is ascribed to Scott by .Mac- 
 kenzie, and other writers ; but he is t' ' I 
 to have been only one of the mHn\ b:i - o 
 rendered them partly from the Cireek and 
 partly from the .Arabic, by command of Fre- 
 derick 11. He is also author of "• De Secreiis 
 Naturo; ;" " Questio Curiosa de Natura Suii* 
 et Luna;," a work on the transmutation of 
 metals ; " Mensa Philosophica,' a treatise 
 replete with the visionary science of chiro- 
 mancy and astrology. A rambling treatise on 
 the Sphere of Sacrabosco is also attributed to 
 Michael Scott. — Mackentie's Liies. Encyc, 
 BtU. 
 
 K 2 
 
SCO 
 
 SCOTT (Revnoi.d or TIeginai.d) a sen-! 
 eible and learned English geutleinan of the 
 sixteenth century, was the younger son of sir 
 John Scott, of Scott's-hall, near Smeeth in 
 Kent, where he was, probably, born. At the 
 acre of seventeen he was sent to Hart-hall, 
 Oxford, which he left without taking a degree ; 
 and returned to his native place, where he 
 married, and gave himself up to study, which 
 lie diversiSed with the pursuits of gardening 
 and husbandry. His first work was entitled 
 " A Perfect Platform of a Hoj)-Garden," 
 4to. In 1.^84 he gave to the world his cele- 
 brated " Discoveries of Witchcraft," whi«;h 
 was reprinted in I6.0I, 4to, under the elabo- 
 rate title of " Scott's Discovery of Witch- 
 craft ; proving the common Opinion of Witches 
 Cvontracting with Devils, Spirits, Familiars, 
 &ic. to be but imaginary, erroneous conceptions 
 and novelties; with a Treatise on the Nature 
 of Sjiirits, Devils, litc." In a preface, very 
 honourable to his understanding and benevo- 
 lence, he ileclares tliat his views are to prevent 
 the abasement of God's glory, the rescue of 
 the Gospel from an alliance with " such pee- 
 vish trumpery," and to advocate " favour and 
 Christian com])assion" towards the "poor 
 souls" accused of witchcraft, rather than 
 '■ rigour and extremity." A doctrine of this 
 nature, in an age when the reality of witches 
 was almost universally admitted, exposed the 
 author to every species of obloquy, and, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, his hook was actu- 
 ally burnt. It was against the " damnable 
 opinions of Wierus and Scott," that, accord- 
 ing to his own preface, James 1 favoured the 
 world with his " J^emonologie," ])rinted first 
 at Edinburgh in 1597 ; and Dr John llay- 
 nolds, Meiic Casaubon, and one of the great- 
 est and latest defenders of witchcraft, Joseph 
 Glanvil, all express either their horror or 
 contempt of so daring a revival of the old 
 error of the Sadducees. Scott did not live to 
 witness the full eftect of his useful endeavours, 
 dying so early as 15^9; but the call for two 
 editions of his work in the next century 
 showed the eftect of his labours, and the pro- 
 gress of good sense, in spite of the ))rejudices 
 of the learned, the sujierstitions of the vulgar, 
 and what, it is lamentable to add, was the last 
 to yield, the statute law of the land. — Athen. 
 Oion. vol. i. 
 
 SCOTT (Sami'ei.) an eminent painter of 
 scenery, Sic. horn at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. He took for his model 
 Vandervelde, whom he equalled in the beauty 
 of his sea-pieces, and surpassed in the ductility 
 and variety of his talents. His views of Lon- 
 don-bridge, and of the Custom-house Quay, 
 and other aquatic scenes, have been much ad- 
 mired. The figures with which his pictures 
 are ornamented, are admirably appropriate and 
 wtll chosen ; and they are finished with great 
 taste and judgment. His sketches are by no 
 means inferior, as such, to his most laboured 
 productions. iMany of his paintings were exe- 
 cuted for Sir Kdwar.i Walpf^le. He died of 
 the eout in \77'2.— Bi(i^. Univ. 
 
 SCOL'GAL (Hi .'M' v) an eminent Scotch 
 
 SC K 
 
 divine, tlie second son of Patrick Scougal, bi- 
 shop of Aberdeen, was bom in i650, at Sal- 
 toua in East Lothian. He was educated iu 
 the university of St Andrews, where he became 
 professor of Oriental philosophy at the ago of 
 twenty. In 1673 he was presented by his 
 college to a living, but recalled the following 
 year, and made professor of iheoloj;y. His 
 great exertions, both in this ca[>acity arid as a 
 preacher, threw lum into a consumption, and 
 lie died greatly lamenteil in 1678, at the early 
 age of twenty-eight. He was the author of 
 an elo(juent and able work, entitled " The 
 Life of God in the Soul of Man," which has 
 run through manv editions ; and also of " Nine 
 Sermons," by wlilch he obtained tlie reputa- 
 tion of being one of the most elegant writers 
 and able divines of his country and age. — 
 Encvc. lint, 
 
 SCRIBONHJS LAR(iUS, a Roman phy- 
 sician, who lived in the reigii of the emperor 
 Claudius. He studied under A puleius Celsus, 
 a physician of the Asclepiadic sect, and ap- 
 pears to have been a fieedman. He was au- 
 thor of a work entitled " De Comjwsitione 
 Medicamentorum Liber," the best edition of 
 which is that of Padua, 16.i;j, 4to, with the 
 notes of Pthodius. It is also printed in the 
 INledicaj Artis Principes of Henry Stejdiens. 
 It appears to be little more than a collection of 
 nostrums and prescrijUions, although of some 
 value, as showing the state of medicine at 
 Ll;,at i)eriod. — [lalleri Bibl. Med. 
 
 SCRIVKRILS (Pitch; a Dutch poet and 
 historian, j.rofessor of jurisprudence at Ley- 
 den, born in 1576 at Haerlem. His principal 
 works are " Piatavias Comitumque Omnium 
 Historia ;" " Hatavia Illuslrata" 4to ; " INIis- 
 cellanea PhilolOi:ica ;" " Hollanili.-e Clironicon 
 Populare ;" "Collectanea Veterum Tragico- 
 rum ;" and .*onie miscellaneous poetry in the 
 Dutch and Latin languages. He also pub- 
 lished an edition of Vegctius " De Re Mili- 
 tari." Scriverius had retired from public liie 
 for some time previously to his decease, w hich 
 took place in 165.3. — Mmeri. 
 
 SCRLM/EOR or SCRIMGER (HtNnY) 
 a native of Dundee in Scotland, who was edu- 
 cated at St Andrews and Paris, after which he 
 went to Bourges, and studied jurisprudence 
 under professors Baron and Duaren. He sub- 
 sequently went to Italy with the bishop of 
 Rennes, who was employed on a diplomatic 
 mission ; and he was at Padua at the time of 
 the death of Francis Spira, whose history he 
 wrote, and it was published under the name 
 of Henry of Scotland. Scrim/eor afterwards 
 went to Germany, where he was employed by 
 HuldricFiigger to forma lil)rary, containing a 
 number of \alaable Greek and I,aiin !\1SS. He 
 superintended the printing of these works at the 
 press of Henry Stephen, al Geneva, where he 
 was professor of philosophy, and afterwards 
 I'f civil law. He died iu 1571, at the age of 
 sixty- five. Among the works which he pub- 
 lished was an edition of the Novells of Justi' 
 nian ; and he wrote notes on Athenanis, which 
 are praiseil by Casaubon. — Teiaier Eloges de 
 H. S. ]\]ackeHsie, 
 
S C Y 
 
 SCUDKRI, tlie name of two French wri- i 
 
 ters, brntlior inJ sister, wliu enj;)/e«! v-oiisiiler- 
 able i)0])iihirity in tliew ilay, [ iit of whom tlj'* 
 latter only has descend'^d with any reputation 
 to posterity, i Ik y were descended of an an- 
 cient family, settled at Apt, in l*rov»n(e, and 
 were born at Havre de Grace; (.ihoiiCK in 
 1603, his sister Magdalen i: in 16(^7. (.jeorge 
 de Scuileri devoted liims»lf entiiely to the 
 cultivation of the l)elles U-ttres, and was the 
 author of a <jreai variety of compositions both 
 in prose and verse, esj^ecially in ilramatic 
 poetry, of wbich he was also a |>rofeiised iritic ; 
 and in that ca|)acity published a severe attack 
 on the '* Cid " of Corncille. His acrimony on 
 this occasion is supposed to have been in- 
 creased bv tlie wish of pavinjj; his court to 
 cardinal Richelieu, with whom his success 
 was o;reater than with the jMiblic. The ra]ii- 
 dity witli which he wrote, producing generally, 
 according to Boileau, a volume a month, is 
 doubtless one great reason why his works are 
 now so little known. He became a member 
 of the Frencli Academy, and died at Paris in 
 1667. — Magdalene was a woman of very 
 superior intellectual endowments, and of a 
 lively wit, of which latter quality the best 
 proofs that have survived her are to be found 
 in ber poetical pieces, wbich have received 
 tlie marked approbation of \'oltaire. The taste 
 of the age however in wbich she lived, tend- 
 ing principally towards romances, she, witli 
 the view of turning her talents as much as 
 jiossible to pecuniary account, ft 11 in with the 
 reigning fashion, and produced many lieavy 
 tomes in this kind of composition, once much 
 read, but now deservedly forgotten. They 
 however contained some elegant writing and 
 some real elevation and dignity of sentiment ; 
 akliough the long and affected compliments of 
 tl;e personages excited ridicule, especially 
 when copied in real life by the precieuses of 
 the time. Of these, " Artamenes, or the 
 Grand Cyrus," 10 vols. 8vo ; " Clelia," 10 
 vols. 8vo; " Ibrahim, or the Illustrious Bassa," 
 4 vols, (translated into English in one quarto 
 volume); " Almahide, or the Royal Slave," | 
 8 vols ; " Celina ;" " Celanira ;" " iMatilda 
 d'Aguilar," (ike. are the principal. She was 
 also the authoress of a treatise " On Glory ;" 
 and " Conversations and Discourses," in ten 
 volumes. Mademoiselle de Scuderi, whose 
 hou.'e was the resort of all tlie wits of the age, 
 died in 1701. — Bio(^. Univ. 
 
 SCVLAX, an ancient mathematician and 
 geographer, was a native of Caryanda in Caria; 
 and is noticed by Herodotus, and by Sui<la9, 
 tlie latter of whom has evidently confounded 
 different persons of the same name. 'J'bereis 
 a periplus existing bearing the name of Scylax, 
 which is a brief ^survey of the .Mediterranean 
 and P'.uxine seas, with a portion of the west- 
 ern coast of Africa. It has reached modern 
 times in a corrupted state, and was first pub- 
 lished from a palatine MS. by Hoeschelius and 
 others in 1600, and afterwards by Isaac Vos 
 61US in 1639, by Hudson in 1698, and by 
 Gronovius in 1700. —Athentriiyn, vol. iv. 
 
 SCYUTZA or SCYLITZES (John) called 
 
 SE B 
 
 also Curopalat.8, from an office which he htid 
 in the jmperiiil houiKhol.l. a Orefk liitf-rian, 
 it. ki.'^wn ordv for bin ' f ■ . . ^. 
 
 from the dfaih of Ni« ^ . . ia 
 
 Hll, to tj.f. drpoftilion of NiLfphoruii liolan- 
 iatm in 1"H1. TbiH hi«(f.ry from 10<,7 i« ()i« 
 Hairii- wirb fhht of Ce.lrenus. which l.iu rai»»«-J 
 a doubt a.H to which in tho orij;inal author. A 
 Latin transla'iun < f thin history wa» puhli»!i«-(l 
 at \ enice in lr,70 ; and the part, concrrnit g 
 which there ia no di'tputp, wa< iiruitcd ni 
 
 (ireek and Latin at Paii^ in 1617. Vouii 
 
 Hist. (irdc. 
 
 SKAHI KY (Samtkl) tlie firat bishop of 
 the episcopal church of the United .Stales of 
 America, born in 17-/H. He was the son of a 
 congregational minisn-r at Groton in Connec- 
 ticut, and was educated at Yale college, after 
 which be went to Stothind to study medicine. 
 Preferring, however, the ecchsiaslical profos- 
 sion, he directed his studies to tlie requisite 
 branches of learning ; an.l in 17.53 he was or- 
 dained in London. He r. -turned to .Ameri.a, 
 and became pastor at different places before 
 he fixed finally at New London in Connecticut. 
 In 1784 he made a voyage to Kngland, to ob- 
 tfliii consecration as bishop of Connecticut. 
 Meeting with obstacles t ) his wishes from tlie 
 Enjjish prelates, he went to Scotland, where 
 he was consecrated by three bishops of the 
 Scottisli episcopal churcli. He returned thus 
 qualified to his native country, and ftilfijled 
 the duties of his pastoral office in a very ex- 
 emplary maimt-r till his death, which happened 
 in 1796. Bishop Seabury published two vo- 
 lumes of sermons, to which a supplement wa.<» 
 added in 1798 ; and he was the author of two 
 religious tracts. Biog. ^ouv. des Coutemp. 
 
 SCBASITAN, king of Portugal, was the 
 posthumous son of the infant John, by Joanna, 
 daughter of the emperor Charles V. He suc- 
 ceeded to the crown at three years of age in 
 1.577, on the death of his grandfather, John 
 III. Possessed of a romantic disposition, and 
 an extravagant admiration of valorous exploit!", 
 at the age of twenty he imdertook an expedi- 
 tion against the floors in .Africa, in whuii, 
 however, lie performed nothing of consequence. 
 Still impressed with this object, on the appli- 
 cation of Muley Hamet, king of Vet and Mo- 
 rocco, to assist him against his uncle, Muley 
 .Moloch, who had disposses-^ed him of the 
 throne, he determined to renew bin altenq>t 
 against the advice of Ins best friends and wi.-.cst 
 counsellors. He accordingly embarked with 
 all his niilitarv, and the flower of his nobility, 
 in the summer of l.">78, and j>roceeded to Ar- 
 zilla. Here he was met by a much more nu- 
 merous army, headed by Muley Moloch io 
 jierson, altboui;h .s<") debilitated by sickness as 
 to be carried on a litter. In the battle thai 
 ensued, the onset of the Portuguese army bntke 
 the first line of the Moors ; and Muley. in ral- 
 lying his men, was so exhausted, that he died 
 in the arms of his guards ; his last and mu?h 
 admired action being to lay his fingers to hit 
 lips, as an injunction to keep his death a 
 secret, in order not to depress the spirits of 
 the combatants. Sebastian, on the other band. 
 
SEC 
 
 fought with extreme bravery, and had two 
 horses killed under him, while most of his 
 attendants were slain by his side He at 
 length disappeared, nor was it ever known 
 what became of him, although a body, sup- 
 posed to be his, was restored by the JMoors, 
 and buried at Belem. So complete was tlie 
 slaughter, not more than fifty i^ortuguese are 
 said to have survived this wild expedition ; 
 yet such was tlie attachment of the people to 
 a prince, who reminded them of their lieroic 
 times, that a disposition to believe that he 
 would appear again, for many years prevailed, 
 of which nation several impostors sought to 
 avail themselves. An immediate consequence of 
 this catastrophe was the annexation of Por- 
 tugal to Spain, by Philip II. — Mod. Univ. Hist. 
 
 SEBUNDUS (Raymomd) a Spanish physi- 
 cian and natural philosoi)her, wlio lived in the 
 former part of the Hfteenih century. He was 
 professor in the university of Thoulouse ; and 
 wrote many treatises ^\hich remained unpub- 
 lished, besides liis Physico- Theology, or 
 " Liber Creaiurarum sive de Homine," printed 
 at Strasburg, 1196, folio. Montaigne trans- 
 lated this work into French, and it was printed 
 at Paris in 1581, 8vo. — Trithemiui de Script. 
 Eccles. Mdieri. 
 
 SECKENDORF (Vitus Ludovicus de) a 
 German divine and historian of the seventeenth 
 century. He was born in 16'26, at Aurach in 
 Franconia, and received his education with the 
 children of P'.rnest the Pious, duke of Saxe 
 Gotha, to whom he became librarian, privy- 
 counsellor, minister, and consistorial director. 
 In 1664 he entered into the service of the 
 duke of Saxe Zeitz ; and at length into that 
 of the elector of Brandenburg, who made him 
 counsellor of stitte in 1681, and also chancellor 
 of the uiiivt-rsity of Halle. His death took 
 place in 1692. He was the author of an ela- 
 borate defence of Luther, in answer to father 
 IMaitiibourg's History of Lutheranism, which 
 appeared m 1688 and 1692, under the title of 
 " Commentarius Historicus et Apologeiicus 
 de Lutheranismo, sive de Reformatione Reli- 
 gionis, ductu i\L Lutheri," 2 vols, folio ; and 
 he published a ptilitical work, entitled " Deut- 
 schen Fiirsten Staat," Hanover, 1636, 4to, 
 several times reprinted. — Bayle. Niceron, vol. 
 xxix. Bios'. Univ. 
 
 SECKER (Thomas) archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, a prelate distinguished for his piety 
 and learning. He was born of dissenting pa- 
 rents, at Sibthorpe, Notts, in 1693, and after 
 receiving the rudiments of a classical educa- 
 tion in various seminaries in the counties of 
 ]>erby and York, was finally placed at an aca 
 demy at Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, where 
 he had for his fellow student and intimate ac- 
 quaintance, Butler, afterwards bishop of Dur- 
 ham. Being originally designed by his friends 
 for tlie ministry in their connexion, he early 
 directed his attention to theulogical jjursuits ; 
 but from scruples of conscience heat length de- 
 clined the appointment of a pastor, and went 
 to Pans in 17 19, with the view of practising 
 n mt^dicine, to tht- study of which faculty he 
 had devoted the principal part of the three 
 
 S E C 
 
 I preceding years. While in this metropolis, au 
 
 ^ inlroductiou from his friend Butler, theii 
 preaiher at the Rolls chapel, first laid the 
 foundation of an intimacy with their mutual 
 friend Talbot, son of the bishop of Durham, 
 which eventually ripened into the sincerest 
 friendship. By the persuasion of the latter, 
 who promised him his father's interest in pro- 
 moting his advancement. Seeker openly de- 
 clared the scruples which had prevented his 
 assenting to the tenets held by his family, and 
 
 I became avowedly a member of the church of 
 England. Some difficulties existing as to his 
 
 ; taking a primary degree in an English univer- 
 sity, he went to Leyden for three months, 
 whtre having graduated as a doctur of physic, 
 all impediments were removed to his taking 
 the degree of bachelor of arts at Exeter col- 
 lege, Oxford, of which society he had entered 
 himself a gentleman commoner. In 1722 he 
 was ordained t)y bishop Talbot, and tv>o years 
 afterwards was collated by that prelate to the 
 valuable rectory of Houghton le Spring, in the 
 Palatinate, 'ibis piece of preferment he held 
 till 1727, when he vacated it on being pro- 
 moted to a stall in ]3urham cathedral, with 
 the rectory of Ryton, near Newcastle. 'J'his 
 last-mentioned living he exchanged in 1733 
 for that of St James's, Westminster, having, 
 in the course of the preceding year, been ap- 
 pointed a king's chaplain, on which occasion 
 he graduated as LLD. Two years after, he 
 was elevated to the see of Bristol, whence he 
 was translated in 1737 to that of Oxford, with 
 which he held the valuable deanery of St 
 Paul's. On the death of archbisliop Hutton 
 in 1768, the duke of Newcastle, then at the 
 head of the cabinet, placed bishop Seeker in 
 the vacant primacy, without any solicitation 
 on his part, or jjrevious consciousness of the 
 dignity about to be conferred on him. In this 
 exalted situaition he conducted himself with 
 great dignity, munificence, and proj)er seve- 
 rity against any laxity in the morals and man- 
 ners of the clergy under his more especial 
 supeiintendance. At the coronation of king 
 George 111, archbishop Seeker officiated as 
 primate, and placed the crowu upon the head 
 of the sovereign : he afterwards, in the same 
 capacity, baptized the present king. As a 
 scholar he was elegant rather than profound, 
 although in some of his writings, especially 
 in his " Lectures on the Catechism of the 
 Church of England," he disi)lays much depth 
 of argument as well as perspicuity of style. 
 His works, consisting of the };roductions 
 already mentioned, charges, and sermons, 
 have been collected and printed in twelve 
 octavo volumes, 1795, with a life by Dr (after- 
 wards bishop) Porteus, his chaplain. There 
 was also ])nblished by him in his lit'e-time, a 
 reply to " Mayhew on tlie Charter and Con- 
 duct of the Society for j)ropagating the Gos- 
 j)el," without the author's name. Ibis contro- 
 versy relates to a proposed establishment of 
 bishops in the American colonies. Archbishop 
 Seeker died at Lambeth palace, August 3, 
 17 68. of a complication of chronic disorders, 
 aggravated by the fracture of a thigh bone, 
 
whiclj baring become perfectly carious, was 
 broken by an effort that he made to turn him- 
 self in his bed. The ^re;it increase of mc- 
 thodism took place under the primacy of arch- 
 bishop Seeker, who, perceiving a lar},'e body 
 of zealous relii^ionists wavering hctween an 
 adherence to and a separation from the church, 
 thought it best to treat them as future friends 
 rather than enemies. .Moderation and discre- 
 tion, without negligence or laxity, formed the 
 basis of his ecclesiastical policy, and aUljou^jh 
 some difference of oi)inion has been entertained 
 in res])ect to his general merit, perhajts few 
 have filled the same station more usefully to 
 the public and reputably to lliemselves. — Life 
 prefixed to Sermous. 
 
 SKCOUSSE (Denis Francois) a learned 
 and ingenious French writer, born at Paris, 
 January 8, 1691. He studied under Rollin. 
 and commenced life as an advocate, but sub- 
 sequently abandoned the dry study of the law 
 for the belles lettres. Besides a great variety 
 of papers to be found .imong the transactions 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions, of which he, 
 was a member, he wrote a " History of Charles 
 the Bad," in two quarto volumes ; and " M ;- 
 moirs of Conde," 4to, 6 vols. ; but the work 
 by which he is chiefly distinguished, is his 
 continuation of the great collection of statutes 
 under royal patronage, commenced by INI. Lau- 
 rier, of which be composed five volumes, con- 
 cluding at the ninth. He died at Paris, 
 March l.T, l?oi, in his sixty-third year. — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SECUNDL'S NICHOLAIUS (Toannes) 
 or JOHN VAN TWEEDE, a modern Latin 
 poet, descended from an ancient and illus- 
 trious family of the Netherlands, was born at 
 the Hague in 1511. He studied the civil law 
 at Bourges, under fhe famous Alciat, and took 
 his doctor's degree in 1532. He then passed 
 some time in Italy ; after which he went to 
 Spain, and became Latin secretary to cardinal 
 Travera, archbishop of Toledo. Whi'e in 
 this situation he employed his leisure in the 
 composaiou of a number of elegant Latin 
 poems, of the lyric kind, in the style of Ca- 
 tullus, which he called " Basia," — " Kisses." 
 These exquisite little pieces have been alike 
 admired for the purity and elegance of the 
 language, and the singular delicacy of senti- 
 ment which they exhibit. Secundus accom- 
 panied Charles \' in his unfortunate exped'.iion 
 at'ainst Tunis ; and he was afterwards obli',<>d, 
 through ill health, to return to his native 
 country, where he died in 1536. The " Ba- 
 sia " w'ere translated into English in the seven- 
 teenth century by Stanley, author of the His- 
 tory of Philosophy ; another version of them 
 was published in 1731 ; and a third, with Jie 
 original text, and an essay on the life and 
 writings of Secundus, in 1774, Hvo.— Biog. 
 Univ. Nicerou, xvi. and xx. 
 
 SECURIS (Joannes) a physician and me 
 dical writer of some eminence in the sixteenth 
 century. He studied at New college, Oxford, 
 in the reign of i:dward VI, and afterwards 
 went to Paris, where he applied hims if to 
 medicine and as^Tonomy. Returning home 
 
 S E D 
 
 he settled at Saliabury, wliere be pfoKaMy 
 contitiucd till l.-ia dcHth, toMord* (he duti of 
 t!if ni^ti of iyift'U Kluttbeth. He unnuaily 
 puhlinht d iiii '• Pro^uoaUmtjoiiB," which «i>- 
 pear to have been a kind uf almanac », iq 
 whi( h a.Hlrolo'^jcal prediclioiia wire contbiQcU 
 with nicdicai cuunttcU. Aitih(jiiy a \N'otHi 
 mentions two, for tin; yeara l/iTyami l^Hu, to 
 the latter of whicli waa apiK-ndi-d " A Cum* 
 pendium t f Instructions l»ow to kc-ep a mods- 
 rate Diet.' He was ;d»o tin- autlior of '• A 
 Detection and yuerimony of the Daily Enor* 
 mities and Abusis (ommittcd in I'h)Mc," 
 London, 15(>6, reprinted in l«J6l ; and of a 
 tract with the strange title of " A great Galley 
 lately come into ilnglanl out of I err i Nova, 
 laden with Physicjans, Surgeons, and Polhe- 
 curies," 1551. — Aikin's Biof^. Mem. -if Midic, 
 
 SEDAINE (Michael John) a French dra- 
 ma;ic writer, was born at I'aris June 4, ITl'J. 
 Abandoned by his friends at the jp- of thir- 
 teen, he was obliged to cjuit his studies, and 
 learn the business of a mason, from which 
 he ascended to the profession of architecture. 
 He was also led by inclination to cultivate 
 polite literature, and the drama, and wrote 
 various small pieces and comic operas, which 
 nuher exhibit a knowledge of stage effect tliaa 
 higher qualifications, i he princi])al of tliese, 
 " J'he Deserter," and *' Richard Ccrur de 
 Lion," have been very poj)ular, both in France 
 and England. He died in May 1797, aged 
 seventy-eight. — A'yur. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SEDLEY (sir Charles) a celebrated wit, 
 courtier, and poet of the age of Charles II. 
 He was the son of sir John Sedley, of Avles- 
 ford, near Maidstone in Kent, where he was 
 born in 1639. At the age of seventeen he 
 was entered a gentleman commoner of Wad- 
 ham college, Oxford, but quitted the univer- 
 sity wi'hout a legree ; and retired to his es- 
 tates till after ihe Restoration, when he be- 
 came at once one of the most distinguished 
 gallants about the court. His credit with the 
 k'licr was not a little heitihtened bv the cir- 
 cunistnuce of his never asking him a f.tvour, 
 although thedebauchery into which he plunged 
 soon made serious inroads on his pecuniary 
 resources. Tiiese were not mended by a fine 
 of 500/. in whicli he was amerced by chief- 
 justice Hyde, for an indecent riot committed 
 by him at a public-house, in Bow-street, Co- 
 vent-garden, where he was accused of ha> 
 ranguiiig the mob naked from the balcony, in 
 comjiaiiy with lord Buckhurst and sir 1 houia* 
 Ogle. 'i'he termination of this oulrageoua 
 frolic seems to have sobered liim a little, aj 
 from this period he turned his attention lew to 
 pleasure and more to politics ; and being re- 
 turned member of parliament for the borough 
 of New Komiiey in Kent, in IdOl, sal for that 
 place in four successive parliaments. Ihough 
 himself a profligate, he yet had sufficient 
 virtue left to be much atinoyed by an ii)trii:ue 
 which James II carried on with his daughti r, 
 afterwards created by that monarch counters 
 of Dorchester. Sir ( harles was so little 
 pleased by this elevation, that it is said to 
 have been tlie princrja. cause of his subse- 
 
SEE 
 
 quently taking so strenuous a part in bringing 
 about the Revolution ; and an anecdote has 
 been re])eat"d of his replying to a gentleman 
 who taxed him with a want of loyalty on tlie 
 occasion, tliat " as the king had made his 
 daughter a countess, the least he could do in 
 common gratitude was to assist in making his 
 majesty's daughter a queen." Sir Charles 
 died about the commencement of the last cen- 
 tury, preserving his spirits and the fascination 
 of manners for which he was remarkable, to 
 the last. In his poetic:il character he is known 
 as the autlior of six dramatic pieces, printed 
 togf-ther with his miscellaneous poems by 
 l^riscoe, in 1719, in two octavo volumes, with 
 a dedication to the duke of Chandos. These 
 latter consist of Pastorals, original and trans- 
 lated. Prologues. Songs, Epilogues, and occa- 
 sional pifces, which, if they are not altogether 
 free from the licentiousness of tlie age in which 
 he lived, are at least clear of much of its 
 grossiiess. — Gibbers Lives. 
 
 SI-ED (Jiremiah) an English clergyman 
 of the last century, whose merits as an able 
 scholar and ingenious writer were universally 
 acknowledged at the time in which he lived. 
 He was a native of Clifton, near Penrith in 
 Cumberland, and after receiving the rudiments 
 of a cla-^sical education at the grammar-school 
 of l-owtber in that county, became a member 
 of Queen's college, Oxford, where he gradu- 
 ated in 17'2.">, and seven years after became a 
 fellow. Having taken holy orders, he was 
 appointed curate to the celebrated doctor 
 VVateiland, at Twickenham, till, in 1741, the 
 college living of Eid)am, Hants, becoming va- 
 cant, fell to him as an option. This piece of 
 preferment he held nearly six years, till his 
 death, which took place at his rectory in 1747. 
 As a divine he was eloquent and impressive, 
 as well as exemplary in his moral character. 
 'I'wo octavo volumes of his sermons were 
 printed by him during his lifetime, and after 
 ids decease two additional volumes were pub- 
 lished by his friend and fellow-collegian Mr 
 Hall, in "17.50.— /^iV.o-. Brit. 
 
 SEKLEN (John Henry van) a philologi- 
 cal writer, born in the duchy of Bremen in 
 Gf-rmany, in 16R7. After finishing his acade- 
 ndcal studies at the gymnasium of Stade, he 
 became a Lutheran minister, but devoted his 
 time to literary occupations. He taught Latin 
 and Greek in the seminary where he was edu- 
 cated, and in 1713 he was appointed rector of 
 a similar institution at Flensbourg, and five 
 years after of another at Lul)eck, where he 
 died in 1672. Besides a great number of dis- 
 sertations, and biographical eulogies and no- 
 tices, he was the author of " Siada Littera- 
 ria," 1711, 4to ; and several other works, 
 principally relating to the history of literature; 
 and he assisted in a periodical journal, called 
 " Bibliotlieca Lubecensis," 17'2.o— 31, levels. 
 8vo, — liiiiir, Ujuv. Saxii Onnin, Lit. 
 
 SEEMILLER (Sfbastian) an Orientalist, 
 bom \n ^75'■2, at Veldin in Bavaria. He stu- 
 died amoni; tlie Jesuits at Laudshut and Mu- 
 nich, and in 1770 he entered into the order of 
 the Augustine canons at Polling. He after- 
 
 SEG 
 
 wards applied himself to theology, history, 
 and the Oriental languages, at the university 
 of Ingolstadt ; and having taken the degree of 
 doctor of theology and philosophy in 1776, he 
 returned to his convent. In 17B1 he became 
 professor of the l',astern languages at Ingol- 
 stadt, librarian to the university, and electoral 
 counsellor. He was appointed minister of 
 FontenTied at ^lunich in 1797, and he died 
 the following year. His works, which are all 
 in Latin, relate to bibliography and biblical 
 criticism. Among the former may be men- 
 tioned " Bibliothecai Acad. Ingolstadiensis 
 Incunabula Ty])ographica," 1787 — 92, 4to ; 
 and the latter include a translation of the Ca- 
 tholic Epistles of St James ard St Jude, with 
 notes. — Biofr. Univ. 
 
 SEETZEN ( Ulric Jasper) a German tra- 
 veller, who was a native of East Friseland, 
 and was educated at Gottingen, where he jiar- 
 ticularly studied the sciences of philosophy 
 and natural historv, under professor Blumen- 
 bach. Having published some tracts on natu- 
 ral history, statistics, and political economy, 
 he was appointed aulic coutisellor to the czar 
 in the principality of Jever. He was desirous 
 of visiting Africa and the East, and being en-- 
 couraged by the (hikes Ernest and Augustus of 
 Saxe-Gotha, he set off in August 1802 for 
 Constantinople. He proceeded to Syria, an3 
 remained a considerable time at Aleppo, mak- 
 ing excursions into the neighbouring territories. 
 In 1806 he explored the course of the river 
 Jordan and the Dead Sea, travelled through 
 Palestine, and went to Hebron and mount Si- 
 nai. His enthusiastic desire of knowledge 
 prompted him to profess Mahometism, that he 
 might undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca and 
 Medina, which he visited in 1809 and 1810. 
 In the month of November 1810 he was at 
 Mocha, whence he wrote the last letters which 
 arrived from him in Europe. Having had his 
 property seized by the Arabs, under the pre- 
 text of his being a magician, he proceeded to- 
 wards Saana, in December 1811, to complain 
 to the imam of that place ; and a few days 
 after his departure he died suddenly at Taes, 
 probably from the effects of poison given him 
 bv order of the imam. No complete account 
 of tlie researches of this unfortunate traveller 
 ever appeared ; but his letters, which he ad- 
 dressed to baron von Zach, were inserted in his 
 " Geographical and Astronomical Correspon- 
 dence," a periodical work published atGotha; 
 and a translation was printed in the French 
 " .Annales des Voyages," 1809 — 14. Ex- 
 tracts from his letters to Blumenhach and 
 others also were published in the " Magasin 
 Encyclopedique. — Biog. Nouv. des Coutemp. 
 Bing. Univ. 
 
 SFGAIl (sir William) an English herald 
 in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. He 
 was imprisoned in consequence of a shameful 
 imposition, by which he was induced to make 
 out a grant of a coat of arms for the common 
 executioner, whose name was Ikandon ; (not 
 knowing his office or character, but viewing 
 j him merely as a descendant of the noble fa- 
 i inily of Brandon,) he made a grjint of the 
 
SEC. 
 
 royal arms of Arrat^on, with a canton of IJra- 
 bant. It l)eiiii,' m;ule maiiifcst that he liaii 
 bt't'ii the dupe of a conspiracy, he waa nh-ased 
 from his coiifinenieiit. lie htKl (lie office of 
 Norroy herald in 1602, when he published a 
 work entitled " Honor, Military atul (!ivii|, 
 contained in four hookes," folio ; ami he was 
 afterwards garter- kinu;-at-arms. His death 
 took place in 1().'}.». IMmondson'a liarona^e 
 is said to have been j)rinci|)allv compiled from 
 sir VV. Segar's i\ISS. — Jiees's Cuclop. 
 
 SKGNKFl (.Iohn Andkkw von) a learned 
 professor of mathematics and j)hysic8, born at 
 Presburg in Hungary, in iTO-l. After some 
 preliminary application to study in his native 
 coiintry, he went to Jena in 17'J,>, to apjily 
 liimself to metiicine and mathematics ; ami in 
 1730 he took the degree of Ml). Retunnng 
 to I'resburg he engai;ed in the practice of me- 
 dicine, and in 17;) I became town- physician at 
 Debreczin. Thence he removed to Jena to 
 give lectures on mathematics on the invitation 
 of professor Teichmeyer, whose ilaughter he 
 married. In 1733 he was nominated extraor- 
 dinary professor of philosophy in that univer- 
 sity, wlience, in 173.^, he went to Gottingen, 
 where he obtained the chair of mathematics 
 and natural science. He exchanged this situ- 
 ation for one in the university of Halle, with 
 the title of privy counsellor ; and tlie Prussian 
 government conferred on iiim letters of ncibi- 
 lity. He died October o, 1777. Professor 
 Seiner enriched both mathematics and natural 
 philosophy with new discoveries, and acquired 
 the credit of being one of the greatest mathe- 
 maticians of his time. He belontred to many 
 scientific societies, and was the author of va- 
 rious academical dissertations and essays, be- 
 sides an " Introduction to Physics," Gottin- 
 gen, 1746, 8vo ; "Astronomical Lectures," 
 Halle, 1775 — 6, 2 vols. 8vo, both in the Ger- 
 man language ; and several mathematical 
 treatises, written in Latin. — Meusel Gehl. 
 Tentschl. Biog- Univ. 
 
 SEGRAIS (Jkan Renaud de) a French 
 poet, was born at Caen in 1624, and studied 
 in the college of Jesuits in that town. .A.S he 
 grew up he applied himself to French poetry, 
 and by his literary industry supported a large 
 family of brothers and sisters, whom the ex- 
 travagance of their father had left in very 
 narrow circumstances. In his twentieth year 
 lie was recommended to mademoiselle de 
 IMontpensier, who appointed him her gentle- 
 man 111 ordinary, wliicli situation he lost by 
 opposing her marriage with iM. de Lauzun. 
 He found a new patron'^ss in madame de la 
 Fayette, whom he assisted in her celebrated 
 romances of Zaide,and the Princess of Cleves. 
 Iti 1679 he retired into the country, and mar- 
 ried his cousin, a rich heiress. He was ad- 
 milted a member of the French Academy in 
 1662, and w^as the means of re-establi.-hing 
 that of Caen. He died of a dropsy in 1701. 
 Segrais obtained his chief di>tinction by his 
 Jyiic and pastoral poetry, and by a collection 
 of stories, enti'led " Nouvelles Fran9oises," 
 the style of whicli is entitled to much com 
 meudation. He also translated the ^Eneid 
 
 S E I. 
 
 into French vtiHc, a work which, %lilin(iKh 
 f«-eble, was much i-»toemi'd at llie ume. After 
 
 his death app«'iued his Vfrnioii of the " (it-or- 
 Kics" of \ ir-d. which i» praised by iJoileau 
 and d'Alembert; and a " S,.j.|aii.jari»," or 
 misfellany of aiucdot.-rt and literary opiniona. 
 — Morert. \ouv. Diet. Unl. 
 
 SKGUR (JoBKpii Ai.EXAND»n, Tiscouot 
 de ) the second son of the marrthal de Sogur, 
 who died in IHOI. He enga^M•d when young 
 in military service, and was ^uc( eHMvcly colo- 
 nel of the regiments of Noailies, of royal 
 Lorraine, and of the dragoons of bin own 
 name. Having attained the post (jf mare»chal 
 de camp in 1790, he gave up liis time entirely 
 to the cultivation of literature. His first pro- 
 duction was a romance, entitled " Corrrspon- 
 dence Secrete entre Ninon de PKncIos. le 
 Alan], de N'lllarceaux, et ,AIad. de IMainte- 
 non." He puldished in 1791 another romance, 
 " La Femme Jalouse ;"' ami betwcf n 17H9 
 and 1804 he wrote a number of dramatic 
 pieces. His last work, which has been trans- 
 lateil into English, is entitled " Les Femmes, 
 leur Condition, et leur Influence dans I'Ordre 
 Social," 180'J, 3 vols. 8vo. He died at Bag- 
 nieres, July '/7, 1803. — Biog. Unit. 
 
 SEID MOUSTAPHA, a Turkish engineer, 
 employed by the grand seignor Selim 111, in 
 whose misfortunes he became involve<l, and 
 perished in the insurrection at Constantinople 
 in 1808. He published in 1803 a Frenc h 
 work, entitled " Diatribe sur I'Etat actuel de 
 I'Art Militaire, du Genie et des Sciences a 
 Constantinople," 8vo. This little tract issued 
 from the printing-press established by sultan 
 Selim at Scutari, which was destroyed by the 
 insurgent janizaries in 1808. M. Langle's re- 
 printed it in the Magasin Encyclopedique, 
 1809, vol. V. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SKJANUS (.-Elii's) the son of a Roman 
 officer of the equestrian order, who became 
 the favourite and prime-minister of the empe- 
 ror liberius. Having attained the utmost as- 
 cendancy over liis imperial patron, his ambi- 
 tion prompted him to aim at securing the so- 
 vereignty to himself ; and with that view he 
 caused several individuals, amonjr whom was 
 Drusus, the emperor's son, to be assassinated. 
 He had carried on an intrigue with the wiffof 
 that prince, after who>e death he wisiied to 
 have married her ; but Tiberius, offended at 
 his presumption, and alarmed for his own 
 safety, gave orders to have liim arre>ted on the 
 charge of treason, and he was executed on the 
 same day, AD. 31. Being the object of ge- 
 neral hatred, tlie people of Rome displayed 
 the utmost joy at his destruction, thro-Mng 
 down the statues erected in honour of him, 
 and treating his corpse with the utmost indig- 
 nity. — Suetonius. Creiicr. 
 
 SELCHOW (John Hfnry CirnisTiAN 
 von) a German jurist, born at Werningerode 
 in l73i?. He studied at Gottin^^en, where he 
 was appointed professcr of jurisprudence in 
 17.")7, and he passed with the same title to 
 Alarpurg in 1782. His lectures on jurispru- 
 dence for a long time attracted students from 
 all parts of Germany ; and his reputatiop ^a* 
 
S EL 
 
 increased by the publication of his '' Elemeata 
 Juris Gernianici prirati hodienii," of wliicli 
 eight editions appeared between 1757 and 
 1793, and which was adopted as a text-book 
 in most of tlie universities of Germany. He 
 died April '25, 1795. He was the author of 
 " Klementa Juris privati Gernianici," 1769 ; 
 find he was concerned in several critical jour- 
 nals. — SchlichtegroU's Necrology. Biog. Unii. 
 SELDEN (John) a distinguished scholar 
 and eminent political character, was born De- 
 cember 16, 1584. of a respectable family at 
 Sabington, near Tering in Sussex. He re- 
 ceived liis early education at the grammar- 
 school of Chichester, and at the a^^e of four- 
 teen, or, as Wood says, of sixteen, was re- 
 moved to Hart-halt, Oxford. After a, resi- j 
 dence of three or four years he repaired to 
 Clirtbrd's-inn, London, to 6iu<ly the law, and 
 about two years after removed to the Inner , 
 Temple, and on being called to the bar acted 
 principally as a chamber counsel. The first 
 object of his studies was ihe history and anti- 
 quities of his own county ; and so early as , 
 1607 he drew up a work entitled " Analectum 
 Anglo-Hritannicurn," a treatise on the civil, 
 government of Britain before the coming oi' i 
 the Normans. Jt was succeeded in 1610 by 
 " England's Epinonies," and " Jani Anglorum 
 Facies altera," a Latin and an English treatise 
 on the progress of English law. These per- 
 formances acquired biin the esteem of several 
 eminent literary characters, among whom were 
 Camden, Spelman, sir Robert Cotton, lien 
 Jonson, Browne, and Dravton, whose Poly- 
 olbion he copiously illustrated. In 1614 ap- 
 peared his largest English work, a treatise on 
 " Titles of Honour," which is regarded as a 
 standard authoriiy in regard to all which con- 
 C'/rns the degrees of nobility and gentry in th's 
 kingdom. This able production was '"ollowed 
 in 1617 by his celei)rated work " De Diis Sy- 
 riis," i!ie primary purpose of whicli was ro 
 treat on the heathen deities alluded to in the 
 Old Testament ; bui he extended it to an 
 incpiiry into the Syrian idolatry in general. He 
 had lutherto passed his life as a man of letters; 
 but in 1618 he entered the field of politics by 
 his " History of Tythes," the object of whicii 
 was to deny their divine right, although allow- 
 ed to be due to the clergy by the laws of the 
 land. This publication highly offended James 
 1, and brou^j;ht the author before the liiiih- 
 commission court, on which, without retracting 
 any portion of his opinions, he declared liis 
 s Jirow for jtublishing the work in question. 
 Several replies to him were written by divines 
 and others, to which he was not permitted 
 openly to rejoin. In 1621, James I, in Ins 
 s]»eec!i to jjarliament, having asserted that 
 tiieir privileges were grants from the crown, 
 Selden was resorted to as the ablest legal anti- 
 quary ; on which occasion he spoke so freely 
 before them in opposition, to this doctrine, and 
 was so instrumental in drawing up their spi- 
 rited protestation, that on their dissolution he 
 was committed to custody. His conlinement 
 was not, however, rigorous ; and he was dis- 
 cliar^cd at the expiration of six weeks on pe- 
 
 S E L 
 
 tition. In the following year he was elected 
 member of parliament for Lancaster, and was 
 again a member in the two first parliaments 
 of Charles 1, in the second of wjiich he was 
 appointed to support the impeachment of the 
 duke of Buckingham, and otherwise became a 
 leading opposer of the arbitrary measures of 
 the court. In 1629 he drew up his learned 
 treatise, entitled " Marmora Arundelliana," on 
 the occasion of the importation of the cele- 
 brated Greek marbles by the earl of Arundel. 
 On the dissolution of the parliament, Selden 
 , was one of the eight members of the Commons 
 j who were imprisoned in the Tower on a charge 
 of sedition, and who refused to give security 
 for their good behaviour. This confinement 
 j lasted two or three years, with more or less se- 
 verity ; but at length he was admitted to bail, 
 and finally released in the beginning of 1634. 
 , During this suspension of political action, he 
 WTOie some of his learned treatises on Jewish 
 antiquities; and in 1635 he sent out his im- 
 portant treatise, entitled " JMare Clausum," in 
 answer to the " JMare Liberum" of Grotius ; in 
 opposition to the reasoning of which he en- 
 deavours to historically establish the British 
 ri^ht of dominion over the circumjacent seas. 
 Some of the following years of his life were 
 occupied in Hebrew studies, the result of 
 which appeared in a "work entitled " De Jure 
 Naturali et Gentium juxta Disciplinam Ebrae- 
 01 um,'' a valuable, but not very well digested 
 repertory of all the matter afforded by 
 I'istory or tradition in relation to the subject. 
 In 1640, memorable for the meeting of the 
 long parliament, Selden was unanimously elec- 
 ted member for the university of Oxford. His 
 name ? ppears on several committees appointed 
 to inquire into abuses; but he neither coti- 
 cuired in the prosecution of lord Strafford, nor 
 seemed desirous to abrogate the episcopal 
 form of church government, although anxious 
 to check the encroachments of ecclesiastical 
 power. So well affected was he on die whole 
 '0 the existing constituiion of church and state, 
 ^hat when the king wiilidrew to York, he had 
 some notion of appointing him chancellor. 
 When the differences between king and par- 
 liament were manifestly tending to open hosti- 
 lities, he opposed the attemi)ts of both parties 
 to gain jiossession of the sword, and when he 
 failed, withdrew as much as he was able from 
 public business. He remained, however, with 
 'he jiarliament, and was one of the synod 
 whicli met at Westminster for the establisli- 
 ment of church government. In 1643 he was 
 appointed by the house of Commons keeper of 
 the records in the Tower, and the year follow- 
 ing he was induced to subscribe the solemn 
 league and covenant. The year following he 
 was elected one of the twelve commissioners 
 of the Admiralty ; and in 1646 the parliament 
 voted him 5,000/. as a reward for services. He 
 continued to sit in jiarliament after the execu- 
 tion of the king, but employed all his inriuence 
 for the protection of learning, and rendered 
 considerable services to the king's friends in 
 the university of Oxford, and other ^jiaces. 
 He also refused to gratify Cromwell by writing 
 
S K L 
 
 an answer to the Eikon Basiliko. In the be- 
 giunini^f of I6.")i liis henllli ljt'i;an to il«*cliiic, 
 but he hngert'd UDtil the ;3()lh of NovembtT in 
 that year, when he expired in tlie seventitih 
 year of his a'^'e. The jjuhhc (.haraitcr of this 
 eminent scliolar ami politician will hv sufli- 
 ciently obvious from the ti-nor of the preced'iijj 
 abstract. Like most of the ablest characters 
 of the period on hotli sides, he seems to have 
 been often led by ihe current of circumstances 
 to act against his own })ersonal convictions ; 
 but he certainlv enjoys the merit of haviiijj 
 done his utmost both to prevent the uKimate 
 appeal to the sword, and uniforndy exercised 
 liis influence to moderate the injurious conse- 
 quences vhich flowed from it. In private 
 life he appears to have been universally es- 
 teemed for his goodness of heart and urbanity 
 of manners, while as a liberal benefactor and 
 protector of literature he has extorted praise 
 from all parties. As a scholar, he must be 
 deemed one of the most learned men of l)'.s 
 day ; but possibly a portion of this learning 
 mav not have been ex])ended on the most 
 useful subjects, added to wllich, his style is 
 often laboured and uncouth, althou;^h his 
 speeches and conversation were peculiarly lu- 
 minous and clear. Some opinion of the latter 
 may be collected from his very popular " Ti'b'e 
 'i'alk," published after his death by his amaim- 
 ensis. He died rich, and left his valui ble li- 
 brary and museum to his executors, who ho- 
 nourably gave it up to the Bodleian library, 
 for which he had intended it, until otieuded by 
 a refusal to lend him a book without security. 
 Having adverted to the jirincipal of his works, 
 it is unnecessary to add the titles of his nu- 
 merous productions of minor notoriety, espe- 
 cially as the whole were collected in three folio 
 volumes (usually bound in six), by Dr Da- 
 vid Wilkins, \7'26. Of these volamesthe two 
 first contain his Latin, and the third his En- 
 glish works ; and the editor has also added a 
 long Latin life of the au'hor. — ]Vilkinsii Vit. 
 Seldeui. Aikin's Lives of Se Id en and Usher. 
 
 SKLKIRK (Alexander) a Scottish sailor, 
 who passed some years alone on the island of 
 Juan Fernandez," and whose adventure has 
 been supposed lo have been the foundation of 
 the story of Robinson Crusoe. He was a na- 
 tive of Largo in Fifeshire, and went to sea 
 when young. In 1703 he sailed as master in 
 the Cinque Ports privateer, under captain 
 Stradling. In consecjuence of some difference 
 with his commander, he was, with ins own 
 consent, put ashore at Juan Fernandez. Be 
 fore the vessel quitted the island Le changed 
 his mind, but the captain would not receive 
 him ; and he remained in his solitude till he 
 was taken away by captain Woods Rogers in 
 January 1709. Returning to England lie i> 
 said tohave employed Daniel Defoe in draw- 
 ing up a narrative of his adventures for the- 
 press. — Barrow's Collection of Vouaoes and 
 Discoveries, vol. ii. 
 
 SELLE (Christian Tiieophh.us) a phy- 
 sician, who was born at Stettin in Pomerania, 
 in 1748. He was educated at Jena, Gottin- 
 gen, and Halle, at which last university he 
 
 SEN 
 
 graduated as INIU, in 1770. Hi« treatiiie on 
 ft-'vers. " Kudinn nta I'yrrtoh.gia.' Melhodaar," 
 pubiihlud at Beriia iti 177 J. procured him 
 iniK h reputation ; and »oon after lit- went lo 
 Ht ilhberg, to ri'Hide in a medical capacity with 
 the bishop of Warinia. U«'turniiii; lo Hirlin, 
 lie became phyBit;aii at tin- hospital of Cha- 
 rity. In 1777 he publibhed in Cierrnan an 
 " Introduction to tho Study of Nature and of 
 Medicine, ' bvo, which wan trannlat«-d into 
 French by Dr Coray ; and other works, which 
 were exti( mely well received. Selle won fa- 
 voured with the confidence of Frederick the 
 Great, who made him his physician ; and 
 after the death of that prince he drew up a 
 jiarticular detail of his last illness. He wjtg 
 admitted into the Berlin Academy of Sciences ; 
 and in 1790 he went to Paris, where he vi- 
 sited, incognito, the ho?>pital8 and other public 
 ebtabli.stiments, and on his return he published 
 two memoirs on animal magnetism, and otheis 
 against the critical philosophy of Kant, in- 
 serted in the Transactions of the Academy. 
 He attained tiie highest honours in his profes- 
 sion, being appointed privy counsellor and di- 
 rector of the college of medicine and surgery, 
 &:c. His death took j>lace at Berlin, Novem- 
 ber 9, 1800, in consequence of phthisis pul- 
 monalis. — Bio<r. Univ. 
 
 SE.MLER (John Solomon) a celebrated 
 Lutheran divine, born in 172.^, at Saalfeld in 
 Saxony, where his father was a minister. He 
 was educated under professor Baumgarten at 
 Halle ; and after (juitting the university h« 
 resided some time at Saalfeld, whence io 
 17.)0 he removed to Cobuig, to become editor 
 of the Gazette. In 17ol be obtained the 
 chair of rhetoric and poetry at Altorf ; and 
 two years after, that of theology at Halle, 
 where he remained till his death, which hap- 
 pened IVlarch 14, 1791. Semler was one of 
 those German divines who reduced the prin- 
 ciples of Christianity to a near accordance with 
 deism, explaining away every thing miraculous 
 in the Gospel history, and criticising the Bible 
 with a temerity beyond ail bounds, rather 
 like an advocate of infidelity than of Revela- 
 tion. Michaelis, who had witnessed the com- 
 mencement of the great revolution which took 
 place in the oj)iuicms of the German Protestant 
 dergv in the last century, said, " Heretofore 
 I was reckoned heterodox, but now I am only 
 too orthodox." Ihe principal works of Sem- 
 ler are " llistoric;ii Ecdesjastica; eelecia Ca- 
 pita," 1767 — 69, 3 vols. Bvo ; "An Introduc- 
 tion to Exegetic Theology," 8vo ; ".Appara- 
 tus ad liberalem N. Test. Inlerpretationem," 
 Bvo; " Aj'paratus ad lib. \'. T. Inlerpretatio- 
 nem," 8vo ; and he also wrote the history of 
 his own life, published at Halle, 1781, S vols. 
 8vo. — lUon. Univ. 
 
 SEN AC (Joiiv Baptist) first physician 
 to Louis XV, was born i:i Gascony m 169.*3. 
 In his youth he was a Protestant, and a candi- 
 date for the ministry ; but he afterwards be- 
 came a Catholic anil a Jesuit, previously to his 
 adojUing the profession of medicine. Before 
 he appeared at court he was attached to mar- 
 shal Saxe, whom he cured of a dangerous dis- 
 
S E L 
 
 S E L 
 
 increased bv the publication of liis " Elementa tition. lu the following year lie was elected 
 
 Juris Gerni'aiiici privati hodierni," of which member of parliament for Lancaster, and was 
 
 eight editions appeared between 1757 and again a member in the two first parliaments 
 
 1793, and which was adopted as a text-book of Charles I, in the second of wjiith he was 
 
 in most of the universities of Germany. He aj)pointed to support the impeachment of the 
 
 died April 25, 17 9o. He was the author of duke of Buckingham, and otherwise became a 
 
 Klenienta Juris privati Germanici," 1769 ; 
 fliul he was concerned in several critical jour- 
 nals. — Schlichtegroirs Necrology. Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 SELDEN (John) a distinguished scholar 
 and eminent political character, was born De 
 
 leading op|)oser of tlie arbitrary measures of 
 the court. In 1629 he drew up his learned 
 treatise, entitled " Marmora Arundelliana," on 
 the occasion of the importation of the cele- 
 brated Greek marbles by the earl of Arundel. 
 
 cember 16, l,o84. of a respectable family at On the dissolution of the parliament, Selden 
 Sabingtoii, near Tering in Sussex. He re- j was one of the eight members of the Commons 
 teived his early education at tlie grammar- j who were imprisoned in the Tower on a charge 
 scliool of Chichester, and at the age of four- of sedition, and who refused to give security 
 teen, or, as Wood says, of sixteen, was re- ^ for their good behaviour. This confinement 
 movfd to Hart-hall, Oxford. After a. resi- , lasted two or three years, with more or less se- 
 dence of three or four years he repaired to verity ; but at kngth he was admitted to bail, 
 Cli.lbrd's-inn, London, to study the law, and and finally released in the beginning of 1634. 
 about two years after removed to the Inner , During this suspension of political action, he 
 Temple, and on being called to the bar acre<l wrote some of his learned treatises on Jewish 
 I)rincipally as a chamber counsel. The first antiquities ; and in 1635 he sent out his im- 
 object of his studies was ihe history and auti- portant treatise, entitled "Mare Clausum," in 
 quities of his own county ; and so early as , answer to the " Mare Liberum" of Grotius ; in 
 1607 he drew npa work entitled " Analectum onposr'tion to the reasoning of which he en- 
 Anglo- Hritannicum," a treatise on the civil , deavours to historically establish the British 
 government of Britain before the coming of i ri^ht of dominion over the circumjacent seas. 
 the Normans. It was succeeded in 1610 by i Some of tlie following years of his life were 
 " England's Epinomes," and "Jani Anglorum occupied in Hebrew studies, tlie result of 
 
 Facies altera," a Latin and an P^nglish treatise 
 on the progress of English law. I'hese per- 
 formances acquired him the esteem of several 
 eminent literary characters, among whom were 
 Camden, Spelman, sir Robert Cotton, Ben 
 Jonson, Browne, and Dravton, whose Poly- 
 olbion he copiously illustrated. In J 614 ap- 
 
 which appeared in a work entitled " De Jure 
 Natural! et Gentium juxta Disciplinam Ebrae- 
 oium,'' a valuable, but not very well digested 
 repertory of all the matter afforded by 
 I'istory or tradition in relation to the subject. 
 In 1640, memorable for the meeting of the 
 long parliament, Selden was unanimously elec- 
 
 peared his largest English work, a treatise on j ted member for the university of Oxford. His 
 
 Titles of Honour," which is regarded as a 
 standard authority in regard to all which con- 
 C'.riis the degrees of nobility and gentry in th's 
 kingdom. This able production was ''ollowed 
 in 1()17 by liis celebrated work " De Diis Sy- 
 riis," t!ie primary jiurpose of which was ro 
 treat on the heathen deities alluded to in the 
 Old Testament ; bui he extended it to an 
 intjuiry into the Syrian idolatry in general. He 
 had lutherto passed his life as a man of le.ters; 
 but in 1618 he entered the field of politics by 
 his " History of Tythes," the object of which 
 was to deny their divine right, although allow- 
 ed to be due to the clergy by the laws of the 
 land. This publication highly offended James 
 1, and brought the autlior before the high- 
 commission court, on which, witlioat retracting 
 any portion of his opinions, he declared his 
 .>* (vrow for jiublishing the work in question. 
 Several replies to him were written by divines 
 and others, to which he was not j)ermitted 
 openly to rejoin. In 1621, James 1, in his 
 sjx'fcli to ])arliament, having asserted that 
 tiieir priviU ges were grants from the crown, 
 Selden was resorted to as the ablest legal anti- 
 quary ; on which occasion he spoke so freely 
 before tliem in opposition to this doctrine, and 
 was so instrumt-ntal in drawing up their spi- 
 rited protestation, that on their dissolution he 
 was committed to custody. His conlinement 
 was not, however, rigorous ; and he was dis- 
 cliargcd at the expiration of six weeks on pe- 
 
 name < ppears on several committees appointed 
 to inquire into abuses; but he neither con- 
 curred in the prosecution of lord Strafford, nor 
 seemed desirous to abrogate the episcopal 
 form of church government, although anxious 
 to check the encroachments of ecclesiastical 
 power. So well affected was he on ihe whole 
 '0 the existing constitution of church and state, 
 <-hat when the king withdrew to York, he had 
 some notion of appointing him chancellor. 
 When the differences between king and par- 
 liament were manifestly tending to open hosti- 
 lities, he opposed the attempts of both parties 
 to gain possession of the sword, and when he 
 failed, withdrew as much as he was able from 
 public business. He remained, howc-ver, with 
 'he jiarliament, and v.-as one of the synod 
 which met at Westminster for the establish- 
 ment of church government. In 1643 he was 
 pppointed by the house of Commons keeper of 
 the records in the Tower, and the year follow- 
 ing he was induced to subscribe the solemn 
 league and covenant. The year following lie 
 was elected one of tlie twelve commissioners 
 of the Admiralty ; and in 1646 the parliament 
 voted him 5,000/. as a reward for services. He 
 continued to sit in jiarliament after the execu- 
 tion of the king, but employed all his inriuence 
 for the protection of learning, and rendered 
 considerable services to the king's friends in 
 the university of Oxford, and otlisr jj.aces. 
 He also refused to gratify Cromwell by writing 
 
S E L 
 
 an answer to the Eikon Basiliko. In the be- 
 giiMiini;^ of 16.")1' his heiilth hf^aii to ilcilinc, 
 but he lingt'ri'il until the 3()lh of Novt-mLuT in 
 that year, wlien he expired in the sevenlifih 
 year of his a;^e. Tlie jiul<lic chanictcr (jf lliis 
 eminent sriiolar and politiciiin will hv suth- 
 ciently obvious from the tt-nor of tlie nrecfd'n" 
 abstract. Like most of tlie ablest characters 
 of the period on both sides, l)e seems to have 
 been often led by ihe current of circuinstiinces 
 to act against his own personal convictions ; 
 but he certainly enjoys the merit of having 
 done his utmost botli to prevent tlie uKimate 
 appeal to the sword, and uniforndy exercised 
 liis influence to n)r)derate the injurious conse- 
 quences which flowed from it. In private 
 life he appears to have been universally es- 
 teemed for his goodness of heart and urbanity 
 of manners, while as a liberal benefactor and 
 protector of literature he has extorted praise 
 from all parties. As a scholar, he must be 
 deemed one of the most learned men of h'.s 
 day ; but possibly a portion of this learning 
 mav not have been exjiended on the most 
 useful subjects, added to wllich, his style is 
 often laboured and uncouth, althou'^h h's 
 speeches and conversation were peculiarly lu- 
 minous and clear. Some opinion of the latter 
 may be collected from his very popular " Ti'b'e 
 Talk," published after his death by his amanu- 
 ensis. He died rich, and left his valu. b!e li- 
 brary and museum to his executors, who ho- 
 nourably gave it up to the Boiileian library, 
 for which he had intended it, until oftended by 
 a refusal to lend liim a book without security. 
 Having adverted to the principal of his works, 
 it is unnecessary to add the titles of his nu- 
 merous productions of minor notoriety, espe- 
 cially as the whole were collected in three folio 
 volumes (usually bound in six), by Dr Da- 
 vid Wilkins, 17 'id. Of these volumes the two 
 first contain his Latin, and the third his En- 
 glish works ; and the editor has also added a 
 long Latin life of the author. — Wilklnsii Vit. 
 Seldeni. Aikiii's Lives of Selden and Uaher. 
 
 SELKIRK (Alexander) a Scottish sailor, 
 who passed some years alone on the island of 
 Juan Fernandez," and whose adventure has 
 been supposed to liave been the foundation of 
 the story of Robinson Crusoe. He was a na- 
 tive of Largo in Fifeshire, and went to sea 
 when young. In 1703 he sailed as master iu 
 the Cinque Ports privateer, under captain 
 Stradling. In consequence of some difference 
 with his commander, he was, with his own 
 consent, put ashore at Juan Fernandez. Be 
 fore the vessel quitted the island Le changed 
 his mind, but the cajitain would not receive 
 him ; and lie remained in his solitude till he 
 was taken away by captain Woods Rogers in 
 January 1709. Returning to England he i.^ 
 said to'have employed Daniel Defoe in draw- 
 ing up a narrative of his adventures for the 
 press. — Barrow's Collection of Vouaoes and 
 Discoveries, vol. ii. 
 
 SELLE (CnnisTiAN Theophu.us) a j'hy- 
 sician, who was born at Stettin in Pomerania. 
 in 1748. He was educated at Jena, Gottin- 
 gen, and Halle, at which last university he 
 
 SEN 
 
 graduated a« MD. in 1770. His treati»e on 
 fevers, " Rudinniiia ryrriijlDgia; .Melhodicsr," 
 published at Biriiu in 177J, procured hun 
 much reputation ; and hooii after Iu- wtui lo 
 il« iUberg. to reBide iu a medical capacity with 
 the bishop i,( Warmia. K<-turuinn to Berlin, 
 he became phyBic;aii at tin- honjiiial of Cha- 
 rity. In 1777 lie publiubed in German an 
 " Introduction to tlio Study of Nature and of 
 Medicine, ' bvo, which wan traiihlated into 
 French by Dr Coray ; and other works, wlmli 
 were extw mely well received. Selle wan fa- 
 voured with the confidence of Frederick the 
 Great, who made him his physician ; and 
 after the death of that prince he drew up a 
 particular detail of Ida last illne8«s. He was 
 admitted into lite Beilin Acadnny of Sciences ; 
 and in 1790 he went to Paris, where he vi- 
 sited, incognito, the hospitals and other public 
 establishments, and on his return he published 
 two memoirs on animal magnetism, and othets 
 against the critical philosophy of Kant, in- 
 serted in the Transactions of the Academy. 
 He attained tlie highest honours in his profcs. 
 sion, being appointed privy counsellor and di- 
 rector of the college of medicine and surwery, 
 &:c. His death took i)lace at Berlin, Novem- 
 ber 9, 1800, in consequence of phthisis pul- 
 monalis. — Bio<r. Univ. 
 
 SE.MLER (John Soi.omon) a celebrated 
 Lutheran divine, born in )72rt, at Saalfeld in 
 Saxony, where his father was a minister. He 
 was educated under professor Baum'jarten at 
 Halle ; and after (juiiting the university h« 
 resided some time at Saalfeld, whence in 
 17o0 he removed to Cobuig, to become editor 
 of the Gazette. In 1751 be obtained the 
 chair of rhetoric and poetry at Ahorf; and 
 two years after, that of theology at Halle, 
 where he remained till his deatii, which hap- 
 pened IMaich 14, 1791. Semler was one of 
 those German divines who reduced the prin- 
 ciples of Christianity to a near accordance with 
 deism, exj)lai'iing away every thing miraculous 
 in the Gospel history, and criticising the Jijble 
 with a temerity beyoml all bounds, rather 
 like an advocate of infidelity than of Revela- 
 tion. IMicbaelis, who had witnessed the com- 
 mencement of the great revolution which took 
 place in the ojdnicMis of the German Prote^tant 
 clergy in the last century, said, " Heretofore 
 I was reckoned heterodox, but now I am only 
 too orthodox." 1 he principal works of Senw 
 ler are " llistorica; Ecclesia>tica; selecta Ca- 
 pita," 1767 — 69, 3 vols. 8vo ; "An Introduc- 
 tion to Exegetic 'I'heology," Bvo ; " Appara- 
 tus ad liberalem N. Test. Interpretationem," 
 8vo ; " Ajtparatus ad lib. \. T. Interpretatio- 
 nem," 8vo ; and he also wrote the history of 
 his own life, published at Halle, 1781, 2 vols. 
 8vo. — lUoi;. i'ntv. 
 
 SEN AC (John- Baptist) first physician 
 to Louis XV, was born i:i Gascony in 1693. 
 In his vouth he was a Protestant, and a candi- 
 date for the ministry ; but he afterwards be- 
 came a Catholic aiul a Jesuit, previously to his 
 adojning the profession of medicine. Before 
 he appeared at court he was attached to mar- 
 shal Saxe, whom he cured of a dangerous dia- 
 
SE N 
 
 ense during the war in 1745. In I7dii! he was 
 a[)poiiited first piiysician to Louis XV, who 
 bestowed on him the utmost confidence, and 
 he retained h.is situation and credit till his 
 death, wljich took place December 20, 1770. 
 He Iiad a patent of counsellor in ordinary to 
 the king, and he was superintendant of the 
 mineral waters of the kingdom, and was also 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences. Se- 
 nac is principally known as the author of 
 •' Traite de la Structure dn Corur," 1748, 2 
 vol?. 4to, republished in 1777 and I78.'i with 
 additions and corrections by M. Portal. He 
 also wrote some other works, besides memoirs 
 published by the Academy of Sciences. — Ga- 
 BRiKi StNAC DE Mkii.hav, soh of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Paris in 1736. He be- 
 came a master of requests, and afterwards 
 successively intendantof tiie provinces of Au- 
 nis, Provence, and Hainault ; and in 177a he was 
 nominated intendant at war, under the minis- 
 try of the count de St Germain. At the Re- 
 volution he went to Germany, and afterwards 
 to Russia, wliich country he left on the acces- 
 sion of Paul I. His death took place at Vi- 
 enna in August 1803. He was the a uhor of 
 " Des Principes et des Causes de la Revolu- 
 tion Fran^aise," 1790, 8vo ; " Du Gouverne- 
 ment, des .Ma?ars, et des Conditions en France 
 avaiit la Revolution," 1795, 8vo ; besides no- 
 vels, a translation from Tacitus, and other 
 work?. — Bios:. Uuiv. 
 
 SENDIVOGIL'S (:\ricnAFL) a Polish al- 
 chymist, born about 1566. He was destined 
 for the church, but before he had finished his 
 studies he acquired a taste for books on alchy- 
 mv ; and having made an acquaintance with 
 Nicholas Woisky, grand- marslial of Poland, 
 who was a firm believer in the mysteries of that 
 delusive science, he was sent by his patron 
 into Geimany, to learn the secret of the phi- 
 losoplier's stone. He returned, of course, tm- 
 successful ; but for a considerable time he kept 
 up the expectations of \Volsky, who supplied 
 him with money which he wasted in the pro- 
 secution of his researches. At length he went 
 to Germanv, wliere he is said to have imposed 
 on the emjieror Ferdinand H, and to have ob- 
 tained from that prince the gift of an estate in 
 Silesia, and a house at Olmutz, where he died 
 in 1616 ; but according to some authors he died 
 i.n poverty at Cracow in Poland. His writings, 
 amidst abundance of jargon, contain some 
 chemical information of importance. An F.n- 
 glish translation of his " New Light of Al- 
 (liymy, with a Treatise of Sulphur," and other 
 tracts, was printed in London, 1650, 4to. — 
 HiKg. Univ. 
 
 SENF2BIER (.Tohn) a natural philosopher 
 nnd historian of eminence, born at Geneva in 
 1742. He adopted the ecclesiastical profes- 
 sion, and having finished his course of theology 
 he was admitted a minister in 1765. Philo- 
 sophy and natural history occupied more of 
 his attention than divinity ; and he made a 
 fisii to Paris to study declamation under the 
 Actor lirizard,aml to consult the royal library. 
 Returning to Geneva, he published " INIoral 
 Talcs," in imitation of those of Marmontel, 
 
 SEN 
 
 ■ which were translated into German. By the 
 advice of Bonnet he wrote a memoir on the 
 question proposed by the literary society of 
 Haerlem, " F2n quoiconsiste I'Art d'observer?" 
 and he obtained the prize whicli had been of- 
 fered. In 1769 he was chosen minister of 
 Chancy ; and in 1773 he obtained the office 
 of ])ublic librarian at Geneva. He became 
 one of the conductors of the Journal of Ge- 
 neva in 1787, and he enriched it with a great 
 number of important articles. The '•evolu- 
 tionary commotions at Geneva in the latter 
 part of the last century obliged him to remove 
 into the Pays de Vaud ; but he afterwards re- 
 turned home, and died in 1809. His [)rincipal 
 
 I works are " Essai sur I'Art d'observer, et de 
 
 ' faire des Fvxperiences," 1802, 3 vols. 8vo, aa 
 amplification of his prize essay ; " Memoires 
 
 j Physico-Chimiques sur 1 'Influence de la Lu- 
 miere Solaire sur les Trois Regnes de la Na- 
 
 j ture," 1782, 3 vols. 8vo ; " Rapports de I'Air 
 avec les F^tres organises," 1807, 3 vcls. 8vo ; 
 and " Histoire Litteraire de Geneve," 1786, 
 3 vols. 8vo ; and he also published " Cata- 
 
 j logue des MSS. dans la Bibliotheque de la 
 Ville de Geneve," 1779, 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SENECA (Marcus ANVytus) a Roman 
 orator, who was a native of Corduba in Spain, 
 and settling at Rome he obtained great emi- 
 nence in his profession. His declamations, or 
 forensic discourses, are still extant, and have 
 been repeatedly published together with the 
 works of his son. He flourished AD. 59. — 
 Senkca (Lucius Ann.«us) the eldest son of 
 the preceding, was a most celebrated Roman 
 philosopher, moralist, and statesman, born a*" 
 Corduba near the commencement of the 
 Christian aera. He received a liberal educa- 
 tion at Rome, being; instructed in rhetoric by 
 his father, and in philosophy by Attains the 
 stoic, Demetrius the cynic, and otlier profes- 
 sors of diflferent sects. He adopted the prin- 
 ciples of the stoics, which he illustrated by hig 
 writings. His prudence prevented him from 
 appearing in the forum in the reign of Caligula, 
 but he afterwards pleaded some causes, and 
 filled the offices of qua?stor and prajtor. Hav- 
 ing offended Messalina, the profligate wife of 
 the emperor Claudius, she procured his ba- 
 nishment to the islam! of Corsica, on the 
 charge of adultery ; and he resided there eight 
 years, devoting his time to study. He wrote 
 two treatises, " De Consolatione," one ad- 
 dressed to his mother Helvia, and the other to 
 Polybius, one of the imperial attendants. In 
 the latter he has not been sparing of adulation 
 towards the emperor, vihich is so much the 
 more reprehensible, as lie satirized the object 
 of it unmercifully after his death. Agrippina, 
 the second wife of Clautlius, obtained his recal 
 from exile, and appointed him tutor to her son 
 Nero. On tlie accession of his pupil to the 
 empire, he was for a while the confidential 
 adviser of Nero ; but his credit diminished 
 when the latter became attached to Tigeliinus 
 and Poppa?a ; and it is related that the emperor 
 endeavoured to rid himself of a troublesome 
 monitor by getting Seneca poisoned, which 
 scheme was rendered abortive by the cautious 
 
SEN 
 
 S E it 
 
 policy of the philosoplit-r, who subsisted en- reside at W an II.Ler^. Notwith.tanding the 
 
 tirely on fruits. At U-ugtli lie was aicuaeil of 
 beini; an accoinphte in the coiisj)iiacy ol J'iso 
 against the imperial monster wlioiu lie had 
 edut ated, and his dealli being dec reed, he was 
 J)ern\itted to c hoose tlie melliod of execution, 
 ile consequently, with the characterihlic os- 
 tentation of a stoic, finished hia life in the midbt 
 of his frienils, conversing on philosophic al 
 tojiics while the ldoi)d was flowing from his 
 veins, whicli he had caused to be opened for 
 that purpose. His death happened Al). 6.S, 
 at the age of sixty-three. A warm batii hav- 
 ing been used to hasten the mortal luemorr- 
 hage, Tacitus says that as Seneca entert tl the 
 bath, he took some of the water and sprinkled 
 it on the friei'ds who stood near him, saying, 
 that he offered it as a hbalion to .lupiter the 
 Deliveier. This statement sufficiently confutes 
 tile idle tale of Seneca's having been a convert 
 to Christianity ; in support of which notion 
 have been produced some of his alleged letters 
 to the a])ostle I'aul, which are manifestly spu- 
 rious. 'The character of Seneca presents the 
 not unfrequent anomaly of a moral philosopher, 
 deeply skilled in the theory of virtue, but un- 
 al)le to practise his own })recepts. His mar- 
 riage, late in life, with the young, rich, and 
 beautiful Paulina, has been considered as an 
 action not consistent with the rigid principles 
 of stoicism, liut this is quite a venial trans 
 gre.ssion compared with his intrigues as a 
 statesman and a courtier ; his concern in the 
 murder of A grijipina, which he advocated; and 
 his accumulation of vast wealth by very unjus- 
 titialile means, j)arlicu!arly by lending money 
 on usury. Dion Cassius ascribes the revolt of 
 the Britons under Boadicea to the distress to 
 which they were driven through the rapacity of 
 Seneca, or rather of his agents. His works 
 have been often published, and among the best 
 editions are those of Leyden, 1649, 4 vols. 
 l2ino ; and the Bipontine, 1782 — 1810, 5 vols. 
 8vo. There are translations of the works of 
 Seneca extant by Lodge and L'Estrange ; and 
 Dr Morell published his " Ejnstles " in Eng- 
 lish, with notes, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. The only 
 existing specimens of lloman tragedy are as- 
 (ribed to L. Annteus Seneca ; but \\hether they 
 were written by the philosoplier is uncertain. 
 A valuable edition of " Senecaj Tragiedia; '" 
 was published by Schroder, Delphis, 1728, 4to. 
 — Moiei'. Blog. Uiiii. 
 
 SENNEirrUS (Damki.) an eminent jdiy- 
 sician and j)hilosopher, botn in 1 j72, at Bres- 
 lau, in Silesia. His father was a shoemaker, 
 but he received an academical education, stu- 
 dy Hi; first at Wittemberg, and afterwards at 
 Leij>»ic, .lena, and Frankfort on-the-Oder ; and 
 in 1601 he visited Berlin. He returned to 
 Wittemberg the same year, took the degree of 
 MD.. and was ajtpointed to a medical profes- 
 sorship in that university. lie gained high 
 reputation by his writings and his practice, 
 : nd received api lications for advice from va- 
 rious parts of Europe. He attended the elector 
 of Saxony, whom he cured of a dangerous 
 disease in 1626, and he was physician in or- 
 dinary to that prince, though he continued to 
 
 plague lepejitedlv prevailed thert-, Ue re- 
 inuined at hih p()^l , and after having eKtaied 
 for a time, he at length fill a vicuin to pjoft »- 
 Monal duly, dMiig of that malignant dl^ealx• m 
 .'uly l(i.)7. lie had the uwiii of fir»>l lotro- 
 dui ing the Btudy of chenustr) :iili> tin- univcf. 
 sity of which he wan a profc>»<>r ; and he di*- 
 tingui.shed himself by the bcjidnen* of hiB spe- 
 culatujns, and his independeuce of the train- 
 niels of authoiity. Having advanced »ome 
 peculiar oj)inion« concerning the ori,^iii and 
 nature of so-ls, he was acciiM.-d «>f unpicty ai.d 
 blasphemy, and reprehenteJ aH teaching that 
 the souls of brutes were immortal. But he de- 
 nied this inference, which his ai cu.<>erii oe- 
 duced from his j)ruKiples, and thus avoided 
 the danger of persecution. Among ]iih writ- 
 ings are, " Epitome Naturalis Sci«-ntia-," 
 1618, 8vo, rejnatedly j)riiited ; " Liher de 
 Chymicorum consensu et diseen.su cum .Viis- 
 totelicis ct Cialenicis," 16'J9. 4to; and" Hv- 
 pomnemata I'hysica," ]6.)(). His works, which 
 were much in request in the seventtenih cen- 
 tury, were put>lished collectively at Lyonn, 
 1676, 6 vols, folio. — linvle. A ictrc;*, vol. xiv. 
 Hutchinson's i^iog. Med, — SEsNEnris (An- 
 DUEw) eldest son of the preceding, received a 
 learned education at Wittemberg ; and after 
 visiting Leipsic, Jena, and Strasbnrg, an.l the 
 Dutch universities, he returned to Wittem- 
 berg, where he became professor of the Or.en- 
 tal languages. He died in 167 9, agetl sixty- 
 three. Besides a number of philological dis- 
 sertations, he was the author of " Hypotyposis 
 Harmonica Linguarum Orientalium, Chaldea*, 
 Syrae, Arabicse, cum I\]atre Hebra-a," 1666, 
 4to ; " Sciagrapliia Doctrioje inextricabilis 
 adhuc de Accentibus Hebra-orum," 1664, 4to; 
 " Dissertatio de Linguarum Orientalium Ori- 
 ginibus, Autiquitate, Brogressione, ]iicremen- 
 tis,'" 1669; besides other works. — Goezii T^Atg. 
 Pliilolog, qiionnid- JJehraor 
 
 SEPULVEDA (JouN Gfnes de) a Spanish 
 divine and liistorian, was born al Cordova in 
 1491, and became historiographer to tl e em- 
 peror Charles W He is iL'uoblv conspicuous 
 as the author of a ' Vindication of the Cru- 
 elties of the Spaniards against the Indians,*' 
 in opposition to the benevolent representations 
 of Bartholonn \v Las Casas. Sej)iilved.-i af- 
 firmed that it was the duty of the Indiana to 
 submit to be governed by the Spaniards in con- 
 sequence of their own inferiority : but, to their 
 credit, the Spanish univeisities, as well a? 
 Charles V, prohibited the circulation of the 
 book, which was, however, printed at Home. 
 This cU tender of some of the greatest barbari- 
 ties that ever ihsgraced human nature, died at 
 Salamanca, of which he was a canon, in l.'»72. 
 He was author of several Latin tiansiaiions, as 
 also of a life of Charles \ , in 4 vols. 4io, 
 which was reprinted at Madiid in 1780. — 
 Anton. liihl. ///.</). 
 
 SEKAPION (John") an Arabian physician, 
 who flourished, according to Priestley, .\ D. 
 190. He is cited by Riiazes and b\ Hali 1 bu 
 Aalias, the lattev of whom cen^ure8 him for 
 ;;ct treating more fully of the small-pox. Hia 
 
works were first printed at Venice, 1497, folio, 
 and reprinted in 1530. — Skrapion of Alex- 
 andria, has been sometimes confounded wiih 
 theprecedmg. He was a Greek physician, 
 A-lio hved in the first century. — Another Se- 
 RAPiON, of the eleventh century, is supposed 
 CO have been the writer of a tract, " De Medi- 
 camentis tarn simplicibus quam compositis." 
 — Freiiid. llutchiiisou. 
 
 SERASSI (Pier Antonio) an Italian bio- 
 •jrrapher, was born at Bergamo in 17'J1. At the 
 a'-^e of twenty, he was elected a member of 
 the Acaaemy of Transformati ; and on his 
 return to Bergamo was appointed professor 
 of belles lettres. His first work was a disqni- 
 .•tition on the birth-place of Tasso ; after which 
 )ie published several biographies, which are 
 much esteemed, incluJing the lives of .MatTei, 
 Alolza, Polilian, Capella, Dante, Petrarch, 
 nnd lasso ; the last and most distinguished of 
 •vhich productions has proved serviceable to 
 Air 15!ack, in his life of the same en^nent poet. 
 Serassi was employed in several offices of the 
 papal government, and in the college of Pro- 
 paganda. He died February 19, 1791, at 
 Home, in the seventieth year of his age. — 
 Black's Preface to Life of Tasso. 
 
 SERENUS SAMMOXICUS (Qiintls) a 
 Roman physician of the third century, who is 
 said to have written various tracts on natural 
 history, which are no longer extant. He was 
 also the author of a poem, " De Re Medica," 
 piiblislied in the " Corpus Poetarum " of -Mat- 
 taire. Serenus was put to death by the em- 
 peror Caracalla, about AD. 217 ; and he left 
 behind him a library, containing six thousand 
 two hundred volnmes. -- H nlcliinson' s B/'d;,'-. A/f</. 
 
 SERGEL(JonN ToiiiAs) a celebrated Swe- 
 dish sculptor. He was born at Stockholm Sep- 
 tember B, 17-l-(), and began his career as a 
 stone-mason ; but afterwards became a pupil 
 of L'Archeveque, whom he accompanied to 
 France. He subsequently went to Italy, at 
 the expense of the king of Sweden, where he 
 acquired great celebrity. In 1778 he returned 
 to Sweden, visiting Paris in his way, where he 
 was nominated a member of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts. He then visited London, and 
 reached Stockholm in 1779, where, on the de- 
 cease of Ids old preceptor, he succeeded to his 
 place. In 1781 he accompanied Gustavus III 
 on his travels to Italy, and in 1795 was a 
 knight of the polar star ; and 1810 received 
 letters of nobility, and was appointed supcrin- 
 tendant of the police. His numerous able 
 works are chiefly confined to Sweden ; but an 
 admired " Diomede stealing the Palladium of 
 1 roy," is in England. He died February 26, 
 1814. — Bioar. Univ. 
 
 SERRES(JonN de) in Latin Serranus, a 
 learned Frenchman, was born in the sixteenth 
 century, and was of the reformed religion. 
 He studied at Lausanne, where he was 
 taught Latin and Greek ; and on his return 
 '■.o France, applied himself to divinity, in 
 order to become a minister. He distinguished 
 himself by his writings, and became a mi- 
 niste: of Nismes in 1582, but was never 
 looked upon as a very lealous Protestant. He 
 
 S E R 
 
 is supposed to be one of the four ministers wh« 
 declared to Henry IVtliat he might be saved 
 in the Romish as well as the Protestant reli- 
 gion, a concession which much oifended his 
 brethren. He published in 1597 a tract to 
 reconcile the two religions, which as usual 
 pleased neither side. He died suddenly in 
 1598. Serranus published several works in 
 Latin and French, relating to the history of 
 France ; and among the rest, " Memoires de 
 la iriosieme Guerre civile etderniers Troubles 
 de France sous Charles IX ;" " Inventaire 
 general de I'Histoire de France ;" " Recueil 
 ues Choses memorables sous Henri H, Fran- 
 cois II, Charles IX, et Henri \U." Besides 
 liis theological and historical works, he gave 
 a Latin version of Plato, which is printed with 
 Henry Stephens's edition of that author. 
 Stephens also published, in 1575, a Greek 
 version, by Serranus, of twenty-four of the 
 Psalms, with two " Idyllia," from Daniel and 
 Isaiah, of which scarce work a new edition 
 was published in London, 1772, 12mOv — 
 J^'icerou. Moren. 
 
 SERRES (John Thomas) an artist of con- 
 siderable merit and reputation in the delinea- 
 tion of sea pieces, which procured him the ap- 
 pointment of marine painter to the king. He 
 was descended of a noble family, long resident 
 in their seat of lieaujierrc, near Oche in 
 France, whence his father, count Domenic de 
 Serres, nephew of the then archbishop of 
 Rheims, eloped, in order to avoid an eccle- 
 siastical life, to which he was destined by his 
 family. Entering the Spanish service he was 
 taken prisoner by the English, received his 
 liberty on parole, and though afterwards all 
 restrictions were removed,he continued to reside 
 in this country, and to exercise his talents as a 
 marine draughtsman, which at length pro- 
 cured him the honour of a seat among the fel- 
 lows of the Royal Academy. — His eldest son, 
 the subject of this article, inherited his father's 
 genius, and besides the many proofs of his 
 talents as a painter yet extant, was the author 
 of a work, entitled "The Little Sea Torch, a 
 Guide for Coasting Pilots," folio, 1801. IMr 
 Serres, who was husband to the soi-disant 
 princess Olive of Cumberland, so notorious 
 since his decease, died December 28, 1825. — 
 A)ui. Biog. 
 
 SERRES (Oliver) an able French agricul- 
 turalist, was born in 1539, at Villeneuve de 
 Bery, near A'iviers. He showed himself so 
 able a manager of his own estate, that Henry 
 IV called him to Paris, and entrusted him 
 with the management of the royal domains. 
 Serres had the merit of introducing the white 
 mulberry tree into France, and was the author 
 of so many valuable agricultural improvements, 
 as to be regarded as an eminent benefactor to 
 his country. He died in 1619. The works 
 of this resj)ectable and philanthropic indivi- 
 dual are, " A Treatise on the Culture of 
 Silk," 1599 ; " Feconde Richesse du Murier 
 Pdanc," 1603; " Theatre d'AgricuIlure et 
 Menage dcs Champs ;" which last work has 
 been repeatedly printed, and is much esteemed. 
 — Nouv. Diet. IlUt. 
 
S E U 
 
 SERVANDONI (Jkan Nicor.As) «n cmi- 
 rent architect, ])iirtKulaily c<h'bnitfii for liis 
 talents in tlu-aiiical decorations, was born at 
 Florence in 16U;}. He was employed hy most 
 of the sovereign!; of Europe on the occasion 
 of magnificent |)iil)lic spectacles, and at I'aris 
 was under-arcliitect, j)ainter, and decorator to 
 the king of France. He gave a numhcr of 
 designs for the theatres of London and Dn-s- 
 den, and was similarly employed at Vienna 
 and Lisbon. As an architect he has left an 
 admired sj)ecinien of his taste iti the portico 
 and front of the church of St Sulpice. He 
 died in 1766. — i^'ouv. Dirt. Ilibt. 
 
 SKUVETl'S (MiciiAKr.) a learned Spa- 
 niard, memorable as a victim of religious into- 
 lerance, was born in 1509, at Villa Nueva in 
 Arragon. He was the son of a notary, who 
 sent him to Toulouse for the study of the civil 
 law. Excited by the discussions of the re- 
 formers in that city, he began to read the 
 Scriptures, and conducted his researches with 
 so free a spirit, that he printed a tract in dis- 
 paragement of the orthodox doctrine of the 
 'IVinity, entitled " l)e Trinitatis Erroribus," 
 printed at Haguenau in 1531 ; which produc- 
 tion was followed the next year by his " Dia- 
 logorum de 'I'rinitate Libri duo." His cir- 
 cumstances being depressed, he engaged for 
 some time with the Frellons, booksellers of 
 Lyons, as corrector of the press. He then 
 went to Paris, where he studied physic, and 
 carried into tliat science the same inquisitive 
 and pertinacious spirit wliich distinguished 
 him in theology. He graduated at Paris, but 
 quarrelled with tlie faculty, and repaired to 
 Charlieu, near Lyons, where he practised 
 three years, whence, at the instance of the 
 archbishop of Vienne, lie removed to the lat- 
 ter city. During this time he was in constant 
 correspondence with Calvin, with whom he 
 discussed points of controversy, consulting 
 him, it is said against his will, in respect to 
 his writings and Arian notions. Of this con- 
 fidence Calvin subsequently made a most base 
 and indefensible use, by producing his letters 
 and ]MSS. as matters of accusation against 
 him. In 1553 Servetus published his ma- 
 tured theological system, without his name, 
 under the title of " Christianismi Restitutio ;" 
 but Calvin took care that the magistrates of 
 Vienne should be duly informed of it, and 
 Servetus was committed to prison, whence he 
 contrived to escape, and thereby avoided that 
 fate from Catholic hands which he was soon 
 after to suffer from those of the reformers. 
 Purposing to proceed to Naples, he impru- 
 dently took his way through Geneva, where 
 Calvin, who by this time indulged against him 
 the full bitterness of theological hate, induced 
 the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
 blasphemy and heresy, advanced against him 
 by a person who had been a servant in Cal- 
 Tin's family. In order to ensure his condemna- 
 tion his various writings were sifted for accusa- 
 tjovs, and as a proof of the malignity and in- 
 mstice which he encountered, one of the charges 
 wis extracted from his edition of Ptolemy's 
 (jeograpby, in which he asserted that Judea 
 
 s i: K 
 
 had been falfoly extolled for it« beauty and 
 f«Ttihty, iiiodcrn travti;«rB )ia-. m^ foiiuJ u Ujth 
 ■l»rilf and uii.sit;hiiy. Ihe mat;i>trut. » of Ge- 
 neva were, howfver, awan- ihiit ii.auy ry.g 
 were on llicm, in renpt-i t to this oxtra<irdin»ry 
 treatment of a iierbou wlio wan iitulifr a mb- 
 ject nor a resident, tut. properly hpi-akin-, a 
 traveller kidnapjxd in hm pajhha^'r. I h»-y 
 thought proper, llii-reforc, to consult th«- mu- 
 gistrates of all the i'rotcbtant Swj^» < antoii». 
 who referring the matter to their diviaea, iho 
 latter unanimcjusly d(( lar<d for bin puni»litn« nt. 
 As he refused to reliact his opiiu(.n», ili«Tf. 
 fore, he was condemned to the flames, wbuli 
 sentence was carried into execution tlie i.'7th 
 of Octoln-r, 1553, in the forty-fourth year i>{ \n^ 
 age. This act, says the anthora of the NUu 
 veau Dictionnaire Historicjue, has furni.-heil 
 Catholic WTiters with an irresiistible argumen- 
 tum ad hominem against the I'rotestantj* wh- n 
 they complain of the similar treatment of the 
 Calvinists of France. That it was, ho^v»•ver, 
 disapproved by many is rendered probable by 
 Calvin's earnest attempt at apology ; but ic 
 is melancholy to observe that the deed was 
 warmly sanctioned by INlelancthon. I'lie main 
 defence of Calvin res*9 on the fact tliat every 
 Christian church sanctioned persecution : but 
 the use that he made of documents addressed 
 to himself, and the spirit in which tiie charges 
 were brought forward, cannot be sanctioned 
 even by this general plea, and acconiingly the 
 fate of Servetus will remain an eternal blot upon 
 the memory of the stern reformer of Geneva. 
 The Arian doctrines of Ser\'elus are described 
 by Mobheim, who dwells, and probably with 
 justice, on his proud and contentious spirit and 
 " invincible obstinacy," whicli he himself no 
 doubt regarded as steadiness of principle, as he 
 chose to die for its maintenance. Ibis remark- 
 able person is numbered among the anatomists 
 who made the nearest approach to the doctrine 
 of the circulation of the blood. The passage 
 is in his latest work, " De Restitutione Chris- 
 tianismi," and it clearly states the circulation 
 of the blood through the lungs, and the produc- 
 tion of a vital princijiJe from the mixture of air 
 and blood in that organ, but proceeds no fur- 
 ther. The life of Servetus has been written in 
 Latin by INIosheim. — Nout. Diet. Uiit. IlalUn 
 Bibl. Anat. Life hy Mosheijn. 
 
 SER\'1N (Loris) a patriotic French law- 
 yer, was born of a good family in the \ en- 
 domois. He cultivated polite literature with 
 assiduity, and in 1589 was chosen ailvocate- 
 general to the j)arliament of Paris. In 159C 
 he published a work in favour of Henry I\' of 
 France, entitled " \'indicia! secundum Liber- 
 tatem Fk'clesiiv Gallicamv ;" and in 159H was 
 joined in a commission for the reformation of 
 the university of Paris. In die reign of Louis 
 Xlll he made some strong remonstrances in 
 favour of the right of i)arhameut to register the 
 roval edicts ; and was firmly, but respt clfully, 
 making a remonstrance to the king on the sub- 
 ject, when he fell down and expired. Thia 
 event occurred in 16'J6. — .Vpju-. Diet. Ilisi. 
 
 SERVll'S (^LwRvs HoNOKATi's) a gram- 
 marian and critic, who flourished in the reign 
 
SE T 
 
 of Arca'liiis and Ilonorius. He is principally 
 known by his commentaries on Virgil, which 
 contain some valuable notices of t'.ie geo- 
 graphy and the arts of antiquity, 'i'he com- 
 mentaries of Servius are given most correctly 
 in the Virgil of Burman, 1736. A tract on the 
 prosody of verse, by the same author, entitled 
 " Centimetrum," is printed in the collections 
 of the ancient grammarians. — Tirahoschi. 
 
 SESOSTRIS, a famous king of Egypt, wlio 
 by some has been deemed the Sesac of Scrip- 
 ture. He is generally placed by chronologers 
 in the fifteenth centu'y BC. Among the 
 many fabulous stories concerning liim, it may 
 be collected that he was a great politician and 
 conqueror, who overran Asia, and probably 
 crossed the Ganges. He is also thought to 
 liave left an Egyptian colony at Colchis, and 
 it is agreed that Thrace was his farthest west- 
 ern progress. He is said to have erected, by 
 the hands of his captives, magnificent temples 
 in all the cities of his empire, to have built a 
 great wall on the eastern boundary of Egypt, 
 and to have du^r a number of canals from the 
 Nile, for the purposes of commerce and irriga- 
 tion. He is reported to have died a voluntary 
 death on becoming blind. Sir Isaac Newton 
 thinks that he is the Osiris of the Egyptians, 
 and the Bacchus of the Greeks. — Hist. Univ. 
 
 SEPFLE (Elkanaii) an Englisli poet of 
 the 17th century, was the son of .losepli Settle, 
 a resident of Dunstable in Bedfordshire, where 
 he was born in 164-8. At the age of eighteen 
 he entered as a commoner at 'JVinity college, 
 Oxford, but quitted llie university without tak- 
 ing a degree ; and coming to London, com- 
 menced author by profession. His first essay 
 in literature was as a political writer, attached 
 to ttie whig party, in whicli capacity he pro- 
 duced a piece, entitled " The Character of a 
 Popish Successor," in favour of the Exclu- 
 sion Bill, then the principal subject of conver- 
 sation. This was answered bv a pamphlet 
 called "The Character of Rebellion," printed 
 in 1682, in which the author inveii-lis bitterly 
 against Settle ; and another reply soon after 
 appeared, from the pen of sir Roger L' Es- 
 trange, under the title of " The Character of 
 a Papist in Alasquerade." To this latter per- 
 formance Settle rejoined in a pamphlet, " ihe ! 
 Character of a Popish Successor compleat," 
 which was considered tlie smartest and best 
 written piece which appeared on either side. 
 On the coronation of James 11, these two ob- 
 noxious pamphlets were, together with the 
 Exclasion Bill itself, publicly burnt by the 
 fellows of Rlerton college, Oxford, in the 
 middle of tlieir quadrangle. During the party 
 S(]uabhlesof tliis period, Dryden had published 
 a poem, entitled " The INletlal," occasioned 
 by the whig party striking a medal to com- 
 memorate the throwing out of the bill against 
 the earl of Shaftesbury ; in reply to this. Set- 
 lie wrote a piece called " The iMedal Re- 
 versed ;" and soon after a poem, entitled 
 " Azaria and Hushai," desiijned as an answer 
 to the " Absalom and Acliitophd " of the 
 same poet. Eventually however, if Anthony 
 s Wood is to be depended on, Settle changed 
 
 S E V 
 
 sides; and it is certain that in 1683 he wrote 
 a " Narrative," in eii:ht folio sheets, against 
 Titus Oates. He is also said to have be^-n the 
 author of some " Animadversions on the last 
 Speech and Confession of Lord William Rus- 
 sel," as well as of some " Remarks on tlie 
 Paper delivered by Algernon Sidney to the 
 Sheriffs at his Execution," London, 16B3. In 
 1685 he published a poem on the coronation 
 of James IT, and commenced a weekly paper 
 in favour of tlie court ; he also about the same 
 time obtained a pension from the city, for 
 writing an annual inauguration panegyric on 
 lord mayor's day. Settle was besides an inde- 
 fatigable writer for the stage, and produced 
 fifteen dramatic pieces, none of which are now 
 known on the boards. In the decline of life 
 he received an annual salary from the proprie- 
 tor of a booth at Bartholemew fair, as a writer 
 of " Drolls," which were generally very suc- 
 cessful ; and he is said to have been at that 
 time the best contriver of theatrical machinery 
 in the kingdom. He died ac the Charter- 
 house in 1724. — Gibber's Ltves. 
 
 SE\'ERUS (ConvELius ) a Roman poet, 
 who lived in the reign of Augustus, was the 
 author of a poem, entitled " ALtuR," which 
 has been attributed to Virgil. An ele<rant 
 edition of the remains of this writer, with notes, 
 was published at Amsterdam, by Le Clerc, 
 12mo, 1703 ; and they are also printed in 
 i\Iattaire's " Corpus Poetarum." — Vossii Poet. 
 Lat. 
 
 SEVIGNE (jMarie de Rabutin mar- 
 quise de) a French woman of quality, greatly 
 distinguished for her epi'^tolary talents, was 
 born in 1626. Her father, the baron of Chan- 
 tai, who was the liead of the house of Bossy 
 Rabutin, left her, during infancy, his sole 
 heiress. The graces of her person and conver- 
 sation procured her many admirers ; and in 
 1644 she married the marquis de Sevigne, 
 who was killeil in a duel in 16t1, leaving her 
 the mother of a son and daughter. She 
 formed no second union ; but devoted herself 
 to the education of her children, and to the 
 cultivation of her mind, by reading and literary 
 society. She was extremely attached to her 
 daughter, who in 1669 married the count de 
 Grignan, and accompanied him to his g(jvern- 
 ment of Provence, an absence from the me- 
 tropolis, wliicli gave rise to the greater part of 
 the letters which have gained her so much re- 
 putation. The subject of many of these epis- 
 tles are so entirely domestic as to produ. e 
 little interest; but others abound with court 
 anecdotes, remarks on men and books, anil the 
 topics of the day, which are conveyed with 
 ereat ease and felicity. In point of style, 
 they are deemeil models of the epistolary, 
 which have seldom been surpassed, owing to 
 a perfectly natural mode of expression, ani- 
 mated with lively touches of sentiment and 
 description, and a gay playfulness, which 
 gives grace and interest to trifles. In lier let- 
 ters to her daughter, the reader is sometimes 
 wearied witli an evcess of flattery of her beauty 
 and talents, the jireservatiou of the former of 
 whicli seems to have formed the principal ob- 
 
S E W 
 
 ;ect of her maternal anxiety. In fact, iilthouf^L 
 endowed with ahiliiit-s and penetration, she 
 did not rise niutli above the level of her at^« 
 in taste and piiiKiplcs. S!ie was highly at- 
 tached to rank auel s|)l«'ndour, lovetl admira- 
 tion, and felt the usual piedileclion of hij;lj 
 life for mannera and accoinplishnients in pre- 
 ference to solid worth. She had a sirom; feel- 
 ing of relii^ion, but was often inconsistent in 
 lier sense of it, and in reference to the ])ro- 
 ceedini;s ai^ainst the French I'rotestants, ex- 
 presses herself with bigotry and want of feel- 
 ing. The best editions of lier " Letters " are 
 that of IVriin, 177 J, 8 vols. TJnio ; and of 
 1801, 10 vols, liinio. An English translation 
 was jiubiished in Lonilon about 17;)8. SJie 
 died in 1696, at the age of seventy. — Notiv. 
 Diet. IHst. 
 
 SEX'IN (Francois) a French man of let- 
 ters, was born in the diocese of Sens, in 1699, 
 and educated in the seminary of the Trenle 
 Irois of Paris. In 17^4 he became an asso- 
 ciate in the Academy of Belles Lettres, and 
 in 17'J8 was sent by the order of Louis XIV, 
 with the abbe Founnart the youni;er, to Con- 
 stantinople, in search of MSS. of which he 
 brought back a large number, and was re- 
 warded in 1737 with the oiKce of keeper of 
 the MSS. in the king's library. His letters rela- 
 tive to tliis journey were pubii.^hed in 1801, Bvo, 
 and are deemed very curious and interesting. 
 A'arious papers by Sevin are publislied in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Belles Lettres. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet, Hist. 
 
 SEWARD (Thomas^ an English divine 
 and poet, who was rector of Eyam in Derby- 
 shire, and canon residentiary of Lichfield, 
 where he died at a very advanced age, luarci. 
 4, 1790. He was the author of a treatise en- 
 titled " The Conformity between Popery and 
 Paganism illustrated in several Instances, and 
 suj)ported by a variety of Quotations from the 
 Latm and Greek Classics ;" and he likewise 
 published an edition of the dramatic works of 
 Beaumont and Fletcher, 1750, 10 vols. Bvo ; 
 and was a contributor to Dodsley's Collection 
 of Fugitive Poetry. — Seward (Anna) daugh- 
 ter of tlie preceding, obtained considerable 
 celebrity in the literary world. She was born 
 at Eyam in 1747 ; and even in childhood she 
 exhibited a taste for poetical composition, 
 which was rather checked than encouraged by 
 lier father. At length she became acquainted 
 with Mrs. IMiller, of Bath Easton, and was a 
 contributor to that lady's literary vase and vo- 
 lumes of " Poetical Amusements." Miss Se- 
 ward's first separate publication was an "Elegy 
 on the Death of Captain Cook, with an Ode 
 to the Sun," 1780, 4to; and this was followeil 
 by a •• Monody on Major Andre, with Letters 
 to her from Major Andre, written in 1769," 
 1781, 4to ; a " Poem to the Memory of Lady 
 jMiller, of Bath Easton Villa," 1782, 4to j 
 •' Louisa, a Poetical Novel, in four Epistles," 
 1784, 4to. In 1''99 she published a collection 
 of sonnets ; and in 1804 appeared her " Life 
 of Dr Darwin," in which she preferred a claim 
 to the authorship of the first fifty lines of Dar- 
 ^vjn's " Botanic Garden." She died at the 
 
 BioG. DicT.— Vol. HI. 
 
 SEX 
 
 episcopal pnlaco at Ijchfield, .March 2!i. 1809, 
 and bywilUlie left her MS. c(.rrriipond«.ncfl 
 to Mr ( 'onniable of Edinbur^-h, and ii wa« pub- 
 liBlied with a biographical menioir, 6 vol*. 
 Uvo. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 SEWAIll) (Wii.riAu) a writer of bio- 
 grajihy and perHoiial anecdtjte, who waji b<nii 
 in London in 1747. ilis father wan a puriner 
 in Calvert'H brewery, and from him he derived 
 an independent f<»rtune, which enabled him to 
 had a life of literary leisure. Jje hiutlieii at 
 the Charter- house echool aud (Oxford univer- 
 sity ; and he became a fellow i,{ the Ko>al 
 and Antiipiarian Societies, and cultivated liie 
 acquaintance of Dr Johnson, antl olln r eminent 
 writeis. In 1789 he began publishing, in the 
 European Magazine, a siries of literury anec- 
 dotes ; and in 1791 appeared the tir>i two vo- 
 lumes of his " Anecdotes of some dibtin- 
 guished Persons, chiefly of the present and 
 two preceding Centuries," to which he added 
 three more volumes. Me subse(|ueiitly pub- 
 lished a sequel to this work, under the title of 
 " Biographiana," 1799. 2 vols. 8vo. Me died 
 of dropsy, April 24, 1799. — Knrnp. Mag. 
 
 SEWEL (Geoiige) an ingenious poet and 
 miscellaneous writer of the last cenlurv, by 
 profession a physician, born at Windsor, where 
 his father held the situation of trea.surer and 
 chapter clerk. From Eton he removed to 
 Peter-house, Cambridge, where he graduated 
 as a bachelor in medicine, and then pas$ed 
 over to Holland for the purpose of completing 
 his ])hysical education under the celebrated 
 Boerhaave. Un his return to England, he 
 commenced practice at llampstead, his vici- 
 nity to the metropolis enabling him at the 
 same time to cultivate the acquaintance of 
 many of the wits of the age, and to bring for- 
 ward his own literary productions. These con- 
 sist of " Sir Waiter Kaleigh," a tragedy, 1719; 
 " Epistles to Mr Addison, on the l)eath of 
 Lord Halifax ;" ** Cupid's Proclamation," \c. 
 His prose writings are, " A Life of John Plii- 
 lij)S, Author of the Poem on Cyder ;" " A 
 Vindication of the f^nglish Stage," and some 
 political pamphlets levelled principally against 
 the bishop of Salisbury. He also published 
 translations of Addison's Latin poems, and of 
 part of the works of Lucan, Ovid, and Tibiil- 
 lus. His death took place at Hampstcad, Fe- 
 bruary 8, 17'J6. — Sewki. (NViM.iAM > the son 
 of an English refugee, was born at .Amsterdam 
 in lo.X), where his father followed the pro- 
 fes^ion of a surgeon. He was apprenticed to 
 a weaver, but is principally known as the au- 
 thor of a History of Quakerism, to which claaa 
 of dissenters he belonged. Ibis work, origi- 
 nally written in Dutch, he afterwards trans- 
 lated into English, folio, 172J. There is also 
 a Dictionary of the English and Dutch Lan- 
 guages, which goes undir his name. His 
 death took place in 1723. — CtbUr't Liitt 
 Chalmers's Bin^. Diet. 
 
 SEXTUS EMPIRICLS, a Greek phik- 
 sopher and physician, is supposed to havt 
 flourished in tlie reign of the emperor Com- 
 mo<ius. He is not the same with Sextus the 
 Stoic, the preceptor of Marcus Aurelius ; and 
 
 Li 
 
SE Y 
 
 his surname of Empiricus indicates that lie 
 beloD'red to the sect cf physicians so called. 
 He was the author of many works, two of 
 which liave been preserved, " Pynhoniaruni 
 Ilypotvposium Lib. Ill," or " Institutes of 
 Pyrrhonism," deemed the most elet^anl sum- 
 mary of tlie principles of the Pyrrhonian or 
 Sceptic sect ; and " Adversus ]\Iathematicos, 
 Lib. X," a work agfiinst dogmatists in philo- 
 sophy. The former of these dissertations was 
 translated into Latin by Henry Stephens, and 
 the latter hv Hervetus ; and both versions, 
 with the original Greek, were printed at Cieneva, 
 in 1621. A later and superior edition, by Fa- 
 bricius, was published at Leipsic in 1718, 
 folio. — T'xs'i Hit. J Alt. 
 
 SEVBOLD (David Cukistopher) a Ger- 
 man philologist and miscellaneous writer, born 
 in 1747, at Brakenheim in the territory of 
 Wurtemberg. Having taken the degree of 
 lyiA., be became professor of the belles let- 
 tres at Jena, in 1771, when he pronounced 
 an inaui!:ural oration " On the Eloquence of 
 Homer." He was afterwards rector of the 
 gynmasium of Spire, and then successively of 
 those of Grunstadt, in the county of Linange ; 
 and of Buchsweiler, in Alsace. I'he French 
 Revolution having occasioned the destruction 
 of the latter seminary, he removed to Tubin- 
 gen, an<i obtained in that university tiie chair 
 of ancient literature. He died in 1804. 
 Among a multitude of works which be pub- 
 lished, may be mentioned witli approbation 
 bis " Chiistomathia Poetica Gra^co-Latina ;" 
 and his " Mythology," written in German. — 
 Bioi^. Univ. 
 
 SEYMOUR (Edward) duke of Somerset 
 in the reign of Edward VI, to whom be was 
 maternal uncle, being the son of sir John Sey- 
 mour, of Wolf-hall in Wiltshire, and brother 
 of lady Jane Seymour, the third wife of Henry 
 VIII. He was educated at Oxford, and early 
 devoted himself to the military profession. In 
 1.533 he attended the duke of Sulfolk in bis 
 expedition to France, when he received the 
 honour of knighthood. On the marriage of 
 his sister with the king, in 1.536, he was raised 
 to the peerage, by the title of viscount Beau- 
 champ, and the following year created earl of 
 Hertford. In 1540 he was made a knight of 
 the garter ; and in 1542 apj)ointed lord cham- 
 berlain of England for life. He commanded 
 in a maritime expedition against the Scots in 
 1544, when he landed a body of troops at 
 Leith, and took and set fire to the city of Edin- 
 burgh. The same year he was with the king 
 at the expedition to Boulogne, and partici- 
 pated in the victory gained over the French 
 before that place. On the death of Henry 
 
 SFO 
 
 missions for their ecclesiastical offices. In 1548 
 be obtained ihe post of lord treasurer, w>»g 
 created uuke of Somerset, and made earl mar- 
 shal. The same year he headed an army, with 
 which he invaded Scotland ; and after havinij 
 gained the victory of Musselbuigb, he returned 
 in triumph to England. His success excited 
 the jealousy of the eail of Warwick and others, 
 who procured his confinement in tlie Tower, 
 in October 1549, on the charge of arbitrary 
 conduct and injustice ; and he was deprived of 
 las offices, and heavilv fined. But he soon 
 after obtained a full pardon from the king, was 
 admitted at court, and ostensibly reconcded to 
 his adversary, lord Warwick, whose .son, lord 
 Lisle, espoused one of the daughters of Somer- 
 set. 'Jlie reconciliation was probably insin- 
 cere, as Warwick, who had succeeded to his 
 influence over the young king, caused So- 
 merset to be again arrested in October 1551, 
 on the charge of treasonable designs against 
 the lives of some of the privy counsellors. He 
 was tried, and being found guilty, was be- 
 headed on Tower-hill, January 22, 1552. 
 While in confinement the first lime, he wrote 
 a religious tract, entitled " A spiritual ami 
 most [)recious Pearl, teaching all Men to love 
 and embrace the Cross as a most sweet and 
 necessary thing," printed in 1.550, 18mo ; and 
 some other pieces are ascribed to him. — 
 Birch's Lives of llhist. Pers. BerkenhoKt's Biog, 
 Lit. IValpole's Cat. of Royal and Noble Auth. 
 SEYSSEL (Claude de) an historical and 
 political writer, was born, according to some, 
 in Savoy, and to others in Bugei. He pro- 
 fessed the law with great credit at Turin, and 
 obtained the j)lace of master of requests aiid 
 counsellor to Louis XII of France. He was 
 promoted to the bishopric of Marseilles in 
 1510, and to the archbishopric of Turin in 
 1517. He died in 1520. He published a 
 number of works, theological, political, and 
 historical ; as also French translations of Eu- 
 sebius, Thucydides, Appian, Uiodorus, Xeno- 
 plion, Justin, and Seneca. His " Giatule Mo- 
 narchie de France," published in 1519, and 
 translated bv Sleidan into Latin, maintains the 
 bold proposition that the French constitution 
 was a mixed monarchy. In his " Histoire Ue 
 Louis XII, Pere du Peuple," 15t)8. he is a 
 great panegyiist of that prince, but he freely 
 exposes the vices of Louis XL He is jiraised 
 as the first who wrote French with an ap- 
 proacli to purity. — .Yoj/r Diet. Hist. 
 
 SFORZA (.1ames'> a pariizan officer, in the 
 wars in Italy, in the beginning of the 15th cen- 
 tury, whose proper name was Jacomuzzo Attt n- 
 dulo. He was the son of a shoemaker at Co- 
 tignola, in the Roman territory, and was bred to 
 
 \T1I, he rose to unbounded jiowtr, both in : husbandry. As he followed the plough, he was 
 Hie clurch and state. By the will of Henry ' attracted by the glittering arms and martial 
 he had been nominated one of tlie sixteen exe- : music of a band of sokiiers, and he quitted his 
 nitors forming the council of regency, during ' peaceful occuj^ation to become a common sol- 
 the minority of Edward VI ; but not content dier. His courage procured him promotion, 
 with Ins share of power, he set aside the tes- and at length be found himself at the l.ead of 
 tamentary disposition of his brother in-law, seven thousand men, entirely at his devotion, 
 and procured himself to be appointed governor He afforded the assistance of his mercenaries 
 of the king and protector of the kingdom ; and to vari'jus of the contending states of Italy, 
 Se obliged the bislups to take out new com- ' and thus became so powerful, that pope Jobr 
 
S II A 
 
 XXI 1 1 appointed liim gonfiilonicr of the 
 churcli, and made him a coimt. Hi* was also 
 constalfle cf Naples; and after havinij drivn 
 Alphoiiso, king of Arra'^on, from tlic walls of 
 that city, he was suddeidy cut oil' in the iniilst 
 of his succesi^ful career, being drowned in croH»- 
 inij tlie river near l*es( ara. in jmrsuiiig tlie 
 flving enemy. This catastntplie took place in 
 1 1-'21. — FitANcis Sfouza, the natural son of 
 Jacomuz/.o, followim^ the example of his fa- 
 ther, and possessing eiiual couratje and am!»i- 
 ti(m, raised himself to sovereign power, lie 
 married the daughter of the tluke of Milan, on 
 whose death he made himself master of the 
 duchv ; and he afterwards gained j)OSsession 
 of Cienoa. He died in Ikiti, and his de- 
 scendants long held the dukedom of Lilian. — 
 Coiniues. Moreri. j 
 
 SIIADWKLL (Thomas) an English dra- | 
 matic poet, was descended from a gooil family | 
 in the county of Stall'ord, but was horn at j 
 Stanton-hall, Norfolk, a seat of his father's, 
 about 1640. He was educated at Caius col- 
 lege, Cambridge, and afterwards placed at the 
 Middle Temple, where he studied the law for 
 some time, and then visited the continent. On 
 his return from his travels, he applied himself 
 to the drama, and wrote seventeen plays 
 with so much success, at least, as introduced 
 him to se^'eral critics of wit and quality, by 
 whom he was much esteemed. His m.odel 
 was Ben Jonson, whom he imitated in draw- 
 ing numerous characters, chiefly in caricature, 
 of eccentricities in the manners of the day. 
 Although coarse, and of very temporary re- 
 putation, the comedies of Shadwell are not 
 destitute of genuine liumour ; but it appears 
 that his writing was far excelled by his con- I 
 versation. At the Revolution he was created 
 poet laureat, on the recommendation of the 
 earl of Dorset ; and as he obtained it by the j 
 dispossession of Dryden, the latter exhibited 
 the bitterest enmity towards his successor, 
 against whom he composed his severe and able 
 satire of " INIac Flecknoe." He died Decem- 
 ber 6, 1692, in consequence, it is supposed, 
 of taking too large a dose of opium, to which 
 dangerous custom he was ])erniciously at- 
 tached. Besides his dramatic writnigs, he 
 was author of several pieces of poetry of no : 
 great merit. The best edition of his works 
 was printed in 1720, 4 vols. 12mo.— He left a 
 son, Dr John Shadwell, who was physician 
 to Anne, George I, and George 11, by the 
 former of whom lie was knighted. — He had 
 also a nephew, or younger son, named 
 Charles Shadwell, who wrote seven dra- 
 matic pieces, all of which were confined to 
 the Irish stage, except " The Fair Quaker of 
 Deal," and " Hmnours of the Army." His 
 comedies were printed in 1720, in one volume, 
 12mo. He died in Dublin, where he enjoyed 
 a post in the revenue, in 1726. — Biog. Dram. 
 
 Cihher's TAres. 
 
 SHAKSFF:ARE (William) the most illus- 
 trious name in t'le history of Knglish dramatic 
 poetry, and with some pretensions to the same 
 rank as reaards the drama in general, was born 
 at Stratford-ucciu-Avon, on the 2od of Ajiril. 
 
 SUA 
 
 l.><)t. IIiH father, who nprarii,' from a ("-'•d 
 fannlv, was u con>.id«rHbl.' d«-iil.-r in wo.)l, and 
 liad bieii an otfict-r and bailiff of Stratf'.r<l, 
 where he for »ome tune at n-d sh jtiHiic r« of tlu« 
 pt ace. HiH mother wHjJof the anci««iit f ••• -i- -.f 
 AnitTi in tlje .*ame county. on«« of ui 1 
 
 gentility, i he Hiibjet t of iIuh article, who was 
 • he eliieht of ten children, n-reived the com- 
 mon education of a country free-«<.ho<>l, ., i. 
 sisting of " a little Latin, jind no Grr«-k." 
 At an early age he was taken by bi« h\\\-T to 
 assist in his own business; although Mr Mn- 
 lone is of opinion that he was placed in ihe 
 oflice of some country attorney. iJe tliin as it 
 may, in his seventeentli or (ighteenth year ho 
 married Ann Hathaway, the daughter of a sub- 
 stantial yeoman, who was eight years older 
 than himself. (Jf his domestic establi.-hm* nf, 
 or professional occupation, at this time, no- 
 thing ileterminate is recorde«l ; but it apiwars 
 that he was wild and irregular, from (he fad 
 of his connexion with a party who mad»- a 
 practice of stealing the deer of sir Thomas 
 Lucy. This imprudence brotr^iht upf>n him a 
 l>rosecution, which he rendered more severe 
 by a lampoon upon that gentleman, in the 
 form of a ballad, whi( h he had affixed to his 
 park gates. He also drolls in a kindred spirit 
 upon the same magistrate, in the charactt r of 
 Justice Shallow, in the opening scene of " The 
 Merry Wives of Windsor ;" wliich con- 
 tinued hostility, as he was indisputably a 
 kind-hearted man, may presume an excess 
 of rigour and of pertinacity on the part of sir 
 Thomas Lucy. The consequence of ihia 
 youthful imprudence drove him to London for 
 shelter; and it is some proof that he had 
 already imbib( d a taste for the drama, that 
 his first apidication was to the players, among 
 whom, in one Thomas Green, a popular come- 
 dian of the day, he met a townsman and 
 ac(juaintance. This removal is thought to 
 have taken place in 1.586, when he was in Iiis 
 twenty-second year. If tiadirion may be de- 
 pended upon, he was nece.-titated, in the first 
 instance, to become the prompter's call-boy 
 or attendant, while another less probable story 
 describes him as holding the horses of those 
 who attended the play without servants, a cus- 
 tom of the period. As an actor, tlie top of 
 his performance is said to have been the gho.<»t 
 in his own Hamlet, How soon he bt-gan to 
 try his powers as a dramatist is uncertain, but 
 it ajtpears that Romeo and Juliet, and 
 Hi(hard II and 111, were ])nnted in l.ilT. 
 when he was thirty-three years of age. There 
 is however reason to believe that he made 
 his first attempt in l.^'.^i. and .Malone evm 
 places the first part of Henry VI in 1.'>H?. 
 He appears to have been not only {Kjpular. but 
 approved bv persons of the hi. best order, as 
 we are informed on the authority of sir Uil- 
 liam D'Avenant, that the earl of Somhampti n, 
 to whom be dedicated his Venus and .Adonis, 
 and Rape of Lucrece, presented him with the 
 then ma^mificent sum of 10(>()/. to complete a 
 purchase. It is also asserted that lie nceived 
 a command from queen F^lizabrth. who vas 
 muil> .U lighted with his F.d.-ta.^ iu Henry IV, 
 
 L 2 
 
SUA 
 
 to write another play, in which the facetious 
 kinglit miijlit appear in love ; a task which 
 lie accomplished in " The Merry \\'ive9 of 
 Windsor." He was also favoured with an 
 amicable letter from James I, in return, 
 as Dr Farmer siii)poses, for the compliment 
 in Macbeth. How long lie acted has not 
 been discovered, but he finally became a 
 proprietor and manager by license, of the 
 Globe I'heatre in Southwark ; and it was in 
 this situation that he ati'orded Ben Jonson the 
 opportunity of appearing as a dramatic writer. 
 His connexion with the latter has been va- 
 riously related ; hut the imputed malignity of 
 Jonson has been much impugned, by the able 
 research of Mr Octavius Gilchrist, in confirma- 
 tion of the previous reasoning of Dr Parmer 
 to the same effect. Nor does it follow that an 
 occasional remark in Jonson's " Discoveries," 
 upon the deficiency of Sliakspeare's learning, 
 and his careless manner of writing, the only ap- 
 parent ground of the imputation, merits to be so 
 regarded. Having a sobriety and moderation in 
 his views of life, not very common in the pro- 
 fession which he adoj)ted, our great dramatist 
 retired early with a respectable fortune of 
 from 200/. to 300/. per annum, adequate pos- 
 sibly to 1000/. in our own day, and spent 
 the remainder of his life in ease, retire- 
 ment, and the conversation of his friends. 
 For some years before his death he resided 
 at Stratford, in a house which he bouglit 
 from the Clopton family, and wliich conti- 
 nued in the possession of his descendants 
 until the Restoration, when it was repur- 
 chased by a member of the same family, the 
 representative of which, sir Hugh Clopion, a 
 baronet knighted by George 1, entertained 
 Garrick, Ma^cklin, and others, in 1742, under 
 the mulberry-tree, planted by Shakspeare. 
 It may be interesting to know, that his exe- 
 cutor sold the house to a clergyman of the name ' 
 of Gastrel, who being rated for the poor higher 
 tlian it pleased him to pay, peevislily declared 
 that the house should never pay again ; and in 
 spite to the inhabitants of Stratford, who were 
 benefited by the company it brought to the 
 town, he pulled it down, and sold the materials. ' 
 He had previously cut down the mulberry- j 
 tree for fuel, but an honest silversmith pur- i 
 chased tlie whole of it, which he ])rofitably 
 manufactured into memorials of the ])oet. 
 Having thus wreaked his vengeance, this sen- | 
 timental divine finally quitted Stratford. Such 
 was the fate of a residence in which Shak- j 
 speare exhibited so little solicitude for fame, ^ 
 or consciousness of his own merits, that a ' 
 similar example of modesty is scarcely to be \ 
 found in literary biography. He died on his j 
 birth-day, April 2o, 1616, having exactly 
 comjjleted his fifty-second year. He was in- | 
 terred on the north side of the chancel of the 
 great church of Stratford, wliere a monument 
 is placed on tiie wall, in which he is repre- 
 sented under an arch in a sitting posture, a 
 cusliiou spread before him, with a j)en in his 
 right hand, and his left resting on a scroll of 
 paper. The following Latia distich is engraved 
 under the cushion : — 
 
 SH A 
 
 *• Judicio Pyliiim, geuio Socratem, arte 
 Maronem, 
 
 Terra tegit, {)opulus mceret, Olympus 
 irabet." 
 An error in quantity in the first syllable of 
 Socrates, induces JMr Steevens to think that 
 Sophocles was intended. To this Latin in- 
 scription may be added the lines to be found 
 underneath it : — 
 
 " Stay, passenger, why dost thou go so fast ? 
 
 Head, if thou canst, what envious death 
 hath plac'd 
 
 Within this monument ; Sliakspeare, with 
 w hom 
 
 Quick nature dy'd ; whoso name doth 
 deck the tomb 
 
 Far more than cost ; since all that he 
 hath writ 
 
 Leaves living art but page unto his wit." 
 This monument was erected within seven years 
 of his death ; but on his grave-stone beneath 
 are written the following lines, which seem to 
 have been engraven in a strange mixture of 
 large and small letters, at the time of his in- 
 terment : — 
 
 ** Good Frend for Jesus sake forbear 
 
 To digg the dust encloased liere 
 
 Blese be tlie man that spares these stones 
 
 And curst be he that moves my bones." 
 His monument in Westminster abbey, whicli 
 was erected in 1741, under the direction of 
 the earl of Burlington, Mr Pope, and Dr 
 Mead, and paid for by the produce of benefits 
 for the purpose at the two patent theatres, is 
 too well kno^vn to need description. Shak- 
 speare left two daughters, the eldest of whom, 
 Susannah, married Dr Hall, a pliysician, and 
 left a daughter, married first to T. Nashe, 
 esq. and afterwards to sir John Barnard, of 
 Abington, Nortliamptonshire, but died with- 
 out issue. Judith, tlie poet's second daughter, 
 maiTied a INIr Thomas Quiney, by whom she 
 had three sons, who all died unmarried. The 
 only notice recorded of the person of Shak- 
 speare is to be found in Aubrey, who says, 
 that " lie was a handsome well-shaped man ;" 
 and adds, what is othervi-ise amply corrobo- 
 rated, that he was *' verie good company, and 
 of a verie ready, pleasant, and smooth Vitt." 
 The first edition of Sliakspeare's plays, in 
 number thirty-six, did not appear until seven 
 years after his death ; of these only seven liad 
 been printed during his life-time, owing, it is 
 thought, to his interest as proprietor and ma- 
 nager interfering with their publicity. This 
 first edition was printed from copies in the 
 hands of his fellow-managers, Heminge and 
 Condell, who gave a second in 1632 ; but both 
 these and some subsequt^nt ones were full of 
 errors, until in some degree corrected by the 
 poet Howe's edition of 1714. It is unnecessary 
 to enumerate the various editions which liave 
 since appeared, or to describe the critical la- 
 bours of Rovve, Pope, 'Jheobald, Hanmer, 
 Warburton, Steevens, Malone, and Johnson, 
 by which much has been elucidated, and, in 
 the confusion of opposing opinions, something 
 perhaps obscured. The dramatic reputation 
 of Shakspeare, although great in his own days 
 
S U A 
 
 became partially obsoUtc during the period 
 when French taste prevailed, and FrtiK !i 
 nioifis were stiiilit-d under the sec()iul CliarhH; 
 and rising again as it did on its own intrinsic 
 jnetension, until his productions estal»lialii-d 
 a national taste, the fact is still more honour- 
 able to his genius, 'i'hat much of ilu- adnd- 
 ration entertained for him is national and con- 
 ventional, may he freely allowed; but giving 
 all due weight to the i old hints of this nature, 
 which pervaile criticism of a ccrtaiu tone, a 
 fair appeal may be made on the ground of 
 ])Ositive qualification, and a knowledge of 
 the human heart, which, in its diversity at 
 least, has never been surpassed, 'J'o this 
 faculty must be added that of an imatii- 
 natioii powerful, ])oetical, and so felicitously 
 creative, that jjresnming the existence of the 
 vivid offspring of his fancy, the adopted feel- 
 ings and manners seem to belong to them 
 alone. When lie describes, to use the lan- 
 guage of Dryden, " You more than see, )ou 
 also feel it ; and the force and copiousness of 
 his moral sentiment are most extraordinary." 
 That he frequently quibbles in his comtdy, 
 and swells to bombast in his tragedy, is in- 
 deed undenial)le ; but llie fault in the first in- 
 stance is redeemed by so much easy, natural, 
 and spontaneous humour ; and in the latter by 
 such j)rofound exhibitions of genuine passion, 
 deep feeling, and elevated conception, that the 
 Haw in the diamond is lost in the intensity of 
 the blaze ; and the faults of Shakspeare, when 
 summed up in English hearing, are listened 
 to with a degree of impatience that savours 
 moie of idolatry than ciiticism. A ery lately a 
 theory, favoured it may be feared by lord 
 Jiyroii — (see article SchiileiO — has been 
 encouraged, in dis|)aragement of the order of 
 intuitive genius, of which that of Shakspeare 
 allbrds so brilliant an example. I'he s\nrk 
 which can lose itself in its conceptions, is 
 deemed inferior to that which eternally exhi- 
 bits the author in his exertions ; and the very 
 ease and sj)ontaneiiy which form the grand 
 distinction of the genus are made the ground 
 of its inferiority. That law of nature which 
 clogs the most rich and luxuriant vegetation 
 with a corres])ondent jiroportion of weeds, is 
 ftngotten on this occasion ; and the preva- 
 lence of the one is more than fairly opposed to 
 the fertility of tlie other. \'oltaire observes, 
 that .Shaksi)eare has been the favourite of the 
 J'.ngiish nation for more than a century; and that j 
 that which has ensirossed national admiiation ' 
 
 O , I 
 
 for a hundred years, will by prescrij)tion, en- 
 sure it for ever, 'i'liere is some tiuth in this re- i 
 mark, but, as in the case of Homer, great native 
 strength of genius can alone establish the pre- | 
 possession. Of late years, too, tlie genius of 
 Shaks])eare has engaged foreign attention in no 
 mean degree ; and that too with correspondent 
 admiration. It has been conjectured that much i 
 in his least disputed plays may not have been 
 his own, as it is known that he accommodated 
 tlie i)ieces of other writers for representation ; 
 but in whatever degree this may have been 
 the case, there is a predominant vein in all 
 the superior passages, w'- h is evidently the 
 
 Ml A 
 
 flowing of one particularly constituted mi 't 
 which mind, being connnon to all of «! . ,11, 
 mu«t necejKiirily have hcfrj that </ 
 Another pecuhutitv atti-ndit the <! ,. 
 
 racters of thitt ^riat iiianer ; wi •• 
 
 upon them in in»fniiibly led to iIimtum tlii-m 
 like realities, and not, as in mom othi-r in- 
 stances, as m^re fictions of the brain. ThU 
 article may he concluded with a nmark, that 
 Shaks|>eare has been the iimocent caiuc of 
 muih imposition, one of the latest n • ,( 
 impudent bein^ the fabrication, in 17 ,n 
 
 entire play called " Vortigern," with a maM 
 of prose, verse, letters, &.c. pretendedly in the 
 hand-writing of Shaksj)eare. As in the hiniilar 
 attempt of Chatterton , the forgery deluded some 
 very zealous anticpiarianH, and h-id pro.luced 
 much elaborate coiitroversy. when the co.ifeg. 
 sion of the audacious contriver Boon set it at 
 rest for ever. Portraits have been forged 
 with similar and safer imjiudence. I!e.«ides 
 his immortal plays, Shiksp- are was the au- 
 thor of two poems, entitled " \er.us and 
 Adonis," and " Lncrece ;" ami a collection 
 of sonnets, which, allhout;h lost in the blaze of 
 his dramatic genius, exhibit many scattered 
 beauties. At all events they have been treated 
 much too cavalierly by Steevens ; althou.-b it 
 is probable that they would not liave availed 
 of themselves to have made their author much 
 known to posterity. — Life prefiied to J'arioriitn 
 Edition of 1806. lioue. Malone. Farmer. 
 
 SHARP (Abraham) an eminent mathe- 
 matician, mechanist, and astronomer, was 
 born at Little Ilorton in Yorkshire, about It.il. 
 He was apprenticed to a merchant at Man- 
 chester ; but his inclination and genius for 
 mathematics induced him to choose the more 
 congenial occu|'ation of a schoolmaster at Li- 
 verpool. Having acquired an introduction to 
 flamsteed, the latter obtained for him a pro- 
 fitable employment in the dock-yard of Cliat- 
 liam ; and aware of his mechanical accuracy, 
 called him to his assistance in conqdeting the 
 astronomical apparatus at Greenwich, and 
 forming the catalogue of fixed stars. 'J'his able 
 and ingenious man seems entitled to the credit 
 of being the first who exhibited any thing like 
 modern accuracy in the department of hand 
 division ; his scales and instruments, both in 
 wood and iron, far exceeding in precision and 
 firmness every thing which had proceeded 
 them. He ullimatelv retired to a small estate 
 at his native ])lace, where he erected an ob- 
 servatory, furnished with instruments made 
 by himself. He published a w^ik, entitled 
 " Geometry Improved," -Ito. 1717. He died 
 in 17H. — Huttoifs Miilli. Diet. 
 
 SI L\ K I* ( .1 A M h s ) archbi>hop of St A tnlrewi 
 in Scotland, an active and distinguished prelate 
 of the 17ili century. He was a native of Manff- 
 shire, born Itiltt ; and from a stroni; dev«-lope- 
 ment of precocious tah'iit, was <'arly destined 
 by his family for the ministry. With this view 
 he was placed at the .Marisclial colle«'e in 
 Aberdeen, hut olqecting to take the " .volenm 
 lea'^'ue and covenant," (]nitted tlie university, 
 and went to London. During the cini wars 
 ri the period lie returned to his native country, 
 
SUA 
 
 to write another play, in which the facetious 
 kniglit mi^lit a})pear in love ; a task which 
 he accomplished in " The Merry Wives of 
 ^\'iIldsor." He was also favoured with an 
 amicable letter from James I, in return, 
 as Dr Fanner siiitposes, for the compliment 
 in Macbeth. How long he acted has not 
 been discovered, but he finally became a 
 proprietor and manager by license, of the 
 (jlobe Iheatre in Southwark ; and it was in 
 this situation that he atibrded Ben Jonson the 
 opportunity of appearing as a dramatic writer. 
 Ills connexion with tlie latter has been va- 
 riously related ; hut the imputed malignity of 
 Jonson has been much impugned, by the able 
 research of Mr Octavius Gilchrist, in confirma- 
 tion of the |)revious reasoning of Dr Farmer 
 to the same elTVct. Nor does it follow that an 
 occasional remark in Jonson's " Discoveries," 
 upon the deficiency of Shakspeare's learning, 
 and his careless manner of writing, the only ap- 
 jiarent ground of the imputation, merits to be so 
 reo-arded. Having a sobriety and moderation in 
 liis views of life, not very common in the pro- 
 fession wliich he adoj)ted, our great dramatist 
 retired early with a respectable fortune of 
 fiom 200/. to 300/. per annum, adequate pos- 
 sibly to 1000/. in our own day, and spent 
 the" remainder of his life in ease, retire- 
 ment, and the conversation of his friends. 
 For some years before his death he resided 
 at Stratford, in a house which he bought 
 from the Clopton family, and wliich conti- 
 nued m the possession of his descendants 
 until the Restoration, when it was repur- 
 chased by a member of the same family, the 
 representative of whicli, sir Hugh Clopton, a 
 baronet knighted by George 1, entertained 
 Garrick, Macklin, and otliers, in 1742, under 
 the mulberry-tree, planted by Shakspeare. 
 It may be interesting to know, that his exe- 
 cutor sold the house to a clergyman of the name 
 of Gastrel, wlio being rated for the poor higher 
 tlian it pleased him to pay, peevislily declared 
 that the house sliould never pay again ; and in 
 spite to the inhabitants of Stratford, who were 
 benefited by the company it brought to the 
 town, he pulled it down, and sold the materials. 
 He had previously cut down the mulberry- 
 tree for fuel, but an honest silversmith pur- 
 chased the whole of it, which he profitably 
 manufactured into memorials of the poet. 
 Having tlius wreaked his vengeance, this sen- 
 timental divine finally quitted Stratford. Such 
 was the fate of a residence in which Shak- 
 sjieare exhibited so little solicitude for fame, 
 or consciousness of his own merits, that a 
 similar example of modesty is scarcely to be 
 found in literary biography. He dietl on his 
 birthday, April 23, 1616, having exactly 
 completed his fifty-second year. He was in- 
 terred on the north side of the chancel of the 
 great church of Stratford, wliere a monument 
 is placed on the wall, in which he is repre- 
 sented under an arch in a sitting posture, a 
 cushion spread before him, with a jien in his 
 right hand, and his left resting on a scroll of 
 jtaper. The following Latia distich is engraved 
 under the cushion : — 
 
 SM A 
 
 " Judiclo Pylium, genio Socratem, arte 
 Maronem, 
 
 Terra tegit, populus moeret, Olympus 
 habet." 
 An error in quantity in the first syllable of 
 Socrates, induces JMr Steevens to think that 
 Sophocles was intended. To this Latin in- 
 scription may be added the lines to be found 
 underneath it : — 
 
 " Stay, passenger, why dost thou go so fast ? 
 
 Kead, if thou canst, what envious deadi 
 hath plac'd 
 
 AVitliin this monument ; Shakspeare, with 
 whom 
 
 Quick nature dy'd ; whoso name doth 
 deck the tomb 
 
 Far more than cost ; since all that he 
 hath writ 
 
 Leaves living art but page unto his wit." 
 This monument was erected within seven years 
 of his death ; but on his grave-stone beneath 
 are written the following lines, which seem to 
 have been engraven in a strange mixture of 
 large and small letters, at the time of his in- 
 terment : — 
 
 " Good Frend for Jesus sake forbear 
 
 To digg the dust encloased here 
 
 Blese be the man that spares these stones 
 
 And curst be he that moves my bones." 
 His monument in Westminster abbey, which 
 was erected in 1741, under the direction of 
 the earl of Burlington, Mr Pope, and Dr 
 Mead, and paid for by the produce of benefits 
 for the purpose at the two patent theatres, is 
 too well known to need description. Shak- 
 speare left two daughters, the eldest of whom, 
 Susannah, married Dr Hall, a physician, and 
 left a daughter, married first to T. Nashe, 
 esq. and afterwards to sir John Barnard, of 
 Abington, Northamptonshire, but died with- 
 out issue. Judith, the poet's second dauohter, 
 married a ]\Ir Thomas Quiney, by whom slie 
 had three sons, who all died unmarried. The 
 only notice recorded of the person of Shak- 
 speare is to be found in Aubrey, who says, 
 that" he was a handsome well-shaped man ;" 
 and adds, what is otherwise amply corrobo- 
 rated, that he was *' verie good company, and 
 of a verie ready, pleasant, and smooth witt." 
 The first edition of Shakspeare's plays, in 
 number thirty-six, did not appear until seven 
 years after liis death ; of these only seven had 
 been printed during his life-time, owino, it is 
 thought, to his interest as proprietor and ma- 
 nager interfering with their publicity. This 
 first edition was printed from copies in the 
 hands of his fellow-managers, Heminge and 
 Condell, who gave a second in 1632 ; but both 
 these and some subsequent ones were full of 
 errors, until in some degree corrected by the 
 poet Howe's edition of 1714. It is unnecessary 
 to enumerate the various editions wliich have 
 since ajipeared, or to describe the critical la- 
 bours of Rowe, Pope, Theobald, Hanmer, 
 Warhurton, Steevens, Malone, and Johnson, 
 by which much has been elucidated, and, in 
 the confusion of opposing opinions, something 
 perhaps obscured. The dramatic reputation 
 of Shakspeare, although great in his own days 
 
S 11 A 
 
 became partially obsolfte during the period 
 when French taste prevailed, and Tniu h 
 moiiels were studied under the second Charles; 
 and rising again as it did on its own intrinsic 
 j)retension, until his jjroduitiona estalilisli»d 
 a national taste, tJie fact is still more h(jnour- 
 able to his genius. That much of the admi- 
 ration entertaint'd for him is national and con- 
 ventional, may be freely allowed; but giving 
 all due weight to tlie cold hints of this nature, 
 which pervade criticism of a certain tone, a 
 fair appeal may he made on the ground of 
 ])0sitive (pialitication, and a knowledge of 
 tlie human heart, which, in its diversity at 
 least, has never been surpassed. I'o this 
 faculty must be added that of an imagi- 
 nation powerful, poetical, and so felicitou.'^ly 
 creative, that presuming the existence of the 
 vivid otTapring of his fancy, the adopted feel- 
 ings and manners seem to belong to them 
 alone. \Vhen lie describes, to use the lan- 
 guage of Dryden, " You more than see, )ou 
 also feel it ; and the force and copiousness of 
 liis moral sentiment are most extraordinary." 
 That he frequently quibbles in his comedy, 
 and swells to bombast in his tragedy, is in- 
 deed undenial)le ; but the fault in the first in- 
 stance is redeemed by so nmch easy, natural, 
 and spontaneous humour ; and in the latter by 
 such profound exliil)itions of genuine passion, 
 deep feeling, and elevated conception, tliat the 
 flaw in the diamond is lost in the intensity of 
 the blaze ; and tlie faults of Shakspeare, when 
 summed up in English hearing, are listened 
 to with a degree of impatience that savours 
 mote of idolatry than ciiticism. Very lately a 
 theory, favoured it may be feared by lord 
 liyroii — (see article Schiller) — has been 
 encouraged, in disparagement of the order of 
 intuitive genius, of which that of Shakspeare 
 afiords so brilliant an example. The spirit 
 which can lose itself in its conceptions, is 
 deenu-d inferior to that which eternally exhi- 
 bits the author in his exertions ; and tlie very 
 ease and spontaneity which form the grand 
 distinction of the genus are made the ground 
 of its inferiority. 'J'hat law of nature which 
 clogs the most rich and luxuriant vegetation 
 with a correspondent jiroportion of weeds, is 
 forgotten on this occasion ; and tlie preva- 
 lence of the one is more than fairly opposed to 
 the fertility of the other. A'oltaire observes, 
 that Shakspeare has been the favourite of the 
 Knglish nation for more than a century; and that ; 
 that which has enorossed national admiration ' 
 for a hundred years, will by prescription, en- j 
 sure it for ever. There is some tiuih in this re- i 
 mark, but, as in the case of Homer, great native 
 strength of genius can alone establish the pre- | 
 possession. Of late years, too, the genius of 
 Shaksiieare has enuaiied foreign attention in no ' 
 mean degree ; and that too with correspondent 
 admiration. It has been conjectured that much i 
 in his least dis})uted i)Iays may not have been 
 Lis own, as it is known that he accommotlated ; 
 tlie pieces of other writers for re})resentation ; 
 but in whatever degree this may have been 
 the case, there is a j)redominant vein in all 
 the superior passages, w'' '» is evidently the 
 
 SIl A 
 
 flowing of one particularly constituted niiiJi 
 which mind, being common to all of them, 
 must necesftarily have Ijeen that of Shakspeare. 
 AiKithcr pi-culiaritv attends the diamatic cha- 
 racters of this great maiiter ; whoevtr treatg 
 upon them ih insennihly Ifd to duicuHS them 
 like realities, and not, as in mohi uther in- 
 stances, as mere fictions of the brain. This 
 article may be concluded with a remark, that 
 Sliakspeare has been the innocent cause of 
 much imposition, one of the latest and most 
 imi)udent being the fabrication, in 171)6, of an 
 entire play called '• Vortigern," with a mass 
 of prose, verse, letters, &.c. pntendedly in the 
 hand-writing of Shakspeare. As in the sinular 
 attempt of Chatterton, the forgery deluded some 
 very zealous antitpiarians, and had jiroduced 
 much elaborate controversy, when the co.ifes- 
 sion of the audacious contriver soon set it at 
 rest for ever. Portraits have been forged 
 with similar and safer impudence. I5esides 
 his immortal plays, Sh:iksp'are was the au- 
 thor of two poems, entitled ♦' Ver.us and 
 Adonis," and " Lucrece ;" and a collection 
 of sonnets, which, although lost in the blaze of 
 his dramatic genius, exhibit many scattered 
 beauties. At all events they have been treated 
 much too cavalierly by Steevens ; althouiili it 
 is probable that they would not have availed 
 of themselves to have made their author much 
 known to posterity. — l.ij'e prefiied to Variorum 
 Edition of 1806. lunre. Mutoite. Farmer. 
 
 SHARP (Abraham) an eminent mathe- 
 matician, meclianist, and astronomer, was 
 born at Little Horton in Yorkshire, about 1 o51 . 
 He was apprenticed to a merchant at Man- 
 chester ; but his inclination and genius for 
 mathematics induced iiim to choose the more 
 congenial occupation of a schoolmaster at Li- 
 verpool. Having acquired an introduction to 
 Flamsteed, the latter obtained for him a pro- 
 fitable employment in tlie dock-yard of Cliat- 
 ham ; and aware of his mechanical accuracy, 
 called him to his assistance in completing the 
 astronomical apparatus at Greenwich, and 
 forming the catalogue of fixed stars. 'J'his able 
 and ingenious man seems entitled to the credit 
 of being the first who exhibited any thing like 
 modern accuracy in the department of hand 
 division ; his scales and instruments, both in 
 wood and iron, far exceeding in precision and 
 firmness every thing which had preceeded 
 them. He ultimately retireii to a small estate 
 at his native place, wliere he erected an ob- 
 servatory, furnished with instruments made 
 by himself. He published a work, entitled 
 •' Geometry Improved," -Ito. 1717. He died 
 in 17-H. — llitlloit's Malli. Diet. 
 
 SUA KP (,1am is) archbi^hop of St .Andrews 
 in Scotland, an active and distinguislu-d prelate 
 of the 17ih century. He was a native of Manff- 
 shire, born Hi 18 ; and from a strong develope- 
 ment of precocious talent, was early destined 
 bv his family for the ministry. With this view 
 he was placed at the Marischal collei-e in 
 Aberdeen, but objecting to take the " solemn 
 leaiiue and covenant," (luitted the university, 
 atul went to London. During the civil wars 
 (f the period he returned to his native country. 
 
SUA 
 
 and tliere, tliroiigh the patronage of the lords 
 Leslie and Crauford, obtained a professorslnp 
 in tlie university of St Andrews, with the ap- 
 pointment of pastor to a congregation at Crail. 
 While in this situation his eloquence and re- 
 putation for general as well as theological at- 
 tainments, caused hiin to be selected by the 
 moderate presbyteiiau party in Scotland to 
 advocate their cause with the Protector, Crom- 
 well, against the demands of the more rigid 
 Calviiiists ; and he was sut^sequently sent to 
 Breda by inIoiiK, then general of the troops in 
 that part of the kingdoiri, for the purpose of 
 ])rocuriiig the sanction of Charles 11 to the 
 j)roposed settlement of the ecclesiastical affairs 
 of Scotland. He rt'turned to Scotland, and 
 delivered to some of the ministers of Edin- 
 burgh a letter from the king, in which the 
 iatter promised to protect and i)reserve tlie 
 government of the church of Scotland, " as 
 it is settled by law." The clergy, undeistand- 
 ing this declaration in its obvious sense, were 
 satisfied ; but it subspquently appeared, that 
 Sharp acted thus with a view to subvert the 
 church government which he affectcHl to 
 maintain, pleading to the friends of episcopacy 
 that this letter would keep the presbyterians 
 quiet, and })ledge the king to nothing, as tlie 
 parliament had only to enact episcopacy, to 
 transfer the pledge of the monarch to its sup- 
 port. The presbytery being accordingly over- 
 turned by parliament. Sharp was rewarded 
 with the primacy, and appointed archbishop of 
 St Andrews; a preferment which at once set 
 opinion at rest upon the jierfidy of his conduct 
 and the profligacy of Iiis character. The ab- 
 surd and wanton cruelties which followed, con- 
 firmed the horror entertained against him as a 
 traitor and a renegado, and raised the fury of 
 some of his more bigoted oyiponents to at- 
 tempts against his life. In 1678 he narrowly 
 escaped assassination from the hand of James 
 Mitchell, an enthusiast, who was some time 
 after taken and e.\ecuted. A similar attenij)t 
 the following year was more successful. His 
 carriage, in which he was travelling in Magus 
 INIuir, about three miles from St Andrews, on 
 the 3rd May, 1679, was met by some fanatics, 
 headed by Juhu Biilfour of Burley, who were 
 waiting there to intercept a servant of the 
 archbishop's, named Carmicliael. who had ren- 
 dered himself odious by his cruelty. To tcm- 
 ].ers thus heated and blinded by fanaticism, the 
 appearance of the archbishop himself was 
 deemed a sign of the intention of jirovidence 
 to substitute a more important victim ; and 
 regardless of the tears anil entreaties of his 
 daughter, tliey dragged him from his carriage, 
 and despatched him witli ilu-ir swords, with 
 ^^hich they inflicted no less than twenty-two 
 wounds. — Laiug's Hist, of Scotland. Eiicyc. 
 Brit. 
 
 SHARP (John) archbishop of York, de- 
 scended of an ancient but decayed family of 
 the same name, long settled at Little Norton 
 in Bradford Dale, in lliat county. His father 
 was a tradesman of some note at Bradford, 
 where he was bom in 1644 ; and after study- 
 ing at Christ college, Cambridge, he completed 
 
 SUA 
 
 his degrees, and became domestic chaplain to 
 sir Heneage Finch, the then attorney-general, 
 in 1667. Five years afterwards he was pro- 
 moted, through the interest of his patron, to 
 the archdeaconry of Berkshire, which piece of 
 preferment was succeeded by a stall in Nor- 
 wich cathedral, and the rectory of St Bartho- 
 lomew in the city of London. This latter 
 living he exchanged soon after, for tlie more 
 valuable one of St Giles-in-the-Fields ; and the 
 elevation of sir Heneage to the woolsack, 
 paved his way for still further preferment. In 
 1681 he was accordingly made dean of Nor- 
 wich ; but before he had filled that situation 
 five \ears, a sermon which he preached against 
 the Romish church, gave such offence to 
 James 11, that an order was issued by that 
 monarch to the bishop of London for his sus- 
 pension. The prelate, refusing to carry this com- 
 mand into execution, incurred a similarsentence 
 fronr the court. Dr Sliarp ajijiears, however, 
 to have regained the king's favour, as he was 
 eventually made one of his chaplains. In 
 1689 king William presented him to the 
 deanery of Canterbury, and a bishopric was 
 even offered to his acceptance, of those va- 
 cated by the prelates deprived for refusing to 
 take the oaths. Tiiis he declined, but on the 
 death of archbishoj) Lam])lugh in 1691, suc- 
 ceeded him in the see of York. He was af- 
 terwards sworn, of the privy council to queen 
 Anne, made grand almoner, and juoached the 
 coronation sermon of that sovereign in 1702. 
 This learned and eloquent prelate was the 
 author of a great variety of sermons, ^^hicll 
 still maintain their pojiularity. After his de- 
 cease, which took ])!ace at 15ath in February 
 1714, they were collected and printed in seven 
 octavo volumes. There is an elegant inscrip- 
 tion to his memory in York iNIinster, where he 
 lies buried. — Bin(r. Brit. 
 
 SHARP ( 1 iioMAs) a younger son of tlie 
 preceding, was born about 1693. He was 
 admitted at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 
 1708, and became a fellow of his college and 
 DD. in 17'J9. He received various prefer- 
 ments in the church of England, including the 
 rectory of Rothbury in Northumberlaml, and 
 a prebend in York cathedral ; and was finally 
 collated to the archdeaconry of Northumbei- 
 land, and made prebendary of Durham, where 
 he died in 17o8. W-; published " Jhe Rubric 
 in the Common Prayer, and Canons of the 
 Church considered ;" " Discourses on the 
 Hebrew 'i'ongue ;" "Two Dissertations con- 
 cerning the Meaning of the Hebrew Words 
 JJohim and Bareiih," in relation to tlie Ilut- 
 cbinsonian controversy. — Hutchiitsons Hint, of 
 Durham. 
 
 SHARP (Gran vii. 1,1 ) an English gentle- 
 man, eminent for his philanthropy, purity of 
 principles, and learning, and one of the sons 
 of the precfding, was born in 17.34. He was 
 educated for the bar, but did not practise at 
 it ; he obtainetl a place in the Ordnance office, 
 which he resigned at llie commencement 
 of the American war, the jjrinciples of which 
 he did not approve. He then took chambers 
 iu the Temple, and led a life of private 
 
Sil A 
 
 study. lie fir?t became known to tlie p.ibm. 
 by bis spirited defence of a poor and friend- 
 less nci^ro luimed Somerset. Ibis man, bav- 
 jng been bri)ugbt to KiM^lrtnd bv bis ^la^'t^•r, 
 during a fit of sickness was luined out into 
 tbe streets to die. With unparali<'Ied base- 
 ness, wben by tbe cliarity of iMr Sbarp and 
 
 S fj A 
 
 manifestations of a taste for druwin„' iii Ins 
 son, apprenticed bim to .Mr I^on^inate, an 
 artist wbo practisc-d wbat m tecbnjcallv termeo 
 brii;lit t ii|;raviii|4, becau>e it attracts ati.ntion 
 to Itself, and n)t to impressioim from jt. At 
 llie exjtiralion of bis indenture* Sliarp, tlien 
 very nouii^'. inarrn d a Frencli woman, aud 
 
 Otbers lie liad been restored to b«-alib, be was > comini need buriness on bis own account in 
 
 cbiimed again as j)roperty, tbe result of wbicb 
 was a series of hiw |)ruleediIl^^s, wbicb not 
 only cleared Somersi't from tlie contemptible 
 being wbo asserted a rigbt to bis person, but 
 determined tbat slavery could not exist in 
 Great I'lritain. Sucb an incident could not 
 fail to dee|)ly impress a benevolent mind, and 
 slavery in every country became tbe object of 
 Ins unceasinii liosiilitv. Having succeeded in 
 tbe case of an individual neiiro, be intere.'^teii 
 himself in tbe condition of otbers, wbom be 
 found waTidering in tbe streets of London, and 
 at liis own expense sent a number of lliem to 
 Sierra Leone ; be also soon after be( ame tbe in- 
 stitutor of tbe celebrated Society for ibe Aboli- 
 tic<n of tbe Slave Trade, and with similar bu- 
 manitv sougbt to modify tbe barsb practice of 
 impressment. He was likewise led by his 
 political priiicii)les to be tbe warm advocate of 
 parliamentary reform, in support of which Ije 
 published " A Declaration of the People's 
 JMatuial Rigbt to a Share jn tbe Legislature," 
 in which work he contends for a revival of the 
 system and political institutions of Alfred. 
 This worthy individual, wbo attained tlie age 
 of Seventy-nine, died July 6, 1813, unceasing 
 in study, and active in benevolence to the 
 last. He was an able linguist, and versed in 
 theology ; in respect to which he exhibited an 
 ardent zeal for the princijdes of the church of 
 England : and his private conduct was as pious 
 and regular as his exertions in the cause of hu- 
 manity were spirited and enthusiastic. His li- 
 brary was very extensive, and he possessed a 
 curious collection of Bibles, some of which he 
 presented to tlie British and Foreign Bible So- 
 ciety, of which he was al^o a zealous promoter. 
 Tlie principal works of this indefatigable scho- 
 lar anil philanthiopist are, " Remarks on the 
 Uses of tbe Di^fiuitive Article in the Greek 
 Testament, Sec. to which is added a plain 
 matier-of fact Argument for the Divinity of 
 Christ," 179B, 8vo ; " A Short Treatise on 
 the Knglish 'I'ongue ;" Remarks on the Pro- 
 pliecies"; Treatises on the Slave irade, on 
 Duelling, on the " Law of Nature and Prin- 
 ciples of Action in Man ;" Tracts on the 
 Hebrew Language ; Illustrations of the 68ih 
 Psalm, »SlC. In regard to most of these pro- 
 ductions, the in.pression is likely to be very 
 temporary ; but as connected with a standing 
 controversy, the Remarks on the L)efinitive 
 Article may probably form a lasting manual 
 
 Bartholomew lane, wluu soon finding bimsilf 
 ca[)able of greater things than tbe en(;rarinf; 
 of dog-collars and donr-platfs, be resolutely 
 af>pli.'d himself to tbe study of tiie higher 
 branches of his art. One of liis first essays ig 
 said to have been a jdate of Hector, an old 
 lion then in tbe T(jwer of London, from aa 
 original drawing by himself. In 178y he re- 
 moved to the neighbourhood of \'auxball ; but 
 increasing fast both in business and reputation, 
 soon after took a larger and more respectable 
 residence in Charles-street, INliddlesex bos- 
 )>ital. About this period be became a convert 
 to the mysterious reveries of .Mesmer and 
 Emanuel Swendenborg, in common with De 
 Loutherbourg, and some oth' rs of tbe same 
 profession as himself, none of wbom, bowt-vi-r, 
 appear to have suffered their enthusiasm to 
 carry them so far as the subject of ibis memoir. 
 I'o these visionaries succeeded the notorious 
 Richard Brothers, of whom SJiarp immeaiately 
 became a strenuous disciple, and actually en- 
 graved two separate plates of the soi-disant 
 prophet, lest one should be insufficient to pro- 
 duce the requisite number of im|>ression8 
 which would be called for on the arrival of the 
 predicted INlillennium. When Brothers was 
 incarcerated in a mad bouse, Sharo, whose 
 faith was not yet shaken in him, notwithstand- 
 ing the failure of his prophecies in point of 
 time, attached himself to the then risiiiir school 
 of Joanna Southcote, of whose pretensions be 
 continued a staunch supporter to the day of 
 his own death, although he survived consi- 
 derably tbe object of his credulity, wbom. in 
 spite of the evidence of bis own senses, he 
 persisted in affirming to be only in a trance. 
 In 1814, being then in the zenith of bis repu- 
 tation as an artist, he was elected memi>er of 
 the Imperial Academy of \'ienna and of the 
 Electoral Acatlemy of Bavaria ; and received 
 through the president, sir Joshua ReynoMs, aa 
 ofter t)f a recommendation as an associate of 
 the Royal Academy in London, whiih. in 
 conformity with \\ ooilett. Hail, and oilier en- 
 gravers, who thought their art slighted by 
 their not being allowed to become ro\al aca- 
 demicians, he declined. Prom London, Tiir 
 Sharp removed to Acton, and thence to Cbis- 
 wick, where he died of a dropsy in the c be>t. 
 July t'.T, l8-2'i. Although professing lory 
 principles in tbe latter part of bis lite, be wiM 
 at one time a member of the Society for Con- 
 
 in defence of the doctrine of the divinity of ' stitutional Information, and narrowly escaped 
 
 Christ, against the arguments of the L nita- 
 j-ians. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. Life by Hoare. 
 
 beiiiii })Ut upon Ins trial for high treason, with 
 his friends JNlessrs. Home 'I'ooke, Holcrof*. 
 
 SHARP (Wilmam) a modern engraver of j aid Tbelwall. He was arrested by order of 
 great eminence and skill in his art, the son of' government on this occasion, and was even 
 
 a reputalde gun -maker residing in liaydon' 
 yard in tbe Minories, where he was born Ja- 
 'luary 29, 1740. His father, observing early 
 
 examined before the privy council, when, it is 
 said, the naivete of bis answers and behaviour 
 fully convinced ministers that a person of his 
 
S H A SUA 
 
 description was little likely to engage in any poverty. lie still, lioweTer, continued to 
 
 serious conspiracy, and he was liberated after write, and produced " Comiption," a satire , 
 
 exciting a hearty laugh among the members and an " Elegy on the Death of the Hon. 
 
 who com})Osed the board. Among the best Ciiarles Yorke," just appointed chancellor, 
 
 })roductions of bis graver are reckoned his which was bought up, as intending to have 
 
 "St Cecilia," after Domenichino ; " Dio- 
 
 all the effects of satire, 'i'his reckless and 
 
 genes," from a painting by Salvator Rosa ; an i improvident man died in great distress, in 
 
 " Ecce Homo," from Guido; a " iNIadoima 
 and Child," from Carlo Dolce ; and a " Zeno- 
 bia," from a picture by INIichael Angelo in 
 the collection of sir J. Re\nolds. He also 
 engraved several valuable portraits, and a 
 large historical picture, by TurnbuU, of the 
 " Sortie from Gibraltar on the Morning of 
 November 27, 1781." — Ann. Biog. 
 
 SHARPE (Ghecory) an eminent Oriental 
 scholar and able divine, a native of Yorkshire, 
 born 1713. He was first placed by his friends 
 at the grammar-school of Hull in the same 
 county, whence he removed to Westminster 
 under Dr Freind, and thence again to the 
 Scottish university of Aberdeen, where he be- 
 came a pupil of professor Blackwell. Having 
 taken holv orders in the communion of the 
 established church, he obtained tlie ajipoint- 
 ment of preacher at a cliapel in Westminster, 
 but distinguishing himself by his learning and 
 polemical disquisitions, was made a king's 
 chaj)Iain, and master of the Temple. He was 
 the author of a variety of able works on theo- 
 logical subjects, the principal of which consist 
 of "Three Discourses in l3efence of the Chris- 
 tian Religion ;" " Review of the Controversy 
 concerning the Demoniacs of the New Testa- 
 ment," 8vo ; " Defence of Dr Clarke against 
 the Attacks of Leibnitz," 8vo ; " Letter to 
 Bishop Lowih ;" " Rise and Fall of Jerusa- 
 lem ;" " On the Origin of Languages and the 
 Rowers of Letters, with a Hebrew Lexicon ;" 
 " On the Greek Language •," " On the Latin 
 Tongue ;" " Syntagma Dissertationum quarum 
 dim Auctor doctissimus Thomas Hyde ;" a 
 volume of sermoos ; and a translation of Hol- 
 berg's " Introduction to Universal History," 
 8vo. This excellent scholar and amiable man 
 died in London, 1771. — i\ichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 SHAW (Cuthbert) a minor poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Richmond, 
 Yorkshire, about the year 1738 or 1739. 
 Being the son of a slioemaker in humble cir- 
 cumstances, he received a very common edu- 
 cation, which however enabled him to become 
 usher at the grammar-school of Darlington. 
 Here, in 1756, he wrote a poem entitled 
 " Liberty," and soon after came to London, 
 and obtained employment from the news- 
 l)aper8, and subsequently became a player 
 both in London and L).iblin. In 1762 he 
 quitted the stage, and again took up the pen, 
 and wrote a satire against Lloyd, Churchill, 
 Coleman, and Shirley, which he entitled 
 " The Four Farthing Candles." In 1766 he 
 published " The Race," a poetical satire on 
 the poets of the day. He soon after married, 
 but lost his wife on the birth of her first 
 child, whicli produced a i)athetic " Monody," 
 esteemed his best performance. The "re- 
 mainder of his life was miserable in tlie ex- 
 treme, being equally the victim if disease and 
 
 1771. — Eiirop. Mag. 
 
 SHAW (George) a distinguished writer on 
 zoology and other branches of natural history, 
 born in 1751, at liierton, in Buckinghamshire, 
 of which parish his father was minister. He 
 studied at Magdalen-hall, Oxford, where be 
 took the ilegree of 31 A. in 1772 ; and entering 
 into clerical orders, he became curate to his 
 father. In adopting the profession of an eccle- 
 siastic, he had not liowever consulted his owq 
 inclinations, and he therefore quitted it, in 
 order to study medicine, as a pursuit with 
 which he could connect those scientific re- 
 searches for which he had a peculiar predilec- 
 tion. He accordingly went to Fldinburgh, as 
 the best school of medical science ; and afttr 
 attending the lectures of the celebrated pro- 
 fessors who adorned that university in the lat- 
 ter part of the last century, he returned to 
 Oxford, where lie regularly graduated as MD. 
 doubtless witli a view to the exclusive ad- 
 vantages enjoyed by physicians who have been 
 admitted to their degrees at the English uni- 
 versities. But he had also a more immediate 
 motive for securing his academical honours, 
 as he became a candidate for the professorship 
 of botany at Oxford, though in this he did not 
 succeed, owing, it is said, to his having taken 
 orders in the church. He then settled as a 
 physician in London, and by his lectures and 
 publications soon made himself known as a 
 man of talent and information. On tlie foun- 
 dation of the Linnaean Society, he was ap- 
 jiointed one of the vice-presidents ; and he 
 delivered a course of lectures on zoology at 
 the Leverian Museum, and publislied a de- 
 scriptive account of the natural curiosities 
 comprised in that collection. In 1789 he was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; and in 
 1791 he became one of the librarians and 
 assistant keeper of the cabinet of natural his- 
 tory at the British Museum. In 1807 he ob- 
 tained the office of principal keeper in the 
 same department, which he retained till his 
 death. That event took place July 22, 1813. 
 Dr Shaw published " General Zoology," 1800 
 — 19, continued after his death to eleven 
 volumes octavo; *' Zoo'agical Lectures," de- 
 livered at the Leverian IMuseum and at the 
 Royal Institution, 2 vols. 4to ; second edition, 
 1809, 2 vols. 8vo; "The Zoology of New 
 Holland ;" " Cimelia Physica ;" and he con- 
 ducted the " Naturalist's Miscellany," and 
 other periodical works on natural history. He 
 was also a contributor to tlie 'Jransactions of 
 the Linnajan Society ; and he co-operated with 
 Dr Charles Hutton and Dr R. Pearson in the 
 abridgment of the Philosophical Transactions. 
 1809, See. 18 vols. 4to. — Geut. Mag. 
 
 SHAW (Peter) a jiliysician and natural 
 philosopher of the last century, who was the 
 author of some useful scientific publications. 
 
SUA 
 
 Nothing appears to be known of his early his- 
 tory. In 172.5 he published " The rh'iloso- 
 phical Works of the. lion. Hubert JJoyle, 
 abridged, melhodized, and disposed under the 
 general Heads of riiysics, Statics. PneuniaticB, 
 IVatural History, Chymistry, and Mt-ditine ; 
 Willi Notes, containing the Improvements 
 made in the several I'aris of Natural and Kx- 
 perimental Knowledge since his Time," 3 vols. 
 4to. This was followed by a treatise, entitled 
 " The New Practice of Physic, ' 17'J6, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; an abridgment of the works of Lord 
 Bacon, 3 vols. 4to. <bcc. lie probably delivered 
 lectures on chemistry in the metropolis, whic h 
 were published in an octavo volume, and they 
 are still valuable on account of the technical 
 and economical information they aftord. Dr 
 Shaw was chosen FRS. in 17o3 ; and he ob- 
 tained the api^oiniment of physician to the 
 king (George 11), but he resigned it in favour 
 of his son-in-law, Dr llichanl Warren. His 
 death look place in 1763. — jSichuls's Lit. Anec. 
 Edit. 
 
 SHAW (St ebbing) a divine and able to- 
 pograjjher, was the son of a clergyman, and 
 born in 1762, at Stone, in Staffordshire. He 
 was educated at Queen's college, Oxford, 
 where he obtained a fellowsliip, and entered 
 into orders. He subsequently became tutor 
 to Sir Francis l^urdett, with whom he made 
 the tour of the Highlands, an account of which 
 lie published. In 1788 he travelled through 
 the western counties of England, a narrative of 
 which Journey he also published. In 1789 he 
 commenced a periodical jiublicalion, entitled 
 " The Topographer," in monthly parts, after 
 which he commenced his " History of Siaf- 
 ford.->hire," the first volume of which appeared 
 in 1798, and met with great approbation ; a 
 part of the second followed in 1801, ])re- 
 viou^dy to which tlie author had succeeded his 
 father as rector of Hartshorn in Derbyshire. 
 He died in the j)rime of life, the 28lli October, 
 1802. — Gent. M((<:;. 
 
 SHAW (Tiio.MAs) a learned divine and 
 Oriental traveller, born at Kendal, in West- 
 moreland, about 1692. He entered at Queen's 
 college, Oxford, in 1711, and he took the 
 degree of AM. in 17 l9. He then entered into 
 holy orders, and was appointed chaplain to the 
 English factory at Algiers ; in which situation 
 he continued several years, and during that 
 time he visited Egypt, Palestine, (Sec. In 
 1727, while absent from England, he was 
 chosen a fellow of liis college ; and returning 
 home in 1733, he received the degree of DD. 
 in the following year, when he was also elected 
 a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1738 Dr 
 Shaw published at Oxford his " Travels in 
 Barbary and the I-evant," folio. On the death 
 of Dr Felton, in 1740, he was nominated prin- 
 cipal of Edmund-hall , and he was also })re- 
 sented to the vicarage of Biamley in Hamp- 
 shire. He died in 1751. His tiavels are 
 highly valuable, not only on account of their 
 erudition and accuracy, but also for the in- 
 formation they afford relative to natural his- 
 tory, illustrative of the ancient classics, and of 
 the sacred writings. A French translation of 
 
 S II E 
 
 I Dr Shaw'8 Travels was published in 1743, 
 
 I 4to ; and a secoml edition of the original work, 
 with adilifionu, appeared in 17.')7, 4to. re- 
 printed at Edinburgh, l};tm,2 vols.Uvo, — Mem. 
 
 • pre/, to Tnu\ l8()li, vol. i. Aikin't Gen. libig. 
 
 \ SHKBIJEAHE (John) h physician and 
 political writer in the reign of CJeoige II. He 
 
 I was a native of Bideford in Devonshire, 
 where his father was a solicitor, and he was 
 educateil at a grammar-school kept by ihe rev. 
 Z. JMiidge at Exeter. At the a^e of sixteen 
 he became apprentice to an apothecary at his 
 native place, alter which he settled in business 
 at Bristol. Removing to London he com- 
 menced his career as a public writer, having 
 previously made a visit to Paris, wh-re he 
 obtained the degree of M\^. and was ailmitted 
 into the Academy of Sciences. On his return 
 to England, he published, in 1754, "The 
 Marriage Act," a satirical romance ; and 
 "Lydia, or Filial Piety," another satire. In 
 1755 appeared his " Letters on the English 
 Nation," 2 vols. 8vo, a pretended translation 
 from the Italian of Batista Angeloni, a Jesuit. 
 
 j This was followed by a series of " Letters to 
 
 ■ the People of England," the most successful 
 I of his works, though it subjected him to a pro- 
 secution. On the publication of his " Third 
 Letter," 1756, orders were issued for his ar- 
 rest; but it was not till January 1758, after 
 
 ^ the " Sixth Letter addressed to the People of 
 : England " had made its appearance, that he 
 was taken into custody, when a " Seventh Let- 
 ter," then at the press, was likewise seized. 
 He was tried for the alleged libel, and beino- 
 convicted, he was sentenced to pay a fine of 
 
 ■ five pounds, be imprisoned three years, and to 
 I stand in the pillory. The latter part of his 
 I punishment was rendered nugatory by the in- 
 j dulgence of the under-sheriff of London, who 
 
 permitted him to stand unconfined on t!ie 
 platform of the pillory, with a servant at his 
 
 I back, holding an umbrella. The populace 
 
 I were also favourably disposed towards him, so 
 that his exposure was a scene rather of 
 
 I triumph than disgrace. On his release from 
 confinement, under the reign of a new sove- 
 reign, and the admiinstration of lord Bute, he 
 obtained a pension, for v.hiih he defended the 
 conduct of government in the Ameiican war. 
 His apostacy from the popular cause consigned 
 
 '. him to contempt, and he died almost forgotten 
 in 1788, aged seventy-nine. — Lempiiere. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SHEFFIELD (John ) duke of Buckingham, 
 a nobleman of some note as a wit and a states- 
 man, was born in 1649, being the son of Ed- 
 mund earl of Mulgrave, to who.se title he 
 succeeded in 1658. He was privately educated, 
 but early dismissed his tutor, and at the age 
 of seventeen engaged as a volunteer in the 
 first Dutch war. On his return, by the union 
 of wit and spirit so agreeable to Charles li, he 
 became a great favourite at court, and when 
 onlv in his twentieth year, by his inteust con- 
 tributed to promote Dryden to the office of 
 poet laureat. He again served in the second 
 Dutch war, and was subsequently appointed 
 colonel of a regiment of foot. As no military 
 
SHE 
 
 SHE 
 
 trjnsarlion intervened, it must have been] new Dutch translation of the Bible, anJ other 
 throurrh special favour that, in 1674, he re- | works, which deatli prevented him from exe- 
 ceived the order of the garter, and in ]679jcuting. — Biog. Nouv. desContejnp. Biog. Univ. 
 the posts of governor of Hull and lord lieu- I Saxii Onnm. Lift. 
 
 tenant of Vorksliire. On the accession of 
 James II he was made lord chamberlain ; and 
 his zealous attacliment to that weak sovereign 
 induced him to take a seat in the ecclesias- 
 tical commission, and jiractise other compli- 
 ances, though, being himself free from higotry. 
 
 SHELLEY (Percy Kysshe.) See Ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 SHENSTONE (William) a popular and 
 agreeable poet, was born at Hales Owen, in 
 Shropshire, in 1714. His father was a gen- 
 tleman farmer, who cultivated a moderate 
 
 he opposed many of t!)e counsels which brought i estate of his own, called the l^easowes, which 
 speedy ruin on 1 
 
 Revolution he 
 
 lis unfortunate master. At the has since been rendered very celebrated by the 
 t-'ok the part of an anti cour- i reputation and taste of his son. The latter 
 
 'puta 
 
 tier, but in 1694 became member of the cabi- | was educated at the grammar scliool of Hales 
 net, with a pension, and the additional title of Owen, whence he was removed to that of a 
 
 mar()iiis of Xormanby. The accession of Anne, 
 to whom he is said once to have been a suitor, 
 advanced him to the dukedom of ijucking])am, 
 with other honours ; but jealousy of the duke 
 of ]\Iarlboroiigh drove him from office until 
 the change of 1710, when he was made first 
 steward of the household, and then president 
 of the council under the administration of 
 Harley. After the death of Anne, he was again 
 in opposition, but employed his time chiefly in 
 literary pursuits, until his death in 1720. fie 
 wa*; thrice married, and each time to a widow; 
 liis last wife, \>y wliom he left a son, was na- 
 tural daughter of James II by Catherine Sed- 
 ley. The literary fame of tliis prosperous 
 nobleman was mainly assisted by his rank and 
 influence in his own day. Dr Johnson re- 
 presents him as a poet who sometimes glim- 
 mers, but rarely shines ; feebly laborious, and 
 at best but pretty. In his " Essav on Sa- 
 tire " he was supposed to have been assisted 
 
 schoolmaster at Solihull ; and in 1732 to Pem- 
 broke college, Oxford. Here he began to 
 exercise his poetical talents upon some light 
 topics, and he entertained thoughts of taking 
 his academical degrees, and yjroceeding to the 
 study of some profession, but was seduced, by 
 obtaining full possession of his paternal pro- 
 pert}^ to take up his abode in his own house, 
 and to decline all fartlier views of an active 
 life. Here he occupied himself in rural em- 
 bellishments, and the cultivation of poetry 
 In 1737 he printed a volume of juvenile ]i )ems, 
 which obtained little notice ; and in 1740 he 
 visited London, when Dodsley published his 
 " Judgment of Hercules," addressed to his 
 neighbour, lord Lyttelton. In the following 
 year appeared his pleasing poem in the stanza 
 of Spenser, entitled " The Schoolmistress," 
 possibly the best of all his poems. After 
 amusing himself with a few rambles to places 
 of public resort, he sat down for Ufe at the 
 
 by Dryden ; and few of his other pieces merit I Leasowes, which it was his great object to 
 attention. His duchess and widow published , render famous for picturesque beauty and ele- 
 a splendid edition of his works in 1723, in two gance. He succeeded but too well, as it drew 
 volumes quarto ; the first of which contained j visitors from all parts, and led to expenses 
 his poems upon various subjects, and the latter ' which he could but ill support, and he was by 
 his historical memoirs, character, speeches, ' no means a hap[)y inhabitant of the Edeii 
 critical observations, and essays, some of 
 which were suppressed in subsequent editions, 
 in consequence of matter offensive to the go- 
 
 which he had created. He seems to have been 
 led into more than one amatory predilection 
 hut his passion generally vented itself in eleo^v 
 vemment. Johnson speaks with encomium of i and pastoral, without leading to further cou- 
 liis style in history. He was buried in West- sequences. Afe he was much respected, an 
 minster abbey, where a magnificent monument application was made to the earl of Bute, to 
 is erected to his memory, with something of a 
 sceptical epitaph, written by himself, which 
 in its day produced considerable animadver- 
 sion. — Biog Brit. Johjisnn's Ptets. 
 
 SHEIDIUS, or SCHEID (Evvhard) a 
 philological writer, distinguished for .liis ac- 
 quaintance with Oriental learning. He was 
 born at Arnheim in Holland, in 1742, and he 
 became professor in the university of Harder- 
 W'yck. Tlience he removed to Leyden, where 
 he succeeded jirofessor J. Albert Schultens in 
 the chair of Oriental literature ; but he did 
 not long enjoy that honourable office, dying in 
 1795. He published several works on biblical 
 criticism, besides his " Glossarium Arabico- 
 Latinum JNIanuale," 1769, 4to ; " Primae Li- 
 near Tnsiiiutionum, sive Specimen Arabicse 
 Grammatica^," i779, 4to ; " Opnscula de 
 Ratione Studii," 1786—92, 8vo ; and " Ebn 
 Doreidi Katsyda, sive Idyllium Arabicum, cum 
 Scholiis," I7ti6, 4to. Scheid had projected a 
 
 place him in easier circumstances by a pension ; 
 but be was carried off by a fever before the 
 result of the application could be known, in 
 February, 1763, in his fiftieth year. His works 
 were collected by Dodsley, in three volumes, 
 octavo, and they still retain a respectable share 
 of pojtularity. The first consists of elegies, 
 odes, songs and ballads, levities, or pieces of 
 humour, and moral pieces ; the second con- 
 tains his ])rose works ; and the third is made 
 up of his " Letters to his Friends." Of his 
 merits as a poet the general opinion seems 
 tolerably uniform. He is regarded as elegant, 
 melodious, tender and correct in sentiment, 
 and often pleasing and natural in description, 
 but verging towards the languid and the feeble. 
 1 he prose woiks display good sense and cul- 
 tivated taste, and, with occasional paradox, 
 contain just and sometimes new and acute 
 observations on mankind. — Life by Johtnon 
 arid by Graves, 
 
h II E 
 
 SHKRARD (Wim.ia.m) u learned hotani^t, 
 wliose pioi){'r name was Sherwood, iiisiead of 
 wliicli lie assumed tliat l>y whiih he is com- 
 monly known, lie was Lorn in Leicestershire 
 in 1659, and was educated at INltMchant i'ai- 
 Jors' School, London, and St John's college, 
 Oxford, where he entered in 1(>77. lie after- 
 wards obiniiied a f(llowshi|), and |>roieedc'd 
 bachelor of law in 168.). lie then travelled in 
 France and Italv, as tutor to two voun<; nolde- 
 men ; and he formed an acf|iiainiance with 
 Boerhaave, Hermann, lournefort, \'aillant, 
 I\Iich(li, and otlier men of science ahroad. In 
 16B9 was published at Amsterdam an anony- 
 mous work, entitled " Schola JH)taiiica," a 
 systematic catalogue of tlie plants in the roval 
 garden at I'aris, reprinted in 1691 and 1()'.'9, 
 of which Sherard appears to have been the 
 author. In 1702 he was appointed British 
 consul at Smyrna, a j)Ost wliich furnished him 
 with an opporiuniiy of forming; a valuable col- 
 lection of ibe jdantsof (Jreece and Asia Minor. 
 He letuined home in 1718 ; and in 1721 he 
 niade a new visit to the continent, and brought 
 l)ack with him from Germany the celebrated 
 Dillenius, wlio became professor of Botany at 
 Oxford. W'ab J)illenius and his brother, I)r 
 James Sherard, lie devoted his time especially 
 to the study of the Cryptogamic order of 
 plants ; and to their researches tliat obscure 
 department of botany is indebted for consider- 
 able improvements. His death took place 
 August 12, 1728. Besides the work already 
 noticed, he assisted in editing Hermann's 
 " Paradisu^ Batavus," and A'aillant's " Jiota 
 nlcon Parisiense ;" and he aided with iufor- 
 niarion, as well as with money, Catesby in his 
 ** iVatuval History of ('arolinn," and I)illenius 
 in his " Horius Elthameusis," thouL;h both 
 these works appeared some time after his 
 death. He left 3000/. for the foundation 
 and ^upport of a botanical professorship at 
 Oxford ; and to that establishment he be- 
 queathed Ills library, heibarium. and the ma- 
 nuscrijit of his " Pinax Botamcus," which 
 was never published. — His brothei, jAMts 
 SiitR-vRD, accjuired a considerable fortune by 
 medical practice m London, first as an apo- 
 thecary and then as a physician. He retired 
 10 Eliham in Kent, where he cultivated a 
 number of exotic plants, and applied himself 
 to the study of botany. He died February 12, 
 1737, aged seventy-two, and was burieil at 
 Evington near Leicester. — Liees's Cyclvp. Piil- 
 lejieit's Sketches of Botunij. 
 
 SHI^n BI'HKE (sir EowAtU)) was descend- 
 ed from an ancient family of the same name at 
 Stonyluust in Lancashire. His father was 
 knighted by Charles 1, and made clerk of the 
 ordnance, which office he held when his son 
 was born in London, in September 18, 1618. 
 'I'he latter received a private education, after 
 >\-hich lie travelled on the continent, but was 
 obliged to return in conseci-ience of the illness 
 of his father, to whose office he succecdeil by 
 reversion. The civil war soon dejirived him 
 of it; and being a Koman Catholic, and lirmly 
 attached to the king, he endured a long and 
 expensive confinement in the custody of the 
 
 S 11 K 
 
 usher of the black rod. On his release li' 
 folhtwed the fortuiu-b of the ting, who made 
 him commissary general of the artillery, in 
 which capacity he witneKscd the baliN- of 
 Edge Hill, anil afl'-rwards attendt-d Chaileg 
 to Oxford, where he rect'iv<-d the dei;ree of 
 AM. On the surrmdir of Oxford, he re. 
 paired to Lonilun, and endur* d considerable 
 distress, but appears not to have been mo- 
 lested, as he pubhsheil his traublalion of Se- 
 neca's Medea, an.l other works, oj.fnly. lii 
 16.ol sir George Savile, afterwards niaripiis 
 of Halifax, made liim superintcndant of hit* 
 estates ; and on the Restoration he regained 
 his office in the ordnance, to which, in I6il2, 
 was added the honour of knighthood. At the 
 Revolution, being unable to take the oaths, 
 he again lost his post, and died at the ad- 
 vanced age of eighty-four, on the 4lh Novem- 
 ber 1702. His works consist of " Poems and 
 Translations," 16.3 1 ; a " 'JVansIation of Se- 
 neca's 'Iragedies." and another of " 'Jhe 
 Sphere of JManilius." The jioetry is not des- 
 titute of genius, although overloaded with 
 the strained metaphors and allusions so com- 
 mon to his time. As a translator he apjiears 
 to more advantage, and frequently conveys 
 the sense of lus author with considerable spi- 
 rit. His sacred poems often display su])erior 
 warmth and elegance. — Biog. Brit. Docld's 
 Ch. Hist. 
 
 SHEREBATOFF (prince) a Rus.-ian noble- 
 man, who pubhslied several works in his na- 
 tive language, including " The History of 
 Russia from the earliest Times," 4 vols. '4to. 
 He also edited *' A Journal of Peter the 
 Great," 2 vols. 4to, published by order of the 
 empress ; " The Russian History by an an- 
 cient Annalist, from 1114 to 1472 ;" and "The 
 Life of Peter the Great," tirst published at 
 \ enice, which the jjrince rejirinted with addi- 
 tions in 1774. I\Ir (^oxe describes the History 
 of Piince Sherebatofl'as a most valuable work, 
 founded on authentic materials drawn from 
 the imperial archives, and supported by accu- 
 rate references to the best authorities. — Reel's 
 Cyclop. 
 
 SHERIDAX (Thomas) an Irisli divine, 
 who Avas the son of a I'rotestant country gen- 
 tleman possessed of an estate at Uaghtt-rairhy 
 in the county of Cavan. He was born in 1694, 
 and was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, 
 through the kindness of his relative, l)r Wil- 
 liam Sheridan, the deprived bishop of Kilmore, 
 the prodigality of his father having put it out 
 of his jiower to assist him. Haviiii,' taken his 
 degrees, and entered into holy orders, he ob- 
 tained a fellowship, which he soon forfeited 
 by marrying a woman named Eli/abetli Mac- 
 fadden, whose mind, person, or manners, do 
 not aj)pear to have furnished any apology for 
 such a piece of imprudence. As he was a 
 good classical scholar, he set up an academy 
 for youth at Dublin ; and in this undertaking 
 he was patronized by dean Swift, with whom 
 he was a great favourite, partly on account of 
 his fat.etiousness and good-humour, and partly 
 on account of his high church jirinciples. His 
 success at first was great, but an attachmen' 
 
SUE 
 
 to company and the pleasures of the table soon 
 occasioned a reverse of fortune. His school, 
 wliich at one time is said to have produced 
 nearly a thousand a year, having declined so 
 as to become unprofitatle, he capriciously re- 
 fused the offer of the endowed grammar-school 
 of Armagh, worth about four hundred pounds 
 per annum, and exchanged a living procured 
 for him by Swift for one of half the value. He 
 then mortgaged his landed property, perse- 
 vered in all his former exjiens^^s, exchanged 
 his new living for the free-school of Cavan, 
 value only eiglity pounds a year ; and, at the 
 end of two years, solil this for the sum of four 
 hundred pounds. He at length settled in Dub- 
 lin, where he died of a polypus of the heart, 
 September ]0, IZSS, closing his singular and 
 imjirudent career in great poverty. Dr She- 
 ridan was the author of some sermons, and of 
 a prose translation of the satires of Persius. — 
 ]\Io>ilh. .li(7i,r. Chalinen''s Biog. Diet. 
 
 SHERIDAN (Thomas) the third son of 
 the preceding, was born at Quilca near Dub- 
 lin, in 1721. At the age of fourteen lie was 
 sent to Westminster, where he was admitted 
 on the foundation. Being recalled in conse- 
 quence of his father's embarrassments, he, after 
 some delay, entered as a student of Trinity 
 college, Dublin. After having proceeded to 
 the degree of MA. he suddenly quitted the 
 university for the stage, and made his first 
 appearance in the character of Richard III, 
 January 9, 1742-3, at the theatre in Smock- 
 alley, Dublin. He obtained much celebrity in 
 his new profession, both in his native country 
 and in England. After a visit to London in 
 1744, be returned to the Irish metropolis, and 
 became a theatrical manager. In this situation 
 he experienced various misfortunes, partly 
 arising from his attempts to reform the irregu- 
 larities which prevailed among the frequenters 
 of the Dubhn theatre. At length the esta- 
 blishment of a rival theatre completed the 
 ruin of his affairs ; and he then for a while 
 relinquished the stage, and commenced lec- 
 tures on elocution, to which subject he endea- 
 voured to draw the attention of the public by 
 means of the press. He delivered his lectures 
 in different parts of the kingdom, and was at 
 first very successful, owing more to the novelty 
 of the scheme than to its intrinsic merit. He 
 was, however, fortunate enough to obtain a 
 pension of 200/. a- year during the ministry of 
 lord Bute, to whom he had dedicated one of 
 his publications. He subsecjuently repaired 
 to Blois in France, to avoid the persecution 
 of his creditors ; and while there he had the 
 m'sfortune to lose hid wife. — (See the next 
 Article.)— Returning to England after the re- 
 tirement of Garrick from the stage, he became 
 manager of Drury-lane theatre, of which his 
 son was one of the proprietors ; but some dis- 
 }>ui( 8 taking place, he retired from the office 
 in (lisgust, and resumed his attention to ora- 
 toi>. The latest and most important of his 
 literary labours was an " Orthoepical Dic- 
 tionary of the English Language," which ap- 
 peared in a quarto volume iu 1788. 'l"he de- 
 clining state of his health induced him to set out 
 
 SIl E 
 
 for Lisbon, in the hope of deriving benefit from 
 its mild climate : but he had scarcely embarked 
 when he died, off Margate, August 11, 1788. 
 and his corpse was interred at that ])lace. He 
 published " British Education," Dublin, 1756, 
 12mo ; and other pieces relative to elocution, 
 besides his Dictionary, and a " Life of De;:n 
 Swih."— Month. Mag. Thesp. Diet. 
 
 SHERIDAN (Frances) the wife of Tho- 
 mas Sheridan the actor, was the grand-daugh- 
 ter of sir Oliver Chamberlayne. Before she 
 was married, she advocated the cause of her 
 husband in a well-written pamphlet, against a 
 party in opposition to him on account of some 
 theatrical disputes. She subsequently em- 
 ploved her pen in writing a novel, entitled 
 " Sidney Biddulph," o vols, a very interesting 
 but sombre tale ; " Nourjnliad," an eastern 
 romance, since dramatized ; and two comedies, 
 " The Discovery" and " The Dupe." She 
 was born in Ireland in 1724, and died at 
 Blois in France, in 1767. An account of the 
 life of this amiable and accomplished woman 
 was recently published by her grand-daughter, 
 Alicia Lefanu. — Month. Mag. 
 
 SHERIDAN (Richard Brinsley) the 
 third and youngest son of the last-mentioned 
 Thomas Sheridan, was distinguished as a 
 statesman, wit, and dramatist. He was born 
 in Dorset-street, Dublin, October 30, 17.51. 
 For the early developement of his talents he 
 was indebted to the instructions of his accom- 
 plished mother, and he was afterwards placed 
 at a grammar-school at Dublin, whence, in 
 1759, he was removed in consequence of his 
 parents leaving Ireland. They settled at 
 Windsor, and he remained at home till 1762, 
 when he was sent to Harrow- school, which 
 seminary he left at the age of eighteen, owing 
 to his father's embarrassments. With a view 
 to the legal profession, he entered subse- 
 quently as a student of the Middle Temple; 
 but the close application and industry requi- 
 site for success as a lawyer, were incompatible 
 with I'.is volatile disposition, and he relin- 
 quished all thoughts of being called to the 
 bar, for politics and the drama. His early 
 marriage also doubtless induced him to look 
 out for some more immediate means of sup- 
 port than the practice of a junior barrister 
 would have been likely to afford him. Having 
 very soon after his marriage dissipated the 
 model ate property with which he set out in 
 the world, he turned his attention to dramatic 
 composition as the means of adding to his re- 
 sources. His first production was the comedy 
 of " 'J'he Rivals," acted at Covent Garden in 
 January 1775, with moderate success ; but 
 " Tlie Duenna," a musical entertainment, 
 which followed, was received with general 
 admiration; and his "School for Scandal" 
 gained him the hiphest reputation as a comic 
 writer. On the retirement of Garrick from 
 the management of Drury-lane Theatre, 
 Sheridan, in conjunction with Dr Forde and 
 Mr Linlev, purchased Garrick's share of the 
 patent. This property qualified him for a seat 
 in parliament ; and in 1780 he was chosen 
 member for tlie borough of Stafford. Lord 
 
SHE 
 
 North was then minister, ami Sheridan, join- 
 ing' the o]i|i()siiion, thsjilnyt'cl so niucli abihty, 
 tliat on the retreat of ilia premier, and the eon- 
 clusion of the American uar, he was iiia(h' 
 uniier secretary of state for tiie war dej)art- 
 ment. Jle resit];ned witli his principal, in cou- 
 se(jueiice of a dispute witli Lord Sliclhurnc, 
 afterwards marciuis of Lansdowne, who was 
 at the head of tui^ ministrv. His intirnnte con- 
 nexion with Fox brought him again into ofiice 
 on the coalition of that statesman with lord 
 North, when Sheridan held tlie post of joint 
 secretary of the treasury uniler the late duke 
 of Portland. The dissolution of that ministry 
 threw liim again into the ranks of opposition, 
 where he remained during the whole jteriod of 
 the j)olitical ascendancy of I\Ir Pitt, lie now 
 attained distinguished celebrity as a parlia- 
 mentary orator, and his talents were particu- 
 larly exhibited in his opposition to the exten- 
 sion of the revenue laws, and on the subject of 
 the Westminster election ; but the grandest 
 display of his eloquence occurred during the 
 progress of the impeachment of Warren Hast- 
 ings. His triumph on this occasion has been 
 thus celebrated by lord Byron : — 
 " When the loud cry of trampled Hindostan 
 Arose to Heav'u in her appeal to man, 
 His was the thunder, his the avenging rod, 
 The wrath — the delegated voice of God ! 
 "Which shook the nations through his lips, 
 
 and blazed. 
 Till vanquished senates trembled as they 
 praised." 
 In 1792 IMr Sheridan lost his wife, who left 
 one son ; and three years afterwards he married 
 Miss Ogle, daughter of the dean of Winches- 
 ter. With this lady he had a considerable 
 fortune, which enabled him to purchase the 
 estate of Polesdon, in Surrey ; and as he held 
 the office of receiver-general of the duchy of 
 Cornwall, worth 1200/. a year, and retained 
 his interest in Drury-lane Theatre, he seemed 
 to be placed beyond the reach of pecuniary 
 distress. The political changes consequent to 
 the death of JNIr Pitt in 1806, occasioned the 
 exaltation of the party with which Sheridan 
 was connected, and he obtained the lucrative 
 post of treasurer of the navy, and the rank of 
 a privy counsellor. This administration l)eing 
 weakened by the loss of Mr Fox, who sur- 
 vived his celebrated rival only a few months, 
 new alterations took place, and Sheridan was 
 deprived of otfice, to which he never returned. 
 At the general election in 1806 he obtained a 
 seat for Westminster, the great object of his 
 ambition ; but he was afterwerds nominated 
 for the borough of llchester, which he conti- 
 nued to represent during the remainder of hi« 
 parliamentary career. The latter i^art of the 
 life of this highly-talented individual was em- 
 bittered by misfortunes, jnincipally arising 
 from his own indolence and mismanagement, 
 though the destruction of Drurylane Theatre 
 by tire contributed to increase his difficulties. 
 When the affairs of that establishment were 
 arranged in 1811, jMr Sheridan and his son 
 were to have on various accounts 40,000/. for 
 their share of the property ; but the portion 
 
 h n E 
 
 of the fonner was not suffitient to hquiJ^iii 
 the debts and resi-rved claims to which it whu 
 lial)lc. The dissolutrjn of parliament, and hit 
 failure in an attemiil to obtain a seat fur Staf- 
 ford, the borough he had formerly repre^eiitet), 
 completed his ruin. In tin- lait- r part of I8li 
 he had ^elinllui^!led all tliouglit» of r»'luriiiiii' 
 to the house of Commons ; and ihe remainder 
 of his existence was spent in attempts to ward 
 otf the dangt rs to which his improvidence had 
 exposed him. At length <»very resource failed, 
 and the disapjtearance of his property was 
 followed by the arrest of his person. Aft»r a 
 few days' detention, he was released, but oidy 
 to experience fresh apprehension and alarm, 
 from which he sou'^ht a temporary relief in 
 that unrestrained imlulgence and dif^sipation 
 which had occasioned his misfortunes. Int< m- 
 perance had undermined his constitution, and 
 mental anxiety com[)leted the destruction of 
 his health. Even on the bed of sickness he 
 was not exempted from the terrors of being 
 arrested for debt ; and his death, which took 
 place July 7, 1816, amidst a complication of 
 miseries, aflFords a striking exami)le of the 
 disastrous consequences of personal impru- 
 dence. Besides the plays already mentioned, 
 Mr Sheridan was the author of " St Patrick's 
 Day, or the Scheming Lieutenant," a farce ; 
 " A Trip to Scarborough,'' a comedy, altered 
 from A'anbrugh ; " The Camp" farce ; 
 " The Critic, or the Tragedy rehearsed ;" 
 " Robinson Crusoe, or llarleciuin Friday, '* a 
 pantomime ; and " Pizarro," a play, from the 
 German of Kotzebue. He also wrote " Verses 
 to the Memory of David Garrick," 1779, 4to ; 
 and " A Comparative Statement of the two 
 Bills for the better Government of the British 
 Possessions in India," 1788, 4to. As a pub- 
 lic man, on party principles, Mr Sheridan is 
 entitled on the whole to the praise of consis- 
 tency and disinterestedness, as he certainly 
 might have obtained office and encouragement, 
 had he chosen to desert the political body to 
 which he adhered in all fortunes. This, as 
 the embarrassment of his circumstances in- 
 creased, was the more honourable to him, and 
 even the imprudence of the man added to the 
 self-denial of the politician. As a speaker he 
 ranks among the most finished and varied of 
 the rhetorical school ; and his speech already 
 alluded to against Warren Hastings has been 
 deemed one of the most striking specimens of 
 English eloquence upon record. As a drama- 
 tist he may be dt-emed the head of the depart- 
 ment of that line of comedy which exhibi-s 
 the polite malice, the civil detraction, the 
 etjuivotpie, intrigue, persiflage, ami lurking 
 irony which characterize social intercourse in 
 the more cultivated grades of life. Wit 
 usually takes the lead of humour in this spe- 
 cies of composition ; and, like Congreve, She- 
 ridan has incurred the imputation of giving a 
 portion of it to all his characters to a corres- 
 p ndent destruction of nature and verisimili- 
 tude. Something of this may be true, and still 
 leave " The School for Scandal " the head of 
 the comic modern drama in its own pecuiiLr 
 walk, and a very elicitous exe'nplifica:ion o*. 
 
ShlE 
 
 tbaracter, and of some of the most conspicuous 
 of the well-bred vices and follies of fashion- 
 able life. The works of Sheridan a])peared 
 iti iS21, in two volumes octavo, edited by 
 Mr 'Ihomas iMoore, who has published an in- 
 teresti'.io" life of the subject of this article. — 
 Cent. Mug. Month, ^lug. Moore's Life of 
 Sheridan. 
 
 SHERIDAN (Elizabftii) daughter of 
 Thomas Linley, the musician, and first wife of 
 the celebrated 11. B. Sheridan. She was alike 
 distinguished for her beauty, her fascinatint,' 
 manners, and her musical talents. There was 
 a brilliancy and mellifluous sweetness in the 
 tone of her voice, which penetrated the hearts 
 of her hearers as much as her angelic looks 
 deli>'hted their eyes. In Hiindel's pathetic 
 80n>Js, in Purcell's iMad T^ess, in the upper 
 j)art' of serious glees, or in any vocal music 
 expressive of passion, she was sure to delij^ht 
 every bearer of sensibility. Sacchini, on hear- 
 in^y Miss Linley sing for the last time in pub- 
 lic°at Oxford, observed, that if she had been 
 born in Italy, she would have been as much 
 superior to all Italian singers as she was then 
 to all of her own country. She relinquished her 
 ])rofession as a public singer on her marriage 
 with Sheridan in 1773 ; and her death took 
 place in 1792. — Rees's Cvclop. 
 
 SHERLEV or SHIRLEY (Anthony) a 
 famous En^lisli traveller, who was born of a 
 good family at N^'ision in Sussex, in 156.^. 
 He studied at All Souls college, Oxford, 
 where he took the degree of BA. in 1581 ; 
 after which he joined the Euglisli tro^jps in 
 the Netherlands. In 1596 he engaged in an 
 expedition to the West Indies, against the 
 S]ianiards ; and on his return home he was 
 knii^hted. He was then sent by rpit-en Eliza- 
 beth into Italy, to assist the people of Ferrara 
 in their contest with the po[)e ; but that bting 
 accommodated previously to his arrival, he 
 (iroceeded to Venice, and, accompanied by bis 
 brother Robert, travelled thence to Persia, 
 where he rose to great favour with the sove- 
 reion of that country, Shah Abbas, who de- 
 spatched him in 1599 on an embassy to invite 
 the Christian princes of PLurope to join him in 
 a war against the 'lurks. Hussein- A li Bey, 
 a Persian of distinction, was joined in this 
 mission ; and the two pkniipotentiaries reached 
 Moscow, whence Sherley despatched Hussein 
 into Spain, and directed his course to Venice. 
 The Persian was well received, while his co- 
 adjutor, having committed some crime, was 
 thrown into jirison, and would prol>abiy have 
 been put to death, but for the interference of 
 the S[)anish ambassador, who procured his 
 liberty. He then went to Spain, wher^ he so 
 advantageously distinguished himself, that the 
 king made him admiral of the Levant Seas, 
 and appointed him a member of the council of 
 Naples. These honours excited the jealousy 
 of ids sovf reign, James I, who commanded 
 h;m to return home, but he refuseil to obey 
 tie order. He is supposed to have died about 
 lt3l His Voyage to the West Indies was 
 ^M^'li!lhpd by Hakluyt, and his Travels in 
 t'erma iu Pur-has's Pilgrimages. — Sxieiit.ey 
 
 S II E 
 
 (Robert) younger brother of the preceding, 
 born about 1570, after having served different 
 European princes, went to Persia with An- 
 thony, and was left there iu a military employ- 
 ment in 1599. As he wished to return home, 
 Shah Abbas sent him, in 1604, to propose a 
 treaty of commerce with England. Sherley 
 staid some time in Italy and at Prague, and 
 did not reach England till 1612. On his re- 
 turn to Persia, the em.peror gave him in marriage 
 a Circassian who was related to one of his 
 wives. He left Persia a second time, about 
 1616, on a mission to the European powers, 
 to propose a league against the Turks. He 
 reached England in 1623, and on bis return to 
 Persia he died, it is said, of a broken heart, 
 July 23, 1627, chagrined at having been 
 treateii as an impostor by another ambassador 
 from Persia, whom he encountered at the Eu;^- 
 lish court. — Shluley (Thomas) eider bro- 
 ther of the two former, studied at Oxford, and 
 afterwards resided for some years at Wiston 
 with his father. The fame of his brothers' 
 achievements at length roused his ambition, 
 and he also became a traveller, and wrote an 
 account of his adventures. The Sherleys had 
 rendered themselves so famous by their tra- 
 vels and exploits, that in 1607 they were 
 made the subject of a drama, entitled " The 
 Travels of the Three English Brothers," 
 written by John Day. — Wood. Granger. Biog, 
 Univ. 
 
 SHERLEY (Tuomas) of the same family 
 with the foregoing, was a native of Westmin- 
 ster, and was educated at Magdalen college, 
 Oxford. He afterwards went to France, where 
 he took his degrees in medicine, and returninsf 
 home, he became physician to Charles II. He 
 died in 1678. Dr Sherley was the author 
 of a " Philosophical Essay on the Probable 
 Causes whence Stones are produced in the 
 Greater World, Sec." 8vo, said to be a curious 
 performance ; a paper in the Transactions of 
 the Royal Society ; besides other works. — 
 Lempriere's Univ. Biog. 
 
 SHERLOCK (William) an episcopal cler- 
 gyman, born iu Southwark about 1641. He 
 studied at Eton, and afterwards at Peterhouse, 
 Cambridge, where he proceeded DD. in lo80. 
 He was then presented to the rectory of St 
 George, Botolj)h-lane, London; after which 
 he obtained a prebend in St Paul's cathedral, 
 and became master of the Temple, and rector 
 of Therfield, Hertfordshire. After the Revo- 
 lution he refused to take the oath of alieijiance 
 to WilliJim 111, inconsequence of which he 
 was suspended from the pastoral office ; but 
 on his subsecjuent compliance, he was restored, 
 and in 1691 promoted to the deanery of St 
 Paul's. His death took place in 1707. Dr 
 Sherlock distinguished himself as a polemical 
 divine against the dissenters, and he carried 
 on a controversy with Dr South relative to 
 the doctrine of the Trinity. His v^^orks on 
 practical theology, especially his Discourses 
 on Death and on Judgment, are much es- 
 teemed, and have passed through numerous 
 editions. — Shehlcck (Thomas) son of the 
 preceding, also adopted the clerical profes.-ion. 
 
S II I 
 
 and (listinguisht'd lilin-^t'lf aa a t')t'oInj.^i( al 
 writer. lie was bom in l.omioii in \67H,iunl 
 rereived liis fJiuacion at J'',t()ii school, ainj 
 Catherine-hall, Cambriilgr, where lie ohtaiiied 
 a t'ellowsliiii. He succeeiled his father as 
 mai-ter of llie'rern})le in 1701 ; ami ten yeais 
 after, he was chosen master of Catherine-hall. 
 He was promoted to the deanery of Chiches- 
 ter in 17 Ui, a'ur which he entered into a con- 
 troversy with lii.shoj) lloadly, in dif( nee of 
 the corporation and test acis. In 17.-'.) he 
 published " Discourses on the I se and Intent 
 of i'roplucy," })reached at the I'etnjile church. 
 These sermons, which were intended to ob- 
 viate the iiilidel objections of Antiiony CoU 
 lins, were severely animadverted on by I)r 
 Conyers .Aiiddleton, whose criticisms did not 
 prevent tlie work from attaiidng a coiisiderahle 
 decree of po]iularity. Dr Sherlock, in l7i.'8, 
 succeeded his antagonist Hoadly in the 
 bishopric of Bangor, and in 17:54 he again 
 re}»laced him at Salisbury. He was ofFere<l 
 the primacv on the decease of archbishop 
 Potter in 1747, but he thought proper to refuse 
 it ; and the following year he was translated 
 to the see of London, where he remained till 
 las death, wliich took place at Falh:im, July 
 18, 1761. liishop Sherlock was the author of 
 an ingenious tract entitled •* 'I'heTiial of the 
 Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus ;" 
 and his •' Sermons " are among the best spe- 
 cimens of P^nglish pulpit eloquence extant. — 
 Aiki)i'i G. Biog. 
 
 SllERWlN (John Keyse) an eminent 
 historical engraver, who, till the age of nine- 
 teen, exercised the humble occupation of a 
 
 .Sill 
 
 Chrihtchurcli, Oxford, where he graduati-J in 
 l7;iH. Having taken holy order*, he obtained 
 a ^tall in W inchi ht<r (atln-dral, and the ap- 
 poii.tnient of doiiiibtic chaplain to th*- duke of 
 (.'umberland, whom he uccompauicd in his 
 contiiwntal < am|)!»i^n. On bin return to Kn;;- 
 liuul, he was ])ref«THil to a canonry at (Jiiriht- 
 church whi( h he r.sijined in I7ti0. for the 
 valuable deanery of W iuchesUif. From th.H 
 nsj)onsible situation he was afterwards ele- 
 vated to tlie 8» 6 of iJandall. and thence trang- 
 lHt« d to that of St Asaph in 176'J. Bishop 
 Shipley wrote some elegant lines on the death 
 of (jueen Caroline, as well as some other mis- 
 cellaneous poems of considerable merit, which 
 have been coliettod and published in two 
 octavo volumes. In the house of Lords he 
 much distinguished himself against the Ame- 
 rican war. during which he signalized himself 
 as a spirited, able, and elo(|uent op[)oser of 
 administration. At his death, which took 
 place in 1788, t)(sides two daughters, lie left 
 behind him a son, William D.wiig Simp- 
 ley, born at Midgham in Berkshire, October 
 .5, 1745, who at an early age was sent by bis 
 father to Westminster school. On the appoint- 
 ment of the latter, however, to the deanery of 
 Winchester, he carried his son with him to 
 that city, and placed him in the college there, 
 whence he reniovt d to Oxford in 176.>, and 
 was admitted a student of Chri.•^tchurch in that 
 university. Here he graduaud as .MA. in 
 1770, and the year following he was collated 
 by bis father to tiie vicarage of Wrexham in 
 Denbighshire. On the death of Dr Herring, 
 1774, he was farther promoted to the deanery 
 
 wood-cutter. He was at that period employed , and chancellorship of the diocese of Si Asaph, 
 on the estate of IMr IMilford, near Petvvorth ! Dean Shipley appears to have inherited 
 in Sussex, and being one day at the house of from his father a strong attachment to Whig 
 that gentleman on business, he was admitted ' principles, which engaged him in a contest 
 into a room where some of the family were '• then as attractive of public attention as ulti- 
 ainusing themselves in drawing, when, on his j mately productive of public benefit. His bro- 
 appearing to view the process with more atten- i tlier-in-law, the celebrated sir William Jones, 
 tiou than could be excited by common curio- having, about the close of the American war, 
 sity, he was asked if he could do any thing in | published a little piece on the subject of go- 
 that way. Sherwin said that he could not tell, [ vernment, entitled " A Dialogue between a 
 but he should like to try. Mr iMitford gave ] (ientltman and a Farmer," the dean repub- 
 
 liim a crayon, when he produced on the spot 
 a drawing which surprised not a little those 
 who witnessed his performance ; and on its 
 beins: exhibited to the Societv for the Encou- 
 ragement of Arts, (Sec. the self-taught artist 
 was rewarded with a silver medal. He then 
 removed to London, and was enabled to be- 
 come a pupil of Bartolozzi, under whom he 
 iini)roved very rapidly. Among his principal 
 works are en,;ravings of " Christ and Mary 
 Magdalen in the Garden ;" and " Christ bear- 
 ing his Cross ;" from the altar-pieces of All 
 Souls and Magdalen colleges, Oxford ; and an 
 admirable print representing the " Finding of 
 JMoses," which, with other excellent produc- 
 tions of his burin, render his early death, 
 which took place in 17 90, a subject of regret 
 to tlie admirers of the fine arts. — Etirop. Mag. 
 SHIPLEY, the name of two distinguished 
 divines of the established church, father and 
 son. Jonathan Shipley, the elder, was 
 born in 1714, and received his education at 
 
 lished it in Wales, on which he was indicted 
 for a libel by a political adveisary. The pro- 
 secution was long and vexatious, being twice 
 brought f.>r trial into the WeK>-h courts, and 
 then removed by certiorari to Shrewsbury. It 
 was in this ( elebrated cause that the question 
 was first mooted, whether the jury were or 
 were not judges of law as wt II as of fact. 
 Judge Buller, in summing up, charged, in 
 conformity with the doctrine laid down by the 
 counsel for the prosecution, that the jury were 
 not to decide whether the matter was or was 
 not libellous ; notwithstanding which the ver- 
 dict brought in was, " (unity of publishing 
 only ;" afterwards altered, at the suggestion of 
 the prosecutor's counsel, to " Guilty of pub- 
 lishing, but whfther a libel or not, we do not 
 (ind." On the question being subsecjuently 
 brought before the court of King's Bench, the 
 whole was quaslied, through a flaw in the pro- 
 ceedings ; but from this memorable contest 
 ajose the statute bv which the right of '-li^- 
 
SHI 
 
 jury to decide upon law, as well as fact, in 
 cases of libel, was afterwards recognized and 
 established, in opposition to the opinions of 
 lords Thurlow and Kenyon. Throuo^hout the 
 whole transaction the dean's conduct was ir- 
 reproachable ; and it is not a little remarkable 
 that the real and avowed author was, pendente 
 lite, appointed a judi;e of the Supreme Court 
 of Judicature at Calcutta. Dean Shipley, in 
 whom were united high intellectual powers, 
 independence of mind, and great benevolence 
 of heart, died at Boddryddan, June 7, 18'26. 
 — Gent. Ma^. 1788. Ann. Biog. 
 
 SHIPPEX (Wii.i.iam) a disiina^uished po- 
 litical character during the administration of 
 sir Robert Walpole. He was the son of the 
 rev. W. Shippen, rector of Stockport in Che- 
 shire ; and about 1672 he married the daugli- 
 ter of sir Richard Stote, knight, with whom he 
 obtained a fortune of seventy tliousand pounds. 
 He was chosen successively representative in 
 parliament for the boroughs of Bramber in 
 Sussex, Saltash in Cornwall, and Newton in 
 Lancashire. One of his speeches in the house 
 of Commons, in opposition to Walpole, was 
 published ; and he was the author of several 
 pamphlets and political poems against that 
 minister. Pope and Sheffield have alluded to 
 liim in their writings ; the former terms him 
 *' downright Shippen." He died about 1741. 
 --His brother, Dii Robert Shippen, was a 
 man of eminent abilities, and was principal of 
 Brazennose college, Oxford, from 1710 to 
 174.5. — Cox's Life of Sir li. Walpole, vol. iii. 
 
 SHIRLEY (A.) See Sherley. 
 
 SHIRLEY (James) a poet and dramatic 
 writer, was descended from an ancient family, 
 and born in London about 1,594. He was edu- 
 cated at Merchant Tailors' School, and thence 
 removed to St John's college, Oxford. He 
 became a favourite with Dr Laud, wlio, how- 
 ever, discountenanced his entry into the 
 church, on account of a large mole upon his 
 cheek, which he deemed a disqualification by 
 deformity, according to the canons. On re- 
 moving to Cambridge, he met with no diffi- 
 culty on this score, but entered into orders, 
 and obtained a curacy near St Albans. His 
 religious o])inions being unsettled, he soon 
 after went over to the church of Rome, and 
 giving up his curacy, sought to establish a 
 grammar-school in the same town. Failing in 
 this endeavour, he removed to London, and 
 became a fertile writer for the stage ; and his 
 efforts being successful, he acquired a reputa- 
 tion which caused him to be taken into the 
 service of queen Henrietta Maria. His first 
 comedy is dated 1629, and he wrote nine or 
 ten between that year and 16S7, when he ac- 
 companied the earl of Kildare to Ireland. He 
 returned the following year, and when the 
 civil war broke out, lie left London, with his 
 wife ami family ; and bein" invited by the earl 
 of Newcastle, he accompanied tliat nobleman 
 to the wars. On the decline of the king's 
 cause, he returned to London ; and the acting 
 of plays being prohibited, he returned to his 
 old occ-J^3tion of a school, and educated seve- 
 ral emineiic men. At the Restoration many 
 
 S H O 
 
 of his plays were brought upon the theatr« 
 again, and he appears to have been compara- 
 tively prosperous. In 1666 he was forced, 
 with his second wife Frances, bv the great fire, 
 from his house in St Giles's parish ; and being 
 extremely affected, both by the loss and terror 
 that fire occasioned, they both died on the 
 29th October, wiihin the space of twenty-four 
 hours, and were buried in the same grave. 
 Besides thirty-seven plays, tragedies, and 
 comedies, he published a volume of poems, 
 some very beautiful specimens of which may 
 be found in Ellis's Selection. As a dramatist 
 he may be said to rank immediately between 
 Beaumont and Fletcher ; and his comedies 
 have been recommended into so much obser- 
 vation of late, as to induce Mr Gilford to un- 
 dertake a complete edition of his works. Shir- 
 ley, in fact, may be deemed one of those se- 
 condary men of genius of his own age, wlio 
 have been too much neglected by posterity, 
 and who go a great way towards justifvini'- the 
 revived attention with which they have been 
 recently favoured. — Biog. Dram. Ellii's Spe- 
 cimens. 
 
 SHORT (James) an eminent mechanic and 
 natural philosoi)her, who was a native of 
 Edinburgh. He received his education at the 
 high-school and the university of the Scottish 
 metropolis, where he applied himself particu- 
 larly to mathematics ; and having taken the 
 degree of MA., he was, through the recom- 
 mendation of professor Maclaurin, appointed 
 mathematical tutor to the duke of Cumber- 
 land, the son of George II. In 1739 he was 
 employed by government to make a survey of 
 the Orkney Islands. He afterwards settled in 
 London, as a mathematical instrument maker, 
 and obtained deserved celebrity for his skill 
 in the construction of telescopes. He was 
 chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, to whose 
 Transactions he was a contributor. His death 
 took place ia 1768, at the age of fifty-seven. — 
 Rees's Cw^lop. 
 
 SHORT (Thomas) a pliysician and medical 
 writer, who was a native of North Britain. 
 He studied at Edinburgh, and established him- 
 self as a practitioner of medicine at Sheffield 
 in Yorkshire, whence he removed to Ro- 
 tlieram in the same county. In 1734 he pub- 
 lished a " History of the Mineral Waters of 
 Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire," 
 4to; and he was also the author of " Obser- 
 vations on the Bills of Mortality," 1750, 8vo ; 
 " A General Chronological History of the 
 Air, Weather, Seasons, Meteors, &C." 2 vols. 
 8vo ; "A Comparative History of the In- 
 crease and Decrease of Mankind in England, 
 and Countries abroad," 1767, 4to ; besides 
 other works. He died at Rotheram in 177:2. 
 — Gent. ]\lag. 
 
 SHO\'EL (sir Cloudesley) an able Eng- 
 lish admiral, was born near Clay, in Norfolk, 
 about 16.56. He was put apprentice to some 
 mechanical trade, but taking a liking to sea, 
 he went out under the j)rotection of sir Chrls- 
 'topher Seymour, as cabin-boy, and in due 
 time attained the commission of a lieutenant, 
 in which capacity he served under sir John 
 
S II o 
 
 Ilarboroii^li in 1617. He was cmi>loyed by 
 that coinmamler to wail upon the lit-y of Tri- 
 poli with a requisition, whicli the hitter treateii 
 with conteni|)t. On liis return, he stated to 
 the admiral tlie practicahihty of hurninjj the 
 shipping in the harlxxir, which service lie per- 
 formed the same evening, without the loss of 
 a single man. For this exploit he was ap- 
 pointed to the commaml of a ship, and lie gra- 
 dnaliv rose in his profession, until th i era of 
 the ilevolution, in which he heartily con- 
 <:uried. He was employed to convey William 
 and liis army to Ireland ; and for the skill 
 with which he perfornud this service, was 
 knighted, and made rear-admiral. He also 
 commanded the s(]uadron whicli in 1692 con- 
 veyed William to Holland ; and he had a share 
 'vith Russel in the victory of La Hogue. In 
 1708 he commanded a fleet in the Mediterra- 
 nean, and in the year following partook of the 
 victory of Malaga. In 170o lie sailed for 
 England, and on the night of the '2'id October 
 fell by mistake upon the rocks of Scilly, when 
 his ship, with some others, was totally lost, 
 and all on board perished. His body was dis- 
 covered by some fishermen, who stripped and 
 buried it ; but the fact hecoming known, his 
 remains were brought to London, and interred 
 in Westminster abbey, where a memorial in 
 niserable taste records his fate and services. — 
 CamphelCs Admirals. i 
 
 SHOW^EU (John) an eminent puritan di- 
 vine, was born at Exeter in 1657, and edu- [ 
 cated privately in his native city, and at the 
 dissenting academies of J'aunton and Newing- i 
 ton-green. In 1679 he received ordination 
 from the dissenting ministry, and officiated at 
 a chapel in Tothill-fields, which situation he 
 left in 1686, to escort the nephew of sir Samuel 
 Barnardiston to the continent. Being dis- 
 gusted with the measures of Jan.es II, with 
 the exception of occasional visits to London, he 
 took up his residence in Holland until after the 
 Revolution, when he returned to England, and 
 became assistant to the learned John Howe, 
 in Silver-street. He finally removed to the 
 chapel in the Old Jewry, where he preached 
 with great reputation until his death, in 171.5. 
 His works, which are very numerous, consist 
 chiefly of sermons adapted for the press, 
 which have been much read by those of simi- 
 lar opinions. He was also author of a letter to 
 the lord treasurer Oxford, respecting the oc- 
 casional conformity hill, dated December 20, 
 1701 ; which letter, with the lord-treasurer's 
 answer, written, it is said, by Swift, in his 
 most vituperative style, will be found in 
 Swift's works, vol. xi. p. 201. — Life bu Torig. 
 SHOWER (sir Bartholomew) an eminent 
 lawyer, was brother to the preceding, but n\^- 
 parently of very different sentiments. Little 
 is known of him, except that by the appoint 
 ment of James II, he became recorder of Lon- 
 don during the time that the city was deprived 
 of its charter ; bat was obliged to resign when 
 that monarch's fears induced him to restore it. 
 As a pleader he distinguished himself before 
 the two houses of parliament in petitions and 
 appeals. He died in 1701. He is author of 
 Bigg. Dkt. — Vol. III. 
 
 S 1 li 
 
 " Cases in I'ailiament resolved, and adjudged 
 upon Bilitions and Writs of Krror," 161*8 and 
 17K) ; as also of " Reports of ('uses in Banco 
 Regis, from .>() Car. II. to 6 W. Ill," 1708 
 and 17'iO. 'J vols, folio. Hnd^mans I.fg,il 
 Ihhliotr, 
 
 SHU I'KR (KnwAiin) a cehbratid actor in 
 low comedy, said to hav»j been the md of a 
 clergyman, though stated hy soie to hare 
 been a person of mean origin, which ii moHt 
 l)robahle, as he was utterly unaccjuauited with 
 literature, and was, before he went on the 
 stage, employed as a marker at a billi,«rd- 
 table. Having been engaged at Covent-gar- 
 den theatre, he displayed such talents in the 
 delineation of humorous characters as raised 
 him into high favour with the [)uhlic. Not- 
 withstanding his professional emoluments were 
 considerable, such was his carelessness and 
 extravagance, that lie was involved in per- 
 {)etual embarrassments, whicli were, doubt- 
 less, increased by his contributions in support 
 of IMethodism ; for it is a singular fact that 
 Shuter was a devoted follower of George 
 Whiterield. He was gifted by nature with 
 strong features, over the expression of which 
 he had the most perfect command, exercising 
 a despotic power over the risible faculties of 
 the spectators. Among his principal charac- 
 ters were Falstaff, Scrubb, ALister Stephen, 
 I'rapolin, Launcelot, Ckc. He at one time car- 
 ried on a paper war (by proxy) with I\Irs 
 Clive, which originated in the collision of their 
 interests, owing to their benefits ha{)peningon 
 the same night. Churchill satirized him in 
 the Rosciad ; but he was so little affected by 
 the criticism, that he took the first opportunity 
 of making merry with the author over a bottle. 
 His death took place November 1, 1776. — 
 Lempriere. Tliesp. Diet. 
 
 SIBBALD (sir Robkrt) a Scottish jdiysi- 
 cian and naturalist, born near Leslie in Fife- 
 shire, about 1643. He was educated at the 
 university of St Andrews, after which he tra- 
 velled for improvement in France and Italy. 
 On his return to Scotland he was nominated 
 physician and geographer to Charles II, by 
 whom he was honoured with knighthood, and 
 appointed to write the history of the king- 
 dom. He contributed to the foundation of the 
 College of Physicians at Kdinburgh, ofwliich 
 he became the first president ; and he was 
 also a fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 Having renounced Protestantism for the faith 
 of the Catholic churcii, he returned to the 
 communion of the Kirk of Scotland in the 
 reign of James II ; and his religious versa- 
 tility subjected him to the sarcasms of the Ja- 
 cobite physician, Fitcairne. Sir Robert Sib- 
 b;ild died about 171'.'. He was the author of 
 " Scotia Illustrata, sive Prodroraus Hisloria? 
 Naturaiis Scotia;," 1684, foho ; " The Liberty 
 and Independency of the Kingdom and Church 
 of Scotland," 4to ; " The History of Fife ;" 
 besides many other works, of which a list may 
 be found in the first of the annexed authori- 
 ties. — ]\'atCs Bib. Brit. Cliatmers's Biog. Did. 
 Bio^. Uitiv. — SiBBALD (James) a bookseller 
 at Edinburgh, published in 1803 a " Chro- 
 
 M 
 
S 1 B 
 
 oicle of Scottish Poetry, from the thirteenth 
 Century to the Union of the Crowns," 4 vols. 
 8vo. lie died a sliort time after the pubhca- 
 tion of this work. — Watt. 
 
 SIBIIIORP (John) a physician, distin- 
 guished as a writer on botany. He was a na- 
 tive of Oxford, and received his education at 
 Lincoln college, in the university of that city, 
 where he obtained a travelling fellowship on 
 J)r lladcliffe's foundation. Having taken the 
 degree of 13A. and spent some time at Edin- 
 burgh, he visited France, Switzerland, and 
 Geiniany ; and on his return to England in 
 1784, be succeeded his father as professor of 
 botany at Oxford. lie twice travelled into 
 Greece, viz. in 1786, 1787, and in 1794, 1795, 
 with a view to the improvement of his fa- 
 vourite science. The result of his researches 
 was a collection of plants, destined to form a 
 splendid work, in ten volumes folio, entitled 
 '' Flora Gneca ;" and being prevented by 
 death from publishing his observations, he 
 bequeathed to tlie university an estate of 300/. 
 a-year, to be applie ' in the completion of the 
 undertaking, and the foundation of a profes- 
 sorship of rural economy. Dr Sibthorp died 
 at Bath, February 7, 1796, in consequence of 
 a pulmonary disease occasioned by the fa- ! 
 ticues he underwent in the course of his last , 
 tour. He was elected a fellow of the Royal ; 
 Society in 1789 ; and he became one of the 
 earliest fellows of the Linnasau Society. In | 
 1794 he published a work on local botany, en- j 
 titled " Flora Oxoniensis," Bvo. — Gent. Mag, ' 
 Rees's Cyclop. \ 
 
 SIBTHORPE (Robert) a divine, who oh- ' 
 tained considerable notoriety in the reign of 
 Charles I, by his defence of the royal prero- 
 gative and of high church principles. He was 
 a native of Lincolnshire, and received his 
 education at Oxford, where he took the de- 
 gree of DD, aftt-r which he became rector of 
 \Vater Stratford in Buckinghamshire, and [ 
 vicar of Brackley in Northamptonshire. His 
 services as a political j)artizan were rewarded i 
 wiih a prebend in Peterborougli cathedral, and ' 
 the rectory of Burton Latimers in Nortbamp- j 
 tonshire ; but he lost his preferments after the j 
 destruction of the monarchy, and the dis- j 
 courses which had contributed to his advance- | 
 ment were severely censured by the house of 
 Commons. He survived the Restoration, 
 dying in 1662. Dr Sibthorpe published a 
 " Sermon upon Jeremiah v. 7," Lond. 1618, 
 4to ; and " Apostolical Obedience, or a Ser- 
 mon on Romans, xiii. 7," 16'i7, 4to. — Lem- 
 pnere's Univ. Biog. Watt's Bibl. Brit. 
 
 SICARD (Claude) a French missionary, 
 born at Aubagne, in 1677. He entered young 
 among the Jesuits, and taught rhetoric and 
 classical literature at Lyons. In September 
 1706, he left France to engage in the mis- 
 sionary service in Syria ; and arriving at 
 Aleppo, lie entered on the study of Arabic, 
 lieing removed to Cairo, he was employed by 
 the regent duke of Orleans in investigating 
 the anliiinities of Egypt. He consequently 
 Vi>ited the Thebais, the cataracts, and the 
 co.sts of the Red Sea, and extended his re 
 
 SI c 
 
 searches to mount Sinai ,: in the course of Lis 
 labours he made plans and views of buildings 
 and oilier objects of curiosity ; and in his tra- 
 vels in the Delta, in 1723, he discovered the 
 remains of several ancient cities. He died 
 of the plague, April 12, 1726. Some of his 
 observations on Egypt were published in the 
 " Lettres Edifiantes," in torn. ii. v. vi. vii. of 
 the Memoirs from the Levant, first collection, 
 and in the Memoirs of tlie Academy of Sciences. 
 A Description of the Ancient and Modern 
 State of Egypt, which he had projected and 
 partly executed, was left unpublished, in con- 
 sequence of his deatli. The accuracy of fa- 
 ther Sicard is attested l)y all subsequent Egyp- 
 tian travellers. — Bios- Univ. 
 
 SICARD (RocH Ambrose Cucurron) 
 successor of the abbe I'Epee at the Parisian 
 institution for the education of the Deaf and 
 Dumb. Pie was born September 20, 1742, at 
 P ousseret, near Toulouse, in which city he com- 
 pleted his studies, and then entered into holy 
 orders. He devoted himself to the instruction 
 of persons born deaf and dumb, and became in 
 l7o6 director of a school established for that 
 purpose by the archbishop of Bordeaux ; 
 whence in 1789 he removed to Paris, and was 
 chosen successor to the abbe I'Epee, in whose 
 system he made some important improve- 
 ments. On the 2&th of August 1792, he was 
 arrested in the midst of his pupils, by order of 
 the commune of Paris ; and, notwithstanding 
 various efforts of his friends, he was on the 
 2nd of September transferred to the prison of 
 the abbey of St Germain, where he narrowly 
 escaped becoming a victim in the ensuing 
 massacres. After a few days' imprisonment 
 he was set at liberty, and during the reign of 
 terror he suffered no further molestation. On 
 the foundation of the normal school in 1795, 
 he was appointed professor of grammar ; and 
 about the same time he was made a member 
 of the Institute. He then became one of the 
 conductors of a periodical work entitled 
 " Annales religieuses, politiques, et litte- 
 raires," on account of which he was included 
 by the directory in the number of the journal- 
 ists sentenced to be exiled to Synamari. This 
 persecution obliged him to conceal himself, 
 and he thus avoided deportation ; but it was 
 not till after the overthrow of the directory 
 that he was able to return to his situation at 
 the school of instruction for the Deaf and 
 Dumb. Ihe old age of Sicard was clouded 
 with misfortunes arising from his own im- 
 providence, and Buonaparte, to whom he ap- 
 plied in his pecuniary difficulties, treated him 
 with neglect. After the restoration of the 
 king he was more fortunate, being successively 
 made a knight of the legion of honour, admi- 
 nistrator of the hospital of Quinze Vingts, ad- 
 ministrator of that of blind youths, and knight 
 of the order of St Michael. He was also ho- 
 noured with attentions from the foreign princes 
 who visited Paris in 181 4 and liilo. His 
 death took place May 10, 1822. Besides 
 various other works, he was the author of 
 " Elemens de Grammaire gen^rale appli()uee 
 a la Langue Franjaise," 2 vols. 8vo ; " Cours 
 
s I n 
 
 s I n 
 
 crinstruction (I'lin Sounl-muc't lie Naisfi.iixe," pni;aging ajjainHt tlie iiu-a«'jr(n of t!ie court ; 
 8vo ; ami " J'lieorie desSij^nes jioiir I'lii.struc- but it ih tioublful liow far n man of iii«- Htroiij; 
 tion cies Sounls-uuiets," 'J vols. »vo. Hr also fcntinicins of SkIim'v iiu<lit l-aiftnce tli.- ac- 
 rontrived a nietlioii of pil^-i^Ma|llly, or universal count between privaif oblnjalion and public 
 lannuago, of wbicii he publisliod only some duty, or wlif.licr be did not rrj^ard Imm |.ardon 
 sliglit sketcbfS. — Biog. UiiiiK I as a men- rf|tarali(jn of injuttticf. At tbt- time 
 
 SIDNEY (Algernon) a celebrated Eng- of bis return ]»arliament waH urging tin; king 
 lisli republican and martyr to liberty, was tlie to u war wilb Kraiw c ; and it waH feared by 
 second son of Robert, earl of Leicester, by' tbe oj)poailion tliat (JbarlcB 11 would a^ree to 
 Dorothy, eldest daughter of Henry Percy, carl it, until be ol)iained the supplies, wbii |i he 
 of Nortbuinberlanil. He was born, according would either sijuander on bia pleasuren, or de- 
 to some accounts in 1()17, and to ollitrs in vote to arbitrary jiurposes. The Kii^li>li pa- 
 1622, and was carefully educated under the j triots were therefore opjiosed to tbi.s war, and 
 inspection of his father, whom he accompanied some of tlie leaders intrigued with the French 
 in liis embassies to Denmark and France. He ambassador, Hariilon, to defeat the measure, 
 was also early trained to a military life, re- — (See Article Ui'skkl, lord William.) — It 
 ceived a commission in a regiment of ca- ' even appears, according to the liarillon paj)er8, 
 valry commanded by the same nobleman, and as given by sir John Dalrymjile, that the 
 served with considerable distinction under his name of Sidney was among those who received 
 brother, lord Lisle, during the Irish rebellion. ' pecuniary aid from France, 'i'he testimony 
 Li 1643 both brothers returned to Eui^land, thus afiorded against a man of high character, 
 and joined the parliament ; and in 164."> Al and whose sacrifices to principle were uoto- 
 gernon was promoted by Fairfax to the co- rious, has of course met with different degrees 
 lonelcy of a regiment of horse ; and after of credence, and both fabrication and interpo- 
 being present in several actions, was entrusted lation have been surmised. The death of bit 
 with the government of Chichester. In 1646, father soon after his return led him openly to 
 lord Lisle being constituted lieutenant-gover- join in the opposition, and he consorted much 
 nor and commander of the forces in Ireland, with the duke of IMonmouth and others who 
 he accompanied him thither, and was raised held views kindred or similar to his own. In 
 10 the post of lieutenant-general of the ca- the Rye- house plot he is named as one of a 
 valry and governor of Dublin. He was how- council of six who were to organize an insur> 
 ever soon after superseded by a senior officer, rection in conjunction with tbe Scottish mal- 
 and returned to England, where he was ' contents. It was, however, for his supposed 
 thanked by parliament for his services, and share in the subordinate conspiracy for assas* 
 made governor of Dover. \Vhen the high j sinating tbe king, that he was arrested with 
 court of justice was formed for the trial of the lord William Kussel and others. After the 
 
 king, he was nominated a member, but was 
 neither present when sentence was pronounced, 
 nor signed the warrant for the execution. It 
 appears however that he was in the habit of 
 vindicating that catastrophe, which has led to 
 a supposition that, in withholding his pre- 
 sence and signature, he only yielded to the 
 influence of his father. A {)olitician so inimi 
 
 sacrifice of the latter, he was tried, as the next 
 most obnoxious person, for high treason, be- 
 fore the hardened tool, chief-justice Jeffreys, 
 on the 21et jNovemher 1678. There was no 
 direct evidence against him, except that of 
 the miserable disgrace to nobility, lord Howard, 
 while the law for high treason required two 
 witnesses. To help this defect, the attomey- 
 
 cal to the encroachments of rCi^ular authority general had recourse to the e.x|)edient of pro- 
 
 wasnot likely to acquiesce in an usurpation, and ducing passages from some Discourses on (Jo 
 
 he therefore warmly opposed the designs of vemment, found in MS. in his closet, whicli 
 
 Cromwell ; during the government both of 
 the ])rotector and his son Richard, he lived in 
 retirement at Pensluirst, where be is sup])0sed 
 to have composed his celebrated " Discourses 
 on Government." When the return of the 
 long parliament gave expectations of the esta- 
 blishment of a rei)ublic, he willingly assumed 
 a public character, and was nominated one of 
 the council of state. He was soon after ap- 
 pointed a commissioner to mediate a peace 
 between Denmark and Sweden, and while en- 
 gaged in this embassy, the Restoration took 
 place. Conscious of the offence he had given 
 the royal party, he refused to return, and re- 
 mained an exile for seventeen years; and al- 
 though occasionally assisted by his i'amily, 
 he found it difficult to support himself in con- 
 formity to bis birth and rank. At length, in 
 1677, the influence of his father obtained 
 leave for him to return with a pardon for all 
 offences. According to Hume, the acceptance 
 of this favour should have prevented him from 
 
 maintained tbe lawfulness of resisting tyrants, 
 and the preference of a free to an arbitrary 
 government. Although there was no proof 
 that these j)apers were in his own hand-writ- 
 ing, in defiance both of law and common sense, 
 they were deemed equivalent to a .-econd wit- 
 ness ; and, in spite of his spirited defence, he 
 was declared guilty. After bis coiiviction he 
 sent, by his relation the marquis of Halifax, a 
 paper to be laid before the king, requesting 
 liis review of the whole matter ; but it served 
 only to delay his execution about a week. 
 Hume, obliged to acknowledge the illegality 
 of his condemnation, for which he observea 
 " tbe jury were very blamable," with his 
 usual sophistication in respect to Stuart in- 
 justice, remarks, that an interference, on this 
 occasion by the king, after his former pardon, 
 might be regarded as an act " of heroic gene- 
 rosity, but could never be deemed an indis- 
 pensable duty.'' Would it not be more to t)ie 
 purpose to sav, that a it'oarcb who exe'f ised 
 
 n i 
 
SID 
 
 the crown influence, and employed the crown 
 lawyers, to procure an ini(iuit(nis verdict, 
 could scarcely be expected to spare a victim 
 thus secured? Sidney was executed on Tower- 
 hill, J)ecember 7, 1678, when he delivered 
 the sheriff a )>aper, alleging the injustice of 
 his condemnation, and concluding with a prayer 
 for " the good old cause." This document was 
 printed some time after, and made a consi- 
 derable impression, a circumstance which gave 
 great oftence to the court. He sutiercd with 
 all the firmness and constancy belonging to 
 his character. One of the first acts of the Re- 
 volution was to reverse his attainder, and the 
 name of Algernon Sidney has since been held 
 in great honour by the majority of those who 
 mamlain the fundamental principles of free 
 government. Burnet speaks of him as of ex- 
 traordinary courage, steady, even to obstinacy, 
 impatient of contradiction, and a decided 
 enemy to monarchy and church government. 
 His *• Discourses on Government " were first 
 printed in 1698, and reprinted in 1704' and 
 1761, in folio and in 4to 1772, at the ex- 
 pense of Thomas Hollis, esq., with tlie trial 
 and letters prefixed. They contain consider- 
 able historical information, and are composed 
 with the clearness, acuteness, and force, which 
 usually accompany the arguments of those who 
 are sincere and able converts to the opinions 
 whicli they support. — Hume. Biog. Brit. Sir 
 J. Dairiimple's Mem. of Great Britain. 
 
 SIDNEY (sir Philip) an ingenious writer 
 and accomplished officer and statesman in the 
 reign of queen Elizabeth. He was the son of 
 sir Henry Sidney, of Penshurst in Kent, 
 where he was born the 29ih November, 15.S4. 
 Afier previous instruction at a grammar-school 
 at Shrewsbury, he was sent to Christchurch, 
 Oxford, whence he removed to Trinity col- 
 lege, Cambridge. At the age of eighteen he 
 set off on his travels, and arriving at Paris, 
 Charles IX made him a gentleman of his bed- 
 chamber. The massacre of the Hugufrnots, 
 which soon after took place, disgusted Sidney 
 with the service of the French monarcli, which 
 he speedily quitted, and went to Frankfort in 
 Germany, where he formed an acquaintance 
 with the famous Hubert Languet. In 1573 
 lie vi>ited Vienna, whence he proceeded to 
 Hungary, and then to Italy; and returning 
 through Germany and Flanders, he arrived 
 in England in 157.5. He became deservedly 
 a favourite with the queen, who in 1576 
 sent him on an embassy to congratulate 
 the emperor Rodolph II on his accession, at 
 the same time charging him with important 
 negociations with other princes of Germany. 
 In 1579 he addressed to the queen a }irivate 
 letter, dissuading her from contracting a mar- 
 riage then projected with the duke of Anjou, 
 brother to the king of France ; and his ad- 
 vice seems to have been favourably received. 
 The following year he had a quarrel with Ed- 
 ward Vere, earl of Oxford, in consequence of 
 a previous dispute at a tournament ; and her 
 majesty thought proper to interpose her au- 
 thority to prevent a duel from taking jilace. 
 Sidney, displeased at tlie issue of the affidr. 
 
 S I D 
 
 [retired to Wilton in Wiltshire, the seat of his 
 t brother-in-law, the earl of Pembroke, and 
 amused himself with the composition of a pas- 
 toral romance, which, in compliment to his 
 sister, was entitled " The Countess of Pem- 
 broke's Arcadia." While thus occupied, his 
 assistance was requested by Don Antonio, 
 who was endeavouring to vindicate his right 
 to the kingdom of Portugal, which had been 
 seized by the Spaniards. In 1581 he again 
 appeared at court, where he distinguished 
 ' himself in the jousts and tournaments, cele- 
 I brated for the entertainment of the duke of 
 I Anjou, who had visited England ; and on the 
 ) return of that prince to the continent, he, with 
 ' several of the nobility, accompanied him to 
 Antwerp. The prince palatine being invested 
 with the order of the garter in 1583, Mr Sid- 
 ney was appointed his proxy, when he re- 
 ceived the honour of knighthood. At this 
 period be married the daughter of sir Francis 
 Walsingham. In 1585 he projected, in con- 
 cert with sir Francis Drake, an expedition 
 against the Spaniards in America ; and he had 
 gone to Plymouth to embark on the under- 
 taking, when an express mandate from the 
 queen recalled him to court. Her influence 
 also was exerted to jirevent him from being 
 elected king of Poland, " refusing,'' as Camden 
 says, " to further his advancement, out of fear 
 that she should lose the jewel of her times." 
 He was subsequently appointed governor of 
 Flushing, and general of the cavalry under 
 his maternal uncle, Dudley, earl of Leicester, 
 who commanded the forces which the queen 
 had sent into the Netherlands to assist the 
 Dutch against the Spaniards. On the 22d of 
 September, 1586, being at the head of a de- 
 tachment of the English troops, he fell in with 
 a convoy of the enemy marching towards 
 Zutphen. An engagement took place, in 
 which his party gained the victory, dearly pur- 
 chased with the life of their commander, who 
 received a shot in his thigh, which shattered 
 the bone. He was carried to Arnheim, where 
 he expired on the 17th of October ; and his 
 body being brought to England was interred 
 in St Paul's cathedral. 1 bus perished the 
 gallant, amiable, and accomplished sir Philip 
 Sidney, in his thirty-second year, whose fate 
 was the object of general regret, and whose 
 talents and acquirements have been made the 
 subject of almost universal panegyric. His 
 works, besides the " Arcadia," consist of 
 " The Defence of Poesy ;" " Astrophel and 
 Stella;" a collection, entitled "Songs and 
 Sonnets;" and other poetical pieces. " The 
 Defence " was republi'?hed in 1752, 12nio ; 
 and a complete edition of his works appeared 
 in three volumes, 8vo. Lond. 172.5. The 
 work by which sir Philip Sidney is principally 
 known is his " Arcadia," which is one of the 
 earliest specimens of the grave or heroic ro- 
 mance, it is a mixture of prose and verse, the 
 latter exhibiting various attempts to natura- 
 lize the measures of Roman poetry. It i.s 
 spoken of with great contem[)t by lord Orford 
 (Horace Walijole) ; but Dr Zouch, the late 
 biographer of sir Philip, while lie acknow 
 
S 1 E 
 
 .edges that llie changes in taste and munrieis 
 have rendered It unsuitable to modern readers, 
 contends that there are exf|iiisilelv heauti- 
 ful passai,^es, sound observations on lifi- and 
 manners, animated descriptions, sajje lotisons 
 of morality, and judicious nlU-ctioiis on i^o- 
 vernment anil policy. I'pon the whole it was 
 a sort of fashion to exalt both the liierarv and 
 chivalric reputation of sir Philip Sidney in 
 esaijj^erated terms in his own time ; hut it 
 cannot be denied tliat lie fully merited to be 
 recorded amon;j; the most distin'j^uished per- 
 sons of his ac;e and nation. — l^ii\!:^- Brit. Life 
 of Sir P. SidiiPif, hij Sir F. Grevile. 
 
 SIDNEY (Mary) countess of Pembroke, 
 sister of the preceding, married in l.SZt), 
 Henry earl of Peml)roke. She had received a 
 liberal education, and possessed a talent for 
 poetry, which she assiduously cultivated. 
 Cono^enial qualities and pursuits united her 
 closely with her brother, sir Philij), who, as 
 already intimated, wrote the " Arcadia" for 
 her amusement. She translated many of the 
 Psalms from the Hebrew into English verse, 
 as also " A Discourse on Life and Death," from 
 tlie French of IMornay, London, 1600, l^mo; 
 " The Tragedie of Antonie," London, 1595, 
 12mo. She likewise wrote " An Elegy on 
 Sir Philip Sidney ; ' " A pastoral Dialogue 
 in Praise of Astrasa " (queen Elizabeth) ; and 
 a long poem in six line stanzas, entitled " The 
 Countess of Pembroke's Passion," to be found 
 in the Sloane MSS. She survived her husband 
 twenty years, her death taking place in Lou- 
 don, September 25, 1601. The following ad- 
 mired epitaph by Ben Jonson was designed 
 for an inscription on the tomb of this lady : 
 Underneath this sable herse 
 Lies the subject of all verse ; 
 Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother ; 
 Death, ere thou hast kill'd another. 
 Fair, and learn'd, and good as she. 
 Time shall throw a dart at thee. 
 
 Ballard's Memoirs. 
 SIDONIUS (Caius Sollius Apollinaris 
 MoDESTUs,) a learned ecclesiastic of the sixth 
 century, w-as born at Lyons. He married the 
 daughter of Avitus, who was raised to the 
 imperial dignity on the death of IMaximus, but 
 was afterwards deposed by INIajorianus. Si- 
 donius was on that occasion carried a captive 
 to Rome, where he obtained favour by his 
 learning and talents. He was subsequently 
 made governor of Rome, and a patrician, but 
 quitted his secular employment in 472, on 
 being chosen bishop of (Clermont. He died 
 in 487, leaving behind him many works, of 
 which nine books of epistles, with about four- 
 and-twenty poems interspersed, are still ex- 
 tant. They contain many particulars relative 
 to the learning and history of the times, and 
 were published by fr\ther Sirmond, at Paris, 
 1614, 8vo, and after his death, with additions, 
 in 1652, 4to. — Cave. Vossii Hist. Lot. 
 
 SIEBEXKEES (John Philip) an emi- 
 nent Greek critic, who was a native of Nurem- 
 berg in Germany. After studying at that 
 place, he went in 1778 to Altorf, where he ap- 
 plied himself to theology and the ancient lan- 
 
 S I (\ 
 
 guage«. He then removed to Venice as » 
 private tutor, and there he wrote the " Life 
 of l^ianca ('apelio, (irand Duchess of Tus- 
 tany." published at (i(<iha. 17H1), Uvo ; and 
 translated into English. In 17Ii8 lie went to 
 Home, where ho was patr<4ni/.ed by cardinal 
 HorLjia ; and returning to Nuremberg, lie wa* 
 in l7iH nominated profeMor at Altorf, where 
 he died of apoplexy, June 25, 1796. He wa« 
 the author of a " History of the IncjuiBition of 
 the State of Venice," 1791, Bvo, and other 
 works ; and he was one of the editors of tlie 
 Leipsic Strabo, and of the Characters of Theo- 
 phrastus, published by Goetz at Nuremberg, 
 1798, Svo.— Hio^. Univ. 
 
 SKiALM) DE LAFOND (Jkan Rksk) a 
 French philosopher, born at Dijon in 17 10. 
 He studied among the Jesuits, and afterwards 
 entered as a surgical pupil at the school of St 
 Come, at Paris. In 1768 he communicated to 
 the Royal Academy of Surgery a memoir re- 
 commending the section of the symjihisis 
 jjiibis, in certain cases of difficult |)arturition ; 
 and though his projiosal did not receive the 
 sanction of the Academy, he determined to 
 put it to the test of experiment :it the first 
 opportunity. In 1770 he was admitted a mas- 
 ter of surgery, and he devoted himself chiefly 
 to obstetrical practice. In October 1777 he 
 first performed the projected operation on the 
 wife of a soldier at Paris ; and his success 
 was rewarded by the Parisian faculty of medi- 
 cine with the gift of a medal struck to com- 
 memorate the occurrence. Ilia plan however 
 has found but few advocates among his profes- 
 sional contemporaries or successors, and has 
 seldom been adopted. He practised medicine 
 in various countries, and delivered lectures on 
 natural philosophy, which procured him much 
 reputation. He was a member of several 
 academies ; and at the establishment of the 
 Institute, in 1796, he became an associate. 
 The preceding year he had obtained a gratuity 
 of three thousand francs from the National 
 Convention. He died in 1810 at Bourges, 
 where he was professor of jihysics. Sigaud 
 was the author of " Elemens de Physique 
 theoretique et experimentale." 4 vols. 8vo, 
 translated into Spanish by Taddeo Lope ;" 
 " Dictionnaire de Physique," 1780, 4 vols. 
 8vo, with a supplement, published in 1782 ; 
 and " Dictionnaire des Rlerveilles de la Na- 
 ture," 1781, 2 vols. 8vo, translated into Ger- 
 man by Webel ; besides several other works. 
 — Biotr. Uviv. 
 
 SIGNORELLI (Piftro Napou) a dis- 
 tinguished Italian writer, born at Naples in 
 1731. He received his education under the 
 Jesuits, and at the university of his native 
 place, after which he became an advocate. 
 riiat profession he abandoned to devote him- 
 self to literature, and especially to dramatic 
 poetrv. In 1765 he went to ^IadIid, where 
 lie obtained the otiice of keeper of the seal of 
 the royal lottery. Returning after about three 
 vears' ab^ence to Italy, he settled at Naples, 
 where, in 1784, he pul)lished •' Vicende della 
 Coltura delle due Sicilie," 5 vols. 8vo, en- 
 lused to 8 vols, in the edition of 1810. He 
 
S 1 L 
 
 was appointed secretary to die academy of 
 Naples ; and he engaged in writing a " Cri- 
 tical History of ancient and mcderu J'heatres," 
 of which a sketch hud appeared in 1777. 
 When the French became masters of Naples 
 in 1798, Signorelli was made a member of the 
 committee of legisladon ; and he subsequently 
 Went to ]Milan, where he was nominated dra- 
 matic professor at the Lyceum of Brera. Soon 
 after, he became professor of diplomatics and 
 history at Bologna, where he continued till 
 1806, when he returned to Naples, in which 
 city he died of apoplexy, April 1, 181."). His 
 works are numerous, including " Faustina," a 
 comedy, 1779, 8vo ; " A Sketch of the pre- 
 sent State of the Sciences and Literature in 
 Spain," Madrid, 1780, Bvo ; " Delle migiiori 
 'I'ragedie Greche e Francesi, Traduzioue ed 
 Analisi comparative," 180-1, 3 vols. Bvo; and 
 *' Llementi di Critica Diplomatica, con Istoria 
 preliminare," 1803, 4 vols. Bvo. — Biog. Kouv. 
 des Contemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SIGONIUS (Chari.ks) a learned Italian, 
 was of an ancient family of INIodena, where 
 he was born in 1524. He studied physic at 
 Bologna, but renounced that profession for 
 literature, and at the age of twenty- two be- 
 came Greek professor in his native city. In 
 1560 he made himself advantageously kno^vn 
 to the learned world by publishing the " Fasti 
 Consulares," with a learned and ample com- 
 mentary. The reputation which he acquired 
 by this work introduced him, in 1554, to the 
 professorship of belles lettres at Venice, 
 whence he removed successively to Padua and 
 Bologna. He had some literary controversies 
 with Kobortellius and Gruchius on Roman 
 antiquities, in which he was exceedingly well 
 versed. Of his numerous works the most 
 esteemed are " De Tlepublica Hebrajorum ;" 
 " De Republica Atheuiensium ;" " Historia 
 de Occidentali Imperio ; " and " De Regno 
 Italiaj." He died in 1585, aged sixty. His 
 works were collected and printed at Milan in 
 1733-4, 6 vols, folio. His " Fasti Consulares" 
 were printed with the Oxford Livy in 1800. — 
 LiJ'e by Muratori, Moreri. 
 
 SIKE, or SIECKE (Henry) a philological 
 writer, who was a native of Bremen in Ger- 
 many. He studied the Oriental languages, 
 and was professor at Utrecht, and afterwards 
 at Cambridge. In 1697 he published, with 
 notes, in Arabic and Latin, " Kvangelium 
 Infantiai Christi, adscriptuni Thomaj," 8vo, 
 one of the most curious of the apocryphal 
 gospels, reprinted by Fabricius in his Codex 
 apocryphus Nov. Test. Sike also co-oj)erated 
 with Kuster in the " Bibliotheca Novoruin 
 Librorum," a Latin review published at 
 Utrecht. He put an end to his own life in 
 1712. — Siuii Onomast. 
 
 SILANION, a Greek sculptor, who was a 
 native of Atnenp, and, according to i^liny, con- 
 temporary with Lysippus and Alexander the 
 Great. Among the most celebrated works of 
 this artist were statues of Corinna the poetess, 
 of Theseus, and of Achilles. He also made 
 a statue of Sappho, which ornamented the 
 citv of Syracuse, and became the prey of 
 
 S I 1. 
 
 Verres the Roman governor of Sicily, whose 
 rapacity is recorded in the famous prations of 
 Cicero. A statue of Plato by Silanion is be- 
 lieved to have served as the model of all au- 
 thentic portraits of that philosopher. He was 
 alive 316 BC. but the period of his death is 
 not known. — Biog. Univ. Plinii H. N. 
 
 SILBERSCHLAG (John Isaiah) a Ger- 
 man divine, born at Aschersleben in 1721 
 He was educated at Halle, and in 1745 he was 
 appointed professor at the school of Kloster 
 Bergen, near Magdebourg. After having for 
 some years been pastor of a church at Magde- 
 bourg, he was called to Berlin to become di- 
 rector of the Royal School, and he was also 
 minister of the church of the Trinity in that 
 capital. In 1784 he resigned the former office, 
 only retaining his ecclesiastical employment, 
 and that of member of the supreme council of 
 buildings [board of works]. Frederic II had 
 erected this council in 1770 ; and to the great 
 astonishment of the public, he made Silber- 
 schlag a member, justly conceiving that his 
 religious character formed no ground of exclu- 
 sion from a civil office for which he was 
 highly qualified by his extensive acquaintance 
 with mechanics and physical science. He 
 published, in the German language, " Geogony, 
 or an Explication of the Creation of the 
 World according to Moses, on mathematical 
 and physical Principles," 1780, 3 vols. 4to ; 
 " Chronology rectified by the Holy Scrip- 
 tures," 1784, 4to ; and " A Treatise on Hydro- 
 technics, or Hydraulic Architecture," 1772-3, 
 2 vols. 8vo ; besides dissertations in the INIe- 
 moirs of the Academy of Berlin. His death 
 took place November 22, 1791. In 1788 he 
 printed his " Biography," written by himself 
 for his family, quarto. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SILHOUETI'E (Stephen de) a French 
 writer, distinguished by his taste for English 
 literature, was born at Limoges in 1709. He 
 purchased the office of master of requests, and 
 after having managed the affairs of the duke 
 of Orleans, he became comptroller general 
 and minister of state in 1759. At this time 
 France was carrying on a ruinous war, and the 
 finances were in a very low condition, which 
 induced him to propose retrenchment and eco- 
 nomy. Finding that the proposal only excited 
 ridicule, he quitted his post, after a short oc- 
 cupation of nine months, and retired to his 
 estate of Brie-sur-Marne, and devoted his 
 time to study, and his wealth to benevolence. 
 He died in 1767. He published " Mee gene- 
 rate du Goveruement (Illinois ;" " Reflexion 
 i'olitique," from the Spanish of Gracian ; 
 translations of Pope's " Essay on Man," and 
 " MiscfUanies," and of Bolingbroke's " Dis- 
 sertation on Parties ;" " Lettres sur les Trans- 
 actions pult!i()ues du Regne d'Elizabeth ;*' 
 " Traite maihematique sur le Bonheur ;" a 
 translation of Warburton's " Alliance;" 
 Epitres morales, Lettres j)hilosophiques, et 
 Truites IMatliematiques ;" " Memoirs," relative 
 to the rights of England and France in Ame- 
 rica ; " Voyage de France, Espagne, Portu- 
 gal et d Italie." — Kouv. Diet. Ilist. 
 
 SILIUS 1 i'ALlCUS (Caius) a Latin poet 
 
S 1 L 
 
 and author of a poiiical history of the second 
 funic war, was boru in ihe reign of Tiberius, 
 ahout ilie year 15. lie is siijiposed to Imve 
 deriveil his name of Italitus fruni the place of 
 hia birtli, l^' y whetlier Itahra in Spain, or 
 Corsiniuni in ituly (sonietiiius so caih-d ), ik 
 unknown, or even if ins name be connected 
 with his birth phue at all. When he taiin' 
 to Home lie applied himself to the bar, an.l b) 
 a close imitation of Cicero succeeded so well, 
 that be became a celebrated orator and advo- 
 cate. It appears from a letter from Pliny the 
 vouncrer to Canidius Tiufus, aiinouncin<j; liis de- 
 ceiise, that he was consul at '.he time of Nero's 
 death, and that he incurred some reproach for 
 assisting in that tyrant's prosecutions. It is 
 added, however, tliat he made a liuniaiie use 
 of the friendship of Vitelhus, and accjuired 
 much lionour from his conduct in the procon- 
 sulate of Asia, assigned to him by Vespasian, 
 from which he retired into private life, and 
 maintained the rank of one of the principal 
 inhabitants of Rome, without power and with- 
 out envy. He was fond of elegance, purchased 
 villas, collected books, statues, and busts of 
 eminent men, to the latter of which he paid a 
 kind of religious veneration. Among his villas 
 one had belonged to Cicero ; and he possessed a 
 farm near Naples which had been the property 
 of \'irgil, and on which was that great poet's 
 tomb. For \ irgil, whom he imitated, his vene- 
 ration was so great, that he annually solemnized 
 bis birtli-day with more splendour than his 
 own. He finally retired altogether to his seat 
 in Campania, where, being seized with an in- 
 curable ulcer, he determined to put an end to 
 his life by refraining from sustenance, which 
 resolution he maintained, and expired in the 
 early part of the reign of Trajan, in his seventy - 
 fifth year. The only work of Silius which 
 Q»s reached modern times, is the poem on the 
 second Punic war, already mentioned, whicli 
 is an epic, consisting of sixteen books. Lik^ 
 Voltaire's Henriade, it is too much withiL '.lie 
 range of history to congenially mix with fic- 
 tion ; and, as Pliny judiciously remarks, he 
 writes with more diligence than genius. He 
 nowever occasionally elaborates passages into 
 splendour, and his description of the passage 
 of Hannibal across the Alps is particularly 
 admired. The best editions of his work are 
 those of Drakenborch , 17 17, 4to ; of Villebrun , 
 Paris, 1781, 8vo ; of Ernesti, Leipsic, 1791, 
 2vols. 8vo; of Heber, 1792, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 and of Ruperti, Gottingen, 1795 — 8, 2 vols. 
 8to. — Vossii Hist. Lat. Plinii Epist. 
 
 SILVA (John Baptist) a French jdiysi- 
 cian, born of a Jewish family, at Bordeaux, 
 in 1 682. He studied at IMontpellier, and took 
 the degree of MD. at the age of nineteen. He 
 went to Paris, where he was encouraged by 
 the physicians Chirac and Helvetius, and his 
 own skill soon raised him to eminence. In 
 1724 he was appointed consulting physician 
 to Louis XV, and he was invited to Munich 
 by tlie elector of Bavaria, afterwards emperor ; 
 and in 1738 was offered the post of first phy- 
 sician to the empress of Russia, whicli he re- 
 fused. The king bestowed on him a patent of 
 
 nobility a few years before Ids death, which 
 look place at Paris, August 19, 1742. M..Slv8 
 
 was the autlir)r of " 'Iraite ile i'l'Mif^- des dif- 
 ferentes Sortes des .Saign^es, el prim ipaleinenl 
 de cells du Pied," 2 voiu. 8vo ; and " UtcHcr- 
 tations et Consullationii," 3 vols. ivmo. — Did. 
 //j,\f. /J'"/;. Ihiii. 
 
 SILVRSTKR II (Pope;.— .See SYLVKS- 
 TKIl II. 
 
 SIMKON OF OURHA.M. an early Kn-- 
 lish historian, was a contemporary of \\ iliiani 
 of Malmesbury, in the twelfth century, lie 
 both studied and taught the sciencf-s, and 
 particularly the mathematics, at (J.\ford. He 
 became precentor of the church uf Dur- 
 ham, and diet! prol)ably soon after the year 
 lloO, at which time his liistory terminates. 
 He employed himself assiduously in collecting 
 ancient records, especially in the north of 
 Kngland. after they had been scattered by the 
 Danes. From these he comjtosed a history of 
 the Saxon and other kings, from the year 61 <j 
 to 1130. This work, which was continued by 
 John, prior of Hexham, to 1156, is printed 
 among Twysden's " Decern Scriptores," and 
 separately in 1732, 8vo. — Cdie, vol. ii. 
 
 SIMEON, suinamed 3IETAPH KASTF.S, 
 an ecclesiastical .writer of the tenth century, 
 who being nobly born and well educated, rose to 
 high employments under the emperors Leo and 
 Constantine Porphyrogenitus. His writings 
 consist of the lives of about 120 saints, the 
 history of which, in respect to style, Haroniua 
 asserts was not contemptible, although the 
 original Greek being lost, this judgment being 
 formed from Latin translations, is of course 
 problematical. With respect to facts, the 
 same authority gives him up as one who com- 
 posed panegyrics rather than biogra})liy. He 
 also wrote sermons and other pieces, which 
 are still extant. Of his " Lives of tlie Saints," 
 several Latin versions exist ; and it is sup- 
 posed that his translators have made many 
 additions to his narratives, which at this time 
 of day merit and receive the least possible at- 
 tention. He died in 976 or 977. — Baron'n 
 Annales. Mobheim, 
 
 SIMKON, surnamed STVLITES, a re- 
 raarkable fanatic, was born about 392 at Sison, 
 a town on the borders between Syria and 
 Cilicia. He was tlie son of a shepherd, and 
 followed the same occupation until the age of 
 thirteen, when he entered a monastery. After 
 some lime he left it, ami betook himself to 
 abodes on the tops of mountains, or in the 
 caverns of rocks, fasting for many days toge- 
 ther in all the spirit of ascetic devotion. At 
 length he worked himself to such a pitch of 
 extravagance, that he adopted the strange 
 fancy of fixing his habitation on the tops of 
 pillars ( whence his Greek ap|)ellation), and 
 with the notion of climbing higher and higher 
 towards heaven, successively emigrated from 
 a jiillar of six cubits high to ,»thers of twelve, 
 iwentv-two, thirty-^iv, and forty cubits. 
 What is most extraordinary, he was enabled, 
 in the mild climate of Syria, to pass forty- 
 seven years upon his pillars, and his wretched 
 existence was at last terminated by an ulcer, ai 
 
S I iAI 
 
 the age of sixty-nine. The nge was stupid 
 tuough to consider this madness as a proof of 
 extraordinary sanctity, and he was supj)]ied 
 with food, lice, with all the zeal of profound 
 admiration. His body was taken down from 
 his last pillar by the hands of bishops, and 
 conveyed to Antioch by an escort of 6000 
 soldiers, and with almost imperial honours. 
 Such was a part of the Christianity of the 
 fifth cntury ; and wliat is still more lamenta- 
 ble 10 this day, writers have been found to exalt 
 the almost incredible, but well-authenticated 
 acts of insanity of this madman, as the deeds 
 of a Chvistian saint. His fanaticism pro- 
 duced iiKtiiv imitators, and an existence on 
 pillars, iu the mild climate of Asia, was exhi- 
 bited by similar lunatics until the twelfth cen- 
 tury, when the folly was suppressed. — ilioi'^rj. 
 
 SlMLEtl (JosiAs) a learned Protestant 
 divine, born at Cappel in Switzerland, iu 
 lo;3(). His father, who had been prior of the 
 monastery of Cappel, embraced the doctrines 
 of the reformers, and became a minister of the 
 Swiss church. The sod studied at Zurich un- 
 der Henry Bullinger, whose daughter he sub- 
 sequently married ; and having completed his 
 education at Basil and Strasburg, he returned 
 to his native country, and was employed both 
 as a tutor and a preacher at the age of twenty. 
 In 1563 he succeeded to the theological pro- 
 fessorship at Zurich, on the death of Peter 
 IVIartyr, in which station he industriously em- 
 ployed himself in confuting the various here- 
 sies which sprang up among the Profestants in 
 Poland and other j)arts of Europe. Hut he 
 did not confine his labours to theological con- 
 troversy, having publislied several works rela- 
 tive to history, mathematics, and philology. 
 'Ihe productions which have procured him the 
 most lasting reputation are those which relate 
 to tlie history of his native country, and his 
 abridi^ment of Gesner's Bioiiotheca. He died 
 in 1576. — Tehsier Elog. des H. 6'. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SIMM IAS of Rhodes, a Greek poet, some 
 of whose works are still extant, but of whose 
 history little or nothing is known. According 
 to Suidas, he flourished 406 years after the 
 taking of Troy, or 778 BC. ; but this is a ma- 
 nifest error, and the conjecture of \'ossius, 
 which places him under the reign of Ptolemy 
 Lagus, is probably not far from tlie truth. He 
 must have lived at a period when a corrupt 
 taste prevailed, for his works are chiefly dis- 
 tinguished for singularity of form. Three 
 jiieces of his composition remain, " The 
 Wings." " The Egg," and " The Ax," thus 
 denominated from the arrangement of the 
 verses so as to form the respective figures. 
 These elaborate trifles may be found in various 
 editions of the " Poetje Grseci Minores. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SUMMONS (Samuel Foart) a physician 
 and anatomical writer, born at Sandwich in 
 17.")0. He commenced his professional studies 
 in France, and pursued tliem afterwaris at 
 Edinburgh and Leyden, at which last uiiiv.r. 
 sity he took the degree of MD. In 1778 he 
 established himself as a practitioner of medi- 
 
 SI M 
 
 cine in the metropolis, and the following year 
 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1780 he became physician to the Westmin- 
 ster Dispensary ; and in 1781 he commenced 
 the publication of a review and magazine, en- 
 titled " The London Medical Journal," which 
 first appeared iu monthly numbers, and was for 
 some years conducted with great spirit and 
 ability. Having obtained the office of physi- 
 cian to St Luke's hospital, he resigned hi8 
 situation at the dispensary. In 1803 he was 
 consulted relative to the indisposition of the 
 late king ; on whose recovery he received the 
 appointment of physician extraordinary to his 
 majesty. His death took place in 1813. Dr 
 Simmons was the author of " Elements of 
 Anatomy," 8vo ; "A Treatise on Consump- 
 tion," 8vo ; and " Memoirs of Dr William 
 Hunter," besides contributions to the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 SIMON (Richard) an eminent French 
 divine and theological vvriter, born at Dieppe 
 in Normandy, in 1638. Afti \ he had finished 
 his studies, he entered into the congregation 
 of the Oratory, and became lecturer on philo- 
 sophy at the college of Juilly. He distin- 
 guished himself as a bold and original specu- 
 lator, exhibiting a fondness for paradoxical 
 opinions, which however he supported with 
 great learning and ingenuity. In 1678 he pub- 
 lished •' Histoire Critique du Vieux Testa- 
 ment," in which the latitude of sentiment ex- 
 hibited was such that the work was suppressed 
 in France. That circumstance, as usual, served 
 to excite public curiosity, to satisfy which a 
 Latin version was published at Amsterdam, 
 and an English one in London. M. Simon 
 subsequently withdrew from the society of the 
 Oratory, and settling at Paris, devoted his 
 time to theological and critical inquiries. He 
 at length removed to Dieppe, where he died 
 in April 1712. Besides the work already 
 mentioned, he was the author of " Histoire 
 Critique du Nouveau Testament," 4to ; " His- 
 toire Critique de la Creance et des Coutumes 
 des Nations du Levant," 12mo ; " Disquisi- 
 tiones criticae de variis Bibliorum Editionibus, 
 quibus acced. Castig. Theolog. ad Opuscul. 
 Vossii de Sibyllin. Orac." 4to ; " Lettres 
 Choisies," IS^mo; and various other works, 
 including a French translation of the New 
 Testament, with remarks. He likewise, under 
 the pseudonym of Sainjore, edited an interest- 
 ing miscellany, entitled '• Bibliotheque Choisie, 
 ou Recueil de divers Pieces critiques, dont la 
 plus[)art ne sont point impriinees, ou ne 
 se trouvent que ires diflicilement," Paris, 
 1708—10, 4 vols. 1 2mo.— iVoren. ZijW. Univ. 
 Stollii Introd. in Hist. Litt. 
 
 SIMON (Richard) a lexicographer, a na- 
 tive of Dauphiny, who must not be confounded 
 with the subject of the last article. Having 
 entered into the ecclesiastical state, he ob- 
 tained the cure of a parish iu the diocese Oi 
 Vienne ; but he was obliged to resign it on 
 account of ill health. He then settled at 
 Lyons, where he employed himself in com- 
 piling a " Dictionary of the Bible," 1693, 
 folio, republishec'. in 2 vc!s, in 1703. 'J'his 
 
S I M 
 
 S 1 M 
 
 work is not destitute of merit, bu it lias hcvn most ominout Knglioli muuuiaiiB ji mr urttti- 
 Buperseik'cl by the ilictionary of father Cahiat. | teentli cintiiry. Of Iuh birth or family hltlo 
 — Biofr. Univ. ! is known, but it is a.scurtaiiu-d that during thu 
 
 SIMOMJJI.S, a celebrated (jrc'ciim poet, ' civil wars he M-rvi-d with credit in the army 
 was born in the island of Ceos, one of the raised by the duke of Newcastle in support of 
 (Jyclades, where he flourished in tlie (ifth cen- the royal cause aj^ainst the parliament. He i» 
 tury iiC He excelled in various kinds of ' now principally known by bome aide treatiue* 
 j)oetry, but particularly in the eley;iac ; and is on musical suljects. i){ ihene his " Chfly* 
 nifntioued by Plato and Cicero, not only as a 
 good ])oet, but as a man of wisdom and vir- 
 tue. Xeuoj)hon, in his Dialo'^ue on 'lyrainiy, 
 makes him one of the interlocutors, and his 
 famous answer to Hiero, king of Sicily, has 
 oiien been quoted, lliero having one day 
 
 Minuntionum," printed in columns, Kni;li»h 
 ami Latin, 1663, folio, dedicated to his bcho- 
 lar and patron, sir .lohii I'olles, contiunit wi- 
 structions for the viol de gamba, an instru- 
 ment popular in his time. His m-xt work, 
 " A Compendium oi' practical .Music," pub- 
 asked him adelinition of (jod, he requested a lished in five parts, 1667, is an able one, and 
 
 day to consider of it. \Vlien this day expired 
 lie doubled the time, and this he did repeat- 
 edly until the kin^,' wished to know his reason 
 for thus proceeding. " It is," he replied, 
 " because the longer I reflect on the (juestion, 
 the more difficult it appears to be." He was 
 frequently employed by the victors at the 
 
 treats of vocal as well as instrumental music. 
 The time of his decease is uncertain. — /i<"^'. 
 Diet, of Mus. 
 
 SIMPSON (Edward) a learneil English 
 divine, was born in 1378, at lottenham, in 
 Middlesex, of whicli parish his father was 
 rector. He was educated at Westminster 
 
 i^ames, to write panegyrics and odes in their school, whence he removed to Trinity college, 
 praise, like the celebrated Pindar, who Cambridge, where he obtained a feilow^hip, 
 was his pupil; and he is reproached with and took the degree of DD. He obtained the 
 being the first who took money on tliat ac- i living of Easibury in Kent, and was also made 
 count. He was accused of avarice in his old a prebend of Canterbury. He devoted much of 
 a'^e, and in excuse asserted, that he would his time to study, and died in 1651. His princijial 
 rather leave money to his enemies after his works are " ISlosaica, sive Chronici Historiam 
 death, than be troublesome to his friends when , Catholicam complectentis,6«,c." 4to ; " Chroni- 
 lirino • and obtained the prize in poetry at con Catholicum ab exonlio Mundi ; " Praj- 
 Ihe public games, when he was eighty years j lectiores in Persii Satyras ;" " Nota; Sel 
 
 ec- 
 
 of ao^e. He was celebrated among the ancients tiores in Horatium ;" " Anglicana; Linguje 
 for the sweetness, correctness, and purity of Vocabularium Etymologicum," with several 
 his style. Addison, in the Spectator, No. 209, 
 
 has an ingenious paper on Simonides' " Clia 
 racters of Women," which fragment, preserved 
 by Stobajus, was published in Greek and 
 Latin, by Kohler, Gottingen, 1781, 8vo; and 
 in Latin only, in 1789, to which version, pro- 
 fessor Heyne prefixed a letter on the condition 
 of women in ancient Greece. Simonides' 
 fragments of poetry are printed in the Cor- 
 pus Poetarum Grzec. This ancient poet 
 reached the advanced age of eighty-nine. — 
 Fabric. Bibt. Gmc. Bayle. 
 
 SIJMPLICIUS, a philosopher of the sixth 
 century, was a native of Cilicia. He endea- 
 voured to unite the Stoic and Platonic doc- 
 trines with the. Peripatetic, of which combina- 
 tion of tenets his commentary upon the En- 
 chiridion of Epictetus is a remarkable ex- 
 ample. Of this work Fabricius affirms that 
 there is nothing in Pagan antiquity better cal- 
 culated to form the morals, or which aftords 
 juster views of divine providence: Simplicius 
 was one of the philosophers who took refuge 
 with Chosroes, king of Persia, from an appre- 
 hended persecution by Justinian ; the whole of 
 whom returned to Athens upon a truce between 
 the Romans and Persians in .349, which stijm- 
 lated a tolei-ation for them. The commentaries 
 of Simplicius upon Aristotle have been several 
 times published in Greek, and those on Epic- 
 tetus in Greek and Latin, Leyden, 1639, and 
 London, 1670. They have also been trans- 
 lated into English and French by Stanhope 
 and D-Acier. —Fahricii Bibl. Gnec. Brucker. 
 SLMPSON (Christopher) one of the 
 
 theological tracts, and other pieces. Life by 
 WesseliufT. Lloud's i\Ie>noirs. 
 
 SLMPSON, FRS. (Thom.as) a very emi- 
 nent mathematician, was born at Market Bos- 
 worth, in the county of Leicester, in 1710. 
 His father, who was a stuflf- weaver, intended 
 him for the same business, and perceiving his 
 taste for study, forbade him the use of books, 
 which produced an oj)en rupture, and he was 
 left to shift for himself. He in consequence 
 left Bosworth, and took lodgings at the house 
 of a tailor's widow at Nuneaton, whom he 
 afterwards married. Here he lived some time, 
 working at his trade, and while thus employed 
 became acquainted with a jiedlar, who pro- 
 fessed astrology. His new friend lent him 
 Cocker's arithmetic, a treatise on algebra, and 
 Partriilge's book of genitures ; which he stu- 
 died so diligently, that he soon became astro- 
 loger on ]iis own account, ami the fortune- 
 telling oracle of the neighbourhood. An un- 
 lucky undertaking to raise the devil, by which 
 j)iece of imposture a simjde ^irl was nearly 
 frightened into confirmed insanity, obliged 
 him to quit Nuneaton, and he rejiaired to 
 Derby, where he occupied himself in his trade 
 by day, and instructed pupils at night. He 
 remained at Derby until 1736, when he re- 
 paired to London, and resided near Spital- 
 tields, where he wrought at his business, and 
 taught mathematics in the evening. His ex- 
 ertions beinu attended with success, he brought 
 his wife and children to town, and his name be- 
 coming known, he was encouraged to publish 
 bv subscription "A new Treatise of Fluxions,** 
 
S I M 
 
 17.57, 4to. This able work, was followed in 
 1740 bj a " Treatise ou the Nature and Laws 
 of Chance," 4to ; and a quarto volume of 
 '' Essays on several curious and interesting 
 Subjects in speculative and mixed .Mathema- 
 tics." In 1742 appeared bis " Doctrine of 
 Annuities and Reversion," which involved 
 him in a dispute with Dc Moure, in which liow- 
 ever lie maintained a decided advantage. Such 
 was his industry, that the ensuing year he pro- 
 duced a large volume of " Mathematical Dis- 
 sertations ;" his celebrated " Treatise on Al- 
 gebra " was published in 1745; his" Ele- 
 ments of Geometry " in 1747 ; his " Tvigono- 
 metry, plane and spherical," in 1748 ; his 
 " Doctrine and Application of Fluxions " in 
 1750 , in 1752 his " Select Exercises for 
 young Proficients in Mathematics ;" and in 
 1757 his " Miscellaneous Tracts." He had 
 previously, in 1743, been appointed to the 
 professorship of the mathematics at Woolwich, 
 by the instrumentality of Mr Jonc-s, father of 
 the celebrated sir William Jones, and in 1745 
 admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 bad a peculiar and happy mode of teaching, 
 but owing to bis great simplicity of cliaracter, 
 he was often the butt of his more waggish pu- 
 pils. He had also a predilection for low com- 
 pany, and for some of the habits 'consequent 
 tliereon. \\ hen his constitution began to de- 
 cline, a proper regimen was enforced ; but it 
 was too late, as he gradually sank under a 
 depression of spirits, which rendered him in- 
 capable of his professional duties. Being re- 
 commended to try bis native air, he set out in ] 
 February 1761, to Bosworth, where he lin- 
 gered until the 14th of May following, when 
 be expired in the fifty-first year of his age. Be- 
 eides the works already mentioned, he wrote 
 several papers which were read at the Iloyal 
 Society, and priuttd in its Transactions ; and 
 also assisted in, and superintended the " La- 
 dies' J^iary" for several years. In 1760 he was 
 consulted on the plan for Blackfriars bridge, 
 and made a report to the committee, which, 
 with several of bis letters on the subject, were | 
 collected in the Gentleman's iMagazine. The 
 widow of this self taught and extraordinary 
 man, wbo was allowed a pension of 200/. per , 
 annum after bis death, reached the age of 102. 
 — ll'ittnns Math. Diet. 
 
 SLMSON ( Robeut) a distinguished ma- I 
 tbematician of the last century. He was born I 
 in 1687, at Kirtonball in Ayrshire, and re- 
 ceived his education at the university of Glas- 
 gow. He studied medicine, and took the de- 
 gree of doctor in t'.iat faculty ; but he never 
 practised, and in 1711 be was elected to the 
 mathematical chair at Glasgow, which he 
 filled during a period of nearly fifty years, 
 maintaining the higliest reputation for geome- 
 trical science. lie became a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and furnished many mathema- 
 tical papers to the I'liilosophical Transactions. 
 He published a translation of Enclid's Geo- 
 metry, wliicb sui)eiseded all former elementary 
 works ; and he was also the author of " The 
 Loci of Apollonius restored," 4to, and a trea- 
 tise on Conic Sections, 4to. His death took 
 
 SIN 
 
 place Octob'^r 1, 1768 ; and a volume of bis 
 posthumous tracts on mathematics appeared in 
 1776. — His brother, Thomas Sxmson, was 
 professor of medicine and anatomy at the uni- 
 versity of St Andrews. He published, in 1726, 
 " Quatuor Dissertationes de Re iMedica," 
 Edinburgh, 8vo ; " An Essay on iNIuscular 
 Motion," 1752, 8vo ; besides memoirs in the 
 Transactions of the Edinburgh Philosophical 
 Society. — Huttons Math. Diet. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SINCLAIR (Charles Gideon, baron) a 
 distinguished Swedish general, who served in 
 his youth in France, in Prussia, and in Sax- 
 ony, and was subsequently engaged in the 
 wars which took place in various parts of Eu- 
 rope in the last century. He made himself 
 known likewise by his writings, which dis- 
 play a profound acquaintance with military 
 tactics. Among bis published works are 
 " Regulations for Infantry," still adopted in 
 Sweden ; and " Military Institutions, or an 
 elementary Treatise on Tactics," Deux Ponts, 
 177S, 3 vols. 8vo. Baron Sinclair died near 
 Westeraes, in Sweden, September 1, 1803, 
 aged seventv-three. — J^ii^g' Univ* 
 
 SINCLAIR, or SINCLARE (Geoik;e) a 
 pbilosoplier, distinguished for bis researches in 
 physical science, and, very inconsistently, also 
 as the advocate for popular superstition. He 
 held the office of philosophical professor at 
 Glasgow about the middle of the seventeenth 
 century ; but being a zealous Presbyterian, he 
 resigned, after the Restoration of Charles II, 
 rather than submit to the renunciation of the 
 solemn league and covenant required under 
 the new government. He was then employed 
 as an engineer in procuring a supply of water 
 from the Pentland hills for the city of Edin- 
 burgh ; in the course of which undertaking, in 
 1668 — 70, he made use of the mercurial 
 column to ascertain the height of Arthur's 
 seat and other bills in the vicinity of the Scot- 
 tish metropolis ; and be is said to have been 
 the first who applied to this instrument the 
 appellation of baroscope, since changed for 
 that of barometer. In 1672 he published a 
 treatise on hydrostatics and the working of 
 coal mines, 4to, which was somewhat illibe- 
 rally animadverted on by Dr Gregory, the in- 
 ventor of the reflecting telescope. Sinclair 
 appended to his work a strangely irrelevant 
 piece, entitled " A true Relation of the 
 Witches of Glenluce." After the Revolution 
 be recovered his professorship, and retained it 
 till his death in 1696. He was the author of 
 a book called " Satan's Invisible World dis- 
 covered," long popular among the Scottish 
 peasiintry ; besides which be published several 
 works on mathematics and natural philosophy. 
 — Huttons Math. Diet. 
 
 SINDIAH, or SCINDIA (Mahadjee) 
 the son of a Mabratta oflicer, at the court of 
 the Peishwa, in Hindostnn, was born about 
 1743. He was at the battle of Panniput in 
 1761, where his uncle, one of the Mabratta 
 generals, was killed, and he himself was badly 
 wounded and taken prisoner. Having made 
 liis escape, be took refuge in the Decan ; and 
 when the IMabrattas recovered the province 
 
S I R 
 
 S I S 
 
 of Malwa some years after, he was restored to there hejjan to puhHsIi a work, entillej " Mer- 
 
 his patrimonial tloinaiu. His ambition |)roMipted curio I'olitico," whicli obtained yreat celebrity, 
 
 him to a.^pire to the possession of sov( nij;n and of which fifteen volnnii-s a|>|»-:ireii 
 
 power, and his courage and address remh-red sivtdy from lo.i.) to l(i.).>. He afi' 
 
 him successful. In 1770 lie invatled llindos- joined to it •' .Memorie Ilecondile," tn eiv;lit 
 
 tan in concert with Holkar, at the luad of a volumes. The wiiter's putposc was not '- 
 
 INIaliratta army, when he m;ide himst If master to record facts, but to invehli,;;tte their cau ■■ a 
 
 of Delhi, and obtained the tutelage of the no- in the secret ne(^ociations of cabinets, and to 
 
 minal emperor Shah Aulum, wlio had been give documents in support of his narrative, 
 
 tlie pensioner and vassal of the 1-^nglish. He , J'hrough the influence of caidinal Ivla/ann hu 
 
 then attacked the llohillas, who were sup- I was invited to Paris, and pre^ented wit!i a 
 
 porte(i by the nabob Shujah-Doulah and the secular abbacy, and allowed to entitle himi>elf 
 
 Knglisli ; and this contest was terminated by counsellor, historiographer, and almoner to las 
 
 tlie treaty of I7»i?, ratified towards the close mo^t Christian majesty. He died in l(,r'>.i, 
 
 of the following year. After this he. pursued aged seventy. He is said to have liad a venal 
 
 his projects of aggrandisement; and in 1785 j)en, but he had opjmrtunities for good inhjrma- 
 
 be a second time made himself master of 
 Delhi and of the person of the emperor. He 
 also took Agra, where he established a can- 
 non-foundry ; ami he was the first Indian 
 prince who possessed troops armed and disci- 
 plined in the European manner. He had taken 
 into his service general Leborgne de Boigne, 
 a Frenchman, to whose talents and courage he 
 was indebted for much of the success which 
 attended his undertakings ; and it was this 
 officer who, at the head of an army of Mah- 
 rattas and Moguls, gained the famous battle of 
 Patau in June 1790. Sindiah was called a 
 third time to Delhi, to the assistance of Shah 
 Aulum, who bad been deposed and cruelly 
 treated by a rebel chief. 'J'he Mahratta prince 
 restored him to the empty title of sovereignty, 
 reserving to himself the imperial power, with 
 the quality of vizir. In 1791 he returned to 
 the Decan, where he endeavoured to obtain 
 the office of minister of the Peishwa, who was 
 a minor ; but in this scheme he was disap- 
 pointed. He seems to have conceived ambi- 
 tious designs of much greater im; ortauce, but 
 these were frustrated by his sudden death in 
 1794. The dominions of this prince extended 
 from the Ganges to t!ie gulf of Cambaya, and 
 from the frontiers of Lahore to those of Can- 
 deish. He was succeeded by his nephew 
 Dowla Rao Sindiah. — Bios:. U)iiL\ 
 
 SINNER (John RoDOLPn) a jdiilological 
 writer, born at Berne, of a patrician family, in 
 1730. After finishing bis studies, he travelled 
 abroad, and on his return was made keeper of 
 the pul'lic library at his native plate. He pub- 
 lished " Extracts from some i'oems of the 
 twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth Centuries," 
 Lausanne, 1759, 8vo ; which was followed by 
 his catalogue of the MSS. in the library of 
 Berne, with critical annotations, 3 vols. Bvo : 
 and a catalogue of the i>rinted books in the 
 same collection, 2 vols. Bvo. He was also the 
 author of a French translation of the satires of 
 Persius ; an Essay on the doctrines of trans- 
 migration and purgatory ; and a tour in Swit- 
 zerland. He resigned his office of librarian 
 in 1776, to enter into the grand council of 
 Berne, and he became bailli of Erlach. His 
 death took place February 28, 1787. — Bioi;. 
 Univ. 
 
 SIRI (ViTTORio) an Italian annalist, was; 
 born at Parma about 1613. He took the Bene 
 dictine habit in the monastery of St John, and 
 
 tion ; and the number of original documents 
 which he published still give a certain value to 
 his works. A translaticjii into French of the 
 most important part of both the .Mercurio and 
 iNIemorie, have been jiublished by M. Kequier, 
 under the title of " Memoires Secrets." — Tira- 
 bosclii. T.tuidi. Moreri. 
 
 SiRMOND (James) a French Jesuit, dis- 
 tinguished for his learning and ability. He 
 was born at Riom in the province of Auvergne 
 in 15.39, and he prosecuted his youthful stu- 
 dies with such diligence, that having entered 
 into the order of Si Ignatius at the age of fif- 
 teen, he was immediately employed as a clas- 
 sical tutor in the college of Paris. For several 
 years be taught with great reputation, and 
 among his pupils were the duke d'Angouleme, 
 a natural son of Charles IX, and Francis de 
 Sales, afterwards bishop of Geneva. In 1590 
 he was called to Rome, and appointed secre- 
 tary to Claudius Atjuaviva, the general of his 
 order. Returning to Paris^ he employed him- 
 self in various undertakings, which display 
 immense literary industry and acuteness of in- 
 tellect. In 16'29 appeared his greatest work, 
 " Concilia antiqua Galliae," 2 vols, folio; and 
 he edited the writings of Sidonius Apollinaris, 
 and other early Christian authors. As a con- 
 troversial writer, he obtained great celebrity, 
 particularly in his dispute with James (jode- 
 froi, relative to the extent of the pope's juris- 
 diction ; and in his defence of himself, a,ainst 
 the abbe de St Cyran, who attacked his work 
 on the councils of the French church. In 
 I 637 he was chosen confessor to Louis XIII, 
 which appointment interrupted his literary 
 avocations ; but on the death of that prince iu 
 16-13, he returned tolas favourite stuiiies, and 
 prosecuted them with great assiduity till his 
 death. That event took place in 1651, in the 
 ninety-third year of his age. 1 he works of 
 this learned Jesuit are very numerous, extend- 
 ins to fifteen folio volumes, inclusive of his 
 editions of ancient writers. In 1723 appeared 
 " Sirmondi Opera \'aria, cura Theodori," 
 \'enice, 5 vols, folio. — yiceron Mem. vol. xvii. 
 XX. Penan It. ' Moreri. 
 
 SISKNNA (Licii's CoRNEiius")a Roman 
 orator and historian, descended from the same 
 familv with the dictator Sylia. He wasqua-s- 
 ;or of Sicily in the year of Rome 676, and af- 
 terwards pra.'tnr and governor of Achaia, as 
 lieutenant of Porapey. He wrote a History 
 
S IM 
 
 SIN 
 
 17.57, 4to. This able work was followed in place October 1, 1768; and a volume of his 
 I7i0 bj a " Treatise on the Nature and Laws posthumous tracts on mathematics appeared in 
 of Cliance," 4to ; and a quarto volume of 1776. — Ills brother, Thomas Si.mson, was 
 '■ Essays on several curious and interesting professor of medicine and anatomy at the uni- 
 Subjects in speculative and mixed Alathema- versity of St Andrews. He published, in 17^6, 
 tics." In 1742 appeared his " Doctrine of " Quatuor Dissertationes de Ke .Medica," 
 Annuities and Reversion," which involved Edinburgli, 8vo ; "An Essay on iMuscular 
 him in adispute with Dc Moure, in which how- Motion," 1752, 8vo ; besides memoirs in the 
 ever he maintained a decided advantage. Such Transactions of the Edinburgh Philosophical 
 was his industry, that the ensuing year he pro- Society. — Hutton's Math. Diet. Biog. Univ. 
 duced a large volume of " Mathematical Dis- j SINCLAIR (Charles Gideon, baron) a 
 sertations ;" his celebrated " Treatise on Al- distinguished Swedish general, who served in 
 gebra " was published in 1745 ; his " Ele- his youth in France, in Prussia, and in Sax- 
 ments of Geometry " in 1747; his " Ttigono- ony, and was subsequently engaged in the 
 metry, plane and spherical," in 1748 ; his wars which took place in various parts of Eu- 
 " Doctrine and Application of Fluxions " in rope in the last century. He made himself 
 1750; in 175'2 his "Select Exercises for known likewise by his writings, which dis- 
 young Proficients in Mathematics ;" and in play a profound acquaintance with military 
 1757 his " Miscellaneous Tracts." He had tactics. Among his published works are 
 previously, in 1743, been appointed to the " Regulations for Infantry," still adopted in 
 professorship of the mathematics at Woolwich, Sweden; and "Military Institutions, or an 
 by the instrumentality of Mr Jone-s, father of elementary Treatise on Tactics," Deux Ponts, 
 the celebrated sir William Jones, and in 1745 1773, 3 vols. 8vo. Baron Sinclair died near 
 admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. He ; Westeraes, in Sweden, September 1, 1803, 
 had a peculiar and happy mode of teaching, aged seventy-three. — ^^if>g- Univ» 
 but owing to his great simplicity of cliaracter, SIXCLAIR, or SINCLAIIE (Geokoe) a 
 he was often the butt of his more waggish pu- philosopher, distinguished for his researches in 
 pils. He had also a predilection for low com- physical science, and, very inconsistently, also 
 pany, and for some of the habits consequent as the advocate for popular superstition. He 
 tliereon. When his constitution began to de- held the office of philosophical professor at 
 dine, a proper regimen was enforced; but it Glasgow about the middle of the seventeenth 
 was too late, as he gradually sank under a century ; but being a zealous Presbyterian, he 
 depression of spirits, which rendered him in- resigned, after tlie Restoration of Chailes II, 
 capable of his professional duties. Being re- rather than submit to the renunciation of the 
 commended to try his native air, he set out in solemn league and covenant required under 
 February 1761, to Boswortli, where he lin- the new government. He was then employed 
 gered until the 14th of May following, when as an engineer in procuring a supply of water 
 he expired in the fifty-first year of his age. Be- from the Pentland hills for the city of Edin- 
 Bides the works already mentioned, he wrote burgh ; in the course of which undertaking, in 
 several papers which were read at the Royal 1668 — 70, he made use of the mercurial 
 Society, and printed in its Transactions ; and column to ascertain the height of Arthur's 
 also assisted in, and superintended the " La- seat and other hills in the vicinity of the Scot- 
 dies' Diary" for several years. In 1760 he was tish metropolis ; and he is said to have been 
 consulted on the plan for Blackfriars bridge, the first who applied to this instrument the 
 and made a report to the committee, which, appellation of baroscope, since changed for 
 with several of his letters on the subject, were , that of barometer. In 1672 he published a 
 collected in the Gentleman's Magazine. The , treatise on hydrostatics and the working of 
 widow of this self taught and extraordinary coal mines, 4to, which was somewhat illibe- 
 man, who was allowed a pension of 200/. per , rally animadverted on by Dr Gregory, the in- 
 animm after his death, reached the age of 102. j ventor of the reflecting telescope. Sinclair 
 — Ihittnn's Math. Diet. j appended to his work a strangely irrelevant 
 
 SIMSON (Robert) a distinguished ma- I piece, entitled " A true Relation of the 
 thematician of the last century. He was born I Witches of Glenluce." After the Revolution 
 in 1687, at Kirtonhall in Ayrshire, and re- he recovered his professorship, and retained it 
 
 ceived his education at the university of Glas 
 gow. He studied medicine, and took the de- 
 gree of doctor in t'.iat faculty ; but he never 
 practised, and in 1711 he was elected to the 
 mathematical chair at Glasgow, which he 
 filled during a period of nearly fifty years, 
 maintaining the higliest reputation for geome- 
 trical science. He became a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and furnished many matliema- 
 tical papers to the I'liilosophical Transactions. 
 He published a translation of Euclid's Geo- 
 metry, which sui)erseded all former elementary 
 Works ; and he was also the author of " The 
 Loci of Apollonius restored," 4to, and a trea- 
 tise on Conic Sections, 4to. His death took 
 
 till his death in 1696. He was the author of 
 a book called " Satan's Invisible World dis- 
 covered," long popular among the Scottish 
 peasantry ; besides which he published several 
 works on mathematics and natural philosophy. 
 — Hutton's Math. Diet. 
 
 SLNDIAH, or SCINDIA (Mahadjee) 
 the son of a Mahratta officer, at the court of 
 the Peishwa, in Hindostan, was born about 
 1743. He was at the battle of Panniput in 
 1761, where his uncle, one of the Mahratta 
 generals, was killed, and he himself was badly 
 wounded and taken prisoner. Having made 
 his escape, he took refuge in the Decan ; and 
 when the IMahrattas recovered the province 
 
S I II 
 
 S I s 
 
 of Malwa some years after, he was restored to there hejjan to pubhBli a work, enfilK-J " Mer- 
 liis patrimonial domain. His ambition prompted curio l^olitico," which obtained yreat celebrity, 
 
 lum to asi)U"e to the possL'.'-^ioa of sovcniijn 
 power, aiul his courage and address remh-red 
 him successful. In i77l) he invaded llindos- 
 tan in concert with Ih)lkar, at 'he head of a 
 Rlahratta army, when lie made him«( If mastir 
 of Delhi, and obtained the tutelaj^e of the no- 
 minal emperor Sliali Aulum, who had been 
 the pensioner and vassal of the Jmi^IisIi. lie 
 
 and of whi«h fift«-«-n voIuhk'H ajip«'arrd 
 sivfly from lo.j.) to l(i.»j. IIl' afi' •> 
 
 joined to >t " .Memorie Recondite," in ei>;ht 
 voluiiu'.H. TIm! wiiU'r'.H purpose was not o: !. 
 to record facts, but to invihti^att- th< ir tau < a 
 in the secret nej^ociations of cabinets, and to 
 tjive documentH in Hupport of his narrative. 
 'Jhrough the influence of caidinal Ma/ariii he 
 
 then attacked the Rohillas, who were sup- ! was invited to Paris, antl pri-.senit-d with a 
 ported by tlie nabob Shujah-Doulah and tlie secular abbacy, and allowed to entitle hmii>< If 
 English ; and this contest was terminated by counsellor, historiographer, and almoner to las 
 the treaty of 178'i?, ratified towards the close most Christian majchly. He died in loli.i, 
 of the following year. After this he pursued aged seventy. He is said to have had a venal 
 his projects of aggrandisement; and in 178.> pen, but he had opportunities forgood informa- 
 
 he a second time made himself master of 
 Delhi and of the person of the emperor. He 
 also took Agra, where he established a can- 
 non-foundry ; and he was the first Indian 
 prince who possessed troops armed and disci 
 
 tion ; and the number of original documents 
 which he published still give a certain value to 
 his works. A translation into French of the 
 most important part of both the Mercurio and 
 IMemorie, have been published by .M. Kecpiier, 
 
 phued in the European manner. He had taken , under the title of " Memoires Secrets." — 7'ira- 
 
 into his service general Leborgne de Boigne, 
 a Frenchman, to whose talents and courage he 
 was indebted for much of the success which 
 attended his undertakings ; and it was this 
 officer who, at the head of au army of I\Iah- 
 rattas and Moguls, gained the famous battle of 
 Patan in June 1790. Sindiah was called a 
 third time to Delhi, to the assistance of Shah 
 Aulum, who had been deposed and cruelly 
 treated by a rebel chief. Ihe Mahratta prince 
 restored hiin to the empty title of sovereignty, 
 reserving to himself the imperial power, with 
 the quality of vizir. In 1791 he returned to 
 the Decan, where he endeavoured to obtain 
 the office of minister of the Peishwa, who was 
 a minor ; but in this scheme he was disap- 
 pointed. He seems to have couceived ambi- 
 tious designs of much greater im; ortance, but 
 these were frustrated by his sudden death in 
 179-4. The dominions of this prince extended 
 from the Ganges to the gulf of Cambaya, and 
 from the frontiers of Lahore to those of Can- 
 deish. Fie was succeeded by his nephew 
 Dowla Rao Sindiah. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SINNER (John Rodolpii) a philological 
 writer, born at Berne, of a patrician family, in 
 1730. After finishing his studies, he travelled 
 abroad, and on his return was made keeper of 
 the pul«Iic library at his native place. He \>wh- 
 lished " Extracts from some Poems of the 
 twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth Centuries," 
 Lausaime, 1759, 8vo ; which was followed by 
 his catalogue of the MSS. in the library of 
 Berne, with critical annotations, 3 vols. 8vo : 
 and a catalogue of the jirinted books in the 
 same collection, 2 vols. 8vo. He was also the 
 author of a French translation of the satires of 
 Persius ; an Essay on the doctrines of trans- 
 migration and purgatory ; and a tour in Swit- 
 zerland. He resigned his office of librarian 
 in 1776, to enter into the grand council of 
 Berne, and he became bailli of F>lach. I lis 
 death took place February 28, 1787. — Bio^. 
 Univ. 
 
 SIRI (ViTTORio) an Italian annalist, was 
 born at i'aima about lt>l3. He took the Wev.e 
 dictine habit in the monastery of St John, and 
 
 boschi. l.tDidi. Mureri. 
 
 SIRMOND (jAMKs)a French Jesuit, dis- 
 tinguished for his learning and ability. He 
 was born at Riom in the province of Auvergne 
 in 1339, and he prosecuted his youthful stu- 
 dies with such diligence, that having entered 
 into the order of Si Ignatius at the age of fif- 
 teen, he was immediately employed as a clas- 
 sical tutor in the college of Paris. For several 
 years he taught with great reputation, and 
 among his ])upils were the duke d'AngouIeme, 
 a natural son of Charles IX, and Francis de 
 Sales, afterwards bishop of Geneva. Id 1o90 
 he was called to Rome, and appointed secre- 
 tary to Claudius Acjuaviva, the general of his 
 order. Returning to Paris, he employed him- 
 self in various undertakings, which display 
 immense literary industry and acuteness of in- 
 tellect. In 16'29 appeared his greatest work, 
 " Concilia antiqua Galliae," 2 vols, folio ; and 
 he edited the writings of Sidonius Apollinaris, 
 and other early Christian authors. As a con- 
 troversial writer, he obtained great celebrity, 
 particularly in his dispute with James Gode- 
 froi, relative to the extent of the pope's juris- 
 diction ; and in his defence of himself, a-ainst 
 the abbe de St Cyran, who attacked his work 
 on the councils of the French church. In 
 1 637 he was chosen confessor to Louis XIII, 
 whicli appointment interrupted his literary 
 avocations ; but on the death of that prince in 
 16-13, he returned to hi.-< favourite studies, and 
 prosecuted them with great assiduity till hi« 
 death. That event took place in 1631, in the 
 ninety-third year of hia age. Ihe works of 
 this learned Jesuit are very numerous, extend- 
 ing: to fifteen folio volumes, inclusive of hid 
 editions of ancient writers. In l728 appeared 
 *' Sirmoiuli Opera \'aria, cura Theodori," 
 Venice, 5 vols, folio. — yiceron Mem. vol. xvii, 
 XX. Pemutlt. ' Moreri, 
 
 SISKNNA (Licics Cornelius) a Roman 
 orator and historian, descended from the same 
 famiiv with the dictator Sylla. He was quaes- 
 tor of Sicily in the year of Rome 676, and af- 
 terwards pr<etor and governor of Ac haia, as 
 lieutenant of Pompey. He wrote a History 
 
S I X 
 
 of Rome, from the taking of the city by the 
 Gauls to the time of Sylla, in twenty-two 
 books ; and a history of the wars of Sylla, be- 
 sides which he composed a commentary on 
 the comedies of Plautus ; and translated from 
 the Greek tlie Milesian Tales. All his works 
 liave perished except some fragments of the 
 history collected by Cortius, and publislied in 
 the notes to his edition of Sallust ; and relics 
 of the Tales cited by Charisias and Servius. — 
 Bioir. Univ. 
 
 SIXTUS V (Pope) was born in 1521 at 
 Montalto, in tlie marche of Ancona, where 
 his father, Francis Peretti, was a vinedresser. 
 The son, whose name was Felix, was employed 
 bv a neighbouring farmer in keeping swine, in 
 wliic h mean situation he attracted the notice 
 of a Franciscan friar, who obtained admission 
 for him into the convent of Ascoli, in tlie 
 quality of lay- brother. His natural acuteness 
 and thirst for learning beino remarked, he was 
 taught the Latin language ; and being received 
 into the order, went through the usual courses 
 of jihilosophy and theology. He was ordained 
 priest in 151.5, and soon after made a doctor 
 in theology, when he assumed the name of 
 ISIontalto. Having acquired a high character 
 by his ])reaching, he was nominated commissary 
 general at Bologna, and inquisitor at Venice, 
 where, however, he excited the jealousy of the 
 senate, and in consequence retired to Rome, 
 where he became ])rocurator general of his 
 order. On his pupil, cardinal Alexandri, 
 being raised to tlie papal throne under the 
 name of Pius V, he was made general of his 
 order, and cardinal. On the accession of 
 Gregory XllI, finding himself without influence 
 or connexions to push him forward, he sud- 
 denly ciianged his demeanour, and assumed 
 quite an opposite character of gentleness and 
 meekness, and appeared all humility and con- 
 descension. He even carried his hypocrisy 
 so far as to treat his family with neglect, and 
 afTectirig the infirmities of age, to assure 
 them that he was df-ad to the (iffairs of the 
 present world. With similar craftiness he 
 took no part in political contentions, and so 
 im])osed on the cardinals, that in derision 
 they used to call him " the ass of La Marca." 
 At length Gregory XIII died, on which a 
 strong contest took ])lace ; and the interest of 
 the more influential cainlidates hein^ nearly 
 equal, they agreed to choose Montalto for the 
 present, who appeared before them incessantly 
 coughing, as if about to expire. He was ac- 
 cordingly elected on the 24lh Aj>ril 1585; 
 and scarcely had the tiara been placed on his 
 head, than he threw away his staff", walked 
 erect, and chanted Te Deum with a voice so 
 strong, that the roof of the chajjel re-echoed 
 with the sound. He took the name of Sixtus 
 V , and commenced his reign with a degree of 
 rigour in the administration of justice which 
 W'as quite unknown in Rome, and which, al- 
 though much severity had become necessary, 
 was in many instances cruel and implacable. 
 His foreign policy was equally significant of 
 the strength and audacity of his character. He 
 excommunicated Henrv IV of France, while 
 
 SK E 
 
 only king of Navarre, and deprived him of th« 
 right of succession ; and solemnly approved 
 the assassination of Henry 111, by the domiui- 
 can Clement. He however refused on that 
 event to renew the excommunication against 
 Henry IV, who he said was worthy of a crown; 
 and he also much admired our queen Elizabeth 
 for the freedom and vigour of her government. 
 After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, he in- 
 tended to struiigle with Philip II, for tlie full 
 possession of Naples, but death prevented him. 
 Although he reigned only five years and four 
 months, he undertook and completed nume- 
 rous magnificent works, and on his death left 
 a large sum in his treasury. He was by no 
 means exempt from nepotism ; he raised bis 
 poor sister, the widow of a peasant, to the 
 rank of a princess, exalted her grandson to 
 the cardinalship, and married his nieces 
 into the first families. This celebrated pontiff 
 was the first who fixed the number of cardi- 
 nals at seventy. He also caused the vulgate 
 edition of the Bible to be revised ; and to the 
 great dismay of the Catholic priesthood, even 
 allowed of an Italian version of it. He died 
 August "27, 1590, after a short but active reign. 
 His death created great joy at Rome, owing 
 to bis extreme rigour ; but the vigour of his 
 administration and the mighty works which he 
 eff'ected, have thrown a considerable lustre 
 about his name, and have constituted him one 
 of the most distinguished characters in an age 
 which abounded with great men. — Life by 
 Leti. Tirahoschi. 
 
 SKELTON (John) an old English poet, 
 descended from an ancient family in Cumber- 
 land, was born towards the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century. He appears to have studied 
 at both universities, but certainly at Oxford, 
 wliere about 1489 he received the laureateship 
 as a degree, not being at that time a court 
 office as at present. He took orders in 1498, 
 and in some of his works he alludes to his 
 being curate of Trompington in Cambridge- 
 shire in 1507, as well as rector of Diss in Nor- 
 folk. Tradition informs us that he occasionally 
 created disgust by his buff"ooneries in the pul- 
 pit ; and there were three objects at which he 
 delijihted to aim his satire, which were the 
 mendicant fiiars, Lily the grammarian, and 
 cardinal Wolsey. His attacks even wlien me- 
 rited were extremely coarse, nor was his own 
 life either moral or regular. His attacks on 
 Wolsey at lengtli roused the resentment of 
 that i)owerful prelate, and an order being 
 issued for his apprehension, he took refuge in 
 the sanctuary at Westminster, where the abbot 
 Islip aff"()rded him protection until his death, 
 on the '21st June 15'J9, not long before the 
 fall of Wolsey. Skelton appears to have been 
 deemed a more important person in his own 
 day than has been generally imagined. How- 
 ever obscured by indecency, scurrility, and 
 the broaiU'St burlesque, he occasionally exhi- 
 bits much sound sense, and his vein of satire 
 is often copious and original. Its application 
 to the clergy of the day was certainly un- 
 sparing, but vices that almost justified the 
 plunder of the church by Henry VUl, in the 
 
SLA 
 
 eyes of liia subjects, might naturally enough 
 excite tlie spleen of a caustic satirist ; and 
 Skelton himself insiniiat(\s that ht^ was chi<'fly 
 reviled for his blunt exposure of the rei^iiiu" 
 follies of the day. His works will be found in 
 Chalmers's edition of the l''n;^lish poets, with 
 the exception of a few which, owin;; to their 
 coarseness, it was tlioui^ht proper to omit. 
 The whole are enumerated by Ritson. — Life 
 ill Chalmers's Kdidoii oj I'oils. Wartun's Hist, 
 of Eiig. Poet. 
 
 SKELTON (Piiii.ip) a learned Irish divine, 
 was born in the parish of Derriatjbly near l,is- 
 burne in 1707. JJeing one of a numercjus family 
 of ten children, after being sent to Lisburne 
 school, he lost his father, and he was in 17'J4 
 entered as a sii'.ar in the university of Dublin. 
 He left college after takini^liis first degree, and 
 assisted his brother, a clergyman ami school- 
 master, at Dundalk. He was himself ordained | 
 in 1729, and first served a curacy in the 
 county of Fermanagh, whence he removed to 
 another in Monaghan. While in this situa- 
 tion he })ublished several able controversial 
 tracts anonymously, some of which exhibited a 
 jieculiar vein of satire ; one of them, entitled 
 " Proposals for the Revival of Christianity," 
 beiug attributed to Swift. His conduct as a 
 clergyman was exemplary for its correctness 
 and benevolence ; vet he obtained no [prefer- 
 ment until 17.50, when he received the small 
 living of Pettego in Donnegal. He had pre- 
 viously written his principal work, called 
 " Deism Revealed," which appeared in 1749, j 
 in !2 vols. 8vo. In 1759 he obtained the living j 
 of Devenisli near Enniskilleu, and in 1766 j 
 that of Fintona in tlie county of Tyrone. 'J'bis [ 
 active and conscientious, but in some respects 
 eccentric clergyman, died May 4, 1787, in his 
 eightieth year. His works, in five volumes 
 octavo, which were published by himself in 
 1770, for the benefit of the INlagdalen charity, 
 consist of " Deism Revealed," various ser- 
 mons, and some curious original tracts, too 
 numerous for detail. — Life by S. Burdy. 
 
 SKINNER (Stephen) a philological writer 
 of eminence in the seventeenth century, who 
 was a native of London or its vicinity. He 
 studied at Christchurch, Oxford, but left the 
 university at the commencement of the civil 
 war in the reign of Charles I, and went to the 
 continent. In 1646 he returned home, and 
 took his degrees in arts, after which he again 
 travelled abroad, and at the university of Hei- 
 delberg he was admitted Ml). In 16.54 he 
 obtained the same degree at Oxford, after 
 which he engaged in practice as a physician 
 at Lincoln. Dr Skinner devoted much of his 
 time to etymological researches, especially re- 
 lative to the dialects of his native country ; 
 and at his death, in 1667, he left the maie- 
 riais of a valuable work, edited by Thomas 
 Henshaw, under the title of " Ktymologicon 
 Lingua Anglicanje," 1671, folio. — ]\'ood's 
 Athen. Oxon. 
 
 SLATER or SLA YTER (William) a di- 
 vine and poet, was born in Somersetsliire in 
 1.587. and was admitted a member of St Mary- 
 hall, Oxford in 1600, whence he removed to 
 
 .-. L !•: 
 
 Hrazennose in 1607. In loll he enn-n-il ii.ta 
 orders, and wa« beneficed at Olterdcii in K«rir, 
 where he died in 1617. He obtained a cou- 
 Hiilerable reputation for poetical t;deiit, and a 
 knowleilge of KngliHJi hiitlory, which ih to ha 
 estimated by the followwing worktt, " Tlir*-- 
 n(jdia Hive Pandioiiium," being e|i-^'ie» and 
 epiiaphs (jii (pieen Anne of Denmark. Iril9- 
 these elegies and epita|)hs are in Hebrew, 
 (ireek, Latin, and Ktiglish verses, and M*me of 
 them are m llie fantastual hhajtes of pilJarK, 
 circles, &c. ; " Pal.e- Albion, or the History of 
 Cireat 15riiain." fulif>, in Latin and Kngli«|i 
 verse, with historical notes, whu h |)roiluciion 
 Grainger deems his " ca|)ital work ;" " Cie- 
 nethliacon, sive Stemma Regis .Facobi," folio, 
 Latin and English, in which work the ge- 
 nealogy of James, from Adam, is laboriously 
 deduced ; " The Psalms of David, in fuur 
 Languages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Eng- 
 lish, set to the Tunes of our Churches." liotli 
 words and music are neatly engraved in sixty 
 copj)er-j)lates, and taken as a whole, Dr liur- 
 ney esteems it one of the most curious pro- 
 ductions of the seventeenth century. — Aihcn. 
 Oxon. Buriiey's Hist, (f Music. 
 
 SLEIDAN (John) an able and learneJ 
 German historian, so named from the place of 
 his nativity, Sleidna, a small town in the vici- 
 nity of Cologne, where he was born in 1.506. 
 He was the son of humble parents, and was 
 distinguished l)y a certain precocity of talent, 
 which, having cultivated by all the means 
 afforded him at home, he accompanied his 
 fellow-townsman and friend, John Sturmius, 
 to France, where he completed his studies in 
 the universities of Paris and Orleans. The 
 recommendation of his companion secured him 
 in 1535 a situation in the household of the 
 cardinal archbishop John du Bel lay, to whom 
 he acted many years as confidential secretary, 
 and obtained from the munificence of that pre- 
 late a comfortable pension. He accompanied 
 the French ambassador to the diet at Hajje- 
 nau, and afterwards resided at Paris, until in 
 154'.2 his attachment to the doctrines of the 
 Reformation caused liim to retire to Strasburgli. 
 The sect which he first embraced was tbat ot 
 Zuingle, but he afterwards joined the Lu- 
 therans, and became considerable in that party 
 both by his writings and public employment. 
 He was deputed in 1545 to the king of Eng- 
 land, and in 1551 was one of tlie Protestant 
 envoys to the Council of Trent, which was 
 soon after dissolved by the troops of iMaurice, 
 elector of Saxony. He ultimately retired to 
 Strasburgh, where he occupied his leisure 
 hours in writing the memoirs of his own times, 
 from 1517, the year when Martin Luther 
 first commenced his opposition to the see 
 of Rome, to 155.5, that in which the work 
 appeared. This elaborate history, which is 
 written in twenty five books, and has been 
 translated into most of the European languages, 
 is entitled " De Statu Heligionis et Reipub- 
 licae Carolo Quinto Ca^sare Commeutarii." 
 He was also the autlior of another historical 
 treatise in three books, " De quatuor summia 
 Imperiis," and of n few tracts, principally po« 
 
S LO 
 
 litical, coilected and printed in 1603, under 
 the title of " Opuscula, kc." J'he death of 
 his wife, to wliom he was much attached, in 
 the same year in which lus principal work ap- 
 peared, produced in him a morbid melan- 
 cholv, which impaired his faculties, and at 
 leni^tli terminated in death in 1556. The 
 " De Statu Religionis" of Sleidau lias al- 
 ways been in great credit with the Protes- 
 tants, althoui;h cliarged with partiality by the 
 Catholic writers and the adherents of Charles 
 V. It is highly praised by the impartial De 
 Thou, llis compendium of ancient history, 
 " De quatuor summis Imperiis," has also been 
 frequently reprinted. — Melchior Adam. Mo- 
 reri. Thiinntis. 
 
 SLINGELAND (John Peter van) a 
 Dutch artist, celebrated as a painter of por- 
 traits and conversations, was born at Leyden 
 in 1640. He was a pupil and decided imitator 
 of Gerard Douw, wliom lie is sometimes 
 thought to surpass. His extreme attention to 
 finish caused him to work very slowly, and be 
 was once three years engaged in one family 
 piece. He imitated nature with extreme ac- 
 curacy, but with very little taste in the way of 
 selection. He is however esteemed one of 
 the best painters of the Flemish school. — 
 Argenville Vies de Peint. 
 
 SLOANE (sir Hans) a celebrated English 
 plivsician and naturalist, who by a testamen- 
 tary bequest laid the foundation of that most 
 important national establishment, the British 
 IMuseum. He was of Scottish extraction, his fa- 
 ther Alexander Sioane being the head of a co- 
 lony of Scots which, in the reign of James I, set- 
 tled in the north of Ireland, where the subject of 
 this article was born, at the town of Killileagh, 
 April 16, 1660. He manifested a predomi- 
 nant taste for natural history at an early age, 
 which led him to choose the ])rofe^.sioll of me- 
 dicine, as atl'ording the greatest facility for 
 indulging in his favourite studies. He went 
 to London, where he attended lectures on 
 anatomy, botany, and chemistry, and formed 
 an accjuaintance with Boyle and Ray. After 
 remaining in that metropolis four years, he re- 
 moved to Paris, and then to Montpellier, 
 where he appears to have taken his medical 
 degrees. In 1684 he returned to London, to 
 engage in the practice of his profession. 'J'he 
 following year he was elected a member of the 
 Iloyal Society, and in 1687 he was chosen a 
 fellow of the College of Physicians. He shortly 
 after w^nt to Jamaica as physician to Cliristo- 
 I)her, duke of Albemarle, who had been ap 
 jtointed governor of that island. The death of 
 that nobleman, shortly after his arrival in the 
 ^Vest Indies, occasioned the return of Dr 
 Sioane to England, after an absence of about 
 fifteen months, which period he had most se- 
 dulously employed in collecting from Jamaica 
 and some of the Caribbee Islands, plants and 
 other objects of natural history, which served 
 as the foumiation of a splendid work subse- 
 quently published. He resumed his practice 
 as a j)hy sician in London ; and in 1694 he was 
 chosen physician to Christ's hospital, which 
 office he held till 1730. Being appointed se- 
 
 SM A 
 
 cretary to the Royal Society, h^: renewed the 
 publication of the Phiiosojihical Transactions, 
 which bail for some time been interrui)led. In 
 1701 he obtained the diploma of xMD. from the 
 university of Oxford ; and he was likewise 
 elected an associate of the Academy of Sciences 
 at Paris. His most important work, the " N-d.- 
 tural History of Janriaica," was partly pub- 
 lished in 1707, when the first volume made its 
 ap[)earance ; but the numerous avocations of 
 the author delayed the publication of the se- 
 cond till 1725. He was one of the medi- 
 cal attendants of queen Anne in her last ill- 
 ness ; and George I created him a baronet in 
 1716; being, it is said, the first physician on 
 whom that honour was conferred. He was 
 likewise appointed i)liysician-general to the 
 army during the reign of that king ; and on 
 the accession of George II, he was nominated 
 physician in ordinary to his majesty. In 1719 
 he became president of the physician's col- 
 lege ; and on the death of sir Isaac Newton, 
 in 1727, he succeeded to the presidency of 
 the Royal Society. He held the latter post 
 till 1740, when his great age and infirmities 
 induced him to resign it. The following year 
 he retired to Chelsea, where he died January 
 11, 1752, and his remains were interred in a 
 vault in the parish church. Sir Hans Sioane 
 was not only distinguished as a man of science 
 but also as a liberal and patriotic citizen. He 
 was a governor of most of t!ie metropolitan 
 hospitals, to which he was not only a constant 
 benefactor while living, but he also left con- 
 siderable sums to them at his death. He set 
 on foot the scheme of a dispensary for the 
 poor ; and he gave to the apothecaries' com- 
 pany a piece of ground for a botanic garden. 
 He contributed greatly to the execution of 
 other schemes for the public benefit ; but the 
 share he had in the institution of the British 
 Museum will most effectually preserve his 
 name from oblivion. Having with great labour 
 and expense, during the course of his long 
 life, collected a rich cabinet of medals, objects 
 of natural history, &c. and a valuable library 
 of printed books and manuscripts, he be- 
 queathed the whole to the public, on condi- 
 tion that the sum of 'JO, 000/. should be paid 
 to his executors, being little more than the 
 intrinsic value of the medals, metallic ores, 
 and precious stones, comprised in his collec- 
 tion. Parliament fulfilled the terms of the 
 legacy, and in 1753 an act was passed — " for 
 the purchase of the museum or collection of 
 sir Hans Sioane, bart. and of the Harleian col- 
 lection of JMSS. and for jirocuring one general 
 repository for the better reception and more 
 convenient use of the said collection, and of 
 the Cottonian library, and additions thereto." 
 Such was the commencement of the British 
 Museum, every department of which, and es- 
 pecially the library, has recently been vastly 
 augment?d. — Bios;. Brit. Martin's Biog. Vhil. 
 S.MALBKOKE(Kif hard) bishop of Lich- 
 field and Coventry, a learned and zealous, but 
 somewhat fanciful polemic, who flourished in 
 the earlier part of the last century. He was 
 a na'.ive cf the to'vn of Birmineham, born 
 
S M A 
 
 lt)7'2, and took his degrees in diviujiv at Ala"- 
 dalen college, Oxford, where he ohtaiiu-d a 
 fellowship, and continued to reside, till in 
 1723 be was raised to the see of St David's. 
 Over this diocese lie presided about wvm 
 years, when he was farther preferred to the 
 more valuable one of Lichfuld. in the 
 ^V histonian CDnlrover.sv he maintained liie 
 
 S M A 
 
 been a nu-mbrr, « huli he only renj^ru-.i in 
 17i;J for the «ie;in<'ry, in MKCe8i»i(.n to hitt frit-nd 
 Atterbury. I he foilowuijj ye»r ihe we of 
 Hristol was add<-i, t()<;«'th(T wjih tlir npitoiiii- 
 nient of grand almoner. On the breakint,' out 
 of the rebellion of 171), he lost his po^t of 
 almoner, in coiMC(nien«e of nfuMin^' to ttv^n 
 the declaration of the bihhopB on that oua- 
 
 Anti-Socinian side of the (juestion with con- sion, which was inteipreted int) friendKhii) to 
 siderable ability ; l)ut much weakened the effect 
 of a subsequent treatise in vindication of tlie 
 
 miracles of Christ against the objection of 
 Woolston, by certain calculations, as useless 
 as absurd, on the jirecise number of devils in 
 the Gadarene lierd of swine. Of this anec- 
 dote a very facetious use was once made by 
 Mr Home Tooke, in ridicule of some minis- 
 terial calcidation in the house of Commons. 
 Some observations made by bishop Smalbroke 
 in one of his pastoral charges also drew down 
 upon him fiom bishop Warburton all the 
 caustic severity for which that learned but 
 acrimonious disputant was so celebrated. Bishop 
 Smalbroke died in 1749. Some of his ser- 
 mons and other devotional writings were pub- 
 lished by him previously to his decease. — Xi- 
 chols's Lit. A)iec. 
 
 SMALRIDCiE (George) bishop of Bris 
 tol, was descended of a respectable family of 
 that name, and was born at Lichfield, where 
 his father was a dyer, in 1663. After re- 
 ceiving the rudiments of a classical educa- 
 tion at the grammar-school in that city, his 
 friends placed him at Westminster, on the 
 foundation, whence he was in due course 
 elected to a studentship at Christchurch, 
 Oxford, at the age of nineteen. Here he soon 
 distinguished himself by his general powers, 
 and at an early age lie was selected with Al- 
 drich and Atterbury as a manager of the con- 
 troversy with Obadiah Walker, master of Uni- 
 versity college, and a convert to popery. He 
 was also much distinguished by the elegance 
 of his Latinity, of which the first specimen 
 appeared in 1689, in a poem written on the 
 unpromising subject of a bookseller's auction, 
 entitled " Auctio Davisiana." Having taken 
 holy orders, his rise in the church was rapid ; 
 and after obtaining some previous preferment 
 from his college, he was collated in 1693 to a 
 stall in the cathedral of his native city. His 
 
 II t 
 the exiled family. Of his writings, " A He- 
 ply to W alker on Churcii (jovernment," and 
 a volume containing twelve discourseg, were 
 printed in his life-lime ; but a colleriion of 
 sixty sermons a])peared after his decease, 
 which soon ran to a second edition, Ili.« death 
 took place in 1719. Bishop Smalridgp. who 
 was much beloved and esteeme<l, lies buried 
 in Christchurch cathedral, Oxford. — /j/",i<r 
 Brit. 
 
 SMART (C/iRisTopiii n) a wit and poet 
 of the last century, descended of an aii( p nt 
 and resjiectable family in the north of Imii;- 
 land, where his father superintende«l the ma- 
 nagement of the earl of Darlington's estates. 
 He was born in I72ii at Shipbourne, a v»lla"e 
 near Maidstone in Kent, and was first placed 
 at the grammar-school in that town, but soon 
 after removed to that of Durham, where bis 
 strong developement of precocious talent ob- 
 tained him the steady jiatronage of the duchess 
 of Cleveland. His father dying mucii in- 
 volved in his circumstances, her grace placed 
 young Smart, when only seventeen years of 
 age, at Pembroke college, Cambridge, with an 
 allowance of forty pounds a-year, a pension he 
 continued to receive during the three years 
 which his patroness survived. .At her decease, 
 in 174'2, he was thrown upon his own le- 
 sources ; but having by this time ilistinguisbed 
 himself much in his literary career, in the 
 course of which he carried ofl" the Seatoni.in 
 prize on four successive occasions, a fViiow- 
 ship was conferred on him by his college in 
 174.5. The gaiety of his disposition, amt the 
 buoyancy of his spirits, which even poverty 
 could not depress, now rendered him an ac- 
 ceptable C()mi>anion to most of the beaux 
 esprits of the day, with many of whom, espe- 
 cially with Pope, Johnson, Garrick. and 
 llawkesworth, he became intimate. His inend- 
 ship with the first-named poet was niui h in 
 
 strict intimacy with Dr Atterbury involved creased by the elegant translations wiiicli be 
 
 him in the proceedings of party ; but he 
 avoided the animosities too prevalent in its 
 dis})uies, and held an amicable correspondence 
 witli Whiston and Dr Samuel Clarke, to whom 
 he was serviceable in moderating the proceed- 
 ings of the Convocation against them. He 
 was the proposer of a conference with Dr 
 Clarke on the subject of the Trinity, which 
 accordingly took place, and in which he ap- 
 peared the advocate of orthodoxy. These 
 connexions and this candour as usual produced 
 an accusation of a leaning towards the opinion 
 of those whom he forbore to treat with ran- 
 cour, from which imputation he formally vin- 
 dicated himself in a letter to bishop Trelawny. 
 In 1711 he was made canon of Christchurch, 
 Oxford, in the college of which he had so long 
 
 made of the " Ode on St Cecilia's Day," and 
 the *' Essay on Criticism." into Latin verse. 
 He appears however to have acipiued more in 
 point of reputation than of pecuniary profit 
 from both these jurformances, while an un- 
 successful dramatic ctlusion, entitled '• A 
 Trip to Cambridge," added to neither. His 
 marriage in 17.53 with .Miss Carnan, daui;bter- 
 in-law to Mr iSewberry, the bookseller in St 
 Paul's church yard, having va* ated his fellow- 
 ship, he settled in London, and commenced 
 author bv profession ; in which capacity he be- 
 came a principal contributor to " The Old 
 Woman's Magazine," and " ihe Universal 
 Visitor," besides j)ublishing a volume of ori- 
 ginal poems, •' The Hilliad," c\:c. Poverty 
 however, so often the attendant upon geniua 
 
SM E 
 
 ao-ain overtook him ; and his distresses, aided 
 perhaps not a little by the intt^mperance to 
 which he gave way, at length unsettled his 
 intellects, and compelled his relations to place 
 him for a while under personal restraint. Yet 
 even in this melancholy state the ruling pas- 
 sion still manifested itself ; and his " Song to 
 David," written in a madhouse, and partly 
 with charcoal on the walls of his cell, bears a 
 strong ihougb melancholy attestation to the 
 strength of his mental powers, even in their 
 derangement. A temporary recovery restored 
 him to liberty for a few years, but only to ter- 
 minate in a confinement on another score. 
 During the interval he gave to the world his 
 translations of Horace's works, both in prose 
 and verse ; of those of Pha^drus in verse, a 
 metrical version of the Parables ; Hannah, an 
 oratorio, with several odes, fables, and other 
 miscellaneous pieces. Although, as before 
 stated, given to occasional fits of intemperance, 
 Smtrt possessed a strong devotional feeUng, 
 and is even said to have written certain pas- 
 sai^es, in his poems on religious subjects, upon 
 his knees ; while the whole of his compositions 
 eilnbit proofs of a refined taste, and much 
 originality of thought, combined with a style 
 at once animatetl and correct. This unfortu- 
 nate votary of the Muses died at length of a 
 liver complaint, within the rules of tlie King's 
 Bench prison, INJay 12, 1771. — Chalmers's 
 Poets. 
 
 SMEATHMAN (Henry) a traveller, who 
 after having been secretary to the board of 
 trade, visited the intertropical regions of Africa. 
 He was well acquainted with natural history ; 
 and on his return to England in 1781, he ad- 
 dressed to sir Joseph Banks a letter, contain- 
 ing an account of the termites, or white ants, 
 found in Guinea and other hot countries, 
 which was published in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, and also separately in London, 
 1781. His death took place July 1, 1786. — 
 Reuss. BiooT' Univ. 
 
 S.MKATON (John) a celebrated ciril en- 
 gineer, distinguished as the architect of Eddy- 
 stone lighthouse, and the conductor of various 
 other important undertakings. He was born 
 at Aiisthorpe, near Leeds, in Yorkshire, May 
 28, 17i^4 ; and was the son of an attorney, 
 who, observing that he had a strong taste for 
 mechanics, wisely allowed him to follow the 
 impulse of his genius, and become a mathe- 
 matical instrument- maker. He commenced 
 businei^s in that capacity in Holborn, in 17.r:) ; 
 but he substquenily adopted the profession of 
 an engineer. He was in 1753 elected a ftd 
 low of the Royal Society, and in 1759 he ob 
 tained a prize medal for a paper on the power 
 of wind and water to turn mills. His great 
 undertaking, the erection of the lighthouse on 
 the Eddystone rock in the English channel, 
 was finished in the year last mentioned, and 
 it was executed in such a manner as almost to 
 bid defiance to the power of time or accident, 
 and to place in a strong point of view the 
 enterprising talents and industry of the arclii 
 tect. He became in 1761 one of the receivers 
 of the Derweutwater estates, the property of 
 
 SM E 
 
 Greenwich hospital, to the reven les of which 
 he added by his improvements. Among his 
 various enterprises were the rendering the 
 river Calder navigable, and the supenuten- 
 dance of the grand canal in Scotland. In 1771 
 he engaged in the management of the Green- 
 wich and Deptford waterworks, and he was 
 subsequently employed in improving the har- 
 bour of Ilamsgate. His death took place at 
 Austhorpe, September 8, 1792. He pub- 
 lished " An Experimental Enquiry concerning 
 the Natural Powers of Wind and Water to 
 turn Mills, and other Machines depending on 
 a circular Motion. <Scc." 1760, 4to ; " An 
 Answer to the Misrepresentation of his Plan 
 for Blackfriars Bridge," 1760, folio ; " An 
 Historical Report on Ramsgate" Harbour," 
 1791, 8vo ; " A Narrative of the Building, and 
 a Description of the Construction of Eddy- 
 stone Lighthouse with Stone ; to which is 
 subjoined an Appendix, giving some Account 
 of the Lighthouse on the Spurn Point, built 
 upon Sand," 1791, imp. folio. He was also 
 the author of a number of papers published in 
 the Philosophical I'ransactions ; and his " Re- 
 ports made on various Occasions, in the course 
 of his Employment as an Engineer," appeared 
 posthumously in 3 vols. 4to ; " A Narrative 
 of the Genius, Life, and Works of J. Smea- 
 ton," was published in 1793, 12mo ; and a 
 biographical memoir was also prefixed to his 
 " Reports." — Gent. Mag. 
 
 S.MELLTE (William) an eminent prac- 
 titioner of midwifery, who was a native of 
 Scotland. He practised first in the country, 
 and then settled in London, where he was 
 very extensively employed, and was also dis- 
 tinguished as an obstetrical lecturer. He 
 states in one of his publications, that he had 
 educated nearly one thousand pupils, who had, 
 while attending his lectures, afforded assist- 
 ance to eleven hundred and fifty poor women, 
 such patients being supported during their 
 confinement by a subscription raised among 
 the pupils. In 1752 Dr Smellie published 
 the substance of his lectures, under the title 
 of a " Treatise on Midwifery," 8vo, which he 
 had been six years in preparing for the press. 
 This was followed in 175-i by a volume of 
 cases illustrative of the method of practice 
 which he recommended. Both works were 
 translated into French, and another volume of 
 cases was published posthumously. In 1754 he 
 also laid before the public a set of " Ana- 
 tomical Tables," with explanations, and an 
 abridgment of the Practice of Midwifery ; and 
 the plates of this work, thirty-six in number 
 large folio, are well executed, and fully 
 adapted for the purposes of the author. Dr 
 Sniellie, in the course of his profe8>ionaI 
 career, was engaged in a controversy with l)r 
 Burton of York, and with Dr William Doug- 
 las, physician extraordinary to the prince of 
 Wales ; but though some of the critical ani- 
 madversions of those gentlemen were not des- 
 titute of foundation, they by no means de- 
 tracted from the reputation of their anta*Jonist. 
 whose numerous improvements m the art he 
 professed, give liira a permanent claim to the 
 
S5 IVI I 
 
 gratitude of posterity. lie died at Lanark, in 
 Scotland, at an advanced ay;e, in 1763. — Hut- 
 vhinsnn^s lHoi^. Med. 
 
 SIM KLLll-: (William) a Scottish jmnter, 
 distin^uislied as a man of learning and science. 
 Jle wa.s born at luliiiUiirf;li in 17 10, and lie 
 served an apprenticesliij) to Messrs ilanulton 
 and Cn. printers in tliat < ity. ^^lliIe in their 
 oflice he displayed his ahility as the composer 
 and corrector of an inunaculate cilition of 'I'e- 
 rence's comedies, for which he received a 
 premium from the I'dinbur^li Philosophical 
 Society. He also made himself actjuainted 
 with natural history, and in 1761 he published 
 a prize dissertation on the sexes of plants. 
 Such was his proliciency as a botanist, tliat 
 he was employed as an occasional assistant 
 lecturer to the professor at tl»e university, Dr 
 IIoi)e. He entered into business for himself in 
 1765. and he was employed to print the first 
 edition of the " Kncyclopi^dia liritannica," 
 1771, 3 vols. 4to, for which he wrote some 
 articles. The " Edinburgh jMagaxine and 
 Review" was another of his undertakings, 
 carried on in conjunction with Dr Gilbert 
 Stuart, whose imprudence and illiberality oc- 
 casioned the termination of the work three 
 years after its commencement. JMr Smellie 
 translated Burton's " Natural History," and 
 he was also the author of an original work 
 entitled " The Philosopliy of Natural His- 
 tory," 1790 — 95, 2 vols. Ito. He was a fel- 
 low of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
 secretary to the Society of Scottish Antiqua- 
 ries ; and was much esteemed among the lite- 
 rati of his native city, where he died June 25, 
 1795. Some biographical sketclies and essays 
 from his pen were publi-hed in an octavo vo- 
 lume, after his death. — Life of Smellie, by 
 Kerr. 
 
 SMITH (Adam) a distinguished writer on 
 morals and politics, was the only son of Adam 
 Smith, comptroller of the customs at Kirkaldy, 
 where he was born June 5, 1723, a few months 
 after the death of his father. He received his 
 early education at the school of Kirkaldy, 
 whence he was removed at the age of fourteen 
 to the university of Glasgow, where he re- 
 mained until 17-10, when he repaired to Baliol 
 college, Oxford, as an exiiibitioner on Suell's 
 foundation. Quieting Oxford and all views to 
 the church which had led him there, in 1748 
 lie took up his abode at Edinburgh, and read 
 some courses on rhetoric and polite literature, 
 under the patronage of lord Karnes. In 1751 
 lie obtained a more permanent provision by 
 being elected professor of logic at Glasgow, 
 and the year following to that of moral philo- 
 sophy at the same university. He was now in 
 a situation which perfectly agreed with his 
 talents and inclination, and both in matter and 
 manner his lectures were of the first degree of 
 merit. Those on moral philosophy contained 
 the rudiments of two of his most celebrated 
 publications, of which the first, entitled " The 
 Theory of Moral Sentiments," appeared in 
 1795, and was most favourably received. He 
 founds it upon the principle of sympatliy, 
 which he makes the source of all our senti- 
 
 BioG. DicT. — Vol. IJI. 
 
 ments on the propriety or impT/»pnfty o 
 actioiiB. To thij work he nft<r\\., !»a 
 
 " An Essay on the Origin of l.;i _,■•;" 
 
 and the cle^'anco and acutenon displayed in 
 these treatiHcs introdu'cd him to (wverhl emi- 
 nent persons, and amun)^ othiru to .Mr Charii-s 
 Townbhend, who en^a^^id him in 176:> to at- 
 tend the duko of l'.uc( leu^^h in liin travels : a 
 long nsidcnte in France wiih thiii nohU-man 
 introduci'd him to the ac(|iiaiiitancc of 'lur"ol, 
 Quesnoi, Necker, D'Ahndjert. Il<lvetiu», and 
 Marmontel, to several of whom he was re- 
 commended by David Hume. H.; ri-turnca 
 to Scotland in 1766, and immediately retired 
 with his mother to Kirkaldy, whtre he led a 
 life of strict study and retirement for ten 
 years, the fruits of which resolution was his 
 celebrated " Incpiiry into the Nature and 
 Causes of the Wealth of Nations," 2 vols. 
 4to, 1776. It is unnecessary to say that this 
 work has become a standard one in Europe, 
 and that it may he deemed the formal jirr cur- 
 sor of the modern science of political economy 
 About two years after the publication of this 
 able produition he obtained, through the pa- 
 tronage of the duke of Buccleugh, the lucra- 
 tive place of commissioner of the customs in 
 Scotland, in consequence of which he removed 
 with his mother, who attained a great age, to 
 Edinburgh. After the death of his friend 
 Hume, he published that philosopher's me- 
 moirs of his own life, with some additions, in 
 which he expressed himself so favourably of 
 his character and opinions, it was at once in- 
 ferred that his own could not be very difierent. 
 This drew upon him attacks from various 
 quarters, the ablest of which was an ironical 
 anonymous letter, since known to have pro- 
 ceeded from the pen of Dr Home, bishoj) of 
 Norwich. In 1787 he was chosen rector of 
 the university of Glasgow, and soon after his 
 health began to decline, and he sank under a 
 chronic disease in July 1790, at the age of 
 sixty-seven. A short time before his death, 
 he ordered all his MSS. to bo burnt excej>t a 
 few detached essays. Dr Smith was a man 
 of much simplicity of character, suliject to ab- 
 sence of mind in society, anil better fittetl 
 for speculation than action. He was at the 
 same time much beloved by his friends for his 
 kind and benignant disposition, and died gone- 
 rally admired and highly respected. — Life by 
 Du£aLi Steu-art. 
 
 SMITH (CnARLEs) an Irish topograjiher 
 and naturalist, who resided at Duldin, and 
 appears to have belonged to the medical pro- 
 fession. He was the author of '• The atitient 
 and present State of the County and City of 
 Cork, in four Hooks," Dublin 1750, 2 vols. 
 8vo, republished ^^ith additions in 1774; 
 " The antient and present State of the Co. 
 and City of Waterford," 1751, 8vo, second 
 edition, 1774; and "The antient and pre- 
 sent State of the Co. of Kerry, being a natural, 
 civil, ecclesiastical, historical, and topographi- 
 cal Descrijuion thereof, vS.c." 1756, second 
 edition 1774. These works were executed 
 I under the patronage of the l'liysico-hist(.!ical 
 Society of Dublin, an association formed fo: 
 ' N 
 
SMI 
 
 the purpose of collecting the mnterials for a 
 work on the plan of Camden's Britannia, to he 
 entitled " Hibernia, or Ireland ancient and 
 modern." Besides these productions of Dr 
 Smidi. an account of the county of Down was 
 published in 1744-, and a natural history of 
 the county of Dublin, by Dr l\utty, 1772, 
 S» vols. 8vo ; through the exertions of the Phy- 
 sico-historical Society. — Cough's Brit. T&pog. 
 
 SMITH (Charlotte) an inj^enious but 
 unfortunate poetess and novel-writer, a native 
 of Sussex, in which, as well as in the adjoin- 
 ing county of Surrey, her father, INIr Turner, 
 was possessed of considerable landed estates. 
 She was born in 1749. and married at a very 
 early age a West India merchant, whose im- 
 prudence aggravated (if we are to believe the 
 allusions of his wife in her fictitious narra- 
 tives) by legal chicanery, ultimately dissi- 
 pated the whole of a once handsome property, 
 and consigned its former possessor to a prison. 
 In tluH melancholy situation he was not how- 
 ever abandoned by his wife, who appears to 
 have clung to him in his fallen fortunes with a 
 ilevotedness of affection not often witnessed, 
 and to have dedicated her talents to the sup- 
 port of her husband and family. Her first 
 production was a series of " Elegiac Sonnets," 
 }uiiited at Chichester in 1784, which, though 
 tini:ed with the melancholy naturally occa- 
 sioned by her misfortunes, exhibit considerable 
 poetic talent as well as pathos. It is how- 
 ever as a writer of novels that she is prin- 
 cipally known, in which capacity she far ex- 
 cels most of her contemporaries, though a vein 
 of querulous egotism, arising from her situa- 
 tion, is perhaj)s too perceptible through the 
 whole. Of tliese the principal are her " Ro- 
 mance of real Life ;" " Emmeline ;" " Des- 
 mond ;" " Maichmont ;" " Ethelinda ;" " Old 
 Manor House ;" " Celestina," &c. Much of 
 the latter jiart of her life was passed in the 
 closest retirement with her family in Nor- 
 mandy, but neither there was she inaccessible 
 to the same species of persecution which had 
 tormented her at liome, and at length return- 
 ing to England, she ended her days in com- 
 parative comfort at Thetford, near Farnham, 
 Surrey, in the autumn of IBOd. Besides the 
 works already mentioned, Mrs Smith wrote 
 several pleasing volumes for young persons, 
 entitled " Rural Walks;" " Rambles Far- 
 ther;" " Minor INlorals ;"' and " Conversa- 
 tions." She also composed a poem c«lled 
 " The Emigrant," in addition to a second 
 volume of sonnets. — Cent. IMug. 
 
 S.AIITII (Edmund) the adopted name of 
 a wit, scholar, critic, and poet. He was 
 the only son of a Mr Xeale, a merchant of 
 some eminence, by a daughter of baron Lech- 
 mere, and was born in 1668. He lost his 
 fatlier in his infancy, the latter having fallen 
 into difficulties, which injured his health, and 
 tended much to the premature termination of 
 his life, on which his mother retired to Wor- 
 cester, leaving her son to the care of a brother- 
 in-law of his father, named Smith. J3y this 
 worthy man he was brought up as his o^ti 
 child, and placed at Westminster-school uuder 
 
 SM I 
 
 the celebrated Dr Busby, who considered him 
 one of his best scholars. His generous rela- 
 tion died before he left .school, but his aunt 
 furnished him with the necessary supplies for 
 a university education ; and such was his pro- 
 gress in literature, that at the annual election 
 Trinity-college. Cambridge, and Chrisichurch, 
 Oxford, contended which should number him 
 among their members. Young Smith, for 
 he had now assumed the name of his benefac- 
 tor, made his election for a studentship at 
 Christchuich, whither he soon after removed, 
 and continued occasionally to reside till within 
 five years of his death. Through the exercises M 
 of his college and the university he passed ^ 
 with unusual credit, and acquired considerable 
 reputation in the schools, both as a philoso- 
 pher and a polemic, especially distinguishing 
 himself by his Bodleian oration, which is Vu 
 be found in the printed collection of his works. 
 In 1707 a tragedy from his pen, entitled 
 " Phaidra and Hippolytus," was brought out, 
 supported by Betterton, Booth, Barry, and 
 Oldfield ; yet, notwithstanding their talents, its 
 merits being rather poetical than dramatic, the 
 success of it was questionable, a circumstance 
 which drew down some severe animadversions 
 on the vitiated taste of the public from Addi- 
 son in a spirited prologue written for the oc- 
 casion. His other works consist principally of 
 an excellent translation of '• Longinus on the 
 Sublime," a poem to the memory of his friend 
 John Philips, some odes, (Sec. ; and according 
 to his biographer Oldisworth, it is much to be 
 regretted that he did not live to complete a 
 spirited translation of the works of Pindar, 
 which he had commenced. Habits of intem- 
 perance and great personal imprudence re- 
 duced him to poverty ; yet, notwithstanding, 
 the oddity of his appearance and his careless- 
 ness in dress procured him the appellation of 
 " Captain Ragg," yet such was the natura. 
 gracefulness of his person and demeanour, 
 that from the female part of his acquaintance 
 he received to the last the more com]:limentary 
 designation of " the handsome sloven." His 
 death took jdace at Hartham in Wiltshire, the 
 seat of George Ducket, esq. in 1710. — Life 
 by Cibher, 
 
 SMriTI (Elihu HuBBATin) an American 
 physician, who was born at Lichfield in Con- 
 necticut, in 1771. Having adopted the medi- 
 cal profession, and taken the degree of IMD. 
 he settled as a physician at New York, where 
 he died Sejitember 19, 1798. Dr Smith was 
 one of the conductors of the American journal 
 called the " Meuical Repository," to which 
 he contributed papers " On the Plague of 
 Athens;" " On the Origin of the pestilential 
 Fever which prevailed in the Island of Gre- 
 nada in 1793 and 1794;" " On the natural 
 History of the l"lk ;" " On the pestilential 
 Diseases which at different times appeared in 
 the Athenian, Carthaginian, and Roman Ar- 
 mies in the Neighbourhood of Syracuse ; and 
 two medical cases. — Cent. Mag. Month. 
 
 Mnir. 
 
 SMITH (Elizabeth) a lady of great na- 
 tural abilities, aided by unwearied cultivation. 
 
SM I 
 
 Sti«i W(js clesco'nilod of a reHpottal>Io family 
 settkil at liunilmll in the jmlatinatc of J)iir- 
 Iiam, wliere she was born in 177(). Ik-siilcs 
 most of tlie modorn lluropjan laiitjiia^rs, she 
 was a confiidfrahle prolicu-iit l)()tli in classical 
 and Oriental literature, extending her re- 
 Bearchcs even into the Arahic, Syriac, and 
 Persian, as well as into the Greek and Hehrew 
 tongues. She liad also made a consideral»le 
 progress in the science of mathematics, and 
 the art of drawing, to which aitaiimunts were 
 added a lively wit and a j)oetic talent farabovi- 
 mediocrity, i'he physical powers of this ac- 
 complished young female were howevt-r un- 
 etjual to support the unceasing activity of her 
 mind, and symptoms of decline, soon termi- 
 nating in rapid consumption, carritd her oft' 
 in the month of August, 1806. The only 
 monument of her talents which survives her, 
 is a translation of the book of Job from the 
 original. — Memoir by Miss lioirdler. 
 
 SMITH (High) a medical writer and prac- 
 titioner of eminence in the metropolis, during 
 the latter part of the last century. He was 
 originally an apothecary, but afterwards he 
 became physician to the INIiddlesex hospital, 
 and an alderman of London. He died at Tre- 
 vor park, near Barnet, June 26, 1789, at the 
 age of fifty-three. His principal publications 
 are " The Family Physician," 1760, 4to ; " A 
 Treatise on the Use and Abuse of Mineral 
 Waters, with Remarks on the immoderate 
 Use of Sea-water," 1777, Bvo ; "An enlarged 
 Syllabus of Philosophical Lectures delivered 
 by Huyh Smith, I\1D. with the Principles on 
 which his Conjectures aie founded concerning 
 Animal Life and the Laws of the Animal 
 Economy," 1778, 4to ; and " Letters to Mar- 
 ried Women upon the I\Ianagement of Infants, 
 with a View to prevent the Diseases incident 
 to Children," 8vo. — There was another 13r 
 Hugh Smith, a very popular metropolitan 
 physician, who was a native of Hertfordshire, 
 and died at VVestham, in Essex, December '26, 
 1790. He was the author of " Essays, phy- 
 siological and practical, on the Nature and Cir- 
 culation of the Blood, and the Eftects and 
 L'ses of Blood-letting," 1761, 12mo ; and 
 " Formula3 Medicamentorum, or a Compen- 
 dium of the IModern Practice of Physic," 
 1768, Bvo. — Lusons's Environs of Loudon, 
 vol. iv. Ciutterhuck's Hist, of Hertfordshire, 
 
 vol. i. 
 
 SMITH (John) commonly called Captain 
 John Smith, was born at Willou^hby in the 
 county of Lincoln. He flourished in the reigns 
 of i:iizabeth and James I, and is distinguished 
 by the number and singularity of his travels 
 and adventures. In the war in Hungary, about 
 1602, he overcame three Turks successively 
 in single combat, and cut oflf their heads, for 
 which and other exploits Sigismond, duke of 
 Transylvania, under whom he served, gave 
 him his picture set in gold, with a pension of 
 300 ducats, and allowed him to bear the 
 Turks' heads in his arms. He afterwards 
 went to America, where he was taken prisoner 
 by the Indians, from whom he found means to 
 
 SM I 
 
 nhare in reducing New I.rn.'lnn<i ; and iii pro- 
 bably the same tftjitaiii Jolm Smith whojs 
 mentioned in " Stown Surv.y " an nome time 
 gov«riiorof \iri;iiiia ami udmiral «if New Knjj- 
 l.uid. He died June 'Jl, Ki.il. He i» author 
 of a *• History of Virginia. New England, and 
 the Summer 1sI»-b," 1621, folio ; '• A Map of 
 \ irginia." l6lV?,4to ;•• N.w Kii ' - '" TryaU. 
 ^c." 1(.20, Ito ; •• TravfU in . . 's.c," 
 
 l<5;}o,4to. reprinted in Chnrchill'ii Vnyagec..^ 
 Fiillrr's Worthies, (htinr^rr, 
 
 S.M 11 H (John) r learned divine, waa the 
 son of a farmer at Achur< h in Northampton- 
 shire, where he wa^ ))nm in 161H. He wa» 
 educateil at Emanuel college, Cambridg*-, 
 where he took his degree as AM. in 164K 
 and the same year was chosen fellow of 
 (^'ueen's college. Here lie becime an emi- 
 nent tutor, and died in 16.>2. He iniblishf-d in 
 KMO a (juarto volume of " Select Discoursea," 
 which, as exhibiting great ju<lgment and eru- 
 dition, were much esteemed, and went througli 
 a second edition in 1673, 4to ; one of then** 
 discourses " On Prophecy," was translated 
 into Latin by Le Clerc, and prefixed to hi< 
 " Commentary on the Prophets." — I'unerat 
 Sermo7i hii Patrick. 
 
 SMITH (John) a learned divine, was bom 
 in 1659, at Lowiher in Westmoreland, of 
 which parish his fatlier was rector. He be- 
 came a student of St John's college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he took the degree of MA. in 
 1681, and the following year was appointed a 
 minor canon of Durham. Bisliop Crew, to 
 whom he became chajdain, gave him the rec- 
 tory of Greenwich, and soon after a prebend 
 at Durham, on which he took the degree of 
 DD. He made collections for a History of 
 Durham ; and at the time of his death, in 
 1715, was engaged in preparing an edition of 
 the works of Bede, which was completed by 
 his son, George Smith, who took orders 
 among the nonjurors, and became titular I ishop 
 of Durham. Besides completing his father's 
 edition of Bede, he wrote a book entitled 
 " Britons and Saxons not converted to Po- 
 pery." — Biotr. Brit. 
 
 SMITH (John ILapiiakt.) an eminent de- 
 signer and engraver in mezzotinto, bom in 
 London about 1740. 'i'his most industrious 
 artist executed a vast numbt-r of plates of dif- 
 ferent kinds, including ten j>ortraits from his 
 own drawings, thirty-seven after sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, and fourteen after other masters. 
 Among the historical engravings which he 
 produced was one of the Bard, from Ciray's 
 celebrated ode, and others from the designs of 
 Fuseli. He drew portraits in crayons with 
 great felicity. — Biog. I'niv. 
 
 SMiril (J. Stafford') was bom at Glou- 
 cester about the year 17."M\ wheie his father 
 was organist at the cathedral. Having been 
 initiated in music at Ciloucester, he was sent 
 to London, and placed un<ler Dr Boyce. From 
 the excellence of his voice lie obtained the 
 situation of chorister of the chapel royal, and 
 some years after was chosen one of the or- 
 ganists. He distirguished himself in com;.> 
 
 escMie. He had subsequently a considerable ' sition while yet a youth, and gained a pri/t 
 
 ' N 2 
 
S M I 
 
 from the Noblemen's Catch Cluh for the best 
 c'lce. l^esides a great number of admirtd 
 flees and other compositions, he published a 
 " Collection of Songs of various kinds and for 
 different Voices, with the Music," folio, 178.5, 
 and " Musica Antiqua," a selection of music 
 from the twelfth to the eighteenth century," 
 2 vols, folio, 1812. — Bioii. Diet, of Music. 
 
 SMITH VANDER KETTEN (John) bet- 
 ter known by the Latinized name of Smetius, 
 an historian and antiquary, born in the pro- 
 vince of Gueldres in the Netherlands, to- 
 wards the end of the sixteenth century, lie 
 studied at Harderwyck under Pontanus, and 
 afterwards visited France. He then entered 
 into the ministry among the Lutherans, and 
 became pastor and professor of philosophy at 
 Nimegucn. He formed a valuable cabinet of 
 ancient medals and other antiipiities, which 
 was some time after his death purchased by 
 tlie elector palatine, Jolm William, for 20,000 
 florins. He died at Nimeguen May 30, 1651. 
 Hia principal works are, " Oppidum Batavo- 
 rum, seu jSoviomauum, lib. sing." Amst. 1644, 
 4to ; and " Thesaurus Antiquarius, seu Sme- 
 tianus, sive Notitia elegantissima? supellectilis 
 Romance et rarissima:^ Pinacothecse, «Scc." 1658, 
 12mo, reprinted with additions by his son, 
 under the title of " Antiquitates Novioma- 
 genses," 1678, 4to. — John Smith, or Sme- 
 tius, son of the preceding, was born at Nime- 
 guen about 1630, and having adopted the ec- 
 clesiastical profession he exercised the office 
 of minister first at Alcmaer, and then at Am- 
 rtenlam, where he died May 23, 1710. He 
 was the author of an explanation of the Book 
 of Ecclesiasles, and several other theological 
 works. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SMITH (iMiLEs) a learned prelate, was 
 bora in the city of Hereford about 1568, and 
 was educated at Corpus Christi college, Ox- 
 ford, whence he removed to Brazen-nose, and 
 took his degrees in arts. In 1594 lie took his 
 •ioctor's degree, and in 1612 was advanced to 
 the see of Gloucester. He is chiefly distin- 
 guished as one of the translators of the Bible, 
 for which he also wrote the jneface. He died 
 in 1624. A volume of his sermons was printed 
 in 16.)2, folio. — Wood. Fuller. 
 
 SMITH (Robert) an eminent divine and 
 mathematician, was born in 1689. Very 
 ttle is known of his family or early career, 
 f xcept that he was educated at Trinity college, 
 (Jamliiidge, where he took the degree of UD. 
 in 1739, on succeeding to the mastership by 
 the death of Dr Bentley. He was aj)pointed 
 mathematical preceptor to AVilliam duke of 
 Cumberland, and master of mechanism to the 
 king. He was cousin to the celebrated Roger 
 Cotes, whose " Hydrostatical andPneumatical 
 Lectures " he published in 1737, 8vo, as also 
 a collection of the same writer's papers from 
 the Philosophical Transactions. His own 
 works, which acquired considerable reputation, 
 are " A System of Optics," 2 vols. 4to ; and 
 " Harmonics, or the Philosophy of JNIusical 
 Sounds." 17G0. He died in 1768, in the se- 
 venty-nictli year of his age. — Huttons Math. 
 Diet. 
 
 SM I 
 
 SiSHTII (Samuei,) an American liistorian, 
 wlio was born in New Jersey, and died in 
 1778. He was the author of a " History of 
 New Jersey, from the foundation of the Co- 
 lony to 1721, with an Appendix," in which he 
 gives an account of the most important events 
 from that year to the publication of his work 
 (1765) with a short view of the situation of 
 New Jersey at that period. 'J'his history ia 
 deserving of commendation for impartiality, 
 and the writer appears to have drawn his in- 
 formation from original sources. — Biocr, Univ. 
 — Smith, DD. (S.amuet. Stanhope) presi- 
 dent of the college of New Jersey, was pro- 
 bably a relative of the preceding. He pub- 
 lished an ingenious " Essay on the Causes of 
 the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the 
 Human Species, with Strictures on Lord 
 Kames's Discourse on the original Diversity of 
 Mankind," reprinted at Edinburgh, 1788, 8vo; 
 and " Sermons on various Sub'ects," 1800, 
 8vo. — Reuss. 
 
 SMITH (sir Thomas) an eminent states- 
 man, philosopher, and linguist of the sixteenth 
 century, was born at Saffron \Valden in Essex, 
 in 1512, or according to some authorities, two 
 years later. He received his education at 
 Queen's college, Cambridge, of which he be- 
 came fellow in 1531, and afterwards obtained 
 in succession the appointments of Greek pro- 
 fessor 1533, public orator to the university 
 1536, and regius professor of civil law 1542. 
 It was in tlie former capacity that, in con- 
 junction with the learned John Cheke, he ven- 
 tured on the experiment of introducing a new 
 and, as they contended, a more correct pro- 
 nunciation of the Greek language. Ascham, 
 Poynet, and other distinguished scholars of the 
 time, concurred with the associates in their 
 opinion and practice ; but a dread of inno- 
 vation, raised among others of the leading 
 members of the university a strong feelintf of 
 opposition to the new metliod, and Gardiner, 
 bishop of \\ inchester, then its chancellor, was 
 easily induced by their representations to ful- 
 minate a prohibition on the attempt. This 
 arbit;ary mandate, if obeyed, was at least not 
 silently acquiesced in by Smith, who printed 
 a vindication of his orthoepy in an epistle ad- 
 dressed to the bishop, and entitled " Ue rectil 
 et cmendatii Linguae Gra^cai Pronunciatione." 
 In 1539 he visited the continent, and having 
 spent some time among the learned in several 
 F'rench as well as Italian universities, gra- 
 duated as LLD. in that of Padua. After the 
 death of Henry VllI, the lord-jirotector So- 
 merset, who held his talents as well as sclio- 
 larship in high esteem, j)laced him about his 
 person, and employed him in various jiolitical 
 services, the rewards of which were the stew- 
 ardship of the Stanneries, the provostship of 
 Eton college, and the deanety of Carlisle. The 
 ability whuh he continued to disj)lay in liis 
 diplomatic functions, raised him in 1548 to the 
 post of secretary of state with the honour of 
 knighthood. He was afterwards despatched 
 on an embassy to the States General, but on 
 Somerset's disgrace fell for a while with his 
 patron. His acknowledged ekili as a political 
 
 i 
 
SM I 
 
 agent, however, soon restored lilm to a com- 
 parative degree of fa\<iur; lie was Iihiratrd 
 from the Tower to which he had been coii- 
 sifj^ned ; and in ir>;M sent on a inis.«-i()n to 
 Paris, tlie object of svhich was to conclmle a 
 matrimonial treaty between lldward \'I and a 
 daughter of France. Ilia journey jiroved un- 
 successful ; and the jireniature death of the 
 young king phuing I\Iary upon the throne, 
 eir Thomas, whose religious principles were 
 strongly opposed to tlic ])r('vailing sentiments 
 of the court, was again discliargcd from liis 
 employmeuts. His dismi^^sal, thougli abrupt, 
 was not folhjwed up by any more serious 
 manifestation of the royal disi)leasure, and 
 though forbidden to quit the realm, he had 
 even a pension granted him of 100/. perannum. 
 The accession of Kii/.abeth once more called 
 hinx into active life, and a prominent part was 
 assigned him by that princess, in settling the 
 constitution botli of church and state. In 1.562 
 lie returned to France, in (piality of ambas- 
 sador; and during his residence in that coun- 
 try employed his leisure hours in com|>lt'iing 
 his treatise " ])e Republica Anglorum," 
 which he printed on his return in 1 j65. In 
 1570 he was sworn of the iirivy council, and 
 two years after resumed his post of secretary of 
 state. The chancel lor^hif) of the order of the 
 garter was subsequently added to his other dig- 
 nities, wliich he continued to enjoy till his de- 
 cease, which took i)lace at his seat iMountliall, 
 Essex, in 1577. Sir Ihomas carried with him 
 to his grave a higb character as an acute meta- 
 physician, an able scholar, an enlightened 
 statesman, and an honest man. — Bio(r. Brit. 
 
 SMFITI (sir Thomas) anative of Abingdon 
 ui Berkshire, who was educated at Oxford, 
 and obtained ])referment in the court of 
 James I. Fuller says that he raised himself 
 to eminence by his talents alone. He was 
 master of requests and Latin secretary to king 
 James, and was about to receive farther pro- 
 motion, when he died November 28, 1609. 
 He was interred at Fulhani, in Middlesex, 
 where a monument was erected for him by his 
 widow, the daughter of William lord Chandos, 
 who afterwards became countess of Kxeter. 
 Probably he was the author of a very scarce 
 tract entitled " Sir Thomas Smithe's Voyage 
 and Entertainment in Pvussia, with the tra- 
 gical Ends of two Emperors and one I'.mpresse 
 during his being there, and the miraculous 
 Preservation of the now raigning Eniperor, 
 esteemed dead for eighteen Veares," 1605, 
 4to. Tanner, in his Bibliotheca Pritannico- 
 Hibernica, strangely attributes this work to the 
 foregoing sir Thomas Smith, secretary of 
 state to queen Elizabeth. — Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 Edit. 
 
 SMITH, T)D. (Thomas) a learned English 
 divine of the seventeenth century, especially 
 eminent for his acquaintance with the Hebrew 
 and other Oriental languages. He was horn 
 in the metropolis in 1638, and received his 
 education at Oxford, being elected olT from 
 Queen's college in that university, where he 
 had graduated, on a fellowship to IMagdalen, 
 with which he united the situation of master 
 
 S M I 
 
 of the fichool. 'i'ov.ardii the cloae of Jamea'c 
 r<ign, the presidi-nt of hm c«jlh^;e bi-ini; a 
 Catliohc, deprived liiin of hiit ffllow»|jip, to 
 wlii( h he wan howi'ver unm aftiTHard« re- 
 al<iri-d, and accompanied llie Fiij;li»h cnibimsy 
 to the Porte in l()Hf», in <|uahty of chaplain. 
 After remaining three years m the KaAt, here- 
 turned to llngland, when a proix^nai was made 
 to him that be Bbould set out for th»« Levant 
 with a view to the collecting of inanuM ripta, 
 especially from the libraricH of ibe (ireek. mo- 
 nasteries, those then almost unexplured de|Kj- 
 sitaries of buried literature. This taok he de- 
 clined, and subsequently again hist his fellow- 
 ship, as well as a stall to which he had been 
 inducted in Salisbury cathedral for refusing to 
 take the oaths to king William. He was the 
 author of a great variety of learned works, 
 among the principal of which are bis " Diatnba 
 deChaldaicis Paraphrastis,"8vo ; " DeGrsca 
 Ecclesiai hodierno Statu ;" " Vitai (jnorun- 
 dam eruditissimorum et lilustnum \'irorum," 
 iu which work are to he found biographical 
 sketches of archbishop l\«*her, Patrick Young, 
 ike; " De Druidum Moribus et Insiitutis," 
 Bvo ; a " Life of Camden," written in Latin ; 
 a " Catalogue of the MSS. in the Coitonian 
 Library ;" " On the .Manners, Religion, \c. of 
 the Turks," in Latin ;" " On the Credibility of 
 the Mysteries of the Cbri>tian Religion ;" 
 " The Causes and Remedies of KeliLions Dif- 
 ferences ;" "The Lives of Himtm^don and 
 Bernard," and a volume of misct-Uaneous 
 tracts. His death took place at Loudon io 
 1710.— Hi.Hr. Brit. Atheit. Oxnn. 
 
 SMITH (Wai.teh) a poet of the sixteenth 
 century, who was the author of a satire enti- 
 tled " The mery gestys of one called Ldvth, 
 the lyeing Wydow, which still liviih," printed 
 in 1525. 'i'liia composition is curious on ac- 
 count of the sketches which it jiresents of the 
 manners which prevailed in Lngland ju>t be- 
 fore the Reformation. The narrative is found- 
 ed on facts, the satirist himself having been 
 in the number of the false widow's dupes; and 
 one of her tricks, it seems, was plaved off at 
 the house of sir Thomas More ai Chelsea. 
 This ))oem, somewhat modernized, was re- 
 printed in 1573, Ito. — Tunnc^i IU'>. liiit. Ifi- 
 bern. Ames's Hist, of' Printitig. 
 
 SINITril (William) an ind(i5^triou8 anti- 
 quary and topographer of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He held in the herald's office the situa- 
 tion of rouge dragon pursuivant ; and being a 
 native of Cheshire he devote*.) mud: of his 
 attention to the history and antiquities of tliat 
 county. Under the patronage of ibe son of 
 sir Hanulph (Jrew, chief-justice of tlie King's 
 Pencil, he drew up an account of Ciieshire, 
 which together with the similar composition 
 of William Webb, clerk in the mavor's court 
 at Chester, was published by Daniel King 
 in 1656, under the title of " Ihe \'ale-RoyaJI 
 of England, or the County Palatine of Chester 
 illustrated. " folio. King adtU d a " Discourse 
 of the Island of Man," and engraved tlie plates 
 for this work, as he likewise diil those for 
 Dugdale's Monasticon. In the herabls' office 
 is extant a lar-je MS. description of England, 
 
SMI 
 
 with fair draughts of its cities and towns, 
 1.388, by William Smith, rouge dragon. I\Ir 
 Gou^li also mentions as existing among Dr 
 Eawlinson's MSS. in the liodleian library a 
 •' Description of the County Pallatine of Ches- 
 ter ; a Work deserving to be better handled, 
 but want of accuracy in the Author was the 
 cause. Collected and set down by William 
 Smith, citizen of Noremburgh." He died Oc- 
 tober 1, 1618. — There was a William S.mith, 
 who in the reign of James I wrote three dra- 
 matic pieces, " Hector of Germanic," hist. ' 
 play, 161.5, -Ito ; and •' Freeman Honour ;" and 
 " St George for England." Coxeter conji^c- 
 tures that he was the Cheshire antiquary. — 
 Fuller's Worthies. Cough's Brit. Topog. Biog. 
 Dram. 
 
 SMITH (William) a learned English di- 
 vine, was the son of tlie rev. llichard Smith, 
 rector of All Saints, Worcester, wliere lie was 
 bom in 1711. He was educated at New col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he took tbe degree of 
 MA. in 1737. In 1737 he was presented to 
 the rectory of Trinity church, Chester, by the 
 Derby family ; and in 17,58 the same interest 
 obtained him the deanery of Chester, when he 
 took his doctor's degree. He died January 12, 
 1787. He is chiefly known to the learned 
 world by his valuable translations, comprising 
 " Longinus on tlie Sublime," 1739, 8vo, which 
 has gone through four editions ; " Thucy- 
 dides," 1753, 2 vols. 4to, reprinted in 1781, 
 8vo; " Xenophon's Plistory of the Affairs of 
 Greece," 1770, 4to ; " Nine Sermons on the 
 IJeatitudes ;" and a volume of poems published 
 posthumously in 1791, by the rev. 'J'homas 
 Crane of Chester, with his life prefixed. — Life 
 btf Crane. Gent. Mag. 
 
 SMITH (William) a traveller, born about 
 the end of tlie seventeenth century. He was 
 sent in 1726 by a commercial company to the 
 coast of Guinea, to make plans and views of 
 the forts, and to survey the country from the 
 mouth of the river Gambia to Juidah. He re- 
 turned to England in September 17'27, after 
 bavins visited Barbadoes , and he subse- 
 (juently published the result of liis labours, 
 under the title of " A New Voyage to Guinea, 
 containing an exact Description of the Coun- 
 try and of the INIanners and Customs of the 
 Inhabitants," Eondon, 1744, 8vo, which work 
 was translated into French ; and " Draughts 
 of Forts on tlie Coast of Guinea," 4to. — An- 
 other WiT.i.iAM Smith was the autlinr of 
 " The History of the Province of New York 
 (N. A.) to the year 1732," London. 1757, 
 4to ; reprinted 1765, 8vo, and published iu 
 French, Paris, 1767, It'mo. — Biog. Unlr. 
 
 SMITH (William) an eminent dramatic 
 performer, born about 1730 in the city of Lon- 
 tlon, where his father carried on bu.siness as a 
 wholesale grocer and tea-dealer. He was 
 educated at P2ton school and St John's college, 
 Cambridge, with a view to the clerical pro- 
 fession ; but having subjected himself to the 
 danger of academical censure by some youth- 
 ful irregularities, he left the university, and 
 relinquished his prospects of ecclesiastical pre- 
 Cermenl. Returning to London he directed 
 
 SMO 
 
 his attention to the stage, and in January 1753 
 he made liis first appearance at Covent-gar- 
 den theatre, in the character of Theodosius, 
 in the tragedy of " The Force of Love." He 
 was very successful ; and he continued to till 
 some of the principal parts in a varie^.y of 
 plays for twenty-two years with established 
 reputation. In 1774 be removed to Drury- 
 lane, and continued to belong to the com- 
 pany there till 1788, when he retired from tlie 
 stage, in consequence of having married a lady 
 of fortune, the widow of Kelland Courtenav, 
 esq. and daughter of viscount flinchinbrooke. 
 He then retired into the country, devotinor lijs 
 time to the cultivation of polite literature, 
 with which he was intimately conversant ; and 
 to the enjoyment of rural pleasures, especially 
 fox-hunting, to which he was very partial. 
 His death took place September 13, 1819. at 
 Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk, wliere be had 
 long resided. The characters in which be 
 chiefly excelled were llichard, Hastings, and 
 Hotspur, in tragedy ; and Kitely, Oakley, and 
 Charles Surface, in comedy ; and in the latter 
 esqecially he was almost without a rival. — 
 Thesp. Diet. Gent. Mag. 
 
 SMITS (DiEDERic) a Dutch poet, who was 
 a native of Rotterdam. He united with a 
 poetical genius a taste for music, and his verses 
 are said to be distinguislied for smoothness 
 and harmony in no common degree. M. de 
 Vries, in his History of Dutch poetry, prefers 
 the heroic poem of Smits, " On tlie Delivery 
 of the Children of Israel from the iilolatrous 
 Worship of Baal-peor," to " Abraham the 
 Patriarch," the celebrated epopea of Nicholas 
 Hoogvliet. Smits wrote a poem on the river 
 llotte, which gives name to the city of Rotter- 
 dam ; and he translated Pope's Epistle from 
 Heloise to Abelard, and other pieces. — Bioo-. 
 Univ. 
 
 SMOLLETT (Tobias) a writer of consi- 
 derable reputation and varied powers, was the 
 grandson of Sir James Smollett of Bonhill, 
 one of the commissioners for the union, being 
 tbe youngest son of Archibald, the fourth son 
 of that baronet. He was born at Dakpihnrn 
 in Dumbartonsliire, in 1721, and after beine 
 educated at the <rrammar-school of Dumbarton, 
 wliere he discovered an early taste for poetry 
 and satire, he was apprenticed to a suvg -on at 
 Glasgow, and at the same time attended the 
 medical lectures in that university. While 
 in this situation he composed his tragedy of 
 " The Regicide ;" and in his nineteenth year 
 was induced by the death of bis grandfather, 
 which left him without a provision for the pro- 
 secution of his studies, to repair to London, 
 in quest of professional emjiloynient in the 
 army or navy. Having failed in his applica 
 tioii to the managers to produce his tragedy, 
 in 1741 he procured the situation of a surgeon's 
 mate in a ship of the line, and sailed on the 
 expedition against Carthagena, of which ill- 
 conducted enter)»rise he subsequently published 
 an account, in his Compendium of A'oyages. 
 He was soon disgusted with the naval service, 
 which be quitted in the West Indies, and re- 
 aided some v.'?;'^ iu Jamaica. On his return 
 
 i 
 
SM O 
 
 in 17 i6, the severities used by Uio kiiii^'s 
 troops in Scothiiul aftiT tlic Itattle of Cullodtn, 
 induced him to write his short poem i-iititlrd 
 " The Tears of Scotland," wliich hy its bpirit, 
 jiathos, and clet,'anco, attracted consideraiile 
 attention. This was f<jHowed hy two satires, 
 entitled " Advice" and " Ueproof," in which, 
 besides a very free attack on pubhc characters, 
 lie severely ];ished the mana;^crs and others wlio 
 had personally otlended hmi. lie soon after mar- 
 ried a lady with whom he had become acquaint- 
 ed in Jamaica ; but received only a small ]>ari of 
 the fortune which he hail expected, and in con- 
 fe(juence was under the necessity of ;<pplying 
 once more to his pen. The novel of " lloderick 
 Random" was the first fruit'.^ of this ai>pli<ation, 
 which soon became highly i>opular; and al- 
 though part of its attraction consisted in itssup- 
 jiosed allusion to the life of the author, and ad- 
 vertence to the j)ablic events and characters 
 of the day, it will probaMy ever remain so. 
 He soon after published his tragedy of *' The 
 llcgicide," wliich his growing rejiutaiion ren- 
 dered profitable, without convincing the critics 
 that the managers had done wrong in refusing 
 it. In 1730 be enlarged his acquaintance 
 with the world by a trip to Paris, which 
 enabled him in 1751 to give to the public liis 
 " Adventures of Peregrine Pickle," another 
 r.ovel, in which, with no inconsiderable sacri- 
 fice of morality and delicacy, be exerted his 
 strong powers of humorous invention and de- 
 lineation. He next thought of settling as a 
 }>hysician at Bath, but he soon experienced 
 that confidence is seldom reposed in medical 
 men who divide their attention between lite- 
 lature and their profession. He accordingly 
 resumed his pen, and soon after produced bis 
 " Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom," 
 and a new translation of Don Quixote, by 
 subscription. The latter is little more than an 
 improvement of that by Jarvis, which however 
 in its conveyance of the more composed hu- 
 mour of Cervantes, is still preferred by many 
 critics. His next undertaking was " 'Jlie Cri- 
 tical Review," set up, it is said, in reliance on 
 the patronage of the tory and high-church 
 ]iarty, in opposition to the Monthly I\eview. 
 To tliis task be brought many necessary qua- 
 1 fications, which were however much alloyed 
 by his acrimonious, jealous, and irritable pro- 
 jiensities, which involved him in much coarse 
 and illiberal controversy, and subjected him 
 in one instance to fine and imprisoimient for a 
 libel on admiral Knowles. In l7o7 he at- 
 tempted the stage a second time, in a farce 
 called "The Reprisals, or the Tars of Old 
 England," which, notwithstanding his attack 
 cnGarrickin Roderick Random, that manager 
 accepted ; and it is pleasant to observe that 
 this kindness not only produced a reconcilia- 
 tion between them, but a handsome apology 
 from Smollett in a subsequent pubhcatiou. 
 Notwithstanding his numerous engagements, 
 he produced in 17;i8 bis " Complete History 
 of England," in four quarto volumes, a work 
 which, with many imperfections, is to be re- 
 garded as an extraordinary instance of literary 
 acilit- and industry, being completed in four- 
 
 S MO 
 
 teen nionlhi. U was afitrw^rJs |iiin(i*(l in 
 weekly imnihcrH. md conlinueii by (iuthrie lo 
 17(1), under the auspiica of •' f,nl 
 
 author. The portion fKiUi ihi- K'-\ ;,en 
 
 that of Humi'coaiM-ji, it ^onerilly puliliaht-d u 
 a Kctpiel to that uuthiir. Dunn;; h. ,©- 
 
 mem in the KmyV r.ench f«ir thv id 
 
 admiral Knowlea, he coin|K)scd \,m «• Adveu- 
 turesof Sir I.ancehjt (JreavcB," whiih he guve 
 in detached parts to the liritisb .Ma;;azuie. It 
 was subsetpiently publmbed in two Toluinet, 
 liimo, but will bear no comjmriton with his 
 previous works of humour. \\ lien lord Mute 
 ussumtil the ministerial lead, Smollett wan en- 
 gaged to support him in a weekly paper called 
 " 'J'he I'riton," which was r:ipidlv emountered 
 by the celebrated North llriiori of Wiiki, 
 which, backed by the public voice, soon re- 
 duced it to silence, and dissolved a friendnhip 
 which had long subsisted between the restiec- 
 tive authors. In 17().> grief at the loss of 
 his daughter induced him to make a lour 
 through France and Italy, in whieh he spent 
 two years, and on his return published hi« 
 " Travels," in 2 vols. 8vo. Ill at ease with 
 himself, although they contain acute and sen- 
 sible remarks, a queruloua disposition to com- 
 ])lain is exhil)ited from beginning to end, for 
 which the author is lashed by Sterne io Ids 
 " Sentimental Journey," under tliC name of 
 Smelfungus. In I76i he published his " .\d- 
 ventures of an Atom," a jiolitical satire, in 
 ridicule of different a<iminisiratious, but par- 
 ticularly that of lord (.'hatham. Increasing 
 disease induced him to revisit Italv in 1770, 
 as a last resource, and lie bad still sufficient 
 mental vigour to compose his last, and as many 
 think his best novel, the " Expedition of Hum- 
 phry Clinker." In the cynical but humane 
 character of Matthew Bramble tlie author is 
 supposed to have had an eye to himself, whom 
 he also more formally sketches under the name 
 of Serle in the same work. 'J'his was the 
 last flash of his genius. He died in the iieiL'h- 
 bourhood of Leghorn, October 'Jl, 1771, in 
 the fifty-first year of his age. ])r Smollett was 
 undoubtedly a man of considerable talents and 
 various powers, but his claim to original genius 
 rests principally on his novels. In these, al- 
 though the portraiture often apjiroaches to ca- 
 ricature, and the incident to extravagance, he 
 exhibits a knowledge of life and manners and 
 an exuberance of humour which have seldom 
 been excelled. At the same time it is not to 
 be concealed that morals and decency are fre- 
 quently violated, nor ought a reader who ex- 
 pects much jiKasure from them to be very 
 fastidious on the score of taste. As a his- 
 torian he has obtained some credit for ease and 
 animation of style ; but in the higher qua- 
 lities of judgment, impartiality, ami pbiloso- 
 jdiioal appreciation, he fulls infinitely below 
 the rank maintained by Hume, Gibbon, and 
 Robertson. His poetic powers wt-re con- 
 siderable. " The Tears of Scotland, ' " Ode 
 to Leven Water," and other short pieces are 
 polished, tender, and picturescjue. llis " Ode 
 to Independence " is also a very spirite*! and 
 noble production. His .satires are vigorous- 
 
SNE 
 
 hut viiuleat and disgusting. — Life prefixed to 
 IVo-ks by Dr Moore. 
 
 SMYTH (James Carmiciiael") an eminent 
 physician, fellow of tlie Royal Society, was 
 born in Scotland in 1741. He studied at 
 Edinhurgli and Leyden, where he took his de- 
 gree, and subsequently settled in the metro- 
 polis. Not meeting with tlie success he ex- 
 pected, he obt£uned a situation in the medical 
 department of the army, and in 1780 had the 
 char-^e of the French prison hospital at \Vin- 
 chester. A fever breaking out in this recej)- 
 tacle, he employed the three mineral acids 
 with great effect in preventing contagion ; a 
 discovery the value of which was sufficiently 
 proved on farther trial, and the doctor in cou- 
 s>:'quence received a remuneration from par- 
 liament in 1802. A claim was notwiihstand- 
 intr made by Monsieur Chaptal for Guytou 
 Morveau, whom he alleged to have practised 
 the same method as early as 1773. L)r John- 
 stone of Kidderminster also made a similar 
 claim ; but it did not appear on examination 
 that he had ever tried it on a sufficient scale. 
 Dr Smyth's writings are, an essay " On the 
 Effect of Swinging as a Remedy in Pulmonary 
 Complaints," 8vo, 1787; " A Description of 
 the Jail Distemper, as it appeared among the 
 Spanish Prisoners at Winchester in 1780, &:c." 
 8vo, 1795 ; " The Effects of Nitrous Vapour 
 in preventing and destroying Contagion ascer- 
 tained, &:c." 8vo ; " A Letter to W. Wilber- 
 force. Esq. on Dr Johnstone's Pamphlet," 
 8vo, 1805 ; " Remarks on the Report of M. 
 Chaptal, &c." 8vo ; and " A Treatise on 
 Hydrocephalus," 8vo, 1814. He also pub- 
 lished an edition of Dr W. Stark's works, 4to, 
 1788. He died June 18, 1821. — Arm. Biog. 
 
 SMYTHE (James IMooue) amiscellaneouH 
 writer of the last century, who was the son of 
 Arthur jNIoore, one of the lords commissiouerc 
 of trade in the reign of queen Anne. He de- 
 rived the surname of Smythe from his maternal 
 uncle, who left him a large fortune. He was 
 educated at Worcester college, Oxford, and 
 lie held jointly with his brother the office of 
 paymaster to the band of gentlemen pen- 
 sioners. He wrote songs in conjunction with 
 the duke of Wharton, and he commenced a 
 Jacobite paper, called " The Inquisitor ;" but 
 he is j)rincipally remembered at present as one 
 of the characters who figure in Pope's Dun- 
 ciad. He had offended the irritable bard of 
 Twickenham by a comedy entitled " The 
 Rival JModes," published in 1727, 8vo. His 
 death took place October 18, 1734. — Bing. 
 Dramat. 
 
 SNELL, or SNELLIUS (Ronoi.pn) an 
 eminent mathematician and philological wri- 
 ter, born at Oudewator, in Holland, in 1546. 
 He studied at Cologne, Heidelberg, and IMar- 
 purg, where, in 15(J2, he took the degree of 
 MA. He then travelled into Italy, and on his 
 return to his native country he settled at Ley- 
 den as a classical teacher, but he was after- 
 wards made professor of Hebrew and then of 
 mathematics in the university there. He died 
 in 1612, after having twice been rector of the 
 university to which he belonged. His works 
 
 SN Y 
 
 comprise a restoration of the geometry of 
 Apollonius Pergaius, published under the title 
 of " Apollonius Batavius," 4to, and " Ethica 
 methodo Ramaia conscripta," Herborn. 1597, 
 8vo. — M. Adam. Vit. Philos. StoUii Introd. in 
 Hist. Lit. 
 
 SNELL (Willebrod) son of the preceding, 
 greatly distinguished as a mathematician, was 
 boni at Leyden in 1591. He succeeded his 
 father in the mathematical professorship, and 
 publisiied several scientific works ; but he is 
 chiefly known on account of his mensupation 
 of a degree of the earth's surface. He carried 
 on his operations between Alcmaer and Ber- 
 gen-op-Zoom, and also between Alcmaer and 
 Leyden, and published an account of them in 
 a treatise entitled " Eratosthenes Batavus." 
 Willebrod Snell is said to have been the third 
 geometer who measured a degree of the meri- 
 dian, which he estimated at 55,021 toises. 
 I\Iuschenbroek, who repeated his measure- 
 ments in the last century, found a degree to 
 consist of 57,033 toises, which number nearly 
 corresponds with the determination of Picard 
 and Cassini. Besides the work above noticed 
 Snell was the author of " Elements of Trigo- 
 nometry ;" " Hessian and Bohemian Observa- 
 tions," with his notes ; " Libra Astronomica 
 et Philosophica," wherein he undertakes the 
 examination of the principles of Galileo con- 
 cerning comets ; and a treatise on the comet 
 of 1618. His death took place in 1626. — 
 Martin's Biog. Philos. Hutton's Math. Diet, 
 
 SNELLING (Thomas) an Enghsh writer 
 on numismatics, who died in 1773. He pub- 
 lished a treatise on the " Silver Coin and 
 Coinage of England," 1762, 4to ; " The Gold 
 Coin and Coinage of England," 1763, 4to ; 
 and after his death appeared " Thirty- tliree 
 Plates of English Medals," 1776, 4to ; and 
 " A View of the Origin, Nature, and Use of 
 Jettons or Counters, especially those commonly 
 known by the name of Black Money and 
 Abbey Pieces," 1779, 4to.— OnV. 
 
 SNORRO STURLESON, or SNORRO 
 STURL-^US, an Icelandic historian and anti- 
 quary of the thirteenth century, who was 
 counsellor to the kings of Sweden and Nor- 
 way, and afterwards governor of Iceland. He 
 wrote in the Icelandic language the history of 
 the Norwegian kings from the time of Odin, 
 translated into Danish by Peter Claudius, 
 about 1 559, and published with a Latin version 
 by Peringskiold in 1697. Snorro was also the 
 compiler of the later "Ed<la," or Bible of Ice- 
 landic mythology, printed with a Latin transla- 
 tion and notes by Resenius, Copenhagen,! 665, 
 4to. He was killed by his enemy Gyssurusin 
 1241. — Sturla LAGiFi-n, the son of 'ihordus, 
 and nephew of Snorro, was a distinguished 
 Icelandic historian, who wrote the lifeofllaco 
 the elder, king of Norway. He was also the 
 author of " Sturlungorum Historia," relating 
 to the affairs of Iceland down to his own time ; 
 and " Liber Originum Islandicum." He was 
 governor of Iceland, but he resigned his office, 
 and died in retirement in 1284. — Sibbern Bibl. 
 Hist. Diuin-Norveg. 
 
 SNVDERS (PiiANcis) an eminent artist :)f 
 
 I 
 
the Flemisa scliool of paiiitlnt^, horn at An- 
 twerp ill 1379. He studied the ru«liiuciits of 
 liis art under Ids celebrated countryMrui \'nn 
 Balen, after wliich lie travelled thrmi^li great 
 ])art of Italy, visitiiii,^ the most esteemed col- 
 lections in that cnnntry. On his return to 
 Flanders he attached himstlf to tiie household 
 of the archduke Firdiiiand, witli whom he was 
 a great favourite, as he was also with the car- 
 dinal Infant of Sj)ain, and tinally took u|) his 
 abode at lirussels. Snyders, who is considered 
 never to have been surpassed in his delinea- 
 tion of beasts, fish, hunting-parties, &:c. was 
 accustomed to work in concert with Rubens 
 and Jordaens, and some of the most valuable 
 paintin<;3 of tliat school are their joint pro- 
 duction. Many of his choice pieces were to 
 be found in the collections of the elector jiala- 
 tine, and at the Fscurial. Ills death took 
 place in 1637. 
 
 SOCINUS (Litiiirs) an eminent Italian 
 scholar, tlie third son of Marianus Socinus, an 
 eminent civilian of l^ologna, was born at 
 Sienna, lb'25. He was designed for the legal 
 profession by his father, but having been led 
 to doubt the truth of certain doctrines of the 
 Roman Catholic church, he directed liis 
 studies towards sciiptural investigation, for 
 which purpose lie acquired the Greek, He- 
 brew, and Arabic languages. About the 
 year 1716 he attached himself to a society 
 friendly to the principles of reformation in 
 religion, which held secret meetings at Vicenza. 
 Being discovered, several of them were ap- 
 prehended, and two of the number sutTered 
 death as heretics. lu 1317 La^lius quitted 
 Italy, and travelled into France, England, the 
 Low Countries, and Poland, after which he 
 settled at Zurich, and maintained a corres- 
 pondence among the leading reformers, which, 
 as he showed a predilection for Arian doc- 
 trines, gradually made him an object of sus- 
 picion ; Calvin in particular wrote him a letter 
 of admonition, which being followed by the 
 detestable immolation of Servetus, was, out- 
 wardly at least, attended to. He subsequently 
 visited Italy and Poland, but ultimately re- 
 turned to Zurich, where he died in 1562. He 
 appears to have been a mild, conscientious 
 man, and much averse to contest, v>hich dis- 
 position led him to adopt the Helvetic pro- 
 fession of faith. He doubtless indebted many 
 of the opinions of his more celebrated nephew 
 Faustus, but as the authenticity of the writings 
 attributed to him are much doubted, it is dif- 
 iicult to ascertain the exact extent of his Ariau 
 predilections. — Bai/Zf. Tiraboschi. 
 
 SOCINUS (Faustus) nephew of the pre- 
 cedincr, being the son of his brother Alessan- 
 dro, a professor of law, was born at Sienna 
 in 1339. Having lost his parents at an early 
 age, his education was neglected, and he 
 reached his twenty-third year with but a 
 small stock of general learning, and some ac- 
 quaintance with the law, his intended profes- 
 sion. Having imbibed the theological opinions 
 of his uncle, he was obliged to quit his native 
 cily, when he repaired to the court of the grand 
 duke of Tuscany. Here he obt;uned honour- 
 
 SO c 
 
 ' able (uijjIoymentM, which howoTr r at t| o ex. 
 I'iiation of twelve yi-ar.4 he ;. . :, and 
 visited Basil iJi order to nturlv t' ^ ., JJe 
 
 remained at IJasil three years, duririi; which 
 time he eonfirrned himnelf in ilie rt-V. :,i. 
 
 niouH of hiM uncle, which he Uirthei . .; ..,.ed 
 ami modified. About tliin time M>m« dif- 
 ferences took j)l;ue amon^ tho atiti-triiiitariau 
 I refornierft of I'ransytvania, »»wiii;^ prin< ipuDy 
 to certain doctrineH |»ropagiittd by Ktunc ui 
 ; David concerning the adoration due to Cliriftt. 
 To heal these divisions, lllandiata, a Ie;tdrr 
 I of much iiilluencc, sent for >■<*( inuH, who ar- 
 [ gued the variouH points with David, but with 
 ' no success ; and the hitter was thrown into 
 prison by the prince of Transylvania, where 
 j he died, so little was toleration understood at 
 [ this time in any (piarter. This circumstance 
 was the sourct; of much obloquy against So- 
 cinus, who ultimately justified himself from tlie 
 charge of promoting these severities, whicli it 
 does not however apjiear he exercised ativ in- 
 fluence to prevent. In 1379 he repaireii to 
 1 Poland, where he was desirous of being ad- 
 mitted a member of the Inilariati thurthea, 
 I but was harshly repulsed ; and as usual in iheo- 
 I logical quarrels, lie was represented to the 
 j king of Poland as a person dangerous to au- 
 thority, although he carried the doctrine of 
 passive obedience to its entire extent, so as 
 even to condemn the resistance of the Nether- 
 lands to the tyranny of Spain. It was with dif- 
 ficulty he found protection under the roof of 
 a noble Pole, whose daughter he married ; 
 and the publication of his hitherto suppressed 
 work, " De Christo Servatore," so enraged 
 his opponents, it was with diiTiculty he was 
 rescued from the fury of a mub, who, insti- 
 gated by the students of Cracow, would have 
 torn him to pieces. His house being pillag- 
 ed, and his i\ISS. destroyed, he was obliged 
 to retire from Cracow to a distant vil- 
 lage, where at length his unremitted exertions 
 to compose the ditierences between the I ui- 
 tarian churches in some degree succeeded. 
 He did not long survive this successful labour, 
 but died in 1601, in his last retreat, in the 
 sixty -fifth year of his age. 'J'he private cha- 
 racter of Socinus is spoken of with uniform 
 encomium, and as he made great sacrifices for 
 his opinions, their foundation in rigid prin- 
 tiple is not to be denied. The main distinc- 
 tion of the system to which he has given name, 
 is that stated by Mosluim — the use of reason 
 in judging of the iloclrines of Chri.<tip.nity. 
 which, although to be derived solely from the 
 Scriptures, according to Socinus and his fol- 
 lowers are to be explained according to the 
 dictates of reason, llcnce a rejection of all 
 that appears to them inconsistent or incom- 
 prehensible in the orthodox creed, and a «iis- 
 posiiion to regard the mission of Christ upon 
 earth as chiefly designed to introduce a new 
 moral law, distinguislied by its superior sanc- 
 tity and perfection. As regards the person 
 and divinity of Christ, however, they retained 
 notions which verge much more towards 
 Arianism than those of the modem Tnitarinns. 
 Socinus was tlie author of many tracts in rela 
 
s oc 
 
 lion to liis system, and to the controversies in 
 whi'jli he was engaged, which foim collec- 
 tively two volumes folio of the *' Bibliotlieca 
 Frafrum Polonorum.'' — Bayle. Moiheim. Toul- 
 mins Life <?/ Sochnis. 
 
 SOCRATES, the most eminent of the Gre- 
 cian philosophers, was born about BC. 469, 
 at Alopece, a village near Athens. His father, 
 named Sophroniscus, was a statuary, and his 
 mother, Phccaarete, exercised the profession 
 of a midwife. He was brought up to his 
 father's pursuit, in which he obtained some 
 proficiency ; out the cultivation of liis mind 
 was the object nearest his heart, and that to 
 which he devoted liis chief attention. On the 
 death of his father he succeeded to a small 
 inheritance, which he lost by the knavery of 
 a relation, and was obliged to labour for his 
 maintenance. At length a- weahhy Athenian, 
 who admired his ingenuous disposition and 
 acute understanding, ai)pointed him preceptor 
 to his children, by which means he was enabled 
 to attend the lectures of the most celebrated 
 philosophers of that lime, and Anaxagoras, of 
 tlie Ionic sect, is mentioned as the one by whom 
 he benefited philosophically ; while he imbibed 
 from other masters the princij)lesof eloquence, 
 poetry, music, and geometry, the usual branches 
 of a course of liberal education at Athens. 
 Thus highly endowed he lived as an humble but 
 meritorious citizen, anxious to perform every 
 duty enjoined by the laws of his country. He 
 served as a soldier at the siege of Potidaja, 
 and several years afterwards joined an expedi- 
 tion against the Boeotians, and, in an unsuc- 
 cessful engagement, retired with great deli- 
 beration, and bore away on his shoulders the 
 wounded Xenophon. A third campaign in 
 which he served, is mentioned, after which he 
 returned to Athens, and never again quitted it. 
 He was sixty years of age before he was em- 
 ployed in any civil office, when he was elected 
 one of the representatives of his district to 
 the senate of Five Hundred. In this situa- 
 tion he quickly displayed a firmness and in- 
 tegrity which placed him above all his col- 
 leagues. He singly stood forth in defence of 
 the commanders at the battle of Arginusje, 
 who having been prevented by a storm from 
 paying funeral honours to the slain, were 
 cruelly and absurdly condemned to death, in 
 obedience to the clamours of the populace. 
 With equal courage and rectitude he also ha- 
 zarded his life in opposing the violence and 
 oppression of the thirty tyrants. It was how- 
 ever as a teacher of morality tliat Socrates has 
 acquired his best and noblest fame. Despising 
 philosophy as a mere ait of disputation, or as 
 priucipallv occupied in subtle questions, which 
 it was at once impossible and useless to solve, 
 he made it his great object to inculcate the 
 wisdom which has an immediate reference to 
 practice. Instead of opening a private school 
 like other teachers, lie passed his time chiefly 
 in places of public resort, and frequently col- 
 lected an audience in the Lyceum on the bor- 
 ders of the llyssus, where he sometimes de- 
 livered a discourse from an elevated chair. 
 The mode of iui^Uu'tion which he chiefly 
 
 soc 
 
 practised towards individuals, was to propose 
 questions to them, and upon their answers to 
 found other questions, and thus to lead them 
 step by step to conclusions upon their own 
 admissions ; a mode of arsrument ever sin.re 
 termed Socratic. His own conduct was in all 
 respects exemplary, exhibiting all the tem- 
 perance, forbearance, and self-command which 
 principally constitute elevation of character. 
 Tried in domestic life by the proverbial shrew- 
 ishness of his wife Xantippe, he bore her pro- 
 vocation with his usual equanimity, and in all 
 respects practised the noble lessons which 
 he taught. A distinguished man, whose life 
 formcil- a tacit reproach upon so many per- 
 sons, and who did not spare his ridicule of tlie 
 numerous pretenders to wisdom and know- 
 ledge with which Athens abounded, neces- 
 sarily created many enemies, who repaid him 
 both with insult and slander. The famous 
 comic writer Aristophanes, m particular, em- 
 ployed all the licence of the Grecian comedy, 
 in regard to living characters, to bting liim 
 personally on the stage, in a piect; entitled 
 *' The Clouds," in which the character in- 
 tended to satirise him was made to utter 
 nothing but absurdity and profaneness. Socrates 
 coolly attended the performance, and as a sort 
 of tacit appeal to the audience, stood up in 
 their view while it proceeded. This calm 
 contempt had its effect, for the next year it 
 was received with marked disapprobation, and 
 withdrawn. Until lately the views taken of the 
 conduct of Aristophanes have been uniform, 
 but recently a writer in a leading review has 
 taken up the cause of the latter, by assuming 
 the fact that Socrates was a specious opposer 
 of the established religion and social order of 
 his day, in other words a reformer — an ex- 
 ample of the influence of modern associa- 
 tions over the most established facts and 
 conclusions of history, in the highest degree, 
 curious. It appears, however, that this dis- 
 tinguished character held it to be the duty of a 
 citizen to comply with the religious rites of his 
 country ; and as to the rest, while he repro- 
 bated many of the popular and indecent stories 
 of the gods, he seems to have believed in the 
 existence of a plurality of deities, in obedience 
 to one supreme. Whether by his allusion to 
 the inspiration of an attendant genius, he in- 
 dulged in an artifice to create an ojnnion of 
 something extraordinary belonging to his na- 
 ture or character, or that he really enter- 
 tained some superstitious notions in relation to 
 his impulses and convictions, is doubtful. 
 Neither his virtues nor his pretensions could, 
 however, save him from the almost general 
 fate of a reformer ; and the sojihists whose 
 'al'acies lie exposed, and the many influential 
 political pietenders whose views he thwarted, 
 with a m iltitude of zealots who detested him 
 as dangerous to the popular superstitions, gra 
 dually raised a storm against him, the result 
 of which was a criminal accusation before the 
 supreme court of jiulicature. It was brought 
 by INIehtus, a young rhetorician, aided by 
 Anytus, a sordid man enriched by trade, 
 aod by au individual named Lycon. He wJt» 
 
soc 
 
 accused in tlie followinc; tonus : — " Socrates 
 violates the laws in not ackiiowleilginfj llir 
 i;ods which the state acknowledijes, and by 
 introducing new divinities. lie also violates 
 the laws by corrupting youth." The manner 
 ill which he met this ancient specimen of a 
 species of persecution which nnli.ippiiy lias met 
 with much modern imitation, was in the hi^li- 
 e?t degree noble and ehiiracteristic. After 
 I Mate, then a young man, had been forbiildcn 
 to speak in his belialf, he rose, and with thi- 
 cahn confidence of innocence, n-buttcd the 
 charges against him, ]>y appealing to his rcgu- 
 l:ir attendance on religious ceremonies, the 
 pure morality of his inculcation, and the per- 
 sonal exanii)le which he atVoided of temjier- 
 ance, moderatioji, and obedience, to the laws. 
 All availed nothing against a premeditated in- 
 tention to condemn ; and he was sentenced to 
 die by the poison of hemlock. It is to be re- 
 gretted that the limits of tliis work will not 
 allow of those ir-teresting details of his deport- 
 ment in prison, and on the day of his death, 
 which are narrated with so much aftecting 
 simplicity by Xenophon. When at last tlie 
 fatal cup was presented to him, he received it 
 with a steady hand, and after a prayer to the 
 gods for a favourable ])assage to the invisible 
 world, lie serenely swallowed the fatal draught. 
 His disciples at that awful moment could not 
 refrain from marks of the most poignant sor- 
 row ; on which he gently reproved their want 
 of courage, and observed that such a change 
 ought to be hailed by better omens. He then, 
 as he was directed, walked about until he 
 hegan to feel the benumbing effects of the poi- 
 son ; upon which symptom he lay down, and 
 wrapped himself in his mantle. After a short 
 silence lie raised his mantle, and said to his 
 friend Crito, " We owe a cock to Esculapius, 
 do not forget to pay it ;" and then covering 
 himself again, presently expired. Such, in 
 his seventieth year, was the end of a man 
 wliom all heathen antiquity has pronounced 
 the wisest and most virtuous of mortals. Party 
 enmity for a while pursued his memory ; but 
 at length the Athenians became sensible of 
 their injustice, and turned their anger aganist 
 his accusers, of whom they condemned IMelitus 
 to death, and banished Anytus. In further 
 testimony of llieir penitence, they recalled his 
 friends, and erected a statue to his memory. 
 As this eminent person left nothing in writing, 
 his re])utation must have been founded on the 
 reports of his discourses, handed down by his 
 disciples, of whom the principal were Xeno- 
 phon and Plato. Of these the former is 
 judged to have given the most faithful idea of 
 his master's manners and sentiments, the " So- 
 cratic Dialogues " of Plato being intermixed 
 with his own language and conceptions. Of the 
 leading doctrines of Socrates some account 
 lias been already given. It is certain that lie 
 was a pure theist, as far as the term is appli- 
 cable to a belief in a supreme intelligence, 
 without excluding the existence of subordinate 
 agencies. His system of morals was founded 
 oil the basis of religion ; as he held that vir- 
 tuous principles are the laws of God, from 
 
 S () L 
 
 which no one can (hj.art with impunity, how. 
 ever they may »-vad«- the penaltj. m of human 
 Ia\v8. Concerning the »oul of man, according 
 to Xenophon. hi; rej^ardtd it a* allied to the 
 Supreme I'eing. not by a pnrliiipation of c-g- 
 Hi'iiie, but himihirity of nnture, nnj conw- 
 quently believed that it wan imranrtal. An he- 
 was in all resiHcts a n.odint iii-juirer, hv was 
 moro allieil to the bt«ptKal tlian dogrnatiral 
 philosophy, and hence it is not iuritrinin^j that 
 after his ih ath his followers brok»* into a va- 
 riety of sects. The person of this ^;r. at moral 
 philosopher was very homely, beiny bald, and 
 of a dark comi)lexi()n, with a flat nose, pro- 
 jecting eyes, and severe downcast look. 
 
 Dii>>se)ies Liirit, Cicero. Xeui>]ih,»t'$ }]trmo- 
 rahiliu. 
 
 SOCPATKS. sumamed SCriOLASTICrS. 
 an ecclesiastical historian of the fifth century, 
 was born at Constantinople in tlie beginning 
 of the reign of Theodosius. He liad for some 
 time been a jirofessor of law, when he und»r- 
 took to write a history of the churches, which 
 lie commences at the year .'509, where tliat of 
 ICusehius terminates, and brings it down to 
 4 10. As a historian he is deemed judiciou* 
 and exact, and his observations are generally 
 calm and impartial. He lias however fallen 
 into some mistakes, especially in relation to 
 theological dogmas ; and is accused of being 
 too favourable to the sect of tJie Novatians. 
 Nothing more is known of his jiersonal history. 
 His work has been translated into Latin and 
 published in Greek and Latin by Valesius, 
 folio, Paris, I6t)8, and republished with addi- 
 tional notes by Heading, London, 17 'JO, ;> vols, 
 folio. — Cave. Ditpiii. \ oaii HLl. Cnerc. 
 
 SOLANDER (Damfl CiiAniEs) a Swe- 
 dish naturalist, born in tlie province of Nord 
 land, February SB, 17:36. He studied at I'p- 
 sal under Liuna.'us, and took the degree of 
 I\1D. In 1760 he visif^d Knglaiul ; and in 
 1762, through the reconimemlaiion of Piter 
 Collinson, he was em|)loyed by the trustees of 
 the Pritish IMuseiim to ilraw up a catalogue of 
 the natural curiosities belonging to that insti- 
 tution. He was subsequently a|>pointed an 
 assistant keeper of the cabinet of natural his- 
 tory ; and in 1761 he was chosen a fellow of 
 the lloyal Society. In 1766 he assisted in a 
 publication entitled " Ko>si!ia 1 lantonit nsin. 
 colleclft et in Museo Pritannico ile|K>yita a 
 Gustavo lirander. IL S. ct S. A.S. .Mus. Hrit. 
 Cur." 4to. Dr Solander accompanied .Mr 
 (afterwards sir .loseph) flanks in his voyage 
 round the world, with captain Cook in I7f)8 — 
 1771; and he wos afterwards (mpl<)>ed in 
 arranging and describing the valuable botani- 
 cal collections which were the ri suit of their 
 researches in this eipediiion. He was created 
 l)CI>. at O.xfonl in 177 1 ; an»l in 1773 be was 
 made one of the assistant librarians at tl:e 
 Hrilish .Museum, lie died of apo|>le»y. May 
 16, 1782. l)r Solander hc'iug a pupil of Lin- 
 naeus, and intimately acquainted with the sys- 
 tem of that '^reat naturalist, roiurilnited niate- 
 riaily to its general reception in this country; 
 thoui:h his published productions are f'-w and 
 tininniK)rtant, consisting chiefly of pa})crs in 
 
SOL 
 
 periodical works, and a Letter to Philip Car- ] 
 tpret Webb, FRS. entitled " An Account of 
 the Gardenia (Jasminoides) " in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions. — Hutchinson's Biog, Med. 
 Pulteneys Sketches of the Prog, of Botany in 
 
 England. 
 
 SOLINUS (Caius Jumus) a Latin gram- 
 marian, who is thought to have lived at Home 
 in the third century. He is known only as 
 the author of a work, which he first entitled 
 " Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium," but af- 
 terwards " Polyhistor." This is a collection 
 without method or judgment of the remarkable 
 things in different countries, a great part of^ 
 which is borrowed from the natural history of 
 Pliny. As however it contains some things 
 not in that writer, and serves to elucidate his 
 text, it has been deemed worthy of notice by 
 the critics, and has served as a repository for 
 the unwieldy erudition of Salmasius, who 
 published an edition of it in 1629, in 2 vols, 
 folio, illustrated or rather overwhelmed by his 
 copious commentary. Solinus was also author 
 of a poem entitled " Ponticon," of which a 
 few verses only remain, — Vossii Hist. Lat. 
 
 SOLIS (Antonio de) a Spanish poet and 
 historian, born at Placenza in Old Castile in 
 1610. He wrote a comedy at the age of se- 
 venteen, which was exhibited with great ap- 
 plause, and he obtained considerable reputa- 
 tion for his poetical productions of various 
 kinds ; but he is principally known at present 
 as an historical writer. Having been appointed 
 liistoriographer of the Indies, he drew up a 
 work entitled " Historia de la Conquista de 
 I\Ie\ico," which passed through many edi- 
 tions, and of which an English translation was 
 published in 1724, folio. He took orders in 
 the church in the latter part of his life, and 
 died at an advanced age iu 1686. An edition 
 of the History of the Conquest of Mexico, in 
 the original Spanish, was printed in London 
 ia 1809, 3 vols. 8vo. — Antoriio Bibl. Hisp. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 SOLON, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 and the celebrated lawgiver of the Athenians, 
 was bom in the sixth century BC. at Salamis, 
 of parents descended from Codrus. His fa- 
 ther leaving him but a small patrimony, he 
 had recourse to commerce, but at the same 
 time cultivated poetry, and applied himself to 
 the study of moral and political wisdom. He 
 first distinguished himself by an elegy, by 
 which he prevailed on the Athenians to re- 
 scind an ignoble resolution, never to attempt 
 regaining the island of Salamis, He after- 
 wards increased his reputation by advocating 
 a necessary war with the people of Cirrha, 
 and by contributing to the reduction of their 
 city. Athens, being at that time in a turbulent 
 state, arising from the contentiou of different 
 political factions, and the oppression of the lower 
 classes by their creditors, Solon was regarded 
 as one who could devise the best means of re- 
 storing them to tranquillity. A large party 
 was desirous of aising him to the soverei'^nty ; 
 this however he declined, but being chosen 
 archon by acclamation, RC. 594, he set him- 
 self to compose the dissensions by moderate 
 
 SOL 
 
 measures. He relieved tho poor in respect to 
 their debts, and rescued them from bondage ; 
 but he refused to gratify them by dividing the 
 lands, and in the first instance pleased neither 
 party. The wisdom of his conduct was however 
 soon generally acknowledged, and he was una- 
 nimously invested with the high trust of re- 
 modelling the laws and constitution of Athens. 
 In the exercise of this power he began bv 
 abrogating the sanguinary laws of Draco, and 
 then made a new distribution of the people, 
 formed on different scales of j)roperty, with a 
 view to a well-formed democracy. He also form- 
 ed new seats of judicature, and framed a code 
 of laws which afterwards became the basis of 
 those of the twelve tables at Rome. As a 
 supreme judicial court, the guardian of the 
 laws and morals of the nation, he revived the 
 ancient Areopagus, and ordained that it should 
 be composed of those only who had passed 
 the office of archon, by which means it rapidly 
 obtained a reputation that rendered its decrees 
 revered throughout Greece. After the pro- 
 mulgation of this code Solon travelled ; and 
 having obtained leave of absence for ten years, 
 exacted an oath from the citizens that nothing 
 should be altered until his return. He visited 
 Egypt, Cyprus, and, as it is said, the court of 
 Ciasus, king of Lydia, although it is difficult 
 to reconcile his reputed adventure with that 
 monarch with chronology. On his return to 
 Athens he found parties running higlt, and his 
 kinsman Pisistratus aiming at the sovereignty, 
 which, notwithstanding the attempts of Solou 
 to rouse up the people, he acquired. He then 
 withdrew from Athens, to"which he never re- 
 turned, and the time and place of his death are 
 uncertain ; but it is commonly said that he 
 died at Cyprus, at the age of eighty. The 
 Athenians held his memory in great reverence, 
 and placed his statue in the forum. Laertius 
 has mentioned among his writings his orations, 
 poems, laws, and Atlantic Historj', left unfi- 
 nished, and afterwards continued by Plato, 
 who has also preserved some of his supposed 
 epistles. Of his sayings, as one of the wise 
 men of Greece, the best is that which coin- 
 pares laws to cobwebs, which hold the weak, 
 but are broken through by the strong. — Plti- 
 tarchi Jit. Solon. Vio^. Laert. 
 
 SOLVYNS (Francis Balthazar) an art- 
 ist and Oriental traveller, born at Antwerp in 
 1760. He displayed his abilities at an early 
 age, and acquired skill both as a painter and 
 an engraver. His first works were sea views. 
 He went to Germany with the archduchess 
 IMaria Christina, who had been governess of 
 the Netherlands ; and after the death of that 
 princess he accompaiiied sir Home Poj)liam in 
 a voyage to the Red Sea and the East Indies. 
 On his arrival at Hindostan he studied the 
 languages of the Hindoos, and their religion, 
 manners, and customs, that he might be able 
 accurately to illustrate them by the joint aid 
 of the pen and pencil. After fifteen years' 
 absence he returned to Eurojie with a valu:ible 
 stock of materials for the execution of his de- 
 sign. Having settled at Paris, he commenced 
 a work entitled '• Les Hindous, oa Description 
 
SOM 
 
 pittoresquo di>s xMcrurs, CostiimeB, et Cer^- 
 nioiiit's rt'lii^ieuses dc to I'eiipic," wiiich wjis 
 coinplctt/d in four volumes, larj^t' fojio, iti 
 1812. After the restoration of the j)ritu;(> of 
 OranL;e, Solvyns retunicfl to liis native coun- 
 try, and was made (■ai)tain of tlu- j)ort of Ant- 
 werp, where lie diid October 10, 11J21. — 
 Bioor. Koitv. des Coutcmp. IVio<t. Vuiv. 
 
 SOMnKF.nr. (C.AnMs Vi-.noT de) a 
 French royalist oflicer, who distinguished him- 
 self by liis courage in the openinj^ scenes of 
 the Revolution. Durin'^ the tumults of tlu' 
 Palais Royal he saveit from the fury of the 
 iijob, one of the Mess, de I'olignac. He- 
 at length emigrated, and in the campaign of 
 M92 he served in the I'russian army, when 
 his bravery was rewarded with the military 
 order of merit. In 1793 he entered into the 
 army of the prince of Conde ; and in the 
 winter of I?'.)* he commanded acorjis of emi- 
 grants in Holland. He subsequently went to 
 England, and hecanie one of the victims of 
 the ill-concerted expedition to Quiberon. The 
 Knglish government placed imder his command 
 seven regiments, with which he arrived on the 
 coasts of Britanny, July 7, 1794. Scmbreuil 
 was taken prisoner, tried before a military 
 commission, and shot at Vannes shortly ?4rter- 
 wavds. — Diet, (tes H. M. da iSrne S. Biog. 
 Uiiiv, 
 
 SOIMERS (Joiiv Lohd) a distinguished 
 iawyer and statesman, was the son of a respect- 
 able attorney at Worcester, where he was 
 born in 165'2. He received his education at 
 the college school of his native city, and was 
 entered a gentleman commoner at Trinity col- 
 lege, Oxford. Being destined for the legal 
 profession, lie passed some time as clerk to sir 
 Francis Winnington, an eminent banister, and 
 when called to the bar himself, (juickly evinced 
 talents of a very high order. As his i)rinciples 
 led him to oppose the measures of Charles II, 
 he was the reputed author of several tracts, 
 in which their tendency was exposed. On the 
 accession of James 11 he continued a firm 
 o]qioser of the court, and acquired great cre- 
 dit as one of the counsel for the seven bishops. 
 He heartily concurred in the Revolution, and 
 sat as one of the representatives for Worcester 
 in the convention parliament summoned by the 
 prince of Orange, and was one of the ma- 
 nagers appointed by the Commons to confer 
 with tiie Lords on the word abdicate. In 1689 
 he was knighted, and made solicitor-general ; 
 in 1692 attorney-general, and lord-keeper of , 
 the great seal the following year, in which | 
 capacity he displayed equal al)ility, integrity, ! 
 and gentleness. He was one of the first pa- 
 trons of Addison, for whom he procured an 
 allowance to enable him to make the tour of 
 Italy. In 1695 he was advanced to the dig- 
 nity of lord high chancellor of England, and 
 was raised to the })eerage by the title of lord 
 Somers, baron Evesham. Being now regarded 
 as the head of the whigs, he made great ex- 
 ertions lo moderate the zeal and jealousy of j 
 that party, and possibly was too compliant in 
 some points to ensure to it the royal favour, 
 lis actiuieeceace in the first partitioa treaty ^ 
 
 SOM 
 
 I in 1699, ^^ith other inpasiires, produced fjrftt 
 di.«,sati8f!ution, and an addrf»« wan moved ja 
 the house of (^'onimonH, prayiii(; the kiuf' to 
 remove iiini from his covim ill*. Ihia \V4« J,., 
 feated by a great majority ; but to appcaiw; (bo 
 midcontents, tbf king tbqirivcd liim of the 
 seals. King W illiain soon ;ifi( r dj«-d, and th,. 
 new reign being unfavourable to the pnnciplv* 
 of lord Soniers, he Pptiit his time in lil<*rary 
 retirement, and was chosen presiiieiii of iIid 
 Royal Society. In 1706 he drew np a plan 
 for ed'ecting a union between England and 
 Scotland, which was so much aj»i.rov«-d, ihat 
 (|ueen Anne appointed lum one of the com- 
 missioners to carry it into execution. He is 
 also said to have had a great share in the bill 
 of regency for securing the protectant succt-s- 
 sion. Upon a change of ministry in 170>{, he 
 was nominated president of the council, but 
 was again dismissed in 1710, and altliou 'h he 
 continued for some time to take an active part 
 in debate, a gradual decline in health rendered 
 him unfit for public business. In the ensuing 
 reii;n, therefore, he only retained a seat at tlio 
 council board, until in April 17 16 he was car- 
 ried olT by an apoplectic fit at the age of sixty- 
 four. The memory of lord Somers is highly 
 esteemed by the friends of conatitutiourl 
 liberty and of the Revolution, to which no <^nc 
 contributed more than he. His abilities were 
 at the same time very consid-jrable, an-l few 
 statesmen have passed through life with a 
 purer political character. He was also a great 
 patron of men of letters, and was one of those 
 wiio redi'emed iMilton's " Paradise Lost " from 
 the obscurity in which party prejudice and 
 hatred had involved it. I5esides the many 
 speeches and political tracts attributed to 
 this able nobleman, he translated some of 
 Ovid's Ejustles, and Plutarch's life of Alci- 
 biades. He also made a large collection of 
 scarce and curious tracts, of which there has 
 been ])ublished a selection in four parts, eacli 
 consisting of four volumes, quarto. His col- 
 lection of original papers and lettfrs was un- 
 fortunately destroyed by a fire at Lincoln's 
 Inn. He never married, and the prtsiiit noble 
 family of Somers is descendi-il from his sister, 
 married to — Cocks, esq. — JHog. ririt. 
 
 SOMKRVILE ( Wii.i.hm) a minor poet, 
 was the son of Robert Somervile. rs(j. at 
 whose estate at Edston, in \\ arwickshire, he 
 was born in 169'J. He was educated at Win- 
 chester school, whence he was removed to 
 New college, Oxford. He made a due pro- 
 ficiency in classical literature, and early cul- 
 tivateil his talent for poetry. His political 
 attachments were to the whig party, as he 
 proved by his praises of Marlborough, Stan- 
 hope, and Addison. He inherited a con- 
 siderable paternal estate, on which he chiefly 
 lived, acting as a magistrate, and mingling an 
 ardent attachment to the sports of the field 
 with the studies of a man of letters. He was 
 courteous, hospitable, convivial, and what id 
 too often attendant upon those qualities, care- 
 less in pecuniary matters, which, by involving 
 him in embarrassments, preyed on his mind, 
 and produced habits which shortened hia Life, 
 
SOL 
 
 SOL 
 
 He relieved tlie poor in respect to 
 
 neriodical works, and a Letter to Philip Car- 1 measures. , , - r u u. 
 
 fpret Webb, FRS. entitled " An Account of their dc-bts, and rescued tliem from bondage ; 
 
 the Gardenia (Jasminoides) " in the Philoso 
 phical Transactions. — Htitchinsons Biog. Med. 
 Pntteneys Sketches of the Prog, of Botany in 
 
 England. 
 
 SOLINUS (Caivs Jumus) a Latin gram- 
 marian, who is thought to have lived at Kome 
 in the third century. He is known only as 
 the author of a work, which he first entitled 
 " Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium," but af- 
 terwards " Polyhistor." This is a collection 
 without method or judgment of the remarkable 
 things in different countries, a great part of ^ 
 which is borrowed from the natural history of 
 Pliny. As however it contains some things 
 not in that writer, and serves to elucidate his 
 text, it has been deemed worthy of notice by 
 the critics, and has served as a repository for 
 the unwieldy erudition of Salmasius, who 
 published an edition of it in 1629, in 2 vols, 
 folio, illustrated or rather overwhelmed by his 
 copious commentary. Solinus was also author 
 of a poem entitled " Ponticon," of which a 
 few verses only remain. — Vossii Hist. Lat. 
 
 SOLIS (Antonio de) a Spanish poet and 
 liistorian, born at Placenza in Old Castile in 
 1610. He wrote a comedy at the age of se- 
 venteen, which was exhibited with great ap- 
 plause, and he obtained considerable reputa- 
 tion for his poetical productions of various 
 kinds ; but he is principally known at present 
 as an historical writer. Having been appointed 
 historiographer of the Indies, he drew up a 
 work entitled " Historia de la Conquista de 
 I\Ie\ico," which passed through many edi- 
 
 but he refused to gratify them by dividing the 
 lands, and in the first instance pleased neither 
 party. The wisdom of his conduct was however 
 soon generally acknowledged, and he was una- 
 nimously invested with the high trust of re- 
 modelling the laws and constitution of Athens. 
 In the exercise of this power lie began by 
 abrogating the sanguinary laws of Draco, and 
 then made a new distribution of the jieople, 
 formed on different scales of property, with a 
 view to a well-formed democracy. lie also form- 
 ed new seats of judicature, and framed a code 
 of laws whicli afterwards became the basis of 
 those of the twelve tallies at Rome. As a 
 sujireme judicial court, the guardian of the 
 laws and morals of the nation, he revived the 
 ancient Areopagus, and ordained that it should 
 be composed of those only who had passed 
 the oflSce of archon, by which means it rapidly 
 obtained a reputation that rendered its decrees 
 revered throughout Greece. After the pro- 
 mulgation of this code Solon travelled ; and 
 having obtained leave of absence for ten years, 
 exacted an oath from the citizens that nothing- 
 should be altered until his return. He visited 
 Egypt, Cyprus, and, as it is said, the court of 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, although it is difficult 
 to reconcile his reputed adventure witli that 
 monarch with chronology. On his return to 
 Athens he found parties running higk, and his 
 kinsman Pisistratus aiming at the sovereignty, 
 which, notwithstanding tlie attempts of Solon 
 to rouse up the people, he acquired. He then 
 withdrew from Athens, to'which he never re- 
 
 tions, and of which an English translation was turned, and the time and place of his death are 
 
 published i)i 1724, folio. He took orders in 
 the church in the latter part of his life, and 
 died at an advanced age iu 1686. An edition 
 of the History of the Conquest of Mexico, in 
 the original Spanisli, was printed in London 
 in 1809, 3 vols. 8vo. — A}itonio Bibl. Hisp. 
 Biog. Uyiiv. 
 
 SOLON, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 and the celebrated lawgiver of the Athenians, 
 was born in the sixth century HC. at Salamis, 
 of parents descended from Codrus. His fa- 
 ther leaving him but a small patrimony, he 
 Jiad recourse to commerce, but at the same 
 time cultivated poetry, and ap])lied himself to 
 the study of moral and political wisdom. He 
 first distinguished himself by an elegy, by 
 which he prevailed on the Athenians to re- 
 scind an ignoble resolution, never to attempt 
 regaining the island of Salamis. He after- 
 wards increased his reputation by advocating 
 a necessary war with the people of Cirrha, 
 and by contributing to the reduction of their 
 city. Athens, being at that time in a turbulent 
 state, arising from the contention of different 
 political factions, and the oppression of the lower 
 classes by their creditors, Solon was regarded 
 as one who could devise the best means of re- 
 storing them to tranquillity. A large party 
 was desirous of aising him to tlie sovereignty ; 
 this however he declined, but being chosen 
 archon by acclamation, RC. 594, he set him- 
 self to conipoae the dissensions by moderate 
 
 uncertain ; but it is commonly said that he 
 died at Cyprus, at the age of eighty. The 
 Athenians held his memory in great reverence, 
 and placed his statue in the forum. Laertius 
 has mentioned among his writings his orations, 
 poems, laws, and Atlantic Ilistorj', left unfi- 
 nished, and afterwards continued by Plato, 
 who has also preserved some of bis supposed 
 epistles. Of his sayings, as one of the wise 
 men of Greece, the best is that which com- 
 pares laws to cobwebs, which hold the weak, 
 but are broken through by the strong. — Plu- 
 tarciii Vit. Solon. Diotr. Laert. 
 
 SOLVYNS (Francis Ralthazau) an art- 
 ist and Oriental traveller, born at Antwerp in 
 17()0. He displayed his abilities at an early 
 age, and acquired skill both as a ]iainter and 
 an engraver. His first works were sea views. 
 He went to Germany with the archduchess 
 Maria Christina^ who had been governess of 
 the Netherlands ; and after the death of that 
 princess he accompanied sir Home Pojiliam in 
 a voyage to the Red Sea and the East Indies. 
 On his arrival at Ilindostan he studied the 
 languages of the Hindoos, and their religion, 
 manners, and customs, that he might be able 
 accurately to illustrate them by the joint aid 
 of the pen and pencil. After fifteen years' 
 absence he returned to Europe with a valuable 
 stock of materials for the execution of his de- 
 sign. Having settled at Paris, he commenced 
 a work entitled " Les Hindous, oi Description 
 
SOM 
 
 pittorosquo des iMnnurs, Costumeg, ct Ccr^- 
 nioiiit's rt'IioicHises ile ce Peuplc," wliic?» was 
 foiiii)leted in four volumes, lari;e foiio, in 
 181 '2. After tlie restoration of tlie prince of 
 Orani;e, Solvyns returncil to liis native coun- 
 try, and was made cajjtain of the port of Ant- 
 werp, where lie dit il Octoher 10, l»i?-k — 
 Biog. Koitr. (les Coutemp. I^iofi;. Univ. 
 
 SOMBKF.riL (CiiAUMs Vi-uoi de) a 
 French royalist ofHcer, wlio distinguished him- 
 self hy his courage in the opening scenes of 
 the Revolution. During tlie tumults of the 
 Palais Royal lie saved from tlie fury of the 
 mob, one of the Moss, de Polignar. He 
 at length emigrated, and in llie campaign of 
 1792 he served in the Prussian army, when 
 his bravery was rewardeil with the niilitary 
 order of merit. Tn 1793 he entered into the 
 army of the prince of Conde ; and in the 
 winter of 1794 he commanded a corps of emi- 
 grants in Holland. lie subsecpiently went to 
 England, and became one of the victims of 
 the ill-concerted expedition to Quiheron. The 
 English government placed under his command 
 seven regiments, with which he arrived on the 
 coasts of Hritanny, July 7, 1794. Scmbreuil 
 was taken prisoner, tried before a inilitary 
 commission, and shot at Vannes shortly after- 
 '.vards. — Diet, des H. M. da iSme 6'. Biog. 
 Uiiiv. 
 
 SOIMERS (Joiiv Loud) a distinguished 
 lawyer and statesman, was the son of a respect- 
 able attorney at Worcester, where he was 
 born in 165'2. He received liis education at 
 the college school of his native city, and was 
 entered a gentleman commoner at Trinity col- 
 lege, Oxford. Being destined for the legal 
 profession, he passed some time as clerk to sir 
 Francis Winnington, an eminent barrisster, and 
 when called to the bar himself, (juickly evinced 
 talents of a very high order. As his principles 
 led him to oppose the measures of Charles II, 
 he was the reputed author of several tracts, 
 in which their tendency was exposed. On the 
 accession of James II he continued a firm 
 opposer of the court, and acquired great cre- 
 dit as one of the counsel for the seven bishops. 
 He heartily concurred in the Revolution, and 
 sat as one of the representatives for Worcester 
 in the convention parliament summoned by the 
 prince of Orange, and was one of the ma- 
 nagers appointed by the Commons to confer 
 with tue Lords on the word abdicate. In 1689 
 he was knighted, and made solicitor-general ; 
 in 1692 attorney-general, and lord-keejier of 
 the great seal tlie following year, in which 
 capacity he displayed equal ability, integrity, 
 and gentleness. He was one of the first pa- 
 trons of Addison, for whom he procured an 
 allowance to enable him to make the tour of 
 Italy. In 1695 he was advanced to the dig- 
 nity of lord high chancellor of England, and 
 was raised to the peerage by the title of lord 
 Somers, baron Evesham. Being now regarded ! 
 as the head of the whigs, he made great ex- 
 ertions to moderate the zeal and jealousy of i 
 that party, and possibly was too compliant m 
 gome points to ensure to it the royal fa\otir. 
 lis acfiuieeceice in the first partitioa treaty _ 
 
 in 1699, v>hh other mpafitireH, produced prf»t 
 dissatisfaction, and an addrf-iii wan tnovod ia 
 the house of (.'onimon«, prating the kin,' to 
 remove him from his couuciJ!". Tliis wa* dr. 
 feated by a great majority ; but to af)pcam; (be 
 midrontents, tin- king deprived him of t!ie 
 seals. King W illiam soon aft« r died, and tin* 
 new reign being unfavourable to the jtrinciplM 
 of lord SonuTs, he Pptnt his time in liu-rary 
 retirement, and was chosen prekident of iho 
 Royal Society. In 170<j he drew up a plan 
 for etlecting a union betwe<-n England and 
 Scotland, which was so much aj)iirov«-d, that 
 (pieen Anne appointed hiin one (jf the com- 
 missioners to carry it into execution. He is 
 also said to have had a great share in the bill 
 of regency for securing the protectant succes- 
 sion. Upon a change of ministry in 1708, he 
 was nominated president of the council, but 
 was again dismissed in 1710, and althoii 'h he 
 continued for some time to take an active part 
 in debate, a gradual decline in health rendered 
 him unfit for public business. In the ensuing 
 reii;n, therefore, he only retained a seat at tho 
 council board, until in April 17l6 he was car- 
 ried oil" by an apoplectic fit at the age of sixty- 
 four. The memory of lord Somers is liiglilv 
 esteemed by the friends of conatituliomj 
 liberty and of the Revolution, to which no one 
 contributed more than he. His abilities were 
 at the same time very consid-'rable, and few 
 statesmen have passed through life with a 
 purer political character. He was also a great 
 patron of men of letters, and was one of those 
 wlio redi'emed IMilton's " Para.lise Lost " from 
 the obscurity in which party prejudice and 
 hatred had involved it. Besides the many 
 speeches and political tracts attributed to 
 this able nobleman, he translated some of 
 Ovid's Ejnstles, and Plutarch's life of Alci- 
 biades. He also made a large collection of 
 scarce and curious tracts, of which there has 
 been jjublished a selection in four parts, each 
 consisting of four volumes, quarto. His col- 
 lection of original papers and letters was un- 
 fortunately destroyed by a fire at Lincoln's 
 Inn, He never married, and the prist nt noble 
 family of Somers is desceiuUd from his sister, 
 married to — Cocks, esq. — ^iog. lirit. 
 
 SOMKRVILK ( Wii.i.iam) a minor poet, 
 was the son of Robert Somervile, esij. at 
 whose estate at Edslon, in \N arwickshire, he 
 was born in 1692. He was educated at Win- 
 chester school, whence he was removed to 
 New college, Oxford. He made a due pro- 
 ficiency in classical literature, and early cul- 
 tivateil his talent for poetry. His political 
 attachments were to the whig j^arty, as he 
 proved by his praises of ^Marlborough, Stan- 
 hope, and Addison. He inherited a con- 
 siderable |)aternal estate, on which he chieHy 
 lived, acting as a magistrate, and mingling an 
 ardent attachment to the sports of tlie field 
 with the studies of a man of letters. He was 
 courteous, hospitable, convivial, and what is 
 too often attendant upon those (qualities, care- 
 less in pecuniary matters, which, by involving 
 him in embarrassments, preyed on his mind, 
 and produced habits which shortened hifl life. 
 
SOIVT 
 
 He died in 17-42, and having lived in celibacy, 
 made over the reversion of his estate to lord 
 Somervile, a branch of the same ancient fa- 
 mily. As a poet, Somervile is chiefly known 
 by "his " Chace," a poem in blank verse, 
 which maintains a respectable rank in the di- 
 dactic and descriptive class, his entlmsiasra as 
 T sportsman aiding his talents as a poet. Its 
 language is free and nervous, and its versifica- 
 vion tuneful and correct. Another piece con- 
 nected with the same subject is entitled " Field 
 Sports." His '* Hobbinol, or Rural Games," 
 is a kind of mock heroic, in which the bur- 
 lesque is often well managed. Of his other 
 pieces, serious and comic, a few tales are 
 rather free, and in other respects not calculated 
 to increase the poet's reputation. — Johnson's 
 Lives of the Poets. Shenstone's Letters. 
 
 SOMNER (William) a distinguished 
 English antiquary and philologer, born at Can- 
 terbury in 1598. His father was registrar of 
 the metropolitan court, and the son was edu- 
 cated at the grammar-school of his native 
 city. He becanve a clerk in his father's office, 
 where his abilities attracted the notice of that 
 great patron of learning, archbishop Laud, 
 who bestowed on him a situation in the eccle- 
 siastical court better suited to his merit. In 
 the early part of the reign of Charles I, he 
 collected the materials for his history of Can- 
 terbury, which however was not published till 
 1640. He formed the design of writing the 
 history of the whole county of Kent, but the 
 misfortunes which befel his patron Laud, and 
 the impetuous storm of civil discord and fana- 
 ticism which supervened, obliged him to re- 
 lintiuish his purpose, and turn his thoughts to 
 the preservation of his property and the safety 
 of himself and his family. He however drew 
 up a " Treatise on the Roman Ports and Forts 
 in Kent," published in 1693 ; and gathered 
 some MS. collections relating to a few of the 
 Kentish towns and churches, preserved in the 
 library of the dean and chapter of Canterbury. 
 The lanoua^e and literature of our An^jlo- 
 
 CO ^ t7 
 
 Saxon ancestors engaged much of his atten- 
 tion ; and in 1652 he completed a Saxon glos- 
 sary to the " Historiai Anglicana; Scriptores," 
 published by Twysden ; which was succeeded 
 in 1639 by his grand work, " Dictionarium 
 Saxonico-Latinum Anglicum," folio, in the 
 publication of which he was assisted by the 
 liberality of the university of Cambridge, from 
 which he received the salary attached to the 
 Anglo-Saxon professorship founded by sir H. 
 Spelman. On the restoration of king Charles II 
 Somiier was one of the royalist sulVerers, who 
 were fortunate enough to obtain some compen- 
 sation for the sacrifices they had made at the 
 slirine of loyalty. He was appointed master 
 of St John's hospital and auditor of Christ- 
 church, Canterbury, which offices he held till 
 his death in 1662. Besides the works already 
 mentioned, he was the author of a " Treatise 
 of Gavelkind," 1660, 4to, republished by 
 Kennet, with a life of the author ; " Julii 
 Cajsaris Portus Icciusillustratus," 169-1, 8vo ; 
 and elegiac poems on the death of Charles 1. 
 Nicholas Batteley reprinted Soraner's Anti- 
 
 SON 
 
 quities of Canterbury, to which he added a 
 sequel or second part, 1703, folio. Somner 
 also translated the old Saxon Laws, collected 
 by Lambarde, into Latin and English, but this 
 work has never been made public. — Hasted*s 
 Hist, of Kent, Pref. Gongh's Bnt. Topog. 
 Chalmers's Biog. Diet. 
 
 SONNERAT (Peter) a naturalist and 
 voyager, born at Lyons about 1745. Having 
 obtained some knowledge of natural history, 
 and studied drawing, he entered into tlie ad- 
 ministration of the marine. In 1768 he left 
 Paris to go to the Isle of France, where his 
 relation M. de Poivre was intendant. After 
 making various voyages to Madagascar, the 
 East Indies, the Philippine Islands, &c. he 
 returned to France in 1774 with a rich col- 
 lection of natural curiosities, which were de- 
 posited in the royal cabinet at Paris. Tlje 
 same year he returned to India, to continue 
 his researches, with the title of commissary of 
 the marine. He then visited Ceylon, the Ma- 
 labar coast, Malacca, and various other places. 
 At the siege of Pondicherry he acted as in- 
 spector of the hospitals, and after the capitu- 
 lation of that fortress in 1778, he returned to 
 Europe. He made subsequent voyages to the 
 East Indies, and passed several years in that 
 part of the world. He was at Pondicherry in 
 1801 ; but at length returned to his native 
 country, and his death took place at Paris, 
 April 12, 1814. He published " Voyage a la 
 Nouvelle Guinee, dans lequel on trouve la De- 
 scription desLieux,des Observations physiques 
 et morales, et des Details relatifs a I'Histoire 
 naturelle dans le Regne Animal et le Regne 
 Vegetal," Paris, 1776, 4to ; and " Voyage 
 aux Indes Orientales et a la Chine, fait par 
 Ordre du Roi d^puis 1774 jusqu'en 1781," 
 Paris, 1782, 2 vols. 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SONNINI DE MANONCOURT 
 (CuARLES Nicholas Sigisbert) a distin- 
 guished traveller and naturalist, born at Lune- 
 ville, February 1, 1751. He was the son of a 
 gentleman of Roman descent, who was coun- 
 sellor and treasurer to Stanislaus I, the ex-king 
 of Poland. He studied under the Jesuits at 
 Pont-a-Mousson, and before he was sixteen 
 he received the degree of doctor in philosojdiy. 
 Being destined for the magistracy, he went to 
 Strasbourg as a student of law, and in Novem- 
 ber 1768 he was admitted an advocate of the 
 sovereign court of Nanci. He had become 
 acquainted with Buffbn, who inspired him 
 with a taste for natural history ; and being of 
 an active disposition, he relinquished the law 
 for the army, and afterwards entering into the 
 corj)S of marine artillery, he was in 1772 sent 
 to Cayenne. He travelled over various parts 
 of Guiana,* and after a voyage made to the 
 western coast of Africa, he returned to France 
 in 1775, with a collection of rare birds for the 
 cabinet of natural history. An account of 
 his researches appeared in the .Tounial de Phy- 
 sique of the abbe de Rozier. He passed part 
 of the years 1776 and 1777 at Montbard, 
 where he drew up for iiuffon that part of his 
 Natural History which relates to foreign birds. 
 lu 1779 he was sent to Greece and Egypt to 
 
 i 
 
SOP 
 
 make new observations ; and retuiniiif homo 
 tlie following year, lie einplovctl liiinscif in 
 tlie cultivation of Bciencc till the coninicncf- 
 ment of the Rcohition. For some time, he 
 was adniiii'strati.r of the dcjiartment of I, a 
 Meiirihe ; out iluiint^- the n ign of terror he 
 was displaced and imprisoned. Jk>iin' set at 
 liberty on tlie fall of llobeppicrre, he first of 
 all engai^ed in a^;ricijltural jxirsuits, hut heinj; 
 unsiiccessfid, he went to J'aris, and pub- 
 lished an account of his travels in Greece 
 and F.gvpt ; ami occupieil himself in other 
 literary uiulertHkini;s. Ihuler the consular 
 and imperial governments ho was unable 
 to obtain any public office, notwithstand- 
 ing the patronage of Lucien Buonaparte, who 
 in vain endeavoured to overcome the pre- 
 possessions of Napoleon against Sonnini, on 
 account of his remarks on the Egyptian expe- 
 dition in his travels. In 180."> he became di- 
 rector of the college of Vienne, which post 
 liowever he was soon after forced to resign, 
 lie had subsequently a prospect of an esta- 
 blishment in IMoldavia ; but he was again des- 
 tined to meet with disappointment ; and after 
 travelling in Moldavia and ^^''allachia, he re- 
 turned to Paris in December 1811. His death 
 took place in that metropolis l\Iay 29, 1812. 
 Among his works are " Voyage dans la Haute 
 et J3asse Egypt," 1799, 3 vols. 8vo ; " Voy- 
 age en Grece et en Turquie," 1801, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; besides which ho published the seventh 
 edition of the Natural History of Buffbn in 
 'i'27 vols. Bvo ; assisted in the " Dictionnaire 
 d'Histoire Naturelle," in 21 vols. 8vo ; and 
 was conductor of the " Bibliotheque Pliysico- 
 economicjue." The Egyptian Travels of Son- 
 nini were translated into English by Ur Henry 
 Hunter, 1799, 3 vols. 8vo ; and his Travels in 
 Greece also appeared in an English dress, 
 1801, 2 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 Biop^. Univ. 
 
 SOPHOCLES, a famous Greek tragic poet, 
 was born at Athens about BC. 497. Pie was 
 of a condition that entitled him to the best 
 education of his age and country ; and in the 
 first instance applied himself to lyric poetry, 
 but the fame acquired by ^schylus induced 
 him to try his powers in tragedy. In his 
 twenty-eighth year he accordingly contended 
 with that veteran for the prize, which being 
 decreed to him, ^Eschylus retreated, and h-ft 
 him undisputed master of the field. The im- 
 }n-ovements which he made in the drama were 
 very considerable ; he brought more than two 
 interlocutors on the stage at a time ; inte- 
 rested the chorus in the svibject of the piece, 
 and invented a more artful construction of fable 
 and developement of incident. In these points 
 l)e is even deemed superior to his younger rival, 
 Euripides, and upon the whole appears to 
 have stood at the liead of trngedy in the esti- 
 mation both of Greece and Rome. Sophocles 
 was a man of general capability, and entrusted 
 •with civil and military employments, being 
 joined in one instance with Pericles, in a com- 
 mission against tlie revolted Samians. He 
 continued to write tragedies at an advanced 
 age, and the benignity of his character ac- 
 
 SO R 
 
 quired liim a number of friend*, it is rclattd 
 to IiIh honour, that ht tin* th-atli of hi« >;r. it 
 rival l.tiripuii-K he put on iiiourniti^, and wuuld 
 not i*nfl\r the actorji in a new puce of hu i>i 
 wear crowiiH. He is 5aid to have pas«rd Im 
 ninitiiih year, and to have d. ' ' 
 obtaining the prize f(ir his lam •. 
 a hundred pieces were attributed to him by 
 ancient writers, of which only noven hate 
 iea<lie<l modern tiin« t«. i hew howivtr hate 
 produced a pretty general opinion, that he is 
 to be reganled as the most mimterJy of tin- 
 three Greek tragedians, the nio»t correct in 
 developement, the moet juht and sublime in 
 sentiment, and the most vivid in dp»rription. 
 His tragedies have been frequently publl^h^•.i 
 separately and together, with the Greek sclioh.i 
 and Latin versions, and without. Among the 
 most esteemed are those of Johnson, 3 vol«. 
 8vo, Oxon. and London ; Caperonier, Pans. 
 4to, and 2 vols. 8vo, 1781 ; Brunck, 1786, ti 
 vols. 4to, 1788, 3 vols. 8vo ; Musgrave, Oxon. 
 3 vols. 8vo ; and Bothe, 1786, 'J vols. 8vo. 
 They have all been translated into English by 
 Francklin and Potter. — Vossii I'oet. Gr. Dib- 
 din's C/rt5.w>5. Moreri. 
 
 SORANUS EPHESIUS, a physician, who 
 lived in the second century of the ChriMian 
 a?ra. He was proliably a native of Ephesus ; 
 but he practised medicine at Alexandria, and 
 afterwards at Rome, in the reigns of 'I'rajaii 
 and Adrian. He belonged to the sect of the 
 Methodists, and was a disciple of Thessalus. 
 Some of his writings are siill extant, particu- 
 larly a life of Hippocrates, usually prefixed to 
 the works of that author ; and a treatise " De 
 \ ia saluberrima in Artem Medendi," pub- 
 lished at Basil in 1328. — Hutchinsoti's Biog. 
 Med. 
 
 SORBIERE (Samvel) a miscellaneous 
 French writer, by pirofession a physician, born 
 at St Ambroise in lol.i. He was ori^inallv a 
 Protestant ; but he exchanged his religion for 
 that of the church of Rome, as was supposed, 
 through interested motives, for going to Rome 
 lie was much disappointed at receiving from 
 the pope empty honours, instead of substantial 
 preferment. Soon after the restoration of 
 (.'harles II he visited F.nglaud, where he ob- 
 tained an introduction to many men of h arning 
 and science, was noticed by the king, and ad- 
 mitted to a sitting of the newly foundeil Rov;.l 
 Society. He publl^hell in loot an interesting 
 account of his observations, entitled " Rela- 
 tion d'un \'oyage en Angleterre, oil sont 
 touches plusieurs choses qui regardent I'Etat 
 des Sciences, et «le la Religion, et autre:i 
 matieres curieuses." This work was tians- 
 Inted into En-lish, and was severely criticised 
 by Dr, afterwards bishop Sprat, who was of- 
 fended by the freedom of Sorbiere's remarks. 
 His death took place in 1()7(). He was much 
 acquainted with Hobbes. s^ome of whose works 
 he translated into French ; and he corres- 
 ponded with manv pt rsons of eminence", *hose 
 epistolary intercourse with iiiiu was pablithed 
 after liis death. — Biofr. Univ. Moreri, 
 
 SORBONXE (RonEHT de) founder of the 
 celebrated theological college which bears I.ii 
 
sou 
 
 name, was born m 1201, of an obscure family 
 at SorboTine, or S-^^bon, a village in tbe dio- 
 cese of llhcims. After receiving tbe degree 
 of doctor at Paris, he devot-ed himself to 
 preaching and pious coufereuce, and became 
 chaplain and confessor to the king, St Louis. 
 Having become a canoa of Canibrai in I'^ol, 
 his recollection of the difficulties which hs 
 had experienced in the course of his own stu- 
 dies, suggested to him a plan for facilitating 
 to poor scholars the means of jnoceeding to 
 graduation. This was to provide a society of 
 secular ecclesiastics, who living in common, 
 and provided with a maintenance, should read 
 lectures gratuitously. With the assistance of 
 his friends, tliercfore, he founded in 1263 the 
 celebrated college of the Sorbonne, in the 
 street of Deux Fortes at Paris. It was par- 
 ticularly dedicated to the study of theology ; 
 and its constitution has served for a model for 
 all the colleges subsequently erected. He af- 
 terwards added a college for languages and 
 pliilosophy, under the name of the College of 
 Calvi, or the Little Sorbonne. lie was made 
 canon of Paris in 1258, and rose to such a 
 height of reputation, that princes frequently 
 chose him arbitrator in their disputes. He 
 died in 1274, at the age of seventy-three, and 
 left very considerable property to his college. 
 He was the author of several works on divinity, 
 which are preserved in JMSS. in the library 
 of the Sorbonne, — Moreri. A\niv. Diet. Hist. 
 SOSIGENES, an Egyptian mathematician, 
 who lived in the century preceding the Chris- 
 tian aira. He appears to have directed his 
 attention principally to astronomy and chro- 
 nology ; and lie is said to have been well ac- 
 quainted with the works of J'hales, Archi- 
 medes, Hipparchus, Calippus, and other an- 
 cient mathematicians, who had endeavoured 
 to regulate the solstices, and ascertain the 
 length of the solar year. When Julius Cajsar 
 undertook the reformation of the kalendar, he 
 sent for Sosigenes to l\ome, and availed him- 
 self of his talents in the formation of the Ju- 
 lian year, first adopted 45 BC. There are no 
 writincs extant of this mathematician ; nor is 
 any thing farther known of his history. — Mar- 
 tin's Riog. Pliilos. HuttOHS Math. Diet. 
 
 SOSTIIATUS, the most eminent architect 
 of his time, was a native of Gnidos in Lesser 
 Asia, and flourished in the third century 13C. 
 He was in particular favour with Ptolemy Phi- 
 l;idel[)hus, king of Egypt. One of his great 
 works was the famous Pharos, or light-house 
 of Alexandria, said to have cost 800 talents, 
 and reckoned one of the wonders of the world. 
 He transmitted Ids name to i)r)sterity by the 
 following inscription on the Pharos in the 
 Greek language : — " Sostratus of Gnidos, the 
 son of Dexiphanes, to the preserving gods for 
 navigators.'' — Pliny. Strubo. 
 
 SOUCIET (Stephen) a learned French 
 Jesuit, born at Bourges in 1671. He took the 
 vows at tbe age of nineteen, and going to Paris 
 lie soon distinguished himself by his talents. 
 Being employed by his superiors to answer a 
 work of llie English divine. Dr. Pearson, he 
 found it nt-essarv to study the Oriental lan- 
 
 SO U 
 
 guages, in which he made a rapid progress* 
 He also applied himself to history, astronomy, 
 chronology, and mathematics ; and quitting the, 
 chair of theology, which he had occupied for 
 some years, he was appointed keeper of the 
 library at the college of Louis le Grand. He 
 died at Paris, January 14, 1744. Besides va- 
 rious other works, he was the author of '' Ob- 
 servations mathematiques, astronomiques, geo- 
 graphiques, et physiques, tirees des anciens 
 Livres Chinois, ou faites nouvellement aux 
 Indes et a la Chine, par les Missionnaires Je- 
 suites," Paris, 1729, 4to, — His brother, Ste- 
 phen AuausTiN Soi'ciET, was the author of 
 several Latin poems, distinguished for beauty 
 and elegance. — Another brother, John Sou- 
 ciET, was one of the principal co-operators in 
 tbe Journal de Trevoux. All the brothers be- 
 longed to the society of the Jesuits. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SOULAVIE (Jean Louis Giraud) an 
 historical and miscellaneous writer, who was 
 a native of the province of Viverais in France. 
 He embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and 
 at the beginning of the Revolution he was 
 cure of Sevent and vicar-general of the dio- 
 cese of Chalons. He became a warm partizan 
 of popular opinions, and was one of the first 
 among the priests who threw off the yoke of 
 the church, and entered into the state of wed- 
 lock. In 1793 he was nominated resident of 
 the French republic at Geneva, whence he was 
 recalled the following year and imprisoned. 
 At ike amnesty in 1796 he was liberated ; and 
 in 1798 he was destined to deportation, but 
 Buonaparte prevented the execution of the 
 decree of his brother consuls. Soulavie then 
 devoted himself entirely to literature. Towards 
 the close of his life he appears to have re- 
 pented of his apostacy, and reconciled himself 
 to the church. He died in March 1813, a few 
 days after he had made the retractation of his 
 errors. Among his numerous publications may 
 be mentioned " Memoires du INIarechal Due 
 de Richelieu ;" " JNIemoires historiques et 
 politiques du Regne de Louis XVI," 1801, 
 6 vols. 8vo ; and " Histoire de la Decadence 
 de la IMonarchie Fran^aise," 1805, 3 vols. 
 8vo. He also edited many volumes of me- 
 moirs, and left a large quantity of manuscripts. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SOUTH (Robert) a celebrated divine of 
 the church of England, who was the son of a 
 London merchant, and was born at Hackney 
 in 1633. He was educated at Westminster 
 school and Christchurch, Oxford. In 1654 he 
 wrote a copy of Latin verses, addressed to 
 Cromwell, on the conclusion of peace with 
 the Dutch ; and the following year he pro- 
 duced a poem entitled " IMusica Incantan?," 
 In 1660 he was chosen public orator of the 
 university of Oxford ; and soon after lie was 
 nominated domestic chaplain to lord Claren- 
 don, then lord chancellor. In 1663 he be- 
 came a prebendary of Westminster, was ad- 
 mitted DD. and obtained a living in ^Vales. 
 On the disgrace of his patron, he was made 
 chaj)lain to the duke of York. In 1670 he 
 was installed canon of Christchurch ; and ia 
 
no V 
 
 if'Vfi lie went to Pohui.i, :i9 cliapluin to tlie 
 f'^r!f;li>Ii aiubassailor, l-awrcuce llydi-. Ou Iuh 
 return liomc in 1678 lip was j)rcs«'iitcil to llif 
 rectory of Islip in Oxforilsliirc, wlu're Ik- re- 
 built a pari of tlie cluin li and tlic parsona'^e- 
 house. In llie fitter part of the last century 
 l)r South commencpil a controversy with l)r 
 Williani SlicrhK'k, relative to the ilo( trine of 
 the I'rinity, wliich was continueil for some 
 time, exciting a great <leal of interest among 
 the clergy of that [leriod. IJoth theso disjiu- 
 tants professed to he ortho(h)x sons of tL 
 cliurch, their dilVerence rehiting to the mo.. 
 of explaining the doctrine in question ; it 
 which frnitless undertaking much wit and 
 learning were expended to little purpose. Dr 
 South died in 1716, after having for several 
 years been in an infirm state of healtli. lie 
 possessed an abundant share of wit and hu- 
 mour, which he not unfrequently displayed 
 in his most serious compositions. His " Ser- 
 mons," wliich have been much admired, were 
 published in 11 vols. 8vo. He also wrote an 
 account of bis journey to Poland, and other 
 works. — Bi"s;. Ihit. Aikin's Gen. Biog. 
 
 SOlirHCOrr ^Johanna) a singular fa- 
 natic, who, in the early part of the present 
 century, attracted by lier extravagant preten- 
 sions a numerous band of concerts in London 
 and Its vicinity, which is said to have at one 
 period amomvted to upwards of a Inuulred 
 tliousand. She was born in the west of Eng- 
 land, about the year 1750, of parents in very 
 humble life, and being carried away by the 
 fervour of a iieated imagination, gave herself 
 out as the womau spoken of in the book of 
 Revelations. In this her assumed caj)acity, 
 although in the highest degree illiterate, she 
 scribbled much mystic and unintelligible non- 
 sense in the way of vision and prophecy, and for 
 a while carried on a lucrative trade in the sale 
 of seals, which were, under certain conditions, 
 to secure the salvation of the purchasers. A 
 disorder of rather rare occurrence subsequently 
 giving her the outward appearance of preg- 
 nancy after she liad passed her grand climac- 
 teric, she unhesitatingly announced herself as 
 the mother of the promised Shiloh, whose 
 speedy advent slie as confidently predicted. 
 The faith of her followers, among whom were 
 more than one clergyman of the established 
 church, rose to entliusiasm. A cradle of the 
 most expensive materials, and highly de- 
 corated, was prepared by her expectant vo- 
 taries at a fashionable upholsterer's, and every 
 preparation was made for the reception of the 
 miraculous babe that superstition and credu- 
 lity could induce ; and so fully persuaded were 
 many of her deluded attendants of tlie realit\ 
 of h-r mission, that one of -.he ecclesiastic- 
 already alluded to, on receiving a remonstrant < 
 from bis diocesan, actually offered to hind bun 
 self to resign a benefice he possessed into Uu 
 bishop's bands, if the holy Johanna, as he 
 styled her, should fail to appear on a specified 
 day with the expected Shiloh in her arms. 
 About the close of the year 1814. however 
 Ihfi prophetess herself began to have her mi- 
 BiDO, DicT. — Vol. 111. 
 
 S <) [J 
 
 givingt during nonie compnmtively lurid in- 
 Jfrv.jiij, it) whiili blic •!. ' ' ' - ■• if ,},«• 
 was dfteived, hhe wn« i ,e |,a,l j|t 
 
 all event* bfen tho »port ofcomti •t»irit, either 
 good or evil." and ou tho 27ili of l)eccmlH-r 
 in that year, .leatli p\»l an end to both I»«t 
 hopes and fears. With her f.iilowern. ||o^vt•r<•r. 
 it wart far ollierwine; nnd thoui;li for a tim« 
 confoundeil l.y her decean*-, wjiiih r' . ,1i| 
 
 scarcely believe to be r«'al. a ii|Medv 
 ti(m was confidently anticipated, iind one of 
 her most devotcil aillierents, Mr Sliarp. the 
 eminent enj^raver (we Siiwu'). publicly a«. 
 serted his conviction that " ^he wasonly^onn 
 to heaven for a season, in order to Ieeitim:\te 
 the embryo child." In this |iprsua»ion be, aa 
 well as many others, lived and died, nor is her 
 sect yet extinct; on the contrary, within a 
 very short period several families of her di«. 
 ciples were living together in the nf-iijlihourhood 
 of Chatham in Kent, remarkable for the pa- 
 triarchal length of their beanls and the c««- 
 neral singularity of their appearance. The 
 body of Johanna underwent an anatomical in- 
 vestigation after her d« aih, when the extra- 
 ordinary appearance of her shape was fully 
 accounted for upon medical principles, and 
 her remains were conveyed for interment 
 under a fictitious name to the burvine-cT'^und 
 attached to the chapel in St John's Wooil. A 
 stone has since been erected to her memory, 
 which, after reciting her age, and other usua 
 particulars, concludes with some lines, evi- 
 dently the composition of a still unshaken 
 believer, the fervour of whose faith far exec e<i« 
 bis inspiration as a poet. — Original Communi- 
 cation. 
 
 SOUTHERN (Thomas') an eminent dni- 
 matic poet of the age of the second Charles, 
 born at Dublin in 1660, and educated there at 
 Trinity college. In 167B he came to London 
 with the view of making the law his profes- 
 sion, and entered himself of the ^fiddle 
 Temple ; but like many a kindred genius simi- 
 larly circumstanced, soon al>andoned a stuily 
 so little congenial to persons of his vivacity of 
 temperament, ami deilicated his time to the 
 cultivation of his muse. His first dramatic 
 etfort was a tragedy entitled the " Persiiu 
 I Prince, or the ]jn\.\\ Brother," founded on th« 
 story of Schah 'i'hamas. but writttn with • 
 strong bias towards the tory party, then pre- 
 I valent in England, and full of compliment to 
 its head, the duke of York, under the cha- 
 racter of the Loyal Brother. To this tr»f;edy 
 Dryden. whose friendship he enjoyeii. fur- 
 nished the proloijue and epilogue, the former 
 however especially being more remarkable for 
 party virulence than for poetry. The play was 
 first performetl in \0lV2, and besiiles raising 
 the author's reputation by its Sucre*.*, procured 
 him a rewar.l cf a more 8ul)stantial nature, ia 
 the favoar of the ]»rince to v^ bom he had paid 
 his court in it. On the accession of James to 
 the throne. Southern went into tlie army, and 
 rose gradually to the command of a company 
 in the regiment raised by lord Ferrers, ia 
 which he served during Monmouth's rebellion 
 
 O 
 
sou 
 
 Another of his tragedie?, " The Spartan 
 Dame," though written in 1687, was not acted 
 till 1721, and then with considerable altera- 
 tions, from some supposed resemblance in the 
 situation of its heroine to that of queen INIary. 
 It was very strongly cast, and })roduced its 
 author loO/. for the copyright, an extraordinary 
 sum at that time. From this period he con- 
 tinued to produce occasionally a variety of 
 comedies as well as tragedies ; in the former 
 stvle of composition however he was far from 
 being successful, all his lighter pieces having 
 perished, while of the latter, two especially 
 yet keep possession of the stage. These are 
 his " Oronooko," founded, it is said, on a true 
 story, which forms the groundwork of one of 
 Mrs Behn's novels; and "Innocent Adul- 
 tery," which under its modern name " Isa- 
 bella, or the Fatal Marriage," is one of the 
 most pathetic and effective dramas in the lan- 
 guage, and has in succession tried the strength 
 of all our principal female tragedians, from 
 Mrs Porter and IMrs Woffington, down to iMrs 
 Siddons and Miss O'Neil. The latter part of 
 his days was passed by Mr Southern, who had 
 ,ong quitted the service, in ease and affluence. 
 His writings and his commission had produced 
 him a handsome competency, and he is re- 
 corded to have been the first who raised the 
 advantage derived by dramatic autliors from 
 the treasury of the theatre to a second and 
 third night, a circumstance alluded to by Pope. 
 During the last ten years of his life he resided 
 in Westminster, and was a constant attendant 
 at the abbey from his partiality for sacred 
 music. His death took j)lace May 26, 1746, 
 when he had attained the advanced age of 
 eighty-six. His works have goue through 
 several editions. — Life by Cibber. 
 
 SOU i'll\VELL(^KoBK.RT)an English jesuit 
 and poet, was born in 1560, as it is said, of an 
 ancient family in Norfolk or Suffolk. Being 
 sent abroad for education, he became a Jesuit 
 at Home in lo7d. He was a few years after 
 sent missionary to England, and in 159i was 
 apprehended and examined with the strictest 
 rigour. He was confined three years, and, as 
 he himself affirms, he endured the torture 
 several times, until at length he owned that 
 he came to England to propagate the Catholic 
 eligion, and was ready to lay down his life 
 for it. He was accordingly tried in February 
 l.iy,'), under the existing law, and the presence 
 of a Jesuit in F^ngiand being treason, he was 
 condemned, and executed the next day at Ty- 
 burn. According to Dodd, Warton, Headley, 
 and others, there is considerable beauty in 
 some of the poetical pieces of Southwell, a few 
 })leasing examples of which will be found in 
 Ellis's Specimens. On these his fame must 
 now principally rest, as copies of this work 
 are rarely to be met with, although the rem- 
 nant of iwerty-four editions. The title of his 
 principal wjrks are, "A Consolation for 
 imprisoned Catholics ;" " A Supplication to 
 Queen Elizabeth ;" " St Peter's Complaint, 
 with other Poems;" «' iMajonia-, or certain 
 excellent Poems and spiritual Hymns;" 
 " Mary Magdalene's Funeral Teares," re- 
 
 s o w 
 
 ' printed in 1772 by the rev. William Tooke.— 
 Dndd's Ch. Hist. Ellis and Ihadleys Spe- 
 cimens, 
 
 SOUZA EOTELHO (Joseph Maria, 
 baron de) a Portuguese nobleman, equally dis- 
 tinguished as a diplomatist and a man of let- 
 ters, born at Oporto in 1758. Having ter- 
 minated his studies at Coimbra, he entered 
 into the army, and served from 1778 to 1791. 
 At that period he was nominated ambassador 
 to Sweden, whence in 1795 he proceeded in 
 the same capacity to Lisbon. After the peace 
 of Amiens lie resided as Portuguese minister 
 at Paris till 1805, when he was chosen *o fill 
 the post of plenipotentiary from the court of 
 Lisbon at Petersburg ; but he declined the 
 oflice, and spent the rest of his days in literary 
 retirement. He devoted his leisure to the pre- 
 paration of an edition of the Lusiad of Ca- 
 moens, with a bibliographical memoir and 
 life of tlie poet. This magnificent work, 
 printed by Didot at Paris, in folio, with en- 
 gravings by IM. Gerard, appeared in 1817. 
 M. de Souza afterwards formed the design of 
 writing the history of Portugal ; but illliealth 
 prevented the execution of his plan. In 1804 
 he published a translation in his native lan- 
 guage of the famous " Lettres Portugaises," 
 with the French on the opposite pages, and 
 prefatory observations relative to the autlien- 
 ticity of the work. His death took place 
 June 1,1825. After the death of his first 
 wife, he married at Paris, in 1802, the 
 countess de Flahault, widow of the count de 
 Flahault de la Billarderie, guillotined in 1792. 
 This lady is well known in the literary world 
 as the authoress of " Emilie et Alphonse, ou 
 le Danger de se fier a ses premiers Impres- 
 sions ;" " Adele de Senanges ;*' " Charles et 
 IMarie ;" and other very popular and in- 
 teresting works of fiction. — Biog. des Contemp. 
 Biog. Univ 
 
 SOUZA (John de) a Portuguese historian, 
 born at Damas or Damascus, in Syria, of Ca- 
 tholic parents, about 1730. He went to Por- 
 tugal in 1750, and he was patronized and 
 employed by Caspar de Saldanha, rector of 
 the university of Coimbra, who introduced 
 him to the count d'Oeyras, afterwards marquis 
 de Pombal. In 1770 he entered into the 
 order of St Francis, soon after which he was 
 withdraviTi from his convent, to be employed 
 as secretary-interpreter to the Spanish ambas- 
 sador at Morocco. He subsequently became 
 professor of Arabic at the convent of St Jesus, 
 at Lisbon, where he died January Q9, 1812. 
 Father de Souza, who was a member of the 
 Portuguese Academy of Sciences, publjslied 
 " Vestiges of the Arabic Language in Portu- 
 gal, or an Etymological Dictionary of Portu- 
 guese Words derived from the Arabic," 1789 • 
 " Arabian Documents from the Archives of 
 Lisbon ;" and other works. He also left 
 many valuable MSS. — Bioo-. Univ. 
 
 SOWER BY, FLS. MGS. (James) an in- 
 genious artist and naturalist, born 1766. In 
 the early part of his life Mr Sowerby sup- 
 ported himself by instructing pupils \n the 
 ^art of drawing ; but being fond of botany, zjid 
 
S 1* A 
 
 p<erfising his pencil clii<l1y in tlif dcliiipation 
 of p\anta, he attrafted tlie iiotire of hir J. I,. 
 Smitli, the president of the Liiiniran Society, 
 u ho en)|)lnye(l him to illtistratc his works. He 
 puhlislieil several works afieruanls, connected 
 with his favourite pursuit ; anions others, " A 
 Botanical Drawing Uook," 4to, l/lJDand 17«.>I; 
 " Florist's Delivjlit." folio, 17'.M ; " Kni;lisli 
 Fungi," folio, 1796; " Hriush iNlineralogy," 
 8vo, IBO.'J ; " Description of Moiiels to Kx- 
 plain Chrystallograpliy," Hvo, IMO.S ; and 
 "English botany,"' »vo, 1»()."). Mr Soweihy 
 v\-as a correspondent and fellow of the Linna>an 
 Society, among whose transactions are several 
 papers from his pen ; and had collected a con- 
 siderable museum, which was always acces- 
 sible to students ami scientific men. He died 
 in Lambeth, ()ctoi)er 2,>, \822. — Ann. Bio;^. 
 
 SOZO-MKX (lii.iiMiAs) a native of Pales- 
 tine, was in great repute as an advocate al 
 Constantinople about the year 410, and is 
 known as the author of a " History of the 
 Christian Church," from its first establishment 
 to his own times. Of this work the latter 
 part only has reached posterity, containing an 
 account' of transactions from the year o'24 
 downwards. It is visibly copied from the si- 
 milar history of Socrates, and is equally re- 
 markable for the marvellous legends which it 
 details, and the florid style in which they are 
 r-arrated. He is su])posed to have died abont 
 the middle of the fifth century. His history 
 was translated and published by Valesius, 
 with Eusebius ami other ecclesiastical liisto- 
 rians ; and separately, with additional notes 
 by Reading, London, 1720, 3 vols, folio. — 
 John Sozomen, a Venetian lawyer, of the se- 
 venteenth century, is known as having ren- 
 dered Plato's work on Repul)lics into the Ita- 
 lian language. In this translation, or rather 
 adaptation, the original form of dialogue is 
 abandoned for that of a continuous treatise. — 
 Cave. Dupiii. 
 
 SPAENDONCK (Gerard van) an emi- 
 nent flower- painter, born at Tilbourg in Hol- 
 land, in 1746. He studied under Herreyns, 
 an artist of Antwerp ; and at the age of twenty- 
 four he went to Paris, where he expected to 
 meet with more encouragement than in his 
 own country. He distinguished himself by 
 his miniatures as well as his flower-pieces, 
 and through the friendship of Watelet he ob- 
 tained, in'l774, the reversion of the place of 
 miniature-painter to the king. In 1781 he 
 was admitted into the Academy of Painting ; 
 and after the Revolution lie was made profes- 
 sor of iconography at the Jardin des Plantes. 
 After liaving enjoyed an excellent state of 
 health to a very advanced age, he died sud- 
 denly. May 11, 182t.>. The works ol Spaen- 
 donck are extremely numerous, and some of 
 the mist valuable are preserved iu the mu- 
 seum of the Louvre. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SPAGNOLETTO. See Ribera. 
 
 SPALDING (John Joachim) a celebrated 
 Protestant preacher and man of letters, bom 
 at Triebsess in Swedish Pomerania, in 1714. 
 He studied at the university of Rostock, 
 whence he removed to Griefswald, to become 
 
 •s 1' A 
 
 tutor to ihe cliil.lr<ti (>( on«* of llm prof. tKior* 
 in that uiijvcrMty, who kiiiijly dirtnt..i hi« 
 studiea. fn I7.l.> ho iiu[)port«-.l a ih««»iii •• Do 
 Caliimnia Jnlianj Apo«tat;i' in Confirtnationem 
 lU'hmoniH Chrisiintiii- v« rpa." Ilavi: ' ua 
 the eccIehiaMical profiH^ion, afi«r «- ^ hi« 
 
 IrotlHT, who wan pastor ami rector of the 
 gymnasium at Tri. h-teMt, In* wi-nt in 17 1? to 
 llalif, Willi a youn,; man to whom hr wu 
 tutor. Ill I74.i he became secretary of le- 
 gation to M.de Uudfnski'ijd. S ' i-nrov 
 
 at Heriiti. He now published t. i^n* of 
 
 the works of lor«l Shaflesburv. of Silh'.u.-ttf, 
 and of Le Clerc, haviuj; Htudicd the i;tiv'liHli 
 and French languages as well as the Sw(ili»h. 
 In 1748 appeared hiH " Destination of Man," 
 a work which established the re|)Utaiion of the 
 author as a moralist and a general scholar. In 
 1749 he was appointeil pastor of La.s>ahn in 
 Swedish Pomerania ; and in 17.'i7 he removed 
 to Barth, near Stralsund. He published his 
 second classic work, " ihoughts on the Im- 
 portance of Religious Sentiments." in I76I ; 
 and three years after he became member of 
 the general consistory, and first pastor of the 
 church of St Nicholas at Berlin. In 1765 he 
 published a volume of " Sermons," distin- 
 guished for elegance of style and sound mo- 
 rality ; and this was followed by another a 
 few years after. In 1772 appeared his trea- 
 tise on "The Utility of Preaching;" and in 
 1784 " Confidential Letters concerning Reli- 
 gion." Spalding was an advocate for free in- 
 quiry in matters of religion, his own sentiments 
 tending towards that system of rationalism so 
 prevalent among the German theolo^ists of 
 the last century. Whence, on the jmblica- 
 tion of the famous edict of religion of 1788, 
 he relinquished ])reaching altogether ; but he 
 still retained his consistorial functions. In 
 1797 he published his last work, " Religion 
 the most important Afiair of Mankind ;" and 
 the same year he was honoured by the univer- 
 sity of Halle with the diploma of doctor of 
 theology. His death took place at Berlin, 
 vMav 26. 1S04.— Biog. Univ. 
 
 SI^ALDING (George Louis) second son 
 of the preceding, eminent as a pliilological 
 writer. He was born at Harth. April 0, 176?, 
 and he studied uniler the famous Huschinp, 
 at the gymnasium of Berlin. He aftorward« 
 ilirected his attention to philology and divinity 
 at the universities of Gottingefi and Halle ; 
 and in 1784 he engaged in a lit«'rary tour 
 through CJermany, Switzerlaml, Fnuire, Eng- 
 land, and Holland. Returning to Berlin, he 
 was appointeil tutor to the children of prince 
 Ferdinand ; and in 17H7 profess«ir al the gym- 
 nasium of Berlin. His religious sentiment* 
 coinciding with those of his father, the edict 
 of reliiiion induced him to renounce hi* inten- 
 tion of becoming an ecclesiastic, and devote 
 himself entirely to literature. In \79i be 
 went to Halle, and graduated as MA. havint; 
 publi>hed a disst-rtation entitled " Vindiciae 
 Philosophorura Megaricorum, subjicitur Com- 
 mentarius in priorem Partem Libelli de Xeno- 
 jihane. Zenone et Gorgia." which procure I 
 him great reputation. Being employed by a 
 
 2 
 
?5 P A 
 
 bookseller of Leipsic to revise the text of 
 Quiutilian for a new edition, he dedicated the 
 last nineteen years of his life to that under- 
 taking, which he executed in a masterly man- 
 ner, a'nd the work appeared in 4 vols. 8vo, 
 
 1798 1816, the last volume having been 
 
 published after the death of the learned edi- 
 tor, which took place June 7, 1811. G. L. 
 Spalding published in 1804 a volume of " Di- 
 dactic Poetry ;" and the same year he printed 
 his father's Autobiography. — Id. 
 
 SHALLANZANl (Lazarus) an emment 
 modern naturalist, was born at Scandiano in 
 Italy, January 10, 1729. He studied polite 
 literature under the Jesuits at Reggio de iMo- 
 dena, whence he removed to Bologna, where 
 he cultivated science under his relation Laura 
 Bassi, the celebrated female professor of phy- 
 sics in that place. Being nominated physical 
 professor at Pavia, he devoted himself to ex- 
 perimental researches into nature, which 
 course of scientific study he pursued for many 
 years with more assiduity and intelligence than 
 most of his contemporaries. He began in 1765 
 to publish in Italian, various works on physio- 
 logy, chiefly animal, which made his name 
 kirown throughout Europe. He employed 
 some of the intervals of his academical la- 
 bour in travelling for information. In 1779 he 
 made a tour through the Swiss cantons ; in 
 178.5 he took a voyage to Constantinople, 
 visiting in his way the isles of Corfu and Cy- 
 tliera,of which he described the geology and 
 fossil remains. In 1788 he journeyed through 
 the two Sicilies, and part of the Appenines, 
 to collect volcanic products for the museum at 
 Pavia. This celebrated natural philosopher, 
 whose private character was in the higliest 
 degree sincere and benevolent, died of apo- 
 plexy, Febiuary 1798. 'Ihe numerous writ- 
 ings of Spallauzani may be comprised under 
 the following classes : experiments on animal 
 reproductions, in which he pursued the steps 
 of Reaumur and Bonnet ; on infusory ani- 
 malcules, in which, in opposition to Buffon 
 and Xet'dham, he establishes their claim to 
 the rank of complete animals ; microscopical 
 experiments, relative to reviviscent animal- 
 cules ; memoirs on mucus, or mould ; on the 
 phenomena attendant on the circulation of the 
 blood ; on digestion, and the manner in which 
 it is effected ; inquiries concerning generation ; 
 on the influence of confined and unchanged air 
 on animals and vegetables ; travels in the two 
 Sicilies ; observations on the transpiration of 
 plants ; and las-lly, a curious and elaborate 
 correspondence wuh the most distinguished 
 naturalists of the age. That in so wide and 
 curious a range of mquiry he was sometimes 
 mistaken in his conclusions will not be deemed 
 wonderful, but he will always be regarded as 
 one of the most industrious inquirers into 
 nature of his day. It must not be concealed, 
 that much humane objection has been made to 
 the deliberate cruelty of many of his experi- 
 ments, for which, as in some later instances of 
 a bimilar nature, it has been doubted if the 
 knov^ ledge atttiued would entirely atone. — 
 Life by Tourdes HalUri Bihl. Anat, 
 
 S P A 
 
 SPANGENBERG (Augustus THFor-Hi- 
 Lus) a Moravian bishop, who was the son of a 
 clergyman of Klettenburg in Germany, where 
 he was born in 1701. fie became a student 
 of law at Jena, and in 1726 he obtained the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy. The follow- 
 ing year he formed an acquaintance with the 
 famous count Zinzendorff, founder of the sect 
 of Moravians or Herrnhutters, of whom he 
 some time after became a follower. On his 
 forming this connexion he was sent on a mission 
 to the West Indies and North America, whi- 
 ther he went in 1735, and remained till 1739. 
 Having established a colony of the united 
 brethren, as they styled themselves, in Geor- 
 gia, and visited Pennsylvania, he returned to 
 Europe. He disj)layed his zeal and activity 
 in the cause which he had embraced, both in 
 Germany and in England ; and in 1745 he 
 was elected bishop of the IMoravians, and sent 
 again to Am.erica as inspector of all the esta- 
 blishments of the brethren among the Eno^lish 
 and savage nations. He returned from this 
 mission in 1749, and in 1751 he crossed the 
 Atlantic a third time. On the death of Zin- 
 zendorff in 1760, he was called to the su- 
 preme council of the Herrnhutters ; and in 1764 
 he was appointed general inspector of the es- 
 tablishments in Upper Lusatia. He took up 
 liis residence at Zeitz, whence in 1769 he re- 
 moved to Herrnhut, devoting his time espe- 
 cially to the seminaries for the education of 
 foreign missionaries. In 1789 he accepted 
 the office of president of the general directory, 
 with which he settled two veais after at Ber- 
 tholsdorf near Herrnhut, where he died Sep- 
 tember 18, 1792. Among his works are " The 
 Biography of count N. L. de Zinzendorff," 
 1772—75, 8 vols. 8vo ; and " Idea Fidei Fra- 
 trum, or a Summary of the Christian Doctrine 
 of the Evangelical Community of the Bre- 
 thren," 1779, 8vo, translated into English by 
 Latrobe. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SPANHI^LM (Frederick) professor of 
 divinity at Leyden, was the son of a learned 
 Protestant divine, who filled the post of ec- 
 clesiastical counsellor to the elector palatine, 
 and 'was provost of the college of Amberg, 
 where the subject of this article was born in 
 1600 ; and after benefiting a while by his fa- 
 ther's instructions, he completed his education 
 at the universities of Heidelberg and Geneva, 
 in the latter of which he obtained the divinity 
 professorship in 1627, having previously de- 
 clined one offered him at Lausanne. This ho- 
 nourable situation he re!^igned in 1642 for a 
 similar one at Leyden, where he distinguished 
 himself both as a lecturer in iheologv and a 
 preacher, acquiring by Ins learning and ta- 
 lents the especial favour of the prince of 
 Orange and the celebrated Christina of Swe- 
 den, with whom he was in habits of corres- 
 pondence. He was the author of " Excrcita- 
 tiones de Gratia Universali," 8vo, 3 vols. , 
 " Dubia Evangelica," 4to, 2 vols, ; a" IJfe 
 of Count Dhona ;" " The Swiss Mercury," 
 &c. He died in the spring of 1649, his great 
 labours shortening his days. He was a cor- 
 
S V A 
 
 rpppondcnt of, and liij;hly cstocnutl by ardi- 
 bisJinp UsluT. — Nicerou. I'rehpii Tlieulvtim. 
 
 SPAMIKI.M (KzERiKi.) tMcst son of the 
 preceding, was born in 16^9, durini; his fa- 
 ther's rt'sidence at Geneva. At a very early 
 age be manifested tlie possessicm of consiiU'r- 
 able talent, wbiib received aniplt! cnltivation 
 nnder the care of his father, wluim he aiconi- 
 panied to Leyden in Itil'J ; and altlion^li at 
 that period the animosity between Daniel 
 Heinsius and Salmasius was at its Iieight, lie 
 succeeded by his modesty and abilities in ob- 
 taining the friendship and esteem of both 
 these eminent scholars. The death of his fa- 
 ther destroying the tie which bonnd him to 
 Leyden, lie acce]>ted a ])rofessorship of rhe- 
 toric which was oflered him in Ids native city ; 
 hut the repHtation he liad by tliis time ac- 
 quired inducing the elector palatine to select 
 him as superintendant of his son's studies, he 
 entered the service of that jirince, and soon 
 after confirmed the favourable impression made 
 on his patron's mind by an eloquent tract in 
 support of liis pretensions to tlie grand vicar- 
 sliip of the empire. The prudence which 
 seems to liave been one distinguishing cha- 
 racteristic of Spanlieim, did not desert him at 
 this time in the difficult situation in wliich he 
 was placed between the elector and electress, 
 with both of whom, tliough at open variance 
 with each other, he continued a favourite. 
 An opportunity at length occurred which en- 
 abled him to carry into eflect a desire he had 
 long formed of visiting Italy, the best school 
 for the study of antiquities. His sovereign 
 wishing to keep an eye upon the intrigues car- 
 rying on by the Catholic electors at the papal 
 court, dispatched him as his accredited envoy 
 to Rome, where he became personally ac- 
 quainted with his failier's patroness, queen 
 Christina, who treated him with mudi dis- 
 tinction. In 1665 he returned to Heidelberg, 
 and was afterwards employed by his master in 
 a variety of diplomatic missions to the States- 
 General, I'reda, London, (Sec. all which lie 
 executed with great ability, and highly to 
 the satisfaction of his employer. Circum- 
 stances induced him at length to quit the Pa- 
 latinate and enter the service of the elector of 
 Brandfiihurg, afterwards king of Prussia, who 
 on his assumption of the regal title, raised him 
 into the order of nobility by a baron's patent, 
 while acting as his ambassador extraordinary at 
 tlie court of Paris. In 1702 he proceeded in the 
 same capacity once more to London, where he 
 remained till the day of his decease, Oct. 28, 
 1710. It isditlicult to conceive how in the midst 
 of such active and various political employ- 
 ments he could find time to compose the se- [ 
 veral works wiii( h he produced, all of which 
 are distinguished by their acuteness and erudi- i 
 tion. 'i'be principal of these area " Disserta- 
 tion on the Lxcellence and I'se of the Medals , 
 of the Ancients," folio, 2 vols. ; " Letters and j 
 Kssays on INlcdals ." " A Commentary on the \ 
 "Writings of Aristophanes and Caliimachus." 
 An edition of the writings of the emperor Ju- 
 lian, in Greek and Latin, and a French trans- 
 ation of the same work, illustrated by medals. 
 
 ■S 1' A 
 
 Ills remaind lie buried in Westmtnctor tAAn-y, 
 — TluM- was nl«o a Kccntnl !'■ •••>%. S-fAS' 
 HUM. Min of the fircr, and \ . . !,f„'|itr of 
 KzekicI, born in MVM m Cienirra. He »ti|. 
 died at Leyden nnd«r the c« h-bratid Here. 
 bo )id an<l other learned men, and iucceede*! 
 through the patronage of the eliM tor to the 
 divinity (l,;.ir at IbidrlberR in Irio.), whit I, he 
 ex. hanged for that at Le>d.n in 1670. He 
 was a volundnouH writer, i)rincipaliy on t|„o- 
 logical snbj.cts, and compiled an eialKirate 
 history of the Christian chur.li. Hi„ .h-a,!, 
 took place in 1701 from a paralytic attack, 
 brought on by incessant and laborious applica- 
 tion to stiidv. — Xicpion. Bin^. }\,U. 
 
 SPAllKK ( Kkk ) a Swedish statesman, de- 
 scended from an ancient and powerful family, 
 and born in l.VSO. He was made a senator in' 
 L"i8'J, and in l.)87 he was sent by John III to 
 Warsaw, where he succeedt d in securinjj the 
 crown of Poland for Sigismund, son of the 
 Swedish monarch, wh'im he ai ■ ied to 
 
 his new kingdom. Having ont' : .;.:o the 
 views of a party desirous of separating the in- 
 terests of king John from those of his son, 
 Sj)arre was arrested and accused with other 
 senators before the states of Sweden ; and he 
 was dejtrived of all his dignities. On the 
 death of John he declared a-^ainst his suc- 
 ce.ssor, Charles duke of Sudermania, and wrote 
 a tract " Pro Lege, Hege, et Grege," in which 
 he openly attacked t!ie duke's pretensions. 
 He subse(|uently submitted to his authority, 
 and was restored to his employments. Again 
 opposing Charles he took n-fuge in Poland, 
 and being delivered up to that j.rince, he was 
 tried before the states assembled at Lind- 
 koping, condemned, and beheaded in ItiOO. 
 His famous treatise '• De Kege, &:c." which 
 has been printed, is extremely scarce. He 
 composed many other works relative to the 
 political affairs of his own time. — Diet. Hut. 
 
 SPARRMAN (Andhfw) a Swedish natu- 
 ralist and traveller, born in the province of 
 I'pland about 1747. He studied medi ine at 
 Upsal, and by his attention to natural hiscory 
 attracted the notice of Linna»ii9. lu 1765 
 Sparrman made a voyage to China with his 
 cousin captain Lkeberg, who rommantled a 
 vessel belonging to the Swedish Last India 
 company. On his return he described in an 
 academical thesis the previously unknown 
 animals and vegetables which he had difi- 
 covered ; and wishing to continue his re- 
 searches in distant countries, he accepte<l the 
 office of tutor to the children of a Dutch in- 
 habitant of the Cape of (joo>1 Hope, where he 
 arrived in April 1772. Dr Forstera- • ' ■ =on 
 visitiiiii the Cape with captain Cook, i id 
 
 Sparrman to accompany them, as an assistant 
 in their researches ; and acce|Mini: a jiroposal 
 so agreeable to his taste, he maile the voyage 
 round the world, returning in 1775 to Africa, 
 where he engaged in the practice of medicine 
 and surgery. As soon as the state of his 
 funds permitted, he undertook a journey into 
 the interior of the country, and after pene- 
 trating to the distance of three hundred and 
 
SP E 
 
 fifty leagues from the Cape, he returned to that 
 settlement in April 1776, bringing a copious 
 collection of African jjlants and animals. The 
 same year he revisited his native country, and 
 durins his absence he liad heeu raised to the 
 degree of MD. He was chosen a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm ; and 
 on the death of baron de Geer he was nomi- 
 nated conservator of the fine museum left to 
 the Academy by that celebrated naturalist. He 
 was subsequently made president of that insti- 
 tution, but he held the office only three months. 
 In 1787 he engaged in an abortive attempt to 
 explore the interior of Africa, and he returned 
 home in 1788. His death took place at Stock- 
 holm July 20, 1820. He was the author of 
 several works, among wliich is an Account of 
 his Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 Travels in Africa, written in Swedish, and 
 published in German at Berlin ; and in an 
 English dress in London, 1785, 2 vols. 4to. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 SPARROW (Anthony) bishop of Nor- 
 wich, a native of Depden in Suffolk. He was 
 educated at Queen's college, Cambridge, where 
 he obtained a fellowship ; but was rejected in 
 1643 by the parliamentarian visitors, on ac- 
 count of his adherence to the royal cause. On 
 the restoration of monarchy he was reinstated 
 in this as well as in another piece of prefer- 
 ment, from wliich he had been ejected, the 
 living of Hawkedon in his native county. 
 This act of justice was followed up by a 
 greater manifestation of gratitude than Charles 
 was accustomed to display towards many who 
 had suffered in his cause, and Ur Sparrow ob- 
 tained through court influence the headship of 
 liis college, the archdeaconry of Sudbury, and 
 a stall in Ely cathedral, till in 1667 he va- 
 cated the two last mentioned benefices, on 
 being elevated to the see of Exeter ; over 
 this diocese however he had presided scarcely 
 a twelvemonth when he was translated to the 
 more lucrative one of Norwich. ' As a prelate 
 he was distinguished for his learning, piety, 
 and benevolence ; as a writer he is known by 
 his •' Rationale of the Book of Common 
 Prayer," 8vo, 1657, reprinted 17'22 ; and his 
 collection of " Articles, Injunctions, Canons, 
 &c. of the Church of England," 4to. His 
 death took place in 1685. — Athen. O.xon. 
 
 SPARTIANl'S (iELius)a Latin historian 
 of the time of Diocletian, to whom he de- 
 dicated the lives of Adrian, ^lius Verus, 
 J^idius Julianus, Severus, and Pescennius Ni- 
 ger, which, as well as his lives of Carat alia 
 and Gela, have come down to our own times. 
 He makes one of the Historic Augustaj Scrip- 
 tores, but his historical merits are very incon- 
 siderable. The life of Severus is by some 
 attributed to Lampridius, while many critics 
 have come to the conclusion that Spartianus 
 and Lampridius (see his article) were the 
 same persons, and that Spartianus was a third 
 name of the latter. — Vosiii Hist, Lat. Moreri. 
 
 SPECKBACHER ( ) a Tyrolese chief, 
 
 who took arms in 1809 to defend his country 
 against foreign invasion, and acquired high 
 reputation among his fellow-citizens, by his 
 
 SPE 
 
 astonishing activity, courc^ge, and intellectual 
 superiority. He for a long time seconded ths 
 operations of Hofer ; and he gained signal ad- 
 vantages over the Bavarians, and defeated 
 some detached parties of the French, but at 
 I length, after a severe struggle, he was over- 
 '. whelmed by superior forces. He distinguished 
 I himself uo less by his moderation and hu- 
 , manity towards such of the enemy as fell into 
 \ his hands, than by his courage and conduct. 
 j After the successive defeats suffered by Hofer, 
 and the total dispersion of their followers, 
 Speckbacher had the good fortune to escape 
 the pursuit of the victors, and thus avoided 
 I the sad fate of his comjiauion in arms. [See 
 Hofer (Andrew.)] On the evacuation of 
 the Tyrol by the French troops, and the re- 
 I storatiou of the country to Austria in 1813, he 
 j returned home, and resided many years among 
 J his fellow-citizens, by whom he was highly 
 I honoured and respected. Speckbacher died 
 j at Hall, in the Tyrol, in the beginning of 1820. 
 — Bing. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 [ SPEED (John) an industrious elucidator 
 of the geography and history of Great Britain, 
 was born at Farrington in Cheshire, about 1555. 
 He was brought up to the business of a tailor, 
 and became a freeman of the company of 
 IMerchaut Tailors in 1/Ondon, in which si- 
 tuation he obtained the notice of sir Fulk 
 Greville, who gave him an allowance to en- 
 able him to quit his mechanical employment, 
 and devote himself to the study of English 
 history and antiquities. His first publication 
 was entitled " The Theatre of the Empire of 
 Great Britain," presenting an exact geography 
 of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, and the isles adjoining, London, 1606, 
 folio. This was a set of maps of all the coun- 
 ties, with short descriptions, mostly copied 
 from Camden's Britannia. His greatest work, 
 which was the labour of fourteen years of his 
 life, is his " History of Great Britain under 
 the Concjuests of the l^omans, Saxons, Danes, 
 and Normans, &ic." folio, which was pub- 
 lished in 1614. It is chiefly a compilation 
 from Camden and previous writers, but he also 
 received considerable assistance from sir Ro- 
 bert Cotton, sir Henry Spelman, and other an- 
 tiquaries of his day, with whom he was well 
 acquainted. Although rude in style, it much 
 exceeded in matter and arrangement the ])re- 
 ceding chronicles ; and according to Tyrrel 
 and bishop Nicolson, he was the first who, 
 slighting Geoftiy of !\Ionmouth and other le- 
 gendaries, commenced at once with solid and 
 rational matter. He was also author of '* A 
 Cloud of Witnesses, or the Genealogies of 
 Scripture," prefixed to the new translation of 
 the Bible in 1611. This useful and industrious 
 compiler lived fifty-seven years with one wife, 
 by whom he had twelve sons and six dangh- 
 tpr5. He died in 1629. — Biog. Brit. FuUlr's 
 ]Vorlhies. (hanger. 
 
 SPELMAN (sir Henry) a celebrated En- 
 glish antiquary and philologer, born at Cong- 
 ham in Norfolk, in 1562. He was taken froiy 
 a grammar-school in the country at the age o 
 fifteen, and sent to i'riuity college, Cambridge, 
 
S V E 
 
 where lie remained two years and a half, aiiJ 
 llien retijriied to Con^hatn to residt! with Ids 
 •iother, who had lost her hushaml. 'I he fol- 
 lowing year h<r went to l.oiulon, and enU-n-d 
 as a law student at Lincoln's Inn ; hut he 
 seems to have paid Init litlle atUnlion to h-^al 
 science at this |)iriod, and within three yars 
 lie left the nK'lro|iolis, and siithd on hi> 
 estate in the country. IK' married, and for 
 some time led a retired and domestic life, (niiy 
 interrujjled by ilesiiliory study, and the icm- 
 j)orary assumption of a civil ollice, for in KiOl 
 lie was hi'^h shcrilV for the county of Norfolk, 
 At lenylh the emharrasmenis partly atisiui; 
 from a numerous and increasini; family arouscil 
 him to tlie exertion of his talents. He wont 
 to Ireland in \t)07 as menihcr of a hoard of 
 connnissioners for scllliiii; the titles lo lands 
 and manors in certain counties of thai kinj; 
 dom ; and he was aflern arils employed lo in- 
 vesliyale the sul)jecl of the exacti(jn of fees 
 by the civil and ecclesiastical courts. On ihis 
 occasion he drew u|) hi* learned treatise *' l)e 
 Sepultura," in which he demonsirates the fla- 
 grant abuses which had occurreil to his notice. 
 His services were rewardeil with a pecuniary 
 gift, and the honour of kniyhthood. In Kil'J 
 be settled in London, devoting his leisure to 
 the study of the juridical anlujuities of his 
 native country. Having jiurchaseil the lands 
 ■which had belonged to two suj)pressed monas- 
 teries, and becoming involved in a law-suit, 
 and meeting with other obstacles to the quiet 
 enjoyment of the property, he be^ian to enier- 
 taiu scruples of conscience relative to the 
 alienation of church lands ; and at length he 
 •wrote on the subject a work entitled " J)e non 
 temerandis Ecclesiis," iu which he maintains 
 the inviolability of proj)erty devoted to re- 
 ligious ])urposes. On the revival of the Society 
 of Antiquaries in 1614, sir H. Spelman be- 
 came a member ; and on that occasion he ])ro- 
 duced a " Discourse concerning the Original 
 of the four Law-terms of the 1'ear." In his 
 researches into legal arcluvology he found it 
 necessary to study the Saxon language, and 
 this led to the composition of his great work, 
 the Arclueological Glossary. He printed a spe- 
 cimen in i62l, and in I'J'JO appeared the lust 
 jjart, entitled " Archasologus in modum Glos- 
 sarii ad Rem anticpiam posteriorum," folio. 
 'J'he sale of this valuable book was so unpro- 
 mising, that the second jJart was not puljlished 
 till after the death of the author. Before he 
 Lad completed the glossary, he engaged iu 
 I)re|)ariiig a " History of Ihiglish Councils," of 
 which the first jiarl, to the Norman conquest, 
 appeared in \639 ; and two additional vo- 
 lumes were subse()uently published, j)arlly 
 from the pajiers of Sj)elman, by sir W. Dug- 
 dale. In 16j9 likewise appeared the last 
 work of our author, entitled " The History of 
 'Jenures by Knights' Service in England." 
 His death took jdace in 1641, and his body 
 was interred in Westminster abbey. Besides 
 the works already noticed, he was the author 
 of a •• History of the Civil AtVairsof the King- 
 dom froju the Conquest to the Grant of the 
 Magna Charta ;" " A 'Jreaiise concerning 
 
 h i' I. 
 
 lilhes ;" & " History of S„. m. ^.- ;" " ^spi. 
 h)^;in ;•• &c. llih Lngluh worku were pub- 
 lished lollettivoly in a fulio volume in 17^7. 
 
 Sir. I oils Si-i I MA\ . theeldint »on of nir Ht-tiry, 
 inherited bin father's lahte for »ri haoloj;u it' 
 int|UineH. He pubhshid the r»altiT in the 
 Sax'-n language, nrid wa» the author of a 
 " Life of Alfred the (jreAi," prmii-il at i)t- 
 ford, 17(19, }{vo, Hud which iiad pr«-riou»ly 
 appeared in » Latin iranshiUon. Ho who nmik- 
 ter of Sulloii's hospital; antl \va» krd>;hlr.l by 
 king Charles I. He died at Oxford in loL'i. 
 — i;f>u A II I) S I' I I M Av, who w»% a drtccndanl 
 of Sir II. Speliiiaii. iranslatrd Xenophon'ii Cv . 
 ropadia. ami the Honian History of Dionysit-* 
 of llalicarnassus ; ami also was the author of 
 a treatise on the (jrcek accents. He died in 
 17('7. — /i'-'i:. Ii>il. Atl-.ni'i lieu, liio". 
 
 SI'KNCK (.Insi pii) an ingenious critic of 
 the last century, who belonged to the clerical 
 profession. He was horn in lo'.'fJ, ami re- 
 ceiveil his education at \\ inchesier bchool atnl 
 New college. Oxforil, where he obtained a 
 fellowship. About 17'^.S he atteii.led as a tra- 
 velling tutor to l.ilwaril Uudj^e, esq. of \\ ln-at- 
 field in Oxfordshire, in whose family he was a 
 frequent iinnaie in the subseijueiit part of his 
 life. In 17 '27 he laid the foundation of ids 
 literary reputation by his Kssay on Pope's 
 'I'ranslalion of the Odyssey, which led to an 
 intimate frieiidslii|i Ix tween the poet and his 
 critic. In 17'J1J he was elected professor of 
 poetry at Oxford ; ami he afterwards trartdled 
 abroad with the earl of Lincoln. On his return 
 he obtained the living of Great ihjrwooil in 
 Buckinghamshire ; and in I7.i4 he was pro- 
 moted to a |)rel)endal stall in Durham ratiic- 
 dral. After the death of his friend Mr Uuiige 
 in 176,'), he resiiled much with the widow of 
 that gentleman, who usually spent the summer 
 months at \VeYbridge in Surrey. On the 
 1 morning of August i.M>, 1768, .Mr Spence was 
 ! found by a servant, who was sent to call him 
 to breakfast, l\iiig on his face in a shallow 
 ' piece of water in the ganlen, into which it ap- 
 ; peared that he had fallen bv accident, and 
 j being unable to extricate himself, he was un- 
 fortunately drowned. His principal work is 
 entitled " I'olymetis, or an Lnquiry into the 
 Agreement between the Works of iho Homaii 
 Poets and the Remains of ancient Artists," 
 1747, folio. He distinguished himself aisc 
 by his patronage of Stephen Duck, the poeti- 
 cal tliresher; Robert Hill, the Hebrew tailor; 
 and l)r Thomas Blacklock. In IH 19 appeared 
 *' Obf-ervations, .\necdoles, and (.'haracters of 
 Books and .Men, collected from the Conversa- 
 tion of .Mr Pope, and of other eminent Persoi.s 
 of his Time," from n MS. of .Mr Spence, wuh 
 his life, &:c. by S. W. Singer, 8vo. — Chalnteiis 
 Biof^. Diet. dent, i^hii^. 
 
 SPKNCKR (.Ioiin) a learned and ingenious 
 divine, was born in l63t) at the village of 
 Boughton, Kent, receiveil the rudiments of a 
 classical education at the foundation school in 
 Canterbury, whence he removeil on a scholar- 
 ship to (Corpus Christi college, Cambriilge, and 
 succeeded in ilue course to the fellowship an- 
 nexed. In 1687 he was elected to the head- 
 
SPE 
 
 gliip of his college, and obtained shortly after 
 a prebend at Ely, with the archdeaconry of 
 Sudbury. In 1677 he vacated his stall for the 
 deanery, but still continued to reside occa- 
 sionally in liis college, where he died in the 
 spring of 169b, and lies buried in the chapel 
 Dean Spencer was an acute biblical critic and 
 a good Hebraist, as is evinced by his learned 
 treatise " On the Laws, Kitual, and Customs 
 of the Jews," folio, 2 vols. Cambridge, 1727. 
 He was also the author of a Latin dissertation 
 " On the Urim and Thumniim," 1668 ; an 
 •' Essay on Miracles," and another " On Pro- 
 phecies," with some occasional sermons. — 
 William SrENcnn, another able divine, held 
 a fellowship at Trinity college in the same 
 university in 1658, in which year he published 
 an edition of the works of Origen, with a Latin 
 translation annexed. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 SPENER (FniLrp James) a Lutheran 
 divine of Frankfort on the iNlaine, but born in 
 Alsatia in 1635. He signalized himself by 
 liis exertions to free divmity from scholastic 
 subtleties, and about 1680 became founder of a 
 new sect entitled pietists, which unfortunately 
 in the sequel produced quite as much disorder 
 by the substitution of fierce and intemperate 
 zeal and enthusiasm. At length in many 
 places severe laws were passed against the 
 pietists, and Spener retired first to Dresden 
 and afterwards to Berlin, where beheld eccle- 
 siastical offices of trust under the elector of 
 Brandenburgh. His principal religious work 
 was entitled " Pious Desires ;" but he also 
 wrote some works on heraldry and genealogy 
 in Latin. He died in 1705. — His son, James 
 Charles Spener, wrote a " Historia Germa- 
 iiica universalis et pragmatica," 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 and " Notitia Germaniai antiquai," 1717, 4to, 
 both works of authority. He died in 1730. 
 — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SPENGLP211 (Lawrenci) an ingenious 
 artist, born at Scliaff'hausen in Switzerland, in 
 1720, and died at Copenhagen in 1808. He 
 •was originally a common turner, but by his 
 skill he accpiired great reputation, and was 
 invited to Denmark, where he executed works 
 in ivory of the highest merit. He also applied 
 himself to the study of natural history, and 
 published in the Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Copenhagen a multitude of observations on 
 that science. Spengler possessed the richest 
 collection of shells known, and he ])riuted 
 many memoirs on the different species cf 
 ehells. He likewise composed a useful work 
 on the method of cleaning ivory when become 
 discoloured, and the means of preserving it in 
 lis state of natural whiteness. — Biog. Nouv.des 
 Conternp. 
 
 SPENSER (Edmund) a justly celebrate<l 
 English poet, descended from the ancient 
 family of Spenser, was born in Lon<lon near 
 t!ie Tower about 1553. It is not known 
 where he received his early education, but he 
 w-as admitted as a sizar of Pembroke-hall, 
 Cambrid<;e, i\Iay 20, 1569, where he gra- 
 duated MA. in 1576. On leaving the uni- 
 versity he took up his residence with some 
 relations in the north of England, probably as 
 
 SPE 
 
 a tutor, where he unsuccessfully wooed a lady, 
 whom he records in his " Shepherd's Ca- 
 lendar," under the name of Rosaline, which 
 elegant poem, his first publication, appeared iu 
 1576. 'I'he year preceding he had been ad- 
 vised by his friend Gabriel Harvey to remove 
 to London, where he was introduced to sir 
 Philip Sidney, to whom he dedicated the 
 Shepherd's Calendar. The patronage of men 
 of genius in Spenser's age was frequently 
 exerted in procuring for them public employ- 
 ment ; and it was probably by the interest of 
 the Sidney family that in 1580 he accompa- 
 nied lord Grey de Wilton, appointed lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland, as his secretary. He 
 returned in 1582 with lord Grey, who in con- 
 junction with the earl of Leicester and sir 
 Philip Sidney, procured for him in 1586 a 
 grant of 3028 acres in the county of (3ork, out 
 of the forfeited lands of the earl of Desmond ; 
 on which however, by the terms of the gift, 
 he was obliged to become reeident. He ac- 
 cordingly fixed his residence at Kilcolmau in 
 the county of Cork, where he was visited by 
 sir Walter Ralegh, who became his patron 
 in lieu of sir Piulip Sidney, then deceased, 
 and whom he celebrates under the title 
 of " The Shepherd of the Ocean." He was 
 then engaged in the composition of " The 
 Faery Queen," of which he had written the 
 first three books. With these he accompanied 
 Ralegh the next year to England, where they 
 were published with a dedication to queen 
 Elizabeth, and an introductory letter to Ra- 
 legh, explaining the nature of the poem. 
 The latter celebrated person also ensured him 
 the favour of the queen, who rewarded his 
 poetry and dedication with a pension of 50/. 
 per annum ; and he has been termed her 
 laureate, although the title was not formally 
 conferred on him. In 1591 he returned to 
 Ireland, and the succeeding year his rising 
 reputation induced his bookseller to col- 
 lect and print his smaller pieces. He then 
 passed an interval of two or three years in 
 Ireland, where in 1594 he married, being then 
 in his forty-first year. He had not long en- 
 joyed his connubial happiness before it was 
 di!^quieted by the disturbances excited by the 
 earl of 'Jyrone, which were probably the 
 cause of his revisiting England the following 
 year. Here he printed some poems, and drew 
 up his " A'iew of the State of Ireland;" which, 
 in consequence it is supposed of the severity 
 of some of its suggestions, lay in IMS. until 
 printed in 1633 by sir James \Vare, who be- 
 stows much apjdause on the infcnmation and 
 judgment otherwise disjilayed in it. In 1596 
 he published a new edition of his " Faery 
 Queen," with three additional books. Of the 
 remaining six, which were to complete the 
 ori'_Mnal design, two imperfect cantos of " Mu- 
 tabiluie"only have been recovered, which were 
 introduced into the folio edition of 1609, as a 
 part of the lost book, entitled " 'i'he Lejjend of 
 Constancy." INIuch controversy has been main- 
 tained in respect to the presumed loss of the re- 
 mainder of these six books on the poet's flight 
 from Ireland; the most probable conclusion 
 
 / 
 
s r E 
 
 from wliich invcstii;afinn i8, lliat llif^y wrro 
 never finislicil, but lliat some parts of them 
 were lost on that melancholy occasion. In 
 1397 he returneil to Ireland ; and in Septem- 
 ber lo98 was lecommeniled to be sherill' of 
 Cork. The rebellion of 'I'yrone, liowcver, 
 took place in October, and with such furv as 
 to com])el Spenser and his family to (piii Kil- 
 colman in so much confusion that an infant 
 child was left behind, whom the merciless 
 cruelty of the insurgents burnt with the house. 
 The unfortunate poet arrived in Ilnj^land with 
 a heart broken by these misfortunes, and died 
 the loth of the following .lanuary, 1.598-9. in 
 the forty-sixth year of his age. It is asserted 
 that he terminated his life in great distress ; 
 but it has been contended, that the poverty 
 referred to by Camden and several of his poe- 
 tical contemporaries, apjdies rather to his loss 
 of projierty generally, than to absolute per- 
 sonal endurance. Tliis inference seems the 
 more probable, as he was interred in Westmin- 
 ster abbey at the expense of the e»rl of 
 Essex, who would scarcely have allowed ilie 
 man to starve whom he thus honoured. Several 
 of his brother poets attended, and threw co- 
 pies of verses into his grave ; and a monument 
 was afterwards erected over his remains by the 
 celebrated Anne, countess of Dorset. Of his 
 family but few particulars are known, except 
 that two sons survived him, named Sylvanus 
 and Peregrugoninine ; and, tiiat a son of the 
 latter, recovered a part of the Irish estate in 
 the reign of Charles 11, which Le subsequently 
 forfeited by his adherence to James 11. it 
 also appears, that after the Kevolution his 
 cousin \\ liliani, the sou of Sylvauus, became 
 a suitor for the forfeited property, which he 
 obtained by the influence of Montagu, earl 
 of Halifax. Of the personal character of 
 Spenser there is no direct testimony, but the 
 friendships which he formed are favourable to 
 its respectability, which is also to be 'mplieu 
 from the purity, devotion, and exalted morality 
 of his writings. IVeither, although he ]nm\ 
 assiduous court to the great, was he guilty of 
 the mean adulation so common in his time, 
 except indeed to queen Elizabeth, by H-honi, 
 both as a sovereign and a woman, it r/as le- 
 vied as a kind of tax. As a poet, although 
 Lis minor works contain many beauties, 
 Spenser will be judged chieliy from the 
 "Faery Queen," the predominant excellencies 
 of which are imagery, feeling, and melody of 
 versification, lis defects are those of Ariosto 
 and tlie Italian school, including a still mire 
 al)surd mixture of Christian and Pagan allu- 
 sions. With all its defects, however, it fur- 
 nishes admirable examples of the noblest graces 
 of poetry--sul)limity, pathos, unrivalled fertility 
 of conception, and exquisite viviilness of des- 
 cription. Its great length, and want of interest 
 as afable.addcd to the real and affected ob.-olete- 
 ness of the language, may indeed deter readers 
 in general from a complete perusal, but it will 
 always be resorted to by the genuine lovers of 
 poetry as a rich storehouse of invention. 'J o 
 this day, detached personifications of moral 
 ideas, in the manner of Spenser, remain a 
 
 ^ r I 
 
 f.ivonrlfd e^erci^e with our Ix-nt po»t*, of whiLli 
 It IS scarcely nic('K!«ary to meutiun I he Cattle 
 of Indolence of 'lUomsou a« a uirniorable ex- 
 ampl.'. — Trild's l.ije of Spemer. Ht-g. lint. 
 
 Si'liKO.M (Sj'KitoNK) an Itslian jkh-i and 
 statesman, born at Padua about ila- com- 
 mencement of the Hixteenih century. In the 
 earlier jiart of his life he itudied at the uni* 
 versity of llologna, wliere he aflerwarJn t,h- 
 taineil a iirofeBsorship iu dialvitiiH. At the 
 age of sixty he went to Honu-, and enti-n-d 
 into the service of pope Piuh the Kourth, who 
 having employed him to conduct various ne- 
 gociations with the courts of Parin and .Ma- 
 drid, and with the X'cnetian republic, re- 
 warded his labours with the honour of knight- 
 hood ; but his intirmities increasing with his 
 years, he retired at length to jias.s thp remain- 
 der of his days in his native city. Ah a wri- 
 ter lie is distinguished for the purity and ele- 
 gance of his style, especially in his letters and 
 orations. J lis other works con.-isl of " Ca- 
 nacc," a tragedy -, dialogues, eeaaya, Slc. ; ail 
 of which liHve been collected and printed in 
 five quarto volumes. His death took place at 
 Padua in 1.588. — Tiraboschi. 
 
 SPEUSIPPUS, an Athenian philosopher, 
 the son of Eurymedon, by the sister of Plato. 
 He succeeded his uncle in his school, over 
 which he presided eight years, commencing at 
 the death of that celebrated jdiilosopher about 
 BC. 348. He closely adhered to the doctrines 
 of his master, but his manners did no honour 
 to them, being both avariciotis and a luver of 
 pleasure. He was the author of several phi- 
 losophical treatises, which have perished, al- 
 though Aristotle thought them worth purchas- 
 ing at the ])rice of three taUnts. liecoming 
 paralytic in his limbs, he was borne to and 
 from the academy on a vehicle, which pro- 
 duced a rude rebuke from Diogenes the cynic, 
 at his abiding to live in such a condition. " I 
 live," replied Spensippus, " not in my limbs, 
 but ni}' mind." At leiiijth, according to Laer- 
 tius, overcome by age and maladies, he volun- 
 tarily resigned life, having first constituted 
 Xenocrales his successor in the academy. — 
 Difli;. I.aert. Brucher. 
 
 SPIKLMANN (.Ia.mks Ri.inhoh>) an 
 eminent chemist, born at Strasburg in Ger- 
 many, in 17'J'> He studied medirino, and 
 obtained the professorship of chemistry in the 
 university of his native city. He travelled 
 through several countries of EurojH', with a 
 view to the ac(]uisition of knowledge, and re- 
 turning to Strasburg engaged in practice as a 
 physician, and held also I'l.r a time the prof* 9- 
 sorships of medicine and poetry. 1 he N.'ience 
 of botany engaged much of his attention, and 
 he procured the foundation of a botanical par- 
 den at StrasburiT, and likewise published 
 " Prodromus Flonv Ariientinensis." Among 
 his other works are, " PharmacojHria gcne- 
 ralis," '2 vols. 4t(» ; " Inslitutiones ChemicT," 
 Svo ; and " Instituliones Materia^ .Medica?," 
 8vo. He died in 1783. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 SPlGKMrS. The Latin name by which 
 Adrian \ amier Spieghel, an eminent Flemi.-h 
 medico-chirurgeon, is known in his wiitings. 
 
SP I 
 
 lie ^va5 a native of Brussels, born l.i78. and 
 recf ived his education at Louvain and Padua, 
 in which latter university his reputation rose 
 to a great lieight, while filling the professor's 
 tliair in the science of anatomy. The A'ene- 
 tian government, out of respect to his talents, 
 conferred on him the order of St Mark, and 
 an honorary gold chain of considerable value. 
 He is considered to have been the first who 
 pointed out the smaller lobe of the human 
 liver, which has since been called after him, 
 and to have thrown many other interesting 
 lights upon surgery. A short time previously 
 to his death, Spigelius returned and settled in 
 liis native city, where his decease took i)lace 
 in 162.5. I'wenty years afterwards ^'ander 
 Linden collected and published an edition of 
 liis professional writings, at Amsterdam, in two 
 olio volumes. — Eloii Diet, de Mtd 
 
 S P I 
 
 Chronicle of Domenico da Pecrioli, a Domi- 
 nican friar, who was a native of Pisa, and who 
 farther states that P'ra Alessandro della Spina 
 died in the year 1312. — New Mem. of Lit. 
 vol. iv. 
 
 SPIA'ELLO (AuETiNo) an Italian painter 
 of portrait and history, was horn at Aiezzo iu 
 1328. He gave a singular grace to his figures, 
 especially to his Madonnas, and was particu- 
 larly successful in his portraits of the popes 
 Innocent IV and Gregory IX. His fresco 
 paintings on the life of the Virgin, in the cha- 
 pel of St INIaria Maggiore at Florence, are also 
 much valued. He died in 1420, at tlie age of 
 ninety-two. — Pauis Spinf.llo, his son, was 
 also an able painter, whose style much resem- 
 bled that of his father. To him, and not to 
 the latter, must belong the anecdote which is 
 related in some books, that having p^ainted a 
 
 SPILLER (John) a young and classical hideous figure of the devil, in a picture repre- 
 sculptor of very great promise, was born De- [ senting the fallen angels, he dreamed that Sa- 
 cember 1763, in London, and after a liberal tan appeared, and angrily asked his authority 
 
 education became a pupil of Bacon. He dis 
 tino-uished himself at the Boyal Academy, and 
 on his talents becoming known was chosen to 
 execute a statue of Charles the Second for the 
 centre of the Royal Exchange. While en- 
 gaged in this work, the pulmonary disease, to 
 which he had a constitutional tendency, be- 
 came much aggravated ; and soon after his 
 very able and much-admired production was 
 placed on its pedestal he expired, in May 
 1794, at the premature age of thirty. It 
 is of this accomjilished and promising artist 
 that the author of tlie Curiosities of Litera- 
 
 for representing him as so frightful. Being of a 
 morbid gloomy temperament, this vision so 
 alarmed him, that he became melancholy, and 
 died only two years after his father, iu 1422. — 
 Pilkiiigtoii. 
 
 SPINOLA (Ambrose, marquis) one of the 
 most celebrated generals of his timt^, was born 
 in Spain in 156J, of a noble family originally 
 of Genoa. He commanded a Spanish army in 
 Flanders, and signalized himself by the reduc- 
 tion of Ostend, after every other commander 
 had failed. For this exploit he was made ge- 
 neral of all the Spanish troops in the Low 
 
 ture gave the following interesting notice, as j Countries, where he was opposed by prince 
 illustrative of the enthusiasm of genius : " The M^Iaurice of Nassau. During a cessation of 
 youn<T and classical sculptor who raised the operations, Spinola visited Paris, where he was 
 statue of Charles the Second, i)laced iu the interrogated by Henry lY on the plans of the 
 centre of the Iloyal Exchange, was, in the ensuing campaign. He readily communicated 
 midst of his work, advised by his medical bis projects, on which Henry instructed prince 
 friends to desist from working in marble, for j IMaurice the direct contrary, but finding Spi- 
 the energy of his labour, with the strong ex- nola as good as his word, he exclaimed, 
 fitement of his feelings, already had made j " Others deceive by telling falsehoods, but this 
 fatal inroads on his constitution. But he was nian by telling the truth." In the next year he 
 Avilling, he said, to die at the foot of his sta- obtained several successes, until impeded bv 
 tue. The statue was raised, and the young prince Maurice, between whom and Spinola 
 sculptor, with the shining eyes and hectic the whole art of war was exhausted to no de- 
 blusli of consumption, beheld it there, re- cisive result, and a truce was agreed u|)on. 
 turned home, and shortly was no more." He I" the war produced by the disputed succes- 
 married in 1792. His beautiful and accora- sion to the duchy of Cleves, be took Aix-la 
 ])lished wife died a few months after him, of a Chapelle, AWsel, and Breda, during the siege 
 similar disease. Tlu y left behind them, at the of wliich last strong place prince Maurice died 
 tender age of a few months, an only daughter, On the capitulation of Breda he resigned the 
 who has since become, in every respect, an command, and was subsequently employed in 
 ornament to her sex. — Orig. Com. Italy, where in 1630 he took Casal ; but 
 SPINA (Alexander de) a friar of Pisa in being unable, to subdue the citadel of that 
 Italy, who lived in the beginning of the four- town, in consequence of the imprudent or- 
 teerith century, and who is regarded as the in- ders sent to him from Madrid, chagrin co- 
 ventor of optical glasses, or spectacles. 'The operated with despair to put an end to his life 
 mode of constructing these useful instruments the same year, at a time when he stood at 
 is said to have been first discovered by some ibe pinnacle of military reputation. — Moreri. 
 other person, who not being willing to com- ^oiiv. Diet, /i^^^ 
 
 municate his invention to others, Spina found SPINOZA (Baiiucii, or Benedict de) a 
 
 it out liy his own api)lication, and made it ge- celebrated modern sceptic, was born in 1692 
 
 rcrally known. He was not only an ingenious at Amsterdam, where his father, a Portuguese 
 
 mecliajic, but likewise a good singer, an ele- Jew, was occupied in commerce. Of an in- 
 
 gant scribe, and a skilful illuminator of I\ISS. quiring turn of mind, he early engaged in the 
 
 Such is the account given of this artist in the study of theology and philosoj)hy, by whicJj 
 
S P 1 
 
 he was led to iloubt tho authority of the Jewish 
 relisrion. Not beinjr satisfied wiili the anawt-rh 
 of the nibl)iiis. he niaile no Bccrt't of lii.s state 
 of niiiid, but did not altogether di'seit the hy- 
 iiagoi,ue until stabbi'd by a Jewish zenioi as 
 he was coimug from a jjlay. His open defec- 
 tion produced a sentente of extonunuiiication 
 against hiin, upon which he frequented the 
 churches of the Armenians and Mennoniteb. 
 Ue then ajiplied himself to the study of the 
 Cartesian j)!ulosoj)hy, and either with a view- 
 to more pnvac), or as some say in consecjuence 
 of au accusation of imjjiety, withdrew from 
 Amsterdam to Rhensbury;, and subse(|uently 
 to the neighbourhood of the Hague, where he 
 led a retired life, and for an independent sub- 
 sistence employed himself in grinding glasses 
 for microscopes and telescopes. \\ liile thus 
 situated he was resorted to by several of the 
 followers of Descartes, at whose rec]uest he 
 published in 1664: a treatise entitled " Ihe 
 Princii)les of the Cartesian Piiiiosophy de- 
 monstrated geometrically," adding an api)en- 
 dix, in which he broached metaphysical doc- 
 trines of quite an imposing tendency. In 1670 
 be published his most celebrated work, en- 
 titled " Tractatus Theologico-politicus," which 
 made him extensively known, and produced 
 numerous attacks from divines of every per- 
 suasion. Previous to this publication be had 
 received an invitation from the elector pala- 
 tine to occuj)y a chair in the university of 
 Heidelberg, accompanied witli the otier of 
 full liberty to philosoj)hize, provided he would 
 not exercise it to the disturbance of the pre- 
 vailing religion ; but Spinoza, whose only wish 
 was literary retirement, declined the proposal. 
 Tliis extraordinary individual, whose ])rivate 
 character was unexceptionable, died of a de- 
 cline in 1677, at the early age of forty-five, in 
 full persuasion of the truth of his system ; and 
 lest reports might be circulated to the con- 
 trary, he charged his hostess not to allow any 
 minister to apjiroach his deatli-bed. His sys- 
 tem, which was more fully developed in his 
 posthumous works, bad some resemblance to 
 that maintained by several of the Greek and 
 Oriental philosophers, who held the notion of 
 a soul of the world, and a universal whole. 
 The sum of his doctrine is thus estimated 
 by Brucker. The essence of substance is to 
 exist. Tiiere is but one substance, with its 
 
 S 1» () 
 
 notion*!, wliich »eeni to hnr? -.r: ;.. i. i :. , ,.,. 
 
 lain reiineiiientit ou (h« u of 
 
 Kubstaiice, t-HAcuce, and eztstrnce, U) ll 
 
 lect of liic ;.' ■ I - - I . 
 
 fiom the pro<! . 
 
 of duhii^n, met witii many patrons in the 
 
 I tiited I'roviiKes, but at t! • 
 
 were also encountered by n . .' ...i 
 
 descriptioHB of ihinkorii ; t-ven th u of 
 
 Hayle allows him lo .-p( a^ v 
 
 coritempl of the opinicjUH (<f ,,., 
 
 in his Pantheisticon, approu' i to 
 
 his doctrines. In IKU.' anew ediiion of hi« 
 
 works was published by profiBsor Pauius of 
 
 Jena. — Xiceron. Urucher. liuijlf. 
 
 SPIZKI^IUS ( TiiioiMiiiA's) a leameJ Ger- 
 man ecclesiiistic, born about the year 1 «>.)".'. 
 He took his degrees in theology in the uiiiver- 
 sity of Leipsic, when he distinguished himi^clf 
 by iiis ]»roficiency in Oriental learning. 'Ihe 
 fruits of his labours are an elaborate " Com- 
 mentary on the State of Literature amon;; the 
 ('hinese ;" three treatises, somewhat fanci- 
 fully entitled " Felix Litteratus," " Iiifelit 
 Litteratus," and *' Litteratus lelicis!*imu8 ;" 
 and biographical sketches of fifty of the most 
 eminent scholars and divines of his own times, 
 portrayed in a work entitled " J'emplum Ho- 
 noris reseratum." He died in 1691, at Augs- 
 burgh, where he had for some time officiate - 
 as pastor to a numerous congregation. — Sice 
 mil. Moreri. 
 
 SPOHN (FuEDERIC AuCfSTlS WlI.IIAM 
 
 an eminent German writer on philology an 
 classical literature. He was burn at Dort 
 mund in 179*2, and be studied at the univer- 
 sity of W'iltemberg. His house and part oi 
 his library having been destroyed at the bom 
 bardmeut of that place in 1813, he removec 
 to Leipsic, where in 1817 he was norainatet 
 extraordinary professor of philosophy, and ic 
 1819 professor of ancient literature. He died 
 January 16, 1824, in consequence of disease 
 brought on by his excessive application to 
 study. Though his life was short, his literary 
 labours were numerous and important. He 
 published in 181.) a dissertation " De Agro 
 Trojano in Carminibus llomeri dtscrijito," 
 8vo ; and " Commentarius de extrema Parte 
 Odyssia? inde a Khapsod. ^i'. v. 297, ,l>o re* 
 centiori orta qiiam Homerica ;" and in the 
 last year of his life he printed three piece* 
 under the title of " Lectionea Theocrilea." 
 
 modifications, thought and extension. This 
 
 substance is infinitely diversified, having j He left a large quantify of 
 within itself the necessary causes of the'' 
 changes through which it passes. No sub- 
 stance can be supposed to create or produce 
 anot])er ; therefore, besides the substance of 
 the universe there can be no other, and this 
 
 taining the materials for sc i 
 
 he had jirojectcd, and some part of them has 
 been juiblished since his decease. — ^ 
 
 SPON (Jamks) a physician n:. . U 
 
 letters, was the soik of the leanicJ Charh ■ 
 substance Spinoza calls God, and assigns to 1 Spon, also an eminent pliysician, and the 
 it divine attributes. His doctrines therefore ' friend and correspondent of Guy Palin. He 
 
 differ from tliat of the philosopiieis wiiO he d \ was born at Lyons, and studied physic at 
 
 God to be the universal wlloh^ smce, according 
 
 to them, the visible and intellectual worlds are 
 
 produced by emanation from the eternal fount 
 
 of divinity, and are the eft'ect of intelligence 
 
 or design ; whereas, according to Spinoza, all 
 
 things are immanent, and necessary modi- , • ,- , ,- 
 
 lications of one eternal substance. These j published by him lu a work entitled «' \ oyagos 
 
 IMontpellier ; after which he travelled into 
 Italv, with the celebrat ' v Vaillant. 
 
 In 167.") and 1676 he aL, , . Mr. afier- 
 
 wards sir George Wheeler, in a tour through 
 Italy to D.dmritia, Greece, and Lesser A>ia. 
 The observations made in this journey were 
 
8 F O 
 
 d'lf.alie, de Dalraatie^ de Grece, et du Le- 1 
 vant," 3 vols. 12mo, 1677. These chiefly ' 
 relate to antiquities, but are also interspersed ; 
 with remarks relative to medicine and natural 
 history. Dr Spon returned to France, where 
 he remained until 1685, when, being a Pro- 
 testant, he was forced by the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantz to quit France, and intended 
 to retire to Zurich, but he fell sick on the 
 way, and died at Vevay in the same year, 
 lie was the author of several carious works, 
 the principal of which are " Recherches des 
 Antiquites de Lyons," 1674, 8vo ; *' Jgno- 
 torum atque obscuriim Deorum Araj," 1677, 
 8vo ; " Histoire de la \'ille et de I'Etat de 
 Geneve," 1680, 2 vols. l2mo; " Lettre sur 
 I'Antiquite de la lleligion," I'imo ; " Re- 
 cherches curieuses d'Antiquite," 1683;" JNlis- 
 cellanea cruditiii Antiqaitaiis," 1679 and 1683, 
 folio. He also wrote some medical treatises, 
 which exliibit him as a strenuous advocate 
 for the use of Peruvian bark. — Moreri. Kloy 
 Diet. Hist, de Med. 
 
 SPONDE (Henry de) or SPONDANUS, 
 a French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 
 was born in l568 at Mauleon-de-Soule, a town j 
 between Navarre and Beam. His father was | 
 secretary to Joan, queen of Navarre, and be- 
 ing a Calvinist, educated his children in the 
 same persuasion. He studied at Ortiz, where 
 the reformed had a college ; and became so 
 distinguished for his classical and legal attain- 
 ments, that he was made master of requests 
 by Henry IV, then ])rince of Beam. A pe- 
 rusal uf the controversial works of Du Perron 
 and Bellarniine, and the examj)le of his elder 
 brother John^ induced him in lo9o tc abjure 
 Protestantism. In 1600 he accompanied car- 
 dinal de Sourdib to Rome, where he wiis in- 
 duced to take orders in 1606, and after a visit 
 to Paris he returned and accepted office under 
 jiope Paul V ; but in 1626 was recalled to 
 France, and made bit-hop of Pamiers, in which 
 station he distinguished himself by liis zeal 
 and benevolence. He died at Toulouse in 
 J 6 13, aged seventy-five. Sponde's principal 
 work is an abridgtraent and continuation of 
 (he Ecclesiasticid Annals of Baroiiius,in 3 vols, 
 folio, which work, although in esteem with 
 those of his own communion, contains many 
 errors, and exhibits strong marks of a party 
 spirit. He was also author of a work en- 
 titled " De Cocmeteriis Sacris," stating the 
 grounds of his conversion ; and of " Annales 
 Sacri, a Mundi Creatione ad ejusdem Re- 
 < emptioneni," with other works. — John de 
 Sponde, elder brother of the preceding, was 
 the author of " Commentaries on Homer;" 
 "An Account of the Motives wliich induced 
 him to join the Catholic Church ;"' and an 
 "Answer to Beza's Treatise on the Marks of 
 the Church." He also jniblishcd an edition 
 of Aristotle's Logic, with notes. He died 
 prematurely, in 1595. — Moreri. Bayle. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 SPOTSWOOD orSPOTlSWOOD(JonN) 
 an eminent Scottish prelate, was descended 
 from an ancient family, one of wliom, his 
 grandfather, was killed in the battle of Flod- 
 
 S P K 
 
 den-field. He v/as born in 1565, and wa^ 
 educated at the university of Glasgow, wher-^ 
 he received a degree in his sixteenth year 
 Tn 1601 he attended the duke of Richmou(? 
 as chaplain in his embassy to France, and ir 
 1603, u])on the accession of James VI to thf» 
 throne of England, accompanied the king intr» 
 that kingdom, ami the same year was advanced 
 to the archbishopric of Glasgow, and mad^ 
 one of the privy council of Scotland. He 
 very actively seconded the wishes of James to 
 restore the church of Scotland to episcopacy 
 and is supposed to have made no less than fifty 
 journeys to London on that account. In 161!) 
 he was translated to the see of St Andrews, 
 and thus became primate of Scotland, in which 
 capacity he presided in the assembly of Aber- 
 deen and elsewhere, to restore the ancient 
 discijiline, and produce a uniformity with tlie 
 church of England. He was held in no less 
 esteem by Charles I, than by his father ; and 
 in 1635 was made chancellor of Scotland 
 which post he had not held four years when 
 the popular confusions obliged him to retire 
 into England, and he had scarcely reached 
 London when age, grief, and sickness con- 
 signed him to the grave, in 1639. In 1655 
 luB " History of the Church of Scotland " was 
 j>ublished in London, in folio; it bears a ge- 
 neral character of fidelity and impartiality, 
 although Dr J amieson wrote critical notes to 
 ])oint out several errors in his two first books. 
 Spotswood, in regard to whose political con- 
 duct and op'inions historians have given diffe- 
 rent accounts, also wrote a tract ia defence of 
 the ecclesiastical establisliment of Scotland, 
 entitled * Refutatio Libelli de Regimine Ec' 
 clesije Scotticanae." — Life prefixed to History. 
 Granger. Laing's Hiil. of Scotland. 
 
 SPRAT (Thomas) bishop of Rochester, 
 an accomplished divine, was born in 1636 at 
 Tallaton in Devonshire, where his f;Uher was 
 a clergyman. He received his academical 
 education at Wadham college, Oxford, of which 
 he was elected a fellow in 1657. Upon the 
 death of Oliver Cromwell, in the following year 
 he composed an " Ode to the happy Alemory 
 of the late Lord Protector," which poem, 
 abounding with the most high-flown adulation, 
 was of the irregular class then termed Pinda- 
 ric. Another, '* On the Plague of Athens," 
 followed in the same style, wiiich was that of 
 Cowley. On the Restoration he atoned foi 
 former subserviency by an equal excess in the 
 contrary direction, and taking orders, was re- 
 commended by Cowley to \illiers duke of 
 }3uckingham, who made him his chajdain, and 
 wliom he assisted in the composition of the 
 " Rehearsal." Being introduced by that no- 
 bleman to the king, the latter *.ook much 
 pleasure in his conversation, and nominated 
 him one of his chaj)lains. His intimacy 
 wiih bishop Wilkins caused him to be chosea 
 one of the fellows of the new Royal Society; 
 of which, in 1667, he wrote the history, and 
 obtained great praise for the elegance and 
 style of sentiment disj)layed in the composi- 
 tion, which, however, was l)y no means a mo- 
 del for that order of narrative- 'n 1665 h- 
 
S 1' V 
 
 pvihlislicd sonio observations in {•:isiii^ati(.ii of 
 ^orbii'ie's Wiyaije to Kin^land, tin- fn-ciloni of 
 \\}«ose strictures Iiatl t;iven iiuith oll'cncp ; aii*i 
 in 1()()8 t'ditt'il tlif Latin pdiiiis of Cowley, to 
 \vlii( h lie atldcil a lifi* ol' that auilior in tlie 
 saint; laii>;aage, afterwards aniplifiKi by birn- 
 sclf in Knj^lisb, and aniii'Xfd to tlio huine au- 
 thor's Kni^lish woiks. Ilia reputation and ta- 
 lents for conversation and society now rapidly 
 advanced bim in Jlie care er of preferment, 
 and be became successively preliendary of 
 Westminster, rector of St iMaigard's, canon 
 of Windsor, and finally, in loiid", bishop 
 of Tlochester. This last elevation was 
 probably bis reward for ilrawini^ tip an 
 account of the Rye-house })Iot, which was 
 first published in 1683. The manner in 
 which be accomnlisbed tbis task, under- 
 taken as be asserts at the kin^r's command, 
 rendered it exjtedient for him after the Re- 
 volution to print an apology. He was no- 
 minated by .lames 11 one of the commissioners 
 for ecclesiastical affairs, in the execution of 
 v\hicb office be exhihiteil compliances, in ex- 
 pectation, it is said, of the archbishopric of 
 Vork, which produced general censure, that 
 was only partially alleviated by bis withdraw- 
 ing from the commission in 1680. When 
 James retired, Sprat spoke in his favour in the 
 great conference on the vacancy of the crown, 
 but submitted to the new government, and was 
 left unmolested. In 1692 lie was involved 
 with Bancroft, ^larlborougb, and others in a 
 pretended conspiracy. He was enabled to 
 detect the infamous practices of the informers, 
 and to clear himself from the cbarge ; but be 
 was so affected by the danger, that be com- 
 memorated bis deliverance by an annual 
 thanksgiving. He passed the rest of bis life 
 in tranquiiluy, and expired at Bromley in 1713, 
 in the seventy-ninth year of bis age. The 
 writings of this prelate were all highly ap- 
 plauded in bis own time ; but notwithstanding 
 the favourable mention of Dr Johnson, they 
 are little esteemed at present. His few poems 
 make part of the mass of minor Englisb 
 poetry, but can only be regarded as inferior 
 specimens of a bad manner. — Biog. Brit. 
 Johns, n^s Poets. Cibber's Lives. 
 
 SPLRINNA (Vestricivs) a Roman, wbo 
 
 obtained celebrity as a warrior and a man of 
 
 learning, born about A.D. 23. Being the 
 
 friend of the emperor Otbo, be proceeded 
 
 from Rome to bis assistance at tlie bead of 
 
 some troops, and witb some difficulty joined 
 
 him previous to the battle witb the army of 
 
 Vitellius, to whom Spurinna submitted after 
 
 tbe death of Otbo. Under Vespasian and his 
 
 successors he filled various offices, governed 
 
 provinces, and commanded tbe army in (Jer- 
 
 many. He there subjugated tbe Bructeri, a 
 
 nation of ferodous barbarians, and jierformed 
 
 ctlier exploits, for which the senate decreed 
 
 him a triumphal statue. Being advanced in 
 
 years, be retired into the country ; where he 
 
 died, but at what period is not exactly known. 
 
 Pliny de.'^cnbes bis mode of life in las retreat, 
 
 and eulogizes his character and his talents, 
 
 comparing him with Marcus Anionius. He 
 
 S Q X 
 
 fiayn that Sptir'.nn:! - .1 witli fr,pi.-,I tuc. 
 
 c«.-rt, both in (jriek l.;itui, and that be 
 
 publiH».edHome adiniiulde lyiie po« rn«. i be*«j 
 appear to b.- entirely lo»t, tliouyh linrtbitis 
 di.scoven d in ati am icnl .M'^. fr. • of 
 
 odes, bearing the nanii- of V< »|TU« i i. || 
 
 be attributed to Spurinna ; but Uiey are pro- 
 bably the work of .■ome otln-r writrr. Sir 
 1 homas Bernard has ( cmiuemorated tb« virtue* 
 of ibis illustriouH Koman, m htA Cicrronian 
 dialogue, entitled «' Spurinna, or llie Comfort* 
 of Old Age." — /iiii;;. f/>m.— Si-u nis s a. ni 
 SriTiiiNA, was also tbe name of a nihtbeniati 
 cian in tbe time of Julius Casar, who warned 
 that dictator to beware of tbe ides of .Man b 
 As Ca'sar was going to tbe senate-liousc on 
 that day be met the astrologer, and t^iuntingly 
 said to him, " Well, Spurinna. tbe ides of 
 .March are come." " Vos," replied be, " bu« 
 they are not yet past." A few minutes after 
 Ca'sar was assassinated. Such is the story 
 toUl by Suetonius and \'aleriiis .^IaxiInu.■», of 
 tbis mathematician, who is said to have as- 
 sisted in Ciesar's reformation of the calendar. 
 — F.enipriere's Hihl. Class, 
 
 SQUIRE (Sam IF I.) a learned Knglisli 
 prelate, was the son of an a])olhecary at War- 
 minster, where be was born in 1714. He 
 was educated at St John's college, Cambridge, 
 of which he became a fellow, and after ob- 
 taining various preferments, through tbe pa- 
 tronage of the duke of Newcastle, be was in 
 1760 presented to the deanery of Bristol, and 
 the following year advanced to the see of St 
 Daviil's. He died in 176<>, I' ■■•■' an ex- 
 emplary character bulb in a pr^: d ami .i 
 private capacity. He was the author of variout 
 works in different classes. Asa divine, besidt s a 
 number of single sermons, he published ** The 
 r^ncient History of tbe Hebrews vindicated ;*' 
 " Inditlerenco for Religion inexcusable ;" and 
 " The Piinciples of Religion made easy to 
 young Persons." In classical literature be 
 composed " Two Essays," consisting of a de- 
 fence of tbe ancient Cireek Cbronolojiy, and 
 an Incjuiry into the origin of the tirei k I.an- 
 jruaire ; aud an edition of " Plutarch de Iside et 
 Osiriile,'' Greek and English, with c<unm«n- 
 taries. His political works are, an " Emjuiry 
 into the Nature of the Englisb Constitution ; * 
 "An Essay on tbe Balance of Civil Power in 
 England;" " Remarks upon Mr. (' •' '= "^|>e- 
 cimen of a Genuine History of .1." 
 He also assisttd his chaplain, I)r hodd, in 
 bis " Letter to Lord Halifax on tbe IViice." 
 He was a fellow of the Royal ntul .Xniquanan 
 Societies, and left a Saxon Grammar in MS. 
 comjiiled by himself. — .VfV/ie/j'j Lit. .inec. 
 
 S IW.VL (.Mailame de) an ingenious Krenrli 
 writer, first known as mademoiselle de LaunMi. 
 was the daughter of a painter of I'aris, where 
 she was born towards tbe close of the s^'ven- 
 teenth century. Her fatlur, b<ing obliged t.> 
 (piit the kingdom, left krr in great indigence, 
 but some female recomn ' :rcd le r 
 
 a good education at a j i. Her 
 
 patroness dying, she was compelled to bir.* 
 herself as bed-chamber woman to the ducues> 
 of Maine. Uatit, however, for tbe duties of 
 
ST A 
 
 such an office, ?1ie was about to quit it, when 
 a singular event rescued her from obscu- 
 rity. A beautiful girl of Paris, named Tetard, 
 was induced by her motlier to counterfeit 
 being- possessed ; and all Paris, including the 
 court, fiockinof to witness tliis wonder, made- 
 moiselle de Launai wrote a very witty letter 
 on tlie occasion to ]\r. de Fontenelle, which was 
 universally admired. The duchess of Maine 
 having discovered the writer in the person of 
 her waitin2:-woman, employed her from that 
 time in all her entertainments given at Sceaux, 
 
 ST A 
 
 mini.-;ter of tlie English church at Amsterdam, 
 and afterwards successively curate at Ricli- 
 mond, Kaling, and Finchley, near London, in 
 all which places he was much respected. In 
 173:> he was presented to the vicarage of 
 Beenhatn in lierkshire, where he died, Octo- 
 ber 11, \7:t'2, aged seventy-two. 'J'he prin- 
 ci]);d works of this laborious divine, who ap- 
 pears to have had to encounter with narrow 
 circumstances during the whole of his life,, 
 are, " Miseries and Hardships of the Inferior 
 Clergy ;" " Memoirs of Pishop Atterbury ;" 
 
 and treated her as a confidante. Thus en- : " A Coinplete P>ody of Divinity ;" " State of 
 couraged she wrote verses for some of the the Controversy between Woolston and his 
 pieces acted at Sceaux, drew up the ])lans of Opponents ;" " New History of the Bible," 
 
 others, and was consulted in all. She was 
 
 involved in the disgrace incurred by the 
 
 duchess, her patroness, during the regency, 
 
 and was ke]it two years a prisoner in the Bas- 
 
 tile. On her release, the duchess found her 
 
 a husband in M. de Staal, lieutenant in the 
 
 Swiss guard, having previously refused tlie 
 
 learned but then too-aged Dacier. She died 
 
 n 1750 ; and some " Memoirs of her Life," 
 
 .vritten by herself, were soon after published 
 in " vols. 12mo. They contain nothing of 
 much importance, but are composed in a pure 
 and elegant style, and are very entertaining. 
 A fourth volume has since appeared, consist- 
 ing of two comedies acted at Sceaiix, entitled 
 " L'Engouement," and " La Mode." This 
 lady, who, even by her own description, did 
 not abound in personal attractions, was never- 
 theless engaged in various gallantries or amours 
 more or less sentimental. Being asked how 
 she would treat such matters in her life, 
 " 1 will paint myself en buste," was the reply. 
 Her Memoirs have been poorly translated into i astrologer to gratify the curiosity of the French 
 
 (his most important work, which has been 
 often reprinted, and the best edition of which 
 is that of 1817 ) ; " Defence of the Christian 
 Religion ;" " Kxposition of the Creed;" va- 
 rious sermons and aliridgmenls ; and lastly, 
 a poem entitled " Vana Doctrina? Emolu- 
 menta," in which he deplores his unfortu- 
 nate condition, in the language of disajipoint- 
 ment and despair. — There was also another 
 rev. TfioiNiAS Stack iiousk, who ])ublished a 
 "Greek Grammar;" " A (Jeneral \'iew ot 
 Ancient History, Chronology, and Geogra- 
 phy ;" and an " Atlas of Ancient and Mo- 
 dern Geogi'ai)hy." — Xicliols's fJt.Aiier. 
 
 STADIUS (.Ioiin) an eminent mathema- 
 tician and astronomer of the sixteenth century, 
 who was a native of lirabant. He was first 
 professor at Louvain, anil afterwards suc- 
 ceeded the famous Ramus in the university 
 of Paris. De Thou says that Stadius, after 
 acquiring great celebrity by his astronomical 
 computations, injured his character by turning 
 
 English. — Nouv. Diet. ?Hst. 
 
 STACKHOUSE (John) an ingenious na- 
 turalist, was the youngest son of the rev. 
 William Stackhouse, rector of St Y.rme in 
 Cornwall, and ne])hew of the subject of the 
 next article. lie was for some time fellow of 
 Exeter college, Oxford, but resigned it in 
 1763, on succeeding to an estate in Cornwall. 
 He resided for the latter part of his life at 
 Bath, where he died November 22, 1819, 
 aged seventy-nine. IMr Stackhouse was a 
 fellow of the Linnrran and several foreign so- 
 cieties, and his studies in natural history, and 
 particularly botany, were very extensive. He 
 
 courtiers, and other inquisitive persons of both 
 sexes. He was intimately acquainted with 
 Joseph Scaliger, who, in his letters, testifies 
 Iiis high esteem for the virtues and the learn- 
 ing of Stadius, He died October 31, lo79. 
 Among his works are, " Tabulnc Berganaj. 
 sive Ephemerides AstrologicJE secundum. Ant- 
 werpia: Longitudinem, ab An. l.-)o4 ad 1606 ;" 
 " Tabul.B a'quabilis et apparentis I\Iotus Coe- 
 Icstium Corporum ;" and " Provincia; Bra- 
 zilifB Historia." — Teissier Eloges des H. i^. 
 
 STALL HOLSTEIN (Annf. LoxrrsE Gvn- 
 MAiNE Necker, baroness de) the most cele- 
 brated female writer of the present age, was 
 
 directed much attention to marine plants, the the daugliter of Necker the French financier, 
 result of which was ]iul)lished by him in 1801, and was born at Paris, April '22, 176(5. She 
 in a folio volume, entitled " Nereis Britan- soon displayed signs of a precocious genius, to 
 nica." This work contains coloured figures ; the developement of winch her education, un- 
 of all the British Fuci, as far as discovered, der the care of her parents (who were both 
 with descriptions in Latin and English. Of, highly-talented persons), greatly contributed, 
 this work a second edition, in a reduced size, I At the age of fifteen she was capable of dis- 
 appeared in 1816. He also gave an edition : cussing with her father the most serious and. 
 of" Theoi)hrastus on Plants." with notes, in j important subjects ; and at the same time she 
 2 vols. 8vo ; and lastly, a Catalogue of the manifested a strong taste for the lighter kinds 
 Plants of Theo])hrastus, arranged according to ' of literature. Theatrical compositions parti- 
 the system of LinnJEUs, Oxford, 1811. — Gent. ' cularly interested her; and before she was 
 
 twenty she wrote a comedy in three acts, en- 
 
 STACKHOUSE (Thomas) a learned and titled " Sophie, on les Sentiments secrets ;" 
 
 inticrious divine, was born in 1680, but in and the year following she produced a tragedy 
 
 what part of the kingdom, or where edu- on the story of I>ady Jane Gray. In 1786 
 
 cated, 13 not known. He was some time she was married to the baron de Stael Hoi- 
 
s r A 
 
 «Jt'iu, the Swedish aml)ass;iiler, thron;;h the 
 patronage of the mieen ot" Krance ; aiul whe 
 was consequently iiitnnluceil at court. lUi 
 ' f.ettres siir.f. .1. llousseau," soon after pub- 
 lished, greatly attracted the puhlic notice. iJut 
 the state of national allairs at this perioil ren- 
 dered all other suhjectssiihordinate to i)olitic.H, 
 at least in France ; and madanie de Stael, whn 
 Avas warmly attached to the cause of iilx-rty, 
 took a lively interest in the success of the 
 measures then adoptt d hy tin- patriotic ])arty. 
 In the n\onth of August, 17tJH, she had the 
 pleasure of announcing to her father his ap- 
 ])ointnient to the ministry; hut lier triumph 
 was not of long duration, for .M. Necker was 
 dismissed from olfice, and he left France, ac- 
 companied by his daughter. He had scarcely 
 reached Basil, when he was recalled, only how- 
 ever to experience the inconstancy of popular 
 favour, as he was soon obliged again to resign 
 and quit the country, to which he never re- 
 turned. IMad. de Stael followed him in his 
 retreat to Coppet ; but she revisited France 
 in 179',', when she endeavoured to save some 
 of the victims of revolutionary fv»ry. Her 
 o\v\\ life was endangered by the altemj't, and 
 she only escaped through the care of Manuel, 
 attorney of the commune of Paris, who him- 
 self afterwards perished by the guillotine. She 
 returned toSviitzerland, and subsequently went 
 to England, where she heard of the execution 
 of Louis XVI. She immediately rejoined her 
 father, and she published an elegant discourse, 
 entitled " Defense de la Reine." After the 
 fall of Robespierre she jtroduced two anony- 
 mous pamphlets, " Reilexions sur la Paix, 
 addressees a M. Pitt et aux Fran9ais ;" and 
 " Reflexions sur la Paix interieure." Under 
 the government of the Directory she again re- 
 turned to France, where, through her influence 
 with Barras, she was the means of procuring 
 the elevation of her friend Talleyrand to the 
 post of minister of foreign affairs. In Decem- 
 ber 1797, she for the first time saw Buona- 
 parte, then at Paris, preparing for his expedi- 
 tion to Egypt ; and the admiration with which 
 she had regarded the conqueror of Italy, was 
 succeeded by a sentiment bordering on aver- 
 sion, which appears to have become mutual. 
 She continued in France after the retiirn of 
 Buonaparte from Egypt, and his assumption of | 
 supreme authority ; and her influence was fre- 
 quently em]doyed in opposition to hid views 
 and sentiments. This conduct having exposed 
 her to the displeasure of Napoleon and his 
 partizans, she at len-tli left France, and went 
 to reside with her father. During her journey 
 to Coppet she lost her husband, who had long 
 been in an ill state of health. She remained 
 about twelve months in her retreat, and com- 
 posed at that time the romance of" Delphine, 
 which was not published till 180:>. S' e re 
 
 re- 
 
 turned to Paris; but this work, and a tract en- 
 titled " Les Dernieres \'ues de Politique et 
 de Finance," published by IM. Necker, had 
 given so much ortence to Napoleon, that 
 he banished madapie de Stael fr<mi his ter- 
 ritories at tae close of the year 180.>. She 
 was consequently obliged to leave her fa- 
 
 .s k A 
 
 tlwT, wliotn kIiu nevi-r .r \f. 
 
 tcr visiting (jermaiiy ..... . , ,, , ,, «-,< 
 
 permiltiti to return to ("oppft »» m<i.»; an«l 
 Mib»«-(|uently nhe renidrd al Auterre ami »• 
 ilourn. In 1U(»7 appi-arfd hi-r " f . •• 
 
 a novel, tin* »« iitimcntft c)f whit h r< . Iio 
 
 anger of the French ruh-r, nnd »hc »'a» ciilinl 
 to Coppet. In tl, It nil.- waji Tuutr.l 
 
 by a young Fr- :. .M. ,le \V>ccn. 
 
 whom she aflcrwanU marrii-d, and by whom 
 she had a son ; but the union wat* kept ft 
 
 secret till after her death. In the ' \•^o 
 
 of IHl'J she took a journey into .i • 
 
 thence she went to Russia, ami affrwards 
 visited Sweden and England, where she wm 
 received with rnlhusiasni. .She was in I»n- 
 don at the period of the taking of Paris ; and 
 on the restoration of Eouis Will, nlie re- 
 turned to FVance. On the esc aj)e of liuona- 
 parte from Elba, .she retired to Coppet ; and 
 after the battle of Waterloo, and the decree 
 of the .^th of September I }U.T, slie made her 
 ajtpearance at Paris, with her daughter, who 
 was married to the duke de. Broglio. She 
 was favourably received by Enuis Will, w ho 
 was pleaded with her conversatiou ; and she 
 obtained an order on the royal treasury for the 
 payment of two millions, which had been de- 
 posited there by M. Necker. In IHltJ she 
 went to Italy, and resided some time at Pisa. 
 Returning to France, she became seriously 
 indisposed, and her death took place .lulv 14, 
 1817. Her works, including, besides those 
 already mentioned, •* Considerations sur lea 
 principaux I'.v^nemens de la Kerolution 
 Fran^aise," " De la Litterature consideree 
 dans ses Rapports avec les Institutions So- 
 ciales," and •' L'AUemagne," or Oljservations 
 on Germany, &c. have been published since 
 her death by her son the baion de Stael Hol- 
 stein, in 18 vols. Bvo. — Biog. Xouv. des C"ii- 
 lemp. Bios;. Univ. 
 
 SFAHELIN, or ST.EHELIN, (Jonv 
 Henry) a Swiss physician, who was bom at 
 Basil in IdtSS; and died July 19. 17'.'1. Ho 
 devoted himself to the study of botany, and 
 more especially to the anatomy of plants, on 
 which subject he puldished " Theses .\na- 
 tomico-Botanica\" 1711, 4to ; ami he also 
 furnished some materials for the works of 
 Scheuchzer. relative to Swiss botany. — Win 
 son, Bi;NF.nicT ."^iajhi iv. engat;etl in - ' 
 pursuits, and became the disciple 
 famous X'aillant at Paiis. Returninc home, 
 he employeil his lime in studying lie 
 
 j)roductions of his native country. ,,-i..- 
 
 cularly the mosses anil fungi. He discoverfd 
 many new species ; and connecting him<<'lf 
 with Haller, then a young man, they prose- 
 cuted their in(]uirit s in concert, with a viewr 
 to the completion of a Swiss Flora, lii'sides 
 his contributions to the works of ' ' ' . he 
 wrote " Observationes .Vnatomico- 1 e," 
 
 17^1, 4to ; " Ten tame n Meilicum," I7if4 
 4to ; " Observationes .AnatomicT? et Botanica". 
 17;'.1 ; and papers in the " Memoirs of tho 
 Parisian Acailemy of Science*," of v.hich he 
 was a corresponding member. He became 
 professor of natural philoi^ophy at Basil, ia 
 
S T A 
 
 1727, and died in tliat city in 1750, aged fifty- 
 five. — John Rodolph St.mielin, probably of 
 the same family with the preceding, was born 
 at Basil in 17'J4, ami obtained the chair of 
 anatomy and botany in the university there 
 in 173o, that of medicine in 1776, and died 
 about the end of the last century. lie pub- 
 lished in 1751 " Specimen Observationum 
 Anatomicarum et Botanicarum ; and in 1753 
 " Specimen Observationum JNIedicarum ;" be- 
 sides observations in the " Memoirs of the 
 iltlvetic Society." Linnaeus, in commemora- 
 tion of the family of Stahelin, has given the 
 appellation of Stailielina to a genus of plants 
 of the composite order. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 STAIIL (Geouge Ernest) a German phy- 
 sician and cbemist, born at Anspach, October 
 21, 1660. He studied at Jena under \Vede- 
 lius; and in 1687, he became physician to 
 the duke of Saxe Weimar. In 1691 he was 
 chosen second professor of medicine at Halle ; 
 and he rendered his name famous over all 
 Germany by his academical prajlections and 
 his publications. He was in 1700 elected a 
 member of the Academia Curiosorum Nature. 
 J lis fame at last procured him the appoint- 
 ment of physician to the king of Prussia, in 
 1716 ; and going to Berlin, lie died there in 
 1734. Sti.hl was undoubtedly one of the most 
 illustrious medical philosophers of his age ; 
 his name marks the commencement of a new 
 a'ra in chemistry. He was the author of the 
 doctrine which explains the principal chemi- 
 cal phenomena by the agency of phlogiston ; 
 and though his system was in a great mea- 
 sure overturned by the discoveries of Priestley, 
 Lavoisier, and others, it nevertheless displays 
 powerfully the genius of the inventor. Tliis ' 
 theory maintained its ground for more than 
 half a century, and was received and sup- 
 jiorted by some of the most eminent men 
 which Europe had produced. He was also ' 
 the proposer of a theory of medicine, founded 
 on tiie principle of the dependance of the state | 
 of the body on the mind ; in consequence of ' 
 which he affirmed that every action of the i 
 muscles is a voluntary effort of the mind, ' 
 whether attended with consciousness or not. ' 
 'l"hou"h Stahl and his followers carried this 
 theory too far, there can be no doubt of its i 
 general foundation in truth and nature ; and 
 the advice which he gives to j)hysicians to ; 
 attend to the state of mind of the patient is ' 
 highly deserving of attention. His principal j 
 works are " Experimenta et Observationes ' 
 Chymica;et Physicae," 8vo ; " Disputationes ' 
 Medica;," 2 vols. 4to ; " Theoria Medica ' 
 vera," 4to ; " Opusculum Chyniico-j)hysico- 
 Medicum," 4to ; " Negotium Otiosum," 4to, 
 in which he defends his system relative to 
 the influence of the mind against Leibnitz ; 
 " Fundamenta Chymiaj dogmatical et expe- 
 rimentalis," 3 vols. 4to ; " De Veiiaj Portaj 
 porta Malorum Hypochondriaco-splenetico- 
 suffocativo-hysterico-hfemorrhoidariim," 4to- 
 • — Enciiclop. Hritan. Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 STAHREMBERG (GuinoBALDi, count 
 de) an Austrian general, born November 11, 
 
 657. His fath.er was an officer of the court 
 
 ST A 
 
 of Austria, and he was destined for the 
 church ; hut he preferred the army, and com- 
 menced his career at the siege of Vienna by 
 the Turks, in 1680. He obtained a regiment 
 for his bravery at the attack of Buda in 1686, 
 when he was badly wounded. In 1692 he 
 was nominated lieutenant-field-marshal, and 
 sent to defend the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. 
 In 1700 he was with Prince Eugene in Italy, 
 at the battles of Carpi, of Chiari, and of Luz- 
 zari ; and the following year he first had the 
 chief command, when he distinguished him- 
 self by his defence of the territory of Savoy 
 against the French ; and in 1704 he was made 
 field-marshal. He afterwards served with 
 distinction in Hungary, and in the war about 
 the succession to the crown of Spain. He re- 
 turned to Vienna in 1713, and in 1716 he was 
 appointed president of the aulic council of 
 war, which post he held till his death in 
 1737. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 STANHOPE (George) dean of Canter- 
 bury, was the son of the incumbent of Hertis- 
 hoiTi, a parish in the county of Derby, where 
 he was born in 1660. He received the rudi^ 
 ments of a classical education at the grammar 
 schools of Uppingham and Eton, from which 
 latter seminary he removed on the foundation 
 to King's college, Cambridge. Having gra- 
 duated as IMA. in 168-t, he took holy orders, 
 and obtained as his first piece of prefei-ment 
 the living of Tewing, Herts. The earl of 
 Dartmouth, to whose son he had acted in the 
 capacity of private teacher, soon after gave 
 him the vicarage of Lewisham in Kent, in 
 which parish the family seat is situated ; and 
 through the same interest he was afterwards 
 appointed one of the royal chaplains. In 1701 
 he preached the Boyle lecture ; and two vears 
 after exchanged his living of Tewing for that 
 of Deptford, rendered more desirable from its 
 adjoining his other preferment. On the eleva- 
 tion of bishop Hooper to the episcopal bench, 
 Dr Stanhope was nominated to succeed him 
 in the vacant deanery, which he enjoyed till 
 his death, in 1728. He was a divine of sin- 
 gular learning and iutegrity, to which lie 
 united great simjjlicity of manners. As an 
 author, he is known by his Boyle Lectures 
 " on the Truth and Excellence of Christianity," 
 4to ; a set of miscellaneous Sermons ; and a 
 " Paraphrase of the Gospels and Epistles," 
 8vo, 4 vols. He also published translations 
 of the Meditations of INIarcus Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, and those of St Augustine, of Andrews's 
 Greek Devotions, Rochefoucaiilt's Maxims, 
 Charron on Wisdom, the " De Imitatioue 
 Christi" of Thomas a Kempis, 8vo ; Epic- 
 tetus, with tlie Commentary of Simplicius, 
 8vo ; and other works of various writers on 
 devotional subjects. After his decease, his 
 remains were brought fn^m P.ath and interred 
 in his parish church at Lewisham. — Todd's 
 Deans of Canterbury. 
 
 STANHOPE (James, first earl) was the 
 son of Alexander Stanhope, es(p descended 
 from an ancient family of the name in the 
 countv of Nottingham. He was born in He- 
 refordshire in 1673; and after being educated 
 
ST A 
 
 ^"iih great care, he accompanied his futluT to 
 the court of Spain, when the hitter was stMit 
 earlv in William's ri'ii;n as an eiivoy extiaor- 
 dinaiy. lie continued in Spain some yiars, 
 and then made tlie tour of Trance ami Italy ; 
 after which he served as a volunteer in Flan- 
 ders, and being much noticed by l\in^ William, 
 received the cominissinn of lolonel at the aj^e 
 of twenty-two. In the first parliament of 
 Aune he was chosen memlier for Cockermoulh, 
 P.ud lie soon after j;ained great reputation lu 
 Spain, where lie served as brigadier-general 
 under the earl of Peterborough, at the capture 
 of Barcelona. In 1708 he was raised to the 
 rank of major-general and commander-in- 
 chief in Spain ; and the same year he reduced 
 the island of Minorca. In a suhse(]uent cam- 
 paign in 171 1 he was made prisoner, but was 
 exchanged the following year, when he re- 
 turned to England, and acted vigorously in 
 opposition. On the accession of (Jeorge 1 he 
 was received with particular marks of favour, 
 and apj)ointed one of the secretaries of 
 state. In 1716 he attended the king to Ha- 
 nover, where he was principally concerned 
 in the formation of the alliance concluded with 
 France and the Slates General, which re- 
 moved the Pretender beyond the Ali)S. 'J'he 
 next vear he was appointed first lord of the 
 treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 was soon after created a peer by the title of 
 baron Stanhope of J^lvaston. In 1718 he was 
 succeeded in the treasury by lord Sunderland, 
 whose office of secretary of state he assumed 
 in return, ami was created earl Stanhope. 
 This sensible and able peer terminated his ac- 
 tive and faithful services to the newly acceded 
 house of Brunswick on the 4th of February 
 1721, when a sudden impulse of resentment 
 at an abusive speech from the profligate duke 
 of Wharton produced a degree of emotion 
 which broke a blood-vessel, and he died the 
 following day, to the great grief of the king. 
 As a statesman the earl of Stanhope, who 
 inherited a confirmed attachment to the prin- 
 ciples estabhsiied at the Revolution, evinced 
 great abilities, integrity, and disinterestedness; 
 and he was also esteemed a very skilful sol- 
 dier. He is said to have been learned, and a 
 curious inquirer into ancient history ; and 
 Bome cjueries addressed by him to the abbe 
 Vertot, res})ecting the constitution of the 
 Roman senate, with the answers of the abbe, 
 were publislied in \7'2l.—ColUus's Peerage. 
 Coxe's Life of Wulpole. 
 
 STANHC)PE (Chaules, the third earl) 
 grandson of the above, was born Augusts, 
 1753. He received the early yzivi of his edu- 
 cation at 12ton, and finished it at Geneva, 
 ■where his genius led him to pay a close atten- 
 tion to the mathematics ; and such was his 
 progress, that he obtained a prize from the 
 soci'ety of Stockholm for a memoir on the pen- 
 dulum. In 1771 he stood candidate for West- 
 minster without success ; but was introduced 
 by the earl of Shelburne into parliament as 
 member for the borough of Wycombe, which 
 he represented until 1786, when the death of 
 bis father called him to the house of Peers. 
 
 BiOG. DicT.— Vou HI 
 
 S '1" A 
 
 Hi! was ono of ihu ninny Knt;h«h i>oIir»ci«»;it 
 who re^'ardid with pl.;ihui.- thr dit^n <,{ tii« 
 FreiK h Revolution; but wiial wa> much mure 
 ••xtraordinary in a peer \>y birth, h»- o|MMily 
 avowed repiiblumi iwnlinieiit*, and weut ^o 
 far as to lay by lite exuTnai nrnamrnta of iho 
 peera^^e. ||.- wa« alhoa fr«'qiient »|M-ak«T at;ainal 
 th- war; and uhhoui;!i Hin^^uUr in many of 
 Ills ojiinions, a strong vein of »• nw- and hu- 
 mour often (pialified his Htatenientii of |M'C<iliar 
 views. As a man of h< ieu(e li« ranked hiijlj, 
 both as an invt ntor and patron ; and afiioni» 
 other lhin;;s was the author of a mi-thfKl for 
 securing buildings from fire, an amhmeiical 
 machine, a new printing prens, a niorux hord 
 for tuning musical instruments, and a ven»e| to 
 sail against wind and tide. He wai» twici- 
 married, first to lady Hester Put, daughter of 
 the first earl of Chatham, by wliom he had 
 three daughters; and secondly to Miss (Jren- 
 ville, by whom he had three sons. Ihjs 
 scientific, ingenious, hut eccentric nobleman 
 published several philosophi«al and a few po- 
 litical tracts. He died l-ltli December 1»16. 
 — Aim. liic}^. 
 
 STANHOPE (Pnii.ii. Dormkr) earl of 
 Chesterfield, a nobleman celebrated as a wit 
 statesman, and man of letters, was the eldesi 
 son of Philip, third earl of Chesterfield, bj 
 lady Elizabeth Savile, daughter of the marcpii* 
 of Halifax. He was born in London Se|)tembei 
 22, 1694, and received a private education 
 until his eighteenth year, when he was entered 
 of Irinity-hall, Cambridge, where he applied 
 to his studies with great assiduity. On quit- 
 ting the university he made the tour of Europe, 
 and on his return to ICngland, having early de- 
 clared in favour of the principles of freedom 
 which placed the house of Hanover on the 
 throne, he was appointed one of the gentlemen 
 of the bedchamber to the ])rince of Wales. 
 He was also elected member for the bon>ugb of 
 St Germaius, and commenced his parliamen- 
 tary career in a speech in support of the im- 
 peachment of the persons concerned in the 
 treaty of Utiecht. The following year he 
 spoke in favour of the se|)tennial bill ; and 
 soon after, on the diflVreiice between the 
 king and the prince of Wales, he became one 
 of the ojijtosiliou which was headed by the 
 lattt r. In 17'J3 he was made captain of the 
 yeomen of the guards, from which |)Ost he waa 
 dismissed in 172.') ; and the following year the 
 death of his father removed him to the house 
 of Lords. This theatre was better suited (iian 
 the Commons to his style of eloquence, whu h 
 was less characterised by force and compass 
 than by elegance, perspicuity, and a vein of 
 delicate irony. On the accession of George 1 1 
 in 1727, he was nominated ambassador to the 
 Hague, a post which he filled wuh great 
 ability. On his return in I7;>i» he was ap- 
 pointed lord steward of the household, and 
 created a knight of the garter ; after whicli 
 he again repaired to Holland, and was instru- 
 mental in forming an important treaty between 
 the courts of London and \'ienna and the 
 States General. In 1732 he obtained his re- 
 call, and the next year married Melusina <le 
 
 ]• 
 
ST A 
 
 Scbuleniberg, countess of Walsingham, natural 
 daughter of Geoige I. by tbe ducbessof Ken- 
 dal. He had previously deserted the minister, 
 eir Robert Walpole, whose excise bill he ve- 
 hemently opposed, and thereby lost his office 
 of steward of the household, and was so ill re- 
 ceived at court that he desisted from attending 
 it. lie continued in opposition until the co- 
 alition of parties in 1744, during which long 
 interval he distiiiguislied. himself by many able 
 speeches, none of whicli were more generally 
 admired than that against the bill for granting 
 the lord chamberlain the power of licensing 
 dramatic performances. In 1741 he was 
 obliged to visit the continent on the score of 
 healih, when he confirmed his intimacy witk 
 Voltaire, whom he had previously known in 
 England ; while the facility and grace of his 
 address rendered him a general favourite. In 
 1745 he was a^ain sent ambassador to the 
 Hague, and succeeded in acquiring the con- 
 currence of the States General in the war 
 against France. On his return the rebellion 
 had broken out, and he was selected for the 
 then critical post of lord-lieutenant of Ireland. 
 This office he filled with a degree of dignity 
 and ability which has seldom been equalled. 
 He acquired the good will of the Catholics by 
 discouraging officious and rancorous informa- 
 tions, without neglecting the precautions ren- 
 dered necessary by the ominous state of affairs. 
 He returned to England in 1746, and having 
 entirely recovered the favour of the king:, he 
 received the seals of secretary of state, which 
 office he resigned in 1743, in consequence of 
 being overruled in his wish for peace by the 
 rest of the Cabinet, lie never again took part 
 in any administration, but lived as a private 
 nobleman attached to arts and to letters, 
 and was deemed inferior to none of his rank 
 throughout Eurojie for brilliancy of wit, ele- 
 gance of manners, and the polish of cultivated 
 society. The senatorial exertions of lord 
 Chesterfield after he quitted office were few, 
 and of little political importance ; his healtb 
 being delicate, and deafness being added to 
 his other complaint. He, however, distin- 
 guished himself on more than one occas^ion, 
 and especially by a speech in support of the 
 bill for the reform of the English calendar, 
 concernitig whicli some curious observations 
 will be found in his letters to his son. He was 
 also anxious to be thought, and in some re- 
 sj)ects merited the character of a j)atron of li- 
 terature ; but he managed his advances to Dr. 
 Johnson so ill on the subject of his Dictionary, 
 that on the appearance of his two papers in 
 " The World," written exj)ressly in favour of 
 it, he received the celebrated letter of dignifitnl 
 severity, which although he afiVcted to despise, 
 it was impossible for him not to feel. In 176!} 
 he lost his natural son i\lr. Stanhojje, who from 
 his infancy, in consequence of his want of legi- 
 timate issue, had been the principal object of 
 his solicitude. This heavy affliction was ag- 
 gravated by the intelligence that the deceased 
 had been long secretly married, and had left 
 a widow and two children, the latter of whom 
 be immediately took under his protection, iiis 
 
 ST A 
 
 infirmities from this time increased fast upon 
 him, and he gradually was reduced to a state 
 in wliich, as he himself observed, he rather 
 endured than enjoyed life, until the scene was 
 tranquilly closed on the 24th ]\Iarch 1773, 
 in his seventy-ninth year. The character of 
 this nobleman, although far from faultless, and 
 founded infinitely too much on the love of ap- 
 plause and of popular esteem, exhibited many 
 excellencies, which enabled him to perform 
 important services to his country, as a con- 
 summate diplomatist and sagacious, sound, 
 and able statesman. In his literary capacity, 
 to much wit, ease, and information, he united 
 good sense and good taste in a high degree, 
 and his style is of very pure and unaffected 
 English. No sooner was he defunct than the 
 widow of lAIr Stanhoj)e, who had sold to him 
 the originals, and preserved copies, published 
 his celebrated " Letters to his Son," in 2 vols. 
 4to. 1774. Of these it is proper to say, that 
 they were intended for an individual of a par- 
 ticular disposition, and never meant for pub- 
 lication. That portions of them upon a sound 
 moral princi])le are altogether indefensible, is 
 not to be denied ; and it is also necessary to 
 recollect that they were written to an embryo 
 diplomatist, to reconcile ourselves to much of 
 the casuistry regarding the simulation and dis- 
 simulation which is so ingeniously inculcated. 
 On the other hand it may be confidently as- 
 serted, that no work in the English lanouao-e 
 contains more valuable lessons for the early 
 cultivation of the understanding in the way of 
 acquirement, and for the formation of the tem- 
 per and manners. Besides this continually 
 reprinted collection, his miscellaneous works 
 appeared in 1774, in 2 vols. 4to, which con- 
 tain his various papers in the literary and po- 
 litical journals, speeches, state papers, letters, 
 French and English, &c. with a memoir of his 
 life by the editor, Dr IVIaty. To these a third 
 4to volume was published in 1778, the autho- 
 rity of which being doubtful, attracted little 
 comparative attention. — lAfe by Maty, Lord 
 Orf'ard's JVorks. BoswelTs Life of Julinson. 
 
 STA^ ISLAUS I, king of Poland, was bom 
 at Leopold, October 20, 1677. His family 
 name was Leczinski, and his father held the 
 important i)ost of grand treasurer to the crown. 
 He very early dis])layed indications of an 
 amiable and estimable character, and at the 
 age of twenty-two was entrusted with an em- 
 bassy to the Ottoman court. In 1704, being 
 then ])alatine of Posnania, and general of 
 Great Poland, he was de{)uted by the assembly 
 of the States at Warsaw to wait upon Charles 
 XII of Sweden, who had invaded the kin"-- 
 dom with a view to dethroning Augustus of 
 Saxony. In a conference with tlie Swedish 
 monarch he so rapidly acquired his esteem, 
 that Charles immediately resolved to raise him 
 to the throne of Poland, which he effected at 
 an election held in the presence of the Swe- 
 dish general on the 27tli July 1704, Stanis- 
 laus being then in his twenty-seventh year 
 He was however soon after driven from \Var- 
 saw by his rival Augustus ; but another change 
 brought him back to that capital, where be 
 
ST A 
 
 v.'n» clowned, with lii^ wiff, in October 170."). 
 and the next year Au<;ii8tus was compellcil 
 solemnly to aljclic.itc. I lu- fatal deft-at of his 
 patron Chailt'S XII at I'ultowa, in 17()'.>, 
 again obliged hini to retreat into Sweden, whtre 
 he endeavoured to join Charles XII at Hcndt-r, 
 in disguisf, butbeitig ileteeted, he was held cap- 
 tive in that town until 1714. Ik'ing thenHullcrrd 
 to depart, he repaired to Deux I'onts, where 
 lie was joined by his family, an<l rt inaiiicd 
 until the death of Charles XII in 17r.», whtii 
 the court of France afforded him a retreat at 
 Weissembourirh, ill Alsace, lie remained in 
 obscurity until 17'2.>, when liis daughter, the 
 princess Mary, was unexpectedly selected as 
 a wife by Louis XV^, king of France. On the 
 death of Augustus in 1733, an attempt was 
 made bv the French court to r^^place Stanis- 
 laus on the throne of Poland ; but ahhough he 
 had a party who supi>orted him and pro- 
 claimed him king, his competitor, the electoral 
 prince of Saxony being aideri by the empe- 
 rors of Germany and Russia, he was obliged 
 to retire. He endured this, like every other 
 reverse of fortune, with great resijrnation, and 
 at the peace of 1736 formally abdicated his 
 claim to the kingdom of Poland, on condition 
 of retaining the title of king, and being put in 
 ])ossession for life of the duchies of Lorraine 
 and Bar. Thenceforward he lived as the 
 sovereign of a small country, which he ren- 
 dered happy by the exercise of virtues wiiich 
 acquired him the appellation of Stanislaus the 
 Beneficent. He not only relieved his people 
 from excessive imposts, but by strict economy 
 was enabled to found many useful charitable 
 establishments, and to patronize the arts and 
 sciences. He was himself attached to litera- 
 ture, and wrote various treatises on philosophy, 
 morals, and politics, which were published 
 under the title of " O^uvres du PLilosophe 
 Bienfaisant," 4 vols. 8vo, 1765. He died 
 much lamented, February '23, 1766, in con- 
 sequence of the injury which he sustained from 
 his nightgown being accidentally set on fire. — 
 Nour. Diet. Hist. Hist, par C AIM Proyart. 
 
 STANISLAUS IL king of Poland, whose 
 proper name was Stanislaus Augustus Ponia- 
 towski, a prince more distinguished on account 
 of the great events in which he was interested 
 than for his talents or personal character. He 
 was the son of count Pouiatowski, a Lithua- 
 nian nobleman, by the princess Czartoriuska. 
 After receiving an education suitable to his 
 quality, he went to Paris, where he was im- 
 prisoned for debt, and liberated through the 
 generosity of the famous Madame Geoftrin. 
 He then visited England, whence he proceeded 
 to Russia with the English ambassador, sir C. 
 Hanbury Williams. At Petersburg he ac- 
 quired the particular favour of Catharine H, 
 then grand duchess. This attachmt-nt was not 
 forgotten when she was raised to the throne, 
 and in 1764 her influence placed her ancient 
 lover on that of Poland, vacant by the death 
 of Augustus HI. Had the new sovereign pos- 
 sessed any energy of character, he would at 
 once have taken a decided part, and either 
 have uniformly endeavoured to maintain the 
 
 S 1 A 
 
 ascendancy of UuHfcia over Poland, and vup. 
 ported tlie interest* of iuit imju-tial j.atronei'*, 
 or havi- actetl m the ■jjini of honourable aiitj 
 manly patrioti.m, and tonnuhed tin- H.-ICtr*- of 
 hiii own Mibjttti. and ilir pr<«»p»-n(y of lii« 
 kingdom. Hut allhout;h poMt-^rd of rr- 
 «|)tctat.|(' tahniH for a j«rivate nation, he 
 wanted hui h Hit were reijuiJitc to ^;oTi-rn » 
 state like Poland, even wttinjj a«i<lf th*- de- 
 grading nalure of tin- inflnrme which made 
 him its sovereign. Jl« b«v;Hii his Ki^uwith 
 moderate councils, but wat» soon involved m 
 troubles in consei|uence of the disputen b«> 
 twcen the Protestants, who were called Din- 
 sidcnts. and ihu Catholics. The former de- 
 manded the execution of the treaty of Oliva, 
 by virtue of which they were ♦■ntiiled to cer- 
 tain iinmuuiUts ; and this d» maud, being 
 seconded by the Russian, English, and Pnu- 
 sian ministers, it was granted, to the extreme 
 disgust of the Catholics. Tin- bigots on this 
 event enrolled themselves into a confederacy 
 for the allegeil defence of the faith, and a body 
 of them, headed by a leader, termed Palawski, 
 formed the daring resolution of carr)ing off 
 the king, which they successfully effected on 
 the niglit of the 3d of November, 1771, when 
 he was surrounded in his coach by forty mili- 
 tary conspirators, who, in spite of the re- 
 sistance of his attendants, made themselves 
 masters of lus person, and forced him out of the 
 city. After leaving Warsaw, however, the 
 party missed the road which they intended to 
 take, aud a part of the company being sepa- 
 rated from the rest, Stanislaus induced Ko- 
 sinski, who headed the few who remiiined 
 vriih him, to relent, and allow him to write to 
 Warsaw. A guard being immediately dis- 
 patched from the capital, he returned amidst 
 the acclamations of the people, but only to 
 remain jiowerless amidst the distractions of the 
 country, and to endure the ignominy of wit- 
 nessing the first infamous partition of Iii^ 
 country in 1773, by Russia, Prussia, and 
 Austria, and of being suffered to exercise a 
 mere limited and precarious authority over the 
 remainder. Poland thus became little more 
 than a province of Russia ; and the orders of 
 the ambassador of CatLarine, re.-iJenl ai 
 Warsaw, were of more force than those of the 
 king and the Polish government- This state 
 of things continued till 17U'.', when liie dis- 
 putes oetween Russia and Prussia tempted 
 the Poles to make an effort for the recovery 
 of their freedom. On the 3d of May, l"yi, 
 a revolution toi.k place in Poland, and a new 
 constitution was proclaimed, which provided 
 for the independence of the kingdom. But 
 the tyrannical interfeience of her more im- 
 mediate neighbours, aud the apathy of other 
 European powers, prevented the hlx ratioD i>( 
 Poland from being completed ; instead of 
 which her chains were more firmly rivellt-d by 
 a second partition of her territories in 17«A>. 
 The Poles made, however, another effort to 
 shake off the foreign yoke in the following 
 vear, under the guniance of the famous Kos- 
 sciusko ; but this contest, like the preceding, 
 terminated unfavourab' T ; and the wretched 
 
S T A 
 
 people, after s'.iffering all the liorrovs of \N'ar 
 and conquest from the lluasians, led by tlie 
 ruthless isuwanrow, were coniplelely sub- 
 juj;aied, and their name was erased from the 
 li.^t of Kuropean nations. The imbecile mon- 
 arch, after having been alternately the pup- 
 l)et of various parties, was obliged by the 
 command of Catharine to sign a formal act of 
 ab.lication, November 2o, l79o. He lived m 
 obscurity till the accession of the emperor 
 I'aul, when he was invited to Petersburg, 
 where he died April 2, 1798. — Did. JIht. ties 
 H. M. tliL 18»je 5. Biog. Un'w. 
 
 SIANLIA' (John) a singular instance of 
 musical genius contending against the dis- 
 advantage of a total loss of sight, which the 
 subject of this article experienced when only 
 two years old. He was born about the year 
 1713, in London, and the melancholy depri- 
 vation alluded to was caused by his falling on 
 a marble hearth with a basin in his hand. In 
 teaching him music, his own amusement was 
 the first object with his parents, but making a 
 considerable proficiency in the science, and 
 discovering a strong taste for it, he was after- 
 wards placed under Dr Gieene, with whom 
 his progress was so rapid, that at the age of 
 eleven he obtained the situation of organist to 
 the church of Allhallows, Bread-street, and 
 two years afterwards was elected to that of 
 St Andrew's, Holborn, in preference to a nu- 
 merous body of candidates. At sixteen he 
 took the degree of IMus. Bac. at Oxford, and 
 in 173 1 became organist at the Temple church, 
 whicii is considered to contain the finest in- 
 strument in the kingdom. On the death of 
 Handel, i\Ir Stinley, in conjunction with 
 Smith, and afterwards Linley, carried on the 
 oratorios till within two years of his death in 
 1786. — Biocr. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 STANLIA' (Thomas) an English writer of 
 coiisiderable erudition, was the son of sir 
 Thomas Stanley, knight, of Laytonstone, 
 Essex, where, or at Cumberlow-green, in Hert- 
 fordshire, another residence of the family, he 
 was born in I6'2r). He was educated at home, 
 under the care of William Fairfax, son to the 
 celebiated translator of Tasso, after which he 
 was ailmitted a yentleman commoner of Pern- 
 broke-hall, Cambridge, where in 1641 betook 
 the degree of i\IA. After travelling upon the 
 continent lie returned to England during the 
 civil wars, and took up his residence in t!ie 
 iMiiMIe 'i'emple. He there pursued liis stu- 
 dies with much assiduity, and in 16i9 pub- 
 lii-heil a volume of original poems, chiefly 
 amatory, with a numljer of translations from 
 the ancient ami modern languages. In l6oo 
 ap]H'ared the first volume, in folio, of the work 
 by which he is princijially known, entitled 
 *' The History of Philosojihy, containing the 
 Eives, Opinions, Actions, and Discourses of 
 the I'hilorophcrs of every Sect," of whicli 
 three more volumes were publislietl suc- 
 cessively in 16.S6, 1660, and 166'-^. All these 
 were reprinted collectively in 1687 and 1700, 
 in one vulume folio, and in 1713, -Ito. Its 
 reputation abroad was commensurate, a I.atin 
 edition being printed at l.eipsic in 1711, 
 
 ST A 
 
 another translation of the part relative to tli 
 Oriental philosophy having been previously 
 published by Le Clerc in 1690. It is rather 
 however a work of indu>try and compilation 
 than of criticism, and the style is deemed 
 harsh and obscure. His other works are an 
 edition of " .^schylus," 1663 — 4. He also 
 left behind farther monuments of his eru- 
 dition, in MSS. consisting of commentaries on 
 /Eschylus, in 8 vols, folio; " Adversaria," or 
 remarks on passages in various ancient au- 
 tliors ; " Prelections on the Characters of 
 Theophrastus ;" and " A critical Essay (in 
 Latin) on the First-fruits and Tenth of the 
 (Hebrew) Spoil." The poems and translations 
 of Stanley were republished by sir E. Brydges 
 in 1814 and 1815, with a biographical memoir, 
 from which this account is chiefly taken. He 
 died in 1678, leaving a son of the same name, 
 who translated Elian's " Various Histories." 
 — Life irx) Sir E. Brydges. Biog. Brit. 
 
 STANYHURST (Richard) a Catholic 
 divine and historical writer, born at Dublin 
 about 1546. He studied at University col- 
 lege, Oxford, and afterwards at Lincoln's Inn. 
 He then returned to his native country, and 
 married. He was originally a Protestant, but 
 he forsook the church in which he had been 
 educated, and became a Catholic. Going to 
 the continent he entered into holy orders after 
 the death of his wife, and died himself at 
 Brussels in 1618. Stanyhurst published se- 
 veral works, historical and theological, of little 
 value. Among the former is a treatise " De 
 Rebus in Hibernia gestis ;" and he was also 
 the author of a translation of the first four 
 books of Virgil's ^".neis into very ludicrous 
 hexameter verse. — Wood's Alhen. Oxou. 
 
 STAPEL (John Bodoeus de) a Dutch 
 physician, born at Amsterdam about the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century. He stu- 
 died at Leyden, and devoted his time to bo- 
 tany and the Greek language. I'he fruit of 
 his labours was an edition of the botanical 
 works of Theophrastus, which he had pre- 
 pared for the press at the time of his death, 
 in the flower of his age, in 1636. His re- 
 searches appealed in " Theophrasti Eresii de 
 Historia Plantarum Libri decem, Gr^ce et 
 Latine," Amst. 1644, folio, edited by his 
 father, Dr FLngelbert Stapel. He had com- 
 menced a commentary on the work of Theo- 
 phrastus " De Causis l^lantarum," but liis 
 MSS. were too imperfect for publication. 
 Linnarus has consecrated to the memory of 
 this young botanist a genus of plants called 
 Stapelia. — /^'<'^'. U)iiv. . 
 
 STAPFER (John Fuedeiuc) one of the 
 most celebrated theologians of the reformed 
 church, born at Bruggin Switzerland, in 17(»8. 
 He studied at Berne and JMarpurg, and after- 
 wards went to Holland. Returning into his 
 native country, he ajiplied his talents to the 
 defence of Christianity ; and he enriched 
 Protestant theological literature with some 
 valuable works. These are " Instituiiones 
 Theologiaj Polemicaj," Zurich, 1743 — 17, 
 5 vols. 8vo ; " i'he Foundations of the true 
 Religion," 1746—53, 12 vols.; and " Ciiris- 
 
ST A 
 
 tiiin JNIorality," i7 r>6— 60, G vols. Rvo. He 
 was pastor of llic parish uf l)it'.sl)acli, in the 
 canton of Berne, an office which he filh-il with 
 distinguished zeal and ability. I lis death 
 took place in 177.5. — SrAri in (John) hro- 
 tlier of llie preceding, was also a Protestant 
 divine, and was professor of theology in tin* 
 university of r.erue. He died in 1»()1, aged 
 eighty-two. He was the autlior of " 'I'heologia 
 aiialytica," 1763, 4lo ; and he published 
 eleven volumes of sermons, to which another 
 was added after his death. — /)/<);,'. Univ. 
 
 STAPLETON, or STAPVLTON (sir Ko- 
 bf.ut) a soldier and poet of the seventeenth 
 century, descended of a respectable Catholic 
 fiuuily, settled at Carleton, in Yorkshire. He 
 was sent to the continent by his fiiends, for 
 education, and was brouglit up in the Scotch 
 college at Douay, notwithstanding whicli, on 
 his return to England, he abjured the Romish 
 church, and entered into the service of the 
 court. Charles I gave him the appointment 
 of one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber to 
 the prince of Wales, whose fortunes he fol- 
 lowed ; and on the breaking out of the civil 
 wars, distinguished himself by his gallant be- 
 haviour at the battle of Edgehill in 1642. For 
 his good service on this occasion, he received 
 the honour of knighthood at the king's hand, 
 and afterwards received an honorary degree of 
 LLD. from the university of Oxford. On the 
 restoration of monarchy, he accompanied 
 Charles II to London, and remained about 
 the court till his decease in 1669. As a poet 
 he is not without merit, which is more espe- 
 cially exhibited in his translations of Juvenal 
 and IMuscBus. Four plays of which he was 
 the author are less known ; tliey are entitled 
 " The Slighted Maid," " The Step-mother," 
 " Hero and Leander," and " The Royal 
 Charm." He also published a translation of 
 Strada's History of the War in Flaiulers-^ — 
 Gibber's Lives. 
 
 STARCK (John Augustus von) a Ger- 
 man divine and theological writer, who was 
 preacher to the court of Hesse Darmstadt, 
 lie was born at Schwerin in 1741, and being 
 brought up a Lutheran, lie applied himself 
 with success to the study of theology and the 
 Oriental languages. In 1761 he became a 
 member of the Teutonic academy of (iot- 
 tingen ; and the following year he was invited 
 to fill the chair of Eastern literature and anti- 
 quities at St Petersburg. Having conceived a 
 disgust for the doctrines of Luther, from the 
 perusal of the writings of that reformer, Hos- 
 suet's " Histoire des \'ariations " completed 
 liis dissatisfaction with the faith in which he 
 liad been educated. The result was a journey 
 to Paris, wh.ere he made his abjuration of Pro- 
 testantism, February 8, 176ti. Being dis- 
 appointed of obtaining, as he probably ex- 
 pected, some lucrative establishment among 
 the Catholics, he yielded to the solicitations 
 of his friends ancl relatives in Germany, and 
 returning thither, resumed the exercise of his 
 former religion. Hxs abjuration was privately 
 made, and in consequence of liis subsequent 
 conduct it remained a secret. In t77(> he be- 
 
 ST A 
 
 can»* |trore>rtor of divinity and court pri-arhcr 
 
 at Koiii^.sbiTg, which olfi' " ' - , ,1 
 
 1777 for the chair of i»l. 
 
 Ill 
 
 "I pi... ittau , 
 
 anil in 1781 he wa» Mp|><iinlfd Iir«l pr»-uchrr 
 at the court uf lJariiii.tadt. where Iir ««a« 
 highly euteeiiud by the I.iind-ravc of H«-i»m?, 
 who in 1H()7 conferred uti him lh»« gr&nd tr«>«« 
 of the onltr of l.ouiii jiour U- nii-nu- ; and in 
 liiU made him a baron. He died m Marcli, 
 1})16. Hit) work* are luirneroui*. .\m«n]$ 
 the most im])ortaiit are " The Hii.t'.rv of the 
 
 first Age of the Christian (Jhurch." 177!.> KO, 
 
 3 vols. 8vo ; " Tho Triumph of J'hilosopliy m 
 iheeightenith Century," 1803. 2 vola ; "Tho 
 Banquet of Theotiuhis," translated into Frencli 
 by the abbe de Kentsingcr, and |tubli.»hfd at 
 I'aris under the title of " Entretiens p)iilo«o- 
 phiipies sur la Reunion des dinerenten Com- 
 mtinions Chretienncs," 8vo. He al-*o wrote 
 on freemasonry. — tH'^^- Univ. 
 
 STARK (Wn.r.i.xM) an ingenious physi- 
 cian and physiological cxpenmentali.st, de- 
 scended from a Scotti.'-h family, but born at 
 Manchester in 1740. He studied under .Adam 
 Smith and IJr Black at Glasgow, and com- 
 pleted his education at Edinourgh, l.')nilon, 
 and Leyden, where he graduated as MD. in 
 1768 or 1769. He then returned to lymdcjn, 
 and commenced a seiies of interestinir but ec- 
 centric researches on diet. He made himself 
 the subject of a multitude of culinary ex- 
 periments, the object of which seems to have 
 been precisely contrary to that of the famous 
 Dr Kitchener. The strange and impalatable 
 comhinations of fo(jd on which lie successively 
 subsisted for some months, nianifestly iniured 
 his health, which suffered also from chagrin 
 and disappoiutment in his cypectatums of suc- 
 cess in his profession. Thus a martjr to 
 science, after much suffering, he died, Fe- 
 bruary 23, 1770. The works of Dr Stark, 
 containing an account of his experiments, 
 were published by Dr Carinichael Smyth, 
 1788, 4to. — EncycUvp. Brit. 
 
 STATICS (Pinr.iis Papimis) a Roman 
 epic poet, born at Naples in the reign of the 
 emperor Domitian. He was educated by his 
 fatlier, who was a rhetorician. His principal 
 productions are two epic poems, the " 1 he- 
 bais," in twelve books ; and the " .Achilleis." iu 
 two books, which last is untinished. Tlie»e 
 works are both dedicated to Domitian, wIicim 
 the adulatoi-y bard ranks among the god?. 1 h'- 
 style of Stati'js is bombastic and affected. 
 often exhibiting the art of the declaimer rather 
 than that of the poet ; but he probably stu- 
 died the taste of his contemporaries, as he 
 attracted general admiration in his own time, 
 and even some modern critics liave consi- 
 dered him as inferior only to Virgil. He wrct*- 
 some shorter poems, called " Sylva*," which 
 have been distributed into four bocks, and 
 some of these compositions are eminently 
 beautiful. Statins is supposed to have been 
 destitute of the gifts of fortune, as he is said 
 to have supported himself by writing for the 
 stage ; none however of his dramatic compo- 
 sitions are extant. He died about the hun- 
 dredth year of the Christian era. Among the 
 
ST A 
 
 best editions of the works of Statius are those 
 of Barthius, Leips. 1664, 2 vols. 4to ; and tlie 
 A^ariorum, Lugd. Bat. 1671, 8vo ; of the The- 
 bais separately that of Warrington, 1778, 2 
 vols. 12mo, and of the Sylvae Notis Mark- 
 Jandi, Lond. 1728, 4to. — Statius (Cecimus) 
 vi'as a comic poet of the age of Ennius, who 
 was a native of Gaul, and originally a slave. 
 His language was inelegant, but he is said to 
 have possessed much dramatic talent. — Mo- 
 reri. 
 
 STAUNTON, hart. (sirGEoncE Leonahd) 
 a modern traveller and diplomatist, who was a 
 native of the county of Galway in Ireland. He 
 was destined for the medical profession, with 
 a view to which he studied at the university of 
 INIoutpellier, and took the degree of IVID. 
 About the year 1762 he established himself in 
 practice in the island of Grenada in the West 
 Indies, where he obtained the patronage of 
 the governor, lord Macartney, who made him 
 liis secretary ; and he likewise held the office 
 of attorney-general of Grenada, till the taking 
 of that island by the French. His lordship 
 being aj)pointed governor of Madras, took I\Ir 
 Staunton with him to the East Indies, where 
 he was employed in the arrest of general 
 Stuart, who had opposed the authority of the 
 governor. He also induced the French ad- 
 miral Suffren to suspend hostilities before 
 Gondelour, previously to the official announce- 
 ment of the peace in 1714 ; and he uego- 
 ciated a treaty with Tippoo Saib. Returning 
 to England, the East India Company repaid 
 his services with a pension of .500/. a-year, the 
 king created him a baronet, and the univer- 
 sity of Oxford bestowed on him the diploma 
 of LLD. When lord Macartney went as am- 
 bassador to China, sir George accompanied 
 him as secretary of legation, with the provi- 
 sional title of envoy extraordinary and minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary. Of that mission and of 
 the empire and people of China he published 
 an interesting account in 1797, 2 vols. 4to, 
 which was translated into Frencli and Ger- 
 man. He died in London, in January 1801. 
 — Gent, Maor. Bioir. Univ. 
 
 STAVELEY (Thomas) an English lawyer 
 of the seventeenth century, eminent for his 
 acquaintance with the anticpiities of his native 
 country. He was born of a respectable family 
 at Cussington in Leicestershire, and having 
 gone through a regular course of academical 
 education at Peterhouse, Cambridge, became 
 a member of the society of the Inner Temple, 
 by which he was in 1654 regularly called to 
 the bar. The local influence of his family 
 having |)rocured him in 1662 the situation of 
 steward of the records of Leicester, an ap- 
 pointment previously filled by a relation, he 
 removed to that city, and employed his leisure 
 hours in a manner most congeuial to his favou- 
 rite study of antiquities, bycom|)iling a history 
 of Leicestershire, an undertaking to which the 
 access afforded him by his post to rare and in- 
 teresting documents materially contributed. 
 He was also the author of a " History of 
 English Churches," 8vo. 1712; and of a 
 singular volume exposing the avarice of the 
 
 STE 
 
 Tlomish church, entitled " The Rcraish Horse- 
 leech," 8vo, 1674. A total depression oi 
 spirits, the result of laborious application, 
 clouded the latter part of his life, which ter- 
 minated in 1683. — Nichols's Hist, of Leicester- 
 shire. 
 
 STAVEREN (Augustus van) a Dutch 
 critic of the last century. He was a native of 
 Ley den, where he became rector of the philo- 
 logical school. In 1734 he published a va- 
 riorum edition of Cornelius Nepos, Lugd. Bat. 
 8vo ; the same author with a more condensed 
 commentary, 1755, 12mo ; and a third edi- 
 tion, augmented and improved from his MSS. 
 appeared after his death, " curante Carolo 
 Antonio Wetstenio," 1773, 8vo. He died in 
 1772, aged sixty-eight. — SaxH Onom. Lit. 
 
 STAY (Benedict) a modern Latin poet, 
 born at Ragusa in 1714. He was educated 
 at a college of the Jesuits, and gave early 
 proof of his talents for poetical composition. 
 He attempted didactic versification in the 
 style of Lucretius ; and in 1732 appeared his 
 " Essay on Man," in which he has expounded 
 with skill and elegance the pliilosophy of Des- 
 cartes. He went to Rome, and was made 
 professor of rhetoric and history in the collecre 
 of Wisdom in that city. His rejiutation in- 
 duced the pope to appoint him Latin secre- 
 tary at the Vatican ; and in 1769 Clement XIV 
 placed him at the head of tlie office of briefs 
 for princes, one of the most important posts at 
 the court of Rome. He was successively made 
 a canon of St Mary INIajor, domestic prelate, 
 consultator of the judex, and dotary of the 
 penitentiary. Pius \'I intended to have raised 
 him to the purple ; but this design was pre- 
 vented by the political troubles in which his 
 holiness was involved in the latter part of iiis 
 reign. Stay lived in retirement during that 
 disastrous peiiod ; and on the accession of 
 Pius VII he begged to be excused from en- 
 gaging again in public affairs. He was how- 
 ever employed to prepare the bull for the re- 
 organization of the papal government. His 
 death took place February 25, 1801. His 
 works are " Philosophiaj [Cartesianai] versi- 
 bus traditf€, libri vi. ;" " Philosopbiai recen- 
 tioris [Neutoniame] verss. trad. lib. x." with 
 notes, &c. by father Boscovich, 3 vols. 8vo ; 
 and Latin discourses before the sacred col- 
 lege. — Fahroni Vit. Italor. Biov. Univ. 
 
 STEDMAN (.Tohn GARfiiiii, ) a military 
 officer, was born in Scotland in 1745. Little 
 is known of his birth or education ; but it 
 ajipears that he obtained a commission in the 
 Dutch service, and was em})loyed in an expe 
 ditiou against the revolted negroes of Suri- 
 nam. Of this enterprise he has published an 
 entertaining account in two vols, quarto, in 
 which much curious and useful information is 
 blended with some romance and eccentricity in 
 tlie \\ay of personal adventure. On his re- 
 tirement from the Dutch service he resided at 
 Tiverton in Devonshire. A " History of the 
 American War," has been improperly attri- 
 buted to him. He died in 1797. — Gent. Mag 
 STEELE (sir Ricuaud) the first of the 
 modern class of essayists for a long time pe- 
 
S T !■: 
 
 S 'I^ F 
 
 culiar to this countrv. was horn at D.il.lin in and rec«iv<-<| the upiKjimment* of ii:rrevor of 
 1671. Ills fuinily was of Kriulisl, extraction. ' tlio royal »tiiM»-». and go»tnior of •' ' ; , 
 and respectable, his fatln-r hein^ counnfllor ' coiiu-dianM. nn.l wan kni^htrd. II. . 
 and secretary to Janus, the first dnkc of Or- 'enured the liou»r of Cominoni as mrmbrr for 
 mond. He was educated at llie ('liartcrhousr, 1 Morou.^lil.rid>,'e. and r.M«»rid .'XM*/, fr„m vir 
 whence he removed to IMerton coMcije, Oxford. | Uol.eri \Val|.olt. for ^jk-. .al mi^hv*. On iho 
 He left tlie university without takmi; a de(,'ree. | suiipremiion of llie nUlhon of 171.S, be was 
 and, a tiling not unusual at that time with 1 appomteil one of tl . ,,' fo, the 
 
 needy young men of good coi.ueclions, he for 
 some time rode us a private trooper in the 
 dragoon guards. His frank and gent-rous tem- 
 per soon iiowever gained luni friends, and he 
 obtained an ensigncy in the font guards. 
 Being led into many irregnlaritics, he drew up 
 and published a hcile treatise as a testimony 
 against himself, entitled " The Chrisli:in 
 Hero," the seriousness of which work ex- 
 cited much ridicule among his companions, 
 his conduct, as might be expected, falling 
 far short of his theory. For this reason, 
 as he himself observed, to enliven his cha- 
 racter, he wrote his first comedy, entitled 
 
 forh itcd extatcM iti - v . .^ lif huMrd 
 
 himself in an abortive nclifmtr for a union l>e- 
 t\v( -M the ( iMirchcs of Fnnlnnd and S. oil and. 
 L;nha|)pily devoid of nil prudential attt-ndon 
 to economy, although In- married twr* wive» 
 successively with respectable fortun«-i*, he %»»« 
 uniformly embarrassed in hin citcumntanrct, 
 one cause of which wan his love (jf pro- 
 jecting. Always engaged in »oni»» scheme or 
 other, few or none of which hiu i • he 
 
 wasted his regular income in the a ii,n 
 
 of a greater, until absolute distress waa the 
 conse(|uence. A scheme for brini.'itii,' tii»h to 
 market alive, in particular involved hiai in 
 
 "The Funeral, or Grief a-la-mode," which [ much embarrassment, which waa heightened 
 
 was acteil in 1702, with conbiderahle success 
 About this time he ajjpears to have been re- 
 commended to the notice of king William, 
 who was only prevented by death from pro- 
 viding for him. He however obtained a coin- 
 
 by the loss of his theatrical patent, m con- 
 sequence of his opposition to the peerage bill. 
 He appealed to the public in a paper called 
 the '* Theatre," and in I7i() honourably dis- 
 tinguished himself against the famow 
 
 pany in a regiment of fusileers, by the in- j Sea scheme. He was restored the f, 
 terest of lord Cutts, to whom he was secretary, \ year to his authority over iJrurv-lane theatre^ 
 and through the recommendation of Addison, and soon after wrote his comedy of" The Con- 
 lie was appointed, in the beginning of the reign scious levers," on a hint from ierence, tirst 
 of Anne, to the post of writer of the Lonilon | acted in 175J2, and dedicated to tlie king, who 
 Gazette. His comedy of " The Tender Hus- i rewarded the author with 5()()/. His pecu- 
 band" successfully appeared in 1703, and his niary difficulties however increased, and he 
 " Lying Lover" with less success in 170-t. was obliged to sell his share in the playhouse. 
 In 1709 the happy idea occurred to him of and retire to a seat in Wales, his property by 
 
 that series of periodical papers so celebrated 
 under the title of " The Tatler." Although 
 comparatively crude in its plan, which, in- 
 cluded a portion of the information of a com- 
 mon uewspa])er, it may be doubted whether for 
 the genuine raciness of the humour, and spon- 
 taneous vivacity and urbanity of its tone, it 
 has been exceeded by the most celebrated of 
 its successors. As it sided with the existing 
 ministry, and was extensively circulated, its 
 projector was appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners of the stamp duties. In 1711 the 
 " Tatler " was brought to a close, and suc- 
 ceeded by the still more celebrated " Spec- 
 tator," in which the assistance of Addison 
 and other eminent writers was more regular 
 than in its predecessor, although Steele, as 
 before, supported the chief burtheu. llie 
 " Spectator" terminating, he commenced the 
 " Guardian" in 1713, and also produced a 
 political periodical, called the '• f^nglishman," 
 with several other political pieces of temporary 
 celebrity. His object was now to obtain a seat 
 in parliament, for which purpose he resigned 
 his place in the stamp office, and a ])ension. 
 He was accordingly elected for Stockbridge, 
 but was soon after expelled the house for an 
 alleged libel in the last number of the " Kn- 
 glisiiman," and in another paper called the 
 •' Crisis." His expulsion being purely the 
 result of temporary ministerial resentment, he 
 regained favour on the accession of George I, 
 
 his second wife, where a paralytic stroke in 
 the first instance impaired his understanding, 
 and finally terminated his life, on the 1st of 
 September, 17'J9. The general ch;iracter of 
 sir Richard Steele may be estimated by the 
 foregoing sketch. As a public man he sup- 
 plies an example of one of those many indi- 
 viduals of open and originally generous spirit, 
 who, by the neglect of prudence and a due 
 regard to economy, are reduced to expedients 
 unworthy of tin ir character, and even op|>osed 
 to their princ iples. In this resjiect his con- 
 trast to his friend Addison was complete ; and 
 it is to be hoped that a harsh recourse to law 
 fi)r a pecuniary i laim on the j>art of the latter, 
 does not, with nil faults, give Steele a riaiai to 
 a hiiiher degree of unsophisticated i 
 Nor is it (piite certain that, as to c _ 
 humour, and a careless felicity of social ob- 
 servance, the projector of the " Tatler" wbs 
 not equal to his great coadjutor, although 
 with less precision and retinement. TliC 
 comedies of Steele at least are superior to 
 the " Drummer." and in having notliin|f lo 
 oppose to " C'ato." he will lose httle in the 
 fair race of comparison ; not to mention his 
 indisputable claim to the invention of a species 
 of pierioilical, which may be said to have 
 given a distinctive tone to British sentiment, 
 manners, and general feeling. Besides tin* 
 works already mentioned, sir Richard Steele 
 published two periodical paper* called the 
 
S T E 
 
 " Lover," and tlie " Reader," as well as 
 various political pieces too numerous for de- 
 tail. — Bioe^. Brit, 
 
 STEEN (Jan) a distinguished painter, was 
 born at Leyden in 1636. He studied under 
 Brouwer and Van Goyen, and married the 
 daughter of the latter. Being imprudent and 
 intemperate in his habits, he neglected all the 
 advantages which lay in his way, until finally 
 reduced to paint for a mere subsistence. He 
 Iiad a strong, manly style of execution, the 
 result of native talent rather than of applica- 
 tion, which, together with a fine feeling of 
 humour, conducted him to a high degree of 
 professional excellence. Among his cajntal 
 pictures are mentioned, a Mountebank sur- 
 rounded with Spectators, a Quaker's Funeral, 
 and a Marriage Contract, all which bear a 
 striking air of nature and probability. His 
 works did not obtain an extraordinary price 
 during his life, but after Ids death, being far 
 from numerous, they so rose in value as to be- 
 come some of the highest priced of his pe- 
 culiar school. His death is generally dated 
 1689, but by Houbraken eleven years earlier. 
 — Pilkiiigtoii. Sir Joshua Rei/nolds's Discourses. 
 
 STEEVENS (George) a celebrated dra- 
 matic critic and biographer, fie was born at 
 Stepney, where his father resided, who was an 
 East India director. His education was con- 
 ducted at the grammar-school at Kingston, 
 and at King's college, Cambridge. He applied 
 himself to the cultivation of polite literature, 
 and in 1766 he published twenty of the plays 
 of Shakspeare, with notes, in 4 vols. 8vo. The 
 skill which he displayed as a commentator 
 induced Dr Johnson to take him as a co- 
 adjutor in the edition of the works of our great 
 dramatist, which he published in 1773, 10 
 vols. 8vo. A new edition of the Shakspeare 
 of Johnson and Steevens appeared in 1785; 
 and in 1793 Mr Steevens produced an en- 
 larged and improved edition of the same work 
 in 15 vols. 8vo. He was one of the contri- 
 butors to Nichols's " Biographical Anecdotes 
 of Hogarth ;" and he also assisted in the 
 " Bicgraphia Dramatica." His dea^Ji took 
 place at Hampstead, January '2SJ, 1800. JNIr 
 Steevens left a valuable library of dramatic 
 And other English literature, of which a cata- 
 logue appeared after his decease. — Nichols's 
 Lilerary Anecdotes. Monthly Mag. 
 
 STEFFANI (Agostino) an Italian prelate, 
 eminent as an ecclesiastic, a musician, and a 
 di])Iomatist. He was born in 1650 at Cas- 
 tello Franco, a small town in the \ enetian 
 states, and was brought up as a chorister in a 
 neighbouring church, till attracting the atten- 
 tion of a German nobleman by the sweetness 
 of his voice, he was by him carried into Ba- 
 varia, and received a classical education ; his 
 musical studies being especially superintended 
 by Ercole Bernabei. Taking holy orders, he 
 obtained an abbey, and distinguishing himself 
 by his compositions, both in sacred and secular 
 music, was appointed by the duke of Bruns 
 wick, father of George 1. of England, to direct 
 the opera at Hanover. While in this situa- 
 tion he produced several operas, the principal 
 
 S TE 
 
 of which are his " Alexander the Great," 
 " Alcibiades," and " Orlando," performed 
 between the years 1694 and 1700. He was 
 also celebrated for his madrisfals and some 
 beautiful vocal duets, afterwards avowedly 
 imitated by Handel in those composed by him 
 for queen Caroline. Becoming a favourite 
 with his adopted sovereign he turned his 
 attention to politics as well as music ; and 
 exerted himself so effectually towards erecting 
 the duchy of Brunswick Lunenburg into an 
 electorate, that he obtained from his master a 
 pension of fifteen hundred rix-doUars. Shortly 
 after Innocent XI conferred on him the bi- 
 shopric of Spigna, from which ])eriod, although 
 he still continued to amuse himself by musi- 
 cal composition, he no longer put his own 
 name to his productions, but used that of Gre- 
 gorio Puia, his secretary. About the year 
 1724 the Londoa, Academy of Ancient Music 
 chose him their president ; and several spe- 
 cimens of his style are to be found in the col- 
 lections of Stevens and Dr Crotch, especially 
 a beautiful " Qui diligit iMariara," in the lat- 
 ter. His death took place at Frankfort in 
 1730. — Biog. Diet of Mus. 
 
 Sl'ElNBACH (EnwrN von) a German ar- 
 chitect, who lived in the latter part of the 
 thirteentri century. The celebrated Minster 
 of Strashurg was begun and carried on under 
 his superintendance for twenty-eight years ; 
 and he was therefore probably the designer of 
 that edifice, which is said to be a specimen of 
 the purest Gothic style. — Mollers Essay on 
 the Oritrin and Frocrress of Gothic Architecture. 
 Elmes's Diet, of the Fine Arts. — See Hiltz 
 (John). 
 
 STELLA (James) an eminent painter, was 
 born at Lyons in 1596, being the sou of a 
 Flemish artist, who settled in that city. At 
 the age of twenty he travelled into Italy for 
 improvement, and at Florence engaged the 
 notice of the grand duke Cosmo II, who em- 
 ployed him in his service for several years, 
 during which time he exhibited many proofs 
 of his skill in painting, engraving, and design. 
 He then went to Rome, where he acquired so 
 great a reputation, that on his return to France 
 cardinal Richelieu presented him to the king, 
 who assigned him a pension, and apartments 
 in the Louvre. After executing several great 
 works for the king and cardinals, he was de- 
 corated with the order of St Michael, and re- 
 ceived the brevet of first painter to the crown. 
 His manner of painting resembled that of 
 I'oussin, but although upon the whole an ex- 
 cellent artist, he was defective in spirit and 
 force. His principal works are in the churches 
 of Rome, Paris, Lyons, and Abbeville. Many 
 of them are engraved. He died in 1647. — 
 D'Argenville. FHkiinjtmi. 
 
 STELLER or S lOELLER (Gi orge Wir,- 
 liam) a German physician and traveller, born 
 at Windsheim in Franconia, in 1709. He 
 studied at Halle, and afterwards went to take 
 his degrees at Berlin. Thence he proceeded 
 to Russia, where he became physician to Pro- 
 copius, the learned archbishop of Novogcrod, 
 with whom he continued till the death of 
 
s r [-: 
 
 Hiat prelate. Having' been noruinHtcd an ad- 
 iiinct of the Academy of Sciences at ]'< Hts- 
 bur'j^, he oiltTed to join a commission for ex- 
 ploring; Siberia and (Jreat I'artary ; and in 
 17o8 be commenceil bin journey, ami arrivin;,' 
 the year following at Kamtschaika, be accom- 
 panied commodore IJebrinj^ in bis vova-^'e to 
 tbe nortb-Nvest coast of America. On ibe 
 death of that commander he succeeded to the 
 direction of tbe expedition, and after enconn- 
 teriiii;- i;reac sulVering be returned to Kanit- 
 schatka. He received orders to repair to Pe- 
 tersburg^. In March 17-l-;> he was at Yakiitsch 
 in Sil)eria, on his way thither ; and a painter, 
 whom be had sent forward, arrived at Aloscow 
 with all his effects ; but the fate of Steller 
 himself is cnveloy)ed in obscurit}'. It is only 
 certain that be died soon after, as he was bu- 
 ried near Tumen, November 12, 174.5. He 
 was the author of " A Description of Kamt- 
 schatka, its Inhabitants, their JManners, Cus- 
 toms, &c." published at Leipsic, in 1774, 8vo ; 
 a Journal, published by Pallas; and memoirs 
 in " Novi Commentarii Acad. Scient. Petro- 
 polit." all containing much information re- 
 lating to natural history and geography. — 
 Bioir. Z^jiiv. Aiki7i^s Gen. Biog. 
 
 STENBOCH or STEINBOCK (Magnus) 
 a Swedish general, born in 1664. He made 
 his first camj)aign in the war of tbe allies 
 against France, under the princes of ^^'aldeck 
 and Baden. In 1700 he followed Charles XII 
 in Russia, Poland, and Saxony ; and espe- 
 cially distinguished himself at tbe battle of 
 Narva. In 1707 he returned to Sweden, and 
 assumed the government of the province of 
 Scania ; and in 1709 be defeated the Danes 
 at Helsingborg. He gained the battle of Ga- 
 dembusch against the Danes and Saxons in 
 1712, and tbe following year burnt Altona. 
 From tliat time he experienced nothing but 
 misfortunes ; and having shut himself up in 
 the fortress of Tonningen, he was besieged 
 and obliged to capitulate for want of provi- 
 sions. He was conveyed a prisoner to Den- 
 mark, where he died in 1717. He %vrote an 
 account of his reverses of fortune and bis suf- 
 ferings, published in a collection of Swedish 
 anecdotes in 1773. His life has been written 
 in Swedish by Laenborn, Stockholm, 17r)7 — 
 65, 4 vols. 4to. — Biog. Diet, nf Gezelius. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 STENNET (Samuf.tO an anabaptist cler- 
 gyman, who was pastor of a congregation in 
 London, born in 1727, died August 22, 1795, 
 at his residence at i\Iuswell-hill near High- 
 gate, in Middlesex He was a man much re- 
 spected among the Protestant dissenters, both 
 for the excellence of his character and for his 
 learning and ability. Besides some single 
 sermons, be was the author of " Discourses on 
 Personal Religion," 2 vols. 12mo ; " Dis- 
 courses on Domestic Duties," 8vo ; "Ser- 
 mons on the Divine Authority and various 
 Use of tbe Holy Scriptures," 1790, 8vo. He 
 also carried on a controversy on the subject of 
 baptism with Dr Stephen Addington. — Rcuss'$ 
 Cat. of Eng. Auth. 
 
 STENO II. or STENO STURE, admini- 
 
 STE 
 
 Htrator of the kingdom of f^woiftn, «i: ' i 
 
 bin father in that otlice in 1 )13. Hm 
 ment giving otfence to a part of hiii vubjpcu, 
 will) hunpectr<l him (if •.- 
 
 rfsdlveil to depone bun, ' . , , jj 
 
 II, king of Denmark, to tlii-ir a . 11, »t 
 
 prince liaving invaded Swi-tl.-n, nud iaid »:■ • 
 to Stockholm, Sieno marched n^uinat ) ■■ 1 
 
 obliged him to raii«<* l)io im\n-, havjn 
 the b,i'^.;age of the Dane* and many pn»'incrs, 
 iiK lulling olhcern and perAon<i of • 
 The Danish fleet being detained i 
 winds, and a great mortality taking plate 
 among the troops, owing to a »carcity of wafe r 
 and provisions, Christiern sent to ihc a<Jnii. 
 nistrator to propose a truce, which the latter 
 readily granted, and sent scvt-ral l<oaf.H loaded 
 with provisions for the use of the king and hiti 
 navy. After some time Christiern invited 
 Steno on boanl the fleet to treat of peace, but 
 the senate opposed his acccfitance of the in- 
 sidious proposal ; and Christiern liaving trea- 
 cherously seized some Swedish noblemen, w-t 
 sail for Denmark. He sent a second exprdi- 
 tion against Sweden, and a battle taking [liace, 
 Steno was killed by a cannon-shot, in conse- 
 quence of which bis people were di.-litartened, 
 and the country Ml under the power of the 
 Danish tyrant. These events took place in 
 1519. — Univ. Hist. Biog, Univ. 
 
 STENO (Nicholas) an anatomist, born at 
 Copenhagen January 10, 1638. His father, 
 who was goldsmith to Christiern I\', was a 
 strict Lutheran, and he instructed hi.n son in 
 the principles of the Reformation. He stu- 
 died professionally under Harthuline, IJor- 
 richius, and Paulli at Copenhagen, whence, 
 after taking the degree of <loctor, be proceeded 
 to Leyden, attracted by the celebrity of pro- 
 fessor Sylvius. There he also became ac- 
 quainted with Blasius, to whom he demon- 
 strated the excretory duct of the parotid 
 gland, since called Ductus Stenonianus, from 
 the discoverer, who was subsequently obliged 
 to vindicate bis title to the discovery against 
 the claims of Blasius. After travelling for 
 improvement in Germany, France, II ' '. 
 and Italy, he became physician to h\ : i 
 
 II, grand duke of Tuscany. He had previously 
 embraced the Catholic faith at Paris, baring 
 been converted by the eloquent arguments of 
 the famous Bossuet. In 1672 Chrisiiem V 
 offered him tbe anatomical chair at CojH-n- 
 hagen, which he accepted ; but though tbe 
 free exercise of his religion had been guaran- 
 teed, he experienced so much nnnoyanre from 
 the bii'Otrv of the Lutherans, that he r' •■ ' • 
 fit to return to Tuscany, where tbe iiuk< 
 III entrusted him with the education of bis 
 son Ferdinand. He then renounced his me- 
 dical stuiiies for tbe church, and Pope Inno- 
 cent XII consecrated him bishop, in partibus. 
 of Titopolis, and vicar ';i' in tbe north 
 
 of Europe. He then re- ome time with 
 
 duke John Frederic of Brunswick, who like 
 himself had abjureil Lutlieranism. After tbe 
 death of that prince (1679) he removed to 
 Muuster; and he died at Schwerin, Novem- 
 ber 25, 1687. A list of his numerous works, 
 
STE 
 
 ST E 
 
 medical and tlieological, may be found in the and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne, 
 annexed authority. — Bioo;. Univ. for all which favours he professed the most 
 
 STENWYCK,orSTEENWYCH(HENRY) ' grateful attachment to the king, and was the 
 usually called the Old, to distinguish him from most zealous in taking the oath for securing 
 his son, a painter of singular excellence in a the succession to Henry's daughter, the em- 
 particular line, was born at Steeuwych in press Matilda. No sooner, however, did that 
 Elanders, in 1550. He was the disciple of monarch's death take place, than he hastened 
 John de Vries, who was eminent for painting from France to England, and laid claim to the 
 architecture and perspective. Following the crown for himself. Having for a long time 
 steps of his master, he became celebrated for courted popularity, and ingratiated himself 
 his admirable delineation of the insides of with both noblt-s and people, lie was at once 
 convents and churches of Gothic architecture, received as king in London. The concurrence 
 viewed by the light of torches or lustres, to of the clergy was however necessary, which 
 which ])ictures his perfect knowledge of was at length obtained by Stephen's brother, 
 chiaro-scuro, and the lightness and delicacy of the bishop of Winchester, aided by the oath 
 his pencil, gave a surprising eftect. The pic- of a nobleman of the late king's testifying his 
 tures of this artist, which are very rare, bear intentions in favour of his nephew while on 
 a hijih price throughont Europe. He died in his death bed. Such were the lax ideas of 
 1(503. — Henry Stenwyck the Younger, son the age in regard to hereditary succession, 
 and pupil of the preceding, copied his father's these intrigues succeeded, and Stephen was 
 manner, and bv competent judges was thought crowned. Having possessed himself of the 
 frequently to equal him. He was introduced treasure of Henry, he was enabled to bribe 
 bv Vandyke to the court of Charles I, and he ' some of the most restive of his opponents, 
 painted many pictures in England, where he while he sought the support of the people at 
 died, but in what year is unknown. — D'Argen- large by promising to restore the laws of Ed- 
 ville. Pilkbif^ton. I ward the Confessor. His first disturbance was 
 
 STEPHANIUS, or STEPHEN (John) a ' on the side of Scotland, David, the king of 
 learned Dane, was born at Copenhagen in which, marched an army into England, and 
 1599. He received a good education, and after Carlisle and the county of Cumberland formed 
 twice travelling in foreign countries, was made , the price which Stephen was obliged to pay for 
 professor of eloquence at Soroe in 1630. In j peace. He was however enabled to master 
 1639 he became professor of history in the ■ the resisting nobles of England, and was also 
 same seminary, and afterwards historiographer I invited by the barons to take possession of 
 to Christiern Iv. He died in 1650. Among , the duchy of Normandy. The earl of Glou- 
 his works are " Breves Emendationes et cester, natural son of the late king, being 
 Notjc in Saxonem Grammaticum ;" " De i much attached to the empress, his half- 
 llet^no Dania; et Norvegine Insulis adja- j sister, naturally fell under the suspicions 
 centibus Tractatus varii ;" " Svenonis Aggonis ! of Stephen : and although the earl had 
 Filii Opuscula, Notis illustrata ;" " Notag j sworn a conditional fealty, the king laid a plan 
 uberiores in Hist. Dan. Saxonis Grammatici ;" | to seize his person, which however failed, and 
 " Histoiiae Danicai, Libri duo, ab anno 1550 ' he was obliged to take an oath never to make a 
 
 ad annum 1559." &c. — Saiii Onom. 
 
 STEPHANL'S BYZANTINUS or STE- 
 PHEN OF BYZAN'nUM, a grammarian of 
 the age of the emperors Arcadius and Hono- 
 lius, who resided at Constantinople. He was 
 the author of a treatise " De Gentibus," or a 
 
 second attempt of the same kind. Another war 
 with Scotland followed, which was terminated 
 by the famous battle of the Standard, wherein 
 the Scots were entirely defeated by the north- 
 ern barons. In the mean time Stephen involved 
 himself in a dansrerous contest with the eccle- 
 
 Geo'Traphical Lexicon, which throws great light 1 siastical power, in consequence of the castles 
 on the state of the ancient world. Unfortu- I which several bishops held in defiance of the 
 nately however the work is lost, except a frag- I regal authority. He was no sooner extricated 
 ment published in the " Thesaurus Antiqui- ' from this difficulty by the firmness of his 
 tatum Graecarum " of Gronovius ; but there is barons, than the empress Matilda landed in 
 extant an epitome or abridgement by Ilermo- j England with her brother, the earl of Glou- 
 laus, who lived under Justinian. The epi- j cester ; and being joined by several powerful 
 tomized lexicon of Stephanus has been pub- j barons a civil war ensued, which for cruelty 
 lished by Aldus, 1502, folio ; Steph. de i and devastation j)rovpd one of the most cala- 
 Pinedo, Amst. 1678, folio ; with the commen- mitous in the English annals. Stephen jjer- 
 tarv of Abr. Berkelius, and the observations 1 formed his part with vigour and courage, but 
 of .lames Gronovius, Lugd. Bat. 1688, folio ;; being taken prisoner m 1141 liis party was 
 and by Gronovius, L. B. 1694, 2 vols, folio. — broken up, and Matilda was generally acknow- 
 
 Fahricii Bibliov, Antiq. 
 
 STEPHEN,' king of England, was the son 
 of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, fourth 
 daughter of William the Conqueror. He was 
 born in 1104-, and invited when young into 
 England by his uncle Henry I, who gave him 
 the earldom of Mortaigne in Normandy, and 
 also large estates in England. He likewise 
 pr Kured for him in marriage the daughter 
 
 edged queen. The haughty and impolitic 
 conduct of the new sovereisjn excited an in- 
 surrection against her government almost im- 
 mediately ; and being invested in AVinchester 
 castle she escaped with difficulty, while h^r 
 ijreat support, the earl of Gloucester, was 
 taken prisoner. This circumstance occasioned 
 the liberation of Stephen, who was exchanged 
 for the earl, and the civil war was rcnowed^ 
 
S T K 
 
 After vaiiotifl conflicls Matilda was iiuliicfj, 
 by the clt'atli of tlic rarl, to n-lirt* to Norniumiy, 
 and tlie contest was carried on bv her Hon, 
 Henry ['liuitai^enet, who in ll.").) laiidcii an 
 army in Kiiijland, and l)ein<( joineil by the 
 harona of his mother's party, the comjietitortt 
 met at tlie head of their respective forces at 
 Wallingford. An armistice however took 
 place instead of a haitlc, and a treaty was set 
 on foot, the diffi( tiliies of which were alle- 
 viated by tliG death of Knsiace, Stt-plK-n's 
 eldest son. It was at len-^th concluded that 
 Stephen should reign duriiis; his life-time; 
 that Ilcnrv should succeed him. leaviiitr NVil- 
 liam, the remaiidng son of Stephen, the inhe- 
 ritance of his father's ])atriii\onial estates. 
 The death of the king the following year pre- 
 vented the <lisputes which might otherwise 
 have followed, and Henry tpiicilv ascended 
 the throne. Stephen died in the fiftieth year 
 of his aije, and the nineteenth of his uneasy 
 reign. Had he succeeded fairlv to the throne 
 he possessed talents which would have en- 
 abled him to fill it with honour. His resistance 
 to the encroachments of the clergy and the see 
 of Rome were spirited and creditable ; and he 
 was active and able both in the cabinei and 
 the field. — Hume. Heurv. 
 
 STEPHENS, STEPHEN. STEPHANUS, 
 or ESTIENNE, the name of a family of 
 learned French printers in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Henry Stephens, the elder, the fi' at 
 of these eminent typographers, settled at 
 Paris about 1503, and appears to have been 
 patronized by Louis XII. The books which 
 he published were chiefly in Latin, and among 
 the most valuable is an edition of the " Itine- 
 rarium Antonini," 1512. He died about 
 lo^O; and his widow married his partner, 
 Simeon de Colines (Colinaeus) who continued 
 to conduct the affairs of tlie printing-office till 
 his death. — H. Ste])hens left three sons, Fran- 
 cis, Robert, and Charles, of whom Robert 
 Stephens, born in 1603, was highly distin- 
 guished for his learning and professional skill. 
 While young he studied with great success 
 the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, and 
 made himself acquainted with general litera- 
 ture. At the age of nineteen his father-in-law 
 Colines entrusted him with the management 
 of his office. He soon after published an edi- 
 tion of the New Testament, in a more correct 
 and convenient form than any which had pre- 
 viously ai)peared. About 1526 he quitted 
 Colines, and established a pres.^, where he 
 published works in his own name. In \!y3l 
 ai)peared the first edition of his "Thesaurus 
 Lingu* Latin;v," a work of great research ; 
 and in 1.^39 Francis 1 appointed him his 
 printer, and gave orders for casting a new antl 
 beautiful set of types for his use. Having 
 given oftVnce to the doctors of the Sorbonne 
 by the freedom of opinion manifested in some 
 of the tlieological works which he printed, and 
 especially by the notes to an edition of ilie 
 Bible in l515, he experienced so much annoy- 
 ance from the inordinate zeal of those divines, 
 that at length, after the deatli of his patron 
 aud protector Francis I, he removed to Ge- 
 
 s r ]'. 
 
 nevn, and oj.eidy profeBne-d the Proti^Kiint 
 faith. He Mith-d in liiat cil> in 1'. ■ I 
 the same year, in conjunrdon \»»tli hi)> r - 
 
 in-law Conrud niidiun, he printed mi rdtdon 
 of th.f New 'r,«ta!, ' !,. In i;,,<j 
 
 he was admitted n I ^ < M-ra. «n.l li.- 
 
 died there St-ptrrnber 7. I . ' KutMTt 
 phenn wax the author of tin- pn-n.-nl divi-i.ti 
 of the New Iri-tamenl into vi-rxn, w!- ' ! .•- 
 rary labour he nays thai he |>«Tfurmr . 
 a journey from i'aris to Lvon« on Unrh- 
 (inter etpiitanduni). Among th«« wf-' ., 
 
 liis press one of the most famou» i» l.i , 
 
 of the Greek Testament, 1549, called th" 
 " piilres edition." from an err(.n»'o>j- i 
 
 that the only typographical error in r . • 
 word " i)ulre»," iuBtead of " plurea," in iho 
 preface. it is however (thou^;!! not rpiit.* 
 immaculate) exceedingly correct. — ('i---'^s 
 Stephens, younger brother of the pr 
 received a liberal education, and added to (he 
 professional pursuits of hi.4 faindy the study of 
 medicine, llis learning recommended him to 
 Lazarus Uaif, the education of wlio»e noo h« 
 superintended, and afterwards n 1 
 
 the father in embassies to (ierma: y. 
 
 He was admitted a doctor of tlie faculty of 
 medicine at Paris, and he published iiev<ral 
 medical works. In 1551 he commenced buM- 
 ne.ss as a printer, and the same year he pub- 
 lished the first edition of the works of Appian. 
 from MSS. iu the French king's library. It 
 appears that he was unsuccessful in b isiness, 
 as he was confined in the prison of the Cha- 
 telet for debt in 1561, and lie died (lien- in 
 1564. He was the author as well as printer 
 of a great number of works, of which a com- 
 plete list is given by Niceron. His " Didio- 
 narium Historico-geographico-poeticum" ap- 
 peared posthumously, at Geneva, 156(), 4to. 
 As a typographer his productions are distin- 
 guished for accuracy and elegance. — He left 
 an only daughter, Nicole F^stievne, who was 
 married to Jean Liebaut, and died in 1570. 
 She spoke and wrote with facilitv ' ' . 
 
 guages, and she left in IMS. " A, r 
 
 les Femmes contre ceux qui en m^disent ;'' 
 " Contrestances, ou Reponses aux Stances do 
 Desportes contre le .Marria.e ;" " .Mtpiis 
 d'.Vmour ;" and other poetical pieces, none of 
 which have been jirintcd. — IU.nhv Stiphivs, 
 the son of Robert, born at Paris in I5'jn, wa.i 
 one of tlie most learned men of his time. From 
 his earliest years lie gave proofs of Ids pre- 
 dilection for literature. His mother, the 
 daughter of Jodocus Hadius, a printir, was 
 a woman of extraordinary acquir«mentii, and 
 the Latin langua.;e was ust d in < i i- 
 
 versation m his lather's family. It- - ic 
 
 himself familiar with the Greek also, and at 
 the at;e of eigliti en he as5isted hitk father in 
 collating the MSS. of Dioiivsius of Halicar- 
 nassus. He then travelled into Italy, whence 
 he brought the " Odes of Anacreon," which 
 he afterwards published. Having visited 
 P"-ngland and the NetlierlanJs, he returned to 
 Paris about the time bis father (|uitted it ; and 
 he appears to have accompanietl him to Ge- 
 neva, but he was again at Paris in 1551, wlien 
 
ST E 
 
 bis edition of Anacreon was published from 
 the press of his brother Charles. He estab- 
 lislied a printing-office of liis own at Paris in 
 1.5.57, at which period he began printing 
 various Greek authors, the MSS. of which he 
 liad collected during his travels, all which he 
 corrected and enriched with annotations. In 
 1.579 appeared the " Thesaurus Lingua 
 Gra>caj," 4 vols, folio, a work of va^t erudition, 
 which has principally contributed to establish 
 liis literary reputation. John Scapula, a per- 
 son employed in his office, treacherously com- 
 piled an abridgment of this lexicon, as it was 
 passing through the press, and by its pub- 
 lication greatly injured the sale of the original 
 work. This was not his only misfortune. He 
 was patronised by his sovereign Henry III, 
 whose flattering promises of assistance and 
 protection proved utterly delusive, owing to 
 the civil broils witli which France was at that 
 time distracted. The loss of his wife, to whom 
 he was tenderly attached, deeply affected his 
 mind ; and the death of the king in 1589, 
 putting an end to his hopes of court favour, 
 lie thenceforth led a wandering and distracted 
 life. He resided alternately at Geneva, at 
 Paris, in Germany, and even in Hungary. At 
 length he died in an almshouse at Lyons, in a 
 state of mind bordering on insanity, in 1.598. 
 Among his works, besides those already men- 
 tioned, are " An Apology for Herodotus," de- 
 sicrned as a satire on the legends of the Ca- 
 tholics ; " A Treatise on the French Lan- 
 guacre ;" and " Lexicon Graeco-Latinum Ci- 
 ceronianum." He also published a great num- 
 ber of the ancient classics. — His son. Paul 
 Stephens, was a printer at Geneva, where he 
 died in 1627. He distinguished himself both 
 as an author and an editor. — Mattaire de Vitis 
 StephatKynim. Bimr. Unit. Art. Estienne. 
 
 SIEPHKNS (Robeut) was bora of an 
 ancient family at Eastington in Gloucester- 
 sliire, about the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. His first education was at Wotten 
 school, wlience he removed to Lincoln college, 
 O.xford, in 1681. He was subsequently en- 
 tered very young in the ■Middle Temple, where 
 he applied himsf If to the law, a^id was called 
 to the bar. As his fortune was ample, he did 
 not practise his profession, but engaged in the 
 study of history and antiquities. Having, 
 while a young man, met with some original 
 letters of lord Bacon at the house of a rela- 
 tion, and finding they would contribute to a 
 better kno'.vledge of the events of the reign 
 of James I, he published a complete edition 
 of them in 1702, with useful notes, and an 
 excellent historical introduction, lieing a re- 
 lation of Harley, earl of Oxford, he was made 
 chief solicitor to the customs, which office he 
 resigned in 1726, and was appointed historio- 
 grapher royal. He died, much esteemed, in 
 November, 1732. — Nichols's Lit. A)iec. 
 
 STEPNEY (Giorge) an ingenious poet 
 and political writer, descended of an ancient 
 family settled at Pendegrast in Pembroke- 
 shire, but born in Westminster in 1663. Being 
 placed on the royal foundation in the vicinity 
 he removed at the usual age to Trinity college. 
 
 S T E 
 
 Cambridge, where he acquired the friendship 
 of Mr Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax 
 By the steady patronage of this nobleman he 
 afterwards rose to be employed on several im- 
 portant and confidential missions to the courts 
 of Brandenburgh, Vienna, Dresden, Mentz, 
 and Cologne, as well as to the congress of 
 Frankfort. In 1706 queen Anne dispatched 
 him on an embassy to Holland ; and on all 
 these occasions he appears to have conducted 
 the business committed to his charge with 
 equal prudence and success. He survived his 
 return to England from this last mission only 
 a few months, dying at Chelsea in 1707, and 
 he lies buried in Westminster abbey, with a 
 somewhat pompous inscription over his re- 
 mains. One of his first poems was an inflated 
 address to king James II on his accession, at 
 which period he favoured the tory interest, 
 although he subsequently accommodated his 
 principles to those of the dominant party. His 
 poetical works, which if occasionally felicitous 
 in expression, do not in general rise above me- 
 diocrity, consist of a translation of the eighth 
 satire of Juvenal ; Imitations of Horace ; 
 " The Austrian Eagle ;" " On Dreams," &c. 
 and are to be found in Tonson's collection of 
 minor poets. His prose writings are " An Essay 
 on the present Interest of England," 1701, 
 and " The Proceedings of the House of Com- 
 mons in 1677, on the French King's Progress 
 in Flanders," in Lord Somers's Collection. — 
 Gibber's Lives. 
 
 STERNE (Laurence) a divine, and po- 
 pular writer of a very original cast, was the 
 son of Roger Sterne, a lieutenant in the army, 
 and grandson of Sterne, archbishop of York. 
 He was born at Clonmell, in Ireland, in No- 
 vember 1713, and was put to school at Hali- 
 fax in Y'orkshire, in 1722, whence he removed 
 to Jesus college, Cambridge, and studied for 
 the church. He took his degree of MA. in 
 1740, before which time he was advanced, and 
 by the interest of Dr Sterne, his uncle, who 
 was a prebendary of Durham, he obtained the 
 living of Sutton, a prebend of York, and sub- 
 sequently, by the interest of his wife, whom 
 he married in 1741, the living of Stiilington, 
 at which and at Sutton he performed the duty 
 for nearly twenty years. During this period he 
 appears to have amused himself with books, 
 painting, music, and shooting, but was little 
 known beyond his vicinity, the only production 
 of his pen being his humorous satire upon a 
 greedy church dignitary of York, entitled 
 " The History of a Watch Coat." In 1759 
 following, appeared the two first volumes of 
 his celebrated " Tristram Shandy," which 
 drew upon him praise and censure of every 
 kind, and became so popular that a bookseller 
 engaged for its continuance on verv lucrative 
 terms. Accordingly a third and a fourth vo- 
 lume appeared in 1761, a fifth and sixth in 
 1762, a seventh and eighth in 1764, and a 
 ninth singly in 1766. If m the ground-work 
 of this extraordinary production a resemblance 
 may be traced to the ridicule of pedantry and 
 false philosophy in Scribleru.= , tlie style and 
 filling up are chiefly his own, although the late 
 
s i' !•: 
 
 Dr Ferriaii, of IManchtster, incontcstably 
 proved his loan of entire passages from JJur- 
 toii's Anatomy of INltlaiiclioly, ami iliu works 
 of bisliop Hull ami others. In 17()U he jiro- 
 diieed his " St ntimeiital .louriiey," in i? voIm. 
 lifmo, which, by a inimher of jjalhetic iu- 
 ciilents and vivid strokes of natif)rial aii<l cha- 
 racteristic delineation, is rendered extrernciy 
 entertaining, and acquired a more general re- 
 putation than even its predecessor. Its chief 
 fault is an exagj^eration of impulsive feeluii,', 
 which, when imitateil hy inferior writers, be- 
 came very sickly and ilisgusting. lu 17()() 
 a])pi'ared two volumes of " Sermons of Mr 
 Vorick," to which he added two additional 
 volumes in 17 66, with liis own name. 'I'hese 
 are lively, unmethodical moral essays, con- 
 taining many striking passages, and some light 
 ones, whicli not very materially ditler from 
 the tone of his former works. A tendency to 
 pulmonary consumption at length became a 
 confirmed disease, under which he sank in 
 March 176 i, leaving a widow and one daugh- 
 ter. The latter, who was married to a French 
 gentleman, published a collection of her fa- 
 ther's letters, in three volumes, 12mo, to 
 which were prefixed memoirs of his life and 
 family. In the same year an anonymous edi- 
 tor published '* Letters toetween Vorick and 
 Eliza," which were regarded as the authentic 
 correspondence, in a sti/aiu of high sentimental 
 friendship, between Sterne and Mrs Diajier, 
 an accomplished East Indian lady. It is un- 
 pleasant to be obliged to observe, that the 
 private character of this eccentric writer was 
 bv no means honoTiribh^ to his indisi)uiable 
 genius, affording another proof that the power 
 of expressing and conceiving strong feelings 
 by no means supplier giounds for a presump- 
 tion that they will iufliicnce the conduct. — 
 Life prefixed to IVorks. 
 
 'STERNHOLD (Thomas) noted as the 
 principal author of the metrical version of the 
 Psalms long used in public worship in our 
 churches, and not yet entirely discoutiiuu'd. 
 He was a native of Hampshire, and ajtpa- 
 rently of a respectable family, as he was edu- 
 cated at Oxford, and became groom of the 
 robes to Henry VIII. in whose will he is so 
 designated, and who left him a legacy of one 
 hundred marks. He held the same, or a si- 
 milar office, under Edward VI, in whose reign 
 he died in August 1.^49. The princii)al co- 
 adjutor of Sternhold, in his versification of the 
 Psalter, was John Hopkins, and the names 
 of these unfortunate persons have passed into 
 a proverbial designation of bad poets. The 
 wicked wits of the reign of Charles I, as 
 Fuller informs us, termed their translations of 
 the Psalms " Geneva Gigs." Sternhold also 
 produced " Certayne Chapters of the Pro- 
 verbs of Solomon, drawen into Metre," which 
 were published after his death.— F»//<t. 
 Wc'OiL ]V(trto7i. 
 
 STESICIIORUS, a Greek lyric poet, was 
 born at Himera, in Sicily, about PC. 61?. He 
 appears to have been a man of note among his 
 fellow- citzens, and to have had a ureat deal 
 to do in the transactions between Himera and 
 
 S T K 
 
 Ihe tyrant Pl.ahiris. Mudi of lii« hi»l ,ry. 
 howevtr, dipf ud.i upon iju? iiulhentjcity of the 
 pretended episilcH of PhaJan., which »re uow 
 K^'nerally gjvtn u|>. It ih certain, IjoneTt-r, 
 that he loiiipo.Hcd u numbrr of »ork» which 
 were highly eHteemed by the ancient*, JJoratu 
 spciiks of " Ste»icliori grave* cama-naj /' and 
 Diony.sius ilHluarna»!»u« i»ay», that he had all 
 ihegiaces of rin.lar and Siinoi,jd«i., while- he 
 suri)ahsfd th< in both in thi* gruudcur of liia 
 subjects. He was the firnt who i: .J 
 
 into the ode the triiile divimon ol . ., ..c, 
 antistrophe, aiul epode, and htr wan throce 
 said to liave derivi-d his iiaiuf, which wa» be- 
 fore Tisias, as signifying " place» of the cho- 
 rus." A few fragmentii of hm works, to the 
 amount of fifty or sixty lines, alone remain, 
 which were printed in the collection of Kidviua 
 Ursinus. His death is plated PC. .i.jo. — 
 Siiidiis. Vossii I'oet. (hue. 
 
 SrF.VPN'S(GFoa(ih .\ i.kxanui.u > a wlum- 
 sical and eccentric character, was bonj in 
 London, and brought up to a mechanical 
 business, which he (juiltfd to become a stroll- 
 ing i>layer. In 17.il he pubhshi d a pwin, 
 entitled " Religion, or the Libertine rejM-n- 
 tant," which was nucceeded in 17.i4by " The 
 Birthday of Folly.' He followeii tlM-!»e pro- 
 ductions by a novel called " I (<m Foc>l." and 
 *' Jhe Dramatic History of Master Edward 
 (Shuter) and Miss Aim " (Catley). Ht- sub- 
 sequently invented hiii entertainm- ■ ' ■ lied a 
 " Lecture on Heads*," which i 1 no 
 
 small portion of ribbald drollery, and became 
 very jiopular. Several of his soni^'s have also 
 been much and deservedly udnurt-d. — Liimp, 
 MafT. 
 
 SI EVENS (WiLi.iAM Pacjsiiaw) an epi- 
 scopal clergyman, who obtained some dis- 
 tinction as a poet. He was boni in 1756 at 
 Abingdon, in Berkshire, and received his edu- 
 cation at Magdalen college, Oxford, where he 
 obtained a fellowship, and took the dt-gree of 
 Dl). He also became rector of Seckington, 
 and vicar of Kingsburv, in the cuunty of Uar- 
 wick ; and he died at Rfpton, in l)frbv.«.Iiire, 
 .May 28, 1800. Dt Stevens was a cotre- 
 sj)oiuling cuiitril)utor to the Genth-man's !\Ia- 
 gazine, under the signature M. C. S. ( i. e. 
 .Magdalen. Colleg. Semisoc.); and iu the second 
 volume of the Topographer are three " IdylU" 
 of his composition. He was aUo the author 
 of " Retirement, a Roem," 178'.'. Uo ; and 
 " Sermons," 3 vols. 8vo. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 SIKVKN.SON (John Hai t.) a ' '' . , 
 possessed of a landed estate in ^ oi i 
 
 resided at Skelton castle, in that county, and 
 was distiui^uibhed for his laUiit.'» as a writ«r i f 
 satirical and humorous poetry. He was bom 
 in 1718, anil received Ids education at Jesus 
 college, Cambridge. He became the frit-nil of 
 Lawrence Sterne, and it is suppos^ed that tlieir 
 intimacy commenced at the university, a.-* th«y 
 were members of the same college. Mr Ihtll 
 Stevenson afterwards made the tour of Kur<r,>e. 
 .itid on his return home pa.<s<d his time in con- 
 vivial society or literary occupation, either in 
 London or the country, till his death, whicii 
 took place in March l78j. lie was a man of 
 
SI E 
 
 a peculiar genius and ,;urn of fancy, and it 
 appears from his writings, that as he sought 
 amusement in tracing the ridiculous features 
 in human life and manners, so he also felt for 
 the misfortunes of his fellow-creatures. He 
 sat for the portrait of Eugenius in Sterne's 
 Tristram Shandy ; and thougli the hand of 
 friendship is obvious in the graces of the por- 
 trait, its likeness has been acknowledged by 
 all wlio knew tlie original. His works con- 
 sist of "Crazy Tales;" " Fables for Grown 
 Cjentlemen ;" " " Lyric Epistles ;" *' oMoral 
 Tales ;" iS;c. first published separately, and 
 together with some additional pieces, ]trinted 
 in 3 vols. 8vo, 179."). — I'rij'. to the Works of J. 
 Hall Stevenson, Esq. 1795. 
 
 STEVENSON (Wilmam) an able and in- 
 dustrious antiquarian, of which society he was 
 a fellow. He was a native of East Retford, 
 Notts, where his father, who held the rectory 
 of Tresswell in the same county, resided. In 
 17 '.'9 iNIr Stevenson served the office of sheriff 
 of the city of Norwich, and died ]May 13, 
 1821, in his seventy-second year, having been 
 upwards of thirty- five years proprietor of the 
 Norfolk Chronicle. He j)ublished in 1812, 
 from his own pre&s, a corrected edition of Beno 
 rhfvrrr's History of Dy Cathedral, with a me- 
 moir of the author, which he followed uj) five 
 years afterwards by a supplement, and drew 
 up an interesting memoir of his friend Ignatius 
 Sancho, printed in the ninth volume of Ni- 
 chols's " Literary Anecdotes." — Nichols's Lit. 
 Anec. Gent. Mag. 
 
 STEVIN (Simon) or STEYINUS, a Fle- 
 mish mathematician, born at Bruges, some 
 time beyond the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He was employed in Holland, as in- 
 spector of the dykes, by prince iMaurice of 
 Nassau, and he is celebrated for the invention 
 of the sailing chariot, which was moved en- 
 tirely by the imjiulse of the wind. He was an 
 excellent j)ractical mathematician and mecha- 
 nist, and was the author of several useful 
 works in the Dutch language, on arithmetic, 
 algebra, geometry, statics, optics, trigono- 
 metry, geography, astronomy, and fortification, 
 all of which have been translated into Latin 
 by Snellius, and puldished in two volumes, 
 folio. A full account of the inventions of 
 Stevinus will be found in our authoiity, under 
 the article Algebra. — Hutton's I\Iuth. Diet, 
 
 STEWART DEMlAxM (sir Jamls) an 
 eminent political writer, was born at Edin- 
 burgh October 10, 1713. He was the only 
 son of sir James Stewart of Goostrees, baronet, 
 solicitor-general of Scotland, under queen Anne 
 and George 1. Having gone through his aca- 
 demical courses at Edinburgh he went to the 
 bar as an advocate ; and then proceeded on a 
 tour through all the j)rincii)al countries of Eu- 
 rope, which occupied him five years. He re- 
 turned to Scotland in 1740. and in 1742 he 
 married lady Frances, daughter of the earl of 
 W'emyss. While abroad he had formed an 
 intimacy with the pretender, which connection 
 it was presumed led him to J>dinburgh in 
 1745, in support of that unfortunate personage, 
 on the defeat of wliose party he retired to 
 
 ST E 
 
 France, and settled at Sedan. In 1755 he 
 removed his family to Flandars, and began to 
 communicate his literary labours to the jMibiic. 
 The works which first appeared were a " Vin- 
 dication of Newton's Chronology," 1757 ; 
 " A Treatise on German Coins," 1758 ; " A 
 Dissertation on the Doctrine and Principles of 
 IMoney as applied to the German Coin," 1761. 
 He had during this time removed to Tubingen, 
 whence he subsequently repaired to Antwerp; 
 from which town having made an excursion to 
 the Spa, he was, in consequence of some sus- 
 picion on the part of the French authorities, 
 arrested as a spy ; but a peace soon after tak- 
 ing i)lace he was restored to liberty. Having 
 at length received an assurance that he would 
 not be molested on account of his former poli- 
 tical attachments, lie returned to Scotland in 
 1763, and soon after settled at his estate of 
 Coltness. In this retirement he concluded 
 his " Inquiry into the Principles of Political 
 Lcouomy," the result of eighteen years' labo- 
 rious research. Upon this work there has 
 existed much difference of opinion ; but it is 
 now generally admitted to exhibit great acute- 
 ness and industry, which are unhappily ob- 
 scured by considerable defects in style and 
 method, which induced Dr Adam Smitli to 
 say that he could understaiul his system better 
 from his conversation than his writings. By 
 the interest of his friends he obtained a full 
 pardon under the great seal in 1771, and 
 from that jieriod until his death published va- 
 rious works, the principal of which are " Prin- 
 ciples of iMoney applied to the present State of 
 the Coin of Bengal :" " A Plan for introducing: 
 a Conformity of Weights and Measures;" " Ob- 
 servations on Beattie's Essay on rruth ;" " Cri- 
 tical Remarks on the Atheistical Falsehoods 
 in JMirabaud's System of Nature ;" " A Dis- 
 sertation concerning the Motive of Obedience 
 to the Law of God ;" all which, with the rest 
 of his productions, were published in 1BU5 in 
 6 vols. 8vo. He died in November 1780, aged 
 sixty-seven. — Life annexed to M'orks. 
 
 STEWART (John) commonly called W'alk- 
 ing Stewart, from his pedestrian feats, an 
 eccentric but clever individual, who in the 
 course of a long life wandered on foot over 
 the greater j)art of the habitable globe. He 
 was born in Bond-street, London, and having 
 received the rudiments of education at the 
 Charterhouse, was sent out in 1763 as a wri- 
 ter to jMadras, through the interest which his 
 frit nds had with the earl of Bute. In this 
 situation he remained not quite two years. 
 Being smitten with a strong indication to tra- 
 vel, he wrote a letter to the court of directors, 
 which, from its remarkable character, has been 
 preserved on their records as a curiosity to this 
 day. Adverting to his design of travelling, 
 he told them that " he was born for nobler 
 pursuits than to be a coj.ier of invoices and 
 bills of lading to a company of grocers, ha- 
 berdashers, and cheesemongers ;" and witbin 
 a few weeks after the transmission of his 
 epistle, he took his leave of the presidency. 
 In spite of the remonstrances of his friends, 
 who sent after him, intreating him to return 
 
S T E 
 
 lie prosecuted his route over llindostan, walk- 
 ing to Delhi, to Per^epolis, and other parlii of 
 Persia, traversiiij; the greater part of tlie 
 Indian peninsula, anil vi^iiini^ Abyssinia and 
 >ii:bia. Knteriny the ('arnatic, lie oh'aincd 
 the favour of the then nawaub, who made Iiiin 
 liis private secretary, and lo tliin circuinstatK c 
 he in Ids latter days o\v<d iiis snppori, the 
 British house of (Jonimons voting? )iiin a few 
 years sin'e the sum of l."),00()/. in hipiidation 
 of his demands upon tlie nawaub. (^uitlinL; 
 the service of this prince, he imprudt-ntly set 
 out to walk to Seringapatam, where he was 
 arresteil bv the or.lera of ri]){)oo Saib, who 
 com])elled him to enter liis army, in whi( li lie 
 bestowed on him a commission as captain of 
 sepoys. While serving in this cajiacity. he 
 ■was engaged in several actions with the Mah- 
 rattas, and received a wound in the right arm, 
 nor did he succeed in quitting the situation in 
 which he was thus involuntarily ])laced, till 
 the exertions of sir James Sibbald, the com- 
 missioner for settling the terms of peace be- 
 tween the Presidency and the Sultan, pro 
 cured his liberation. This at length effected, 
 ]\ir Stewart started to walk to Europe, crossing 
 the desert of Arabia, and arriving at length 
 safely at Marseilles. Thence he proceeded in 
 the same manner, tlirough France and Sj)ain. 
 to liis native country. Having walked through 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, lie crossed 
 the Atlantic, and perambulated the United 
 States of America. In the course of tiiese 
 peregrinations he was frequently exposed to 
 dangers of no common magnitude, and once 
 on crossing from Ireland, narrowly escaped 
 shipwreck, in anticipation of which he en- 
 treated earnestly some of the crew, in case 
 they should survive him, to take care of a MS. 
 he then had about him, and intended to pub- 
 lish, which he called his " Opus jMaximum." 
 The last ten years of his life were passed in 
 London, in tlie vicinity of Charing Cross, that 
 he might be, to use his own expression, " in 
 the full tide of human existence ;" and in this 
 neiglibourhood he died, his decease taking 
 place at his liouse in Northumberland-street, 
 on the ^Oth of February, 1822. — .but. Bi,)>r. 
 
 STEWART, DD. (MATmtyv) professor of 
 mathematics in the university of Edinburgli, 
 ■was the son of the rev. Dugald Stewart, mi- 
 nister of Rothsay in the isle of I'mte, where 
 he was born in 1717. He received his aca- 
 demical education at the university of Glas- 
 gow, where he paid a devoted attention to the 
 mathematics, under the able instructions <-f 
 the celebrated Dr Simson, whose predilection 
 for the ancient geometry, in preference to 
 modern analysis, he fully imbibed. Pursuing 
 the same line of inquiry, he was led to a dis- 
 covery of the curious propositions which lit- 
 published in 1746, under the title of " General 
 Theorems." While thus engaged he had en- 
 tered in CO the church, and obtained the living; 
 of Rosneath ; but the mathematician's chai: 
 in tlie university of Edinburgh becoming sooi. 
 after vacant by the death of Maclaurin, lie was 
 in 1747 elected his successor. In this situa- 
 tion he still more systematically pursued ih. 
 
 S T K 
 
 "hject nearest his heart, namf-iy. lb'- hpi.tiiR. 
 lion of gi(.m<try to ^ul h prob.'.'t,,, a, tlu* hi- 
 t;( brair calcuhia alone had Uvn d.emtd abi.t 
 to resolve. HIh of K.-p|.-r'» prohlrni 
 
 N\nH th«- fifnt nj,. .. whi- '. ! — ,ho 
 
 world. It app'-ared in ilu- „f 
 
 tin- i;»!.rtyH of the Sf)riety of Ixiinburjjh, at.-tl 
 with farther diH< «iv«-rieB in tin* da of 
 
 iiupiirv. His " Tractii, Phyhi. id a Uv- 
 
 maiical," followed in 1761, m farther proae- 
 cution of his plan of intr. ' into dm 
 
 higlur branchcH of ibc nn -atlM-niatjcii 
 
 llie strict and simple fonn of ancient demon- 
 stration. Tb<' transit of \'enu», which took 
 |»lacr the same year, led to the ciimyotWum of 
 his '• Essay on the Sun's Distance." whuh al- 
 though not free from error, will alwayt be in- 
 teresting to the lovers of geometry. Soon afti-r 
 the publication of this work hiH lu-allh dr- 
 clined, and in 1772 he retired into the country. 
 In 177.5 his son, the since celebrated I)ut,'aid 
 Stewart, was elected joint nroft-ssor with him ; 
 and still pursuing his mathematical researcbe« 
 as an amusement, he lived ten years lon'^er in 
 retirement, dying in .January 17H>, at thr ag« 
 of sixty-eight. Besiilea the works already 
 mentioned, he wrote " Propositioneg Geome- 
 tric<E mode Veterum demonslrat;e." — I'Ainb, 
 Phil. Tiaiisactiiuis. 
 
 SPEW ART (Robert) marquis of Ix>n- 
 donderry, a consjiicuous modern statesman, was 
 the second son of the first marquis by lady 
 Sarah Frances Seymour Conway, sister to the 
 first marquis of Hertford. He was born in the 
 north of Ireland, June IH, 1769, and was edu- 
 cated at Armagh, after which he became a 
 commoner of St John's college, Cambridge. 
 On leaving the university he made the tour of 
 Europe, and on his return was chosen member 
 in the Irish parliament for the county of 
 Down. He joined the opposition in the first 
 place, and declared himself an advocate for 
 parliamentary rei'orm ; but on obtaining a scat 
 in the Hritish parliament he took his station 
 on the ministerial benches. In 1797, having 
 then become lord Castlereagh, he returned to 
 the Irish parliament, and the same year be- 
 came keeper of the privy seal for that ki- 
 and was soon after appointed one of t!i . . a 
 of the treasury. The next year lie was nomi- 
 nated secretary U) the lord-Iieulenant. and by 
 his strenuous exertions and great abilities in 
 the art of removing opposition, the union with 
 Ireland was very mainly facilitated. In 
 the united parliament he sat as u : ' 
 for the county of Down, and in lli 
 made president of the board of coniroul. In 
 18<).b he was appointed s«'cretarv of war and 
 colonies ; but on the death of Mr J'lll he re- 
 tired until the dissolution of the brii-f admi- 
 nistratioii of 1806 restoreil him to tlie same 
 situation in UU)/ ; and he held his office until 
 the ill-fated expedition to Walcheren. and Ins 
 remarkable duel with his colleague, Mr Can- 
 ning, j^roduceil his resii:nation. In 1R12 lie 
 succeeded the n.arqnis of Wellesley as fort-igu 
 secretary ; and the following year proceeded 
 to the continent, to assist the coalesced powers 
 in negociating a general peace. His service* 
 
S'i 1 
 
 after the capture of Napoleon, and in the ge- 
 neral paciHcation and arrangements, which 
 liave been usually designated by the pluase 
 '« the settlement of Europe," form a part of 
 history. It is sufficient to notice here that 
 be received the public thanks of parliament, 
 and was honoured with the order of the garter. 
 On the death of his father in April 1821 he 
 succeeded him in the Irish marquisate of Lon- 
 donderry, but still retained his seat in the Bri- 
 tish house of Commons, where he acted as 
 leader. After the arduous session of 1824, in 
 which liis labour was unremitting, his mind 
 was observed to be much shattered, but un- 
 ha})pily, although his physician was appri^e(l 
 of it, he was suffered to leave London for his 
 seat at North Cray in Kent, where on August 
 24, 1824, he terminated his existence by in- 
 flicting a wound in his neck with a penknife, 
 of which he died almost instantly. The po- 
 litical character of this nobleman will be re- 
 garded differently by opposing partisans. It 
 was certainl)' never in a strict sense very po- 
 pular, althougli exceedingly influential in his 
 immediate sphere. He has been censured on 
 the one side for severe, rigid, and persecuting 
 domestic government ; and for an undue coun- 
 tenance of despotic encroachment and arrange- 
 ment as regards the social progress of Eu- 
 rope. His party and supporters in answer to 
 thej^e strictures for the most part plead poli- 
 tical necessity and expediency, while no mean 
 portion of them defend his views on the 
 stronger ground of principle. The change of 
 temper jjroduced in the cabinet by his death, 
 and the increase of its popularity which fol- 
 lowed, will possibly be regarded as decisive 
 of the more general sentiment of the nation. 
 For the rest he was an active man of business, 
 and a ready although not an elegant orator. His 
 remains were interred in Weatminster abbey 
 with great ceremony, but not without an ex- 
 hibition of some marks of popular ill-will. He 
 married a daughter of the earl of Buckingham- 
 shire, bv whom he left no issue, being suc- 
 ceeded in his title by lord Stuart, his half- 
 brother, now marquis of Londonderry. — Ann. 
 
 Biotr. 
 
 SriERNHIELM (GEoncF.) a learned 
 Swede, born in 1598. He travelled through 
 various European countries ; and being in 
 London a little before the Restoration, he 
 assisted in thot-e conferences of the English 
 philosophers which led to the foundation of 
 the Roval Society. Returning to his own 
 country, he was employed in public affairs, and 
 was highly esteemed and trusf^'d by his sove- 
 reit;n Christina. Stiernhielm was skilled in 
 mathematics, natural philosophy, history, and 
 pliiiologv ; and he also cultivated poetry. He 
 is chiefly known as a j)hilosopher, and espe- 
 cially on account of his microscojncal experi- 
 ments. He died in 1672. He published the 
 Gothic version of the Gospels by Ulphilas, 
 Stockholm, 1671, 4to ; and several works re- 
 latino; to the languages and archaeology of the 
 northern nations. — Hw<r. Univ. 
 
 STILES. DD. and LED. (Ezra) an Ame- 
 rican divine and historian, born at North- 
 
 S 1 I 
 
 haven in the United States, November 29 
 1727. He became president of Yale college, 
 at Newhaven, in Connecticut, in 1778, when 
 he published " Oraiio Inauguralis habita in 
 Sacello Collegii Yaiensis," Hartfordiai, 1778, 
 8vo. He was also the author of a sermon en- 
 titled " The United States elevated to Glory 
 and Honour," second edition, Worcester, 
 178.5, 8vo ; and of a very curious " History 
 of three of the Judges of King Charles I, 
 Major General Whalley, Major General Goffe, 
 and Colonel Dixwell, who, at the Restoration, 
 1660, fled to America, and were secreted in 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut for near thirty 
 years ; with an Account of Theophilus Whale, 
 of Narragansett, supposed to have been one of 
 the Judges," Hartford, 1794, 8vo. Dr. Stiles 
 was also a contributor to the '• American Mu- 
 seum," in which appeared his " Correspond- 
 ence with Noah Webster, respecting the For- 
 tifications in the Western Country." He died 
 May 12, 1795. — New York Maguz. Beuss. 
 
 STILICHO, a Vandalic general, in the ser- 
 vice of the emperor Theodosius the Great, 
 whose niece Serena he married. Theodosius 
 having bequeathed the empire of the East to 
 his son Arcadius, and that of the West to his 
 second son Honorius, the former was left 
 under the care of Rufinus, and the latter under 
 the guardianship of Stilicho. No sooner was 
 Theodosius no more, than Tlufinus stirred up 
 an invasion of the Goths in order to i)rocure the 
 sole dominion, which Stilicho not only put 
 down, but was enabled to effect the destruc- 
 tion of his rival. After suppressing a revolt 
 in Africa, he marched against Alaric, whom 
 he signally defeated at Pollentia. After this, 
 in 406, he repelled an invasion of barbarians, 
 who penetrated into Italy under Rhadagasius, 
 a Hun or Vandal leader, who formerly accom- 
 panied Alaric, and produced the entire de- 
 struction both of the force and its leader. 
 Either from motives of policy or state neces- 
 sity, he then entered into a treaty with Alaric, 
 whose pretensions upon the Roman treasury 
 for a subsidy, he warmly supported. This con- 
 duct excited suspicion of his treachery on the 
 part of Honorius, who withdrew from his pro- 
 tection, and massacred all his friends during 
 his absence. He received intelligence of this 
 fact at the camp of Bologna, whence he was 
 obliged to flee to Ravenna. He took shelter 
 in a church, from which he was inveigled by a 
 solemn oath that no harm was intended him, 
 and conveyed to immediate execution, which 
 he endured in a manner worthy his great 
 military character. Stilicho was charged with 
 the design of dethroning Honorius, in order to 
 advance his own son Eucherius in his place, 
 and the memory of this distinguished ca[)tv.in 
 has been treated by the ecclesiastical his- 
 torians with great severity. Zosimus, however, 
 although otherwise unfavourable to him, ac- 
 quits him of the treason which was laid to his 
 charge, and he will live in the poetry of Clau- 
 dian as the most distinguishevi hero of his 
 age. — Gibbon. U)iiv. Hist. 
 
 SITLL (John) bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 was born in 154;>, at Grantham, in Lincoln- 
 
S T I 
 
 filiire. ile was admitted of Christ's rollofjc, 
 (,'nmbridgp. In 1670 lie was IMarijartt pro- 
 fessor at Cainbriilf^e, and lie received various 
 collegiate and other pn-ferment, until in \ •,[)() 
 lie was advanced to the see of Hath and 
 ^Vells, in which lie continued till his decease, 
 I'ehruary 2(5, I6t'7. 'i'hc historians of the 
 ilrama are of opinion that he was the author in 
 his youth of the curious old characteristic 
 j)lay of " (jammer Ciiirion's Needle," per- 
 formed at Caiul>ridi,'e in l.i7.S, and which has 
 heen republished in Dodsh'y'.s and other col- 
 lections. — Athen. Oiou. Fuller's Worllties. 
 
 STILLING FT, Ki:r (Kdwaud) bishop of 
 \\ orcester, a ])relate of great learnino and 
 aliility, as well as an acute and argumentative 
 p'lieinic. lie was descended of a respectable 
 ^ orkshire family, but his immeiiiate ancestors 
 were settled at Cranbourne, Dorsetsliire, where 
 ho was born in April, 163.i. lie received his 
 education at St John's cnllepe, Cambrid^je, 
 wliere he distin.,'uislied himself so much by 
 (lis industry ami talent, that he was elected in 
 If')j3 to the first feIlowshij)tliat became vacant 
 after he had taken his bachelor's degree in 
 arts. His rejiutation for wit at this jieriod 
 was not inferior to that which he had accjuireil 
 for severer qualifications, and his rrii)os 
 speech is quoteil as being j)eculinrly re])lete 
 with it. On <]uilling tlie university, be 
 lived for a short time at Nottingham, in 
 quality of tutor to the marquis of Dorches- 
 ter's nejjhew ; and about this period com- 
 menced a work calculated, as lie imagined, 
 though erroneously, to heal the existing 
 scliisms into which the nation was then more 
 especially divided. This treatise, entitled 
 " Irenicum, or a weapon Salve for the Wounds 
 of the Church," appeared in \6h9, and had 
 no other etlcct than that of uniting both par- 
 ties arrainst it. Previous to its publication the 
 
 S T I 
 
 William in. n..si.|,.H the writintji* ilrea^y 
 enumerat.a, ihin emmeiii toiitruvir : ' • u-jui 
 the author of numerou* oilur*. l•^ . , an 
 answer to CrelhuVH repiv to (jroli.i., «„'.,,. 
 p(-ialix to 1 illotiion'H " Hub ' I 1j." 16;*, • 
 " I he UnreasonableneBiiof > n.'loO.i' 
 
 and a highly valuable work, ri-plcte h'uIi anii-' 
 quarian research, " ()riL;iiie, I' „f 
 
 Aiiti<iuities of the Churcb.i- in 1 
 
 .lO, 
 
 H»1J.>. A short lime Ix-fore liiit death bi,!,„,, 
 
 Siilhngfleet enga-.-d in a controversy with ihc 
 
 celebrated John Locke, rehjRctini,' nom • -• 
 
 of that philosopher's writin^H, whah ).■ 
 
 ceived had a leaning lowanls maieriaium • 
 
 but fouml in his opponent a mu( h sturdier an* 
 
 tagonistthan he had before ex]teri.-nrt,l, „nj 
 
 has generally been regarded as in this inmame 
 
 defeated. His decease took place March 27, 
 
 Ki'.'!.', of an attack of the gout, at his Ijoujm? iii 
 
 Park-street, and his remains were interred in 
 
 Westminster abbey, with an inscription from 
 
 the pen of I)r Hentley. As a dioce«ian he wa.* 
 
 etpially celebrated for his piety, learning, and 
 
 munificence ; and, with some loftinejw of rem- 
 
 per, in private life for the general amiability of 
 
 his disposition and manners. His works have 
 
 been collected and published entire in six folio 
 
 volumes, 1710. — /i/.ur. Brit. 
 
 SriLLLN'GKLLLi" (Bknjamiv) grandsoa 
 of the above, and son to the rev. F^lward Siil- 
 lini,'fleet, rector of Wood Norton, in the county 
 of Norfolk, where he was born in 170^. His 
 father ai)pears to have displeased his family, 
 by what tliey considered an unequal alliance, 
 and this circumstance seems to have hail a 
 material and unfriendly influence upon the 
 prospects of his son. Its ill elVects were first 
 manifested when, after having gone through 
 the grammar school of Norwich with credit, 
 and distinguished himself at Trinity-coHeije, 
 Cambridge, the interference of the master, who 
 author had taken up liis abode at \Vroxall in ' had been chaplain to tlie bishop, prevented 
 
 Warwickshire, the family seat of his friend 
 and jiatron, sir Roger I'urgoyne ; and having 
 taken holy orders, obtained in 1657, through 
 the interest of that gentleman, the rectory of 
 Sutton in P.edforilsliire. Five years after- 
 wards appeared his greatest work, under the 
 title of " Origines Sacra-, or a Raticnal Ac- 
 count of Natural and Revealed Religion." 
 This has since gone through a variety of edi- 
 tions, and is justly j)rized for the elegance of 
 its style and the erudition which it displays, 
 lie followed it up in 1 ()('>4 by a similar treatise 
 " On the Origin and Nature of Protestantism," 
 whicli, together with an able answer to 
 " Laud's Labyrintli," a severe attack upon the 
 primate, written about the same time, gained 
 him the preachership of the lioll's chapel and 
 
 his being elected a fellow of that society. 
 Having taken the degree of HA. Mr Stilling, 
 fleet went abroad, and travelled throui;h Italy 
 in quality of tutor to the son of Mr Windham ; 
 but being fortunate enough to obtain the pa- 
 tronage of lord Rarrington, that nobleman, on 
 his return to Kn^laiul, olilaineil him th'- situa- 
 tion of barrackiiiaster at Kensin^;toii in I7(.0. 
 The emoluments of this appointment, and a 
 handsome bequ">i left him bv bis former 
 puj)il, enabled him to live in romfurt. and to 
 devote himself to the study of nntuinl history, 
 of which he was jiassionately fond. The fruits 
 ' f his literary labours are " The Calend.ir of 
 Flora;" " Miscellaneous TractH on Natuial 
 History ;" *' On the Principles and Power of 
 Harmony," Ito ; an octavo volume of tr.tvtln. 
 
 the valuable rectory of St Andrew's, Holborn. ! and some poetical pieces. His death took 
 together with a stall in St Paul's cathedral. ' place at bis lodgings in I'iccadilly, Dec. l.->, 
 llfs subsequent rise in the church was rajud. , 177 1. and his remains were interred in thn 
 being appointed in succession chaplain to parish church of St .lames, Westminster. - 
 
 Auii. Ht'g. Life I'v Cote. 
 
 STILl'O, the .Mts;arean, a Sl(»ic philo- 
 
 Charles 11, archdeacon of London 1677. dean 
 of St Paul's 1678. Having; distinguished him- 
 self by the prominent i)art which he took pre- l sopher, who flovirished about the commrnce- 
 viousto the Revolution, a^'ainst the establish- ' ment of the third century before the (.hristi..n 
 ment of the Romish church in these realms, era. He was held lu great esteem by bis con- 
 he was elevated to the see of Worcester by j temporaries, for his sagacity, moilerauon. and 
 Bioc. DicT.— Vol. III. ' ^ 
 
STO 
 
 integrity, and several disputes, whicli threat- 
 ened serious consequences, occasioned by the 
 clashing interests of the Grecian cities, were 
 arranged by liis mediation, while his virtues 
 and character so far conciliated the regard 
 even of the enemies of his country, that on the 
 storming of his native city, especial directions 
 were issued by the assailants, tliat the person 
 and property of the philosopher sliould be re- 
 spected. He was a very subtle dialectician, 
 and it was one of his positions that species, or 
 universals, have no real existence, which ap- 
 pears to be an anticipation of the doctrine of 
 the nominalists, which so long afterwards was 
 to produce so much heat in the fif^ld of logic 
 and metaphysics. — Diog. Laert. Brucker. 
 
 STIRLING (vTames) an EngHsh mathema- 
 tician, wlio was born towards the end of the 
 seventeenth century, and educated at Oxford. 
 In 1717 he published " Lineae Tertii Ordinis 
 Neutonianns, sive Illustratio Tractatiis Neutoni 
 de Enumeratione Linearum Tertii Ordinis," 
 8vo, which procured him admission into the 
 Royal Society. This work was followed by 
 " MethodusDiffereniialis, sive Tract, de Sum- 
 matione et Interpolaiione Seriarum Infinita- 
 r.im/' 1730, 4to ; and in 1735 he published in 
 (he Philosophical Transactions a memoir on 
 the figure of the earth. The time of his death 
 is uncertain. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 ST013.EUS(John) the name of a Greek 
 writer, who, about the middle of the fifth cen- 
 turv, was the author of a variety of miscel- 
 laneous works, most of which have perished ; 
 but his collection of excerpta from those of 
 other learned philosophers and poets, has 
 come down to posterity under the title of 
 " Eclog:e," " Sententia?," and " Sermones." 
 Of this work there are several editions, the first 
 is that of Venice, 1536, in 4to ; another was 
 published in four octavo volumes by Heeren, 
 about the latter end of the last century. Ges- 
 ner printed his " Sententiae " in 1659. There 
 is also an edition of Stobaeus entitled " Ser- 
 mones," Lips. 1797. lie is regarded as a 
 pagan writer by Fabricius, as he quotes ex- 
 clusively from heathen authors. — Gesner Fro- 
 le^om. Fuhricii liihl. Gr. 
 
 STOCK (CriuisTiAN) a learned German 
 professor, born in 1672, at Camburg. He 
 studied at the university of Jena, where he 
 distinguished himself by his proficiency in the 
 eastern languages, and at length obtained the 
 professorship of Hebrew. Of his writings the 
 most valuable are his keys to the languages of 
 the Old and New Testaments. He was also 
 the author of an erudite treatise on the ex- 
 istence, mode, &c. of inflicting capital punish- 
 ment among the ancient .Tews. His death 
 took place at Jena in 1733. — Moreri. 
 
 STOCKUALE (Percival) the name of 
 an English clergyman, a native of l^ranxton, 
 in the county of Northumberland, where lie 
 was bom about the year 1736. He was sent 
 into Scotland for education, and studied at the 
 university of St Andrew's, where he gra- 
 duated, but afterwards embraced a military 
 life, and served abroad. His predilection for 
 the army at length gave way to circumstances, 
 
 STO 
 
 and on his return to England he recurred to 
 tlie line of life for which he had been origi- 
 nally designed, and entered the church iu 
 1759. Settling in the metropolis, he for some 
 time continued to support himself by combining 
 the profession of an author with that of his 
 ado])tion, till an opportunity offering in the 
 royal navy, he again entered the service, in 
 the capacity of chaplain to a king's ship, and 
 eventually obtained the livings of Long 
 Houghton and Lesbury, in his native county. 
 He was a tolerable critic, and published a 
 series of " Lectures on the Poets." an " Essay 
 on the Genius of Pope," and a " Biographical 
 Memoir of Waller," besides a volume of mis- 
 cellaneous poems of no great merit, and a few 
 sermons adapted for the navy. He also wrote 
 his own life with a most surprising degree of 
 vanity and self-sufficiency. His death took 
 place at the Rectory house, in Long Hough- 
 ton, in 1811. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 STOERK (Anthony, baron von) physician 
 to the court of Vienna, was born at the town 
 of Sulgau in Suabia, February 21, 1731. 
 Being left poor and friendless in his early 
 years, he was brought up at a house for the 
 indigent at Vienna; and he repaid by his 
 talents, application, and good behaviour, the 
 generosity of his benefactors. He studied 
 with great application, and in 1752 he took 
 the degree of NiA. In 1757 he received the 
 diploma of doctor of medicine ; and in 1760 
 he was nominated physician to the court. A 
 few years after he attended the empress Maria 
 Theresa, when ill with the small-pox ; and 
 her recovery raised him to the first rank in his 
 profession. He was made an aulic counsellor 
 and a barou of the empire. As the successor 
 of van Swieten he powerfully contributed to 
 the improvement of the art of medicine in the 
 Austrian states, and his professional zeal and 
 ability were conspicuous on every occasion. 
 He died September 11, 1803, leaving behind 
 him a fortune of half a million of florins. 
 Stoerk chiefly distinguished himself by his ex- 
 periments relative to the medical properties of 
 liemlock and other poisonous plants, particu- 
 larly stramonium, hyosciamus, aconite, and 
 colchicum. Besides his tracts on these me- 
 dicines, he published " Annus Medicus, quo 
 sistuntur Observat. circa IMorbos acutos et 
 chronicos ;" " Instituta Facultatis IMedicfR 
 A'indobonensis ;" and " Medico-practical In- 
 structions for Austrian Physicians in the 
 Army and the Country," 2 vols. 8vo. — Biog. 
 Unxv. 
 
 STOEVER (John Herman) a German 
 historian, born at Verden in 1764. He was 
 coadjutor with Schirach in a political jour- 
 nal from 1783 to 1706 ; and for several 
 years editor of the Courier of Altona. At 
 length he became rector of tli€ gymnasium of 
 Buxtehude, where he died in February 1792. 
 He published several historical works without 
 his name. — ^Vhen he quitted Schirach in 1786 
 his brother, Desiherius Henry Stoever, 
 succeeded 'him, and was till 1793 the prin- 
 cipal co-operator in the political journal. In 
 1788 he took the degree of doctor in philo- 
 
S T O S T U 
 
 80j)liy at Helmsludt. when he maintaiiicil a' SIOLUKKCi ( Knr neitu: t.i 
 thesis on Danisli history. In 17y:> ho was a iiolilfiiian ili«iinj;iji»h««i for h 
 entrusted with llie niana^cinciit of the ccle- 
 bnteil journal calh-cl thti " Impartial CorrcH 
 
 t.i, 
 
 'if- 
 
 j»cfnilcil from one of ihc tovi-rfit^n houM^ of 
 (jcrmany. lie wan horn N'oi'inUr 7, |7.'><|, 
 poniltMit of liamhur>,'." which lu' condiicif.l in ' at nranon-dt. in lloUir:,,. whrr«- I .' f ..i,«.,' 
 a manner creditable to his talents till his ImKI the olfiio of ^jraml hailli, liu at 
 
 death in April IB^J-i. Thoii-h he held no llalh- an.l (Jottiiij;.-n. and on qniliiriK tl.n la|. 
 public office he had the honorary title of coun- . ter univt-rsiiy hi- publinhcd a p • -' 
 
 seller of legation to the duke of Meckbnberi;, I latif»n of the Iliail. He ilir-n ; 
 and he was a kni>;lit of the ordiT of Vasa. his broihci ii/to Swii/erland and jialy 
 He ])ul)lished a Life of IJnna'us, 2 vols, Mvo ; Iiis reture home, jhc diikr of <)' 
 
 • • 
 anti on 
 
 a Collection of the Letters of that Naturalist ' prinre-bishop of f.ubeck. appointr -. !,ia 
 
 in Latin, Mvo ; and a CJerman work entitled I minister plenipotentiary in lienmark. In I7K.^ 
 " Our Ai;e," or a view of remarkal)le things, | he accepted h territorial ^'ovfrnnirnt in ilii» 
 and of the most celebrated men, forminf; a country of OhlenburL,' ; but prcvio mly i/, m- 
 
 manual of moilernliistory, Altona, 1791, 3 vols. 
 srOKFLKR. srOFLKRINUS, orSTOK 
 
 tcring on the duties of his oifii c lie »•«•» cm- 
 ployed on a diplomatic mission in KuMia. Ho 
 aubsequtntly resideil some time at Merlin, a^ 
 
 riiLLIlUS (Jori.v) a mathematician of the | ambassailor from the prince re-^ent of Dm- 
 
 fifteenth century, who was a native of Suahia. 
 He was professor of mathematics at Tubingen, 
 and enjoyed considerable reputation ; but 
 being, according to the fashion of the age in 
 which he lived, addicted to the study of astro- 
 logy, he hazarded a prediction of the occur- 
 rence of a great deluge to take place in l.i'24 ; 
 
 mark. Having visited Italy a scconti lime in 
 1790, he publishril his travels in (iermany, 
 Switzerland. Italy, and Sicily, 17'.U. 1 tnU. 
 8vo. translated into Knglish' by Thomas Hoi- 
 croft, l7!.>o-7, 2 vols. 4to. On his return to 
 Lutin, after eighteen months' absence, he wa< 
 made heail of the government, of the con- 
 and even the failure of liis prophecy did not I sistory, and the finances of the bishopric of 
 
 convince him of his folly. Besides works on 
 astrology, he was the auilior of " Cosmogra- 
 phical Delineations;" " An Elucidation of the 
 Structure of the Astrolabe ;" " Commentaries 
 on the Sj)here of Proclus ;" &c. His death 
 took ])Iace in 1.S31. — i^i'^g' l^niv. 
 
 S'TOFFLKT (Xiciiot as) general in chief of 
 llio royalist armies of La Vendee. Having 
 entered young into tlie army, he served for 
 
 Lulieck. His Ici-ure was dedicateil to study, 
 and lie employed Jiimsclf in translating some 
 of the dialogue* of f'lato, and the last diitcourm; 
 of Socrates, whuh were publi^^hed in three 
 volumes, octavo On the death of (,'atheritic 1 1 
 he was dispatchcil on an embassy of cc^n^ra- 
 tulaiion from the duke of Oldenburg lo tlio 
 emi>eror of Russia, Paul I, who bestowcil on 
 liitu the order of St Alexander N'ewski. The 
 
 some time as a common soldier, and after- 1 latituilinarian principles of the Lutheran 
 wards became gamekeeper to the count de j clergy in the latter part of the la«t century, 
 
 iMauIevrier. In INIarch 1793 observing that the 
 people of lower Anjou and the neighbouring 
 provinces were exasperated against the repub- 
 lican government, he raised the standard of 
 revolt ; and having taken possession of JJres- 
 suire he set free ^Messrs. de Marigny, de la 
 Rochejacquelin, de Lescure, Desessarts, and 
 others who hael been confined by the republi- 
 cans, and who became leaders of the \ endean 
 royalist forces. He afterwards resigned the 
 command of the army of Upper I'oitou to ^L 
 d'Klbee, under whose ordeia he acted till the 
 death of that general, when he resumed his 
 station. In 1793 Stofflet concluded a species 
 of armistice with the I'reuch government ; but 
 subsequently taking up arms he was made a 
 prisoner, and was shot at Angers, February 'J3, 
 1796. He was a native of Luneviile, and was* 
 forty-four years of age at the time of his death. 
 -Diet, des H. M. du ISme S. Biog. Univ. 
 STOKE (Melis, or Emit.u-s) a Dutch 
 chronicler, who wrote in verse, about the be- 
 ginning of the fourteenth century. He was a 
 priest, attached to the service of Florence V, 
 earl of Holland, to whom his work is dedi- 
 cated. The Chronicle of Stoke was first pub- 
 lished by Janus Dousa, in 1591 ; and reprinted 
 in 1620 ; but the best edition is that, of Bal- 
 thasar Huydecoper, 1772, 3 vols. 3vo, en- 
 riched with a valuable historical and philo- 
 logical commentary. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 had such an elTect on the mind of count Siol- 
 l)crg, that he determined at length to quit 
 their communion, in which he had been edu- 
 cated, antI to become a Catholic. He accord- 
 ingly made a public renunciation of I'ro- 
 testantism in 1800, and in the month of Sep- 
 tember thai year he relinquished all his em- 
 ployments. J.iterary pursuits and the edu- 
 cation of his children occupied the remainder 
 of his life, which was tirminatcd DecernlxT .5, 
 1819. He was twice married, first to .Agnes 
 von Witzlebeii, who diid in November 1788. 
 and then to the countess Sophia von Uederii. 
 He publisheil, besides the works already no- 
 ticed, " J'he History of the Chrisiian Re- 
 ligion," 1806, 13 vols. 8vo ; " The History of 
 Alfred the Great," ISl.i; Odes; Satires; 
 Translations from ^l^schylus, Sophocles, I'ln- 
 dar, \c. — His brother, Cmiustmn, count 
 Stolberg, was distinguished among the modern 
 poets of (jermany, and was a:; '■: - r and 
 liisciple of Klopstock. He was i ;. \.i, 
 
 1748, and died January 18. 1821. — Hu^g. Una: 
 S T()LL ( M A xi.Mii MN ) a celebrated Ger- 
 man physician, born in Suabia, in 174:^. His 
 father was a surgeon, and he was dostiucd for 
 the same profession ; but the sight of ao o|>c- 
 ration so much disgusted him, that he relin- 
 quished the stuiiy of surgery, and obtained 
 admission into the college of the Jesuits at 
 I Rotweil. After a three years' noviciate, he 
 
 y 2 
 
STO 
 
 entered into the order in 1761 ; but being fm- 
 ployed to teacli the classics at Halle, in the 
 'I'vrol, his mode of instruction displeased his 
 superiors, and he left the society in 1767. He 
 ilien determined to apply himself to the study 
 of medicine, which he prosecuted at Stras- 
 lairg and at Vienna, where he was admitted 
 i\u5. in 1772. A few montlis afterwards he 
 was nominated physician to a canton in Hun- 
 frary, and in 1776 he removed to Vienna, 
 where he succeeded Dr de Haen as a medical 
 h-cturer. He died March 23, 1788. Among 
 his works are " lUtio Medendi," 1777 — 80, 
 •I vols. 8vo, of which there is a French trans- 
 hition ; " Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Cu- 
 r.mdis Fehribus," 1787, Bvo ; " Prii-lectiones 
 in diversos Morbos chronicos," 1788 — 9, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; and " Dissertationes mcdicfe ad Morbos 
 < hronicos pertinentes, in IJniversitate Vindo- 
 bouensi habit;e," 1788 — 9, 4 vols. 8vo, which, 
 as well as the preceding, was published after 
 the death of the author, by Eyerel. Professor 
 Stoll was a great advocate for inoculation of 
 the small-pox, which he extensively practised. 
 — Bifls;. Univ. 
 
 STOLLE (Gottmkd), THEOPHILUS 
 STOLLIUS, a German critic and biblio- 
 grapher, bom at Lignit/, in Silesia, in 1673. 
 He studied at P>reslau and Leipsic, and after- 
 wards travelled in Holland and Germany with ' 
 a young nobleman, to whoin he was tutor. He I 
 tlien went to Halle and Jena to complete his i 
 arademical education, and in 1703 maintained j 
 a tliesis " De splendida magis qnam solida | 
 Ethnicorum Philosophorum JJoctrina niorali." 
 Having taken his degrees he became rector of I 
 the gymnasium of Hildburghausen ; and in ; 
 17 II having been aggregated to tlie faculty of 
 ])hilosophy at Jena, he subsequently obtained i 
 the professorsliip of that science. In 1738 
 lie was nominated keeper of the university i 
 library at Jena ; and he died in that city, i 
 JMarch 14, 1744. His princip:d work is an \ 
 " Introduction to tlie History of Literature," | 
 of whicli there is a Latin translation by 
 Chatles Henry Lange, 17'28, 4to. He also 
 j)ublished remarks on " Heumanni Conspectus 
 J{(ij)ublic:u Litteraria^ ;" " Observations on 
 the most important P»ooks in the Library of G. 
 Stolle ;" " An exact View of the Lives, Wiit- 
 incrs, and Doctrines of the Fathers of the 
 f^hurch in the fir.-tfour Centuries," &c. — J'^iog. 
 Univ. 
 
 S'I'ONE (Edmund) an eminent matliemati- , 
 cian, who was a native of Scotland, and was 
 the son of the duke of Argyle's gardener ; but } 
 the time and place of his birth are not exactly : 
 known. ^Vith the assistai;ce of books only, 
 he learnt Latin and French and the elements 
 of mathematics. ]>efore he was eighteen he 
 liad acquired a knowledge of geometry and 
 analysis ; and l)is proficiency having engaged 
 the attention of the nobleman, in whose gar- : 
 liens lie was employed under his father, an 
 occupation was procured for him which left 
 bim leisure for his favourite pursuits. He at 
 length went to London, where be made him- 
 self known by his talents : and in 1725 he was 
 chosen a ftllow of the Royal Society, but his 
 
 STO 
 
 name was erased from the registers of that 
 learned corporation in 1742 or 1743. Being 
 obliged to employ himself in writing for a sub- 
 sistence, he rather injured than increased his 
 reputation by some of his productions ; and he 
 died in poverty in March or April 1768. Be- 
 sides several articles in the Philosophical 
 Iransactious, he published English transla- 
 tions, and improved editions of mathen-.atical 
 works. }Iis principal work is " A New Ma- 
 thematical Dictionary," first printed in 1726, 
 8vo ; and he was the author of " A Treatise 
 on Fluxions," 1730, 8vo, partly taken from 
 the marquis de rilospital's " Analyse des In- 
 finiments Petits ;" and " Some Reilections on 
 the Uncertainty of the Figure and ^Magnitude 
 of the Earth, and on the different Opinions of 
 the most celebrated Astronomers," 1766, Bvo. 
 — Eucijclop. Britan. Biog. Univ. 
 
 S'i'ONE (Jerome) the sou of a mariner, 
 was born in the county of Fife in Scotland. 
 His father dying abroad when he was but three 
 years old, and his mother being in straitened 
 circumstances, he obtained only such a com- 
 mon education as was afforded by the parish 
 school, after which lie became a travelling 
 chapman or pedlar. The love of literature in- 
 duced him to exchange the sale of haber- 
 dashery for that of books, that he might have 
 an opportunity for reading. He studied Greek 
 and Hebrew, and after learning enough of 
 those languaires to be able to read the Old and 
 New 'J'estaments in the original tongues, he 
 acquired a knowledge of Latin. He was en- 
 couraged to prosecute his studies at tlie uni- 
 versity of St Andrew's, whence he was recom- 
 mended as usher to the school of Duukeld ; 
 and two or three years after he succeeded to 
 the office of master in that seminary. He died 
 in the thirtieth year of his ase in 17o7, leaving 
 imperfect an ingenious and learned work, en- 
 titled " An Inquiry into the Original of the 
 Nation and Language of the Ancient Scots, 
 with Conjectures about the primitive State of 
 tlie Celtic and other European Nations ;" an 
 allegorical tract entitled *• The Immortality 
 of Authors," which he also left in manuscript, 
 has been published and often reprinted since 
 his death. Some very humorous poetical 
 pieces of his composition appeared in the Scots' 
 Magazine. — Kncijclop. Brit. 
 
 STONE (Nicholas) an English statuary of 
 eminence in the reigns of James I and his son. 
 He was employed under Inigo Jones on the 
 embellishments of the Banqucling-house, 
 Whitehall ; and the gate and porch of St 
 INlary's cburch, Oxford, also afford fine speci- 
 mens of hi? productions. He executed many 
 sejiulchral monuments, among which the best 
 known is that of the Bedford family, for which 
 he was paid 1120/. He died in 1647, aged 
 sixty-one. — Henry Stone, liis son, was also 
 a sculptor, but he was princijially noted as a 
 painter. He was an imitator of A'andyck, 
 some of whose portraits he copied with re- 
 markable fidelity. He passed several years in 
 Holland, France, and Italy; but he died in 
 London in 1633. — His younger brother, John 
 SroNii, was likewise a painter, and was em- 
 
STO 
 
 ployeil in Eo'^'land in tlie reigns of tlic two 
 Cliailcscs. Hi' stnclii'iJ under Cross, and i^oiny 
 abroad fur improvement, Jje remained there 
 tliirty-seven years, and ac(]uired a kn(»\vletli;e 
 of several lan^iua'^es. — Walpote, Hcvs's Ci/cl. 
 SrORACK (Si iPiiANo) an eminent (oin- 
 poser of dramatic nnisie, the son of an Italian 
 performer on the bass viol of the same name, 
 loni; settled in f^ondon, where the subject of. 
 this article was born in 176;>. Displaying 
 early in life a strontr musical talent, he was 
 sent by his f.itluT to Italy, that he mi^ht enjoy 
 every opportunity of cultivation, where his jjro- 
 gress was so rapid, that at this, the very com- 
 mencement of his career, he i)roduced his ce- 
 lebrated finale^to the first act of the " Pirates," j 
 and some others of his most linibhed composi- ' 
 tions. On his return to Enjjiand he resided \ 
 at Bath, till the friendship of the well-known 
 Blicliael Kelly j)rocurcd him the appointment 
 of composer to Drury-lane theatre. In this 
 capacity he continued to act with a daily in- 
 creasing reputation, till a violent attack of 
 gout in the head carried him otY in the llower 
 of his age iu 179t3. His compositions are re- j 
 markable for their fire and spirit, and his me- 
 lodies especially have not often been excelled. 
 His productions are the music to " The Doctor ! 
 and Apothecary," a farce, 1788 ; " Haunted 
 Tower," opera, 1789 ; " No Song no Supper," 
 farce, 1790; " Siege of Belgrade," opera, 
 1791 ; " Cave of Trophonius," musical inter- 
 lude, 1791 ; " Pirates," and " Dido," operas, 
 1792; " Prize," and " Glorious First of June, " 
 musical entertainments ; " Cherokee," and 
 •• Lodoiska," operas, 1794 ; " Three and the 
 Deuce," comic drama, 1795 ; " iMy Grand- 
 mother," farce, " Iron Chest," musical play, 
 and " iNIahmoud," an opera, 1796. — His sis- \ 
 ter, Anna Selina Stouack, an excellent 
 comic actress and accomplished singer, was a 
 pupil of Sacchiui ; and after singing at Flo- 
 rence, Vienna, &c. between the years 1780 
 and 1787 with great reputation, came to Lon- 
 don in the latter year, and soon rose to be a 
 first-rate favourite"^ in her profession, a station 
 which she maintained till her decease, which 
 took place in the neighbourhood of Loudon 
 in 1814. — Bio2;. Diet, of Music. 
 
 STOSCH (Piiii.iP, baron) a distinguished 
 antiquary, born March ti'i, \69i, at Cu^trin 
 in Germany, where his father was a physician 
 and burgomaster. He studied at Fraukfort- 
 on-t!ie-Oder, and was designed for the eccle- 
 siastical profession, but his taste led him to 
 devote his time to numismatics. In I7t)8 he 
 visited Jena, Dresden, Leipsic, and other 
 places in Germany, for the purpose of exa- 
 mining cabinets of medals and antiquities. In 
 1710, going to t!ie Hague, he was recommended 
 by his uncle, baron Schmettau, the Prussian 
 minister, to the celebrated Dutch statesman 
 Fagel, who employed hini on a mission to 
 England, where he became acquainted with 
 sir '^Hans Sloane, lords Pembroke, Wmchelsea, 
 Carteret, and other virtuosi. Iu I7l;5 he 
 went to Paris, and the following year to Rome; 
 and returning to Germany, be engaged in col- 
 lecting other antique curiosities besides me- 
 
 S'lO 
 
 •lals, particulntly cngrnvi-d gem*. At Aug*. 
 bur^j he fortunately diftiovrrt-U the crirbratrj 
 nnripnt ifin«rary called ilj.- •• " „ 
 
 ruble," wliuh htj BuhM-qiieully . . a 
 
 Eutjeno ; and it i« at pretvQt prrtcrveJ in the 
 iiuix-rial library at Vi.-m.n. H-- th.-u wi-ni to 
 Dnsden. where he wa« will m«-,vrd by the 
 king of Poland, who appomtiMl lum hi* coun- 
 sellor. At length lu! Bccvpted the oilier of re- 
 sident from the Entjlinh court ■ '' ■ ' i.o 
 pnri)ose of obHerviin; the coi.^ .,j. 
 
 tender and his ailhercntn. J his not vpry'ho- 
 n()iiral)le post l<ecoining exit .,^ 
 
 after the acces.sion of pojie ( . v ... ,,o 
 
 was disposed to favour the Siuartu. baron 
 Stosth thought jiroper to withdraw to Flo- 
 reiice. wh(fre he dud of apoplexv, NovemU-r 
 7, 17.)7. He deserves a place aiiion^ the moat 
 skilful and industrious anticjuaricH of hiatime; 
 his collections, and esj)ecially th<. ' a- 
 meos and engraved gems, being j Iv 
 
 valuable. A catalogue of the latter waa drawn 
 uj) by Winkelmann. The baron ' •' pub- 
 
 lished two voluinea of plates rej uj^ liia 
 
 gems, engraved by Picart and Adam Scliwc ick- 
 ard ; and he was also the author of a " Ix.'t- 
 ter on a newly-discovered Medal of the Em- 
 peror Carinus and Ids Consort," 17.^3, Ifo. — 
 Bifli^. l^nic. 
 
 Sro THARD (CiiAni.Ks Ai.i nro) an uti-t 
 and antiquary of great talent and researih, son 
 of 'I'hoinas Stothard, KA. bora July S, 1789. 
 He exhibited at an early age a Lreat fomlneBs 
 for drawing, wIikIi afterwards ripened into a 
 love for the art little short of enthuMaftm. 
 His jtainiings art- remarkable for the faithful 
 <lelineation which they exhibit of ancient co»- 
 tume, a subject to which he more especially 
 directed his attention, visiting for that pur- 
 pose not oi.ly the principal vestiges of anti- 
 quity in our own country, but extendim; his 
 researches to the continent. His drawint;s of 
 the efligies of various members of tin- lii>u»«* of 
 Plantagenet, taken from the aid)fy of Fuiite- 
 vraud, are equally curious and accurate ; and 
 it is gratifying to reflect that his ellorts not 
 only succeeded in preserving copies of iheitc' 
 interesting relics, but mainly contributed to 
 i save the originals ihem.-rlves from d«'.struc- 
 tion. In 1810 appeared hi^ celebrated pic- 
 ture of the death uf Richarvl II, equallv 
 valuable for the excellence of its execution, 
 and from the acmraey with which the r. ■ 
 of the period to which it refers is repr«- 
 ! In the same year appeared the first num(>er of 
 his Monumental Llh'^ies of Great Britain, thi- 
 tenth number of which w.is preparing for pub- 
 ! lication when a melancholy accident caiucil 
 him an untim*'lv death. In litlo he visite'l 
 France, ami commenccil at tin- instance of th«- 
 Antiipiarian Society his elaborate drawinu- 
 I from the celebrated tapestry dej>o»iteU at 
 ' Bayeux; which he afterwards, in a memoir ad- 
 ' dressed to the society, proved from internal 
 I evidence to be contemporary with the com- 
 monly received era of us protiuction, the pe- 
 riod succeeding the Norman conquest, satis 
 factorily refuting the objections of the abbe de 
 I la Rue. This little essay is to be found iu 
 
STO 
 
 the nineteenth Tolume of the Archfcologia. In 
 July 1819 he was elected a fellow of the An- 
 tiquarian Society ; and in the same year made 
 a series of drawings from the paintings then 
 lately discovered on the walls of the painted 
 chamber in the house of Lords. Being en- 
 gaged to make some illustrations for Mr 
 Lysons's INIagna Britannia, he set out for that 
 purpose on a tour through Devonshire, and 
 was employed in the act of tracing the stained 
 glass in a window over the altar of the parish 
 church of Bere Ferrers in that county, when 
 the ladder on which he was standing giving 
 way, he was precipitated to the earth, and his 
 head striking against the monument of a 
 knight in the chancel, his life was instanta- 
 neously terminated hy a concussion of the 
 brain. This fatal accident took place on the 
 28th May 18tn, in the thirty-fourth year of 
 his age. He left behind him several unfinished 
 manuscripts and unpuhlished drawings, espe- 
 cially a work on ancient seals, which he had 
 begun, and materials for a work illustrative of 
 the age of Elizabeth. He lies buried iu the 
 thurch which was the scene of his decease. — 
 inn. Biog. 
 
 STOW (John) a valuable historian and an- 
 tiquary, was born about 1525, in London, and 
 as is usually supposed in the parish of St Mi- 
 chael, Cornhill. His father was a tailor, to 
 which business he was also brought up ; but 
 his mind early took a bent towards antiquarian 
 researches, which became his leading pursuit 
 through life. He first exhibited himself as an 
 antiquary in an able settlement of the bound- 
 aries between Lime Street and Bishopsgate 
 wards. Continuing his studies, about the year 
 1560 he formed the design of composing the 
 annals of English history, to the completion of 
 wliich work he sacrificed his domestic con- 
 cerns, and quitted his trade. For the purpose 
 of examining records, charters, and other do- 
 cuments, he travelk'd on foot to several cathe- 
 drals and other public establishments, and as 
 far as his means would go, purchased old 
 books, MSS. and parchments, until he liad 
 made a large and valuable collection. Tlie 
 want of patronage obliged him at length to 
 intermit his favourite pursuits, until the 
 assistance which he received from archbishop 
 Parker enabled liim to resume them. In com- 
 mon with many other antiquaries he was 
 thought to be favourable to the ancient re- 
 ligion, and in 1568 an information was laid 
 against him as a suspicious person who 
 possessed many dangerous and supe.vatious 
 books. Dr Grindal, bishop of London, ac- 
 cordingly ordered an investigation of his study, 
 in which of course were found many pojus.'i 
 books among the rest, but the result has not 
 been recorded. Two years afterwards an un- 
 natural brother having defrauded him of his 
 goods, sought to take away his life by pre- 
 ferring one hundred and forty articles against 
 him before the dreaded ecclesiastical com- 
 mission. So base, however, was the perjury 
 and means employed on this occasion, that 
 lie was acquitted. He had previously printed 
 his first work, entitled a " Summarie of the 
 
 STR 
 
 Englyshe Chronicles," compiled at the instance 
 of the favourite Dudley, afterwards earl of 
 Leicester, which production was published in 
 1565, and afterwards continued by Edmond 
 Howes, who printed several editions. In 
 1585 he petitioned the lord mayor and court 
 of aldermen for two freedoms, in whicli request 
 he pleads his honourable mention, in various 
 works, of the worthy deeds of the notable 
 citizens of London. Four years afterwards he 
 claimed a pension on the same score, but with 
 what success does not appear. He contributed 
 largely to the improvement in the second edi- 
 tion of HoUingshed, in 1587, and gave cor- 
 rections and notes to two editions of Chaucer. 
 At length, in 1598, appeared his " Survey of 
 London," the work on which he had been so 
 long employed, and which came to a second 
 edition during his lifetime. He was very 
 anxious to publish his large chronicle, or his- 
 tory of England, but lived only to print an 
 abstract of it, entitled •' Flores Historiarum, 
 or Annals of England." From his papers 
 Edmond Howes published a folio volume, en- 
 titled " Stow's Chronicle," which does not 
 however contain the whole of that " far larger 
 work" which he had left in his study, tran- 
 scribed for the press, and which is said to have 
 fallen into the possession of sir Symonds 
 Dewes. It is painful to record the final suf- 
 fering and poverty of this ingenious and in- 
 dustrious man, one proof of which is recorded 
 in a licence granted him by James I, " to re- 
 pair to churches or other places to receive 
 the gratuities and charitable benevolence of 
 well-disposed people. "This act, so discredi- 
 table to the period, took place in the seventy- 
 eighth year of his age. He died aflilicted by 
 poverty and disease, in 1605, at the age of 
 eighty. Stow's " Survey " has run through 
 six editions, the sixth and last of which was 
 published in 1754, with considerable additions, 
 and a continuation of all the useful lists. Stow 
 is described as a man of cheerful aspect, and 
 mild and courteous behaviour. He was a cor- 
 rect and zealous antiquary, and a sincere lover 
 of truth, who never would be satisfied without 
 a recourse to original documents. He is uni- 
 formly referred to with respect, and may be 
 considered entitled to the lead among those in 
 his line of inquiry who claim the praise of 
 humble and industrious utility. — Fuller's Wor- 
 thies. Biog. Brit. Life hu Strupe. 
 
 STRABO, a famous ancient geographer, 
 who was a native of Amasia, a city of Pontus, 
 or Cappadocia. He lived in the reigns of the 
 first two lloman emperors, but the time of his 
 birth and death are not known. It appears 
 that lie studied grammar and rhetoric at Nyssa, 
 and that he was instructed in the principles of 
 philosophy in several of the most celebrated 
 schools of Asia. He was a great traveller, 
 and visited a considerable proportion of the 
 countries which he describes in his treatise of 
 " Geography," in seventeen books, the only 
 one of his works which have been preserved, 
 and which is justly reckoned among the most 
 important relics of antiquity. He also wrote 
 " Historical IMemoirs," which are cited by 
 
S TR 
 
 .Toseplius, by Plutarcli, ami by the aullior 
 himself ill liis Geography. 'J'hc priiicipal i-tli- 
 tioiis of Straho are tliose of Aldus, \ Cri. I.tKI, 
 folio; of Casauhon, Geneva, l.i87; ami ruriA, 
 1620. folio; of Alimlovefii, Amstenl. 1707, 
 2 vols, folio; of Si<bt'iikee9 an;l 'Izi hiukc, 
 Leips. 1796 — lUll, 6 vols. Mvo ; of Kalroin'r, 
 Oxford, 1807, '2 vols, folio ; ami of Coray, 
 l^tris, 1818 — 19, 4 vols. Rvo. A Frtiicli trans- 
 latioii >va3 i)ubli»heil al I'aris, IHO.t — r.>, h 
 vols. — Aikin's Gen. Bjo/^. I 
 
 STRAIiUS or STHAIU) (Wai ai lunirs) a | 
 Keneilictiue monk of the ninth century, who 
 distinguished himself by the extent of his 
 knowledge, and who was the author of nume- 
 rous works, including verses of extraonlinary 
 elegance for the period to wliich they are at- 
 tributed. Bale and Pits represent him as an 
 Anglo-Saxon, and the brollicr, or relation, of 
 the famous Beda ; but it is more probable that 
 he was a native of Suabia. He was educated 
 at the abbey of St Gall, whence about 818 he 
 removed to the abbey of Fulda. Returning 
 to St Gall he was appointed dean of that mo- 
 nastery in 842, and he at length became abbot 
 of Reichenau, in the diocese of Constance. 
 The emperor Louis 1 sent him on an embassy 
 to Charles the Bald, king of France, and 
 Strabo died at Paris, in the course of that 
 mission, about 849. A list of his works may 
 be found in the annexed authority. Among 
 them is a poem entitled " Hortulus," or the 
 Little Garden, which displays to great advan- 
 tage his talents as a writer of didactic j)oetry, 
 and the worthy precursor of Pontanus, Rapin, 
 and other georgical authors. — B/oij-. Utih. 
 
 STRADA (Famianus) an Italian historian 
 and elegant writer of modern Latin poetry, 
 born at Rome in 1572. He entered into the 
 society of the Jesuits in 1592, and became 
 professor of rhetoric at the Roman college, 
 where he resided till his death in 1649. His 
 most famous work is a " History of the "Wars 
 in the Netherlands," in Latin, written at the 
 request of the princes of Farnese, and ex- 
 tending from the death of Charles V to the 
 year 1590. This production was criticized by 
 cardinal Bentivoglio, who wrote on the same 
 events ; and it was virulently attacked by 
 Scioppius, in his «' Infamia Famiani Strada;," 
 the exai-^oerated censure of which injured the 
 credit of the critic more than that of tlie his- 
 torian. Strada is also advantageously known 
 on account of his " Prolusiones Acadmiica'," 
 which have been repeatedly published. In 
 one of these prolusions he has introduced in- 
 genious imitations of the style of the most 
 celebrated Roman poets, of which there are 
 many translations, including those published 
 by Addison in the Guaidian. — Tivaboschi. 
 
 Biog. Univ. Aikin. 
 
 STRADELLA (Alessandro) a Neapoli- 
 tan musician and composer, who with the ex- 
 ception jierhaps of Carissimi, was the most 
 celebrated writer of vocal music in the seven- 
 teenth century, about the middle of which his 
 reputation had reached its zenith. His pri- 
 vate history is as romantic in its progress as 
 melancholy in its termination. While yet a 
 
 ST R 
 
 very young man ho waj emi>lov/.l by a ^>n6 
 tian nobli? to inHlrucl hi« u ,i, 
 
 (a t;irl dcuff-ndrtl of n m 
 
 Rome, whom l»e had >■■ --.of 
 
 «inj;in|,'. A strong and mutual . ,.|H be. 
 
 tw<» n the master and tin- pui.W . an 
 
 <lopi-m«ut WBH iIk- lonsrijutui «-, aj. 
 fled to Home. To tluB city they w. : 
 by two rufTmnH, div ' 1 l,y ii,e furMdirn 
 \enetian with p(rii».j.;.u_> ordtr* t 
 nate Stradclla. ihu opp'jrtunuy " 
 the villains to carry lh«ir niur»I.T(m» dr*iKu 
 into execution wa.H the 
 torio of their intiiuKii v, 
 
 tion, in which he was both to play and kiog 
 the })rincii)al part in the church of St John 
 Lateraii ; on his return from which tl • 
 termined to avail themselves of the «i 
 of the evening. Kntcrin^ the church dunu(( 
 the performance of tin; music, they |. ' ' 
 to wait (juielly till its couclu>i«n, but I ,, 
 fore that took place their luarls were »o »of- 
 tcned by its excellence, that they found it im- 
 possible to execute their design, and accfslin;; 
 him afterwards in the street, confeswd ih^-ir 
 errand, recommending him to flee to aoii 
 asylum. He took their advice, and rtu;- i * 
 Turin, where the duchess of Savoy, to whom 
 they confessed their danger, placed the Udy 
 in the security of a convent, and rei- ' Tit. 
 
 della in the palace in quality of cha; . t.er. 
 
 Their vindictive enemy however, enraged at 
 learning their escape, sent afier them two 
 other emissaries of a more delermine'l cha- 
 racter and less accessible to the charms of 
 music, who after residing for some lime in t!>e 
 city under ai)assport from the abhd- l)'K«rtrade, 
 the French ambassador at Venice, in the cha- 
 racter of merchants, at length surprised Stra- 
 dclla walking one evening on the rampaics, 
 and plunged their daggers into his brea>t. Tlus 
 done, they took refuge in the house of the 
 marquis de Villars, ambassador from the court 
 of France to that of Turin, who in^istin<' ou 
 his privilege, refused to give them up ; and 
 eventually, though undeceived as to their as- 
 sumed characters, alluweil them to esc ' i 
 the mean time Stradclla, who<e \ 
 though serious were not mortal, slowly reco- 
 vered, and a year having elapj^cd. h' ' ! the 
 
 vengeance of his enemy had been ^ In 
 
 this supposition he was fatally deceived, for 
 being invited to Genoa to compose au o|H'r* 
 in the year 1678, he set out with hts wife 
 Hortenfia for that city, iutendmg U) rt-turn to 
 Turin in time for the camivaJ ; but 
 ' had they reached the pK»c»'of tV: - ' 
 j when a third pet of assas,»itis t 
 ' enter their chamber early one momiDC and 
 stabbing tnem both to the heart « r' 
 escape, by means of a boat whu 1. 
 them in the port. Of the worL« of this un- 
 fortunate man and delightful composer the 
 most celebrated are " John the Baptist," an 
 oratorio written for five voices ; and a serious 
 opera, the production of which at Genoa 
 proved so disastrous to him, entitled " La 
 Forza deir Amor paterao," — Bio^. Diet. ^J 
 Mhs. 
 
^ STK 
 
 STIlADlVARIUS(ANTHONY)acelebraled 
 niusical-instrument-maker, born at Cremona, 
 about 1670. He was tlie last and the most 
 skilful pupil of the Amati, w!io for more tlian 
 a century enjoyed the reputation of being the 
 first lute-manufacturers in Europe. The vio- 
 lins of Stradivarius are extremely valuable, 
 es])ecially tliose fabricated between 1700 and 
 1722. He died about 1728. — Biog. Univ. , 
 
 STRAHAN (William) an eminent printer, 
 who was a native of Edinburgh. Having ac- 
 (juircd a knowledge of his profession, he re- 
 moved to London, and entered into business. 
 He succeeded so well that in 1770 he was 
 enabled to purchase a share of the patent 
 office of king's printer. In 1775 he became 
 IMP. for the borougli of IMalmesbury, having 
 for his colleague tlie celebrated C. J. Fox ; and 
 in the next parliament he had a seat for Wot- 
 ton Basset. Mr Strahan, w!io was much es- 
 teemed by persons of rank and learning, was 
 himself an author, having written a paper in 
 " The ]Mirror," and some other pieces. He died 
 in 178.5, aared seventy. — XichoWs Lit. Anec. 
 
 STRALENBERG (Philip John) a Swe- 
 dish military officer, born in Pomerania in 
 1676. His proper name was Tabbert, which 
 was changed for that of Stralenberg, when his 
 family was ennobled by Charles XII in 1707. 
 After having served in Poland, he accompa- 
 nied the king of Sweden in his Russian expe- 
 dition, and was present at the battle of Pul- 
 towa, where he was taken prisoner. He was 
 carried to Moscow, and at length sent to Si- 
 beria, where he continued thirteen years. He 
 obtained permission to travel in the interior of 
 the country, of which he made a geometrical 
 survey, and confided tlie care of his papers to 
 a merchant of Moscow, on whose death they 
 fell into the hands of the emperor Peter I. 
 Stralenberg continued his labours, and having 
 preserved copies of his charts and memoirs, 
 when he liad completed his design he was 
 allowed to return to Sweden. The emperor 
 would willingly have retained him in his ser- 
 vice, but he rejected the offers made him, and 
 went to Stockholm, where his sufferings in the 
 cause of liis sovereign were but indilfereuily 
 rewarded. He obtained in 1724 the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel, with the pay of a captain ; 
 atid in 1740 he was appointed commandant of 
 the fortress of Carlsham, where he died in 
 1747. He published at Lubeck, in 1730, in 
 the German language, his " Historico-Geo- 
 graphical Description of the North-east Por- 
 tion of Europe and Asia," 4to. — Aildn's Got. 
 Bing. Bing, Univ. 
 
 STRANGE (sir RonEHT) an eminent engra- 
 ver, born in Pomona, one of the Orkney islands, 
 in 172.5. He first studied painting, and being 
 at Edinburgh in 174.5, he was induced to enter 
 the army of the pretender, after whose de- 
 feat at Culloden he concealed himself for some 
 time in the Highlands, and then returned to 
 Edinburgh to pursue his studies. At length 
 lie went to Paris, and became the pupil of Le 
 Bas, who excelled as a landscape engraver. 
 Strange however devoted his talents to histo- 
 rical engraving, in which he arrived at great 
 
 STR 
 
 eminence. In 1751 he settled in London, 
 and after residing there about seven years, he 
 took a journey to Italy, where he remaiued 
 a considerable time, and was admitted a mem- 
 ber of several Italian academies of the fine 
 arts, and of the academy of painting at Paris. 
 He received the honour of knighthood in 1787, 
 and died in London in 1795. He published 
 in 1769 " A Descriptive Catalogue of a Col • 
 lection of Pictures selected from the Roman, 
 Florentine, Lombard, Venetian, Neapolitan, 
 Flemish, French, and Spanish Schools, with 
 Remarks on the principal Painters and their 
 Works, with a List of thirty-two Designs 
 from the best Compositions of the great Mas- 
 ters, collected and drawn during a Tour of 
 several Years in Italy," 8vo. — Aikin's Gen, 
 Biocr. 
 
 SrRAPAROLA DI CARAVAGIO(JonN 
 
 Francis) an Italian novelist of the sixteenth 
 century, of whose personal history so little is 
 known that it is uncertain whether the de- 
 signation applied to him is that of his family 
 or a name assumed, according to a common 
 custom of his literary contemporaries. One of 
 his publications, " Sonetti, Strambotti, Epis- 
 tole e Capitoli," was printed at Venice in 
 1508 ; and he was living in 1554, the period 
 when the second part of his Tales was pub- 
 lished. Straparola obviously imitated Boc- 
 caccio, from whom, as well as from Poggio, 
 Morlino, Machiavel, and others, he has bor- 
 rowed with great freedom the incidents of 
 many of his narratives, so as to have not un- 
 deservedly incurred the imputation of pla- 
 giarism. His tales or novels, " Le Piacevoli 
 Notti," have been often printed. — Biiyg. Univ. 
 
 STRATO, a philosopher of Lampsacus, 
 who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, to whom he gave lessons in meta- 
 })hysics. Although of the Peripatetic or Aris- 
 totelian school, his tenets approached nearer 
 to those of the materialists of modern times 
 than those of Theophrastus, his immediate 
 predecessor, or any of the sages who had pre- 
 ceded him at the Lyceum. According to 
 Brucker he maintained that there is inherent 
 in nature a principle of motion or force, with- 
 out intelligence, which is the only cause of 
 the production or dissolution of bodies. It 
 was a more rational deduction from his i)hy- 
 sical inquiries, that the seat of the soul is in 
 the brain, and that it only acts by means of 
 the senses. — Diog. Laert. Bayle, art. Spinoza. 
 
 STRAUCHHIS (^gidil's, or Giles) an 
 eminent mathematician and zealous controver- 
 sialist of the seventeenth century, a native of 
 Wittemberg in Germany, born 1632. Having 
 graduated in the university of Leipsic, he re- 
 turned to the place of liis birth, where he ob- 
 tained a divinity professorship, which he after- 
 wards resigned for a similar appointment at 
 Dautzic. Polemical disputes running high, the 
 earnestness and acrimony with which he indis- 
 criminately attacked both Catholic and Cal- 
 vinist, as a devoted parti/.an of Luther, not only 
 lost him his situation, but was the occasion of 
 his being thrown into prison by the elector of 
 Brandenburg (whom he had personally re- 
 
S T 11 
 
 fleeted upon in his seimoiis) at a. lime when 
 lie was triivtlliiii; tlir()iii;li tli.it priun-'s <)omii- 
 tiions. J lis print ij);il wriliiij;H conhist of 
 •• Breviaiium Clironolo^icuni," a work of ton- 
 hidtrable merit, of wliji h tliere is an Kii^lish 
 translation by Sauk; " Jkeviarium Ilihtori- 
 cum ;" " Doctrina Astrorum IMathenutiica ;" 
 and " Geoi;rai)liia IMaiheniatica." lie sur- 
 vived his liberation some vearH, and ilied in 
 I68ti. — Jochcr, AUiscm. Gclchile Lexicon. 
 
 STIIIGELIUS (VicTOHiNus) a pluloso- 
 pliical divine of tlie sixteenth century, dis- 
 tinguished amoii'j; the first reformers. Ik* was 
 a SuaLian by birth, being born in l.)L'l-, at 
 Kuufbier, and compleud his educaiimi at Wit- 
 temberg, of which university he became a 
 member in his twentieth year. Here he at- 
 taciied himself particularly to iMelanctlion and 
 Martin Luther, whose doctrines he strongly 
 advocated; and among the many absurd 
 schisms into which Protestantism, even in 
 those days of its infancy, was divided, he ap- 
 pears to have uniformly shown much modera- 
 tion and good sense, especially in regard to 
 the disputes carried on between INIajor and 
 Amsdorf, at Eisenach, in 1556, on the efficacy 
 of good works, wherein the latter controver- 
 sialist went so far as to denounce them as being 
 actually pernicious to the soul. 'I'his, which 
 may be called the fourth Lutheran schism, was 
 ably treated of by Stiigelius. In 1556 he held a 
 jiublic disputation atWeimar, against lllyricus, 
 btit at length falling into discredit on account 
 of the ])art he took in the argument between 
 the theologians of Weimar and those of \Vit- 
 temberg, he sutl'ered an imprisonment of three 
 years' duration. In 1563 having obtained his 
 liberty, he took up his abode at Leipsic, where 
 he continued to lecture in theology, logic, and 
 metaphysics, till the arm of power again in- 
 terfered, and drove him for refuge into the 
 Palatinate. The offer of an ethical profes- 
 sorship at length induced him to st-ttle at Ilei- 
 delbero-, where he remained till his death in 
 June 1569. He was the author of a com- 
 mentary on the Old and New Testaments; 
 "Scholrc Historical;" " E[)itome Doctrine 
 de primo Motu," &c. ; but although a man of 
 considerable learning, which he was especially 
 famed for conveying to his pupils by his ad- 
 mirable mode of instructing them, his writings 
 are now but little known. — Id, 
 
 STRlTTEll (John Gotthki.f von) a Rus- 
 sian historian, born in 1740. After he had 
 finished his studies, he went to Petersburg,', 
 and obtained the office of inspector of the 
 gymnasium of the academy of Sciences. In 
 1780 he was ap[>ointed archivist of the em- 
 pire, and at length counsellor of state. He 
 died March i?, 1801. He distinguished him- 
 self by his erudition, and his numerous re- 
 searches into the works of the Byzantine his- 
 torians. The result of his labours apjteareii 
 in his " jMemoriaB Populorum olim ad Danii- 
 bium, Pontum Euxinum, Paludem ISlaotivlem. 
 Caucasum, INIare Caspium, et inde niagis ad 
 Septeiitriones incolentium, e Scriptorilnis His- 
 toriai J5yzanlin^e eruta; et digesta*," J'etersb. 
 1771 — 80, 4 vols. 4to. He also drew up an 
 
 s r u 
 
 abridt;mont of thiit work in I^tln ; and In- 
 wrote lii.ttori( al diMnrrtation*. and a hutury «»» 
 Kuh.sia, in the Iltm.ian |-, ' 
 
 STKOK.MKIUMaih 
 nomy, born in 17()7 nl Upul, whcru be iIuhI 
 in 1770. lo th.iitii ' ^ V h.' jomrd 
 
 that of naturid p!, _ _ . i |,o »•«» 
 one of the lir»t who applitti cltrcthcity lo 
 nuiliial puipo-«it. Aftrr havwij^ U-i-ii »p- 
 pointc.l to or;;aiiue the hcho<j| of marine ca- 
 ilets at CarUcrona, lie wa* iMnpluyc.l \u con- 
 struiting improved t hariM of iho coa*tji of 
 Sweden. Stroemer Butceeded tfio I • 
 
 Andrew Celrtius in the aatsonomical « 
 Upsal ; and he wan a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Stockholm, to whose Me- 
 moirs he was a contributor. He aliw pub- 
 lished a Swedish translation of the Liemri.ta 
 of Euclid ; and remarks on the am imt 
 
 lluuic calendars used in Sweden. Utor, 
 
 Univ. 
 
 SIROGOXOFF (count ALEx>»NDrn dc) a 
 Russian nobleman, born abr)ut th- ' 
 
 the eighteenth century. He receiv 
 education, and in his youth displayed a stronj; 
 taste for literature, especially that of the 
 French. Several years which he passed at 
 Paris in intercourse with men of letters, doubt- 
 less occasioned this partiality. Returninjj to 
 Petersburg, he was nominated president of the 
 Academy of the I-'ine Arts, and he ni3«le a 
 noble use of Iiis inr.mense riches, hy giring an 
 asylum in his palace to authors ami art:-.!.*, 
 and by forming a valuable collection of p.imt- 
 ings, medals, and engravings, and a ntli li- 
 brary, which was ever open to the lovers of 
 the arts and sciences. He died at Pet. - ^ 
 September 27, 1811.— Count Paul S 
 NOFF, his nephew, entered into the army, and 
 served in Austria in 1805, and in Prussia in 
 1807, when he was made adjutant major- 
 general. He was afterwards employed afiainst 
 the Swedes in Finland, and against the 'lurks 
 in ^Moldavia ; and after being engaged against 
 the French, in the campaigns of 18 It* and 
 181. '5, he was killed under the walls of Laon 
 in Ftbruary 1814. — Haron AiKx.WDrn de 
 SiROGONOKK, born in I77'J, displayed an early 
 genius for learning and the arts, and tniTcllt-d 
 for imj)rovement in Germanv, France, and 
 Italy. He j>ublished at Geneva, in lltoy, two 
 volumes of " Letters to his Friends," written 
 with taste and sensibility, to which were added 
 two remarkable liule pieces, entitled, " The 
 History of the Chevaliers de la \'allee ;" and 
 " The History of Pauline Dupuis," The 
 baron de Strogonoff then laboured undtr a 
 state of blindness and debility, whuh diil not 
 however disturb the tranquillity of his mind. 
 His death took place in September, 1015. — 
 hio(^. I'niv. 
 
 Sl'ROZZI (TiTis and Hibcules) faihei 
 and son, were two poets of Ferrara. who Ik)i1i 
 wrote in Latin. Their poems wtre printed 
 together at Venice, 1515, Jivo, and con»i:»t of 
 t legies and other compositions in a pure and 
 pleasing style. Titus liied about 150?, and 
 Heu ules, Ids son, was killed by a rival in 
 1508. There have been several other wtiters 
 
STR 
 
 of the name. — Cyriac Strozzi was bom at j 
 Florence in 1504, and became profeseor of! 
 Greek at Florence, Bologna, and Pisa. He! 
 added a ninth and tenth book to Arisstotle's 
 Politics, and composed them both in Greek 
 and Latin. He died in 1565. — Thomas 
 Strozzi, a jesuil of Naples of the seventeenth 
 century, wrote a Latin poem in praise of cho- 
 colate,' a discourse on liberty, and other works. 
 — GiuLTO Sthozzi distinguished himself by 
 a fine piece on the origin of the city of Ve- 
 nice, entitled " Venetia a?dificata." He died 
 about 1636. — Nicolas Stuozzi, who died in 
 1654, another poet, was author of two tra- 
 gedies, " David of Trebisonde," and •' Conra- 
 dus ;" also " Idylls." " Sonnets," and other 
 works. — Moreri. Tiraboschi. 
 
 STROZZI (Philip) a celebrated Florentine 
 patriot, was a member of the eminent com- 
 mercial family of the same name, and one of 
 the richest citizens of Florence in the early 
 part of the sixteenth century. He was allied 
 by marriage with the Medici, but was too much 
 attached to the ancient republican constitution, 
 to acquiesce in the domination of that house. 
 Accordingly, when the sovereignty was as- 
 sumed by Alessandro de' jNIedici, he joined 
 the party which aimed at restoring a free go- 
 vernment. Their application for support to 
 the emperor Charles V being unattended to, 
 Strozzi exercised the influence of a master 
 spirit over Lorenzo de' INIedici, and induced 
 him to assassinate the duke. The only result 
 of this action was the immediate succession 
 of Cosmo, whom he opposed at the head of 
 a body of troops, but being defeated at the 
 battle of Marona, he was made prisoner. 
 Apprehending that he should be put to the 
 torture to force a disclosure of his accomplices, 
 he resolved to anticipate the trial by a volun- 
 tary death, which he accomplished by a 
 poniard which had been negligently left in liis 
 apartment. Having first traced with the 
 point of it upon the mantel-piece the line 
 from ^'il•gil, " Exoriare aliquis nostris ex os- 
 sibus ultor !" he pierced his breast, and im- 
 mediately expired. This event took place in 
 1538. He was doubtless a man of great qua- 
 lities, and disinterestedly sincere in his repub- 
 lican sentiments. His sons went to France, 
 where one of them became a marshal of 
 France. — Bayle. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 SniUENSEE (John Frederick) a cele- 
 brated political adventurer, was the son of a 
 clergyman at Halle in Saxony, where he was 
 born in 1737. He was brought up to medi- 
 cine, and on taking his degree of doctor in 
 1757, removed to Altona. Here he acquired a 
 connexion, which so far promoted his interest, 
 that through its influence he was in 1768 ap- 
 pointed physician to the king of Denmark, 
 whom he accompanied on his tour to Ger- 
 many, France, and England. Soon after the 
 marriage of Christiern VII with the princess 
 Matilda of England, a coolness was observed 
 between the king and qneen, which was fo- 
 mented by the queen-dowager by every means 
 in her power. At length the young queen 
 being led into an observation of the influence 
 
 STR 
 
 of Struensee over the king, and of bis accom- 
 plishments and attractive qualities, sought by 
 his means to eflfect a reconciliation with her 
 husband, and succeeded. After a long course 
 of conflicts and court intrigues, count Bern- 
 storflf and the other ministers of Chrisiiem were 
 obliged to yield to the influence of the queen 
 and the new favourite, with his firm coadjutor, 
 count Brandt. The manner in which Struensee 
 exercised his new authority was that of a man 
 whose presumption was far greater than either 
 his courage or his talents ; and although some 
 of his measures and reforms were in them- 
 selves desirable and well intended, his man- 
 ner of advancing them occasioned very great 
 dissust. Takins: advantaee of the extreme 
 imbecility of the monarch, he gradually con- 
 trived in the name of the king to direct the 
 whole machine of government. Sucli a state 
 of things could not last, and a conspiracy was 
 formed by a strong party of the nobility, 
 headed by count Rantzau and aided by the 
 queen- dowager. So well were their measures 
 taken, that on the night of the 16th Ja;i. 1772, 
 the young queen, Struensee, then become count, 
 his brother, and count Brandt, with all their 
 friends and adherents were arrested ; and the 
 weak monarch Christiern, who had been roused 
 in his bedchamber, and made to believS that 
 his life was in danger, signed an order by 
 which all this was rapidly effected. The un- 
 fortunate and imprudent queen was conveyed 
 with much indignity to the castle of Cronen- 
 burgh ; and an immediate prosecution was in- 
 stituted against Struensee, who was convicted 
 of treason, and sentenced on the 25th of the 
 following April to lose his right hand, to be 
 tlien beheaded, and his body to be quartered. 
 This barbarous sentence he endured on the 
 28th of the same month along with his friend 
 and associate, count Brandt, who liad also 
 been condemned. An elaborate account oi 
 the conversion of this presumptuous and unfor- 
 tunate adventurer, from a state of scepticism 
 to religious belief, forms the subject of a nar- 
 rative by a Dr IMunter, who attended him in 
 his last moments. The life of the queen was 
 in some danger, and what the result might 
 have been, where so much imprudence ex- 
 isted to countenance imputation, had not a 
 British fleet appeared in the Baltic, is doubtful, 
 By that fleet she was conveyed to Zell, where 
 she died in 1776, leaving issue the present 
 king of I^enmark. — Papers respecting Trial of 
 Coinit Struensee. 
 
 STRUTT (Joseph) an artist and anti- 
 quary, was born in 1749, at Springfield in 
 Essex, where his father followed the business 
 of a miller. In 1764 he was articled to the 
 unhappy engraver, W. Wynn Rylaud, and in 
 1770 obtained the gold and silver medals of 
 the Royal Academy. Uniting the study of 
 antiquities with the practice of his art, he pub- 
 lished in 1773 his first work, entitled " 1"he 
 Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Eng- 
 land," 4to, which contained representations of 
 all the ]>nglish monarchs from Edward the 
 Confessor to Henry VHL This was followed 
 by " Horda Angel Cynnan," or a complete 
 
STll 
 
 view of the mannera, customs, arms, Imbits, 
 &c. of the English, from the arrival of the 
 Saxons to the times of Henry \111, \'c. 
 1774, 1775, and 1776, 3 vols, with 1.^7 platefl. 
 In 1777 and 1778 he publisht-d " A Chronicle 
 of England," whicli he mfuiit to extend to six 
 volumes, but dropjied the ilesigu for want of 
 encouragement. His " biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Engravers" appearcil in 17H.") ami 
 1786, in 2 vols. In 17iH) he was obliged by 
 the state of his health to quit the metropolis, 
 and retire into Ilerlfordshire, where he occu- 
 pied himself in a series of plates for the I'll- 
 grim's IVogress. In 1795 he returned to Lon- 
 don, and began to collect materials for his 
 " Complete ^'iew of the Dresses autl Habits of 
 the People of England,'' iScc. the first volume of 
 which appeared in 1796, and the second in 
 1799, 4to. In IBOl he published his last and 
 most favourite work, entitled *' The Sjiorts 
 and Pastimes of the People of England," with 
 forty plates, of whicli a new octavo edition, 
 with a hundred and forty plates, edited by 
 AVilliam Hone, is now (I8ti7) in publication. 
 He died in Loudon in October 180-', aged fifty- 
 tliree. His modest character scarcely met du- 
 ring his lifetime with the encouragement it de- 
 served. He left some INISS. in the possession of 
 bis son, from which have since been published 
 bis "Queen Hoo Hall, a Romance," and "An- 
 cient Times, a Drama," 4 vols. 12mo ; also " The 
 Test of Guilt, or Traits of Ancient Superstition, 
 a dramatic Tale," and verses, which may be 
 deemed an entire failure. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 STRUVE (George Adam) an eminent 
 German jurist, bom of an honourable family 
 at Maodeburg: in 1619. He studied at Jena 
 and Helmstadt ; and was appointed in 1615 
 assessor of the juridical court at Halle. He 
 took his degrees at Helmstadt the following 
 year, and became professor of jurisprudence at 
 Jena. In 1669 he relinquished this situation 
 for that of first counsellor of the city of Bruns- 
 wick ; and he was employed in several impor- 
 tant aft'airs by the elector and the princes of 
 Saxony. He returned in 1673 to Jena, to 
 occupy the chair of canon law, the first office 
 in the university ; and after being elected 
 president of the senate and tlie consistory, lie 
 died December 15, I69i!. The tiil-.s of his 
 principal works, relating to the feudal and the 
 civil law, may be found in the Biographie 
 Universelle — His son, Bluchaiid Grmiii-LF 
 Stiiuve, one of the most learned and indus- 
 trious of German bibliographers, was born at 
 AVeimar in 1671. He was educated at the 
 gymnasium of Zeitz, after which he passed 
 some time at Jena and other universities. His 
 original destination was to the bar, at which 
 he practised for a time, and then left it for 
 the study of history and bibliography. He 
 travelled repeatedly in Germany, Holland, 
 and Sweden, after which ill-health and fimily 
 misfortunes plunged him into a state of reU- 
 gious melancholy, whicli lasted two years. At 
 length he was able to resume his studies, and 
 being appointed librarian to the university of 
 Jena, in 1697 he commenced lectures on phi- 
 losophy, Greek hterature, and antiquities. In 
 
 ST R 
 
 1702 he wa« admitted doctor of law and phi 
 losophy at Hallp, and r ! the name de- 
 
 l^reert at Jj-na, wIicto U\., >,. .^■.n nf" ' 
 cfedrd professor Schubart in ihc i «. 
 
 tory. His talenta attrnctrd a great conc^nM 
 of ]»upils, whenc«; t! ' ' 
 
 »ity were imluced t'l . ; . , 
 
 feasor extraordmary of law, and to (irocnrp for 
 him that of rouii»»-ltor t'j ihe ' ' nv. 
 
 He died May -ja. 17311. A.i. ,..^ j... 
 rous and valuable works may \h: m< 
 " Hiblioiheca Juris Selena." 1703, 8to ; •• In- 
 troductio in Nolitiam Hei Liiierari" • ' -um 
 Hibliotherarum," 1704, 8vo ; " 1 ..^ji 
 
 IMiilosophica, in suas (Manses distribuia," 8vo; 
 " Selecca liildiotheca H * v." 1705, 8ro ; 
 " Syntagma Historix' G' . ••," 1716. Ho ; 
 
 " Antiquitatum Uomanarum Sj^itatma," 17J8, 
 4to ; nioht of which have been repeatedly 
 printed, an<l variously enlarged by succeeding 
 writers. — SutH Onom. Lit. lUn^. Univ. 
 
 STHUVS (John) a Dutch traveller, who 
 about the middle of the seventeenth r - ■ - , 
 made several voyages to the Japanese I 
 the Levant, and other parts of the East, an 
 account of which was published by Glarius at 
 Amsterdam, in quarto, in loiil, the year suc- 
 ceeding that of his decease. A French edi- 
 tion of the work, in three duodecimo vohim'-s, 
 appeared subsequently at Rouen in 1730. — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 STRYPE (JoHv) a voluminous contributor 
 to English ecclesiastical history and biography, 
 was of German extraction, but born in the sub- 
 urban parish of Stepney in 1643. He wa« 
 educated at St Paul's school, whence in 16()1 
 he was removed to Jesus college, and after- 
 wards to Catberine-liall, Cambridge. He gra- 
 duated IMA. in 1666, and taking orders was 
 nominated to the perpetual curacy of rheydon 
 Boys in Essex. He was soon after aj>pointed 
 minister, but never regularly inducted to the 
 living of Low Layton iu Essex, in which pa- 
 rish was Rickholts, formerly belonging to sir 
 Michael Hickes, secretary to lord Burleigh, 
 and still containing his numerous MSS. It is 
 thought that his accidental access to these 
 papers inspired IMr Strype with his strong at- 
 tachment to liistorical ant; • *. the first 
 fruits of which was his p . . n entitled 
 " Ecclesiastical IMonuinents, relutinf^^ chiefly 
 to Religion and the Ref ■ ' 
 
 Emergencies of the Cbu - : _. ;. ; 
 
 Henry VHl, King Edward VI, and (^ueen 
 JMary I," in three vols, folio, whicli vobimos 
 were printed in succession, the last in 17S1. 
 His " .Annals of the Reformation." 4 vols, 
 folio, began to be published in I7t^, and were 
 not completed until 1731. He al.« ^ ■ 'led 
 
 an augmented edition of Stow"s ' .-of 
 
 London," in i» vols. foho. 17?0; and waa a 
 considerable benefactor to 1" 
 Ly J ublisbing separately, in ' 
 lives of the archbishojw Cranmer, Parker, 
 Grindal, and Whitgift, and in three octavo 
 volumes, those of sir Jolin Cheke, sir Tho- 
 mas Smith, and bishop Aylmer. His diligence 
 and exactness procured him considerable 
 countenance from the leaders of the church, 
 
ST U 
 
 with wliom lie was In constant correspondence, | 
 and although he was not adequately exalted, I 
 he seems to have been rewarded with various j 
 minor preferment. This laborious student 
 \ra-s for many years rector of Hackney, in 
 which he spent many years of the latter part 
 of his life, which was prolonged to the age of 
 nhiety-four, his death taking place in Decem- 
 ber 1797. Ills works for some time after his 
 death were much neglected, but have since 
 risen in value from an increasing opinion of 
 his industry and fidelity, however ungraced by 
 style and the art of connexion. His life of i 
 Cranmer, iScc. has been reprinted at the Cla- ; 
 reudon press. — Bi.ig. Brit. Ly sons' s Envmms. 
 Gent. 3i(Ji;. 
 
 STUART (Arabella). See Auabella. 
 
 STUART (sir Charles) an English gene- i 
 ral, son of the marquis of Jiute, born in 1733. i 
 He was educated under the superinteudance of j 
 his father, and after having been presented 
 at the principal European courts, he entered , 
 into the army, and was appointed aide-de-camp \ 
 to the viceroy of Ireland. In 1775 he was ' 
 sent to America, where he distinguished him- 
 self on several occasions. At the beginning 
 of the war with the French republic, he was ' 
 made a major-general, and employed in the 
 Mediterranean, where he made himself master 
 of the island of Corsica, and after having con- i 
 ciliated the minds of the inhabitants towards j 
 the British government, he returned home in I 
 1796. His next service was in Portugal, ' 
 whither he was sent at the beginning of 1797, 
 at the head of an auxihary corps of 8000 men ; ' 
 and his measures not only secured the country 
 against the hostile designs of the French Di- I 
 rectory, but also contributed to the future suc- 
 cess of the British arms in the Peninsula. In 
 1798 he distinguished himself by the conquest . 
 of Minorca, which he had scarcely completed 
 wlien he was summoned to the defence of 
 Sicily, which he elVectually guarded from the 
 threatened danger, arising from the French 
 invasion of Naj)les. At the close of the same 
 year he was ordered to iMalta, which Buona- j 
 parte had conquered in his voyage to Egypt, i 
 General Stuart, after having taken the fortress 
 of La Valette by blockade, returned to Eng- 
 land ; and to his representations it was partly 
 owing that the British government retained 
 possession of that island, against the transfer 
 of the sovereignty of which he strongly remon- i 
 strated. He died in 1801, leaving two sons, j 
 the elder of whom, the present sir Charles 
 Stuart, was ambassador from the court of Lon- 
 don to that of France, after the restoration of 
 the Bourbons. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 STUAIir (James Edward Francis) the 
 eldest Sun of James 11 by his second wife, 
 JMary of Modena, born in London June 10, 
 1(388. He was but five months old when his 
 father was dethroned, and his mother with her 
 infant fled to France, where Louis XIV af- 
 forded an asylum to the exiled family at St 
 Ciermains. An attempt was made at the 
 peace of Ryswick, in 1697, to insure the resto- 
 ration of this young prince to the throne of his 
 ancestors, which was only defeated by the op- 
 
 STU 
 
 position of his father, as William III had 
 agreed to procure the recognition of the prince 
 of Wales, as he was styled, as his successor ; 
 but James II rejected the proposal, observing 
 that he could support with resignation the 
 usurpation of his son-in-law, but he could not 
 suffer his son to become a party to it. On the 
 death of the ex-king in 1701, i^ouis XIV re- 
 cognized his son as king of England, by the 
 title of James 111, and a proclamation in the 
 name of the latter was addressed to the Eng- 
 lish nation ; but no effective measures were 
 adopted in his favour. The death of William 
 III revived the hopes of his party ; but no- 
 thing beyond unavailing negociation took place 
 till 1708, when a maritime expedition against 
 Scotland was fitted out, in which the prince 
 embarked, under the command of the cheva- 
 lier Forbiu. This armament, however, beino- 
 attacked by an English fleet of superior force, 
 returned to France without landing the in- 
 vading forces ; and the young adventurer (who 
 now assumed the name of the chevalier de St 
 George) joined the French army in Flanders, 
 and distinguished himself by his valour at the 
 battle of Malplaquet. In the latter part of the 
 reign of Anne repeated intrigues were set on 
 foot to secure the restoration of her brother, 
 or his succession to the crown after her death, 
 but they proved entirely abortive ; and on the 
 treaty of U'trecht taking place in 1713, he 
 was obliged to submit to a temporary retire- 
 ment from France, and when he returned to 
 Paris he resided there incognito. Had not 
 the decease of queen Anne been speedily fol- 
 lowed by that of Louis XIV in 1715, the in- 
 vasion of Scotland by the pretender, as he was 
 called, might have led to a very different re- 
 sult from that which actually took place. The 
 regent duke of Orleans wished to maintain 
 peace with George I ; and the British ambas- 
 sador at Paris was informed of the projects of 
 the chevalier de St George by the abbe Strick- 
 land, one of his agents, who betrayed his con- 
 fidence. 'The earl of Pilar in Scotland raised 
 the standard of revolt against the house of 
 Hanover, proclaiming the heir of the Stuarts 
 king, under the title of James III ; and the 
 latter embarking at Dunkirk, made a descent 
 on the Scottish coasts ; but he soon perceived 
 that success was hopeless, and he was obliged 
 to return to France. Even that kingdom no 
 longer yielded him an asylum, and he was 
 forced to remove first to Avignon and then to 
 ilome. In consequence of the disputes which 
 occurred between the duke of Orleans and 
 cardinal Albcroni, the j)rince was a few years 
 after invited to Spain, where he was well re- 
 ceived by Philip \' ; but the visit had no im- 
 portant influence on his affairs, and Rome 
 again became his retreat, as it was his future 
 residence. In 17'J0 he married the princess 
 3lary Casimira Sobieska, grand- daughter of 
 the famous John Sobieski," king of Poland. 
 This union was not attended with domestic 
 happiness, and a separation between the hus- 
 band and wife was with difficulty prevented 
 by the interference of cardinal Alberoni, then 
 u resident at Rome. He took no active j)art 
 
ST U 
 
 in tlir* oxpodition against Scotlnnd under lii.s 
 son ill 17 l/) ; and the latter ])art of liis f\(i: 
 was I'.odicated to exercises of piety, lit- liit-d 
 January 2, 1766. — Life of James II. liio};. 
 Univ. 
 
 STLMRT (Chaimes rowviii) l.oi-is 
 Philip Casimir) son of tlie ])recedin};, known 
 in Knijland l>y tlie apixllation of the youni^ 
 pretender, born at Home Detiniber ."51, 17J(). 
 In Ids youth lie was styled the count of Al- 
 bany, and under that title, at the ai;e of se- 
 venteen, he truvtdled in the north of Italy, and 
 visited Parma. Genoa, and iNlilan. 'Ihe war 
 u-hich broke out between England and France 
 in 17 10, inspired the parlizans of the exih d 
 fiumly with hopes of a restoration, and»-xiited 
 the young prince to risk his personal safety in 
 an attempt towards the recovery of the throne 
 of his ancestors. In June 17 4.? he euibarked 
 at Nantes with a few followers, and landing 
 on the western coast of Scotland, he found 
 himself ere long at the head of a considerable 
 army. He matched to J'erth, and having 
 taken possession of that place he proclaimed 
 his father king of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, by the style of James HI, and himself 
 regent of the three kingdoms. Success for a 
 while attended his arms ; and the submission 
 of Edinburgh, and the victory of Prcsionpans 
 raised the hopes of his adherents, and induced , 
 them to march into England. They proceeded j 
 as far as Derby, and terror and confusion per- , 
 vaded the metropolis ; but disappointed in his 
 hopes of a general insurrection in his favour, ! 
 and alarmed at the approach of an English 
 army, the prince found it necessary to return \ 
 to Scotland, 'ihe battle of Falkirk, which he I 
 gained in January 1746, was the last instance i 
 of success which he experienced ; for he was i 
 soon after obliged to raise the siege of Stir- ■ 
 ling, and followed by the duke of Cumberland j 
 at the head of a considerable force, he re- 
 treated to Inverness. The decisive battle of, 
 Culloden, fought on the 27th of April, gave j 
 the death blow to his hopes and those of his 
 followers. For several succeeding months the 
 young pretender suftered the miseries and pri- 
 vations of a wretched outcast and proscribed i 
 wanderer on the territories where his ances- ; 
 tors had held sovereign sway. At length he 
 embarked on board a French vessel, and after | 
 escaping the pursuit of some English cruisers, , 
 he landed in safety at St Pol de Leon in IWi- ■ 
 tanny, October lO^i 17 ir.. New mortifications I 
 liowever awaited him ; and on the signature 
 of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, two years 
 after his return to France, he found himself 
 obliged to quit tliat country. He then went , 
 to reside with his father at Home. In K.').") 
 the French ministers, in consequence of dis- i 
 putes with tlie English government, appear to 1 
 have projected a new invasion ; and Charles , 
 Edward, who went to Nanci, held a conference 
 on the subject with the famous count Lally, 
 and opened a correspondence with the Jaco- 
 bites in England ; but the differences between 
 the two governments being adjusted, the de- 
 sign of invasion was relinquished, and the 
 prince returned to Pome. The court of 
 
 STU 
 
 FranrP, to make him »om«5 aTn<»nd«, uejo- 
 ciaieil a inarriiii^c for hiiii with lli«' youni; j-rm- 
 cfss of Stolhert; tJdvhrti ; but tliu> union did 
 not auHwcr the vieuM uf any of the nariicft con- 
 cerned in it. Uf had no i !iildr«*fi ny h ' . 
 whom he nppearn to Itave ihcJ tn :i 
 brutal manner, wiiicli induced her at leii|;th to 
 flee from liiin, and inke refu',;*' in a ' i'l 
 
 Florence, where they then rcbidi-d ^ho 
 
 Fubsequently found an anylum wnh hrr bro- 
 till r in-law, the cardinal of York, at Home. 
 (-'harles Edward Stuart fpent th- ' ■■ - • •:'• of 
 his life at Florence, not only i; i»ul 
 
 disgracefully, being abandoned to the lowest 
 !-ensiial indulgences ; and he died in thnt city 
 January 31, 1788. He id said to have been iu 
 England in 17o.'}, wlien lord lloldcrnesse.m-cre- 
 tary of stale, inquiring of George II what »li ajhi 
 be done with him, the king said, " Nothing ; 
 when he is tired of staying here, lei him jjo 
 away." It has been also a.<«»ertcd that he came 
 here again, and witnessed the cr.r • •; n of hiti 
 late majesty. — His wiiiow, the p . I.otis* 
 
 Maximimana de Stolbero GaucRN, born 
 at INIons in 17.o2, had before h</r ! 
 
 a cnnoness. On obtaining her t;. * 
 
 death she went to Paris, where and in Italy 
 she resided with her favourite, the celebrated 
 Alfieri ; and having long survived liim. she 
 is said to have married secretly Francis Xavier 
 Fabre, a jtainter of history, whom she at all 
 events constituted lier general legatee on lu-r 
 decease, which occurred January 29, 18'J4. — 
 Chevalier Johnstone's Memoirs of the lieMUon 
 in 171.5. Boswelt's Jouvnul of a Tour to the 
 Hebrides. Dittens's ^lemoirs. Bio^. Univ. > 
 
 STUART (Henrv Benedict Maria Cle- 
 ment) cardinal of York, younger brother of 
 the preceding, and the last descendant of ilic 
 royal line of the Stuarts. He was born at 
 Rome, March 20, 1725, and being destined 
 for the church, the Pope, as a peculiar favour, 
 bestowed on him the right to hold benefices 
 withotit receiving the ecclesiastical tonsure. 
 The incidents of his life are by no means im- 
 jiortant. In 174.5, when the last grand efiort 
 was made for the restoration of his family, lie 
 went to France, and assumed the command of 
 troops assembled at Dunkirk to aid the opera- 
 tions of lus brother in (ireat Britain ; but the 
 news of the battle of Cullotlen prevented the 
 embarkation of this armament, and priiic«» 
 Henry returned to Rome. The visiona of 
 regal splendour in which he niiijht hare in- 
 dulged being thus dissipated, he took holy 
 orders, and in 17 17 pope Benedict XIV iai««ed 
 him to the purple, llf was subsequently made 
 chancellor of the P.asihc of St P<!er, r-.nd 
 bishop of Freecati. Ou the death of hij« bro- 
 ther iu 1788, he assumed the barren title to 
 w hicli the family had asjured ; and on that 
 occasion he caused a medal to be slrock. with 
 the inscription " Henruus nonus, Anglia? 
 Rex ;" and on ilic obverse, " Gratia Dei, uon 
 Voluntate Hominum."' The preat events 
 which marked the close of the last century 
 had the singular ellect of rendering the car- 
 dinal of York, as he was styled, a depend.iT:t 
 on the bounty of the king of England ; fm 
 
STU 
 
 when tlie French conquered Italy, he was ob- 
 liged to flee to Venice, and was indebted for 
 his support to a pension from the English 
 court. In 1801 lie returned to Rome, and 
 became dean of the sacred college. His death 
 took place in 1807. The valuable papers of 
 liis grandfather, and his father, which had re- 
 mained in his possession, were after his de- 
 cease sent to England, and have since been 
 published. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 STUART (Dr Gilbert) an eminent his- 
 torical writer, born at Edinburgh in 1742. 
 He was educated in the university of that city, 
 where his father was professor of humanity , 
 and he was destined for the legal profession, 
 which lie relinquished for that of an author. 
 In 1767 he published " An liistorical Disser- 
 tation concerning the Antiquity of the liritish 
 Constitution," 8vo, the merit of which pro- 
 cured him the degree of LLD. This was fol- 
 lowed a few years after by his " View of So- 
 ciety in Europe, in its Progress from Rude- 
 ness to Refinement ; or Inquiries concerning 
 ihe History of Laws, Government, and JMan- 
 ners," 4to, a work which bhows that he had 
 deeply studied the records of the middle 
 ages. Being disappointed in an attempt to 
 obtain the professorship of public law iu the 
 university of Edinburgh (as he alleged 
 through the jealousy of Dr Robertson) he re- 
 moved to London, and from 1768 to 1774 he 
 was a contributor to the ^lonthly Review. 
 He then returned to his native city, and in 
 conjunction with Smellie the printer, and 
 others, lie established a new literary journal, 
 entitled the " Edinburgh IMagazine and Re- 
 view," which was at first very successful ; 
 but the illiberality and virulence of criticism 
 with which Stuart assailed several authors 
 respectable for talents and learning, whom he 
 considered as personal enemies, ruined the 
 credit of the work, which was discontinued in 
 1776. About this time he revised and pub- 
 lished Sullivan's " Lectures on the Constitu- 
 tion of England," 4to ; and soon after ap- 
 peared his " Observations concerning the pub- 
 lic Law and constitutional History of Scot- 
 land," 8vo. This was followed by ** The 
 History of the Establishment of the Refor- 
 mation of Religion in Scotland," 1780, 4to ; 
 and " The History of Scotland from the Re- 
 formation till the Death of Queen Mary," 
 178L', 2 vols. 4to. In the year last mentioned 
 he again repaired to London, and engaged as 
 a writer in the " Political Herald," and in the 
 *' English Review," besides other literary un- 
 dertakings. Habits of intemperance had 
 however undermined his constitution, and sub- 
 jected him to attacks of jaundice and dropsy ; 
 and these diseases recurring in a more violent 
 degree, he once more returned to his native 
 place, where he died at the house of his father, 
 on the 13th of August, 1786. Pew writers 
 have afforded more striking examples of the 
 misapplication of talents and learning than 
 Gilbert Stuart, whose disingenuous illiberality 
 as a critic has exposed his memory to deserved 
 execration. Mr Chalmers, in liis life of Rud- 
 dimau, affirms, that " such was Stuart's laxity 
 
 STU 
 
 of principle as a man, that he considered in* 
 gratitude as one of the most venial sins ; such 
 was his conceit as a writer, that he regaided 
 no one's merits but his own ; such were his 
 disappointments, hoth as a writer and a man, 
 that he allowed liis peevishness to sour into 
 malice, and indulged his malevolence till it 
 settled in corruption." His cruel treatment 
 of Dr Henry, author cf the History of Eng- 
 land, has been fully exposed by Mr D'Israeli. 
 It is proper however, in justice to the literary 
 character of Stuart, to remark, that his works 
 display erudition, industry, and sound judg- 
 ment, wherever the latter quality is not in- 
 fluenced by his jealousy and hatred of contem- 
 porary writers. — Encyclop. Brit. Biog. Univ. 
 STUART (James) a distinguished anti- 
 quary, and architectural draughtsman, de- 
 scended from a Scottish family, but born in 
 London in 1713. His father died when he 
 was young, and having acquired some know- 
 ledge of drawing, he assisted his mother in 
 the support of a young family, by practising 
 fan-painting. Prompted by inclination he 
 studied anatomy, geometry, and other branches 
 of science conducive to his improvement iu 
 the art of designing ; and having by his in- 
 dustry ])rovided for the support of his younger 
 brother and sister, he set out with a very slen- 
 der supply of money on a journey to Rome. 
 He supported himself during his travels by the 
 exercise of his talents ; and at Rome he was 
 fortunate enough to make an acquaintance with 
 Mr Nicholas Revett, a skilful architect. With 
 that gentleman he visited the northern parts 
 of Italy, and then went to Athens, where 
 they arrived in March 1751. In that seat of 
 ancient arts and learning they remained till 
 the latter part of 1753, employing themselves 
 in making drawings and taking exact measure- 
 ments of the architectural relics, which have 
 escaped the ravages of time and violence. In 
 Greece Mr Stuart met with sir Jacob Bouverie 
 and Messrs Wood and Dawkins, whom a si- 
 milar taste for antiquities had drawn into that 
 country, and they were happy to patronize a 
 man of so much genius and industry. Leaving 
 Athens, Stuart and Revett, after visiting Salo- 
 nica, Smyrna, and some of the ^Egf an islands, 
 they returned to England in the beginnino- 
 of 1755. The result of their labours jiartlv 
 appeared in the first volume of a work entitkd 
 " The Antiquities of Athens," published in 
 1762, folio, containing accurate delineations of 
 the remains of ancient edifices and sculpture 
 in that hterary metropolis of Greece. Mr 
 Stuart, through the interest of those friends he 
 had met with ahroad, was apjiointed surveyor 
 of Greenwich hospital ; and his abilities be- 
 coming known, he obtained much employment 
 as an architect. He was likewise chosen a 
 fellow of the Royal and of the Antiquarian 
 Societies. Late in life he entered into wedlock 
 a second time, and one of his children by this 
 marriage, a boy three years old, dying of the 
 small-pox, he was so afi[tcted by the melan- 
 choly misfortune, tliat he survived it only a 
 short time, his own death taking place Fe- 
 bruary 2, 1788. A second volume of the 
 
ST U 
 
 " Antiquities of Athens" appeared in 1787 ; a 
 tliird, edited by IMr Kevoley, in 1799; and tlm 
 fourth and last, witli an account of the life of 
 Stuart, in 1R16. One ia at present in pro^Tcsa 
 (18*27), published by Priestley and Weak-. — 
 Aikin's Gen. Bios- 
 
 SrUBBS (Georce) a celehrateil anatomist 
 and painter of animals, was born at Liverpool 
 in 1724, and at the age of thirty went to Rome 
 for improvement. Ho subsecjuontly settled iu 
 London, which was the best theatre for ma- 
 turing liis anatomical skill in the portraiture of 
 animals, more especially the horse. His ex- 
 cellence lay chiefly in precision, and the ac- 
 curacy with which he painted the object be- 
 fore him, rather than in imaginative spirit ; 
 ])ut in accordance with this faculty, none ever 
 exceeded him in the representation of race 
 horses, which are usually portraits of existing 
 animals. He was one of the first who painted 
 on enamel on a large scale, and he finally be- 
 came an associate of the Royal Academy. He 
 died in 1806. lie is the author of a work 
 entitled " The Anatomy of the Horse ;" and 
 of part of another, called a " Comparative 
 Anatomical f]xposition of the Stracture of the 
 Human Body with that of a Tiger and a com- 
 mon Fowl." — Filkin^^ton by Fitseli. 
 
 STUBBS, or STUBBE (John) a spirited 
 lawyer in the reign of Elizabeth, was born 
 about 1.541, and is said by Strype to have been 
 a member of Corpus Christi college, Cam- 
 bridge. He removed thence to Lincoln's-inn, 
 and became a puritan, a turn of mind which 
 led him to regard the possible marriage of 
 the queen with the French duke of Alen^on 
 with considerable alarm, as fraught with injury 
 to the Protestant establishment. The result of 
 this opinion was the publication of a satirical 
 work , entitled "The Discovery of a gaping G ulf, 
 wherein England is likely to be swallowed up 
 by another French IMarriage." This highly 
 incensed the queen, who immediately issued a 
 proclamation against it, and the author and 
 printer or bookseller being discovered, they 
 were soon apprehended, and sentenced, ac- 
 cording to an act of Philip and IMary, to 
 have their right hands cut off. When Stubbs 
 came to receive his sentence, v;hich was in- 
 flicted with a butcher's knife and mallet with 
 great barbarity, he immediately took off his 
 hat with his left hand, and exclaimed " God 
 save the queen." He carried with him the 
 sympathy of the people for his protestant zeal; 
 and some time after he was employed by Bur- 
 leigh to answer cardinal Allen's Defence of 
 the English Catholics ; but it is not known 
 whether his answer was ever published. 
 He also translated Beza's Meditations on the 
 first Psalm, and the seven penitential psalms 
 from the French, which he dedicated to the 
 lady of sir Nicholas Bacon. It is said that he 
 was afterwards a commander of the army iu 
 Ireland, but nothing farther is known of lum ; 
 nor has the date of his death been recorded. 
 — Strype s Life of Grindal. Athen. Oxon. vol. i. 
 
 STUCK or STUCKIUS (John Wit ltam) 
 a critic and antiquary of the sixteenlli cen- 
 tury, who was a native of Zurich. He was 
 
 ST U 
 
 I tlio autlior of a kanud work on 'I, '' tiraU 
 I and hacrilicffl of tlic antieutH, pi, t /u- 
 
 ri( h iu 1691, folio, and republiKlu d with oth«r 
 ' writings on the Han '. < t in lo'.> >, l^ydtu, 
 
 '2 voIm. folio. Ill' . .• icjrnjKiwd u('t,rn- 
 
 nuntary on Arrian ; and a pitralld b« tw. • n 
 Ihiiry IV and ('liariema^;ii<-, i-utidfd " Caro- 
 Iiia IMagnua redivivus," l.)9H, tto. Ho died 
 in 1(;()7. — Jiio^. Univ. JUtt'i Cyclop, 
 
 SrUCK ( riuoiiiii rt* IIksny) a biblio« 
 graphical writer, born at Halle, iti Saxony, in 
 1716. He was appointed inspector of the 
 salt-works iu 1744, and in 1761 treasurer of 
 his native city. All bis hisun- wan d«'Tot<"<l 
 to stuily ; an<l mineralo^jv, ijto^rajiliy, and liiii- 
 tory especially engaged his attention. Ili« 
 deatlj took place July 30, 1787. He was the 
 autlior of a work of considerable value, en- 
 titled " A Catalogue of Accounts of Voyages 
 and Travels, and Descriptions of Countru-g 
 ancient and modern, forming a View of the 
 literary History of Geography," 1784, 8vo ; 
 sujjplement, 1785; second part, 1787, 8vo, 
 published posthumously. — /h'.'^'. (Jnic. 
 
 STUKELEY ( William ) a eel. brated F.ng- 
 lish antiquary, bom at Holbeach in Lincoln- 
 shire, November 7, 1687. He received bis 
 early education at tlie free grammar school of 
 his native place, whence in 170.3 he removed to 
 Bennet college, Cambridge. Wliile an under- 
 graduate he indulged his inclination by col- 
 lecting antiquities, and making drawings of the 
 subjects of ancient art which occurred to his 
 notice ; but he devoted his time principally to 
 medical studies ; and in 1709 he took the 
 degree of MB. After having attended St 
 Thomas's hospital, London, as a pupil of Dr 
 Mead, he settled as a physician at Boston, iu 
 his native county. In 1717 he removed to 
 the metropolis, and soon after he was elected 
 a fellow of the Royal Society. The following 
 year he contributed to the revival of the So- 
 ciety of Antiquaries, of which he was one of 
 the earliest members, and for some time se- 
 cretary. He took the degree of MD. at Cam- 
 bridge in 1719, and the following \ear he was 
 admitted a fellow of the College of Physicians, 
 and was subsequently chosen one of the cen- 
 sors of the college. In 1726 he left Ix)ndon 
 for Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he set- 
 tled as a medical practitiont-r, and acquired 
 great reputation. Severe attacks of the gout 
 at length induced him to relinquish his pro- 
 fession, and to enter into holy ordiTS. which 
 he received from the hands of arehbisliop 
 Wake in July 1720 ; and shortly after lie wa» 
 presented to the livingof All "^ ' "Stamford. 
 He was afterwards a[)poinied . _ a to the 
 duke of Ancaster, who in 17:}9 gave him the 
 living of Somerby ntar Grantham. His last 
 preferment was the rt-ctory of St George the 
 IMartyr, Queen-square, London, for which he 
 was indebted to the duke of .Montagu. He 
 then resided occasionally at Kentl^h•town, 
 near the metropolis ; but his death occurred 
 at his house in Queen-square. Marcli 3, I76.i, 
 in consequence of a paralytic stroke. I)r 
 Stukeley was a learned, indefatigable, and in- 
 genious antiquary ; but the bold and fancifu* 
 
ST U 
 
 nature of some of his speculations exposed 
 liim to censure and ridicule, not wholly unde- 
 served. He however pursued his researches 
 with a degree of spirit and enthusiasn^ highly 
 deserving of commendation, and made impor- 
 tant accessions to our knowledge of the early 
 monuments of human art and industry belong- 
 ing to our native country. His principal works 
 are " hinerarium Curiosum.or an Account of 
 the Antiquities and Curiosities of Great 15ri- 
 lain," 2 vols, folio ; *' An Account of Stone- 
 henge," folio; " 'I'he History of Carausius," 
 17.S7 — 39, 2 vols. 4to ; besides which he pub- 
 lished papers in the Philosophical I'ransac- 
 tions and the Archa?ologia ; and also a trea- 
 tise on the structure and uses of the spleen, 
 17^25, folio. — Hitlchinson's Biog. Med. 
 
 STURM (CiJiusTOPHER CiiriisnA\) a 
 German divine and religious writer, born at 
 Augsburg in 1740. He studied at Jena and 
 Halle, and in 1761 he was appointed one of 
 the college tutors iu the latter university ; in 
 1764 inspector of the gymnasium of Sorau ; 
 and in 1767 pastor of one of the churches of 
 Halle. In 1769 he removed to .Magdeburg to 
 fill a similar office ; and he subsequently be- 
 came first j)astor of the parish of St Peter, at 
 Naumburg, where he died August 26, 1786. 
 Sturm is well known in England as tlie autlior 
 of " Reflections on the Works of God and 
 his Providence," which have been repeat- 
 edly translated, and published both at Kdin- 
 hurgh and London; and of which there are 
 Dutch, Danish, and Swedish versions, and 
 one in the French language, by queen Chris- 
 tina of Prussia. He also ])ublished " Anec- 
 dotes from the ancient Greek and Roman 
 Authors," 2 vols. 8vo ; and " Morning Con- 
 verse with God, for every Day in the \'ear," 
 2 vols. Bvo, which passed through several edi- 
 tions. — Bh-ig. Unii. 
 
 Sir Il.MlUS, a name ilisiinguished in Ger- 
 man literature as that of several erudite and 
 ingenious scholars. Of these the first in point 
 of clironology was James, a native of Stras- 
 burg.bornin 1490. He was the friend and asso- 
 ciate of many of the early reformers, :tnd besides 
 exerting hin;self strenuously iu thetlefence and 
 ]!romulgation of their doctrines, was avowedly 
 the coailjutor and assistant of the celebrated 
 Sleidan, in compiling his history of the rise 
 ;iiid i)rogrcssof tlie Reformation in the empire. 
 His iiilluence with those in power, which was 
 considerable, from his acknowledged talents as 
 a statesman and diplomatist, was also ac- 
 tively cu'.ployed in the behalf of the l^rotes- 
 lanls at Strasburg ; and to it they were in- 
 debted for much of tlic countenance which 
 they received in that city. As a politician he 
 conducted himself with great prudence and 
 ability in various missions to ditlerent courts, 
 especially to those of London and X'ienna ; 
 and having lived to witness the establishment 
 of a reformed college in his native city, died 
 there in the autumn of 1.S.S3. — John Snn- 
 Mii's, the most celebrated of the name, whose 
 learning and eloquence acquired him the ho- 
 nourable appellation of " 1 he German Ci- 
 cero," was l)oru in 1507 at Sleidan, a small 
 
 S TU 
 
 tovm. of Eisel in the immediate vicinity of Co- 
 logne, where his father resided in quality of 
 steward to the count Von IManderscheid. He 
 received the rudiments of a classical educa- 
 tion with the sons of his patron, after which 
 he was removed to the college of St Jerome at 
 Liege, and thence in 1524 to Louvaine. Hav- 
 ing passed five years in this university, he in 
 conjunction with Rescius formed a plan for 
 pul)lishing improved editions of the Greek 
 classics; and in furtherance of his views setup 
 a press, which he superintended till the year 
 1329, when he quitted Louvuine for Paris. In 
 the French metropolis he remained upwarils 
 of seven years, reading lectures with great 
 ability and reputation in the classics and dia- 
 lectics, till at length taking alarm at the sus- 
 picions which had begun to be excited of his 
 leaning towards the reformed doctrines, he 
 thought it advisable to retire to Strasburg. In 
 this city, wiiere he arrived in 1337, his repu- 
 tation which had preceded him soon acquired 
 him a numerous and most respectable body of 
 iliscii)les ; and the credit of his establishment 
 increasing, the emperor Maximilian II was in- 
 duced to raise it to the rank and privileges of 
 a university iu 1366. Of this foundation 
 Sturmius was appointed the first rector ; but 
 being at length too honest to disavow the re- 
 ligious opinions which he thought it perhaps 
 no crime to conceal, his candour lost him his 
 situation. His talents were by no means con- 
 fined to mere scholastic learning, but well 
 adapted to politics ami the business of life, of 
 whicli he gave many striking proofs ; while to 
 the sufTerers for conscience-sake his liberality 
 was squared rather by the benevolence of his 
 disposition than the dictates of prudence ; and 
 his private finances suflered in consequence 
 materially, through his bounty to refugees. As 
 an author he is known by some valuable ori- 
 ginal works, especially by his " In Partitiones 
 Oratorias Ciceronis Lib. ii ;" " De Literarunr 
 Ludis recti Aperiendis;" " Anti-pappi ;" 
 " Rhenani Vita," &C. besides some good edi- 
 tions which he printed of Aristotle's Rhetoric 
 and some of the works of Cicero and Galen. 
 His death took place in the spring of 1389. — 
 Joiiv CiiRiSTOi'iii- n StLnMiLs, a native of 
 Hippolstein, born 1633, was a sound classical 
 scholar and a good mathematician. 1 le settled 
 at Altdorf, where he lectured on general phi- 
 losophy and mathematics with great credit, 
 and ilistinguished himself as the author of 
 some valuable treatises on dilh.>rent subjects 
 connected with literature and science. Of 
 these the best known are his " Malhesis Ju- 
 venilis," 2 vols, of which there is an Knglish 
 translation in three octavo volumes ; " Phy- 
 sical Modernai Comj)endium ;" " Pra^lec- 
 tioncs Academical," 2 vols; " Collegium ex- 
 perinientale curiosum," 4to ; " Scientiii Cos- 
 mica," folio; " Physica E'.ectiva et Hypothe- 
 lica," 4to, 2 vols ; " iyrocinia iMathe.natica ;" 
 " .Architectural militaris 'I'yrocinla ;" " Phy- 
 sica; conciliatricis Conamina," 12mo; " De 
 \ eriiate Propositionuni Borelli de .Motu Ani- 
 malium;" " Contra Astrologiaj Divinatricis 
 \anltatem," 4to, 2 vols; "diathesis EiiU- 
 
S l > ; 
 
 c>nta," and a triinsla'.ion of llje works of Ar- 
 cliiincdes. He died i:i ITO;} at Altilorf, leav- 
 ing a son, Leonard CiiiusTOi-iitii Sti-iimh s, 
 b'>rn m that ciiy in 1669, who acquired boine 
 celt'l)rity as an architect and cn^'inffr. lie 
 coiiimenced his studies at l.t'ipsic, hut quilted 
 that university for a mathematical piofesaor- 
 Bhip at Wolfenbuttel. He Huh>equtMitly licld 
 a similar appointment at Frankfori, which he 
 resigned on entering the service of the duke of 
 INIecklenberg Strelitz, who made him hin pur- 
 veyor of works. Some time previous to his de- 
 cease he accepted a similar appointment under 
 
 s r ( 
 
 eluding the It-tlct* hlrrady ntrutioorti, w*te 
 
 pubhshed c " 1\ «t 1 . . " • , ,, 
 
 Hvo, with a:. .t i,f t!. . .. r. 
 
 — liing. Uuiv. 
 
 SrAUF.S. or M AlU./ , I ii*«,t i»> alramrj 
 theoloj^iun, burn at (jmiada, m S: < in 
 1648. After having conipUlrd hia < . :i 
 
 as 11 law student at Salariianf a, he entrrrd into 
 the ttocitty of the jchuHh, whu t-mplovrd him 
 to teach philonophy at Se^jovia, atui iif •ubar- 
 (juentiy occupied the chaim of theolugy at 
 \'alladolid, Kome. Alcala, and - a. 
 
 The tirst profea.Hur»hip in lu- .( 
 
 tlie duke of Brunswick. He was the author Coiinbra becoming vacant, it . aa b«-atowrd oa 
 
 of " A Complete Course of Architecture," 
 printed at Augsburg in sixteen volumes, in 
 which work he advocates a new system of na- 
 tional architecture, but his ideas gained few 
 proselytes. He also translated a work of Bok- 
 ler's on a similar subject into the German lan- 
 guage. His death took place in 1719. — Fre- 
 heri Tliedtrum. Baule. 
 
 Suares by I'hiiip II at the requi-»t of the hrads 
 of that insiituiion. He took an active part m 
 the disputes which originated from the theo- 
 logical doctrine of father Molina, on the aub- 
 ject of grace, which Suares endeavoured to 
 explain by means of the principle termed 
 " Congruism." He ))ublished a^xork againat 
 our king James I, iu defence of tlie Catholic 
 
 S'I'URT (John) an engraver of some note, faith, for which he recf-ived the public thunki 
 was born in London in 1668. His works are of the pope and the king of Spain ; but the 
 exceedingly numerous, but he is princii)ally hook was prohibited in Kngland and France, 
 celebrated for his excellence in the engraving and ordered to be burnt in London by the 
 of letters, and the minuteness with which common hangman. Hin death look place io 
 they were executed. His best work is the ' Septemljer 1617, at Lisljon, whither he ha<i 
 *' Book of Common Prayer," which he en- gone to be present at conferencea to oe held 
 graved on silver plates. Each page is headed before the legate of the holy see. IUm work*, 
 with a vignette, and prefixed thereto is a por- ^ extending to twenty -three volumes, folio, were 
 trait of Georo^e I, in which the lines of the published at iMentz and Lsons, lo.iO. &c. and 
 kino's face are expressed by writing so small reprinted at Venice m \7H<. His " 'I"raitatua 
 as scarcely to be read with a magnifying glass, j de Legibus, ac Deo Legislatore," esteemed 
 This work was published by subsciiption in j his best work, was printed in London, 1079, 
 1717, 8vo, and was followed by a" Companion folio. An abridgment of the works ot ^uarea, 
 
 to the Altar," executed in the same manner. 
 In 1694 he contrived to accomplish an elegy 
 on queen JNIary on so small a size that it 
 might be set in a ring. He died in 1730, 
 aged seventy-two. — Walpole's Aiiec. 
 
 STURZ (Helfrich Peter) a German 
 writer, born at Darmstadt in 1736. After 
 
 by father Noel, appeared at Geneva, \73i, 
 2 vols, folio. — Moreri. Hiof;. I'nii. 
 
 SUARES (Joseph Makia) a learned anti- 
 quary, the son of an auditor of the Rota at 
 Avignon, where he was born about the end of 
 the sixteenth century. Having adopt-d the 
 ecclesiastical profession, he was appointrJ 
 
 having studied law at Gottingen, Jena, and I provost of the cathedral of Avignon, whence 
 (^lessen, he became, in 1759, private secretary '' ' '' >• «- . _.. i ._ . . i> _ _ 
 
 to baron Widmanu, minister of the emj)ress- 
 queen at IMunich. The following year he en- 
 tered into the service of M. D'Eyben, chan- 
 cellor of the duchy of Holstein. by whom in 
 1762 he was sent to Copenhagen, with a re- 
 commendation to count Bernstorff, who made 
 Sturz his jtrivate secretary, and gave him a 
 place in the office of foreign affairs. Li 1768 
 he obtained the title of counsellor of legation ; 
 and he accompanied the king. Christiern VII. 
 in bis voyage to England. On his return he 
 published " Letters of a Traveller," com- 
 prising interesting notices of the English and 
 French literati. ^In 1770 his patron being re- 
 moved from the ministry by count Struenste. 
 he attached himself to the new favourite, and 
 obtained the lucrative office of director general 
 of the posts. On the fall of Struensee he was 
 imprisoned, but after a few months being set 
 at liberty, be was nominated member of the 
 regency "of Oldenburg ; and in 177.t the prince 
 vf^Holstein, to whom the duchy of Oldenburg 
 belonged, made him a counsellor of state. He 
 died iS'ovember 12, 1776. His works m- 
 Bi3o. Dicx. — Vol. IIL 
 
 cardinal Francis Barberini took him to Rome, 
 made him his lihrarian, and procuretl hitn the 
 title of cliaml>erlain to pope Urban V'lll. lo 
 163.5 he was raised to the l>ishopric of X'ni.^on, 
 which he resigned in favour of his broth<r in 
 1666, and returning to Rome he became 
 keeper of the \'atiian librar\ . and xicai <f the 
 Basilic of St I'lier. His death i"*-*' place 
 December 8, 1677. .Vimng hik , .incipal 
 works are " Pr.enesles antiqua libti duo, turn 
 Numismatihus. Inscnptionibus, el Figuns," 
 16.").>. 4lo ; " \iiiditia: S\lve»lri 11. I'ooU 
 Ma\.' l.yon. I6.i8, 4to; and " .•\ reus .Sept. 
 Severi Aug. a-ri incii«. cum Kxphcatjone," 
 167('), folio. — /i'l'^. ('nil. 
 
 SUCKLING (sir John) a wit. courtier, and 
 dramatist, who flourishoil in the »fT«»ntrenth 
 century, when ili ise charS' ters wen- ^o fre- 
 quently united. He was the ton of a knight 
 of the same name, who held a seal in parlia- 
 ment for the city of Norwich ar.d the post of 
 comptroller of the liou'Jehold to Charles I. 
 He was born in 16I3 at Witham in Middlesex, 
 and according to some of his biographers gave 
 rroicise of beice ao extraordinary charactei 
 
 R 
 
SUE 
 
 SUE 
 
 even before his birtli, the period of gestation ' liography, and afterwards of medical jurispru- 
 having- been prolonged in his mother to eleven I dence, and treasurer. He died at Paris, April 
 months. A story no less marvelous is told of, 8, 1816. Besides the works already men- 
 bis precocity and early proficiency in tlie clas- | tioned he published " A Memoir on Aneurism 
 sics ; and we are gravely informed that he of the Crural Artery," 1776 ; " Historical 
 
 spoke Latin fluently at five years old, and 
 wrote it with ease and elegance at nine. After 
 lingering some little time about the court, 
 during which period he seems to have given 
 some uneasiness to his father, whose gravity 
 but ill accorded with the gaiety and French 
 manners adopted by his livelier offspring, he 
 
 and Critical Essays on the Art of Midwifery, 
 among the Ancients and the Moderns," 1779, 
 2 vols. 8vo ; " Anecdotes of Medicine, Sur- 
 gery, &c." 1 78.5, 2 vols. 1 2mo ; "A History of 
 G alvanism," 1801 ,&c. 4 vols. 8vo. — Bioir. Univ. 
 SUETONIUS PAULlNUS(CAnTs) a Ro- 
 man warrior, flourished about the commence- 
 
 was despatched upon his travels ; and while on | ment of the ninth century of the Roman era, 
 
 the continent served a campaign under the 
 celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, in the course 
 of which he was present at three battles and 
 several sieges. On his return to England, the 
 civil war being then in its infancy, sir John 
 raised a troop of horse for the king's service, 
 at the expense of 12,000/. to himself, throw- 
 ing away, it would seem, a great deal of money 
 on much useless linery ; as notwithstanding the 
 complete equipment of his men, they behaved 
 so badly in the field as to disgrace both them- 
 selves and their commander. An abortive at- 
 tempt to eflfect the escape of the earl of Straf- 
 ford, then confined in the Tower under arti- 
 cles of impeachment from the Commons, im- 
 plicated sir John so seriously, that he thought 
 it advisable to retire to France, where he died 
 in 1641 of a fever, increased it is said, if not 
 brought on, by vexation at his double miscar- 
 riage. He is described as having been a good 
 musician, though the want of harmony in his 
 verses would seem to indicate a defective ear. 
 His writings have gone through several edi- 
 tions ; they consist of letters written with 
 much eelPe and spirit ; some miscellaneous 
 poems; " Aglaura," a play of which Lang- 
 baine says, "it is at the pleasure of the 
 actors, by altering the last act, to make it 
 either a tragedy or tragi-comedy ;" " Bren- 
 noralt," a tragedy; " 'Ihe Sad One," a tra- 
 gedy left incomi)lete ; and " The Goblins," a 
 tragi-comedy. — Gibber's Lives. 
 
 SUE (Peter) an eminent French surgeon, 
 born at Paris December 28, 1739. He suc- 
 ceeded in 1762 to the oflSce of surgeon of the 
 city of Paris ; and the following year he was 
 admitted a master of surgery, when he main- 
 tained a thesis " De Sectione Caesarea." In 
 ^7G7 La Martiniere nominated him professor 
 and demonstrator at the school of practice, 
 in conjunction with Lassus, a circumstance 
 which produced considerable jealousy be- 
 tween the two practitioners. In 1770 Sue 
 published a translation of the pathology of 
 Giiubius; and this was followed by a Dic- 
 
 and is celebrated as an able and enterprisint^ 
 commander. He was the first Roman general 
 who led his troops beyond Mount Atlas, in 
 the victorious contest which he carried on 
 against the Mauri, while governor of Numidia, 
 anno urbis 794. He went subsequently into 
 Britain, where he crushed a rebellion, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his severity towards the 
 vauqui.^hed in 814 and the following year. 
 These demonstrations of a cruel disposition, 
 however, procured his recal at a time when it 
 was considered that conciliation would prove 
 better pohcy than barbarity. In 819 he ob- 
 tained the consulship, and afterwards espoused 
 the cause of Otho against Vitellius ; not, it 
 has been said, without undergoing some sus- 
 picion of entertaining views upon the empire 
 for himself; an imputation, however, which 
 lacitus considers to have been altogether un- 
 merited. — Hooke. Lempviere. 
 
 SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS (Caius) 
 the second and more celebrated of the two, 
 was the friend of the younger Pliny, who ob- 
 tained for him the dignity of military tribune 
 under 'I'rajan. He was also secretary to the 
 emperor Hadrian ; but falling into disgrace 
 with Sabina, that prince's consort, was dis- 
 missed from his employment. He was the 
 author of a variety of works, tlie principal of 
 which that has come down to posterity is his 
 history of the first twelve Caesars. His trea- 
 tise " De Claris Gramraaticis," and some 
 fragments of another " De Rhetoricis," are 
 also extant. Of the former work there are 
 several editions, the first of which appeared at 
 Rome, iu folio, 1470. That by Grajvius in 
 4to, 1691, and that, cum notis auctioribus 
 Pitisci, 1714, are considered the best. '1 here 
 is also an English translation of the book, in 
 one volume, octavo. Suetonius's Lives of the 
 CfEsars form one of the most interesting re- 
 mains of historical antiquity ; for although the 
 work cannot rank high in respect to style or sen - 
 timent, it abounds with anecdotes and incidents 
 of the times, and affords striking views of the 
 
 tionary of Surgery, 1771, 8vo. 'ihe Academy ' private life of those elevated personages, who 
 of Surgery appointed him provost of the col- I in history are scarcely seen but in their public 
 lege, then counsellor, commissary for extracts j actions. He has been accused of unnecessary 
 and correspondence, and at length receiver of freedoms in his details of the detestable actions 
 the funds of the institution. On the death of of some of the sovereigns who form the sub- 
 professor Hevin he succeeded to the chair of jects of his narrative ; but possibly more would 
 tljera|)eutics in 17 90, which post he soon after have been lost as an instructive lesson on some 
 lost on the su[)pression of the Academy of Sur- of the most disgusting cons quences of abso- 
 gery. In 17 94, on the establishment of the lute power, than could have been gained by the 
 Scliool of Health, now the Faculty of Medicine, ' greater reserve contended for on the score of 
 he was appointed librarian, then professor of bib- { decorum. — Biog, Cl(issu:a, 
 
SUE 
 
 S U II 
 
 SUETT (RicHAno) a comic actor of great 1 whom I have iiitpgratfti a *t<ry difliculi equa 
 
 note in low and liumoroiis cliariuttT.M. who w.ih ' tian." LfSiifur wbb the nutlior of »cvrra* 
 
 a native of London, and in the early part of, tli«Mnatjtal work», hut he u |.ni»ci|.»ll> know 
 his life belonged to the choir of St {'nul'* in l.ii^land a* a romtnfntj»tor on Sewion 
 
 cathedral. He made his rir.-^t a|i|)e.irante on 
 the stage at the Hayniarket theatre, wlule vet 
 very young ; but on arriviii}; at inatdiood, Ik- 
 made his noviciate in the couutry, and attained 
 considerable rejiutation at \'ork, where he 
 performed for some time. In 1781 lie firht 
 exhibited his i)eculiar talents at Drurylane 
 theatre, and he j;railually rose to <;reHt emi- 
 nence, particularly iu ludicrous comedy and 
 broad farce. His Robin (in the Waterman), 
 Endless (No Sons; no Supper), and Dicky 
 (jossip (i\ly Grandmother), may be mentioned 
 as almost inimitable. The love of convivial 
 society unfortunately led him to indulge in 
 habits of intemperance, which brought on in- 
 curable disease, and occasioned his death in 
 1805, at the age of forty-seven. His body 
 ■was interred iu the cemetery belonging to the 
 metropolitan cathedral, of whose choir he had 
 formerly been a member. — Thesp. Diet. Jnues. 
 SUEUR. There were three distinguished 
 personages of this name. — Eustachics i.e 
 SuEiR, a native of Paris, born 1617, was one 
 of the most eminent masters of the Parisian 
 school of painiing, and acquired the appellation 
 of " The French Raphael." He was the pnj)il 
 of Simon Vouet, but far surpassed his master. 
 Although he was never out of his native couu- 
 trv, his compositions are chiefly remarkable for 
 their sublimity and judgment, but prove liim 
 to have been at the same time very deficient 
 in the knowledge of local colours and chiar' 
 oscuro. His principal work is the life of St 
 Bruno, in twenty-two pictures, which it took 
 him three years to complete, and which are 
 still to be seen, though much defaced (it is 
 said by the malignity of a rival), in the Car- 
 thusian convent at Paris, in which metropolis 
 the artist died in 1655. — Jean le SuEun, a 
 French ecclesiastic minister to a Protestant 
 congregation at Feste-sous-Jouarre en Brie, 
 is known as the author of a treatise on the 
 divine inspiration of the Scriptures, and a 
 " flistory of the Church and of the Empire," 
 ofwhich latter work, originally printed in Hol- 
 land about the year 1730, Pictet has since pub- 
 lished a continuation. — Thomas le Suevr, a 
 French ecclesiastic and eminent mathematician , 
 born at Relhel in Champagne, in 1703. He en- 
 tered into the order of friars IMinims in 17'J2 ; 
 and after having been a teacher of philosophy 
 
 tna- 
 
 
 
 on. 
 
 having; pubii»iied " Ncutoiii I'hilo 
 turah* I'rincipia .Mallifmatif a, p<rpt'tuii Com 
 inentaiiii* liUistrjtii, it I. le S<-ur el F. J«c- 
 fpuer," Uenev. IT.iy — K). f vol*. Mn. — U'Ar. 
 geiiiille. Soui. Dirt. Ilitt. lU'^.l'nti. 
 
 SL FFKKN SI. I UOl'KZd'i'ii.H .\n'd«iw 
 de) a distinguibhed French uavnl oirictr, born 
 at the castle of St Cannat in I'rotcntr, m 
 17'J(>. His family waa noble, and bointj des- 
 tined for the sea service, he received a •uiiahlu 
 education at Toulon. He entered tl»i- navy at 
 garde-marine in 1743, and in 17\H he was ap- 
 pointed enseigne de vai.nwau. Being made 
 prisoner at the battle of Bellisle he waa pent 
 to En^'land ; and on the conclusion of j»eaie he 
 went to Malta, wiiere hewai* admitted akni^hi 
 of the order of St .lohn. On the commi ncemrnt 
 of hostilities in 1755 he was aj^am en 
 and serving as a lieutenant in t!ie li^ : ; ,,.,.- 
 manded byOe laClue, hewas cajiiuredaBecoud 
 time in the engagement oft" CajK* La^o«. In 
 1772 he was made a captain, and he com- 
 manded a vessel in the fleet of the count de 
 Grasse at the conquest of the isle of Grenada 
 in the West Indies, in 1779. But the mo>t 
 important services of SutlVen were perfornn-il 
 in the F^ast Indies, after he obtained the rank 
 of an admiral. He returned from that part of 
 the world to Toulon in .March I7b4, wiien he 
 was received by his countrymen wuh the moi>t 
 flattering honours. .\ medal was struck wuh 
 his efligy and the following inscription : " I.e 
 Cap protege ; Irinquemale pris ; Goudelojr 
 delivre ; LTnde defendue ; Six Combats glo- 
 rieux. Les lUats de Provence ont decerne 
 cette Medaille .MDCCLXX.MV." .Vdmiral 
 SufFren died at Paris December 8, 17U8. — 
 Bioir, Univ. 
 
 SUGER, abbot of St Denis, a French states- 
 man of the twelfth century, born in 108'.; at 
 'J'ouri in Beauce. He was successively mi- 
 nister of state to Louis \'1I and Louis the 
 Fat, and wiis raised by the latter, whose con- 
 fidence he enjoyed, to the benefice which he 
 retained until his death in 1 15-.'. Pcre Ger- 
 vaise, a monk of the order of ."^t Dominic, who 
 wrote his life, gives him a high character both 
 for talents and integrity, while his .' 
 among his contemporaries is someu 
 tested by the simj)licity of hia epitaph, " Htrt! 
 lies the ahbt- Suger." — \out. l>ict. Hist. 
 
 SUH.M (I i.Kic Fkipiric Ton) a Sa\on 
 diplomatist, born at Dresden in 1691. He 
 
 and theology, he was called to Rome, and 
 
 made professor of mathematics at the college -, . ,, , , ,, 
 
 of wisdom, and of theology at the propaganda , studied at Geneva, and then went to I anj.. 
 
 in that city. He afterwards went to Parma, to where his father was ambav«.-x>!or from the 
 
 assist in the education of the infant duke ; 
 and returning to Rcme he died there Sep- 
 tember 22, 1770. He exhibited, like many 
 
 • 'elector of Saxony. In 17 IU his sovereign ap- 
 pointed him minister plenijKitentiary at \ itnna, 
 and in 17i:0 at Herlin. He r • ' e 
 
 other individuals* on record, an instance of ten years, and became the p.: 
 
 " the ruling passion, strong in death." Two ; the prince royal, afterwards Hed 
 
 enck the 
 
S U L 
 
 de Lynar, as Saxon minister at Petersburg ; 
 and he remained tliere til! after the accession 
 of his roval friend to the throne, at whose in- 
 vitation he set out for Berlin in November 
 1740 ; bat he was seized with a fit of illness 
 at ^Var?a^^•, which carried him oflf in a few 
 days. — Tiiog. Univ. 
 
 SUHM (Peter Frederic) a distinguished 
 Danish historian, born at Copenhagen October 
 18, 1728. He descended from a family origi- 
 nally from Germany, but long settled in Den- 
 mark, and his father was an admiral in the 
 Danish navy. He displayed in his youtli an 
 unconquerable passion for reading ; and in 
 1746 he was admitted into the university of 
 Copenhagen, where the ensuing year he re- 
 ceived the title of hof-junker, or gentleman of 
 the court, which he owed to liis merit. He 
 was after appointed assessor of the court tri- 
 bunal ; but iiaving accepted of this office 
 merely to gratify his father, he ere long re- 
 signed it, that he might dedicate all his time 
 to literature. Though the government suc- 
 cessively made him gentleman of the royal 
 chamber, counsellor of conference, chamber- 
 «hin, and at last historiographer royal, he 
 scarcely ever interfered in public affairs ; the 
 only occasion on which he is known to have 
 done so having been at the revolution, which 
 proved fatal to Struensee, when he joined the 
 party of the queen -dowager, and drew up for 
 the use of the conspirators a plan of a tempe- 
 rate monarchical constitution, which however 
 was not adopted. M. Suhm, who was a mem- 
 ber of almost all the literary academies in the 
 north of Europe, died of the gout September 
 7, 1798. llif principal wTitings are " An 
 Introduction to the Critical History of Den- 
 mark," 1769 — 73, 5 vols. 4to ; " The Critical 
 History of Denmark during the Pagan Ages," 
 1774 — 81, 4 vols ; " The Modern History of 
 Denmark," of which seven volumes have 
 been published, the first of which appeared in 
 1782. His miscellaneous works were col- 
 lected and reprinted, with an account of his 
 life at Copenhagen, 1788 — 98, 15 vols. — 
 Month, Mag. Biog. Univ. 
 
 SUIDAS, the name of an ancient Greek 
 writer, the era of whose life has been variously 
 fixed at the commencement and the close of 
 the eleventh century. He is however gene- 
 rally considered to have flourished in tlie reign 
 of the emperor Alexis Comnenus. He was 
 the compiler of a valuable lexicon, which, if 
 not altogether to be relied upon as to accu- 
 racy in the historical facts which it alludes to, 
 is yet highly interesting from the references 
 which it occasionally makes to, and the quo- 
 tations it gives from the writings of lost authors. 
 Of this work, which was first printed about 
 the close of the fifteenth century at INIilan, 
 there are several editions, the best of which is 
 the English one of Kuster with a Latin version, 
 primed at Cambridge in 2 vols foho, 1705. — 
 Fabiicii Bibl. Groec. 
 
 SULGHER FANTASTICI MARCHE- 
 SINI ( Fortune) a celebrated improvisatrice, 
 who was a native of Leghorn, and at an early 
 age manifested extraordiaarv poetical abilities. 
 
 S U L 
 
 She settled at Florence, as a situation favour- 
 able for improvement ; and she there gave up 
 her attention to the studv of the belles lettres, 
 the learned languages, and natural philosophy. 
 Thus furnished with knowledge, she was ac- 
 customed to reply, impromptu, in verse to all 
 questions, and to pour forth in elegant but un- 
 premeditated poetry her sentiments on a va- 
 riety of subjects. Her excellence is said to 
 have been unrivalled, and the channs of her 
 voice, her gestures, and Iier person, extorted 
 the admiration of those who were emulous of 
 her fame. She was admitted into the Arcadian 
 Academy by the title of Themira Parnasida, 
 under which she published some of her verses. 
 She died at FlorenceJune 13,1824, after liaving 
 been twice married. Her works are " Poesie," 
 Florence, 1782; " Ero e Leandro, Poemetto," 
 Leghorn, 1803; " La Morte di Abele, Tra- 
 gedia," 1804 ; and " Favole Esopiane," 1806. 
 — Biog, Univ. 
 
 SULIVAN, bart. (sir Richard Joseph). 
 He was a native of Ireland, and in early life, 
 together with his brother, John Sulivan, sent 
 out to India under the patronage of their re- 
 lation Laurence Sulivan, chairman of the East 
 India Company. On his return to England he 
 made a tour through Ireland, Scotland, and 
 Wales ; cf which he gave an account in a se- 
 ries of letters, in two octavo volumes in 1780. 
 He soon after published a " Letter to the East 
 India Directors," which was followed by an 
 " Analysis of the Political History of India ;" 
 " Thoughts on Martial Law ;" and " Philoso- 
 phical Rhapsodies, being Fragments of Akber 
 of Betlis," 3 vols. Bvo. His last and most 
 elaborate work appeared in 1794, under the 
 title of " A View of Nature, in Letters to a 
 Traveller among the Alps," 6 vols. 8vo. In 
 1790 he was elected member of the house of 
 Commons for New Romney, and in 1802 for 
 Seaford. He was created a baronet in 1804. 
 He died in 1806.— Gent. Mag. 
 
 SULLIVAN (John) an American gene- 
 ral during the revolutionary war, who was 
 bom at Berwick in the territory of Maine 
 (NA.) in 1741. He was appointed general 
 of brigade by the congress in 1775, and the 
 next year being made a major-general, he was 
 sent to replace Arnold in the command of the 
 army in Canada. The superiority of the Eng- 
 lish forces obliged him to retreat from that 
 country ; and he was then employed in Long 
 Island, where he was taken prisoner. Being 
 speedily exchanged, he served wit hgreat re- 
 putation at the battles of Brandywine and 
 German town in 1777 and 1778 ; and subse- 
 (|uently against the Indians. Having been 
 deprived of his command, on account of a 
 charge of peculation, he lived in retirement 
 till 1788, when he became a member of the 
 congress ; and he was afterwards president of 
 New Hampshire, and then judge of that dis- 
 trict. He died in 1795. — His brother, James 
 Sui.LiVAN, adopted the legal profession, and 
 was successively justice, attorney-general, and 
 governor of the })r()vince of Massachusetts. 
 He was also a member of the American Aca- 
 demy of Arts and Sciences, and long presi- 
 
S U I. 
 
 dent of the Ilistorica! Society of MasBachu- 
 setts. He diod in 1808, leaving;, hegide* dt<- 
 tach('<l mtMiioirs, " Observations on tin* Go- 
 vernment of the United States of America," 
 1791, »vo ; a " History of the District of 
 i\Iaine," 179.i, 8vo ; a " History of the Ter- 
 ritory of Massachusetts," 1801, 8vo ; and a 
 " Dissertation on the Constitutional Liberty 
 of tbe iVess in the United Staie«," livo. — 
 Biog. Nouv.des Coidemp. lHog. Univ. 
 
 SULLY (Hknuy) an Kn^hsh artist, who 
 contributed greatly to the improvement of 
 horolojjy in the eighteentli century. He stu- 
 died liis profession in London, and attracted 
 the esteem of sir Isaac Newton, by his re- 
 searclies on the longitude. He then visited 
 Holland and Germany, and afterwards going 
 to Paris, the duke of Orleans gave him tlie 
 direction of a manufactory of time-pieces, wliich 
 he established at Versailles. Having lost this 
 situation by his imprudence, he endeavoured to 
 found another manufactory at St Germains ; 
 but his alfairs were ruined by the .Mi^sisippi 
 scheme of tbe projector Law. He afterwards 
 went to England, and being disappointed in 
 his expectations there, he returned to Ver- 
 sailles, where he executed his principal work 
 of art, a lever-pendulum, to measure time at 
 sea, foT which he received from the king a 
 pension of six hundred livres. He died at 
 Paris October 13, 1728, and his body was in- 
 terred in the church of St Sulpice, in which he 
 had traced a meridian line, afterwards repaired 
 by Lemonnier. Sully was distinguished not 
 only as an artist, but also as an author. He 
 published, " Regie artificielle du Temps," 
 Paris, 1717, Bvo ; " Description d'une Hor- 
 loge," 4to ; and " IMethode pour r^gler les 
 Montres et les Pendules," 1728, 8vo. — Biog. 
 Univ, 
 
 SULLY (Maximilian de Bethune, duke 
 de) was born at Rosny, December 13, 1560, 
 of an illustrious family, being the second son 
 cf Francis de Bethune and Charlotte d'Auvet. 
 He was educated in the Protestant faith, to 
 which he always adhered ; and his father pos- 
 sessing but a moderate fortune, presented him 
 at the age of eleven to the queen of Navarre, 
 and he was educated with her son, afterwards 
 Henry IV. He accompanied the latter to 
 Paris, where he narrowly escaped becoming a 
 victim in the detestable massacre of St Bar- 
 tholomew. When the young king of Navarre 
 escaped from the court of France, the baron 
 du llosny, as Sully was then called, followed 
 him. And in the subsequent wars which 
 Henry carried on before he obtained the 
 French crown, his friend greatly distinguished 
 himself in various campaigns, particularly at 
 Marmande, Lectoure, Coutras, where he com- 
 manded the artillery, and at Ivry, where he 
 took the standard of the duke of Maine, and 
 was most dangerously wounded. In 1591 he 
 took Gisors ; and the capture of Dreux in 1593, 
 Laon in 1594, La Fere in 1596, Amiens in 
 1597, and Montmelian in 1600, added new 
 lustre to his reputation as a warrior. But his 
 abilities as a diplomatist and financier were no 
 less remarkable. In 1586 he concluded a 
 
 • tUf 
 
 J 
 
 S U L 
 
 treaty with the SwiM for • iopply of fO.OOO 
 troops for Ilia It. . ri \ S^/f hm 
 
 wan pim I'd «t i a.Mtnrin of 
 
 finance, and two y.»r» afit-r hr wu drtlafcd 
 KUpfrml.Tuhuit. About ilir immr inn** !.•• also 
 ne^o. iai.il ill,. n»arriat;r of Hrtirv ** •'• Mjry 
 do' Medici. In his rinb4iiiiv to J 
 lh« death of rpjf.-ii Kliuibrth, ho 
 great penetration and addreim. and i.. 
 a treaty with J omen I, ■d»antai,'»'(iij« to (||<. 
 interestrt of both rountrie*. In addition lo hta 
 other offices he was appoint»-d grTind ,r 
 
 of France, grand nianter of ibe aiiii ,. 
 
 vernor of the liastile. and i>up<nntpiidan( of 
 fortifications throughout the kiiiedoin. Hit 
 labours as minister of finaiue w,-te attended 
 with tbe iiappiest succens ; and (he revenues 
 of the government, wliich bud b«eii reoucrd 
 to a state of complete dilapidation by ihe com- 
 bined effect of civil anarchy and oiK-n war- 
 fare, were by Ids care restored to ord»T. r»'gii. 
 larity, and affluence. Though fre<pn-ni!y 
 thwarted in liis purposes by tlie rapacitv of the 
 courtiers and mistresses of the monarch, he 
 nobly pursued his career, ever distn ~ i^ 
 himself as the zealous friend of hi- v. 
 
 and not the temporizing ministf^r of hi!* mas- 
 ter. His industry was unwearied. lie ros« 
 every morning at four o'clock, and after deJi- 
 caiing some time to business, he gave audience 
 to all who solicited admission to lum, wiiliout 
 distinction of persons. Tliough he per»<*vered 
 in the reformed religion himselt', he appears to 
 have viewed tlie subject of ieli{:ious belief as 
 by no means of paramount important e, since 
 it was principally owing to his counsels that 
 the king was reconciled to the Catholic church. 
 The pope having addressed to lum a letter, in 
 which, after paying him many complinit'iits on 
 the score of his abilities, he invited him to 
 become a Catholic, and concluded with de- 
 claring that he should always pray for his con- 
 version to tlie true faith ; Sully, in his reply, 
 observed that on his part he would iirver 
 cease to pray God for tlie conversion of his 
 holiness. After his return from bis mission to 
 England, he was made governor of Poitou, 
 and grand master of tbe ports anil harl>our» of 
 Provence, and the territory of Sully-sur Loire 
 was erected into a duchy in his favour in 1606. 
 After the murder of Henry I\' he was oblii;t-d 
 to retire from court ; but after some years he 
 was recalled by Louis .\I11, and on makin4 
 his appearance in the royal circle, the courtieit 
 did not treat him with tliat nsjH'it to T\liick 
 he thought himself enlilled, on which he said 
 to the king, " Sire, when your father did rr.e 
 the honour to consult me, we ntvi-r »|Hike oa 
 affairs till he hatl dismissed Ins fl.»tterer» an 1 
 buffoons to the antechamber." lo 16^4 lie 
 received the staff of a marshal in exchan^je 
 for tbe office of srand master of the ariill*TV. 
 His death took place at \ illebon Dec. J4, 
 1641. His well-known *• Memoirs " «ere 
 partly published by himself, under the liile of 
 ! " Economies Rovales,"' Amst'-rdam. 16:>4. S 
 ' vols, folio, but printed in his own hjuse ; aud 
 the third and fourth volumes were publislied 
 at Paris in 1662. They have often appeared 
 
SU L 
 
 since, and llie abb6 TEcluse in 17-i5 edited 
 them in a modernized form, not much to the 
 advantage of tlie work, with which he has 
 taken great liberties. The " Memoirs " have 
 been transUited into Enghsli by Mrs Charlotte 
 Lennox, 8 vols, li'mo. — Diet. Hist. Biog. 
 
 Univ. 
 
 SULPICIA, a Roman poetess, who lived 
 in the reign of the emperor Domitian. She 
 was the wife of Calenns, to whom she ad- 
 dressed a poem on Conjugal Love, which is 
 highly praised by Martial, in one of his epi- 
 grams, but it is unfortunately no longer extant. 
 The only specimen remaining of her produc- 
 tions is a fragment of a satire against Domi- 
 tian, composed on the promulgation of his 
 edict for the banishment of the philosophers 
 from Rome. This piece may be found in the 
 " Corpus Poetarum " of Maittaire, and in the 
 " Poetaj Latinae minores." The " Elegies " 
 annexed to the fourth book of those of Tibul- 
 us have been erroneously attributed to this 
 poetess. — Ellon's Specimens of the Classic Poets. 
 
 Bins;. Univ. 
 
 SULPICIUS GALLUS, a member of the 
 illustrious Roman family of the Sulpicii, who 
 was one of the earliest astronomers liis coun- 
 try produced. He first made known to the 
 Romans the cause of solar and lunar eclipses; 
 and beino- a tribune in the army of Paulus 
 ^milius, in Greece, the year 168 BC, his 
 skill enabled him to discover that an eclipse of 
 the moon would happen on the night previous 
 to the day fixed for giving battle to Perseus, 
 king of Macedon, he explained the cause of 
 the approaching phenomenon to the soldiers, 
 and thus prevented the panic with which they 
 might otherwise have been seized. Two years 
 after Sulpicius filled tlie office of consul ; but 
 the time of his death is uncertain. — Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 SULPICIUS SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical 
 liistorian of the fifth century, was a native of 
 Aquitania. He was brought up to the bar, 
 acquired wealtli, and married, but upon the 
 death of his wife embraced a religious life. 
 He was the author of a "Sacred History," 
 written in a pure Latin style, but otherwise 
 incorrect, and of little value. He also com- 
 posed a life of St INlartin; but his most enter- 
 taining work is a dialogue illustrative of the 
 mode of life of the eastern monks, which piece 
 affords an instructive view of the monachism 
 of the period. His works liave been several 
 times published, and the best editions are that 
 of Le Clerc, Lips. 1709, 8vo ; and that of 
 Hieron. a IVate, Veron., 4to, 2 vols. 1741, 
 17o4. — Vossii Hist. Lat. Dupin. 
 
 SULZER (John Georgf) an ingenious 
 Swiss writer, was born in the canton of Zurich 
 in 1720. At the age of nineteen he became 
 an ecclesiastic, and two years afterwards pub- 
 lished " iMoral Contemplations of the Works 
 of Nature," and " A Description of the most 
 remarkable Antiquities in the Lordship of 
 Kronau." He subsequently became a tutor at 
 Magdeburg, and professor of mathematics in 
 the royal college of Berlin. Besides the 
 works already mentioned, he published a 
 
 SU R 
 
 " Universal Theory of the Fine Arts," a sort 
 of dictionary, which is deemed his princi])al 
 performance ; and '• Remarks on the Philo- 
 sophical Essays of Hume." He died in 1779. 
 — Eloge hij Formey, 
 
 SUMOROKOF (Alexander) regarded as 
 the founder of the Russian theatre, was the 
 son of a Russian noble, and was born at Mos- 
 cow, November 14, 1727. He received the 
 rudiments of education in his father's house, 
 whence he was removed to the seminaiy of 
 cadets at St Petersburg, where he gave early 
 proofs of his genius for poetry. On quitting 
 the seminary he was appointed to an ad jutantcy, 
 and being noticed by count Struvalof, that 
 nobleman introduced him to the empress Eli- 
 zabeth. He had reached the age of twenty- 
 nine, when having contracted an enthusiastic 
 admiration for the works of Racine, his at- 
 tention was turned to the drama, and he com- 
 posed his tragedy of *' Koref," which was first 
 acted by some of his former companions among 
 the cadets. Being informed of this first na- 
 tive attempt, the empress Elizabeth caused it 
 to be represented at the private court theatre. 
 Thus encouraged, he followed with other tra- 
 gedies, several comedies, and two operas ; in 
 adtlition to which he attempted almost every 
 species of poetry, except the epic — love-songs, 
 idylls, fables, satires. Anacreontics, versions of 
 the Psalms, and Pindaric odes. He was also 
 author of a few historical pieces, the titles of 
 which are " A Chronicle of Moscow;" *' A 
 History of the first Insurrection of the Stre- 
 Utzes in 1682 ;" and " An Account of Stenko 
 Kasin's Rebellion." Elizabeth gave him tlie 
 rank of brigadier, and appointed him director 
 of the Russian theatre, with a pension ; and Ca- 
 tharine II created him a counsellor of state, 
 and conferred upon him the order of St Anne, 
 with many other marks of favour. He died 
 at Moscow, October 1, 1777, in his fifty-first 
 year. The characteristics of Sumorokof as a 
 poet, are harmony, softness, and elegance, and 
 he shines most in the class of poetry which is 
 best calculated to exhibit them. His tragedies 
 possess great merit, regarded as the first in 
 the language, and his comedies are very 
 humorous, with now and then a tendency to 
 farce. His pastorals, elegies, and fables are 
 deemed the most finished of his compositions, 
 and his satires the most defective. Sumorokof 
 [)Ossessed all the caprice and waywardness of 
 genius ; his extreme sensibility approached to 
 morbidity, and the caprice and irritability of 
 his nature were equally troublesome to his 
 friends and to himself. He may be regarded 
 with Lomonozof, as one of tlie chief inspirers 
 of a native poetical taste in Russia. — due's 
 Travels in Russia. 
 
 SURENHUSIUS (William) a celebrated 
 Hebrew and Greek professor in the university 
 of Amsterdam. He is chiefly known for his 
 edition of the " Mischna " of tlie Jews, with 
 notes, and a Latin version, which he began to 
 publish in 1698, and finished in 1703, in three 
 volumes, folio. It contains also the commen- 
 taries of the rabbins Maimonides and Barte- 
 nora. He likewise published in 1713 a Latin 
 
S U T 
 
 work, in which he professes to vindicate and 
 reconcile tlie j)assagp8 in the OKI TtHtainctit 
 Tiiotecl in the New, accoi\lin^ to tin- critu al 
 princi[)le9 of the ancient Hebrew iheolo^iutu. 
 Neither the date of his birth nor of his ilealh 
 is recorileci. — Saiii ())toin, 
 
 SUlllTA (Jerome) a Spanish liistorian, 
 was born at Saraf^ossa. of an ancient family, 
 Decemhcr 4, l;)!'.'. He made a great j)r()^'rf8s 
 in his academical studies at the university of 
 Alcala, and subsequently became secretary to 
 the Inquisition, lie di(d October 31, l.MiO. 
 His principal historical work is entitled 
 " Anales de la Corona del Reyno de Araijon," 
 7 vols, folio, of which the edition of KilO is 
 deemed the most complete. He also published 
 in Latin " Indices Rerum ab Araj^oniiv Regibus 
 gestarum, libri tres ;" and edited the Itinerary 
 of Antoninus, his notes to which have been 
 adopted by Gale. — Antonio Bibl. llib-jian. 
 
 SUIIHJS (Laurentius) a voluminous com- 
 piler, was born at Lubeck in lr>'2'2, and entered 
 the Carthusian order in that city, where he 
 became celebrated for his integrity and learn- 
 ing. The principal among his numerous 
 works are a " Collection of Councils," 1567, 
 4 vols, folio ; " The Lives of the Saints," 
 1687, 7 vols, folio ; " A History of his own 
 Times," 1.569, 8vo. He was learned, but cre- 
 dulous, and destitute of judgment. He died 
 at Cologne in 1578. — Saiii Onom. 
 
 SUSSMILCH (John Petfr) a Germaii 
 ^utheran divine and an eminent writer on 
 tatistics, was born about the beginning of the 
 ast century. He applied himself with great 
 ililigence to the study of history, and made a 
 reat progress in mathematics, which enabled 
 .im to be a good calculator in political arith- 
 metic. He is principally known by a work 
 in the German language, entitled "The Order 
 observed by God in the Changes of the Hu- 
 man Race, "demonstrated by the Births,I)eaths, 
 and Propagation of xAIan," a fourth edition of 
 which was published at Berlin in 1775. In 
 this work the author treats of the multiplica- 
 tion of mankind in general, the proportion of the 
 two sexes to each other, the relative operation 
 of diseases and of deaths at different pe- 
 riods, as also of the uses of bills of mortality, 
 and of the best method of keeping registers. 
 It has been of great use to subsecjuent writers 
 on population, and is frequently quoted by .Mr 
 iMalthus. He died in 1767.— La ]*rnsie Lit- 
 tvraire sous Frederic 11. 
 
 SUTCLIFFE (Matthew) an English di- 
 vine, was bom in Devonshire, and educated at 
 Trinity college, Cambridge. Of his early his- 
 tory nothing is recorded ; but in 158-3 he was 
 installed archdeacon of Taunton, and in 1588 
 confirmed dean of Exeter. He died in 16'J9. 
 He was eminent in his day as a controver- 
 sialist, and wrote a great number of tracts 
 against the Catholic propagandists. He is 
 chiefly mentioned here as the founder of a 
 singular college at Chelsea, the fellows of 
 which were to be employed in writing the an- 
 nals of their own times, and in combating 
 Popery and Pelagianisra. He was himself the 
 first provost ; but his bequest turning out less 
 
 part 
 I n- 
 
 ■' r. 
 t of 
 
 S U T 
 
 valuable than wan expected, the catfthliihrnfcr.t 
 fell lo ilccay, and finally wa» tr«ii»f.jriiird iu(o 
 an nh\luin i<.>r drcaycd »oldn-r«, ( ■• 
 of the eiiktin^ one At Chclw.*.- 
 virom of' iMudon. 
 
 Si; r TON (l)Avm )ji mr-d..al 
 ilihtinj;niHhed for Lia nui crmf.il 
 the small pox. Ilm failuT, KoMtnr Slttow, 
 w;is an apotlndiry. who, tn 17)7, t <■ ' ' .J 
 at Debt-nham, in Sudnik, a Iioiiimj f . :.. ;c. 
 ception of jiersons under inoculalioa for the 
 disease just mentioned, where, in tli,- .,( 
 
 ten years, he is »aid to havtr inocuU; .. . ,i| 
 subjects, all of whom recovered from their dj». 
 order. Daniel simjdified and imprrived hi* 
 father's mode of |)ractice, and •ettied fir«i at 
 Ingatestone, Ksricx, ami afterwards m l^ndon, 
 where he was very successful. liaron [Jims- 
 dale, a rival of the Suttons, published a work, 
 [)rofessedly developing their mode of pia- iice, 
 in 1767 ; and in 1796 appeared a tract entitled 
 " The Inoculator, or the Suttonian System of 
 Inoculation fully set forth in a plain and fa- 
 miliar manner," 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 Sl'TlON (Samuel) a native of Alfrelton, 
 Derbyshire, who having served with some credit 
 under the great duke of Marlboroiii;h, com- 
 menced business as a brewer in Aldersgale- 
 street, where he also opened a coflee- house. 
 He was a man of strong though uncultivated 
 genius, and in 1744 obtained a patent for aa 
 invention which he had discovered four year* 
 before, of a method of extracting the foul air 
 from the wells of ships by pipes communicating 
 with their coppers. Dr Stephen Hales about 
 the same time produced his scheme for ob- 
 taining the same end by means of ventilators, 
 and a warm discussion ensued on the compa- 
 rative merits of the two plans, in which doctors 
 Mead and Watson warmly advocated that ot 
 Mr Sutton ; the interest of his rival with the 
 navy-board, however, eventually prevailed, 
 and the ventilators were adopted. His death 
 took place in 175i?. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 SU rrON (Thomas) a wealthy and philan- 
 thropic English Hjierchant of the age of Eliza- 
 beth, born in 151>-' at Knaith in Lincolnshire, 
 where his family, which \^as ancient and re- 
 spectable, had been sellltd for several jjene- 
 rations. After receiving a sound cla&tical edu- 
 cation at Eton ai^d Cambmlge, he became a 
 member of the society of Lincoln's inu, but 
 soon (luiited it for the continent, and speut 
 some time in visiting the Low Countriet, 
 France, Italy, and Spain. On his return to 
 England he attached himself to the earl of 
 Warwick ; and having, through the interest 
 of that nobleman, obtained tiie ap|»<)intmeot 
 of master of the ordnance at 15erwuk-u5>oQ- 
 Tweed, he distinguished liimself so much by 
 his gallant behaviour against the insurgents, 
 under the earls of Westmorland ana Norihum- 
 berlauvi, that he received a grant of that ofiicfl 
 for his life. While resident in the north he 
 was ^ingularIy fortunate in a purchase which 
 he made of two valuable manors frrm the then 
 bishop of Durham, on which a vein of coal 
 was subsequently discovered, and laid the 
 foundation of the immctue riches which after- 
 
SUV 
 
 wards flowed in upon him. A marriage whicL 
 he coutracted with an opulent widow added 
 Btill more to his already large property, which 
 be increased still fariher by trade, maintaining, 
 it is said, no fewer tlian thirty agents at various 
 continental ports. So powerful indeed was 
 the , influence which his wealth acquired for 
 him, that owing to the large drafts which he 
 designedly made on the bank of Genoa, when 
 that city had entered into a treaty with the 
 king of Spain to supply him with money for 
 tiis expedition against England, the sailing of 
 the armada was necessarily deferred a twelve- 
 month. Part of the money which he thus 
 drew together was farther employed against 
 the enemies of his country in fitting out a 
 ship of war, which he completely equipped 
 at his own expense, called by his own name, 
 and sent to join the fleet under Drake. In his 
 personal expenditure he was singularly magni- 
 ficent, till the death of his wife in 1602 threw 
 him into a degree of melancholy which occa- 
 sioned a total change in his mode of living. As 
 be was without issue much speculation existed 
 with respect to the person who might inherit 
 his property, and overtures were even made 
 liim from the court, which by the ofl^er of a 
 peerage endeavoured to divert a portion of it 
 at least to the young duke of York, afterwards 
 Charles I. Sutton however was seized with a 
 more noble ambition, and resolved to raise a 
 more lasting fame by dedicating his wealth to 
 the benefit of his fellow-creatures. With tliis 
 view he laid out thirteen thousand pounds in 
 purchasing from the earl of Suflfolk the dis- 
 solved monastery of the Chartrcux, then 
 callfd Howard-house, and there founded a 
 munificent institution, under the name of 
 the Charter-house. This noble establish- 
 ment, which comprises in itself a hospital 
 for decayed tradesmen and a public gram- 
 mar-school, he endowed in 1611 most liberally 
 with the whole of his property, whicli amount- 
 ed to the then lar^e sum of sixty thousand 
 pounds in money and landed estates to the 
 value of five thousand a-year. The founder 
 scarcely lived to witness the infancy of his es- 
 tablishment, dying at Hackney on the 11 th 
 of December in the same year. His remains, 
 which were at first deposited in Chrisicburcb, 
 Newgate-street, were afterwards exhumed 
 and interred again in 1614, in a vault pre- 
 pared for their reception in the chapel belong- 
 ing to the Charter-house. — Life hi) Bearcrojt. 
 Henrne's Dnmus Carthiisiaiicp. 
 
 SUVARROFF or SUW ARROW (Alex- 
 ander, count Riminisky, prince of Italisky) a 
 field-marshal of the Russian armies, equally 
 renowned for his desperate courage in battle 
 and his barbarity to the conquered. He was 
 descended of a noble Swedish family, bom in 
 1730, and was originally intended by bis father 
 for tlie profession of the law. in order to avoid 
 which destination he left his home abiuptlv, 
 and entered the army as a private soldier 
 wiien only thirteen years of age. His distin- 
 guished gallantry in the ranks during the seven 
 years' war gained him promotion, and after 
 twenty years' service he was raised to the com- 
 
 SUV 
 
 mand of a regiment. In 1768 he obtained 
 the rank of brigadier-general, and served se- 
 veral campaigns in Poland, receiving, in re- 
 ward for his courage and conduct, the crosses 
 of three Russian orders of knighthooil. In 1773 
 he was appointed to the command of a divi- 
 sion of the troops under count Romanzoff, ana 
 completely defeated a portion of the Turkish 
 army at Turtukey, killing, it is said, several 
 of the enemy witli his own band, and sending 
 their heads with a laconic message announc- 
 insf the victory to his u;eneral-in-chief. Cross- 
 ing the Danube, he afterwards, in conjunction 
 with the 'orce under Kamcaskoy, routed the 
 army of the reis eflfendi with great slaughter, 
 and the capture of all his artillery. In 1783 
 he marched against the Bud?iac Tarfars, and 
 reduced them under the Russian yoke. In 
 1787 being then chief in command, he was 
 entrusted with the defence of Kinburn, then 
 attacked bv the Turkish forces both bv sea 
 and land ; and after an obstinate siege suc- 
 ceeded in repulsing his assailants with consi- 
 derable loss. At Oczacow and Fockzani (at 
 the former of which places he received a se- 
 vere wound) his daring valour was equally 
 displayed ; and in the September of 1789 the 
 Austrian troops under the prince of Saxe Co- 
 burg being surrounded on the banks of the 
 Ryminisk by a hundred thousand Turks, owed 
 their preservation to bis timely arrival with 
 ten thousand Russians, wlio not only res- 
 
 I cued them from a destruction that appeared 
 inevitable, but occasioned the utter overthrow 
 of the enemy. To this victory he was indebted 
 
 I for the first of bis above-named titles and the 
 
 ! dignity of a count of both emj)ires. The next 
 and perhaps the most sanguinary of his ac- 
 
 ' tions was the storming of Ismailoff' in 1790. 
 This strongly fortified town had resisted all 
 
 ! attempts to reduce it for a period of seven 
 months, when Suwarrow received peremptory 
 
 I orders from prince Potemkin to take it with- 
 out delay, and pledged liimself to execute the 
 task assigned him in three days. Of the 
 sacking of the place on the third, and the in- 
 discriminate massacre of forty thousand of its 
 inhabitants of every age and sex, the accounts 
 
 i of the period give a report the most revolting 
 to humanity, while the announcement -^f his 
 bloody triumph was made by the general, who 
 
 [ affected a Spartan brevity in bis despatches, 
 in two short sentences, "Glory to God! — 
 IsmailofF is ours." Peace being proclaimed 
 with Turkey, the empress had leisure to ma- 
 ture her designs against the devoted kingdom 
 of Poland, and Suwarrow was seh cted as a fit 
 instrument to carry them into execution. He 
 marched accordingly at the head of his troops 
 to Warsaw, destroying about twenty thousand 
 Poles in his way, and ended a campaign, of 
 which the unprincipled partition of the in- 
 vaded country was the result. On this occa- 
 sion he received a field-marshal's baton, and 
 an estate in the dominions which he thus con- 
 tributed to annex to the Russian crown. The 
 last and most celebrated of his actions was his 
 campaign in Italy in 1799, when his courage 
 and genius for a while repaired the disasters 
 
SWA 
 
 of the allied forces in arms ai,'aiiist tlio I'roncli, 
 whom lie defeated it tlie baftio of Novi. A 
 more formidable Rytagonist than any lie had 
 yel t'licouuterRd was at length opposed to him 
 in M rcau : tlie ol)stiiiatf) valour of ilio lliis- 
 sian, howe'/er, continued to halHo the jjeneral- 
 ship of his o|)poin'nt, and thou.;h ultimat"ly 
 compelled to retire i)y way of Switzerland, his 
 retreat was conducted in so masterly a man 
 ner, that the s:l<>ry he af(|uirrd by it was not 
 inferior to th it wiiich he had ilenved iVoni his 
 victories. The chan;4e of politics in tlm Kus- 
 sian cabinet, orratiier in the vacillating; mind 
 of the capricious autocrat who then wore tiie 
 imperial diadem, bv producing a peace with 
 F" ranee, occasioned the recal of the veteran to 
 St. Petersburgli, where, althoui^h he was re- 
 ceived with lionour and distinction, tiie cha- 
 grin which he experienced at the new turn 
 affairs were taldnc;" is said to have injured his 
 health, and to have materially accelerated his 
 decease, which took place near that capital in 
 the spring of 1800. The virtues of Suwarrow 
 were those of a barbarian, intrepidity, disin- 
 terestedness, and atral)ility to his soldiers, 
 whose labours be shared, and who followed 
 him witli A blind devoteduess little short of 
 adoration; but these were disfigured by the 
 most reckless cruelty and barbarity, wliich 
 must ever cause his name and actions to be 
 held in abhorrence by all civilized nations. 
 Civil diplomacy he disdained, as unworthy of 
 a soldier; and the most absurd superstition 
 reigiied predominant in a mind utterly inac- 
 cessible to the dictates of all real and prac- 
 tical religion. In this respect his character 
 appears to have borne no slight resemblance 
 to that of Louis XI. of France, and like that 
 pitiless despot, he always carried about him a 
 small image ot his patron saint, to which he 
 affected the greatest devotion. Mis manner 
 of appearing in the field exhibited occasionally 
 a singularity which would almost seem to in- 
 iiciite a disordered intellect. In the conflict 
 especially which took place during his cele- 
 orated passage of the St. Gothard Alps, he is 
 represented as continuing the whole day in 
 nis shirt, with a boot on one leg and a shoe 
 on the other, in accomplishment, as was ge- 
 nerally supposed, of some vow or other sti- 
 perstitious observance — Historif of his Cma- 
 paii:ns bij Aiikhio;. Eiicuc. Brit. 
 
 SVVAMMEHDAM (John) a very distin- 
 guished naturalist, was born at Amsterdam in 
 1637. His father, who was an apothecary, 
 designed him for the church, but as he pre- 
 ferred physic, he was allowed to pursue his 
 studies in that profession. He was sent to 
 Leyden, where he quickly distinguished him- 
 self by his anatomical skill, and the art of 
 making preparations, .\fter visiting Taris for 
 improvement, he returned to Leyden, and took 
 ihe degree of JNID. in 1667, and about the 
 inme tfme began to practice his invention of 
 tijecting the vessels with a ceraceous matter, 
 ^'iiich kept them distended when cold; a 
 method from which anatomy has derived very 
 important advantages. Entomology however 
 oecame hia great pursuit, and in 1669 he pub- 
 
 S VV A 
 
 li'hi'd ill ihM Dutch T.an^Sf^^e n U. • il 
 Wistorv of Iii»»<clH." In tint* nork ar«» n .v 
 curious otxKervulioui on thu jhanfrit* produced 
 in this chiHH of ;i ■:- 
 
 siriiiod to bn II lui-r i " '•• 
 
 ascribed generation altofi^uthiT to uv t 
 
 tJiHory w.'iirh h is Ixm-m widi<ly < I. 
 
 ilo wa.s So d'jvotod to th*<i»o ]■••■ ■• 
 
 neglected ids practice a.1 a ph', :i. 
 
 siilto<l ids ri'putatioa an a miMlicoi anuto* 
 nust, by publishing in 1672 a ••. -' , • • -'..(J 
 " Miraculum Naturic, sou l't»'ri w . 4- 
 
 brica," to which w:is ad<li;d an account ol hi« 
 ni'w metliod of waxen injection. 1' ' • d 
 hyjfochondriacal, by intfiisitv ot s; id 
 
 other causes, ho bfcamo totally unbt for so- 
 cietv, in which state he unfortunately received 
 impressions frorin the mysticism of .Antoinette 
 l^ourignon. Jiy lier desire it is said that 
 lie imblished in l<)7.')aii account, in Dutfh, of 
 the insect named Kplieineris ; and lie followed 
 this selfish and unamiable fanatic to llnhtein, 
 althougli he afterwards returne<ltij .\ii n, 
 
 wiiere, reduced toa skeleton bv Ids abnir-i i ius 
 and mortiticitions, he terminated his li:e in 
 1680. Previously to his death, in a paroxysip 
 of enthusiasm, he burnt all his rem ■ i- 
 
 pers ; but under the pressure of u e, 
 
 having sold the greater part of his writings 
 and drawings to Thevenot. The.se, half a 
 century afterwards, came into possession of 
 lioerliaave, who caused them to be published 
 in Latin and Dutch, under the bupennlen- 
 dance of Gaiibius, with the title of Hiblia 
 N'atune, sive Historia Insectorum in Classes 
 certasreducta,&c."'2 vols, folio, Leyden, 1737, 
 of which papers the substance had appear.-. I in 
 the previous and less perfect edition of lo.J.J, 
 4to. This publication wliich has been translated 
 into English by sir .lohn Hill, abounds with 
 the most curious discoveries. Besides the 
 works before mentioned, he is author of 
 " fractatus Phvsico-Anatomico-Medicus de 
 Respiratione," Leyden, 1679, 8vo, and J73H, 
 4to. — Life hu Boe'-hcuive. Hulleri Bihl. Anut. 
 
 SWARTZ (Olaf) a Swedish botanist, 
 bornat Nordkopingin 1760. He studied under 
 Linna'us at Upsal, and afterwards imjtrovcd 
 his acquaintance with science by travelling in 
 search of plants through the provinces and 
 i>lands of Sweden. At the age of twenty- 
 three ho undertook a voyage to the >Vest 
 Indies and South America; and on his return 
 he resided a year in London, wliere lie he- 
 came ac(]uainted with sir .loseph Hanks Ilo 
 reached his native country in 178'.>, bringing 
 uith iiim a rich collection o*" v.> • ■'■'•• "--i- 
 sures. He then visited the .Alj'; as 
 
 of Norway and a part of Lapland. On his 
 return ho was elected n member of •' ' * ^n- 
 demy of Stockholm, of which the ig 
 
 year he was president ; and the king ap|>ointed 
 himiirofessorof natundb ' '">- 
 
 surgical institution, and :; of 
 
 the orders of Vasa, and of tlie Polar Star. 
 He died September IB, 1817. Among his 
 •vorks are " Nova Genera et Species Plan- 
 tarum," 1788; " Icones Plantarura incogni- 
 tarum," 1794, fol. fascicul. prim.; ' Flora 
 
SWE 
 
 Indife Occidentalis," 1797—1806, 3 vols. 8vo ; 
 " p'asciculus Lichenum Americanorum," 18 11. 
 — Bii'g. Uiiiv, 
 
 SWEDENBORG (the bon. Emanuel) a 
 philosophical Swedish enthusiast of the last 
 century, who^ tliough greatly distinguished for 
 his valuable contributions to science, is now 
 better known on account of his remarkable 
 views in theology. He was born at Stockholm 
 in the year 1688, and educated under the care 
 of his father, who was bishop of Skara in 
 Westrogothia. lie gave early indications of 
 trreat aptitude for learning ; and by the pub- 
 lication of some Latin verses under the tiile of 
 " Ludus Heliconius, sive Carmina Miscel- 
 lanea," he displayed a singular vivacity of 
 mind, and proved that ilie period of youth had 
 been well employed. After pursuing his stu- 
 dies in the university of Upsal, he proceeded 
 on his travels ; during the four years of which, 
 from 1710 to 1714, he visited the universities 
 of England, Holland, France, and Germany. 
 In 1716 he commenced the publication of his 
 *' Danlalus Hyperboreus," a work consisting 
 of essays and remarks on questions in mathe- 
 matics and physics, which evinced liis taste 
 for those sciences. At tliis time his learning 
 and other qualities had procured him the fa- 
 vourable notice of his sovereign Charles XH, 
 wlio appointed him assessor extraordinary of 
 his board of mines. By the king's direction 
 also he was associated with his friend, the 
 celebrated Polhem, ia the construction of 
 various mechanical public works. He had 
 thus an opportunity of bringing his knowledge 
 and genius into exercise ; and during the siege 
 of Frt'deiickshall in 1718, he invented ma- 
 /hinerv, by means of which two galleys, five 
 Jarc'e boats, and a sloop, were transported from 
 Stromstadt to Iderfjol, over valleys and moun- 
 tains, a distance of fourteen P'.nglish miles. 
 His mind however was not wholly employed by 
 works of this kind ; fur in the same year he 
 printed an introduction to algebra, which was 
 followed in the next year by three other trea- 
 tises on diflFerent subjects. Having lost his 
 patron during the siege, he was protected and 
 ennobled in 1719 by his sister and successor. 
 In order to obtain a practical knowledge of 
 metallurgy, and thus ciualify himself for bet- 
 ter performing the duties of his office, he went 
 in 1720 and 1721 to inspect the mines of Sax- 
 ony and Hartz, as well as those of his own 
 country ; and during these journeys he col- 
 lected much information in science and natural 
 philosoj)hy, which, on his return, was given to 
 tlie world in several small publications. In 
 1734 was published, in three folio volumes, a 
 collection of his j)hilosopliical and mineralo- 
 gical works, the merit of which was acknow- 
 ledged throughout Europe, and procured for 
 him those honours and distinctions which uni- 
 versities and other learned bodies have it in 
 their power to bestow. His fame was now 
 established, but he still assiduously cultivated 
 Fcience. Between 1738 and 1740 he travelled 
 in France and Italy ; and in the latter year he 
 published his " Economia Regni Animalis ;"' 
 in 1744 — J. his " Begnum Animale ;" and 
 
 SWE 
 
 also a work entitled " Ue Cultu et Amoro 
 Dei." From this time his industry was not 
 diminished, nor were his publications less 
 numerous, but they were of a very different 
 description. " Whatever of worldly honour 
 or advantage may appear to be in these 
 things," wrote the baron, " I hold them but 
 as matters of very low estimation, compared 
 to the honour of the holy office to which I have 
 been called by the Lord himself, who was 
 graciously pleased to manifest himself to me 
 his unworthy servant, in a personal appearance 
 in tlie year 1743, to open to me a sight of the 
 spiritual world, and to enable me to converse 
 with spirits and angels ; and this privilege 
 has continued with me to this day." After 
 this extraordinary call, that he might wholly 
 devote himself to the great work which he 
 supposed assigned to him, he obtained per- 
 mission to retire from his office, and was 
 allowed to retain half the salary attached to it. 
 For the greater convenience of printing the 
 works suggested to him by this peculiar state 
 of mind (all of which were printed at his own 
 expense), he resided alternately in Sweden, 
 Holland, and England. All his theological as 
 well as his philosophical works were originally 
 published in Latin, but have been subsequently 
 translated into English. They are very volu- 
 minous, one alone, entitled " Arcana Cneles- 
 tia," occupying twelve closely printed octavo 
 volumes. There are also several distinct 
 treatises, the most remarkable of which are 
 the aforesaid " De Cultu et Amore Dei," 
 " De Telluris in Mundo nostro Solari," 
 1758 ; " DeEquo Alboin Apocalypsi," 1758 ; 
 " De Novo Hierosolyma ;" " De CodIo et In- 
 ferno ;" " Sapieutia Angelica de Divina Pro- 
 videntia," Amst. 1764 ; " Vera Christiana 
 Religio," Amst. 1771. The whole may be 
 divided into two general classes, one contain- 
 ing religious doctrines grounded on his pecu- 
 liar interpretations of Scripture, and the other 
 including his assumed communications con- 
 cerning the state of man after death. He ditd 
 in London, in the month of jMarch, 1772, and 
 his remains, after lying in state, were deposited 
 in a vault at the Swedish church, near Rat- 
 cliffe Highway. His followers, who were not 
 numerous during his lifetime, liave rapidly in- 
 creased since his death, and his sect may be 
 now deemed established, under the title of 
 " The New Jerusalem Church." One of their 
 discriminating tenets is the identity of God 
 with Jesus Christ. In this sense they are 
 Unitarians, yet they hold that in this one per- 
 son there is a trinity, consisting of the divi- 
 nity, the humanity, and the operation of both 
 on Christ, who always existed in a liuman 
 form, and who assumed a material body in 
 order to redeem the world. This redemption 
 consists in bringing the hells or evil spirits into 
 subjection, and in preparing the way for a 
 more spiritual church. 1 hey maintain that 
 the Scriptures are to be interpreted not 
 only in a literal but in a spiritual sense, un- 
 known to mankind until revealed to baron 
 Swedenborg. They also inculcate a spiritual 
 influence overman by means of good and bad 
 
S W E 
 
 angela residing within iheir aflectioiis, who 
 are continually 8trui,'^Iiiitj aijainst eacli other ; 
 auJ assert tli;it by tht- fornuT (iod as.sints thetn 
 under tenii)tatioii. Tlifir Icailir indi-i-d lu-lil 
 that there is a universal influx from (Jod into 
 the soul of man, wliich he c()m|iare» to the 
 communication of light from the sun. The 
 existence of two worlds, the natural ami the 
 S}tiritual, wliich exactly correspond with each 
 other, is also tauyht ; and tljat at hi.s death a 
 man enters into the latter, and is clothed with 
 a substantial, alihou>^h not a material hody. 
 Such are a few of the leailiiijj doctrines of the 
 " new and perpetual church," which this extra- 
 ordinary personage declared himself ajipointed 
 to make known ; and which he asserts is pre- 
 dicted in the Apocalypse, under the figure of 
 tlie New Jerusalem descending from God out 
 of heaven. " When once," says Swift," the ima- 
 gination gets astride of the senses, there is 
 nothing: which a man mav uot bring himself to 
 believe, and if he once believe liimself, to per- 
 suade other people to believe."' Thus there is 
 not the least reason to impute intended impo- 
 sition to the extraordinary tissue of ingenuity 
 and fancv, which is contended for as inspira- 
 tion by the followers of iLmanuel Swedenborg. 
 Some of them indeed insist that he was 
 neither visionary nor enthusiastic ; an assertion 
 which, out of pure regard to the best tempered 
 alternative, all other persons will hesitate to 
 admit. There are societies formed in London 
 and jNIanchester for the express purpose of 
 printing and keeping the works of Swedenborg 
 in circulation. — Sanders Eul. Aihins Gen. 
 Biog. Orii^. Com. 
 
 SWEDlAUll (Francis Xavier) a phy- 
 sician and writer on medicine, born at Steyer, 
 in Upper Austria, in 1748. He studied at 
 Vienna, and afterwards travelled for three 
 years in different parts of Europe. He then 
 settled in London, and engaged in practice ; 
 but at the commencement of the Revolution 
 he went to reside at Paris, where he became 
 connected with the Jacobin leaders, and espe- 
 cially with Danton. He died August i.^7, 18ii4. 
 He published several professional works, tlie 
 most important of which is his" Traitecomplet 
 sur les Symptomes, les Effets, la Nature et le 
 'J'raitement des Maladies Syphilitiques," Paris, 
 1798. He was also the author of a " Philo- 
 sophical Dictionary," 1786, 8vo, characterised 
 by the Monthly lleviewers as the quintessence 
 of impiety. — Biog. Uuiv. 
 
 SWERT (Francis) an industrious man of 
 letters, was born at Antwerp iu 1667. Little 
 is known of his personal history beyond the 
 fact that he devoted himself exclusively to 
 literature, and was connected with most ot 
 the learned men of his day. He was particu- 
 larly conversant with Belgic history and Ho- 
 man antiquities. He died ai Antwerp in l6'-'9. 
 Of his numerous works the principal are "Re- 
 rum Bel^icarum Annales, Chronicos et Histo- 
 ricos," 1i vols, folio ; " Athene 15elgi.a?," 
 folio ; " Deorum et Dearum Capita ex Anti- 
 quis Numismantibus," 4to ; " Monumenta 
 Sepulchralia Uucatus Brabantiae." — Moreri. 
 Saxii Onom. 
 
 S U I 
 
 SWlFr (Jonathan) an <niitjcnt ^la^lith 
 
 divine, wit, humoriitt, and j>olitjcian. itw 
 
 iihtr wtt* a cl« • ' "f » 
 
 i >l eaiute near i ;. ... , liliur 
 
 who held thevicaraife of GoiKlricb to th.- tMti*e 
 Oiiiity. By Ilia wife f.lizahelh I aunC 
 
 to tlie poet, thi.H gentleman ha.l ... r )f 
 
 Hon/j, who for the moat pan ». ttird »:. i. 
 
 One of the youngeat, named Junaihaa, who 
 was hrought up an attorney, h«f rr he wctil lo 
 Ireland marrieii .MnJ .\l<i^ail I ruk, a Leicet- 
 tershire lady, whom at a very curly a^n he lefi 
 a widow, with one daughter, and : .-ii 
 
 with the subject of this article, who ■• m 
 
 November 30, 1667. This event took plat*? 
 under the roof of hh elder unrle (jrMiwin, 
 who had kindly allorded |)rotection to hia ait- 
 ter-in-law and family. He waa placed at a 
 school in Kilkenny when six years old, and in 
 his fifteenth year was removed to Trinitv col- 
 lege, Dublin, where applying himwlf to his- 
 tory and poetry, to the neglect of academical 
 pursuits, espei iaily tlie mathematics, he wan at 
 the end of four years refused the degree of P. .\. 
 for insufficiency, and even at the end of teren 
 years was only admitted s|)eciali 'gratia ^ 
 
 of favour which was deemed highly .;. 
 able. To this mortification is attributed the 
 contempt with which he treats mathematical 
 learning in his vaiious writings ; but another 
 and a better effect of it was evinced in a reso- 
 lution to apply to his studies with more dili- 
 gence. This determination he steadily ad- 
 hered to for the following seven years, three 
 of which he spent at the university of Dublin, 
 during which last-mentioned period he is said 
 to have composed his celebrated " Tale of a 
 Tub." In his twenty-first year the death of 
 his uncle rendered it neceso^ry for him to 
 pay a visit to Leicester, for the purpose of 
 consulting his mother, then resident in that 
 neighbourhood. l>y her advice he was induced 
 to communicate his situation to the celebrated 
 sir William Temple, who had married one of 
 her relatives, and who at that time lived in 
 retirement at Moor park, Surrey. He was re- 
 ceived by the latter with great kindness, and 
 he rendered himself so accceptable to the 
 aged statesman, that he resided with him at 
 Moor park and Sheeue for nearly two year.s. 
 At the latter place he was introduced to king 
 William, who often visited Temple |)rivately ; 
 and the king, whose feelings were all military, 
 offered him a captaincy of horse, which, hav- 
 ing already decided for the clurcli, he de- 
 clined. Being attacked hy the »lisorder winch 
 occasioned those fits of vertigo that afflicted 
 him more or less all his life, anil finally de- 
 stroyed his reason, he was induced tore\isit 
 Ireland, but soon returned and resided with 
 sir William Temple as before. Some time 
 after he determined upon graduating \l.\. at 
 O.xford. and having entered at Hart-hall in 
 iNIay 169^, he received the deserved honour 
 in the July fcllowing. He was i - ' ' '-, in- 
 debted to his known connexion \\ :nple 
 for this mark of respect ; but it has aUo been 
 suspected th.it the words speciali gratia in hia 
 Dublin testimonials, were mistaken for a com- 
 
S W I 
 
 pliment at Oxford. He had certainly not dis- 
 tinguished himself at this time by any public 
 specimen of talent, although he made some 
 attempts at poetry in the form of odes to his 
 patron and king William, This species of com- 
 position being wholly unfitted to his genius, 
 his relation Dryden is said honestly to have told 
 him that he would never be a poet, to which 
 brief observation is attributed the extraordinary 
 rancour with which he always alluded to that 
 eminent writer. After residing two years 
 longer with his patron, conceiving the latter to 
 be neglectful of his interest, he parted from 
 him in 169-i with some tokens of displeasure, 
 and went to Ireland, where he took orders 
 with very moderate expectations from the 
 church. A recommendation to the lord- de- 
 puty Capel, however, procured him a prebend 
 in one of the northern dioceses, which he soon 
 resigned, in order to return to sir William 
 Temple, who, sinking under age and infirmi- 
 ties, required his company more than ever. 
 Durint^ the few remaining years of that states- 
 man's life, they therefore remained together ; 
 and on his death Swift found himself benefited 
 by a pecuniary legacy and the bequest of his 
 papers. From the latter he selected two vo- 
 lumes of " Letters," which he dedicated to 
 kinff William, who taking no notice of him, 
 he accepted an invitation from the earl of 
 Berkeley, one of the lords justices in Ireland, 
 to accompany him as chaplain and secretary. 
 The latter office was soon taken from him, 
 as fit only for a layman ; and he was also 
 disappointed of the deanery of Derry, which 
 had been promised him, acquiring only the 
 comparatively ])Oor livings of Laracor and 
 Rathbiggin in the diocese of Mealh. While 
 in the family of tlie earl of Berkeley he began 
 to make himself known by his remarkable 
 talent for humorous verses, as may be seen by 
 the petition of Frances Harris and various 
 other excellent specimens. On the return of 
 that nobleman to England, he went to reside 
 at his living of Laracor ; and during his resi- 
 dence there he invited to Ireland Miss John- 
 son, the lady wliom he has so much cele- 
 brated by the name of Stella, and who had 
 become known to him owing to her father hav- 
 ing held the office of steward to sir William 
 Temple. She came accompanied by a Mrs 
 Dingley, a distant relation of the Temple fa- 
 n^ily, who was fifteen years older than her- 
 self; and of circumstances so confined as to 
 render the situation eligible. The two ladies 
 resriiled in the neighbourhood when Swift was 
 at boine, and at the parsonage-house during 
 his abisence ; and this mysterious connexion 
 lasted till her death. In 1701 he took his 
 doctor's degree, and the same year, being then 
 of the mature age of thirty-four, first entered 
 on the stage as a political writer, by a pam- 
 phlet in behalf of king William and his minis- 
 ters, entitled " A Discourse of the Contests 
 and Dissensions between the Nobles and Com- 
 mons of Athens and Rome," a work of no 
 great force. In 1704 he publi>hed, although 
 anonymously, his famous " Tale of a Tub," of 
 which eccentric production, although he would 
 
 S WI 
 
 never own it, he is the undoubted autlior* 
 This very original piece of humour, while it 
 advanced his reputation as a wit, did him 
 no small injury as a divine, being deemed 
 light and indecorous, if not irreligious, by the 
 graver functionaries of the church. The 
 " Battle of the Books " was appended to the 
 " Tale of a Tub;" it is a burlesque compa- 
 rison between ancient and modern authors, in 
 which he exercises his satire with great unfair- 
 ness against Dryden and Bentley, but whose 
 fame, in their respective lines, even his sa- 
 tire could not permanently affect. In 1708 he 
 began to appear as a professed author, by the 
 publication of four diflFerent works, " The 
 Sentiments of a Church of England Man. in 
 respect to Religion and Government ;" "Let- 
 ter concerning the Sacramental Test ;" " Ar- 
 gument for the Abolition of Christianity ;" 
 and " Predictions for the Year 1708, by Isaac 
 Bickerstaflf, Esq." Of these pieces the former 
 two set the seal to his adhesion to the tories, 
 while the others exhibit that inimitable talent 
 for irony and grave humour which forms his 
 principal distinction as a man of genius. Re- 
 turning to Ireland he commenced an intimacy 
 with Addison, then secretary to the lord lieu- 
 tenant. In 1710, being engaged by the Irish 
 prelacy to obtain a remission of the first-fruits 
 and twentieths, payable by the Irish clergy to 
 the crown, he was introduced to Harlev, after- 
 wards earl of Oxford, and to secretary St John, 
 subsequently lord Bolingbroke. He gained 
 the confidence of these leaders to such a de- 
 gree, that he became one of the sixteen bro- 
 thers who dined weekly at each other's houses, 
 and took a leading share in the famous tory 
 periodical, entitled " The Examiner." Al- 
 though now immersed in politics, he did not 
 neglect literature, and in 1711 published a 
 " Proposal for correcting, improving, and as- 
 certaining the English Tongue," in a letter to 
 the earl of Oxford, the object of which scheme 
 was to establish an institution to secure the 
 purity of the language, in some respects re- 
 sembling the French Academy. The same 
 year produced his celebrated tract, entitled 
 "The Conduct of the Allies," written to dispose 
 the nation to peace, and which, as the nation 
 was beginning to be weary of thf war, was 
 received with great applause. " Refioctions 
 on the Barrier Treaty " followed in 1712, in 
 which year he also printed " Remarks" on 
 Burnet's introduction to his ihir.t volume of 
 the History of the Reformation, in which 
 he freely indulged in the spleen produced by 
 his personal enmity to that prelate. A bishopric 
 in England was the secret object of his am- 
 bition, but archbishop Sharpe, on the ground, 
 it is said, of his " Tale of a Tub," having in- 
 fused into the mind of queen Anne suspicions 
 of his orthodoxy, the only preferment his mi- 
 nisterial friends could venture to give him, was 
 the Irish deanery of St Patrick's, to which he 
 was presented in 1713. The following year 
 he published anonymouslv his " Public Sjiiiit 
 of the Whigs," wliich evinced so much con- 
 tempt of the Scottish nation, that the peers of 
 that country went in a body to demand repa- 
 
S \V I 
 
 ration, anil ii prosecution was with groat dif- 
 ficulty avoiilfil. Ilo was hastily rccallid the 
 same ypai" friirn his draiicry, to wliith lie iiad 
 repaired to take possession, hy the violent di.s- 
 sensions hetween Oxford and Hoiin^hroke, 
 whom he in vain attt-nipled to recomilf ; and 
 the death of the tpieen, which soon fdllowed, 
 put an end equally to their power and his own 
 prospects, and condemned him to nnwillin^; re- 
 sidence for life in a country wlmh he di.shkt'd. 
 He accordinijly returned to Dublin, and intro- 
 duced a meritorious reform into the chapter of 
 St Patrick's, over which he obtained an autho- 
 rity never before possessed in his station. He 
 now opened his tiouse twice a week to the best 
 company, on whicli occasion Mrs .lohnson 
 regulated the table although only in the cha- 
 racter of guest. In 1716 he was privately 
 married to this lady by Dr Ashe, bishop of 
 Clobber ; but the ceremony was attended with 
 no acknowledgment which could gratify the 
 feelings of the amiable victim of his priile and 
 singularity. Jhe ascendancy which this extra- 
 ordinary man had acquired over iMiss Hester 
 Vanhomrigh, another accomplished female, 
 was attended with circumstances which a[)- 
 pear even still more censurable and conflict- 
 ing. He became acquainted with this lady 
 in London in I7l'2, and as she possessed, with 
 a large fortune, a taste for literature. Swift 
 took pleasure in affording her instruction. The 
 result was a second part of the story of Abe- 
 lard and Heloise ; the pupil became ena- 
 moured of her tutor, and even proposed mar- 
 riage to him ; but being probably at that time 
 engaged to Stella, he indefensibly avoided a 
 decisive answer. That he liowever felt her 
 attractions, seems obvious from his Cadenus 
 and Vanessa, the longest and most finished of 
 his poems of fancy. This affair terminated 
 fatally ; for ultimately discovering his secret 
 union with Stella, tlie unfortunate lady never 
 recovered the shock, but died fourteen months 
 after, in 1723. She previously cancelled a 
 will slie had made in his favour, and left it 
 in charge to her executors (one of whom was 
 bishop Berkeley) to publish all the corre- 
 spondence between her and Swift, which liow- 
 ever never appeared. After residing some time 
 in Ireland without attending to public affairs, 
 in 1720 he was roused by the illiberal manner 
 in which Ireland was governed, to publish "A 
 Proposal for the universal Use of Irisli .Ma- 
 nufactures," which rendered him very popular. 
 His celebrated Letters followed, under the 
 name of M. B. Drapier, in which he so abiy 
 exposed the job of Wood's patent for a supply 
 of copper coinage. A large reward was ofiered 
 for the discovery of the author, but none 
 took place, and the dean became the public 
 idol of the Irish people. It was about this 
 time that he composed his famous " Gulliver's 
 Travels," which appeared in 1726, a work too 
 well known to require any thing beyond advert- 
 ence to the indescribable union of misanlhropv, 
 eatire, ironv, ingenuity, and humour which it 
 exhibits. Its popularity was unbounded, and 
 the imitations of it have been very numer- 
 ous. In the same year he joined Pope in three 
 
 S \\ 1 
 
 vulumeg of iniitellanic*, Ic»ring iJk* j>»«jfi» u> 
 llw i»ott. On the dt-mh of Geor^r 1, he \.^ 
 
 hifl court to the w • ' ' ' ,,, 
 
 to have Jlaltered b. ^f 
 
 notice, through the influeacn of liie farourita 
 MrM Hownnl. He wh» howevt-r ' . ,\ 
 
 and the d.aih of Sti-lla. about il.j.. i ^..o 
 
 had been \'>ug lanv;iu/.hini; in a •U(o of di-i line. 
 coin].leted hiH(luik;rin. When her heahh wu 
 rumeti,. it iji («aid. tlmi he uflered to »« know, 
 ledge lier as hia wife, hut »b.' empliaticaily 
 n-|.lied, " It is too late." He ailoMt-d lirr to 
 make a will in her mai<i»-n name, , ■ ' , U 
 she consigned her property to ch.irr. . », 
 
 From the death of iliis injured female. Iiia life 
 became much retire<l, and the auf»t« r '' it 
 
 very acrid temper incrtasid. He < d 
 
 however, for some years to exercise both his 
 patriotic and liis splenetic feelingn, in »ariou» 
 eliiisions of prose and ver.se, and was certainly 
 very earnest in his exertions to better the 
 condition of the wretched poor of In land, in 
 addition to which endeavours he dedicated a 
 tliird of liis income to charity. Some of Ins 
 most striking poems were written about this 
 time, including >-'s celebrated " Verses on 
 his own Deal!., formed on oneof ijie maxima 
 of Rocliefoucault. He ke[)t little company 
 at this advanced period, but with infeii.rs, 
 whom he could treat as he pleased, and espei i- 
 ally that of a kuotof females, who were always 
 ready to administer the most obsequious flat- 
 tery. In 1736 he had so severe an attack 
 of deafness and giddiness, that he never af- 
 terwards undertook any work of thoui{ht or 
 labour, althou.;h he allowed his " Polite Con- 
 versation " to be published. This piece and 
 his " Directions for Servants," not printed until 
 after his death, curiously evince his cl^se 
 attention to the minutest oddities and impro- 
 prieties of every station. The fate, which 
 owing to the peculiar nature of his constitu- 
 tional infirmities he always feared would be- 
 fal Lim, at length reached him ; the facul- 
 ties of liis mind decayed before his body, and 
 a gradual abolition of reason settled into ab- 
 solute iiliocy early in 1742. Some glimmer- 
 ings of reason subsequently appeared at distant 
 intervals, utitil the latter end of October, 174.i, 
 when lie died without a pang or convulsion, in 
 his seventy-eighth year. He bequeathed the 
 greatest pare of his fortune to a hospital for 
 lunatics and idiots, the intention of v\|iuh he 
 had announced in the verses upon his own 
 death : 
 
 •' To show, by one satiric touch. 
 No nation needed it so much." 
 The character of this celebrated pers )n is so 
 strongly ilenoted by his life and writings, it 
 can scarcely be mistaken in its principal fea- 
 tures. J'ride, misanthropy, and stern infl'>xi- 
 bility of temper formed its basis ; but the »u- 
 pcrstructnre was strangely comp undeil of Mn- 
 cerity and absence of paltry jealousy, with arro- 
 gance, implacability, carelessness of pi^mg 
 pain, and a total want of candour as a jK)'itician 
 or partizan. Of his obdurate and unfeeling na- 
 ture, besides his culpable and indefensil>le 
 treatment of his wife and Miss VanhomngU 
 
S W I 
 
 (for wliicli various reasons, including secret 
 constitutional infirmities, have been conjec- 
 tured), his utter ahaiidonment of an only sis- 
 ter simply for marrying a tradesman, and 
 many other instances, might be adduced. Even 
 his wliim and humour was indulged with a 
 most callous inditFerence to the pain which he 
 miirlit inflict, or the sensibilities he might 
 wound. As a writer, his claim to originality 
 is unimpeachable, and probably he will never 
 be exceeded in the walk of grave irony, which 
 he veils with an air of serious simplicity, admi- 
 rably calculated to set off the humour it is ap- 
 parently suited to conceal. He also abounds 
 in ludicrous ideas of every kind, and these, as 
 if intent to prove his own position that a nice 
 man (and he was fastidiously so) is a man 
 of dirtv ideas, often deviate, both in his poetry 
 and prose, into very unpardonable grossness. 
 His style in each department forms the most 
 perfect example of easy familiarity that the 
 lansfuafre aflfords : hut althoucrh admirable for 
 its pureness, clearness, and simplicity, it ex- 
 hibits little of the glow or impress of genius, 
 its highest characteristic consisting in its ex- 
 treme accuracy and precision. As an argu- 
 mentative and didactic writer, he has therefore 
 been not only equalled, but excelled by many ; 
 hut in wit, humour, and irony he is more than 
 the Lucian of the modern world, and in his own 
 especial vein is never likely to be surpassed. 
 To conclude, this great and singular man will 
 always be regarded as among the most ori- 
 ginal of English writers, while on the part of 
 Ireland he will ever claim respect as one of 
 the most powerful and fearless of the literary 
 »nd social advocates who have been roused 
 into honourable indignation by her wrongs. 
 His works have been often printed, anil in 
 various forms, one of the latest and best editions 
 of which is that under the superintendance of 
 Kichols, in 19 vols. 8vo. — Bing. Brit. Orrerii's 
 Life. Johnson's Lives of the Poets. Aikin's 
 Gen. Binir. 
 
 SWIFT (Deane) a near relation to the 
 6u))ject of the preceding article, being grand- 
 son to Godwin Swift, his eldest uncle. He was 
 named Deane from his maternal great-grand- 
 father, who was the admiral Deane that sat as 
 one of the judges on the trial of Charles I. He 
 was introduced in 1739 to Pope as a learned 
 ingenious man and the lineal representative of 
 the Swift family. He i)ublished in 17.55 an 
 " Essay upon the Life, \Vritings, and Charac- [ 
 ter of Dr Jonathan Swift ; " in 176.5, the ' 
 eighth 4to volume of the Dean's Works ; and { 
 in 1768, two volumes of his " Letters." He 
 meditated a complete edition of Swift, and had 
 collected many materials for the jiurpose, when 
 he was int* rrujited by de?.th, July lil, 1783. — 
 Hwift's Works /;v Aichols. 
 
 SWINBURNE (Henry) an eminent ec 
 clesiastical lawyer, flourished about the close ' 
 of the 16th and during the early part of the 
 17th centuries. He was born at York ; and 
 after going through the usual course of acade- 
 mical education at Hart- hall and Brondgate- 
 liall, Oxford, graduated as LL.D., and obtain- 
 ed the situation of proctor and judge of the 
 
 s ^y I 
 
 archbishop's court in liis native city. He was 
 the author of several professional works con- 
 nected with tlie practice of the civil courts. In 
 particular, of " A Treatise on Matrimonial 
 Contracts,' 4to ; and " On Last Wills and 
 Testaments," 4to, a useful book, which lias 
 been frequently reprinted. His death took 
 place at York in 1620, or, as some say, 1624. — 
 Bridgeman s Legal Bibliog. 
 
 SWINBURNE (Henuy) a learned tra- 
 veller, was descended of a respectable family 
 in Northumberland, where, as well as in the 
 neighbouring county of Durham, he possessed 
 
 I some property. The date of his birth is not 
 recorded, but he received the rudiments of a 
 classical education at the grammar-school of 
 Scorton, Yorkshire ; after which the religious 
 opinions of his family, who were of the Romish 
 church, precluding his matriculation at an 
 English university, he visited France and Italy 
 for the purpose of completing it. A second 
 tour, which occupied his time from 1774 to 
 
 j 1780, carried him through great part of the 
 south of Europe ; and on his return to Eng- 
 land he published an account of his Travels 
 
 I through Spain and the Sicilies, the former 
 
 ; work in one, the latter in two 4to volumes, 
 both being regarded as works of great merit. 
 Pecuniary embarrassments, arising from the 
 marriage of his daughter to Paul Bentield, and 
 consequent involvement in the misfortunes of 
 that adventurer, eventually induced him to re- 
 turn to the island of Trinidad, where he died 
 in 1803. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 SW^NDEN (John Henry Van) a Dutch 
 philosopher, born at the Hague, in 1746. He 
 was educated at Leyden, and became professor 
 of philosophy, logic, and metaphysics at 
 Franeker in 1767. Nineteen years after he 
 was called to the chair of physics, mathematics, 
 and astronomy at the Athenaeum at Amster- 
 dam. In 1770 he became a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris, and he gained 
 the prize offered by that learned body for the 
 best memoir " Sur les Aiguilles Aimantees et 
 leurs Variations ;" and in 1780 he obtained a 
 prize from the Academy of Munich, for a me- 
 moir in answer to the question " What ana- 
 logy is there between Electricity and Magne- 
 tism 1 " which was afterwards printed in 2 vols. 
 8vo. In 1798 he appeared at Paris, at the Na- 
 tional Institute, to assist in the establishment of 
 anew metrical system, when he was appointed 
 to draw u{) the reports on those subjects. In 
 1803 he was nominated a correspondent of the 
 French Institute ; and he belonged to the 
 principal learned societies in Europe. He also 
 occupied the offices of member of the Execu- 
 tive Directory, under the Batavian republic, 
 and that of coiinsellor of state in the service of 
 the king of the Netherlands. He died March 
 9, 1823. Van Swinden was the author of se- 
 veral works besides those already mentioned, 
 of which notices may be found in the annexed 
 authorities. — Bi ig. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 SWINTON (John) a learned antiquary, 
 was bom at Bexton, Cheshire, in 1703. In 
 1719 he was entered a servitor at Wadhain 
 
S Y D 
 
 college, Oxford, and after obtaining the usual 
 degrees, took priest'a orders in 1727. In the 
 following year lie was elected f< How of hiH 
 college, anil soon after became chajilaiu to the 
 English factory at Leghorn. He visited, while 
 abroad, ilie capitals of X'eiiice, \ienna, and 
 Petersburg, and was made mendxr of one or 
 two Italian acailemies, having pn viously been 
 admitted a fellow of the Koyal Society. On his 
 return to Oxfonl, he was ap[>()inted keeper of 
 tlie archives of the university and chaphiiii to 
 the jail. The monuments of his literary life, 
 which are numerous without being of magni- 
 tude, consist principally of Dissertations on 
 the ancient Etruscan language, on Phenician 
 and Samaritan coins and inscriptions ; on Par- 
 thian and Persian coins, and similar subjects, 
 most of which appear in the Philosojjhical 
 Transactions. He also composed the account 
 of the Carthaginians, Jews, Tartars, Moguls, 
 Indians, and Chinese, &c. for tl>e Universal 
 History. He died in 1774, aged 71 — Gent. 
 
 SYBRECHT (John) a Flemish artist of 
 considerable celebrity, son of a painter of the 
 same name who instructed him in the jiriiui- 
 ples of his art. He was a native of Antwerp, 
 born about the year 1630, and became dis- 
 tinguished at an early age by the beauty of his 
 landscapes. Villiers duke of Buckingham, on 
 his return through the Low Countries from 
 his embassy to the court of Paris, was much 
 struck with his performances ; and prevailing 
 upon him to accompany him to England, re- 
 tained him several years in his service, tiuring 
 which time he employed him in adorning his 
 magnificent mansion at Cliefden. Sybrecht 
 died in the metropolis in 17()o, and was bu- 
 ried at St James's church in Piccadilly. Of 
 his works the most admired are some beauti- 
 ful scenes on the Rhine and views in Derby- 
 shire. — IValpole's Anec. 
 
 SYDEiNHAM (Floyer) a learned man, 
 whose misfortunes are said to have given rise 
 to the institution of the Literary Fund So- 
 ciety. He was born in 1710, and studied at 
 Wadham college, Oxford, where he proceeded 
 MA. in 1734-. He published in 1759 " Pro- 
 posals for Printing by subscription the Works 
 of Plato, translated into English," with Notes 
 critical and explanatory. Between 1759 and 
 1767, he produced, in succession, versions of 
 the " lo,"the " Greater and Lesser Hippias," 
 and the " Banquet, Parts 1 and XL" His 
 undertakings met with little encouragement, 
 and after living for some time in indigence, 
 he died while confined in prison for debt, 
 April 1787. Such was the sympathy which 
 his sad fate excited, that it led a few indivi- 
 duals to commence the institution mentioned 
 at the head of this article, which has subse- 
 quently obtained very extensive patronage and 
 support, and been the means of frequently af- 
 fording relief to the unfortunate members of 
 tlie literary profession. — Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 SYDENHAM (Thomas') a celebrated Eng- 
 lish physician and medical writer, who was 
 the son of a gtutlemau of Winford Eagle in 
 
 S \ K 
 
 Dor«et«hire, where he wu born in 1M4, 
 After having studied for •oiiie time at .M 14- 
 <inlen-hall. Oxford, he l.fi (lit- unireraity. whrn 
 the partizaiiM of Ciiailni I ■' | 
 
 and withdrew to London 
 who waa a colonel in the parliament amiv! 
 Having deternuiud to adopt ibi- •, 
 
 feKMion, lu- reiuriitd to Oxford in . . l 
 
 in 164» he took the de^jree of bachelor of me. 
 dicine. Ilih connexioji wiih the prevailing' 
 paity,or the interest of a relation, proi und 
 him a fellowship at All Soul* colh-^e, m lh« 
 room of iin ej.-cted caval^-r. Ho aubwquently 
 commenced practice as a physician at UVti- 
 minster, and for noma unexplained rea-^m ho 
 took his doctor's degree at Cambridge. Such 
 was the successofhi.^ practice that he npe«-ddy 
 arrived at ;,'reat njiutation ; and from lobOto 
 1670 he held the first place in hia profeiwion, 
 though it was not till the latter pan of Ins ca- 
 reer that he hecame a licentiate of the tollejje. 
 Being a great sufferer from the gout, he was 
 unable in the latter part of his life to go much 
 from home ; but he continued to benefit so- 
 ciety by his writings and advice till near the 
 time of his decease, which occurred at hi« 
 house in Pall iMall, December 'jy. 1689. Dr 
 Sydenham's improvements form an era 1:1 the 
 history of medicine. He first applied him- 
 self to an attentive observation of the pheno- 
 mena of diseases, founding Ins practice on the 
 obvious indications of nature, rather than on 
 prevalent theories, drawn from the prin- 
 cii)l(S of chemistry or mathematice. Febrile 
 disorders attracted his esjiecial notice, and in 
 1666 he communicateil to the public the re- 
 sult of his observations, in a work entitled 
 " Methodus curandi Febres, propriis Obser- 
 vationibus superstructa ;" which was reprinted 
 with additions, under the title of " Observa- 
 tiones Medicae circa Morborum acutorum 
 Historiam et Curationem," 1675. He first 
 recommended a cooling regimen in the small- 
 pox, a mode of treatment fully sanctioned by 
 subsequent experience, as also has been his 
 general practice in what are termed inflamma- 
 tory fevers ; but with regard to those of the 
 typhous, or malignant kind, his practice de- 
 serves no peculiar commendation. Amongst 
 his princij)al works are, " Epistola' Responso- 
 ria_'du;e, 1. De Morbis Ejiidemicis a 1675 ad 
 1680 ; 2. De Luis Wnerea? Historia et Cura- 
 tione," I68O ; " De Podagra el llydroj>e," 
 1683, 8vo ; and " Processus Integn lu .Morbis 
 fere omnibus Curandis," published posthu- 
 mously. The rej)utation of Sydenham has 
 been by no means confined to his native coun- 
 try, for Haller denominates from him one of 
 his periods in the history of medicine ; and 
 Bocrhaave mentions him on several occasions 
 with expressions of the highest respect. — 
 Aikin's Gen. Biog. 
 
 SYKF.S ( Amnrn Asm ev) a learii»'d In,'- 
 lish divine, was born in London about lo L 
 He was educated at St Paul's school, and ad- 
 mitted of Corjnis Chrisli college. Cambridge, 
 in 1701. After graduating MA. he left col- 
 lege, and for some time acted as one of the 
 assistants of St Paul's school. He subse 
 
S V L 
 
 quontly was collated in succession to the vicar- 
 age of Godmersham in Kent, and to the rec- 
 tories of Dry Ura\ ton in Cambridgeshire, and 
 Rayleigh in Kssex, which last he retained to 
 liis\leath. He was also appointed, in the 
 first place, evening, and afterwards morning 
 preacher at King-stieet chapel, Golden-square, 
 a chaptl of ease to St James's, Westminster, 
 of which his friend Dr Samuel Clarke was 
 rector. In 17'23 he was collated to a prebend 
 in the cathedral of Salisbury, by bishop Iload- 
 lev, who also made him prajcentor of the 
 same cathedral. In 17'J5, upon the nomina- 
 tion of Dr Clarke, he was appointed assistant 
 preacher of St James's church, Westminster, 
 and finally obtained the deanery of St IJurien 
 in Cornwall, and a prebend in the cathedral 
 of Winchester. He died November 15, 1756, 
 in the seventy-third year of his age. Dr 
 Sykes is principally distinguished as an able 
 controversialist in favour of Whig opinions in 
 the state, and what are termed Hoadleyan 
 principles in the church. His tracts in de- 
 fence of his views are numerous and able, and 
 in i^articular he laboured hard to prove that a 
 latitude of opinion in subscribing to the articles 
 of the church of England was allowed and in- 
 tended by the legislature. As this and the 
 other points of dispute alluded to, have for 
 some time past engaged very little attention, 
 the works by which he is now chiefly known 
 are entitled "An Essay on the Truth of the 
 Christian Religion" in answer to Collins's 
 Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the 
 Christian Religion ; and " The Principles and 
 Connexion of Natural and Revealed Religion 
 distinctly considered." Dr Sykes composed 
 no fewer than sixty-three publications. — Me- 
 moirs hij Dr Disneii. 
 
 SYLBURGIUS (Frederic) a learned 
 grammarian of the sixteenth century, born at 
 ]Mar])urg, in Germany, in 1546, and during the 
 earlier part of his life, master of a school at 
 Licha. He afterwards retired to I\Iarj)urg, and 
 gave himself wholly up to the study and eluci- 
 dation of ancient authors, of several of whose 
 works he jjublished valuable editions, particu- 
 larly of those of Dion Cassius, Herodotus, 
 Aristotle, Dionysiusof Halicarnassus, &;c. He 
 also assisted in the compilation of the ce- 
 ebrated Greek Thesaurus of Henry Stephens. 
 His ovi'n writings consist of some miscella- 
 neous poems in Greek, and a valuable gram- 
 mar and lexicon of that language. This last 
 appeared in one large folio volume, two years 
 ]»r«-vious to his death, which took place in 
 1596. — Melchior Adam. Saiii Onorn. 
 
 SYLLA (Lucius Cornelius) a famous 
 general and statesman in the last perio<l of the 
 Roman republic. He was descended from a 
 branch of tlie illustrious family of the Cornelii, 
 which had sunk into comparative indigence 
 and obscurity. His youth was passed in dis- 
 sipation, and having obtained wealth from the 
 bequests of a courtezan and of his mother-in- 
 law, he aspired to political d'stinction, and ir; 
 107 BC. he was cliosen quaestor. He soon 
 displayed evident proofs of bis talents and 
 %n.tition ; and after having served with credit 
 
 S Y L 
 
 as an officer under INIarius, in Africa and tb. 
 north of Italy, he was, BC. 96, sent into C«p. 
 padocia, to establish on the throne Ariobar 
 zanes, who had been declared king of tha» 
 country by the Roman senate. In the Social 
 war, which began in Italy BC. 91, S\lla again 
 distinguished himself ; and in the year BC. 
 88 he was cliosen consul. At this period be- 
 gan his contest with JMarius, which occasioned 
 the most dreadful misfortunes to their common 
 country. The first object of dispute between 
 these ambitious rivals was the appointment to 
 the command in the war with JNlithridates, 
 king of Pontus. Marius, through the in- 
 fluence of the tribune Sulpitius, procured a 
 decree of the people that Sylla should remain 
 in Italy, and Marius lead the expedition 
 against JNlithridates ; and two tribunes were 
 sent to acquaint the army at Nola with this 
 resolution. But the soldiers attached to 
 Sylla treated the messengers with contempt 
 and outrage, and demanded to be led to Rome, 
 where their commander took vengeance on his 
 enemies, and re-established his authority. 
 Soon after the expiration of his consulate he 
 set sail for the East ; and having landed in 
 Thessaly, and received the submission of se- 
 veral Grecian cities, he besieged and took 
 Athens, and slaughtered multitudes of its in- 
 habitants. He then proceeded to Asia, and 
 after repeatedly defeating Mithridates, he con- 
 cluded a very advantageous treaty with that 
 powerful enemy of the Romans. While he 
 had been absent from Italy the party of Marius 
 had triumphed at Rome, and sacrificed to their 
 vengeance the adherents of the absent gene- 
 ral. He therefore returned with his victorious 
 army, and landed at Brundusium, or according 
 to some writers at Tarentum, 84 BC. The 
 details of the proceedings of Sylla must be 
 sought in the pages of history. It can only 
 here be stated that the death of Marius had 
 preceded the arrival of his opponent, who, 
 though treated as a public enemy by the ex- 
 isting authorities, was in the end completely 
 successful. Having entered Rome at the head 
 of his troops, he began the horrid work of re- 
 taliation. He declared that all who expected 
 a pardon for their late offences must gain it 
 by destroying the enemies of the state ; and 
 he thus unsheathed the sword of the assas- 
 sin, and encouraged murder as the means of 
 acquiring distinction and j)Ower. Slaves were 
 rewarded for killing their masters, and chil- 
 dren were seen dragging their parents to exe- 
 cution. After the destruction at Rume of a 
 niuititude of jiersons, including fifteen men of 
 consular rank, the two consul.s, eighty sena- 
 tors, and sixteen hundred knights, and the 
 desolation of several Italian cities, the wrath 
 of Sylla was somewliat appeased ; and having 
 obliged the people to choose him dictator, he 
 governed the lioman world two years under 
 that title, and then voluntarily laid down his 
 power, and retired to private life. Resuming 
 liis early habits of debauchery, and abandoning 
 himself to sensual gratifications, he at length 
 wa.s attacked by a disgusting disease, which 
 occasioned his death at the age of sixty, in th'.j 
 
S Y L 
 
 year of Rome 676. — Plutarch. Aikin't Gen. 
 
 SVLVKSTKR II (pope) previously named 
 Gerbert, was born of an obscure funulv iti Au- 
 vergne, in the teiitli coiiturv. At ;ui tiiilv ajre 
 he entered himself i. monk in the monastery o 
 St Gerard, in AuriMac. After luyiiijj a foun- 
 dation for all the sciences cultivated in that 
 iijnorant a<je, he travelled into Spain to hear 
 tile Arabian iloctors, and at length l)ecame so 
 distinguished that he was appointed by Iluj^h 
 Capet preceptor to his son Robert. Otho III, 
 emperor, who hail also tx en his pupil, confer- 
 red upon him the archbishopric of Ravenna ; 
 and on the death of Gregory V, in 999, pro 
 cured his election to the papacy, on which 
 event he took the name of Sylvester. He 
 acted with great vigour in this capacity, and 
 maintained the power of the church witli a 
 h\<j\\ hand. He was also a great promoter of 
 learning, and a proficient in various branches 
 of science himself. He spent much time and 
 
 S Y L 
 
 vanitie), by a volley of holy shot ihunJerfra 
 from Mount Helicon." Ihis circumhiance may 
 perhaps in ^()me measure at count for the fa- 
 vour lie enjoyed at court, which did not, how- 
 ever, pre.s"rv«- lain from the evds of |)Overty, 
 whuh is thou^;ht to have driven him aliroatl. 
 — Maitiilw Syi.vistkr, a non ( onformiat 
 clergyman of the seventeenth century, edu- 
 cated at ('ambridye. is known as the edi- 
 tor of " Baxter's History of his Life and 
 Times." He suffered a similar fate with many 
 of his brethren in being ejected from his living, 
 Gunnel by in Lincolnsliire, and retired to Lou- 
 don, where he died iu 1708, pastor of a dis- 
 senting congregation. — Allien. Oion. Censura 
 Lilera~ia, vol. li. 
 
 SYLVIUS. There were several learned 
 and ingenious persons of this name ; of these 
 Jacwues (who, according to the fashion of the 
 age in which he lived, thus Latinized his 
 French patronymic Dubois) was one of the 
 most skilful and celebrated physicians of the 
 
 expended large sums in the collection of ^ sixteenth century. He was a native of Amiens, 
 
 books from various parts of Europe ; composed 
 a number of works, particularly on arithmetic 
 and geometry ; and with his own hands made 
 a clock, a globe, and an astrolabe. A great 
 number of Letters on various subjects were 
 
 born in 1478, and studied medicine at ilie col- 
 lege of Toumay in Paris, of which his elder 
 brother, Francis Dubois, who had adoj)ted the 
 same mode of designating himself, was the 
 principal. He soon rose to the first rank in 
 
 written by this pope, of which 160 were printed bis profession in point of science and ability ; 
 at Paris in 1611 ; but the most complete col- i but being of a mo^t penurious turn of mind, 
 lection has been given by Du Chesne. One refused to take his university degrees in the 
 of these, written in the first year of his pontifi- ' faculty on account of the necessary fees. Con- 
 tinuing however both to practise and to lec- 
 ture upon medicine, as well as on anatomy and 
 botany, the wealth and reputation which he 
 rapidly acquired drew on him the attacks of 
 tlie regular practitioners, who, from his not 
 having graduated, stigmatized him as an em- 
 piric, and endeavoured to prevent his prac- 
 tising. In this respect they so far succeeded 
 as to induce him to retire for a while to .Mont- 
 pellier. While tlius in comparative retire- 
 ment, he occupied himself in writing a valu- 
 able treatise " On the Lxhibition of Wine m 
 Fevers." Subsequently he succeeded in mak- 
 ing matters up with his old antagonists ; and 
 ou the celebrated \'idias (juitting Paris for 
 Italy in lo48, the vacant professorship of 
 physic in tlie royal college at Paris was offered 
 to him. After a hesitation, real or affected, 
 which however lasted nearly two years, he 
 
 Gate, contains a project for a crusade. He died 
 in 1003. — Tirahoschi. Mosheim. Morej-i. 
 
 SYLVESTER (Joshua) a quaint and la- 
 borious poet, known among his contempora- 
 ries as " the silver-tongued Sylvester," flou- 
 rished about the end of the reign of Elizabeth 
 and the commencement of that of James, with 
 both of whom he was a favourite. He was 
 born about the \ ear 1563 ; and althouiih he 
 does not appear to have had a university edu- 
 cation, became familiarly acquainted with the 
 Italian, French, Dutch, and Spanish tongues, 
 together with a competent knowledge of the 
 Latin. These languages he probably acquired 
 in the course of his travels on commercial spe 
 culations, as tradition states him to have been 
 a merchant in the earlier part of liis life. His 
 reputation as a poet is jtrincipally owing to his 
 translation of the works of Du liartas, which 
 
 was very popular, as were also some others accepted this honourable situation in lo.iO, and 
 from the writings of De la None, Baron Te- hUed it till his decease in loi.S. The acknow- 
 li'Miv, and Pibrac. In original composition, ■ ledged abilities of Sylvius were much sullied 
 acTor'diniT to Winstanlev, he was much less | by the avaricious disposition already alluded 
 
 successful, and in both capacities has long since 
 been regarded as a singularly curious and fan- 
 tastical writer, Henry piiiue of Wales, son to 
 James I, placed him about his person as poet- 
 pensioner ; and on bis death, which took jdace 
 in 1618 at Middleburg in Holland, John 
 Viccars.whomucii admired him, wrote a whim- 
 sical epitaph to his memory. Sylvester, among 
 other things, imitated tlie example of his royal 
 patron James in levelUng a satire against to- 
 bacco, under the quaint title of " lobacco 
 battered and the Pipes shattered (about their 
 ears that idly idolize so base and barbarous a 
 weed, or at least- wise overlove so loathsome a 
 BiOG. DicT.— Vol. 111. 
 
 to, and by the rudeness of his manners. He 
 was a warm defender of the opinions of Galen, 
 except upon points connected with judicial 
 astrology, which he held at its true value, but 
 coinciiied with him in some other ideas per- 
 haps scarcely less chimerical. Piesiiies the 
 tract before mentioned, he was the author of 
 a French (irammar, as well as of a variety of 
 professional works, which have been several 
 times reprinted, under the title of " Opera 
 Medica ;" the beet edition is that of Moreau, 
 published at Cologne in 1630, in one volume 
 folio. — His brother. Francis, formerly spoken 
 of, was one of the most elegant scholars of his 
 
S YM 
 
 S Y IVI 
 
 day, and aid much towards reforming the bar- not a word to the ambassador, who liowevet 
 barous Latin used in the schools. He pub- had reason to be satisfied with his reception j 
 lished a treatise on rlietoric, caUed " J^royvm- and in spite of the intrigues of the Birnie?e 
 nasniata in Artem Oratoriani," and died in ministers, he had ilie satisfaction to conclude 
 1530. — L.AMBFriT Vandln Bosch, a native of an advantageous treaty of commerce. On the 
 Dordrecht in Holland, also assumed tbe name i^9th of October he quitted Amerapoora, and 
 of Sylvius. He was born in 1610, and dis- returned to Calcutta, December, 2'id, having 
 tinguished himself both as a poet and an his- been absent ten months. The following year 
 torian. In his former cajjacity he produced the government of Bengal sent out another 
 several dramatic, as well as miscellaneous embassy, at the head of whicli was captain 
 pieces, while in the latter he is advantageously Hiram Coy, wlio returned to Calcutta, unsuc- 
 known by his "History of his own 'limes, cessful, in November 1797. Major Symes was 
 from 1667 to 1687;" a " Tlieatre of lUus- therefore sent a second time to Amerapoora, 
 trious Men," 4to, 2 vols ; and a " History of and he accomplished the object of his mission. 
 Sea Heroes," 4to. — Francis de la Boe, or He afterwards returned to England, and pub- 
 SvLvii's, born in 161-1: at Hanau in \'eteravia, lished " An Account of an Embassy to the 
 was also eminent as a chymist and medico- i Kingdom of Ava in 179o," London, 1800, 4to, 
 surgeon. He was the first wbo very ably v/bich was translated into French and German, 
 demonstrated Harvey's doctrine of the circula- His public services were recompensed witli 
 tion of the blood at Leyden, where he filled the commission of lieutenant-colonel in tlie 
 the medical chair. His death took place in , sixty-sixth regiment of the line ; and being 
 November 1672. There are two editions sent to Spain in 1808, the fatigues which he 
 of his works ; the 4to, printed by Elzevir had experienced in the retreat of sir John 
 at Amsterdam in 1679, and that of Venice, ' Moore to Corunna, occasioned his death shortly 
 folio, 1708. — Moreri. Ehy Diet. Hist, de la ' after he had embarked for England. He died 
 Med. I Jan. 22, 1809, and his corpse being brought 
 
 SYMES (Michael) an English officer and home, wa? interredat Rochester. — Biog. Unic. 
 traveller in the latter part of the eighteenth SYMMACHUS (Quintus Aurelius Avia- 
 oentuiy. He entered while young into the nus) a Roman senator of the fourth century, 
 army, and having served in the ]'2ast Indies, i was the son of a prefect of Rome, who himself 
 he attained the rank of major. In 1795 sir i arrived at the consular dignity. He was 
 John Shore, governor-general of the British I warmly attached to the ancient religion, and 
 establishments in that country, determined on , headed a deputation from the senate, to re- 
 sending an embassy to the court of the king of quest from the emperor \'alentinian the resto- 
 the Birmans, to settle some disputes which had ! ration of priests and vestals, and of the altar 
 arisen between the two governments. Mr of victory. His petition, which is extant, was 
 Symes was chosen to conduct this mission, in answered by St Ambrose and the jioet I'ru- 
 the prosecution of which he departed from dentins, and he lost his cause. He was, how- 
 Cahutta February 21, 179J ; the vessel in ever, raised by the emperor Theodosius to the 
 which he sailed touched at the Andaman consulate in o9l, but was subsequently ban- 
 isles, and after i)assing five days there, airived : ished and treated with great rigour. Though 
 on the 18th of INlarch at the mouths of the : highly celebrated for oratory, it was of the 
 
 Irouwaddy, and ascended that river to Ran 
 goon. W hi!e waiting for ])ermission to conti- 
 nue his voyage to the capital of the Rinnans, 
 Symes visited Pegu, formerly the capital of an 
 independent kingdom. On the 26th of April 
 he returned to Rangoon, and a few days after 
 he received the expected permission to pro- 
 ceed to Ameiapoora, the residence of the Bir- 
 man monarch, situated on the Irouwaddy. He 
 embarked on tliat river the 29th of May ; and 
 on the 18th of July he entered tbe capital. 
 
 florid corruj)ted kind of his day ; and from his 
 ten books of epistles, which have been pre- 
 served. Gibbon asserts that little of value can 
 be extracted. The best edition of tliem is that 
 of Scioj)pius, 4to, 16o8. — Moreri. Gibbon. 
 
 SYMMOxXS, DD. (Charles) a native of 
 Cardigan, which town his father had repre- 
 sented in three successive parliaments. He 
 was born in 1749, and received the rudiment-? 
 of a classical education under Dr Smith at 
 Westminster school, whence he removed to 
 
 where he was well received, but was directed the university of Glasgow, and subsequently 
 
 not to leave the place appointed for his resi 
 dence, till he had obtained an audience of his 
 Birmese majesty. That prince was then ab- 
 sent ; but on his return, the fortunate day 
 being fixed on by the court a>trologer, Mr 
 Symes and the other members of the embassy 
 were conducted with great pomp to the palace, 
 on the SOlh of August. 'Jhe emperor did not 
 show himself on this occasion ; and it was not 
 till the 3()th of September, at the second so- 
 lemn audience, that he mad? his appearance. 
 He was visible only for a short time, most 
 splendidly attired, and seated in a magniiicent 
 recess, closed by folding-doors, which were 
 opened for the momentary display. He spoke 
 
 to Clare-hall, Cambridge. Having graduated 
 in 1776 as bachelor in divinity, he obtained 
 two years afterwards the rectory of Xarbertb, 
 and in 1794 that of Lampeter in Pembroke, 
 shire, the latter through the interest of Mr 
 Windham, with wliom he had contracted an 
 intima.y w hen in Scotland. This last piece of 
 preferment he narrowly escaped losing, in 
 conse(|uence of a sermon preached by him at 
 Cambridge, before the presentation was made 
 out, the discourse containincr some wiiiocrish 
 sentiments little congenial to those then in 
 power ; and the remembrance of which cost 
 his friend much trouble to obliterate. 'I he 
 same cause operated to throw difficulties in 
 
S Y N 
 
 llie way ot liis doctor's ilcgrec. and he there- 
 fore found it advisable to t-iitiT hirns<df ad 
 euiidem at Jesuis college OxfortI, in which 
 university he j/roceedeil 1^1). in the INIanh of 
 tlie same yt-ar. Dr Syinnions was a warm ad- 
 mirer of literature, and a zealous su|)|)orter of 
 the Literary Fund for the relief of intli|^ent au- 
 thors. Jlis own writini^s consist of " Inez, a 
 Dramatic Poem," 1797 ; a second enlitletl 
 " Constantia," 1800; an octavo vohime of 
 miscellaneous poetry, partly of his own com- 
 position and p;'.rtly that of his daui^hter, IRI.), 
 a llliymed 'J'ranslation of the /Kneiii, 1B17; 
 and a " Life of Milton, "prefixed to an edition of 
 that author's prose works. After his decease, 
 wliich took ]ilace at liath in tlie sprintj of 
 18'26, his friend, Mr Whiltingham, jjublit-hed 
 a posthumous biojjraphical sketch of Shak- 
 speare of his writing. In ])rivate life I)r 
 Symmons was distinguished by the amenity of 
 liis manners and the benevolence of his dis- 
 position. — Ann. Bioi:::. 
 
 SVNCELLUS (George) a monk of the 
 Greek empire, so named from his oflice about 
 the person of the patriarch. He flourished 
 about the close of the eiglith century, and is 
 known as tlie author of a valuable ciironolo- 
 gical work, which throws some light on the 
 early history of the Egy[)tians. Of tliis there 
 is an edition with a Latin version annexed, 
 printed in folio in 16.52. — Moreri. 
 
 SVNESIUS. There were two of tliis name. 
 The one a philosopher of the Platonic scliool, 
 of wliom little is known except his work on 
 natural philosophy and another on dreams. 
 Of the former there is an edition extant, 
 printeil at Paris in quarto, 1612 ; the other 
 is to be found annexed to the writings of Jam- 
 blicus. — The second and most celebrated was 
 a native of Gyrene, who went for the purpose 
 of com[)leting his education to Alexandria, 
 where he became a disciple of Hypatia, and 
 was eventually converteii to Ghristianity. 
 His leaming and blameless life caused him to 
 be chosen bishop of Ptolemais, contrary to hit- 
 own wishes, although in his tenets lie was far 
 from coinciding with the doctrines then gene- 
 rally approved. This Synesiusflourislied about 
 the commencement of the fifth century, and is 
 recorded to liave visited Constantinople in tlie 
 year 400, for the double jiurjiose of presenting 
 *o Arcadius his treatise " De Regno," and 
 soliciting his interposition in favour of his 
 native land against the Goths. 'I'liere are 
 two editions of his writings, both edited by 
 Dionvsius Petavius at Paris in 1623 and 1633. 
 Caiei^ Dupin. Brucker, 
 
 SVNGE (Edward) archbishop of Tuam 
 in Ireland, a learned and able prelate, born in 
 April 16.59, at Inishonane in that country. 
 He was 'he second son of the bishop of Cork, 
 and it'is recorded as a singular occurrence with 
 respect to this family, that both his father, his 
 uncle, himself, and two of his sons were all in 
 succession elevated to the mitre. Having 
 gone through a prehminary course of educa- 
 
 S Z E 
 
 tion at the grammar-school in Cork, he r<?- 
 moveil to Christchurch, Oxford, and thenca 
 a'^ain to 'I'rinity college, Dublin ; after which 
 he commenced an active and laborious ministry 
 as vicar of Cork, of which he continued the 
 incumbent above twenty \earx. Ilaviri'j after- 
 wards obtained the living of St Werburgh, 
 l)ul>lin, and a stall in tlie cathedral, he took 
 up his abode in that nietro[)olis, till in 1711 
 bis exertions in favour of the house of I'.run.s- 
 \\ ick were rewarded by his elevation to the see 
 of l^ajilioe. Over this diocese lie presided 
 about two years, when lie was translated to 
 Tuam, and continued to fdl that i)riinacy till 
 his death in 1741. He was the author of a 
 variety of treatises on devotional subjects, 
 written with great piety and ability, whicli 
 occupy four IS'mo. volumes. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 SVRL'.S (Pi'ijT.ius) a famous Latin poet, 
 who was a writer of mimes, or mimic verses. 
 He was a native of Syria, and was carried to 
 Rome a-s a slave ; hut becoming tlie pro- 
 [lerty of a master named Domitius, he was 
 made a fieedinan while very voung. His ta- 
 lents procured him the esteem of Julius Cje- 
 sar ; and ,<r. lecited his verses at the ])ublic 
 theatre, vhich were so much admired that 
 they eclipsed the fame of the works of the 
 mimic poet Laberius. He flourished about 
 44 HC. A collection of sentences or maxims, 
 in iambic verse, ascribed to Publius Syrus, 
 has been often published. One of the best 
 editions is that of Havercamp, Leyden, 1708, 
 8vo. — Diet. Hist. 
 
 SZALKAT (Anthony von) one of the best 
 Hungarian poets of modern times, who is re- 
 garded as the founder of the national dramatic 
 literature. His " Pikko Hertzeg." is the first 
 regular jiiece composed in the Hungarian lan- 
 guage ; and it is said to possess considerable 
 merit. The author had previously distinguish- 
 ed himself by a 'I'ravesty of the .5ineid, in 
 Hungarian, 1792, 8vo, written on the model 
 of that of lilumauer, but more licentious than 
 the Travesty of Scarrou. Szalkai, who for a 
 time belonged to the household of the arch- 
 duke palatine Alexander Leopold, died at BuJa 
 in Auirust 1804. — Bio£. Univ. 
 
 SZEGICUI (John BAPrisr) a Jesuit, who 
 was of a noble family, and was liorn in 1699, 
 in the county of Eiseustadt. Afit r having been 
 a professor of the sciences in different esta- 
 blishments of his order, he became succes- 
 sively rector, missionary, and almoner-general. 
 He distinguished himself by his talents, his 
 atValiilitv, and the puritv of liis morals ; and he 
 was intimately acquainted with the laws and 
 history of Hungary. He died at Tirnau, Dec. 
 8, 1760. His works are " Tripartitum .Juris 
 Hungarici Tirocinium," 17.i4, 12mo ; " Sy- 
 nopsis Titulonim Juris Hungarici," 173L8vo; 
 " Decreta et Nitae llegum Hun^arisqui Tran- 
 sylvaniam p ssiderunt," 1743, 8vo ; and 
 " Werbotsius illustratua," 1763, Rvo. — Biog, 
 Univ, 
 
 ^ z 
 
TAB 
 
 1 AC 
 
 r¥lABAIlI (Abu Jaafar iNIohammedEbn 
 
 I JoRAinal) acelebrated Arabian historian, 
 born in 839 at Amol, the capital of Tabaristan. 
 He distinguished himself l)y his acquaintance 
 with the rehgious traditions, jurisprudence, 
 and liiseory of the Mahometans ; and he wrote 
 a great number of works, the principal of whicli 
 are a Commentary on the Koran and a His- 
 tory or General Chronicle, from the Creation 
 10 the Year 302 of the Hegira. There is ex- 
 tant an abridjrment and continuation of the 
 Chronicle of Tahari, by Elmacinus ; and the 
 part wliich commences at the birth of iMa- 
 liomet has been published in Ara!)ic and Latin, 
 but so incorrectly as to render the printing of 
 the original work extremely desirable. 'Jabari 
 died at Bagdad in the year of the Hegira 310, 
 and his body was interred in the house he had 
 inhabited. — Bioo;. Lhiiv. 
 
 TABERX.EMONTANUS.orJAsiEsTnEO- 
 DORE, an early physician and botanist, was 
 born at Berg Zabein, in Alsace. He took the 
 deo-ree of JNID. in France, and became first 
 physician to the elector palatine. He resided 
 for" some time at Worms, which he quitted for 
 Hffidelberg, where he died in loPO. This phy- 
 sician, who had great faith in the virtue of 
 herbs, published in 1.558 a German herbal, 
 with figures, folio, of which a second volume 
 appeared after his death in 1.590, and a third 
 in 1.592. The figures are partly copied, and 
 partly drawn from nature by himself ; and he 
 has added to each plant a long catalogue of 
 its medical virtues. This work was once held 
 in great esteem, and has been several times re- 
 printed. He also published a treatise on baths 
 and mineral waters. — Halleri Bibl. Botaii. 
 
 TABOUROT (Stephen) a French author, 
 generally known by the name of the Sieur des 
 Accords, was born in 1549. He was king's 
 proctor in the bailliage of Dijon, and obtained 
 celebrity by some very eccentric productions. 
 The principal of these is entitled " Les Bi- 
 garrures et Touches du Seigneur des Accords ;" 
 to which some editions add, '• avec les Apo})h- 
 thegmes du Sieur Gaulard, et les Escraignes 
 J)ijonnaises ;" and the best of all (that of 
 Paris, 1614), "denouveau augmentees de plu- 
 pieurs Epitaphes, Dialogues, et ingenieuses 
 Equivo(]ues." It is in two volumes, It^mo, and 
 contains a great many singular and oddly con- 
 structed verses. He died in 1590, aged forty- 
 one. — Kiinv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 I'AIUIIZI (Abu Zachariah Yafiva Ebn 
 Am al) also known under the appellations of 
 Schf-ibani and Ebn Alkateb, was a celebrated 
 Arabian critic and grammarian of the eleventh 
 century. He was a native of the city of Tau- 
 ris or Tabriz, whence he derived his name ; 
 and he resided at Bagdad, where he died in 
 1109. He studied under the most celebrated 
 doctors of his time ; and having acquired a 
 profound acquaintance with the Arabian lan- 
 guage and literature, he instructed many dis- 
 ciples, and composed several works much es- 
 teemed by his countrymen. His principal 
 writing are Commentaries on the " Hamasa /' 
 
 on the " Dievan," or Collection of the Poems 
 of IVIotanabbi ; on the " Sikt Alzend," or 
 Poems of Abu'lola; on the Poems termtd 
 " Moallakat," Sec. besides grammatical works, 
 and two treatises intended to facilitate the in- 
 telligence of books, entitled '• Gharib AUo- 
 gat."and " Isla Aimantik." — Bioo;. LTniv. 
 
 TACITUS (Caius CoRN'i.Lics) a highlj 
 distinguished Roman historian, was born 
 about the year fifty-six of the ('hristian era ; 
 i)ut the place of his birth is no where men- 
 tioned. He was tlie son of Cornelius Tacitus, 
 a procurator, appointed to manage the imperial 
 revenue, and govern a province in Belgic Gaul. 
 Little is known of the manner in which lie 
 spent his early years ; but it is certain that if be 
 were the author of the " Dialogue concerning 
 Oratory," usually printed with his works, that 
 bis first ambition was to distinguish himself at 
 the bar. He must have early acquired a solid 
 reputation, as the excellent Julius Agricola 
 gave him his daughter in marriage when only 
 in .his twenty-first year. He received his first 
 public honours from Vespasian, which were 
 augmented by Titus and Domitian, the latter 
 of wiiom raised him to the post of prajtor. 
 After serving that oflSce he was absent from 
 the capital four years, during which period he 
 lost his father-in-law Agricola. On liis return 
 he found Domitian in the fiercest exercise of 
 his tyranny, and rendering the city of Rome a 
 scene of Mood and horror. At length this 
 tyrant fell the victim of a conspiracy, and 
 Xerva succeeded, in whose reign, in the year 
 97, Tacitus succeeded the celebrated Verginius 
 Rufus, who died during his consulship, as 
 consul for the remainder of the year. Under 
 Trajan he enjoyed great distinction, and lived 
 on terms of strict friendship with the younger 
 Pliny, in conjunction with whom he pleaded 
 against Priscus, accused of oppression in his 
 proconsulate of Africa. It was about this 
 time that he composed his celebrated " His- 
 tory," which commences with the accession of 
 Galba. and ends with the death of Domitian. 
 Of this work, which, according to Vossius, 
 contained thir;y books, only the first four and 
 part of the fifth remain, which carry the nar- 
 rative but little beyond the accession of ^'es- 
 pasian. His " Annals " followed, so called 
 because the narrative is distributed into years, 
 riiey supply an account of Roman affairs from 
 the death of Augustus to that of Nero; but 
 of these have perished jiart of the fifth book, 
 containing three years of Tiberius, the entire 
 four years of Caligula, the first six of Clau- 
 dius, and the last two of Neio. He intended, 
 if liis life and health continued, to review the 
 reign of Augustus, in order to detect the arts 
 by which the old constitution was finally over- 
 thrown : but this work, which would have 
 been invaluable from such a writer, it does 
 not aj)pear that he lived to carry into execu- 
 tion. His other productions, which have 
 reached modern times entire, are a '• Life of 
 Agricola," his father-in-law ; a " Treatise oa 
 the Manners of the Germans ;" and, as gene- 
 
T A C TAG 
 
 »«liy supposed, tlie " Dialogue concerninej 'ratiire, continuod to cultivate it on tlie throne 
 Orators," to wliicli allusion li;is bcoii already He hliowt-il his re^arJ to tli<' incin'-rv and 
 niuile. Notliii)^ is known of tlio rt-inaiiiin^' \vriti(i<;rt of his anc^-stor, hv <hrt-fiiri;( that ten 
 circumstances of his life, or of the time of his copies of his works should annually he made, 
 death ; but as lie makes no allusioti to Ihulriau and deposited in the |)uhlic libraries, by wi.ich 
 in any of his writiii'^s, it is supposed that he means, had his reiijn h<'en of MirtitK-nt lent^tli, 
 died during the rei^Mi of Tiajan, leavini; issue, posterity wouiil probaMy have enjoyed "^the 
 as the emperor Tacitus professed to be one | whole of those production», the fra,;mf'nts of 
 of Ids descendants. In historical reputation which are so valuable. An early visit to the 
 no name stands higher than that of lacitus, army became necessary to fit him on the 
 or has been the object of more earnest dis- ' throne, and he accordingly proceeded to 
 cussion. It is partly his fault and partly his Tlirace, where he punished the murderers of 
 excellence to aim at saying' a great deal in a Auielian, and repressed an incursion of the 
 small compass, and to give a tliought tlie force ' Alans. Dissensions however broke out among 
 of an apophthegm by concentration. This he i the soldiery, and either by direct violence, or by 
 has commonly done with such effect, that his the vexation the malcontents occasioned, the 
 writings are regartled as a great storehouse of aged emperor's life was brought to a close at 
 political maxims, the energetic brevity of | Tyana, in Cappadocia, after a ehort rei"n of 
 wliich impress them inddiijly on the memory. ' two hundred days. — Creiier. Gihiion. 
 On the other hand, in consequence of astslej TACQUET ( Andrkw ) an able mathema- 
 80 singularly concise, abrupt, and elliptical, he tician, was born at Antwerp in 161 1. In 16'J9 
 is often obscure. He is also accused of some he entered into the order of Jesuits, and tau^^ht 
 affectation of exalting common remarks into the languages and the mathematics for several 
 aphorisms, and of philoso[)hizing when he years, fie was the author of various aijle 
 should only narrate. No prose-writer, however, I works upon mathematical subjects, and ac- 
 excels him in the force of description, and in the cording to INIontucIa he endeavoured to ex- 
 choice of circumstances of a nature to place tend the boundaries of geometry in bis book 
 a scene distinctly before the eyes of the reader. ' " De Annularibus et Cylindricis ;" in which 
 With respect to his moral merits as an historian, however he ratlier affects to give a riijorous 
 he has been charged with too great a disposition demonstration of things which present little 
 to attribute unfavourable motives to actions, difficulty, than to exhibit new truths. Se- 
 and with a misanthropical bias in his views of veral of his treatises were collectetl after 
 human nature. Little more however is neces- his death, in a folio volume, under the title of 
 sary to justify him than a due consideration of " Andrea; Taqueti Antverpiensis Opera .Ma- 
 the persons and actions which he had to de- thematica." The chief recommendation of 
 scribe ; and tliat he believed in the reality of this collection is its clearness and perspicuity, 
 virtue is evident from the animation with — JSIontucIa Histoire de i\lath. 
 which he frequently describes it. On the] TAFFl (Andrea) an ingenious artist, born 
 whole lie is indisjmtably the most profound at Florence in I'illS. He claims notice chiefly 
 and philosophical of the ancient historians, as the person who introduced into Italy the art 
 and his works will ever be esteemed among of designing in Mosaic, which he learned fiom 
 the most valuable remains of antiquity. Of some Greek artists employed at Venice. With 
 the numerous editions of Tacitus, that of the chief of these, an individual of the name 
 lirotier, Paris, 1771, 7 vols. 4to, is certainly of Apollonius, he associated himself", and they 
 the best. There have however been subse- worked together at Florence with great suc- 
 quentlv published the editions of Crollius, cess. The most famous work of Taffi is a dead 
 ]779_l92, 4 vols. 8vo ; Homer, 1790, 4 vols. Christ, in a chapel at Florence. He died in 
 8vo ; of Edinburgh, 4 vols. 4to ; and of Ober- , 1294. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 lin, 1801,2 vols. 8vo,&c. The whole of Tacitus ; TAGLIACO/ZI ((Jaspar) an Italian sur- 
 lias been translated into f^nglish, both by geon, ludicrously immortalized by Btitier in his 
 Gordon and Alurphv. — Tiraboschi. Preface of Hudibras, under the Latin apptliation of l"a- 
 Brotier. Life bu Murphu. liacotius. He was born in 1546, at liologna, 
 
 TACITUS (M. Ci.Ai'Dii's) a virtuous and at the university of which city he was edu- 
 patriotic emperor of Rome, who boasted of his cated under Cardan. In his twi-nty-Ionrth 
 descentfrom tliesubjectof iheprecedingarticle, year he was admitted Ml), aiitl he subse- 
 was in his seventy-fifth year wlien hailed em- <|nently obtained the prote>sor>hip of siirtiery, 
 peror by the senate, on tlie death of Aurelian, Ik- applied hims If chiefly to curing wouiuis 
 in 27.5." Havino^ been a conspicuous memberof of the ears, excisions of the lips, antl more 
 that assembly, all his predilections were in its especially of the nose. On the restoration of 
 favour, and his first object as emperor was to the nose, iJtc. by a surgical operation, he pub- 
 restore to that body the rights and i>rivileges, lisbeil a curions work, entitled " De Cunorum 
 which would have rendered him little more Chirurgia per Insitionem, additis Cutis tradu- 
 than their servant, and the head of a limited cis. Instrumentorum omnium, atque Deliga- 
 monarchy. The senators were trans[)orted tionum Irombus et Tabulis, Lib. ii." \'euice, 
 with joy at this event, and announced the con- 1597, folio, which lias been frequently re- 
 cession in circulars to the principal cities of printed. Tagliacozzi is said to liave practised 
 the empire. He made several regulations for the operation in question, which consisted in 
 the reform of public morals, and having ]ne- partially dissecting out a portion of skin and 
 viously distinguished himself as a lover of lite- flesh from the upper part of the arm of the pa- 
 
r X I 
 
 tient, applying it to llie raw skin of the face, 
 in the situation of the lost nose, and retaining 
 it there by hgatures till the parts were pro- 
 perly united, when the piece cut out must 
 have been entirely separated from the arm, 
 which till then had been kept in contact with 
 the face. A better contrived operation 
 for the restoration of the nose has been per- 
 formed in England, by Mr Carpue and INIr 
 Travers, who have written on the subject. 
 Tliis method consists in dissecting a part of 
 the integruments of the forehead from the 
 skull, and bringing it down to the proper si- 
 tuation, where it is confined till adhesion 
 takes place. A similar operation appears to 
 have been long practised in India, wiiere the 
 punishment of cutting off the nose is some- 
 times inflicted by the Hindoo chiefs. Some 
 writers have expressed doubts whether Taglia- 
 cozzi ever performed the operation which he 
 describes ; but his pupil, fyens, in a work 
 " De Praecipuis Artis Chirurgicai Contro- 
 versiis," expressly testifies that he had wit- 
 nessed many cures of lost noses performed by 
 liis master. 'I'agliacozzi, after having for many 
 years occupied the anatomical chair at Bo- 
 logna, died there N(>vember 7, 1599. His 
 fellow-citizens erected, in the liall of medi- 
 cine, a statue of him, holding in his hand a 
 nose, with an inscription commemorating his 
 skill. — Aikin's Gen. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TAISAND (Peter) a French lawyer, born 
 at Dijon in 1644. His father, who was a 
 counsellor, was related to the celebrated Bos- 
 suet ; and the son, after studying under the 
 Jesuits, took his degrees at the university of 
 Orleans. He distinguished himself as an ad- 
 vocate, but a weakness of the chest obliged 
 liim to relinquish his profession, and in 1680 
 he obtained the office of treasurer of France. 
 Ilia leisure was devoted to the composition of 
 several works, particularly his " Commentairc 
 6ur la Coutume du Duche de Bourgogne," 
 1698, folio. He resigned his post after hold- 
 ing it twenty-six years, and died at Dijon in 
 171:5. Besides the work mentioned, he was 
 the author of " Histoire dii Droit Bomain," 
 1678, 12mo; and" Les Vies de? plus cele- 
 bres Jurisconsults de toutes les Nations," pub- 
 lished posthumously, Paris, 1721, 4to. — Biog- 
 U)iiv. 
 
 TAISNIER (John) a man of science, wlio 
 was a native of Aeth in the Netherlands, and 
 was born in 1509. He was at one period go- 
 vernor of the pages at the court of Charles V ; 
 but that employment not suiting his inclina- 
 tion, lie went to Cologne, where he obtained 
 the office of master of music in the Electoral 
 chapel. He was the author of a work entitled 
 " Opus INIathematicum," Colon. Agrip. 1562, 
 folio, from which it appears that, like many of 
 his learned contemporaries, he professed the 
 visionary sciences of chiromancy and judicial 
 astrology. He also wrote on the magnet, and 
 lie gave an account of a curious experiment 
 which he witnessed of the descent of persons 
 under water by means of a vessel like a diving- 
 bell. Taisnier, who was a great traveller, died 
 at a very advanced age, towards the end of 
 
 T A L 
 
 the sixteenth century. — Moreri. Bayle. Diet, 
 Hist. 
 
 TALBOT (John) first earl of Shrewsbury, 
 a famous commander, was born in 137 3. He 
 was the second son of sir Richard Talbot, of 
 Goodrich castle, in Herefordshire, and on the 
 I death of his elder brother he became heir to 
 ! the family. He was called to parliament by 
 ; Henry IV, by the title of lord Furnival, whose 
 I eldest daughter and co-heiress he had mar- 
 ried. In 1414 he was appointed lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland, in which post he continued 
 seven years, and performed great services for 
 the crown, by keeping the native Irish in sub- 
 jection, and taking prisoner Donald Mac- 
 murrojh, a danoerous insurgent. In 1420 he 
 attended Henry V to France, and was present 
 with him at his two sieges and triumphant 
 entry into Paris. At the beginning of Henry 
 the Sixth's reign, he was created a knight of 
 the carter, and ajrain entrusted with the so- 
 vernment of Ireland. He then served iu 
 France, under the regent, the duke of Bed- 
 ford, and by his exploits rendered his name 
 more terrible to the enemy than that of any 
 other English leader. Being raised to the 
 rank of general, he commanded the troops 
 which were sent to the province of ]Maine, 
 and made himself master of Alenfon. He 
 afterwards joined the earl of Salisbury at 
 the famous siege of Orleans, which failed 
 through the intervention of the celebrated Joan 
 of Arc. The French recovering their courage 
 under the guidance of that heroine, defeated 
 the English at the battle of Patai, in which 
 Talbot was made prisoner. After a captivity 
 of three years he was exchanged, on which he 
 repaired to England to raise fresh troops, and 
 recrossing the sea, he found the duke of Bed- 
 ford at Paris. After a conference with that 
 prince, he took several strong places in succes- 
 sion ; and for his eminent services was raised 
 to the dignity of marshal of France, and in 
 1442 created earl of Shrewsbury. The fol- 
 lowing year he was appointed one of the am- 
 bassadors to treat of peace with Charles \'II, 
 after which he was sent once more to Ireland, 
 and the earldom of Wexford and VVaterford, 
 in that kingdom, was added to his honours. 
 The English afiairs in France continuing tj 
 decline, he was made lieutenant-general of 
 Aquitaine, in which capacity he took Bor- 
 deaux and received the allegiance of several 
 other towns. Receiving intelligence that the 
 French were besieging Chastiilon, he marched 
 to its relief, and made an attack upon the ene- 
 my ; but here his usual fortune deserted him ; 
 he was left dead, with one (jf his sons, on the 
 field of battle ; and the English being wholly 
 routed, their expulsion from France soon fol- 
 lowed. This great captain, whose merit was 
 acknowledged equally by friends and foes, fell 
 on the 20th July, 1453, at the age of eighty. 
 Mis remains were interred at Whitchurch, 
 wliere a splendid monument was erected to his 
 memory. — Collins's Peerage. Monstrelet. 
 
 lALBOT (Pftkr) a catholic divine and 
 writer on controversial theology, who was de- 
 scended from the noble fanily of Talbot, f.nd 
 
1 A L 
 
 wns born in Ireland in \6'20. lie stiicliid in 
 Portugal aiuoiivj llic Jesuits, ami afier enteiiii<^ 
 into their society, he was onlaincd to the 
 pnesth'jod at Rome, and i)ec"anu' professor 
 of divinity at Antwerp. He followed Charles 
 II to Kngland at the Restoration, and was »{)• 
 pointed almoner to the queen. His zeal for the 
 catholic faith having given ofVente, he removed 
 to Ireland, where pope Clement IX nominated 
 him archbislioj) of Uuhlin. After a temporary 
 retreat to Paris, he returned to his diocese ; 
 and in 1678 was accused as an accomi)lice 
 in the pretended popish i)lot, to which so many 
 victims were sacrificed, and being confined in 
 the castle of J)ublin, he died there in 1680. 
 Lists of his works may be found in the annex- 
 ed authorities. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TALBOT (Richaud) earl of Tvrconnel, 
 was the younger brother of the preceding. He 
 entered into the army, and displayed great 
 bravery in the civil war in Ireland in the reign 
 of Charles I. After the death of Cromwell, he 
 went to England to represent to Charles II the 
 complaints of the Irish catholics relative to the 
 oppression they suffered ; but his mission pro- 
 cured no redress. He was involved in the 
 same accusation with his brother the arch- 
 bisliop ; but after being imprisoned, he obtain- 
 ed his liberty on the triumph of the catholic 
 party. James II appointed him to the govern- 
 ment of Ireland, giving him the command of 
 the army in that country, and at length making 
 liim viceroy. He displayed his zeal in the ser- 
 vice of his misguided master, and vigorously 
 opposed the prince of Orange ; but while he 
 was making preparations for an engagement 
 with the forces of the new king, he was sud- 
 denly taken ill, and died three days after, Au- 
 gust 2A, 1691. He left an only daughter, who 
 married her cousin, Richard Talbot, to whose 
 fiimily the empty title of Tyrconnel was con- 
 tinued by James II. — Moreri. 
 
 TALBOT (Charles) duke of Shrewsbury, 
 the son of Francis, earl of Shrewsbury, who 
 was killed in a duel with the seducer of his 
 wife, the profligate dids.e of Buckingham, in 
 1667. The subject of this article held the of- 
 fice of lord chamberlain to James II, but dis- 
 approving the imprudent measures of that 
 prince, he resigned ; and on the arrival of the 
 prince of Orange he became an active promoter 
 of the Revolution. On the accession of the 
 prince as William III, lord Shrewsbury was 
 made principal secretary of state, and knight 
 of the garter ; and in 1694 he was created 
 marquis of Alton and duke of Shrewsbury. He 
 resigned his post of secretary in consequence 
 of ill health ; but in the reign of queen Anne 
 lie was sworn a member of the privy council. 
 After having been viceroy of Ireland, he held 
 the office of lord treasurer; and his death took 
 place in 1717, at the age of fifty-seven. An 
 account of the life and characer of this noble- 
 man was published in 1718, 8vo. — CoUins's 
 Yeeras^e. 
 
 TALBOT (Chari.f.s) lord high chancellor 
 of Great Britain, was the son of William Tal- 
 bot, bishop of Durham, descended from a 
 younger grandson of the first earl of Shrews- 
 
 T A L 
 
 I bury, nnJ was born in 1631. In 1701 h<\ 
 W.I.-, admitted of Orul college. Oxfurd. and in 
 17(H fleeted a fellow of All Soub, but in u f-w 
 years voided his fellowship by marriage. Oti 
 (piitting the university, lie was admitted a 
 member of the society of Lincoln's Inn, and 
 was very speedily called to the bar. In 1719 
 he was chosen to represent Tre-^o:iy in Corn- 
 wall, and in 17i,'(j nuuie solicitor general, and 
 elected member for the city of Durham. In 
 November, 1733, he was constituted lord hi|^|i 
 chancellor, and created a baron of Great lUi- 
 tain by the title of lord I'albot, baron of Hen- 
 sol in the county of Glamorgan. He died, ifi 
 the enjoyment of high character and reputa- 
 tion, after an illness of only a few days, on the 
 14th February, 1737. Few chancellors have 
 been more lamented than lord Talbot, who in 
 this high office, as well as in his cajjacitv of 
 senator and in private life, acquired universal 
 esteem. — Bin(r.]hit. 
 
 'lALBOr (Catherine) a very ingenious 
 lady, was the only child of Edward Talbot, se- 
 cond son of the bishop, and brother to the sub- 
 ject of the last article. She was born five 
 months after the decease of her father, wiiu 
 died early ; on which account her mother ac- 
 cejited the invitation of Mr. Seeker, afterwards 
 archbishop of Canterbury, the friend of her 
 late husband, and of his lady, who wjasher own, 
 together with her daughter, to become a part 
 of their family, and they never afterwards se- 
 parated. Thus situated, lAliss Talbot received 
 an excellent education, which she much im- 
 proved by her own subsequent application. On 
 the death of the archbishop in 1768, who be- 
 queathed 400/. to Mrs and Miss Talbot; they 
 removed to a habitation of their own ; and 
 after a while, in consequence of the declining 
 health of Miss Talbot, to the house of the mar- 
 chioness De Grey at Richmond, where the 
 latter died of a cancer, in her forty-ninth 
 year. This amiable lady was the intimate 
 friend of the celebrated Mrs Carter, with whom 
 she ke{)t up a literary correspondence of con- 
 siderable interest. Her works are, " Reflec- 
 tions on the Seven Days of the Week ; " " Es- 
 says on Various Subjects;" " Letters to a 
 Friend on the Future State ; " " Dialogues ; " 
 " Prose Pastorals ;" " Imitations of Ossian ;"' 
 *' Allegories ;" and " Poetry." — Life by Mon- 
 tague I'einniiirtoii. 
 
 TALBOT (Robert) an English antiquarv, 
 born at 'Jhorp, in Northamptonshire, about 
 the commencement of the sixteenth century. 
 He studied at 0,\ford, which he left in l.')3t) to 
 enter into holy orders ; and in l.vll he ol)- 
 tained a prebend in Wells cathedral. In 
 1.^47 he was made treasurer of Norwich ca- 
 thedral, in which station he remained till hi.>» 
 death in 1338. He paid great attention to the 
 antiquities of his native country ; and from his 
 collections Leiand, Bale, Camden, and others 
 derived much assistance. He left his MSS. to 
 the library of New collei^e, Oxford. 'Talbot 
 was the first English writer who illustrated 
 the Itinerary of Antoninus, by a Commentary 
 and Notes, which Hearne published at the 
 end of the third volume of Leland's Itinerary 
 
T A L 
 
 .le left other works, remaining unprinted. — 
 Couch's Brit. Topoc^. 
 
 'lALlESlN, the most celebrated oftlie an- 
 cient British poets, and therefore termed Pen 
 Beirdd. or the Chief of the Bards. He flou- 
 rished l)etween ot^O and 570, and many of his 
 com{)Ositions are extant, and have been printed 
 in the Welsh Archeology. He was ranked 
 with the two Merlins, under the appellation of 
 the Three principal Christian Bards. Tradition 
 represents him as an orphan exposed by the 
 side of a river, where he was found by Elfin, 
 tlie son of Gwyddno, by whom he was edu- 
 cated and patronised. He studied in the school 
 of the famous Cadog at Llanveilhin, in GU- 
 mori^ansliire, and in the mature part of his 
 life iie was the bard of Urien Rheged, a Welsli 
 prince, as appears by many of his poems ad- 
 dressed to that chieftain. — Owens Cambrian 
 Bii\i^rnp}}ij. 
 
 TALL ART (Camille d'Hostitn, duke de) 
 marshal of France, was descended of an an- 
 cient family of the province of Dauphiny, and 
 was born February 14, 1652. He entered very 
 young into the army, and after serving under 
 the yreat Conde in Holland, and under Tu- 
 renne in Alsace, he was engaged in the bril- 
 liant campaigns of 1674 and 1675. He dis- 
 tinguished himself subsequently on various 
 occasions, and in 1693 he was made a lieute- 
 nant-general. In 1697 he was sent ambassa- 
 dor to F.ngland to negociate concerning the 
 succession to the crown of Spain on the death 
 of Charfes IL His services on this occasion 
 were rewarded with the knighthood of the 
 royal orders and the government of the county 
 of' Fofx. War breaking out, in 170-2, Tal- 
 lart was appointed to the command of the 
 French troops on tlie Rliine, and soon after lie 
 was lionoured with a marshal's staflf. He sub- 
 sequently defeated the Imperialists before 
 Landau, and having taken that place after a 
 short sif^ge, he announced his success to Louis 
 Xl\', in the following terms: " I have taken 
 more standards than your majesty has lost sol- 
 diers." In 1704 he was opposed to the great 
 IMarlborough ; and being taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Hochstedt, or Blenheim, he was con- 
 veyed to England, where he remained seven 
 years. On his return to France in 1712 he 
 was created a duke ; and in 1726 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state. His death hap- 
 pened the od of March, 1728. — Diet. Hist. 
 Bio^. ['itiv. 
 
 TALLEMAXT (Paul) a French writer, 
 who was an ecclesiastic and academician. He 
 was born at Paris in 1632, and was the son of 
 Gideon de Tallemant, who held the office 
 of master of requests and provincial inten- 
 dant. He assumed the pcclesiastical profes- 
 sion ; and though the death of his father left 
 hinn unprovitled for in point of fortune, yet 
 having some powerful friends, and possessing 
 considerable talents and learning, he raised 
 himself to eminence as a man of letters. He 
 became a member of the French Academy, 
 and secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions 
 and Belles- Lettres. Through the patronage 
 of the minister Colbert he obtained various 
 
 T A I. 
 
 beneficpg and pensions ; and his pen among 
 others was employed to celebrate the victories 
 of Louis XIV, particularlv in the " Histoire de 
 Louis XIV par les Medailles," for which he 
 wrote the preface, said to be the best of his 
 compositions. He was also the author of se- 
 veral funeral orations, and academical dis- 
 courses ; aud of a piece consisting of prose 
 and verse, in titled " Voyage de File d'A- 
 mour," besides other works. He died at 
 Paris, July 30, 1712. — Francis Tallemant, 
 cousin of the preceding, was also an eccle- 
 siastic, and a member of the French Academy. 
 He published a French Translation of Plu- 
 tarch's Lives of Illustrious Men, which for a 
 while superseded the earlier version of Amyot, 
 and went through several impressions. His 
 death took place in 1693, at the age of 
 seventy-three. — Did. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TA LLEYR AN D-PERIGORD (Alexan- 
 dre Angelique de) the son of the marquis 
 de Talleyrand, aud uncle of the celebrated 
 statesman of the same name, now living, was 
 bom at Paris in 1736. Entering into the 
 church he obtained various benefices, and be- 
 came royal almoner, and grand vicar of Ver- 
 dun, and before he was tliirty he was ap- 
 pointed coadjutor of the archbishop of Rheims, 
 whom be succeeded in 1777. He was nomi- 
 nated a member of the second assembly of the 
 Notables, and afterwards a deputy of the 
 States General, where he vainly endeavoured 
 to defend the privileges of the clergy, and pub- 
 lished various tracts on the subject. At length 
 he retired to Aix-la-Chapelle, and subsequently 
 resided at Weimar and Brunswick. Louis 
 XVIII having invited him to Mittau, he ac- 
 companied that prince to England ; and on 
 the death of the cardinal de iNIontmorenci, in 
 1808, he succeeded him as grand almoner. 
 Returning to France at the restoration he had at 
 first great influence in ecclesiastical affairs, but 
 his councils were afterwards neglected. In 1816 
 he resigned the archbishopric of Rheims, and 
 the following year he was appointed to that of 
 Paris, and was made a cardinal. The execu- 
 tion of the concordat of 1817 meeting with 
 obstacles, he did not take possession of his 
 see till 1819, and the remainder of his life was 
 devoted to the regulation of the concerns of 
 the diocese- He died October 20, 1821. — 
 Bincr. Unir. 
 
 TALLIEN (John Lambert) a French re- 
 publican statesman, born at I'aris in 1769. He 
 was the son of the mattre-d'hotel to the mar- 
 quis de Bercy, lo whom he was indebted for 
 his education. Previously to the Revolution 
 he had been clerk to an attorney, and also to 
 a notary ; and he commenced his political 
 career as secretary to the deputy Bronstaret. 
 He theri published a kind of daily journal, 
 called " Ami du Citoyeu," which was affixed 
 to the walls of the metropolis. The Jacobins 
 furnished the expenses of printing this paper, 
 the object of which was to excite the indig- 
 nation of the populace against Louis XVI and 
 his ministers. Tallien, who neglected no 
 means to bring himself into notice, also pub- 
 lished a discourse delivered at the Jacobin 
 
T A L 
 
 dub, " Sur les Causes qui ont produit la Re- ' 
 volution ;" and lie soon became one of tbe i 
 most ])0])ul;ir men of tlie revoluudiiary party, i 
 July H, 17'.''J, be made liis :ipi)earaiue at the ! 
 bar of tbe National Assembly, at tbe bead of 
 a deputation fmm tbe commune of Paris, to 
 demand tbe restoration of IVtbion, wbo bad 
 been suspendeil from bis functions as mayor of 
 tbe capital, in consequence of tlie riots of tbe 
 yOtb of June, in vbicb be was supposed to 
 have been implicated, 'iallien was deejily 
 concerned in tbe terrible commotions of tbe 
 lOtb of August, and be was secretary-general 
 of tbe commune wliicb bad installed itself at 
 tbe Hotel de \'ille, and wbicb contiimed its 
 sittings in spite of tbe Assembly, becoming tlie 
 centre and origin of tbe intrigues and massacres 
 of that disastrous period. Hence tbe a])pel- 
 lation of Septembrizer was justly applied to 
 him, tbougli it must be admitted tbat bis in- 
 fluence was occasionally employed to preserve 
 tbe lives of individuals. Being nominated a 
 deputy to tbe Convention, from tbe depart- 
 ment of Seine and Oise, be often mounted the 
 tribune, and was tbe constant advocate for 
 violent measures. In tlie session of Dec. 15, 
 179y, he strongly urged the immediate trial of 
 Louis XVI, objected to allowing him counsel, 
 and added new charges to the accusation 
 against him. He afterwards voted for bis 
 death, and against an appeal to the peoj)le ; 
 and on the day of execution, January 21, 1795, 
 he was president of tbe Convention, lie took 
 part in most of the sanguinary proceedings 
 which occurred during tbe ascendancy of 
 Robespierre ; and after defending Marat, as- 
 sisting in tlie destruction of the Girondists, 
 and becoming tlie advocate of the infamous 
 Rossigiiol, be was sent on a mission to Bor- 
 deaux, where he showed himself tbe worthy 
 associate of Carrier, Lebon, and Collotd'Her- 
 bois. After be had desolated and pillaged 
 that wealthy city, he was checked in his san- 
 guinary career by the influence of madame de 
 Fontenai, whose family name was Cabarrus. 
 She was a woman remarkable for her personal 
 beauty, and having been imprisoned at Bor- 
 deaux, as she was going to join her family in 
 Spain, she owed lier life to compassion, or to 
 a tenderer feeling on the part of Tallien. He 
 took her with bim to Paris, wbitber he went to 
 defend himself before tbe Convention against 
 the charge of moderantism, which his recent 
 conduct bad caused some of his more blood- 
 thirsty colleagues to prefer against him. Ma- 
 dame de Fontenai was exposed to new per- 
 secutions, and in order to maintain his in- 
 fluence for her protection as well as bis 
 own, be thought it necessary still to ap- 
 pear the advocate of violence and proscrip- 
 tion. At length, after the fall of Danton 
 and his party, Tallien perceived tbat be 
 should bet ome one of the next victims of 
 Robespierre, if he did not strike tbe first blow 
 at tbe overthrown power of tbat tyrant of 
 France. Accordingly, at tbe sitting of the 
 convention of tbe 9ih of Thermidor, 1794, he 
 «ficended the tribune, and after an animated 
 picture of the atrocities which had taken place, ^ 
 
 T A L 
 
 and which he positively aarribed to Tlobp«- 
 pierre, he sutUlenly turned to tbe buPt of I'mtus 
 in tbe ball of tbe assembly, auil invoking tbe 
 genius of tbat patriot, be d:»'w a dagger from 
 kis girdle, and swore tbat be would plunge it 
 into tbe heart of Hobe8pi«'rre if the reprehen- 
 tatives of tbe people bad not courage to order 
 bis immeiliate airest. On tbe morrow 'ial- 
 lien had the satisfaction to announce to his 
 colleagues that their enemies bad |ierish»'d on 
 the scallbkl. I'eing elected a memljer of tbe 
 Committee of Public Safety, the jacobins re- 
 placed bis name on their list. At this period 
 be married bis protegee, Madam** de Fon- 
 tenai. He took a part in all the proceedings 
 of the Assembly, and used hi» power and in- 
 fluence only to promote tbe interests of justice 
 and humanity. 'Ibis was the most honourable 
 ])eriod of his life ; but the recrimination and 
 opposition which he ex]ierienced prevented 
 him from enjoying tranquillity. If bis own 
 statement were to be believed, an attempt was 
 made to assassinate him ; but this report was 
 regarded as a wretched attempt to excite the 
 interest of tbe public in bis favour. In July 
 1795 be was sent with extensive powers to tbe 
 army on the coasts of Britanny ; but after the 
 victory of tbe republicans at Quiberon be re- 
 turned to Paris. He subsequently became a 
 member of tbe Council of Five Hundred, un- 
 der the constitution of the yearo ; but bis in- 
 fluence gradually declined, and he was at 
 length reduced to such a state of political in- 
 significance, tbat he thought proper to retire 
 to private hfe. Domes^tic uneasiness induced 
 bim to wish to leave France, and he followed 
 Buonaparte to Egypt, as one of the literati 
 attached to the exjiedition. He became a 
 member of the Egyptian Institute and editor 
 of tbe *' Decade Egyptienne," a journal printed 
 at Cairo ; besides being administrator of tbe 
 national domains. After Buonaparte left Egypt, 
 general Menou treated Tallien very harshly, 
 and at last obliged him to return to France, 'ihe 
 vessel in winch he sailed was captured by the 
 English, and he was taken to London, where 
 he experienced some attention from tbe leaders 
 of the whig party. 'Jbe dudu ss of Devon- 
 shire sent Tallien her portrait, enriched with 
 diamonds, when he kept the portrait but re- 
 turned tbe diamonds. On revisitint; bis na- 
 tive country be discovered that be bad lost bis 
 wife, as well as tbe favour of Buouaparte, wbo 
 was then rising to sovereign power. Heap- 
 pears to have been reiluceil to distress, but at 
 length be obtained, through Foucbe and lal- 
 levrand, tbe office of French consul at .Vbcant. 
 He died at Paris November 16, 18it). Madame 
 Tallien liaving been divorced from her husband 
 (by whom she had a daughter named Ther- 
 midor) was married in 1805 to M. Joseph de 
 Caramai, prince de Chimay. — Biog. Nouv. det 
 Contemp. ^"'^' Univ. 
 
 'J'ALLIS (Thomas) one of the greatest 
 musicians not of this country only but of Eu- 
 rope in the sixteenth century. He was born in 
 tbe f^arly part of tbe reign of Henry \"1I], 
 and it has been said that he filled the situation 
 of orgauLpt to the chapel royal under thaf mon- 
 
r A L 
 
 jircli, as well as under his three immediate 
 successt>rs ; the traduion is however improba- 
 ble, as it is doubtful whether, in the reigns 
 of Ilenrv and Mary at least, laymen were ever 
 admitted to perform upon the or^jan in conse- 
 crated buildings. It is certain however that 
 he acted as such under Elizabeth, succeeding 
 Blithman, and being himself succeeded by his 
 own pupil Bird. In this capacity he first en- 
 riched with harmony the melody of the cathe- 
 dral service originally adapted to English 
 words by Marbeck. This sterling composi- 
 tion is still frequently used in our cathedrals, 
 and his Litauy especially is commonly per- 
 formed at the metropolitan church of St Paul 
 on the his>h festivals of Christmas, Easter, and 
 Whitsunday. As a contrapuntist he yields 
 perhaps to no one, and a most extraordinary 
 proof of his abilities in this respect still sub- 
 sists in a song composed in parts for forty 
 voices ; viz. eight basses, eight tenors, eight 
 counter-tenors,' eight mezzo-sopranos, and 
 eight trebles, placed under each other, with 
 one line for the organ, each of which has its 
 share in the subjects of fugue and imitation 
 introduced on every change of words, and ter- 
 minating in twelve bars of universal chorus. 
 Tallis (Tied in l585, and was buried in the 
 old church at Greenwich, where an epitaph to 
 his memory was existing in Strype's time, 
 and was renewed by dean Aldrich ; but the 
 church having been rebuilt in 1720, it is now 
 to be found only in Boyce's collection. — Bur- 
 ners Hist, of Mus. Biog. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 TALMA (Francis Joseph) the Roscius of 
 the French stage, on which he produced a re- 
 volution equal to that created by Garrick on the 
 English. He was born at Paris about the year 
 1770, and is said to have given the first indi- 
 cation of his histrionic talent when only eight 
 years old, in an old tragedy entitled " Tamer- 
 lane," performed by boys. Soon af'-er his father, 
 who had settled in London as a goldsmith, 
 sent for him to En.;land ; and after a few 
 years spent at a boarding-school in Lambeth 
 articled him to a surgeon. His fondness 
 for theatrical amusements, having introduced 
 him to sir John Gallini, who at that time 
 superintended an amateur French company, 
 wiiich performed at the Hanover-scjuare 
 rooms ; under his auspices he appeared 
 in several comedies, especially as covint Al- 
 maviva in Beaumarchais' comedy of the Bar- 
 ber of Seville, then at the height of its popu- 
 larity. Kemble and Mrs Siddons were at this 
 period in the zenith of their reputation, and 
 the former had just succeeded in reforming the 
 absurdities of theatrical costume, which had 
 hitherto disgraced the drama. The perform- 
 ance of these two eminent professors decided 
 Talma's vocation, as well as formed his taste ; 
 he returned to Paris, and through the interest 
 of ?ilole, the actor, obtained an engagement. 
 His debut upon the boards of the Theatre 
 Fran^ais was made in the part of Seide, in 
 Voltaire's tragedy of " Mahomet ;" but it 
 created no particular sensation in the minds 
 of the audience, which had yet to discover 
 Uiat a new light had risen upon their drama. 
 
 T A L 
 
 j After performing a variety of insignificant cha- 
 I racters, accidi ut lifted him at once to the 
 summit of his profession. Chenier's tragedy 
 of Charles IX was accepted, and put in re- 
 hearsal, when Saintfal, the principal actor, 
 returned his part with a sneering recommenda- 
 tion to the author to '* give it to young Talma." 
 Chenier took him at his word ; Talma accept- 
 ed the part with delight, and feeling that his 
 future fame and fortune depended on that 
 night's success, not only devoted all his ener- 
 gies to the study of it, but directed his 
 attention in so especial a manner to give it 
 effect by strict fidelity of costume, that the 
 audience, equally surprised and delighted, 
 continued to him, throughout the representa- 
 tion, the tumultuous approbation with which 
 they greeted his first appearance. Thus the tra- 
 gedy was completely triumphant and the fame 
 of the actor established. His greatest triumph, 
 however, was yet to follow. Ducis had 
 translated the Othello of Shakspeare, but not 
 daring to contend so far against French preju- 
 dices as to exhibit the murder of Desdemona on 
 the stage, he had furnished a new catastrophe 
 of a more fortunate description. Talma alone 
 was bold enough to prefer the original termina- 
 tion, and, after considerable hesitation, re- 
 solved, with the consent of the author, to risk 
 the attempt. His success astonished even him- 
 self, and most honourably rewarded his intre- 
 pidity. From this moment he became the pa- 
 ramount tragedian, and though occasionally 
 annoyed by criticisms, the personality of some 
 of which brought him on one occasion into per- 
 sonal contact with their author, M. Geoifroi, 
 he continued at the summit of his professioe 
 till his death. He acquired a handsome for- 
 tune by his profession ; and was not only ge- 
 nerally esteemed by men of rank and talents 
 for his powers of fascination in private society, 
 but was also a favourite with the emperor iS'a- 
 j)oleon. In I8!2j he publi^^hed " Reflexions" 
 on the art he professed, which display the ex- 
 tent and variety of study and research by 
 wliich he had arrived at such extraordinary ex- 
 cellence. Jlie death of Talma took place at 
 Paris, October 19, 1Q26, after a distressing 
 illness arising from an obliteration of a portion 
 of the large intestines, as appeared from an ex- 
 amination of the body after his decease. He 
 preserved all his intellectual faculties to the 
 last, and his latest hours were employed in 
 giving directions about his funeral, which he 
 desired might take place at the cemetery of 
 Pere la Chaise, without any of the usual ce- 
 remonies of religion. The excomrnunicatiou 
 pronounced by the Catholic church against the- 
 atrical performers doubtless caused this con- 
 duct on the part of the dying actor; and se- 
 veral ajijjlicatious made by the archbishop of 
 Paris to the nephew of Talma to be allowed 
 an interview with him were unsuccessful. Ma- 
 ilame Vanhove, his wife, from whom he had 
 been separated, also applied to be permitted to 
 see him ; but Talma declined tlie interview, 
 lest it might be thought that he complied from 
 interested motives, she being possessed of a 
 lari.e independent property. A short time 
 
T A L 
 
 T A i\I 
 
 b< lore his ik'ath he embraced liis ihcatrical came consul at Lejjliorn, ni.d two years after at 
 frieiuls, Joiiy, Arnault, ami Duvilliers, and ex- j Home. On ti»e fall of the imperial povcni- 
 pired, ejaculating tlie name of X'oltaire. As ment in 18M. he retired from j.iibjic life, and 
 
 soon as his death became known, public re- 
 sj)ect was shown to his memory by the closing 
 of the doors of the Comedie Fian^-aise. 'I'he 
 funeral took place agreeably to liis directions, 
 tiie corpse being taken to the place of inter- 
 ment without interruption or ceremony. The 
 procession consisted of a magnilicent hearse, 
 fifteen mourning coaches, Talma'a own car- 
 riage, and several empty ones ; a number of 
 literary and tlieatrical cliaracters followed on 
 foot, and the whole was closed by a body of 
 four or five tlicusand persons ; a vast concourse 
 of tlie citizens iilling the cemetery and surround- 
 in" the tomb. Funeral orations or eulogiee 
 were delivered at the grave by Lafon, the col- 
 league of the deceased, and by two tragic 
 writers, Jouy and Arnault, on wliose works 
 Talma had by his talents conferred great sce- 
 nic popularity. — Biog. Nouv. ties Contemp. Atlas 
 i^'ewspapcr. 
 
 TALMONT (A. Pn. de la Tri.moille, 
 prince de) second son of the duke de Tri- 
 moille, distinguished as a royalist officer in the 
 war of La Vendee. His youth had been de- 
 voted to dissipation ; and when the Revolution 
 broke out he became a partizan of monarchy, 
 and in 179'2 he joined a confederation of roy- 
 alists in the province of Poitou. ile afterwards 
 went to England and Germany, and returned 
 to France in 1793, with the plan of an insur- 
 rection in the western provinces against the 
 republican government. He was arrested and 
 imprisoned at Angers, and narrowly escaped 
 suffering death ; but his brother, the abbe de 
 la Frimoille, found means to procure his re- 
 lease, on whidi he went and jonied the insur- 
 gents in La Vendee, by whom he v/as ap- 
 pointed general of the cavalry. His signalized 
 himself for his courage at the attack of Nantes 
 June "28, 1793, and on various other occasions, 
 in the desperate service in which he engaged. 
 After the great defeat of the royalists at Mans, 
 December 14, he wandered in disguise in the 
 environs of Laval and Fougeres ; and being re- 
 cognized he was taken prisoner, and was soon 
 after executed before the principal entrance 
 of his own castle of Laval. Being interred in 
 the vicinity, the spot was enclosed in 18i,"^, 
 and a monument erected in commemoration of 
 this victim of national discord. — Bii*g, Univ. 
 
 TAMBROM (Joseph) an Italian poet and 
 historian, born at Bologna in 1773. He stu- 
 died in the university there; and in 1794 he 
 was elected paliBOgrapher, or inspector of the 
 archives of his native city. When the French 
 invaded Lombardy the tirst time, he went to 
 Milan, and attaclied himself to Marescalchi. 
 whom he accompanied to the congre.-s of Ras- 
 tadt and to Vienna, as secretary of the Cisal- 
 pine Legation. On the return of the Aus- 
 trians to Italy, Tambroni found an asylum in 
 the mountains of Savoy ; but he returned after 
 the battle of Marengo" and the foundation of 
 the Cisalpine republic. He was then attached 
 to the Italian legation at Paris, under his 
 friend count Marescakhi ; and in 1809 he be- 
 
 engaged in conducting tluj ** Giornale Arca- 
 dico." He belonged to neveral learned so- 
 cieties, and he was decorated with the firder 
 of the iron crown. 'J'ambroui died at Home 
 January 10, l»'J4. Among hig workn are 
 " Comi)endio delli- Storie di Polonio," 2 voIh. 
 8vo ; " Intornoalla \ita di Canova Commen- 
 tario." 8vo ; besides many letters and potnss. 
 — liiog. A(U//'. f/es Coiiteinj). Jiiog. Univ. 
 
 TAMBROM (Ci.otii.da) sister of the 
 preceding, a lady distinguished for her acquaint- 
 ance with Greek literature. She was born in 
 1738, and from her early years she displayed 
 an invincible attachment for study, in conse- 
 quence of which her parents aflbrded her the 
 means of instruction. She was admitted into 
 the Arcadian academy at Rome, the Ktruscan 
 academy at Cortona, and the Clementine at 
 Bologna; and in 1794 the professorship of 
 the Greek language was bestowed on her, 
 which she retained till 1798, when she was 
 displaced because she refused to take tlie oath 
 of hatred to royalty required by the laws of the 
 Cispadane republic. She was afterwards re- 
 stored by Buonaparte ; but the Greek profes- 
 sorship being at length suppressed, she retired 
 to the bosom of her family. Her death hap- 
 pened June 4, I8l7. Her works consist chieHy 
 of poems written in Greek, among which is an 
 elegy in honour of Bodoni, the celebrated 
 printer. — Id 
 
 TAMMEAMEA or TAMA HAM A, king 
 of the Sandwich isles, in the Pacific ocean, 
 was one of those individuals who are destinetl 
 to produce a great effect on the state of society 
 around them. He belonged to the race of the 
 native chiefs ; and at the death of captain 
 Cook, in 1780, he had arrived at manhood, 
 bat he had no concern in that event. l'irri(jboo, 
 the king of Owhyhee, the largest of tlie Sand- 
 wich islands, having offended his principal of- 
 ficers, he was put to death, and lammeamea 
 was chosen to succeed him. He soon showed 
 extraordinary talents for his situation, and it 
 was a pan of his policy to encourage the set- 
 tlement of European mariners and others in 
 liis dominions, When captain \'ancouver vi- 
 sited Owhyhee Tammeamea put himself undet 
 the protectionof that officer, as the rejtresentatiie 
 of the king of Great Britain ; and as the price 
 of his submission, he was assisted in building 
 a fine vessel, which allonled a model for the 
 construction of several more. Tammeamea 
 thus formed a fleet, with wliicli he conquered 
 the adjoining islands, and traded to China. 
 He subsequently erected a fort on the island 
 of X'ahou, and he obtained from the Russians 
 some artillery ; while by encouraging the trad- 
 ing of his subjects with navigators, he added 
 to his own wealth and importance as well as 
 that of his people. This enterprising monarch 
 died in March, 1819. Rhio l{hio, the son 
 and successor of Tammeamea, having made a 
 visit to this country together with his queen, 
 in 18'i4, both tiieir majesties died in Lon- 
 don, after a few months' residence, iu conse- 
 
T A N 
 
 qiifnce of a disease arisinsf from change of 
 climate and habits of life. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TANDY (Jamfs Nappf.u) born in Ireland 
 in 17.57, was a merchant at Dublin, who 
 being an enemy to the ascendency of the Eng- 
 lish over his native country, attempted to 
 bring about a revolution. In 1791 he pub- 
 lished a plan of reform, and he was appointed 
 secretary of a Catholic association, though 
 he was himself a Protestant dissenter. He 
 was nominated colonel of the volunteers of 
 Dublin ; and he rendered himself so obnoxi- 
 ous to the government that to avoid being 
 arrested be took refuge in France. He was 
 well received by the Executive Directory, 
 who gave him a commission, as general of 
 brigade in the expedition against Ireland, in 
 Au'jnst, 1798, under general Rev. On its 
 failure he took refuge at Hamburg ; but he 
 was delivered up on the requisition of the 
 English minister. Being taken to Ireland, be 
 was tried for treason, found guilty and con- 
 demned to deatli. But the judgment was not 
 executed, and being liberated after the peace 
 of Amiens, he went to France, and died at 
 Bordeaux, in Ausrust 1803. — Tiiocr, Univ. 
 
 'lAXNER (Thomas) bishop of St Asaph, 
 a prelate distinguished for his learning, espe- 
 cially in the antiquities of his native country. 
 He was the son of a country clergyman, in- 
 cumbent of the living of Market Lavington in 
 Wiltshire, where he was born in 1674. At 
 Queen's college, Oxford, (where he remained 
 till his abilities procured his election in 1697 
 to a fellowship in All Souls,) be was led 
 by a congeniality of taste for antiquarian re- 
 search, to form a close intimacy wlch Mr (af- 
 terwards bishop) Gibson. In 1701 Moore, 
 bishop of Norwich, himself a great promoter 
 of historical inquiry, gave him the rectory of 
 Thorpe and the chancellorship of the diocese, 
 ■U'hence he rose successively to a stall in Ely 
 cathedral 1713, the archdeaconry of Norwich 
 1722, and a canonry of Christchurch 1724-, 
 till in 173'-2 he was was elevated to the epi- 
 scopal bench. As an author, besides contri- 
 buting considerably to the revived edition of 
 Anthony a Wood's " Athen;e," he is advan- 
 tageously known by a work com ruled with 
 great industry, under the title of " Biblio- 
 theca Britaniiuo-Hibeniica," folio, 1718, con- 
 taining alphabetical memoirs of the prin- 
 cipal Entjlish, Scotch, and Irish writers, from 
 the earliest periods to the commencement of 
 the seventeenth century ; and an elaborate 
 though brief account of the relit;ious houses 
 of England and Wales, entitled " Notitia IMo- 
 nastica," which has gone through two editions, 
 8vo, 169.5 ; folio, 1744 ; the latter containing 
 additions and emendations by his brother. A 
 third, considerably improved, was pul)lislied 
 in 1787 by Nasmith. Bi.shop Tanner died 
 at Oxford, December 14, 173.5, and lies bu- 
 ried there in Christchurch cathedral. — Biog. 
 Brit. Kicnisons Hist. Lit. 
 
 TANNER (I5EKNARD)a native of Prague 
 in Bohemia, distinguished as a traveller. He 
 had already visited Italy and Poland, when in 
 1678 he was appointed interpreter to an em- 
 
 T AN 
 
 bassy which John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 sent to iNloscow. He published a particular 
 account of this, entitled " Legatio Polono-Li- 
 thuanica in IMoscoviam, potent. Polonicse 
 Re^jis ac Reip. mandato et consensu anno 
 1678 feliciter suscepta, breviter sed accurate 
 quoad singula notabilia [desciipta a teste 
 oculato B. L. F. Tannero," Nuremburg, 1689, 
 4to. The time of his death is uncertain. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 TANSILLO (LuiGi) an Italian poet, bort 
 about 1.516, at Nola. He lived a great part 
 of his time in the service of Don Pedro, of 
 Toledo, viceroy of Naples. The period of 
 his death is not precisely known, but he is 
 said to have been judge of Gaieta in 1.569 ; 
 and being then in a very bad state of liealth, 
 he is supposed to have died soon after. When 
 he was in his twenty-fourth year, he composed 
 a poem entitled " II Vendemmiatore," in which 
 he related with too free a pen the scurrilous 
 and obscene jests which in some parts of the 
 kingdom of Naples pass between the vinta- 
 gers. This poem was first printed in 1.534, 
 and went through several other editions under 
 the title of " Stanze A morose sopra gli Ate 
 delle Donne." To Tansillo is also attributed 
 another poem of the same licentious character, 
 entitled " Stanze in Lode delle IMenta." The 
 disrepute into which the author fell in conse- 
 quence of these productions, induced pope 
 Paul V to place all his works in the Index 
 Expurgatorius, or list of prohibited books. 
 Deeply mortified by this circumstance, he ad- 
 dressed a penitential canzone to the pope, and 
 pleaded that he had made reparati(m bv com- 
 poging a devout poem, "La Lagrime di San 
 Pietro." This apology was admitted, and his 
 name erased from the list. Besides the works 
 already mentioned, he was author of '• II Ca- 
 valarezzo," Vicenza,8vo, and of sonnets, songs, 
 stanzas, and some comedies. Lastly so late 
 as 1767 professor Ranza published two ele- 
 gant poems by Tansillo, entitled " La I'alia," 
 and " II Podere," the former of which has 
 been elegantly translated into En^lisli by iMr 
 Roscoe, under the title of " The Nurse." Of 
 his miscellaneous poems the best edition is 
 that of Venice 1738. — Mnreri. Timhoschi 
 
 TANUCCI (Bernardo, marquis) an Ita- 
 lian statesman, was born in 1698, of indi- 
 gent })arents, at Stia, a village in Tuscany. 
 He studied law at the university of Pisa, and 
 was subsei^uentlv nominated to the professor- 
 sliip of jurisprudence in that seminary. When 
 Don Carlos, prince of Spain, came into Italy 
 to receive the inheritance of the house of Me- 
 dici, Tanucci was introduced to him, and se- 
 cured his favour by the able manner in which 
 he supported the riijlit of the sovereign to 
 withdraw an assassin from the sanctuary of a 
 church, against the reclamation of the court of 
 Rome. Soon after, Don Carlos beine seated 
 on the throne of Naples, called Tanucci to 
 his ministry, and gave him his entire con- 
 fidence. So great was his favour, that when 
 this prince quitted Naples in 17.59, to inherit 
 the throne of Spain, he placed Tanucci at the 
 bend of the regency formed to govern the two 
 
T A 11 
 
 Sicilies diiriii!^ the miuority of liia son I'erdi- 
 nanil. For the space of fifty years liis power 
 and the kindness of liis sovereij-ns remained 
 undiminisheti, and his ministry was in ^Iie 
 liighest deiifree heueficiah lie restrieteii witliin 
 the niUTOwest limits the jurisdiction of the 
 iiunriatnre, and withont liaviiiiT recourse to the 
 pontilical autlioiity. united bishoprics, and sup- 
 pressed seventy-eiglit monasteries in Sicily. He 
 also (lid everv thiii'^ in his jiower to eftcct the 
 suppres^•ion of the annual homa^^e to the lioly 
 see of a white palfrey, established by Charles 
 of Anjo\i. Tanucci was at the same time an 
 enlii^htened jKitron of the sciences ; and it was 
 he who caused the excavations to be made in 
 Hen ulaneum and Pompei. This able and up- 
 right statesman, justly accounted one of tlie 
 greatest ministers of his time, retired from 
 office at the aoe of eighty, and died four years 
 afterwards in 1783. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TAPLIN (^VI^T.lAM') an eminent veteri- 
 nary surgeon, who died in London in .January 
 1807. He was one of the first scientific culti- 
 vators of the veterinary art in England, and 
 lie contributed bv his writings not a little to its 
 improvement. His principal publications are, 
 " The Gentleman's Stable Directory, or the Mo- 
 dern System of Farriery," 1790, 2vols. 8vo; 
 " Practical Observations upon Thorn Wounds, 
 Punctured Tendons, and Ligamentary Lame- 
 ness in Horses, with Instructions for their 
 Treatment and Cure," 8vo ; and "A Com- 
 pendium of Experimental Farriery, originally 
 suggested by Reason and confirmed by Prac- 
 tice," 1796, 8vo. He also published a tract 
 on tlie Preservation of Game ; and other 
 pieces of no permanent importance. He is said 
 to have been deranged in the latter part of his 
 life, owing to domestic misfortunes. — Biog. 
 UNir, 
 
 TARGIONI TOZETTI (GrovAxxi) an 
 eminent Italian physician and naturalist, was 
 born at Florence in 171'2, in which city his 
 father also practised medicine with distinction. 
 He studied at Pisa, where he took the degree 
 of MD., and on the death of Micheli suc- 
 ceeded him in the directorship of the botanical 
 garden at Florence, and was also nominated 
 professor of botany in the Florentine college. 
 He repaid those honours by drawing up, in 
 junction with Cocclii, a catalogue of the famous 
 library which Magliabecchi bequeathed to the 
 public, and was in consecjuence made librarian 
 to the grand duke. Tn 1778 he published 
 IMicheli's catalogue of jdants in the Florentine 
 garden, to which he added an appendix, con- 
 sisting of a description of many rare plants 
 native and foreign. He also made several 
 scientific excursions, of which he published 
 tlie results in a work entitled " Kelazioni 
 d' alcune Viaggi fatte in diverse Parte della 
 Toscana, per observar le Produzioni Naturali 
 et gli Antichi IMonunieuti d' esse," Fiorenze, 
 17:>1, 8vo. He likewise wrote several able 
 medical treatises, including a dissertation on 
 the vegetables which may be profitably sub- 
 stituted for bread. He "died in 1783, aged 
 Beventv-one. — Halleri Bibl. Botan. 
 
 TAilLETON (^Riciiard) a dramatic per- 
 
 T A R 
 
 former and author of the age of Elizabeth, 
 celebrated as a humourist, whose witiitisms 
 are often (juoted in the earlier jp»t books. He 
 was a native of Conddver in Shropshin', and 
 wan ori;^inally attached to a company of come- 
 dians in the occasional employ of the earl of 
 Leicester. Tradition stales him to have enacted 
 llie character of judge in the old play of 
 Henry V, now lost, and to have been admitted 
 among " the queene'a jdayers " in 1.S83. The 
 only composition ascribed to him, with the ex- 
 ception of the faccliai already alluded to, is an 
 interlude, entitled the " Seven Deadly .Sins." 
 He is said to have died in 1589. — Bii<fr. Dram. 
 TARyULMl'S, surnamed Priscus. fifth 
 king of Rome, was the son of a wealthy mer- 
 chant of Corinth, who settled at Tartjuinii ia 
 Etruria. He married a woman of high birth, 
 named Tanaquil, who perceiving that, not- 
 withstanding her husband's great riches, he 
 could obtain no rank in Etruria. urged him 
 to repair to Rome. He accordingly procured 
 himself to be admitted a Roman citizen, and 
 changed his name from Lucumon Demaratus to 
 Lucius Tarquinius. By his address he in- 
 gratiated himself both with the king Ancus 
 Martius, and the people, and the former con- 
 feried on him the guardianship of his two 
 sons. These he superseded on their father's 
 death, and procured by bribes and solicitations 
 the suffrages of the people for himself. His 
 first step, when king, was to admit two hun- 
 dred plebeians into the senate, after which he 
 engaged in a war with the Latins, and having 
 finally defeated a confederacy between them 
 and the Sabines and Etrurians, obliged them 
 to sue for peace on terms of dependence. For 
 this success he was honoured with a triumph, 
 and he employed the spoils of war in erecting 
 the Circus Maxiinns, for the exhibition of the 
 great, or Roman games. A confederacy of all 
 the Etrurian tribes against the Romans fol- 
 lowed, which after a war of nine years' dura- 
 tion, terminated in the Etrurians acknow- 
 ledging him for their sover< ign. 'ihe suc- 
 ceeding interval of repose was employed by 
 Tarquin in improving the city of Rome, 
 which he enclosed with walls of hewn stone ; 
 and constructed for the jmrposes uf health and 
 cleanliness, those celebrated sewers, which 
 even at the summit of the Roman splei\dour 
 were not viewed without admiration. A new 
 war breaking out with the Sabines, being pre- 
 vented by the superstitious attachment of the 
 Romans to the arrangements of Romulus from 
 increasing the number of his divisions of ca- 
 valry, he augmented the strength of each, and 
 obliged the Sabines to purchase peace by t!ie 
 surrender of all their fortresses. Tarquin, 
 who had vowed a temple to Jupiter, Juno, 
 and Minerva, now laid its foundation in the 
 Tarpeian rock, and thus founded the jirincipal 
 seat of the Roman religion. He had in 
 the course of a long and prosperous reign 
 reached his eightieth year, when the sons of 
 Ancu?, finding by the luatriage of his daughter 
 with Servius Tullius, that a design existed to 
 perpetuate the sovereignty in his family, pro- 
 cured Lie assaisiualion at the gate of his own 
 
T A R 
 
 palace, wliither lie was inveigled by a pre- 
 tended brawl. He was struck on the head 
 with a hatchet, but the wound not proving 
 mortal on the spot, his queen Tanaqnil kept 
 his death a secret until the succession was se- 
 cured to her son-in-law. At the same time, 
 the conspiracy of the sons of Ancus being de- 
 tected, they went into voluntary banishment. 
 'J'hus, BC. 570, i)erished the elder 'J'arquin, 
 undoubtedly one of the most illustrious of the 
 Roman kin^s, both in peace and war. — Dionys. 
 Uulicar. Univ. Hist. 
 
 TARQUINIUS, named Superbus, or the 
 Proud, is supposed to have been grandson to 
 Tarquinius Priscus. When gTown to matu- 
 rity, Servius Tullius married his two daugh- 
 ters to the brothers Aruns and Tarquin ; the 
 latter of whom was violent and ambitious, 
 while his brother was mild and unaspiring. On 
 the other hand, the same character was re- 
 versed in their respective wives. The tragical 
 deaths of Aruns and the wife of Tarquin, and 
 a criminal union between the latter and his sis- 
 ter-in-law TuUia, followed, and, finally, the 
 most unnatural murder of Servius, and the ac- 
 cession of Tarquin to the sovereignty, BC. 534-. 
 As he acquired the throne by a party, he act- 
 ed as an arbitrary monarch, never communica- 
 lin<y with the senate or the ])eople, but sup- 
 porting his usurpation by a band of foreign 
 mercenaries. Among the victims of his sus- 
 picion and avarice Avas JMarcus Junius, a 
 wealthy patrician, whom he caused to be as- 
 sassinated, as also one of his sons ; the other, 
 the celebrated Junius Brutus, escaping the 
 same fate by counterfeiting idiocy. To avoid 
 similar danger, many of the principal senators 
 went into voluntary banishment, and the ple- 
 beians, who, in the first instance, were jdeased 
 with their humiliation, soon found the yoke 
 jiress as hardly on themselves, all ])ublic as- 
 semblies, whether for business or j)leasure, 
 being prohibited. Conscious of the odium un- 
 der which he laboured at Rome, 'I'arquin poli- 
 tically ingratiated himself with the allies, and 
 laid the foundation of a confederacy and of an 
 aimual assemt)ly, in which, as the Romans took 
 the lead, essentially contributed to the exten- 
 «!ion of their dominion in Italy. lie subse- 
 <)uently undertook war against such of the 
 \'olscians as had rejected his alliance, as also 
 against the Sabines, and was victorious in both 
 instances. Returning to Rome, he twice tri- 
 umphed, and there emjiloyed the idle popu- 
 lace in finishing the great circus and sewers 
 commenced by his grandfather. It was in the 
 reign of this Tarquin that the Sibylline books 
 were brought to Home, where they were for 
 many years resorted to for purposes of super- 
 stition or state jiolicy. lie had also the glory 
 of com)>leting the Cajutoline lemjile. His 
 next warlike enterprise was the siege of Ar- 
 dea, the capital of the Rutuli. This circum- 
 stance was the remote cause of that brutal 
 treatment of Lucretia, which led to the expul 
 sion of himself and family, the particulars of 
 which have been already related in the articles 
 Bhutiis and Lucretia. Brutus skilfully em- 
 uloying the passion excited in the people by 
 
 T A R 
 
 the unhappy fate of Lucretia, procured a pub- 
 lic decree for the banishment of Tarquin and 
 his sons ; and the army stationed before Ardea 
 concurring in the resolution, the king, at the 
 age of seventy-six, BC. 539, was obliged to 
 abandon his capital and take refuge in Ktru- 
 ria. Various attempts were made by his party 
 at Rome to procure his restoration, in which 
 even the sons of Brutus engaged ; but they 
 were all rendered abortive. The Tarquins were 
 even enabled to interest some of the neiiibbour- 
 ing states in their favour, and a battle was 
 fought, in which Aruns, one of the sons of Tar- 
 quin, and Brutus fell by mutual wounds. Por- 
 senua, king of the Clusini, an Etrurian tribe, 
 invested Rome in their behalf, but discover- 
 ing treachery in their conduct, he timely 
 renounced their cause. The Latins also took 
 arms in their favour, and were backed by a 
 dangerous conspiracy in Rome itself, but the 
 genius of the new republic finally triumjihed 
 over all its enemies. Tarquin at length, hav- 
 ing seen all his sons perish in the field, retired 
 to Cumje, where he died in the ninetieth year 
 of his age and the fourteenth of his exile. He 
 appears to have been a man of considerable 
 energy and talent for command, but violent, 
 cruel, and altogether unprincipled. — Livy. 
 Dionux- Ualicar. Univ. Hist. 
 
 TARIN (Pierre) an eminent French phy- 
 sician of the last century, whose medico-chi- 
 rurgical writings have procured him consider- 
 able celebrity among the faculty. 'J'lie prin- 
 cipal and most approved of these are his " Ana- 
 tomical Dictionary," 4to ; " Adversaria Ana- 
 tomica," 4to ; "Art of Dissecting," 12mo, 2 
 vols. ; " Osteographia," 4to ; " A Description 
 of the Muscles," 4to ; " On Ligaments," and 
 " Observations on Medicine and Surgery," 
 12mo, 3 vols. He was a native of Courtenai, 
 but the time of his birth is uncertain ; his 
 death took place in 1761. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TARTAGLLV (Nicholas) whose name is 
 also sometimes spelt Tartalea, an eminent ma- 
 thematician of Brescia, who flourished about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century. He was 
 the author of a variety of useful works con- 
 nected with his favourite science, especially 
 of an Italian translation of the twelve books of 
 Euclid, with notes, printed in 1543, folio ; a 
 treatise on " Numbers and Measures," folio, 
 1556 ; " Quesiti et Inventioni diversi," and a 
 tract on the art of gunnery, entitled " Nova 
 Scientia inventa." He lived to an advanced 
 age, and died about the year 1557. — Tira- 
 bosclii. 
 
 I'ARTINI (Giuseppe) an admirable Ita- 
 lian musician and composer, a native of Firano 
 in the province of Istria, where he was born 
 in 1692. His father, a rich citizen of Parenza, 
 ennobled for his liberal benefactions to the 
 church, gave him an expensive education, 
 with the view of (jnalifying him to follow the 
 law as his profession, and had him also in- 
 structed in all the lighter accomplishments of 
 a gentleman, in which, especially in the use of 
 the small sword, he made a great proficiency. 
 Among them music was not forgotten, but it 
 was not till hi8 attachment to an unworthy ob- 
 
T A S 
 
 ject, wlucli lerminatincj in a initriiago, alion- 
 atfcl from liim tlie affections of his frit'iuls, 
 that lie thoii'^ht of nuikiii^' it comlucive to liis 
 siijtport. 'I'lie interest of an ecclesiastic con- 
 nected wiih llie family jirocureil him a suua- 
 tion in the orchestra of liis convejit, where an 
 accident discovering his retreat, matters were 
 at length accommodated, and he was enableil 
 to settle will) his wife at A'enice. Here the 
 example of ihc celebrated \eracini excited in 
 him the strongest emulation ; and he is said 
 to have retired to Aiicona for the sole purpose 
 of bein" able to practise on the violin in 
 greater tranquillity than circumstances, and 
 esi)ecially his wife's temper, allowed him to 
 enjoy at Venice. While thus occupied, he 
 discovered in 1714 the phenomenon of " the 
 third sound," i.e. the resonance of a third 
 note when the two upper notes of a chord are 
 sounded ; and after seven year's hard prac- 
 tice obtained, without solicitation, the distin- 
 guished situation of leader of the orchestra in 
 the cathedral of St Anthony at Padua. In 
 this capacity he continued to act till the day 
 of his decease, with a constantly increasing 
 "(reputation, and declining, from a remarkable 
 Species of devotion to his patron saint, many 
 advantageous offers both from Paris and Lon- 
 don. A singular story respecting one of his 
 most celebrated compositions is told on the 
 authority of M. de Lalande. One night in the 
 year 1713 he dreamed that he had made a 
 compact with the devil, and bound him to his 
 service. In order to ascertain the musical 
 abilities of his new associate he gave him his 
 violin, and desired him, as the first proof of his 
 obedience, to i)lay him a solo, which, to his 
 great surprise, Satan executed with such sur- 
 passing sweetness and in so masterly a man- 
 ner, that awaking in the ecstacy which it pro- 
 duced, he sprang out of bed, and instantly 
 seizing his instrument, endeavoured to recal 
 the delicious but fleeting sounds. Although not 
 attended with the desired success, his efforts 
 were yet so far effectual as to produce the 
 piece since generally admired, under the name 
 of *' The Devil's Sonata ;" still the produc- 
 tion was in bis own estimation so inferior to 
 that which he had heard in his sleep, as to 
 cause him to declare, that could he have pro- 
 cured a subsistence in any other line of life, 
 he should have broken liis violin in despair, 
 and renounced music for ever. Besides the 
 musical composiaons of Tartini, which are 
 numerous, and among which two books, con- 
 taining more than tifty sonatas, have been 
 printed in Englano', he was the author of se- 
 veral tieatises on the science, published at 
 Padua, Venice, and Naples, about the years 
 175i and 1767 ; besides some which, accoid- 
 ing to Fanzago, yet remain iu nianuscrii>t. 
 The death of this celebrated musician took 
 place at Padua in 1770.— Burney's Hist, cj 
 Mus. Bios;. Vict, of Mus. 
 
 TASMAN (Abel Jansen) a Dutch navi- 
 gator and geographical discoveier in the l7th 
 century. He v.-as employed by the Dutch 
 East India Company, under whose directions 
 ^iiree vessels were fitted out at Batavia, and 
 
 T A S 
 
 the commnnil of ilum given to captain Tanman, 
 who set siiil on bis expedition of discov( ry ou 
 the .■)th of Septcinbi r, lol'.'. '1 he first fruits 
 of this enterprise was the discovery of that 
 part of New Holland «alled \'an Diemen'iJ 
 Land, where the navigators landed November 
 i'4, and proceeded again on their voyage the 
 .■>th of December. On the i;3tii of the Dame 
 month, Tasman saw the islands of New Z« a- 
 liind, where his vessels were attacked by the 
 savage inhabitants, which circumstance pre- 
 veiitid him from landing. vVfter vibitintf se- 
 veral islands in the South Sea, some of which 
 were ])reviousIy unknown, he arrived at Ba- 
 tavia, June l.T, 1613, having sailed round the 
 southern hemisjdiere of the globe. The JJutch 
 East India Company considered it a point of 
 wise policy to prevent the publication of any 
 account of this voyage ; but a map or chart of 
 the discoveries of Tasma'n was preserved at the 
 Stadthouse at Amsterdam, and at length Dirk 
 llembrandts published an extract from the 
 journal of this enterprising seaman, which haa 
 appeared in many geographical compilations. — 
 Barioics Cullection of Voyages and Discoveries, 
 vol. ii. 
 
 TASSIE (James) a very ingenious model- 
 ler, was born of obscure parents in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Glasgow, and began life in the 
 humble condition of a country stonemason. 
 On a visit to Glasgow, having obtained a 
 sight of the collection of paintings made by the 
 eminent jirinters the Foulises, for the purpose 
 of establishing an academy, he was prompted 
 to remove to that city, in order to obtain a 
 knowledge of drawing at the infant academy, 
 though still obliged to follow stone-cutting 
 for a maintenance. Repairing to Dublin for 
 employment, he became acquainted with Dr 
 Quill, a physician, who was amusing his lei- 
 sure with attempts to imitate precious stones 
 with coloured pastes, and to take off impres- 
 sions of the antique sculptured gems, an art 
 practised in France and Italy with great se- 
 cresy. The doctor finding iu Tassie the qua- 
 lities of modesty, patience, and integrity, 
 united with a fine natural taste, took him as an 
 assistant ; and their attempts being successful, 
 when the discovery was completed generously 
 enabled Tassie to proceed to Lomlon, and 
 adopt as a profession, for his own benefit, the 
 business of making these paste gems. He ac- 
 cordingly came to London in 1766, where he 
 long struggled with difficulties, which 1'} pa- 
 tience and perseverance he finally surmounted ; 
 and emeri>in>r from obscurity, ac(iuired both 
 
 DO .'I 
 
 money and reputation. At length his name 
 became so much legpected, that the first cabi- 
 nets in JOurope were open to his use. The 
 first catalogue of his gems was published in 
 177.3, 8vo ; but such was his progress, that a 
 new edition was subsecjuently published in 
 '2 vols. 4to. INIany of his pastes were sold on 
 the continent for real gems ; and several years 
 before his death he executed a commission for 
 the empress of Russia, consisting of fifteen 
 hundred engravings, which he afterwards aug- 
 mented to twenty thousand. He likewise prac- 
 tised modelling portraits in wax, which he 
 
T A S 
 
 moulded and cast in paste. In private life he 
 was universally esteemed for the modesty, be- 
 nevolence, and simplicity of his character. He 
 died in 1799. 
 
 TASSIN (RENEPuospER)a French writer, 
 who belonged to the congregation of St Maur. 
 He was a native of Loulai, in the diocese of 
 Coutauces ; and died in Paris, in 1777, aged 
 eighty. Father Tassin deserves notice for his 
 labours in illustrating the literary history of 
 his order and other sultjects connected with his 
 ])rofession. He published " Dissertation sur 
 les flvmnographes." 8vo ; " Notice des MSS. 
 de I'Eglise de Rouen," 12mo ; " Defense des 
 Titres et des Droits de I'Abbaye de St Ouen, 
 a Pouen, " 4to ; and " Histoire Litteraire de 
 la Congregation de St ]Manr,"4to. — Biog.Univ. 
 
 TASSO (Bernahdo) an eminent Italian 
 poet of the sixteenth century, who may be 
 said to have bequeathed his own poetic ta- 
 lents to his son Torquato, the celebrated author 
 of tbe " Jerusalem Delivered." He was of 
 a respectable family, and filled the situation of 
 secretary to San Severino, prince of Salerno. 
 Oq the determination of the Neapolitan vice- 
 roy to introduce tbe tribunal of the inquisition 
 into the kingdom, the priace, accompanied by 
 I'asso, set out for Vienna, and endeavoured by 
 I personal appeal to the emperor Charles V 
 to prevent so obnoxious a measure. He expe- 
 rienced, however, the fate which but too com- 
 monly awaits those who, relying on the justice 
 of their cause and the integrity of their mo- 
 tives, do not sufficiently calculate on the over- 
 whelming power to which they o})pose them- 
 selves. His condemnation was pronounced, 
 and he together with his secretary, who sbared 
 at once his disgrace and sentence, fled to 
 Rome, in order to avoid the punishment de- 
 nounced against them both. Besides the 
 " Amadis," a poem written in one hundred 
 cantos, and other miscellaneous metrical effu- 
 sions of less note, Pernardo 'lasso was the 
 author of a variety of epistles still held in great 
 esteem by his countrymen for the classical ele- 
 gance of tlieir diction. Of the poem above- 
 mentioned the lirst edition appeared at Ve- 
 nice in 1560, where his letters also appeared 
 in 1574. 'I'lie latter days of his life were 
 passed in the convent of St Onofrio at Rome, 
 where he died in 1575. — Tirahoschi. 
 
 TASSO ('I'oHQi'ATo) one of the most cele- 
 brated names in Italian poetry, was the son of 
 the preceding Bernardo Tasso, and of Portia 
 Rossi. He was born at Sorrento, on the 11th 
 of March, 1544, and from infancy exhibited 
 such quickness of understanding, tliat at the 
 age of five he was sent to the Jesuits* school 
 at Naples, and two years afterwards he recited 
 verses and orations of bis own composition. 
 His education was interrupted by tbe misfor- 
 tune which obliged his father to quit Naples ; 
 but it was in a great degree compensated bv 
 the care taken of him at Rome by a friend to 
 the family. He was thence removed to Ber- 
 gamo, where he was perfected in Greek and 
 Latin, and at twelve vears of age entered at 
 the university of Padua. Here be pursued bis 
 Btudifs with Buch success, that in his seven- 
 
 T A S 
 
 teenth year he was honoured with degrees in 
 the four branches of civil and canon law, theo« 
 logy, and philosopliy. His extraordinary abi- 
 lities attracting the notice of the vice -legate o\ 
 Bologna, he was invited to that city, where 
 he gave many proofs of his abilities ; but quit- 
 led it in disgust in consequence of an affront 
 he received as the supposed author of some 
 defamatory ver»es. He retired in the first 
 instance to Castelvetro, and afterwards re- 
 turned to Padua, where he distinguished him- 
 self as one of the most illustrious of the aca- 
 demicians named Eretri. At tbe age of 
 eighteen he had published at Venice, in 1562, 
 a poem of the romanesque class, entitled " Ri- 
 naldo," Which he dedicated to the cardinal 
 d'Este. The compliment was so well received, 
 that the author was invited in 1566 to the 
 court of Ferrara, and so splendiilly entertained, 
 and provided for, that he had full leisure to 
 carry on his noble design of the " Gerusa- 
 lemme Liberata," of which he had conceived 
 the ))lan so early, that be is said to have com- 
 posed six cantos by the time he had reached 
 the as:e of seventeen. In 1571 he accom- 
 panied cardinal d'Este into France, where he 
 was honourably received by Charles IX and al' 
 his court. He returned to Italy the following 
 'year, when he caused his dramatic pastoral of 
 " Aminta" to be represented, of which spe- 
 cies of composition it is deemed one of the finest 
 examples. In tlie mean time separate cantos 
 of the Gerusalemme got into print, and in 1581 
 three editions were extant, tbe last of which 
 may be regarded as that which first exhibited 
 the poem in a genuine form. It has caused 
 some surprise that Tasso did not anticipate 
 these unauthorised publications by one under 
 his own hand ; but while all Italy was re- 
 sounding with his fame, the poet himself was 
 suftering under the severest of mental dis- 
 tresses. The story of the unhajjpy poet at 
 this period of his life is involved in great ob- 
 scurity, but there is reason to believe that a 
 mental malady, often connected with keen 
 sensibility and fervid genius, was the origin of 
 his calamities. According to Tirahoschi, on 
 the credit of the marquis Manso, who derived 
 the particulars from the poet himself, a cour- 
 tier having betrayed some secrets respecting 
 his amours, his resentment induced him to in- 
 sult this person in the duke's presence-cham- 
 ber. The consequence of this conduct was a 
 fray, in which he had to defend himself with 
 his sword, not only against his enemy, but his 
 three brothers, which tumult produced the ba- 
 nishment of the brothers, and the confinement 
 of Tasso himself to his aj)artment. 'ibis event 
 is said to have taken place in his thirty-third 
 year. Being apprehensive of worse treatment, 
 he made his escape, and wandered on foot to 
 Turin, where he was received with great ho' 
 nour. He then proceeded to Rome, and sub- 
 sequently to Sorrento, where he spent somfc. 
 months with a married sister, and then re • 
 turned to Ferrara, but had scarcely shown 
 himself at court before he withdrew to Urbino. 
 By the advice of the duke of Urbino, he how- 
 ever once more returned to Ferrara when his 
 
T AS 
 
 dlsordor of mind becoming manifost, lio was 
 Bluit up by orik'r of tlio chiko Alfonso, in u 
 j)art of the monastery of St Anne, dt'si<^ncd 
 for lunatics. A traditionary Btory attrilnites 
 tiiis stej) to some extravagancy on the part of 
 the poet, evincing an amatory attachment to 
 the princess Leonora, iht; duke's sister, in 
 whose praise he had certainly written some 
 very warndy toned verses. However this 
 might liave been, the confinement only aggra- 
 vated his malady, and all sorts of fantastical 
 suspicions and apprehensions filled liis dis- 
 ordered imagination. At the same time the 
 faculties of Ids mind in otlier respects were in 
 full vigour, as he proved by his writings in de- 
 fence of bis poem, against the virulent attacks 
 of inimical critiiism. At lengtli his ajjplica- 
 tion to various quarters for aid, produced such 
 high and influential solicitation for his release, 
 that it was ultimately grunted in lr>S6. 'i'he 
 folloAving year he was seized with a new fit of 
 wanderhig, in wliich he look so little care to 
 provide himself with money, that he was more 
 than once obliged to request su])j)lies in the 
 way of alms. Such was the condition of the 
 admired author of the " Jerusalem Delivered," 
 the favourite of princes, and boast of Italy ; 
 so strongly may the highest gifts of intellect, 
 and the most favourable circumstances of for- 
 tune be often counteracted. The latter years 
 of his life he passed partly at Rome and partly 
 at INaples, witli the exception of some months, 
 which in 1590 he spent at Florence. His last 
 retreat was with cardinal Aldobrandino at 
 Rome, wlio obtained for him a pension from 
 pope Clement VIII, and liad intemled to pro- 
 cure him a solemn poetical canonization in the 
 capitol. The ceremony being however de- 
 layed in consequence of illness on the part of 
 the cardinal, Tasso was himself seized with 
 symptoms wliich announced approaching- dis- 
 solution, and at bis own desire being removed 
 to the monastery of St Onofrio, with every de- 
 monstration of sincere piety he closed his life 
 on the '25t!i of April 1595, at the age of fifty- 
 one. In person this great poet was tall and 
 well proportioned, with a countenance ])ale 
 through sickness and study. His forehead was 
 square and high, his head large, bis eyes of a 
 deep blue, full, and piercing, and his counte- 
 nance altogether noble and expressive. His 
 voice was clear and solemn, he spoke with de- 
 liberation, and in conversation disjilayed little 
 of the fire wliich animates his poetry. The 
 ■works of Tasso are so numerous, that it is asto- 
 nishing how a man of his moderate length of 
 life and unfortunate tendencies could compose 
 so much. His works in prose consist of a great 
 number of treatises, dialogues, and letters 
 on moral, literary, and familiar topics, in 
 which he displays much originality and pro- 
 fundity, but is occasionally too subtle and re- 
 fined. Of his poetry the " Gerusalemme Li- 
 berata " undoubtedly takes the lead, and by 
 universal consent is placed among the few 
 rpics which rank as first-rate productions in 
 that noble department of poetry. His subject 
 is singularly adapted for lofty narrative, and 
 with fitile exception the characters are well 
 BioG. DicT. — Vol. HL 
 
 TAT 
 
 ' drawn and supported ; the fictions stronglj 
 coiueivetl ; the style dignified, and the versi- 
 fication hiirmonious. It doubtless Ixtiass se- 
 veral faults peculiar to the author'H age an<l 
 country, but upon tlie wlude displays no small 
 portion of taste and judgment as well as ge- 
 nius. Of the " Amiiita " it is only necessary 
 to report, that it lias always deliwhted iha 
 lovers of Italian poetry, whether natives «it 
 foreigners ; while his " Rime," or miscel- 
 laneous pieces, are regarded both in style and 
 sentiment as among the finest rompoBi'iif/na of 
 their kind. His " Sette (iiornatn," or works 
 of seven days, and other devotional ])ieces, 
 also bear the marks of genius, although writ- 
 ten in the late and calamitous ])eriod of bin 
 life. The abbe Serassi enumerates no fewer 
 than a hundred and thirty-two editions of 
 Tasso, the best of which, in the opinion of 
 j Mr Black, is that of Venice, 12 vols. 4to. 
 j The " Jerusalem Delivered " has been trans- 
 lated into English by Fairfax and Hooie ; 
 and the "Aminta" by Mr Leigli ]Uint. — Life 
 by Black. Tiruboschi. 
 
 TASSONI (Alessandro) a poet of .Mo- 
 dena, e(|ually admired for the elegance of his 
 composition and the delicacy of his liumour. 
 I He was born in 1565, and being left an or- 
 1 phan, was taken at au early ageiiUo the house- 
 liold of the cardinal Colonna, in quality of his 
 eminence's secretary. He snbse(|u.Milly occu- 
 pied a similar post in the service of the duke 
 of Savoy, wliich again lie ([uitted for that of 
 his native prince. A war carried on between 
 Modena and the Bolognese gave rise to his 
 most celebrated poem, a mock heroic, entitled 
 " Secchia Rapita," or " The Rape of ihe 
 Bucket," which lias gone through several edi- 
 tions, and is deemed by the Italians the most 
 finished specimen in existence of that j^eculiar 
 species of composition, not to mention its title 
 to having furnished hints for the Lutrin of 
 Boileau, and The Rape of the Lock of 
 Pope. His otlier writings are " Observations 
 on Petraich," in which he lashed the eternal 
 imitations of that poet, wbieli ultimately pro- 
 duced his humorous piece entitled " La 
 Tendaressa Riposta di Girolamo Nomisenti ;" 
 i an Ecclesiastical History ; and " Peusieri di- 
 ' versi." The will of Tassoni is also regarded 
 as a genuine jiiece of humour. His death took 
 ! place in 1635. — Memoir by Walker. 
 I TATE (Francis) an i^nglish lawyer and 
 , antiquary, was the son of Bartholomew Tate, 
 j of Delapre in Northamptonshire, where lie 
 j was born in 1560. He received his acaiiemi- 
 I cal education at ISIagdalen college, Oxford, 
 , and on leaving the university studied at the 
 i\liddle Temple ; and after admission to the 
 bar acquired great rejiutation as a lawyer. He 
 had a seat in j)arliament during the latter end 
 of the reign of Elizabctli, and in the fifth year 
 of James was made a Welsh judge. He ac- 
 quired great reputation as a Saxon scholar and 
 antiquary, and left various IMSS. belund biiu 
 on legal antiqviities, the fate of which is un 
 known, but the following have been printed in 
 Grose's •* Collectanea C'uriosa," " The Anti- 
 quity, Uses, and Privileges of Cities, Bo- 
 
TAT 
 
 rouglis and Towns ;" " The Antiquity, Use, 
 and Ceremonies of Lawful Combats in Eng- 
 land." Hearne's Curious Discourses also 
 contain the following : " Of Knights made by 
 '\bbots ;" " Questions about the Ancient Bri- 
 ions ;" " Of tlie Antiquity of Arms in Eng- 
 land ;" " Of the Antiquity, Variety, and Ce- 
 remonies of Funerals in England ;" " The 
 Antiquity, Authority, and Succession of the 
 iligli Steward of England." — Allien. Oxon. 
 4rch(polflgia, vol. i. 
 
 TATE (Nahum) an English poet, who 
 flourished about the close of tiie seventeenth 
 and the commencement of the following cen- 
 tury. His father, Dr Faithful Tate, resided 
 in Dublin, where he was born about the year 
 1().V2 ; and after receiving a classical education 
 at Trinity college in that metropolis, came to 
 London, where he obtained the patronage of 
 the earl of Doiset and the friendship of John 
 Dryden. The countenance of his noble patron 
 was the more useful to him on account of the 
 narrowness of his circumstances, which ex- 
 posed him to much mortification and inconve- 
 nience. The death of Shadwell at length made 
 an opening for him, and the interest of his 
 friends procured him the situation of poet 
 laureate to William IIL This post he held 
 tlirough that and the succeeding reign, and he 
 even lived long enough to write the first birth- 
 day ode (his best composition of the kind) on 
 George I ; soon after which he died, at his 
 apartments in the Mint, whither he had re- 
 tired from his creditors, August 12, 1715. As 
 a dramatic writer he is principally remembered 
 by his alterations of some of Shakspeare's tra- 
 gedies, of which his Lear alone kept possession 
 of the stage till of late the old catastrophe, 
 which he had rendered a happy one, has been 
 restored. He was also the author of '• Brutus 
 of Alba," a tragedy acted in 1678 ; " Duke 
 and no Duke," a farce, 1684: ; and some other 
 dramatic pieces, exhibiting little genius and 
 less invention, but it is by his metrical version 
 of the Psalms of ]3avid, executed in conjunc- 
 tion with Dr Nicholas Brady, and commonly 
 affixed to the liturgy of the church of England, 
 that his name is now principally known. Se- 
 veral elegies and other occasional pieces also 
 proceeded from his pen. — Cihber''s Lives. 
 
 TATIAN, a Syrian rhetorician, converted 
 to Christianity by Justin IMartyr, whom he 
 followed to Rome in the latter part of the se- 
 cond century. After the death of Justin the 
 opinions of his proselyte took a tendency to- 
 wards those of IMarcion, with whom he was 
 contemporary ; but differing from that here- 
 siarch in some material j)oints, he became the 
 head of a sect of fcjl lowers of his own, who 
 acquired the apj^ellation of Encratit?e and 
 Ilydroparastatre, from the abstinence which 
 they enjoined from wine and animal fooJ, and 
 their substitution of water for the former in 
 the administration of the Eucharist. 'J'liere is 
 yet extant an Addres to the Greeks of his 
 cornpohition. of which an edition appeared in 
 1700 at Oxford, in one volume duodecimo. — 
 Cart-. Briicher. 
 TATI5CI1EF (Vassim) the name of aRus- 
 
 T AU 
 
 sian author of the last century, who spent 
 thirty years of his life in collecting materials 
 for a history of that vast empire, which he 
 had partially succeeded in reducing into tlie 
 shape of a chronicle, when his death in 1750 
 prevented him from the completion of his task. 
 This however was carried into execution after 
 his decease by Muller, who taking up the 
 thread of the narrative at the reign of Theo- 
 dore Ivanovitz, filled three duodecinnp vo- 
 lumes with his continuation. — Coxe's \Trav Is 
 in Russia, 
 
 TATIUS (Achilles) a Christian bishop of 
 the third century, born at Alexandria in 
 Egypt. Prior to his becoming a proselyte 
 from Paganism, he was the author of one of 
 the earliest Greek romances now extant, enti- 
 tled " The Amours of Clitophon and Leu- 
 cippe," of which there is a translation by Cru- 
 ceius. Part of a Commentary on the " De 
 Spha^ra" of Aratus, ascribed to him, has come 
 down to posterity, and has been translated by 
 Petavius. 'J'his prelate is occasionally men- 
 tioned both by Suidas and Photius. — TATirs 
 is also the name of an ancient king of the Sa- 
 bines, who made peace with the Romans, and 
 shared his kingdom with Romulus, but was 
 assassinated six years afterwards at the insti- 
 gation of his colleague. — Vossius de Scieiti. 
 Math. Biocr. U7iiv. 
 
 TAUBE (Frederick William von) a Ger- 
 man writer, was the son of Dr Taube, physi- 
 cian to queen Caroline, consort of George IT, 
 whom he accompanied to London, where the 
 subject of this article was born iu 1728. He 
 was educated at the university of Gottingen, 
 where he applied chiefly to the study of juris- 
 prudence. On quitting the university Jie tra- 
 velled into Africa and America ; and on his 
 return practised law at Gottingen, where per- 
 ceiving but little prospect of advancement, he 
 proceeded to Vienna, and became secretary to 
 baron von Molke, privy counsellor to the em- 
 peror, and colonel of a regiment of foot. While 
 in this situation the seven years' war took 
 place, on \\hich he volunteered into the army, 
 which he subsequently quitted to become se- 
 cretary to count von Seilern, imperial ambas- 
 sador to the court of London. In 1766 he 
 was recalled from London, and made secre- 
 tary to the council of trade at Vienna. He 
 was afterwards employed by the emperor in a 
 mission to Sclavonia and Transylvania, and on 
 his return to Vienna was innobied, and ap- 
 pointed a member of the goveriiinent of Lower 
 Austria, lie died in 1778. aged fifty. His 
 l)rincipal works are, " De Di'tKrentiis Juris 
 Civilis ;i Juris Natura; ;" " I'lioughts on the 
 present State of our Colonies in North Ame- 
 rica," London, 1766; " Historical and Poh- 
 tical Sketch of the Present State of the Eng- 
 lish IMaiiufactures," 177-1, 8vo ; " History of 
 the English Trade, Manufactures, Colonies, 
 and Navigation from the earliest Periods to 
 1776," 8vo ; " Historical ami Geographical 
 Description of the Kingdom of Sclavonia and 
 Duchy of Syrinia," parts I and 11, 1777, part 
 III, 1778 ; " An Account of various New 
 Discoveries made in the ^'ears 1776 and 1777. 
 
T A V 
 
 in Sclavonia, Syrniia, and the Nolghhouriiif,' 
 Districts," Lei{)sic, 1777, Ito. He also com- 
 municated to tlie Royal Society of London 
 " A Short Account of a particular Kind of 
 Torpedo found in tlie Kivcr Danuhe," puh- 
 lished in the Pliilosopliical I'ransaciiona for 
 177 r^.— Bees' s Cudop- 
 
 TAlir.MAN(riciDi:uic) a Gorman author 
 of Immble origin, hut considerable ability and 
 deep erudition. He was a native of Wouscisch 
 in Franconia, born 1.S65. After receiving an 
 excellent education at Culmbach and Ileilbrun 
 he settled at Wittemherg in lr>92, and ob- 
 taining the notice of the prince of Saxony, be- 
 came through his interference professor of 
 poetry and the belles lettres in that univer- 
 sity. His principal writings, in which he dis- 
 j)lays much critical acumen, are two Commen- 
 taries on the works of Virgil and Plautus, the 
 latter of which appeared in 1605 ; some mis- 
 cellaneous poems, written in Latin ; and a 
 treatise on the genius and construction of that 
 language. His death took place in 1613. — 
 Melchior Adam. Niceron. 
 
 TAUSEN (John) one of the fust promoters 
 of the Reformation in Denmark, and on that 
 account styled the Danish Luther. He was 
 born in 1499 in the island of Fyen, where his 
 parents were peasants. Having gone through 
 his school education he embraced the monas- 
 tic life, and entered a convent of the order of 
 St John of Jerusalem. Being allowed a pen- 
 sion to travel, he proceeded to Cologne, Lou- 
 vaine, and Wittemherg, where he studied un- 
 der jMelancthon ; and on his return to Den- 
 mark was made professor of theology at 
 Copenhagen. In a short time, however, he 
 was recalled to his convent, wherein after a 
 while he threw away disguise, and declared 
 l)imself a Lutheran. He endured some perse- 
 cution on this account, but in 1526 was libe- 
 rated from confinement, and made chaplain 
 to the king. The people now flocked to hear 
 him from all quarters ; and he continued to 
 maintain the reformed principles with zeal and 
 courage, until at length he was raised to the 
 episcopal chair of Ribe. He died in 1561. 
 Besides an improved translation of the Psalms 
 he wrote various theolo;>ical treatises in de- 
 fence of the Reformation. — Munter's Hist, of 
 the Reforiualion in Demnurk. 
 
 TAUVRT (Danifl) a French physician 
 and anatomist, born in 1669. He studied his 
 profession under liis father (who wa^ a physi- 
 cian at Laval) after which he went to I'aiis, 
 and then to the university of Angers, where 
 he took tl e degree of INID. At the age of 
 eighteen he published a treatise on " Rational 
 Anatomy ;" and settling at Paris, he became 
 an associate of the Academy of Sciences. He 
 principally distinguished himself by a contro- 
 versy with M. '^lery, on the circulation of 
 blood in the fcrtus ; on which occasion he pub- 
 lished his treatise " On the Generation and 
 Nourishment of the Partus," 1700. Tauvri 
 died soon after, in the beginning of 1701, 
 leaving other works besides those just men- 
 tioned. — Bing. Univ. 
 
 TAVANNES (Gaspard de Saulx de) 
 
 T A V 
 
 mar.shal of France, and one of the most eminent 
 commanders of lii« day, was born in l.)09 of 
 an aiuiiiit family in Burgundy. Hi- was in- 
 troduced at an early age to Francis I, »\ho 
 made him h\.-i page, iti whi( h capac ity he at- 
 tended that nKjnarch when captured at i'avia. 
 He afterwards served in the wars rf Pinj. 
 ' mont, in which he distinguihlicd himself by 
 acts of the most romantic valour. In ioit 
 he reduced Rochelle, wliich liad revolted on 
 account of the gabelle, and in 1544 iiad a con- 
 siderable share in the victory of Cerisolles. In 
 1552 he was made marshaf-de-camp, and hi- 
 acted with such courage and conduct against 
 the imperialists, that he was honoured with 
 the order of St Michael. He assisted in 1558 
 at the captures of Calais and Thionville ; and 
 during the civil wars of Francis H and Charles 
 IX, reduced the insurgents of Dauj.hiny and 
 Burgundy, on which occasion however he sul- 
 lied his reputation by great cruelty, eapecially 
 to the Protestants. He was afterwards chief 
 of the council to the duke of Anjou, and had 
 a great share in the victories of Jamac and 
 IMontcontour. F'or his services he was re- 
 compensed in 1570 with the staff of marshal 
 of France. Brantome represents him as one of 
 the principal advisers of the horrible massacre 
 of St Bartholomew, and asserts that on that 
 day he went tlirough the streets of Paris, ex- 
 claiming to the people, " Let blood ! let blood! 
 physicians say that bleeding is as good in 
 August as in May." He however opposed 
 the design of including the king of Navarre in 
 the massacre. In 1573, being directed by the 
 king to repair to the siege of Rochelle, he was 
 taken ill on the road, and died at his castle of 
 Sully, being then in his sixty-second year. 
 — His son William, who also distinguished 
 himself by his bravery in the wars of the 
 League, composed "Memoirs" in his own 
 name, and published others under that of his 
 father, which were actually written by his bro- 
 ther, John df. Saulx, marshal of France, 
 who died in 1630. — James de Saulx. grand- 
 son to the first marshal, published " Memoirs 
 on the \\'ars of the Fronde." — Brantome. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TAVKRNER (RicHAno) a polemic of the 
 sixteenth century, who. though not in holy 
 orders, obtained from Edward \l his roval 
 licence to preach the reformed doctrines. He 
 was a native of Brisley, Norfolk, born about 
 the year 1505, and received his education both 
 at Cambridge and Oxford, in which latter uni- 
 versity he graduated as I\IA. in 1530, and 
 subsequently entered at the Temple, with a 
 view to following the law as a profession. 
 Taverner held a Gresham professorship, and 
 was one of those concerned in first printing an 
 English translation of the Scriptures, com- 
 monly known as ^Matthew's Bible, which occa- 
 Hioued his temporary imprisonment by Henry. 
 He survived however that monarch and his 
 two immediate successors, and lived to witness 
 the complete establishment of the Reforma- 
 tion in this country. His death took place in 
 1575. — There was also a contemporary of bis, 
 I John Tavlkner, like himself a member of 
 
 T 2 
 
T A Y 
 
 Cardinal college (now Christchurcli), Oxford, 
 who was ail eniinent musician, but is now 
 more known as having, like his na-raesake, un- 
 dergone considerable persecution on account 
 of his religious tenets. Being accused in 
 companv with John Smith, Frith, and others, 
 of holding heretical opinions, he was, together 
 witli his companions, tlnown into a dungeon 
 under the college, where tlie foul air actually 
 suffocated one of them, while another only 
 then escaped death to meet it in a more ter- 
 rible form by fire in Smithfield. Ilis skill in 
 music id thouglit to liave proved a stronger 
 advocate for Tarerner on this occasion than 
 his innocence of the facts laid to his charge. 
 — Atheii. 0x0)1. Bino;. Brit. 
 
 'r A VERM Ell (J I. AN Baittste) baron 
 d'.Vubonne, a title wliicli he derived from an 
 estate in the neighbourhood of Geneva, which 
 his success in mercantile pursuits enabled him 
 to purchase. He was the son of a Dutch mer- 
 chant settled at Paris, and trading largely in 
 charts and maps, the perusal of which is said 
 to have first inspired his son with the strong 
 propensity for travelling -which he afterwards 
 indulged. He was born in the French metro- 
 polis about the year t6()5, and before he had 
 reached his twenty-first year, liad already vi- 
 sited a considerable portion of the European 
 continent. He subsequently travelled through 
 'J'urkey, Persia, and other Eastern countries, 
 no fewer than six times by different routes, se- 
 curino- to himself considerable commercial ad- 
 vantages by trading as a diamond merchant, 
 at the same time that he indulged his thirst 
 for making himself acquainted with the man- 
 ners and customs of remote nations. Of these 
 his journeys he gave an account to the public, 
 with the assistance of a literary friend, whose 
 services from a defect in his own education were 
 found necessary to reduce into shape and ar- 
 ariangethe mass of his observations. In 1668, 
 having realizr-d a large fortime, and obtained a 
 patent of nobility from the French king, he re- 
 tired to his newly-purchased estate in the Gene- 
 vese territories, with the view of passing the 
 remainder of his life in tranquillity. The mis- 
 conduct of a nephew whom he had sent to the 
 J.evant with a cargo, which liad cost him up- 
 wards of 2i!2,000 livres, by injuring his i)tcu- 
 niary resources, altered his determination, and 
 indui-ed 1dm once more to set out for Russia 
 for the purpose of recruiting his shattered 
 finances. He succeeded in reaching Moscow^ 
 the ancient capital of that vast emjiire, but 
 died there soon after his arrival in tlie summer 
 of 1689. His travels, of which there is an 
 English translation, have gone through several 
 editions in the original French, the first of 
 which apj)rared at Paris in three (juarto vo- 
 lumes, 1676. They have since been printed 
 in f-ix volumes, l!2mo. — Moreri. Bio>:. Univ. 
 lAVLOR (Bfiook) a celebrated philoso- 
 pher and mathematician, was born at Edmon- 
 ton in Middlesex, August 138, 168."). He was 
 the son of John Taylor, i-sq. of liifrons house, 
 Kent, who being fond uf music, the subject of 
 this article became an early proficient therein, 
 as also very skilful with his pencil. He was 
 
 T A V 
 
 instructed in languages and the mathematics 
 under a private tutor, and at the age of fifteen 
 was entered a fellow commoner of St John's 
 college, (Cambridge. Here he applied with 
 great assiduity to the mathematics, and in 1703 
 wrote his treatise " On the Centre of Oscil- 
 lation." The following year he took liis de- 
 gree of BL, and in 1712 was elected a fellow 
 of the Royal Society. On this occasion he 
 presented the society with tlie aforesaid trea- 
 tise " On the Centre of Oscillation," and two 
 more " On the Ascent of Water between two 
 Glass Planes," and " On the Motion of a 
 stretched String." In 1714 he was elected to 
 the office of secretary to the society, and made 
 doctor of laws at Caml^ridge. In 1715 lie 
 published his " INIethodus Incrementorum ;" 
 " An Account of an Experiment for Dis- 
 coverintf the Laws of IMa^netic Attraction ;" 
 and his celebrated treatise " On the Prin- 
 ciples of Linear Perspective." In 1716 he 
 paid a visit to Paris, and was received with 
 great distinction, and on his return composed 
 several more scientific treatises, v\-hich were 
 read before tlie Royal Society. Intense ap- 
 plication having impaired his health, he pro- 
 ceeded to Aix-la-Chapelle, and on his return 
 appears to have turned his thoughts to studies 
 of a religious nature. He did not however 
 entirely neglect liis previous pursuits, but im- 
 proved his book on linear perspective, and 
 wrote in defence of it against the attacks of 
 John Bernoulli, who deemed it too abstruse. 
 This fault has since been obviated in a work 
 entitled '• Dr Brook Taylor's Perspective 
 made easy, by Joshua Kirby, Painter," a ]iub- 
 lication which long remained the manual of 
 students and dilettanti. He died of a decline 
 in his forty- first year, on the 'J9tli of December, 
 1731. He left behind him several MSS. one 
 of which, entitled '• Contemplatio Philoso- 
 phica," was printed in 17 93, with the life of 
 the author, by his grandson, sir William 
 Young. — Life as above. 
 
 TAYLOR (Jam ) an amiable and accom- 
 plished female writer, born September i?.'>, 
 1783, in London, where her father, a higlily 
 res})ectable artist, then resided. ^Vhile scarcely 
 emerged from infancy, she was perceived to 
 possess a vivid imagination, and gave evident 
 indications of poetic talent, which her riper 
 ! vears did not fail to fulfil. Mr 'I'avlor, a dis- 
 senteri'rom the church of England, having ac- 
 cepted an invitation in 1792 from a congrega- 
 1 tion of his own ])ersuasion at Colchester, to 
 olHeiate as their jiastor, carried his daughters 
 thither with him, and continued to superintend 
 their education, teaching them his own art 
 as an engraver, with a view to their making it 
 I their profession. It was in the intervals be- 
 I tweeu these pursuits that Miss 'iaylor began 
 I to commit the effusions of her genius to writ- 
 : ing ; and a visit to London in loO'J introducing 
 her to the society of some young females of 
 congenial disposition and talent, she, as well 
 as her sister, was induced to joiu them in con- 
 tributing to the " Minor's Pocket Book," a 
 small publication, in which her first work, 
 " J'he Beggar Boy," appeared in 180i. 'lUe 
 
T A Y 
 
 success of tljis liltle poem encouraged Ltr «o 
 proceed, and from tliis period till 1813 fehc ! 
 continued to ])ul)iisli occasionally niiscella- ' 
 neous pieces in verse, of wliich the principal 
 are entitled " Orit;inal Poems for liifaiit 
 Minds," in two volumes ; " lUiymes for the I 
 Nursery," in one ; and some verses in " The i 
 Associate Mi: strels," a publication written in 
 conjunction with the ladies already alluded to. 
 In the winter of the las.t-nu'iilii)ned year she 
 commenced a prose composilion of higher 
 pretension, which appeared in 1815, under 
 the name of " Display," and met with much 
 success. Her last and principal work consists 
 of *' Essays in Khyme on Morals and iNIan- 
 ners," didactic j)oems written with much ele- 
 gance and feeling. The latter part of her life 
 was jiassed in occasional excursions from On- 
 gar, in which place her family liad resided 
 since the year 1810. After some months of 
 linyerinu; deliility, in which however the vigour 
 of her mind appears to iiave subsisted to the 
 last, this amiuble and intellectual female expired 
 of a pulmonary complaint, in the month of 
 April 18'JJ. — Ann. Biog. Life by her Brother 
 J. Taylor. 
 
 TAYLOR (Jeremy) a very eminent di- 
 vine and prelate of the Irisii churcii, was born 
 in the year 1613 at Cambridge, where his 
 father exercised the calling of a barber. He 
 was educated at Terse's free school in his na- 
 tive ])lace, and entered in \6'26 a sizar in 
 Caius college, where he continued until he 
 had graduated MA. Entering into orders he 
 occasionally lectured for a fiieud at St Paul's 
 cathedral, where he attracted the attention of 
 arclibishop Laud, who procured him a fellow- 
 ship of All Souls college, Oxford, although his 
 election was scarcely compatible with the sta- 
 tutes. He also nominated him one of his 
 cliaplains, and in Iti-tO obtained for him the 
 rectory of Uppingham, on which he quitted 
 his fellowship, and married. In 1642 he was 
 created DD. at Oxford, at which time he was 
 chaplain in ordinary to Charles I, whom he 
 attended in some of his campaigns, and aided 
 by several writings in defence of the church of 
 England. After the parliament proved vic- 
 torious, his living being sequestrated, he re- 
 tired into ^Vales, where he was kindly received 
 bv the earl of Carbery, of Golden Grove, 
 Carmarthenshire, under whose protection he 
 was allowed to exercise his ministry, and keep 
 a school for the maintenance of his family. It 
 was in this obscure situation tliat he wrote 
 those copious and fervent discourses, which, 
 with respect to fertility of composition, elo- 
 nuence of expression, and comprehensiveness 
 of thought, have rendered him one of the first 
 writers in the English language. He lost in 
 this retreat three hopeful sons within a short 
 period of time, which rendering a change of 
 place necessary for the restoration of his tran- 
 quillity, he removed to London, and officiated, 
 not without danger, to private congregations 
 of royalists. At length he accepted an invi- 
 tation from lord Conway to reside at his seat 
 in Ireland, w!;ere he remained until the Re- 
 storation, when he came to England } and in 
 
 'I A y 
 
 the promotion of January, 16(jO — 1, was ele- 
 vated to the Irihh see of Down and Connor, 
 with the adndnistiation of that of Dromoie. 
 lie was also made a privy counsellor for Ire- 
 lanil, and chosen vice-thanc( llor of the uni- 
 versity of Dul'lin. He conducted himcelf on 
 his advancement with all the attention to liia 
 duties, public and private, which had ever 
 distinguished him in humble situations. Piety, 
 humility, and charity were his I ading cha- 
 racteristics ; and on his death, which took 
 place at Lisbume, August 13, 1667, he left 
 but very moderate f)rtunes to his three <la'i"h- 
 ters. '1 his eminent prelate possessed the ad- 
 vantages of a comely person and a melodious 
 voice, Vvhich vvere farther set off by the most 
 urbane manners and agreeable conversation, 
 liishop 1 aylor was a voluminous writer, his 
 works having been printed in four and also in 
 six volumes folio, a gre it part of which con- 
 sists in sermons and devotional pieces. There 
 are likewise seveial distinct treatises upon 
 various subjects, one of the most remarkable 
 of wiiich is entitled " Theologia Eclectica, a 
 Discourse of the Liberty of Pro].besying 
 (Preaching), showing the Unreasonal>leness 
 of Persecution to other iMen's Faith, and the 
 Iniquity of persecuting diJlerent ()j)inions," 
 'Ito, 1647. This work, which was written 
 while he was one of the vanqui.-hed party, 
 pleads elocjuently and strenuously for liberty 
 of conscience, and treats the damnatory clause 
 of the Athanasian creed with a de^jree of free- 
 dom that put honest Anthony Wood to the 
 trouble of inventing a theory to prove that he 
 was not in earnest, and only intended to pro- 
 duce schism among the opponents of the 
 church. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the 
 absurdity of such a supposition in reference to 
 a divine of the pure and earnest character of 
 bishop Taylor. Of the other writings of this 
 prelate, the most generally known and ap- 
 proved are his " Golden Grove, or Manual of 
 daily Prayers ;" his " Treatises on Holy Living 
 and Dying ;"' and his " Ductor Duldtautium, 
 or Rule of Conscience." Of these the two 
 former are peculiarly admired for fervour of 
 devotional feeling, beauty of imagery, and 
 illustrative and copious iniprcssiveness of elo- 
 (pience. At the same time, like almost all 
 men of genius and imagination, the author 
 has sometimes hazarded passages which savour 
 more of fancy than of judgment. 1 he English 
 prose of bi>hop Taylor is by many thought to 
 surpass in strength and elegance that of all 
 preceding writers. — -Biog. Brit. Grainger, 
 Life bii Bonne\j. 
 
 TAYLOR (John) usually called the water 
 poet, from his being a waterman, was born in 
 the city of Gloucester, about l.iBO. He went 
 to school in his native place, but appears to 
 I have learned no more than his accidence, when 
 he was taken to London, and bound apprentice 
 to a waterman. He wis either impressed, or 
 went voluntarily into the naval service, for he 
 was at tlie taking of Cadiz, under the ear! of 
 Essex, in 1596, when only sixteen years of 
 a^e. and afterwards in some capacity or other 
 visited Germany and Scotland. At hoitie he 
 
1 A Y 
 
 •was many years collector for tlie lieutenant of 
 the Tower of London, of his fees of the wines 
 from all the ships which brought them up the 
 Thames, but was at last disdiarged because he 
 would not purchase the place for more than it 
 was vortli. Jle called himself the king's 
 water poet, and the queen's waterman, and 
 wore the badge of the royal arms. ^Vllile a 
 waterman he had a great aversion to coaches, 
 and besides writing a satire against them, had 
 the modesty to present a petition to king 
 James, that all playhouses might be prohibited 
 except that on Bankside, in order that the 
 greater part of the inhabitants of London who 
 wished to see plays, might be compelled to go 
 by water. When the civil wars broke out, he 
 retired to Oxford, where he was much noticed 
 by the Cavaliers, and encouraged in a common 
 victualling house, which he kept there, as a 
 reward for his pasquinades upon the Round- 
 heads. After the garrison at Oxford had sur- 
 rendered, he retired to Westminster, and kept 
 a public-house : and constant in his loyalty after 
 the death of the king, assumed for a sign the 
 crown in mourning, which proving offensive, 
 he substituted his own head. He died in 1654, 
 aged seventy-four. His works are published 
 under the title of " All the Works of John 
 Taylor, the W^ater Poet, being Sixty and Three 
 in Numbei, collected into One Volume by the 
 Author, with sundry new Additions, corrected, 
 revised, and newly imprinted," 1630, folio. 
 These pieces are not destitute of natural hu- 
 mour, and of the jingling wit which prevailed 
 so much during the reign of James L He was 
 countenanced by a few persons of rank, who 
 enjoyed his oddities, but was the darling of 
 the common people. This volume, from its 
 early date, could not contain the " pasquils " 
 which Anthony W^ood believed did such loyal 
 service at Oxford. — Athen. Oxoii. Cibhers 
 Lives. 
 
 TAYLOR (John) an eminent dissenting 
 divine, was burn in 1694, at or near Lancaster, 
 and educated at Whitehaven. In 1715 he was 
 nominated by one of the Disney family, to the 
 chajiel of Kirkstead, in Lincolnshire, a cure 
 exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, where he 
 remained eighteen years, upon a very small 
 salary, aided by a school. In 1733 he accepted 
 the invitation of a jjresbyterian congregation 
 at Norwich, which had hitherto been served 
 by ministers of Calvinistic sentiments. The 
 first edition of his " Scripture Doctrine of 
 Original Sin " appeared in 1740 ; which attack 
 upon a theory that had been long considered 
 fundamental by nearly all classes of Christians, 
 exposed him to much obloquy. In 1745 he 
 published a paraphrase on the Epistle to the 
 Romans, with a key to the apostolic writings, 
 a production that has been honoured with very 
 higli a])probation even from distinguished 
 members of the church of England. He fol- 
 lowed with the " Scripture Doctrine of Atone- 
 ment," and various other smaller tracts, until 
 in 1754 he published the first volume of his 
 " Hebrew Concordance," the second of which 
 appeared in 1757, being the labour of fourteen 
 years. The degree of DD. was conferred 
 
 T A Y 
 
 upon him soon after publishing this able work, 
 and he soon after accepted the office of di- 
 vinity tutor at the newly-founded academy of 
 W^arrington. Here however he found sources 
 of disquiet, which affected his health and spi- 
 rits to such a degree that they are supposed to 
 have hastened his death, which took place 
 suddenly during the night of JNlarch 5, 1761, 
 at the age of sixty- six. Besides the works 
 already mentioned, he was author of "A Sketch 
 of Moral Philosophy," together with various 
 theological tracts in advancement of the anti- 
 trinitarian and other opinions, which distin- 
 guished the rising sect of unitarians to which 
 he belonged. Harwood's Fun. Sermon. Me- 
 muir of his hife. 
 
 TAYLOR, LLD. (John) a distinguished 
 scholar and critic, was the son of a barber of 
 Shrewsbury. He received the rudiments of 
 education at the grammar-school of his native 
 town, and then was entered of St John's col- 
 lege, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow 
 in 1730. In 1732 he was appointed librarian 
 of the university, which office he soon after 
 quitted for that of registrar. He published an 
 edition of '* Lysias" in 1739, and in 1742 gra- 
 duated LLD. and became a member of Doc- 
 tors Commons. Two years afterwards he was 
 made chancellor of Lincoln ; and in 1751 en- 
 tering into orders, was presented to the living 
 of Lawford in Essex, to which in 1757 was 
 added a residentiaryship of St Paul's. Not 
 deserting his legal studies, he published in 1755 
 " Elements of Civil Law," 4to, reprinted in 
 1769. A. He also held the offices of commissary 
 of Lincoln and of Stowe, and was elected 
 fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. 
 He died in 1766, after having just completed 
 an edition of Demosthenes, in 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Besides the works already mentioned, he was 
 author of " An Explanation of the Marmor 
 Sandvicense ;" an edition of " Two Orations 
 of Demosthenes and Lycurgus," with notes 
 and emendations ; and of various pieces of 
 poetry printed in the Gentleman's INIagaziue 
 and JSichols's Select Collection of Poems. — 
 ISichols's Lit. Anec. Mimthly Rev. 
 
 TAYLOR (chevalier John) an eminent 
 English oculist of the eighteenth century. He 
 was the son of a mathematician, who published 
 some works on the branch of science which he 
 cultivated. The son having finished his me- 
 dical studies, according to his own account, 
 under the first professor of the age, devoted 
 himself particularly to the treatment of dis- 
 eases of the eyes, and acquired great skill in 
 tlie performance of various surgical operations 
 for the relief of such complaints. His reputa- 
 tion procured him the appointment of oculist 
 to the king ; but not satisfied with the fame 
 he had gained at home, he determined to 
 make a j)rofessional journey on the continent. 
 He left England in 1733, and stayed some 
 lime in Holland, after which he travelled 
 through various parts of Europe for more than 
 thirty years. He procured introductions to the 
 courts of several princes, and obtained orders 
 of knighthood from some of them, as well as 
 more substantial remuneration of his profes- 
 
TCIl 
 
 sional services. INIiirchant, professor at the 
 university of I'ubingen, iK-livereil a public pa- 
 negyric on Taylor iu 17.')(), aud llaller and 
 others liave referred tc him as a skilful ope- 
 rator; but he seems to have asHumed an air 
 of splendour and parade and an imjiosinj^ sclf- 
 fiulHciency of biliaviour whitli rediufd him 
 nearly to the level of a travellin<» empiric, and 
 which sometimes exposed him to mdrtification 
 and disgrace, lie publi?hed " Anecdotes of 
 the Life of the Chevalier Taylor," 4to, ex- 
 tracted from another work, " J'he History of 
 his Travels,";} vols. 8vo, in which he has 
 given a list of his works, and a pomj)ous de- 
 tail of the honours bestowed on him by the 
 great. He announced in 1767 his intention 
 of settling at Paris ; and lie is supposed to 
 have died soon after that time. A list of his 
 works may also be found in the annexed autho- 
 rity. — Bior;. Unic. 
 
 TAYLOR (Silas) an able English anti- 
 quary, was the son of Sylvanus Taylor, a mem- 
 ber of the high court of justice which tried 
 king Charles L He was bora at liarley in 
 Shropshire in 16'^ t, and after receiving tlie 
 elements of education at Shrewsbury and 
 Westminster schools, he became a commoner 
 of New Inn-hall, Oxford, in 1641. He had 
 Ijegun to distinguish himself at the university, 
 when he was taken home and placed in the 
 })arliamentary army with the commission of 
 captain. When the war was over his father 
 made him sequestrator to the royalists in Here- 
 fordshire ; but although he enriched himself 
 considerably, he behaved with so much mode- 
 ration, that on the Restoration he found friends 
 who obtained for him the appointment of com- 
 missary of ammunition, 6cc. at Dunkirk, and 
 subsequently tliat of king's storekeeper at Har- 
 wich. He died November 4, 1678. He left 
 large materials for a history of Herefordshire 
 and of Harwich ; but the only work which he 
 published was a " History of Gavelkind," 
 J.ondon, 1663, 4to. In this work, a copy of 
 which is in the library of Canterbury, with 
 notes written therein by Somner, he carries 
 the name and custom higher than the latter 
 writer. It is very scarce. — Allien. Oion. 
 Goiio^h's Topoo;. 
 
 TCHAMTCHIAN or CIAMCL\N (Mi- 
 CTiAEi.) an Armenian historian, born at Con- 
 stantinoi)le in 1738. Being brought up to the 
 profession of a jeweller, be relinquished it for 
 the study of literature ; and at the age of 
 twenty-three he became an ecclesiastic, and 
 was admitted into the Armenian congregation 
 of the Mickitarists at Venice. He made a 
 rapid progress in Armenian literature, ))ui 
 being employed to instruct others he never 
 could obtain leisure for studying Latin. IMost 
 of his works were published at \"euice ; but 
 having had some disputes with the members 
 of the religious society to which he belonged, 
 he removed to Constantinople, and after re- 
 bi.iing there twenty- five years he died Nov. 
 30, 18'i3. His principal production is a " His- 
 tory of Armenia," 1784—86, 3 ^ols. 4lo.— 
 
 Biog. Univ, 
 
 TCHEOU KO^G, one of the sages and le- 
 
 rcii 
 
 gislators of China, who fJouiisLod eleven cen- 
 turies before the (Christian era. He was equally 
 distinguihhed as a statesman, a warri<ir, aiid a 
 man of learning. Having ahSi.sted his elder 
 brother, Won Wang, to dethrone the last em- 
 y)eror r)f tlie dynasty of (Jhang, and obtain the 
 sovereign autlioiity, his services were recom- 
 pensed with the post of prime minister and the 
 government of the country of King-feou. Won 
 Wang dying, he ap{)ointed Tciieou guardian of 
 his son and successor, TchingW ang, and regent 
 of the empire. 1 le carefully educated the young 
 prince, and after crushing a rebellion, and 
 jjerforming various other services to the state, 
 he resigned his employments, and died at an 
 advanced age, l KKi I5C. 'J'cheou contributed 
 greatly to polish the Chinese, and he is re- 
 garded as the most learned man of the age in 
 which he lived. Father Gaubil reports that 
 astronomical observations which he made are 
 still preserved. 'Jhe first use of the conjj)as8 
 at sea is ascribed to him by the Chinese his- 
 torians ; but ftL Azuni, in his " Dissertation 
 sur rOrigine de la Bou.^sole," Taris, lt5U'.>, 
 8vo, denies his title to this invention. He is 
 celebrated as an orator, poet, and philosopher, 
 and the ancient books of the Chinese contain 
 several of his imputed productions. — Amiut 
 ]\Iemoires sur les Cliinois. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TCHING TCHING KONG, a famous 
 Chinese admiral or pirate iu the seventeenth 
 century, known to Europeans by the name of 
 Koxinga. His father, Tching Tchi Long, was 
 admiral in the reign of the last emperor of the 
 dynasty of ^Jing ; and being disappointed in 
 an attempt to get his son adopted by the em- 
 peror as his successor, he quitted the court in 
 1646, at the time China was invaded by the 
 JMantchou Tartars. He retired on board the 
 fleet, and carried on hostilities against the 
 Mantchous, after the emperor had killed him- 
 self, to avoid falling into their hands. Tching 
 Tchi Long was at length treacherously taken 
 prisoner by the invaders, and conducted to 
 Pekin. His sou, the subject of this article, 
 then assumed the command of the fleet, ami 
 swore im|)lacable vengeance against the insi- 
 dious i'artars, who had conquered the country. 
 He attacked the coasts and besieged the city 
 of Nankin ; but being surprised in his camp 
 by the foe, he was obliged hastily to re- em- 
 bark. In a subsequent engagement with the 
 Mantchous at sea, he took four thousand pri- 
 soners, whom he cruelly mutilated by cutting 
 off their noses and ears, in 16.^8. On the death 
 of the last descendant of the imperial family 
 of JMing, in whose name he had carried on the 
 war, he determined to form an establishment 
 for himself on the island of Formosa. He laid 
 siege to the fort of Zealandia, built by the 
 Dutch ; and having driven them from For- 
 mosa, and from the adjacent isles of Pong-hou, 
 he took the title of king. He made a treaty 
 with the English, and favoured their establish- 
 ment in his territories, with a view to their aid 
 against tlie INIantchous. He died iu 1670, 
 leaving his dominions to his son ; but the 
 IMantchou governor of the province of Fou- 
 kien reconquered Formosa in 168/ 'vith the 
 
TEG 
 
 assistance of the Hollanders. — Klajyrolh's Kew 
 Annals of Voyao^es. Bioi^. Unii, 
 
 TP:13AL1>}:0 or TIBALDEO (Antonio) 
 an Ilalian poet, who was a native of Ferrara. 
 Jie adopted the military profession, which he 
 relinquished for the study of literature. He 
 then entered into the service of Francisco de 
 Gonzaga, marquis of MantuS; whom he quitted 
 to go to Rome, then the principal seat of arts 
 and learning. He was an imitator of Petrarch, 
 and was highly praised by Beml)0 and others 
 of his contem])oraries ; and pope Leo X gave 
 liim five hundred ducats for a copy of verses. 
 Tebaldeo was in the enjoyment of reputation 
 and affluence at Rome when that city was 
 sacked by the troops of the constab de Bour- 
 bon. The house of the poet was pillsi^ef! sc 
 tliat he was reduced to poverty ; and having 
 borrowed thirty florins of his friend Bembo, he 
 died soon after in misery, November 4, 1538. 
 His works are " Sonetti e Capitoli ;" " Stanze 
 Nuove ;" " Capitoli non piu stampati ;" and 
 " Kpigrammata." The poems of Tebaldeo, 
 and especially some of his sonnets, display 
 purity of feeliiig and delicacy of sentiment, 
 heightened and adorned by that elegance of 
 style and diction which so advantageously cha- 
 racterizes the golden age of literature in mo- 
 dern Italy. — Biocr. Univ. 
 
 TK13KSCHI (Nicholas) or Panormita- 
 nus, one of the most celebrated canonists of 
 the lifteenth century. It is uncertain whether 
 iie was a native of Palermo or Catanea ; but 
 it was at the latter city that he assumed the 
 habit of St Benedict, at the age of fourteen, 
 when his sujieriors perceiving his abilities, 
 ^ent him to study at Bologna. He applied 
 liimself particularly to the investigation of the 
 ranon law, and having taken the degree of 
 doctor, he returned to Catanea, and opened a 
 course of lectures on that subject. He was 
 afterwards professor at Sienna, Parma, Bo- 
 logna, and Florence, and every wliere acquired 
 great reputation. Pope IMartiu V bestowed 
 on liim various ecclesiastical offices, and Eu- 
 L'enius IV raised him to the archbisliopric of 
 Palermo in llo4. He was sent by his sove- 
 reign, Alphonso V, to the council of Basil ; 
 ;ind his services on that occasion procured him 
 a cardinal's hat. He died of the plague in 
 144.5. Besides a treatise " He Concilio Ba- 
 siliensi," Tedeschi published several works on 
 the canon law, rejtrintcd collectively at \'e- 
 nice, 1617, 9 vols, folio. — iyio>i. Univ. 
 
 TF.GEL (Eric) a Sweilish historiographer, 
 whose father was the minister and favourite 
 of king Kric XIV, and was beheiideil by ordt-r 
 of prince Charles, afterwards Charles IX, who 
 took the son under his jirotcction, and pro- 
 vided for hi'^ education. On his return from 
 his travels in (Jerniaiiy, he was sent into 
 Spain and Poland to conduct important nego- 
 ciadons ; and after being employed in other 
 [)oliiical atlairs, he was in the reigu of (justa- 
 vus Adolphus appointed historiographer of 
 the kingdom, and in 1617 he was nuide a J^rivy 
 counsellor. He died at Stockholm m \6o6. 
 His works are " Genealogies of the Kings of 
 Sweden, Poland, and Denmaik j" " History 
 
 TEK 
 
 of Gustavus I," 16'22, folio ; " History of 
 Eric XIV." — Reess Cvclop. Binv. Univ. 
 
 TEICHMEYER (Herman Frederic) an 
 eminent physician, born at JMindeu in Ger- 
 many, in 1685. After finishing his school 
 education lie studied medicine at Leipsic and 
 Jena, and received the degree of ISIU. in 1707. 
 Ten years after he became professor of expe- 
 rimental philosophy at Jena, where his fame 
 attracted a great number of pujjils, among 
 whom was the celebrated Haller, who married 
 the daughter of Teichme3'er. He lectured on 
 anatomy, surgery, medical jurisprudence, che- 
 mistry, and botany, and maintained a high re- 
 putation as a public teacher. His death took 
 place February 5, 1746. Besides a great 
 number of dissertations he was the author of 
 " l^lementa Anthropologiae sive Theoria Cor- 
 poris humani," 4to ; " Institutiones jMedi- 
 cin£E legalis et forensis," 4to, both which 
 have been repeatedly reprinted ; and he pro- 
 duced several other useful elementary trea- 
 tises. — ^jJog". Univ. 
 
 TEIFASCHY (Aru'l Abbas Ahmed al) 
 an Arabian of the thirteenth century, who was 
 the author of a curious work relative to pre- 
 cious stones. He is supposed to have been 
 born in Egypt, as he resided in that country, 
 and appears to have exercised the profession 
 of a jeweller at Cairo. He travelled a great 
 deal, but whether in the prosecution of com- 
 merce or merely to satisfy his curiosity is un- 
 certain. An Italian translation of the work of 
 Teifaschy, with the Arabic text and notes, 
 was published by M. A. Raineri, Florence, 
 1818, 4to, under the title of " The Flower of 
 I'houghts on Precious Stones." The author 
 finished "liis treatise in 1265. According to 
 Bochart he also wrote a book relative to " The 
 Divers Kinds of Wood." — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TEISSIER (Antoixe) a learned French 
 advocate of the seventeenth century, a native 
 of the city of Montpellier, born 1632. He was 
 descended of Protestant parents, and was him- 
 self a member of the consistory court of the 
 reformed churcli at Nismes, where he prac- 
 tised in his legal capacity. Ihe revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes forced him in common 
 with innumerable others who held the same 
 religious opinions to emigrate. • He accord- 
 ingly retired into the Prussian territories, and 
 being introduced to the notice of the sovereign, 
 was appointed historiogra])lier to the court. 
 He published " 'Ihe i:ioges of Learned Men," 
 from the works of Thuanus, 12mo, 4 vols ; 
 " Catalogus Auctorumqui Librorum Catalogos, 
 Iiniiccs, Bir)li(jthecas, A'irorum Literatoruni 
 I'^logia, Vitas, aut Orationes funebres, scriptis 
 consignaruut," 4to, an excellent and useful 
 cominlation ; " On the social Dutiesof iMan." 
 from Pufjendorff ; " 'I'he Lives of illustrious 
 Princes;" '* Instructions Moral and PoUti- 
 cal ;" liiographical Memoirs of Theodore 
 Beza, Spira, and Calvin, with the letters Oi 
 the latter, 6i.c. Teissier died at Berlin V4 
 1715. — Nitnv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TEKELl (F^.MEUic, count de) was born iu 
 1658, of an illustrious family in Ilungarv. Hi> 
 father, Stephen Tekeli, had been concenied ii 
 
TE L 
 
 the conspiracy of the counts Seurin and Franpff- 
 jiiuii, fur which his castle was hosie^eil I)y tlic 
 imperialists. It was taken, aiul the old count 
 soon after died ; but the young Tekeli escaped 
 and took refu;4e in 'rransylvania, wliere lie oh- 
 taineil the patrona^^^c of prince ALalH, andsiih- 
 P0()uently became his prime minister. Jk'iiig 
 sent to succour tlie malcontents of liia native 
 . country, he was chosen their commander, and 
 his arms were crowned with success in v;iiious 
 actions. I laving formed a connexion with tlie 
 Ottoman Porte, he exchanged the Hungarian 
 cap for the turban, which he received from 
 the sultan, Idghly enriclied with precious 
 stones ; but he sent it back again on assuming 
 the crown of his native country, lie still how- 
 ever continued his alliance with the Porte ; but 
 the losses sustained by the Turks at the siege of 
 Vienna, and reverses sustained by himself, 
 were followed by the submission of the greater 
 part of the malcontents. Falling under the 
 suspicion of the Turks he was put in irons, 
 and sent to Adrianople, where he completely 
 justilied himself to the sultan, who made hiui 
 prince of Fransylvania on the death of Abaffi. 
 He could not however maintain himself in this 
 dignity against the imperial forces, and was 
 afterwards made hospodar of Bloldavia ; but 
 ou the conclusion of the treaty of Carlowitz in 
 1699, he withdrew into Turkey, and died at 
 Constantinojile in 170.3, in the profession of 
 the faith of the church of Rome. — Moreri, 
 MoL Unit. Hiit. 
 
 TELEJMANN (Gio. Philip) one of the 
 greatest and most voluminous musical com- 
 posers who flourished in Germany during the 
 former portion of the last century. He was 
 Dorn at Magdeburg in 1681, and he preceded I 
 
 TEL 
 
 After ilie sack of Rome by the troops of tlie 
 constable de Bourbon, T« lesio retired to Ve- 
 nice, where he gave public lectures, and printed 
 a treatise " JJe Coloriljus," and a tragedy 
 entitled " Imbur Aureus," on the story cd 
 Danae. He died at ('f)senza in l.).3:3. HU 
 works were jiuldishcd at Naples in 176;^, and 
 again in lfJO», 4to. — Hiot^. Univ. 
 
 TKIJISK) ( Hi unaiujino ) Uf-phew of the 
 preceding, a inodt^rn philosopher, horn at 
 Cosenza in 1508 or 1;)09. He received hin 
 early education from his uncle, who kept a 
 school at i\Iilan, and accompanying the same 
 relative to Rome, he was present at the sack 
 of that city by the troops of the constable de 
 ])Ourhon. Removing to Padua, lie closely ap- 
 plied to the studies of philosophy and the ma- 
 thematics, and then went again to Rome, 
 where lie obtained the friendship and pa- 
 tronage of pope Pius 1\^ He subsequently 
 retired to Cosenza, where lie married at au 
 advanced age, and founded an academy which 
 thence took the name of Cosentina. lie was 
 patronised by several persons of distinction, 
 but was otherwise much disquieted by the ca- 
 lumnies raised against his school of philosophy, 
 which, in addition to the grief produced by the 
 assassination of one of his sons, are thought to 
 have hastened his death in 1588. Teiesio 
 was a bold and vigorous opposer of the Ari- 
 stotelian doctrines of physics, and employed 
 niathematical principles in explaining tlio 
 works of nature. These he first promulgated 
 in a work })rinted at Rome in 1565, entitled 
 " De Rerum Natura juxta propria Principia," 
 1565 and 1586. The essence of this system, 
 which was also maintained by him in various 
 other treatises, was the doctrine of the ancient 
 
 Keiser as composer of operas for the city of i sage Parmenides, that the first productive prin 
 
 Hamburg-. In 1740 his overtures on the mo 
 del of those of Lulli amounted to the number 
 of six hundred. The list of his printed works, 
 which appeared in Walther's Musical Lexicon 
 in 1732, extended to twenty-nine ; and fifteen 
 more are specified in Gerber's Continuation of 
 Walther ; but double the number of those 
 printed were long circulated in manuscript 
 from the music-shops of Leipsic and Ham- 
 burg. His later compositions are said to be 
 pleasing, graceful, and refined. Telemann, 
 V, ho lived to a great age, drew up a well -writ- 
 ten account of his own life, in the earlier part 
 of which he was the feilow-student ;uid inti- 
 mate acquaintance of Handel. He died in 
 1767, and immediately after his decease pro- 
 fessor Ebeliug, an excellent musical critic, 
 published remarks on the piofessional merit of 
 Telemann. — lices's Ciiclop. 
 
 ciples in nature are cold and heat, as well ob- 
 served by lord Bacon, a mere transformation 
 of properties into principles. He was how- 
 ever a lover of truth, and opened the wav for 
 greater improvements. After his death his 
 writings, as containing innovations, were 
 placed in the Index Kxpurgatorius of the iu- 
 quisition, which did not prevent their re!)ub- 
 lication at Venice in 1590. — Brucker, Tiru- 
 'Ooschi. Biosr. Unic. 
 
 TELL ( \VrLLiAM) a celebrated person iu 
 the patriotic annals of Switzerland, was a na- 
 tive of Purgeln, in the canton of Uri, and was 
 early distinguished by his skill in archery, as 
 well as by his pre-eminence over his com- 
 panions in activity and all those bardy ex- 
 ercises •»-hich are peculiarly characteristic o' 
 the inhabitants of a mountainous region. The 
 tyrannic despotism of the emperor Albert suf- 
 
 TELESIO (Antonio) called alsoTIiylesius ficienfly grievous in itself, was carried by ller- 
 ■)r Tilesius, was born at Cosenza in the king- I man Gesler, whom he had appointed governor 
 
 ilom of Naples in l-l[V2. He travelled for the 
 sake of improvement iu classical learning 
 
 of S'.vitzerland, to the most intolerable hei^lit. 
 riie most abject submissions were exacted from 
 
 through different parts of Italy, and in 15l'J i the peasantry, and the whole country ri[ie for 
 lie was called to I\liian to illustrate the Greek ' a civil explosion, required only some daring 
 and Latin authors. He subsequently obtained hand to fire the train. The onportutiity at 
 a benefice at Rome, and a professorship in j length occurred. Gesler, who had been led 
 the Roman college. He there published Latin i to suspect the general feeling, with a degree of 
 notes on the Odes of Horace; a collection of insolence as impolitic as wanton, placed liis 
 Latin Poeuis j and a treatise " De Coronis." | plumed cap upon a spear in the centre of the 
 
TEL 
 
 market-place of Altorff, and ia order to show 
 his utter contempt of the people and tlieir 
 supposed design of emancipation, issued an 
 order that every one in passing should, on pain 
 of death, pay it the same tokens of submission 
 which he exacted in his own person. Tell, 
 disdaining to comply, was seized and brought 
 before him, and by a refinement in cruelty, 
 according to the current storv, after some 
 ironical praises of his talents as an archer, 
 was ordered to shoot an apple from the head 
 of his son as the price of his own redemption 
 from the punishment of his insubordination. 
 Tell drawing two arrows from his quiver, 
 placed one in his bosom, and with the other 
 succeeded in hitting the proposed mark with- 
 out injury to the boy ; but having the bold- 
 ness to avow his purpose of using the weapon 
 he had reserved against the grovernor, had he 
 failed in his previous attempt, the latter sen- 
 tenced him to perpetual imprisonment, and 
 carried him off in his own barge across the 
 lake of Lucerne, to prevent the possibility of 
 a rescue. One of those sudden storms so com- 
 mon in the country, arising during the passage, 
 Tell, whose skill as a navigator was not infe- 
 rior to his other qualifications, was of neces- 
 sity released from his chains, and placed at 
 the helm. Steering the vessel under a rock, 
 still shown as the site of the exploit, one 
 desperate leaj) from the deck placed him out 
 of the reach of his captors. The death of 
 Gesler, whom Tell soon after shot through the 
 heart while riding near Kusnacht, formed the 
 signal of a general rising, which terminated in 
 the complete establishment of Swiss inde- 
 pendence on the first of January 1308. Tell, 
 who, notwithstanding his services to the 
 cause, and the universal gratitude of his coun- 
 trymen, continued to remain a private citizen, 
 survived the liberation of his country forty-six 
 years, and perished at length in an inundation 
 which committed great ravages in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Burgeln in 1354. A chapel in 
 commemoration of his bold escape was built 
 near the spot where it took place. This cir- 
 cumstance, together vi-ith the respect in which 
 his supposed descendants were held so late as 
 the commencement of the last century, goes 
 far to obviate a suspicion which the similarity 
 of the event of the apple and arrow to a story 
 related by Saxo Grammaticus, (of which one 
 Tocco, a Dane, is the hero,) has thrown upon 
 the authenticity of the narrative. — Jiluller's 
 J list, of Suntzerhuid. 
 
 TELLER (William Abhaham) a German 
 divine, bom at Leipsic in 1734. Having been 
 aj)pointed in 1764 superintendant, professor 
 of theology, and first pastor at Helmstadt, he 
 w,»3, on account of his religious opinions, de- 
 chired a heretic, and deprived of liis offices in 
 1767. He went to IJerlin, where he became 
 member of the consistory, and first pastor of 
 the church of St Peter. When the edict con- 
 cerning religion was issued in 1787, Teller was 
 suspended from his functions, but he was soon 
 restored; and the prejudices against him being 
 dis.sipated, he was admitted a member of the 
 academy of Berlin, before which in 1802 he 
 
 TEL 
 
 read a discourse in honour of the minister 
 Wolner, who had been his most determined 
 persecutor. He died December 9, 1804. 
 Even the enemies of this heterodox theologian 
 admit that he was intimately acquainted with 
 the Oriental languages and with history, espe- 
 cially that of the reformed church. His opi- 
 nions relative to religion and the Scriptures 
 were bold and singular, tending to introduce 
 a system of philosophical Deism in the room 
 of Christianity, by allegorizing and explaining 
 away the supernatural portion of revelation. 
 Among his works are " The Doctrine of the 
 Christian Faith," 1764, 8vo, which first ex- 
 cited an outcry against him as a heretic ; a 
 " Dictionary of the New Testament," 8vo, 
 1772 -, " An Introduction to Religion in ge- 
 neral and to Christianity in particular," 1792; 
 " Sermons ;" and a " Magazine for Preachers ;" 
 Jena, 1792 — 1801, 10 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TELLEZ (Balthasar) a Portuguese his- 
 torian, born at Lisbon in 1595. He became 
 a Jesuit, and after having for more than twenty 
 years been a teacher in the princij)al ?' ruina- 
 ries of his order, he was appointed rector of 
 the Irish seminary, and of the college of Don 
 Antonio at Lisbon. He at lengjth arrived at 
 the dignity of provincial ; but he resigned that 
 office in his old age, and died at Lisbon in 
 1675. His historical works are a " Chronicle 
 of the Affairs of the Society of Jesus, in Por- 
 tugal," 1644 — 47, 2 vols, folio ; and a " Ge- 
 neral History of Upper Ethiopia, and of the 
 Establishments of the Jesuits in that King- 
 dom," 1660, folio. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TELLEZ DE SYLVA (Dom Manuel) 
 marquis d'Alegrete, descended of a family dis- 
 tinguished by an hereditary taste for literature, 
 was born at Lisbon in 1682. His father, one 
 of the most learned men of his rank and coun- 
 try, was censor and afterwards director of the 
 Royal Portugueze Academy of History. Dom 
 Manuel cultivated with success Latin poetry, 
 and on the foundation of the academy just 
 mentioned, in 1720, he was elected the first 
 perpetual secretary. He displayed indefati- 
 gable zeal in attending to tlie duties of this 
 office, till his death in 1736. Besides a volume 
 of Latin poems and epigrams, he was the au- 
 thor of " Historia da Academia real da His- 
 toria Portugueza," 1727, 4to ; and he pub- 
 lished a collection of the memoirs, &ic. of the 
 academy, 1721 — 27, 7 vols, folio. — Id. 
 
 TELLIER (Michael le) chancellor of 
 France, born in 1603, was the son of a coun- 
 sellor in the court of aids. He passed through 
 various posts, until, under the patronage of 
 cardinal iMazarin, he became secretary of state 
 under Louis XIll. He also obtained a prin- 
 cipal share of the confidence of that minister 
 and Anne of Austria during the subsequent 
 regency. In 1651, when Mazarin wasobliged 
 to retire, Le Teilier supplied his place in the 
 ministry, and on his return retained the office 
 of secretary of state, until he resigned it to 
 his son, the marquis de Louvois, in 1666. He 
 however still held his place in the council, 
 and in 1677 was raised to the station of chan- 
 cellor, and keeper of the seals. He was severe 
 
TEL 
 
 in his temper, and despotic in his principles, 
 and urged all those violent measures ai;aiii»t 
 the Protestanis, which terminated in the re- 
 vocation of the edict of iSantz. In signinjj 
 tlie edict for that iniquitous hreach of faith, 
 he exclaimed, Nunc dimittis, &c. and expired 
 a few days afterwards, in his t'ii;hty-lhird 
 year, liossuet pronounced his funeral oration, 
 and paints him as a threat man. He was cer- 
 tainly a man of abilities, and probably a sin- 
 cere bigot, a fact which does not exclude his 
 possession of the dark and dangerous disposi- 
 tion that several authors have im])uted to him, 
 and which induced the count de Granunont to 
 exclaim one day, on observing him come from 
 a secret audience with the king, " 1 think I 
 see a polecat stealing away from a henroost, 
 and licking his snout stained with blood." — 
 Voltaire, Steele de Louis XIV. Nouv. Diet. 
 
 Hist. 
 
 TELLIEll (FRAN9018 Michael le) mar- 
 quis de Louvois, son of the preceding, was 
 horn in 164 1. His father artfully proposed 
 him to Louis XIV, as a young man of sense, 
 hut rather slow, who might be aided by his 
 majesty's instructions. This was taking Louis 
 by his foil)le, which was that of aflecting to 
 govern every thing himself. Louvois made a 
 rapid progress in his favour, and rose to great 
 posts, the principal of which was that of war 
 minister. He acquired and merited great 
 praise for his abilities in this department, 
 being the first who perfected the system of 
 supplying armies by magazines disposed in 
 convenient places. He also rendered officers 
 attentive to their duty, and banished much of 
 the luxurious indulgence which had previously 
 reigned in the French service. Sensible how 
 much his credit and the ascendancy which 
 he had acquired over the king depended upon 
 war, he was always solicitous to perpetuate 
 and renew hostilities, and thereby with all his 
 abilities acted very perniciously for France in 
 the sequel. Neither in the practice of wars 
 was he restrained by any sense of humanity ; 
 and the desolation of the Paiatmate, which 
 excited the indignation of all Europe, was his 
 measure. His haughty and overbearing tem- 
 per rendered him much more feared than be- 
 loved ; and sometimes even led him to forget 
 the respect due to the king himself. It is 
 even asserted that owing to the disgust thus 
 engendered, he had reached the end of his 
 favour, and was on the point of being sent to 
 the Bastille when he was carried off by a sud- 
 den death, July 16, 1691, immediately on re- 
 turning from a council, in which Louis had 
 treated him with extreme coldness. Suspi- 
 cions were entertained of poison, but appa- 
 rently without foundation. Louvois, although 
 an unprincipled minister, was certainly an 
 able man, and did his duty in recommending 
 the king not to acknowledge his marriage with 
 Madame de Maintenon, which conduct excit- 
 ing the enmity of tluit influential personage, 
 probably hastened the loss of that favour, 
 which he was so solicitous to preserve. — T ol- 
 taire Siecle de Louis XIV. Mem. de Dudos. 
 TELLIEK (Michael le) a distinguished 
 
 TEM 
 
 Jesuit, was bom in 1613, near Pere in Lower 
 Normandy. He studied in the Jesuits' college 
 at Caen, and entered the soi iety at the age 
 of eighteen. In 1687 he published a Defence 
 of the Mission to China, Japan, and the In- 
 dies, which WHS attacked by Arnauld in liis 
 " Morale J'rati(iue," and delated to the lioly 
 office, which reijuired alterations in the work. 
 Many publications followed on both sides, 
 the result of which was a great increase of re- 
 putation on the part of Le 'I'ellier, who was 
 advanced to the posts of reviser, rector, and 
 provincial of his order. At length, on tlie 
 death of father La Chaise in 1709, he was 
 presented by the Jesuits with two others to fill 
 the vacant place of confessor to the king, and 
 was chosen, it is said, principally on account of 
 the appearance of profound modesty and hu- 
 mility which he assumed in his deportment 
 on that introduction. It was foreseen the use 
 which he would make of his influence over an 
 aged and bigotted monarch ; and he is said 
 to have himself exclaimed that he would make 
 the Jansenists " drink to the lees of the cup 
 of the society's indignation." His first act 
 was the demolition of the famous house of the 
 Port Royal, of which he left not one stone 
 upon another. He then forced upon the ma- 
 gistracy and the nation the bull unigenitus ; 
 and such was the violence witli which he pro- 
 ceeded, tbat the Jesuits themselves exclaimed, 
 " Father le Teliier drives too fast ; he will 
 overturn us." In reality he was the cause of 
 much of the odium which soon after fell on 
 the society, and paved the way for its aboli- 
 tion ; nor was he esteemed even by his bre- 
 thren, over whom he ruled with a rod of iron. 
 On the death of Louis he was exiled, first to 
 Amiens and afterwards to La Fleche, where 
 he died in 1719, at the age of seventy-six. Le 
 Teliier was a man of regular morals, and pos- 
 sibly more a real bigot than an ambitious hv- 
 pocrite. He was well versed in literature, and 
 wrote several works besides those already 
 alluded to, which it is unnecessary 10 
 enumerate. — Xouv. Diet. Hist. Deitruction 
 des Jesuites. 
 
 TEftlPELHOF (George FnEDERic)a Ger- 
 man officer and writer on military tactics, born 
 in 1737. After having studied at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder and at Halle, he entered into a 
 Prussian regiment of infantry as a corporal ; 
 and in that capacity he served in Bohemia in 
 1737. He afterwards entered into the artil- 
 lery, and distinguished himself at the battles 
 of Hoclikirchen, Kunnersdorf, Torgau, &c. 
 and at the sieges of Ikeslau, Olmutz, Dres- 
 den, and Schweidnitz. At the close of the 
 second campaign he was made a lieutenant ; 
 and after the peace of 1763 he continued his 
 studies at lierlin, and became acquainted with 
 Euler, Lambert, Sulzer, Lagrange, and other 
 men of science. He then published some ma- 
 thematical works, and also " 'i"he Prussian 
 13onii)ardier," 1781, 8vo, in which he reduced 
 the doctrine of projectiles to scientific princi- 
 ples. He afterwards published " The Ele- 
 ments of Military Tactics," developing the ma- 
 I na:uvres aud warlike operations of Frederic II. 
 
1 EM 
 
 lie was appointed by the king to instruct 
 '.he oiiicers of infantry and cavalry, in the 
 napections of Berlin, and of the n;artli of 
 Brandenburg ; in 1782 he was appointed ma- 
 jor and commandant of a corps of artillery, 
 and in 178-i he obtained letters of nobility. 
 Frederic William II employed Tempelhof to 
 instruct the princes, his two elder sous, in 
 mathematics and the science of war ; and he 
 was soon after nominated a lieuttnant-colonel 
 and member of the Academy of Sciences. In 
 1790 he was promoted to a colonelcy ; and in 
 the beginning of the revolutionary war wich 
 France he had the command of all the Prus- 
 sian artillery, and in 179.3 he became chief of 
 the third regiment of that corps. In 1802 he 
 received the order of the red eagle from Fre- 
 deric William III, who nominated him lieute- 
 nant-general and military tutor of the young 
 princes. Lis brothers. He died at Berlin 
 July 13, 1807. Tempelhof published some 
 important works besides those mentioned 
 above, of which the best known is his " His- 
 tory of the Seven Years' War in Germany, 
 
 TEM 
 
 licitation of Dr Usher, he accepted the pro- 
 vostship of Trinity college in Dublin, and was 
 afterwards kuii^lited and made a master in 
 chancery. He died in 16-26, aged seventy- 
 two. He was the author of several scholastic 
 treatises in Latin, and the lather of sir John 
 Tkmi'le, who was educated under him at 
 Dublin, and who became master of the rolls 
 and a privy counsellor in Ireland, during the 
 reign of Charles II. Sir John wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Irish Rebellion of 1641," from his 
 own observations, which work was puldished 
 in Ito, 16-16 ; in 8vo, 1746 ; and republished 
 in 1812 by baron INIaseres. The date of his 
 deatli is not recorded. — Alhen. Oxnn. 
 
 TKMPLE (sir William) a very eminent 
 statesman, was the son of the aforesaid sir 
 Jolm 'i'emple, by his lady, who was sister to 
 the learned Dr Henry Hammond. He was 
 born in London in 16'-J8, and first sent to 
 school at Peushurst in Kent, under the care of 
 his uncle, Dr Hammond, and afterwards totiie 
 school of Bishop Stortford. At the age of se- 
 venteen he was entered of Emanuel college. 
 
 between the King of Prussia and the Empress i Cambridge, under the tuition of the learned 
 
 Queen, Sec." 1783, 6 vols. 4to, of which an 
 English translation was executed by general 
 Lloyd. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TEMPES I'A. There were two artists who 
 are known by this designation ; Antonio, a 
 Florentine by birth, to whom it belonged of 
 right as a patronymic, and one Peter Molyn, 
 a native of Haerlem, who received it as a sou- 
 briquet from the circumstance of his pencil 
 being principally employed in the delineation 
 of tempests, shipwrecks, and similar subjects. 
 The former was born about the year 1545, 
 and studied the principles of his art under John 
 Strada, whose style he imitated in his land- 
 scapes and hunting-pieces. He also produced 
 some battle-})ieces and other paintings, much 
 
 • 
 
 Cudworth, and in his twentieth year he com- 
 menced his travels, and passed six years in 
 France, Holland, Flanders, and Germany. 
 He returned in 1654, and married the daui^h- 
 ter of sir Peter Osborne of Chicksaud, Bed- 
 fordshire ; and not choosing to acce})t any 
 oflice under Cromv.ell, he occupied himself in 
 the study of history and philosophy. On the 
 Restoration he was chosen a member of the 
 Irish convention, when he acted with great 
 independence ; and in 1661 he was returned 
 with his father representative for the county 
 of Carlow. The following year he was nomi- 
 nated one of the commissioners from the Irish 
 parliament to the king, and removed to Lon- 
 don. Declining all employment out of his 
 
 admired for the spirit and delicacy with which chosen field of diplomacy, he was disregarded 
 they are executed, especially the animals until the breaking out of the Dutch war, when 
 which they contain. i\lany of these have i he was employed in a secret mission to the 
 been engraved, some of them by his own hand, t bisliop of IMunster. This he executed so 
 His death took place in 1630. — The second, I much to tlie satisfaction of the ministers, that 
 
 born of Protestant jiarents, quitted his native 
 country for Italy, where he reconciled him- 
 seii" to the Romish church, and received tlie 
 honour of kniglithood ; but was afterwards 
 condemned to death for the murder of his own 
 wife. This sentence he had interest enough 
 to get commuted for one of jierpetual imprison- 
 ment; and after remaining in j)rison nearly 
 sixteen years, succeeded in making his escape 
 from the place in whicli he was confined. His 
 death took place ai>out the commencement of 
 the last century. — D'Ar<;enville Vies des Feint. 
 TEMPLE (sir William) provost of Trinity 
 college, Dublin, and grandfather of the states- 
 man of the same name. He was a younger 
 Bon of the Temples of Leicestershire, and was 
 educated at King's college, Canibridge, where 
 and at Oxford he was admitted to the degree 
 of master of arts. He afterwards became mas- 
 ter of the school of Lincoln, and secretary suc- 
 cessively to sir Philip Sidney, Elizabeth's 
 ill-treated minister, Davison, and to tlie ce- 
 lebrated earl of Essex. In 1609, at the so- 
 
 in the following year lie was ajipointed 
 resident at Brussels, and received the i)a- 
 tent of a baronetcy. A complete history 
 of all the negociations in which he w;'.s 
 from this time concerned, would be that 
 of the foreign politics of the reign of Charles 
 II. One of the most distinguished of those 
 services was his accomplishment, in con- 
 junction with the equally able and patriotic 
 De Witt, of the treaty between England, Hol- 
 land, and Sweden, concluded in Feliruary 16()8, 
 with a view to oblige France to restore her 
 conquests in the Netherlands. . He also at- 
 tended as ambassador extraordinary, and me- 
 diator, when peace was concluded, between 
 France and Spain, at Aix-la-Cliapelle, and 
 subsequently residing at the Hague as ambas- 
 sador, cultivated a close intimacy with De 
 Witt, and became familiar with the prince of 
 Orange, afterwards William III, then or.ly in 
 his eiiihteenth year. A change of politics at 
 home led to the recal of Temple in 1669, who 
 refusing to assist in the intended breach with 
 
T K M 
 
 Holland, retired from public business to bis 
 bouse at Slieen, and employed liim.si'lf in writ- 
 iii;4 bis " Observations on tbe United I'ro- 
 vinces," and p;irt of bis " iMiscelliuiics." 
 \Viien tbe unjirincipled war against Holland 
 terminated witb tbe necessity of making peace, 
 sir William Temple was again eni])loyed, and 
 in 167 -i was sent ambassador to tbe States 
 General, in order to negociate a general paci- 
 fication. Previously to its termination in tbe 
 treaty of Nimeguen, in Id? 8, be was instru- 
 mental in promoting tbe important and bigbly 
 jiopular marriage of tbe prince of Orange 
 wall Marv, eldest daugbter of tbe duke of 
 \(irk, wbicb union took place in 1677. In 
 l()7i> be was recalled from tbe Hague, and of- 
 fered tbe post of secretary of state, wbicb be 
 declined. As a statesman be expressed bim- 
 self decidedly averse to tbe exclusion of tbe 
 duke of York, and tbe last act wliicb be per- 
 formed in jjarliamcnt, wbcre be sat as member 
 for tbe university of Cambridge, was to carry 
 from tbe comicil tbe king's answer to tbe 
 Commons, containing bis resolution never to 
 consent to tlie exclusion of bis brotber. Dis- 
 gusted bowever by Cbarles's dissolution of tbe 
 parliament in 1681, witbout tlie advice of bis 
 council, be declined tbe ofler of being again 
 returned for tbe university, and retired from 
 public life altogetber. In tbe reign of James II ; 
 be bad so estranged bimself from politics tbat j 
 be was one of tbe last to credit tbe landing of i 
 tbe j)rince of Orange. Wben tbe Revolution [ 
 was concluded, bowever, be waited on tbe new 
 monarcli to introduce bis son, and was again | 
 requested to accept the office of secretary of . 
 state, wliicb he once more declined. His son I 
 was afterwards appointed secretary at war, but j 
 in tbe very week of taking office, in a fit of i 
 melandioly tlirew bimself into tbe 'I'bames, I 
 which only extorted from his father a maxim 
 of tbe Stoic philosophy, " That a wise man 
 migbt dispose of lumself, and render life as 
 short as lie pleased." It was about this time 
 tbat sir William took Swift to hve with him, 
 as already related ; he was likewise occasion- 
 ally visited by king William. He died at 
 Woor park, Surrey, in January 1700, in his 
 scventv-second vear. Sir "William Temple j 
 merits a high rank both as a statesman and a i 
 {patriot, lie well understood his country's I 
 interest, and steadily pursued it, without either [ 
 ambition or avarice. He bad some foibles of 
 tercper, and a share of vanity and conceit, but 
 was substantially a worthy man in all tbe rela- 
 tions of life. As a writer he ranks among tbe 
 /nost eminent and popular of his day. His 
 " Observations upon the United rrovinces," 
 \irinted in 167i!, are interesting and valuable, 
 and bis " IMiscellanea " are lively and enter- 
 Jainiiig, if not profound. His memoirs are 
 vilso important as regards tbe history of tbe 
 times, an observation which may be also ex- 
 tended to tbe " Letters" published by Swift 
 Jifter bis death. All bis works, wbicb have 
 been published collectively in two volumes 
 quarto, and four volumes octavo, display a 
 great acquaintance both with men and books, 
 conveyed in a style negligent and incorrect, 
 
 r E ^ 
 
 but agreeable, and much resembling that of 
 easy and polite converhation. — Biof^. liril. Life 
 
 plT/ifU to tditiKii of hit Works, 181 I-. 
 
 TK.Ml'LKMAN ( Pktku) apbyMci,i:i of tb« 
 last century, as eminent for bis erudition and 
 general kiu)wledge as for his skill in the sci- 
 ence be professed. He was a native of tl:e 
 town of i)()rche8ter, in the county of Dorsrt, 
 born in March 1711, and received the rudi- 
 ments of a cbissical education at tbe Charter- 
 bo\ise, whence be removed to 1 riiiity college, 
 Cambridge, and then graduated in arts. After- 
 wards be j)roceeded to Leyden for tlw purjiose 
 of comjilcting his medical studies, wbicb be 
 did under tbe celebrated Hoerbaave, and bav- 
 ing taken the degree of MH. returned to Lon- 
 don in 1739, and commenced practice in that 
 metropolis. A fondiiess however for literary 
 pursuits, and tbe society of literary men, left 
 him little leisure, and perba])S less inclination, 
 to follow up bis jirofession with tbe re(jnisite 
 perseverance ; and having in 17 jj obtained a 
 situation in tbe Ikitish Museum, as keeper of 
 tbe reading-room, he from tbat i)eriod devoted 
 almost the whole of bis tinie to pursuits more 
 congenial to bis disposition. Besides a trans- 
 lation of " Norden's'J'ravels in Egypt," which 
 he printed in one volume, folio, lie was the 
 autlior of '' Remarks and Observations on 
 Pliysic, Anatomy, 6cc. extracted from the Me- 
 moirs of the French Academy of Sciences," 'J 
 vols.; " Cases and Consultations," &:c. ; with 
 a few pieces of miscellaneous poetry. In 1760 
 lie quitted tbe museum, on being chosen secre- 
 tary to tbe Society of Arts, in which capacity 
 he continued to act till bis death in September 
 1769. — There was also a Thomas Tkmpj.e- 
 MAN, a respectable mathematician, of Burv, in 
 Sufiblk, where be kept an arithmetical school, 
 who printed a folio volume of tables, exbiljiiing 
 tbe extent and comparative population of tbe 
 different kingdoms of tbe world. His death 
 took place about the year 17'29. — Nichols's Lit, 
 Aiiec. 
 
 TENCIN (PiEHRE GuF.UTN de) an eminent 
 ecclesiastic and statesman, who reached the 
 eummit of his career in tbe earlier j>art of the 
 last century. He was born at Cjrenoble iu 
 1678, and having received his education in the 
 university of Paris, took the vows, and ob- 
 tained early in life some considerable jirefer- 
 ment in tbe church. On tbe election of In- 
 nocent XllI to the tiara, he was confirmed 
 envoy from the court of Paris to that of tbe 
 Vatican, and soon after was made archbisbop 
 of Embrun. His subsequent rise to the high- 
 est dignities in tbe church was rapid, but ap- 
 pears to have been ratber the result of bis 
 genius for intrigue than of genuine merit or 
 even commanding talent, since, after baving 
 become a member of tbe college of cardiualn, 
 with tbe rich archbishopric of Lyons, w hen he 
 had at length reached tbe highest pinnacle of 
 his ambition, by being appointed to succeed 
 cardinal Fleuiy as minister of France, both big 
 abilities and courage seem to have sunk uncer 
 tbe difficulties of a post so arduous ; and giv- 
 ing up a situation, to the duties an<l responsi- 
 bilities of which he felt himself unequal, be 
 
TEN 
 
 had the prudence to exchange the cares at- 
 tendant on his short-lived power for the dig 
 nified retirement of his see. His death took 
 } lace in 17o8. — His sister, Claudine Alex- 
 andrine GuERiN DE Tencin, who died in 
 1749, was originally destined like himself for 
 a religious life, and took the veil in the con- 
 vent of INIontfleuri. Her own dislike of a 
 seclusion to which she had perhaps in the first 
 instance reluctantly dedicated herself, aided by 
 her brother's interest at Rome, ])rocured her a 
 dispensation from her vows, and she repaired 
 to Paris, where she distinguished herself in 
 the first circles by her gaiety and wit. The 
 death of the counsellor La Fresnaye, who was 
 said to have been murdered in her apartment, 
 at length interrupted her career, and she un- 
 derwent a short imprisonment, first in the 
 Chatelet, and afterwards in the Bastille. She 
 was the authoress of " Biographical Sketches 
 of De Comminges, and P'.dward II," and two 
 romances, " Les iMalheurs de I'Amour," and 
 the " Siege of Calais." — Biog, Univ. 
 
 TENIERS (David) the name of two of 
 the most celebrated artists of the Flemish 
 school of painting, father and son, both na- 
 tives of Antwerp, in which city the elder was 
 born in 1582. Having been well grounded in 
 the principles of the art under the famous 
 Rubens, who much esteemed him, and always 
 expressed the highest opinion of his genius, 
 he went to Rome for the purpose of studying 
 the great models of anticjuity contained in that 
 city, and became a scholar of Adam Elshei- 
 mer, of whose instruction and advice he con- 
 tinued to avail himself for a period of six 
 years. On his return to his native country he 
 occupied himself principally in the delineation 
 of fairs, shops, rustic sports, and drinking par- 
 ties, which he exhibited with such trutli, Im- 
 mour, and originality, that he may be con- 
 sidered the foimder of a style of painting 
 which his son afterwards brought to i)erhaps 
 the highest degree of perfection of which it 
 is capable. His pictures are mostly of a small 
 size. 'Jbe elder Teniers died in 164-9. — His 
 son, born in 1610, imitated the style and ex- 
 pression of his father, whom lie much ex- 
 celled in the correctness as well as finish of his 
 w'orks. He confined himself principally to the 
 same subjects of low humour in his original 
 pieces ; but from the wonderful exactness with 
 which he was enabled to copy the productions 
 of others, deceived even those who were es- 
 teemed among the best judges of the age, and 
 acquired for himself the a])pellation of " The 
 Ape of Painting." Leopold, archduke of Aus- 
 tria, made him one of the gentlemen of his 
 bedchamber ; William prince of Orange ho- 
 noured him with his friendship, and the king 
 of Spain built a g;dlery purposely for the re- 
 ception of his paintings. The smaller figures 
 of the younger Teniers are the most admired. 
 His death took place in 1694. — 'Jhere was 
 another son, named Abraham, also a good 
 painter, especially excelling in his perfect 
 knowledge of chiar'-oscuro. — h' Argeniille 
 Vies di's Peint. 
 
 TEIslS(^iS' (Thomas) arclibishop of Can- 
 
 TEN 
 
 terbury, a prelate of great piety and learning 
 He was a native of Cottenham in Cambridge- 
 shire, born September 29, 1636. His father, 
 who was rector of Topcroft, in the cou.itv of 
 Norfolk, till ejected by tlie parliament for his 
 adherence to royalty, placed him at the gram- 
 mar-school of Norwich, whence he removed 
 to Corpus Chiisti(Ben'et) college, Cambridge, 
 and having graduated there> obtained a fellow- 
 ship in 1662. His first inclination led him to 
 the study of physic as a profession, but the 
 church becoming open to him by the Resto- 
 ration, he took orders, and became curate of 
 the parish of St Andrew, Cambridge ; in which 
 capacity he distinguished himself so highly, 
 especially by his exemplary conduct towards 
 his sick parishioners when the plague raged 
 there in 1665, that he was presented with a 
 handsome piece of plate as a testimonial of 
 their gratitude and affection. Soon after he 
 was presented by lord Manchester to the 
 living of Holywell, Huntingdonshire, and sub- 
 sequently obtained in succession those of St 
 Peter JMancroft, Norwich, 1674, and St JMar- 
 tin's in the Fields, London, 1680. Dr Teni- 
 son w'as a zealous polemic on the Protestant 
 side, both previous to and after the Revolution, 
 which circumstance, together with his tried 
 integrity and ability, procured him rapid pro- 
 motion under king William. One of the first 
 acts of that monarch was to make him arch- 
 deacon of London, and in 1691 to raise him to 
 the episcopal bench as bishop of Lincoln. On 
 the death of Tillotson in 1694, he was ad- 
 vanced to tlie primacy ; which high dignity he 
 continued to hold with equal moderation, firm- 
 ness, and ability, for a period of twenty years, 
 till his death in December 1715. As an au- 
 thor he is knov^'n by his " Creed of Hobbes 
 examined," an able and argumentative trea- 
 tise ;" *' Baconiana, or Remains of Sir F. Ba- 
 con," Bvo ; " Sir Thomas Browne's Tracts ;" 
 and a variets' of miscellaneous sermons. St 
 ^lartin's parish is indebted to his munificence 
 for a parochial school and library. — Biov. 
 Bril. 
 
 TKNNANT (Smithson) an able chemist, 
 was born at Selby in Yorkshire, of whicli })Iace 
 his fatlier was vicar in 1761. He received his 
 early education at Scorton, near Tadcaster, and 
 afterwards under Dr Croft at Beverley, where he 
 attended more to the sciences than the classics. 
 In 1781 he proceeded to Edinburgh to study 
 j)hysic, and the year following became a mem- 
 ber of Clirist's college, Cambridge, whence he 
 removed to Emnnuel college, where in 1786 
 he graduated BAI, and in 1796 took that of 
 doctor in the same faculty. In 1812 he set- 
 tied in London, and delivered lectures on mine- 
 ralogy, and the following year was elected 
 professor of chemistry at Cambridge. He had 
 read but one course of lectures, when he vi- 
 sited France, where he was killed by a fall 
 from his horse near Boulogne, which fractured 
 his skull. This event took place February 22, 
 ; 1815. He was a fellow of the Royal Society, 
 to which body he communicated various pa- 
 pers on the decomposition of fixed air ; the 
 nature of the diamond 3 the action of nitre on 
 
T E R 
 
 gold and jdatina ; on the uses of lime in a^^ri- 
 culture ; on the cnmposition of emery ; a new 
 nietliod of obtainiu'j potassium, 6tc. ice. lie 
 also contributed to the Transactions of the 
 (leological Society the analysis of a volcanic 
 substance containing boracic acid. — Tlioinsun's 
 Annals of Philos. 
 
 TENNKNT (Gh-dk nr) the son of an Irish 
 presbyterian minister, who removed in 1718 
 to North America, and settled near Philadcd- 
 phia, where he opened an academy for the 
 education of students in divinity. Tlie son 
 assisted in the direction of this establishment, 
 and after having studied medicine as well as 
 theology, he was in 1726 ordained pastor of a 
 concregation at New Brunswick. In 1713 he 
 founded a presbyterian church at Piiiladel- 
 phia, and lie subsequently travelled in the 
 various Anglo-American provinces as a mis- 
 sionary. Notwiilistauding his zeal and success 
 in this undertaking, a party was formed 
 af^ainst him, and he was accused of immorality. 
 A hostile pamphlet was published, called the 
 *♦ Examiner ;" to which he replied in another, 
 entitled the " Examiner examined." This 
 controversy occasioned the convocation of a 
 synod in 1741, but no decision on the points 
 in dispute took place. Tenntmt, with a view 
 to conciliation, published a remarkable work, 
 under the title of " The Peace of Jerusalem." 
 lie died in 1765. — His brother, William 
 Tenxent, minister of Freehold, in New Jer- 
 sey, was a distinguished preacher among the 
 Calrinists. He published a tract, giving an 
 " Account of the Revival of Religion at Free 
 hold and elsewhere," 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TERENCE or Publius Terentius, a ce- 
 lebrated Latin writer of comedies, is supposed 
 to have been born in Carthage, about the year 
 of Rome 566 (BC. 194). He was brought a 
 slave to that capital in his youth, but falling 
 into the hands of a generous master named 
 Terentius Lucanus, the latter was so taken 
 with the quickness of his parts, that he first 
 gave him a good education, and then his 
 liberty. He acquired the friendship and esteem 
 of several Romans of rank, among whom were 
 Scipio Africanus the younger, and his friend 
 Lslius. He applied himself to the composition 
 of comedies on the Greek model, and indeed, 
 either in whole or in part, translated them 
 from tlie Greek. The first piece which he is 
 recorded to have brought on the stage, was 
 the"Andiia," represented BC. 166; and the 
 whole of his six comedies which remain, were 
 acted at Rome between the last-mentioned 
 date and BC. 160. They were received with 
 great applause, especially the " Eunuchus," 
 for which, according to Donatus. he received 
 8000 sesterces (about 64/.), the largest sum 
 which had ever been given for a comedy. It 
 was a common opinion, confirmed by several 
 ancient writers, that Scipio and LieHus assisted 
 him in the composition of these pieces. Te- 
 rence himself hints at this rumour as a charge 
 made by detractors, but regards it as confer- 
 ring honour rather than requiring contradiction. 
 It IS not likely however these statesmen and 
 commanders, whatever their love for letters, 
 
 T E II 
 
 »liould possess talent of thiu description , not 
 to mention that no writings are more strongly 
 marked by their stjle and manner an the jiro- 
 duct of a single liand, than those of Terence, 
 After he had given his hix comedies to the Ho- 
 muii public, lie departed for (jrrccc, where he 
 stayed about a year, in order, it is thought, to 
 collect some of the plays of Menander. He 
 fell hick, according to some, and died at Hcaoa 
 his voyage home, while others represent his 
 death to have taken place at Stymj)halis in 
 Arcadia. l'j)on the merits of Terence much 
 opposing opinion has existed, partly in conse- 
 quence of his known obligation to the comic 
 writers of Greece, and especially to Menamler. 
 Thus it is supposed that he has little claim to 
 originality, either for the incident or sentiment 
 of his pieces, which liowever still leave him 
 the high praise of judicious selection, ha[)py 
 disposition, and purity and sweetness of lan- 
 guage. Cicero also speaks of him as tlie trans- 
 lator of IMenander, praises his Latin as ex- 
 pressing all the politeness and amenity of the 
 original ; and Ca;sar calls him a lover of pure 
 diction, while expressing his regret that he did 
 not possess the vis comicaof his original. Of 
 the numerous editions of Terence, the most 
 esteemed are the Elzevir, 1635 ; the Variorum, 
 Amst. 1686; that of Westerhovius, 2 vols. 
 4to, 1726 ; that of Bentley, Cambridge, 4to, 
 of the same year ; the Edinburgh edition of 
 1758 ; and that of Zeunius, Leipsic, 1774, 2 
 vols. 8vo. Terence has been translated into 
 Englisli by the elder Colman, and into French 
 by Madame Dacier. — Vossii Poel. Lat. Cru- 
 siiis's Roman Poets. • Saxii Onom. 
 
 TERENTIANUS MAURUS, a Libyan 
 author, born at Carthage, of whom a gram- 
 matical treatise is yet extant, written in Latin 
 hexameters. It is entitled " De Literis, Syl- 
 labis, Pedibus, et Metris," iMilan, 1497. It 
 is also to be found in the Genevese " Corpus 
 Poetarum." Of his birth or condition but 
 little is known. — Moreri. 
 
 TERPANDER, a Lesbian poet, who flou- 
 rished towards the close of the seventh cen- 
 tury before the Christian era. Like most of 
 his brethren he united practical to theoretical 
 harmony, and is said to have been the inventor 
 of an additional string to the lyre. He first 
 gained the prize for music at the Carnian 
 games, instituted by the Lacedemonians ; who 
 however banished him for the innovation of 
 the ad<litional strinjr. and declared his instru- 
 ment forfeited. — ]\>ssius. 
 
 TERRASSON, the name of several inge- 
 nious French writers,- who flourished during 
 tlie seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Of 
 these, Jean, born at Lyons in 1670, the son 
 of an advocate of that city, enjoyed the repu- 
 tation of being one of the best practical jdii- 
 losophers as well as soundest scholars of his 
 time. He was for some time a member of the 
 Oratory, and eventually obtained in 1721 the 
 Greek professorship in ihe Royal College of 
 Paris. His dissertation on the Iliad, printed 
 in 2 vols. 12mo, made him a prominent con- 
 troversialist in the dispute carried on between 
 Madame Dacier and l)e la Motte, respectin'' 
 
TER 
 
 Homer. His other works are " Sethos," a 
 moral and political romance ; a French trans- 
 lation of the works of Diodorus Siculiis, in 
 eeven duodecimo volumes ; and a tract in fa- 
 vour of the IMissisippi scheme. He .was a 
 member of the Academie des Sciences, and 
 died in 1750. — Andrew Teruasson, brother 
 to the above, was also an ecclesiastic belong- 
 ing to tlie Oratory, and was celebrated for his 
 eloquence in the pulpit. Four duodecimo vo- 
 lumes of his discourses were published after 
 his decease, wliich took place at Paris in 
 17i23. — Gaspard, another brother, was edu- 
 cated in the same seminary, but becoming a 
 convert to the Jansenist party, not only lost 
 the reputation he had previously acquired, but 
 was thrown into confinement. After his libe- 
 ration he settled at Paris, and died there in 
 1752, leaving also behind him four volumes 
 of sermons. — IMatthew Terrasson, of the 
 same family, was a native of Lyons, where he 
 practised with much credit as an advocate. He 
 was born in the autumn of 1669, and graduated 
 at Paris, wliere he died September 30, 1734. 
 Several professional tracts of his compilation 
 were much esteemed, and are printed together 
 in one quarto volume. — His son Antoine, 
 born at Paris in November 1705, was brought 
 up to the same profession as liis father. His 
 history of the Pv,oman code, first printed iu 
 1750, is an able v/ork, and gained its author a 
 considerable degree of reputation as well as 
 advantages of a more solid nature. He ob- 
 tained the situation of censor loyal, with a law 
 professorship in the Royal college, to which 
 he united the lucrative appointment of coun- 
 sellor to the French clergy. Besides the work 
 already alluded to, he was the author of a 
 variety of treatises on historical and critical, 
 as well as on professional subjects. His death 
 took place in the October of 1782. — Biog. 
 Univ. Xouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TERPvAY (Joseph Marie) abb^, a French 
 ecclesiastic ajid financier, was born in 1715 at 
 Boan in Fortz. He was educated at the col- 
 lege of Jully, after which he became a clerk 
 in the parliament of Paris. He next entered 
 into orders, but a defective utterance and for- 
 bidding exterior prevented him from making 
 bis way in the church, and he became chief 
 of the council to the prince of Conde, then 
 comptroller, afterwards minister of state, and 
 finally director- gen oral of the public buildings 
 of France. He was a man of a firm decided 
 temper, and of indefatigable application, who 
 rendered his accounts models of financial 
 order, ])recision, and perspicuity. He re- 
 formed many abuses, and introduced several 
 economical reforms, which produced him nu- 
 merous enemies, wliose opposition be treated 
 with contempt. He resigned his places in 
 1774, and died in 1778 at the age of sixty- 
 three. — Koiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TP:RRY (EowAnn) an English voyager 
 and traveller, born about 1590. Being ap- 
 pomted chaplain to a fleet which accomjia- 
 nied sir Thomas Roe, who was sent ambassa- 
 dor to the Great Mogul, Mr Terry sailed from 
 Gravesend in February 1615, and on arriving 
 
 TER 
 
 in India be was chosen to supply the place oi 
 the chaplain to the embassy, who had died in 
 the voyage. He remained two years at the 
 court of the Mogul emperor ; and in 1617 be 
 returned with sir T. Roe to England. He sub- 
 sequently became rector of Greenford in INIid- 
 dlesex, where be passed the remainder of his 
 life. Terry drew up an account of the ob- 
 servations he made during his residence abroad, 
 which he presented in Mii. to Cliarles I, then 
 prince of Wales, in 1622. It was published 
 under the title of " A Voyage to East India," 
 London, 1655, 8vo, and was reprinted in 1777, 
 8vo. — Biflg. Univ. 
 
 TERTRP^ There were two French ec- 
 clesiastics of this name ; Jean Baptiste du 
 Ter'i re, the first in point of time, Avas a na- 
 tive of Calais, born in 1610. lie served ori- 
 ginally in the army, but afterwards preferring 
 a religious life, assumed the habit of St Do- 
 minic, and proceeded to the West Indies in 
 quality of a missionary. On liis return to 
 France in 1658 be employed himself in writing 
 a history of the French settlements in the An- 
 tilles, which is more remarkable for tbe accu- 
 racy of its statements than the elegance of its 
 composition. This work, which occupies four 
 quarto volumes, appeared partly in 1667, and 
 was completed in 1671. The author sur- 
 vived its publication several years, dving at 
 Paris in 1687. — Rodolphus, a Jesuit of the 
 same name, was born in Alen^on in 1667. 
 Tbe latter is known as the author of several 
 metaphysical and devotional tracts, especially 
 of a reply to the opinions broached by Male- 
 brancbe. — Bios;. Uviv. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TERTULLIAN (Qrixrus Septimus Flac- 
 cus) considered the most early Latin father 
 extant, was born at Carthage about the mid- 
 dle of the second century. His fatber was a 
 centurion under tbe ])roconsul of Africa, and 
 be was at first a Pagan, although \Ahcn or 
 where he embraced the Christian religion docs 
 not appear. He received a liberal education, 
 and was well versed in Greek and Roman 
 literature, and, as some assert, learned in the 
 Roman la'.v. He flourished chiefly under the 
 reigns of the emperors Severus and Caracalla ; 
 and Jerome mentions a report that be lived to 
 a very advanced age. He employed him- 
 self vigorously in the cause of Cbristianity ; 
 but towards the latter part of bis life 
 quitted the Catholic church to join tbe 
 ]\Iontanists, out of which he formed a sect 
 of his own, named Tertullianists. 'i'be ground 
 of bis separation, however, related rather to 
 discipline than doctrine, being favoura!>le to 
 the greater austerities inculcated by Montanus 
 and his two prophetesses. Of the personal 
 history of Tertullian little more is known than 
 that he did not separate from his wife on be- 
 coming a priest, if even be did not many her 
 after that event. Of his writint-^s tbe most 
 noted is bis " Apologeticus, or Apology for tbe 
 Christian Religion," addressed to the procon- 
 sul of Africa, which contains much information 
 on the manners and conduct of tbe early 
 Christians, and in a manly strain afserts tbe 
 falsehood of tbe calumnies by which they were 
 
T RS 
 
 assailed, and tlie injustice of peraocutini^ lliein. 
 Connected with this work arc Ins two l)Ooks, 
 " Ad Naiiones," in wliuli, with his chaiac- 
 teristic veliemence, he (airics his attack into 
 the (juarteis of his oppotu iita, lie also wrote 
 largely agaitist various heresies, and several 
 
 may be mentioned the king's palace at StocK- 
 holm, and tiie royal castle of JJroitingholin. 
 He died in 171JJ, leaving many Latin worltH. 
 includin'4 a trcatiHe, " l)e (Jometarum da- 
 tura," l70(), folio. — l^ii>fi- l^niv. 
 
 riCSSlN ( Charles GusTAvt's, count de) 
 
 distinct tracts " On I'.apiism," " On Idolatry," son of the precedin<^', was one of those indivi 
 and on the conduct retpiired from Christians ' duals to whose influence may be principally 
 
 ascribed the modern revolutions of Sweden. 
 He was born at Stockholm in 1695, and after 
 being educated hy his father, he travelled 
 from 1714 to 1719 in Germany, France, and 
 Italy. His talents were dis|)layed in the po- 
 litical discussions which arose m Sweden after 
 the death of Charles XII, when he declared 
 for the party of the Flats, one of the two {^rei t 
 factions which alternately governed or agitated 
 the country. His influence caused the decided 
 triumph of the |)arty which he joined. After 
 having assisted at the most secret delibera- 
 tions of the states, and negocialed with many 
 foreign courts, he was nominated president 
 of the assembly of nobility in the diet of 
 17.)8. He presented and procured the adop- 
 tion by tlie diet of a plan for a most essential 
 change in the system of government. His 
 favourite measure was the encouragement of 
 manufactures, and the appropriation of a part 
 of the public revenue to that purpose. He 
 also cultivated the friendship of France, in 
 preference to that of England or Russia ; and 
 from 1739 to 1742 he resided as ambassador 
 at Paris, where lie concluded a treaty of al 
 liance and for a subsidy with the French go- 
 vernment. Soon after his return he was 
 made a senator, dnd was sent on a mission to 
 
 under heathen domination. In one of these, 
 " Upon Public Spectacles," he dissuades ihem 
 from attending shows and festivals as partak- 
 ing of idolatry ; ami he luxuriates in the anti- 
 cipation of the transport with which he shall 
 survey the torments of |)ersecutors, philoso- 
 pliers, poets, and tragedians in another world. 
 This father was a man of lively parts, but he 
 displays little judgment in his reasoning, and 
 while led by his temper to violence ami exag- 
 geration, he was at the same time weakly cre- 
 dulous and gloomily austere. His style is 
 concise and figurative, but harsh, unpolished, 
 and obscure. On the whole it has been doubt- 
 ed whether he did more good or harm to 
 Christianity. His works have been frequently 
 edited, both collectively and separately, par- 
 ticularly his " Apology." Of the entire works 
 the editions of Rigakius, Paris, 1641, and of 
 Semler, Hal. INIagd. b vols. 1770, are esteemed 
 tlie best. The best edition of the " Apology" 
 is that by Havercamp, Leyden, 1718, 8vo. — 
 Diipin. Cave. JSlosheim. 
 
 TESSE (Rene dk Froulai, count de) mar- 
 shal of France, was born about 1650. He 
 served with distinction as aide-de-camp to mar- 
 shal de Crequi in 1669. Having become a 
 lieutenant-general in 169'2, he raised the 
 blockade of Pignerol in 1693 ; and he was 
 commander-in-chief in Piedmont during the 
 absence of Catinat. In 1703 he was made a 
 marshal, and the next year he went to Spain, 
 where he had some success, though he failed 
 before Gibraltar and before Barcelona, where 
 he was opposed by the earl of Peterborough. 
 He was more fortunate in 1707, when he drove 
 the Piedmoiitese out of Dauphiny. Disgusted 
 with the world he entered into the religious 
 society of the Camaldules in 1722 ; but he 
 was obliged to quit his retreat to take the com- 
 mand of the French in Spain. On his return 
 in 1725 he retired again to his solitude, and 
 died the lOih of May, the same year. He was 
 the author of three historical tracts ; and ge- 
 neral Grimoard published in 1806, " jNIemoires 
 et Lettres du iMarechal de Tess6," 2 vols. 
 8vo. — Diet. Hist. Bio<^. Uuiv. 
 
 'i'ESSIN (NicoDEML's, count de) senator of 
 Sweden and grand marshal of the court, prin- 
 cipally known for his works of architecture, 
 was born at Nikoping in 1654. His father, 
 wlio was architect to Charles XI, received 
 from that prince letters of nobility. The son, 
 after studying the art of building at home, 
 travelled for improvement, and stayed some 
 time at Rome to observe the monuments of 
 ancient and modern genius. Returning to 
 Sweden, he was successively nominated cham- 
 1 erlain, baron, count, superinlendant of build- 
 ings, grand- marslial, and senator. Among 
 the numerous editices erected from his designs 
 Gen. Bioc. Vol. III. 
 
 Denmark ; and in 1744 he went to Berlin to 
 negociate the marriage of Lousia Ulrica, sister 
 of the j)rince royal of Sweden, when he re- 
 ceived the decoration of the order of the Black 
 Eagle, and many other marks of consi>ieration 
 for his services. From 1747 to 1752 count 
 de Tessin had the direction of foreign affairs 
 as president of the chancery ; and at the same 
 time he was appointed governor of the prince 
 royal, afterwards Gustavus III. He addressed 
 to his pupil a series of letters relative to morals, 
 politics, and administration, which were pub- 
 lished, and which have been tran.->lated into 
 English, French, and other languages. Ihe 
 English version is entitleil " Letters to a 
 Young Prince from his Governor," London, 
 1755. 8vo. About 1760 the approach of party 
 disputes in the diet induced count de Tessiu 
 to think of retiring from the public service, 
 and in the following year he resigned all his 
 employments. He then settled at his estate 
 of Akeroe iu Sudermania, where lie died in 
 1770. He promoted the establishment of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Stockholm; and be- 
 sides his Letters, he wrote a number of dis- 
 courses and essays. A description of a cabinet 
 of natural history which he had formed, was 
 published in 1753, under the title of " Mu- 
 seum Tessinianum," folio, with plates. — Id. 
 
 lESlT ( Fl'Lvio. count) an admired Italian 
 poet, was born in 1593, at Ferrara, of parents 
 iu medium circumstances. He was carried 
 when young to Modena, where he rose to tUv 
 
 u 
 
T ET 
 
 Ligliest offices in that court, and was honoured 
 with various orders of knighthood. His hfe 
 was Ijowever a perpetual aileniation of pro- 
 sj)erity and adversity, chiefly in consequence 
 cf his own ambition and inconsistency, whicli 
 caused liim to fall into disgrace with duke 
 Francis I, who imprisoned him in the citadel 
 of Modena, where he ilied in 1646. His 
 poems are chiefly of the lyric class, and those 
 whicli he publislied in his youth aboui)d in the 
 conceits and false taste of his age. When his 
 judgment was matured, however, hecom{)Osed 
 in a purer style, and he exhibits a degree of 
 viiTOur and poetical spirit which will bearcom- 
 ]iarison with the best poets of Italy. He wrote 
 two tragedies, entitled " Arsinda," and 
 " L'Isola d' Alcina," the style of which is 
 rather lyric than dramatic. — Tiraboschu 
 
 'iEl'ENS (John Nicholas) counsellor of 
 state and of finance at Copenhagen, was born 
 at Tetenshull, in the duchy of Sleswick, in 
 1737. After having been variously engaged 
 as a public teacher, he went in 1776 to the 
 university of Kiel, to give lectures on pLiio 
 sophy and matliematics. In 1789 he was i 
 calied to Copenhagen, where he died Aug. 19, 
 1807, after having for nearly twenty years j 
 filled honourable posts in the departments of ; 
 finance and administration. His works are 
 " An Introduction to the Calculation of An- 
 nuities," Leipsic, 1785, 8vo ; *' A Voyage to | 
 the Coasts of the North Sea, to observe tlie 
 Construction of Canals," 1788, 8vo ; "A Phi- 
 losophical Essay on Human Nature," 1777, 
 8vo ; " The Origin of Language and Writing," 
 Butzow, 1772, 8vo ; and " Considerations on 
 the reciprocal Rights of belligerent and neu. 
 tral Powers at Sea," Copenhagan, 1805, 8vo. 
 All these treatises are in German; and he 
 likewise publish*?d a Latin translation of 
 Kraft's Lectures on Mechanics, 1773, 4to. — 
 
 i EIZKL, or TESTZEL (John) a fanatical 
 monk of the sixteenth century, whose bigotry 
 and absurdities may be considered among the 
 proximate causes of the Reformation. He was 
 of German extraction, born at Piern upon the 
 Elbe, and having taken the habit of St Do- 
 minic, received a commission from liis dio- 
 cesan, the archbishop of iNIayence, to preach 
 up the indulgences of Leo X. The excess of 
 zeal which he displayed in the execution of 
 this charge, and the extravagant power and 
 virtue which he attributed to his commodities, 
 declaring that they were sufficient to procure 
 impunity for a sinner, though he had even vio- 
 lated the mother of God herself, first roused 
 the indignation of Luther, and drew upon him 
 tliose attacks which were at lengih transferred 
 from the effect to the cause, and diverted 
 from combating the absurdities themselves to 
 exposing the corruption of the system by 
 which ihey were originated and sanctitmed. 
 The eyes of the papal government were at 
 length, when too late, opened to the mischief 
 which their indiscreet instrument had occa- 
 sioned, and he received so severe a rebuke 
 from the legate, that his wounded pride could 
 not bear up against what he considered so un- 
 
 TH A 
 
 grateful a return for his exertions, and he is 
 said to have literally died in consequence of a 
 broken heart in 1519. — Moreri. 
 
 TEX El 11 A (Joseph) a Portuguese his- 
 torian of the sixteenth century, born about 
 the year 1543. He was a monk of the order 
 of St Dominic, and liead of a religious house 
 belonging to that fraternity at Santarem. His 
 principal works consist of a life of king Sebas- 
 tian, with a particular account of the disas- 
 trous expedition of that prince into Africa, and 
 an early history of Portugal. On the acces- 
 sion of Don Antonio to the throne, Texeira 
 was one of those who went with him to Paris, 
 in order to solicit assistance against Spain. 
 His death took place in 1620. — Moreri. 
 
 TEXI-HRA (Pkter) a Portuguese histo- 
 rian and traveller, born about 1570. Nothing 
 is known of his history till 1600, when, as 
 appears from his own relation, he had resided 
 some years in Persia, and particularly at the 
 Portuguese settlement on tlie island of Ormuz. 
 After having studied the Persian language, he 
 ^"^Tjt to Iiuiia, and tlience he determined to 
 return to Europe by a route which would en- 
 able him to visit various parts of Asia, with 
 which he was unacquainted. Having em- 
 barked at Malacca, he touched at Sumatra, the 
 Sunda Isles, Borneo, and the Philippines, and 
 crossing the Pacific ocean, arrived in Decem- 
 ber 1600 at Acapulco. He then travelled to 
 Mexico, and sailing from the port of St John 
 d'Uloa, he arrived at Lisbon in October 1601. 
 He subsequently undertook a second voyage to 
 Malacca, and on his return travelled by land 
 from Bassora to Aleppo. Arriving in Europe 
 he passed through Italy and France to tlie 
 Netherlands ; and at Antwerp he published 
 " Relaciones de Pedro Texeira del Origen, 
 Descendencia, y Succession de los Reyes de 
 Persia y de Hormuz, y de un Viage hecho por 
 el mismo Autor dende la India Oriental, hasta 
 Italia por tierra," 16 lO, Bvo. This work is 
 curious, as exliibiting much information pre- 
 viously unknown in Europe, relative to the 
 history and geography of Asia. — Jiiog. Univ. 
 
 THABET BEN CORRAH, an Arabian 
 mathematician, philosopher, and physician, 
 who was of the sect of the Sabaeans, and was 
 born at Haran or Carrhae, in Mesopotamia, in 
 835. He is said to have been skilled in the 
 Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, and to 
 have composed in the latter one hundred and 
 fifty works on dialectics, mathematics, astro- 
 logy, and medicine, besides sixteen in Syriac, 
 including a treatise on music, a chronicle of 
 the kings of Syria, and a book on the religion 
 of the Sabajans. Thabet resided at Bagdad, 
 and was one of the astrologers of the calij)h 
 Motaded. Among his works are translations 
 from Euclid, Galen, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Archi- 
 medes, and Apollonius Pergajus. He died 
 AD. 900. — Senan, or Sinan Ben Thabft, 
 not less celebrated than his father, was first 
 physician to the caliph Caher ]'>illah. He 
 turned lAlahometan at the solicitation of the 
 prince whom he served, and whose cruel dis- 
 j)osition he dreaded. At length he fled to 
 Khorasan, whence he relumed after the de 
 
T II A 
 
 pofcition of Calier Billali. He died in 942. 
 He was learneil both in astrnuoinv and medi- 
 cine, and conjj)Osed woiks on both tlio.se sci- 
 ences, much esteemed by tlie Orientals. — 
 TiiAHKT Hkn Sinan, hjs son, eiihivaled the 
 same branches of learnini^; with liis father and 
 graiidfatlier, and was physician to tl»e hospital 
 at Bai;dad. He wrote the history of liis own 
 time from AD. 902 to 970, in which year lie 
 died. — f^'o^- Univ. 
 
 THALKm (Aim Mansi-r Aru'ix I\Iei.ek 
 At) author of a ^reat number of works on a 
 variety of subjects, was born at Nischabur, in 
 Persia, Al). 961, aad died in 1038. Among 
 liis ]>riiicii)al productions may be specified an 
 Arabian Anthology, or E'lorilegium ; a treatise 
 on the intelligence of the Arabian language ; a 
 collection of the most elegant Arabian phrases ; 
 and a history of illustrious poets, entitled 
 " The Pearl of the most meritorious i\Ien ot 
 the Age," which is reckoned his chef-d'oeuvre. 
 Copies of this work exist in the royal libraries 
 of Paris, and the Kscurial, and in the Bod- 
 leian at Oxford. — Bitig. Univ. 
 
 I'll ALES the founder of the Ionic scliool of 
 philosophy, was born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, 
 about the year 580 BC. He rose to distinction 
 among his fellow-citizens, and was earJy em- 
 ployed in public atVairs. His ardour for im- 
 provement led him to travel in search of in- 
 struction, and after visiting Crete, he sailed to 
 Egypt, where, according to some authorities, 
 he acijuiied his knowledge of philosophy and 
 mathematics from the priests of IMemphis. 
 L'pon his return to Miletus he communicated 
 the knowledge which lie had acquired to many 
 disciples, among the principal of whom were 
 Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Pythagoras. 
 In order to pursue his studies with the les* 
 interruption, he gave up the management of 
 liis estate to his nephew ; and is otherwise the 
 subject of several popular tales, foiinded on 
 his close attention to philosophical sju'cula- 
 tions, and abstraction from common aflairs. 
 He reached tlie age of ninety, and died through 
 mere infirmity, as he was attending the Olym- 
 pic games. Laertius and several other writers 
 regard Thales as the founder of the Greek 
 philosophy, but as neither he nor his earliest 
 successors in the Ionic school left any writings 
 behind them, their tenets can only be conjec- 
 tured from the obscure notices of the later 
 Greek writers. He is represented as having 
 held that water was the first principle of natural 
 bodies, and according to Cicero he spoke of 
 God as the mind which formed all things out 
 of that primary element. Others deny that 
 he represented God as the intelligent cause of 
 the universe, and aver that the sayings as- 
 cribed to Thales are of dubious authority. 
 According to him, the principle of motion, 
 wherever it exists, is mind, the soul being con- 
 sidered as a moving power, perpetually in 
 action. Respecting the material world, he 
 held that night was created before day, that 
 the stars are fiery bodies, and that the moon is 
 an opaque one, illuminated 1)y the sun. The 
 catth he regarded as a siiherical body, plaA-d 
 in the centre of the universe. In tlie mathe- 
 
 THE 
 
 matics he is reported to have been the in- 
 ventor of several fundam'-ntal propositions, 
 adppted by Euclid. He was also a considerable 
 improver of astronomy, and the first Greek who 
 predi( ted a solar erlijisc. He moreov<r taught 
 the Greeks the divis^ion of the heavens into 
 five zones, and fixed the revolution of the sun 
 at :^Gl^ days. Thales was likewise one of the 
 philo80|)liers who united moral and political 
 wisdom to the researches of science ; and nu- 
 merous aphorisms are attributed to him, in 
 exem|)lification of his social penetration. On 
 tiie whole he was doubtless one of the greatest 
 men of early Greece, and well entitled, as was 
 the case, to be regarded as the first of its 
 seven sages. — Diogenes Laert. Stanley. Brucker. 
 Ba ifle. 
 
 THALES, or THALETAS, an ancient 
 Greek musician, who has been sometimes con- 
 founded with the celebrated philosopher of 
 JMiletus. He was anative of the isle of Crete, 
 and was contemporary with Eycurgus, the 
 Spartan legislator, by whom he was much es- 
 teemed. He introduced into Sparta, and also 
 into Arcadia and Argos, several sorts of dances, 
 including that denominated gymnopedia. Con- 
 siderable improvements in the art he professed 
 are attributed to 'I'haletas, and he is said to 
 have composed lyric poems, which in conjunc- 
 tion with his music inspired those who heard 
 them with sentiments of admiration and esteem 
 for the social and manly virtues, jiroducing 
 effects hardly less surprising than those as- 
 cribed to the songs of Orpheus or Amphion. — 
 Biog. Univ. liees's Ci/clitp. 
 
 'THEDEN (John Christian Anthony) 
 an eminent Prussian surgeon, born in Meck- 
 lenberg in 1714. His youth was passed in 
 poverty, and he raised himself to distinction by 
 his own exertions. After having been attached 
 to a regiment of cavalry, he in 1758 was ap- 
 pointed surgeon of a regiment of infantry, and 
 at length lirst surgeon of the Prussian armies. 
 He died in 1797. He invented various in- 
 struments for the improvement of sur^jical ope- 
 rations ; and he published several works, in- 
 cluding " New Observations and Experiments 
 for the Advancement of Surgery," and " In- 
 structions for Sub-surgeons in the Army." — 
 Biop;. I' nil'. 
 
 THELLUSON (Peieu) a native of Ge- 
 neva, descended from an ancient family of 
 French Protestants, who settled as a merchant 
 in London, and accjuired an immense fortune. 
 He dieil at his seat at Plastow in Kent, July 
 21, 1797. The testamentary disposition which 
 he made of his projierty was not a little ex- 
 traordinary. 'Jo his widow and children 
 (three sons and three daughters) he be- 
 queathed about 100,000/. ami the remainder, 
 amounting to more than 600,000/. he left to 
 trustees, to accumulate during the lives of his 
 three sons and the lives of their sons ; then the 
 estates directed to be purchased with the pro- 
 duce of the accumulating fund, to be conveyed 
 to the eldest male descendant of his three 
 sons, with benefit of survivorship. This 
 singular will being contested by the heirs at 
 law, was finally established by 'a decision of 
 
 U 2 
 
THE 
 
 the liouse of Lords, June 25, 1805. It how- 
 ever occasioned the passing of the Act of 
 Parliament of the 39th and 40ch of Gedlge 
 III, cap. 98, restraining the power of devising 
 property for the purpose of accumulation to 
 twenty-one years after the death of the tes- 
 tator. In case there sliould be no such heir 
 as ilie devisee described in the will, the accu- 
 nuiliited property (wliich will probably amount 
 to at least thirty-two millions) is to be added 
 to the sinking-fund. — Pi tkr Isaac Thellu- 
 SON, the elde^t son of the subject of tliis arti- 
 cle, was raised to the peerage by the Iri.>-h 
 title of baron Rendlesham in 1806 ; and he 
 died Se[)tember 16, 1808, leaving several male 
 children. — Debrett's Peerage. 
 
 THE.MISTIUS. surnamed EUPHRADES, 
 a rhetorician of Paphlagonia, wh) flourished 
 duriiic' the greater part of the fourth and the 
 beirinniiig of the fifth centuries. Constantius, 
 Julian, and Theodosius all vied in distinguish- 
 ing with their favour a man who, though op- 
 posed to them in his religious opinions, was 
 so li;tle bigotted to Paganism, that he was on 
 terms of intimacy with many of the leading 
 Christians of his time, especially with (j re- 
 gory Nazianzen. In the reign of the former 
 prince he was admitted into the patrician order, 
 and eventually rose to be prefect of Constan- 
 tinople. Of his works more than thirty ora- 
 tions are yet extant, as well as his Commen- 
 taries on the Philosopliy of Plato and Ari- 
 stotle. He lived to an extreme old age, and 
 died about the year 410. — Fabricii Bibl. Griec. 
 
 THE.MISrOCLES, an illustrious Athenian 
 warrior and statesman, whose father's name 
 was Neocles. He is said to have indulged in 
 dissipation in his youth, and to have been dis- 
 inherited on that account. It does not how- 
 ever appear that he neglected the cultivation 
 of his talents, since he seized every opportu- 
 nity for obtaining popularity and military re- 
 putation. By this means he triumplied over 
 his more virtuous rival, Aristides, whose ban- 
 ishment he i)rocured ; and at the period of 
 the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, king of 
 Persia, Themistocles was at the head of the 
 Athenian republic, and in this station the 
 fleet was entrusted to his direction. After 
 the battle of I'hermopylaj, when the Persian 
 army was approaching, the people of Athens 
 forsook their city and retired on board their 
 navy ; A measure which they adopted through 
 tiie influence of Themistocles, who is re- 
 ported to have bribed the priestess of A polio at 
 Delphos, in ordi r, through the sanction of her 
 oracular advice, to work on the minds of his 
 superstitious countrymen. He then joined the 
 confederate armament of the Grecian states ; 
 and to prevent the separation of the fleet, 
 through the fears and jealousies of the different 
 commanders, he privately sent to inform the 
 Persian monarch that such a design was in 
 agitation ; and Xer.xes, by the immediate ad- 
 vance of his navy to prevent their escape, 
 obli^^ed the Greeks to come to an engagement 
 oft' Salamis, when they gained a most decisive 
 and glorious victory, BC. 480. Themistocles, 
 to hasten the retreat of the Persians had re- 
 
 THE 
 
 course to another stratagem, sending informa 
 tion to Xerxes that the Greeks intended to 
 destroy the bridge of boats which he had con- 
 structed for the conveyance of his troops 
 across the Hellespont. His plan succeeded, 
 and Xerxes hastily fled, and left his aimy to 
 its fate. The signal services of Themistocles 
 were at first warmly acknowledged by his 
 countrymen, and the Greeks in general paid 
 him the highest honours. Athens flourished 
 under his administration, and he fortified tlie 
 city with strong walls, rebuilt the Piraius, and 
 augmented the navy. Yet the fickle Athe- 
 nians at length treated with ingratitude the 
 conqueror of Salamis, whom they banished 
 from their territories, and obliged him to 
 take refuge in the dominions of the ancient 
 enemies of Greece, whom he had so nobly op- 
 posed. Artaxerxes, the son and successor of 
 Xerxes, received the illustrious exile with 
 kindness and attention, and provided him with 
 a liberal revenue for his sui)port. The pre- 
 cise time and manner of his death are uncer- 
 tain. According to Plutarcli, J'hemistocles 
 put an end to his own life, to avoid serving 
 against his native country, having, after some 
 years' residence in Persia, received a command 
 from the king to head an army destined for 
 tlie invasion of Greece ; but Thucydides says 
 that he died of disease. — Plutarch's Lives, 
 Moreri. 
 
 'i'HEOBALD (Lot' is) a miscellaneous 
 writer, principally known as one of the editors 
 of Shakspeare, and as the original hero of 
 Pope's J)unciad. He was born at Setting- 
 bourn in Kent, where his father was an at- 
 torney, to which profession he was himself 
 brought up. He wrote various works, critical, 
 jioeticai, and dramatic ; but merits remem- 
 brance only as a commentator on Shakspeare, 
 in which office he was the first who duly re- 
 ferred to the books and learning of that great 
 dramatist's contemporaries. After publishing 
 in 17:^6 a work entitled " Shakspeare Re- 
 stored," he gave an edition of that author, 
 which immediately followed the publication 
 of that of Pope, from whom, although in cor- 
 respondence with him, he concealed his de- 
 sign. Nothing more was necessary to embroil 
 him with that irascible bard, and hence his 
 place in the Dunciad. Although he did not 
 deserve all the contempt cast upon him by 
 Pope, and certainly rectified many errors in 
 Shakspeare, he was a man of but small powers 
 of mind. Besides twenty dramatic pieces writ- 
 ten by himself, he produced on the stage in 17i^0 
 a tragedy, entitled the •' Double Falsehood," 
 which, upon evidence that was far from satis- 
 factory, he attributed to Shakspeare ; but in 
 the oj)inion of Dr Farmer it belongs to Shirley. 
 He died in 1744. — Biog. Dram. 
 
 THEOCRliUS. a Greek poet of Syracuse 
 , in Sicily, celebrated as a writer of bucolics or 
 I pastorals, whose numerous imitators, includ- 
 I ing Virgil, attest the unequivocal excellence 
 of his productions. He did not however con- 
 fine himself to one peculiar style of coinposi- 
 , tion, as appears from his epigrams, still ex- 
 tant ; and from the story of his having written 
 
TH E 
 
 T IJ E 
 
 satircsorinvcctivesatiainst H!ero,tliesoverei<;n I Juitiiiian, and induci'd liim to forci^o liis iii- 
 of Syracuse, wIjo is said to have inllicted 8uin- I gloriouH desiijn of fleeinj^ before the rebel.-*, 
 mary vengeance on tlic hard by ordcrini; him to who were siibse<|iieiuly rednceil to subjection 
 be strangled. According; to other accounts, liow- I by Belisarius. 1 beodora died of a cancer in 
 ever, he fled from .Sicily, and found an asvliitn I iiiH, much to tlio rei;ret of lier i*arviving lius- 
 
 at the court of Ptolemy l^hiladeiphus at Alex- 
 anilria : and he was not oidv a favourite with 
 
 hand — (iihhoti. /J'o^ir- Univ. 
 
 IIIKODOlir: OF CVIUvXF:, a heathen 
 
 that prince, whose prai.^es he sang;, hut was also philosoplicr, .siirnamed the Atheist, who lived 
 held in hi'^ih esteem among the literati of the in the latter part of the fourth century I5C'. 
 
 K'„'\ptiati metropolis, aiid was oik^ of the seven 
 hards complimented by their contemj)oraries 
 with tlie appellation of the Pleiades. 'J'beo- 
 critAis has by some critics been censured for 
 the rustic simplicity of character and manners 
 which his personages exhibit, as inconsistent 
 with the recondite nature of tlie subjects of 
 their dialoi^ue ; and witii more obvious jus- 
 tice the gross obscenity of expression in which 
 he too frecjuently indulges himself, has ex- 
 posed him to severe reprobation. ]3esides his 
 " Idylls or Pastorals," thirty in number, lie 
 wrote epigrams, and a ludicrous poem called 
 " Syrinx." Among the best editions of the 
 works of Theocritus are those of West, with 
 the notes of Scaliger, Casaubon, ?.nd Heinsius, 
 Oxford, 1699, 8vo ; Reiske, Leipsic, 1765 — 
 66, "2. vols. 4to ; Warton, Oxford, 1770. 2 vols. 
 4to ; and Valckcnaer, Leyden, 1781, 8vo ; 
 besides which his poems have been frequently 
 printed witli those of Bion and Moschus, and 
 in various collections of the Poetaj Gra^ci i\Ii- 
 nores. — Moreri. Aikin's Gen. Bing. Elton's 
 Snecirnens, 
 
 THKODORA, empress of the East, the 
 wife of Justinian, famous for her beauty, in- 
 trigues, ambition, and talents, and for the part 
 she acted in the direction of afl'airs, both in 
 church and state, in the reign of her husband. 
 Her father was the keeper of the beasts for 
 public spectacles at Coiistantinojjle, and she 
 herself was a dancer at tlie theatre, and a cour- 
 tesan notorious for her contempt of decency, 
 before her elevation to the throne. Justinian 
 saw her on the stage, and made her his mis- 
 tress during the reign of his uncle Justin, 
 whose consent he at length obtained for his 
 marriage with Theodora ; and a Roman law, 
 which prohibited the marriage of the great 
 officers of the empire with actresses, was re- 
 pealed in her favour. She was crowned toge- 
 ther vviih Justinian in 527 ; and the death of 
 Justin shortly after left her in possession of 
 sovereign authority, through the blind par- 
 tiality and weakness of her imperial consort. 
 She made use of the power she had attained 
 to raise from obscurity her friends and favou- 
 rites, and to avenge herself of her enemies. 
 According to Procopius she continued to in- 
 dulge herself in the most degrading sensuality 
 after she became empress; and if the disgust- 
 ins; detail which he gives of her crimes is to be 
 believed, seldom indeed has a brothel been dis- 
 graced by scenes of more infamous profligacy 
 than those exhibited in the palace of Th^-odora. 
 With all her faults, however, this woman dis- 
 played courage and presence of mind in cir- 
 cumstances of difficulty and danger ; for in 
 the alarming sedition at Constantinople in 532, 
 her counsels animated the drooping spirits of 
 
 He excited tlie displeasure of numerous and 
 powerful enemies by the cingulanty and bold- 
 ness of his opinions ; and being exiled from 
 his native country, he went and resided at 
 Athens, where he narrowly escaped the jud"-- 
 ment of the court of Areo|)agus, but he was 
 protected by Demetrius Phalereus. His irre- 
 ligious tenets were disclosed in a treatise 
 " Concerning the Gods," which was service- 
 able to Epicurus. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, 
 sent Theodore on an embassy to Lysimacluis, 
 king of 'J'lirace, and his conduct on that occa- 
 sion displayed great courage and elevation of 
 mind. He was the founder of the sect of 
 Theodorians, one of the three subdivisions of 
 the Cyreniac school of philosophy. — Dioirenes 
 Laertius. Stanley's Hist, of F kilos. 
 
 THEODORE, an ecclesiastical historian of 
 the sixth century, who was reader in the 
 great church at Constantinople, and has there- 
 fore been styled Theodorus Lector. He com- 
 piled a work called the " Tripartite History," 
 in two books, extracted from the writings of 
 the ecclesiastical chroniclers, Socrates, Sozo- 
 men, and Theodoret, which is still in manu- 
 script ; and he continued the annals of the 
 church from the reign of Theodosius the 
 Younger to that of Justinian, in two more 
 books, of which some fragments only are ex- 
 tant. These have been published by Henry 
 Valesiua, and by Reading in his edition of 
 Theodoret. — Aikin's Gen. Bing. Biog. Uviv. 
 
 THEODORE or THEODORUS PRO- 
 DROiMUS, a Greek monk of Constantinople, 
 known at present princi|)ally as the author of 
 a romantic poem entitled " The Amours of 
 Rhodanthe and Dosicles," published with a 
 Latin translation by Gilbert Gaulmin, Paris, 
 1625, Bvo. The editor has added another 
 work of Theodore, called " Amarantus, or the 
 Amours of Old Age," which has been repub- 
 lished by I\L Dutheil, in the eighth volume of 
 the " IS'otice des iManuscrits du Roi." 'Ibis 
 monk was a very prolific writer, having pro- 
 duced " Galeomachia," a burlesque tragedy 
 in imitation of the Batrachomyomachia, 
 attributed to Homer ; a dialogue entitled 
 " Friendship banished from the World," and 
 many other works. He lived in the twelfh 
 century, and his poetry exhibits abundant 
 proofs of the bad taste which prevailed at that 
 period. — F.ndjtn. 
 
 THKODORET, bishop of Cyrus, a town 
 in Syria, an ecclesiastical historian, who was 
 a native of Antioch and a disciple of the cele- 
 brated St John Chrysostom. He was raised 
 to the see of Cyrus AD. 420 ; and after having 
 favoured the opinions of iSestorius, he wrote 
 against that heresiarch. His zeal for the Ca- 
 tholic faith rendered him obnoxious to the Eu- 
 
T H E 
 
 tycbiana, by wbom be was deposed in tbe 
 synod wbicb tbey beld at Epbesus ; but be 
 was restored to bis diocese by tbe council of 
 Cbalcedon in 421. Notbing is known of bis 
 future bistory except tbat be was alive till 
 after AD. 460. He wrote, besides bis " Ec- 
 clesiastical History," from tbe time of Con- 
 Btantine to tbat of Tbeodosius tbe Younger ; 
 Commentaries on tbe Scriptures ; Epistles ; 
 Lives of famous Ancborites ; Dialogues ; 
 Books on Heresy ; and Discourses on Provi- 
 dence, and against tbe Pagans. His works 
 bave been edited by Sirmond and Garnier, 
 Paris, 1642 — 1684, 5 vols. foUo ; and also 
 publisbed at Halle, 1769 — 74, 5 vols. — Dupin. 
 Noreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 THEODORIC, kingof tbeOstrogotbs.sur- 
 named tbe Great, descended of tbe royal Go- 
 tbic race of tbe Amali. was born near Vienna 
 in tbe year 458. His fatber, Tbeodemir, was 
 one of tbe tbree brotbers wbo jointly mled tbe 
 Ostrogoths settled in Pannonia, and be sent 
 bim when only eight years of age to Constan- 
 tinople as a bostage, to secure tbe conditions 
 of a treaty between tbe Goths and tbe empe- 
 ror Leo. After residing two years with tbat ; 
 emperor he was restored to bis father, then 
 sole monarch of the Ostrogoths, under whom 
 he gave various indications of liis warlike 
 spirit and ability for command. On the death 
 of Tbeodemir in 475, he succeeded to tbe 
 crown, and commenced a course of proceeding 
 and policy which, after menacing tbe safety of 
 tbe Greek empire and Constantinople itself, 
 terminated in an expedition against Odoacer, 
 wbo bad assumed the title of king of Italy. 
 After several bloody engagements, the latter 
 was finally induced to yield on condition that 
 he and Theodoric should govern Italy with 
 equal authority. The murder of Odoacer at a ' 
 banquet rapidly followed this agreement ; on ' 
 which Theodoric caused himself to be pro- 
 claimed king of Italy, a title that tbe emperoi 
 Anastasius was reluctantly obliged to sanc- 
 tion. However indefensibly be acquired do- 
 minion, he governed with extraordinary vigour 
 and ability. He attached bis soldiers by as- 
 signing them a third part of tbe lands of 
 Italy on the tenure of military service ; while 
 among bis Italian subjects be encouraged in- 
 dustry and the arts of peace. He even im- 
 proved the administration of justice ; and so 
 far from being one of tbe Goths who are ac- 
 cused of delighting in the ileslruction of public 
 monuments, be i.^sued edicts to protect them 
 at Rome and elsewhere, and assigned revenues 
 for the repair of the public edifices. Able in 
 peace and victorious in war, he maintained 
 the balance of the West until it was over- 
 thrown by tbe ambition of Clovis, who slew 
 Alaric, the Visogolh king, the remains of 
 whose family and property were saved by 
 Theodoric, wbo also checked the victorious 
 Pranks in their farther career. Like his an- 
 cestors, he was an Ariau, but was indilFerent 
 to controversy, and never violated the peace 
 or privileges of tbe Catholic church. The 
 particulars of the government of this memor- 
 able prince, who shed a short-lived lustre on 
 
 THE 
 
 the Gotliic name, are recorded in tlrelve books 
 by his secretary, the senatoi Cassiodorus, a 
 man of learning, who indticed his illiterate 
 master to become a patron of letters. Towards 
 the close of bis reign an intolerant edict of tbe 
 Byzantian court against tbe Arians in its do- 
 minions, induced Theodoric, against bis usual 
 policy, to meditate a retaliation against the 
 Catholics of Italy, which however was pre- 
 vented from taking place by bis death. It is 
 to be lamented that an act of tyranny against 
 two exemplary characters, Boethius (see Ids 
 article) and Symmachus, bis father-in-law, 
 closed his career. These senators were both 
 arbitrarily put to death, on tbe mere suspicion 
 of an intrigue between a senatorial party and 
 the imperial court. This cruel act had no 
 sooner been perpetrated, than Theodoric was 
 seized with remorse, and a fever ensued, 
 which terminated bis existence in three days, 
 in August 526, being the seventy-second year 
 of his age and thirty-fifth of bis reign. Tbe 
 ordinary residence of this king was at Ra 
 venna, above which city bis daughter, Amala- 
 suntba (left regent of Italy until tbe majority 
 of one of her nephews) erected a splendid mo 
 nument to his memory. — Utiiv. Hist. Gibbon, 
 THEODOSIUS, surnamed the Great, a 
 Roman empe-ror, was the son of a distinguish- 
 ed general of tbe same name, who was exe- 
 cuted for the alleged crime of treason at Car- 
 thage in 376. He was born about 346 at 
 Canetra in Gallicia, or according to other ac- 
 counts, at Italica near Seville. At a very 
 early age he obtained separate command, but 
 on the execution of bis fatber be sought retire- 
 ment, until selected by the emperor Gratian 
 in 379 for his partner in the empire. To bis 
 care was submitted Thrace and the eastern 
 provinces, which he delivered from an inva- 
 sion of tbe Goths. This emperor distinguished 
 himself by bis zeal for orthodoxy and intole- 
 rance of Arianism, which he put down through- 
 out the whole of bis dominions. In tbe space 
 of fifteen years he promulgated the same num- 
 ber of edicts against heretics ; and tbe office 
 of inquisitors of tbe faith was first instituted in 
 his reign. He liberated the provinces from tbe 
 barbarians with great prudence and diligence ; 
 and in the various warlike and other proceed- 
 ings of his reign, showed himself an able and 
 equitable monarch, except when under the 
 inrtuence of resentment or religious zeal. On 
 the defeat and death of Maximus he became 
 the sole head of the empire, although he ad- 
 ministered tbe affairs of the west in the name 
 of Valentinian, tbe son of Gratian, then a 
 minor. He passed three years in Italy, during 
 which period the Roman senate, which still 
 chiefly adhered to tbe old religion, begged 
 permission to restore the altar of victory , 
 a request which he at first was inclined to 
 grant, until prevented by St Ambrose, who 
 also induced him to pardon some zealots for 
 having burnt a Jewish synagogue. In 390 a 
 sedition took place in Thessalouica, the result 
 of which has branded the name of Tbeodosius 
 with great odium. Tbe origin of tbe catas- 
 trophe was in itself very trivial, taking its rise 
 
T II E 
 
 Bimply in the iin|)ilsonment of a favourite cha- 
 rioteer of the circus. Tliis jjrovocatioii, addeil 
 to some former disputes, so iiifliuned tlie popu- 
 lace, that they murdered their governor and 
 several of his officers, and drairjred their inan- 
 gled bodies throuL;h the mire. The resent- 
 ment of Theodosius was natural and merited, 
 but tlie manner in which he dispiaved it was 
 in the highest degree (letestaljle and inhuman. 
 An invitation was given in the emperor's name 
 to the people of Thessalonica, to an exliibiiion 
 at the circus, and when a great concourse of 
 spectators had assembled, they were massacred 
 by a body of barbarian soldiery, to the num- 
 ber, according to the lowest computation, of 
 seven thousand, and to tiie liighest of fifteen 
 thousand. For this atrocious proceeding Am- 
 brose, with great courage and propriety, re- 
 fused him communion for eight months ; and 
 tlie docile, and it is to be hoped, repentant 
 Theodosius, humbly submitted. About this 
 time the pious emperor crowned his merits as 
 a foe to Paganism, by demolishing tlie cele- 
 brated temple of Serapis, and all the other 
 heathen temples of Egypt ; and he also issued 
 a final edict, prohil)itiiig the ancient worship 
 altogether. On the murder of Valentiniau by 
 Arbogastes, and the advancement of Eugenius 
 in his place, the emperor carried on a war 
 against the latter, which finally terminated in 
 his defeat and death. Theodosius did not 
 long survive this success, but after investing 
 his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, with the 
 
 T II E 
 
 rome. He rather remodelled the Septuagirt 
 than produced a new (jreek version of the 
 Old Ii'sianieiit, his (jbject being to accommo- 
 date the Jewish Scriptures to the Kbionite 
 doctrines. Ori'^-en introduced this W(jrk into 
 his " llcxapla," but little of it is now extant 
 except the book of Daniel, which has been 
 substituted for the Septuagint version of that 
 jirophet. — Caliurt's Diet, of the liilAe. Bit>g. 
 Univ. 
 
 TllEODULPII, bishop of Orleans in the 
 age of Charlemagne, one of tlie principal re- 
 storers of learning iu France, was a native of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, and, as his name implies, of 
 Gothic descent. Having distinguished him- 
 self by his erudition, he was invited to the 
 court of Charlemagne about 781. That prince 
 gave him the abljey of Fleury, and afterwards 
 the bisiiopric of Orleans ; and Theodulph re- 
 stored in his diocese the ancient discii)line of 
 the church, and founded schools for the in- 
 struction of the people. He was sent into the 
 Narbonnese provinces, together with the arch- 
 bishop of Lyons, to regulate the administration 
 of justice, when he signalized himself by the 
 reformation of some glaring abuses. After 
 the death of Charlemagne (to whose will he 
 was a subscribing witness), he was in great 
 favour with Louis le Debonnaire, who sent him 
 to attend pope Stephen IV, when he visited 
 F'rance to crown the king at llheims. Theo- 
 dulph then received the I'allium with the title 
 of archbishop. On the conspiracy of Bernard 
 
 eastern and western empire, he was carried ofFi king of Italy against his uncle king Louis in 
 at Milan by a dropsical disorder, in January 817, this prelate was accused of being an ac- 
 395, in the fiftieth year of his age and six- complice, and banished from court ; and though 
 teenth of his reign. He died possessed of a * he protested his innocence, he was deprived of 
 distinguished reputation, which was much con- his benefices, and exiled to Angers, where he 
 
 firmed by his services to orthodoxy and docility 
 towards the priesthood, which has rendered him 
 a subject of incessant ecclesiastical eulogy, both 
 in ancient and modern times. He was doubtless 
 a man of considerable abilities, and possessed 
 many public and private virtues, which how- 
 ever will scarcely excuse the fierceness of his 
 intolerance, or the barbarity of his anger and 
 revenge. — Utiiv. Hist. Gibbon. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, a mathematician of Tri- 
 poli, who flourished, as it is supposed, in the 
 first century. In the opinion of Suidas he is 
 the same with Theodosius of Bithynia, men- 
 tioned by Strabo as excelling in the mathe- 
 matics. He chiefly cultivated the part of 
 geometry that relates to the sphere on which 
 he wrote three books, containing fifty-nine 
 propositions, all demonstrated in the pure geo- 
 metrical manner of the ancients, hi 1.>.j8 a 
 Greek and Latin edition of this work was 
 jirinted at Paris ; but that at present most iu 
 use was published by Dr Barrow at Cambridge 
 in 1676. — Muttons Math. Dirt. 
 
 THEODOTION , the third translator of the 
 Old Testament into Greek, who lived in the 
 reign of the emperor Commodus. He was a 
 native of Sinope, in Pontus ; and according to 
 Epiphanius, he belonged to the heretical sect 
 of the Marcionites. He afterwards left them 
 to join the FLbionites, or Judaizing Christians, 
 as we are informed by Eusebius and St Je- 
 
 died in 8'21. The works of Theodulph, which 
 were published by father Sirmond, include 
 •' Ciipitularies," or instructions to the clergy 
 of his diocese ; an abridgment of ecclesiastical 
 history ; homilies ; and Latin poems, among 
 which is a hymn retained by the Catholic 
 church in the service for Palm sunday. — Jlra- 
 boschi.' Bioo^. Univ. Aikin's Gen. Bioc-. 
 
 THEOGMS, a Greek poet, was born in the 
 fifty-ninth Olympiad, about 550 BC. He calls 
 himself a JMegarian in one of his verses, mean- 
 ing most probably of Megara in Achaia. He 
 wrote a series of moral precepts in verse, con- 
 sisting of more than a thousand lines, which 
 are without ornaments, and the precepts were 
 probably versified, merely with a view to as- 
 sist the memory. I hey have been often 
 printed, both with and without Latin versions, 
 and are to be found in all the collections of ilie 
 minor Greek poets. One of the best separate 
 editions, and a rare book, is that by Black- 
 well, 1706, I'imo. — Fahricii Poet. Crrac. 
 
 THEOX OF ALEXANDRIA, a celebrated 
 Greek philoso])her and mathematician, flou- 
 rished in tlie fourth centurv, about the year 
 380, but the time and manner of his death are 
 unknown. He became president of the famous 
 Alexandrian school, ami one of his pupils was 
 his daughter, the celebrated and ill-fated Hy- 
 patia. Theon wrote notes and commentaries 
 on some of the ancient mathematicians and 
 
THE 
 
 al«o composed a work entitled " Progynas- | 
 mata," written witli considerable judgment | 
 and elegance, in which he ciiticised on the 
 writing of several illustrious authors and his- 
 torians. This work was printed at Ba:-le in 
 lo-Jl, but the best edition is that of Leyden, 
 1626. — Muttons Math. Diet. 
 
 THEOPHANES (Geokge) a Constantino- 
 politan Greek, of a rich and noble family, wlio 
 became a monk. He was present at the gene- 
 ral council held in 787, where he was treated 
 with singular respect, but was afterwards ba- 
 nished to Samothrace for his attention to tlie 
 exiled primate Nicephorus. He died in 818. 
 This monk published a chronicle iq continua- 
 tion of that of Syncellus, which he carried 
 down to the reign of Michael Curoplata. 
 This work, which is valuable for its facts, 
 while it otherwise displays the superstition and 
 credulity of the author, was printed at Paris, 
 with a Latin version in 1655. — Vossii Hint. 
 Grefc. iMoreri. 
 
 THEOPHILE DE VI AUD, a French poet, 
 
 was born about 1590, at Clerac, in the Age- 
 nois. He early resorted to the capital, where 
 he rendered himself acceptable by his lively 
 sallies and epigrams, but not without creating 
 enemies. He was a Calvinist by education ; 
 but was very licentious both in his conduct 
 and writings ; and for some cause or other 
 found it expedient in l6l9 to withdraw to 
 England. His friends having procured him 
 leave to return, he professed himself a Catho- 
 lic, a conversion which however had no effect 
 upon the irregularity of his personal conduct. 
 He was at length burnt in effigy, as the reported 
 compiler of " Le Parnasse Satyrique," a col- 
 lection by different authors, in which are se- 
 veral pieces offensive to decency and religion. 
 He was subsequently arrested in Picardy, and 
 being brought to Paris, was placed in the 
 same dungeon which had been occupied by 
 Ravaillac, and was detained in prison two 
 years. At length, after repeated petitions in 
 protestation of his innocence, he was released 
 by the parliament of Paris, which however 
 sentenced him to banishment. He was after- 
 wards protected by the duke of Montmorency, 
 at whose hotel he died in 1626. 'Iheophile 
 was one of the first French authors who min- 
 gled prose and verse, the latter of which, al- 
 though irregular, displays genius and imagi- 
 nation. His works consist of odes, elegies, 
 sonnets, tragedies, a dramatic dialogue on the 
 immortality of the soul, apologies for himself, 
 and letters. A collection containing his poems 
 and apologies was printed at Rome in 1627, 
 8vo. flis " Letters " apjieared separately in 
 1642. — Moreri. Nouv.Dict. Hint, 
 
 THEOI^HILUS, an eminent bishop of An- 
 tioch, who was advanced to that see in the 
 year 170. He was a vigorous opponpnt of 
 heresy, and wrote several works, all of which 
 are lost except three books addressed to Auto- 
 lycus, a learned heathen, who had written to 
 ▼indicate the ancient relitrion against the at- 
 tacks of the Christians. They are filled with 
 a variety of curious disquisitions conceniing 
 tiie opinionB of poets and philosophers, and 
 
 THE 
 
 are remarkable as affording the earliest ex 
 ample of the use of the word Trinity, which 
 is applied by the author to the three jiersons 
 of the Godhead, the third of wliom he deno- 
 minates " Wisdom." The " Jiooksof Theo- 
 philus to Autolycus " were published in Latin 
 by Gesner, Zurich, 1546, and are also in- 
 serted in the " Orthodoxographia," Basil, 
 1555. — Diipin. Lurdnei\ 
 
 THKOFHRASTUS, a native of Eresas, in 
 the island of Lesbos, who was the son of a 
 fuller, and became famous as a naturalist and 
 philosopher. He was born 371 PC and he 
 studied at Athens, in the school of Plato, and 
 afterwards under his rival Aristotle, of whom 
 he was the favourite pupil and successor. His 
 original name was Tyrtamus, which his mas- 
 ter, in admiration of the brilliancy of his ge- 
 nius and the eloquence of his style and lan- 
 guage, exchanged for that of Euphrastus, or 
 the Fine Speaker, and afterwards for that of 
 Theophrastus, or the Divine Orator, by which 
 he is familiarly known. On the secession of 
 Aristotle from Athens, after the judicial mur- 
 der of Socrates, he became the head of the 
 Peripatetic school of philosophy, where two 
 thousand students are said to have attended 
 his lectures. His fame extended to forei^'n 
 countries, kings and princes solicited his friend- 
 sliip, and he was treated with particular at- 
 tention by Cassander, the sovereign of .Mace- 
 don, and Ptolemy Lagus, the potent king of 
 Egypt. Theophrastus composed a multitude 
 of books, the titles of two hundred being spe- 
 cified by Diogenes Laertius. About twenty of 
 these have escaped the ravages of time, among 
 which are his Natural History of Stones ; of 
 Plants ; of the Winds, &c. ; and his '• Cha- 
 racters," or Ethic Portraits, by far the most 
 celebrated of all his productions, and the mo- 
 del of numerous imitators, including the moral 
 satirist La Bruyere. He died about 288 
 BC. and consequently, if the preceding date of 
 his birth be correct, he must have survired to 
 the age of a hundred and seven, tLwu^L somo 
 state him to have been but eighty. nve at tlie 
 time of his decease. He is saiil to have ex- 
 pired lamenting the comparative brevity of 
 human existence, complaining of the partiality 
 of nature in granting longevity to the crow and 
 to the stag, and vvitholding it from man. To 
 his care we are indebted for the preservation 
 of the writings of Aristotle, who, when d\ing, 
 entrusted them to the keeping of his favourite 
 disciple. The works of Theophrastus were 
 l)ublished collectively by Dan. lleiiisius, Lev- 
 den, 1613, folio: and among the numerou.<» 
 editions of his Cliaracters may be noticed 
 those of Needham, Canil)ridge, 1712, 8vo ; 
 of Fischer, Coburg, 1763, 8vo ; and the re- 
 cent English translation, with notes, and the 
 ( J reek text, by Mr F. Howell. — iJiog. Laert, 
 Vit. Pliilos. Moreri. /^'o/j'. Univ. 
 
 THEOPOMPUS, an eminent Greek his- 
 torian, who was a native of the island of 
 Chios, and studi'.'d at Athens under the orator 
 Isocrates. He distinguished himself by gain- 
 ing a prize for a funeral discourse in honour of 
 Mausolus, when his master was one of tho 
 
T H E 
 
 caiididates. Only a few frat^ments of hit* wri- ' 
 tini;a are extant, a circninstance the more to j 
 bt> ivj;n'ttf(i, as he has been tlioiif^lit worthy of 
 beui^ coinpareil witli Ht-rodDtus ami llnuy- 
 diiles ; yet he is severely censured for his dis- 
 position to satire and illihcral rt-ncction. Ih- 
 lh)iiiislied o.")l BC — l'iii;()i'()Mi".'s was also , 
 the iianie of a connc poet, conteni|)orary with I 
 Menander. He wrote twenty-four plays, all ; 
 of which are lost. — Lemprieie's Bill. Class. 
 Moreri. 
 
 r i 1 i: O P H Y L A C T. surnamed S I M O- 
 CA I r.V. a (ireek historian, flourished about 
 the year 612. lie wrote in eight books the 
 history of the reign of the emperor Maurice, 
 and is accounted by Casaubon one of the best 
 of the later Greek historians. This work was 
 printed at tlie Louvre in 1647. He also com- 
 posed " Epistles, IMoral, Kural, and Ama- 
 tory," of which an edition was given by Al- 
 dus ; and " Physical Problems," published at 
 Ley den by Vnlcaniu5,and afterwards by Schot- 
 tus. Another work entitled " A History of 
 the habitable Wovlil," by this writer, is cited 
 by Eustathius. — Vossii Hist. Greec. 
 
 THEOPHYLAC I", archbishop of Acris, in 
 Bulgaria, in the eleventh century. He was a 
 native of Constantinople, whose great repu- 
 tation for theological attainment induced Ma- 
 ria. the empress of Michael Ducas, to urge 
 him to accept the see of Acris, in a province 
 then nearly barbarous. He zealously employed 
 himself to diffuse Christianity in his diocese, 
 and wrote several works which rank him 
 among the principal eccle.siastical writers of 
 the period. He was living in 1071, but the 
 exact period of his death is unknown. His 
 j)rincipal work is" Commentaries upon the four 
 Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the 
 Epistles of St Paul." He also wrote " Com- 
 mentaries on the four minor Propliets." Of 
 these works several editions have been pub- 
 lished in Greek and Latin, and in Latin alone. 
 His " Epistles," in number seventy-five, will 
 be found in the Bibliotheca Patvum. His 
 Commentaries are well spoken of by Dupin I 
 and Lardner. — Dnpin, Larduer, Moreri. 
 
 THERESA (St) a religious enthusiast, 
 born at Avila in Spain, in 1.515. At an early j 
 age the perusal of the Lives of the Saints in- 
 spired her with the romantic desire to become ' 
 a holy martyr ; and accompanied by her bro- | 
 ther, she eloped from home, to seek death at 
 the hands of the Mahometan Moors. Being 
 brouglit back, she erected an hermitage in 
 her father's garden, for retirement and devo- 
 tion. After having been a boarder at a con- 
 vent of Augustine nuns, she took the veil 
 among the Carmelites at Avila, at the age of 
 twenty-two. Her rapturous pietv and religious 
 zeal inspired general admiration, and iieing 
 dissatisfied at the relaxation of discipline 
 ■which she noticed in the order to which she 
 belonged, she undertook to restore the original 
 severity of the institute. After overcoming 
 much opposition to her scheme, she was en- 
 abled to founil the first convent of reformed 
 Carmelite nuns at Avila in l.">6'2, and a mo- 
 nnslerv of friars in 1568 at Dorvello, where 
 
 T II i: 
 
 originated the order of Barefooted Carmelitrs, 
 HO denominated from their wearinjj Handab in- 
 stead <jf hhoes. Su( h wan the .suc< ess of her 
 zealous exertions, that she livi-d to witness the 
 foundation of thirty convents for her followers ; 
 and members of the ordi-r Hubst'(piently ob- 
 taineil settlements in most Cathcjhc countries. 
 Theresa died at Alba, in October 1582; and 
 in 1621 she was canonized Ijy pope Gregory 
 \V. The character of this religious votary 
 has ever been highly appreciated by the di- 
 vines of the Catholic church, and among hei 
 warmest panegyrists may be mentioned car 
 dinal Borromeo, Bossuet, Fleury, and the abbe 
 Choisy. She was the author of several trea- 
 tises, of which a list may be foimd in the first 
 of the annexed authorities. I'he life of St 
 Theresa, by herself, is in various respects a 
 curious and interesting specimen of autobio- 
 graphy. — Bii>^. Univ. Antonio Bibl. llispan, 
 Moreri. Aikins Gen. Bio". 
 
 THESPIS, the inventor of the tragic drama 
 among the Greeks. He was a native of a town 
 of Attica, called Icaria, and lived in the time 
 of Solon. Previous to his exhibitions, sets of 
 singers and dancers were accustomed to 
 chaunt hymns, accompanied by dances in 
 honour of Bacchus ; and Thespis conceived 
 the idea of relieving the monotony of these 
 festive scenes, by introducing recitation at in- 
 ter«.-als between the songs of the chorus, and 
 this was afterwards extended to dramatic dia- 
 logue. He was the author of several trasedies. 
 the titles of some of which were " Alcestes ;" 
 " The Combat of Pelias or Phorbas ;" " The 
 Priests ;" "The Grecian Youths :" and " Pen- 
 iheus." Some dramatic fragments are extant 
 which are ascribed to Thespis, but thev ap- 
 pear to be spurious. — Vossius de Poet. Grac. 
 Aikin's Gen. Bioor. Biog. Univ. 
 
 THEVENOT (Mklciiizedec) a distin- 
 guished traveller, who was born at Paris in 
 1621. He had scarcely finished his studies, 
 when he determined to gratify the strong in- 
 clination which he felt to visit foieii;n coun- 
 tries. Having previously travelled in different 
 parts of Europe, he was sent by the govern- 
 ment to Genoa in 1()-15, and in 1652 to Pome, 
 where, by order of the king, he assisted at the 
 conclave in which Alexander \'I1 was elected, 
 in 1651. Iveturning to Paris, he devoted him- 
 self entirely to study, and to the promotion oi 
 the interests of literature, by collecting books 
 and manuscripts, and by carrying on a corre- 
 spondence with the learned in various parts of 
 the world. The office of royal libranan, which 
 he obtained in 1681, greatly facilitated his re- 
 searches, and he contributed niuih to the im- 
 provement of the establishment under his care. 
 His aire and infirmities induced him to resign 
 liis office in 1692, and he died October 29, 
 that year, at his house at Issy, near Paris. 
 He pul)lished " Relations de divers Vovatjes 
 curieux qui n'ont point ete publics," Paris, 
 1663 — 1672, 4 parts, in 2 vols, folio. including 
 translations from several European, and some 
 of the Orit-ntal laiii^uages ; " Recueil de Voy- 
 ages," 1681, Bvo, comprising a description of 
 an instrument for taking levels, and details of 
 
T H E 
 
 natural history; and " De I'Art de Nager," 
 1695. 8vo. A catalogue of the library of 
 'I'heveiiot was puMished at Paris in 1694, 
 ]2mo. — Mareri. i^u^g* Univ. 
 
 THEVENOT (John de) a traveller, born at 
 Paris in 1633, ^vas the nephew of the subject 
 of the preceding article, with whom he has 
 sometimes been improperly confounded. He 
 received a good education at the college of 
 Navarre, and tlie death of his father having 
 put him in possession of a considerable for- 
 tune, curiosity prompted him to travel. In 
 1652 he commenced a journey through Eng- 
 land, Holland, Germany, and Italy ; after 
 which he resolved to visit the East. In 1655 
 he embarked at Civita Vecchia, and after 
 touching at Sicily and iMalta, he went to Con- 
 stantinople, thence to Natolia, and having vi- 
 sited Alexandria and other places in Egypt, 
 he went in an English vessel to Tunis, and 
 Carthage, then sailed to Leghorn, and after 
 passing through Italy, he returiied to France, 
 whence he had been absent seven years. His 
 passion for explormg foreign countries was not 
 however satiated, and in October 1663 he 
 again left Paris to commence a second Oriental 
 tour. After visiting various parts of Syria and 
 Persia, he went to the East Indies, and in his 
 return through Persia, he died near Tauris, 
 November '£8, 1667. An account of his first 
 expedition was published by himself, under 
 the title of " Voyage de Levant," 1664, 4to ; 
 which was followed by " Suite du meme Voy- 
 age," 4to ; and " Voyage contenant la Rela- 
 tion de rindostan," 1684, 4to. The different 
 narratives were collectively printed afterwards 
 in 5 vols. 12mo, and they have been trans- 
 lated into English and other languages. This 
 traveller is said to have introduced into France 
 the use of coffee. — Biog. Un'w. 
 
 THEW ( Rohert) an English historical en- 
 graver of eminence, born in Yorkshire in 1758. 
 His father kept a small inn, and the sou during 
 the American war served as a common soldier 
 in the Northumberland militia. He subse- 
 quently settled at Hull, and employed himself 
 in engraving cards, shop-bills, 6ic. He soon 
 liowever attempted works belonging to a 
 higher style of art, and an engraving of the 
 head of an old woman after Gerard Dow and 
 other j)ieces which he executed, procured him 
 80 much notice, that through the recommend- 
 ation of Charles James Fox, the duchess of 
 Devonshire, and lady Duncannon, he was ap- 
 pointed historical engraver to the prince of 
 Wales. He was then employed by alderman 
 Boydell, for whom he engraved from a paint- 
 ing by Northcote, " Edward V taking leave of 
 Lis lirother the Duke of York ;" and he also 
 executed nineteen large plates from the paint, 
 ings of Reynolds, Shee, Westall, Smirke, Fu- 
 seli. Northcote, Peters, &.c. f)r Boydell's 
 Sbakspeare. He died in July 1802, at Ste- 
 venage, in Hertfordshire. — Gent. ^hg. 
 
 THIBAULT VI, count of Champagne antl 
 king of Navarre, noted among the early wri- 
 ters of French poetry, as well as for his per- 
 sonMl concern in the affairs of Europe in the 
 thirteenth century. He was the posthumous 
 
 TH I 
 
 son of the count of Champagne, by a daughter 
 of Sancho, king of Navarre. After having 
 been educated at the court of Philip Augustus, 
 king of France, he was enabled, through the 
 influence of that monarch, to maintain a suc- 
 cessful contest for the succession to the coun- 
 ties of Champagne and Brie, to which his 
 right was decided by the peers of the realm 
 in 1221. On the death of his maternal uncle 
 in 1234, he became king of Navarre ; and in 
 1239 he embarked for the East, to engage in a 
 crusade against the infidels. After an absence 
 of two years he returned to his own dominions, 
 and his death took place at Pampelona, July 
 10, 1253. Thibault was deeply engaged in 
 the intrigues and civil dissensions which took 
 place in France during the minority of St 
 Louis, whose father Louis Vlll he is said to 
 have poisoned, and for wiiose mother, the 
 beautiful Blanche of Castille, he is supposed 
 to have entertained a criminal passion. These 
 charges rest chiefly on the authority of the 
 contemporary English historian Matthew Paris ; 
 and though they have been adopted by several 
 modem writers, they appear to be undeserving 
 of credit. The poetical talents of Thibault 
 procured him the title of the " Song-muker;" 
 and love being the theme of his muse, his 
 verses have been considered as corroborative 
 of his guilty attachment to queen Blanche ; 
 but this opinion is strongly controverted by 
 M. Levesque de la Ravahere, who published, 
 with a glossary and dissertations, the songs of 
 the king of Navarre, Paris, 1742, 2 vols. 12rao. 
 — Bayle. Moreri. Biog. Utiiv. 
 
 TlilCKNESSE (Philip) the son of acler- 
 gyman, born in 1720. He entered into the 
 army when young, and went to Georgia with 
 governor Oglethorpe, after which he served in 
 the West Indies, and on his return to England 
 he obtained a captain's commission. He then 
 married a lady of French extraction, with 
 whom he expected to have received an ample 
 fortune ; but his views were disappointed, and 
 becoming a widowf-r, he entered again into 
 matrimony, becoming the husband of lady 
 EUzabeth Touchet, heiress of the ancient ba- 
 rony of Aiulley. Her fortune enabled him to 
 purchase t!ie office of lieutenant governor of 
 Landguard Fort; but the union, which took 
 place in opposition to the wishes of his wife's 
 family, involved him in disputes, and contri- 
 buted by no means to liis happiness in any of 
 the domestic relations. About 1761 Air Thick- 
 nesse lost his second consort by death ; and 
 on hfr only son succeeding to the title and 
 estate of his mother's family, an unpleasant 
 disagreement took place between him and bis 
 father, who thought proper to lay his griev- 
 ances before the public in a pamphlet entitled 
 " Queries to Lord Audley," 8vo. The year 
 after he became a widower, he married the 
 daughter of Mr Ford, a solicitor in London, 
 who long survived him. [See the followinif 
 article.] P^y this lady he had several chil- 
 dren, and the difficulty o{ providing for his 
 numerous offspring induced him to retire first 
 to Wales, and afterwards to the continent. 
 Having travelled through France, Italy, and 
 
Til I 
 
 Spain, lie returnetl liomo, and resided a ijain in 
 NVales, and subsequently at HhiIi. Shortly 
 after the be';;innini^ of the rt-vohitionary toni- 
 iiiotions in Frame, Mr lliickncsse aj;ain \vj nl 
 al)roa(l, intending to settle in Italy ; hut he 
 difd of apo]>U'xy, wliilt; travelling in a ( ar- 
 riage, near lioulogne, in 179-'. His lift? was 
 distinguished by much eccentricity of man- 
 ners, conduct, and opinion, which was occa- 
 sionally displayed in the numerous pieces 
 which he committed to the press. Among 
 them are " INlan-midwifery analysed, and the 
 'IVndency of that Tiaclice detected and ex- 
 jiosed," 1765, 4to ; " A Year's Journey 
 through France and Part of Spain," 1777, 
 1' vols. 8vo ; " The new prose Hath Guide," 
 1778, 8vo ; " The Valetudinarian's liath 
 Guide, or tlie Means of obtaining long Life 
 and Health." 1780, 8vo ; " A Year's Journey 
 through the Pays Bas and Austrian IS'ether- 
 lands/' 1786. 8vo ; " A Sketch of the Life of 
 Thomas Gainsboiough," 1/88, 8vo ; and " i\Ie- 
 moirs and Anecdotes of Philip Thicknesse, 
 late Lieutenant Governor of Landguard Fort, 
 and unfortunately Father to George Touchet, 
 Baron Audlev," 1788, 2 vols. Svo.—Mchols's 
 Lit. Anec. 
 
 THICKNESSE (Anne) an authoress of 
 great beauty and accomplishments in her 
 youth. Her maiden name was Ford ; her 
 father, who enjoyed the lucrative oilice of 
 clerk of the arraigns, possessed a hou.«e near 
 the Temple, in which she was born, F'ebruary 
 '2'2, 1737. Her talents and personal attrac- 
 tions having early introduced her into the 
 world of fashion, she took advantage of that 
 circumstance to give three concerts at the 
 opera house on her own account, having left 
 her father's house abruptly, in consequence of 
 his endeavouring to force her into a disagree- 
 able marriage. By this bold step she realized 
 fifteen hundred pounds, and acquiring the pa- 
 tronage of lady Betty Thicknesse, became do- 
 mesticated in her family. On the death of this 
 lady, the widower, governor Thicknesse, the 
 subject of the last article, ofFered her his hand 
 after a due interval, which she accepted, above 
 three hundred persons being present ai the 
 wedding. During a union of thirty years she 
 accompanied her husband on various journeys 
 to differt-nt jiarts of the continent ; and was 
 with him at his death, which took place in his 
 carriage, near Boulogne in 179'-'. The convul- 
 sions of the French Revolution had now com- 
 menced, and Mrs Thicknesse, in company 
 with several other English ladies, was inqtri- 
 soned, and narrowly escaped the guillotine, 
 through the death of Robespierre, who had 
 sent an order for their execution. On her 
 liberation she returned to FIngland, and ended 
 a long and exemplary life at her house in the 
 Kd^^e ware-road, January 20, 1824. She was 
 the^'personal friend of most of the wits of the 
 last generation, speaking various modern lan- 
 guages with fluency and elegance. Her prin- 
 cipal works are " Biograidiical Sketches of 
 Literarv Femalesof the French Nation," 3 vols. 
 1 -invo, 1778, and a novel entitled " The School 
 of Fashion," 2 vols. 8vo, 1800. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 rii 1 
 
 TllJKRRV otTIIIA)\H)RIC OF N'IKM, 
 an ecclesiuHiical writer of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Hi- was a native of I'aderborn in West- 
 phalia, and si-rved (jrej;ory XI, Irban \ I, 
 and bf'veral succeeiling poju's ait under secre- 
 tary. He also aitcnded Jidm Will to the 
 council of Constance as writer of ihi- aposto- 
 lical letters ; hut after that pontifTs fli-ht be 
 drew up an account of his life and vices in a 
 style of hitler but well merited invective. He 
 dieil about 1H7, leaving the following workb : 
 " A History of the Schism," Nuremberg, 
 lo92; "Ihe Privileges and Rights of tb« 
 Emperors in the Investiture of liihhops ;" 
 " A History of John XXIll," Frankfort, 1620, 
 and '* A Journal of the Council of Constance.' ' 
 His style is h;irsli but energetic ; and his writ- 
 ings, which describe chiefly what lie himself 
 witnesseii, and draw a shocking picture of the 
 court of Rome and the clergy of the period, 
 are deemed accurate and faithful. — iJnpin. 
 Morcri. 
 
 THIERS (John Baptist) a French eccle- 
 siastic, very singular in his character and 
 writings, was born in 1636 at Chartres, and 
 educated at Paris, where he became a doctor 
 of the Sorbonne. He was afterwards appointed 
 to a benefice in the diocese of Chartres ; but 
 his caustic and litigious temper having in- 
 volved him in a liispute with the archdeacon 
 and chapter, he wrote a satire upon the for- 
 mer, which caused the issue of a decree for his 
 arrest. He however escaped from the officers 
 of justice, and took refuge at Mons, where he 
 was well received by the bishop, who a(ij)oint- 
 ed him to the cure of Vitraie, in whiclnsitua- 
 tion he died the 28ili of February 1703. His 
 temper led him to delight in polemics, and he 
 chose odd and uncommon subjects. Of his 
 numerous writings the followintr are the mfist 
 observable, " Traite des Superstitions que re- 
 gardent les Sacremens," four volumes, l2nio ; 
 " Traite de I'Exposition du Saint Sacrement 
 de I'Autel ;■' " L'Avocat des Pauvres, que 
 fait voir les Obligations qu'ont les Beneficiers 
 de faire un bon Usage des Biens de I'Eglise ;" 
 " De F"estorum Dierum Immunatione ;" 
 ** Traites des Jeux Permis et Defendeuis ;" 
 '' Histoire des Perruques, oa Ton fait voir leur 
 Origine,leur l^sage, leur Forme, I' A bus, et I'lr- 
 regularite de celles des Eci lesiastiques," a most 
 singular and entertaining disquisition, with se- 
 veral more, all of which are deemed very cu- 
 rious, and none more than a dissertation on an 
 inscription over the great portal of the convent 
 of the cordeliers at Rlieims. which tract is 
 extremely rare. — Moreri. AOki. Diet. //j.vr. 
 
 J'HIRLBV (Styan) a learned critic, was 
 born at Leicester, where his father was a pa- 
 rish clergyman, about 1692. He was edu- 
 cated at the free school of his native }>lace, 
 whence he was removed to Jesus college, 
 Cambridj^e, where he obtained a fellowship, 
 and had several pupils, among whom was Dr 
 Jortin. He was however a neglectful tutor, 
 and otherwise of very irregular habits. Such 
 was his caprice that he studied phvsic, divinity, 
 and civil law successively, witli a view to a 
 profession ; but although he took a doctor's 
 
rno 
 
 degree in the latter faculty, he never sought 
 practice as a civilian. After losing many 
 friends and some promising patronage by liis 
 uneven temper, imprudence, and irregularity, 
 sir Edward Walpole obtained him a small sine- 
 cure in the custom-house, in possession of 
 which he died in 1753, a martyr to intempe- 
 rance, in his sixty-first year. lu 17-23 he 
 eave the world his edition of Justin IMartyr, 
 folio, with notes and emendations, which is 
 esteemed a very valuable performance. He 
 also contributed some notes to Theobald's 
 Edition of Shakspeare. — Nichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 TIllSTLEWOOD (Authi'r) memorable 
 for his concern in the political commotions 
 which disturbed this country after the restora- 
 tion of reiral government in France, was the 
 son of a farmer in Lincolnshire, and was born 
 in 1772. He obtained a lieutenant's commis- 
 sion in the supplementary militia in 1797, and 
 soon after he married a young lady with a con- 
 siderable fortune. He then resided at Bawtry 
 in Yorkshire, but his wife dying in about 
 eighteen months, he went to Lincoln, where 
 he abandoned himself to dissipation, and hav- 
 ing squandered his property at the gaming- 
 table, he was obliged at length to take refuge 
 in London. There he remained some time, 
 making however occasional voyages to Ame- 
 rica and France, where he connected himself 
 with the parnzans of anarchy and revolution, 
 and probably contracted that spirit of discon- 
 tent which influenced his future conduct. 
 After the peace of Amiens he returned to Eng- 
 land, and improved his circumstances by a 
 
 THO 
 
 for the beauties of style and elegance of com- 
 position which they exliibit, and to these he is 
 chiefly indebted fur his literary reputation. 
 His Flulogy on the Roman emperor, Marcus 
 Aurelius, has been especially admired. Amonp^ 
 the other productions of his pen are, " 116- 
 flexions historiques et litteraires sur le Poeme 
 de la Religion Naturelle de \oltaire ;" " Eloge 
 de Marechal Saxe ;" " Essai sur les Eloges ;" 
 " Essai sur le Caractere, les i\lcEurs, et 
 lEsprit des Femmes;" besides " La Petreide," 
 an epic poem, published posthum.ously, and 
 other poetical compositions. He died in 1785, 
 and his works have been subsequently pub- 
 lished in 7 vols. 8vo. — ^i'^>g. Univ. Did. h'ist. 
 
 THOMAS (Elizabeth) a female author, 
 principally deserving of notice on account of 
 her having been praised by Dryden and abused 
 liy Pope in his Uunciad. 'I'he former bard 
 gave her the poetical appellation of Corinna j 
 and she provoked the resentment of the latter, 
 by publishing his letters to Air H. (Jromwell, 
 which had come into her hands through her 
 intimacy witli that gentleman. She died in 
 17o0, at he age of fifty -five ; and a vo- 
 lume of her Po^ms and Letters was afterwards 
 published, with a biographical memoir, written 
 by herself, in a very romantic style. — Gibber's 
 Lives of the Poets. 
 
 THOMAS (John) a prelate respectable for 
 his learning and li; erility, who was the son of 
 a clergyman, and was born at Carlisle in 1712. 
 He studied at Queen's college, Oxford, and 
 was afterwards a private tutor to the son of 
 sir William Clayton. Having been ordained, 
 
 8eron<l marriage. But he had now become a he became rector of Blechingley in Surrey ; 
 gambler by profession ; and having associated and amarriage with the daughter of hispatron 
 himself with other persons of desj)erate cha- opened the way to higher preferment in the 
 racter, he engaged in schemes which drew , church. In 1748 he was appointed one of the 
 on him the notice of government. When the 
 riots in Spa-fields took place, he was arrested 
 with Watson and others ; and the proceedings 
 ajrainst him on that occasion only served to 
 
 royal chaplains ; and after holding various in- 
 ferior benefices, he succeeded bishop Pearce 
 in the deanery of Westminster, and the bi- 
 shopric of Worcester. He died in 179o. His 
 irritate his passions and prompt him to such Sermons and Charges were published posthu- 
 outrageous behaviour towards lord Sidmouth, mously by his cbaplain, the rev. (j. I homas, 
 then secrt-tary of state, as occasioned his sub- i" ^ vols. 8vo, with a biographical memoir. — 
 
 Chalmers's Biofy. Diet. 
 
 THOMAS (Josiah) an English divine of 
 
 sequent detention in prison for a considerable 
 time. On Ids liberation he gave way to the 
 
 suggestions of rage and desj)air, and became , the established church, who was educated at 
 the principal agent in the memorable Cato- the university of Cambridge. Having taken 
 street conspiracy, the object of wbich was to I the degree of l\LA. he was ordained, and be- 
 murder several members of tlie administnition ' came rector of Kingston Deverel in Wiltshire, 
 at a cabinet-dinner, and excite an insurrection He afterwaids held the living of Street in So- 
 in the city of London. 'J'his absurd scheme mersetshire, and at length obtamt'd the arcu- 
 was betrayed by a man employed as a spy by deaconry of Bath, and was also minister of 
 the ministry, and the insane projectors were Christcliurch m that city. Mr Thomas was 
 arrested just as they were about to proceed to the author of a very pleasing piece, entitled 
 the execution of their purpose. Being tried " A Poetical Kpistle to a Curate;" and he 
 and condemned as a traitor, Thistlewood with published some tracts against the doctrines of 
 his coadjutors siifl'ered the sentence of the law those who style themselves tiie evangelical 
 on the 1st of May 18t'0. ^.lergy ; and distinguished himself as the op- 
 
 THOALAS (Anthony Lfonaud) a distin- ponent of his diocesan, DrRvder, who advo- 
 
 guished French writer and member of the 
 Academy, who was born near Clermont in 
 Auvergne, in 173^. He was a professor at the 
 College of Beauvais at Pans, and subsequently 
 secretary to the duke of Orleans. Among a 
 number of works which he published are Pane 
 
 cated those principles at a missionary meeting. 
 He died in 1820, at the age of sixty. — Brit- 
 ton's Hist, of Hath Abheij. 
 
 i'HOMAS (William) an eminent prelate, 
 born at Bristol, and educated at Oxford. Af- 
 ter previous preferment he became precentor 
 
 gyrics, or biographical eulogies, lemarkable of St David's, and in 1663 dean of Worces- 
 
T II iJ 
 
 ter, whenre he was n'lnoved to the soe of St 
 Duviil's, aiul he liieii bishop of W'onester in 
 luUy. Hf pubhsljed someseimons an J tracts 
 on divinity. — ilis y;r;indson, \\ir.i.iAM Iikj- 
 MAS, wlio was ftlucaled at \\ tstnunstiT 8cho(d 
 and I'rinity college, Cau»l)ridye, took orders 
 ill the church, and hecaiiie rector of Kxal, in 
 W'urwicksliire. In lltiii he was prest-nti'd to 
 the living of St Nicholas, Worcester, where 
 lie continued till his death in I7:i8. He made 
 collections for a hi.-<torv of Worcestershire, and 
 he |)ul)hshed " Aiiiiqmtales i'noratus niajoris 
 iNlalverne ;"' and " A Survey of Worcester 
 Cathedral ;" and was the editor of an im- 
 ]»roved republication of Diij;dale's Survey of 
 Warwickshire. His topographical papers fell 
 iuto the hands of I)r 1 readway Nash, and 
 served a.-; the foundation of his county history. 
 ■^Chuhners's Biog. Diet. 
 
 rilOMAS (William) a native of Wales, 
 who appears to have received his education at 
 Oxford, and taken the degree of bachelor of 
 canon law there in lo29. Being obliged to 
 quit the kingdom in 1544-, on account of some 
 misfortune, he went to Italy, and two years 
 after he resided at Bologna, and subsequently 
 at Padua. In 1549 he had returned to Eng- 
 lanii, as he was then apjiointed clerk of the 
 council to king Edward \' i, who, though he 
 was a layman, bestowed on him a firebend in 
 St Paul's cathedral, and a living in Wales. On 
 the accession of queen iMary he lost his office 
 and benefices, in consequence of which pro- 
 bal-ly he engaged in a design to assassinate her 
 niiijestv, c<i according to others he joined in 
 the rebeliiin of sir Tiiomas Wyatt, and being 
 arrested and imprisoned in the Tower, he 
 made an attempt at suicide. He was however 
 tried for treason at Guildhall on the 9ih of 
 May, 1.^54, and being convicted, he was 
 hanged at i'yburn. Thomas was the author 
 of " Ihe History of Italy," London, 1549, 
 4to, reprinted in 1561 ; besides several otlier 
 works of less importance, original and trans- 
 lated. — IVood's Atheuic Oion, Beikenhout's 
 JBj'>i:. Lit. 
 
 THOiMASIUS (Jamts) a learned critic, 
 distiiiguisiied for his researches concerning tiie 
 history of literatuie. He was born at Leipsic 
 in 16'2'2, and he became professor of rhetoric 
 and rector of the Ihoman school in that city, 
 where he died in 1684. Among his woiks 
 are " De Fabulis Poetarum IJissertatio ;" 
 " De Theologia Scholastica ;" " Erolemata Lo- 
 gica;" " Erotemata Metaphysica ;" " De Vita 
 Abelardi ;" " De Plagio Litterario," &.c. — 
 Chiustian THOMASifs, SOU of the preceding, 
 was also a man of learning, and a very muili- 
 fanous and prolific writer. He was bom at 
 lieipsic in 1655, and received his education in 
 tlie university of his native place. '1 he au- 
 thority of Aristotle still prevailed in Germany 
 when he became a candidate for literary dis- 
 tinction, and he obtained the credit not only of 
 successfully opposing the reveries of the 
 schoolmen", but also ot contributing greatly to 
 the general diffusion of a spirit of philosophi- 
 cal inquiry throughout his native country, fis 
 was one of the first to combat the popular doc- 
 
 r ii () 
 
 trines of witchcraft and demonologv ; and his 
 hceptici»m on thchc bui>jecls expoHed him to 
 no small degree of obhxpjy. After having 
 giuduated as Ll.j). at i.eipMc.he obtained the 
 proffs.Kor.ship (>( tin- law of nature in that uni- 
 versity ; but the freedom with which he de- 
 livered his sentiments having given oil'-ucv, he 
 resigned his oflice, ami removed to Halle, 
 where he obtained the chair of jurisprudence. 
 His d.ath took |)lace in 17'J8. The list of bin 
 very numerous |)ublication» includes " Insiiiu- 
 tionesjunsprudeiitia- Divina* ," " Huitona Sa- 
 pientia: el Stultitia?," 3 vols. 8vo ; " I- unda- 
 nienta Juris Natur.i; et (ientium ex .S«-n.-»u 
 Comnmni deducta ;" " Historia Juris Natu- 
 rahs;" and a journal entitled •* Free Thoughts, 
 or ftlonthly Dialogues on Books." — 6tutlii 
 Introd. ill Hist. Lit. Diet. Hist, iiiog. Vuiv. 
 THOi\lASSl\ (Louis) an eminent French 
 ecclesiastical writer, was bom in 1619. at Aix, 
 in IVovence, of a family distinguished in the 
 church and the law. He was educated in the 
 seminary of the Oratory, and entered into that 
 congregation m his fourteenth year. He was 
 subsequently made professor of theology at 
 Sauraur, whence he was called in 16,54 to Pa- 
 ris, to teach in the school of St .Magloire. 
 Here he obtained great reputation, and in 
 1668 published his " Memoires sur la Grace," 
 in which he endeavoured to reconcile the 
 Greek fathers with St Augustine. In 1678 he 
 published the first volume of the book by w Inch 
 he is most known, entitled " De la l^iscipline 
 Ecclesiastique," which was completed in 
 three volumes in 1681. This work was so 
 much esteemed at Rome, that pope Innocent 
 XI wished to draw him to the papal court, but 
 Louis Xl\' refused his sanction. .Another of 
 his great works was " Dogmata Theologica," 
 S vols, folio, 1680—9. He also published se- 
 parate treatises "On the Unity of the Church," 
 3 vols. 4to ; " On the Divine Service ;" " On 
 Fasts and Festivals ;" " On I'ruih and False- 
 hood ;" " On .Alms, Trade, and Usury," is.c. 
 He was likewise the author of several philolo- 
 gical tracts, and undertook a large work, en- 
 titled " Glossaire Universelle Hebraique," 
 folio. This work, which appeared in 1697, 
 after his death, is sjioken of bv Ihiet as a very 
 insufficient performance. Tlie learning of 
 Thomassin, although extensive, has not l-een 
 deemed of the highest class. His private cha- 
 racter was peculiarly modest, benevolent, and 
 amiable. He «lied in 1695, in his seventv- 
 tiflh year. — Sonv. Diet. Hut. 
 
 IHO.MPSON (sir Benjamin) usually de- 
 signated by his German title of Count KrM- 
 FORO, was born at a village of ihac name in 
 New England (N. A. ), in 175'2. He accpiired 
 when young a knowledge of natural pliilo- 
 soj)liy, for uliicli he was indebted to a profes- 
 sor of that science in liie American university 
 of Cambridge. He then emjiloyed himself as 
 a teacher, till he vs-as raised to imlependance by 
 an advantageous marriage, when he became a 
 major lu the militia of liis native provuce; 
 and when the war took place between Great 
 Britain and her colonies, his local knowledge 
 enabled hmi to render services of importance 
 
T HO 
 
 to the English commanders. He came to this 
 countrv, and as the reward of his services ob- 
 tained a situation in the foreign office, under 
 lord George Germaine. Towards the close of 
 the war he was sent to New York, where lie 
 raised a regiment of dragoons, of which he 
 was appointed colonel, and thus became en- 
 titled to half-pay. Returning to England in 
 1784, he received the honour of knighthood, and 
 was for some time one of the under secretaries 
 of state. Soon after he went to the continent, 
 and through the recommendation of the prince 
 of Deux Fonts, afterwards king of Bavaria, 
 Le entered into the service of the reionins 
 elector palatine and duke of Bavaria, when he 
 efffcted many important and useful reforms in 
 both the civil and military departments of the 
 state. Among these was a scheme for the 
 suppression of mendicity, w-hich he carried 
 into execution at Munich and other parts of 
 the Bavarian territories, providing labour for 
 able-bodied paupers, and exciting a spirit of 
 industry among the lower orders of the people 
 in general. As the reward of his success in 
 this and other undertakings, be was decorated 
 bv the sovereign of Bavaria with various or- 
 ders of knighthood, made a lieutenant general, 
 und created count Rumford. He left Bavaria 
 In 1799, and returned to England, where he 
 Jmployed himself in making experiments on 
 the nature and application of heat, and on other 
 subjects of economical and philosophical re- 
 search. He likewise suggested the plan, and 
 assisted in tlie foundation of the Royal Insti- 
 tution, which led to other establishments of a 
 similar description. In 1802 he removed to 
 Paris, where he took up his residence, and his 
 wife beins: dead, he married the widow of the 
 celebrated Lavoisier ; but the union proved 
 unfortunate, and a separation ere long took 
 place. Count Rumford then retired to a 
 country-house at Auteuil, about four miles 
 from Paris, and there he devoted his time to 
 the embellishment of his domain and to the 
 cultivation of chemistry and experimental phi- 
 losophy. Though he disliked both the charac- 
 ter and politics of the French, he preferred 
 the climate of their country to every other ; 
 and he therefore procured permission from the 
 kintr of Bavaria to continue in Fiance, and 
 retain the pension of 1200/. a year, granted 
 him by that prince. He died in August 1814, 
 leaving by his first wife a daughter, who re- 
 sided at Boston, in America. Count Rumford 
 was by no means a man of learning, his lite- 
 rary acquirements being confined to the Eng- 
 lish, French, and German languages ; but he 
 was familiar with the discoveries and improve- 
 ments of modern science, and the industry 
 and perseverance with which lie pursued his 
 inquiries, enabled him to make some con- 
 siderable additions to our kMowledge of che- 
 mistry and practical philosophy. Besides a 
 great number of paj)er8 in various scientific 
 journals, he published four volumes of "Essays, 
 experimental, political, economical, and phi- 
 losophical." — (ie)tt. Mag. Rees's Cijclop. 
 
 THOMPSON (Edward) a minor poet, 
 was born at Hull in 1738, and went first to 
 
 r n o 
 
 sea in the merchant service. He afterwards re- 
 moved into the navy, in which he obtained thf 
 rank of lieutenant, and by the interest of Garrick 
 he was presented to the command of the Hya;na. 
 In 1785 he became captain of the Grampus, in 
 which he proceeded to the coast of Africa, 
 where he died the following year. He wrote 
 some poems of a too free tiescription, an en- 
 tertainment called " Trinculo's Trip to the 
 Jubilee;" " J'he Sailor's Letters," 2 vols.; 
 and several sea songs, of more than usual 
 merit. He also published editions of the 
 works of Andrew I\Iarvell, of the poet Old- 
 ham, and of Paul Whitehead. — Eimrpean Mag. 
 
 THOMPSON (William) a scholar and 
 poet of merit, was born in the early part of the 
 eighteenth centurv, and was the second son 
 of the rev. Francis Thompson, rector of Brongh 
 in Westmoreland. At the usual age he was 
 sent to Queen's college, Oxford, where he gra- 
 duated AiNI. in 1738. He afterwards became 
 fellow of the same college, and succeeded to 
 the livings of Weston and Hampton Poyle in 
 Oxfordshire ; after which he became dean of 
 Raphoe in Ireland, where he died about 1766. 
 He published an edition of bishop Hall's Vir- 
 gidemiarum in 1753, and two volumes of 
 poems, among which those entitled " The Na- 
 tivity," " Sickness," and ♦' The Hymn to 
 May," have met with considerable approba- 
 tion. — Chalmers's Poets. 
 
 THOMSON (Alexander) a writer on 
 miscellaneous literature, who died at Edin- 
 burgh in 1803, at the age of forty-one. lie 
 was the author of " Whist, a Poem in two 
 Cantos," 1791, Hvo ; " An Essay on Novels, 
 a poetical E])istle, with six Sonnets from Wer- 
 ter," 1738, 4to ; " The Paradise of Taste, a 
 Poem," 1793, 4to ; "The German Miscel- 
 lany, consisting of Dramas, Dialogues, Tales, 
 and Novels, translated from that Language," 
 1796, 8vo ; " The East Indian, a Comedy, 
 from the German of A. von Kof/^ebue," 1799, 
 8vo ; " Pictures of Poetry, Historical, Bio- 
 graphical, and Critical," 1799, 8vo ; " The 
 British Parnassus at the Close of the Eighteenth 
 Century, a Poem, in four Cantos," 1801, 
 4to ; and " Sonnets, Odes, and Elegies," 8vo. 
 He also published in the Monthly Magazine, 
 1810, " The Plan of a History of Scottish 
 Poetry." — lieuss, Biog. Univ. 
 
 THOMSON (James) a distinguished Bri- 
 tish poet, was born in 1700, at Ednam near 
 Kelso in Scotland, being one of the nine chil- 
 dren of the minister of that place. He was 
 sent to the school of Jedburgh, where he early 
 discovered a propensity to poetry, which drew 
 the attention of the neighbouring gentry, who 
 in consequence invited him to their houses. 
 Being removed to the university of Edinburgh, 
 his father soon after died, which induced him 
 to attend to the wishes of his friends, and 
 study for divinit\ . Quickly convinced that his 
 inclinations lay another way, he soon gave up 
 theological studies, and jiaid an exclusive at- 
 tention to literature. After acting some time 
 as a private tutor to lord I'dniiing, he quitted 
 the university and came to London, where he 
 found out his college acquaintance, Mallet, 
 
T II () 
 
 to whom lie showtnl his " Winter," wliich was 
 purchased by Millar for a very trilhii;,' consi- 
 deration, anil published in 17'Jt) with a dedi- 
 cation to sir Spencer Conipton. Its merits how- 
 ever were not discovered until it acciih-ntally 
 caught the eye of Mr Whately, a critic of ac- 
 knowledj^ed taste, wlio brought it into general 
 notice ; and besides a present of twenty gui- 
 neas from his dedicator, it led to the author's 
 introduction to Pope and bishoj) Kiindle, 
 the latter of whom recommendeHl him to the 
 lord chancellor Talbot. In 17'JH he pid>lis!ied 
 liis "' Summer," which he addresstnl to J5ul)b 
 l^oddington, and during the same yi'ar he 
 gave the world his " Poem sacred to the Me- 
 mory of Sir Isaac Newton," and his " iki- 
 tannia." His " Spring " ai)pearcd in IT'iS, 
 addressed to the countess of Heriford, and his 
 " Autumn,"' rendering the Seasons complete, 
 in 1730, when he published his poems col- 
 lectively, lie had jjreviously brought on the 
 stage his tragedy of " Soplionisba," the success 
 of which was but moderate ; and not long after, 
 on the recommendation of Dr Rundle, he was 
 selected as the travelling associate of the hon. 
 ]\Ir Talbot, with whom he visited most of the 
 courts and countries on the continent. Oa his 
 return he was rewarded with the post of secre- 
 tary of briefs by the chancellor, which was 
 nearly a sinecure. About this time be pub- 
 lished his poem of " Liberty," with the cool 
 reception of which he was much disappointed. 
 Soon after the lord chancellor Talbot died, 
 which vacated Thomson's office, who lost it 
 either from pride or indolence, by omitting to 
 request it of lord Hardwick, who succeeded to 
 the seals, and who held it a wlule open for 
 him, but claiming the attention of a request, 
 finally gave it to another. Possibly neither 
 party acted with much magnanimity on this 
 occasion. An introduction to Frederick, prince 
 of Wales, produced him a pension from that 
 prince of 100/. per annum. In 1738 he 
 produced a second tragedy, entitled " Aga- 
 memnon," which was represented at Drury- 
 lane theatre, and was received very coolly. 
 while a third, entitled " Edward and'Eleanora," 
 being deemed allusive to the prince and prin- 
 cess of Wales, the lord chamberlain would not 
 allow to be performed at all. In 1740 he 
 composed the masque of " Alfred," in con- 
 junction with Mallet, but which of them 
 wrote the song, since become national, of 
 '• Rule Pritannia," has not been ascertained. 
 In 174.5 his most successful tragedy, entitled 
 " Tancred and Sigismunda," was brought out 
 at Druiy-lane theatre, and warmly applauded. 
 The following year produced his admirable 
 " Castle of Indolence," his final and crowning 
 performance. He had now, by the favour of 
 Mr Lyitelton, obtained comparative indej)en- 
 dance, by the place of surveyor- gen<'ral of tlie 
 Leeward Islands, which, after paying his 
 deputy, cleared him 300/. per annum. He 
 died prematurely of a cold caught on the 
 Thames, as he was returning one night by 
 water from London to his residence in Kew- 
 lane. A fever supervened, which terminated 
 bis existence in August 1748, in the forty- 
 
 T II () 
 
 eighth year of his age. He was buried at 
 Kichmonil, and a monument was erected to 
 him in Westininbter-ubbty in 176'2, with the 
 profits arising from an ( dition of hi.-, works 
 published by Millar. He left beliind a tra- 
 gedy entitled " Coriolanus," which wa« acted 
 for tho benefit of the surviving branches of his 
 family. It was on this occasion t!:at Quin, at 
 once a generous fritiul and companion to the 
 deceased poet, spoke the jirologue with so 
 much feeling that was composed for the occa- 
 sion by lord Lyttelton. Thomson was large 
 and ungainly in i)erson, and somewhat heavy 
 in deportment, except among intimate friencis, 
 by vvhon\ he was singularly beloved for the 
 kindness of his heart, and his freedom from the 
 little malignant jealousies which so frequently 
 debase the literary character. He was re- 
 markably indolent and unhappily too much dis- 
 posed to indulge in the grosser pleasures of 
 sense, than from his writings would seem 
 probable. The poetical merits of Thomson 
 stand very conspicuously forward in his " Sea- 
 sons," which for sensibility and beauty of na- 
 tural description have scarcely been excelled. 
 His diction, although occasionally cumbrous 
 and laboured, is always energetic and expres- 
 sive, and if its versification does not invariably 
 denote a nice ear, it is seldom harsh or un- 
 tunable. On the whole few poems have ope- 
 rated more forcibly on public taste, not only in 
 England but throughout Europe. His other 
 pieces in blank verse display a vivid imagina- 
 tion and a comprehensive understanding, but 
 assume no marked or distinctive character like 
 the " Seasons ;" and his additional fame as 
 a poet arises chiefly from his " Castle of In- 
 dolence," certainly the most spirited and beau- 
 tiful of all the imitations of Spenser, both for 
 moral, poetical, and descriptive power. This 
 piece and his " Seasons" are poems which no 
 time will render obsolete. Of his tragedies it 
 is only necessary to remark, that they possess 
 little dramatic interest, and merely appear re- 
 spectable amidst the mediocre dramas of the 
 French school, which prevailed at the time he 
 composed them. — Jolnisun's Liies oj the Poets, 
 Murdoch's Life of Thomson, 
 
 THOMSON (Wii.i.iam) a miscellaneous 
 writer, born in 1746 at Purnside in Perthshire. 
 He was educated at the university of St An- 
 drews for the church, after which he became 
 librarian to the earl of Kinnoul and minister of 
 Monivad, Dissatisfied with his situation in 
 Scotland, he repaired to London, where he 
 kept an academy, and exercised his pen as an 
 author by profession. His compilations were 
 very numerous, and he was also the editor of 
 several perioilical publications, including " The 
 Political Magazine ;" " The Whitehall Even- 
 ing Post ;" and " 'J'he Annual Urgister." His 
 oriiiinal works are " The Man in the Moon ;" 
 " Memoirs of the War in Asia." 2 vols. ; 
 " INlammoth, or Human Nature Displayed," 
 
 vols. &c. He obtained a doctor's degree 
 from St Andrews, and died at Kensington in 
 a817. — A)ni. Biog. 
 
 THORESBY (Ralph) an eminent anti- 
 quary, was born at Leeds in 1638. His 
 
T IJO 
 
 fatlier, who traced Ins origin up to tlie reign 
 of Canute, was a respectable merchant of tiie 
 presbyterian religion, wlio being much ad- 
 dicted to antiquarian researcli, founded the 
 collection entitled " Museum Thoresbianum." 
 The subject of this article received his school 
 education at Leeds, whence he was removed 
 to London ; and being designed for the mer- 
 cantile profession, he was sent in his twentieth 
 year to Rotterdam, to acquire the Dutch and 
 Frtr-ncli languages. On the death of his father 
 in 1679 he succeeded him in business, and 
 married and settled in his native place. Hav- 
 ing imbibed a taste for anticjuity from his pa- 
 rent, he pursued the study of it w ith so much 
 ardour, that it became tlie principal employ- 
 ment of his life. He also formed connections 
 with the most distinguished votaries of the 
 same pursuits ; and in ltJ97 was admitted a 
 member of the Royal Society. Having long 
 entertained the design of writing the history 
 of his native town, he made lar^e collections 
 for the purpose, which he published in 1714, 
 under the title of " Ducatus Lcodensis, or 
 the'i'opography of Leedesand Parts adjacent." 
 In this volume he refers to an intended his- 
 torical part, which was to give a view of the 
 state of the northern districts of the kingdom 
 in remote aues. A portion of this he left be- 
 hind in MS, which is printed entire in the 
 Biographia Britannica, under the article 
 Tlioresby. He also published " Vicaria Leo- 
 deiisis, or the History of the Church of Leedes," 
 London, 17'24. He died in 1725, of a para- 
 lytic affection, in the sixty-eighth year of his 
 age. Besides his own writings, lie lent Ids 
 assistance to various works of the antiquarian 
 and bio^iraphical chiss, among which are enu- 
 merated Gibson's edition of Camden; Calamy's 
 Memoirs of Divines ; Walker's Sufferings of 
 the Clergy ; and Collins's Peerage of England. 
 — Pni'tT. Hrit. 
 
 TI KURIL'S (Raphael) a physician, wlio 
 died of the plague in London, in 16^9. He 
 was a French Protestant, and was in favour 
 at the court of James I. He is said to have 
 been distinguislied for his learning and for 
 his excessive devotion to the j)leasures of tlie 
 table. His works are " Hymnus 'J'abaci," 
 Lond. 16^6, 12mo, republislitd at Utrecht, 
 1644 and l6ol, and translated into English by 
 P. Hausied ; " Elegia in Obitum Joanuis Bar- 
 claii," 4to ; and a Leitt-r " De Causa Morbi 
 et Mortis Isaaci Casauboni." — Diet. Hist. 
 
 THORKKLIN (Ghimh .Iohnson) profes- 
 sor in the university of Copenhagen, keeper 
 of the royal archives of Denmark, member of 
 the Icelandic Society, See. a learned and inge- 
 nious investigator of northern anticjuities. He 
 lived in the latter i)art of tlie last century, and 
 was a coadjutor in the literary labours of Sulim 
 and Resenius. He published " Di|)loinatum 
 Arna-Magnitanum exhibens Monumenta Di- 
 plomatica quae colligit et Uuiversitati Haf- 
 niensi 'I'estamento reliquit. Arnas Magna^iis, 
 Ilistoriam atque Jura Dania;, Noivegia", &lc. 
 illustrantia," 1786. 2 vols. 4to ; and " Eyr- 
 byggia Saga, sive Eyranorum Historia, quam 
 mandante et impensas faciente P. F. Suhm, 
 
 THO 
 
 \'ersione, Lectionum \'arietate, ac Indice 
 Reruni auxit G. J. Thorkelin," 1787, 4to ; 
 and " Fragments of English and Irish His- 
 tory, in the ninth and tenth Centuries, trans- 
 lated from tlie Icelandic, with JN'otes," Lon- 
 don, 1788, 4to. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 THORLAKSEN (Gubebuand) an Ice- 
 landic writer, born in the district of Holum in 
 Iceland, in l54i^. He studied at the university 
 of Copeuiiagen. and then became rector of the 
 school of Holum, and in lr)7') bishop of the 
 diocese. He estaUlislunl a })riiiting- press, and 
 contributed greatly to the liiffusiou of know- 
 ledge among his countrvmen, being one of the 
 most learned among the Icelandic prelates; 
 but he is said to have exercised his authority 
 in too arbitrary a manner, and thus involved 
 himself in great difficulties. He died in 1629. 
 Arngrim Jonas was coadjutor of this learned 
 bishop, from whose press issued several works 
 of his own composition, relating to theology 
 and history. Fborlaksen also constructed 
 a map of Iceland, which has l)een engraved 
 and putdished. — Aikin's Gen. Bioir. 
 
 THORN DIKL (HEHBtm) aTearnpd Eng- 
 lish divine of the seventeenth century, was 
 educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, of 
 which he became a fellow. In 1642 he was 
 admitted to the rectory of Barley in Hertford- 
 shire, and in 1643 was elected master of Sid- 
 nev -ollege, of which office he was deprived 
 '. ^n oppressive piece of court intrigue. In 
 ne sequel he was also doomed to experience 
 equal injustice from the opposing party, and 
 wlio ejected him from his living of Barley, in 
 which he was replaced at the Restoration, until 
 he resigned it on being made a prebendary of 
 Westminster. He died in 1672. 'ilie prin- 
 cipal works of this divine, whose orthodoxy 
 was somewhat suspected, are, •' A Discourse 
 on Church Government;" " A Discourse of 
 Religious Assemblies ;" " Just Weights and 
 Measures, or the j)resent State of Relii;iou 
 weighed in the Balance ;" " (Vigines Eccle- 
 si;e ;" " Epilogue to the Tragedy of the Church 
 of Er. gland," &.C. He also assisted Walton in 
 his I'olyglott. — Walkings Siiferin'^s oj the 
 Clergy. KennetVs Chron. 
 
 THORN HILL (sir James) an eminent 
 English painter, descended from a good family 
 in Dorsetshire, was born at VV^eymoulb in 
 1676. He chose painting for liis profession, 
 and was enabled to pursue the stuiiy of ih;it 
 art by the assistance of his uncle, the cele- 
 brated physician, Sydenham. Although })laced 
 under a very indifferent master, he made a 
 great progress, by the force of his natural 
 taste and abilities, and then proceeded to 
 Holland, Flanders, and France, where he exa- 
 mined all the good pictures, and himself pur- 
 chased and brought over several to England. 
 On his return he qui'kly acquired emploMtient 
 and reputation ; and was much engaged in the 
 decoration of palaces and public buildings. 
 Among his principal works are tlie inside of 
 the dome of St I'auls; the great hall at 
 Greenwich hospital; an apartment at Hainn- 
 ton Court ; the hall at Blenheim ; the altar- 
 piece of All Souls' chapel, Oxford ; the chape 
 
T 11 O 
 
 at lord Orford's at Wimpole • and the suloon 
 at INlort' park, Ilcrtfonisliirf. lie was state 
 jjiiiiiler to quetn Aiiiii-, Gi-orge 1, ;iiul tjcorgo 
 II, by tlie latter of whom he was knighted. 
 Although he lost much money hy mjtidicious 
 credit, he acquired sufficient property to re- 
 purchase a f;iinily estate, which the distresses 
 of his father had obliged him to alienate. Atten- 
 tive to the improvement of his art in Knglanil, 
 he opened a sciiool at his own house iu Coveiit- 
 garden, iiaviug failed in an application to lord 
 Halifax for the foundation of a royal academy. 
 He died at liis seat of riioruhill iu 1734, aged 
 fifty-seven, leaving a son and a.daughter, tbe 
 latter of whom was marrietl to Hogarth. The 
 pencil of sir James Thornhill was firm and free, 
 and his taste in design good, displaying great 
 judgment in treating the allegorical composi- 
 tions in which he was so much employeil. His 
 colouring was however defective, and his 
 drawing often incorrect, defects attributable 
 to the want of adequate instruction in the out- 
 set. Sir James Thornhill, in company witli 
 sir Christopher Wren, was most ungenerously 
 deprived of his state appointment in the even- 
 ing of life, in both instances to make room for 
 persons of far inferior abilities. — JVulpole's 
 Anecdotes. Pilkington. 
 
 THORNTON (Bonnell) a miscellaneous 
 writer of genuine humour, was the son of an 
 apothecary in London, where he was born in 
 17 '^4. After the usual course of education at 
 "Westminster school, he was in 1743 elected 
 to Christchurch, Oxford. Here he became 
 concerned in " The Student, or Oxford Monthly 
 Miscellany," conducted by Smart. Jn 1730 
 he graduated IMA. and as his father wished 
 him to study physic, in 1754 he added that of 
 bachelor in the latter faculty. His bent how- 
 ever was not for severe studies, and he soon 
 after united with the elder Colman in the 
 establishment of the amusing periodical paper 
 entitled " The Connoisseur." Assuming lite- 
 rature as a profession, he was also a profuse 
 contributor to magazines, newspapers, and all 
 the periodicals of the day, chiefly in the light 
 and humourous way ; and when the St 
 James's Chronicle was projected, he not only 
 assisted, but became a proprietor. His hu- 
 mour was not altogether confined to his pen, 
 as he projected a ludicrous exhibition of sign 
 paintings, which actually took place at his 
 house ; and as its object was to satirise tem- 
 porary objects, events, and persons, it amused 
 for a season. Of a kindred nature was the 
 composition and performance at Ranelagh of 
 a burlesque " Ode for St Cecilia's Day," pro- 
 fessedly adapted to " Ancient British iNlusic," 
 meaning the salt-box, Jew's-harp, marrow- 
 bones and cleavers, &c. Sec. J his farcical 
 performance was often alluded to by Dr John- 
 son as exceedingly humorous. In 1766, in 
 conjunction with Warner and Colman, he 
 published two volumes of a translation of Plan- 
 tus, afterwards completed in five. In 1767 he 
 published " The Battle of the Wigs," in ridi- 
 cule of the disputes between the fellows and 
 licentiates of the College of Physicians ; and 
 Oiis was followed by his " City Latin," in ri- 
 Bioc. DicT. — Vol. IIL 
 
 T II O 
 
 dicule of thp inscription on Blackfriars bridge. 
 Me tlieil prematurely in his forty-Beveuth year, 
 leaving a widow, a daughter, and two sous, 
 one of whom is the well-known Dr I hornton 
 the jihybician. — Hiithh Kuayutt, I'lejace to 
 
 vol. XXX. 
 
 THOKNTON (Thomas) a noted Bports- 
 man and eccentric hon vivant, heutenant-co> 
 
 lonel of the We.nt York militia, prime de 
 Chambord and marquis de Pont in France, ui 
 which country he had purchased the estateH to 
 which those titles are attached. He wan bom 
 in London, and educated at the Charter-house, 
 whence he proceeiied to the university of Ciias- 
 gow. On inheriting his patrimonial estate of 
 Thornville Royal, he distinguished himself by 
 his attachment to field sports, and especially 
 to falconry, which he revived on a most ex- 
 tended and magnificent scale. At the peace of 
 Amiens he ])ioceeded to France, where lie after- 
 wards settled, for the purpose of examiidng the 
 state of sporting in that country, ami gave there- 
 suit of his observations to the world in a work 
 (in which, as in some others, he is said to have 
 been assisted by the rev. JMr Martyn) entitled 
 " A Sporting lour through France," 1806. 
 2 vols. 4to. Previously to the appearance of 
 this work he had printed in 1804 " A Sporting 
 Tour through the North of England and the 
 Highlands of Scotland," 4to. He was also the 
 author of a small work entitled " A \indica- 
 tion of Colonel Thornton's Conduct in his 
 Transactions with Mr Burton," 8vo, 1806. 
 He died at Paris early in the summer of lbi,'3. 
 — Anil, Biog. 
 
 THOHOTON (Robert) an English physi- 
 cian of the seventeenth century, known as a 
 writer on topography. Having obtained pos- 
 session of a transcript of the account of Not- 
 tinghamshire from the Domesday Book, by 
 sergeant Gilbert Boun, with some other mate- 
 rials, J)r Thoroton improved and augmented 
 them, and following the ])lan of I^>urton's Lei- 
 cestershire, he composed and published " J'he 
 Antiquities of Nottinghamshire, extracted out 
 of Records, Original Evidences, Leiger Books, 
 otlier i\lSS. and authentic Authorities," Lon- 
 don, 1677, folio. This work consists chiefly 
 of a collection of epitajdis and a history of 
 property, arranged according to the division 
 of hundreds and towns ; no notices occurring 
 of our early national antiquities, whether Bri- 
 tish, Roman, or Saxon. An improved edition 
 of the Anti(}uities of Nottinghamshire was 
 published by J. Throsby, 3 vols. 4to, in 1797. 
 — Cfough's Brit, ri'pog, 
 
 J IkMiPF^ (John) a physician and anti- 
 quary, was born atPenahurst in Kent in 1682. 
 .After practising in London he settled at Ro- 
 chester, where he died in 17.')0. He was 
 chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 170j, 
 to whose transactions he was a contributor ; 
 he also ])rinted several ancient documents, in 
 illustration of the history and antiquities of 
 Rochester, and a volume of Scheuchzer's 
 " Itinera .Aliiina." — His son, John Thorpe, 
 was born in 1714, and educated at University 
 college, Oxford, where he took a master's 
 degree. He devoted the greatest part of his 
 
 X 
 
THO 
 
 life to the study of antiquities, the fruits of 
 whicli appeared in 1769, in a volume entitled 
 " Registruin lloft'ensi, or a Collection of An- 
 cient Records necessary for illustrating the 
 History of the Diocese and Cathedral of Ro- 
 chester." In 17B8 he also published " Cus- 
 toinale Roffensi, from the Original in the Ar- 
 chives of the Church of Rochester." lie died 
 at Chippenham in 1792. — Gent. Mag. 
 
 'i'HOU (James Augustus de) in Latin 
 Th;:anus, an eminent magistrate and historian, 
 was born at Paris in 15o3, being the third son 
 of Ciiiistopher de Thou, a higlily respectable 
 president of the parliament of Paris. At ten 
 years of age he was placed in the college of 
 Burgundy and designed for the church, but was 
 afterwards sent to Orleans, for the study of 
 the civil law, which he farther cultivated under 
 Cujacius at Valence. In 1573 he travelled 
 into Italy, and in lo76 his high character for 
 prudence and ability induced tlie court to em- 
 ploy him to negociate with marshal Montmo- 
 r^-ncv for the purpose of ])reveuting a civil war. 
 On the death of his elder brotker in 1579 he 
 dedicated himself to the long robe, and in 
 1584 was made a master of requests ; and in 
 1587, having rei^igned all his previous eccle- 
 siastical engagements, he married. On the 
 revolt of Paris, produced by the violences of 
 the l^'ague, he adhered to Henry III ; and 
 after the assassination of the duke of Guise, 
 was principally instrumental in reconciling 
 that jirince with the king of Navarre. On the 
 death of Henrv III he hastened from Venice 
 to support the legal heir, Henry IV, who em- 
 ploved him in several important negociations, 
 and nominated him principal librarian to the 
 king, on the death of Amyot. In 1594 he 
 succeeded his uncle as president a-mortier, 
 and was afterwards one of the Caiiiolic com- 
 missioners at the celebrated theological con- 
 ference at Fontainebleau, between Uu Perron 
 and Du Plessis Mornai. In the regency of 
 INIary de' Medici he was appointed one of the 
 directors-general of finance and otherwise em- 
 ployed in nice and difficult matters, in which 
 he rendered himself equally conspicuous by 
 integrity and ability. These various occupa- 
 tions did not prevent him from an assiduous 
 cultivation of literature ; and being fond of 
 composition in Latin verse, in 1584 he gave 
 the world a descriptive poem on the subject 
 of hawking, entitled " I3e Re Accipitraria." 
 He afterwards published other pieces of Latin 
 ])oetry, but his greatest literary labour was the 
 com])osition in the same language of a volumi- 
 nous history of his own times, of which the 
 first part was made public in 1604. To the 
 great discredit of Henry IV, this work was 
 condemned, in submission to the influence of 
 the Catholic leaders, where was nettled at the 
 freedom with which the historian did justice 
 t» the Huguenots, and censured the popes, the 
 clergy, and the house of Cjuise. Tlie history 
 when finished consisted of one hundred and 
 thirty-eight books, comprising the events from 
 1545 to 1607 ; and as few writers have under- 
 taken a work of this extent with better quali- 
 fications for the task, it was accomplished in 
 
 T H L 
 
 a manner which lias unequivocally secured the 
 approbation of unbiassed posterity. Accu- 
 rately acquainted with the politics, revolutions, 
 and geograpliy of modern Europe, the narra- 
 tive of De Thou is at once copious and exact, 
 while his native candour and love of truth has 
 ensured all the necessary freedom and impar- 
 tiality. To this work he subjoined " Com- 
 mentaries, or Memoirs of his own Life," com- 
 posed in the same manly spirit. In 1601 he 
 lost ins first wife, bv whom he had no children, 
 and married a second, who brought him three 
 sons and three daughters. The loss of this 
 lady in 161C, together with the calamities 
 which befel the country after the assassination 
 of Henry IV, is thought to have hastened his 
 own deatli, which took place in 1617, at the 
 age of sixty-four. The most complete edition 
 of the History of De Thou is that published 
 in London in 1733 by Buckley, in 7 vols, 
 folio. — Memoirs by Himself, Mureri. Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 THOU (Francis Augustus de) eldest son 
 of the preceding, born in 1607, inherited the 
 virtues and intelligence of his father, and was 
 made master of requests and grand master of 
 the royal library. Cardinal Richelieu having 
 discovered that he kept up a correspondence 
 with the duchess de Chevreuse, studiously 
 kept him out of all confidential employment, 
 which, unhaj)pily for himself, threw him into 
 the party of Cinqmars. When that imprudent 
 person therefore was detected in a secret cor- 
 respondence with Spain, De Thou was appre- 
 hended on the charge of not revealing it ; and 
 notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence, 
 was condemned, and sentenced to lose his 
 liead. Resolved upon a signal sacrifice to his 
 power, the unrelenting minister resisted all 
 entreaties in his favour, and his execution was 
 irrevocably determined upon. Cinqmars, who 
 was the cause of his ruin, humbled himself 
 before him drowned in tears ; hut De Thou 
 raised and embraced him, saying, *' There is 
 now nothing to be thought of but how to die 
 well." He was beheaded at Lyons in 1642, 
 at the age of thirty-five, universally lamented. 
 —Id. 
 
 THOU IN (Andrew) protessor of agri- 
 culture at the Royal Garden at Paris, was born 
 in that city in 1747. His father was chief 
 gardener to the king, and on his death Button 
 and Bernard de Jussieu procured the office 
 for the son, though he was then but seventeen 
 years old. He devoted himself with great as- 
 siduity to the improvement of the establish- 
 ment under his care, and to tlie advancement 
 of botanical science. His merit procured him 
 admission into the Parisian Society of Agri- 
 culture and into the Academy of Sciences. In 
 1790 he was elected a member of the council 
 general of the department of Paris, where he 
 was specially charged with the direction of 
 atVairs relating to agriculture. In November 
 1794 he was sent into Holland, and in 1796 
 into Italy, to collect whatever might be ser- 
 viceable to the progress of cultivation in 
 France. He became one of the earliest mem- 
 bers of the French Institute, and in 1806 he 
 
T II [J 
 
 procured the establishinent of a school of pr;ic- 
 lic'il aijricultuie. Ik- carrifd on a very cx- 
 tfijsive correspoiuleuce with botani.-ts, both 
 in France and in foreign countries; and he- 
 tides his public lectures anil tracts in tlie 
 transactions of the societies to whicli lie be- 
 longed, he publitdied " Essai sur rKxposilion 
 et la J3ivision nietbodiijur de I'KcoiKiniic Ru- 
 rale. sur la Maniere d'eludier cette Science 
 par Principes, et sur les Moyensde I'elendre 
 et de hi perfectioujier, " 4to ; " l\lonoi;ra|thie 
 des Grertes," 18"J1, 4to, with litIiograj)hic 
 plates ; and other worUs. His death took 
 ))lace October '2,7, 18i!4. — Biog. Noiiv. des 
 Coiiteiiip, Biog- Univ. 
 
 i IIRHLKELD (Caleb) a natural histo- 
 rian, was born Rlay ol, 1676, at Kirkoswald, 
 in Cumberland. He was educated at Glasgow, 
 where he graduated IMA. in 1698. He soon 
 after settled as a dissenting minister in a vil- 
 lage near the place of his birth ; but having 
 made a considerable progress in the study of 
 phvsic, he took a doctor's degree at Edinburgh 
 in 1712, and proceeded with a wife and large 
 family to Dublin, where his practice soon in- 
 creased, and became respectable. He died of 
 a violent fever in 1728. In 1727 he published 
 his " Synopsis Stirpium Hibernicarum," 12mo, 
 being a short treatise on the plants which grow 
 in the neighbourhood of Dublin, with their 
 Latin, English, and Irish names ; and an ap- 
 pendix of observations made upon plants, by 
 DriMolyneux, physician to the state in Ireland. 
 This book, which is written in a quaint style, 
 is occasionally interspersed with curious ob- 
 servations, one of which states that " The 
 Irish grammarians remark that all the letters 
 of the Irish alphabet are names of trees." — 
 PiUteneij's Bot. 
 
 THROSBY (John) a topographical writer, 
 whose productions on the subject of his native 
 county are numerous, was born in 1746, and 
 was for many years parish-clerk of St IMar- 
 tin's, Leicester. He ajipears to have been a 
 man of good natural parts, and he rendered 
 himself conspicuous as a draughtsman and to- 
 po<^rapher. He seems however to have found 
 much difficulty in maintaining a numerous fa- 
 mily, and in the decline of life depended 
 chiefly uptm the benevolence of those who re- 
 spected his industry and integrity. He died 
 February o, 1803. His publications are "Me- 
 moirs of the Town and County of Leicester," 
 1777, 6 vols. l2mo ; " Select Views in Leices- 
 tershire," 1789, 4to ; " The History and An- 
 tiquities of the ancient Town of Leicester," 
 1791, 8vo ; " Letters on the Roman Cloaca at 
 Leicester," 1793 ; " Thoughts on the Pro- 
 vincial Corps," 1795, 8vo. He also repub- 
 lished in 1797, " Thoroton's History of Not- 
 tinghamshire, with large Additions," 3 vols. 
 4to. — 'h^ichnls's Lit. Anec. 
 
 THUCYDIDES, a celebrated Grecian his- 
 torian, born at Athens 469 BC. He was the 
 Bon of Olorus, said to have been descended 
 from INIihiades, prince of the Thracian Cher- 
 souesus, and commander of t!ie Greeks at the 
 memorable battle of JMarathon. Thucydides 
 was distinguished in his youth for bis eager 
 
 T H U 
 
 dfsire to excel in gymnastic sports and military 
 exeicises, and on arriving at a |)r<)pcr a^e he 
 entered into the bt-ivue of his country. 
 Being ap|»ointed commander of a body of 
 troops in the J'tdnponncsian war, he whh or- 
 dered to relieve Aiiq)]iqi«li.s, beM«'ged by the 
 Lacedemonians ; but the speedy approach of 
 the hostile general ]{ra>idas frustrated his ope- 
 rations, aiul returning lumie unsuccehsful, he 
 was driven into banishment. 'Ihus rumored 
 from his military command, he devoted his in- 
 voluntary leisure to study ; and in the place of 
 his exile he began to write the history of that 
 intestine contest between the Grecian slates, 
 in the early part of which he had b( en em- 
 ployed, and which continued long after his 
 retirement from the scene of actual warfare. 
 He continued his narrative only to the twentv- 
 first year of the war (thirteen years after his 
 banishment) ; and the subsequt-nt history of 
 the contest, till the demolition of the walls of 
 Athens by the Lacedemonians, has been re- 
 lated by Theopomiius and Xenophon. Thu- 
 cydides wrote in the Attic dialect, as being, 
 by its purity, elegance, and energy, peculiarly 
 adapted to the subject of his composition. He 
 spared no pains to procure authentic materials 
 for his purpose, and both the Athenians and 
 their ojiponents furnished him with important 
 communications, calculated to illustrate the 
 transactions which he described. His history 
 is divided into eight books, the last of which , 
 left imperfect, is supposed to have been drawn 
 up by his daughter. The son of Olorus and 
 ihe historian of Ilalicarnassus have been fre- 
 quently made the subjects of critical compa- 
 rison. Herodotus has the advantage in the 
 variety and extent of his information, and he 
 excels in sweetness of style, grace, and ele- 
 gance of expression ; but Thucydides sur- 
 passes his predecessor in all the severer beau- 
 ties of historical composition, and the fire and 
 energy of his descriptions, the fidelity of his 
 narrative, and the more immediate interest 
 which it excites as the account of recent 
 events, have secured for him the almost un- 
 rivalled admiration of succeeding ages. The 
 ultimate fate of Thucydides is somewhat un- 
 certain ; but it is probable that he was recalled 
 from his banishment, and died at Athens 391 
 BC. Among the best editions of his history 
 are those of Duker, Amsterd. 1731, folio'; 
 Glasgow, from the press of Foulis. 1739, 
 8 vols. 12mo ; Bipont. 1788 — 9, 6 vols. 8vo ; 
 andGottleberand Bauer, Leipsic, 1790 — 1804, 
 2 vols. 4to. There are Knglish translations of 
 Thucydides by the famous Hobhes, and bv Dr 
 W. Smith, dean of Chester. — Moreri. Aikins 
 Gen. Biog. Vossius. 
 
 THUNBERG (Charles Peter) a Swe- 
 dish physician and traveller of the last cen- 
 tury, was instructed by Linna?us. In 1770 he 
 visited France, and afterwards went to Am- 
 sterdam, where he formed an intimacv with 
 Burmann, professor of botany, oii whose re- 
 commendation in 177.T he was en^^aoed by the 
 Dutch East India Company to proceed in a 
 medical capacity to Japan, After continuing 
 some time at the Cape of Good Hope, when: 
 
 X 2 
 
TH U 
 
 be made some interesting botanical researclies, 
 he proceeded to Japan ; and notwitljstaiiding tlie 
 jealousy of that govenimeut on account of liis 
 great reputation as a pliysician, he v\-as allowed 
 to explore tlie curiosities of that very singular 
 country. Thence he proceeded to Ceylon, and 
 on his return to Sweden, he succeeded Lin- 
 naeus in the professorship of botany at Upsal, 
 wliere he died in 1799. He enriched the 
 memoirs of the society of Upsal with many 
 valuable communications, besides which he 
 publishfd " Flora Japonica," 1784, 8vo ; and 
 his interestins: vovages, which have been trans- 
 lated into English in 4 vols. 8vo. — ISouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 ITIURLOE (John) secretary of state dur- 
 ing the protectorate, was the son of the rev. 
 Thomas Thurloe, rector of Abbot's Rodney, 
 in Essex, where he was born in 1616. He was 
 brought up to the law, and in 1644-5, through 
 the interest of Oliver St John, appointed one 
 of the secretaries to the parliamentary com- 
 missioners at the treaty of Uxbridge. After 
 occupying some other offices, in 16r>0 he at- 
 tended chief justice St John and Mr Strick- 
 land in their embassy to the States General, in 
 the (juality of secretary. In 1652 he became 
 secretary to the council of state, and the fol- 
 lowing year was chosen by Cromwell for his 
 own secretary, and also entrusted with the ma- 
 nagement of the post-office. In 1656 he was 
 chosen to represent the Isle of Ely in par- 
 liament, and it was by his means that the plot 
 of major-general Harrison and the other fifth 
 monarchy men, for an insurrection in 1657, 
 was detected, on which occasion he persuaded 
 Cromwell and Wliitelock to try the conspira- 
 tors by the ordinary course of law in pre- 
 ference to a commission. On the death of 
 Oliver he signed the order for proclaiming 
 Richard Cromwell, and was chosen member 
 for the university of Cambridge in the new 
 parliament ; retaining his post of secretary of 
 state, both under the new protector and tlie 
 parliament which deposed him. On the Re- 
 storation it appears that he offered his services 
 to Cljarles II j but they were not only declined, 
 but in a few weeks after he was arrested on a 
 charge of high treason. He was however 
 soon set at liberty, on which lie retired to 
 liis seat in Oxfordshire, and only attended 
 Lincoln's-inn in term time. Subsequently 
 Charles II often invited him to take part in 
 liis administration, but disliking the mixture 
 of men and ])rinciples, he declined in his turn, 
 but was very serviceable to the chancellor 
 Clarendon, by the instructions which he gave 
 him of the state of forei'-n affairs durinir the 
 protectorate. 1 his minister, who appears to 
 have been as amiable in private, as able in 
 public life, died at Lincoln's-inn in February 
 1667-8, and was buried in its chapel. The 
 state papers of Thurloe, which form a very 
 valuable collection, and display his abilities 
 both as a statesman and writer, were pu!>lished 
 by l^r Birch, in seven volumes, folio, 1742. — 
 "Life III/ Birch. Jiioir. Brit. Grmiiier. 
 
 T H I; R LO W ( E u w a r d ) baron Th urlovv, a 
 distinguished statesman, who was lord high 
 
 TH U 
 
 chancellor of Grea Britain. He was the son 
 of a clergyman, who was rector of Ashfield in 
 Suffolk, where he was born in 1732. He was 
 educated at Caius college, Cambridge ; and 
 after having been a student of the Middle 
 J'emple, he was in 1758 called to tlie bar. He 
 rose to eminence through the display of his 
 abilities in the famous Douglas cause ; and he 
 soon after obtained a silk gown. In 1770 he 
 was appointed solicitor-general, in the room 
 of Dunning (lord Ashburton), and the follow- 
 ing year he succeeded sir W. de Grey (lord 
 Walsingham) as attorney- general. He was 
 now chosen MP. for the borough of Tamworth, 
 and he became a warm and powerful supporter 
 of the ministry in the house of Commons. He 
 retired from office in 1783, but resumed it 
 again on the dissolution of the coalition mi- 
 nistry ; and he continued to hold the seals 
 under the premiership of Mr Pitt till 1792. 
 His death took place in September 1806 ; and 
 he was succeeded in the peerage by his ne- 
 phew, the son of his brother, the bishop of 
 Durham. He was never married, but he left 
 three illegitimate daughters, to two of whom 
 he bequeathed large property ; the other hav- 
 ing offended him by an imprudent marriage, 
 he left her':onlv a small annuity. — Brid<res's 
 Edit, of Collius's Peerage. 
 
 THUROT (Francis) a French naval of- 
 ficer, born at Nuits in Burgundy, in 1727. He 
 was destined for the profession of surgery, 
 and studied at the Jesuits' college at Dijon ; 
 after which he devoted two years to the art of 
 healing, and then he quitted the person with 
 whom he was placed, and going to Dunkirk, 
 embarked as a surgeon on board a privateer. 
 The vessel was captured, but Thurot made his 
 escape, and returning to Dunkirk, went to sea 
 again as a common sailor. His skill and en- 
 terprising spirit procured him promotion, and 
 he was appointed to the command of a priva- 
 teer, when he took many prizes from the Eng- 
 lish, and displayed his courage in several 
 bloody engagements. On peace taking place 
 in 1748, he entered into the merchant service; 
 but when war again broke out in 1755 lie re- 
 newed his attacks on the commerce of the 
 English with such success as a privateer officer, 
 that he was invited to enter into the roya 
 navy. He accejited the offer, and was pa- 
 tronized by marshal de Bellisle, who gave him 
 the command of a division consisting of two 
 frigates and two corvettes. He sailed from St 
 IMalo July 12, 1757 ; and after having sig- 
 nalized himself in several engagements, and 
 taken many prizes, he returned to Dunkirk 
 December 3, 1758. He appeared at court, 
 where he was well received ; and having re- 
 commended a descent on the British coasts, 
 he was entrusted with the command of five 
 frigates and a corvette, destined to convey a 
 botly of troops for that service. He sailed on 
 this expedition October 15, 1759, and arriving 
 at Carrickfergus-bay in Ireland, January 10 
 following, the troops were landed, and that 
 place being invested, surrendered in a few 
 days. Thurot however thought proper to re- 
 embark the troops, and return to France. Two 
 
T 1 H 
 
 of Ills vessels had partnl company in a ^;alc, 
 wlieii he was attacked hy three Jjiijlislj (n- 
 gates under captain Klhott, and an i-n'^a^f- 
 ment ensuing. I'lmrot waa killed, January 'JO, 
 1760.—.Hio:r, [r,iir. 
 
 I'HWAirKS ( Kdwaud) an eniincnt Snxon 
 Bclmlar, was born m l6H7, and educated at 
 Queen's college, Oxford, wlnre he gratluated 
 MA. in 1647, and obtaiufd a fellowship. In 
 1698 he became a preceptor in tlu- Saxon 
 tongue in the Hatne college, and a»M8led \)t 
 ilukes iti the coiupo^itiou of lii« llifsaurus. 
 lie pul)iished " Dioiiysu Orhis Dcscriptio," 
 Oxon. 8vo, 1697 ; " lleptateuchua Liber .lob 
 et Kvatigeliuin Nicodenii, Anglo-Saxonice ; 
 llistoria; Judith Fragmentuni, DanoSaxo- 
 nice ;" and an Anglo-Saxon (Jrammar. Mr 
 Thwaites, who in Saxon learning was deemed 
 second only to Dr Hickes, died in 1711, in his 
 forty-fourth year, owing to an am|iutation ren- 
 dered necessary by a white-swelling in his 
 knee. — Xichols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 rilVNNE (Fhancis) an antiquary and he- 
 rald of the sixteenth century, was tiie son of 
 \\ illiam Thvnne, editor of Chaucer and stew- 
 ard of the household to Henry \ 111. He was 
 born at Stratton in Shropshire, and educated 
 at lunbriilge school, whence he was removed 
 to .Magdalen college, Oxford. He afterwards 
 became a member of Lincoln's-inn, and re- 
 ceived the appointment of Lancaster herald. 
 He died, according to some accounts, in 161 1 ; 
 but it is thought from the date of the jjatent of 
 his successor, that it must have been in 1608. 
 Hearne published a " Discourse of the Dutye 
 and Office of an HerauKle at Armes," written 
 by Thynne, who also composed " Histories 
 concerning Ambassadors," j)ubiished in 16.t1 ; 
 and a " History of Dover Castle and the Cinque 
 Ports," which with many other productions 
 remain in MS. He intended to have pub- 
 lished an edition of Chaucer, but resigned the 
 task to Speght ; on whose edition, in 1599, 
 he drew up " Animadversions and Correc- 
 tions," addressed to sir J'homas Kgerton. 
 This work remained in MS. until 1810, when 
 it was published by Mr I'oJd, in his " Illua- 
 trations of the Writings of Gower and Chau- 
 cer." — Allien. Oion. Heanic's IJisicouise. 
 
 THVSIUS (Antonv) a celebrated Dutch 
 philologer, wasborn about l68oat Harderwyck. 
 He studieil at Leyden, where he ultimately 
 became professor of poetry and elotpience and 
 librarian to the university. Besides being an 
 able commentator on ancient authors, he pub- 
 lished several other productions, including 
 " llistoria Navalis," a history of the naval 
 war between the ]3utch and Spaniards, 1657. 
 4to ; " Comjiendium Histonai Batavica'." 
 161-5; " Exercitationes .Miscellanea;," 1639, 
 ll2!rao ; and two tracts on the government and 
 laws of -Athens. He also jinblisliMl editions 
 of Paterculus, l66a ; of Sallust, I6ti5 ; of Va- 
 lerius Maximus. 1670 ; of Seneca's Tragedies, 
 1651 ; of Lactantius. 1652 ; and of Aulus Ciel- 
 lius, 1661, all at Leyden. — Suxii Onom. 
 
 TIBALDL SeePELLEciRiNO. 
 
 TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a Ro- 
 man emperor, was born BC. 12. He was the 
 
 T 1 l; 
 
 »on of a father of the »nme> name, jf the an- 
 cient (.'laulian funuly. and of Luia Dru- 
 the ci-lebrnti-d wifi' of .A : ■ : " 
 
 rained tuaiithotitv by tiir i 
 ther, ho diii|ilayeil no incuuatUeraL>le abilKv lo 
 an expei! • , - ' ' 
 
 tnbeH, 11, _ 1 
 
 to the ronnuiale in hia twrn(y>eiKU(h yfar. On 
 the dfiith of A. ' V 
 
 of Iiberiuit havi ., ., . ... - 
 
 tlt-nce, he chooe bim to supply the place of ti.at 
 Miinister. obli-ing him at the wmr tifm- it 
 divorce \'ipKania and wed hm ■''■• ' '■ - '•: ., 
 whose flagitious conduct at leii. i 
 
 him, that he retired in a private capacity 
 to the isle of Rhodes. After it - 
 much discountenance from Au .• 
 
 deaths of the two CaMar*, Caius and Luciua, 
 iniluced the emperor to take him a. > 
 
 favour and ado]>t him. During the r- r 
 
 of the life of Augustus lie behaved with great 
 prudence and ability, concluding a war wiih 
 the Cjermans in such a manner as to merit a 
 triumph. After the defeat of Varus and hi« 
 legions, he was also sent ti> check the 
 of the victorious Germans, and actea lu i . u 
 war with equal s|)irit and prudence. On the 
 death of Augustus he succeeded without opj>o- 
 sition to the sovereignty of the em ' ';, 
 
 however, with his characteri.Htic »li--. , 
 
 he afJected to decline, until repeatedly soli- 
 cited by that now servile btniy the Iv 
 
 nate. The new reign was di.-(juieteu . . 
 
 gerous mutinies in the armie.H posted in I'an- 
 nonia and on the Rhine, which were however 
 suppressed by the exertions of the two princes, 
 Germaaicus and Drusus. The conduct of 
 liberius as a ruler has formed a complete 
 riddle for the student of history, unitin;; with 
 an extreme jealousy of his own power, liie 
 hiiiliest degree of atiected respect for the pri- 
 vileges of the senate, and for the leading vir- 
 
 ; tues of the ancient republican character. He 
 
 ' also displayed great zeal for the due adminis- 
 tration of justice, and was careful that even in 
 the provinces the |)eople hhould not be op- 
 pressed with imposts, a virtue which, anord- 
 ing to Tacitus, he retained when he r. I 
 
 I every other. It is the pn-Tince of ! • » 
 
 record the events of this rei^n, mi ablj, d 
 
 hy Tacitus, including the suspicious death of 
 Cierinanicus, the (!■ * ' "' '" f 
 
 Sejaniis, the cons- ■., 
 
 ' with all the extraordinary mixturt) of tyranny 
 with occasional wisdom ai ' - " !• 
 
 distinguished the cmuitict : •♦ 
 
 infamous and dissolute retirement to the ule of 
 Cajirea; in the bay of Naples, never to return 
 to Home. On the death of Lnia in the y«ar 
 29, the only restraint u|>on his actions and 
 those of the detestable Sejanus wa» i I. 
 
 and the well-know ' ■-•• -f t!i »i ..,*r 
 
 and family of Germ .. .At length 
 
 the infamous favourite extending his news 
 to the ' ... a 
 
 of his n. • ' . . " 
 
 with his favourite weapon, dissinmlalioa. Al- 
 though fiiilv restdved upon his J' - n. be 
 accuiiaiiated honours upon him, u...^:. J him 
 
TIC 
 
 indulgence, occupying a distinguislied place in 
 the group of men of letters who adorned the 
 court of Augustus, and whost' unrivalled com- 
 positions have amused and delighted maukuid 
 in every succeeding age. Tibullus first em- 
 ployed his pen to celebrate the virtues of his 
 friend Messala ; but love vpas his favourite 
 theme, and the poetic taste and warmth of 
 feeling which he displays in his alternate ad- 
 dresses to his mistresses Delia and Phmtia, 
 j\emesis and iS'e<era, are alike creditable to 
 his talents, and discreditable to his personal 
 character, as the reckless votary of pleasure in 
 the luxurious capital of the world. Four 
 books of " Elegies " are the only remaining 
 pieces of liis composition. They are uncom- 
 monly elegant and beautiful, entitling the wri- 
 ter to a station at the head of that class of 
 bards to which he belonged. Tibullus was 
 intimate with the literary men of his time. 
 Ovid has consecrated to his memory a funereal 
 elegy, and Horace has advantageously drawn 
 his character in one of his epistles. His works 
 have been often published together with those 
 of Catullus and Propertius, as by Vulpius, 
 Patav. 1737, 4 vols. 4to ; and Notis Var. et 
 Grajvii, Traject. 1680, 8vo. Separately, the 
 Elegies of Tibullus have beeu edited by Heyne, 
 Lips. 1776, 8vo ; and 1817, 8vo, with the ob- 
 servations of Wanderlich. Dart and Grain- 
 ger are among the English translators of this 
 poet, and the latter is by far the most success- 
 ful. Tibullus died 19 BC. at the age of 
 forty-three. — MorevL Elton's Spec, of Class. 
 Poets. 
 
 TICKELL (Thomas) an ingenious writer 
 both in prose and verse, and the intimate 
 friend of Addison, was a native of Bridekirk, 
 leaving his favourite is^land, the scene of the j in the county of Cumbtrland, of which parish 
 most disgusting debaucheries, he stopped at a | his father, the rev. Richard Tickell, was the 
 country house near the promontory of JMise- incumbent, and where he was born in 1686. 
 num, wiiere on the I6tli of March 37 he sunk ; He received his education at Queen's college, 
 into a lethargy, in which he appeared dead, I Oxford, where he graduated and obtained a 
 and Gains was preparing with a numerous fellowship in his twenty-fifth year. ^Vhile at 
 escort to take possession of the empire, when the university, an elegant copy of verses, ad- 
 his sudden revival threw them all into conster- 
 nation. At this critical instant IMacro, the 
 
 T I B 
 
 ;.-i3 partner in the consulate, and after long 
 playing with his credulity, and that of the se- 
 nate, who ihouuht him in greater favour than 
 ever, he artfully prepared for bis arrest. Se- 
 janus fell deservedly and unpitied ; but many 
 innocent persons shared in his destruction, by 
 the suspicion and cruelty of Tiberius, which 
 now exceeded all limits. The remainder of 
 the detestable reign of this odious tyrant, is 
 scarcely any thing more than a disgusting nar- 
 rative of every form of servility on tlie one 
 hand, and of despotic ferocity on the other. 
 I'hat he himself endured as much misery as he 
 inflicted is evident, from the following com- 
 mencement of one of his letters to the senate : 
 '* What I shall write to you, conscript fathers, 
 or what 1 shall not write, or why I should 
 write at all, may the gods and goddesses 
 plague me more than I feel daily that they are 
 doing, if I can tell." What mental torture ! 
 observes Tacitus, in reference to tliis passage, 
 which could extort such a confession. In the 
 midst however of all this tyranny ha often ex- 
 hibited gleams of strong sense, and of a judi- 
 cious attention to the public welfare ; a re- 
 mark which holds good in every part of his 
 anomalous reign. Having at length reached 
 an advanced age, Caius, the son of Germanicus, 
 his grandson by adoption, and Gemellus, the 
 non of Drusus, his grandson by nature, became 
 objects of interest. Caius however, who had 
 leached the age of twenty-five, and who held 
 the popular favour as a paternal inheritance, 
 was at length declared his successor. Acting 
 the hyprocrite to the last, he disguised his 
 increasing debility as much as he was able, 
 even aflfecting to join in the sports and exer- 
 cises of the soldiers of his guard. At length 
 
 dressed by him to Addison, on his opera of 
 
 Rosamond, introduced him to the a( quaintance 
 
 pretorian prefect, took the decisive step of of that accom[)lished scholar, who induced 
 
 causing him to be suffocated with pillows. 
 Thus expired the emperor Tiberius, in the 
 
 him to lay aside his previous intention of tak- 
 ing orders, and on his own accession to office 
 
 seventy -eighth year of his age and twenty- appointed him his under-secretary of state, 
 third of his reign, universally execrated ; and ibis measure was warmly opposed by sir Rich- 
 so detestable is ensnaring dissimulation and ard Steele, who seems to have undervalued 
 deep-rooted hypocrisy, he has left a more : both his temper and abilities, and even to have 
 odious name behind him than many, who to insinuated suspicions of his fidelity, which the 
 
 equal cruelty united none of his better actions 
 and more laudable qualities. — Tacitus. Sue- 
 tonius. Crevier. 
 
 TIBULLUS (AuLtTs Albius) a Roman 
 knight, who lived in the reign of Augustus, 
 celebrated as an elegiac poet. He lost his 
 
 other warmly resented, and as far as Addison 
 was concerned appears certainly not to have 
 deserved. The latter at his death becjueathed 
 to Tickell the publication of his works, a task 
 which he performed with great ability, print- 
 ing them ill four volumes, quarto, and prefixing 
 
 estate ia consequence of having joined the an elegiac j)oem to the memory of his j)atron, 
 
 party of "Brutus in the last struggle for liberty addressed to their mutual friend the earl of 
 
 which preceded the subversion of the republic ; Warwick. In the summer of 17'24, Mr Tickell 
 
 and he afterwards attached himself to Messala obtained the situation of secretary to the lords 
 
 CorvinuSj and went with that commander to justices of Ireland, and two years afterwards 
 
 the island of Corcyra. Returning to Italy he vacated his Oxford fellowship by contracting a 
 
 relinquished the pursuit of mihtary glory for marriage while resident at Dublin. As an 
 the cultivation of literature and voluptuous _ author he may be considered to take a 
 
T i 1 : 
 
 prominent rank uniony tli*; nniiior Kngli^h 
 pofctfl ; his versiiicatiun enpecially, in ils tii-He 
 Kiid harmony, being infi-ridr j»frha|>» to thai 
 of no one, with the txcfjition of lJr\clin niut 
 Pope. Abovu ilie period whi-n tin- latter gav«- 
 to the world iiis celel)rated traiihlation of the 
 Iliad, Tickell avowt-iliy enter* d the lists witli 
 l)iin, and printed liis own veiMoii of the lirst 
 book in opposition to that of the other, in 
 the executioti of this rival |)r()iiui tioti, if he 
 fulls far below his anta^-onist in spirit and har- 
 mony, he is considered to more than rival him 
 in HJeluy to his original, i lie proiiut lion of 
 this poem at the time oct asioned an interruption 
 to the good understanding between I'ope ami 
 Addison, the former strongly suspecting, and 
 not perliaj)s without reason, that Addison him- 
 self was a contributor to, if not the author of, 
 the work. Tickell's other writings consist of 
 "The Prospect of Peace," a ])oem, 171j; 
 "The Royal Progress ;"" Kensington Gar- 
 dens;" •• A Letter to Avignon ," " Imitation 
 of the Prophecy of Nereus ;" with several 
 epistles, odes, and other miscellaneous pieces, 
 to be found in the second volume of the M.; or 
 Poets. His death took place at Bath, April 23, 
 1740. — Johnson's Lives. 
 
 TICKELL (Richard) grandson of the 
 preceding, was a native of Bath, where he be- 
 came, by his marriage with Mary Linley, bro- 
 ther-in-law to Richard Brins'.ey Sheridan. For 
 wit, repartee, and convivial qualities, it is said 
 on the authority of those who knew him, that 
 few could equal, nor did even the brilliant 
 effusions of his facetious relative in this respect 
 eclipse, his celebrity. As a writer, if less 
 happy, he yet ranks very far above mediocrity, 
 and a ])olitical effusion from his pen, entitled 
 "Anticipation," which appeared in 1778, was 
 of iutiaite service to the ministry of the day, 
 by the })oignancy of its humour and the keen- 
 ness of its satire. " The I'loject," and " The 
 Wreath of Fashion," two poems written about 
 the same perioi.1, were also higlily popular. 
 The success of his first-mentioned work pro- 
 cured him the situation of a commissioner in 
 the stamp-office, and his society was much 
 courted hy the leading characters of his time. 
 But although the life of every company in 
 which he mixed, his spirits were subject to an 
 occasional reaction of the most distressing 
 kind ; and in one of the fits of despondency 
 produced by this unhappy circumstance, he 
 threw himself from the window of his bed- 
 room in Hampton Court pahue, and was kiU-d 
 upon the spot, on the 4th of November, 179j. 
 " The Carnival," a comic opera, and a new 
 version of Allan Ramsay's " Gentle Shep- 
 herd," were adapted by him for the stage.— 
 B}og. Dra-m. 
 
 ITEDEMANN (Dtftf.uic) a modem 
 German philosopher of considerable eminence, 
 was born April 3, 1748, at Bremervorde, in 
 tlie duchy of Bremen, of which place his fa- 
 ther was a burgomaster. He was intended 
 for the study of divinity, but he early gave np 
 his views in that direction for an undivided 
 pursuit of science and literature. In 177 'J he 
 published at Riga, hi» " Essay on the Origin 
 
 1 I L 
 
 of Lan -," Mid in 1776 hit " S • ■ >.( 
 
 the .Sit, nophv," wlm li work U 
 
 admired by (he Cflvbriitfd llr\ : ' urrd 
 
 ' •' - '' • .1, 
 
 b 
 
 Hel. ill 17H(> he pubhahfd hia " liiv 
 
 of Man," 3 voIa. Hto, nnd in l7iSi) " i 
 
 i'hiloiiopher of Grt-fte." In I7ll6 1. 
 
 moved with the other teachers of ih- 
 
 to .Mar|>tir^', and appointiil p- 
 
 HDphy, 111 which capacity ! ■• 
 
 ie|)Uiation, logic, metapli'. 
 
 etiology, the law of nature, «nd Uie '■ 
 
 philo.H()|)hy and of man. H; ' ■ .- 
 
 anc(- was a translation of IJ) . . < in 
 
 Egypt. He died iSlay ti4, IbO.i, in the lifty. 
 
 littli year of his a'^e. I he 1 ' 
 
 mann are highly valued by i .. id 
 
 other modern physiologists. BeMdes the 
 
 works already enumerated, he wa^* a. ir 
 
 of a work entitled " The Sjdril of Sp». >. ve 
 
 i'liilosophy." — Soitv. Diet. Uiil. 
 
 'MI>LCKE (John GorTi.itu) a captain of 
 engineers and artillery in the Sax(in wrvice, 
 i)<irn at Tautenburg, in Ihuringia, in l7v>l. 
 He served at first as a private grenadier, uid 
 after having been empli>yed in the prin> ipal 
 actions of the Seven Years' war, he was .MMit 
 as captain of the staff of the artillery to I-rey- 
 berg, where he died Novenib«T 6, 17B7. i his 
 officer, who was self instructed, was a keen 
 observer of military occurrences, and he suf- 
 fered nothing to escape his notice, frou the 
 sli^^htesl movement of an army lo the ni<i»t 
 important battles. He publi>heil in German, 
 " Instructions for the Officers of Engineers ;** 
 "The Qualities and Dunes of a gootl SwKlier;" 
 " Prayers and l^salnis forSoldieis ;" and " Mi- 
 litary Memoirs of the History of the War, 
 from 1756 to 1763," with plans and charts, 
 5 vols. — Biog. I'uiv. 
 
 TIL (SoLrt.MOW van) a learned and indus- 
 trious divine, born at Wesop, a town near 
 Amsterdam, in 1644. Hestudiedat Itrttht, 
 and afterwards at Le\ilen, and became a <1ij»- 
 ciple of the Dutch theologian .lohn Cocceius. 
 He entereil on the 
 the university, and in . . , , 
 
 minister at Medemblik, in North HolUtid, and 
 shortly after at Dordrecht. In loH."> he re- 
 fused the offer of the church of .'Vnisierilam ; 
 but he accepted, in 17();i, a theological profes- 
 sorship at Leyden ; and after occupying that 
 station with distinguished credit d:v - ''-n 
 years, he became subject lo painful i; . .i. 
 
 which occasioned his death on the 5l»t of 
 October, I7i;>. His priiu ip d wirL* aie 
 " 1 he Poetry and Music of the Ancieiit«, and 
 especially the Hebrews. illu.Nirated by curious 
 researches into .\nliiiuity." 1()9-.'. 1 '•- 
 
 veral limes republished and trans* .ito 
 
 fj. rman ; " The Hi.-Hory of the Klevaiion ami 
 Fall of the first Man develoj>ed and 1, 
 
 or a Commentary on the lirs' • • ' ' ^ ...., urs 
 of Cienesis," lt)\»8, 4lo ; " i ^rus pro 
 
 pheticus. seu Mosis et Habakuki \ aiicinia 
 novo ad istius Canticum el hums Ijbrum pio- 
 phelicum Comment.irio illustrata ; accrdit 
 Diss^riatio de .\nno. Men»«, ct Die Nat« 
 
T 1 L 
 
 Christi," 1700, 4to ; " MalacLias illustratus ; 
 accedit Dissertatio de Situ Paradisi terrestris,"' 
 1701, 4to; " Theologi'cE utriusque Compeii 
 dium, cum naturalis, turn revelata^," 170 i, 4to; 
 and " The Peace of Salem concluded in Cha- 
 rity, in Confidence, and in Truth," 1687, 4to. 
 The praiseworthy object of this last publica- 
 tion was the promotion of a spirit of liberality 
 and conciliation among different sects of Chris- 
 tians, and especially the Cocceians and Voe- 
 tians, whoae disputes divided into parties the 
 Dutch Protestant clergy. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TILLEMONT (Louis Sebastian le Nain 
 de) an eminent historian, born at Paris, No- 
 vember 30, 1637. He was the son of John le 
 Kain, who held the office of master of lequests, 
 and he received his education at the Port 
 Koval. Having chosen the ecclesiastical pro- 
 fession, he assumed the name of TiUemont on 
 entering into the order of priesthood. He de- 
 voted himself with great assiduity to study, 
 and by his extraordinary industry and accuracy 
 of research, he gained a high reputation as an 
 historical writer. His death took place Janu- 
 ary 10, 1698. He was the author of " Me- 
 moires pour servir a I'Histoire Ecclesiastique 
 des six premiers Siecles," 16 vols. 4to ; and 
 " Histoire des Enipereurs et des autres 
 Princes qui ont regne durant les six premiers 
 Siecles de I'Eglise." 5 vols. 4to, to which was 
 added a sixth, published in 1738. J'he first 
 volume of the Imperial History appeared in 
 1690, and the first volume of the Memoirs in 
 1693; and INI. de Tillemont, previous to his 
 death, published four volumes of each work, 
 and tlie remainder were posthumous publica- 
 tions, exhibiting occasional defects, which 
 shov^ that they had not received the ultimate 
 attentions of the learned author. He seems to 
 liave pursued his investigations more from an 
 ardent love of literature than from the wish to 
 acquire reputation as a man of learning ; for 
 be laboured on his works more than twenty 
 years without giving way to the temptation to 
 appear before the public. Gibbon praises 
 highly the accuracy and industry of Tillemont. 
 — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TILLET (Matthew) a French writer on 
 agriculture, born at Bordeaux about 1720. He 
 retained the title of director of the mint at 
 'I'royes in 1766, though no money had then 
 been coined in that city for several years. The 
 cultivation of land occupied much of his atten- 
 tion ; and the care and skill with which he con- 
 ducted his experimental researches on hus- 
 bandry, render his observations peculiarly va- 
 luable. In i7 h'6 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences, and he assisted in the 
 useful investigations of Duhamel du Monceau. 
 He died in 1791. He published •' Disserta- 
 tion sur la Ductilite desMetaux, et les Moyens 
 de I'augmenter," 17.50, 4to ; " Essai sur la 
 Cause qui corrompt et noircit les Grains dans 
 les Epis," 17o.T, 4to ; "Precis des Expe- 
 riences faites a Trianon, sur la Cause qui cor- 
 Tonipt les Bleds," 1756, 8vo ; " Histoire d'un 
 Insecte qui devore les Grains dans I'Aiigou- 
 mois," 1763, 12mo; " Essai sur le Rapj)ort 
 des Poids Etransers avec le iNIarc de France,'' 
 
 Tl L 
 
 1766, 4to; " Experiences, sur le Poids du 
 Pain au sortir du Four," 1781, 8vo ; " Projet 
 d'un Tarif propre a servir de Regie pour eta- 
 blir la A'aleur du Pain, proportionellement a 
 celles du Bled et des Farines," 1784. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 TILLI (Michael Angelo) an Italian bo- 
 tanist, born at Castelfiorentino in 1 6.3o. He 
 studied at the university of Pisa, and in 1677 
 settled at Florence, where he became ac- 
 quainted with the celebrated naturalist Fran- 
 cis Redi, through whose recommendation he 
 was appointed pliysician to the Tuscan gallies. 
 He visited the Balearic isles, and afterwards 
 went to Constantinople, to attend the son-iu'* 
 law of the grand signior. who had requested 
 the assistance of a skilful professor of medi- 
 cine from Florence. He proceeded to the 
 camp of the Turks at Belgrade, and witnessed 
 the disastrous defeat of their army under the 
 walls of Vienna. Returning home, he be- 
 came director of the botanic garden at I'isa. 
 The fame which lie had obtained for medical 
 skill in Turkey occasioned an apphcation for 
 his advice from the bey of Tunis ; and after 
 he had restored the bev to health, he obtained 
 permission to make botanical researches among 
 the ruins of Carthage. He subsequently de- 
 voted his time to the improvement of the gar- 
 den which he superintended at Pisa, to the 
 duties of his profession, and to the instruction 
 of youth. He died at Pisa in 1740. As an 
 author Tilli is known on account of his ** Cata- 
 logus Plantarum Horti Pisani," 1723, folio, 
 ' with plates. — Fafmmi Vitcc Italor. Biog. Univ, 
 I TILLOCH, LLD. (Alexander) the son 
 of a respectable tobacconist of Glasgow, who 
 filled one of the municipal magistracies in that 
 . city, where his son was bom February 28, 
 I 1759. On leaving school he was intended by 
 I his father to follow his own business, and 
 taken accordingly into his warehouse ; but a 
 strong bias towards mechanical and scientific 
 pursuits soon diverted his attention from com- 
 mercial pursuits. The art of stereotype print- 
 ing, said to have been practised by Vander 
 i\ley and ^luUen at Leyden, about the close 
 of the sixteenth century, and even conjectured 
 by some antiquaries to have been known 
 among the ancient Romans, had, at all events, 
 even if these assertions be correct, fallen into 
 desuetude, and ranked among the aries de- 
 perdita;. In 1736, it is true, a jeweller of 
 Edinburgh, named Ged, had, though unac- 
 quainted with the tradition respecting Vander 
 Mey, devised the art of printing from plates, 
 and actually pioduced an edition of Sal lust so 
 printed ; but so much was the art then under- 
 valued, that it ])erislied with him. It was re- 
 served for Dr Tilloch to revive and bring it to 
 the state of practical utility which it now ex- 
 hibits, having himself atraiu made the dis- 
 covery without any previous acquaintance with 
 Ged's attemj)ts. In this new process Mr 
 Foulis of Glasgow, a printer, joined him, and 
 a patent in their names was taken out, both in 
 Eniiland and Scotland. Circumstances how- 
 ever induced them to lay aside the business 
 for a time, and it never was renewed by them 
 
T I L 
 
 ns a ^iit'culation. In 17U7 Dr 'I'illocii iHrnu to ' (itirpottc <if f 
 
 r I I. 
 
 ori'ttchcil 
 
 ' «. he 
 »t It. 
 
 Loiuloii, iiiui two yi'":' iift'Mwjinls, in con- 
 
 juuction witli others, purcliaseil the " Star" 
 
 tveiiiti^^ l)ai)t'r, wliich he toiitinui-J to nlit till ot i:antfrl)Ury, uniJ noon Jift«T lufw-nt-il to h 
 
 within four years of his death. In 17'.>7 the I |>reb«MiJ in llio chun h of St rani. l'ii\><-iy 
 
 public attention beini; then much «lirocifil lo ! wag do nuicli the objrcl of hi« drcnd and avrr- 
 
 bui wan nevfiiliclfM advanced (o tin* dranrry 
 (if (lanterhurv, and noon aft«T luewnt-d to 
 
 schemes for t lie prevention of furj;erv. he sub- 
 mitted to the Ikink. of I'.n^land a plan respect- 
 ing wliich lie h;ul been previously in c oniniu- 
 nication with the French government, for pro- 
 ducing a note beyond the reach of imitation ; 
 which however, like all similar proposals, was 
 declined, and in 18-'0 Dr Tilloch jietuioned 
 Jiarliament on the subject, which was then 
 again brought before the house, but without 
 any practical result. In June 1797 lie pro- 
 jected and established the " Philosophical iNIa- 
 gazine," sixty-five volumes of wliich are now 
 before the public ; and only fifteen days be- 
 fore his deatli he had obtained a patent for an 
 improvement on the steam-engine. Amidst 
 his other avocations he also found leisure to 
 apply himself to theological studies witli no 
 common perseverance, the fruits of which ap- 
 peared in a" Dissertation on the Apocalypse,'' 
 published in 1823, besides a variety of de- 
 tached essays, collected under the title '• I3ib- 
 licus." The last work which he was engaged 
 to superintend, was the " ."Mechanics' Oracle," 
 published in numbers at the Caxton press. In 
 liis religious opinions Dr Tilloch was a dis- 
 senter from the established church, and 
 preached occasionally to a congregation who 
 assembled in Goswell-street road. Mis death 
 took place at his house in Barnsbury-street, 
 Islington, January 26, 1825. — Ann. Biog. 
 
 TILT.OTSON (John) an eminent Euglisli 
 prelate, was the son of Robert Tillotson, a 
 clothier, at Sowerhy, near Halifax, where he 
 was born in 1630. His father, who was a 
 strict Calvinist, carefully brought up liis son 
 in the same principles, and after bestowing 
 upon him a proper preparatory education, sent 
 him a pensioner to Clare-hall, Cambridge, of 
 which he was elected a fellow in 1651, and 
 took pupils. He exhibited at this time all the 
 characteristics of his sect, and some time after- 
 wards became tutor and chaplain in the family 
 of Prideaux, attorney-general to the protector. 
 It is not known when he entered into orders, 
 but his first sermon wliich api)eared in print 
 is dated September 1661, at which time he 
 
 sioii. that III a ncrmoii preachfd b«-foff the i^iag 
 
 in 16H(). he was betrayed into ^ ■ - of 
 
 intolerance, which exjKHMMl hiin ' u- 
 
 Hure, implying iliat no man, uuleM divinely 
 commi».»i()iied, and who, like t' ,, 
 
 can justify that rommiMnion by mi- j. . :i. 
 titled to draw men away from au CAtabimhed 
 religion, even ahhough fal»e. S»*veral anim.id- 
 versioiis were made upon tliiR fxtraordinary 
 doctrine, which assailed the authors of the 
 Heformation itself; but Dr 'i'illot»on made no 
 open reply to them, allhoui^h he privately ac- 
 knowledged to his friends that he had ha»uly 
 exjiressed himself in terms which could not 
 be maintained. He warmly promoted the ex- 
 clusion bill against the duke of York, and re- 
 fused to sign the address of the London clergy 
 to the king on his declaration that he would 
 not consent to it. In 16B'.' he published a 
 volume of sermons from the papers left in his 
 care by Dr ^Villiam9, and in tlie follo".\jng vear 
 edited the three folio volumes of Dr Harrow's 
 Theological works, the i\ISS. of which had al.io 
 been left to his superintendance. At the execu- 
 tion of lord William Russel he attended with 
 Dr Burnet ; and though afterwards decided 
 friends to the Revolution, both these divines 
 urged that nobleman to acknowledge the ab- 
 solute unla\vfulness of resistance. On the 
 accomplishment of the latter great event, 
 he was immediately taken into favour by 
 king \\ illiam, who had known him in his pre- 
 vious visit to London ; and in 16H9 he was ap- 
 pointed clerk of the closet to that sovereign, 
 and subsequently permitted to exchange the 
 deanery of Canterbury for that of St I'aul's. 
 On the refusal of archbishop Sanrroft to lake 
 the oaths to the new government, he was ap- 
 pointed to exercise the archiepiscojial juris- 
 diction during the suspension of that prelate ; 
 and in 1691, after exhibiting the greatest re- 
 luctance, he was induced to accept the arch- 
 bishopric itself. He had previously formed a 
 second scheme for the comprelif nsion of the 
 presbyterians within the pale of the church, 
 which had been rejected by convocation. He 
 
 was still amonc^ the presbyterians. \Vhen the had also failed in another design for forming a 
 act of unifornii'lv passed in the following year, new book of Homilies ; and n sermon which 
 le however submitted to it\vilhout he.sitation, ^ he preached before the quetn, against the ah.HO 
 »tid became rector of Cheshunt in llert 
 fordshire. Preaching frecpiently for his cie 
 
 lute etemityof hell torments, still farther invuN 
 ved him with the adv. f" ri::id • • ' w. 
 
 When therefore he . , l the j . a 
 
 large party, of course includinc all the dodju- 
 rors, assailed him with great : in 
 
 ])articular he was reproached ;., . ;»y, 
 
 \vith the inconsistency of his own conduct 
 with the doctrine he had advanced to lord 
 William Hussel. He prudently bore these 
 attacks in silence, and even prevented some, 
 prosecutions for libel ai;ainst him, directed by 
 king's chaplain and presented to a prebend of the crown. He was also vehemently charged 
 Canterbury When Charles II in 1672 issued | with .Sociiiianism, in answer to which he only 
 a declaration for liberty of conscience, for the '. republished four of his sermons " On the In. 
 
 rical friends in London, he became celebrated 
 for his pulpit oratory, and in 1663 was pre- 
 sented to a rectory in Suffolk, which he re- 
 signed on being chosen preacher to the society 
 of'^Lincoln's-inn. In 1664 he married Kliza- 
 belh French, daughter to Dr French, canon of 
 Christchurch, and niece to Oliver Cromwell, 
 whose sister Robina was her mother. In 1666 
 be took the degree of Dl). and was made 
 
TI L 
 
 carnation and Divinity of our Saviour." There 
 appears to have been no other ground for that 
 imputation, than that he defended Cliristiauity 
 on rational grounds, and corresponded with 
 such men as Limborch. Locke, and Le Clerc ; 
 to whicli reason Ur Jortin adds, that lie had 
 made some concessions concerning the Soci- 
 nians, which broke an ancient and fundamental 
 rule of controversial theology, " allow not an 
 adversary either to have common sense or 
 common honesty." He gave the last answer to 
 these and other" strictures by doing every thing 
 he could to advance the respectability of the 
 church, and among other things he wished to 
 correct the evils arising from non-residence. 
 He was however counteracted in all his en- 
 deavours by the most perverse opposition, 
 which rendered his high station a scene of 
 much more disgust than gratification. He had 
 indeed but little time to effect much of what 
 he proposed, being seized with a paralytic 
 stroke, the consequences of which carried him 
 off after an illness of five days, on the 24th 
 November, 1694, in his sixty-fifth year. So 
 little had he been addicted to accumulation, 
 that all he left his widow was the copyright 
 of his sermons ; but a pension was very pro- 
 perly settled on her by the crown. The tem- 
 per and private character of Ur Tillotson are 
 entitled to great encomium ; lie was open, 
 sincere, benevolent, and forgiving ; and al- 
 though in some points too compliant, and 
 fairly liable to the charge of inconsistency, 
 his intentions always seem to have been pure 
 and disinterested. As a writer he is princi- 
 pally remembered for his sermons, which have 
 long maintained a place among the most po- 
 pular of that class of compositions in the Eng- 
 lish language. He published as many during 
 Lis life as, with his controversial work, en- 
 titled the " Rule of Faith," filled a folio vo- 
 lume ; and after his death two more folio vo- 
 lumes were published from his IMSS. by his 
 cliaplain Dr Barker. 'Ihey obtained a high 
 reputation both at home and abroad, and have 
 passed through numt-rous editions. At one 
 time they were regarded as a standard both of 
 finished oratory and of the purity of the Eng- 
 lish language, but to this eulogy Mr JNIelmoth, 
 in his '* Fitzosborne's Letters," very justly ob- 
 jects. He however possesses great copious- 
 ness of thought and expression, and abounds 
 in passages which strongly impress the mind. 
 His sermons are doubtless much less read than 
 formerly, but can scarcely fail of remaining a 
 permanent part of the branch of English lite- 
 rature to which they bt-long. — Life by Birch. 
 Bio'j;. Brit. 
 
 TILLY (count Alexandkr de) born in 
 1754, of an ancient family in Normandy. He 
 entered young into the army, and from its 
 commencement he was an opponent of the 
 Revolution. In 1790 and 1791 he published 
 in the " Actes des Apotres," and the" Feuille 
 de Jour," some political essays, remarkable 
 for energy cf style and boldness of sentiment. 
 In 1792 he exerced all his talents in defence 
 of Louis XVI, to whom, on the 27th of July 
 that year, he addressed a remarkable letter of 
 
 T IM 
 
 spirited advice, wliich he also published. After 
 the commotions of the 10th of August, he 
 emigrated from France, and taking refuge in 
 England, and then at Berlin, he returned with 
 the Bourbons to Paris in 1B14. 'J he return 
 of Buonaparte from Elba obliged him to quit 
 France a second time, and he remained in Bel- 
 gium, and put an end to his life at Brussels, 
 Decpmber 23, 1816. He was the author of 
 " CEuvres melees," 1785, 8vo, Berlin, 1803, 
 8vo ; •' Lettre a INI. Philippe d'Orleans," 
 1790, 8vo ; " Six Romances, mises en Mu- 
 sique par Garat," 179i, 8vo ; " De la Revo- 
 lution Fran9aise en 1794," Lond. 1794, 8vo. 
 This nobleman was the author of the well- 
 known distich on Louis XVI : 
 " II ne sut que mourir, aimer et pardoner ; 
 S'il avait su punir, il aurait su regner." 
 Lieutenant general the count de Tilly, though 
 a native of Normandy, was of a different fa- 
 mily from the preceding. He entered into the 
 army early in life, and becoming a partizan of 
 tlie Revolution, he was made a colonel of ca- 
 valry in 1792, and Dumouriez appointed him 
 his aide-de camp, and in March 1793 confided 
 to him the command of Gertruydeuberg, which 
 he defended with great spirit, and obtained an 
 honourable capitulation. He was subsequently 
 general-in-chief of the army on the coasts of 
 Cherbourg, when he gained some victories 
 over the Vendeans. In 1794 he commanded 
 a division of the army of the North, and then 
 of that of the Sambre and IMeuse ; in 1796 he 
 was governor of Brussels, when he returned 
 to the army of the West. Under the imperial 
 government he served in Austria, Pru-.>-ia, 
 Poland, and Spain, where he distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Ocana. In 1814 the 
 king nominated him grand officer of the legion 
 of honour ; but having accepted an appoint- 
 ment during the hundred days, he was not 
 again employed after the second restoration 
 of Louis XVHI. He died at Paris, Jan. 10, 
 1822. — Biog. Uiiiv. Biog. A'ohj;. des Contemp 
 TIM^'EUS, a Pytliagorean philosopher, who 
 was a native of Locns in Greece, and ha? 
 therefore been denominated the Locrian. He 
 composed a treatise on the nature and the soul 
 of the world, in the Doric dialect, which has 
 been preserved by Proclus, and inserted in 
 Stanley's History of Philosophy. Timasus m 
 general adopted the doctrines of Pythagoras, 
 though in his system of cosmogony he was ra- 
 ther the follower of Ocellus Lucanus. Plato, 
 who has introduced tliis philosopher as an in- 
 terlocutor in one of his dialogues, styles him 
 •■' a most diligent inquirer into all the works of 
 nature." — Staiiley. Brucker. StoUii Inlrod. in 
 Hist. Litt. 
 
 TLM^EUS, a Greek historian, born at I'au- 
 romenium in Sicily about 350 BC. Cicero 
 styles him the most hanu'd and eloquent of 
 the Grecian historians, but Plutarch notices 
 him in very different terms. He wrote many 
 books, including a •' General History of Si- 
 cily ;" a " History of the Wars of Pvrrhus ;" 
 and a great number of pieces relating to rlie- 
 toric. His works are lost, but M. Goeller has 
 collected and publislied fragments of them in 
 
 I 
 
r i isi 
 
 hi« troati.se " De Situ t-t Oriv^ine .Svracu<»a- 
 rum," Leipsic, 1818. Bvo. 1 iniiius wan haii- 
 islied from Sicily by Agatliocles, tyrant of 
 Syracuse ; and iii liis historv, wliii h In- wr »(«• 
 at Athens, he lias trealeii tlie character of Iuh 
 persecutor with j;reat severity, lie is saiil to 
 Lave lived to the age of ninety-six. — Adain$ 
 Classical /i/Oifn/yt/ii/. ^wo;;. Univ. 
 
 TlALIi^US, the Sophist, a (jreek t^ranitna- 
 rian, oidy known as the author of a I)u tionary 
 of I'httonic Phrases ('eic rail/ r<ii) IlXdrwi/oj; 
 Xk^tioif) accompanied wiih hhorl explications. 
 Jle is supposed lo have flourished in the third 
 or fourth century of tlio (Christian era ; and his 
 Lexicon, which was known to I'liotius and 
 Suidas, was publislied from the only existing 
 manuscript by David Ruhneken, with valu- 
 able notes, Leyden, l7o4, 8vo ; and in a se- 
 cond and improved edition, Leyden, 1789, 
 Bvo. — Bio^. Univ. 
 
 TIMAGENES, a Greek historian of Alex- 
 andria, who was brought to Rome by Gabi- 
 nius, o-t liC. and was sold as a slave to the 
 son of Sylla. His talents were the means of 
 procuring his liberty, and he became a favou- 
 rite among the great. The emperor Augustus 
 patronized him ; but afterwards being dis- 
 gusted at his impertinence, dismissed Lira 
 from the court, and the irritated historian re- 
 venged the insult by burning the flattering 
 memoirs which he had composed of the reign 
 of his patron. — Plutarcli. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TIMANTHES, a celebrated Greek painter 
 of antiquity, contemporary •with .Uejcander of 
 iMacedon. The place of his birth is variously 
 Slated to have been Sicyon and Cythuus, a 
 small island in the Grecian Archipelago. His 
 reputation now rests principally upon the tra- 
 dition of an exquisite picture of his, represent- 
 ing the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. The 
 other figures are all spoken of as having been 
 delineated in the most masterly manner, but 
 the artist, unable to embody his own concep- 
 tion of tlie feelings of the father, Wcis com- 
 pelled to throw a veil over the face of Aga- 
 memnon. — P/nji/'s Nat. Hist. 
 
 TLMOLEON, one of the illustrious charac- 
 ters of Greece. He was a native of Corinth, 
 of noble parentage, and born about four centu- 
 ries I3C. He early exhibited marks of intre- 
 pid courage and a rooted hatred of tyranny, 
 which he carried to that extent, that unable to 
 induce his brother Timophanes to resign his 
 usurped authority, he stood by while he was 
 assassinated, according to Plutarch ; but Dio- 
 donis asserts that he killed liim with his own 
 hand. This deed, although justified by the 
 code of morals, which places love of country 
 at the head of all tlie social duties, caused him 
 great distress of mind, which was increased by 
 the direful imprecations of his mother, who 
 would never again admit him into her pre- 
 sence. He lived several years in retirement, 
 until the Syracusans sought tlie aid of tlie Co- 
 rinthians against an invasion of the Carthagi- 
 nians, when, without the least expectation on 
 his own part, he was appointed to command 
 the auxiliary forces. He accordingly set sail 
 for Sicily, BC. 341, with a fleet exceeding 
 
 r I .M 
 
 ' if and 
 ■ >, .^vra- 
 
 t'li v.iii, ail ' •,'•., 
 
 Jiruihin e h 
 
 cuse to lilxTty. but he brought (li« wliolf 
 i.tliiml of Sicily into a more pr(j«|i<TOuH and 
 
 tranquil state thiui u ha" ' m foriiian vyarB. 
 
 I'he SicihauH were no of thnroiili na- 
 
 tions lo runoleon. that if wiui erer afirrwiirda 
 consulted in all ihvir alVair*. a« the f .,f 
 
 th»'ir country. He lued Iim abodf ■( 
 whiihi-r i»e Kent for lu» wife and children fruin 
 Corinth, and iivfd un n privnte i iiueii, diotin- 
 t,'uished only by his luJlueiice and the res'H-. i 
 |)aid to hw viriue.s. He watt «o f^culiarly p'r s- 
 perous in all his transaclioiirt after he left Co- 
 rinth, that he ascribed all hist «iicce»!k!i» to tho 
 goddess Fortune, an opinion which wa» niutU 
 |)romoted by a vtry singular and extraordinary 
 escape from a premeditated a8sai;!>inaiion. Tho 
 only deduction from his prosperity wan the 
 loss of sight at an advanced period of hfe, but 
 which misfortune was much alleviar> ' ".« 
 
 continued kindne>s and resjiect of th- ,. i- 
 
 sans. He was at length carried off by a «lii;ht 
 disease liC. o.J.t, and was honoured with 
 a very magnificent public funeral, and a 
 monument was afterwards erected to hid 
 memory, which being surrounded with poru- 
 coes and other public building's, was made a 
 place of exercise for youth, and named the 1 1- 
 moleonteum. — Plutarch. Vit. Timolent. Univ. 
 Iliitoru. 
 
 TLMOX, the Phliasian, a Greek poet and 
 philosopher, born in I^eloponnesus, about 
 the middle of the third century before Christ. 
 After he had enridied himself by teaching 
 philosophy and rhetoric, he visited Egypt, 
 where he was noticed by Ptolemy Plnla- 
 delplius ; notwithstanding whose favours Ti- 
 mon wrote a satire against the museum of 
 Alexandria, founded or at least improved by 
 that prince. He afterwards went to the court 
 of Aiitigonus Gonatus, where he was well re- 
 ceived ; and at length settling at .Athens, lie 
 died at an advanced age. Tiiiion was a dis- 
 ciple of Pyrrho, the sceptic, and some of his 
 writings relate to the philosophy of tiiai school. 
 He also wrote a number of comedies, trage- 
 ilies, and satiric dramas ; but the most ceie- 
 brated of his works are his satires, called 
 " Sillx>," still in part extant. The relics of 
 these pieces were published by H. Steplunin 
 his Poesis Pliilosophica, 1.^73; by liruiiik in 
 his .'Vnalecta, 1776 ; and more recently by F 
 Paul in a treatise De Sillis Gr.vcurutn, Herlia. 
 18-'l, Bvo. — Dioiifn. Laert. hh^ii- Univ. 
 
 TIMON (SAMi'tt) a writer of history, was 
 born at Tirnau in Hungary. He entered among 
 the Jesuits in 16W, but principally devoted 
 himself to the history of his native country. 
 His works are " Celebriorum Hungarian Ir- 
 biuin et Oppidorum C^horo^raphia," Tim 
 4to, 170'J ; " Epitome Herum Hungarica- 
 rum," Cassov. Bvo, 1731 ; " Imago Nova; 
 Hungaria;," Cassov. 8vo, \TM, wliuh last two 
 were published together at Vienna. 17.3*, Ito. 
 He died in 17.)6, at the age of sixty-one. — 
 Xonv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TLMOrilEUS, the name of one of the most 
 celebrated lyric poets and musicians of anti- 
 
T IM 
 
 quity, who flourished at the court of Philip ofi' 
 JMacedon and his son Alexander, about the ', 
 middle of the fifth century before the Christian 
 era. He was a native of iMiletus in Caria ; 
 and Pausanias attributes to him the comple- 
 tion of the lyre by the addition of four new 
 strings. — There was also an Athenian general 
 of this name, the son of Conon, celebrated 
 alike for his success in war and his eloquence 
 in jteace, who however lived to experience the 
 proverbial ingratitude of his fickle countrymen, 
 and died iu exile. — Vossii Poet. Gr<£c. Corn. 
 Nepos. 
 
 TIMOUR or TAMERLANE, one of the 
 most celebrated of the Oriental conquerors, 
 was born in the village of Sebzar in the terri- 
 tory of Kesh, about forty miles from Samar- 
 cand, in the year 1335. His ancestors were 
 chiefs of the districts, and remotely related to 
 the family of Zinghis. At the time of his 
 birth great anarchy prevailed in his native 
 country, which suffered from an invasion of 
 the Getes, against whom he acted at the head 
 of a body of his countrymen, and endured 
 much diversity of fortune, until at length being 
 joined bv a large body of volunteers, he was 
 enabled to expel the Getes from Transoxiana. 
 A dispute with his confederate and brother- 
 in-law Houssein, led to a brief civil war ; but 
 the latter being defeated and put to death, a 
 general diet in 1370, seated him on the throne 
 of Zagatai, on which he made Samarcand the 
 seat of his empire. His elevation, so far from 
 satisfying his ambition, only opened farther 
 prospects to it ; and in a very few years he 
 reunited to Zagatai its former dependencies, 
 Candaharand Carizme; overran Persia; passed 
 as a conqueror through the whole course of 
 the Tigris and Euphrates ; reduced the Chris- 
 tians of Georgia ; subdued the kingdom of 
 Cashgar ; and his emirs even crossed the river 
 Irtish into Siberia. He also despatched an 
 army into Western Tartary, under a fugitive 
 prince named Toctaniish, who having esta- 
 blished himself by its means, turned his arms 
 against his benefactor, and obliged Timour to 
 contend for his ca])ital and empire. He was 
 however finally defeated, and in the pursuit 
 Timour captured a duke of Russia. In 1390 
 lie invaded Hindostan, and rapidly penetrating 
 to Delhi, soon completed the subjugation of 
 the country. While on the banks of the 
 Ganges he was informed of great disturbances 
 on the confines of Georgia and Anatolia, and 
 of the ambitious projects of the Turkish sultan 
 Bajazet. He soon made arrangements to en- 
 counter this new enemy, whom, after a war of 
 the most barbarous ferocity, which lasted two 
 years and upwards, he encountered and con- 
 quered, and made captive in the decisive bat- 
 tle of Angora, fought in 1402. Concerning 
 the treatment of his prisoner different accounts 
 are given, the most common of which states 
 that he was carried about by the con(]deror in 
 an iron cage, against the bars of which he in a 
 few months beat out his brains in rage and 
 despair. The conquests of the Tartar now ex- 
 pended from the Irtish and Volga to the Per- 
 sian gidf, and from the Ganges to the Archi- 
 
 T I N 
 
 pelago ; and the want of shipping alone pre- 
 vented him from crossing into Europe. His 
 inordinate ambition was not yet satisfied, and 
 he was making mighty preparations for an in- 
 vasion of China, when death arrested his pro- 
 gress, at his camp at Otrar, and he expired 
 April 1, 1405, in the seventieth year of his 
 aue, having previously declared his grandson 
 Mahomet Jehan Ghiz hrs successor. He left 
 fifty-three descendants, and a name much re- 
 vered in the East, where his posterity until 
 lately still preserved the title of the JMogul 
 emperors, although the dominion had passed 
 into other hands. Timour was tall and corpu- 
 lent, with a wide forehead, large head and 
 pleasing countenance ; but he was maimed in 
 one hand and lame on the riglit side. He 
 conducted his government alone, and witliout 
 favourites, but was in the highest degree fierce 
 and fanatical in his religion ; and although no 
 conquests were ever attended with greater 
 cruelty, devastation, and waste of human life, 
 he affected the title of a benefactor to man- 
 kind. Happily his ambition was too gigantic 
 for its consequences to last, and his dominions 
 rapidly became divided as before. Yet he was 
 not a mere barbarian conqueror, if the Insti- 
 tutes are to be regarded as genuine, which 
 under the title of " The Institutions of Ti- 
 mour," have been made known in England by 
 a version from the Persian, executed by major 
 Davy and professor White, Oxford, 1783.—- 
 Mod. Univ. Hist. Gibbon. 
 
 TINDAL, LLD. (Matthew) a controver- 
 sial writer, was born about 1657, at Beer Fer- 
 ris, in Devonshire, of which place his father 
 was the clergyman. He was admitted of Lin- 
 coln college, Oxford, in 1672, where he gra- 
 duated BA. in 1676, and was afterwards 
 elected a fellow of All Souls' college. In 1679 
 he took a bachelor of law's degree, and after- 
 wards became a doctor in this faculty. At the 
 commencement of the reign of James II he 
 was induced to turn Romanist bv some of the 
 emissaries of that persuasion which then sur- 
 rounded the universities, of which conversion, 
 like Gibbon, he gave a very candid account, 
 when in 1687 he returned to the worship of 
 the church of England. Having heartily con- 
 curred in the Revolution, he was admitted an 
 advocate, and sat frequently as a judge in the 
 court of delegates, being favoured with a pen- 
 sion of 200/. per annum from tbe crown. He 
 published several pieces political and theolo- 
 gical, among which viere a " Letter to tlie 
 Clergymen of the two Universities," on the 
 subject of the Trinity and Athanasian creod, 
 and a treatise entitled " Tiie Rights of the 
 Christian C'hurch against the Romish and all 
 other Priests, who claim an independant 
 Power over it," &c. This work excited a con- 
 siderable sensation among the high church 
 clergy, who attacked it with great animosity 
 and even indicted its venders ; while the ce- 
 lebrated Le Clerc, in his " Bibliotheque 
 Choisie,*^ spoke of it as a book of great argu 
 mentative power. Tiudal, in the mean time* 
 was by no means silent in his own vindication, 
 and published a defence, the second edition o5 
 
TIN 
 
 tN-lncli, in two parts, was ordered l)y a vole of 
 the house of Commons to be Inirnt by tlie 
 common hani^^mau in the same lire \Mih Sai he- 
 vereJ's sermon, thus treatiii>; ilie »lis|tulant8 on 
 each side in the same maniu r. lie soon after- 
 wards defended tlie doctrine of necessity from 
 the censure of the lower house of convocation, 
 and actively eni^aged in })olitical cmitroversy, 
 in the course of which he wrote several poli- 
 tical pamplilfts, which are now forgotten. 
 Hitherto, altl)Ouj;h a declared enemy to priestly 
 claims, he had made no attack on revealed re- 
 ligion, but in 1730 he published his celebrated 
 " Christianity as old as the Creation, or the 
 Gospel a Republication of the Religion of 
 Nature." In this work, although he allows 
 Christianity, stripped of the additions which 
 policy, mistake, and circumstances have made 
 to it, to be a most holy religion, his object 
 was clearly to show that there neither has 
 been, nor can be, any revtdation distinct from 
 what he terms the internal revelation of tlie 
 law of nature in the hearts of mankind. This 
 book was attacked by 13r Waterland, who af- 
 fected to treat the author with great contempt, 
 in opposition to the opinion of Dr Middleton, 
 who thought it exhibited a degree of study and 
 learning, which called for a very diiVerent kind 
 of refutation. The author defended himself 
 with his usual tenacity ; but his health was 
 now declining, and he died in consequence of 
 concretions in the gall-bladder in ITSS. He 
 left in IMS. a second volume of " Christianity 
 as old as the Creation," the publication of 
 which was prevented by Dr Gibson, bishop of 
 London. — Bioi^. Brit. LelancVs Deist. ]Vriters. 
 
 TINDAL (Nicholas) nephew to the pre- 
 ceding, -was born in 1687, and was entered of 
 Exeter college, Oxford, where he took his de- 
 gree of BD. in 1713. He was presented to 
 the rectory of Alverstoke in Hampshire, by the 
 bishop of Winchester, and to that of Great 
 Wakham, near Chelmsford, Essex, in 17^22, 
 by Trinity college, Oxford, of which he had 
 become a fellow. He was finally appointed 
 chaplain of Greenwich hospital, where he died 
 June 27, 1774, at the advanced age of eighty- 
 seven. He published a translation of Calmet on 
 the history of the Hebrews, and wrote part of a 
 history of f2ssex ; but quitted the latter under- 
 taking for a translation of Rapin's History of 
 England, which was printed in folio and octavo, 
 with a continuation. He also translated Can- 
 temir's History of the Turkish Empire, and 
 abridged Spence's Polymetis for the use of 
 schools. — Chalmers's Biog. Diet. 
 
 TINDAL. (SeeTYNDAi.E.) 
 
 TINGRY (Peter Francis) professor of 
 chemistry and natural history at Geneva, was 
 lorn at Soissons in 1743. He studied at Pans, 
 under the celebrated Rouelle, and in 1770 he 
 went to Geneva, where his talents and acquire- 
 ments recommended him to Saussure, Sene- 
 bier, and other men of science ; and be de- 
 termined to take up his abode at that place, 
 wliere he was admitted a citizen in 1773. 1 he 
 following year he published " Analyse des 
 Eaux de Marclaz," 8vo ; and " Prospectus 
 pour un Cours de Chimie theorique et pra- 
 
 T I J' 
 
 li<lije," 4to. He contributed to the rstai.lihh- 
 nunt of the Society of Arts at Geneva, of 
 which he was vice-prebulent ; and under the 
 patronage of this society he delivered lectures 
 on chemistry for the use of arlibls. A variety 
 of valuable treatises and memoirs, which he 
 subsecpiently published, attest the zeal and 
 ability with which he pursued his researches, 
 leading to improvements in processes con- 
 nected with natural |)hilo8ophv and the arts. 
 He died February 13, 1821, at the aj^e of se- 
 venty-eight, disjilaying his regard for the in- 
 terests of science, by bequeathing his country- 
 house, on the borders of lake Leman, to the 
 occupier of the chair of chemistry in the uni- 
 versity of Geneva for the time being. Besides 
 analyses of the mineral waters of JJrise, near 
 Carouge, and of the hot waters of St Gervais 
 near Salenches, IMemoira on the Composition 
 of /Ether, on Phosphoric Acid, on the Inspis- 
 sation of Oils through the Influence of Liwht, 
 on the Phosphorescence of Sea Water, &:c. and 
 on the Electric Fluid, he published a " 'iheo- 
 retical and practical I'reatise on the Ait of 
 making and applying the Varnishes proper for 
 different Kinds of Painting," Geneva, 1803, 
 2 vols. 8vo. — Biog. Kouv. des Contemp. Biog, 
 Univ. 
 
 TINTORETIO, the name generally given 
 to Giacomo Robusti, the son of a \enetian 
 dyer, whose father's occupation gave rise to 
 the appellation. He was born in loI2, and 
 having been placed under the celebrated Titian 
 as a scholar in the art of painting, that emi- 
 nent master, whose jealousy appears to have 
 been scarcely inferior to bis talents, endea- 
 voured to crush the genius which he feared, 
 and dismissed him abruptly. Notwithstanding 
 this disadvantage, Tintoretto continued to per- 
 severe in his favourite pursuit, and by uniting 
 the natural colouring of his instructor to the 
 gusto and more correct design of Michael 
 Angelo, established for himself a lasting repu- 
 tation. The boldness of his style, the strong 
 contrast which he exhibits in his lights and 
 shadows, together with the rapidity and sjiirit 
 of his genius, acquired him the epithet of H 
 Furioso. With his countrymen he was espe- 
 cially popular, and obtained from the senate 
 the rights of citizenship. Tintoretto died at 
 ^'enice in 1594, leaving a son, Dominico, who 
 evinced some talent as a portrait painter, and 
 died in 1(337. INlaria, a daughter, was equally 
 eminent in the same line, and an excellent 
 musician. Her death took jilace in 1630. — 
 D'Ar^enville. Pilkiiigton's Diet, bu Fmeli. 
 
 TIPPOO SAHEB, sovereign of Mysore, 
 son and successor to the famous Hyder Ally. 
 He maintained the independance of his states 
 against the Great Mogul, by the assistance of 
 the French, during the %var with America. 
 When however the French Revolution de- 
 prived him of bis European allies, he bad to 
 contend with the English, who defeated him 
 in several battles, until in 1792 he was com- 
 pelled by the mar(]uis Coruwallis to sue for 
 peace, which was granted on his payment of a 
 large sum of money, ceding part of liis 'erri- 
 tories, and giving up his two sons to the Eng- 
 
TI P 
 
 lish as hostages. Of a fierce and hauglity 
 disposition, Tippoo naturally felt impatient at 
 the humiliations that he had endured, which 
 disposition led to a revival of the war in 1799, 
 which was terminated by the capture of Se- 
 riugapatam, by an English force under general 
 now lord Harris, in the defence of which capi- 
 tal, the ill-fated sultan lost his life. An im- 
 mense booty fell into the hands of the English, 
 amonsr which was the iibrarv of the deceased 
 prince, consisting of many valuable works in 
 Sanscrit ; the Koran in all the languages in the 
 East ; a hi.-.tory of Tamerlane ; memoirs of 
 Hindostan, and other IMSS. of great rarity, 
 which are all in possession of the East India 
 Company. Tippoo Saheb was personally 
 brave, but rash and presumptuous, although 
 possibly no qualities would long have preserved 
 his dominion against the union of policy and 
 force with which it was his bad fortune to see 
 it assailed. — Koui:. Diet. Hist. Ann. Register. 
 TIP TOFT (John) earl of Worcester, a pa- 
 tron of learning, and one of the few literary 
 ornaments of England in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, was born at Everton or Evasion in Cam- 
 bridgeshire, and educated at Baliol college, 
 Oxford. He was the son of lord Tibetot or 
 Tiptoft and Powys, and was created a vis- 
 count and earl of Worcester by Henry VI, 
 who also appointed him lord-deputy of Ire- 
 land. By Edward IV he was made knight of 
 the garter ; and constituted justice of North 
 Wales for life. Dugdale says he was soon 
 after made constable of the Tower ; while 
 others assert that he was twice lord high con- 
 stable, and twice lord high treasurer. He was 
 also a second time deputy or lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, under the duke of Clarence, in which 
 capacity he attainted the earls of Kildare and 
 Desmond for su])porting the insurrection against 
 government ; and sentenced the latter to be 
 beheaded. On the temporary reverse of for- 
 tune experienced by Edward IV and the house 
 of Yor«, in consequence of the junction be- 
 tween the earl of Warwick and the duke of 
 Clarence, the earl of W^orcester, the severity 
 of whose judicial proceedings as high con- 
 stable had rendered him extremely obnoxious 
 to the Lancastrians, became one of the first 
 objects of their vengeance. He endeavoured 
 to find security for his person by concealment, 
 but was discovered in a tree in the forest of 
 Weybridge near Huncingdon, and thence con- 
 veyed to London, where he was rapidly tried 
 on the accusatiim of cruelty in his Irish adminis- 
 tration, particularly towards two infant sons of 
 the earl of Desmond, and con<lemned to lose 
 his head on Tower-hill, on the 18th of Oct. 
 1470, which sentence was executed accord- 
 ingly. He was married three times, but left 
 only one son and heir by his third wife. J'he 
 earl of Worcester appears to have been a j)er- 
 Bon of considerable learning and of great ac- 
 comjilishments for the age in which he lived. 
 In his return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem 
 he had passed some time at \'enice, Padua, 
 and Rome. He was led to Home by his de- 
 sire to see the Vatican library, and he there 
 made so elegant an oration to pope Pius II, 
 
 T I K 
 
 as to receive the admiration of his holiness ia 
 tears. He was a great collector of books, and 
 gave manuscripts of live hundred marks value 
 to the university of Oxford. Caxtou speaks of 
 him as one who " in his tyme flowered in 
 vertue and cunnyng, and to whom he knew 
 none like among the lordes of the temporality 
 in science and moral vertue.'' Another wri- 
 ter, speaking of the earl's execution, says, 
 " The axe then did at one blow cue otf more 
 learning than was left in the heads of all the 
 surviving nobility." An opinion of the writer 
 whose words are last quoted, that the earl's 
 expedition to Jerusalem was undertaken at a 
 time when he was in a state of suspense be- 
 tween gratitude to king Henry and loyalty to 
 king Edward, is without foundation ; for so 
 far from his travelling to Jerusalem under such 
 circumstances, he does not a{)pear to have 
 quitted his oflice in Ireland after his appoint- 
 ment in 1457, during the reign of Henry, and 
 he had an office conferred upon him by king 
 Edward in the first year of his reign. 'Inhere 
 is not probal)ly much better foundation for the 
 idea of Leland, in his History of Ireland, 
 though adopted by Walpole in his Royal and 
 Noble Authors, that the exertions of this earl 
 against the Yorkists had drawn down the ven- 
 geance of that party upon him; for the principal 
 charge against- him, on which he was brought 
 to the scaflfold, was his severity to the Lan- 
 castrians, which shows him, notwithstanding 
 his learning, to have been deeply imbued with 
 the ferocity of the times. The literary works 
 of this nobleman, as far as we are acquainted 
 with them, are an English translation of" Tul- 
 lius de Amicitia," and of " Two Declarations 
 made by Piiblius Cornelius Scipio and Cavus 
 Flamigneus, Competitors for the Love of Lu- 
 crece," both printed by William Caxton ; some 
 Orations and Epistles ; and an P^nglish trans- 
 lation of " Caesar's Commentaries," as touch- 
 ing British aif-urs, suj)posed to be printed by 
 John Rastall, temp. Henry Vlll. In the sixth 
 of Edward IV he drew up " Orders for the 
 placing of the Nobility in all Proceedings," 
 and " Orders and Statutes for Justs and 
 Triumphs ; " and in the Ashmolean collection 
 are " Ordinances, Statutes, and Rules, made 
 by John Tiptofte, Erie of Worcester and Con- 
 stable of England, by the King's Command- 
 ment at Windsor, 29th IVIay, 6th Edward IV, 
 to be observed in all Justs of Peers within the 
 Realm of England," &c. He is also said to 
 have written " A Petition au;ainst the Lol- 
 lards," and an " Oration to the Citizens of 
 Padua ;" and among the manuscripts belong- 
 ing to Lincoln cathedral is a volume contain- 
 ing about twenty epistles, four of his writing 
 and the rest addressed to him. — Roijal and 
 Noble Authors. Fuller's Wo'thies. Original 
 Cominunicatioii, 
 
 TlRABOSCHI(GiROLAMo)alearned Ita, 
 lian writer, born at Bergamo in 17.}1. He en- 
 tered into the society of tlie Jesuits ; and for 
 some time he taught grammar and rhetoric at 
 the college of Brera at Milan, lie was like- 
 wise appointed to the office of keeper of the 
 college library, and in 1767 he was made libra- 
 
Tl S 
 
 rian to the duke of Modeiia. Tn 17R0 his 
 hii^hness gave him tho siuiation of supfiiu- 
 teinl'diit of liis cabinet of iiifdals, aiul bt-stowt-d 
 on him the honour of ktii<^liilio()d and a patent of 
 nobility. His death took place June », 171)4. 
 'J'lie principal work of Tirabo^clii is his " Sto- 
 ria delta Letteratura Italiana," which has parsed 
 tlirougli several edidons in <|uario and o< tavo ; 
 and among iiis otiier productions are " Biidio- 
 teca Modenese, overo Notizie della Vite e 
 delie Opere degji Scrittori natii degli Stati del 
 Duca di iModena,"' 1781, 6 vols. 4to ; " Ve- 
 tera Ihinnliatorum IMonunienta Annotationi- 
 bus ac Dissertationibus ])rodromis illustrata," 
 3 vols. 4to ; and " IMemorie Storiche JMo- 
 danesi," 3 vols. 4to ; and he was also the con- 
 ductor of a review, published under the title of 
 '* Nuovo Giornale de' Litterati d' Italia." — 
 Aikin's Gen. Biog, Biog. Univ. 
 
 TISCHBEIN (John Anthony) a native 
 of Ilesse in Germany, the son of a baker, and 
 the fourth of seven brothers all devoted to the 
 cultivation of the fine arts. He studied draw- 
 ing at Frankfort, and afterwards went for im- 
 ])rovement to Paris and Home. Having gone 
 to Hamburgh to establish u school of design, 
 be died there in July 1784. He published a 
 work on the Elements of the Art of Painting, 
 Hamb.1771, 8vo. — Tischbein (John Henry) 
 painter to the landgrave of Hesse Cassel and 
 founder of a new school of art in Germany, 
 was a younger brother of the foregoing. At 
 the age of fourteen he was placed under an 
 indifferent tapestry-painter, whom he soon ex- 
 celled. Count Stadion having seen some of 
 his work, was struck with the proofs of talent 
 which it exhibited, and furnished him with 
 the means of studying in France and Italy. 
 He returned home in 1751 , and was appointed 
 painter to the landgrave of He«se Cassel. His 
 talents were employed in enriching the gallery 
 of the landgrave, for which he produced seve- 
 ral excellent paintings of subjects taken from 
 ancient mythology, executed between the years 
 1762 and 1783.^ An academy of painting and 
 architecture having been founded at Cassel 
 in 1776, Tischbein was nominated director, 
 and afterwards professor of painting at the 
 Caroline college. He died at Cassel, August 
 22, 1789. — Tischbein (John Henuy Con- 
 rad) nephew of the preceding, was also his 
 pupil, and applied himself ])articulaily to the 
 painting of landscapes and natural history. 
 After having travelled in Holland, he was in 
 1755 appointed inspector of the gallery of the 
 landgrave, to the improvement of which his 
 uncle had so much contributed. He acquired 
 a knowledge of etching with aquafortis and 
 engraving in wood ; and in 1790 he published 
 an " Elementary Treatise on Engraving with 
 Aquafortis, with Plates executed in that INle- 
 ,hod," folio. This artist died in 1808, aged 
 ixty-six. — Tischbein (John Henuy Wil- 
 liam) brother of the last noticed, and student 
 under his uncle in the gallery of Cassel, be- 
 came one of the first historical painters of his 
 time. After having been employed at Ham- 
 burgh, in Holland, and at Hanover, he went m 
 1777 to Berlin, where he executed several por- 
 
 T IS 
 
 traits of tlio loyal family. In 1779 he was at 
 Home, and in 1787 at Naples, where his ta- 
 lents attracted the notice of the court. in 
 1790 he was aiijiointed director of the Academy 
 of I'aiiiiiiig ; and he held the office till 1799, 
 when the ( alanuties of war falhng on Najdes, 
 he was obliged to return to his own country. 
 He publi^he.l a Collection of En^ravin^;H from 
 Anti(|ue \ ases ; De.'.igns of Subjects from 
 Homer ; and various other works. — I'r.scnbKiM 
 (John Fiiedeuic Augustus) brother of the 
 foregoing artists, was professor and director 
 of the school of the line arts at Leipbic. Ho 
 excelled as a portrait painter, and died at Hei- 
 delberg-, June 21, 1812. — /Ji.,^. Univ. 
 
 TI.SS01" (SiAK)N Andulw) an eminent pliy- 
 sician and medical writer, born at Grancy, in 
 the Pays de Vaud, in 1728. He studied at 
 Geneva, and then at IMontpellier, and having 
 taken his doctor's degree in medicine in 17 19, 
 he settled at Lausanne, in Switzerland. The 
 success with which he treated the conllu* nt 
 small-pox, by means of fresh air and a cool- 
 ing diet, at a period when stimulants and su- 
 dorifics were generally adopted, fixed on the 
 young practitioner the public attention. He 
 published a tract in favour of inoculation in 
 1750, and he soon after translated into French 
 Haller's Dissertations on Sensibility and Irri- 
 tability, and on the Motion of the Blood. 
 These pieces were followed by several other 
 medical publications, the most distinguished 
 of which is his "Avis au Peuple sur sa Same," 
 Lausanne, 1761, which was translated into 
 English by Dr James Kirkj)atrick, and pro- 
 bably served as the model of Buchau"s Do- 
 mestic IMediciue, and other popular works. 
 Among his other productions may be specified 
 " Avis aux Gens des Lettres et aux Personnes 
 sedentaires sur leur Sante," Paris, 1768 ; and 
 " Essai sur les Maladies des Gensdu Monde," 
 Lyon. 1770, 12mo. After Tissot had refused 
 advantageous offers made him by the kiii'^s 
 of Poland and England, to induce him to quit 
 Lausanne, he acceded to the request of the 
 emperor Joseph 11, and accepted of a profes- 
 sorship in the university of Pavia. This office 
 however he relinquished after three years, 
 agreeably to a stipulation he had made on ac- 
 cepting it. He returned to Lausanne, where 
 he had been invested with the right of citizen- 
 ship, and created a member of the council of 
 Two Hundred. His death took place June 13, 
 1797. The principal works of Tissot were 
 published together at Paris, 1809, 8 vols. Ovo, 
 with the notes of professor Halle. — /)/(>o-. 
 Unic. 
 
 TISSOT (Clement Joseph) a relative of 
 the subject of the last article, was born at Or- 
 nans in the department of Jura, in 17.>(), and 
 he studied medicine at Besan^on, where he 
 took the degree of doctor in 1776. He pub- 
 lished a treatise entitled " Gymnastique Me- 
 dicale," 1781, 12mo; and lu 1785 he was 
 chosen correspondent of the Roval Society of 
 IMedicine at Paris. Going afterwards to thai 
 capital, he was appointed adjunct physician to 
 the household of the duke of Orleans, through 
 \ the recommendation of his friend Dr Trou- 
 
TI P 
 
 lish as hostages. Of a fierce and haughty 
 disposition, Tippoo naturally felt impatient at 
 the humiliations that he liad endured, which 
 disposition led to a revival of the war in 1799, 
 which was terminated by the capture of Se- 
 riugapatam, by an English force under general 
 now lord Harris, in the defence of which capi- 
 tal, the ill-fated sultan lost his life. An im- 
 mense booty fell into the liands of the English, 
 amoiis: which was the library of the deceased 
 prince, consisting of many valuable works in 
 Sanscrit ; the Koran in all the languages iu the 
 East ; a hi-tory of Tamerlane ; memoirs of 
 Ilindostan, and other I\1SS. of great rarity, 
 which are all in possession of the East India 
 Company. Tippoo Saheb was personally 
 brave, but rash and presumptuous, although 
 possibly no qualities would long have preserved 
 his dominion against the union of policy and 
 force with which it was his bad fortune to see 
 it assailed. — Kour, Diet. Hist. Ann. Register. 
 TlPTOfT (John) earl of Worcester, a pa- 
 tron of learning, and one of the few literarv 
 ornaments of England in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, was born at Everton or Evaston in Cam- 
 bridgeshire, and educated at Baliol college, 
 Oxford. He was the son of lord Tibetot or 
 Tiptoft and Powys, and was created a vis- 
 count and earl of Worcester by Henry \'I, 
 who also appointed him lord-deputy of Ire- 
 land. By Edward IV he was made knight of 
 the garter ; and constituted justice of North 
 Wales for life. Dugdale says he was soon 
 after made constable of the Tower ; while 
 others assert that he was twice lord high con- 
 stable, and twice lord high treasurer. He was 
 also a second time deputy or lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, under the duke of Clarence, in which 
 capacity he attainted the earls of Kildare and 
 Desmond for su])porting the insurrection against 
 government ; and sentenced the latter to be 
 beheaded. On the temporary reverse of for- 
 tune experienced by Edward LV and the house 
 of Yor«^, in consequence of the junction be- 
 tween the earl of Warwick and the duke of 
 Clarence, the earl of Worcester, the severity 
 of whose judicial proceedings as high con- 
 stable had rendered him extremely obnoxious 
 to the Lancastrians, became one of the first 
 objects of their vengeance. He endeavoured 
 to find security for his person by concealment, 
 but was discovered in a tree in the forest of 
 Weybridge near Hunuiigdon, and thence con- 
 veyed to London, where he was rapidly tried 
 on the accusation of cruelty in his Irish adminis- 
 tration, particularly towards two infant sons of 
 tlie earl of Desmond, and condemned to lose 
 his head on Tower-hill, on tlie 18th of Oct. 
 1470, which sentence was executed accord- 
 ingly. He was married three times, but left 
 only one son and heir by his third wife. The 
 earl of Worcester appears to have been a per- 
 son of considerable learning and of great ac- 
 complishments for the age in which he lived. 
 In his return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem 
 lie had passed .some time at \ enice, Padua, 
 and Rome. He was led to Rome by his de- 
 sire to see the Vatican librarv, and he there 
 made so elegant an oration to pope Pius II, 
 
 T IR 
 
 as to receive the admiration of his holiness in 
 tears. He was a great collector of books, and 
 gave manuscripts of five hundred marks value 
 to the university of Oxford. Caxtou speaks of 
 him as one who " in his tyme flowered in 
 vertue and cunnyng, and to whom he knew 
 none like among the lordes of the temporality 
 in science and moral vertue.'' Another wri- 
 ter, speaking of the earl's execution, says, 
 " The axe then did at one blow cut otF more 
 learning than was left in the heads of all the 
 surviving nobility." An opinion of the writer 
 whose words are last quoted, that the earl's 
 expedition to Jerusalem was undertaken at a 
 time when he was in a state of suspense be- 
 tween gratitude to king Henry and loyalty to 
 king Edward, is without foundation ; for so 
 far from his travelling to Jerusalem under such 
 circumstances, he does not appear to have 
 quitted his office in Ireland after his appoint- 
 ment in 14.57, during the reign of Henry, and 
 he had an office conferred upon him by king 
 Edward in the first year of his reign. There 
 is not probatdy much better foundation for the 
 idea of Leland, in his History of Ireland, 
 though adopted by Walpole in his Royal and 
 Noble Authors, that the exertions of this earl 
 against the Yorkists had drawn down the ven- 
 geance of that party upon him ; for the principal 
 charge against- him, on which he was brought 
 to the scaffold, was his severity to the Lan- 
 castrians, which shows him, notwithstanding 
 his learning, to have been deeply imbued with 
 the ferocity of the times. The literary works 
 of this nobleman, as far as we are acquainted 
 with them, are an English translation of" Tul- 
 liua de Amicitia," and of '• Two Declarations 
 made by Pubiius Cornelius Scipio and Gayus 
 Flamigneus, Competitors for the Love of Lu- 
 crece," both printed by William Caxton ; some 
 Orations and Epistles ; and an Entjlish trans- 
 lation of " Cajsar's Commentaries," as touch- 
 ing British aff-iirs, supposed to be printed by 
 John Rastall, temp. Henry VIII. In the sixth 
 of Edward IV he drew up " Ortiers for the 
 placing of the Nobility in all Proceedings," 
 and " Orders and Statutes for Justs and 
 Triumphs ; " and in the Aslmiolean collection 
 are " Ordinances, Statutes, and Rules, m;nle 
 by John Tiptofte, Erie of Worcester and Con- 
 stable of England, by the King's Command- 
 ment at Windsor, '29th May, 6tli Edward IV, 
 to be observed in all .lusts of Peers within the 
 Realm of England," &c. He is also said to 
 have written " A Petition against the Lol- 
 lards," and an " Oration to the Citizens of 
 Padua ;" and among the manuscripts belong- 
 ing to Lincoln cathedral is a volume contain- 
 ing about twenty epistles, four of his writinu- 
 and the rest addressed to him. — Roual and 
 Noble Authors. Fuller's Wiythies. Ori^rinal 
 Communication. 
 
 TIRAHOSCHI(GinOLAMo)aleamed Ita. 
 lian writer, born at Bergamo in I7.'3l. He en- 
 tered into the society of the Jesuits ; and for 
 some time he taught grammar and rhetoric at 
 the college of lirera at Milan. He was like- 
 wise appointed to the office of keeper of the 
 college library, and in 1767 he was made libra- 
 
Tl S 
 
 rian to the duke of Modena. In ITBf) liis 
 liij;line8S gave liim tlic siuiatioii of sii|)erin- 
 tendaiit of his cabiiR't of iiu'ilals, aiul bt-stowttl 
 on liim tlie lioiiour of kiii[;lilliooil and a |ial«'nt of 
 Dobilitv. His death took place June l{, 17l)l. 
 'J'lie prineijjal work of I iral)i)!^cl»i is liis " Sto- 
 riadella Letteratura Itahana," which has pafsed 
 through several editions in <juarto and o( tavo ; 
 and among his otlier productions are " liildio- 
 teca Modenese, overo Notizie della Vite e 
 delle Opere dcgli Scrittori natii degh Stati ilel 
 DiK-a di iModena," 1781, 6 vols. 4to ; '• Ve- 
 tera Ihinidiatorum INIonunienta Annotationi- 
 bus ac Dissertationibus jirodroinis illustrata," 
 3 vols. 4to ; and " INlemorie Storiche Mo- 
 danesi/' 3 vols, ^to ; and he was also the con- 
 ductor of a review, published under tlie title of 
 *' Nuovo Giornale de' Litterati d' Italia." — 
 Aikiii's Gen. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 'J'lSCHBEliS! (John Anthony) a native 
 of Hesse in Germany, the son of a haker, and 
 the fourth of seven brothers all devoted to the 
 cultivation of tlie fine arts. He studied draw- 
 ing at Frankfort, and afterwards went for im- 
 ])rovement to Paris and Rome. Having gone 
 to Hamburgh to establish a school of design, 
 be died there in July 1784. He published a 
 work on the Elements of the Art of Painting, 
 Hamb.1771, 8vo. — Tischbein (John Henr\) 
 painter to the landgrave of Hesse Cassel and 
 founder of a new school of art in Germany, 
 was a younger brother of the foregoing. At 
 the age of fourteen he was placed under an 
 indifferent tapestry-painter, whom he soon ex- 
 celled. Count Stadion liaving seen some of 
 his work, was struck with the proofs of talent 
 which it exhibited, and furnished him with 
 the means of studying in France and Italy. 
 He returned home in 1751 , and was appointed 
 painter to the landgrave of He«se Cassel. His 
 talents were employed in enriching the gallery 
 of the landgrave, for which he produced seve- 
 ral excellent paintings of subjects taken from 
 ancient mythology, executed between the years 
 176'2 and 1783. An academy of painting and 
 architecture having been founded at Cassel 
 in 1776, Tischbein was nominated director, 
 and afterwards professor of painting at the 
 Caroline college. He died at Cassel, August 
 2'2, 1789. — 'liscnBEiN (John Hknuy Con- 
 rad) nephew of the preceding, was also his 
 pupil, and applied himself particularly to the 
 painting of landscapes and natural history. 
 After having travelled in Holland, he was in 
 1755 appointed inspector of the gallery of the 
 landorave, to the improvemfiit of which his 
 uncle had so much contributed. He acquired 
 a knowledge of e telling with acjuafortis and 
 engraving in wood ; and in 1790 he published 
 an " Elementary Treatise on Engraving with 
 Aquafortis, with Plates executed in that JMe- 
 ,hod," folio. This artist died in 1808, aged 
 ixty-six. — TiscHUEiN (John Henuy Wil- 
 liam) brother of the last noticed, and student 
 under his uncle in the gallery of Cassel, be- 
 came one of the first historical painters of his 
 time. After having been employed at Ham- 
 burgh, in Holland, and at Hanover, he went lu 
 1777 to Berlin, where he executed several por- 
 
 TIS 
 
 traits of tho loyal family. In 1779 he was at 
 Home, and in i7H7 at Naples, wlu-re \n» ta- 
 lents attracted the noiict- of llu- court. In 
 1790 lie was appointed director of the Academy 
 of Painting ; and he ln-ld tin- office till 1799, 
 wht'u the ralamitiea of war falling on iNaples, 
 111' was obliged to return to his own country. 
 He publislu'd a Colh'ttion of Kngravingn from 
 AniKjue N'ases ; Dehigtis of Subjects from 
 Homer; and various other worka. — Tr.scMBtiN 
 (John Fuedkuic Augustus) brother of the 
 foregoing artists, was professor and director 
 of the school of the line arts at Leipbic. Ho 
 excelled as a portrait jtainter, and died at Hei- 
 delberg, June 21, \{^\'^>.—Biog. Univ. 
 
 Tl.>SOr (.^i.%K)N Anuuew j an eminent i)hy- 
 sician and medical writer, born at Grancy, in 
 the Pays de Vaud, in 17'i8. He studied at 
 Geneva, and then at IMontpellier, and having 
 taken his doctor's degree in medicine in 17 19, 
 he settled at Lausanne, in Switzerland. I ho 
 success with which he treated the conflui nt 
 small-pox, by means of fresh air and a cool- 
 ing diet, at a period when stimulants and su- 
 dorifics were generally adopted, fixed on the 
 young practitioner the public attention. He 
 published a tract in favour of inoculation in 
 1750, and he soon after translated into French 
 Haller's Dissertations on Sensibility and Irri- 
 tability, and on the Motion of the Blood. 
 These pieces were followed by several otlier 
 medical publications, the most distinguished 
 of which is his "Avis au Peuple sur sa Same," 
 Lausanne, 1761, which was translated into 
 English by Dr James Kirkjiatrick, and pro- 
 bably served as the model of Bucliau"s Do- 
 mestic INIediciue, and other popular works. 
 Among his other productions may be specified 
 " Avis aux Gens des Lettres et aux Personnes 
 sedentaires sur leur Sante," Paris, 1768 ; and 
 " Essai sur les Maladies des Gens du blonde, " 
 Lyon. 1770, 12mo. After Tissot had refused 
 advantageous oliers made him by the kings 
 of Poland and England, to induce him to quit 
 Lausanne, he acceded to the request of the 
 emperor Joseph 11, and accepted of a profes- 
 sorship in the university of Pavia. Tiiis office 
 however he relnujuished after three years, 
 agreeably to a stipulation he had made on ac- 
 cepting it. He returned to Lausanne, where 
 he had been invested with the right of citizen- 
 ship, and created a member of the council of 
 Two Hundred. His death took jilace June 13, 
 1797. The principal works of Tissot were 
 published together at Paris, 1809, 8 vols. 8vo, 
 
 with the notes of professor Halle. — Bioi', 
 
 TT ■ " 
 
 umv. 
 
 TISSOT (Clement Joseph) a relative of 
 the subject of the last article, was born at Or- 
 nans in the department of Jura, in 1750, and 
 he studied medicine at Besan^on, where he 
 took the degree of doctor in 1776. He pub- 
 lished a treatise entitled " Gynuiastique Me- 
 dicale," 1781, 12mo; and lu 1785 he was 
 chosen correspondent of the Roval Society of 
 IMedicine at I'aris. Going afterwards to that 
 capital, he was appointed adjunct physician to 
 the household of the duke of Orleans, throu'h 
 I the recommendation of his friend Dr Trou- 
 
T 1 1' 
 
 cOiin. In 1788 he was nominated chief sur- 
 l^eon-adjunct at the camp of St Omer's ; and 
 sliortly after the king made him divisional in- 
 ppecior of the hospitals of Alsace and Franche 
 Comie. After the Revolution he was sur- 
 geon in-chief in various corps of the French 
 armies ; and in that caj)acity lie served in th e 
 campaigns in Austria, Prussia, Poland, and 
 Italy. At length he retired fiom the service, 
 and settled in professional practice at Paris, 
 where he died June 30, 1^26. He was an of- 
 ficer of the legion of honour, consulting physi- 
 cian '0 the duke of Orleans, and vice-presi- 
 dent of the IMedico- practical Society. lie- 
 sides the work already noticed, he published 
 several essays and treatises, the result of his 
 professional observations, of which a list is 
 given in the first of the annexed authorities — 
 Bio<r. NoHV. des Contemp. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TITIAN or TIZIANO VECELLI, one of 
 the most distinguished of the great Italian 
 painters, was born at Capo del Cadore in the 
 Alps of Friuli in 1480. His early indication 
 of taleiit for the arts of design induced his pa- 
 rents to place him under Sebastiano Zuccati of 
 frevigi, and subsequently under Giovanni 
 Bellini of Venice. He soon made an extraor- 
 dinary proficiency, and arrived at so exact an 
 imitation of his master's style, that their works 
 could scarcely be distinguished. This style 
 however was stiff and dry, so that when the 
 young artist had seen the performances of 
 Giorgione, which were of a more free and ele- 
 gant character, he quitted his former master, 
 and soon by his facility excited envy in his 
 new one. At the same time he by no means 
 neglected the other objects of education, but 
 made so great a progress under proper instruc- 
 tors, that at the age of twenty-three he was 
 celebrated as one of the most promising poets 
 of the day. With great judgment, however, 
 lie devoted himself to the pursuit for which he 
 felt the most decided predilection, and he at- 
 tained to great perfection in the three great 
 branches of landscape, portrait, and history. 
 He was particularly remarkat)le for his accu- 
 rate observation and faithful imitation of na- 
 ture, as regards the tones and shades of colour- 
 ing ; and as taste in design was a less conspi- 
 cuous part of his excellence, it is in portraits 
 and landscapes that he is deemed unrivalled. 
 Indeed in the opinion of JMr Fuseli he is to be 
 regarded as the father of portrait painting, as 
 relates to resemblance, charactt^r, grace, and 
 tasteful costume. His principal residence was 
 at Venice, though he occasionally complied 
 with invitations from jjriuces to their courts. 
 At Ferrara he executed the portraits of the 
 duke and duchess, as also that of Ariosto, 
 then a resident tliere. He was sent fur to 
 Rome by cardinal Farnese, and he attended 
 Charles V at 15olot;na, who was so pleased 
 with the portrait which he made of him, that 
 he honoured him with the order of knighthood, 
 and granted him a pension which was after- 
 wards augmented by Philij) 11. llapjtily most 
 of the ])rinces and leading men of the day 
 were ambitious of being painted by him, 
 which renders his pictures doubly valuable as 
 
 T I T 
 
 portraits of eminent individuals and for beauty 
 of execution. He resided for some time both 
 in Spain and Germany, but his home was 
 Venice, where he lived in great splendour, and 
 maintained the rank due to his genius. He 
 retained the spirit and vigour of youth to the 
 advanced age of ninety-six, and then died 
 of the plague in 1576. 'I'his great painter 
 had his weaknesses, the chief of which was an 
 extreme jealousy of all approaching excellence, 
 which rendered him ungenerous to Tintoretto, 
 and even to a brother of his own. The first 
 of all colourists, this great excellence mav 
 possibly have rendered his other character- 
 istics as a painter too subordinate. In general 
 his male forms are less elastic than mus- 
 cular, while his females partake too much of 
 the fair, dimpled, soft, Venetian forms, which 
 are too full for elegance, and for air and action 
 too rotund. He left two sons, one of which 
 obtained preferment in the church ; the other 
 became a distinguished painter ; but being ad- 
 dicted to alchymy he wasted his patrimony 
 and neglected his art. Of the historical pic- 
 tures of Titian, two are mentioned as pecu- 
 liarly excellent, a Last Supper in the Escurial, 
 and Christ crowned v;ith Thorns, in a church 
 at Milan. The engravings from his pictures, 
 including landscapes and pieces, cut in wood, 
 amount to more than six hundred. — If Ars^en- 
 ville. FilkingUm by Fuseli. I'irahoschi. 
 
 TITIUS (Theophilus Gerard) a German 
 lawyer, born at Nordhauseu, in 1661. He stu- 
 died at Leipsic, and afterwards going to Ros- 
 tock, he devoted twenty years to researches 
 concerning jurisprudence, and the publication 
 of his works. In 1709 he became professor 
 of law in the university of Leipsic, in 1710 
 counsellor of the tribunal of appeal at Dres- 
 den, and in 17 13 assessor of the superior tri- 
 bunal of Leipsic. He died in that city, April 
 10, 171'i. His principal works are " Speci- 
 men Juris-publici Romano-Gerinanici," 1698, 
 12mo ; " The German Feudal Law considered 
 accordmg to its Nature and to the Constitu- 
 tion of the Empire," 1699, 12mo ; " Ars Co- 
 gitandi," 170'i ; " Observatioues in Sam. L. 
 13.de Puffendorf, Libros 11. de Officio Ho- 
 minis et Civis," 1703, l2mo ; "An Essay on 
 the Canon Law of Germany for the Pro- 
 testant States," 1701 ; and other treatises on 
 German jurisprudence, for the titles of which 
 we must refer to the subjoined authority. His 
 dissertations on legal topics were collected and 
 republished by liommel, Leipsic, 17'^9, 4to. 
 — Biotr. Univ. 
 
 TITON DU TILLET(EvRARD)ceIel>rated 
 for his ieal for the honour of literature, and 
 the curious monument which he designeu to 
 perpetuate the fame of the learned. He was 
 born at Paris in 1(577, and was the son of 
 Maximilian Titon, director general of maijU- 
 factures and royal mai;azines of arms. Having 
 finished his education, he entered into the 
 army, and served till the peace of Hys%vick. 
 He then bouiiht the oflfiice of maitre-d'hotel to 
 the duchess of Rurgundy, afterwards dau- 
 phiness ; on whose death, in 1712, he travelled 
 into Italy, and on his return home he was mado 
 
T I T 
 
 provincial rornmissary at uar. In l7()r5 !»(• 
 toiict'ivetl liiti idea of a i'aruassiis in Itouki-, 
 in lionour of tlie kin^ and the t;rfat men who 
 nourished in France during his rei^Mi. The 
 work on a small scale was executed Uy l,oiiis 
 Gamier, the pupil of (Jirardon ; and the pro- 
 jector flattered himself with the liojie of oh- 
 taining from the government the means of con- 
 structing his Parnassus on a grand scale in a 
 garden or public place ; but he was disap- 
 pointed. In 17'26 lie puhlisheil a des(ri|ition 
 of his poetical monument, wiih notices of the 
 lives and works of the personages exhibited, 
 to width he added supplements, the Ia>t of 
 which appeared in 1760. He was also the 
 author of " Essais sur les Ilonneurs et sur les 
 Monuments accordes aux illustres Savants 
 pendaut la Suite des Siecles," Paris. 1734, 
 I'imo. His death took place December 26, 
 17()i?. — Biog. Univ. Aiken's Gen. Bing. 
 
 TI'I SINGH (Isaac) a Dutch voyager, horn 
 at Amsterdam about 1440- He went out in 
 the service of the East India Company and 
 obtained a place in the council at Batavia, 
 where for seventeen yep.rs his constitution 
 withstood the effects of the pestiferous climate, 
 so peculiarly fatal to Eurojieans. In 1778 he 
 Kent as chief of a commercial mission to Ja- 
 pan, where he remained for some time in the 
 isle of Devima, appropriated for the residence 
 of the Dutch factory. He was repeatedly sent 
 ambassador to Yedo, the residence of the se- 
 cular emperor of Japan, and thus he obtained 
 unusually favourable opportunities for making 
 observations on a country and people seldom 
 visited by Europeans. He left Japan in 1784, 
 and was subsequently appointed governor of 
 Chinchoura, on the banks of the Ganges, in 
 Bengal, lleturniiig to 13atavia, he resumed 
 liis functions as counsellor of the government, 
 which post he a second time quitted to go to 
 Pekin as ambassador from the Dutch East 
 India Company to the emperor of China. An 
 account of this mission was published by JM. 
 Van Braam, who held the second place in the 
 embassy. After a residence of thirty-three 
 years in the East, Titsingh returned to Eu- 
 rope, and having acquired a considerable for- 
 tune, he devoted much of bis time to the ar- 
 rangement of the materials illustrative of the 
 state of Japan, which he had collected, and 
 intended to publisli both in Holland and in 
 France. He died at Paris, in February 1812, 
 and the result of his labours subsequently ap- 
 j)eared in his " Ceremonies usitees au Japon, 
 pour les IMarriages et les Funerailles, 5lc." 
 
 1819, 2 vols. 8vo ; and " Memoires et Anec- 
 dotes de la Dynastie regnante des Djogouns, 
 Souverains de Japon, avec la Description des 
 Fetes et Ceremonies observees aux differentes 
 Epoques de I'Annee a la Gourde ces Princes," 
 
 1820, 8vo. — Bioi;. [Tniv. 
 
 TITUS VESPASIAN US, the son and suc- 
 cessor of the Roman emperor Vespasian, dis- 
 tinguished for his military talents and for the 
 wisdom and beneficence of his government. 
 I lis vouth was tainted with the vices of ex- 
 Iravagance and incontinence, and while an in- 
 mate of his father's palace, he chose his as- 
 
 BioG. DicT. — Vol. III. 
 
 T ( ) A 
 
 sociateg among the most ai^unt* joed of the 
 youthful courtiers, and indulged in the ^ra- 
 liticalion of every impure uesire iiiid un- 
 natural vice. From one bo little accu9toni«.<l 
 to re.vtrain his pas»ioiis, the Uonian people 
 anticijiated nothing but the misrule of a ne- 
 cond Caligula or Nero ; but on ascending 
 the tlipone Thus ha|)pily disappoinled tlif'se 
 ghjomy prognostications, and reluKpiiHliing liig 
 vicious hahits and debauched tom\>AUion», he 
 hecanie the father of his jieople, ihe guardian 
 of virtue, and the ])atron of liberty. His re- 
 formation, like iliat of our Henry V, appeared 
 to be sincere and perfect ; and the unworthy 
 and dissolute youth assumed the character of 
 the enlightened and munificent sovereign of a 
 vast emi)ire. All informers were banished 
 from his court, and even severely punished ; a 
 reform took place in judicial proceedings ; and 
 the public edifices were repaired, and new 
 ones erected for the convenience of the people. 
 I'he memorable exclamation of I'ltus, " Perdidi 
 diem," " I have lost a day," which he is s-ui 
 to have uttered one day when no opiiortuniiv 
 had occurred for doing any service or granting 
 a favour to any one of his subjects, has been 
 considered as strikingly characteristic of his 
 sentiments and behaviour, which procured for 
 him the title of " deliciae. generis Immani,'" 
 the delight of mankind. Two senators having 
 engaged in a conspiracy against his life, he not 
 only pardoned them, but also admitted them 
 to his friendship. During his reign there was 
 a conflagration at Rome, which lasted three 
 days ; the towns of Campania were desolated 
 by an eruption of Vesuvius, and the empire 
 was visited by a destroying pestilence. In 
 this season of public calamity the emperor's 
 benevolence and philanthropy were most con- 
 spicuously displayed. He comforted the af- 
 flicted, relieved the sufferers by his bouiitv, 
 and exerted all his care for the restoration of 
 public prosperity. The Romans did not long 
 enjoy the benefits of his wise and virtuous ad- 
 ministration. He was seized with a violent 
 fever, and retiring to a country-house which 
 had belonged to his father, he there expired, 
 lamenting with his latest breath the severity 
 of his fate, which removed him from the world 
 before he had perfected his plans for the be- 
 nefit of his grateful subjects, whose sorrow for 
 his loss was heightened by their apprehen- 
 sions arising from the gloomy and unpromising 
 character of his brother Domitian, who was 
 even suspected of having hastened the cata* 
 strophe which was to contribute to his own 
 elevation to imperial power. Titus died AD, 
 81, in the forty-first year of his age, after 
 reigning two years. — SiwUmius. Moreri. 
 
 TOALDO (Giusfppk) a learned Italian 
 meteoroloiiist, was born in 1719 at Piane/.za 
 in \ incenza, and educated at Padua, where 
 he took a degree as doctor of theology, but 
 was principally engaged in mathematical stu- 
 dies. He however obtained some ecclesiasti- 
 cal preferment, and in 1762 was appointed 
 professor of astronomy and meteorology in the 
 university of Padua. Here he procured an 
 observatory to be built, which was furnished 
 
TOD 
 
 with instruments from England. In 1777 lie 
 was elected an honorary member of our Koyal 
 S(>r otv, and contributed some memoirs to our 
 Ph'Kisonhica/ Iransactions. Me however tirst 
 becan.e Known throughout Europe by an inge- 
 ni-^ns work on the influence of the heavenly 
 bodies on the weather and atmosphere, " Delia 
 vera Influenza,"" &:c. 1770, 4to. His reputa- 
 tion was subsequently much increased by his 
 " Meteorological Journal," which he began 
 in 1773, and continued until his death. He 
 also wrote a variety of works on kindred sub- 
 jects, of which Fabroni has given a list. He 
 died much esteemed in November 1797, in his 
 seventv-ninth year. — Fabroni f'itce Italorum, 
 
 TOBIN (John) an English dramatic poet, 
 who accjuired a consideralde d^oree of posthu- 
 mous reputation about the commencement of 
 the present century. He was a native of Sa- 
 lisbury, born in 1770, and was educated by 
 his father, a West India merchant, for the in- 
 ferior department of the law. With this 
 view, after the usual period spent in prepara- 
 tory study at Southampton and Bristol, he 
 placed him in a conveyancer's office in the 
 metropolis, where he served his time, and was 
 admitted at its expiration as an attorney of the 
 Court of King's Bench. His predilection how- 
 ever for lighter studies soon induced him to 
 direct his attention towards writing for the 
 stage, of which he was passionately fond. 
 The critics of the green-room, proverbially the 
 worst judges of dramatic com[)Osition, re- 
 jected all the pieces which he submitted for 
 their acceptance, with the exception of a 
 farce, really deficient in merit, which was pro- 
 duced on a benefit night ; nor was it till some 
 time after his decease, which took place at Cork, 
 in 1804, that accident having brought his play 
 of the " Hone\moon" bvjfore the public, the 
 popularity it rapiuly acquired induced the ma- 
 nagers to bring out another of his pieces, the 
 *' Curfew," which, though it did not attain to 
 the same degree of estimation as its precursor, 
 met with a very favourable reception. In the 
 first of these plays Mr Tobin was very happy 
 in imitating the style of the older dramatists, 
 from whom indeed not merely his characters, but 
 even his incidents are manifestly borrowed, a 
 circumstance which may peihaps in some de- 
 gree account for its remaining so long in abey- 
 ance on the shelves of the prompter's room. 
 A delicate state of health, which had long 
 threatened the most serious consequences, 
 termmated at length in a consumjitiou, which 
 carried him oft^, after embarking for the West 
 Indies in 1804, and he was buried at Cork. — 
 Life ('u i^iiss Beuger. 
 
 'iX^!)D, DD. (Hugh) a learned antiquary 
 and divine, born at Blencow in the county of 
 Cumberland, in 16.t8. He was admitted on the 
 foundation of Queen's college, Oxford, which 
 he quitted in 1678 for a fellowship at the op- 
 posite college of University. Having taken 
 holy orders, he proceeded doctor in divinity 
 iu 1692, and enjoyed a stall in Carlisle cathe- 
 dral through the interest of bishop Smith, to 
 whom he was domestic chaplain ; but being 
 afterwards worsted iu a contest carried on 
 
 1^ OG 
 
 with his patron's successor in the see, on a 
 disputed point respecting the ri^ht of visita- 
 tion, he resigned it in disgust, and subsequently 
 his vicarage of Stanwix for that of Penrith 
 and the rectory of Arthuret. He was the au- 
 thor of a History of the Uiocese of Carlisle, 
 another of its Cathedral, and one of the Priory 
 of Wedderhall, never printed ; besides a " De- 
 scription of Sweden," and a " Life of Pho- 
 cion," which have appeared, as also of a va- 
 riety of papers to be found among the Philoso- 
 phical 1 ransactions of the Royal Society. Dr 
 Todd died in 1728. — Hutchiiison's Cumberland, 
 
 TODERLM (Giovanni Battista) an 
 Italian writer, born at Venice in 1728. He 
 entered into the order of the Jesuits, and be- 
 came professor of philosophy at Verona and at 
 Forli. After the suj)pression of the Jesuits he 
 attached himself to the bailli Garzoni, whom 
 he accompanied in 1781, in his embassy to 
 Constantinople. Toderini remained there till 
 1786, and employed himself in collecting a 
 library of books and Arabian MSS. On his 
 return to Italy he published the work on which 
 his reputation is founded " Delia Letteratura 
 Turchesca," 1787, 3 vols. 8vo, afterwards 
 translated into French and German. He was 
 also the author of some other })roductions^ 
 chiefly relative to philosophy and natural his- 
 tory ; but they requir.e no particular notice. 
 He died at Venice, July 4, 1799. — Biog. Nouv. 
 des Contemv. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TaFINO DE SAN MIGUEL (don Vi- 
 cente) a Spanish astronomer, born at Cartha^ 
 gena in Mexico in 1740. He entered young 
 into the navy, and having distinguished him- 
 self by his application to mathematical science, 
 he was in 1770 appointed professor at the 
 marine academy in the Isle of Leon. During 
 the American war he was directed to survey 
 the Spanish coasts and the islands visited by 
 vessels in voyages to America. Tofino had in 
 1786 been made director of the companies of 
 royal marine guards ; and he was afterwanls 
 brigadier of the naval forces of Spain, member 
 of the academy of hi--tory at Madrid, and cor- 
 respondent of the academies of sciences of 
 Paris and of Palma. He died at Madrid in 
 1806. He was the author of an Atlas of the 
 coasts of Spain, 1786 ; Astronomical Observa- 
 tions made at Cadiz, 2 vols. 4to ,; besides 
 other works. — Bio£. Univ. 
 
 TOGllAY (MouAYAD Eddin Abu Ismael 
 HosEiN al) a native of Ispahan, who lived in 
 the twelfth century, celebrated as a writer 
 both in prose and verse. He was the visir of 
 iMasoud, the seljuk sultan of Mosul, who going 
 to war with his brother Mahmoud, was de 
 feated in a great battle near Hamadan, AD. 
 1120; and 'J'ogray falling into the hands of 
 the victors was put to death. The most fa- 
 mous of his compositions is his " Lamiyya al 
 Adjem," so called from every verse terminat- 
 ing with the letter lam or 1, and as distin- 
 guished from a more ancient poem, the " La- 
 miyya of the Arabs," al Adjem, signifying the 
 Persians. The poem of Togray, with a Latin 
 version by Edward Pocock, was published at 
 Oxford in 1661 ; and another translation by 
 
r () f. 
 
 Goliiis v\a3 printed with the orit^in.'xl Arabic 
 al Utifcht in 1709. l)Oth the F-amiyyas, witli- 
 out any version, were pubhshed at (Jasaii in 
 laiJ-. — I'io^. Uiiir. 
 
 I'OliANI^ (John) a writor of considerable 
 note, in political and reli<;ioiis controversy, 
 was born in 1669 near LonilomUrrv in Ire- 
 land. Ilia parents wero Cailiolics of a good 
 family, \Yho educated him in the religion of 
 his ancestors. lie liowevrr diacarded the 
 Komisli faith before he had attained the a^^e 
 of sixteen, and finished his education at tlie 
 universities of Glasgow and Kdinlnirgh, in the 
 'atter of wliich he i^iuduated iMA. in 1690. 
 He then went to England, where he became 
 introduced to some respectable dissenting fa- 
 milies, wlio enabled him to pursue his studies 
 for two years more at Leydeii. Keturning to 
 P^ngland he collected materials for various lite- 
 rary designs, and composed several treatises, 
 one of which was to p.rove the common narra- 
 tive of the death of Regulusa falde. He also 
 hegan the work that commenced the contro- 
 versial warfare which he ever after sustained. 
 This he published in 1696, under the title of 
 " Christianity not INIysterious, or a Treatise 
 showing that there is nothing in the Gospel 
 contrary to Reason or above it, and tliat no 
 Christian Doctrine can be properly called a 
 Mystery," The foregoing work naturally ex 
 ciletl a considerable sensation anittng divines 
 of all persuasions, and various answers were 
 published; and among the rest a confutation, 
 not unusual at the time, in the form of a pre- 
 sentment by the grand jury of Middlesex. To 
 withdraw himself from the obloquy, he visited 
 his native country, where the cliaracter of his 
 work having preceded him, he was assailed 
 with even greater violence than in England. 
 The correspondence between Rlolyneux and 
 IvOcke shows that some portion of this outny 
 was produced by his own vanity and impru- 
 dence ; and he seriously offended Locke, who 
 had recommended him to INIolyneux, by the 
 ostentatious manner in which he boasted of 
 his acquaintance. The result was, that a 
 grand jury of Dublin imitated that of Rliddle- 
 sex ; and the Irish parliament not only voted 
 his book to be burnt by the hangman, but or- 
 dered him to be taken into custody by the ser- 
 geant-at-arms, and prosecuted by the attorney- 
 general. He was therefore obliged to quit 
 Ireland, and soon after his arrival in London 
 he published an account of his treatment in 
 that country, and declared himself a Protestant 
 latitudinarian. He followed this publication 
 by a pam{)hlet, entitled " The IMilitia Re- 
 formed ;" ami by a life of i\Iilton, in which he 
 strongly opposed the common notion, that the 
 Eikon Basilike was written by Charles I. 
 This production drew upon him a double set 
 of adversaries, political and religious, against 
 whom he defended himself in a treatise en- 
 titled " Amyntor," in which he gave a com- 
 plete history of the publication of P'.ikon Ra- 
 silike. and also a catalogue of such primitive 
 writers as he deemed spurious ; which latter 
 topic bearing upon tlie authenticity of the re- 
 «.eived canon of Scripture, was answered by 
 
 TO L 
 
 Mr, afterwards I)r Sjimuej Clarke and others. 
 In 1699 he puhli.slK-d a life of D.iixij ion! 
 Holies, and m the following y^ar sent out an 
 edition of Harrington's (Jceana. These he 
 followed u|) with various puhlicationrt ; and one 
 of them being in favour of the act of bucces- 
 sion, jiassed on the death of the duke of Glou- 
 cester in 1701, he was allowed to accom|)any 
 the earl of iMacdesfield to Hanover, win re ho 
 was introduced to the electresg Sopliia. Uu 
 his return to Kni^land, after a second visit to 
 the same court and to lierlin, he publishe<i his 
 philosophical " Letters to Serena," meaning 
 the queen of Prussia; and two latter disserta- 
 tions, one vnidicating Livy from the charge of 
 superstitious credulity ; and the other with a 
 view to show that Strabo's account of the 
 Jewish relii;ion was to be preferred to tliat of 
 the Jews themselves. Omitting allusion to a 
 variety of political and other pamphlets, in 
 1718 he published a work entitled " A'aza- 
 renus, or Jewish, Gentile, and .Mahometan 
 Christianity," in which he statrd liis own 
 views of jnimitive Christianity. It was fol- 
 lowed two years after by a Latin tract, called 
 " Pantheislicon," &c. which work has sub- 
 jected him to the charge of atiieism, as one of 
 the jihilosophers who identify Deity with the 
 nature of things, and represent it rather as a 
 principle than a person. In the second year 
 he published " Tetradymnus," in four jiarts, 
 the second of which on the exoteric and eso- 
 teric philosophy of the ancients, is deemed 
 one of his most learned and valuable produc- 
 tions. In the conclusion of this work he pro- 
 fessed his })reference of the Christian reli- 
 gion, pure and unmixed, to all others. He soon 
 after fell into a declining state of health, and 
 being in narrow circumstances, received very 
 kind attentions from lord ^lolyneux ; but his 
 disease being beyond remedy, brought his life 
 to a close on the 11th IMarch 1722, in the fifty- 
 third year of his age. The posthumous works 
 of this author, who was more estimable for 
 learning and abilities than for character or 
 conduct, were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 1726, 
 and again in 1747, with an account of his life 
 and writings by Des Maizeaux. — Life bij Des 
 Maizeaitx. Bii\<^. Brit. 
 
 TOLLTUS (Cornelius) a pliilological wri- 
 ter, born at Utrecht about 1620. He studied 
 at Amsterdam under G- J \'ossius, to whom 
 he became secretary. Being afterwards ap- 
 pointed professor- extraordinary at Harderwyk, 
 lie obtained in 1648 the chair of rhetoric ar.(i 
 the Greek language ; and the following year 
 he delivered a funeral oration for his benefac- 
 tor Vossius. He died after 1662, but in wliM 
 year is uncertain. He was the editor of th« 
 work of J. P. Valeriano, " De Infelicitate Lil- 
 teratorum," Amsterd. 1647, 12mo, to which 
 he added a supplement; ami he published an 
 edition of Pala>[>hatus, " De Incredibihbus," 
 1649, 12mo. — Tollivs (Ai.ExwnFn) bro- 
 tlier of Cornelius, studied also at Amsterdam, 
 and became corrector of the press to John 
 lilaeuw, the printer. He is supposed to have 
 succeeded his l)rofber at llardeiwyk, and he 
 died there in 1675. He is known for bavin jf 
 
TOO 
 
 publislied the variorum edition of Appian, 
 Amsterdam, 1670, two volumes octavo. — 
 'JoLLirs (James) another brother of the 
 same family, was born near Utrecht about 
 1630. He was educated at Amsterdam 
 and Utrecht, and after having been clerk 
 to a bookseller, lie went to Stockholm, to 
 become secretary to N. Heinsius, who dis- 
 missed him for keeping copies of the notes he 
 transcribed. He returned to Holland, and ob- 
 tained the direction of the gymnasium of 
 Gouda. At his leisure he studied medicine, 
 aiid took the degree of doctor in that faculty 
 in 1669. He was afterwards professor of clas- 
 sical learning at Duisbourg; and at length he 
 engaged in speculations relative to the ])hilo- 
 sopher's stone, and died m distress in 1696. 
 His principal work is entitled " Epistoh-c Iti- 
 nerariae," containing details of his travels and 
 observations. He also published editions of 
 Ausoniiis, 1669, 8vo ; and of Longinus, 169-i, 
 4to ; and he wrote much on alchyray and other 
 subjects. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TOLLIUS (Herman) a Dutch critic, born 
 at Breda in 1742. He studied jurisprudence 
 at Leyden, and wae admitted doctor of law in 
 1763. In 1767 he was made professor of rhe- 
 toric and Greek at Haiderwyk, and in 1784 
 the stadtholder William V appointed him 
 tutor to his children. He became professor of 
 statistics and diplomacy at Leyden in 1809, 
 and he died professor of the Greek and Latin 
 languages in 1822. Besides a number of 
 tracts and memoirs on political aflairs and 
 other subjects, he published "ApoUonii Lexi- 
 con Homericum, Graece, cum Notis Villoisonii 
 et H.Tollii," Leyden, 1788, 8vo.— 7d. 
 
 TO^LVSINI (Giovanni Filippo) a native 
 of Padua, born 1597. He at the usual age 
 received the tonsure, and by his learning and 
 abilities rose to be bishop of Citta Nuova, in 
 Istria, under the patronage of Urban VIII. 
 He publislied a life of his illustrious country- 
 man, tlie historian Livy, an account of the 
 manuscripts in the public library at Padua ; 
 " Petrarcha Redivivus ;" " Gymnasium Pa- 
 tavinum ;" " lllustrium Virorum Elogia," 2 
 vols.; and " De Donariis ac Tabellis Votivis," 
 a learned work on the Votive tablets of the 
 ancients. His death took place in 1654. — 
 Moreri. 
 
 TOOKE (Andrew) was one of two bro- 
 thers educated at the Charterhoune, of which 
 the subject of this article came to be head 
 master. He was a native of the metropolis, 
 bom 1673, and having graduated at Clare-hall, 
 Cambridge, returned to the seminary where 
 he had been brought up, in quality of a junior 
 master, when in his twenty-second year. In 
 1704 he obtained the geometry profegsorship 
 at Gresham college, which he resigned in 
 1728, on being appointed to the lieadship of 
 the school. This situation he continued to fill 
 nil liis death, although a considerable fortune, 
 which his brother had amassed in trade as a 
 bookseller, fell to him bv his decease, and ren- 
 dered him perfectly independent in his cir- 
 cumstances. He was the author of several 
 Usefql school-books, especially of a synopsis 
 
 TOO 
 
 of the Greek lansuage : an edition of tlie 
 " Fasti " of Ovid ; a translation of the 
 " Whole Duty of Man," from Puffendorf ; 
 and another of the " Pantheon, or Heathen 
 Mythology," better known in this country by 
 his name than by that of its real author, the 
 Jesuit Pomey, to whom he had not tlie candour 
 to acknowledge his obligations, but printed it 
 as an original work. His death took place of 
 drojtsy in 1731. — He must not be confounded 
 witii another eminent schoolmaster, his con- 
 I temporary, Thomas Tooke, a native of Kent, 
 ' who havinff received a classical education at 
 St Paul's school and Bene't college, Cam- 
 bridge, presided for upwards of thirty years 
 over the grammar-school at Jjishop Stortford, 
 with a high reputation. With this situation 
 he held the rectory of Lamborne, Essex, and 
 was buried in the church belonging to that 
 parish, on his death, which took place in the 
 spring of 1721. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 TOOKE (John Horne) a person of con- 
 siderable celebrity both in the literary and po- 
 litical world, was born in Newport street, 
 Westminster, in June 1736. His father, John 
 Horne, was a poulterer in Newport market, 
 who having acquired considerable propertv, 
 reputably brought up a family of seven chil- 
 dren. John, the third son, was educated both 
 at Westminster and Eton, whence he was re- 
 moved to St John's college, Cambridge, where 
 he took the degree of BA. In 1756 he had 
 entered himself of the Inner Temple, but at 
 the earnest request of his family he consented 
 to be ordained, and was inducted to the cha- 
 pelry of New Brentford, which his father had 
 purchased for liim. Three years afterwards 
 lie accompanied, as travelling tutor, the son 
 of ]\Ir Ehves of Berkshire, in a tour to France. 
 On his return he took a warm share in oppo- 
 sition politics, in behalf of the celebrated John 
 Wilkes, to whom on a second visit to Paris he 
 was personally introduced, and an intimate 
 friendship ensued. On this second tour he re- 
 tained in his appearance no outward mark of 
 the clerical office, of which, in an often-quoted 
 letter to Wilkes, he expressed himself with 
 sarcastic contempt. When he returned to 
 England however he resumed his black coat 
 and his functions, and obtained some distinc- 
 tion in the pulpit, until the return of Wilkes, 
 who became a ctndidate to represent the 
 county of Middlesex, plunged him again into 
 politics, and it was very much through his in- 
 fluence and activity that the latter was suc- 
 cessful. It was also through his instigation 
 that Mr Beckford, then lord-mayor, made the 
 verbal rejoinder to his majesty's answer to a 
 remonstrance of the city of London, subse- 
 quently inscribed on the pedestal of tliat ma- 
 gistrate's statue in Guildhall. He is likewise 
 , regarded as the principal founder of the " So- 
 j ciety for supporting the 13ill of liights." In 
 1770 and 1771 a jiublic altercation took place 
 [ between Messrs NVilkes and Horne, arising 
 j from the indignation of the latter at seeing 
 attempts made to render the above-mentioned 
 society instrumental to the discharge <»f tlie 
 former's private debts. As usual in such dis- 
 
T O O 
 
 putos, disclosures took place to the injury of 
 both parties ; but there api)e:ired no political 
 stain in the character of !\lr Honu-, wlioliow- 
 ever lost iniicli of liis poi)ularitv. In 177 1, 
 after some oiiposition, he ^^raduated IM A. at 
 Cambridge. It was through his means that 
 two printers of the newspapers were in the 
 same year induced to viohite tlie orders of the 
 house of Commons, by })nblishing their de- 
 bates, wliich hrouj^Iit on those e.\traordinarv 
 ])roceedinij;s whiili terminated in a disf.5raceful 
 defeat of the liouse, and the unopposed j)rac- 
 tice of such publication ever since. 'J'lie sanif 
 year also witni'ss^ed his contest with Junius, in 
 which in the general opinion he came olF victor. 
 In 1775 he resigneil his clerical gown, and 
 shut himself up in retirement, with a view to 
 study for tlie bar ; and it was by aflording le- 
 gal advice to i\lr Tooke of Purley, in his oppo- 
 sition to an enclosure bill, and defeating the 
 same by a boldness of stratagem pecnliaily in 
 character, that he acquired the good will and 
 ultimately shared in the fortune of that gentle- 
 man. He was a warm opponent of the Ame- 
 rican war, and was prosecuted for sedition, 
 for the wording of a resolution, by which the 
 Constitutional Society voted 100/. to the wi- 
 dows and children of the Americans who fell 
 in the battle of Lexington. For this obnox- 
 ious paragraph he was tried at Guildhall in 
 1777, on which occasion he defended himself 
 with his characteristic spirit and acuteuess, 
 but was sentenced to a year's imprisonment 
 and a fine of 200/. In 1779, after having fully 
 prepared for the bar, he applied for admission 
 to the society of the Inner Temple, and was 
 refused, on the ground that he was still a 
 priest and ineligible ; a decision which de- 
 stroyed all his future views in a profession for 
 Avhich he was eminently calculated. In 1780 
 lie published a keen review of lord North's 
 administration, in a j)amphlet entitled " Facts,," 
 and in 178i; addressed " A Letter on Parlia- 
 mentary Reform, with a Sketch of a Plan," 
 vihich did not embrace the principle of uni- 
 versal suffrage. About this time he became 
 the avowed friend of JNIr Pitt, then also fa- 
 vourable to parliamentary reform, and a vehe- 
 ment opponent to Mr Fox for his coalition 
 with lord North. In I78t> he appeared in a 
 character more important to his lasting repu- 
 tation than that of a subordinate politician, by 
 the pui)lication of an octavo volume, entitled 
 '• Epea Pteroenta, or the Diversions of Pur- 
 ley," which he afterwards expanded into two 
 volumes quarto. In this celebrated work he 
 gave e.\[>ression to those ideas concerning 
 grammar and the formation of words of which 
 the germ had appeared in a letter to Mr Dun- 
 iiing some years before. Of these one of the 
 most prominent was the derivation of pre])osi- 
 tions and conjunctions from verbs and nouns, 
 andin consequence assigningthem a determinate 
 meaning, often diftVrent from that which had 
 been arbitrarily given to them. The know- 
 ledo^e of lanouage and logical acuteness which 
 he displayed in this perfomiance raised lam to 
 a high rank as a philologist, and it was thought 
 that he would form a new era iu the philo- 
 
 r () () 
 
 sopliy connected with the theory of language" 
 He himself heemed to entertain an o])inion o' 
 this kind ; but no oiu* has hitherto attempted 
 any udeipiate superstructure uj)on hid founda- 
 tion. In 17»8 he published '« Two I'air of 
 Portraits, " the fi^uiea in which wer»* the two 
 I'ltts and the two Foxes, of the pa^t and pre- 
 sent generation, the preference being ^jiven to 
 the Pitts. In 1790 he olfered himnelf aa a 
 candidate for Westminster, in o|)poRiti(jn to 
 •Mr Fox and Icjrd Hood, whijn he di>tinguii»Ijed 
 himself by the strong vein of hnmonr in his 
 daily addresses to the populace ; and althou"ri 
 he failed, he polled one thou>and sev«'n hun- 
 dred votes, without solicitation or corruption. 
 The year 1791' was an important era in hi» 
 life, being apprehendtd and committed to the 
 J'ower on a charge of hi^h treason, founded 
 on the presumed objects of the corresponding 
 and other societies to overthrow the constitu- 
 tion. It is unneceb.>ary here to enter into the 
 details which led to this severity, his trial with 
 that of the other parties accused at the same 
 time, holding a conspicuous place in the his- 
 torical annals of a period rendered so remarka- 
 ble by the excitement produced by the French 
 revolution. The trial of Mr Tooke, although 
 made interesting by the ease, self-possession, 
 and acuteness displayed by the accused, was 
 deprived of much political im[)Ortance by the 
 previous acquittal of Hardy insuring his own. 
 From this time, however, he was more cau- 
 tions in his comjtany, and seem-s to have de- 
 clined the visits of persons of violent characters 
 and principles at Wimbledon. It is to be no- 
 ticed that after the death of INlr Tooke of Pur- 
 ley, lie had taken his name, iu consequence 
 of inheriting a portion of the fortune of that 
 gentleman, which, after some litigation, ulti- 
 mately reached him. In 1796 he again of- 
 fered himself for Westminster and failed, 
 although with a greater accession of votes than 
 before ; and in 1801, notwithstanding his sar- 
 casm against rotten boroughs, he accepted a 
 sent for Old Sarum, on the nomination of lord 
 Camelford. His parliamentary career was 
 neither long nor di^tiIlguished ; but an attempt 
 to exclude him on the gtouud of ordination 
 was turned aside by the minister, Mr Addmg- 
 ton, who substituting a bill to deteimine the 
 future ineligibility of persons in that predica- 
 ment, the political life of I\Jr J'ooke closed 
 with the dissolution of j^arliament in 180'J. 
 In 180o he published a second part of the 
 " Diversions of Purley," which is chiefly de- 
 dicated to etymology , and adjectives and par- 
 ticiples, and their formation ; but also abounded 
 like the former, with various eaiirical strittures 
 on literary characters of note, tl;e reputations 
 of some of whom have bet*i permanently af- 
 fected by tbtm. He survived, although latterly 
 with considerable infirmity, until .March 19, 
 1812, when he expired at \Vimbledon, in his 
 seventy-seventh year. His latter days were 
 cheered by easy circumstances, and the at- 
 I tention of numerous visitors, whom he treated 
 ■ with great hos])itality, and amused with his' 
 ^ conversation, which was singularly pleasant 
 I and lively, although at the same U-me he 
 
TOP 
 
 would often make his guests objects of liis 
 satire, wliicli he would cover with the most 
 iniperturbatde countenance. At the same time 
 Lis manners were polished, and his appearance 
 that of a gentleman of the old school. The 
 stronger points of his character are tolerably 
 Well unfolded by his singular career. As 
 regards the essentials of truth, honour, and 
 integrity, forming in a ))opular sense the mo- 
 rality of a gentleman, his character was never 
 seriously impeached ; but he manifested a li- 
 bertinism in his habits and discourse, very un- 
 becoming his profession, and latterly his age. 
 As a public man he exhibited too much cyni- 
 cism and asperity for a perfect patriot, being 
 rather an able and active offensive partisan. 
 As a scholar he possessed considerable learn- 
 ing, but it is supposed that his knowledge of 
 modern languages was in proportion more 
 considerable than his profundity in Greek 
 and Latin : his acquaintance with the Gothic, 
 as he has shown in his etymological re- 
 searches, was very extensive. He was never 
 married, but left natural children, to whom he 
 becpieathed his property. — Slephens's Memoirs 
 of J. H. Tooke. 
 
 TOOKE, FRS. (William) a native of Is- 
 lington, in the neighbourhood of London, born 
 174-i, and bred a printer ; but having obtained 
 ordination, he went out to Russia as chaplain 
 to the English factory at Cronstadt, which si- 
 tuation he subseauently exchanged for a more 
 lucrative one of a similar d»'Scription at St 
 Petersbarg. Mr Tooke is known as the author 
 of a " History of Russia;" a " Life of the 
 Empress Catherine II ;" '• A View of the 
 Russian Empire ;"a miscellany entitled " Va- 
 rieties of Literature," 8vo, 2 vols. ; and as the 
 translator of the works of Lucian in two quarto 
 vols, and the sermons of Zollikoffer. Althou-ih 
 much of his life was passed abroad, his death i 
 took place in England in 1820. — An)i. Biog. 
 
 T(3pHAM (Edwai'.d) a miscellaneous wri- [ 
 ter, was the son of Dr Topham, judge of tlie [ 
 prerogative court at York. He was educated 
 at Eton, whence he was removed to Trinity- i 
 college, Cambridge, on quitting which he en- ' 
 tered the guards, where he attained the rank 
 of major. He ultimately became proprietor of 
 a fashionable paper entitled the World, which 
 he contributed to support by various lively | 
 pieces in prose and verse. His curious memoir I 
 of the celebrated miser, John Elwes, of Rerk- : 
 shire, which, when published separately, ran 
 through two editions, appeared first in this ' 
 journal. He also wrote " Letters from Edin- ! 
 burgh," 8vo ; " Address to Eilmund Burke, 
 Esq." 8vo ; " Account of a Stone which fell 
 from the Clouds on his Estate in Yorkshire." 
 He died in 18!?0. — Cent. Mag. 
 
 TOPLADY (Ai'GusTus IMontacue) a 
 strenuous advocate for the Calvinism of the 
 church of England, was born at Farriham in 
 Surrey, November 4. 1740. His father, a cap- 
 tain in the army, died at the siege of Carthagena 
 soon after his birth. He received the rudi- 
 ments of his education at \\'estminster .'^cliool, 
 but liis mother beinir obliijed to visit Ireland, ! 
 to pursue a claim to an estate in that country, • 
 
 T O R 
 
 he accompanied her thither, and was entered 
 of I'rinity college, Dublin, where he graduated 
 BA. He received orders in 1762, and after 
 some time was inducted into the living of 
 Broad llemburv, in Devonshire. Here he 
 lived for several years, and composed most of 
 his writings, occasionally visiting and spending 
 intervals in London. At length, in 1775, find- 
 ing his constitution much impaired by the 
 moist atmosphere of Devonshire, he removed 
 to London entirely, and at the solicitation ol 
 his numerous friends, engaged the chapel be- 
 lontriiio-to the French Protestants in Leicester- 
 fields, where he preached twice in the week 
 while his health permitted, and afterwards oc- 
 casionally, until his death in August 11,1778, 
 which event, it is supposed, was hastened by 
 his intense application to study. His writings, 
 collected in six volumes, octavo, are almost 
 exclusively controversial, in favour of the Cal- 
 vinism of the Church of England, and in op- 
 positi m to John Wesley, to whom he more 
 especially opposed himself. Tlie chief of these 
 are " The Church of England vindicated from 
 the charge of Arminianism ;" " The Doctrine 
 of ab.solutft Predestination stated and asserted ;" 
 and " Historical Proofs of the Calvinism of 
 the Church of England." This zealous di- 
 vine possessed considerable talents for argu- 
 mentation, and brought a largjer share of me- 
 taphysical acuteness into the Calvinistic con- 
 troversy than any other of the modern wri- 
 ters on the subject. — Life prefixed to Works. 
 
 TORELLI (Gu'sepVe) an Italian mathe- 
 matician and miscellaneous writer, who was a 
 native of Verona. He studied at Pisa, and 
 took the degree of doctor of law, but he did 
 not engage in professional practice. He was 
 not only skilled in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, 
 bufalso acquainted with the English and other 
 modern languages. IMathemalics principally 
 occupied his attention, to which he added a 
 considerable knowledge of classical archaeology. 
 He died in 1781, at the age of sixty. He pub- 
 lished an Italian translation of the first two 
 books of the ^-Eneid ; and a version in the 
 same language of Gray's Elegy written in a 
 Country Churchyard ; but he is principally 
 known on account of his edition of the works 
 of Archimedes, printed at Oxford, 1792, folio. 
 — Biog. Unic. 
 
 TORELLI (PoMPoNio) count of IMonte- 
 cliiarugolo, in the Parmesan, a jioet and man 
 of letters of the sixteenth century. He was 
 educated at Padua, whence, after a residence 
 of eleven years, he returned to his native 
 jilace, and married. He chieily employed 
 himself in literary composition, arKi besides 
 j)ublishing several Italian poems, and a trea- 
 tise " Del Debito del Cavaliero," l!i96, com- 
 posed four tragedies, entitled '* La iNlerope," 
 " II Tancredi?' " La Galatea," " La Vit- 
 toria ;" and " II PoliJoro." These, for ele- 
 gance of style and regularity of plan, arc 
 equal to any of the age, although rendered in- 
 sipid l)y too close an attention to the Greek 
 models. He also left a number of pieces in 
 manuscript, which are yueserved at Reggio. 
 He died in 1608. — Tinboichi. 
 
T O ]l 
 
 T O II 
 
 TOUh/¥A]S (TuirtMoDus) ak'arne<l Dan- I'mltrrio," Ilomp, 1170; " MctlitalionB," 
 
 [i>h Jiistorian aiitl aiiti(Hiary, was born in Ice- Romo, 1474. lit' also wrote several >.|j;>rt 
 
 land, lie was partly tducattnl in his native treatist'S in Latin, in htrvile d<-ffnc-e of uliru- 
 
 }>lace, but in ]6.vl was sent to the university of montane opinions, and the policy of the court 
 
 Copt-nhai^en. He uhiniatc-ly so disiinguislu-d 
 hinisflf by his acquaintance with history, that 
 he was recoinnuMuled to tlie kint; of Denmark 
 to translate the Icelandic RISS. in his library. 
 He executed this task so much to tlie kin'^'s 
 satisfaction, that he retained him for several 
 years iu his court, and employed him in general 
 affairs. As a reward for these services, a va- 
 luable place in the custdma was bestowed 
 upon him; which employment not suiting him, 
 he was soliciting an exchange, when the king 
 died, and liis successor Christian \' appointed 
 Torfa'us his hisioriographer, with a salary of 
 600 German crowns. This stipend enabled 
 him to pursue Ids researclies into history and 
 antiquities at his ease imtil his deatli in 1719 
 or 17i!0, at the advanced age of eighty. As 
 an historian he occupies a high rank among 
 his countrymen, notwithstanding which all 
 his works are scarce. Those best known are 
 " Ilistoria Rerum Norvegicarum," Copen- 
 hagen, 1741, 2 vols, folio; " Orcades, sen 
 Herum Orcadensium llistoriae libri tres," 
 ibid. 1697 — 1715, folio ; " Series Dynastarum 
 et Regnm Danife a Skioldo Odini Filio ad 
 Gormum Grandajvum," ibid. 1702, folio , 
 " Historic ViniandiiE antiqu??," 1705, 8vo ; 
 " Groeniandia antiqua, seu Veteris Groen- 
 landiieDescriptio," 1706, 8vo. — Moreri. Biog. 
 Viiiv. 
 
 'J'ORXIELLl (AoosTiNo), a learned eccle- 
 siastic, born at Novara in 1543, entered into the 
 society of the Barnabites, of which he became 
 the general. He composed an ecclesiastical 
 history, from the beginning of the world to 
 the time of Clirist, in the form of annals ; and 
 was the first who did so, to any extent, and 
 with due accuracy. This work, which clears 
 up many obscurities in chronology, geograj)hy, 
 and topogruphv, is regarded as an excellent 
 commentary on the books of the Old Testa- 
 ment. An edition of it, with several additions 
 by father Negri, of tlie same order, was pub- 
 lished at Lucca in 1757, in 4 vols, folio. Tor- 
 nielli was offered a bishopric by the duke of 
 INIantua, but preferred the tranquillity of his 
 cloister, where he died in 1622. — Duphi. 
 'Jlnihosclii. 
 
 TORQUEMADA (John df). a celebrated 
 dominican, better known by tlie name of Tur- 
 recremata, was born in 1388 of a noble family 
 of Valiadolid. He attended the council of 
 Constance in 1417, and was admitted a doctor 
 of the Sorbonne in 1429 ; he also held some 
 important offices in his order, and was ap- 
 pointed master of the sacred palace at Rome. 
 He was sent by pope Eugenius IV to the 
 council of Basil, where he strongly defended 
 the interests of Rome ; for which, in 1439, he 
 was creatt-d a cardinal. He performed great 
 services for his order, and died at Rome in 
 1 168, aged eighty. His works are, " Commen- 
 taries on Gratian^s Decretal," Venice, 1578; 
 •' A Treatise on the Church and Papal Autho- 
 rity," \'euice, 1562 ; " Espositio super toto 
 
 of Rome. This bigoted and per»eculini; pre- 
 lat>f was confessor to Isabella, (pjcrn of ('-ah- 
 tile, from her in fancy ; and is said to have 
 raade her promise, that if ever she came to the 
 throne she would make the punishment and 
 destruction of heretics her priiuijial object. — 
 Ditpin. Moreri. 
 
 'J'ORRE (Fn.ippo DF.r.), a learned anti- 
 quary, was horn in 1657 of a noble family at 
 Ciudad de Friuli. He studied polite litera- 
 ture at Radua, under the celebrated Ottavio 
 Ferrari ; and after adding to his oilier ac- 
 quisitions tlie knowledge of mathematics, 
 jurisprudence, and anatomy, he returned to Ida 
 native country. In 1687 he proceeded, for 
 further improvement, to Rome, where he 
 gained the esteem and friendship of some of 
 the most eminent prelates in the pajial court, 
 and iri 1702 was nominated bishop of Ailri* 
 by pope Clement XL He then removed to 
 his see, which he governed with great reputa- 
 tion until his death, which took place in 1717. 
 The principal writings of this prelate are 
 " Monumenia Veteris Antii," 4to, which 
 ranks high among those of the class ; " Tauro- 
 bolium Antiquum, Lugduni repertum, 1704, 
 cum Explicatione ;" " De Annis Imperii ^L 
 Aurelii Antonini, Ileliogabali," «S:c. 4to, 17 11. 
 — Fabroni. Tirahoschi. 
 
 TORRE (Giovanni Maria della"). an 
 eminent natural philosopher, was boru at Rome 
 of a family originally of Genoa, and studied at 
 the Clementine college. He afterwards be- 
 came professor of philosophy and the mathe' 
 matics at Ciudad de Friuli ; which he quitted 
 for Naples, where, in 1754, he was appointed 
 librarian to the king, superintendant of the 
 royal printing office, and keeper of the mu- 
 seum. Here he applied himself to his favourite 
 pursuits, one of which was the inij)rovenienr 
 of microscopes, which lie brought to a high 
 degree of perfection, by inventing the highest 
 magnifiers that had ever been known, some of 
 which he presented to our Royal Society. He 
 was a member of all the principal academ es 
 of Italy, as wtll as a corresponding one of 
 those of Paris, London, and Berlin. He died 
 March 7, 1782. His principal works are, 
 " On Natural Philosophy," Naples, 1749, 2 
 vols. ; " Elementa Physics?," 1767. 8 vols. ; 
 " History and Phenomena of Vesuvius," 17.5.5, 
 4to ; " IMicroscoitical Observatious," 1766, 
 6cc. — Xduv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TORRENTIUS (John) a Dutch painter, a 
 native of Amsterdam, who disi,naced himself 
 by the prostitution of his talents. He dis- 
 played great skill in his spirited delineations 
 of small figures ; but on account of his ob- 
 scene pictures and irregular conduct while in 
 Italy, he was seized by order of the inquisitors, 
 and died in the prison of the holy office in 
 1640. — ^(i ii!r,irt. OrUi)tdi 
 
 'lORRKN nrS (L.?^viNi-s^ the Latini/ed 
 denomination of a learned Flemish critic, 
 whose family name was Vander Beken. He 
 
TO 11 
 
 was born at Ghent in 1525, and he studied nt 
 I.ouvain, and afterwards at the university of 
 Bologna. After having been employed in di- 
 plomatic affairs, he entered into holy orders, 
 and was raised to the see of Antwerp. lie 
 was subsequently archbishop of Mechlin, 
 where he died iu 1595. Torrentius was dis- 
 tinguished as a classical commentator and a 
 writer of Latin poetry. Ilis notes on Horace 
 have been frequently printed. He was the 
 founder of a Jesuit's college at l.ouvain, to 
 which he bequeathed his library and museum. 
 — Mitreri. Bios;. Univ. 
 
 TORRICELLI (Evangeliste) an illus- 
 trious mathematician and philosopher, born at 
 Faenza, iu Italy, October 15,1608. He was 
 instructed in Greek and Latin by his uncle, 
 who was a monk, probably with a view to his 
 obtaining preferment in the church ; but his 
 genius induced him to devote himself to the 
 study of mathematics, which he attended to 
 for some time without a master ; but at the 
 age of twenty he went to Rome, and pro- 
 seciited his studies under father Benedict 
 Castelli. Torricelli thus assisted made great 
 improvement, and having read Galileo's Dia- 
 logues, he composed a treatise concerning 
 Motion, according to his principles. Castelli, 
 astonished at the ability displayed in this 
 piece, took it to Galileo at Florence, who con- 
 ceived a high opinion of the author, and en- 
 gaged him as his amanuensis. He entered on 
 this office in October 1641, but Galileo dying 
 three months after, Torricelli was about to re- 
 turn to Rome, when the grand duke of Tus- 
 cany, Ferdinand II, engaged him to continue 
 at Florence, giving him the title of ducal ma- 
 thematician, and the promise of a professor- 
 ship in the university on the first vacancy. 
 Here he applied himself closely to study, and 
 made many improvements and some dis- 
 coveries in mathematics, physics, and astro- 
 nomy. He vastly im])roved the construction 
 of microscopes and telescopes ; and he is ge- 
 nerally considered as having first ascertained 
 the gravity of the air, by means of mercury in 
 a glass tube, whence resulted the barometer. 
 He would probably have added more to the 
 stores of science if he had not been cut off 
 prematurely, after a few days' illness, in Oct. 
 1647. He published in 1614 a volume en- 
 titled " Opera Geometrica ;" and his acade- 
 mical lectures were printed in 17 15. — Mai-tin's 
 Bing. l^hilos. Aildii's Gen. Biog. 
 
 TORRIGIANO (Pietro) a Florentine 
 tist of great eminence, who flourished to- 
 wards the close of the fifteenth and the com- 
 mencement of the succeeding century. He was 
 boru in 1472, and wliile yet a lad gave evi- 
 dence of that genius for sculpture which time 
 only was wanting to bring to perfection. Be- 
 ing at the time a fellow-student with the fa- 
 mous Michael Angela Buonaroti, a dispute, 
 arising from a jealousy excusable perhaps in 
 sucl) artists, with respect to their comparative 
 proficit^ncy, terminated in blows ; one of which 
 from the hand of Torrigiano broke the bridge 
 of his antagonist's nose, and inflicted a mark 
 which he carried to his grave. While in the 
 
 TOT 
 
 zenith of his reputation, he came to tliis 
 country, which he afterwards quitted for 
 Spain, and there fell into the hands of the 
 holy office, being denounced as guilty of im- 
 piety and sacrilege in breaking to pieces a sta- 
 tue of the virgin, which he had himself exe- 
 cuted for an hidalgo, who afterwards refused 
 to pay him an adequate reward. He was con- 
 demned to ex])iate his crime at the stake, but 
 avoided the torture and ignominy of a public 
 execution, by refusing all manner of food, and 
 dying in consequence of exhaustion, previously 
 to the celebration of the auto da fe in 1522. 
 He has left a splendid specimen of his abi- 
 lities here, in the beautiful tomb of Henry VII, 
 to be seen in the chapel erected by that mon- 
 arch in Westminster abbey. — Cumberland's 
 Anec. of Paint. 
 
 TOTILA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 succeeded to the throne on the murder of his 
 uncle Eraric in 541, liaving previously much 
 distinguished himself in the war against the 
 Romans. The confusion among the Goths at 
 this period, induced the Romans to make an 
 attempt upon their capital Verona, which was 
 unsuccessful ; and soon after Totila defeated 
 them still more signally near Faenza. He 
 then invested Florence, but broke up the 
 siege to meet the Romans, whom he a second 
 time defeated, and reduced all the strong 
 places in Tuscany. He then marched tlirough 
 Italy, took Beneventum, and formed the 
 blockade of Naples. After the failure of two 
 fleets, despatched by the emperor to succour 
 the garrison, it was obliged to surrender ; and 
 Totila, who in tlie meantime had reduced the 
 provinces of Lucania, Apulia, and Calabria, 
 led his army to the neighbourhood of Rome, 
 and posted himself at Tivoli, within eighteen 
 miles from the capital. The danger of Rome 
 now urged the emperor Justinian to recal 
 Belisarius from the Persian war, and send him 
 to its relief. Rendered unable, from disparity 
 of force, to meet the Goths in the field, that 
 able general sailed to the mouth of the 'J'lber, 
 and sought to throw succours into the city ; 
 but not succeeding, Rome was abandoned to 
 its fate, and fell into tlie possession of Totila. 
 Very little bloodshed ensued ; but he indulged 
 his Goths witli free liberty of pillage, and 
 many of the wealthy citizens and their families 
 were reduced to beggary. He then sent Pe- 
 lagius on an embassy to Justinian to proffer a 
 treaty of amity ; which being rejecteii, he was 
 so much incensed, that he proceeded to the 
 demolition of the city, and had destroyed a 
 third part, when he was induced by Belisarius 
 to desist. On quitting it, however, to march to 
 Lucania, he carried the senators along with 
 him ; and I'elisarius and his small army soon 
 after occupied the vacant citv, and began to 
 repair the fortifications and recal the inha- 
 bitants. Upon intelligence of this event, 
 iotila returned, and made a furious assault, in 
 which he was repulsed with great loss, and 
 symptomsof disobedience began to apj.ear in liis 
 army. Having received a reinforcement, how- 
 ever, he made a second attempt, and, by the 
 treachery of some Isauriau guards, was ea- 
 
r o [] 
 
 abk'd to re-enter Rome. On this occasion, 
 policy induced liiiu to master his resentment, 
 and he not only restored tlie senators to their 
 Iionours, and the inliabitants to their possea- 
 sions, but rcpidn-d many of tlie walls and 
 buildings widch he had formerly demolished. 
 He tlien made proposals to Justinian a second 
 time, which were not even listenetl to ; on 
 which, after takin>; Khegium and i'arentum. 
 he passed over to Sicily, and made liimself 
 master of that island ; as also those of Sardinia 
 anil Corsica. His troops were in the mean 
 time besieging Ancona ; but a naval force 
 being sent to its relief, the siege was raised, 
 and the recovery of Sicily soon after followed. 
 At length Justinian, resolved to free Italy, 
 recalled Belisarius, and despatched a powerful 
 army to its relief under the able and valiant 
 Narses, with which he advanced directly 
 towards Rome. Totila, assembling all his 
 forces, met him in the neighbourhood of that 
 capital ; and Narses proposing no better terms 
 than a simple ofter of pardon, the Gothic 
 monarch declared liis resolution to conquer or 
 to die. A day was agreed upon for tlie com- 
 bat ; but in the interval Totila attempted to 
 surprise his foe, who, being wary and pre- 
 pared, a furious battle was the consequence, 
 in which the Goths were entirely defeated, 
 and their leader, perceiving the day was lost, 
 quitted the field with no more than five com- 
 panions, lieing overtaken by a party of 
 Gepidai, Asbad, their commander, not know- 
 ing him, ran a lance through his body. His 
 faitliful companions bore him seven miles 
 from the scene of action, when he expired 
 in July, .552, in the eleventh year of his 
 reign ; and with him expired the revived glory 
 of the Goths in Italy. His character is highly 
 spoken of l)y the historians of the time, vvho 
 commend him for valour, tempered by huma- 
 nity and moderation, and for the justice and 
 equity of his government, when it was once 
 submitted to. — Unic. Hist. Cfihhon. 
 
 TOULMIN' (Joshua), a dissenting di- 
 vine, of the general baptist persuasion, and 
 also an unitarian, was born in London, about 
 1742. He officiated several years as minister 
 id a congregation at Taunton, in Somersetshire, 
 •where he also carried on the business of a 
 bookseller. On the emigration of Dr. Priest- 
 ley to America, he was appointed to succeed 
 him by the united congregation at liirming- 
 ham, where he died in 1815, aged seventy- 
 three. Dr. Toulmin, who obtained a degree 
 from an American college, was a very indus- 
 trious writer and compiler, and ];ubiisheil se- 
 veral works, of which the principal are, " The 
 Life of Socinus," 8vo ; " Dissertation on tlie 
 Evidences of Christianity," 8vo ; " Life of 
 John Riddle ;" " History of Taunton," 4to ; 
 a new edition of Neal's History of the Puritans, 
 5 vols. 8vo ; " Riography of Dr. Priestley :" 
 " Memoirs of Samuel J'Jrown ;" " Historical 
 A^'iewof the Protestant Dissenters." — Monthly 
 Mag. 
 
 TOUP (Jonathan), a learned divine and 
 critic, was born in 1713 at St Ives, in Corn- 
 wall, being the son of the curate of that place. 
 
 T O U 
 
 After receiving a regular school education, he 
 w;is entered of Ilxeler college (Jxfcjrd, wlitro 
 he grailuated 15.\ ; his degree of mastt-r bring 
 taken at Pembrokehall, Cambridge, iu 1756, 
 having j)reviously been pre.scnted to the 
 ri'ctory of Si .Martin's, Cornwill. In 1760 
 he was made known to the learned world by 
 the first part of his " Kmendationcg in Sui- 
 dam ;" the second of which a|)i)eared in 1764, 
 and the third in 176(). This work, which dis- 
 plays great erudition, but unfortunately in a 
 [)ositive and self-sullicient manner, recom- 
 mended him to bishop WarburKju. who be( ame 
 his correspondent and patron. In 1767 he 
 publi.shed " Kpistola Critica," addressed to 
 that prelate, containing various remarks on 
 Greek writers. In 1772 appeared his " Cura; 
 posteriores sive Appendicula Notarum atf|ue 
 Lrnendationum in Theocritum, Oxonii nu[)er- 
 rime publicatum," 4to ; the merits of wliith 
 were again balanced by a contemptuous and 
 vituperative spirit. The interest of Warburton 
 ])rocured him in 1771 a presentation to a pre- 
 bend in the church of Exeter, and in 1776 
 another to the vicarage of St IMerryn. In 171.5 
 he printed " Appendicula Notarum in Sui- 
 dam ;" and in 1778 he closed his critical la- 
 bours by his edition of Longinus. This work 
 was received very favourably by the learned 
 world, and a second edition was printed in 8vo. 
 He continued to reside at his living of St Mar- 
 tin's until his death, in January, 1785, in his 
 seventy-third year. Notwithstanding his as- 
 perity as a critic, he was kind and beneficenr 
 in })rivate life, and was a liberal and tolerant 
 divine. As a writer of profound learning and 
 critical sagacity, he ranks very hi^h, and in 
 the opinion of Dr Rurney, he is to be regarded 
 as one of the seven pre-eminent scholars of 
 the eighteenth century. — Xicfnils's Lit. Anec. 
 
 TO'URNEFORT ^Toseph Piton de) an 
 eminent French jjliysician and botanist, was 
 born of noble j^arents at Aix in Provence, in 
 1656. He was educated at the Jesuits' col- 
 lege in that city, where his passion for botany 
 disclosed itself at an early age, so that in a 
 short time he had made himself acquainted 
 with all the plants in the vicinity. He was 
 destined for the church, and placed in a semi- 
 nary of theology ; but he continued his bota- 
 nical researches by stealth, and encouraged by 
 a paternal uncle, who was an eminent ph\si- 
 cian, applied to the study of anatomy ami 
 chemistry. In 1677, being left by the death 
 of his father to pursue his own inclinations, he 
 determined to adopt the medical profession, 
 and for that purpose repaired in 1()79 to Mont- 
 pellier. He had previously enriched his her- 
 barium from the mountains of Dauphiny ; ami 
 he not only examined all the plants in the 
 neighl)Ourhood of Montpellier, but in 1681 
 crossed to Rarcelona, and attended by a nu- 
 merous troop of students, ascended the hills of 
 Catalonia. Thence he proceeded to the Py- 
 renees, and undeterred by danger or hardship, 
 pursued his researches. On his return to 
 France he was appointed jirofessor of botany 
 to the garden of plants at Paris : and soon 
 after he resumed his travels, revisiting Spain, 
 
T O U 
 
 .H!i(l [hence proceeding to Portugal, England 
 and Holland. In 1691 he was elected a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1694 he 
 publislied his first work, entitled " Klemeris 
 ie liotani(]ue," 3 vols. 8vo, with numerous 
 plates. The method established by Tourne- 
 fort was primarily founded upon the varieties 
 of the petals of flowers, taken in conjunction 
 with the fruit. In became rapidly popular by 
 its facility and elegance, although im])erfec- 
 tions were early })ointed out in it by our Englisli 
 naturalist Ray, which objections were replied 
 :o by Tournefort in a Latin epistle, addressed 
 to Sherard. In 1696 he was admitted a doctor 
 of tlie faculty of Paris ; and being now a regu- 
 lar member of the medical bodv, he composed 
 a work on the history of plants in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Paris, with their medicinal proper- 
 ties. 'J'his work, the first edition of which 
 appeared in 1698, was reprinted by Jussieu 
 iu 1725, in 2 vols. ; and an English translation 
 was given by professor Martyn in 1732. In 
 1700 he gave a Latin version of his " Ele- 
 ments of Botany," with many valuable addi- 
 tions, and a learned preface, which he pub- 
 lished under the title of " Institutiones I\ei 
 Herbariae," 3 vols. 4to. In the same year he 
 received an order from the king to travel into 
 the Levant, for the })urpose of examining the 
 plants mentioned by writers of antiquity, and 
 accordingly, accompanied by Gundelsheimen, 
 an able German physician, and by a skil- 
 ful draughtsman, he visited Greece and its 
 islands, and Asia Minor as far as the fron- 
 tiers of Persia. He returned to France by 
 way of Smyrna in 1702 ; and the first botani- 
 cal fruits of his travels appeared the following 
 year, in a supplement to his Elements of Ijo- 
 tany. He now purposed to quietly follow the 
 practice of physic at Paris ; but his various 
 avocations at the royal gardens and roval col- 
 lege, in which last he held the station of a me- 
 dical professor, together with the business of 
 preparing his travels for the press, began to 
 affect his health ; and a violent blow whicii he 
 received uj)on the chest from the axletree of a 
 passing carriage, after some months of decline, 
 terminated his life in December 1708. He left 
 his cabinet of curiosities to the king for public 
 nse, and his botanical books to the abbe Big- 
 non. The first volume of his travels was 
 printed at the Louvre before his death, and 
 the second being completed from his IMSS. 
 both were published in 1717, with the title of 
 " llelation d un Voyage du Levant, fait par 
 ordre du Tvoi, &c." 2 vols. -Ito. Of this 
 work, which stands high among books of the 
 class, there have been several editions, and it 
 has also been translated into English and 
 Dutch, l^r Banier published from the papers 
 of Tournefort a " Trait6 de IMatiere i\ledi- 
 cale," 2 vols. 12mo, \7 \7 .—Ilalleri Biht. Hot. 
 et Med. — l^ife prefixed ti> Vouoge. ' 
 
 Ton UN ON (Charles Thomas Maii.lard 
 de) a cardinal, was born at Turin in 1668, of 
 an ancient Savoyard family. He was lirought 
 up at Rome, and having embraced the eccle- 
 siastical profession, he acquired so much repu- 
 ation, that pope Clement XI consecrated him 
 
 low 
 
 ; bishop of Antioch, and afterwards sent him as 
 , apostolic legate to China, to decide the differ 
 ences between the missionaries iu that empire 
 ! respecting tlie toleration of the Chinese cere- 
 monies among the Christian converts. He ar- 
 rived in China in 170.5, and his first measure 
 at Nankin was to issue a mandate to forbid 
 the fixing up of tablets in churches, inscribed 
 "Adore Heaven," (orTien), as also the honours 
 paid by the Chinese to Confucius, to their ])a- 
 rents, and to the planets. Proceeding to Pe- 
 kin, he was at first well received by the em- 
 peror, but his apostolic vicar having impru- 
 dently declared that the Chinese rites were 
 incompatible with the Christian reliirion, he 
 was sent back to IMacao, and imprisoned in the 
 Jesuits' house, where in 1707 he received a 
 cardinal's hat from the pope, who also con- 
 firmed his decision against the api)eal of the 
 Jesuits. He died in confinement at i\Iacao in 
 1710. He acted with good intentions, but 
 much too precipitately for China, from which 
 those disputes soon after produced the expul- 
 sion of Christianity. — Dupin, Moreri. 
 
 TOLRUETTE (Marc Antonixe Louia 
 CLAUFTde la) a naturalist, was born at Lyons 
 in 1729. He studied first in the Jesuits' se- 
 minary in his native city, and then ])roceeded 
 to the university of Paris. On his return home 
 he became a magistrate, which office he filled 
 with much reputation, and devoted his leisure 
 iiours to science, especially natural history. He 
 formed an extensive collection of insects, and 
 also a curious botanical park and garden. His 
 death took place in 1793. He is author of 
 " Elementary Demonstratiois of Botany," 2 
 vols. 8vo ; " Journey to Mount Pilate," 8vo ; 
 " Chloris Lugdunensis," 8vo ; " Conjectures 
 on the Origin of Belemnites ;" " Memoirs of 
 Singular A'egetables ;" "Memoir upon Hel- 
 minthocorton, or Corsican I\Ioss." — Xouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 TOUSSAINT. See L'Ouvkrture. 
 TOWERS (Joseph) a jiolitical and miscel- 
 laneous writer, was born IMarch 31, 1737, in 
 Southwark, where his father was a dealer in 
 second- l.'and books. He appears to have re- 
 ceived no regular education ; and at the age of 
 seventeen was bound apprentice to a printer at 
 Sherboine in Dorsetshire. Here in his leisure 
 hours he applied himself to the study of Greek 
 and Latin, and perused the best books in every 
 branch of learning. In 1763 he commenced 
 author, by publishing " A Review of the Ge- 
 nuine Doctrines of Christianity," in whi:h he 
 siiites his reason for quitting Calvinism, in 
 which he had been educated. He soon after 
 left Sherborne and came to London, where he 
 supported himself by working as a journeyman 
 printer. He was soon after employed by his 
 late master in the compilation entitled " Bri- 
 tish Biograi)hy," the first volume cf which 
 aj)peared in 1766; and he composed seven 
 of the latter ten volumes of which the work 
 consists. Having acquired some property by 
 ma- lage, he opened a bookseller's shop in 
 For -street, but with no great success. In 
 1774 he resigned his business, and became a 
 preacher among tlie dissenters, and was pas- 
 
TOW 
 
 tcr of a congregation at Ili^hgate ; •wOilch of- 
 fice he. gave u]) for llial of forenoon preacher 
 at Newington-gretn, wliert- l)r I Vice preached 
 in the afternoon. Whi ii i)r Kippis was eni- 
 ployed by tlie booksf Hers on a new edition of 
 tlio lUoiirajiliia Briiannica, he adopted .Mr 
 Towers as his assistant ; and he accordingly 
 composed several lives, and necessarily, now 
 and then, under the l)i:>s of his own poiiucal 
 and religious opinions. In 1779 he received 
 the degree of LLl). from the university of 
 Kdinburgh, and continued occasionally to com- 
 ni'inicate his opinion on jiublic atl'aiis in pam- 
 phlets, of which, together with various mis 
 cellaneous tracts, he published by subscription, 
 in 1796, a collection in 3 vols. 8vo ; of tb^se 
 the principal are " A Vindication of the Poli- 
 tical opinions of Mr Locke ;" " A Letter to 
 l)r Samuel Johnson ;" " Observations on jMr 
 Hume's History of England ," " Observations 
 on the Rights and Duties of Juries ;" '• An 
 Examination of the Charges brought asrainst 
 Lord \V, Russel and Algernon Sidney;" 
 " Remarks on the Conduct, Principles and 
 Publications of the Crown and Anchor Asso- 
 ciation ;" " An Essay on the Life of Dr Sa- 
 r-ael Johnson," ^cc. Sec. He died May 20, 
 l79o, in his sixty-tliird year. Dr Towers, 
 whose life points out how much may be done 
 bv industry and a})plication to remedy original 
 ■want of education, appears in Iiis religious 
 opinions to have been a modified Arian. — 
 Fun. Sermon hii Lindsau. Gent. Mag. 
 
 TOWGOOi) (Matthew) a Protestant dis- 
 senting divine of eminence, was born a^. Ax- 
 minster in Devonshire, December 6, 1750, 
 where his father was a physician. He received 
 liis education at Taunton, and becoming a mi- 
 nister, was first pastor to a congregation of 
 dissenters at ]\Ioretonbampstead, whence he 
 removed to Crediton, both in Devonsliire. His 
 first publication was a pious tract upon " Re- 
 covery from Sickness," wbicli was followed by 
 a pamphlet entitled " High-fiown Episcopal 
 and Priestly Claims freely Examined," and 
 " Tlie Diss'enter's Apology." In 1741 he 
 published a pampblet in favour of a Spanish 
 war, and in 1754 another against tlie legiti- 
 mate birth of the pretender ; his best work 
 liowever is " The Dissenting Gentleman's 
 Answer to Mr White," the person addressed 
 being a clergyman of the diocese of Norwich, 
 who had written against dissent with consi- 
 derable ability. Towgood's letters to him aj)- 
 peared separately from 1746 to 1748, and col- 
 lectively have jiassed through six editions. In 
 1748 he published a pamphlet in examination 
 of the character of Charles I, and in 1750 
 composed several tracts in favour of infant 
 baptism. In 1761 he became the head of 
 an academy at Exeter for the education of 
 dissenting ministers. The infirmities of age 
 obliged Inm to resign thepuljiit in 1784, but lie 
 lived to the advanced age of ninety-two, his 
 death taking place at Exeter, January 31, 
 1792. — Life bu Manjiiug. 
 
 TOWN LEY (CriAinrs) a gentleman of 
 large and independent fortune, which he em- 
 ployed in tlie collection of every thing which 
 
 T () W 
 
 couU. illustrate the ages of aiitirpiitv. He w«t 
 descended of an ancient Roman (.alholic fa- 
 mily, for many geiK-ratioiiH resident at rownlev- 
 hall, in Lancashire, wliere he was born m 
 17;}7. The religious opinions of hin family 
 preventing his enjoying the benefit of a uni- 
 versity educa; ion in r.n/land, he was sent to 
 the continent, and placed under the care of 
 the learned John lubervilly Nee<l!i;ini. From 
 this very able instructor he imbibed a fine 
 classical taste, wlii( h the aflluence to which In* 
 was born permitted him to indulge, an i a re- 
 sidence of some continuance at llome enaljled 
 him to form a noble nmseum, replete with va- 
 luable manuscripts, specimens of the finest 
 .sculpture, medals, vases, urns, and other re- 
 lics of ancient art. These he transj)orted 
 eventually to England, where they fillt-d two 
 large adjoining houses purchased by him for 
 that purpose in Park-street, \\ estminster. His 
 acknowledged taste and libeiality procured 
 his election as a fellow of tlie Royal and An- 
 tiquarian Societies, as well as a trustee of the 
 British museum, to which noble institution he 
 bequeathed contingently the whole of his col- 
 lection of antiquities, and his heirs not com- 
 jilying with the alternative mentioned in his 
 testament, it has accordingly now become the 
 ]iroperty of the nation A work has been 
 published in two quarto volumes by I\I. D'An- 
 carville, a French antiquary, illustrative of 
 part of it ; and one of the rare manuscripts it 
 contains was used in a late edition of the Iliad. 
 His death took ]»lace January 3, 1805. — John 
 TowNLEY, uncle to the above, born in 1697, 
 resided almost whollv in France, where he 
 held a commission in the army, and was a 
 chevalier of St Louis. He is known as the 
 author of an admirable French translation of 
 Hudibras, and he died in 1782. — Whitalier's 
 Hist, of WhuUey. 
 
 TOWNLEY (James) a clergyman of the 
 church of England, who is siqiposed to have 
 been the author of a poj)ular farce. He was 
 a native of London, and studied at St John's 
 college, Oxford, where he proceeded iM.\. in 
 1738. Having been ordained, he was ap- 
 jiointed morning preacher at Lincoln'sinn, 
 afterwards lecturer of St Dunstan's in the East, 
 and at length he obtaine<l the rectory of St 
 Rennet, Gracechurch-street. Hewas likewise 
 chosen master of Merchant Tailors' school, in 
 which he had been educated. He died in 
 1778. The amusing drama, " High Life be- 
 low Stairs," is said to have been his pro- 
 duction, and he wrote some other light pieces, 
 and assisted Hogarth in his Analysis of Beauty. 
 — Biog. Dramat. 
 
 TO'WXSEND (JosFPti") an Engli.-h physi- 
 cian, f.-llow of Caius college, Caml>ndge, and 
 a graduate of the university of F>dinburgli, 
 where he studied medicine under Culien ; till 
 becoming a convert to the o]iiiiions of Calvin, 
 his disposition, naturally enthusiastic, was so 
 heated that he renounced meilicine, nnd be- 
 came a popular preacher in the methodist con- 
 nexion. Having taken holy orders he was pre- 
 sented to the living of Pewsey, Wilts, but fur 
 some time resided principally at Bath where 
 
T 11 A 
 
 he ofTiciateil as domestic chaplain to the coun- 
 tess of Huntingdon. Besides some miscella- 
 neous sermons, and a treatise on the accuracy of 
 the Mosaic history, in two quarto vols, he pub- 
 lished an account of his travels in tl;e Penin- 
 sula, in 3 vols. ; a tract on the Poor Laws, 
 and two works on medical subjects, entitled 
 " The Physician's Vade-I\Iecum," and " A 
 Guide to Health." His death took place at 
 Pewsev in 1816. — Gent. I^lag. 
 
 TOVVNSON, DD. (Thomas) arclideacon 
 of Ku'hmond, Yorksliire, a distinguislied 
 clergyman of the established church. He was 
 a native of the county of Kssex, born in 1715, 
 and educated at Christchurch, Oxford, till he 
 obtained a demyship at Magdalen college in 
 the same university, and in due course became 
 fellow. Having attracted the notice of the late 
 Beilby Porteus, bishop of Chester and after- 
 wards of London, he obtained, through the 
 influence of that prelate, some valuable church 
 jneferraent, of which the livings of Hatfield 
 Peveril, Blithfield, and Malpas, constituted a 
 part. The works of this eminent divine con- 
 sist of a series of sermons on the Gospels, with 
 some other devotional tracts of great merit, and 
 a posthumous treatise on evangelical history, 
 printed with a biographical sketch of his life 
 jirefixed. His death took place in 1792. — 
 Li/e bu Chtirton. 
 
 "TRADESCANT (John) the name of two, 
 or according to the epitaph on their tomb, 
 which has been recently restored in Lambeth 
 churchyard, 
 
 " Beneath this stone 
 
 Lie JohnTradescant, grandsire, father, son," 
 of three eminent gardeners, travellers, and an- 
 ti(]uaries, of whom the two last are by far the 
 most celebrated. — The second John Traui s- 
 CANT is sup[)0sed to have been born in the 
 Netherlands, and to have arrived in England, 
 whither it would seem he was accompanied 
 by liis father, in the early part of the rei^^n 
 of James I, after having travelled over most 
 of the European continent and part of the 
 East. He obtained the appointment of gar- 
 dener to king Charles I, in which situation he 
 was assisted by his son. The Tradescants are 
 celebrated as being the first collectors of rari- 
 ties in this country, which they deposited 
 during their lives in a large house situate in 
 the parish of Lambeth. This became a popu- 
 lar place of fashionable resort from the curiosi- 
 ties it contained, and obtained the appellation 
 of Tradescant's ark. A catalogue of its con- 
 tents, which have .'•ince formed the nucleus of 
 the Ashmolean museum at Oxford, was printed 
 by tlie younger of the three in 16."i(), under 
 the title of " Museum Tradescanlianum," with 
 portraits of himself and his father, whom he 
 survived about ten years, dying in 166'2. — 
 J'nlleiieij's Sketches of Bot. 
 
 'illAElTA or TR A J ETTA (Tomaso) a 
 Keapolitan musician and composer of the last 
 century, one of the most celebrated {)upils of 
 the famous Durante. He was born in 1738, 
 and was educated at the conservatorio of La 
 Pi(^ta, which he had scarcely quitted two years, 
 when the extra'-rdiuary success of an opera, | 
 
 T II A 
 
 which he brought out at the theatre of St 
 Carlos, entitled " Farnace," raised him at 
 once to the first rank in his profession, and 
 procured him an immediate engagement to 
 compose six different operas for as many thea- 
 tres. On the death of the infant don Philip, 
 he went to Venice, and was employed for a 
 short time in superintending the conservatory 
 of the Ospedaletto, but soon quitted this situa- 
 tion, on receiving an invitation from (Catherine 
 II to succeed Galui>pi as her principal cliapel- 
 master at St Petersburg. After remaining seven 
 years in Russia he came to England, where 
 Sacchini was then in the zenith of his reputa- 
 tion ; and in consequence not succeeding so 
 well as he had anticipated, Trajetta retired to 
 his native country, where he died about the 
 year 1779. J)r Burney speaks highly of the 
 talents of tliis composer, whose works are but 
 little known in this country. '1 bey consist 
 principally of twenty operas, of which his " Ip- 
 polito ed Aricia," was perhaps the most popu- 
 lar. — Burneii's Ilisfory of Mks. 
 
 TRAILL (Robert) a presbyterian divine, 
 of an ancient Scottish family, was born at Ely, 
 in the county of Fife, in 1642. He was edu- 
 cated at Edinburgh, but afterwards went to 
 Holland, whence he returned in the reign of 
 Charles II, and suffered imprisonment under 
 the conventicle act. On gaining his liberty, ho 
 removed to London, and became niinister to a 
 couiireoation of dissenters. He died in 1716. 
 He was a rigid Calvmist, and his berraons are 
 extremely popular among persons of that per- 
 suasion. They were published so lately as 
 1811 in 4 vols. Bvo, with the life of the author 
 prefixed. — Dr. James Traill, grandson of 
 the preceding, conformed to the establishment, 
 and became bishop of Down and Connor, iu 
 Ireland. — Life pvpfixed to Sei-nwus. 
 
 TRAJAN M.'ULPIUS TRAJANUS, a 
 Roman emperor, born in Italica, in the Spanish 
 province of BiEtica, was the son of Trajanus, 
 a distinajuished Roman commander under 
 Vespasian. He accompanied his father in a 
 campaign against the Parthians, and also 
 served on the Rhine, where he acquired so 
 high a character, that wlien the excellent and 
 ai^ed Nerva came to the throne, he saw no one 
 so fit to succeed him as Trajan. He accord- 
 ingly adopted and raised him to the rank of 
 Ca-sar, in 97, being then in his forty-second, 
 or according to others, in his forty-fifth year, 
 and of a most dignified ajtpearance and com- 
 manding aspect. His elevation immediately 
 curbed the insolence of the pretorian guards ; 
 and Nerva dying a few months after, he peace- 
 ably sncceed.'d to the throne. He was at that 
 time in Germany, where he remained for more 
 than a year to settle a peace with the German 
 states, and in 99 set out witli a numerous 
 escort to Rome. After a liberal largess to the 
 soldiers and people, he interested himself in 
 promoting measures for duly supplying the 
 capital with corn ; in which he was eminently 
 successful. He then proceeded to punish and 
 banish the pernicious tribe of delatores or in- 
 formers, and to reduce some of the most odious 
 of the taxes ; and showed the most praisn- 
 
1 11 A 
 
 i^oiihy eolicimdft for the occupation of tlie 1 
 most iinpoitaiit posts by nun of i.iKiit ami jn- 
 tegrity. Like Augustus, he cultivated per- 
 sonal friendsliips, and visited his intimates at 
 their liouses with entire confulence, and as a 
 private person. His palace was not only open 
 to his friends, but to all who chose to enter it, 
 and Ids audiences were free and unrestrained 
 to all the citizens. At his table were always 
 some of the principal and most respectable 
 of the Romans, who indulg-nl in all the ease 
 and pleasantry of mixed conversation. Al- 
 though his early military experience had })re- 
 vented him acquiring the accomplishments of 
 learning, he was sensible of its importance, 
 and founded Hbraries ; and under his patron- 
 age the studies were revived which had suf- 
 fered from the persecution of Domitian. All 
 these proofs of the possession of virtues, cal- 
 culated to make the Romans happy, procured 
 for him, by the unanimous voice of the senate, 
 the title of Optimus, whic4i although con- 
 ferred on him in the early part of his reign, 
 lie never lost. In the third year of his reign 
 he accepted of a third consulship ; and it was 
 during his possession of this magistracy, that 
 the celebrated panegyric upon him was pro- 
 nounced by Pliny, which is still extant. In 
 the following year a war broke out with De- 
 cebalus, king of the Dacians, whom, after a 
 campaign attended with some severe service, 
 he subdued, and made a vassal of the em- 
 pire. He then returned to Rome, and enjoyed 
 the honours of a triumph, with the name of 
 Dacicus. The two following years were passed 
 by Trajan at Rome ; and in the last of them, 
 103, Pliny went as governor of Pontus and I 
 ])ithynia, which circumstance has afforded a \ 
 series of official letters between him and Tra- 
 jan, which, beyond any rhetorical panegyric, 
 atlbrd proof of the liberal spirit of the govern- 
 ment. Among these are the famous epistles 
 respecting the Christians, whom he directs 
 J^Iiny not to look out for, but to purdsh if 
 brought before him : and on no account to 
 
 ^ • 1 
 
 listen to anonymous charges. This conduct, 
 compared with the deportment of op])osing 
 sects of Christians to each other for several 
 centuries, may be deemed highly humane and 
 considerate. In 104 Decebalus renewed the war 
 with the Romans, which immediately called 
 out the warlike emjjeror, who, with a view to 
 form a road for his troops, constructed a bridge 
 over the Danube, whicli was deemed one of 
 the greatest works of antiquity. He then 
 marched into Dacia, and reduced the capital 
 of Decebalus, who in despair killed himself, 
 and Dacia became a Roman province. His 
 innate passion for war, the only fault which 
 can be charged on Trajan as a sovereign, ex- 
 hibits him for the remainder of his reign 
 rather as a victorious commander, engaged in 
 distant expeditions for the enlargement of the 
 empire, than as a sovereign ruler. The dis- 
 posal of the crown of Armenia led, in the first 
 instance, to a contest with Chosroes the Par- 
 thian, of which warfare the reduction of Ar- 
 menia to a Roman province was tiie result. 
 The succeeding eastern campaigns of Ircijan, 
 
 T n A 
 
 and renewal of the war with Parthia, cannot 
 be detailed in Kuinman*-s of this nature ; but it 
 may be remarkeii in proceeding, that the year 
 111 is given as that of his dedicating the mag- 
 nificent Forum which he built in Rome, and 
 erecting tlie column sculptured with his ex- 
 ploits, which fttill remains under his name. In 
 a filial ( amiiaign in the l-'ast, after with ^.'reat 
 |)om|i giving a king to the I'arthians, he laid 
 siege to Aira, the capital of an Arabian tribe, 
 which he was obliged to raise, and to wirh- 
 draw to Syria. In the following year, 117, 
 when he j)roposed returning into Mesoj)o- 
 tamia, he was attacked by a |)ar.dytic disorder, 
 attended by a dropsy, which induced him to 
 repair to Italy, leaving the army under the 
 command of Adrian. He had proceeded no 
 farther than Seliuus, in Cilicia, when he had 
 another seizure, from which he did not re- 
 cover. The empress Plotina took advantage 
 of his last moments to secure the adoption of 
 Adrian for his successor, not without some 
 suspicion of a gross deception. Trajan died 
 in his sixty-fourth year, after a reign of nearly 
 twenty years. As a sovereign the only blemish 
 in his character was his great passion for war, 
 the extension of empire produced by which — 
 the greatest that ever acknowledged Roman 
 Bway — scarcely lasted longer than his own life- 
 time. In his private character lie lay under 
 the imputation of being addicted to sensual in- 
 dulgences, of which a passion for wine was by 
 far the least disgraceful. Ha])pily these feel- 
 ings of the man did not affect his good qua- 
 lities as a ruler, and at the distance of two 
 hundred and fifty years from his death, the 
 senators, in their acclamations on the accession 
 of a nejv emperor, were accustomed to wish 
 that he might be more fortunate than Augustus 
 and better than Trajan. — Ihiiv. Hist. Creiier. 
 
 TRALLES(BAi,THASAnLEwis)thenameof 
 a highly intelligent native of Switzerland, emi- 
 nent for his skill in the mathematics, of which 
 science he was professor, first at Berne and 
 afterwards at Berlin. He commenced, in con- 
 cert with his friend Hassler, the astronomer, a 
 trigonometrical survey of his native country ; 
 the completion of his undertaking was however 
 prevented by the breaking out of the French 
 Revolution. Afterwards, when the French go- 
 vernment invited other nations to assist iu 
 forming one standard of weights and mea- 
 sures, calculated for universal adoption, M, 
 Tralles on the part of the Swiss, and M. Van 
 Swinden on that of the Dutch, were selected 
 to draw up the reports of the committee. 
 On the establishment of a university at 
 Berlin in IBl.i, Tralles was chosen profes- 
 sor of mathematics and astronomy, in which 
 situation he continued until his death, which 
 took place the 19th November, IB'-'v?, at the 
 age of sixty, in I'ngland, to which country he 
 liad come for the purpose of selecting and 
 purchasing scientific instruments for the Rus- 
 sian government. Several able papers of his 
 composition are to be found among the me- 
 moirs of the Berlin academy. — Ann. Bio<r. 
 
 TR.\LLIANUS. See Alexandeh Trai- 
 
 LTIMUS- 
 
T R A 
 
 TRAPEZUNTllJS. See George of The- 
 
 EISOND. 
 
 TRAPF, DD. (Joseph) an Englisli poet, 
 .siecond son to a clergyman of the same name, 
 incumbent of tlie living of Cherington in Glou- 
 cestershire, where he was born in 1679, and 
 was educated by his fatliertill he had attained 
 a sufiicient degree of classical learning to pre- 
 l)are him for Oxford. Mere he obtained a scho- 
 larship, and in due course a fellowship at 
 Wadhatn college, in his twenty- fifth year. 
 Four years afier he was urianimously elected 
 professor on the first institution of that appoint- 
 ment by JJr Henry Birkhead of All Souls. He 
 was also cliaplain to the lord Ijolingbroke, fa- 
 ther of the celebrated writer who subsequently 
 hore that title ; and in 1711 went to Dublin 
 in a similar capacity with sir C. Phipps, the 
 Irish chancellor. Being strongly attached to 
 high church principles, wiiich he never at- 
 tempted to concf^al, it was not likely that opi- 
 nions so adverse to tlio^^e of the party then in 
 power would procure him that advancement 
 in the church which his blameless manners and 
 unquestioned learning might otherwise have 
 placed within his reach , he succeeded how- 
 ever in obtaining some small pieces of prefer- 
 ment, such as the living of J)antsey, Wilts, 
 which he exchanged for that of the united pa- 
 rishes of Christchurch and St Leonard in the 
 city of London, to which was added in l7o3 
 the rectory of Harlington, Middlesex, Dr 
 Trapp in the mean time was an active and 
 an upright minister, and distinguished him- 
 self much Dy his eloquence in the pulpit, 
 especially at St Martin's-in-the- Fields, of 
 which parish he held the evening lecture- 
 ship. His mode of delivery was h/We'.er cen- 
 sured by some, as one better adapted for a 
 theatre than a church. In his capacity of pro- 
 fessor he published las " Pra}lectiones Poe- 
 ticcB," in three vols. ; a work which proves that 
 it is much easier to lay down regulauous for 
 the composition of good poetry than to become 
 a good poet, inasmuch as in his subsequent 
 metrical attem])ts he failed to embody his own 
 conceptions of the character. Of this a strong 
 instance is afforded by a translation which he | 
 produced of Virgil's .-Eneid into blank verse, 
 the work by which his name is now principally 
 known, unfortunately perhaps, as it is clearly 
 inferior to some other pieces of his composi- 
 tion, and though a closer transcript of the ori- 
 ginal, is utterly destitute of the fire which 
 glows in the animated version of Dryden. 'J'he 
 opinion of a witty contemporary wuh regard to 
 this poem is perpetuated in a well-known 
 couplet, written on the first ajipearance of 
 Glover's Lfonidas : — 
 
 " Equal to Virgil ? It may perhaps, 
 But tlien, by heaven, 'tis I)r Trapp's." 
 He was also the author of a tragedy called 
 '• Abramule, or Love and Empire ;." some mis- 
 cellaneous Poems in I'-iiglish and Latin, and a 
 Latin translation of the Paradise Lost of .Milton, 
 which met with but inditFerent success. His 
 other writings are principally on devotional 
 eubjects, and consist of a polemical treatise 
 euuiled " i'he Church of Eniiiaud defended 
 
 T 1? E 
 
 against the false lieas-iMin^ of the Church of 
 Rome ;" " A Preservative against unsettled 
 Xotioiis in Religion ;" some Annotations ou 
 the four Gospels, and a variety of Sermons. 
 His death took place at Hatliugtou in the No- 
 vember of 1747. — Brit. Biiivr. 
 
 TRAVERS (John) an eminent English 
 musician amd composer of the earlier part of 
 the last century. Dt Godolphin, dean of St 
 Paul's and provostof Eton, having marked his 
 musical talent while a boy in the choir at 
 Windsor, placed him at his own expense under 
 the tuition of the celebrated Dr Greene, with 
 whom and Pepusch he completed his educa- 
 tion. Travers succeeded Jonathan Martin in 
 1737 as organist at the chapel royal, a situa- 
 tion which he retained till his death in 1758. 
 riiere are several delightful pieces of t^acred 
 music composed by him to be found in the col- 
 lections of most of our cathedrals ; but he is 
 perhaps best known to the world in general by 
 his celebrated Canzonets, eighteen in number, 
 the words of which are chieily taken from the 
 writings of Prior, and more especially by one 
 of them, the still popular air, " Haste, my 
 Nannette." He died in 1758. — Burney's 
 //i^^ of Mu3. 
 
 TRAVIS (George) a divine of the church 
 of England, was born at Roy ton in Lanca- 
 shire, and educated at the free-school of Man- 
 chester, whence he was removed to St Johns 
 CO- lege, Oxford, where he took his degree in 
 arts. On entering into orders he obtained the 
 vicarage of Easlham and the rectory of Hend- 
 ley in Cheshire. He afterwards obtained a 
 prebend in the cathedral of Chester, and was 
 made archdeacon of that county. He is re- 
 corded here for the ardour with which he pur- 
 sued a controversy with Mr Gibbon on the au- 
 thenticity of the celebrated text, 1 John v. 7, 
 a dispute which was subsequently set entirely 
 at rest by professor Poison and bishop Marsh. 
 He died in 1797. — Gent. Nag, 
 
 TREBELLT US POLLTO, a ]-atin historian, 
 who flourished about the year 298. Vossius 
 states that he wrote the lives of the Roman 
 emperors, from the two Philips to Claudius ; 
 but there remains only the close of the life 
 of the elder Valerian, and that of his son, 
 those of the two Gallieni, of the usurpers 
 called the thirty tyrants, and of Claudius. 
 As a historian his judgment is not superior 
 to the others who compose the " Historice 
 Augustne Scriptores," but his style is some- 
 what superior, and he is exact as to dates. — 
 Vossii Hist. Lat. 
 
 TREBY (sir George) an able judge and 
 lawyer, was born at Pivnq)ton, in Devonshire, 
 in lolt; and was admitted a commouf r of 
 Kxeter college, Oxford, in 1(J6(^. On quitting 
 the university, he went to the Inner Temple, 
 and being admitted to the bar, obtained consi- 
 derable practice. In 1678 and 1679 he sat 
 in parliament for his native place, and was ap- 
 pointed chairman of the committee of secrecy 
 tor the investigation of the popish plot, and 
 one of the managers in tiie impeachment of 
 lord Stafford. \\ hen Jefferies was dismissed 
 from the rccordership of London, JMr Treby 
 
THE 
 
 wr.s appointed to succeed hiin ; on wliicii oc- 
 cabion lit; received the lu)nour ot kiii^liiliooil ; 
 but when the quo warranto was issued, and 
 the city charter, for which lie plvaded along 
 with Pc^llexfen, was forhited, he lost the re- 
 cordersliip ; which was, however, restored to 
 him at the Revolution. He rapidly ran thtough 
 the oflicea of solicitor and attorney -general : 
 and in 1692 was piouKUcd lo the chief justice- 
 sliip of the Common Pleas. He died in 
 March 1701-2, aged fifty-six. Sir Geori;e 
 'J'rehy pul<lished a collection of jiapers on the 
 Popish I'lot ; and Ins Pleadings and Argu- 
 ments in regard of the quo warranto, are pah- 
 lished with those of Finch, Sawyer, and l*ol- 
 iexfen, London, 169t), 6:c. — Burnett's Own 
 Times. 
 
 TREMDLEY (Abraham), an eminent 
 naturalist, was born at Geneva in 1710, and 
 was intended by his father for the chuich, for 
 which reason he was sent to pursue his studies 
 in Holland. He there became tutor to the 
 children of M. Bentinck, and thence j)roceed- 
 ing to London, was engaged to instruct the 
 young duke of Richmond. He returned to 
 Geneva in 1737, wheie he settled, and de- 
 voted his leisure to certain branches of natural 
 history. His reputation as a naturalist was 
 first; promoted by his discoveries on the nature 
 of polypi ; which, although discovered by 
 Leuwe'nhoek, their wonderful properties were 
 not known until made public by M. Trembley 
 in his " Memoires sur les Polypes," Leyden, 
 1744. He also wrote several communications 
 on the subje.n to tiie Royal Society, of which 
 he was elected a member in 1743. He was 
 likewise the author of some useful books for 
 young persons, particularly " Listructions 
 d'un Pere, a ses En fans, sur la Nature et la Re- 
 ligion," 2 vols. 8vo ; " Instructions sur la Reli- 
 gion Naturelle," 3 vols. 8vo ; and " Recherches 
 surle Principe de laVertu etdu Bonheur," 8vo. 
 He died in 1784. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TREMELLIUS (Emmanuel) a converted 
 Jew of the sixteenth century, who became 
 much distinguished for his piety and learning. 
 He was a native of Ferrara in Italy, horn 
 about the year 1510, and was early instructetl 
 by his parents in all the arcana of Hebrew 
 learning ; but becoming a proselyte, first to the 
 Romish cliurch, and afterwards, through the 
 exertions of Peter Martyr, to the reformed re- 
 ligion, he travelled, in company with his in- 
 structor in the faith, through great part of 
 Italy, thence to Germany, and afterwards to 
 this country, where he settled fur a while at 
 Cambridge as professor of Hebrew, and lec- 
 tured to a numerous class of pupils. The 
 temporary predominance of the Roman Ca- 
 tholic party in England on the accession of 
 Mary to the throne, induced him once more 
 to retire to the continent, and to accept an in- 
 vitation made him from Heidelberg, to hold a 
 situation there, similar to the one he had va- 
 cated. From this place he removed to Sedan, 
 where he died in lo80. He translated the 
 Bible into Latin, with the assistance of .lu- 
 nius, which was first pubhshedin 1575. Seven 
 years after his decease his coadjutor reprinted 
 
 T K r 
 
 the work, with (-mendations and additionsi 
 not«8, whi(h version wan much approved by 
 tlie refoinieil cliun li. He was aL>o the autJKJf 
 of a Latin traiiiilation of the New Testaiiieut 
 from the Synac. — Melcliior Aiiain. 
 
 rilKNCIIAlU) (John) a political writer, 
 son of ft secretary of »t»te to king W illiam III, 
 who was born in \6b\>. He was eiiucated fn 
 tlu; leral profession ; bui being appointed com- 
 missioner of forfeited estates in Ireland, and 
 having by the death of an uncle ami by mar- 
 riage obtained a considerable fortune, he relin- 
 (juished the law for politics. In lo'Jli he com- 
 menced his literary career by publishing two 
 tracts against standing armies, which provoked 
 the animadversions of several other writers. 
 In November 1720 lie commenced, in con- 
 junction with Gordon, the translator of Tacitus, 
 a series of letters on public atl'airs, under the 
 signature of Cato, which appeared in the Lon- 
 don Journal, and afterwards in the British 
 Journal. In letters signed Diogenes, Tren- 
 chard warmly attacked the ecclesiastical esta- 
 blishment of the country ; and his principles 
 were animadverted on by the rev. John Jackson 
 and by ijr Clarke. I le s-at in the house of Com- 
 mons for some years as MP. for the borough 
 of 'I'aunton. His death took place December 
 17, 1723, in consetjuence of an ulcer in the 
 kidneys. Besides the works already men- 
 tioned, he was the author of " The Natural 
 History of Superstition," 1709 ; and several 
 pamphletson temporary topics. Gordon printed 
 collectively, in 4 vols. 8vo, " Cato's Letters, 
 or Essays on Civil and Religious Liberty and 
 other important subjects," of which a fourth 
 edition appeared in 1737. — Biog. Brit. vol. vi. 
 part 2. 
 
 TRENCK (Fp.edf.ric, baron von) a Prus- 
 sian officer, memorable for the persecutions 
 which he experienced, and for the courage and 
 address with which he contrived to extricate 
 himself from the power of his enemies. He 
 was born at Konigsbei-g, February 16, 1726, 
 and was the descendant of an ancient and il- 
 lustrious family. In his youth he displayed 
 an adventurous disposition, and while at the 
 colletre where he was educated he fouubt t^•o 
 duels. .At the age of sixteen he was admitted 
 to the court of the great Frederick, as a cadet 
 in the regiment of guards ; and he became a 
 great favourite with the king, who made him 
 iusaide-de camp. The war which subsetjuently 
 broke out between .Austria and I'russia, in 
 which Tienck greatly signalized himself, 
 raised liim to the highest degree of favour; 
 and he was rewarded with the order of merit. 
 An amorous intrigue, which he had tl\e im- 
 }>ru<ience to carry on with the princess .Vme- 
 lia, the younger sister of Frederick II, put k 
 period to his credit with the king, and in- 
 volved him in severe misfortunes. As lie [/er- 
 severed in maintaining iliis connexion, not- 
 withstanding repeated warnings from his royal 
 master, he was at length imprisoned in the 
 fortress of Glate. The pretext for his punish- 
 ment was a correspondence which he h::d car- 
 ried on with his cousin Francis von Frenck. 
 commander of the Pan Jours, in the strvice of 
 
T R E 
 
 Austria. Believing that he was destined to 
 continemeut for life, he resolved to attempt 
 an escape ; and with some difficulty he elVcct- 
 ed it, with the assistance of a lieutenant of the 
 garrison, named Scha>ll, who accompanied him 
 m his flij^ht. He took refuge at \'ienna, and 
 then went to Nuremberg, where his relation, 
 general Lieven, who was in the service of 
 Russia, persuaded him to go to Moscow, where 
 the empress Elizabeth then held her court, 
 lie was exceeiiinuly well received ; but his 
 disposition for intrigue led him to the commis- 
 sion of some imprudence, from the conse- 
 quence of which, however, he had the address 
 to extricate liimself ; after which he travelled 
 to Petersburgh, and having visited Sweden, 
 ])enmark, and Holland, he returned to Vienna, 
 to take possession of the property of his cou- 
 sin, mentioned above, who died October 4, 
 1749. He obtained, after engaging in tedious 
 law-suits, only a part of the immense riches 
 which had been bequeathed to him by Trenck 
 the Pandour ; and, dissatisfied with the treat- 
 ment he had received, he took a journey to 
 Italy. On his return he was appointed a 
 captain of Austrian cuirassiers, and joining his 
 regimentin Hungary, hecontributed materially 
 to its improvement in discipline. The de?th 
 of his mother taking place in 17.58, he went 
 to Dantzic, to arrange with his brotliers and 
 sisters the disposition of her jjroperty, w)\en 
 he was arrested at the request of the Prussian 
 resident, and conducted to the fortress of Mag- 
 deburg, wliere he remained in close and ri 
 gorous confinement till 1763. His involun- 
 tary seclusion was devoted to ineffectual pro- 
 jects for effecting his escape, to study, and tr 
 writing verses. Being at length set at liberty, 
 jirobably through the interference of the prin- 
 cess Amelia (who had never censed to take a 
 lively interest in his fate, and had liberally 
 sa])plied him with money), he went to Vienna, 
 and afterwards to Aix-la- Chapelle, where he 
 fixed his residence ; and in 1765 he married 
 the daughter of a burgomaster of that city. 
 Literature, politics, and commerce as a wine- 
 merchant, then alternately engaged his at- 
 tention. He wrote a piece entitled " The 
 Macedonian Hero," the professed design of 
 which was to unmask the character of Fre- 
 derick II ; and he edited aweekly paper called 
 " The Friend of Men." In 1772 he com- 
 menced a gazette at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he 
 conducted for some time with considerable 
 success. From 1774 to 1777 he travelled 
 through various parts of France and England, 
 and in the former country he became ac- 
 quainted with Dr Franklin and with the war- 
 minister, St Germain, both of whom ])ersuad.'d 
 liirn to go to America, but his aflVction for his 
 wife and children prevented him from quitting 
 Europe. His wine trade failing, he returned 
 to Germany, and was employed in various po- 
 litical missions. At Vienna he received new 
 favours from the empress Maria Theresa, who 
 oestowed a pension on the baroness Trenck, 
 which however she lost on the death of that 
 princess, for whom Trenck composed a funeral 
 oration and ode. He then retired to his castle 
 
 THE 
 
 I of Zwerback, in Hungary, where for six years 
 ' he devoted himself to agricultural pursuits. 
 He also published by subscription various 
 I works in prose and verse, including the his- 
 ; tory of his own life. After an exile of forty- 
 : two yearf he was permitted to revisit his na- 
 j tive country in 1787, when he was kindly 
 I received by the successor of the great Fre- 
 I derick ; and he hud an interview with the 
 princess, to whose favour he had owed so 
 many of his misfortunes. She listened with 
 interest to the details of her adventures, and 
 assured them that she would extend her pro- 
 tection to his children ; but she survived this 
 meeting only a few days. The publication of 
 his memoirs excited great temporary attention 
 from the public, especially at Pans, where his 
 portrait and his figure in wax were generally 
 exhibited, and adramatic piece, entitled '* Ba- 
 ron de I'renck, ou le Prisonnier Prussien," 
 was performed at one of the minor theatres. 
 The revolutions which successively took place 
 in Belgium and France, found a ready par- 
 tizan in Trenck, who published some political 
 pamphlets, which involved him in disgrace 
 with the Austrian government, and he not 
 only lost a pension which he had hitherto re- 
 ceived, but also suffered a short imprisonment. 
 Towards the end of 1791 he revisited France, 
 hoping to gain the notice and favour of the 
 dominant party ; but he was deceived, and he 
 lived at Paris in a state of great penury. At 
 I length he was arrested on suspicion of being a 
 secret emissary of the king of Prussia, ai.d 
 was imprisoned at St Lazarus, 'i'here beiii"- 
 no evidence to support this charge, he was 
 accused of having taken part in a conspiracy 
 in the prison, for which he was guillotined 
 July 25, 1794. Besides the works already 
 mentioned, he wrote several others, includin'>- 
 memoirs of his cousin. Francis baron Trenck. 
 — Aikin's Gen. Biog. Biag. Nouv.des Contemp. 
 Bio(r. Univ. 
 
 TRtESHAM, RA. (IIf.nry^ a native of 
 Ireland, distinguished as a prodoient in the 
 sister arts of painting and poetry. A long 
 residence in Italy, and a correct and classical 
 taste, enabled him to draw together at a small 
 expense, a valuable collection of articles of 
 virtu, the disposal of which to the late earl of 
 Carlisle and other patrons of the arts, laid the 
 foundation of his future fortunes. As a poet 
 he is principally known by a clever produc- 
 tion, entitled " The Sea-sick Minstrel," while 
 his professional works procured him the ho- 
 nourable distinction of a seat among the royal 
 academicians. — His death took place in 1814. 
 Gent. Mag. 
 
 'IRESSAN (Louts ELizAnr.TH de la 
 Vi'itGNF, count de) was born in 1705, at 
 lUans, in the palace of his great uncle, the 
 bishop of that city. Educat(>d at the colleges 
 of La Fleche and Louis le Grand, he had the 
 honour at the age of thirteen to jjartake of 
 the studies and amusements of Louis X^^ lu 
 1723 he entered into the army, and he after- 
 wards travelled in Italy with recommendations 
 from M. de Bissy, the French ambassador at 
 Purma. Returning home, a war soon broke 
 
TRE 
 
 out between France and Austria, and he wiis 
 appointed aide-de-camp to tlie duke de 
 ^oailles, witli whom he was at the siege of 
 Kehl. He also distinguished himself in tlie 
 attack of tlie lines of i"..sliiii,rt.i)^ ami \^^, ^^as 
 wounded at the siege of riiilipsburg, in 1734. 
 After hostilities were concluded he was nomi- 
 nated brigadier and ensign of the Scots 
 guardes du corps. ^Var being rekindled in 
 1741, Tressan was employed in Flanders. In 
 1744 he obtained the rank of niarechal-de- 
 camp, and in that quality he served at the 
 sieges of Menin, Ipres, and Furnes. lie was 
 aide-de-camp to the king at the battle of Fon- 
 lenoi, where lie was wounded. In 1750 he 
 was appointed governor of Toulouse and French 
 Lorraine, and soon after made grand marshal 
 to the ex-king of Poland at Luneville, where 
 he remained till the death of that prince. In 
 1781 he was admitted into the French Aca- 
 demy ; and he took up his residence in Paris, 
 where he died October 31, 1783. He published 
 a translation of the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, 
 ■which-, together with extracts and translations 
 of many other Italian and old French ro- 
 mances, appeared in ** Les (Euvres Choisies 
 de Tressan," Paris, 1787—91, 12 vols. 8vo. 
 He also wrote " Reflexions sommaires sur 
 PEsprit;" " Discours, prcnonce a I'Acad. de 
 Nanci ;" " Eloges ;" &c.— The abbe de Tres- 
 SAN, younger son of this nobleman, was the 
 author of " Le Chevalier Robert le Brave," 
 a romance ; " La IMythologie comparee avec 
 ITIistoire," 8vo ; and a French translation 
 of Blair's Sermons, 5 vols, 8vo. He died in 
 1809, aged sixty. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TREW (Christopher James) a distin- 
 guished naturalist, was born at Lauft'en in Fran- 
 conia in 169,5. He studied medicine at IS'urem- 
 berg, where he became director of the academy 
 known by the name of Naturje Curiosornm. 
 In conjunction with some members of this so- 
 ciet}', he conducted a work entitled " Com- 
 mercium Litterarium ad Rei Medicas et 
 Scientia; naturalis Incrementun?. institutum." 
 He died in 17G9. His principal works are 
 " Icones posthumaj Gesnerianje ;" " Solecta- 
 rum Plantarum, Decades ;" " Librorum 13o- 
 tanicorurn ;" " PlantcC SelectJB quarum Ima- 
 gines, ad Exemplaria Naturalia, Londini in 
 Hortis Curiosoium nutrita ;" " Cedrorura Li- 
 bani Historia." He also published a much 
 improved edition of Blackwell's Herbal, in 
 English and German, with an appendix of 
 new plants, which is much esteemed. — IluUcrii 
 Bihl. Bot. Piilteiiei/'s Sketches. 
 
 TREW (William) an eminent professor of 
 elocution, bom at Havant near Chichester, on 
 the 1.5th of December 17.56. At an early age 
 he came to London, where his rising talents at- 
 tracted the notice of the celebrated I\Ir John 
 Walker, who received him as his puj)il ; and 
 on the retirement of that gentleman from his 
 professional pursuits, he introduced Mr Trew 
 to his connexions, as a tit person to succeed 
 him in business. JMr Trew was consequently 
 appointed master of elocution at Kensington 
 scliool, and held the same situation at Lough- 
 bc-rough-house school. North Brixton, from 
 Gen. Bigg. Vol. 111. 
 
 Till 
 
 1795i till his decoas<', a sf ries of thirty-two 
 years. During tlie lent season of 178.5, the 
 public were much amused by tlie recitations of 
 Air Thomas Sheri<lan and .^lr.lolln Hfniler»on 
 at Freemason 's- hall ; and on tin- dtath of the 
 latter, and when the Attic Kvening'» Knter- 
 taiiiment at this [dace wan ri-sunied the next 
 and 8ubse(juent seasons, Air Trew supplif J 
 Ilia place, and gave much sati.xfaction by hifi 
 public readings, both in London and at Oxford. 
 'I'o hi.s powerful delivery of the celebrated Olf 
 on the Passions at (Jliicliester, the Idrlli-placeoJ 
 its author, William Collins, may also be attri- 
 Duted the erection of a monument to tlie me- 
 mory of the poet in tlie cathedral church of 
 that city in 179.5. He had likewise the honour 
 of being selected as teacher of elocution to the 
 late princess Charlotte, whom he attend'-d for 
 a period of five years. Mr Trew died, deeply 
 lamented by his family and friends, on the 8th 
 of September, 1824, in the si.xty-eighth year 
 of his age. — Orig. Com. 
 
 TllIBONIAJSUS, an eminent Roman law- 
 yer in the reign of the emperor Justinian, 
 and the object of equal praise and censure, 
 was a native of Sede in Pamphylia ; and es- 
 teemed a man of extensive fearning. He 
 made the Roman civilians his more particular 
 study ; and his knowledge of law conducted 
 him to some, of the highest posts iu the em- 
 pire. From, the bar of the pr<-Etorian prefect 
 he was called to the office of quaestor ; but he 
 became so unpopular by his avarice, that his 
 removal formed one of the demands of the 
 people in the sedition of 532. He was how- 
 ever soon restored, and during twenty years 
 preserved the favour and countenance of Jus- 
 tinian. When the latter determined to form a 
 new code, from the works of former civilians, 
 Tribonianus was placed at the head of the 
 commission. In tlie performance of this task 
 he deserves great praise ; and the result, the 
 celebrated Digest and Pandects, would have 
 transmitted his name with great honour to 
 posterity, but for his moral defects. In the 
 administration of justice he is accused of hav- 
 ing been notoriously influencet' by bribes ; and 
 he was also cliarged wit}', atheism, which 
 (iihbon deems a calumny. The latter histo- 
 rian has drawn a parallel between Tribonianus 
 and Bacon. — Univ. Hi.-it. Gihh,>n. 
 
 TRIEWALD (Mautin) a Swedish mathe- 
 matician and engineer, born at Stockliolm in 
 1691. He went to England, where lie was 
 engaged to superintend the machinery at some 
 coal- works near Newcastle. He there met 
 with a steam-engine, with the construction of 
 wiiich he made himself acquainted, and by 
 liis imjirovements in it, and his invention of 
 various other machines, he made himself ad- 
 vantageously known. After liaving attended 
 the lectures of l)r Desagulicrs in London, he 
 returned to Sweden, whence he had been ab- 
 sent ten years. He erected a steam-engine, 
 and commenced lectures on natural philo- 
 sophy, illustrated by experiments. He also 
 enriched his native country ■with ma::y in- 
 ventions of utility in the mines and iron- 
 works : and he coutributed much to propagate 
 
TRI 
 
 a taste for the physical sciences. His services 
 were rewarded with several important em- 
 ployments, and he became a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, to whose 
 Memoirs he was a considerable contributor. 
 Much of his attention was devoted to the im- 
 provement of ihe diving-bell, relative to which 
 he wrote a treatise in Swedish, entitled " The 
 Art of Living under Water,"4io. 1741. lie died 
 suddenly in 1747. — AikinsG. Biog. Biog.Univ. 
 
 TRIMMER (Sauaii) a literary lady, whose 
 writings are principally adapted for the reli- 
 gious and moral instruction of the more juve- 
 nile members of society. Her maiden name 
 was Kirby, being the daughter of Joshua 
 Kirby, who held the situation of clerk of the 
 works at Kew-palace, and was himself a good 
 draughtsman and instructor to some of the then 
 younger branches of the royal family in the art 
 of designing. The subject of the present ar- 
 ticle was born about the commencement of the 
 year 1741 at Ipswich, and was early initiated 
 in classical as well as English literature. She 
 married her husband, Mr Trimmer, in 1762, 
 by whom she had twelve children, to whose 
 education she devoted herself with exemplary 
 assiduity. She was distinguished through 
 life as an active and benevolent instructress of 
 youth, for whose use she produced a variety of 
 ingenious tracts, several of which have been 
 adopted by the Society for promoting Christian 
 Knowledge. Her death took place in the win- 
 ter of 1810. — Chahnerss Biog. Diet. 
 
 TRISSINO (Giovanni Giorgio) one of 
 the fathers of Italian poetry. He was de- 
 scended of a noble family of Vicenza, where 
 he was born in 1478, and received a liberal 
 education at Milan and at Rome. The death of 
 }iis first wife, to whom he was married early, 
 drove him from the quiet of domestic privacy, 
 to which his disposition seems to have inclined 
 him, into active life. He acquired by his abi- 
 lities the favour of that great encourager of 
 talent, Leo X, under whose auspices he pro- 
 duced his first literary effort, a tragedy enti- 
 tled " Sophonisba." The successor of this 
 munificent jjontiff held him in no less esteem, 
 and availed himself of his services in several 
 iliplomatic missions, especially to the emperor 
 Charles V, and to the republic of Venice. His 
 best production, and that on which his fame 
 now principally rests, is an heroic poem in 
 blank verse, being the first attempt of the kind 
 in the Italian language ; and which, if inferior in 
 spirit and elegance to the epic of Tasso, is yet 
 by no means deficient either in energy or in- 
 vention. The tiubject of this poem is the de- 
 liverance of Rome from the Goths by J5elisa- 
 riiis, and it is entitled " Italia liberata da 
 Gotti." In private life he was unfortunate ; a 
 second marriage involved him in a quarrel 
 with his son by the first wife, which ended in 
 an appeal to the laws. Trissiuo was worsted 
 in the contest, which affected him so much 
 that his anxiety during the progress of the suit, 
 and the chagrin he experienced at its result, 
 are said to have materially accelerated liis 
 dpatli, which took place at Rome in 1350. — 
 i'lraboschi. Roscoe's Life of Leo A", 
 
 TRO 
 
 TRISTAN L'HERMITE (Francois) a na- 
 tive of Souliers in La Marche, distinguished at 
 the French court in the earlier moiety of the 
 seventeenth century as a wit, poet, and ac- 
 complished gentleman. He was born about 
 the year 1601, and at first held a situation 
 about the person of the marquis de Verneuil, 
 the illegitimate son of Henri Quatre. An un- 
 fortunate quarrel, which terminated in the 
 death of his antagonist, a young nobleman, 
 who fell in the rencontre, drove him for a 
 while into exile ; but he afterwards obtained 
 his pardon, and became a member of the 
 household of Gaston d'Orleans. His works, 
 consisting principally of dramatic compositions, 
 have been published in three quarto volumes. 
 The production by which he is principally 
 known is his tragedy of •' Mariamne." His 
 death took place in 1649. — Moreri. Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. 
 
 TRITHEMIUS (John) abbot of Span- 
 heim, a Benedictine monk of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, born at Tritenheim in Germany in 1462. 
 He is known as an industrious compiler as 
 well as writer of some talent on subjects not 
 altogether confined to those which, during the 
 period in which he lived, occupied almost ex- 
 clusively the attention of the brethren of his 
 order. Two treatises on steganography and 
 polygraphy, written with some ai^ility, evince 
 his ingenuity, while his industry is proved by 
 his other writings, " Opera Historica," folio, 
 2 vols. ; " On the illustrious Writers of the 
 Church," 4to, 1546 ; " On illustrious Mem- 
 bers of the Order of St Benedict;" " On il- 
 lustrious Germans," 4to ; and " Annales Hir- 
 saugieses," folio, 2 vols. He died abbot of a 
 relisious house dedicated to St James at Wurtz- 
 berg in 1516. — Niceron. Diipiii. 
 
 TRIVET (Nicholas) a Dominican friar, 
 son of sir Thomas Trivet, lord-chief-justice, 
 lived in the reigns of Edward I, II, and HI. 
 He was the author of " Annales Ileg»jm An- 
 glia"," published by Anthony Hall of Queen's 
 college, Oxford, in 1719, in 2 vols. 8vo. Bishop 
 Nicolson speaks of this work as having formed 
 pare of the library of Merton college, Oxford, 
 under the title of " Les Gestesdes Apostoiles ;" 
 but the tatter must evidently have been a dif- 
 ferent production. Trivet, who was educated 
 at Oxford, left many other MSS. on various 
 subjects of ))lulosophy and theology. He died 
 in lo28. — Nicolson's Hist. Lib. Bale. Tanner. 
 
 TROGUS POMPEIUS, a Latin historian, 
 w-ho flourished in the reijju of Augustus. His 
 family were Vocontian Gaulx, a tribe of Gallia 
 Narbonensis ; his gratulfatlur having been 
 made a Roman citizen by Pompey the Great, 
 while his father became keeper of the seal ami 
 secretary to Julius Ca;sar. He wrote forty- 
 four books of a history, which he called " Phi- 
 lippics," from their subject, which was the 
 Macedonian empire, taking its rise from Philip, 
 the father of Alexander. Of this work we 
 have only the epitome by .'ustin, who terms 
 Trogus a man of antique eloquence ; he is also 
 often referred to by the elder Pliny, who calls 
 him a very exact author. — Vossii Hist. Lat. 
 
 TROIL (Uno von) the son of the aich 
 
TRO 
 
 bishop of Upsal, wasbornatStockliolmin 1746, I 
 and being destined for the churcli, he was 
 educated at the university of Upsal. He tlien 
 travelled in Germany, France, and ICiigland ; 
 and becoming acquainteel with the late sir Jo- 
 8ej)h lianks, he accompanied tiiat gentleman 
 and Dr Solander to Icelami, and returned with 
 them to London. In 1773 he ])roceeded to 
 Holland, and thence to Sweden, where the 
 king appointed him almoner to a regiment, and 
 employed him to translate the INIemoirs of 
 Whiielocke, Knglish ambassador at tlie court of 
 quten Christina. This work was published at 
 the expense of the government in 1774 ; and 
 the following year von Troil was made preacher 
 m ordinary to tlie king. In 1777 he pub- 
 lished the work by which he is princi})ally 
 known, his " Letters on a Voyage to Ice- 
 land," 8vo, since translated into several lan- 
 euaires. He was at length raised to the bi- 
 shopric of Lindkoping, afterwards made pre- 
 sident of the consistory of Stockholm, and in 
 1786 promoted to the archbishopric of Upsal. 
 He died July 27, 1803. Von Troil was in- 
 vested with tlie royal orders, and was a mem- 
 ber of the academies of Sweden ; and he also 
 held the office of vice-chancellor of the uni- 
 versity of Upsal. He published " Memoirs 
 relative to the History of the Churcli and the 
 Reformation in Sweden," Upsal, 1790 — 95, 
 5 vols. Bvo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TROIMP (jMartin Herbertson) a cele- 
 brated Dutch naval officer, born at Brill, in 
 1597. He went to sea when young with his 
 father, and was taken prisoner in a combat 
 with an English piratical vessel, on board 
 which he continued two years. Being restored 
 to his country, he was made lieutenant on 
 board a ship of the line in 1622 ; and two years 
 after he received the command of a frigate. 
 After experiencing some neglect he was created 
 lieutenant-admiral in 1637, and appointed 
 commander of a squadron of eleven vessels, 
 with which he attacked and beat a superior 
 fleet of the Spaniards. In October 1639 he 
 defeated the Spaniards again under admiral 
 Oquendo. But his principal services were 
 against the English, Before the declaration 
 of hostilities against Holland in 1652, a ren- 
 counter took place in the Downs between 
 Tromp and admiral Blake, which was disad- 
 vantageous to the former. He was dismissed 
 from his command, but being soon after re- 
 stored, he fought another battle with lUake, 
 whom he compelled to retreat to the 'J'hames 
 with the loss of five ships. In February 1653 
 Tromp and De Ruyter, convoying a great fleet 
 of Dutch merchantmen, were attacked by the 
 united squadrons of IMake, IMonk, and Dean, 
 when an engagement ensued which lasted 
 three days, and terminated in the loss of nine 
 men-of-war to the Dutch, who however re- 
 treated in good order, and saved their convoy. 
 Another bloody combat took place off Nieu- 
 port, June 12,'l653, in which the English ad- 
 miral Dean was killed, but the Dutch were 
 beaten. On the 6th of August Tromp again 
 met the English fleet near the coasts of Hol- 
 land, and on the following day a most ob- 
 
 T R O 
 
 stinate engagement occurred, in which this 
 brawe and meritorious officer was killed by a 
 nuisket-ball ; and the dearly purchah<'d victory 
 remained with the Engli.sh. 1 he body of 
 Tromp was honourably interred in the church 
 of Delft, where a magnificent monument waa 
 raised to hia memory. — CoiiNti.iua Iiiomp, 
 son of the preceding, born at Kotierdwin m 
 1629, was also a distinguibhed naval com- 
 maniler. At tlie age of twenty-one he was 
 captain of a vessel in a 6(iuadiou utnt against 
 the emperor of Morocco, and two yearn after 
 he was made a rear-ailmiral of the Admiralty 
 of Amsterdam. In 1653 he took an EnglibU 
 man-of-war in the Mediterranean. He suc- 
 ceeded to the reputation of his father, and like 
 him he distinguished himself against the na- 
 vies of Britain. He was one of the admirals 
 in the sea-fight off Solebay, in which the 
 Dutch commander Opdam was blown uj), and 
 the Dutch were defeated ; but I'romp, by a 
 masterly retreat, contributed to lessen the ad- 
 vantage of the victors. In the famous battle 
 in tlie Downs, in June 1666, whicii lasted 
 tour days, Tromp was inferior to De lluyter 
 only in the glory of successful valour, and he 
 was obliged repeatedly to shift his flag from 
 ships which had been disabled in the terrible 
 conflict. He was again present in the engage- 
 ment of the 4th and 5th of August following, 
 in which it is said that he neglected properly 
 to second his rival coadjutor De Ruyte'r. The 
 complaints of that oflicer caused him to be 
 superseded ; and it was not till 1673, when 
 the States General were involved in a war with 
 England and France at the same time, that 
 Cornelius Tromp was again called to the ser- 
 vice of his country. The rival admirals were 
 now reconciled, and they fought in concert 
 with the French and English off the Dutch 
 shores in June and August. Peace soon fol- 
 lowed, and in 1675 J'romp made a visit to 
 London, where he was honourably received by 
 Charles II, who created him a baronet. 'I'he 
 same year he was sent with a fleet to assist 
 the king of Denmark against Sweden, when 
 he was invested with the Danish order of the 
 Elepliant. lu 1677 he succeeded De Ruyter 
 as lieutenant-admiral-general of the I'nited 
 Provinces ; and he died at Amsterdam, ISIay 
 29, 1691, just as he was about to take the 
 command of a fleet destined to act against 
 France. He was buried in the splendid tomb 
 of his father at Delft. — Moreri. Aikin. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 TUONCHIN (Theodore) one of the most 
 celebrated pliysicians of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. He was born at Geneva in 1709, and 
 being maternally related to lord Bolingbroke, 
 he was sent at an early age to England, to re- 
 ceive the benefit of his patronage. That 
 statesman however falhnir into distjracc at 
 court, could only assist his kinsman with advice 
 for the direction of his studies. He went to 
 the university of Cambridge, and thence to 
 Leyden, where he became a favourite pupil of 
 Boerhaave ; and having taken the degree of 
 MD. in 1730, he settled in medical practice at 
 Amsterdam. He was made a member of the 
 
 Z 2 
 
TRU 
 
 college of physicinn-?, and an inspector of lios 
 pitals in that' city, anil he distinguished him- 
 fielf much by promoting inoculation for the 
 f.mall-pox. In 1750 he returned to Geneva, 
 ■where liis reputation induced the council of 
 state to give him the title of honorary pro- 
 fessor of medicine. In 17.56 he was called to 
 Paris to inoculate the. cliildren of the duke of 
 Orleans; and some years after he accepted 
 tlie office of chief physician to that prince, 
 when he removed to fhe French metropolis. 
 Tronchin tliere became intimately connected 
 with Voltaire, J. J. liousseau, Diderot, Tho- 
 mas, and other philosophers and men of let- 
 ters, who have amjily celebrated in their wri- 
 tings his talents and his virtues. The practice 
 of Tronchin was simple, and founded on close 
 observation of the plienomena of health and 
 disease. He administered medicine sparingly, 
 trusting principally to diet and regimen, and 
 to the regulation of the passions and mental 
 alFections. He paid particular attention to the 
 diseases of women and children, and espe- 
 cially to nervous disorders ; and he has the 
 merit of having adopted the cooling plan in the 
 treatment of the small-pox. He died at Paris, 
 November 30, 1781. Besides articles relating 
 to medicine, in the Encyclopedic, and an edi- 
 tion of the works of Baiilou, he published aca- 
 demical theses '' De IS'ympha; de Clitoride," 
 Leyd. 1736, 4to ; a small treatise " De Colica 
 Pictorum," Genev. 1757, 8vo ; and papers in 
 the Memoirs of the Academy of Surgery. He be- 
 longed to the principal scientific and medicalso- 
 cieties in Europe. — Aikin's G. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 TRUBLET (Nicholas Charles Joseph) 
 a French abbe and man of letters, was born at 
 St JNIalo, in December 1697. He was brought 
 up to the church, and became treasurer of the 
 cathedral of Nantes, and afterwards archdeacon 
 and canon of St IMalo. His first appearance 
 as an author was in 1717, when he published 
 in the French Mercure, his " Reflections on 
 U'elemachus," which introduced him to La 
 IMotte and Fontenelle. For some time he was 
 attaclif d to cardinal Tencin, whom he accom- 
 panied to Rome ; but disliking a life of de- 
 pendence, he returned to I'aris, and employed 
 himself in literary pursuits. He was received 
 into tlie I'rcnch academy in 1761, and about 
 six years afterwards he retired to St IMalo, 
 where he died in i\Iarch 1770. His principal 
 works are " Essais de Litterature et de JVIo- 
 rale," 4 vols. l2mo, which have been often re- 
 printed and translated into other languages. 
 These essays, although he was neither gifted 
 with the elegance of La Bruyere nor the pene- 
 tration of Rochefoucault, contain much lively 
 remark, and knowledge of books and men. 
 " Panegyriciufs des Saintes," a work feebly 
 written, but to which he prefixed some valu- 
 able reflections upon eloquence ; " M6moires 
 pour servir a I'llistoire de Mess, de la jMotte 
 ft de Fontenelle." He was also a contributor 
 to the " Journal des Savans" and " Journal 
 Chretien." in which last work he spoke of, 
 \ oltaire in a manner which drew upon him ' 
 6ome severe epigrams from that irrital^le wit. I 
 — Noiiv. Diet, liist. I 
 
 TSC 
 
 TRUMBULL, or TRUINIBALL (sir Wi.- 
 mam) an English statesman, born at East 
 Hempsted in Berkshire, in 1636. He studied 
 at Oxford, and having taken the degree of ba- 
 chelor of laws in 1659, he travelled in France 
 and Italy. On his return home, he finished 
 his legal studies, and became a barrister in 
 the court of cliancery. In 1682 he obtained 
 the office of clerk of the signet ; and after 
 having occupied various posts, diplomatic and 
 political, he was at length made secretary of 
 state. He resigned this office, after holding it 
 two years, in 1697, and retired to his estate at 
 East Hempsted, where he died December 14, 
 1716. Burnet describes him as an able civi- 
 lian and most virtuous man, but he is chiefly 
 known as the friend of Poi)e, who wrote his 
 epitaph, and has preserved some of his letters. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TRUSLER (Dr John) a singular literary 
 compiler, was born in London in 1735, and 
 brought up in one of tlie humblest lines of 
 physic. He however contrived to get into holy 
 orders, and for some time officiated as a curate, 
 but at length, in 1771, he hit upon the more 
 profitable scheme of composing abridgments of 
 popular sermons, printed in imitation of manu- 
 script, for the use of the pulpit. He next es- 
 tablished a bookselling concern upon an ex- 
 tensive scale, and by business and the success 
 of his numerous but very puerile com[)ilations 
 for youth, &c. realised a handsome fortune. 
 He died at Englefield- green, where he had 
 purchased an estate, in 1820. His compilations 
 are not worth enumerating ; the best are his 
 " Hogarth Moralized," and a " Compendium 
 of Chronology." — Gent. Mag. 
 
 TRYPHIODORUS, a Greek poet, was by 
 birth an Egyptian. The time when he lived 
 is uncertain, but it is usually referred to the 
 reign of the emperor Anastasius, at the be- 
 ginning of the sixth century. Nothing is known 
 ot ins persona! history, more than that he was 
 a grammarian, and that he wrote a great many 
 works, the titles of which are given bySuidas. 
 Of these nothing is extant except a poem on 
 the destruction of Troy, which has no poetical 
 merit. 'Jhe standard of this writer may be 
 taken from the circumstance of his being one 
 of the tribe of Lipograinmatists, having com- 
 posed an Odyssey of twenty-four books, each 
 of which dro})ped a letter of the alphabet in 
 succes.^ion, but of this piece of laborious ab- 
 surdity no sjtecimeiis remain. The existing 
 poem of Tryphiodorus was first printed by 
 Aldus, with those of Quintus Calabar and 
 Coluthus. Of the subsequent editions the 
 best are those of Merrick, with an English 
 version, of JJaudini, Florence, 1765, and of 
 Northmore, Oxford, 1791 . — Merrick's DisserlU' 
 iion. Jidiile. Spectator, No. 59. 
 
 TSCHIRNHAUSEN (Ehuinfried Wal- 
 ter von) an ingenious mathematician, lord of 
 Killingswald and of Stolzt'nberg, in Liisatia, 
 was born April 10, 1651. He studied som« 
 time at the university of Leyden, and in 1672 
 entered the Dutch army, in whii h he served 
 some time as a volunteer, and then travelled 
 into most of the leading countries of Europe. 
 
TUC 
 
 On liis return, beint^ desirous to prrfcct ilic 
 iiiencc of oittics, he e.stal)lislicil tlircc ^lass- 
 iuiisi'S ill Saxony, uiid sliowcd Ijow porcflaiu 
 miglit be made from a particular kuid of t-artli. 
 tbert'i)y ciitiiliiif;- himsc-lf to lie coiisidcrfd as 
 the fuuniliT of tlie cck-bratid Drt-siifu jjorcc- 
 lain manufactory. Jle likewiyo directed his 
 attention to maiheniatics, and discovered a 
 particular kind of curves, endowed with very 
 remarkable j)ropertie8,caIleilafiir himl'scliiru- 
 Lnusen's caustics, au account of which lie 
 comMuiiiicated to tlie Acaih'iny of S' ieiufs of 
 Paris, in HM2, which body elected him a 
 member. About the year lt)»7 he coustructiil 
 an extraordinary buininj; mirror, and soon after 
 eucceedtil in making a f^lus.s lens, three feet in 
 diameter, and convex on both sides, whu h 
 had a focua of twelve feet, and weighed one 
 hundred and sixty pounds. Its eflects were 
 astonishing; wood was set on fire wuh it in an 
 instant, and all earthy substances, asbestos ex- 
 cepted, converted l)y it into glv-»ss. It was pur- 
 chased by the regent duke of Orleans, who 
 subsequently presented it to the Academy of 
 Sciences. The only work which he published 
 separately was his " De JMedicina Mentis et 
 Corporis," printed at Amsterdam in 16B7 ; but 
 he was the author of several papers on burning- 
 glasses, and on his discoveries in regard to 
 curves, which ai)pear in the Leipsic Trans- 
 actions and the JMenioirs of tlie French Aca- 
 demy of Scirnces. — Htittons Malh. Diet. 
 
 TSCHUDl (Gn.F.s de) one of a family of 
 Swiss writers, and landaman of the canton of 
 Glarus, was born in lo05. He devoted much 
 of his time to historical researches, and pro- 
 duced, among other works of less note, " The 
 Helvetic Chronicle," which remained in ma- 
 nuscript until 17:)1', when it was edited and 
 published by Iselin, in 2 vols, folio. — Another 
 of the family, Dominic rsciiuui, who died in 
 Idj-i, wrote in Latin on the constitution of the 
 Benedictine congregation in Switzerland, and 
 an account of the founder of the abbey, which 
 was printed in 1651. — A third, John IIknuv 
 TsoHUDi, who died in I7'z9, was the author 
 of an Account of the Abbots of St Gall. I7l 1, 
 4to, and a '* Chronicle of the Canton of Gla- 
 rus," both in German. lie also conducted a 
 literary journal from 1711' to 1726. — There 
 was likewise a John i'txtit Tscuuni, who 
 wrote in German a History of Weidenberg, 
 pubhshed in 1726. — Nouv. Diet. Hi&t, Sa.iii 
 i)iio>n. 
 
 'JT'CKKll (Aduaham) an English writer 
 on morals and metaphysics, who was the son 
 of a merchant of London, where lie was born 
 in 170.S. After computing his studies at Ox- 
 ford, and learning French, Italian, anil music, to 
 which he was passionati'ly attached, he travelled 
 in France. He married in 17;)6. and having lost 
 his wife in 1751, he published under the title 
 of " A Picture of Love without Art," all the 
 letters she had written to him during his fre- 
 (pieiit absences in various parts of lCni;laiul anil 
 Scotland. Some time after he produced his 
 •• Advice from a Country Gentleman to his 
 Son ;" and he commenced his great work, called 
 •• The Liiiht of Mature pursued," 7 vols, yvo; 
 
 thu first tliree of which apptnred iu i768. un- 
 d. r I be pseudonym of K.lward Si^arch, Tjtq ; 
 and the ifuiaKiing V(dunuH w. r.- print. -d alter 
 tne death of lb.- author, win. 1, Kxjk place \o- 
 M-tuhrr^^^O, 177 i.~l)irt. Jlut }h.,fr. Univ. 
 
 11 CKKR (JosiAii) an <irnn<iil political 
 writ.r, who was the son of a Wej^h ^;entl<■m^Il 
 of small property, who farmed hi!i own estate. 
 He was born in 171 1. ami having been educated 
 atStJohu's college, Oxford, he enter.d into 
 holy orders, and obtained the turacy of the 
 parish of All Saints at Hristol. liishop I5ut- 
 l<r appointed him his chaplain, ami procured 
 him the rectory of St Stephens in the Haiuo 
 city. His situation in this seat of commerce 
 probably drew his attention to that subject, 
 and in I? 17 lie published " A brief E«.say oa 
 the Advantages and Disadvantages which re- 
 speciively attend France and Great Britain 
 with regard to Trade ;" and this piece wasfol- 
 lowed by " Reflexions on the Expediency of a 
 Law for the Naturalization of Foreign Protes- 
 tants," for which mt asure he was an atlvocate, 
 as he likewise was for the naturalization of the 
 Jews, which he defended in " Letters to a 
 Friend concerning Naturalizations." He ob' 
 tained the degree of Dl). m 1755, and was 
 also made a prebend of Bristol. The exertion 
 of his influence among his iiarishiorers to pro- 
 cure the election of i\Ir Nugent (lord Clare) 
 as .MP. for Bristol, procured him the deanery 
 of Gloucester in 1758. He afterwards wrote 
 against the ])etition for relieving the clergy 
 from subscription to the thirty-nine articles ; 
 " Letters to Dr Kippis," against repealing the 
 corporation and test acts ; several tracts ou 
 the disputes between Great Britain and her 
 American Colonies ; and a " 'I'reatise concern- 
 ing Civil Government," 1781 ; in which he 
 combats the principles of Locke, on the origin, 
 extent, and end of civil institutions. His lile 
 was terminated by a paralytic stroke in 1799. 
 Besides the works already noticed and a vo- 
 lume of seriiKins, he produced a multitude of 
 publicationsonrommerce, politics, and ndi^ion- 
 in his tracts on the American war, he warmly 
 condemned the oppositica of the colonies to 
 the autliority of llie mother country; and re- 
 commended, at an early period of the contesi, 
 as a matter of absolute necessity, a sepaiutiou 
 of the former from the British empire, and a 
 consequent recognititm of their independence. 
 — (n'tit. Mdf^, Aikin's Got, lHoi^. 
 
 IT'LL (JiTiino) an agricultural writer, dis- 
 tinguished for having recommtiuled what has 
 been termed the horse hoeing nu-thod of hus- 
 bandry. He was a genthnian of an ancient 
 Yorkshire family, and was born about KioO. 
 After receiving a liberal eilucation at an uni- 
 versity, he studiedat the Temple, and was ad- 
 nutted a barrister-at-law in tin* early part of 
 the eii;htecnth ct-ntury. He then appears to 
 have made the tour of Europe, in the course of 
 which he dili>^enlly observed the soil, the 
 modes of culture, aiul tlie productions of the 
 countries which he visited. Heiurning home 
 he married, and settled on a farm of his own in 
 Oxfordshire, where he diligently engaged in a 
 i course of agricultural expenmeuti. lliuess ia 
 
TUL 
 
 duced aim again to go abroad ; and after three 
 years' absence he came home, and resumed 
 his projects on another estate in Berkshire. 
 His grand object was to substitute labour and 
 •rrangt-ment m the place of manure and fal- 
 lowing in the culture of land. With that 
 view he invented various instruments, adapted 
 to what he called horse-hoeing husbandry. Like 
 most innovators, he experienced many losses 
 and disappointments from the stupidity or un- 
 faithfulness of his labourers and others whom 
 he employed ; and in a pecuniary point of 
 view his scheme appears to have been unsuc- 
 cessful. In 1753 lie published " An Essay oa 
 Horse-hoeing Husbandry," folio, which was 
 translated into French by Duhamel ; and from 
 that time he continued occasionally to publish 
 other pieces in defence of his system, ■^c. He 
 died in 1740. — Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 
 TULLY (Thomas) a learned divine and 
 controversial writer, was born at Carlisle in 
 16V2, He become a fellow of Queen's college, 
 Oxford, and in 1642 was appointed master of 
 tiie grammar school at Tetbuiy in Gloucester- 
 shire. In 1657 he took his degree of bache- 
 lor of divinity, and soon after was made master 
 of Kdmund-hall. After the Restoration he 
 was created D\). and appointed chaplain to 
 the king ; and was also presented by one of 
 his pupils to the rectory of Grittleton in Wilt- 
 shire, to which was added the deanery of Ri- 
 pon. He died in 16.56. This divine, who 
 carried on a controversy with Dr Bull and Mr 
 Baxter on the subject of justification, published 
 " Logica Apodeictica ;" " Enchiridion Didac- 
 ticum, cum Appendice de Coeno Domini, 
 &c.;" " Justificaiio Paulina, sine Operibus." 
 — George Tullv, nephew of the preceding, 
 was also educated at Queen's college, Oxford. 
 He became subdean of York, and published 
 among other works a discourse on " The Go- 
 vernment of the Thoughts." He died in 1697. 
 — Athen. Oxon. vol. ii. 
 
 'i'ULP (Nicholas) an eminent physician 
 and distinguished patriot, was the son of a rich 
 merchant of Amsterdam, where he v>?ls born 
 in 1593. He studied physic at Leyden, where 
 he graduated, and then settled in his native 
 place. He not only rose to eminence in his 
 profession, but possessing much judgment as 
 a poliiician. he was elected a counsellor of 
 Amsterdam in 1622, and nominated six times 
 to the office of sheriff. He was finally ap- 
 pointed to the important post of burgomaster, 
 which he occupied on the unprincipled invasion 
 of Holland by Louis XIV in 1672. Notwith- 
 standing his advanced age, he retained so 
 much firmness and vigour, that it was chiefly 
 through his persuasion that his fellow citizens 
 were animated to the resistance that saved 
 their country. For his services on this occasion 
 a silver medal was struck to his honour, with 
 a motto from the ^neid, " Aires ultra sortem- 
 que senectaj." Tulp was the author of a vo- 
 lume of rare and curious cases, entitled " Ob- 
 servalionum IVIedicarum, Libri Tres," 1641, 
 l2mo, reprinted subsequently with a fourth 
 book, Amst. 1672 — 1675, and Leyden, 1716. 
 It is written in Latin, with great purity of die- 
 
 TUN 
 
 ' tion and conciseness, and contains many va- 
 luable anatomical remarks. According to Hal- 
 ler, Tulp was tlie first who observed the lac- 
 teal vessels. — Halleri Bihl. Med. Eloy. 
 
 TUNSTALL or TONSTAL (Cuthrert) 
 an eniinent English prelate, was born at 
 Hatehford in Yorkshire about 1474. He was 
 ' the natural son of a gentleman of the same 
 name, who sent him to Baliol college, Oxford, 
 whence he removed to Cambridge, where he 
 was chosen fellow of King's-hall, now Trinity 
 college. He next proceeded to Padua, where 
 he took the degree of doctor of laws, and on his 
 return was made vicar-general to archbishop 
 Warham, obtaining various preferments, until 
 in 1516 he was appointed master of the rolls. 
 The same year he was sent ambassador, in 
 conjunction with sir Thomas IMore, to the em- 
 peror Charles V, then at Brussels, during which 
 mission he lived in the same house with Eras- 
 mus. Various additional preferments followed 
 this service, until in 1522 he was made bishop 
 of London, and the following year appointed 
 keeper of the privy seal. In 1527 he attended 
 Wolsey in his embassy to France ; and he was 
 also one of the ministers appointed to negociato. 
 the treaty of Cambrai. In 1530 he was trans- 
 lated to the see of Durham, and during the 
 reign of Henry VIII he concurred in most of 
 the proceedings adopted by that self-willed 
 monarch for the reformation of the church. 
 Under Edward VI he was deprived of his 
 bishopric, on pretences by no means creditable, 
 and he remained a prisoner in the Tower 
 until the accession of INIary, when he was re- 
 stored to his bishopric. He conducted himself 
 with great moderation in this sanguinary reign, 
 to the Protestants in his diocese, a deportment 
 that was by no means agreeable to Mary and 
 her council. On the accession of Elizabeth it 
 was supposed that he would easily reconcile 
 himself to the meditated settlement of the 
 church, but he resolutely refused the oath of 
 supremacy ; and was again deprived and com- 
 mitted to the custody of arclibishop Parker, 
 who treated him with great respect, and under 
 whose roof he died November 18, 1559. This 
 able prelate was uncle to the celebrated Ber- 
 nard Gilpin, wlio supplied many curious par- 
 ticulars of his conduct and deportment, which 
 exhibit him as much of a courtier, but pos- 
 sessed of sense and humanity. Several ser- 
 mons and theological tracts of his were {)ub- 
 lished in his life time, and many of his letters 
 and papers will be found in Burnet's History 
 of the Reformation, Strype's Memorials, Col- 
 lier's Church History, and Lodge's Illustrations. 
 — Atlten. Oion. vol. i. Tanner. Strype's Life 
 of Parker. Biog. Brit. 
 
 TUNSTALL (James) a learned divine and 
 classical critic, born in 1710, and educated at 
 St John's college, Cambridge. He there be- 
 came a fellow and a tutor, and in 1741 he was 
 chosen public orator of the university. He 
 subsequently was chaplain to archbishop Pot- 
 ter, who gave him the rectory of Great Chart, 
 in Kent, which he exchanged for the valuable 
 vicarage of Rochdale, in Lancashire. He died 
 in 1772. His principal works are " Epistola 
 
T UR 
 
 ad Virum eruclltum Con vers IMiddlcton, Vitai 
 M. T. Ciccronis Scriploicm," inipii^iiiii;,' the 
 hutlientitity of the letters between Cicero and 
 Brutus, of which INIiddlctnii had iiiade {^rejit 
 use ill his life of Cicero ; " Observations on tlie 
 present Collection of I''))istles between (.'icero 
 and IM. Brutus ;" " Academica, or discourses 
 on Natural ami Revealed ll(lijj;ion ;"anil " Lec- 
 tures on Natural and Revealed I{eli|;ion," a 
 sequel to the discourses, published posthu- 
 mously. — A'/r//()/.s's JJt. Aiiec. 
 
 TURBIvRVlLK (George) an English 
 poet, descended from an ancient family in 
 J)or8etsljire, is supposed to liave been born 
 about 1530. He received his education at 
 Winchester school, aud became a fellow of 
 New college, Oxford, in 1561. He left the 
 university without taking a degree, and resided 
 for some time in one of the inns of court, 
 wliere he began to exhibit his predilection for 
 poetry. His abihlies soon after recommended 
 him to IMr Randolph, sent ambassador by Kli- 
 zabeih to the court of Russia, who a])]>()inted 
 him his secretary during the mission. On his 
 return he was much courted as a man of accom- 
 plished education and manners, and the first 
 edition of his " Songs and Sonnets," published 
 in 1367, seems to have added considerably to 
 his reputation. His other works are trans 
 lations of " The Heroical Epistles of Ovid," 
 the Eclogues of B. Mantuan, and a collection 
 entitled "Tragical Tales," translated from va- 
 rious Italian writers. He is also supposed to 
 be in reality the author of the " Booke of 
 Falconrye," attributed to another writer of the 
 same name. He was living in 159-4 in great 
 esteem, but no account of his death is recorded. 
 There is some diversity of fancy and sentiment 
 in Turbervile's pieces, mixed up with much 
 pedantry, flatness, and common -place ; but 
 unlike many poets of that early age, he sel- 
 dom infringes upon morals or delicacy. — Cen- 
 sura Lit. vol. ii. and iii. Ellis's Specimens. 
 
 TURBILLY (Louis Fhancis Henry de 
 IMenox, marquis de) a French officer and agri- 
 culturist, bom in 1717, of a distinguished fa 
 mily of Anjou. Becoming the master of a 
 considerable estate by the death of his father 
 in 1737, he commenced various improvements 
 on it. especially by draining. The war of 1741 
 called him to his regiment, and he has re- 
 peatedly left the ploughshare for the sword, 
 and returned to the former as often as his duty 
 permitted him. He engaged in various 
 schemes, and like most projectors ruined him- 
 self in attempts to benelic the public. He 
 was the first person in France who instituted 
 agricultural prizes, and to him also his country 
 owes the establishment of societies of agri- 
 culture. He died in 1776, and his j)roperty 
 being sold for the benefit of his creditors, all 
 traces of his improvements were subsequently 
 destroyed. Turbillywas the author of " iMc- 
 moire sur les Defrichements," 1760, 12mo ; 
 and " Pratique des Defrichements," of which 
 the fourth edition, with improvements and ad- 
 ditions, was published in 1811. 8vo. Voltaire 
 has contributed to the celebrity of tliis inge- 
 nious but unfortunate speculator, whom he 
 
 T UR 
 
 thus refers to in his " Epttre a M/idame ])ciiU 
 •ur rAt;riculture." 
 
 " Turbdly dans TAnjou t'imite ei t'aplaudit." 
 An interesting account of the mar(|ui/»'ii pro- 
 jects aiul labours iH given in ilie fiiHi volume of 
 Arthur \ ouiii;'s " liuvels in I'raiue." — liuip. 
 Uuir. 
 
 TiniENN'E (HKvnY do la loun d'Ar- 
 vkuc;nk. visrountde) one of the greatest rap- 
 tains of modern tinicn, wan the second son of 
 the duke of !?ouillon, and was born at Se<lan, 
 Septen\ber 16, Kill. From his rbildhood h*- 
 was destined for the military jirofes.-iori, and 
 he learnt the rudiments of war under his ma- 
 ternal uncle, prince Maurice of Nassau. Jn 
 16;U he was placed at the bead of a Krenc'i 
 regiment, with which he served under marslMl 
 de la Force, at the siege of La iMothe, in 
 Lorraine, when be greatly distinguished him- 
 self. The same year he was made marechal- 
 de-camp, and he aiided so much to iiis repu- 
 tation, that after the takiiig of JUisac in 1638, 
 cardinal Richelieu, desirous of securing the 
 young warrior to his interest, ofiered him one 
 of his nieces in marriage, but lie declined the 
 proposal through bis attachment to the re- 
 formed religion. In 16:>9 he served in Italy, 
 where he raised the siege of Casal, and ob- 
 tained a victory at JMontcallier. He signalized 
 himself at tiie con(|uest of Rousillon m 1643, 
 and the next year he was made marshal of 
 France. He then had the command of the 
 army in Germany, where he TaTiqui.->hed ge- 
 neral Merci ; hut he was himself defeated in 
 l<)i5, at Mariendahl ; yet he took his revenge 
 soon after in the victory of Nordlingen. The 
 following year he obliged the duke of I^avaria 
 to sue for peace, and on his breaking the 
 treaty drove him entirely out of his dominions. 
 In the civil war of the Fronde he first oi)posed 
 the court, who sent against him the marshal 
 du Plessis Praslin, by whom he was defeated 
 near Rhetel in 1650. Afterwards joininir the 
 royal party, he gained the battle of Dunes in 
 1657, which led to the peace of the Pyrenees. 
 When the war with Spain was reuewe<i in 
 1667, Turenne, who had the title of marshal- 
 general of the French armies, was chosen bv 
 Louis XIV as his osten-^ible tutor in the art of 
 vtar. His success obli'^ed the eneniv to make 
 peace the next year, and about this period he 
 gratified his royal master by turning Catholic. 
 His t-'ubsequent services against the Dutch, 
 his con(|uest of F'ranche-Compte in 1674, 
 his brilliant success inCiermanv, with the bar- 
 barous devastation of the Palatinate bv liis 
 troops, mii.st be traced in the pages of the his- 
 torian, as the slightest details would exceed 
 our limits. After he had defeated t!ie impe- 
 rialists at INlulhausen, and again at the more 
 terrible battle of Turkheim, he was opposed 
 by ihe celebrated !Montecuculi ; ami these ri- 
 vals for glory \v"re about to meet at Sahzhach, 
 when Turenne was killed bv a cannon-hall as 
 he was examining tlie ground for raiding a 
 battery, July 'J7, 1675. He was honoured 
 with a splendid funeral, and interreii at St 
 Denys, among the sovereigns of France. His 
 private character is said to have oeen amiahie, 
 
T U R 
 
 ani Lis disposition was disinterested ; but the 
 love of military glor}" led bim to tarnish his fame 
 by cruelty and barbarity. — Aikin's Gen. Biog. 
 
 TUllGOT, a monkish historian of the 
 eleventh century, was an Anglo-Saxon of a 
 good family in Lincolnshire. He became a 
 monk, and subsequently prior of Durham, and 
 in 1107 was invited to Scotland, and elected 
 bishop of St Andrew's under the patronage of 
 Malcolm and his Saxon queen Margaret. On 
 the death of that kiug and (jueen he returned 
 to Durham, where he employed his leisure 
 hours in writing the history of the church of 
 Durham, the MSS. of which falling into the 
 hands of Simeon of Durham, he dishonourably 
 published it in his own name. This curious 
 fact, which was not known when the brief 
 article of Simeon of Durham was written, is 
 demonstrated by Selden in his preface to 
 Twisden's " Decern Scriptores." 'I'urgot also 
 composed lives of king jNlalcolm and his queen, 
 often quoted by Fordice and others but not 
 supposed at present to exist. He died in 1115. 
 — Hutchinson's Durham. 
 
 TLRGOT (Anne Rchjert Jaques) a pa- 
 triotic and enlightened French minister, was 
 the son of Michael Etienne Turgot, president 
 of the grand council. He was born at Paris 
 in 17!i?7, and in his youth gave himself up to 
 the study of theology at the Sorbonne. At 
 the age of twenty-four he commenced a trans- 
 lation of Virgil's Georgics, and soon after at- 
 taching himself to Quesnay and the Econo- 
 mists, quitted the Sorbonne in order to accom- 
 pany De Gournay, intendant of commerce, in 
 his travels. On his return he was himself ap- 
 pointed intendant of Limoges, which post he 
 occupied for twelve years, and long caused 
 himself to be remembered wiih gratitude for 
 his wise, salutary, and beuevolent reforms and 
 regulations. When raised to the post of 
 comptroller-general of tlie finances, he gave a 
 wider extent to the principles of amelioration. 
 He moderated the duties on entrance of articles 
 of the first necessity, without loss to the re- 
 venue ; freed commerce from many fetters, 
 and encouraged industry by enlarging the 
 lights of individuals and abolishing the ex- 
 clusive privileges of companies and corpora- 
 tions. He also formed a project for commuting 
 the feudal rights, for rendering salt an article 
 of free merchandise, and for reforming the 
 royal household. The return for these useful 
 and benevolent views was opposition and ridi- 
 cule, the ordinary payment of such services 
 under the former government of France. He 
 was however able to carry into effect some 
 very important imi)rovement3 ; but as he en- 
 deavoured to control the nobility, restrict the 
 clergy, and restrain the licence assumed by 
 the officers of the crown, they all united 
 against him. The result was his dismissal 
 from office in 1776, from which period he lived 
 a retired and studious life until his death in 
 1781, at the ago of forty-nine. Turgot havini: 
 written for theEncyclopedie and been attached 
 to the principles of the Economists, has, in 
 comnirjn with all the reasoning and philoso- 
 phical characters of the period, been accused 
 
 TU R 
 
 of being one of the promoters of the French 
 Revolution, his innovations in favour of the 
 people, according to this reasoning, having led 
 them to the expectation of greater. It is un- 
 necessary to add, that every alteration on the 
 side of justice and humanity is chargeable 
 with the same consequence, and that it is ob- 
 viously unjust to impute to moderate schemes 
 of amelioration the fatal result of the very ex- 
 cess of corruption, which had rendered them 
 nugatory. — Li/e h\j Coiidorcet. Kouv, Vict, 
 Hist. 
 
 TURNEBUS (Adrian) an eminent French 
 critic, whose real name was Tourneboeuf, or 
 Turnbull, was born in 151!^, at Andeli in Nor 
 mandy. He was educated at Paris, and soon 
 became profoundly versed in every branch of 
 classical literature. He was for .some time a 
 teacher of the tlassics at Toulouse, but in 1 547 
 became professor of Greek at Paris. He was 
 one of the few profound scholars the mildness 
 and amenity of whose disposition did honour 
 to their learning. His high reputation pro- 
 duced him ofters from Italy, Spain, Germany, 
 and England, but he preferred living on a 
 scanty income in his own country. He died 
 at Paris in 1565. The works of Turnebus 
 consist of annotations upon Cicero, Varro, 
 Thucydides, and Plato ; writings against ]ia- 
 mus, and Latin translations from Aristotle, 
 'Iheophrastus, Plato, Plutarch, and other an- 
 cient authors. His works were printed col- 
 lectively at Strasburgh, in three volumes, folio, 
 1606. — Thuani Hist. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 TURNER (FnANCis) an English divine, 
 who was one of the seven bishops prosecuted 
 for resisting the royal authority in ecclesias- 
 tical aft'airs under James II. He was the son 
 of the dean of Canterbury, and was educated 
 at New college, Oxford, where he proceeded 
 DD. and obtained a fellowship. After holding 
 some inferior preferments, he became bishop 
 of Rochester in 1683, and a few months after 
 he was translated to Ely. Notwithstanding 
 his opposition to king James, he followed the 
 exam})le of Saucroft and Ken in refusing to 
 take the oath of allegiance to William 111, 
 and was consequently deprived of his beneiice. 
 His death took place in 1700. He was the 
 author of " A Vindication of the late Arch- 
 bishop Saucroft, and his Brethren the rest of 
 the de|)rived Bishops, from the Reflections of 
 Mr Marshall, in his Defence of our Constitu- 
 tion ;" besides sermons, poems, and other 
 works of little importance. — ]Vood's Alhcn. 
 Oxtin. 
 
 iURN'ER (Samuel) a traveller and diplo- 
 matist, born in Gloucestershire about 1749. 
 He entered into the military service of the 
 East India Company, and attracted the favour- 
 able notice of governor Hastings. In 1774 
 the latter had sent an embassy to the court of 
 Tibet, and the envoy was well received by the 
 Tchou-lama, the tutor or minister of the Da- 
 lai-lama, or ostensible sovereign of the coun- 
 try. The Tchou-lama dying in 17B0, and the 
 decease of the ambassador, JMr Bogle, haj)- 
 pening al)Out the same time, Mr Hastings 
 thought it proper to send another embassy to 
 
TUR 
 
 conG;ratulate die new potentate of Tibet. The 
 mission was confided to ca[.tain 'iUnicr, who 
 set off from Calcutta, about the middle of Ja- 
 nuary 1783; and on tlie first of .lime he 
 leached Tassi-Soudon, the capital of Boutan, 
 where he received every attention from the 
 Deb rajali, the soverei'^Mi of Houlan. After 
 waiting tlirce montlin, he received permission 
 from the regent of Tchou Lumbo to enter the 
 territories of 'J ibet ; but he was to be accom- 
 panied by only one Jlnglishman. On the Hth 
 of September he left Tassi-Soudon, and after 
 a perilous journey over lofty mountains, he en- 
 tered, on the I9th, the monastery of i'chou- 
 Lumbo, situated to the south of the city of 
 Jikadze. The next day he had an audience of 
 the regent. He wished to have been present 
 at the solemn recognition of the Lama, which 
 took place a few days after ; but he could not 
 obtain permission, as it would have given 
 offence to the Chinese delegates, who were to 
 attend the ceremony. November 3()lh, the 
 ambassador received his audience of leave 
 from the regent, who sent despatclies to go- 
 vernor Hastings, and expressed his wishes to 
 preserve relations of sincere friendship with 
 the English. Captain Turner, in the begin- 
 ning of INIarch 1784, arrived at Patna in the 
 province of Bahar, where he met Mr Hastings. 
 In 1792, in the war with Tippoo Sahib, this 
 officer signalized himself at the siege of Se- 
 ringapatam. He was afterwards sent ambas- 
 sador to the sovereign of Mysore, and he ac- 
 quitted himself so much to the satisfaction of 
 the East India Company, tliat he received a 
 present of 500/. Having acquired a large 
 fortune he returned to England, but lie did 
 not long enjoy it, dying in London, Jan. SJ, 
 1802, in consequence of an attack of jjaralysis. 
 He published " An Account of an Embassy to 
 the court of the Teshoo Lama in Thibet, con- 
 taining a Narrative of a Journey through 
 Boutan and Part of Thibet , with Views 
 taken on the Spot, by Lieutenant Jiliivis, and 
 Observations, botanical, mineralogical, and 
 medical," 1800, 4to ; and " A Description of 
 the Yak of Tartary, called Soora-Goy, or the 
 bushy-tailed Bull of Thibet," in the Asiatic 
 Researches. Captain Turner's account of 
 Tibet was translated into French by Castera, 
 and into German by M. C. Sjireugel. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 TURNER (William) an English natu- 
 ralist of the sixteenth century. He was a na- 
 tive of Morpeth in Northumberland, and was 
 educated at Cambridge, where he was a fellow 
 collegian with the reformer Ridley, whose 
 doctrines he imbibed. Having become a tra- 
 velling preacher of Protestantism, bishop (Jar- 
 diner had him arrested and imprisoned ; and 
 on being liberated he went to Ferrara, in 
 Italy, and took the degree of MD. He then 
 resided in Germany till the accession of Ed- 
 ward VI, when he returned home, and ob- 
 tained various benefices in the church ; be- 
 sides which he was appointed physician to the 
 duke of Somerset. He went abroad again in 
 the succeeding reign, but after the death of 
 queen Mary he repaired to his native country, 
 
 T U R 
 
 recovered his chun h preferment, and died in 
 l.'yOH. I'urucr irt distiiiguiMhed in the annals 
 of botany as the author of the earliest Eng- 
 li>h Herbal, of which the first part was pub- 
 lished in Injl, London; the Becoml at Co- 
 logne, \hG\i ; and a third, together with tha 
 others, in a complete edition, Cologne, 1568. 
 lie also wrote " Avium pni-cipuarum (juaruin 
 a;)ud riiiiium ct Arislotelciu nienlio est, brevis 
 et succinrta llistoria," Colon. 1534, 8vo, a 
 work which has obtained the jiraise of Conrad 
 (jcsuer. Some other of his pieces on natural 
 history are likewise extant, besides several re- 
 liljious comj)Ositions. — Wood's Athen. Oion. 
 llulleri Bihl. Hot. ■ Aikin's Gen. lUo/r. 
 
 TURPIN, TULPIN, or TILPIN, a monk 
 of St Denis, afterwards archbishop of Rheims, 
 to which see he was probably raised about 753, 
 and after holding it more than forty years, he 
 died at the close of the eighth or the beginning 
 of the ninth century. He encouraged litera- 
 ture by procuring books to be copied, and ho 
 enriched the library of his church, for which 
 he j)rocured from Charlemagne many privi- 
 leges. His name has escaped oblivion only in 
 consequence of its having been prefixed to the 
 romantic History of Charlemagne and Roland, 
 one of the grand sources of the tales of chivalry 
 of the middle ages. From internal evidence it 
 appears that this mass of fable was compiled in 
 the eleventh century, about the time tlie first 
 crusade was projected. Various unsatisfactory 
 conjectures have been hazarded relative to the 
 real author. It was translated from Latin into 
 French in 120t and 1207, by a clerk depend- 
 ant on Renaud, count of Jioulogne ; and a 
 more recent version was published by Robert 
 Gaguin, in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The original hist appeared in the his- 
 torical collection of Schardius, Frankfoit-on- 
 the-]\Iaiu, 1566, folio ; and M. Ciampi printed 
 at Florence in 1822, 8vo, an edition of the 
 work, with a preliminary dissertation. — ]\'ur- 
 tou's Hist, of Eiicr, Poetrv. Bios. Univ. 
 
 TURPIN (Francis Henry) an industrious 
 writer on history and biography, born at Caen 
 in Normandy, in 1709. He obtained a profes- 
 sorship in the university of his native city, 
 which he resigned to go to Paris, and employed 
 himself in literary composition. He possessed 
 some talents, having a lively imagination and 
 considerable command of language ; but writ- 
 ing almost continually for hire, the haste with 
 which his works are executed has in some re- 
 spects impaired their value. In the early j.art 
 of his career he was indebted to the liberality 
 of the celebrated Helvetius ; and in 1795 bo 
 was among the men of letters who obtained 
 pecuniary aid from the government. He died 
 in indigence at Paris, in September 1799. His 
 })riiicipal works are the Lives of the Grand 
 Coude and of marshal de Choiseul, in conti- 
 nuation of D'Auvigny and Perau's Hommes 
 illustres de la France ; " Ilistoire du Gou- 
 vernenient des anciennes Republiijues," l2mo; 
 " \'ie de xMahomet," 2 vols. l2mo; " Histoire 
 de I'Alcoran," 2 vols. 12mo; " La France 
 illustre, ou le Plutarque Fran^ais," 4 volii. 
 4to, republished in duodecimo ; aud an ubridg- 
 
TU R 
 
 ment of the English Universal History. — Diet. 
 Hist. Aikin's Gen. Biorr. Biog. Univ. 
 
 TURPIN DE CRISSE (Lancelot, count) 
 an eminent French writer on military affairs, 
 born of a noble family in the province of 
 Beauce, about 1715. Having chosen the pro- 
 fession of arms, he obtained a company in 
 1734, and ten years after a regiment of hus- 
 sars, at the head of which he displayed his 
 valour in the wars of Italy and Germany. lie 
 quitted the aimy and retreated to the abbey of 
 La 'J'rappe ; but repenting of the step he had 
 so hastily taken, he returned to his post, and 
 not long after he married the daughter of the 
 celebrated general Lowendhal. His leisure 
 was dedicated to study, and in 1754 lie pub- 
 lished, in r.nn cert with Castilhon, " Les Amuse- 
 ments philosopliiques et litteraires de deux 
 Amis." Being called to active service in the 
 war of 1757, he distinguished himself as a 
 skilful tactician, and he was appointed mare- 
 chal-de-camp in 1761, and in 1771 a com- 
 mander of the order of St Louis. After forty 
 years' service, during seventeen campaigns, he 
 at length obtained the rank of lieutenant-ge- 
 neral in 1780 ; and the next year he was made 
 governor of the fort of Scarpe at Douai. His 
 name appeared on the list of lieutenant-gene- 
 rals in 1792 ; and all that is known of his sub- 
 sequent history is, that he emigrated and died 
 in German)'. He was a member of the acade- 
 mies of Berhn, of Nanci, and of IMarseilles ; 
 and he published the following works, in addi- 
 tion to the volume above-mentioned — " Essai 
 sur I'Art de la Guerre," Paris, 1754, ^ vols. 
 4to, of which there are English, Russian, and 
 German translations ; " Conimentaires sur les 
 iMemoires de INIontecuculi," 1769, 3 vols. 
 4to ; " Commentaire sur les Institutions de 
 Vegece," Montargis, 1770, 3 vols. 4to ; and 
 " Les Commpntaires de Cesar, avecdes Notes 
 Listoriques, critiques et militaires," Montargis, 
 1785, 3 vols. Bvo, reprinted at Amsterdam in 
 1787.— Bing. Univ. 
 
 TURRETINI (Benedict) a Protestant di- 
 vine, born at Zurich in 1588. He studied at 
 Geneva, where he was appointed professor of 
 theology in 1612; and he died in 1631, after 
 having published a great number of theologi- 
 cal dissertations, sermons, &c. of which a list 
 is given by Senebier, in Hist. Litt. de Geneve. 
 — TuRRiriNi (Francis) son of Benedict, born 
 in 1623, followed the same career with his fa- 
 ther. After studying at Geneva and Leyden, 
 lie went to Paris, to hear the philosophical 
 lectures of Gassendi. Returning to Geneva, 
 he was admitted to the ministry ; and having 
 refused the chair of jdiilosophy he officiated 
 for some time as pastor of a Ca'vinist church 
 at Lyons. In 1653 he was invited to accept 
 the theological professorship at Geneva, which 
 he held till his death in 1687. He published 
 a volume of sermons and many tracts, theolo- 
 gical and controversial, besides his " Insti- 
 tutiones Theologite J^lenchticJB," 1679 — 85, 
 S vols. 4to, a work still held in estimation. — 
 TuRRFTiN! (John Alphonso) son of the fore- 
 going, the most celebrated of all the members 
 of his family, was bom at Geneva in 1671. 
 
 TUS 
 
 Having finished Lis studies in divinity, in 1691 
 he travelled for improvement; and after visit- 
 ing England, Holland, and France, and becom- 
 ing acquainted with the learned in those coun- 
 tries, he returned home, and was admitted to 
 the evangelical ministry in 1694, and aggre- 
 gated to the society of pastors in the following 
 year. In 1697 he became the first professor 
 of ecclesiastical history at Geneva, and in 1705 
 professor of theology, both which offices he 
 held during the remainder of his life. He was 
 not less distinguished for his liberality than for 
 his learning and abilities ; and besides engag- 
 ing with Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 some German divines, in schemes for a re- 
 union among Protestants, he assisted in ob- 
 taining a dispensation from signing the formu- 
 lary of faith called Consensus, to which the 
 Genevan clergy had been subjected. Among 
 his principal works are " Pyrrhonismus Pon- 
 tificius," 1692, designed as an antidote to the 
 celebrated Bossuet's Variations des Eglises 
 Protestantes ; " Nubes Testium pro moderate 
 et pacifico in Rebus Theologicis Judicio Pin:!- 
 missa est Disquisitio de Articulis fundanienta- 
 libus," 1719, 4to ; " HistoricB Ecclesiastical 
 Compendium, a Ch. N. usque ad an. 1700," 
 1734, 8vo ; Commentaries on the Epistles to 
 the Thessalonians, and the Epistle to the Ro- 
 mans ; Sermons ; and numerous academical 
 Discourses and Dissertations. Professor Tur- 
 retini died in 1737. His works were published 
 collectively at Leeuwarden, 1775, 3 vols. 4to. 
 — Jikin's Gen. Biocr. Bio^. Univ. 
 
 TURSELIN (Horace) a learned and in- 
 defatigable Italian Jesuit, was born at Rome 
 in 1545. He entered into the society of 
 Jesus in 1562, and was for twenty years pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric in that capital. He was also 
 successively rector of the seminary at Rome, 
 and of the colleges of Florence and Loretto 
 He died in 1599. Turselin was the author of 
 several works written in elegant Latin, the 
 principal of which are " De Vita Francisci 
 Xavierii," 1594, often reprinted and trans- 
 lated into French and Italian ; " Historia 
 Lauretana," or History of the Ilouse of Lo- 
 retto, also often reprinted, and probably edi- 
 fying to good Catholics, as it was translated 
 into French, Italian, and Spanish ; " De Par- 
 ticulis Latinae Orationis," a treatise in great 
 esteem ; and " Epitome Historiarum," an 
 abridgment of universal history, 1598; a 
 French translation of the latter work, which 
 has little merit beyond its style, by the abbe 
 Lagneau, is enriched with useful and copious 
 notes. — Tirahoschi. Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 Tl'SSER ^Thomas) an English georgical 
 poet of the sixteenth century, was born about 
 the year 1515 at Hivenhall near William in 
 Essex. At an early age he was sent, much 
 against his will, to a music school, and was 
 fir?t a chorister in the collegiate chapel of the 
 castle of Wallingford, and afterwards at St 
 Paul's cathedral, where he attained a consider- 
 able proficiency in mjisic under the able or- 
 ganist John Redford. J'rom St Paul's he was 
 sent to Eton, and thence to King's college, 
 Cambridge. He however soon quitted the 
 
TWE 
 
 aniversity, and was employed most likely in 
 a musical capacity at court, tlirou{:;li the pa- 
 tronage of lord Pa^iTet. After a residence in 
 I ondon of ten years he married, and took a 
 farm in Surt'ulk, vvlure lie composed a book on 
 Jiusbandry, which he ])ublish»^il in lo.)7, ami 
 dedicaU'd to his patron. lie huljse(|ueniiy 
 endured considerable vicissitudes, sometimes 
 as a chorister and at others as a farmer, until 
 his death in London, about 1;>8(). I usser's 
 " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry," 
 which is an amplification of the work already 
 mentioned, has induced Googe and others to 
 rank him with Columella and Palladius, but 
 Stillingt^eet regards him as exhibiting more re- 
 semblance to Hesiod. The best editions are 
 those of 1.580 and 1 J85, which are very rare ; 
 but in 181^ Ur INIavor published a new edi- 
 tion, with copious notes, a biographical sketch, 
 and a glossary. — Life by Mavor. Cenmtra Li- 
 te) aria. 
 
 'i UTCHIN (John) a political writer about 
 the period of the Revolution, distinguished for 
 the virulence of his style and the boldness of 
 bis opposition to the ruling powers both in 
 church and state. At the time of IMonmouth's 
 rebellion he published a jjamphlet in his fa- 
 vour, and being arrested among his partizans, 
 he was tried before judge Jefferies, who sen- 
 tenced him to be whipped through all the prin- 
 cipal market towns in the west of England. 
 He petitioned the king that this sentence 
 might be commuted for hanging ; and being 
 seized with some dangerous disease in prison» 
 he was at length pardoned. On the death of 
 James II he wrote an invective against the un- 
 fortunate monarch, which subjected the author 
 to the merited contempt of all parties, lie 
 commenced a paper called "The Observator," 
 on the 1st of April, 170!*; ; and he was also the 
 author of poetry, and a play called " The Un- 
 fortunate Shepherd," 1685, 8vo. He died in 
 the Mint (prison) Southwark, September '23, 
 1707. Pope lias noted Tutchin in his Dun- 
 ciad ; and some particulars relating to him 
 are preserved in the works of Swift, and in 
 Bowles's edition of Pope. — Bii>g. Dram. 
 
 TWEDDELL (John) an accomplislied 
 scholar and traveller, was born June 1, 1769, 
 at Threepwood, near Hexham in Northumber- 
 land, where his father, Francis Tweddell, esq. 
 acted as a magistrate. He was educated in 
 the first instance at Harforth school in York- 
 shire, next under Dr Parr, and lastly at Trinity 
 college, Cambridge, where he obtained a fel- 
 lowship in" 1792. He distinguished himself 
 very much at the university for his composi- 
 tions, which repeatedly gained prizes, and 
 were pubHshed by him in 179-1, under the 
 title of " Prolusiones Juveniles." On quilting 
 the university he became a student in the 
 Middle Temple, but subsequently resolved to 
 travel with a view to accomplish himself for 
 diplomacy. After remaining abroad nearly 
 four years, having explored Switzerland, »he 
 north of Europe, and various parts of the 
 East, he died prematurely at Athens on the 
 2.5th of July 1799. As it was known that he 
 bad amassei large materials with a view to 
 
 T W V 
 
 publication, the learned wor.d anxiously ox- 
 j>ect<Hl the fruits of his labours ; but unfortu- 
 nately, although his manuscripts were officially 
 placed in the custody of the 15rili»h atnba«- 
 ."ador at Constantinople, none of them, not- 
 witlistanding th<'ir earnest entjuiriea, have ever 
 come to the hands of Ida anxious fnendM. A 
 volume of his remains, consisting of a selec- 
 tion from liis letters, a republication of his 
 " Prolusiones .luveniles," and a memoir, ap- 
 peared in 181.5, edited by his brother, the 
 rev. Robert Tweddell. — Memoir -prefixed to Re- 
 mains. British Critic, vol. v. X.S. 
 
 rWELivS (Lronard) a learned divine, 
 was educated at Jesus college, Cambridge, 
 where he proceeded BA. in 1701. He l^-came 
 vicar of St Mary, Marlborough, where he 
 wrote •' A Critical Examination of the late 
 new Text and \'ersion of the Testament in 
 Greek and English," the object of which wag 
 to prove the incorrectness of the version al- 
 luded to. For this jmblication he was ho- 
 noured by the university of Oxford with the 
 degree of MA. In 1737 he was presented to 
 the rectory of St INIatthew, Friday-street, and 
 St Peter's, Cheap, in London, and also was 
 made a prebendary of St Paul's, and chosen 
 lecturer of St Dunslan's in the West. His 
 other works are " A Vindication of the Gos- 
 pel of St Matthew," 8vo ; " An Answer to 
 the Enquiry into the Meaning of the Demo- 
 niacs ;" and a " Life of Dr Pocock." — Nichols's 
 Lit. Aner. 
 
 TWISS (Richard) an English tourist, who 
 died at an advanced age in IBJl. Jieing a 
 man of fortune, he thought proper to indulge 
 his curiosity by travelling, and after taking a 
 journey to Scotland, he went to the continent, 
 and successively visited Holland, the Nether- 
 lands, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, 
 and Piohemia. He spent several years in tra- 
 velling tlirouglj these countries, and returned 
 to England in 1770. Two years after he took 
 a voyage to Portugal and Spain, and in 1773 
 he went to Ireland. At the period of the 
 Revolution he revisited France, and returning 
 home he devoted the latter part of his life to 
 literature and the arts, particularly music. 
 His works are " Travels through Spain and 
 Portugal, in 177i? and 1773," 177.5, 4to. trans- 
 lated into French and German ; " A Tour in 
 Ireland in 177.5," 1776, 8vo, in whit h the 
 freedom of the author's animadrersionn pro* 
 voked the wrath of the Hibernians, and occa- 
 sioned the publication of " An Heroic Epistle 
 from Donna Teresa Pinna y Ruiz of Murcia, 
 to R.Twiss, with Notes by Himself," Dublin, 
 1776, 8vo ; " Anecdotes of the Game of 
 Chess ;" " A Trip to Paris in July and Au- 
 gust, 179'2," 1793, «vo; and " Miscellanifs," 
 180.5, "■> vols. 8vo. — Cent. Mn(;. /^i>ir. L'liir. 
 
 TWVNE (John) one of a family of Ox- 
 ford antiquaries, was the sr>n of sir Brian 
 Twyne, of Lons Parish, Hants, knight, and 
 was born at Rolingdon. in the same county. 
 He was educated at New Inn-hall, Oxford, 
 and after he left the university, was appointed 
 master of the free grammar-school at Canter- 
 bury, and iu loo3 became mayor of that an- 
 
T YC 
 
 cient cjty. He acquired property, and was 
 held in great esteem as an antiquary, but Tan- 
 ner has much lowered his character by pro- 
 ducing a record dated 1560, which shows tliat 
 be was formally ordered to abstain from riot 
 and drunkenness. He died at an advanced 
 age, November SJ4, 1581, leaving a posthu- 
 mous work, which appeared in 1590, under 
 the title " De Rebus Albionicis, Britannicis 
 atque Anglicis Commentariorum, Libri duo," 
 8vo. Mia MSS. were given by his grandson 
 to the library of Corpus Christi college, Ox- 
 ford. — The aforesaid grandson, Bryan Twvne, 
 was born in 1579, and became a scholar of 
 Corpus Christi college, where he obtained a 
 fellowship, and was appointed Greek reader. 
 He afterwards was presented to the rectory 
 of Rye in Sussex, and made keeper of the ar- 
 chives at Oxford, where he died in 1644. He 
 was author of " Antiquitatis Academi:ii Oxo- 
 niensis Apologia," 4to, a very credulous per- 
 formance. He also left large collections rela- 
 tive to the history of the university. — Athen. 
 Oxon. 
 
 TWYSDEN (sir Roger) the second ba- 
 ronet of the family, of Roydon-hall, East 
 Peckham, Kent, was bom in 1597. He re- 
 ceived a learned education, and becoming an 
 excellent antiquary, assisted Philpot in his 
 Survey of Kent. He suftered severely for his 
 attachment to the royal cause, for which he 
 endured a personal confinement of seven 
 years, besides being under the necessity of 
 compounding for his estate. The appearance 
 of the " Decem Scriptores," with other col- 
 lections, was chiefly owing to his endeavours. 
 He also wrote a book entitled "The Historical 
 Defence of the Church of England." He died 
 in 1672!. — Colimss Baronetage. 
 
 TYCHSEN (Glaus) professor of the 
 Oriental tongues at Rostock, was born in the 
 duchy of Sleswick in 1734. He studied at 
 the gymnasium of Altona, where he not only 
 acquired a knowledge of classical learning, 
 but also became acquainted with the Hebrew 
 and Arabic languages, previously to his re- 
 moval to the university of Haile. There he 
 added to his acquirements a knowledge of 
 the English, the Hindustani and Tamul Ian- 
 guages, which he was taught by the ex-mis- 
 sionary B. Schuk ; and the Ethiopic, which 
 he studied under the professor J. H. Michaelis. 
 Thus qualified he was employed by a society 
 for the conversion of the Jews and IMaho- 
 nutans, and in 1759 and 1760, he traversed 
 various parts of the north of Germany, Prus- 
 sia, Denmark, and Saxony, on this mission. 
 Soon after he was appointed adjunct at the 
 newly founded university of Butzow, where 
 he obtained tlie professorship of the Oriental 
 languages in 1763. Ibis establishment being 
 sui)j)ressed, and reunited to the university of 
 Rostock in 1789, the library which had been 
 founded by professor Tychsen, and of which 
 he had been keeper since 1770, was removed 
 to Rostock, and still committed to his care. 
 He was subsequently chosen a member of se- 
 veral learned societies ; and his death took 
 placo December 30, 1815. His works are 
 
 T Y N 
 
 numerous, including "Tentamen de variis Co- 
 dicum Hebraicorum Vet. Test. INISS. Generi- 
 bus," 1772, 8vo ; " Introductio in Rem Nu- 
 mariam Muhammedanoruin," 1794, 8vo, with 
 a Supplement; " Pbysiologus Syrus, sive His- 
 toria Animalium XXX H, in S. S. memorato- 
 rum, Syriace," 1795, 8vo ; tracts on Samaritan 
 coins ; on the nail-headed characters of Per- 
 sepolis; and editions in Arabic and Latin of 
 IMakrizi's works on the money and ou the 
 weights and measures of the •Mahometans. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 TYE (CninsTcrPHEn) an eminent clmrch 
 composer, was preceptor in music to prince 
 Edward, afterwards Edward VI. He was ad- 
 mitted a doctor of music at Cambridge in 
 1545, and was incorporated a member of the 
 university of Oxford in 1543. In the reign 
 of Elizabeth he was organist of the chajiel 
 royal, where, according to Anthony Wood, he 
 made so free with the queen, as, in answer to 
 a message that he was out of tune, to observe 
 that her own ears were in fault. According 
 to the same writer he did much to restore 
 church music after it had been nearly rumed 
 by the dissolution of the monasteries ; and 
 Dr Burney mentions with great applause his 
 clear and masterly manner of comj)osing fur 
 the church service in Latin. In the reign of 
 Edward he translated the first fourteen chap- 
 ters of the Acts into metre, and set them to 
 music, the poetry, which closely resembled 
 that of Sternhold, being rendered still more 
 ridiculous by the elaborate nature of the mu- 
 sic, which consisted of fugues and canons of 
 the most complicated and artificial kind. He 
 died about 1590. — Burney' s Hist, of Music. 
 Hawkins's Hist, of Music. 
 
 TYERS (Thomas) a miscellaneous writer, 
 was one of the two sons of Jonathan Tyers, 
 the original embellisher of Vauxhall gardens. 
 He was born in 1726, and being intended for 
 one of the learned professions, was sent very 
 early to Exeter college, Oxford, where he gra- 
 duated IMA. in his nineteenth year. In 1753 
 he was admitted a student of the Inner 
 Temple, but never follovveil the legal j)rofes- 
 sion, possessing a handsome fortune, and a 
 share in Vauxhall gardens, which enabled him 
 to live at his ease. He was a great lover of 
 literature, and intimate with Dr Johnson and 
 most of the eminent men of the day, but he 
 published only ** Rhapsodies on Pope and 
 Addison ;" " Political Conferences ;" and cer- 
 tain pastoral and lyrical pieces for A'auxhall. 
 He died February 1, 1787, in his sixty -first 
 year. — KicltoWs lAt. Auec. 
 
 TYNDALE (WiLLrAM) also named Hit- 
 chins, a learned martyr to the Reformation, 
 was born in the year 1500, somewhere near 
 the borders of Wales. Of his family there is 
 no account, but he was learnedly educated, 
 and placed atJMagdalen college, Oxford, where 
 he imbibed the doctrines of Luther. Bearing 
 an excellent character for morals and diligence, 
 he was admitted a canon of Wolsey's new col- 
 lege of Christfehurch, but his principles be- 
 coming known, lie was subsequently ejected. 
 Ha then withdrew to Cambiid^^e, where he 
 
T Y R 
 
 took a degree, and soon after went to reside as 
 tutor in the family of sir John Welch in 
 Gloucestershire. While in this caj)acity lie 
 translated Erasmus's " Enchiriilion IMilitis 
 Christiani " into English ; but in conseciuente 
 of his openness as to his opinions, articles were 
 preferred against him before the chancellor of 
 the diocese, and after receiviuj^ a reprimand 
 lie came to London, and preached at St IJun- 
 stan's in the West. Having obtained the pa- 
 tronage of sir Henry Ciuildford, to whom he 
 presented a translation of an oration of Iso- 
 crates, that courtier recommended him to Tun- 
 stall, bishoj) of Durham, which recommenda- 
 tion was not however attended to, and he ac- 
 cepted of a retreat in the house of an alder- 
 man of London, where he assiduously em- 
 ployed liimself in preparing an English ver- 
 sion of the New Testament. England not 
 being a place where such a work, could with 
 safety be effected, he was enabled, by a small 
 annuity, to proceed to Saxony, where he was 
 introduced to Luther and other reformers. 
 He thence proceeded to Antwerp, where, with 
 the assistance of John Fry, and one Roye, a 
 friar, he completed his work, which was 
 printed in that city in 152-6, 8vo, without a 
 name. Of the fifteen hundred copies printed, 
 the greater part were sent to England, which 
 produced great alarm among the church dig- 
 nitaries, and the prelates Warham and Tunstall 
 collected all they could seize or purchase, and 
 committed them to the flames. By this means 
 Tyndale was enabled to print another edition, 
 which was circulated very widely ; and in con- 
 junction with IMiles Coverdale he commenced 
 translating the Pentateuch, and subsequently 
 the prophecy of Jonas, which formed the 
 whole of liis labours ou the Scriptures, although 
 others have been ascribed to him. He then 
 returned to Antwerp, where he took up his 
 residence with an English merchant named 
 Pointz. The detestable spirit of the times 
 would not however leave a heretic unmolested 
 even in another country, and Henry YHl and 
 liis slavish council employed a wretch of tlie 
 name of Phillips to betray Tyndale to the em- 
 peror's procurator, who obtained possession of 
 liis person, and in 1.536 he was brought to 
 trial upon the emperor's decree, at Augsburgh, 
 where he was condemned to the stake, which 
 sentence he quietly endured, being first stran- 
 gled and then burnt. His last words were 
 " Lord, open the king of England's eyes!" 
 Thus perished a man of the most blameless 
 life and manners, simply for facilitating to 
 Christians the perusal of a book which is the 
 foundation of their religion. Besides his 
 translations he wrote other pieces, which were 
 collected and printed with those of Fryth 
 and Barnes's work, f)lio, 1.572. Dr Geddes 
 thinks very highly of Tyndale's translation of 
 the Scripture, although not a perfect one, and 
 considers that in point of perspicuity and 
 noble simplicity of idiom, it has never been 
 surpassed. — Biog, Brit. 
 
 TYRANNIC, an eminent Greek gramma- 
 rian, was a native of Amissa in the kingdom 
 of Poatus When LucuUus defeated iMithri- 
 
 T VR 
 
 dates and tubdued bis kingdom, BC. 70, Ty- 
 rannio bccanic a captive, but was relcaued by 
 IMura-'na. He was taken to Rome, where he 
 set up a Hchool, and rendered himself eminent 
 among the friends of literature. He wa:^ very 
 serviceable to ('icero in putting his library in 
 order, ami was the instructor of that great 
 orator'n son and nephew. He became ricli, 
 and collected a library of thirty thousand vo- 
 lumes. Literature is indebted to I'yrannio for 
 the preservation of many of the writings of 
 Aristotle and ThHophrastus, which, after se- 
 veral changes, had fallen into the hands of 
 Sylia, from whose library he procured them, 
 and afterwards imparted them to Amlronicua 
 of Rhodes. • Tyrannio was an author, but 
 none of liis works have reached modern times. 
 — iMoreri. 
 
 T\ RRELL (James) historian and poli- 
 tical writer, was the ehlest son of sir Timothy 
 Tyrrell, knight, of Shotover near Oxford, by 
 Elizabeth, tlie only daughter of archbishop 
 Usher. He was born in London in 1612, and 
 in 1657, was admitted of (Queen's college, Ox- 
 ford. On quitting the university he entered 
 himself a student in the Inner Temple ; and 
 in 1666 was called to the bar, although he 
 never practised professionally, but lived stu- 
 diously as a private gentleman on his estate in 
 Buckinghamshire. In 1681 he published an 
 answer to the patriarchal scheme of sir Robert 
 Filmer, under the title of " Patriarcha non 
 Monarcha, or the Patriarch unmasked." He 
 was struck out of the commission of the peace 
 by James II, for refusing to aid in the mea- 
 sures in favour of the Catholic religion. He 
 heartily concurred in tlie Revolution, in sup- 
 port of which he published fourteen Politi- 
 cal Dialogues, published from 1692 to 1695, 
 which he subsequently collected into a folio 
 publication, which he called " Bibliotheca 
 Politica." He also drew up an abridgment of 
 Dr Cumberland's •' De Legibus Naturas," 
 which he entitled " A Brief Disquisition of the 
 Law of Nature, according to the Principles 
 laid down in the Rev. Dr Cumberland's Latin 
 Treatise on that subject." The bishop's ap- 
 probation was prefixed, and a second edition, 
 corrected and enlarged, appeared in 1701. iMr 
 Tyrrell's principal performance, however, was 
 his " General History of England," which he 
 intended to bring down to the Revolution, 
 but only completed to the conclusion of that 
 of Richard II, in 5 vols, folio, 1700 — 1704, 
 The chief merit of this work consists in the 
 copious translations from the old English his- 
 torians and their me'hodical arrangement, so 
 as to afford comparative reviews of their dif- 
 ferent accounts. ILmkc, although not so agree- 
 able to the reader as histories otherwise com- 
 posed, it possesses an intrinsic value ; several 
 mistakes, however, have been detected in these 
 translations. In other respects its political 
 purpose ajipears to have been to confute the 
 leading doctrine in that of Dr Brady, who 
 contends that all the liberties of the people of 
 England were concessions from their kings, and 
 that the representation of the Commons did 
 not exist until the i9th of Henry 111. Mi 
 
T YR 
 
 Tyrrel died in 1718 in his seventy-sixtli year. 
 —Biog. Brit, Athen. Oxon. vol. ii. 
 
 ITllTyEUS, au ancient Greek poet, cele- 
 Drated for bis martial strains, is said to have 
 been a native of Miletus, who settled at Athens 
 in the capacity of poet, musician, and school- 
 master. He is described as being short, lame, 
 and blind of one eye ; but he possessed a manly 
 aud elevated soul. In the war between the 
 Lacedemonians and INIessenians, the former 
 were promised victory by the oracle, if they 
 obtained a general from Athens. The Athe- 
 nians, it is supposed in derision, sent them 
 Tyrtaeus, who so animated the Spartans by his 
 spirited strains, and aided tliem so effectually 
 by Ids advice, that the Messenians were re- 
 duced to subjection. For these services the 
 Spartans treated him with great respect, and 
 granted him the rights of citizenshij). The 
 war poems of Tyrtaeus must have been in high 
 repute, as Horace joins him with Homer in 
 that department. He also composed " Moral 
 Precepts," and a work " On the Policy of the 
 Lacedemonians." Some fragments of his war 
 poems remain, which are characterised by their 
 masculine simplicity. They have been pub- 
 lished with the other minor Greek poets. — 
 Vossii Poet. Grcec. Moreri. U)iii\ Hist. 
 
 TYRWHITT (Thomas) a profound scho- 
 lar and distinguished critic, who was the son 
 of the rector of St James's, Westminster, and 
 was bom in 1730. He was educated at Eton 
 school and Queen's college, Oxford, where he 
 took his degrees, and in 1755 he obtained a 
 fellowship at Merton. He was acquainted with 
 almost all the European languages, as well as 
 those of classical antiquity. In 1756 he was 
 appointed under-secretary in the war depart- 
 ment ; and in 176'-2 he succeeded IVIr Dyson as 
 clerk of the house of Commons. This office 
 he resigned in 1768, and the remainder of his 
 life was devoted to study. He became a fellow 
 of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and 
 also one of the curators of the Britisli Museum. 
 His death look place August 15, 1786. Mr 
 'iyrwiiitt published a valuable edition of " Tbe 
 Canterbury Tales of Chaucer, with a Glos- 
 sary," 1778, 5 vols. 8vo, reprinted, Oxford, 
 1798, 2 vols. 4to ; " Dissertatio de Babrio 
 (Gabri'E) Fabularum ^sopearum Scriptore ; 
 .nseru-itur Fabuhe qu?edam ^sopeae numquam 
 antehac edits, ex Cod. MS. Bodleiano ; acce- 
 dit Babrii (Gabrite) Fragmenta," Lond. 1776, 
 8vo ; *' Auctarium Dissertationis de Babrio ad- 
 iecit Til. Tyrwhitt sua Orphei de Lapidibus 
 Edit." 1781, 8vo ; Rowley's (Chatterton's) 
 Poems, with a Preface and Glossary, 8vo ; 
 "Vindication of the Appendix to the Poems 
 called Rowley's Poems, in reply to the Ans- 
 wers of tlie Dean of Exeter, Jacob Bryant, 
 Esq. and a third anonymous Writer, with some 
 further Observations on these Poems, and an 
 examination of the Evidence wliich has been 
 produced in support of their Authenticity ;" 
 besidis Poems in English and Latin, which 
 were Lis earliest productions. Mr Tvrwhitt 
 likewise left materials for a new edition of the 
 Poetics of Aristotle, which was printed at Ox- 
 ford in 1794, 4to aud 8vo, under the euperin- 
 
 TY T 
 
 tendance of Dr Burgess, now bishop of Salii- 
 bury, and Dr Randolph, afterwards bishop of 
 London. — Aikin's Gen. Bios. 
 
 J'YSON (Edwaud) an able physician, was 
 a native of Somersetshire, where he was born 
 in 1649. He was admitted a commoner of 
 Magdalen-hall, Oxford, in 1667 ; aud after 
 graduating MA. he embraced the profession 
 of physician. He was early made a member 
 of the Royal Society, and proceeded M D. at 
 Cambridge in 1680. He was a very skilful 
 anatomist and ingenious writer, as appears by 
 his essays in the Philosophical Transactions. 
 He published " The Anatomy of a Porpoise, 
 dissected at Gresham College," London, 1680; 
 " The Anatomy of a Pigmy compared with 
 that of a INIonkey, an Ape, and a Man," Lon- 
 don, 4to ; and a " Philosophical Essay on the 
 Pigmies of the Ancients." He was physician 
 to the hospitals of Bridewell and Bethlehem at 
 the time of his death, which took place Au- 
 gust 1, 1708. — Athen. Oxon. 
 
 TYSSENS (Peter) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp in 1625, whose excellence in his- 
 torical composition has procured him a repu- 
 tation almost equal to that of Rubens. The 
 love of gain, however, induced him to forsake 
 history for portrait-painting ; but he applied 
 himself again to the former with great success. 
 He painted the Assumption, for the altar of 
 the Virgin, in the church of St James at 
 Antwerp, and many pictures for different 
 churches in Flanders, which have been 
 much and deservedly admired. He displays 
 boldness of conception, freedom of colour- 
 ing, and accuracy of execution, being well 
 acquainted with architecture and perspec- 
 tive. In 1661 he was director of the Aca- 
 demy of Painting at Antwerp ; and he died 
 
 in 1692. — Tyssens ( ) born at Antwerp 
 
 about 1660, and supposed to liave been a son 
 of the preceding, became eminent as a painter 
 of birds. He travelled in Italy, Germany, and 
 Holland, and at length settled in England, 
 where he died. — Tyssens (Augi'stin) bro- 
 ther of the foregoing, was born about 1659. 
 He was a landscape painter, and executed 
 pieces with cattle in the style of Berghem ; 
 and in 1691 he was director of the academy 
 of Antwerp. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 TYTLER (Henry Wxt.liam) a Scottish 
 })hysician, who died at Edinburgh, Augu'Jt i34, 
 1808, at the age of fifty-six. He distinguished 
 himself principally as a poetical translator, 
 and published the Hymns of Calliniachus, from 
 the Greek ; the Coma Berenices, from the La- 
 tin of Catullus ; the Poem on the Punic War, 
 from the Latin of Silius Iialicus ; Pa?dotrophia, 
 or the Art of jNursing and Rearing Children, 
 a poem in three books, from the Latin of St 
 Marthe, with medical and historical Botes, and 
 the life of the author, 8vo ; besides " The 
 Voyage Home from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 with other Poems relating to the Cape, and 
 N'otes," 1804, 4to. — Biog.^Univ. 
 
 TYTLER, MA. (James) a person of emi- 
 nent abilities and of a singular character, 
 born at Brechin in the county of Forfar in 
 Scotland, in 1747. He first made himseJf 
 
r YT 
 
 known in the literary world by the })ublication 
 of " Essays on the most important Subjects of 
 Natural ami Kevealftl Keligion," J'-cliuL)urub, 
 177'-2, 8vo. riiis work was piinteil by ibe 
 author himself, at a pret^s which he liail erecteil 
 for the jiurpose within tlie privilet;ed pretincts 
 of Iloivrooil house, wbere he hail .so-ight refuse 
 from his creditors. It had also the pecidiarity 
 of beiny; printed as the ideas arose in tlie mind 
 of tlie autlior, who had no manuscript or notes 
 whatever. He afterwards jiroilucfd, in the 
 same manner, " A Letter to Mr. J. Barclay, on 
 the Doctrine of Assurance." In 1780 he com- 
 menced the publication of a periodical ])aper, 
 called " The Weekly Mirror ; and in 1786 he 
 published at Glasgow " The Observer," an- 
 other hebdomadal paper, comprehending a 
 series of essays, extending to twenty-six num- 
 bers, folio. Among his many other produc- 
 tions may be memioned " A System of Geo- 
 graphy."' 1788, 8vo; *' A History of Edin- 
 burgh," 12mo ; " A Geographical, Historical, 
 and Commercial Grammar," 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 " Remarks on Pinkerton's Introduction to the 
 History of Scotland," 8vo ; a Poetical Trans- 
 lation of Virgil's Eclogues, 4to , " The Histo- 
 rical Register," a periodical work ; " The 
 Gentleman and Lady's Magazine ;" and " The 
 Weekly Review." He is also said to have 
 been the principal conductor of the second edi- 
 tion of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in which 
 he wrote many of the scientific treatises, and 
 almost all the minor articles. He had also 
 (according to Dr Watt) the sole merit of pro- 
 jecting and executing the original Encyclopje- 
 dia, published in 3 vols. 4to, by C. M'Far- 
 quhar. Numerous articles of his composition 
 are likewise scattered in various periodical pub- 
 lications ; and he also wrote several poetical 
 pieces, among which is a ballad entitled "The 
 Pleasures of the Abbey," (Holyrood-house.) 
 This eccentric and laborious, but apparently 
 imprudent and unfortunate retainer of litera- 
 ture, died in America in 1805. — Watt's Bibl. 
 Brit. 
 
 TYTLER (William) an historical and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Edinburgli in 1711. 
 He received his education at the high school 
 and the university of that city, and adopting 
 the legal profession he became a writer to the 
 signet, or solicitor, which profession he exer- 
 cised till his death, which took place in I79'i. 
 He was an active member and one of the vice 
 presidents of the Edinburgh Antiquarian So- 
 ciety, to whose Transactions he was a contri- 
 butor ; but he is chietly known as the author 
 of " A Historical and Critical Inquiry into 
 the Evidence produced against Mary Queen of 
 Scots, and an Examination of the Histories of 
 Dr Robertson and IMr Hume with respect to j 
 
 TZE 
 
 that Evidence," 1759. 1767, Svo, 4th edit. 
 Lond. 17 90, 2 vol«. 8vo, with lar;»e additioud. 
 Mr Tyller also publiahed " The Pot>ucai Re- 
 uiains of James 1 of Scotland, cou8l»liIl^,' of 
 the King's Quair, iu bix Cantoa, and Chri.-l'u 
 Kirk on the Green, to which is pridixed a Dib- 
 sertation on the Life and Wriiinj^a of King 
 James," i:duib, 178.>, Uvo ; and a" Disser- 
 tation on Scottibh Music." A memoir of W. 
 lythr, by H. Mackenzie, may be fcjuiid in llie 
 I'lansactiuna of the Ro^al Society of Edin- 
 burgh, vol. iv. TvTI.fcU, (Am.xanl.kii Fua- 
 
 SKii) loril Woodhouselee, one of the benators 
 of the college of juhtice in Scotland, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Kdinburgh in 1747, 
 and died in 18i;3. He published " The De- 
 cisions of the Court of Session, from its first 
 Institution to the jiresent Time, abridged and 
 digested under proper Heads, in the form of a 
 Dictionary," 1778, folio, 1797, ti vols, folio. 
 Having been elected professor of history at 
 Edinburgh, he j)rinted in 1783, " Outlines of 
 a Course of Lectures on Universal History," 
 8vo, which was followed by his most })opiilar 
 work, " Jdements of General History, ancient 
 and modern," 2 vols. Bvo. Among the other 
 works of lord Woodhouselee are " Memoirs 
 of the Life and Writings of the Hon. H. 
 Home, Lord Karnes, containing Sketches of 
 the Progress of Literature and general Im- 
 provement in Scotland in the Eighteentli Cen- 
 tury," 1807, 2 vols. 4to, with a Supplement, 
 1810, 4to ; " An Historical and Critical Essay 
 on the Life of Petrarch, with a Translation of 
 a few of his Sonnets," Lond. 1810, 8vo ; and 
 " An Essay on the Princ-ijjies of Translation," 
 8vo. Memoirs of his life, by the rev. A. Ali- 
 son^ were published in the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii. part i'. 
 — Chulniens Bii><r. Diet. Wutts's Bihl. Brit. 
 
 TZETZES (John) a Greek poet and gram- 
 marian of the twelfth century, was famous in 
 his time for a variety of acquisitions and a 
 prodigious memory. He was the author of 
 " Allegories on Homer," which he dedicated 
 to Irene, wife of the emperor Michael Coni- 
 nenus ; and also of " iMiscellaneous Histories," 
 in thirteen chiliads, composed in the lax mea- 
 sure called political or popular verse. Some 
 of his poetry, which is at once insipid and ar- 
 rogant, is contained in a collection, jirinted at 
 Rome by Arsenius. He was more respectable 
 as a critic, and gave useful scholia on Hesiod. 
 His " Allegories " were publisheil by Morel, 
 Paris, 8vo, lolli, and his Histories or t'hiliada 
 at Basle, folio. l.")46. — Isaac i /ktz»s, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, published learned coui* 
 mentaries on Lycophron, wbii h aie insttiid 
 in Potter's edition of that obscure aiititnt.— 
 Baillett Moreri. 
 
U Dl 
 
 UT r 
 
 UBALDINO (Petruccio) a Florentine 
 artist, eminent in the sixteenth century 
 for the beauty and elegance of his illumina- 
 tions on vellum. Arriving in this country, he 
 derived ereat encouraoement from Elizaheth, 
 who then filled the English throne. One of 
 the finest specimens of his art was preserved 
 in the library at Gorhambury, consisting of a 
 series of scriptural extracts executed for tiie 
 Indy Lumley. He is also known as an author, 
 and liis life of Charlemagne, which appeared 
 in 1581, in one volume, quarto, is said to have 
 been the first book printed in England, com- 
 posed in the Italian language. His other works 
 are a " Description of Scotland," folio, An- 
 twerp, 1588 ; and "The Lives of illustrious 
 Females of England and Scotland." 1591. 
 The precise date of his decease is uncertain. 
 Several of his performances are still to be 
 seen in the national collection at the British 
 IMuseura. — Walpole's Aiiec, 
 
 UDAL, the name of several learned and 
 ingenious persons, of whom the first on record 
 in point of time was Nicholas Udal, liead 
 master of the grammar-school of Westmin- 
 ster. He was a native of the county of Plants, 
 born soon after the commencement of the six- 
 teenth century, and received a university edu- 
 cation at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, of 
 which foundation he afterwards became fel- 
 low. Having taken orders, he was preferred 
 in succession to the livings of Braintree, Es- 
 sex, and Calbourne, in the Isle of Wight, be- 
 nefices which he held with the mastership of 
 Eton till his reputation as a pedagogue pro- 
 cured his removal to Westminster. INIr Udal 
 was an excellent classical scholar, and was the 
 author of more than one dramatic production, 
 composed, as was the fashion of his day, in 
 the Latin tongue, and also of some books of 
 instruction for youth. The latter are yet in 
 existence, but the former have perished. As 
 a schoolmaster he appears to have been the 
 Busby of his day. The time of his decease is 
 uncertain. — John Udal, a learned Orientalist 
 and good Biblical scholar, is known as the au- 
 thor of " A Key to the Holy Tongue," being 
 the first Hebrew grammar printed in England. 
 He was a rigid precisian, and having suffered 
 much persecution for his religious o])i!iions, 
 died at length in confinement in 1592. — 
 Ephraim Udal, son to the above-mentioned 
 John, graduated at Emanuel college, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1614, and obtained the living of St 
 Augustine in the city of London, which was 
 united after the great fire' in 1666, to that of 
 St Faith under St Paul's. He was the author 
 of a " Treatise on Sacrilege," and was alike 
 remarkable for the extent of bis learning and 
 the purity of his life and manners ; but his 
 attachment to the royal cause being equally 
 conspicuous, he was ejected by the parlia- 
 mentarian party from his living. His death 
 took place in 1647. — Walker*s Sufferings of the 
 Cler^ry. Wood's Athen. Oxon. 
 
 UDINA (Giovanni da) an Italian painter, 
 born in 1489, who was the disciple of Gior- 
 
 gione, and afterwards of Kaphael. He studied 
 the grotesque, and carried that branch of his 
 art to great perfection. Raphael invited liim 
 to Rome, and employed him in ornamenting 
 the \'atican. After the sack of Rome he vi- 
 sited various parts of Italy, where he left spe- 
 cimens of his talents, particularly in the pa- 
 lace Grlmani, which he painted for his patron, 
 the patriarch of Aquileia, in a manner which 
 has excited general admiration. He also 
 worked for the Medicis family at Florence, 
 and returning to Rome, he died there in 1562. 
 — Bioor. Univ. 
 
 UFFEMBACH (Zachary Conrad) a na- 
 tive of Frankfort, born 1683, and educated at 
 Rudelstadt, Strasburg, and Halle, in which 
 latter university he graduated in civil law. He 
 was the author of an " Historical Account of 
 Germany during the Middle Ages ;" " Se- 
 lections, historical and literary ;" and some 
 autobiographical memoirs of himself. As a 
 book-collector he was unrivalled in his day, 
 and at his death, which took place at Frank- 
 fort in 1734, left behind him one of the first 
 private libraries in Europe. — Chaiifepie. 
 
 UGHELLI (Ferdtnando) a Cistercian 
 monk of the seventeenth century, distinguished 
 for his learning, modesty, and other amiable 
 qualities. He was a native of Florence, born 
 1595, and rose to several offices of honour and 
 responsibility in his order. He is now prin- 
 cipally remembered as the author of a history 
 of the Papal States, first printed in 1662, in 
 nine folio volumes, under the title of " Italia 
 Sacra." This work was reprinteJ in 1772, 
 with an additional volume. Ughelli died at 
 Rome, abbot of the monastery of Trois Fon- 
 taines, in that capital. May 19, 1670. — Tira- 
 boschi, 
 
 UlLKENS (James Albert) a Dutch di- 
 vine and naturalist, born at Wierum, near 
 Groningen, in 1772. He passed through his 
 academical studies at Groningen with reputa- 
 tion, and in 1795 he took the degree of MD. 
 On proceeding doctor in philosophy, he sup- 
 ported an ingenious thesis " On the Nature 
 of the Atmosphere, and its Inlluence on the 
 Vegetable Kingdom;" and he afterwards pro- 
 duced an " Elementary Treatise on Physics," 
 for which he obtained the prize oflfered by a 
 learned society. This work became very po- 
 pular, and has been often printed. His " Dis- 
 course on the Perfections of the Creator con- 
 sidered in the Creature," 4 vols. 8vo, is ano- 
 ther valuable piece, as also are his " Memoir 
 on the Utility of Insects ;" and his " iManual 
 of Technology." In 18L5.he was chosen to 
 lill the newly established chair of rural eco- 
 nomy at Groningen, and in 1819 he published 
 a treatise on that subject. He died in 1825, 
 having written several other works besides 
 those which have been noticed. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 UlTEMBOGAERT (John) an Arminian 
 pastor, a native of Utrecht, born in 1557, 
 Having studied divinity at Geneva, under the 
 celebrated Theodore Beza, he returned in 1583 
 to his native city, and there took charge of 
 
U L L 
 
 the spiritual concerns of a congregation of re- 
 iiiotKstraiits, as tlie sect to wlucli he bdont^i'd 
 was tlien called in Ilollami. yXftera ministry 
 of eight years at Utrecht, he removed to the 
 Hague, wliere he })assed the next twenty years 
 of Ills life, and tlien actonijianu-d the embassy 
 from the States General to ilie court of Paris 
 in quality of its chaplain. On his return to 
 Holland he took a ])rominent ])art in the dis- 
 putes then raijin^ in the Low Countries be- 
 tween the Lutlierans and Calviuists, and 
 eventually found it advisable to retire from the 
 hostility of the latter party, lirst to Autwerj), 
 and eventually into Normandy. After a stay 
 of some continuance in the capital of that pro- 
 vince, during which the religious heats of the 
 opposing sects in his own country had in a 
 degree subsided, he returned once more to La 
 Hague, and died there in the year 164 k He 
 was the intimate friend of Episcopius, whom 
 he is considered to have exceeded in literary 
 acquirements, as much as he fell short of him 
 in genius. An " Ecclesiastical History," in 
 folio, written with much elegance and purity 
 of style, and an autobiographical sketch of his 
 own life, are all of his writings that have ap- 
 peared. — Aikin's G. Biog. 
 
 ULLOA (don Antonio de) a celebrated 
 Spanish mathematician and commander of the 
 order of St Jago, was born at Seville, January 
 12, 1716. He was brought up in the royal 
 marines, in which he obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-general. Havingmucli distinguished 
 himself as an engineer and man of science, he 
 was in 1735 joined in a commission with don 
 George Juan and others to measure a degree 
 of the meridian in Peru. He remained nearly 
 ten years in South America on this occasion, 
 and on his return to f^urope in 1745 he was 
 intercepted, and carried into an English port. 
 Here his talents and character recommended 
 him to INIartin Folkes, then president of the 
 Royal Society, of which he was elected a mem- 
 ber in the same year. On his return to Spain 
 he published his voyage to South America, 
 which was soon translated into German, French, 
 and English ; but the latter version, which ap- 
 peared in 1758, m '2 vols. 8vo, is miserably 
 garbled and inaccurate. He was afterwards 
 appointed by Ferdinand 111 to travel over Eu- 
 rope, to collect useful information in regard to 
 improvements in the arts, sciences, and agri- 
 culture, the result of which was very useful to 
 las country. He became the chief promoter 
 of the royal woollen manufactories ; newly or- 
 ganised the colleges of history and surgery ; 
 superintended and comjileted the basins at 
 Ferrol and Carthagena, and gave new activity 
 to the celebrated quicksilver-mines of Alma- 
 dan. In 1766 he was made governor of Louis- 
 iana, which had been ceded to Spain. In 1772 
 he published anotlier important work, entitled 
 " Entretenimientos Pbysico-Ilistoricos sobre 
 la America Meridionale, kc." 4to, which con- 
 tains some ingenious disquisitions on the peo- 
 pling of America. This eminent Spaniard, 
 who contributed several scientific papers to the 
 Royal Society, died in the Isle of Leon near 
 Ca^ha. on the 5th of July, 1795.— He must not 
 
 bioQ. oicT — Vol.. in. 
 
 U L V 
 
 j be confounded with don IhitSAno i>e Ui-loi. 
 a near relation, who publi.«ln d in 1740 an in- 
 teresting work " (Jn the Revival of the Mar.u- 
 factures and ('omnurce of Spain." — \oui. 
 Diet. Hist. I'lloa's Voiitijie. 
 I ULLOA V PLKEIKA (Lon, de) a Spa- 
 nish poet of the age of Ph,l,[, |\-, u;ih born at 
 'i'oro in the kingdom of I, eon ; ;,r,(i liaving the 
 good fortune to sec ure the friendHhij) of the 
 couiit-duke d'Olivarez, was raised by the pa- 
 tronage of that powerful minister from a com- 
 paratively humble rank in life to be governor 
 of his native province. His works, which con- 
 sist principally of miscellaneous poetry, ex- 
 hibit a pleasant vein of humour, while some of 
 a graver cast are by no means deficient in ele- 
 gance or pathos. 'I'here is an edition of them 
 in one quarto volume, printed at Madrid in 
 1674. His death took place in 1660. — An- 
 tonio Bihl. Uis])a)i. 
 
 ULPHILAS, a Gothic bishop, and the first 
 translator of a part of the I'.ible into that lan- 
 guage, flourished in the fourth century, and 
 obtained leave of the emperor Valens tliat the 
 Goths should reside in Thrace, on condition that 
 he himself embraced theArian faith. Little more 
 is known of him, tlian that he translated the 
 Evangelists, and perhaps some other books of 
 I the New Testament into the Gothic language, 
 which he achieved by inventing a new alpha- 
 bet of twenty-six letters. His translation is 
 now in the library at Upsal ; and there have 
 been three editions of it, the best of which ia 
 that of Mr Lye, printed at Oxford in 1750. 
 JMuch controversy has taken place with re- 
 gard to the authenticity and anticjuity of this 
 version, which has been increased by the dis- 
 covery of another ^^Titten fragment of the trans- 
 lation of Ulphilas, discovered in the library at 
 Wolfenbuttel, containing a portion of the 
 Epistle to the Romans. The latter has been 
 ])ublished by Knittel, archdeacon of ^Volfen- 
 buttel, who thinks that Ulphilas translated the 
 whole Bible. — 'Nonv. Diet. Hist. Saiii Onom. 
 ULPIANUS (DoMiTU's") an eminent law- 
 i yer, the tutor, friend, and minister of the em- 
 ! peror Alexander Severus. \N hen Alexander 
 I became emperor, one of his first acts was to 
 recal Ulpian, who had been exiled bv Helio- 
 ! gabalus, and to place him at the head of his 
 I council of state. He was also made secretary 
 I of state, and ultimately pretorian prefect. He 
 I lived in great rejmte for his wi«e and virtuous 
 administration, until the emperor, probably at 
 I liis suggestion, undertook the dangerous task 
 ' of reforming the army. The discontent of the 
 soldiery broke out into a mutiny, and Ulpian, 
 I pursued by a body of them, was massacred io 
 [ the presence of the emperor and his mother, 
 I in the year '228. Ulpian has obtained the 
 j praise of all the heathens, but the ChristianR 
 I accuse him of a determined enmity to their 
 sect, which he carried so far as to collect all 
 the edicts and decrees of the preceding sove- 
 reigns against them. There are remaining ot 
 Ulpian twenty-nine titles or fragments, which 
 are inserted in some of the editions of the civU 
 law. — Creiier. Gibbon. 
 
 ULUGH-BElGHor OLEG BEK, a Tartai 
 •2 A 
 
UNZ 
 
 prince, celebrated as an astronomer in the fif- 
 teenth century. He was the son of the sultan 
 Shah Rohk, and grandson of 'I'imur Bek, and 
 his birth took place in 1393. His proper name 
 was Mohammed Taraoai, that by which he is 
 usually known being an epithet, signifying 
 Great Lord. He entered on the government 
 during the life of bis father in 1407, and con- 
 ducted himself so well as to acquire general 
 esteem. Hp formed u seminary for the learned 
 at Samarcand ; and directed much of his at- 
 tention to mathematics and astronomy, having 
 constructed an observatory, and invited men 
 of science to his capital, to assist in his obser- 
 vations. After reigning forty years, he was 
 put to death by one of his sons, who had re- 
 belled against him. To this prince science is 
 indebted fur a series of observations on the 
 fixed stars, the results of which are given in the 
 " Tabulae Lon^itudinum et Latitudinum Stel- 
 larum Fixarum," published by Dr Ihomas 
 Hyde, Oxford, 166.5, 4to. The works of Ulugh 
 Beigh on Chronology, Geography, and Astro- 
 nomy were also j)reviousIy published in Latin, 
 by John Greaves, MA. — Moreri. Aikins Gen. 
 Biog. 
 
 UNGLR (John FnEDERicK) private secre- 
 tary to the duke of Brunswick, was born in 
 1716, and died at Brunswick in 1781. He 
 published a tract " On the Nature of the 
 Electric Fluid," which was crowned by the 
 Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1745; and 
 a work " On the Price of Corn, on its Sale, 
 on its Variations, and on the Influence which 
 it has on the most important Atfairs of Human 
 Life," Gotiingen, \7b'2. He invented in 1749 
 a self-acting machine for noting down any 
 tune as it is played on the harpsichord ; and 
 an artist of Berlin executed this piece of me- 
 cbanit.m, of which a description was inserted 
 in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for 
 1771 ; and the author himself ])ublished, at 
 Brunswick, in 1774, a " Circumstantial De- 
 scription of his Invention, and of the Manner 
 in which he discovered it," 4lo. — J^ii^g- Univ. 
 
 UiSZER (John Augustus) a German phy- 
 sician and copious writer on medicine and 
 physiology. He was born at Halle, in the 
 duchy of Magdeburg, in l7!iJ7, and after hav- 
 ing been engaged in professional practice at 
 Lis native place and at llamlnirgh, lie estab- 
 lished himself at Altona, where he arrived at 
 extraordinary reputation. He died April "2, 
 1799. Kuttner, lu his " Characters of the 
 German Poets and literary Men," says, " Ln- 
 zer united to experience the most profound 
 knowledge of medicine. He was the writer 
 of the nation and of mankind. Like ibe 
 English Spectator, he knew how to jilease, to 
 attach, and to make a deep impression, in 
 treating the driest and most al)stru8e subjects. 
 In his writintiS he endeavoured to excite the 
 attention of his readers to their health, and 
 warn them against the dangers of quackerv. 
 And be attained his purj)ose." Among \\\> 
 v/orks are " A new Doctrine concerning the 
 Movements of the Soul and of the Imagina- 
 tion," Halle, 1746, 8vo ; " Thoughts on Sleej) 
 ind Dreams," Bvo ; " Philosophical Medita- 
 
 URB 
 
 tions on the Human Body," 1750, Bvo ; " Tb« 
 Physician, or Journal of Medicine," published 
 at Hamburgh, from 1759 to 1764, 8vo ; " A 
 Collection of Writings and Dissertations on 
 Philosoi)hy and Medicine," 1768, 3vols.8vo; 
 " On the Sensitive Faculties of animated Bo- 
 dies," Lunebourg, 1768, Bvo ; " A Manual of 
 Medicine," Hamb. 1770, 2 vols. Bvo ; " 'ibe 
 Physiology of Animal Nature in living Bo- 
 dies," Leipsic, 1771, Bvo; and "Physiological 
 Researches relative to the Criticisms on the 
 Physiology of Unzer," 1773, Bvo ; besides 
 publications on contagious diseases. — Unzkr 
 (Jane Charlotte) wife of the preceding, 
 was an honorary member of learned societies 
 at London, Gottingen, and Helmstadt ; and 
 she published poetry, which in 175.3 obtained 
 a prize offered by the university of Helmstadt^ 
 She died January 29, 178':^. Besides two 
 volumes of poems, she published *' Principles 
 of Conduct and of Wisdom for Women," Bvo. 
 — Biog. Univ. 
 
 UPTON (James) the name of two English 
 divines, father and son, both eminent for 
 learning and ability in the last century. The 
 elder, a native of Winslow, in the palatinate 
 of Chester, was born in 1670, and educated 
 at Eton, whence he removed on the foundation 
 to a fellowship at King's college, Cambridge. 
 Having taken orders, he accepted the appoint- 
 ment of head-master to the grammar-school at 
 Taunton, and was presented in succession to 
 the livings of Brimpton and Mount Silver, 
 both in Somersetshire, He was the author of 
 several useful publications, calculated for the 
 instruction of youth in classical rudimenta, 
 such as " Novus Historiarum et Fabellarum 
 Delectus," &c. and new editions of Uogei 
 Ascham's " Schoolmaster," with a com 
 mentary, Bvo, 1711 ; " Aristotle's Art of 
 Poetry ;" and " Dionysiusof Halicarnassus on 
 Rhetoric." His death took place in 1749. — 
 His son, born in 1707, was educated at Ox- 
 ford, and obtained a fellowship at Exeter-col- 
 lege, in that university. He was the author 
 of a commentary on the writings of Shak- 
 speare, Bvo, and superintended the publica- 
 tion of new editions of Spenser's works in two 
 quarto volumes, and of Epictetus, 4to, "2 vols. 
 I\Jr Upton held a prebendal stall in Rochester 
 cathedral with the rectory of Rissington, 
 Gloucestershire, and died in 1760. — Memoirs 
 by Toulmin. 
 
 URBANI, the name of an eminent Italian 
 composer, who lived a good deal in this coun- 
 try and in Ireland about the latter end of the 
 last century. He was the author of two operas, 
 " Famace " and " II Trionfo di Clelia," both 
 of which met with considerable success at 
 Dublin, where they were originally produced. 
 He was also very happy in his arrangement of 
 old Scottish melodies, several volumes of 
 whicli he j)ublished at Edinburgh, and in some 
 of his own airs, especially in that of " Ihe 
 Red Rose," printed in the Vocal Anthology 
 he imitated that st\le of music with treat mic- 
 cess. His death took place in the metropolis 
 of the sister island in 1816. — Biog. Diet, of 
 Music. 
 
U KB 
 
 URBAN VIII, (pope) oue of the Roman 
 pontiffa who deserve notice ou account of 
 their learning and attention to httraiure, was 
 born in Florence in 1568. His name was 
 JNIaft'ei liarberini, being tlial of a very aucit-nt 
 and honourable family. His failur dyint; in his 
 infancy, he wasentrusted lo the care of an uncle, 
 wlio was a protliouotary at the lloman court. 
 'I'lie latter placed him under Tursellinus, in the 
 Jesuits' college ; and being subsequently sent 
 to Pisa, he obtained the degree of doctor in 
 his twentieth year. He then returned to Rome, 
 where he inherited a handsome fortune from 
 liis uncle, and having obtained the patronage 
 of cardinal Farnese, he gradually passed 
 through all the grades of preferment, until he 
 was created a cardinal in 1606 by pope Paul 
 V. In ]6'^o, while legate at Bologna, he was 
 elected pope, in succession to Gregory XV, 
 and took the name of Urban V'lII. 'Ihe pub- 
 he transactions of his pontificate fall within 
 the province of history. Ihe errors in his go- 
 vernment, which were not very numerous or 
 glaring for so zealous an advocate for the 
 church, arose principally from his early at- 
 tachment to the Jesuits, and his nepotism, or 
 regard to his relations, on whom he bestowed 
 red hats and temporal employments with a 
 very liberal hand. As a man of learning and 
 a patron of learned men, he has merited con- 
 siderable praise, but he was no antiquary, and 
 destroyed some Roman antiquities, which the 
 Goths had spared. It was this conduct that 
 gave rise to the famous pasquinade " Quod 
 non fecernnt Barbari fecerunt Barberini." He 
 wrote several Latin poems in an elegant style, 
 of which an edition was published at Paris in 
 1642, and a very beautiful on« at Oxford in 
 1726, 8vo, with a hfe and learned notes by 
 Brown. His patronage of learned men was 
 very liberal, and he received those of all na- 
 tions with equal respect. Among the rest are 
 to be included the two Scottish writers Demp- 
 ster and Barclay, the latter of whom has cele- 
 brated him in his " Argenis," under the ana- 
 gram of Iburrauis. Urban published a re- 
 markable edition of the Roman breviary, and 
 several bulls and decrees, the most noticeable 
 of which are those which abolish the order of 
 female Jesuits and certain festivals ; and in 
 compliance with the Jesuits condemn the pro- 
 positions of Jansenism. Among his founda- 
 tions was the college " De Propaganda Fide." 
 This pontiff made no fewer than seventy -four 
 cardinals. He died on July 29, 164-1-, and was 
 buried in a stately tomb erected by his own 
 orders by tlie celebrated Bernini. — Life by Dr 
 Bronyi, Bower's Hist, of the Popes. 
 
 URBAN (Ferdinand de St) an eminent 
 artist, born at Nanci in l6o4. He studied 
 painting when young, witliout a master ; and 
 in 1671 he went to iMunich, and afterwards 
 visited the most celebrated academies of Ger- 
 many and Italy. Arriving at Bologna he was 
 admitted a member of tlie academy ; and the 
 municipal council confided to him the di- 
 rection of its cabinet of medals, and ap- 
 pointed him first engraver and first artichect 
 to th^ council. He had l.eld these offices ten 
 
 I ' R Q 
 
 years, when Innocent XI called him to Rome, 
 and made lain his lirht iir< hilect, and director 
 of his cabinet of nifiiala. Jh- exfcutt-d a 
 great number of moulds or matrices of rare 
 b»atity, both for tlit* iurr«-Dl « om ami fur me- 
 dals htru< k during the pcinlilicait g of Inno- 
 cent XI, Alexander \'1II, and Innocent XII. 
 At length his sovereign L eopohl 1, duke of 
 Lorraine, recalled St Urban to Nanci, where 
 he held the hame offices he had filled at lio- 
 logna and Rome. Besides the pi<*ces he exe- 
 cuted for the popes ami the dukes of Lor- 
 raine, he produced a great many ci<mmtrno- 
 rating royal personages, Italian princes, car- 
 dinals, and illustrious men. In 17>5 po(ie 
 Clement XII sent him the insignia of tin- or- 
 der of Christ. His death took place at Nanci, 
 January 11, 1738. — l^i>'g. Vniv. 
 
 URCEUS CUDUL'S (Anthony) an Italian 
 satirist and grammarian of the hfteenth cen- 
 tury, born about the year 1446, at iluDit-ra, in 
 the vicinity of Reggio. He lectured in the 
 belles lettres at Forli with some reputarion, 
 till an accidental fire destroying his books, of 
 which he was passionately ft/ud, a temporary 
 derangement ensued of a very formidable cha- 
 racter. On his recovery he settled at Bo- 
 logna, and became proft-ssor of eloquence and 
 grammar in that university. There is an edi- 
 tion of his works, containing all his epi^^rams, 
 satires, pastorals, and other poetical pieces, 
 together with some orations and other ]>Tose 
 cora^jOsitions printed in cuarto, Ijl.i, and 
 another which appeared at Basle in 1540. 
 His death took place in the beginning of the 
 year 1500. — Tiiahoschi. 
 
 URFE, the name of two ingenious Frerrh 
 writers, brothers, the elder of wlioin is bettei 
 known by the family title of compte de Lyon. 
 He was the author of several poeticiil compo- 
 sitions on miscellaneous subjects, and died in 
 1621. — His brother Honoue d'UnFr, survived 
 him about four years. He was born in 1567 
 at IMarseilles, v^here he received his education 
 in the Jesuits' college. His writings consist 
 cliieflv of romances and other works of fiction, 
 of which the principal is entitled *' L'Astree," 
 8vo. 4 vols. i\luch scandal was occa>ioiied by 
 his contracting a mairia<:e with the divorced 
 wife of his brother, a profligate woman, from 
 whom he afterwards in turn sej)arated. His 
 death took place in 1625. — .Vma. Diet. //j.-r. 
 
 UKQUHART or lUCHAHD (sir J ho- 
 mas) of Cromarty, a Scottish writer of the se- 
 venteenth century, wlio is known as the trans- 
 lator of Rabelais. He was a cavalier officer 
 among the followers of Charles 11, and was 
 J)rest-nt at the battle of Worcester ui lt.5l. 
 relative to whi( h he publi>.ht'd a t>H'(e entitled 
 '* The Discovery of a most rare Jewel, found 
 in the Kennel of Worcester Streets the Day 
 after the Fight, and six before tlie Autumnal 
 Kqiiinox, anno 1651, serving in this Pia»e to 
 frontal a N'indicalion of the Honour of Scot- 
 land from that Infamv wh^reunto the n^id 
 Bresbsterian I'artv o; liiat Nation, out f)f their 
 Coveiousnessand Ambition most uissenibledly 
 hath involved it," London, 1652, Bvo. He 
 was also the author of a work on Trigonometry ; 
 2 A t 
 
u lis 
 
 an " Introduction to the Universal Language, 
 in six Books," 1653, 4to ; and a Genealogy of 
 the Urquhart Family, which, with other tracts 
 of the author was printed at Edinburgh iu 
 1782, 12mo. — Watt'i Bibl. Brit. 
 
 URQUIJO (MAitiANO Louis, chevalier de) 
 a Spanisli minister of state, born in Old Cas- 
 tille in 1768. lie received a careful education, 
 and he travelled when very young, and passed 
 some years in England, wheie lie acquired 
 ideas of philosophy and independance, wliich 
 had much influence on his character. Ke- 
 turning home, he published a translation of 
 Voltaire's tragedy on the Death of Caesar, with 
 a " Discourse on the Origin and I'resent State 
 of the Spanish Theatre, and its indispensable 
 Reformation," which drew on him the notice 
 of the inquisition. He was however employed 
 under the secretary of state, count d'Araiuia ; 
 and during the ministry of Godoy, then duke 
 de la Alcudia, he became secretary of state 
 for foreign affairs, through the influence of the 
 queen. In this important office he acted on 
 the most enlightened and liberal principles, 
 and he succeeded in greatly curbing the power 
 of the inquisition and of the clergy, by which 
 means however he excited the displeasure of 
 those who from principle or interest were at- 
 tached to the ancient institutions of the king- 
 dom. Having also offended the favourite Go- 
 doy, he was at length disgraced, and towards 
 the close of 1800, confined in the citadel of 
 Pampeluna. He languished there several 
 years, in the most severe imprisonment, being 
 debarred the use of paper, ink, books, and 
 even light. Ferdinand VH, on his accession 
 in 1808, declared the persecutions of Urquijo 
 to be unjust, and he was set at liberty. He 
 endeavoured to prevent that prince from taking 
 his journey to Layonne ; and though repeat- 
 edly summoned by Buonaparte, L'rquijo did 
 not go himself to Bayonne till after ibe abdi- 
 cation and renunciation of the crown by Charles 
 IV, Ferdinand VH, and the Infants, and 
 wben those princes bad quitted that city. Not 
 being able to prevail on Napoleon to abstain 
 from his projects against Spain, he accepted the 
 office of secretary of the Junta of Spanish No- 
 tables, assembled at I'ayonne, and afterwards 
 tbat of minister of state. He had the satis- 
 faction to see the inquisition suppressed by 
 ]3uonaparte in 1808, and by the Cortes in 
 1813. After tbe reverses of the French in 
 Spain, he was obliged to follow king Joseph 
 Buonaparte ; and in 1814 he fixed his resi- 
 dence at Paris. He died there May 3, 1817. 
 — J'ioir. Ndui. fles Contemp. Biog. Lhiiv. 
 
 URSINS (Anna Maria, princess des) wife 
 of Flavio des Ursins, first lady of the bed- 
 chamber to the queen of Spain. She was de- 
 scended of the noble Frencli family de la Tre- 
 mouille, and was born in 1642. Being a woman 
 of great natural parts and an intriguing disj)o- 
 sition, she involved herself to a considerai)le 
 extent in the politics of the day, and contrived 
 to exercise a strong influence fir many years 
 in the Spanish cabinet, till falling into disgrace 
 with Philip V, that monarch banished her from 
 his dominions. This event took ;'lace in 1712. ' 
 
 U RS 
 
 She survived her disgrace about ten years, 
 dying at Rome in the winter of 1722. — Nouv 
 Vict. Hist. 
 
 URSINUS. There were several eminent 
 scholars of this name, who flourished in dif- 
 ferentages. — Fulvius Ursinus, born at Rome 
 in 1529, being abandoned in his infancy by his 
 father, whose vow of celibacy as a knight of 
 Malta prevented his acknowledging him as his 
 son, had the good fortune while yet a child to 
 attract the notice of one of tlie dignified eccle- 
 siasiics attached to the cathedral of St Gio- 
 vanni di Laterano, by name Delfini, who gave 
 him a classical education, and continued to pa- 
 tronize him till his death. He was well versed 
 in antiquarian researches, especially as re- 
 spects ancient literature ; and was particularly 
 celebrated for his method of ascertaining the 
 dates of manuscripts, which he did with great 
 accuracy. As an author he is known by se- 
 veral ingenious commentaries on the works of 
 various classical writers, as well as by his 
 " Imagines Virorum illustrium et eruditorum," 
 and his treatise " De Faniiliis Romanis." His 
 death took place about the commencement of 
 the seventeenth century, — Zachary Ursinus, 
 a native of Breslau, the capital of Silesia, born 
 1534, was among the most celebrated po- 
 lemics of the age of the Reformation. Having 
 in early life acquired the friendship of Philip 
 Melaucilion, whiJe a student in the university 
 of Wittemberg, he accompanied him to the 
 conference held at Worms in 1559, and at its 
 close went to Paris by the way of Geneva. 
 After a stay of some continuance in the French 
 metropolis, he accepted an ofler made him by 
 the magistrates of his native city, to superintend 
 their principal school, but becoming at length 
 obnoxious to the Latheran party there, on ac- 
 count of his rigid adoption of the peculiar te- 
 nets of Calvin he experienced a series of per- 
 secutions which induced him to resign his 
 situation, and retire to Zurich in 1560. Here 
 he was received with great distinction by those 
 of his own creed, and remained till the follow- 
 ing year, when the influence of the elector pa- 
 latine procured him the divinity chair in the 
 university of Heidelberg. This appointment 
 he held till 1577, attending in the mean time 
 at the conference of Maulbrun, where, though 
 deficient in pulpit eloquence, he yet distin- 
 guished himself by his speeches against the 
 doctrine of ubiquity. Although a modest and 
 most industrious scholar, he apjjears to have 
 united a considerable degree of religious en- 
 thusiasm to a warm and irritable temper, which 
 circumstance involved him a second lime in 
 disputes, when being left comparatively unpro- 
 tected by the death of his illustrious patron, 
 the elector Frederick, he was once more ( om- 
 pelledto change his abode. On this occasion 
 he settled at Neustadt, where he continued to 
 read lectures in theology till his death in 1583. 
 About twenty years after his decease, his 
 writings were collected and published toge- 
 ther in three folio volumes. — John Hknry 
 Ursinus, a German divine of the seventeenth 
 century, j)resided over the Protestant congre- 
 gations at Ratisbon, and is known as tbe au 
 
n s 11 
 
 tliur of a hit;tory of tlie " Rise and Progresaof 
 Aie Churclies of Gerniaiiy ;" " A Coiniiieiitaty 
 on the ilible ;"' a Discjuisiiion on tlii" IMiilo- 
 sopliy of Zoroaster, and two di'votional 'I'rea- 
 tises, entitltd " Sacra Analetta," and" Para- 
 lella Evangt'lica." I lis (katli took place at 
 ilatisboii in 1667. — Geougk IIi-.nuy I'usinus, 
 son to tlie last-mentioned, was himat'lf a di- 
 vine of t;reat erudition. He wrote an able 
 work " On the Ktynioloj:y and Si^jnificalion of 
 Words;" " On the '1 ajirobana, Ctrne, and 
 O^ygia of the Ancients;" " On Locusts;" 
 " Philological Remarks," &c. and died in 
 1707. — Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 URSUS (Nicholas Raimarus) a native 
 of Holstcin in the Danish dominions, who 
 from the humble condition of a swineherd 
 raised himself into considerable notice as a 
 mathematician and astronomer. He was born 
 at Henstedt in the province above-mentioned, 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
 till his eighteenth year is said to have been so 
 utterly illiterate, as to be unacquainted even 
 with the alphabet. An opportunity oflering 
 itself of obtaining instruction, he seized it with 
 avidity, and by the most unwearied assiduity 
 made such a proficiency in his favourite science, 
 astronomy, that some of the discoveries in it, 
 usually attributed to Tycho J5rahe, have been 
 also assigned to Ursus. It is certain that tlie 
 latter advanced his claim to them, and that a 
 serious dispute arose between the two philo- 
 sopliers in consequence. Ursus settled at 
 Stutgard, and resided for some time in that 
 city, till the offer of a handsome appointment 
 as imperial astronomer, induced him to remove 
 to Prague. His death took place in 1600. 
 Several of his tracts connected with the celestial 
 system are yet extant. — Ibid. 
 
 USHER (James) archbishop of Armagh in 
 Ireland, a celebrated divine and historian, 
 born at Dublin, January 4, 1580. His atten- 
 tion is said to have been particularly directed 
 to the study of history by the perusal of Slei- 
 dan's work " De Quatuor Imperiis," which 
 fell into bis hands at the age of fourteen. 
 After the death of his father, who was one of 
 the six clerks in chancery, and who had de- 
 signed liim for his own profession, he gave up 
 the paternal estate to his younger brother, and 
 determined to devote himself to the church. 
 He prosecuted his studies at Trinity college, 
 in his native city, with great success, and when 
 only eighteen, he entered into a public con- 
 troversy with the Jesuit Fitz Simons, then a 
 prisoner in the castle of Dublin, who had is- 
 sued a general challenge to the oppugneis of 
 the doctrines of Bellarmine, engaging to de- 
 fend them against all opposers. Reading the 
 controversial works of Stapelton induced him 
 to study the writings of the fathers and tlie 
 schoolmen, whence he compiled a systematic 
 body of extracts, entitled " Bibliotlieca The- 
 ologica," still in manuscript in the r.odleian 
 library. In 1601 he entered into holy orders, 
 and was appointed afternoon preacher at 
 Christchurch, Dublin. Soon after, he visited 
 England to purchase books and I\ISS. for Tii- 
 uity ccil'.'ge library, and visiting Loudon, Ox- 
 
 U S IJ 
 
 tord, antl rnmbridge, he became ac(]uaintea 
 with sir T. Hodley, sir Robert Cotton, Allen, 
 Camden, Selden, and other learned men. llig 
 talents, and the favuur of his sovereign JameH 
 I, succeasively procured him the profesKor»liip 
 of divinity at Trinity college ; in 1607 the 
 office of chaiuelhjr of St i'atrick's ; the i-i- 
 shopric of Meath, in 16'J0; the post of privy 
 counsellor, in 16'23 ; and the following year 
 the j)riinacy of Ireland. In this high and in- 
 ffuential station he displayed the same zeal 
 against the Catholics for which he had been 
 distinguished in the early part of his career. 
 He warmly opposed the pa!>.-ing an act of par- 
 liament in favour of the professors of the an- 
 cient faith ; though he was willing to accept 
 the contributions they offered towards the ex- 
 igencies of the state, on condition of the sua. 
 pension of the anti-catholic penal laws then 
 in force. He employed his f)en as well as his 
 influence in supporting his opinions, and among 
 the works he jiublished are a treatise " De 
 Ecclesiarum Chrislianarum Successione et 
 Statu," Lond. 1613; "An Ejnstle concerning 
 the Religion anciently jirofessed by the Irish 
 and Scottish, showing it to be for Substance 
 the same with that at this Day established in 
 the Church of England," 4to ; and " Veterum 
 Epistolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge," 16.S'2, 
 4to. He was not more disposed to favour the 
 Arminiaus tlian the Catholics, as appeartd 
 from liis work entitled " Goteschalci et Pra;- 
 destinarianai Controversial ab eo motaj Hi.<to- 
 ria," Dublin, 1631, said to have been the first 
 Latin book printed in Ireland. Though an 
 archbishop and metro})olitan, he held peculiar 
 ideas relative to the oriirin and nature of those 
 dignities ; his notions of church government 
 verging towards presbyterianism. The ene- 
 mies of Usher took advantage of this to de- 
 stroy his credit with James I ; but his uude- 
 viating support of the royal supremacy, and 
 the excellence of his character, saved him from 
 suffering by their machinations, and he en- 
 joyed to the last the esteem of king James. 
 He endeavoured to prevent Charles I from 
 sacrificing to the public displeasure his mi- 
 nister lord Strafford, whom Usher attended in 
 prison and at his execu ion. He adhered to 
 the king's interest during the civil war, and 
 wrote in his defence a treatise on " I he Power 
 of the Prince and the Obedience of the Sub- 
 ject." Having witnessed the executiou of his 
 unfortunate master, the scene had such an ef- 
 fect on his senses that he fainted in the arras 
 of an attendant ; and he commemorated the 
 event by an anniversary celebration of funeral 
 rites for the deceased monarch. After that 
 event he experienced civility and flatterii:g 
 promises from Cromwell, but the latter were 
 not fulfilled. His death took place at Rye- 
 gate, in Surrey. iMarch 21, 16.^6; and the 
 })rotector ordered that he should be spleudidly 
 interred in Westminster abbey, leaving how- 
 ever the primate's relations to defray the 
 greater part of the funeral expenses. Arch- 
 bishop Usher carried on an extensive cor- 
 respondence with the learned in various part* 
 of Europe, and collected at considerable ex- 
 
us T 
 
 pense valuable books and I\ISS. Among the 
 latter were the Samaritan Pentateuch, and a 
 Synac version of tlie Old Testament. Such 
 was the general esteem excited by his charac- 
 ter and hterary reputation, that on his quit- 
 ting Ireland in consequence of the rebellion, 
 he was offered a professorship at Leyden ; and 
 cardinal Richelieu invited him to settle in 
 France, promising him his patronage, with 
 perfect freedom as to religion. But he thought 
 proper to decline both these proposals. His 
 principal works are " The Annals of the Old 
 and New 'J'estament," folio, a treatise of the 
 highest authority in chronology and sacred his- 
 tory ; " Britannicarum Ecclesiarum Antiqui- 
 tates," folio; and "A Body of Divinity," 
 folio, compded surreptitiously from his ser- 
 mons and notes. A collection of his letters, 
 with his life, was publislwed by his chaplain, 
 Dr Kichard I'arr. — Smithii Vitce quorund.erud. 
 et ill. Viror. Bing. Britan* 
 
 USTARIZ (Jeiiome) a Spanish writer, 
 distinguished as the first who applied himself 
 to the stuily of political economy. He was a 
 uative of Navarre, and died about the middle 
 of the eighteenth century. Ihi is chiefly 
 . known on account of his work on the "Theory 
 and Practice of Commerce and Navigation," 
 17i>4, 4to, Madrid, 1742, foiio, of which 
 there are many other editions. Nothing can 
 prove the value and importance of this pro- 
 duction more than its having been translated 
 into tlie languages of two of the most en- 
 lightened conuiiercial nations. An English 
 version of the work, by John Kippax, BI). 
 was printed in London, 17.t1, 2 vols. 8vo; and 
 there is a French translation by Torbonnais, 
 Paris, 17.^:^: 4to. — }iin<j;. Univ. 
 
 US IKUI ( LrovAUi)) a Swiss writer, dis- 
 tinguished for his improvtnients in the art of 
 education. He was born at Zurich in 1741, 
 and having become an ecclesiastic, he resided 
 some time at Geneva, and travelleil in Fraiice 
 and Italy. Returning home he obtained a 
 professorship in the university of Zurich, and 
 
 U V E 
 
 a canonry in the church, the latter only a snort 
 time before his death, which occurred in 1789. 
 The reform in the schools and gymnasiums 
 effected in 1773, were principally owing to his 
 exertions ; and lie published the details of 
 their " New Organization," in an octavo vo- 
 lume, Zurich, 1773. He also laid before the 
 public five " Reports " on the same subject, 
 from 1777 to 1789. He was keeper of the 
 public library, and member of the philosophi- 
 cal society at Zurich ; and he took an active 
 part in the measures of that association for 
 the encouragement of agriculture. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 UTENHOVIUg (Charles) a Protestant 
 divine of the sixteentli century. He was born 
 at Ghent about the year 1536, and received 
 his education in the university of Paris. After 
 the death of Mary he visited England, and 
 employed his pen in defence of the reformed 
 religion, and of the title of Elizabeth to the 
 English throne, with a degree of industry and 
 ability which raised him high in the favour of 
 that princess. Besides these polemical and 
 political writings he was the author of " A 
 Century of Epistles ;" " Mythologia -.I^sopica 
 Metro Elegiaco, Bvo, 1607 ; " Epithalamia 
 Grjeca ;" and of a variety of miscellaneous 
 poems both in Greek and Latin. He died at 
 Cologne about the close of the century. — 
 Morerit 
 
 UVEDALE, LLD. (Robfrt) an eminent 
 botanist, master of the foundation school at 
 P2n field. He was a native of tlie metropolis, 
 born iu 1642, and educated at Westminster 
 school, whence he removed on an exhibition 
 to Trinity college, Cambridge. He was a good 
 classical scholar, and assistetl Dryden and his 
 associates in translating the works of Plutarch. 
 None of his botanical writings have been, 
 printed, but his garden at Enfield was justly 
 celebrated for the extent and variety of his 
 collection of rare plants. The precise time 
 of liis decease ia not recorded. — PuUeuey's 
 Sketches, 
 
 VAC 
 
 VACCA (Fr.AMtxio) a Roman sculptor of 
 the sixteenth century, less known on 
 account of his own works, which ornament 
 the churches and other public places at Rome, 
 than as the restorer of aiuiiiit statues, lie 
 was employed at Home under Sixius \', and 
 also in Tuscany. In 1.S94 he finished a col- 
 lection of " Memorie di varie Antithit;\ di 
 RoMia," jiublisheil by Octavio Fahonieri in 
 1704, and translated by Monlfaueon into La- 
 tin, and inserted in his " Iter Iialicum." — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VACCA P.ERLINGIIIKRT (Fp.Avns) a 
 physician, %\ho was a native of Ponsacro, near 
 Pisa, in the university of whith city he stu- 
 died, an<l afterwards became jirofessor of sur- 
 gery. Both by his lectures and his wriiinjjs 
 
 V AD 
 
 lie endeavoured to promote the cause of me- 
 dical science, carefully distinguishing real 
 knowledge as founded on observation, from 
 conjecture and hypothesis. Hence, when the 
 Hrunonian theory of medicine (see Joiix 
 Mmown) began to ))rcvail in Italy, he attacked 
 it in his " Meiiitazioni sull' I'omo malato e 
 sulla nuova Doitrina di Brown," 1795, 8vo. 
 lie was olTered the chair of clinical medicine 
 at Paria in 1796; but his attachment to Jiia 
 native country indue- d him to refuse it. He 
 died October 6, 1812. His works relative to 
 Malignant fevers, the philosophy of medicine, 
 <\c. are enumerated in our authority. — Bio^, 
 (' nil'. 
 
 \ ADE (.Foils- Josn'iO a native of Ham in 
 Picardy, who after having spent his youth in 
 
V A I 
 
 dissipation, attached himself in some degree 
 to study, and ac(jiiired nauch r('|jutatioii as a 
 farce writer and lyric poet. His verses are 
 chiefly in tlie style which the French term 
 Poissard, [Billiiigsi;ate] displaying, in tlie 
 energetic language of the mob, their manners 
 and occnpations. He was in fact the Ten iera 
 of French poetry ; and his songs, parodies, 
 bon()uets, fables, and epistles, as wt-ll as his 
 comic operas, exhibit tlie Imtnour and vivacity, 
 as well as the rustic coarseness of low life, lie 
 died July 4, 1757, at the age of thirty-seven, 
 owing to disease occasioned by his early ex- 
 cesses. His works, consisting of twenty comic 
 operas, &c. were published in 4 vols. 8vo, and 
 6 vols. I'imo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 V'AHL (iMartin) an eminent botanist, born 
 at Bergen in Norway, in 1749. He went to 
 Copenhagen to learn natural history under Dr 
 Stroem, whence he repaired to Upsal, and at- 
 tended for five years the lectures of Linnreus. 
 Returning to Copenhagen in 1779, he was ap- 
 pointed reader at the botanic garden ; and he 
 was sent, at the expense of the king, to travel 
 in flolland, France, Spain, the coasts of Bar- 
 bary, Italy, Switzerland, England, and Lap- 
 land. Appointed professor at Copenhagen in 
 1735, he made a second journey to the coasts 
 and mountains of Norway, to collect new ma- 
 terials for the " Flora Danica," the continua- 
 tion of which national work had been en- 
 trusted to him ; and in conjunction with Horne- 
 mann, he published parts Vlll — XXIV, from 
 1787 to 1810, the first seven parts having ap- 
 peared at Copenliagen, 1761 — 1782, folio. In 
 1799 and 18()(» Vahl undertook another journey 
 to Holland and France, at the expense of the 
 govemmt-nt ; and on his return to Copenhagen 
 he was appointed professor of botany and in- 
 spector of the botanic garden. His death took 
 place December !24, 1804. Among his most 
 important works are " Eclogse Americanje, seu 
 Descriptiones Plantarum, pnesertim Americng 
 Meridioualis, nondum cognitarum," folio ; and 
 " Enumeratio Plantarum, vel ab aliis, vel ab 
 ipso Observatarani, cum earum Descriptionibus 
 succinctis," 2 vols. 8vo, 1805 and 1807. — 
 Biog. Univ. Rees's Ct/c/op. 
 
 VAIDJAN or VIDJAN (Abu Said Mo- 
 hammed) a mathematician and astronomer of 
 great celebrity among the Arabs, who was 
 torn at Cufah about the middle of the tenth 
 century. He flourished at bat,(U.l under the 
 q[overnn)ent of the sultan Adndodawla and his 
 sons. One of the latter, Scherifedvlttwh, hav- 
 ing erected an observatory in (begartien of his 
 palace at Bagdad, placed it uniler the direc- 
 tion of Vaidjan, who was charged w ith the 
 operation of observing the periods of the sum- 
 mer solstice and the autumnal equinox, for the 
 year 378 of the Hegira (AD. 98i5); and the 
 days, as determined by his experiments, were 
 the 16th of June and the 18ih of September. 
 Vaidjan wrote " On the Centre of the Earth ;" 
 " Commentaries on Euclid's P^leuients ;" and 
 several other works. — Casiri Bibl. Arab. Iliip. 
 Escur. Bioir. Univ. 
 
 VAILLA NT ( Francis le) a celebrated tra- 
 reller, bora at JParimaribo in Dutch Guiana, 
 
 V A I 
 
 (S. A.) in 17.53. Ilis father, who was a ncii 
 merchant, originally from Alelz, exeicisi-d the 
 fuficiions of consul. He went with his faindy 
 to Holland in 1763, and afterwards resided la 
 France, (icrmany, Lorraine, and tlie Vosgen. 
 In 1777 circumsiancetf drew him to Paris, and 
 having examined the cabinets of natural his- 
 tory in that capital, he conceived an irresittti- 
 ble desire to visit the countries whence the cu- 
 riosities he saw were procured. Africa be- 
 came the first object of hi^ attention ; and 
 embarking in Holland, he arrived m .March 
 1781 at the Cape of (jood Hojie. Between 
 that period and July 1784 he made repeated 
 excursions into the interior of CaflVaria, and 
 returning to Europe in January 1785. he em- 
 ployed himself in drawing up an account of his 
 travels and observations. 'Ihough he took 
 little interest in politics, he did not escape tbe 
 calamities of the Revolution; and beinu- im- 
 prisoned on suspicion iii 1793, he owed his life 
 to the fall of Robespierre. He possessed a 
 considerable estate at La Noue near Sezanne, 
 which was his chief residence in his latter 
 years; and there he passed in hunting (to 
 which amusement he was mucli attached) tbe 
 time which was not devoted to the composi- 
 tion of his works. He died in his retreat, No- 
 vember 22, 1824. He published " Vovage 
 dans ITnterieur de I'Afrique par le Cap de 
 Bonne Esperance," Paris, 1790, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; and *♦ Second Voyage dans ITnterieur de 
 I'Afrique," 1796, 3vols. 8vo. both which have 
 been translated into English and several other 
 languages. He was also the author of" His- 
 
 toire Naturelle des Oiseaux d' Afrique," 1796 
 
 1812, 6 vols, folio, two more volumes to com- 
 plete the work being left in manuscript ; 
 " Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets," 1801 — 5 
 2 vols, folio ; " Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux 
 de Paradis," 1801—6, folio; " Histoire Na- 
 turelle des Cotingas et des Todiers," 1804, 
 folio ; " Histoire Naturelle des Calaos," 1804, 
 folio. Le Vaillant had observed in the cli- 
 mates of which they are natives almost all the 
 birds which he describes ; and the fiu-iires 
 which accomjiany his works are considered 
 as very accurate. — Biog. Xuuv. des Contemp. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VAILLANT (John Foi) a celebrated wri- 
 ter on numismatics, born at Beauvais in France 
 in 1632. He was brought up by a maternal 
 uncle, who destined him for the mai;istracv, ia 
 consequence of which he studied jurisprudence. 
 The death of his relative, who left him Lis 
 name and a part of his fortune, hiving freed 
 him from all restraint, he relinquished the lavir 
 for medicine, and took the degree of tioctor ia 
 that faculty. He was engaged in practice at 
 Beauvais, when his attention was drawn to 
 numismatics, by the accidental discovery of a 
 parcel of ancient medals whiih came into his 
 possession. On a vi^it to Pans he became 
 acquainteil with Seijuin and other antiquaries ; 
 and being introduced to Colbert, that minister 
 employed him to travel over Italy, Sicily, and 
 Greece, in search of medals for the royal ca- 
 binet. In 1674, having embarked in the .Me- 
 diterranean to return to Rome, he was taken 
 
V A I 
 
 by a Barbary corsair, and detained more tLar. 
 four mouths at Algier. On being set at liberty 
 lie recovered twenty gold medals which had 
 been taken from him ; and on his homeward 
 voyage, the dread of being again captured, in- 
 duced him to swallow his medals, which he 
 fortunately obtained again without suffering 
 from his imprudence. He afterwards visited 
 Egypt and Persia, in quest of medals and an- 
 tiquities ; and he made repeated visits to Italy, 
 and also went twice to England and Holland, 
 for the purpose of augmenting the treasures of 
 the king's cabinet. On the organization of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions (1701) he was 
 admitted an associate, and he succeeded Char- 
 pentier as one of the pensioners. He died of 
 apoplexy, October y:5, 1706. Among his 
 works are " JN'umismata Impp. Rom. pra?stan- 
 tiora, a J. Ca;sare ad Posthumum et Tyran- 
 uos," 169-i, 2 vols. 4to; " Selucidarum Impe- 
 rium, sive Hist. Ilegum Syrian ad fidemNumis- 
 matum accommodata," 168 1, 4to ; " Numis- 
 mata Impp. Augg. et Caesarum," 2 vols. ; " His- 
 toria Ptolemseorum, at fidem iS'umismatum ac- 
 commodata," 1701, folio; " Nummi Antiqui 
 Familiarum Romanarum," 1703, folio ; and 
 •' Arsacidum Imperium, &c. et Acha^menida- 
 rura Imperium, &cc.'' 2 vols. 4to, published 
 posthumously. He was also a contributor to 
 the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 — His son, John Francis Foi Vaillant, 
 studied medicine, and took the degree of i\ID. 
 in 1691. He was instructed by his father in 
 the science of medals, and some of his disser- 
 tations on that subject appeared in the " Mem, 
 de Trevoux." He also wrote a Treatise on 
 Coffee, never published. His death took 
 place November 17, 1708, at the age of forty- 
 four. — Niceron. ChauJ'epie. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VAILLANT (Sebastian) member of the 
 Academy of Sciences and demonstrator of the 
 royal garden of plants at Paris. He was born 
 at Vigny near Pontoise in 1669 ; and at a very 
 early age he displayed a taste for botany. His 
 father had him instructed in music, in which 
 he became such a proficient, that at the age 
 of eleven he succeeded his master as organist 
 to the Benedictines at Pontoise. His incli- 
 nation however prompted him to study sur- 
 gery, and after being assistant surgeon to a 
 hospital, he entered into the army, and was at 
 the battle of Fleurus. In 1691 he went to 
 Paris, where the lectures of Tournefort revived 
 liis botanical taste ; and he at length became 
 secretary to Fagon, the first physician to Louis 
 XIV. His patron made him director of the 
 royal garden, and subsequently resigned in his 
 favour the offices of professor and sub-demon- 
 etrator. His botanical lectures attracted a 
 great concourse of pupils ; and his reputation 
 in 1716 procured him admission into the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences. He died of asthma, May 
 22, 1722. The principal work of Vaillant is 
 his " Botanicon Parisiense," Amsterd. 1707, 
 folio, with three hundred figures, publit-hed by 
 Boerhaave, with a life of the author. He also 
 wrote " Diecours pronouc6 le 10 Juin, I7l7, 
 ul'Ouverture du Jardin Royal des Pianles, 
 »ur la Structure des I leurs, leurs Difl'erences 
 
 Biog. 
 
 V A L 
 
 et I'Usage de leurs Parties;" besides several 
 other tracts, in which he proposed an arrange- 
 ment of plants founded on the parts of fructi- 
 fication, in some degree forestalling the system 
 of Linnaeus. — Bing. Univ. Rees's Cyclop. 
 
 VAILLANT (Wallerant) a painter, born 
 at Lisle in Flanders, in 1623. He studied 
 painting at Antwerp, under Erasmus Quelli- 
 nus, and attached himself principally to por- 
 trait, in which branch of his art he was very 
 successful. Going to Frankfort at the corona- 
 tion of the emperor Leopold, he executed a 
 portrait of his imperial majesty, which pro- 
 cured him great reputation and abundance of 
 employment. He afterwards spent four years 
 in France, where he was patronized by mar- 
 shal Grammont, and painted tlie portraits of 
 the queen mother and the duke of Orleans, 
 At length he settled at Amsterdam, where he 
 acquired great riches. He likewise practised 
 the art of engraving in mezzotinto, the secret 
 of which he learnt from prince Rupert ; and 
 several portraits, from his own designs and 
 those of other masters, are extant, which he 
 executed in this manner. — Pilkington. 
 Univ 
 
 VAISSETE (Don Joseph) a learned Bene- 
 dictine of the congregation of St Maur, born 
 at Gaillac in the diocese of Alby, in 1685. 
 After studying at Toulouse, he became an ad- 
 vocate, and obtained the office of king's at- 
 torney. A strong attachment to historical re- 
 searches induced him to give up his profession 
 for a monastic life in 1711. Two years after 
 he entered the abbey of St Germain at Paris, 
 where he was amply supplied with the means 
 of prosecuting his studies. He employed 
 twenty- five years in writing the history of 
 Languedoc, in which Dom Claude de Vic was 
 his coadjutor; and the work appeared in five 
 volumes, folio, 1730 — 45. He died at Paris 
 in 1756. Besides his great history, he pub- 
 lished Abrege de I'Histoire generale du Lan- 
 guedoc," 1749, 6 vols. 12mo; " Dissertation 
 sur rOrigine des Fran9ais," 1722, 12mo; 
 " Geographie historique, ecclesiastique, et 
 civile," 1755, 4 vols. 4to, and 12 vols. 12mo. 
 — Tassiu Hist, de la Cong, de S. Maur. Biug. 
 Univ, 
 
 VALAZE (Charles Eleonore du Friche 
 de) a native of Alenpon, who after receiving 
 a good education, entered into the army, and 
 was appointed in 1774 lieutenant in the pro- 
 vincial regiment of Argentan. On leaving the 
 service he employed himself in agriculture, 
 and he also composed a work on the " Penal 
 Laws," 1784, 8vo, which procured him great 
 reputation. In 1792 he was chosen a deputy 
 to the National Convention, in which he joined 
 the party of the Girondins, and connected 
 himself particularly with Vergniaux. He dis- 
 played great warmth against the king, but on 
 the trial he voted for death conditionally, with 
 an appeal to the people. He was liimself in- 
 cluded in the proscription of his party, and he 
 avoided a public execution by stabbing him- 
 self to the heart with a poniard, as soon as 
 he heard his sentence pronounced. This ca- 
 tastrophe took place October 30, 1793. In 
 
V A L 
 
 prison he wrote " Deff^nse de C. E. Dufriclie 
 V'alaze," 8vo, publisheil in 1793 ; and lie was 
 tlie author of some other pieces besiiles that 
 above mentioned — Diet. Hi^t. JUxi;. Univ. 
 
 VALCA KCKL (Josi i-ii Anthony) a Spa- 
 nisli agriculturist, born at V^ah'ntia in IZ^y. 
 Ilural economy as a science Iiad been entirely 
 neglected in Spain from the time when Ai- 
 phonso de Herrera wrote on that subject, till 
 the attention of the public was recalled to it 
 by A'alcaicel. He not only collecteil accoutits 
 of the iinpiovements in agriculture which had 
 been made by foreigners, but lie likewise made 
 experiments liimscif; and the result of his 
 researches, observations, and inquiries ap- 
 peared in a work wliich he published under 
 the title of " Agricultura general, y gobierno 
 de la Casa d<'l Campo," 7 vols. 4to, 1765 — 
 1786. He also wrote " Directions for the 
 Culture of Rice," 1768 ; and " Directions 
 for the Culture of Flax, and its Preparation 
 for Spinning," 1781. A'alcarcel died at V'a- 
 lentia in 1800. — Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. 
 Bioor. Lhiiv. 
 
 VALCKENAER (Louis Caspar) a cele- 
 brated critic and phiiologer, born in 1715, at 
 Leeuwarden, in Friseland. He studied the 
 learned languages at Franeker and at Leyden, 
 after which be became co-rector of the gymna- 
 sium of Campen. In 1741 he was called to 
 the chair of Greek literature at Franeker, to 
 ■which in 1775 was joined that of Greek an- 
 tiquities. In 1766 he removed to Leyden, 
 where he was professor of the Greek language 
 and antiquities, and also of history. He be- 
 came one of the most distinguished helleuists 
 of his time, and both as a public teacher and 
 writer he arrived at great reputation. His 
 death took place iMarcb 15, 1785. Among 
 Lis principal publications may be mentioned 
 " Euripidis Phccnissaj," with collections of 
 INISS. si:holia, critical observations, &c. Franek. 
 1755, 4to ; " Euripidis Hippolytus, et Dia- 
 tribe in deperditas Euripidis Tragcrdias," 
 Leyd. 1768, 4to ; " Theocrid X Idyilia, cum 
 Notis ; ejusd. Adoniazusa?, uberioribus Adno- 
 tationibus instructaj," 1773 8ro , " Callima- 
 chi Elegiarum Fragmenta, cum Elegia CatuUi 
 Calliniachea," 1799, 8vo ; " Observationes 
 Academicae, quibus V^ia munitur ad origines 
 Graicas investigandas, Lexicorumque Defectus 
 resarciendos," Utrecht, 1790, 8vo, edited by 
 Everard Sclieidius ; Two Discourses of St 
 John Clirysostom ; and "Specimen Adnota- 
 tionum criticarum in loca qua-dam Novi Foedo- 
 ris," Leyd. 1782, 8vo. In 1809 were jmnted 
 at Leipsic, '• L. C Vakkeuarii Opuscula Phi- 
 lologica, Critica et Oratoria, nunc primum con- 
 'uuctim edita." — John Valckf.nalu, son of 
 the preceding, studied jurisprudence, and be- 
 came professor of tliat science at Franeker. 
 About 1787, having joined the patriotic party, 
 against the house of Orange, he was made , 
 p^ofe!^sor of law at Utrecht, in the room of . 
 'Fydeman ; but on the restoration of the stadt. 
 holder he was obliged to take refuge in France. ' 
 He returned at the invasion of Holland by t!ie 
 French in 1795, wlien he pnblislied a perinili- 
 cal paper, entitled " The Advocate of Batavian ^ 
 
 V A 1. 
 
 Liberty." He was then appointed to th<} 
 chair of jurisprudence at Leyden, on which 
 occasion he delivered a di!«cour8e •' De Ofiicio 
 Civis liatavi in Kepublua turbatu." Aftef 
 In-iiig employed on a dijilomalic mission to 
 Prussia, he was chosen a member of the legin- 
 lative body of the republic, and subseciuently 
 sent by the Pataviaii ilirectory ambassador t'l 
 Si)aiii. He returned, and went a «econd tinio 
 in 1799, as minister plenipotentiary. Comin<' 
 home in IHOl he resumed his plare in tin"; 
 academical senate, and bec:inie a member of 
 the administration of the Khinland. He was 
 also a member of the Dutch Institute. In 
 1810 V'alckenaer was sent to Paris to endea- 
 vour to prevent the incorporation of Holland 
 with the French empire ; and returning un- 
 successful, he aftewards took no part in j)ubli(: 
 affairs. He died January 19, 1820. He left 
 some learned dissertations on juridical topics • 
 legal opinions on affairs of Dolitical coutro 
 versy, 6cc. — Biog, Univ. — 
 
 VALDES, or VAL D'ESSO (John) a 
 Spanish gentleman, who served as a military 
 officer under Charles V, to whom he was after- 
 wards secretary. Having in the latter part of 
 his life retired to Naples, he emjdoyed himself 
 in religious inquiries, and though he did not 
 openly separate from the church of Rome, he 
 adopted many of the principles of the German 
 reformers, and appears to have bad several se- 
 cret disciples, some of whom, as Peter JMartyr 
 and Vergerius, afterwards became Protestants. 
 Valdes died in 1540. He wrote a treatise of 
 ascetic divinity, entitled " Considerations on a 
 religious Life," which was translated into 
 English by Nicholas Ferrar, and published in 
 1638. — Biog Univ. 
 
 VALDEZ (Juan Melendez) regarded as 
 the Spanish Auacreon, was born of noble pa- 
 rentage at Ribera in Estremadara, and was 
 educated at Salamanca. He took the deo^ree 
 of doctor of laws at the age of twenty-two, 
 and might have been professor of that faculty 
 had not his inclinations led him to prefer the 
 chair of belles lettres. In 1780 his poetical 
 " I'anegyric on a Country Life " was crowned 
 by the Spanish Academy, and some time after 
 he gained another prize by his " Baihyllus," 
 He was appointed a judge at Saragossain 1789 • 
 and in 1797 he was called to tbe office of ad- 
 vocate general in the metrojiolis, where he 
 ultimately was made a counsellor of state, and 
 director general of jiublic instruction. He 
 died at IMontpellier in 1817, leaving many 
 works which are highly esteemed by his coun- 
 trymen. — Biog. Unit. 
 
 VALDO (Phtik) the chief of the heretics 
 called Vaudois or WaMenses, who was a na- 
 tive of Vaux, in Dauphiny. He acquired a 
 considerable fortune by commerce, at Lyons ; 
 but the sudden death of one of bis friends in- 
 duced him to sell his property, and give the 
 produce to the j)Oor, and devote himself to 
 works of piety. He fancied that it was the 
 duty of every Christian to imitate the example 
 of the apostles, and like the Qu;ikers,he taught 
 fliat Itotli nun and women nii^^ht rrnduct tbe 
 offices of public worship, without the interten 
 
V Al. 
 
 tion of the order of priesthood. This doctrine 
 was condemned by the general council of La- 
 teran, in 1179; and Valdo, driven from Lyons, 
 took refuge with his followers in the mountains 
 of Dauphiny and Piedmont, whence they 
 Bpread over several parts of Europe. They 
 were however exttrminated everywhere except 
 in the three vallies of Piedmont, where the 
 Waldenses still subsist, amounting to the num- 
 ber of twenty thousand souls, and possessing 
 thirteen churches. By a decree of the 10th 
 of January, 1824, their sovereign, the king of 
 Sardinia, authorized them to erect a liospital 
 for their sick poor, to be attended by a phy- 
 sician and surgeons of their own persuasion. 
 — Bossuet Hist, des Variations. Fluquet Diet, 
 des Heresies, i^io^. Univ. 
 
 VALKN riN (Michael Bernard) a phy- 
 sician and naturalist, born at Giessen, in Ger- 
 many, in 1657. After h;iving finished his 
 studies, he visited the universities, cabinets, 
 hospitals, and other medical establishments 
 in Holland, England, and France, and having 
 ]»ractised his profession at Philipsburg, he be- 
 came a professor in the university of Giessen, 
 and died there in 1726. Among his principal 
 works are " Musa'um IMusaeorum, sive De- 
 scriplio Rerum naturalium, prscipue in Indiis 
 nascentium," Frankfort, 1704, folio, repr, 
 17:50, 3 vols, folio ; " Historia Simplicium ; 
 accedit India litterata, edit. 2, auctior per 
 Christoph. Bern. Auctoris fil." 1716, folio; 
 " Amphitheatrnm Zootomicum," 1720, folio; 
 Viriiianum Reforniatum, seu Regnum Vege- 
 tabile," 1719, folio ; and " Letters from the 
 East Indies," in German, chiefly relating 
 to the vegetal>!e productiotis of that part of 
 the world, and affording information interesting 
 to the cultivators of natural history. — Aikins 
 Geii. Biocr. Bio". Univ. 
 
 VALENTIN (MosEs) a French painter, 
 born at Coulommiers in the county of Brie 
 Champenoise, in 1600. He is said to have 
 been a disciple of Vouet, and he studied in 
 Italy, where lie became acquainted with Pous- 
 sin, and obtained a zealous protector in cardi- 
 nal Jjarberiui, the nephew of Urban VIII. 
 'J hrough his recommendation he painted for 
 the church of St Peter's " The Martyrdom of 
 the Saint's Processus and Martinian ;" and this 
 chef d'oeuvre of Valentin was removed to Paris 
 by Buonaparte, but restored in 1815. The 
 subjects on which he usually employed his 
 pencil are similar to those chosen by Michael 
 Angelo da Caravaggio, representing social 
 scenes and rustic amusements. His death 
 took place in 16)2. — Pilkington. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALKNl'lNE (BASiL)acliymi8t or ale by - 
 mist of the fifteenth century, to whom is as- 
 cribed the disco' ery of aiiliinony, or rather of 
 the properties of the native sulphuret of anti- 
 mony. He is supposed to have been a native 
 of Erfurdt in Germany, and to have been a 
 meml)er of the monastic order of Benedictines ; 
 but his history is very obscure and imperfect, 
 as he is merely known as the author of a trea- 
 tise entitled " Currus triiimphalis Antimo- 
 oi:." and other works of a like description. 
 Hirt writings were printed collectively in Ger- 
 
 V A L 
 
 man at Hamburgh, in 1677, 1717, and 1740; 
 and many of the pieces ascribed to him have 
 been published in French and English. — Diet. 
 Hiit. 
 
 VALENTINUS, an ancient heretic, founder 
 of a sect from him termed Valentinians. He 
 was a native of Egypt, and was educated at 
 Alexandria. Having it is said been disappointed 
 in his expectation of obtaining the office of a 
 bishop, he adopted the principles of the Gnos- 
 tics, and opposed the Catholic faith, for which, 
 after causing great dissensions at Rome, he 
 was excommunicated. He subsequently went 
 to Cyprus, where he is supposed to have re- 
 turned to the bosom of the church, and died 
 AD. 160. The Valentinians, whose heresy 
 consisted in certain notions relative to angelic 
 beings, and their influence in the creation and 
 government of the world, seem to have been a 
 branch of the widely extended sect of the 
 Gnostics ; and they acquired considerable im- 
 portance in the age in which their founder 
 flourished. — Mosheirn. Lardnei'. 
 
 VALLNTYiN (Francis) a Dutch clergy- 
 man and traveller, born at Dordrecht ahout 
 1660. He engaged as a chaplain in the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company, and sailing 
 for Batavia in May 1685, he arrived there the 
 30th of December following. He was for a 
 time preacher at Japara, and afterwards exer- 
 cised his functiofis at Amboyua. He studied 
 the Malay language, and in 1689 he engaged 
 in making a translation of the Scriptures into 
 that widely-extended dialect. In 1694 he re- 
 turned to his native country, in consequence of 
 ill health ; but he made a second voyage to 
 Java in 1706, and the following year again 
 settled as a preacher at Amboyna. After five 
 years' residence there he requested leave to re- 
 sign his post ; but he did not return to Europe 
 till 1714. He subsequently employed himself 
 in arranging the materials of a work which he 
 published in Dutch, under the title of "The 
 East Indies, ancient and modern, comprising 
 an exact and detailed Account of the Power 
 of the Dutch in those Countries," Dordrecht 
 and Amsterdam, 1724 — 26, 8 vols, folio. This 
 work, which is illustrated with charts and 
 other engravings, contains copious information 
 relating to the Dutch Indies, forming a sort of 
 East Indian Cydopfedia. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALERIAi\US(JoANNEsPiERius)or V^A- 
 LERiANo BoLZANi, an Italian wiiter, born at 
 Beiluno in 1477. The poverty of his family 
 was such that he had no opportunity of ac(|uir- 
 ing the elements of learning till he was fifteen 
 years old ; but he then made so rapid a pro- 
 gress in his stutiies as to attract the favour of 
 some of the most celebrated scholars of his 
 time. Laurence ^'alla and Lascaris taught 
 him Latin and Greek ; and cardinal Bembo, 
 Leo X. and Clement VII, afforded him their 
 patronage. Wishing to devote liimself to li- 
 terature, he refused the bishoprics of Capo 
 d' Istria and of Avignon, and accepted the of- 
 fice of apostolic prothonotary and private 
 chamberlain to the pope. He undertook the 
 education of Hippolyto and Alexander de Me- 
 dicis, the nephews of Clement VII, with whom 
 
V A L 
 
 Tie retired to Placentia, on the capture of Rome 
 hy tlie imperialists in 1 , '127. II's pui)il Ilip- 
 polyto becoming a cardinal in lo29, lu' lived 
 with liim as secretary ; and aft«-r his death he 
 attaclied himself to duke AiexHnder, who 
 was killed in 1.537. Valerinnus then retired 
 to F'adua, wliere lie died in l.V")8. Ihe work 
 by which he is principally known, is his treatise 
 " De Infelicitate Litteratoruui, Lib. ii.'" Venice, 
 16S!0, 8vo, often reprinted. Amon^ his other 
 productions may be mentioned his " flierogly- 
 phica, sive de Sacris ^l^gyptiorum, aliaruni(|ue 
 Gentium Litteris Comnientaria," Basil, l/>66, 
 republished, with additions, at Frankfort-on- 
 the-I\Iayne, 1678, 4to. — Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 Dio<i;. Uuiv, 
 
 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman histo- 
 rian, who lived in the reign of the emperor 'J'i- 
 berius. He served in Asia under Sextus Pom- 
 peins, who was consul in the year of the death 
 of Augustus ; and returning to Rome, he ap- 
 pears to have taken no part in public aflTairs. 
 He devoted his leisure to the composition of 
 a work entitled " De Dictis et Factis Memo- 
 rabilibus Antiquorum, Lib. ix," wliich is a 
 collection of anecdotes and observations, com- 
 prising some curious facts and details, recorded 
 by no other ancient writer. This treatise is 
 dedicated, in a style of high eulogy, to Tibe- 
 rius. It is quoted by the elder Pliny, by Plu- 
 tarch, and by Aulus Gellius ; and it attracted 
 much notice on the revival of literature in the 
 fifteenth century, having been one of the earl- 
 iest books which issued from the press after 
 the invention of printing. The first edition, 
 without date, is supposed to have been exe- 
 cuted by .1. JNIentel in 1469 ; and several other 
 impressions appeared before the end of the fif- 
 teenth century. Among the best modern edi- 
 tions are those of Torrenius, Leyden, 17'J6, 
 4to ; of Kapp, Leipsic, 1782, 8vo ; and of T. 
 B. Helfrecht, Ilotf, 1799, 8vo.— Fossjus dc 
 Hist. Lat. Bio^. Univ. 
 
 VALLA (Geouoe) a native of Placentia in 
 Italy, who became professor of the belles let- 
 tres at Pavia. In 1481 he was professor at 
 A^enice, where, in consequence of his inter- 
 ference in political affairs, he was thrown into 
 prison ; but after a time he was released, and 
 restored to his office. As he was one morning 
 preparing to go to his lecture-room, where he 
 explained Cicero's Tuscular Questions, and 
 held disquisitions on the immortality of the 
 soul, he died suddenly, about the end of the 
 fifteenth century. He translated into Latin 
 some of the works of Aristotle and other Greek 
 writers ; and he was the author of a treatise 
 " De Expetendis et Fugiendis Rebus," ])ub- 
 lished by his son in 1501, 2 vols, folio. — Tirj- 
 boschi. Ring. Univ. 
 
 VALLA (Lauuevce) probably a relation 
 of the preceding, was born at Rome in 1406. 
 He was educated in his native city, and re- 
 mained there till 1431, when he visited Pla- 
 centia, to take possession of s 'me property be- 
 queathed to him by his relations. He after- 
 wards went to Pavia, where he obtained the 
 professorship of rhetoric. His invectives 
 against Bartolus drew on him the enmity of 
 
 V A I 
 
 tho scholars of tiiat celebrated civilian , and 
 Pogi^io also brings against X'alia nerioufi arcu- 
 Batioiis of misconduct, for which, ho.vever, 
 there does not a[>pear to have been any just 
 foundation. He did nnt remain long at j'avia, 
 for the plague dispersed the members of the 
 university, and hewentanti lectured at Milan, 
 Genoa, and Florence. At length he became 
 known to Aljihonso, king of Arragon, whom 
 he followed in his wars and travels from 1435 
 till 1442, when that prince made himself mas- 
 ter of the kingdom of Na[)le8. In 1443, on 
 the return of pope Eugenius to Rome, he set- 
 tled in that city. A work which he wrote on 
 the pretended donation of Constantine to the 
 holy see, discrediting that imaginary grant, 
 and reflecting on the characters of some of the 
 j)ope8, excited the displeasure of Eugenius ; 
 and Valla found it necessary to withdraw fij-pt 
 to Ostia and afterwards to Barcelona. Tlience 
 he addressed an apologetical defence of hia 
 writings to the pontiff, though without retract- 
 ing the offensive opinions which lie had main- 
 tained. He afterwards returned to Naples, 
 and under the protection of king Alphonso he 
 opened a school of eloquence, to which many 
 scholars resorted. Notwithstanding however 
 his great reputation for learning, he narrowly 
 escaped suffering in consequence of the free- 
 dom with which he attacked notions sanctioned 
 by antiquity ; and it was to the influence of his 
 patron Alphonso that he owed his preservation 
 from the vengeance of the inquisition. .At 
 length lie was invited to Rome by Nicholas V, 
 and he there commenced giving lectures on 
 rhetoric in 1450. He engaged in a literary 
 dispute with George Trapezuntius, on the com- 
 parative merits of Cicero and Quintilian ; and 
 he also carried on a controversy with Poggio, 
 which was conducted with a degree of illibe- 
 rality and virulence discreditable to both par- 
 ties. He did not however neglect more pro- 
 fitable occupations, and among the labours of 
 his later years were Latin translations of the 
 histories of Thucydides and Herodotus, the 
 latter of which he left unfinished at his death, 
 which occurred in August 1457. Among the 
 revivers of literature Valla has always held a 
 high rank, wliich he merited by unwearied ap- 
 plication and an enlarged course of study, in- 
 cluding history, criticism, dialectics, moral 
 pliilosopliv, and divinity. Of his numerous 
 writings his treatise " De Elegantia Latini Ser- 
 monis." still maintains its reputation. His 
 original works svere jiublished together at Ba- 
 sil in 1543. — Fiihricii Bibl. Med. et lujim. 
 Latin. Aiidu's Gen. Biog. 
 
 VALL.AXCEV (CiiAiu.rs) an enthusiastic 
 investigator of Irish antiquities, was born ia 
 England in 1721, his real name being Val- 
 lance, winch he altered it is said on the score 
 of euphony. His edu( ation was liberal, and 
 at an early age he entered into the military 
 profession, and for several years served in 
 Gibraltar Hs a captain in the 12tli foot. He 
 subsequently obtained a commission in the 
 corps of engineers upon the Irish establish- 
 ment, and thereby securing a settlement in 
 the country, he assiduously devoted himself 
 
V Ai. 
 
 tion of the order of priesthood. This doctrine 
 was condemned by the general council of La- 
 teran, in 1179; aiul Valdo, driven from Lyons, 
 took refuge with his followers in the mountains 
 of Daiiphiny and Piedmont, whence they 
 B[)rf-ad over several parts of Europe. They 
 uere however exterminated everywhere except 
 in the three vallies of Piedmont, where the 
 Waldenses still subsist, amounting to the num- 
 ber of twenty thousand souls, and possessing 
 thirteen churches. By a decree of the 10th 
 of January, 1824, their sovereign, the king of 
 Sardinia, authorized them to erect a hospital 
 for their sick poor, to be attended by a pliy- 
 sician and surgeons of their own persuasion. 
 — Bossuet Hist, des Variations. Fluquet Diet. 
 des Heresies. Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 VALKNl'lN (Michael Bernard) a phy- 
 sician and naturalist, born at Giessen, in Ger- 
 many, in 1657. After hnving finished his 
 studies, he visited the universities, cabinets, 
 hospitals, and other medical establishments 
 in Holland, England, and France, and having 
 j»ractised his profession at Philipsburg, he be- 
 came a professor in the university of Giessen, 
 and died there in 1726. Among his principal 
 works are " l\Ius<vum Musaeorum, sive De- 
 scriplio Rerum naturalium, praecipue in Indiis 
 nascentium," Frankfort, 1704, folio, repr, 
 17.'30, 3 vols, folio ; " Historia Simplicium ; 
 accedit India litterata, edit. 2, auctior per 
 Christoph. Bern. Auctoris fil." 1716, folio; 
 " Amphitheatrum Zootomicum," 1720, folio ; 
 Viridarium Reformatum, seu Regnum Vege- 
 tabile," 1719, folio ; and " Letters from the 
 East Indies," in German, chiefly relating 
 to the vegetable productions of that part of 
 the world, and affording information interesting 
 to the cultivators of natural history. — Aikins 
 Geii. Bios- Bioii. Univ. 
 
 VALENTIN (Moses) a French painter, 
 born at Couiommiers in the county of Brie 
 Cliampenoise, in 1600. He is said to have 
 been a disciple of Vouet, and he studied in 
 Italy, where lie became acquainted witii Pous- 
 siii, and obtained a zealous protector in cardi- 
 nal Ijarberini, the nephew of Urban VIII. 
 'J'hrough his recommendation he painted for 
 the church of St Peter's " The Martyrdom of 
 the Saint's Processus and Martinian ;" and this 
 chef d'oeuvre of Valentin was removed to Paris 
 by Buonaparte, but restored in 1815. The 
 subjects on which he usually employed his 
 pencil are similar to those chosen by Michael 
 Angelo da Caravaggio, representing social 
 scenes and rustic amusements. His death 
 took place in 16">2. — Pilkiugton. Biog. Unic. 
 
 VALENTLXE (Basil) a chymist or alchy- 
 mist of the fifteenth century, to whom is as- 
 cribed the disco' ery of antimony, or rather of 
 the properties of the native sulphuret of anti- 
 mony. He is supposed to have been a native 
 of Erfurdt in Germany, and to have been a 
 memlier of the monastic order of Benedictines ; 
 but his history is very obscure and imperfect, 
 as he is merely known as the author of a trea- 
 tise eutitled «' Currus triumphalis Antimo- 
 ni:." and otlier works of a like description. 
 Hif) writings were printed collectively in Ger- 
 
 V A L 
 
 man at Hamburgh, in 1677, 1717, and 1740; 
 and many of the pieces ascribed to him have 
 been published in French and I^nglish. — Diet. 
 Hiit. 
 
 VALENTINUS, an ancient heretic, founder 
 of a sect from him termed Valentinians. He 
 was a native of Egypt, and was educated at 
 Alexandria. Havingitis said been disappointed 
 in his expectation of obtaining the office of a 
 bishop, he adopted the principles of the Gnos- 
 tics, and opposed the Catholic faith, tor vvbich, 
 after causing great dissensions at Rome, he 
 was excommunicated. He subsequently went 
 to Cyprus, where he is supposed to have re- 
 turned to the bosom of the church, and died 
 AD. 160. The Valentinians, whose heresy 
 consisted in certain notions relative to angelic 
 beings, and their influence in the creation and 
 government of the world, seem to have been a 
 branch of the widely extended sect of the 
 Gnostics ; and they acquired considerable im- 
 portance in the age in which their founder 
 flourished. — Wos/ieim. Lardnei'. 
 
 VALENTYiN (Francis) a Dutch clergy- 
 man and traveller, born at Dordrecht about 
 1660. He engaged as a chaplain in the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company, and sailing 
 for Batavia in May 1685, he arrived there the 
 30th of December following. He was for a 
 time preacher at Japara, and afterwards exer- 
 cised his functio;i8 at Amboyua. He studied 
 the Malay language, and in 1689 he engaged 
 in making a translation of the Scriptures into 
 that widely-extended dialect. In 1694 he re- 
 turned to his native country, in consequence of 
 ill health ; but he made a second voyage to 
 Java in 1706, and the following year again 
 settled as a preacher at Amboyna. After five 
 years' residence there he requested leave to re- 
 sign his post ; but he did not return to Europe 
 till 1714. He subsequently employed himself 
 in arranging the materials of a work which he 
 published in Dutch, under the title of "The 
 East Indies, ancient and modern, comprising 
 an exact and detailed Account of the Power 
 of the Dutch in those Countries," Dordrecht 
 and Amsterdam, 1724 — 26, 8 vols, folio. This 
 work, which is illustrated with charts and 
 other engravings, contains copious information 
 relating to the Dutch Indies, forming a sort of 
 East Indian Cyclopa^dia. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALERIAi\US(JoANNE3PiERius)or Va- 
 LERiANO BoLZANi, an Italian writer, born at 
 Belluno in 1477. The poverty of his family 
 was such that he had no opportunity of acquir- 
 ing the elements of learning till he was fifteen 
 years old ; but he then made so rapid a pro- 
 gress in his studies as to attract the favour of 
 some of the most celebrated scholars of his 
 time. Laurence A' alia and Lascaris taught 
 him Latin and Greek ; and cardinal Bembo, 
 Leo X. and Clement VII, afforded him their 
 patronage. Wishing to devote himself to li- 
 terature, he refused the bishoprics of Capo 
 d' Istria and of Avignon, and accepted the of- 
 fice of apostolic prothonotary and private 
 chamberlain to the pope. He undertook the 
 education of Hippolyto and Alexander de Me- 
 dicia, the nephews of Clement VII, with whom 
 
V A L 
 
 he retired to Placentia, on the capture of Rome 
 hy the imperialists ill 1 n27. Il's pupil Ilip- 
 polyto becoming^ a cardinal in lo'J'J, he lived 
 with him as secretary ; and after his death he 
 attached himself to duke Alexander, who 
 was killed in 1.537. Valerinnus then retired 
 to Padua, where he dieil in lo.SO. Ihe work 
 by which he is principally known, is his treatise 
 " De Infelicitate Litteratoruni, Lib. ii." Venice, 
 1620, Ovo, often reprinted. Amon^ his other 
 productions may be mentioned his " flierogly- 
 phica, sive de Sacris /Egyptiorum, aliaruni(]ue 
 Gentium Litteris Commentaria," liasil, 1.566, 
 republislied, with additions, at Frankfort-on- 
 the-Mayne, 1678, 4to. — Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 Biotr, Uiiiv, 
 
 VALERIUS MAXIlMUS, a Roman histo- 
 rian, who lived in the reign of the emperor 'J'i- 
 berius. He served in Asia under Sextus Pom- 
 peins, who was consul in tlie year of the death 
 of Augustus ; and returning to Rome, he ap- 
 pears to have taken no part in public affairs. 
 He devoted his leisure to the compoiution of 
 a work entitled " De Dictis et Factis IMemo- 
 rabilibus Antiquorum, Lib. ix," wliich is a 
 collection of anecdotes and observations, com- 
 prising some curious facts and details, recorded 
 by no other ancient writer. This treatise is 
 dedicated, in a style of high eulogy, to Tibe- 
 rius. It is quoted by the elder Pliny, by Plu- 
 tarch, and by Aulus Gellius ; and it attracted 
 much notice on the revival of literature in the 
 fifteenth century, liaving been one of the earl- 
 iest books which issued from the press after 
 the invention of printing. The first edition, 
 without date, is supposed to have been exe- 
 cuted by J. JMentel in 1469 ; and several other 
 impressions appeared before the end of the fif- 
 teenth century. Among the best modern edi- 
 tions are those of Torrenius, Leydcn, 1726, 
 4to ; of Kapp, Leipsic, 1782, 8vo ; and of T. 
 B. Helfrecht, Iloff, 1799, Qvo.— Vossius dc 
 Hist. Lat. Bioo^. Univ. 
 
 VALLA (Geouge) a native of Placentia in 
 Italy, who became professor of the belles let- 
 tres at Pavia. In 1481 he was professor at 
 Venice, where, in consequence of liis inter- 
 ference in political affairs, he was thrown into 
 prison ; but after a time he was released, and 
 restored to his office. As he was one morning 
 preparing to go to his lecture-room, where lie 
 explained Cicero's 'J'uscuiar Questions, and 
 held disquisitions on the immortality of the 
 soul, he died suddenly, about the end of the 
 fifteenth century. He translated into Latiu 
 some of the works of Aristotle and other Greek 
 writers ; and he was the author of a treatise 
 '• De Expetendis et Fugiendis Rebus," ])ub- 
 lished by his son in 1501, 2 vols, folio. — Tira- 
 boschi. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALLA (LAunEVCE) probably a relation 
 of the preceding, was born at Rome in 1406. 
 He was educated in his native city, and re- 
 mained there till 1431, when he visited Pla- 
 centia, to take possession of s 'me property be- 
 queathed to him by his relations. He after- 
 wards went to Pavia, where he obtained the 
 professorship of rhetoric. His invectives 
 against Bartolus drew on him the enmity of 
 
 V A I 
 
 the scholars of that celebrated civilian , and 
 l'iigt;io also briri^^^fl against \'alla gerinufi arcu- 
 B^tioiia of misconduct, for which, ho.vever, 
 there does not appear to have been any ju«t 
 foundation. He did not remain long at Pavia, 
 for the plague dispersed the members of tho 
 university, and he went ami lectured at Milan, 
 Genoa, and Florence. At length he became 
 known to Alphonso, king of Arragon, whom 
 he followed in his wars and travels from 1 135 
 till 141-2, when tliat prince made himself mas- 
 ter of the kin'^dom of Na[)les. In 1443, on 
 the return of pope Kugenius to Rome, he set- 
 tled in that city. A work which he wrote on 
 the pretended donation of Constantine to the 
 holy see, discrediting that imaginary grant, 
 and reflecting on the characters of some of the 
 popes, excited the displeasure of Eugenius ; 
 and Valla fouiid it necessary to withdraw firpt 
 to Ostia and afterwards to Barcelona. Tlience 
 he adiiressed an apologetical defence of his 
 writings to the pontiff, though without retract- 
 ing the offensive opinions which lie liad main- 
 tained. He afterwards returned to \aples, 
 and under the protection of king Alphonso he 
 opened a school of eloquence, to which many 
 scholars resorted. Notwithstanding however 
 his great reputation for learning, he narrowly 
 escaped suffering in consequence of the free- 
 dom with which he attacked notions sanctioned 
 by antiquity ; and it was to the influence of his 
 patron Alphonso that he owed his preservation 
 from the vengeance of the inquisition. At 
 length he was invited to Rome by Nicholas V, 
 and he there commenced giving lectures on 
 rhetoric in 1450. He engaged in a literary 
 dispute with George Trapeziintius, on the com- 
 parative merits of Cicero and Quintilian ; and 
 lie also carried on a controversy with Poggio, 
 which was conducted with a degree of illibe- 
 rality and virulence discreditable to both par- 
 ties. He did not however neglect more pro- 
 fitable occupations, and among the labours of 
 his later years were Latin translations of the 
 histories of Thucydides and Herodotus, the 
 latter of which he left unfinished at his death, 
 wliich occurred in August 1457. Among the 
 revivers of literature Valla has always held a 
 higli rank, wliich he merited by unwearied ap- 
 plication and an enlarged course of study, in- 
 cluding hisiorv, criticism, dialectics, moral 
 pliilosopliv, and divinity. Of his numerous 
 writings his treatise " De Klegantia Latini Ser- 
 monis." still maintains its reputation. His 
 original works were ])ublislied together at Ba- 
 sil in 1543. — Fahricii Bibl. Med. et lujim. 
 Latin. Aii:i)i's Gen. Biog. 
 
 VALL.ANCKV (CiiAiu.rs) an enthusiastic 
 investigator of Irish antiquities, was born la 
 England in 1721, his real name being Val- 
 lance, which he altered it is said on the score 
 of euphony. His edu( ation was liberal, and 
 at an early age he entered into the military 
 profession, and for several years served in 
 Gibraltar 8s a captain in the 12th foot. He 
 (subsequently obtained a commission in th« 
 corps of engineers upon the Irish establish- 
 ment, and thereby securing a settlement in 
 the country, he assiduously devoted him-^elf 
 
V A L 
 
 to the study of the language, topography, and 
 antiquities of Irelund. He also made a survey 
 uf the island, for which he received a thousand 
 pounds, and an extra allowance of tifteen 
 shillings per day. Previously to the publication 
 of his map of Ireland, he wrote two treatises, 
 one entitled the '" Field Engineer," and the 
 other " On Stonecuttmg ;" but his principal 
 work is a grammar of the Irish language, 
 which appeared first in 1773, and ag.im in 
 1781, with an essay on the Celtic. He was 
 also author of an " Essay on the Antiquity of 
 the Irish Language," which he traces to the 
 Phoenician, and carried on a periodical work, 
 which he afterwards published in two volumes, 
 octavo, entitled " Collectanea de Rebus Hi- 
 hernicis," a production in which the zeal of 
 the antiquary occasionally interferes with the 
 judgment of the calm enquirer. He next 
 employed himself in the laborious task of con- 
 structing a dictionary of the Irish language. 
 To his learning as an antiquary he united a 
 taste for the fine arts, particularly architec- 
 ture, of which a fair specimen exists in the 
 Queen's bridge at Dublin. Besides the rank 
 of general to which he attained before his 
 deatli, lie was a doctor of laws of Trinity col- 
 lege, Dublin, and a member of the Royal Irish 
 Academy, and of various institutions. He 
 died at Dublin in 1812, in his ninety-first 
 year. — Grrit. Mag. 
 
 VALLE (Peter de la) a celebrated travel- 
 ler, was a Roman gentleman, and member of 
 the academy dell' Umoristi. He commenced 
 his travels in 1614 over the East, and did not 
 return until 16'26 ; and his account of them in 
 Italian, 1662, 4 vols. 4to, has always been con- 
 sidered the best that had then api)eared of 
 Egypt, Persia, Turkey, and India. He mar- 
 ried at Babylon an amiable young woman, who 
 accompanied him on his travels until her 
 death at Muia in Caramania in 1622. Her 
 death so much affected him, that he caused 
 her bodv to be embalmed, and he bore it 
 about with him in a coiiin until his return to 
 Rome, where he buried it with great magnifi- 
 cence in his own family vault, and spoke a fu- 
 neral oration on the occcasion himself, which 
 may be found in Italian and French in the 
 12mo edition of his travels. He died at Rome 
 in 16.52. (Jibljon styles De la Valle " a gen- 
 tleman and a scholar, but intolerably vain and 
 prolix." An English translation of his tra- 
 vels was published in London, 166,5, folio. — 
 Tiralhischi iMoreri. 
 
 VALLEMONT (Peter le Lorrain, better 
 known by the name of the abbe de) a miscel- 
 Jineous writer, born at Pont-Audemer in 164'J. 
 Having adopted tlie ecclesiastical profession, 
 he took the degree of doctor in theoloijy. 
 After residing some time at Rouen, he went to 
 Paris, and became tutor to the son of IM. I'ld- 
 lart, a counsellor of parliament, and subse- 
 quently to the marquis de Courcillon, sou of 
 the marquis de Dangeau. At length he was 
 attached as professor to the college of cardinal 
 Le Moine ; but towards t^he close of his life 
 he retired to his native place, and died iIkmc 
 in 1721. Besides several works on numis- 
 
 V A L 
 
 matics, on which subject he carried on a con- 
 troversy with M. Baudsiot, he w'as the author 
 of " La Physique occulte, ou Traite de la Ba- 
 guette divinatoire," 1693, 12mo ; and " Ele- 
 mens d'Histoire,"4'Vols, l2rao, of both which 
 works there are several editions. — Bioo^. Univ. 
 V^ALLI (EusKBius) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Pistoia in 1762. He studied 
 at the college of Prato, and afterwards ajiplied 
 himself to medicine at the university of Pisa. 
 He travelled to Smyrna and Constantinople, 
 where he made observations on the plague, 
 and returning after some years to Tuscany, he 
 distinguished himself by his attention to the 
 subject of vaccination. In a second visit to 
 Constantinople, where he introduced Dr Jen- 
 ner's discovery, he made a bold experiment to 
 determine whether the cow-pox might not 
 prove a preservative from the plague. But 
 the result of his inoculating himself with the 
 virus of those diseases successively, nearly 
 cost him his life, as he was seized with the 
 plague, from which he had the good fortune to 
 recover. He returned to Italy in 1804, and 
 in the following year he served in a medical 
 capacity in the Gallo-Italian army in Dal- 
 matia. In 1809 he went to Spain to observe 
 the yellow fever, and he afterwards praclii^ed 
 medicine in Tuscany. At length he fell a vic- 
 tim to his imprudence; for in September 1816, 
 having gone to Ilavannah, to add to his ob- 
 servations on the yellow fever, he purposely 
 exposeil himself to the influence of the con- 
 tagion, and caught the disease, of which he 
 died September 24, 1816. He published 
 " Meraoria suUa Peste di Smyrna, nel 1784," 
 12rao; " Saggio sulle IMalattie croniche," 
 I'isa, 1792, 12mo ; " Memoria sulla Tisi ere- 
 ditaria,'" Florence, 1796, 12mo; " INIemoria 
 sulla Peste di Constantinopoli del 1803, 12mo ; 
 and " Memoria sui mezzi d'impedire la Fer- 
 mentazione dei varj liquidi estratti, Sic." 
 1814, 12mo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALLISNIEUI (Anthony) an Italian 
 naturalist, born in 1661, in the territory of 
 Modena. He studied among the Jesuits at 
 home, and afterwards went to Bologna ; and 
 having taken his degrees at Reggio in 1684-, 
 he returned to Bologna to apply himself to 
 medicine. He then passed some time at Pa- 
 dua, Venice, and Parma ; and at length set- 
 tled as a physician at Reggio. In 1700 he 
 became professor of the practice of medicine 
 at Padua, where he rose successively from one 
 professorship to another, till in 1711 he ob- 
 tained the first chair of the theory of medicine. 
 The emperor Charles VI, to whom he dedi- 
 cated a work on the " History of Generation," 
 ap|)oiuted him his honorary physician, and in 
 1728 the duke of IModena bestowed on him 
 a patent of knighthood. Academical honours 
 were also liberally extended to him, as he was 
 an associate of the Academia Naturse Cuiio- 
 sorum, the Royal Society of London, and 
 many other scientific societies. He died Ja- 
 laiary 18, 1730. A list of his works on me- 
 dicine and natural history may be found in the 
 !irst of the annexed authorities. A collective 
 edition was published by his son at Venice, 
 
V A L 
 
 1733, 5 vols, folio. — Bio^. Univ. liees's Cyclop. 
 Fahroni. Kloy Diet. Hist, de l<i Med. 
 
 VALMIKI, a celebrated Hindoo poet, au- 
 thor of the epic pocni entitled " Kaniayanu," 
 recounting the adventures of the Hindoo deity 
 llama. The first two books of the Sanscrit 
 text of tlie Ilamayana, with an English ver- 
 sion, were publislied at Serampoor, by \V. Ca- 
 rey and .1. IMarshman, 3 vols. 4to. IHOo — 10; 
 and some episodes from tiie poem liave been 
 translated into French by M. Chezy ; and into 
 German by M. Fr. Hopp, of Berlin. A. W. 
 von Schlegel has also ])romised to tlie learned 
 world a comjdete edition of tiie work of \a.\- 
 miki, in Sanscrit and Latin, with a commen- 
 tary. Sir W. Jones advanced the opinion that 
 this Hindoo bard was the same personage with 
 Cush, mentioned by Moses ; but no biogra- 
 phical information is extant concerning him. 
 —liees's Cijclop. Bing. Univ. 
 
 VALOIS (Hexry de) or HENRICUS 
 VALESIUS, historiographer to the king of 
 France, a distinguished scholar and critic, 
 born at Paris in 1603. He studied among the 
 Jesuits at tlie college of Verdun, and after- 
 wards at that of Clermont, under the cele- 
 brated Denis Petau. He then went to the 
 university of Bourges, and having taken his 
 degrees in law, he was admitted a counsellor 
 of the parliament of Paris. After attending 
 to his profession awhile, he abandoned it that 
 he might devote himself entirely to literature. 
 The works of tlie Grecian and Roman writers 
 especially engaged his attention, and he con- 
 tinued his studies till the excess of his a])pli- 
 cation injured his sight. Tlije president de 
 Mesmes however having bestowed on him a 
 jiension, he was enabled to keep a secretary, 
 and proceed in his researches. The deatli of 
 the president in 1650 deprived him of this re- 
 source, and he was also disappointed in some 
 expectations of advantage which he had been 
 led to form from the patronage of Christina, 
 queen of Sweden. But he was relieved from 
 liis difficulties, by being employed by the body 
 of the French clergy to edit the Greek eccle- 
 siastical liistorians ; and in 1660 he received 
 the title of royal historiographer, with a consi- 
 derable pension. At the age of sixty-one he 
 married a lady possessed of youth and beauty, 
 by whom he had seven cliildren ; and he sur- 
 vived tliis union twelve years, dying in 1676. 
 His princijial literary undertaking was his 
 edition of tlie Ecclesiastical Histories of Euse- 
 bius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and P>a- 
 prins, with the Fragments of ]'hilostorgius, 
 Paris, 16.59, 1668, 1673, 3 vols, folio, in Greek 
 and Latin, witli notes and learned disserta- 
 tions. He also pubhshed " Excerpta Polybii, 
 Diodori Siculi, &c. ex Collectan. Const antini 
 Porphyrogen." Paris, 1634, 8vo ; and " Am- 
 miani iNIarcellini Rerum Gestarum, Lib. xviii," 
 1636, 4to ; besides a number of opuscula, re- 
 published collectively by Peter Burmann, jun. 
 under the title of " IL Valesii Emendationum, 
 Lib. V et de Critica, Lib. li, &:c." Amsterd. 
 1740, 4to. — V ALOIS (Adrian de) brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Paris in 1607, and 
 stuiied under the je-iuits. He applied himself 
 
 VAI. 
 
 with ardour to classkal learning ; hut lie uf- 
 It-rwards attached himself more partii ularly to 
 the study of French history. In 1616 he laid 
 bt'fore the public the fruits of hih researches io 
 the first volume of his *' Gesta Francorum," 
 which was completed, making three volumes, 
 folio, in 16;')U. He defended this work against 
 the criticisms of father Launoi and other wri- 
 ters ; and he accjuired so much reputation by 
 his labours that he was associated with his bro- 
 ther in ibf oflice of historiographer. In 1675 
 he jiublibhed ** Notitia Galharum, ordine Lit- 
 terarum digesta," folio, being a general toj»o- 
 grapbical dictionary of the kingdom of France, 
 wliich has been suj)erseded by the more recent 
 work of D'Anville, under the same title. He 
 lived in intimate friendship with his brother, 
 whose life he wrote ; and he fol'owed the ex- 
 ample of that relative by marrying late in life. 
 He published some other works besides those 
 above-mentioned ; and his death took place in 
 169'^. — His son, Charles de Valois i>k la 
 INI A RE, inherited the family taste for letters, 
 and was a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions, and held the office of ro\al anti- 
 quary. He published from his father's MSS. 
 a miscellaneous work, entitled " Vah-siana," 
 l2mo; and he was a contributor to the Me- 
 moirs of the academy to which he belonged. 
 He died in 1747, aged seventy-six. — Moieri. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALPERGA DI CALUSO (Thomas dea 
 comtes Massino) a Piedmontese mathemati- 
 cian, born at Turin in 1737. After he had 
 studied at Rome, meeting by accident with the 
 history of marshal Saxe, he wa<e seized with 
 military enthusiasm, and entering, on board a 
 JMaltese galley in 1764, he at length became 
 commander of a vessel. He afterwards served 
 as a sub- lieutenant in tlie navy of his sove- 
 reign ; but he forsook the profession of arms 
 to enter into the church as a member of the 
 congregation of the Oratory, founded by St 
 Philip Neri. He took the habit of the order 
 at Naples, where he became librarian and pro- 
 fessor of theology. Returning subsequently 
 to his native country he settled at Tuiiu, and 
 established there a literary society, and was 
 admitted into the academv of painting and 
 that of sciences, of which he was secretary for 
 eighteen years. He afterwards employed much 
 of his time in travelling ; and being at Lisbon 
 in 177'J he met with the celebrated Alfieri, 
 with whom he contracted a close intimacy. 
 From 1800 to 1814 he consecrated a great 
 part of his evenings to the instruction of youth 
 in Greek and Oriental literature. He \\as a 
 member of the grand council and director of 
 the observatory of the university of i'urin ; and 
 in 1814 he was appointfd president and direc- 
 tor of one of the classes of the Academy of 
 Sciences and letters. He was also a member 
 of the legion of honour, a correspondent of the 
 French Institute and of the Italian Society of 
 Verona. &lc. His death took place April 1, 
 1815. A catalogueof liisnumerouspul)Iications, 
 which embrace a variety of subjects (including 
 mathematics and astron my), may be found 
 ' in the annexed autliority. — / .v^. Unio. 
 
VAN 
 
 VALSALVA (Anton-Maria) an emi- 
 cent anatomist, bom at Imola in Italy, in 
 1666. He studied at Bologna under the 
 celebrated Malpigbi; and having graduated 
 in 1687, he connected together the prac- 
 tice of medicine and surgery. He simpli- 
 fied and improved surgical instruments, and 
 succeeded in abolishing at Bologna the 
 painful and uncertain operation of cauterizing 
 the arteries after amputation. In 1697 he was 
 elected professor of anatomy at the university, 
 which acquired under liis direction great cele- 
 brity as a school of medical science. Some of 
 his pupils attained great eminence, in the num- 
 ber of whom was IMorgagni, who became the 
 editor of some of the works of his master, and 
 also his biographer. Valsalva died of apo- 
 plexy in 1723. His principal production is 
 " DeAure Humana Tractatus, in quo integra 
 eiusd. Auris Fabrica multis novis Inventis et 
 Iconibus suis illustrata describitur omniumque 
 ejus Partiuin usus indagatur," 1704. 4to, often 
 reprinted. IMorgagni also published three Aca- 
 demical Dissertations of Valsalva ; and insert- 
 ed some of his accounts of dissections in his 
 own work, " De Sedibus et Causis Rlorbo- 
 yum." — Halleri Bib. Anat. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VALVASONE (Erasmus di) an Italian 
 poet, of eminence among those of the second 
 order, who was lord ot Valvasone, a castle in 
 Friuli, where he was born in 1523. He lived 
 retired on his own domain, dividing his time 
 between his literary studies and the chase, to 
 which he was passionately addicted. His 
 principal work is a didactic poem on chess, 
 •' La Caccia," in eight cantos, in octave verse, 
 first printed in 1591. This piece is reckoned 
 inferior to none of the kind, except " The 
 Bees " of Ruccellai, and Alamanui's poem 
 on " Cultivation." Valvasone translated the 
 "Thebais," of Statius, the " Electra," of So- 
 ])hocle?, and wrote a poem, called " II Lancel- 
 lotti ;" and an epopea entitled " Angeleida," 
 on the combat of the good and bad angels, 
 which, according to Tiraboschi, afforded some 
 liints to Milton. Erasmus di Valvasone died 
 in the castle of his ancestors in 1593. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 VANBRUGH (sir John) a dramatist and 
 arcliitect, descended from a Flemish family ex- 
 patriated through the cruelties of the duke of 
 Alva, and settled in England in the 16th cen- 
 tury. He was born -.ibout 1672 ; and his father 
 holding a re9pectal)le station in society he en- 
 tered into the army, and obtamed an ensign's 
 commission. How long lie remained in the 
 service is uncertain ; but it appears that early 
 in life he became a writer for the stage. In 
 1697 was represented his comedy, •' The Re- 
 lapse ;" and in the following year he produced 
 that very popular drama, " The Provoked 
 Wife," and also another entitled " ^sop," 
 afterwards altered by Garrick. When Better- 
 ton and Congreve obtained a patent for erect- 
 ing a theatre in the Haymarket, which was 
 opened in 1707, they were joined by Van- 
 brugh, who wrote for this house his comedy 
 *' The Confederacy," the most witty as well as 
 lh.3 moat liceniioufl of his productions, which, 
 
 VAN 
 
 notwithstanding its faults, long kept possessiou 
 of the stage. " Tlie Provoked Husband, or 
 the Journey to London/' which he left imper- 
 fect at his death, was completed and brought 
 forward by Colley Gibber ; and it still retama 
 its attraction as an amusing though exag- 
 gerated picture of obsolete manners and cha- 
 racters. As an architect Vaubrugh has been 
 the subject of much depreciating and illiberal 
 criticism ; but that lie held a high station in 
 that profession may be inferred from his hav- 
 ing been selected to build the monument of 
 national gratitude to the duke of Marlborough, 
 Blenheim house ; and that structure, as well 
 as another of his erections. Castle Howard, 
 affords proofs of the skill and genius of the 
 I artist. More wit than argument has been 
 , directed against the taste of Vanbrugh, and 
 many persons know nothing more of his cha- 
 r.icter than what may be inferred from the sar- 
 castic epitaph written for him by Dr Abel 
 Evans: — 
 
 " Lie heavy on him, earth, for he 
 Laid many a heavy weight on thee." 
 He obtained in 1704 the heraldic office of cla- 
 rencieux-king-at-arms; and in 1714 he receiv- 
 ed the honour of knightliood. He was also 
 appointed comptroller of the board of works 
 and surveyor of Greenwich hospital. His death 
 occurred March 26, 1726.— Walvole. Ree$s 
 Cyclop. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VANCOUVER (George) a modern cir- 
 cumnavigator, and captain in the British navy. 
 He served as a midshipman under the cele- 
 brated captain James Cook, and upon a de- 
 termination being taken for a voyage of dis- 
 covery, to ascertain the existence of any na- 
 vigable communication between the North Pa- 
 cific and North Atlantic oceans, he was ap- 
 pointed to command it. Of this voyage cap- 
 tain Vancouver compiled an account, under 
 the title of " Voyage of Discovery to the 
 North Pacific Ocean, and round the World, 
 in the years 1790—5," 3 vols. 4to, which 
 work was nearly ready for the press when the 
 author died. May 10, 1798.— Nai'ai Register. 
 
 VANDALE (Antony) a meritorious man 
 of letters, was born in Holland in 1638. He 
 I received a learned education, but was destined 
 for commerce, in which he was engaged for a 
 few years, but at the age of thirty he resumed 
 his literary pursuits, and applied to medicine, 
 in which he graduated, and became a practi- 
 tioner, and was also for some time a preacher 
 among the Mennonites. At length he de- 
 dicated himself almost exclusively to study, and 
 I wrote several works, which rendered him ad- 
 vantageously known in the learned world. Of 
 these the most noted was his " Dissertaiiones 
 duje de Oraculis Ethnicorum," first printed in 
 1683, 12mo, and afterwards in an enlarged 
 form in 1700, 4to. The scope of this produc- 
 tion was to prove the heathen oracles forgeries, 
 and that they did not cease on the coming of 
 Christ, a position at that time deemed erroneous 
 and in opposition to tradition and the fathers. 
 As the author was destitute of the graces of 
 style, and defective in arrangement, Fonte- 
 nelle gave the subject of these dissertations in 
 
V AN 
 
 a more agreeable form, in liis " Ilistoire des 
 Oracle'8," which popular production produced 
 much theological opposiiioii. His othtr works 
 are a dissertation " On (he Pioi^rcss and Ori- 
 gin of Idolatry ;" " A Dissertation on true and 
 false Propliecy ;" "A Dissertation on the 
 Narrative of Aristeas on the Seventy Inter- 
 jtreters;" the " History of liaptisinh, Jewish 
 and Christian ;" " A Dissertation on Sancho- 
 niatho ;" and " Dissertations on some ancient 
 i\lc»rl)les." All these writings display ^reat 
 erudition and 8ai;acity, ohscurely and unme- 
 thodically conveyed. Like all writers who 
 disttirb received opinions, however erroneous, 
 he was accused of imiulgmg a dangerous li- 
 berty of discussion. He died at Haeilem in 
 1708.— 7.e Clerc Bihl. CJwis. 
 
 VANDELl.l (Dominic) an Italian physi- 
 cian and naturalist, who was the correspon- 
 dent of Patrick Browne, at wliose suggestion 
 I^inmvus gave the name of ^ andellia to a ge- 
 nus of plants of the order of Personata-. Dr 
 Vandelli published at Padua in 1761, a trea- 
 tise in Latin, on the hot-baths in that neigh- 
 bourhood, with notices of some cryptogamic 
 plants growing in them. Being subsequently 
 appointed superinteiidant of the royal botanic 
 garden at Lisbon, lie published there in 1771, 
 a small " Fasciculus IMantarum," describing 
 some supposed new genera and several new 
 species, with figures. He likewise wrote on 
 zoology ; and he opposed Haller's doctrine of 
 the insensibility of tendons and membranes, 
 by whicti he gave great umbrage to that illus- 
 trious physiologist. Vandelli made a visit to 
 London in 1815, and died not long after, at a 
 verv advanced age. — liees^s Cijcbyp. 
 
 VANDER LINDKN (.Iohn Antonides) 
 was born at Enckhuisen, January 13, 1609, 
 his father being a learned professor of physic 
 at Leyden. He was also brought up to phy- 
 sic, and became professor at Franekerin 16S9, 
 whence he removed to the chair of the same 
 faculty at Leyden, wliich he filled with high 
 re[)utation until his death on March 4, 1()64. 
 He wrote several works on medical subjects, 
 togetlier with a work entitled " De Scriptis 
 Rledicis," being a catalogue of books ujwn 
 physic, which he several times enlarged dur 
 iug his life- time, and which was considerably 
 more so after his death, in a thick (juarto, 
 under the title of " Lindenius Renovatus," 
 JS'uremberg. 1686. He was also editor of the 
 works of Celsus and of Hippocrates. — Ehy 
 Diet. Hist, de Med. 
 
 VANDER-MERSCH (John Andrew) 
 bord at IVIenin in the Netherlands, of a noble 
 family, in 17.S4.. After finishing his studies, 
 which were particularly directed to mathema- 
 tics and geography, he entered into the French 
 service as a volunteer. He signalised his cou- 
 rage on many occasions in tlie seven years' 
 war, and he at length arrived at the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. Having expe- 
 rienced however some injustice from bis supe- 
 riors, he (]uitted the French army for that of 
 Austria in 1778, and after the peace of Tes- 
 cb«n he retired, with the title and pay of a 
 colonel, to his own estate. When the revolt 
 
 VAN 
 
 against the emperor Joseph TI took place in 
 the Austrian Netherlamls in 1789, he was 
 cho«en commander of the msurgent force*, at 
 the head of wlm h be beat the im|)eriali«t8 at 
 lurnhout. on the i!7thof October, and having 
 obtained various otlier advantagen. he made 
 liis entry into Naniur, the l7iL of December. 
 A misunderstanding afterwards arimng be- 
 tveen the general iu chief and the sovereign 
 congress of the states, the former was accused 
 of treason, and an army vias assembled to op- 
 pose him under the command of the I'russiau 
 general Schoenfeld. On that officer advancing 
 against him, VauJer-I\Iersi h was obliged to 
 submit ; and g(jiiig to Brussels to defend big 
 conduct, the congress committed bim a pri- 
 soner to the citadel of Antwerp, and he Mag 
 afterwards confined at Louvain till ilie restor- 
 ation of trancjuillity. He died at Menin lu 
 1792. He had a considerable share in the 
 composition of a work entitled " Memoire 
 hiscori(jue, et Pieces justificatives pour M. 
 Vander-Mersch," Lille, 1791, 3 vols. 8vo, 
 published by one of his officers named Dintie, 
 who was adjutant general in La \'endfce, and 
 died in 1795. — Biog. Nouv. des Coniemp. 
 Biflg Univ. 
 
 VANDERMONDE (Charles A vcvstin) 
 the son of a Flemish physician, settled at Ma- 
 cao in China, where be was born in i7i{7. 
 Being brought to Europe by his father in 1731, 
 he studied at Paris, and was admitted a mem- 
 ber of the medical faculty. He took tiie degree 
 of MD. in 1748. The first work which he 
 published was " Histoire d'urie Maladie sin- 
 guliere de la Peau," translated from the Ital- 
 ian, with valuable notes ; and in 1756 ap- 
 peared his " Essai sur les INIovens de jterfec- 
 tionner I'Espece Humaine," winch ytrocured 
 him great reputation. Shortly after be became 
 editor of the " Journal General de Medicine," 
 still continued. He died May '28, 176'2, leav- 
 ing in manuscript papers relating to the state 
 of medicine in China, partly derived from the 
 notes and observations of his fatlier. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 VANDERMONDE ( ) a mathema- 
 tician, born at Paris in 1735. He studied geo- 
 metry under Fontaine, and afterwards undex 
 Dionis de Sejour, who introduced him to the 
 notice of the Academy of Sciences, of which he 
 was admitted a member in 1771. He pub- 
 lished successively memoirs on the " Resolu- 
 tion of Eijuations," and other subjects ; and in 
 1772 appeared bis work on the " Eliminatiun 
 of unknown Quantities in Algebra." \ ander- 
 monde was very fond of music, the science of 
 which he had profoundly studied ; and at a 
 pul)lic session of the Academy of Sciences in 
 1780 be established, accoidiug to two general 
 rules, the succession of concords and the ar- 
 rangement of parts, demonstrating that these 
 two rules, recognized by musicians, depend on 
 a higher law, which ought to govern the wbokf 
 construction of harmony. Ibis svstem wm 
 approved by Philulor, Gluck, Piccini, anJ 
 other eminent composers. Vandermonde be- 
 came a warm partizan of the Revolution, and 
 was unhappily connected with the demagogue* 
 
\ A N 
 
 wnosc influence was so perniciously exercised. 
 After the suj)pression of the Academy of 
 Sciences be was for some time director of the 
 clothing dpparinu'nt of the army. In 1795 he 
 was appoinicd professor of j)olitical economy 
 at the Normal School, and the same year ad- 
 milted into the first class of the Institute. He 
 died January 1, 1796, on his return from a 
 sitting of the Institute, in consequence of a 
 vomiting of blood, arising from a disease of 
 the stomach, with which he had been for some 
 years aflectcd. — Biog. Univ. Biog. h'ouv. des 
 Coiilewp. 
 
 VANDERVELDE (Wiii iam) called the 
 Old, one of a distinguished family of jiainters, 
 was born at Leyden in 1610. He ^^aa ori (fi- 
 nally bred to the sea, but afterwards studied 
 painting, and retained enough of his former 
 profession to make it the source of his future 
 fame. He became early distinguished for liis 
 excellence in marine subjects, which induced 
 him to come to England with his son, both of 
 ■whom entered into the service of Charles II. 
 He repaid this service more gratefully than 
 patriotically, by conducting, as it is said, the 
 English fleet to burn Schelling. He was so 
 much attached to his art, that in order to be a 
 near spectator of sea engagements, he hired a 
 light vessel, in which he approached botli 
 friends and enemies, in order to sketch all the 
 incidents of the action upon the spot ; and in 
 this manner he is said to have been a spectator 
 of the engagement between the duke of ^'ork 
 and Opdam, and of the memorable three days' 
 engagement between Monk and I)e lluyler. 
 He chiefly painted in black and white, on a 
 ground so prepared on canvas as to give it the 
 ap])earance of paper. He died at London in 
 1693. — IValpole's Anecdotes. 
 
 VANDEHVEEDE (Wilmam) called the 
 Young, he was born at Amsterdam in Ib.SS, 
 and was the son of the preceding. After being 
 carefully instructed by his father, he was 
 placed under Simon de \'lieger, a celebratf d 
 marine painter, who however was far surpassed 
 by his pupil. His subjects were similar to 
 those of his father, whom he not oidy sur- 
 passed, but no age since the revival of art has 
 produced his equal in his own peodiar line, of 
 which Walpole calls him the Raphael. He 
 was equally with his father a copyist of reality, 
 and by order of the tluke of York attendtil the 
 engagf-ment at Solebay in a small vessel ; as 
 also the junction of the English and French 
 fleets at the Nore. '1 he j)rincipal jjcrformanies 
 of this admirable artist are chiefly to be found 
 in the royal collections anil cabinets of England. 
 He died April 6, 1707, in his seventy- fourth 
 year. — llmL 
 
 V A N'J)ER-W ER K ( A i.iii a n) a Dutch pain- 
 ter, born near Rolt( nlam in \('1^\.K Hu was 
 firsi iriHtructed in his an hy I'lccolctt, a j)or- 
 tran painter, and he afitrwards became a jiu- 
 pil of \'aiul( r-Nf er. Having settltd at Rot- 
 i<id:ini, hcobtaititd great reputation as a ])ain- 
 ter of portraits , and he executed a piece for 
 M. Stem, a rub merchant of Amsterdam, 
 ifchicli prorureil him the patronage of the (lec- 
 tor jialaiinc. 'Il.al prince having visiiod Hoi- 
 
 VAN 
 
 land with his family in 1696, went to Rotter- 
 dam, and ordered \'ander-\Verf to paint for 
 him " The Judgment of Solomon," and hia 
 portrait. The artist took the pictures to Dus- 
 seldorf when they were finished ; and the elec- 
 tor wished to retain him in his service, but he 
 only engaged himself for six months in the 
 year, receiving a handsome pension. In 1703 
 he went to present to his patron his " Christ 
 carried to the Sepulchre," which is regarded as 
 his best production. He was honoured with 
 knighthood by the elector, who treated him 
 with great liberality, augmenting his pension, 
 and bestowing on him many marks of his es- 
 teem. He died at Rotterdam, November 12, 
 17'J2. \'ander-\Verf was particularly noted 
 for his small historical pieces, which are most 
 exquisitely finished, and which are still in high 
 request, though his reputation is not quite 
 equal to what it was during his life. — His bro- 
 and pupil, Peter Vanuer-Weup, painted 
 portraits and conversation-pieces, and was a 
 very able artist. He died in 1718, aged fifty- 
 five. — Pilkitigtou, Biog. Univ. 
 
 VANDOEVREN (Waeteii) a physician, 
 born in Dutch Flanders in 1730. He was edu- 
 cated at Leyden and Paris, and on taking 
 his degrees at the former university in 17o3, 
 he published a treatise on Worms, which pro- 
 cured him much reputation, and was trans- 
 lated into French. He became j)rofessor of 
 anatomy and surgery at Groningen ; and he 
 was afterwards called to the medical chair at 
 Leyden. He died of the gout in 1783. lie- 
 sides two inaugural ilissertations, he was the 
 author of a much esteemed work on the Dis- 
 eases of Females. — Loud. Med. Journ. Bion, 
 I'nn. 
 
 \ AND\ CI\ (sir Antony) a portrait pain- 
 ter of peculiar e\(elki;ce, was born at Antwerp, 
 March f-2, l.->*J8-9, being the son of a merchant 
 in that city, by a mother who was very skilful 
 in flower painting and needle-work. He re- 
 ctucd his first instructions from \'an Hale, 
 after which he entered the school of Rubens, 
 lie highly distinguished himself among the 
 jiupils of that great master, by whose advice 
 he travelled for iin))rovemenl into Italy, and 
 resided at Genoa, Rome, and X'enice, from 
 which last plate he ilerived the j)erfection of 
 colouring that remlered him nearly the riv,'il 
 of I itian. I he reports of tlie favour shown to 
 the arts by Charles 1 drew him to F^ngland, 
 *\ here he was at first disa])pointed in the e:j- 
 pecled introduction ; but subsequently he re- 
 ceived an invitation from the king, through sir 
 Kenelin Digl>y, with which he comjilied, and 
 England \\a< afterwards his principal abode. 
 He was highly j)atronized at court, being ein> 
 ployed to paint many portraits of the king and 
 ro\aI family ; and in lO.S'i he received the ho- 
 nour of knighthood and a pension for life. Ac- 
 cording to Walpole, the prices of \'andyck were 
 •inl. for a half portait, and 60/. for a whole 
 length ; but it seems that he |)aintetl for the 
 royai family sometimes so low as '■2r>L a por- 
 trait, and even less. He lived in a splendid 
 style, kept the first comi)any, and was himself 
 a liberal ])atrou of the arts. His works in 
 
VAN 
 
 Kufjland, chu'lly portraits, are cxcwdin^;!)' mi 
 iiienmi*, for lie was VL-ry lUilustrious, aril many 
 of his j)ietf8 rank uiiioiig the iiu>st exielhiit 
 productions of that branch of the art. Jle 
 jiossesst'd a perfect kiiowltHiy;e of the cliiar- 
 oscuro ; gave singuhir grace and variety to the 
 airs of his heads ; and a surprising exprchwion 
 of soul and character wheu really existing in 
 his suhjects. His colouring was also excellent, 
 and no part of his figures was ceglected. I le 
 drew hands witli particular exactness and de- 
 licacy, and his draperies were at once grand 
 and simple. He so little flattered the fair 
 sex in his portraits, that we are left to wonder 
 at the reputation of some celebrated beauties 
 of the day. His earlier works in England are 
 deemed the best, particularly some of the por- 
 traits of king Charles, of the duke of Bucking- 
 ham, of lord Straflord, and of the Pembroke 
 family. He latterly injured his fortune hy high 
 liviiiij, and vainly sought to repair it by the 
 ])liilosopher'8 stone, winch only involved him 
 the more ; but he must have maintained a 
 jirosperous appearance, as the king negocialed 
 for him a marriage with the daughter of lord 
 Gowrie, by whom he left a daughter. His 
 constitution early gave way to repeated attacks 
 of the gout; and he died in London in 1641, 
 at the premature age of forty-two, and was 
 interred at St Paul's, Covent-garden. '1 he 
 eno-vavings from thia eminent master are very 
 numerous. — Walpole's Anec. rUkington. 
 
 VANE (sir Henry) the younger, a conspi- 
 cuous and extraordinary character, in the time 
 of Charles 1 and the Commonwealth, was the 
 son of sir Henry Vane of Hadlow in Kent, 
 and Kaby castle in Durham ; secretary of state 
 and treasurer of the household to Charles 1, 
 until dismissed for taking part against the earl 
 of Strafford. The subject of this article was 
 born about 1612, and was educated at West- 
 minster school, whence he was removed to 
 Magdalen college, Oxford. He then proceeded 
 to Geneva, from which he returned, much in- 
 disposed towards the English liturgy and 
 church government. About this time several 
 persons, who were uneasy at home on account 
 of their religious opinions, migrated to New 
 JOngland ; among whom was Vane, who not- 
 withstanding his youth, was elected governor 
 of Massachusetts ; but his enthusiasm soon led 
 the colonists to repent their choice, and his 
 covernment terminated at the next election. 
 He then returned i)rivately to England, and with 
 his father's concurrence married a lady of good 
 fortune, and was a])poiuted a joint treasurer 
 of the navy. He was chosen to represent 
 Hull in the next parliament, yet still kept on 
 such terms wiili the roval party as to obtain 
 knighthood. The spirit of the times, how- 
 ever, soon led him to take part against the 
 court, and he was very insuumental in pro- 
 ducing the condemnation of lord Straflord, and 
 he also carried up to the Lords the articles of 
 impeachment against archbishop Laud. He 
 likewise acted as one of the parliamentary 
 commissioners at the treaty of Uxbndge in 
 1645; and at the negociations in the isle of 
 Wight in 1618. he was an opposer of the 
 
 LioG. Ditr. Vol.. HI. 
 
 \ A N 
 
 terms of peace. Either from policy or feel- 
 ing, however, he Lad no iuiincdiate concern in 
 [the king's trial or death; but he wan one of 
 the council of slate aj)poiiit('d to hiiprenie 
 jiower after that event. In 16 Jl he was ap- 
 I>ointed a coninii>isionor to be sent into Stoi- 
 Iniid, in order to introduce the Englinh go- 
 vemuient there. He continued a strenuwut* 
 adversary to ('romwell during the whole pro- 
 gress of that leader to sovereignty, on which 
 account the latter found means to imprison 
 him in Cansbrook castle. He even sought to 
 intimidate him by ijuestioning his title to the 
 Kaby estate, notwilhstandnig which he con- 
 tinued inflexible during the whole of the pro- 
 tectorate. After the restoration of the long 
 parliament he was nominated one of the com- 
 mittee of safety ; when he strenuously exerted 
 himself to restore republican government, 
 until the Ilestoratiou put an end to all farther 
 contest. On this event he had considered 
 himself in no danger, bat he was notwith- 
 ftanding arrested and committed to the 
 Tower as a person whom it was dangerous to 
 allow to be at large. The convention parlia- 
 m«nt petitioned in favour of him and Lam- 
 bert, and the king promised that his life 
 should be spared. Charles II however kept 
 his word i-.i this instance much the same aa 
 in other matters, and sir Henry was brought 
 to trial for high treason. Although accused 
 only for transactions that occurred after the 
 king's death, he was found guilty in the teeth 
 of a defence of great vigour and ability, in 
 which he pleaded that, if complying with the 
 existing govennnent was a crime, all the na- 
 tion had been equally criminal. He farther 
 observed that he had in every change adhered 
 to the Commons as the root of all lawful au- 
 thority. His trial took place early in June 
 1662, and on the 14th of the same mouth he 
 was beheaded on Tower Hill, when he be- 
 haved with great composure and resolution. 
 He bet^an to address the people at the scaf- 
 fold in justiflcatiou of his conduct, but was 
 rudely interrupted by drums and trumpets, 
 which was deemed a nove4, as it was certainly 
 a most indecent practice. Sir Henry Vane, 
 like most religious enthusiasts who inter- 
 fere in politics, was a very doubtful and equi- 
 vocal character, and mingled much fanatical 
 speculation with an extraordinary degree of 
 atuteness and general good sense. Although 
 he employed craft and di.-simulatiou as his 
 means, there is little reason to doubt that he 
 was sincere as to his ends, and the real con- 
 vert to republicanism which he jirofessed to 
 be. His enemies scarcely charged him with 
 mercenary views, and his friends regarded 
 him as a mistaken lover of his country. He 
 was the author of some writings, ciiiefly on re- 
 ligious subjects, upon which the cloudiness 
 and confusion of his expressions and ideas sin- 
 gularly contrast with his clearness of mind on 
 other subj. cts.— C/aremio.'i. Btog. Brit. Hume. 
 VAN-EUPEN (Peter John Simon) 
 gr?Jid penetentiary of Amwerp, distinguished 
 among the Flemish revolutionary statesmen of 
 the last century. He was born in 17 H, and 
 
 2 li 
 
\' \ iN 
 
 V A N 
 
 Jiavintj studied philosophy and theology at the gone throu-li several editions, the hest of 
 
 university of Louvain, be entered into the 
 churcli. He became successively professor at 
 the episcopal seminary, curate of Cuntich, and 
 canon and penitentiary of Antwerp. Though 
 he opposed the innovations proj'^cted by Jo- 
 seph II, he took no ostensible part in the pro 
 ceedings of the insur^^ents against the Aus 
 trian government, till after the victory of 
 Turnhout. (See Vander-Mersch.) He suh- 
 pt'fpiently became secretary of the states of 
 IJrabant and of the sovereign congress ; and 
 he was considered as the soul of the aristo- 
 cratic partv. On the triumph of the Impe- 
 rialists he fled to Holland. After the French 
 conquest in 1794 he returned to his native 
 countrv, but his intriguing disposition exciting 
 the alarm of the police, he was arrested, and 
 sent to Lisle, and afterwards to Paris, where 
 lie was imprisoned till after the death of 
 Robesjiierre. He then retired to the village of 
 Zuti)liaas, near Utrecht, where he exercised 
 the sacerdotal office for ten years, and died 
 May 14, 1804. — Bing. Uriiv. 
 
 VAX-EYCK (Hubert). See Eyck (H. 
 Van). 
 
 VAN-EYCK (Johk). See Eyck (J. Van). 
 
 VAN-GO YEN (John) a landscape pain- 
 ter and aquatinta engraver, born at Leyden 
 in 1596. He was the disciple of William Gee- 
 ritz and Isaiah Van den Velde. His compo- 
 sitions generally represent rivers with boats 
 and fishing- barks, or peasants retuniing on the 
 water from market, and in the back-ground 
 villages or small towns. Some of his engrav- 
 ings from his own designs are very rare, and 
 hear a high price. He died at the Hague in 
 1656. Biog- Univ. 
 
 VAN-HUGTENBURG (John) a famous 
 battle painter, bom at Haerlem in 1646. He 
 studied at Rome, and afterwai Is at Paris, un- 
 d^r Vander-Meulen. In 1670 he returned to 
 Holland, where his reputation had preceded 
 liim, and his works became much in request. 
 In 1710 jtrince Eugene took him into lag ser- 
 vice, and employed him to paint views of the 
 battles and sieges in which he liad been en- 
 gaged. He practised engraving as well as 
 painting, and executed many {)lates from his 
 own desisns, and those of Vander-Meulen. 
 This artist carried on a lucrative commerce in 
 jiaintings and engravings at the Hague, but he 
 died at Amsterdam in 1733. — ^^wg. (Jiiiv. 
 
 VANIKRE (Jacques) a Fr^^nch poet of 
 some note in the early part of the last century. 
 He was born at Gausses in the province of 
 Languedoc, in the spring of 1664, and having 
 received his education in the Jesuits' college at 
 Montpellier under Joubert, when he became 
 of sufficient age, entered the order. Very 
 ( arly in life he displayed con«;iderable talents 
 for metrical composition, especially in the La- 
 tin tongue, which he wrote with great facility 
 S'ld eVoance. His principal production in 
 tins language is entitled " Praedium Rusti- 
 cum." or " The Country Farm," a work in 
 sixteen cantos, in which he has imitated the 
 (ieor^^ics of Virgil with great success, though 
 Hiih too much of prolijity. This poem has 
 
 wiiich is that of 1756, printed at Paris in 
 12mo. His other writii^s are a volume of 
 " Opuscula," containing epigrams, epistles, 
 &c. ; and a " Poetical Dictionary," in Latin. 
 Father Vaniere rose to be president of the 
 seminary in which he was brought up, and 
 afterwards of those belonging to his fraternity 
 at Audi and Toulouse, in which latter city lie 
 died in 1739. — Noiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VANINI (LucFLio) a writer stigmatised 
 with atheism, was boru at Taurosano, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, in 1535, and was the son 
 of John Baptist Vanini, steward to the vice- 
 roy of that kingdom. He was early sent to 
 Rome for education, and he finished his stu- 
 dies, which were various, at Padua. His mind 
 seems to have been ])erverted by the works of 
 Cardan and Pomponatius, of which he most 
 admired the least intelligible parts ; and the 
 philosophy of Aristotle and Averroes, with the 
 absurdities of astrology, served to confirm his 
 tendency to mysticism and delusion. He en- 
 tered into ecclesiastical orders, and preached ; 
 but his discourses were in general unintelli- 
 gible to his hearers, and very likely not much 
 less so to himself. After having resided for 
 some time in his own country, he travelled, 
 with a view, it is said, of propagating his opi- 
 nions, and visited Germany, the Netherlands, 
 France, and F^ngland, in which last countrv 
 his theological disputes on the subject of heresy 
 subjected him to a brief imprisonment. On 
 his return to Italy he for some time kept a 
 school of philosophy at Geneva ; but being 
 regarded with suspicion, he again visited 
 France, and lived J)artly at Paris and partly at 
 Lyons, where in 1615 he published a mys- 
 tical work, under the title " Amphitheatrum 
 aeteriiJE Providential, Divino-Magicum, ChrLs- 
 tiano-Physicum, Astrologico-Catholicum, ad- 
 versus vetercs Philosophos, Atheos, ICpicu- 
 reos, Peripateticos, et Stoicos," which, al- 
 though full of extravagance, exhibited nothing 
 atheistical, and was formally licensed, 'ihe 
 following year he composed another work, ad- 
 dressed to marshal de Bassompierre, entitled 
 " De Ailmirandis Naturaj Regina? Dea-que 
 Mortalium Arcanis," which was also printed 
 with a privilege, but subsequently burnt by a 
 decree of the Sorbonne. His imputed atheism 
 in this production resembled that of some of 
 the ancient sects, which ascribed to t!ie god- 
 dess Nature the attributes of deity. On this 
 incident he quilted Paris and proceeded to 
 Toulouse, where he professed to teach philo- 
 soj-hy, medicine and theology. Being, how- 
 ever, suspected of inculcating atheistical oja- 
 nious, he was denounced, prosecuted, and con- 
 demned to have his tongue cut out, and to be 
 l*urnt to death, which sentence was executed 
 February 19, 16!9. At his trial, so far from 
 denying the existence of a God, he took up a 
 straw, and said, that itobliged him to acknow- 
 ledge the existence of one. Gramont, pre- 
 sident of the parliament of I'oulouse, gives an 
 evidently prejudiced and sophisti* ated accotint 
 of his deportmrnt at his death, where »t 
 Seems that, on refusing to put out his tongue 
 
for llie. exonitiotiei to cut it oflT, it was torn 
 Irnin his inoutli wiili piiicfis, kiicIi ht'iiii; l.'ie 
 Cliristianity of llu- Krem-li (lislrict, wliitli af- 
 tcrwariis got up the trai;ciiy of ('alas. IK' 8uf- 
 fcrml tliis cruel puuisliiiu'iit in the iliirty- 
 fourtli year of liis ai;e. Mosliciin remarks that 
 several learned and res].ectahle writers rej^ard 
 this unhappy man rather as the victim of hi- 
 <;otry antl prtjiulice than as a niariyr to im- 
 ]»iety and atheism, and ih iiy that his wrilintja 
 were so absuril or so impious as tlicy were 
 eaid to be. A direct apology for \'anini was 
 jmhhshed by a learned lawyer, named Peter 
 Arpe, and his life lias been written in French 
 by Durand, and translated into Kni;lish in 
 i730. He was evidently a weak and vain en- 
 thusiast, but his treatment was much more 
 brutally opposed to the doctrines of (!hris- 
 tianitv tlian anv thint: of which he had him- 
 self been the author. — Tiraboschi. Mosheim. 
 I/iJc bu Ihtnuid. 
 
 VAN LOO (John 1)A1'ti>t) an eminent 
 painter, was born at Aix in 1681, and distin- 
 guished himself at an early age, both in i)or- 
 trait and historical painting. He entered the 
 service of the kin^ of Sardinia, who kept him 
 attached to his household ; but he eventually 
 i:ave up his apjioiiunu'tit and settled at Paris. 
 W'iiile in this capital he was induced to embark 
 nearly the whole of his j)roperty, which was 
 considerable, in Law's famous Mississippi pro- 
 ject, the failure of which reduced him to indi- 
 gence. He had however sufficient perseverance 
 to attempt the realization of a second fortune, 
 and with that view came over to England, 
 where he soon grew into great rej)ute among 
 the nobility, and acquired sufficient wealth to 
 enable him to return once more with affluence 
 to liis native country. Ihis artist possessed 
 great quickness of invention, and drew with 
 great facility. His touches were light and spi- 
 rited, and he had a very fine tone of colouring', 
 liis carnations approaching those of Rubens. 
 ]\Jo6t of his best jueces are to be found in the 
 churches and private collections of Paris. His 
 death took place in 174d. — D' Argenv'iUe Vies 
 de Veint. Walpole's Anec. 
 
 V.-VNLOO (C Ji A n i.ks A n drew) younger bro- 
 ther by many years, and pupil to the preceding, 
 was born in ITOt at Nice. Having acquired a 
 sufficient familiarity with the rudiments of 
 iiaintinsf at home, lie went to Rome, and there 
 completed his education in the art under Lulli. 
 Afterwards settling at Paris he grew into great 
 estimation at court, was created a chevalier of 
 the order of St .Michael, with the title of first 
 portrait painter to the king, and the appoint- 
 ment of master of the royal school of painting. 
 J lis branch was tliat of history, in which he 
 showed a lively and fertile imagination, an ele- 
 gant taste, and a solid judgment, with great 
 ]>ower of pencil, and a sweet and brilliant tone 
 of colouring. His principal performances are 
 in the cburchefl of Paris, the most admired 
 being his " Peter healing the Cripple." His 
 " Iphigenia in .Vulis,'" is also very highly re- 
 garded. His death took place in \76n. — 
 i.i-.wis Mkiiaei. Vani.oo and his brother, 
 CuAUi.v\ Amaufa'S PiiiT.ir, sons of John 
 
 \ A N 
 
 lUpiist, also enjoyed h considerable degree 
 of reputation, the one at Aladrid, the other at 
 I'erlin, where they held appointments iu llie 
 royal academies. — Ibid. 
 
 \'AN-LO()N ((JKHAnn) a Dufdi his-torian 
 and numismatical writer, born at Le\cien lu 
 16»:>. He was the author of many learned 
 %vork8 in his native language, inehnling " The 
 Medallic llislory of the Netherlands, from the 
 Abdication of Charles V to the Peace of Ha- 
 den, in \7\(\," M'-J'A, 4 vols, folio; "The 
 Ancient History of Holland," 173'i. 2 vols, 
 folio; "Modern Numismatics," 17:]4, folio ; 
 " A Descrijjtion of the Ancient Hutch Govern- 
 ment ;" in six parts, 1744, 8vo ; and he pub- 
 lished an edition of the rhjnieil I'seudo Chro- 
 nicle of Klaas Kolyn, with literary and histo- 
 rical Observations, Hague, 174o. folio. — Biog. 
 Viiiv. 
 
 VAN-MANDER (Charles) a Dutch poet, 
 painter, and l)iograj)her, of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Meulebeke, boru in 
 l.ViS, and having early displayed a strong ge- 
 nius for the fine arts, travelled into Italy for 
 improvement. On his return to his native 
 country he settled at Haerlem, and there 
 founded a school of painting, to which art, 
 however, he did not so entirely devote his 
 time as to prevent his cultivating the bellt-s 
 lettres. Several dramatic pieces of his pro- 
 duction, both humorous and patlietic, were 
 highly successful, while his " Livps of the 
 I'ainters " afford a favourable specimen of his 
 talents for prose composition. As an artist he 
 excelled equally in fresco painting and in oils, 
 in historical pieces and in landscapes. His ce- 
 lebrated picture of our first Parents in the 
 Garden of Eden is a happy amalgamation of 
 the two latter. His " I'mversal Deluge " is 
 also much admired. Van-Mander died in 1605. 
 — Pilkiiiiitoti /)«/ Fuseli. 
 
 VANNl (Francesco) an eminent artist of 
 the Italian school of painting, the pupil of Sa- 
 limbeui, Passerotti, ami afterwards of Da Vec- 
 chia. He was a native of Sienna, born about 
 the year 1.S63. 1 o great excellence as a pain- 
 ter he added a strong genius for mechanics and 
 architecture, which latter he studied as a 
 science with great perseverance and success. 
 A'anni, whose paintings, executed chiefly after 
 Corregio and F. Raroche. are principally on 
 religious subjects, was heKl in great esteem 
 by Pope Clement \T1I, who knighted bim. 
 and gave him oihev and more substantial 
 marks of his favour. There is a fine picture 
 by him iu the papal collection, on the subject 
 of Simon Magus. His death took place at 
 Rome early in UilO. — Ihiii. 
 
 \'.ANSOMER { Pail) a jiortrait painter, who 
 was born at Antwerp in 1576. He resided for 
 some time at Amsteriiam, and with his brother 
 Bernard jiractised his art there witli consider- 
 able success. In the beginning of the reign of 
 James 1 he removed to London, where lit; was 
 much em]doyed ; and his portraits are fre- 
 quently to be found in the collections of our 
 nobility. Among the portraits he executed, 
 were those of king James and of his queen, 
 I .\nne of l-)enmark. He died in Januray 1641, 
 
 1? B'2 
 
V A N 
 
 anJ was Interred in tlie church or cemetery of 
 St Martiu-in-the fields, in which parish lie 
 prohably had resided. — Wal])ole. lice.t's Cqrlop. 
 
 VAN-SWIETEN (Geuaud) a celebrated 
 physiciaii, born at Leyden, May 7, 1700, 
 After studying at Louvain, his parents being 
 Catholics, he returned to Leyden, and became 
 the pu[)il of Boerhaave. In 1725 he took his 
 doctor's degree, and published an inaugural 
 thesis " On the Structure and Use of the Ar- 
 teries." He afterwards employed himself in 
 illustrating the doctrines of his master, in his 
 " Commentaria in H. Boerhaavii Ajjhorismis 
 de Cognoscendis et Curandis INIorbis," of which 
 the first volume appeared in 1741 . Soon after 
 he was appointed to a medical professorship 
 at Leyden ; but objections arising on the score 
 of his religion, he was obliged to resign his 
 oflUce. The empress JNIaria Theresa indemni- 
 fied him abundantly for tlie injury he had sus- 
 tained from the illiberality of his enemies, by 
 inviting him to Vienna, where in 1745 he was 
 made a professor in the university, and after- 
 wards first physician to the empress and a 
 baron of the empire. He was also imjierial 
 librarian, and director-general of the study of 
 medicine in Austria, an office which afforded 
 him opportunities for introducing many impor- 
 tant improvements in the healing art. fie con- 
 tinued his work on the Aphorisms of Boer- 
 haave, wliich was completed by the publica- 
 tion of the fifth volume in 1772. These com- 
 mentaries were reprinted at Paris and 'i'urin, 
 and they have been translated into French and 
 English. He enjoyed the highest reputation 
 till his death, winch took place at Schoen- 
 brnnn, June 18, 1772 ; and he was interred 
 in the Auiiustine church at Vienna. He was 
 the author of a treatise on the Diseases of the 
 Army ; and of a work on Epidemics, the latter 
 of wbich was published posthumously, by pro- 
 fessor Stoll, 1782, 2 vols. 8vo. — Eloy Diet. 
 Hist, de la Med. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VANUDEX (Lucas) a Dutcli painter and 
 en<Taver of the seventeenth century, born at 
 Antwerp about the year 1595. He assisted 
 Rubens in putting in the back-grounds to his 
 paintings, and in his own landscapes was re- 
 markable for the delicate accuracy with which 
 his foliage and other objects are delineated. 
 His death took place in 1660, or as others say 
 in 1663. Some of the etchings by this artist 
 are much admired. — D'Argetiiille. Pilkiugton. 
 
 VANVTTELLl or VAN VITEL (Cas- 
 par) a painter, born at Utrecht in 1647. He 
 went to Rome at the age of nineteen, and by 
 his application to the study of nature and the 
 unti(jue, he became eminent as a painter of 
 architecture and landscajie. He visited Ve- 
 nice, Bologna, Milan, and Florence ; and re- 
 turning to Rome, he settled there, and was ad- 
 mitted a Roman citizen, and made a member 
 of the academy of St Luke. He died in 1736. 
 — Vanvitki.li (Louis) son of the preceding, 
 one of the most celebrated architects of modern 
 times, was born at Naj)les in 1700. He first 
 studied painting, but afterwards applied him- 
 self to architecture, under I vara. Cardinal de 
 ti Clement cnij)loyed him to restore the Al- I 
 
 V A R 
 
 bani palace at I'rbiuo, where he also con- 
 structed the churches of St Francis and 3 
 Dominic. He was then api)ointed architec^i 
 of St Peter's ; and though that magnificent 
 edifice had been previously completed as to 
 its principal parts, the architect found ample 
 scope for the exercise of his genius, in the ar- 
 rangement of Mosaics and other interior deco- 
 rations. Amon^j the buildinss he erected at 
 Rome, the most considerable was the monas- 
 tery of St Augustin. His reputation at length 
 induced the king of Naples, Charles 111 (after- 
 wards king of Spain) to choose him as the ar- 
 chitect of his projected palace al Caserta, a 
 structure in grandeur and magnificence not in- 
 ferior to any work of the kind xn Europe. Van- 
 vitelli left many other monuments of his 
 talents in various parts of Italy ; and after long 
 holding a high station in his profession, he 
 died at Caserta in 1773. He published from 
 the royal printing-office at Naples, in 1756, 
 " Plans and Designs of the Palace of Caserta ' 
 — Miiizia Memone desU Architetti. Bioir, 
 Univ. 
 
 VARCHI (Benedetto) an eminent man of 
 letters, was born at Florence in 1502, being 
 the son of a lawyer of that city. He was edu- 
 cated at the university of Padua, where he 
 made a great progress in the belles lettres, but 
 was designed for the law, which he studied 
 during the life of his father, and was even ad- 
 mitted a notary. When the decease of his 
 parents left him at liberty to pursue his own 
 inclinations, he forsook the law, and devoted 
 himself entirely to literature. He accordingly 
 studied the Greek language and philosophy, 
 until driven from Florence by his attachment 
 to the Strozzi. He returned to Padua, where 
 he became a member of the Academy degli 
 Infiammatti, and read public lectures on morals 
 and literature. The grand duke of Tuscany, 
 Cosmo 1, hearing of his reputation, invited him 
 back to Florence, although he had opposed 
 the Medici, and assigned to him the ofi^ce of 
 writing a history of the late revolution. Whilst 
 thus employed he was attacked at night by 
 some persons, who feared that his strictures 
 might be unfavourable to them, who stabbed 
 liim in several places. He however recovered, 
 and had either the prudence or the lenity not 
 to name the parties, althougli he knew them. 
 (Josmo recompensed him for his services with 
 the provostshij) of Monte \'archi, on which oc- 
 casion he took holy orders ; but befcjre he could 
 remove thither he was carried off by an apo- 
 plexy in \b6'r>, at the age of sixty-three. \'ar- 
 chi was a man of indefatigable industry, and 
 there is scarcely a branch of literature whicli 
 he did not cultivate. His " Storia Fioren- 
 tina," although comj>rising only the period of 
 eleven years, is very voluminous, and is writteu 
 in a diffuse languid manner. It is also charged 
 with gross adulation to the house of IVledici. 
 \'archi likewise wrote poems and a comedy, 
 and as a grammarian obtained reputation by 
 his dialogue entitled " L' Ercolano," on the 
 Tuscan language. His " Lezioni lette nella 
 Academia Fiorentina," display a very multi- 
 farious erudition ; and upon fhe whole Italian 
 
V A II 
 
 literature was liiglily indebted to lii'ii. — Ifo- 
 reri, Tirahosclii. 
 
 VAIIENIUS. Tlipre were two of tliis Daine, 
 Auciusri'S, a learned I.utlieran divine of ilie 
 seventeenth cunlury, was born at l-nnenbnrg 
 iu lO'JO. lie was celebrated for liis familiar 
 acquaintance with early Oriental literature 
 and his knowledge of the Scriptures, which he 
 is said to have coininilted to nu-niory in the 
 oriifinal language, lie was also the author of 
 a Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, 
 in one volume, ito, and died in 161H. — licn- 
 NARD VAni-.Nius, a native of Holland, tra- 
 velled in (juality of physician to some of his 
 countrynu'n to tlie Japanese Islands and the 
 kiiu'dom of Siam, of which countries he after- 
 wards published an account in the Latin lan- 
 gua<Te. lie was also the autlior of a useful 
 work entitletl " Geograi)liia Universalis," Bvo, 
 of which there are translations both in French 
 and English ; tlie former by Puisieux, in 4 
 vols, TJmo ; the latter by sir Isaac Newton, 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1672. His death took place in 
 1660. — A'eia;. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VARGAS (Francis) a Spanish lawyer, 
 who held several judicial offices under Charles 
 V and Philip II. He was a member of the 
 Supreme Council of Castile, and for a loin^^ 
 time advocate-fiscal. The emperor in Ij-iB 
 sent him to Bologna, to protest against the 
 translation of the Council of Trent to that 
 city; and in lo.^O he was sent to Trent to 
 congratulate the fathers of the council on their 
 return thither. After the dissolution of the 
 coiincil he resided seven or eight years in a 
 public capacity at Venice ; and lie was subse- 
 quently envoy from Philip II at Rome, where 
 he was highly respected by the ]iope and the 
 cardinals. Towards the close of his life he re- 
 tired to a monastery near Toledo, where he 
 died in 1560. He was the author of a trea- 
 tise " De Kpiscoporum .Turisdictione et Pon- 
 tificis Max. Authoritate," Venice, 1563, 4to ; 
 and " Letters and INIemoirs relative to the 
 Council of Trent," a French translation of 
 which was published by Levassor, Amster- 
 dam, 1700 and 1720, 8vo. — Mareri. Aikin. 
 Bio^. Univ. 
 
 VARGAS (Louis de) a Spanish painter of 
 eminence, born at Seville in 1502. He studied 
 at Rome, under Pierino del Vaga, and after 
 fourteen year>' residence there, he returned to 
 his native place, where he acquired great re- 
 putation. The first piece he executed, repre- 
 senting " The Nativity," attracted much no- 
 tice ; and he afterwards painted a rei)resenta- 
 tion of " The Temporal Generation of Jesus 
 Christ," and many works in fresco, for the ca- 
 thedral of Seville. His skill was also dis- 
 played as a portrait-painter, and his portrait 
 of the duchess of Alcana has been ranked with 
 the finest productions of llaphael in the same 
 department. His death took place in 1560. — 
 Biocr. Univ. Pilkiui;;ton. 
 
 VARGAS Y PONCF (don Josi^ni) a Spa- 
 nish geographer and navigator, born at Seville 
 or Cadiz about 1755. He had already made 
 l-im?elf known by a Eulogium of Kin^j Al- 
 phonso the Wise, which the ll-iyal Academy 
 
 V A K 
 
 of .Madrid h:id crowned and p'iblibhcd in I7b'i, 
 when he was appointed an ashistant to i>. 
 Vincent 1 ofino in the formation of the " Aila^ 
 of the Spanish (,'oa»ts." He renided sonio 
 time at Ivi^a, while en^-aged in iliis* under- 
 taking, which led to the publication of his 
 " l)ehcri|»tion of the Pityusa; and ]i.deaie»," 
 Aladriii, 17H7, 4to. He afterwards publishe.l, 
 l)y order of the king, " An Account of the lact 
 Voyage to the Straits of Magellan, made by 
 the Frigate Santa iMaria de laCabeza," 17BB, 
 4to. Vargas was a member of the Academy 
 of History ; and lie had become captain of a 
 frigate when he quitted the service. He Bat 
 tiH a member of the Cortes after the revolution 
 of 1820, and he died at Madnd iu 1821. — Bi„g. 
 Univ. 
 
 VARIGNON (PiFnnr) an eminent French 
 mathematician, was bom at Caen in I5t)4. He 
 was the son of an architect, and was intended 
 for the church, but early showed a great fond- 
 ness for mathematical pursuits, which, by the 
 generosity of the abbe St Pierre, who studied 
 at the same college, he was enabled to indulge. 
 So much attached was the latter to Varignon, 
 that he took him with him to Paris in ItiMo, 
 where the two friends resided together. Here 
 he became acquainted with many other men of 
 science and learning, and made himself fa- 
 vourably known to the public by a work enti- 
 tled *' Projet d'une Nouvelle INIecanique." 
 This work, which contained many new ideas, 
 l)rocured for him the offices of geometrician in 
 the Academy of Sciences, and of professor in 
 the college of I\Iazarin. In 1690 he published 
 " Nouvelles Conjectures, sur le Pesaateur;" 
 and when the science of infinitesimals was first 
 promulgated, he became one of its most early 
 cultivators. Although possessed of a strong 
 constitution, he brought on a dangerous illness 
 by intense study, which on his recovery he 
 recommenced with as much ardour as ever. 
 'I'he last two years of his life he was afiiicted 
 with an asthmatic complaint, wliich carried 
 him oft' suddenly, after delivering a lecture at 
 the college of Alazarin, on che 22d of Decem- 
 ber 1722. The private character of Varignon 
 was as simple and amiable as his scientific one 
 was profound. Few mathematicians have la- 
 boured more in the theory of the mathematics, 
 into which ho introduced a spirit of generali- 
 zation, while he simplified many of its princi- 
 ples, and resolved a number of (juestions which 
 liad not been before touched. Besides the 
 works already mentioned, he was author of 
 " Nouvelle Mtcanicjue ou Statitjue," an en- 
 largement of his first work, 1725, 2 vols. 4to ; 
 " Un Traiie du Mouvement et de la Mesure des 
 Faux Courantes," 1725, 4to ; " Fclaircisse- 
 ment sur I'Analysedes Infiiiiment-petits," 4to ; 
 and " Des Cahiers de Mathematiques." He 
 also wrote a strange work for a mathematician, 
 to prove the jjossibility of the real presence 
 in the Eucharist. His Memoirs in the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences are extremely numerous. — 
 ^iciioii. Hniton's Math. Diet. 
 
 VARILLAS (Antony) a French historian, 
 was born in 1(524 at Gueret, in the Upper 1^=» 
 Marche, where his father was an attorney of 
 
V A R 
 
 l!.c presidential court. After being employed 
 is a i!(jintstic tutor in his native province, he 
 came to Paris, and was patronized by (Jastoii 
 duke of Orleans, who gave him the title of his 
 histo;iographer. In 1633 he obtained a ])lace 
 in the royal library, where be ])rosecuted his 
 historical studies with great assiduity. He was 
 a pleasing writer as regards style, but was 
 more solicitous to please the general reader 
 by the ease and vivacity of his narrative, than 
 bv the accuracy of his relations, which has ul- 
 timately rendered his historical productions 
 of little or no value. He was however at 
 first successful, and obtained a pension from 
 Colbert, of which he was subsequently de- 
 prived ; but he obtained another from 'he 
 French clergy, for a work entitled, " Histoire 
 des Revolutions arrivees eu Europe en JMa- 
 liere de Religion," a party performance, which 
 produced a severe critique from bishop IJurnct ; 
 and file numerous mistakes and falsifications 
 in which have been ably exposed by Bayle 
 and others. With the exception of tiie fore- 
 going work, his writings relate chiefly to 
 Fr^^nch and Spanish affairs ; but as they are 
 seldom at present either read or quoted, it 
 would be useless to enumerate their titles. He 
 died in 1696. — Hiiet de Rebus Sins. Xoiiv. 
 Diet. HUt. 
 
 VAlllN, or WARIN (John) an engraver 
 of medals, who was a native of Liege, and 
 beins: the son of an attendant of the count de 
 Rochefort, he was admitted very young among 
 the pages of that prince. At his leisure he 
 cultivated the art of drawing, and having ac- 
 quired great skill, he devoted himself to en- 
 graving of medals, in which art lie made many 
 improvements. In 1635 he executed the seal 
 for the then newly-founded French Academy, 
 and soon after he was appointed to the direc- 
 tion of the mint, to wliich was aftenvards 
 addt-d the oihce of intendant of the crown 
 buildings. He practised the art of statuary, 
 anil was one of the first members of the aca- 
 demy of |)<unting and scul[)ture. He executed 
 the statue of Louis XIV in marble, besides 
 two busts of that prince in marble and bronze, 
 of colossal proportions ; and he had under- 
 taken a medallic history of his reign, when he 
 died, at the age of sixty-eight, in 169"2. — Per- 
 vault. Jiiog. Unio. 
 
 VARIN (Joskph) an eminent French en- 
 graver, bom at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1740. 
 He studied his ait first under his father, who 
 had founded at (halons, in 1733, a gratuitous 
 school of design ; and he afterwards went to 
 Pariw, where he was protected by count de 
 Ca)lus and other amateurs. He first devoted 
 himself to engraving maps and archi;ectural 
 designs, and in conjunction vsith St. Aubiu he 
 executed the plates for I'dondel's " Treatise of 
 Architecture," 4to. In 1766 he was employed 
 with his brother, who was also an engraver, to 
 transfer to copper plates the designs of I\Io- 
 xeau and Blaremberghe, representing the fttes 
 vhich took place at Rheims, on the inaugura- 
 tion of tlie pedestrian statute of Louis X\'. 
 He subs( qut ntly made engravings for the 
 " \'oyag9 piitorosque de iSaplesttde Sicile, ' 
 
 V A R 
 
 of St Non ; the " Voyage en Grece " of 
 Choiseul-Gouffier ; the '* Tableau de I'Ein- 
 pire Othomau " of d'Ohsson ; and various 
 other works. The Revolution deprived this 
 able and industrious artist of his property ; 
 and he died November 6, 1800. — B/n» Univ. 
 
 VAVlOLl (CoNSTANZo) a Bologntse sur- 
 geon of the sixteenth century, celebrated as 
 one of the first anatomists of the age in which 
 lie lived. He was born about the year 1342, 
 and having distinguished himself by the suc- 
 cess of his practice, especially in his opera- 
 lions for the stone, came to Kome, where he 
 read lectures to a numerous assemblage of pu- 
 pils both in surgery and medicine. His rejm- 
 tation at length induced pope Gregory XHl to 
 make him first piiysician to the papal court. 
 He was the author of a valuable treatise on 
 the oj)tic nerves, an«l of another on the con- 
 struction of the human frame. \'aroli died 
 in the jirime of life in 1373. — Eloy Diet. Hibt 
 de la Med. 
 
 VARRO (Marcus Terfntius) usually 
 considered as the most learned of the ancient 
 Romans, was born BC. 118. He early served 
 his country in various considerable posts, and 
 at first joined the party of Pompey in the civil 
 war against Caesar, but soon submitted to the 
 latter ; by whom he was so much esteemed, 
 that when that eminent leader adopted the de- 
 sign of forming a public library at Rome, he 
 fixed upon Varro as the person to whom the 
 collection of books should be confided. Tlie 
 death of Caesar interrujjted this design, and 
 Varro was involved in the proscri])tions of the 
 triumvirate, from which he escaped with life, 
 bat with the loss and dispersion of his valuable 
 Ubrary. On the restoiation of tranquillity he 
 devoted himself to his studies in retirement, 
 continuing to compose books so late as his 
 eighty-eighth year. He survived to the age 
 of ninety, dying about BC. 27. The pro.se 
 writings of Varro were exceedingly numerous 
 and treated of various topics in antiquities, 
 chronology, geograpiiy, natural aud civil his 
 tory, philosophy, and criticism. He was be- 
 sides a poet of some note, and wrote in every 
 kind of verse. Of his works however there 
 only remain three books " De Re Rustica, ' 
 five " Ue Lingua Latina," which he addressed 
 to Cicero, who in his turn dedicated hi.a 
 Tusculan Questions to Varro ; some frag- 
 ments of his " Menippean Satires ;" and a 
 few of his epigram?. His whole works, with 
 the notes of Scaliger, Turnebus, &r. weie 
 jniuted by Henry Stephens, 1373, 8vo, and 
 again in 1381. 'The work *' De Re Rustica" 
 is scarcely worthy the very high reputation of 
 Varro, being filled with much trite matter 
 and many absurdities, but it is still amusing, 
 as giving" a notion of the agriculture of his dav, 
 and the method of laying out gardens and 
 providing for the luxuries of the table amoig 
 the Romans. A good translation of this work 
 appeared in 1800, 8vo, by the rev. T. Owen, 
 of Queen's college, Oxford, — J'ossii Poet. Lat. 
 liriicker. Sinii Onom. 
 
 \'ARRO (Atacim's) a contemporary of 
 the preceding, and sometimes confounded with 
 
V A S 
 
 liiin, w.is a native of Atace, in the Naibon- 
 nensian Uaul. He wrole an esteemed poem, 
 entitled " I)e BplloSecniariico, "and also trans- 
 lated into Latin verse the Argonautics of Apol- 
 loiiius Rhodius, wliicli is liberally commended 
 hv Qiiiiitillian. A few fra'^ments of his pot-try 
 are to be found in the ('orpus Poetanun Latino- 
 rum. — I'ossi Voet.ct Hist, Lut. Tiral>o.\chi. 
 
 VARTAN, Vertabied, or Armenian Doc- 
 tor, one of the most learned writers Ar- 
 menia has ever proiluced. He flourished in 
 the thirteenth century of the Christian era; 
 and he was the author of a " History of Ar- 
 menia, from the commencement of tlie world 
 to AD. 1^67 ; " Fables," partly original and 
 jtarily from /Esop ; " Poems;" " Commenta- 
 ries on the Old Testament;" " Homilies;" 
 and various other works. The Armenian His- 
 tory of Vartan is preserved in MS. in the li- 
 brary of the Armenian convent at Venice, but 
 it has never been printed. The fables were 
 published, with a French translation, by J. M. 
 St Martin. Paris, 1825, 8vo. — B'lo^r. Univ. 
 
 VASARI (George) a Florentine artist of 
 the sixteenth century, eminent as a painter, 
 architect, and author. He was born in 1512, 
 or as others aver in I5l4, at Arezzo, in the 
 doniitiions of the grand duke, and at first 
 studied the art of painting on glass under the 
 celebrated William of ^Marseilles. This branch 
 of the profession he afterwards abandoned for 
 the higher department, and became the pupil 
 cf Andrea del Sarto, and afterwards of Michael 
 Angelo, while his progress in classical learning 
 was 80 far from being neglected, that he is 
 said to have been able to repeat the entire 
 ^neid before he had attained his tenth year. 
 Those munificent patrons of the arts, the Me- 
 elici family, gave him great encouragement, 
 and the literary work by which he is princi- 
 pally known as an author, " The Lives of the 
 mos't excellent Painters, Sculptors, Architects, 
 6cc." Florence, 1550, 2 vols. 4to, was written 
 at the instigation and under the ausjucesof the 
 cardinal of that name. A second edition of 
 this treatise appeared in 1568, 4to, 3 vols, a 
 third in 1571, and a fourth at Rome as late as 
 1758, in 7 vols. His death took place in 1571. 
 His nephew of the same name printed a 
 treatise on painting, Florence, 1619, in 4to. — 
 Moreri. Ttraboschi. Dup})us Life of Mich. 
 
 Aiigelo. 
 
 VASI (Joseph) an engraver and designer 
 of antitpiities, born in Sicily in 1710. He 
 settled at Home, where he passed the greater 
 part of his life, employing himself in the pro- 
 duction of various worke, which procured him 
 the title of a knight of the goldt-n spur. He 
 was particularly patronized by pope Benedict 
 XIV and Charles HI of Naples ; and he pub- 
 lished a collection of the finest public monu- 
 ments of Rome, including buildings, gardens, 
 fountains, &c. 1761, 10 vols, folio, with de- 
 scriptions by father Bianchini. This was fol- 
 lowed by his "Tesoro Sacro," exhibiting the 
 Roman basilics, churches, cemeteries, sanc- 
 tuaries, &c. 2 vols, and in 1777 he published 
 " Itinerano istruttivo di Roma nella Pittura, 
 Scultura, e Arcliitettura, &c." of which there 
 
 V A r 
 
 is an aliriilgment in Idrno, often reprint- <!. 
 Vasi died at Rome, April 16, 1782. J. H. Pi- 
 ranesi was one i>{ his pupils. — IHng. i'liiv. 
 
 VASS ALLI-KANDl ( A nton-.Makia) a 
 learned Piedinontese, born at Turin in 17 h). 
 He was educated under his unch', wlio was a 
 professor at the university of Luriri, and in 
 1771) he was elected to a place at the roval 
 college of the provinces, where lie studied j)lii- 
 losophy uiuler the cehbrat<-d father lieccaria. 
 In 17H5, having become a priebt, he was sent 
 as professor of philoscjphy to Torlona. and he 
 |iiil)lislied in 1786 a botanical dissertation, 
 which procured him the ac(|uaintance of Se- 
 nebier, Saussure,']'oaldo, and Volta. In 1792 
 he was called to Turin, where he was made 
 supplementary professor of pliysics. After the 
 overthrow of the Sardinian monarchy by the 
 French, Vassalli continued his labours as a 
 public teacher, and he was sent to Paris in 
 1799, as a member of the commission for the 
 reformation of weights and measures. After 
 the battle of Marengo, in 1800, he returned to 
 Turin, where he was a[)pointtd profensor of 
 physics. He became a member of the I^egis- 
 lative Consulta, and in 1805 he received from 
 Buonaparte the cross of the legion of honour. 
 On the return of the king of Sardinia to his 
 territories in 1814, Vassalli was displaced from 
 his chair, retaining however the title of hono- 
 rary professor, and that of perpetual secretary 
 of the Academy of Sciences. In 1819 he ob- 
 tained a salary as director of the Museum of 
 Natural History and of the Observatory. He 
 died July 5, 1825. Among the works he pub- 
 lished are a memoir " On the Afliniiies of the 
 Gases ;" " Physicae Elementa et Geometrije," 
 3 vols. 8vo ; " Letters on Galvanism ;" besides 
 memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Turin 
 from 1792 to 1809 ; annals of tlie Observa- 
 tory from 1809 to 1818; and meteorological 
 observation? from 1757 to 1817. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VASSOR (Michael le) a French writer of 
 singular character, was born at Orleans in 
 1648. He was a member of the congregation 
 of the Oratory, where he distinguished him- 
 self as much bv eccentricities as by his learn- 
 ing. In 1690 he forsook the Catholic com- 
 munion, and removed to Holland, whence he 
 was invited to F">ngiand, and obtained a pen- 
 sion from William ill. He died here in 1718, 
 aged seventy. He wrote a theological treatise 
 and paraphrases of the Gospels and Kpistles, 
 but his principal work is a history of Europe 
 during the reign of Louis \ III, in 20vols.l'Jmo, 
 and 7 vols. 4to. — Nouv. Diet. Hiit. 
 
 V^ATABLUS, the assumed name of Fran- 
 cis Gastlebled, a native t»f Gamache in Pi- 
 cardv, distinjiuished as an eminent biblical 
 scholar in the earlier moiety of the sixteenth 
 century. P'rancis 1 made him professor of 
 Hebrew in the Royal College at Paris, where 
 the learning and ingenuity he displayed pro- 
 cured him many pupils, es|ieciilly among the 
 Hebrew nation itself. Robert Stephens hav- 
 ing procured a surreptitious copy of his lec- 
 tures, tligested them into a series of annota- 
 tions which he aftixcil to the version of the 
 Bible by Leo Suda, 1515. The publication 
 
VAT 
 
 of lliis commentary caused much discussion, 
 and almost a schism in the church ; the doc- 
 tors of the Sorbonne condemning it as impious 
 and heretical, while its ortliodoxy was as: 
 strenuously maintained by the university ofi 
 Salamanca. The best edition of these notes j 
 is that of 1729, folio, 2 vols. Vatahlus was 
 afterwards ensaged in Marot's version of the 
 Psalms, and in translating some of the works 
 of Aristotle. He died in 1547. — Dupin. 
 
 VATER (Abraham) an eminent physi- 
 cian, the son of Christian Vater, professor of 
 medicine at Wittemberg, and author of some 
 works on medicine and philosopliy, wlio died 
 in 1732. The subject of this article was born 
 at Wittemberg in 1684, and in 1710 he was 
 nominated to the first medical chair in that 
 university. He travelled for improvement in 
 Germany, flolland, and England ; and on his 
 return to Wittemberg he exchanged his profes- 
 sorship for that of botany and anatomy, which 
 king Augustus 11 endowed with royal magni- 
 ficence. He formed an anatomical cabinet, 
 and he had the honour of first introducing 
 into Germany inoculation for the small-pox. 
 His death took place November 18, 1751. 
 His works, which are written in Latin, relate 
 to the structure of the lungs, the secretion of 
 the nervous fluiil, the gravid uterus, calculous 
 diseases, &c. besides a description of his 
 anatomical museum, a system of physiology 
 and some tracts on botany. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VATPLll (JoHxSEVEniNus) a distinguished 
 writer on philological hterature, born at Alten- 
 burgh in Saxony, in 1771. He was appointed 
 professor at the university of Jena in 1798, 
 and the following year he obtained the chair of 
 the Oriental languages at Halle. He removed 
 in 1810 to Konigsberg, where he was made 
 ])rofessor of theology ; but in 1820 his literary 
 })rojects recalled bim to Halle, and he resumed 
 liis office as Oriental j)rofessor, which he re- 
 tained till hid death in IMarcli, 1826. Pro- 
 fessor Vatcr was the editor and continuator of 
 Adelung's treatise on languages, entitled 
 " Mitliridates ;" besides which he published 
 " Synchronistic Tables of Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory ;" " General Archives of JIthnograpliy 
 and Linguistic Science ;" " Linguarum totius 
 Orbis Index Alphabeticus ;" " An Universal 
 (.'lirouolof^ical History of the Christian Church, 
 from the lleformatiou to our own Time ;" and 
 many other works, for which we must refer to 
 our authority. — Id. 
 
 VAITEL, or WATTEL (Emfr de) an 
 eminent publicist, was the son of a ch-rgyman 
 of Neufchatel, where he was born April 25, 
 1714. After completing his studies he went 
 to Berlin, and subsequently to Dresden, where 
 he was introduced to the king of Poland, 
 elector of Saxony, who received him with 
 great kindness, and some years after he was 
 aj)pointed privy counsellor to the elector. He 
 was residing at Dresden in 1765, when his 
 health began to decline, and he sought relief 
 from the air of his native counlry, but the 
 removal proved ineffectual, and he died at 
 Ts'eufthatel in 1767, in the fifiy third year of 
 liis age. He owed his early literary reputa- 
 
 V A n 
 
 tion to works which are little known in thin 
 country, namely, " A Defence of the Philo- 
 sophy of Leibnitz against ]\I. de Crousaz," 
 published in 1741, and " Piece* Diverses de 
 Morale et d'Amusement," Paris, 1746. His 
 grand work did not a])pear until 1758, when 
 it was publislud at Neufchatel, under the title 
 of" Droits des Gens, ou Principes de la Loi 
 naturelle, &:c." It was translated into most of 
 the leading modern languages, includincj the 
 English, in which it is entitled" The Law of 
 Nations, or Principles of the Law of Nature 
 applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations 
 and Sovereigns," 1760, 4to, and 179o, 8vo. 
 This work was particularly admired in Eng- 
 land, from the predilection of the author for 
 English authorities, while several of the max- 
 ims of Puffendorf and Grotius, who too often 
 adapted their opinions to the states in which 
 they lived, are forcibly refuted. In general 
 Vattel takes the celebrated Saxon philosopher 
 Wolff for his guide ; but he differed with him 
 in some points, in relation to which he pub- 
 lished in 1762, " Questions sur le Droit Na- 
 turel, et Observations pur le Traite du Droit de 
 la Nature de M. le liaron de Wolff." The 
 authority of this able writer since his death 
 has rather increased than diminished. — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. Bioor, TJniv, 
 
 VATTIER (Peter) a learned Orientalist, 
 born at Lisieux in Normandy, in 1623. Having 
 studied medicine and taken the degree of doc- 
 tor in that faculty, he settled at Paris, and be- 
 came physician to Gaston duke of Orleans. 
 In 1658 he obtained the professorship of Ara- 
 bic at the college de France, and he held it 
 till his death in 1667. He published an 
 abridgment of tlie iMahometan history, 1657, 
 4to ; the History of Tamerlane the Great, 
 1658, 4to ; a poitraiture of Tamerlane the Great, 
 with a sequel, 4to ; besides the Logic of Avi- 
 cenna, from the Arabic, and other translations 
 from the same language. — Moreri. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 VAUBAN (Sebastian i.e Prestre, seig- 
 neur de) marshal of France, and the greatest 
 engineer which that country has produced, 
 was the son of Urban, seigneur de Vauban, a 
 descendant of an ancient and noble family of 
 Nivernois. He was born May 1, 1633, and 
 early entered the army, where his uncommon 
 talents and genius for foriificaiion soon became 
 known, and were signally displayed in various 
 successive sieges. He consequently rose to 
 the highest military rank by his merit and 
 services, and was made governor of the citadel 
 of Lisle in 1668, and commissioner- general of 
 fortifications in 1678. He took Luxemburgh 
 in 1684, and was present in 1688 at the sieges 
 and capture of Philipsburg. Manheim, and 
 Frankendai, under the daujdiin. He was 
 made marshal of France in 1703, and died at 
 ! Paris iMarch 30, 1707, aged seventy-four. 
 Marshal de ^'auban was a man of high and 
 I independent spiiit, of great humanity, and al- 
 together devoted to the good of his country. 
 As an engineer he carried the art of fortifying, 
 attacking, and defending towns, to a degree of 
 perfection unknown before his time. He for- 
 
V A U 
 
 tific'd above tliree hundred ancient citJitlds, 
 erected tliirty-tliree new ones, had the prin- 
 cipal management and direction of fifly-llirec 
 sieges, and was present at a Imndred and 
 forty-tliree entjagement.s. His works consist of 
 a treatise entitled " La Dixine KoyaU'," 170 1, 
 4to and 12nio ; a j)lan for a consolidation of 
 the taxes ; and a vast collection of MSS. in 
 twelve volumes, which lie calls " Mes Oisi- 
 vetes, "which contain his ideas, reflections, and 
 projects for the advantai^e of France. The fol- 
 lowing works have also been ])ublished either 
 under his name or avowedly from his ideas : 
 " Maniere de Fortifier par !\1. de Va>iban,mise 
 en ordre par le Chevalier de Cambrai," l()89and 
 1692 ; " L'lng^nieur Fran^ais," with notes 
 by Herbert ; " Nouveau Traite de I'Attaque et 
 de la Defense des IMaces, suivant le Systeme 
 de M. Vauban," 1736 ; " Essais sur la Forti- 
 fications, par M. de Vauban," 1746. — E/(io;e 
 par Fontenelle. Nouv Diet. Hist. 
 
 VAUGELAS (Claude Favrf. de) an ele- 
 gant French writer, born in 1585, at Cham- 
 berry, of an ancient and respectable family, 
 long settled in that neighbourhood. He lield 
 a situation in the household of the duke of Or- 
 leans, and had acquired so high a character as 
 a critic and philologist, that cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, in his favourite design of forming a com- 
 plete dictionary of the French tongue, thouglit 
 it advisable to put the whole project under his 
 euperintendance. His services on this occa- 
 sion were requited by tlie payment of the ar- 
 rears of a pension which had been withheld 
 from him, a cheap recompence, arising from 
 his own property ; but the lasting reputation 
 which he acquired by the work, formed per- 
 haps his best reward. He was the author of 
 a valuable treatise, entitled " Remarks on the 
 French Language," in one quarto volume, and 
 of a singularly faithful as well as elegant 
 translation of " Quintus Curtius' Life of 
 Alexander the Great," which latter work, 
 owing to his fastidious nicety in composition, 
 is said to have occupied him nearly thirty 
 years, in which time it was more than once 
 nearly rewritten. His death took place about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century. — 
 Kicero7u Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VAUGHAN (sir John) a learned chief- 
 justice of the Common Pleas, was bom in 
 Cardiganshire in 1608, and educated at Wor- 
 cester school, whence he removed to Christ- 
 church, Oxford, and next to the Inner Temple, 
 where he contracted an intimacy with Selden, 
 who made him one of his executors. During 
 llie civil war he lived in retirement, but at 
 the Restoration he was elected member of 
 parliament for the county of Cardigan, and in 
 1668 made chief-justice of tlie Common Plons. 
 He died in 1674. Sir John Vaughan's " Re- 
 ports and Arguments" in the Common Pleas 
 are all special cases, and ably reported. They 
 were first printed in 1677, and again in 
 1706 by his son Edward Vaughan. — Briiig- 
 7nat}\ Legal Bibliogrnphij. 
 
 VAUGHAM (Henrv) commonly known bv 
 his assumed name of the Silurist, adopted that 
 appellation somewhat affect* dly, from the place 
 
 V A V 
 
 of his nativity, Newton in P-retknock^liire, a 
 county forming part of the an* iint kingdom 
 o*" the Silurt'rt. He was born in 16'21, anJ 
 studied at Jesus college, Oxford, in which 
 his brother, Thomas Vaughan, also held a fel- 
 lowshij). He afterwards settled in hm nativo 
 province, and |)racti8ed medicine there, al- 
 though he appears never to have graduated 
 either in jjhysic or in arts. His writings con 
 sist of " The Mount of Olives," a j)Ot m , 
 " Thalia Rediviva ;" " Olor Iscanus ;" and 
 " Silcx Scintillans, or the Pdteding Heart." 
 His death took place in 1695. — The 'I'homas 
 Vaughan before alluded to, is known as iIkj 
 author of some absurd treatises on Ahbymy 
 and Judicial Astrology, to which he was de- 
 voted, though a clergyman, and a man of talent 
 as well as learning. He had however sufficient 
 sense not to give them to the world under his 
 own name, but under the fictitious one of Ku- 
 genius Philaletbes. They are now deservedly 
 forgotten. He died rector of St Rridgtt's in 
 Brecknockshire, in 1666. — Athen. Ojoti. vol. ii. 
 
 VAUGHAN (VViLLiAM)an ingenious Welth 
 poet, descended of a highly respectable family 
 in Carmarthenshire, the seat of which was 
 known by the name of Golden Grove, was 
 born in 1577, and having gone through the 
 usual course of academical education at Jesus 
 college, Oxford, the favourite college of the 
 principality, graduated in that university as 
 LLD. He was the author of a variety of mis- 
 cellaneous poems, the princijial of which are 
 entitled " Di^ Sphzerarum Ordine ;" " The 
 Golden Fleece," 4to ; " The Golden Grove 
 moralized," Sec. and of a metrical version of 
 the Psalms and Solomon's Song. Some time 
 previously to his decease he quitted England for 
 Newfoundland, where he remained till his 
 death in 1640. — //*/</. vol. i. 
 
 VAUVEN ARGUES ( Luc de Clapifrs, 
 marquis de) a French writer of eminence on 
 moral philosophy. He was born at Aix in 
 Provence, in 17l5 ; and at the age of seven- 
 teen he entered into the army as a sub-lieute- 
 nant, and served in Italy, in the camjiaign of 
 1734. He was again employed in Germany 
 in 1741, when the fatigues he underwent 
 ruined his health, and obliged him to retire 
 from the service. He afterwards endeavoured 
 to obtaia a diplomatic employment, but he 
 was disappointed ; and he passed the remain- 
 der of his life in study, the fruit of which ap- 
 peared in his " Introilu( tion u la Connaissance 
 de rEsj)rit Humain," which he published in 
 1746. His death took place the following 
 year, in which a new edition, correc'ed and 
 enlarged, from the papers he hail left behind 
 him, was published by the abbes J'rublet and 
 Seijuy. I his work has been several times re- 
 printed with additions ; and in 1818 appeared 
 a supplementary volume of the writings 
 of Vauvenargues, containing " Dialogues," 
 " Pensees Diverses." " Paradoxes," '* Re- 
 flexions et Maxinies," "Characteres," " F.loge 
 de Louis XV," Cslc. 'Ihis Supplement is in- 
 cluded in a complete edition of bis works, 
 
 published at Paris. 1821, 3 vols. 8vo. — Noui. 
 
 Diet. Hiit. Biog- Univ. 
 
\' A U 
 
 VAUVILLIEUS (Jean FRAN901S). There 
 were two learned Frencli professors of lliis 
 name, fatlier and son, llie elder of whom read 
 lectures on eloquence and Greek in the uni- 
 versity of Paris, with considerable reputation, 
 about the beginning of the last century. A 
 treatise written by him, on the excellence of 
 Greek literatuie, gives a favourable s})ecimen 
 both of his taste and scliolarship. — The son, 
 born in 1736. was educated under his fatlier, 
 and in 1778 himself succeeded to the profes- 
 sor's chair. This situation he filled with great 
 ability till the Revolution, when becoming ob- 
 noxious to the prevailing faction, on account of 
 las aristocratical principles, he fled to Russia. 
 He published some clever essays on the writings 
 and genius of i'lndar and Horace ; "An His- 
 torical {Examination of the Government of 
 Sparta ;" and a " Selection from the Works of 
 various ancient Greek Authors,, for the Use 
 of the Military School," in six duodecimo vo- 
 lumes. His death took place at St Petersburg 
 in 1800. — Biog. Moderue. 
 
 VAUX. ihe name of a noble English fa- 
 mily, originally of French extraction, which 
 during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 
 was possessed of consi ierable property in the 
 county of Northampton, where was situated 
 their family seat of Harrowden. — Nicholas, 
 first lordVAUx, was the son of sir William Vaux, 
 and himself received the honour of knighthood 
 for his gallantry at the battle of Stoke in 1487. 
 He ranked deservedly high in the favour of 
 Henry VIII, who carried him with him into 
 France, where he was present at the cele- 
 brated meeting between that king and the 
 French monarch in the " field of cloth of 
 gold ;" and was afterwards ennobled. His 
 death took place in 1530. — His son, Thomas 
 lord Vaux, who inherited the taUnts and 
 valour of his father, and succeeded him in the 
 esteem of his prince, was born in 1.310. He 
 attended Henry on his second French expedi- 
 tion, and was made governor of Jersey, with 
 the collar of the order of the Bath. Like 
 many of the youn'- nobility of the age, he 
 joined the cultivation of poetry to the study 
 of martial exercises ; and several of his poetic 
 efTusions are yet to be found in The Paradyse 
 of daintie Devyces, of which his "Aged 
 Lover's Renunciation of Love," and " The 
 Assault of Cupid," have been much admired. 
 His death vook place soon after the acces.'^ion 
 of Mary to the throne. — The noble French fa- 
 mily, with which the one above mentioned is 
 supposed to have been collaterally connected, 
 was long settled in the vicinity of Gevaudan : 
 Noel Jordan de Vaux, one of its most emi- 
 nent members, distinguished himself by along 
 course of military service in the wars of the 
 last century. He was born about the year 
 170.5, and having entered the French army at 
 an early age, rose in it eventually to the rank 
 of a general and marslial of France. In the 
 course of his long life, which was extended to 
 the commencement of the Revolution, he was 
 present at fourteen pitched battles and nine- 
 teen sieges, in one of the latter of which, that 
 of Bergen oi)-Zoom, he received a severewound 
 
 V E G 
 
 from the bursting of a bomb-g!iell ; among ths 
 former may be reckoned those of Guastalla, 
 Parma, Fontenoy, and Rocroix. He was a 
 good officer, but a severe disciplinarian, which 
 occasioned some charges of cruelty to be exhi- 
 bited against him while governor of Corsica, 
 of which island he completed the reduc- 
 tion in 1769. On inquiry, however, he sa- 
 tisfied his government that the severity he 
 had used was justified by circumstances. He 
 died in the autumn of 1788 in the province of 
 Dauphine, whither he had been despatclu-d to 
 quiet some local manifestations of populiir 
 discontent. — IValpole's Royal and NobleAuthora. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VAVASSKUR (FRAN901S) a French critic, 
 poet, and jjhilologist, born at Paray in the 
 bishopric of Autun, in 160.3. He received 
 his education in the Jesuits' college, and hav- 
 ing become a member of that fraternity, read 
 lectures on eloquence and the polite arts, both 
 in the provinces and capital, till at length set- 
 tling entirely at Paris, he devoted his attention 
 principally to the instruction of youth in theo- 
 logy and classical literature. A work of his, 
 entitled " De Ludicra Dictione," exhibits to- 
 kens of deep erudition and great anticjuarian 
 research ; its main object being to prove that 
 the humour of the ancients never showed itself 
 in the burlesque style of composition. This 
 treatise first appeared at Paris in 1668. His 
 second production, " De Epigrammale," in- 
 volved him in a controversy with Rapin, a 
 brother of his own order, who held that species 
 of writing in great contempt. His other writ- 
 ings, all of which were collected and printed 
 by Le Clerc at Amsterdam in 1709, consist of 
 Poems on the Miracles, the Book of Job, Ele- 
 gies, Epigrams, &c. Father Vavasseur died 
 at Paris about the close of 1681. — Kouv. Diet. 
 Hist. 
 
 VEGA ( Lopez de la) or LOPE FELIX DE 
 VEGA CARPIO, a celebrated Spanish poet, 
 was born at Madrid, November 2.3, 1.362. He 
 studied four years in the university of Alcala, 
 and afterwards became private secretary to the 
 duke of Alva and to the count de Lemos. He 
 also spent some time in travel, and with some 
 of his brothers served in a military capacity 
 in the armada, designed by Philip 11 for the 
 conquest of England, being driven to a change 
 of scene by the grief which he indulged at the 
 death of his wife. He lost a brother in this 
 disastrous expedition, which possibly height- 
 ened his indignation against sir Francis Drake, 
 on whose death he wrote a poem, entitled 
 " Dragontea," in which both that commander 
 and his royal mistress are treated with much 
 virulence. In 1.320 he returned to Madrid, 
 and married a second time ; and for the next 
 eight or ten years exercised himself in every 
 si)ecie3 of poetical composition, including the 
 drama, with such an astonishing celerity of 
 production, that his mental fertility, without 
 ample authority, would be scarcely credible. 
 He was then a second time plunged into af- 
 fliction, bv the deatli of his second wife and 
 only son, which induced him to take orders, 
 and he also became an honorary member of the 
 
VEG 
 
 })r()l!jerliooil of St Francis. Thifl gt<p by no 
 nuans Uinieil liis Htlcniion from coni|)Osilion. 
 He selJoiii passed a week without giving some 
 poem to the press, and scarcely a month, or 
 even a week, wi hoiit producing some play 
 upon the stage. At the same lime his " Pas- 
 tores de J)eien," a work in piose and verse, 
 on the nativity ; and rhymes, liymns, and 
 j)Oenis witliout number on sacred suhjecty, 
 evinced his zeal in the profession whicli he htul 
 latterly embraced. Few jioets have met with 
 tlie encouragement or aii miration which was 
 experienced by Lope de Vega. Besides the 
 lionours and rich presents which lie received in 
 his own country, pope Urban \'II1 wrote him 
 a flattering letter on the production of liis 
 jioem on the death of iNIary queen of Scots, ob- 
 tained him the insignia of a kmght of INIalta and 
 conferreil upon him the degree of doctor of theo- 
 logy. His annual income was therefore large, 
 and he might have been very rich but for his 
 improvident and indiscriminate charity. His 
 imprudence in this respect produced incon- 
 veniences, which he had the unreasonable 
 weakness to attribute to ill-usage and neglect, 
 while living in the highest sute of splendour 
 and prosperity, and absolutely regarded as 
 the idol of the whole nation. He continued 
 to publish plays and poems, and to receive 
 every remuneration that adulation and gene- 
 rosity can bestow, until 16o.5, wlien his iil- 
 jiidged religious austerities rendered him me- 
 lancholy and hypochondriacal, and at length 
 led to his decease ou the i?6lh of August, in 
 that year, at the age of seventy-three. Such 
 was the honour paid to his remains, that the 
 ceremonies of his funeral lasted nine days, and 
 ail the pulpits of Spain, and all the poets of 
 the age, vied in eulogistic tributes to his me- 
 mory. Lope de Vega is with some justice 
 regarded as the parent of the modern conti- 
 nental drama, by the inexhaustible fertility of 
 his invention in the construction of plots, and 
 tlie faculty of pouring out verse without stint 
 or premeditation. In other respects the de- 
 luge of his fancy seems to have been composed 
 of but very ordinary matter, which can readily 
 be imagined when it is added, that his miscel- 
 laneous works in prose and verse are contained 
 in 22 vols. 4to, Madrid, 1776 — 9, and his dra- 
 matic pieces in 2o vols. 4to, 1609 — 1647. 
 Lord Holland, in his able and interesting ac- 
 count of his life, regards this Spanish literary 
 prodigy as one of the men who merit honour 
 for having promoted literature by their labours, 
 and prepared the way for otliers to eclipse 
 their own reputation. — Life by Lord HoUund. 
 
 VEGA (GroRGK, baron de) an Austrian 
 officer of artillery, born at Sagoritz in Car- 
 niola, in 1754. He studied at the college of 
 Lavbach, where he made a rapid progress in 
 mathematics. Being appointed an engineer 
 in Carniola, and afterwards in Hungary, he 
 became known as a man of talent in his pro- 
 fession, and was patronized by th<; emperor 
 Joseph II. He served in several camjiaigns 
 against the French, and having distinguished 
 himself on many occasions, especially in 1796, 
 he was made a major, and afterwards a lieu- 
 
 tenant colonel, knight of the order of JNJaii* 
 Theresa, ami a baron of the empire. liiA 
 death tof>k place in St'ptember 1802. He wan 
 a meml)fr of the academies of Gottingen, F,r- 
 furt, I'erlin, and several others, and he was* 
 considered as a mathentaiician of the first rank. 
 He publi^^hed " A Course of ."Mathf-matics, f(T 
 the Use of the Artillery of the Imperial Army,' 
 Vienna, 1786—1800, 4 vols. 4to, .Sd edit. 
 IH02, folio; "A Lot;arilhmo- trigonometrical 
 Manual," Leipsic, 179.5, 4to ; " A Comph te 
 Collection of grand Logariihmo-irigonome- 
 trical 'Fables," 1794, folio; *' Manuale Loga- 
 rithmico-trigonometricum," 1800, Ito; " Ati 
 Introduction to Chronology," \ifnna, IfaOi, 
 8vo ; and " A natural System of Measures, 
 Weights, and Coins," 180:?, 4io.—Bing. Unit. 
 VFGKTIUS RLNATUS (Flavils) the 
 most celebrated of the Roman writers on the 
 military art, flourished towards the end of the 
 fourth century, in the reign of the emperor 
 Valentinian 11. The title of illustrious joined 
 to his name in some MSS. of his treatise " De 
 Re Militari Lib v." proves that he belonged 
 to a family of distinguished rank ; and some 
 authors have given him the title of count. He 
 is supposed to have been an inhabitant of Con- 
 stantinople, but nothing certain is known of 
 his history. The work of \'egetius is to be 
 found in various editions of the Veteres de 
 Re iililitari Scriptores ; and it has been often 
 printevfl separately. Among the best editions 
 are those of Schwebel, Nuremberg, 1767, 
 4to ; and Strasburg, 1806, 8vo. (See art. 
 
 TuRriN DE CrISSE.) PUBMUS VfCLTIl'S, 
 
 who, notwithstanding the difference of praj- 
 nomen, has been careles&ly confounded with 
 the military tactician, was a writer on farrieiy. 
 His work, entitled " Artis Veterinaria.' sive 
 .A'ulo-medicinaj Lib. iv." was first printed at 
 Basil in 1528 ; but the best edition is that 
 of J. M. Gesner, Maidieim, 1781, 8vo. This 
 treatise likewise is included in the Scrip- 
 tores Rei Rustica?. — Moreri. Biii<^. Univ. 
 
 VELASQUEZ, or Don Diego Vi lasqufz 
 de SiLVA, an eminent Spanish history and 
 ])orlrait painter, was born at Seville in 1594. 
 He studied under Heriera and Pacheco, and 
 his first efiorts were employed in familiar and 
 domestic subjects, until the sight of some of 
 the pictures of the Italian masters inspired him 
 with loftier ideas. He was in particular 
 charmed with the colouring of Caravaggio, 
 whom he began to make his model, and his 
 success in that style equalled his most sanguine 
 expectation. Having spent five years wiili 
 Pacheco, he repaired to Madrid, wliere he ob- 
 tained the patronage of the dr.ke d'Olivan ?., 
 who introduced him to Philip 1\'. by whom he 
 was appointed his principal painter. While 
 in that situaticm, Rubens arrived at Mailrid, 
 and recommended him to spend some time in 
 Italy, which advice he followed, and acquired 
 such an inqirovement in taste, correctnt ss, 
 composition, and colouring, as placed him at 
 the head of his profession. On his return to 
 Sjiain he was received with the most flatter- 
 ing distinction, and he was some time after 
 employed by the king to make the tour of 
 
\ E L 
 
 Italy, and procure the best collection of pic- 
 tures and statues that were to be bought, and 
 to copy such as were unpurchaseable. Dur- 
 ing this progress he visited Rome, where he 
 was employed on the portraits of pope Inno- 
 cent X, and most of the cardinals. The com- 
 positions of Velasquez are remarkable for 
 strong expression, freedom of pencil, and an 
 admirable tone of colouring. His most cele- 
 brated picture is the historical representation 
 of the expulsion of the JMoors by Pliilip III. 
 He died at Madrid in 1660, in his sixty-sixth 
 year, and was interred with great magnificence. 
 — CiivUierland's Anec. of Painters in Sj)uin. 
 
 VELDE (Charles Francis Vander) a 
 native of Hreslau, who occupied several offices 
 of the magistracy in Silesia, and distinguished 
 himself by his literary productions. Recom- 
 menced his career as an author in 1809, by 
 inserting some pieces in periodical works. At 
 the same time he wrote for the theatres of 
 lireslau, Vienna, Prague, and iNIagdeburg ; 
 but his dramatic efforts not proving very suc- 
 cessful, he devoted himself to the composition 
 of romances, in which he attained such ex- 
 cellence, that he received the appellation of 
 the German Walter Scott. From the year ' 
 1817 he was employed in writing for the' 
 " Evening Journal." to which paper he owed j 
 much of his celebrity. He died in IMarch i 
 ]82t. His works were published at Dresden, i 
 1823, 14 vols. 8vo. The following have been ' 
 translated into French : " Naddock le Noir, j 
 ou le Brigand des Pyrenees," 3 vols. ; j 
 " Wlaska, ou les Amazones de Boheme," 3 
 vols. ; " Les Anabaptistes ;" " Les Patri- 
 ciens ;" and " Arwed Gyllenstierna," 2 vols. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VELEZ DE GUEVARA (Louis) a 
 Spanish comic poet and satirist of the seven 
 teenth century, was born at Icija in Andalusia. 
 He recommended himself at the court of Phi- 
 lip I\' by his humour and vivacity, which ob- 
 tained for him the title of the Spanish Scarron. 
 He was the author of several comedies, and | 
 of a humorous piece, entitled " El Diablo [ 
 Cojuelo, novella de la otra Veda," IMadrid, \ 
 loll, which production was the origin of the 
 celebrated Diable Boiteaux of Le Sage, 
 translated into English under the strange title 
 of the " Devil on two Sticks." The piquancy 
 and s|)irit of the latter work it is unnecessary 
 to j)oitit out, but it is said that Le Sage has 
 exceedingly improved on the Spanish original. 
 \'elez died at Madrid iu 1646. — Antonio Bibl. 
 Hispnn, 
 
 \ ELF.Z (Michael) a poet of Csokona- 
 killa, in Hungary, who died in 1806. He was 
 the author of a heroi-comic poem, in four 
 ho >ks, entitled " Dorothea, or the Triumph 
 of tlie Ladies at the Carnival," published in 
 180L Lithe preface, which, as well as the 
 poem, is written in the Hungarian language, 
 Velez treats of the nature of heroic poetry, a 
 branch of literature which had scarcely occu- 
 pied the attention of any previous Hungarian 
 writer. He als ) published, in 180.5, a collec- 
 tion of songs, which obtained great popularity. 
 — Aikin'i Athancmn. 
 
 V E E 
 
 VELLI, or VELLY (Paul Francis) 
 French Jesuit of the last century, born in 1711, 
 at Nismes, in the province of Champagne. 
 He is advantageously known as the author of 
 a " History of France," of which eight quarto 
 volumes were completed prior to his decease, 
 after which event it was continued by Villaret 
 and Gamier, who extended it to fifteen. The 
 work is written in a plain but energetic style, 
 and the facts are given with every appearance 
 of accuracy and impartiality. Velli quitted 
 the order to which he had belonged some time 
 before his death, and acted as tutor in the fa- 
 mily of a counsellor to the parliament of Paris. 
 He died September 4, 1759. — Noiiv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VELLLTI (DoNATo) the author of a cele- 
 brated Chronicle of Florence, born in that city 
 in 1313. He was educated at 15ologna and 
 Florence, and having studied jurisprutlence, he 
 acquired great reputation as a lawyer. The 
 duke of Athens having usurped the supreme 
 power at Florence, placed Velluti at the head 
 of the magistracy, called priori di liberta, and 
 appointed him advocate of the poor. Tlie duke 
 being expelled, new judicial arrangements 
 were made, in which Donato co-operated ; 
 and the remainder of his life was devoted to 
 his profession as an advocate, and to the exe- 
 cution of his duty in several important situa- 
 tions. In 13.^0 he became gonfalonier of jus- 
 tice, in which high post he exerted himself to 
 settle the disputes which existed among the 
 Florentine nobility, aiii* was otherwise ser- 
 viceable to his native country. At the age of 
 fifty four, when prevented by the gout from 
 more active employment, he undertook the 
 composition of his Chronicle ; and three years 
 after he died, in 1370. The best edition of 
 the work of Velluti is that published by Dom. 
 Maria Manni, under the title of " Cronico di 
 Firenze di Donatto Velluti, dall' anno 1300, 
 in circa fino al 1370," Florence, 1731, 4to. — 
 Bing. Vniv. 
 
 VELSER or WELSER (Mark) a man of 
 letters and an eminent patron of learning, was 
 born at Augsburg in 1558, of an ancient and 
 opulent family in that city. He was educated 
 with great care, and sent to Rome to study, 
 under the celebrated JMuretus. Returnintr to 
 his native place, he practised at the bar, and 
 rose through different grades of the magistracy 
 to the highest rank in the municipal govern- 
 ment of ins native place. He held a corre- 
 spondence with the most eminent men of let- 
 ters throughout Europe, and was looked upon 
 as one of the most distinguished promoters of 
 science and literature in Germany. He was 
 also the author and editor of several woiks, 
 the principal of liis own writing being " Rerum 
 Augustanarum Vindeiicarum Lib. viii." Venet. 
 1591, and" Rerum Boicarum Lib. v." Aug. 
 Vind. 1602. He likewise composed the lives 
 of some martyrs of Augsburg, and was one of 
 the principal contributors to Gruter's Collec- 
 tion of Inscriptions, He has by some too been 
 deemed the author of the famous " Squittinio 
 de la Liberta \'eneta." The writings of Vel- 
 ser were collected in a folio volume, Nureni' 
 berg, 1681. — FreJieri Theat. Baylc. 
 
V EN 
 
 VELTIIEIM (AuGi'STUs Fkiidinand, 
 
 count) meniher of tlie Iloyal Society of Lou- 
 don ami that of Ileluistadt, was boru iu tlif 
 duchy of JMagdcbur^ iu 1741. Having shown 
 a taste for the study of niineral<>t;y when 
 young, he was })laced at the university of 
 Ilehnstadt ; and in 176'J, having a situation 
 in tlie chamber of finance at Brunswick, he 
 travelled with his fatlicr through CJermany, to 
 visit the mines and salt-works. On his return 
 in 1766 lie was appointed sub-inspector of 
 mines in the I lartz mountains. 'J'liis situation 
 he relin(]uished in 1779, on the death of his 
 wife, and retired to the castle of llarhke, in 
 the territory of INIagdeburg, where he conti- 
 nued chiefly to reside the remainder of his life. 
 He published many works on mineralogy and 
 other subjects, among which are " Regulations 
 against Fires," Helmstadt, 1794, 4to ; a trea- 
 tise on the Barberini or Portland Vase," 1791, 
 8vo ; " On the Formation of Basalt, and the 
 Ancient State of the INIountains in Germany ;" 
 " IMineralogy," Brunswick, 1781, folio; and 
 a work on the Forest 'J'rees of North America, 
 which he had cultivated in his park at Harbke. 
 Pie printed at Helmstadt a collective edition 
 of his works, historical, archaeological, and 
 mineralogical, in 2 vols. Ovo. In 1798 he was 
 nominated deputy of the duchy of Magdeburg, 
 to do homage to the king of Prussia, Frederick 
 William 111, who raised him to the rank of a 
 count. He died at Brunswick, October 2, 
 1801. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VENANTIUS FORTUN ATUS (IIoNORi^s 
 Clementianus) a Christian poet of the sixth 
 century. He was born at Trivigi in Italy, and 
 studied at Ravenna, where be distinguished 
 himself in the meagre acquirements of the pe- 
 riod. On the invasion of the Lon:ibards he 
 quitted his country for France, and was or- 
 dained a priest at Poictiers about the year 565, 
 and afterwards elected bishop of that see. He 
 was much esteemed by Sigebert, king of Aus- 
 trasia, and by Gregory of Tours ; and he is 
 supposed to have died in the beginning of the 
 seventh century. The writings of Venautius 
 are for the most part in verse ; the Life of St 
 Martin of Tours consists of four books ; and 
 there are eleven of miftcellaueous poetry, chiefly 
 on ecclesiastical subjects. One, however, is 
 exclusively filled with pieces addressed to 
 queen Ixadegonda ; two or three of which, says 
 a French writer, may be termed " very pretty 
 madrigals." His prose writings are princii)ally 
 lives of saints. His works were republished 
 at Rome in 1786—87, in ii vols. 4to. — Xonc. 
 Diet. iHst. Tiruhoiclii. 
 
 VKNUOME (Louis Joseph, duke of) a 
 distinguished French general, who was the 
 great-grandson of Henry IV, and his motlur 
 was one of the nieces of cardinal Mazariu. 1 le 
 was boin in 1651, and entering young into the 
 army, he served in the wars of Louis XIV in 
 Holland. After signalizing himself on many 
 occasions, he was employed in Spain, and in 
 1697 he took Barcelona. Being afterwards 
 sent into Italy, he was very successful against 
 the imperialists, defeating prince Eugene in 
 1706 at the battle of Cassano, and having 
 
 V E N 
 
 nearly maile himself master of I'urin, when h* 
 was recalled to oppose the English and tlieir 
 allies in the Netherlands. He was bubse- 
 (|uently again »ent to Spain, to 8uj»port the 
 cause of I'hilip V , to whose ostablislnneut on 
 the Spanish thriiue he greatly contributed by 
 the victory of Villaviciosa iu 1710; and in 
 reward of his services he was admitted to the 
 honours of a {)rince of the blood royal, being 
 descended from one of the illegitimate Bons of 
 Henry 1\\ He died at lignaros in Spain, 
 June 11, 171 'J. \'endome possessed un- 
 doubted military talents and a vast deal of cou- 
 rage ; but his manners were brutal and repul- 
 sive, and his character highly deserving of re- 
 probation. — Diet. Hist. lii.)g. Univ. 
 
 VENEL (Gabui£l Francis) an eminent 
 French physician of the last century, who filled 
 the professor's chair in medicine at Montpel- 
 lier for several years with great reputation. 
 He was born in 1723 at Pezenas, and is now 
 principally known by his writings on the re- 
 spective properties of the mineral waters of 
 Seltz, Passi, &cc. He also wrote on the use 
 of the Houille or Pitcoal. His death took place 
 at Montpellier in 1776. — Nouv. Diet, lliit. 
 
 VENERONI (John) a native of Verdun, 
 whose proper name was \'igneron. Havinu- 
 engaged in the profession of an Italian master 
 at Paris, lie adopted the name by which he 
 is usually designated, that he might pass for a 
 native of Florence. He published an Italian 
 Grammar and an Italian and French Dic- 
 tionary, which obtained the apjtrobatiou of the 
 Cruscan Academy ; and he likewise produced 
 some translations of Italian authors. He was 
 also the author of " Dictionnaire Manuel, en 
 quatre Langues, Franfais, Italien, Allemand, 
 et Russe," Moscou, 1771, 8vo. The Gram- 
 mar of Veneroni is still held in estimation, but 
 his Italian Dictionary has been superseded by 
 that of Alberti. He held the office of secre- 
 tary-interpreter to the king. Neither the pe- 
 riod of his birth nor that of Jiis death can be 
 ascertained ; but from the dates of his publi- 
 cations it appears that he lived in the latter 
 part of the seventeenth and the beginning of 
 the eighteenth centuries. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VENEZIANO. 'Jhe name of two eminent 
 artists, assigned to them on account of the 
 country which produced them. Domlmco 
 \'^£NEziANo was an early painter of great me- 
 rit, and is said to have been the first who in- 
 troduced oil painting into Italy. He was bar- 
 barously assassinated about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century by his friend and pupil, An- 
 drea del Castagno. whom he had initiated in 
 his secret, and who murdered him that he 
 might himself become its sole possessor. — A 
 celebrated Italian engraver, whose family name 
 was A(JOsri\o de Mcsis, is also known by 
 this appellation. He studied the art under the 
 celebrated Raimondi, and produced many ex- 
 cellent prints, most of which are now ex- 
 tremely rare and valuable. His death took 
 jdace in 1540 at Rome.^D'ArgenviUe Vies de 
 Feint. 
 
 VENIUS, or VAN VEEN (Otho) a Dutch 
 painter of crvimence, was born in 1356, of » 
 
V R N 
 
 considerable family in Leyden. He was care- 
 fully educated in the belles lettres, and stu- 
 died design under Isaac Nicholas. He subse- 
 quently repaired to Liege and to Rome, where 
 he perfected himself in his profession, and 
 especially in chiar-oscuro, and became the first 
 who explained to the Flemish artists the prin- 
 ciples of lights and shadows, which his dis- 
 ciple Rubens afterwards carried to so high a 
 degree of perfection. lie was much pa- 
 tronized by the archduke Albert, governor of 
 the Low Countries, who made him master of 
 the IMiiit. He drew the full-length portrait of 
 this prince and the infanta Isabella, to be sent 
 to James I of Great Britain. To show his ac- 
 quisitions in polite learning, he published se- 
 veral treatises, with cuts of his own designing, 
 among which are'' IIoratiiEmblemata," 1607, 
 4to ; " Amoris Divini Emblemata," 1615, 4to ; 
 " Amorura Emblemata," 1608 ; " Batavorum 
 cum Romanis Bellum," 1612, 4to, &c. He 
 died at Brussels in his seventy-eighth year. — 
 D'Arcretiiille Vies des Peint. 
 
 VENNKR, MD. (Tobias) an English phy- 
 sician of great eminence in his profession dur- 
 ing the earlier moiety of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was a native of the village of North 
 Petherton, Somerset, where he was born about 
 the year 1577. Having prosecuted his studies 
 with great success at St Alban-hall, Oxford, he 
 visited the continent for the purpose of ex- 
 tending his medical inquiries in various foreign 
 liospitals and universities, and in one of the 
 latter took his degree as doctor of physic in 
 1613. On his return to England he com- 
 menced practice at Bridgewater, in his native 
 county, whence, as his reputation increased, 
 he removed to Bath, and died in that city in 
 1660. His treatise " On the Prolongation of 
 Life " was long a very j>opular work. His 
 other writings consist of a tract on the pro- 
 perties of the Bath water; another on that of 
 St Vincent's rocks, in the neighbourhood of 
 Bristol, which he condemns as unsalutary ; 
 and a third on " Fumigation by Tobacco." — 
 Allien, Oxon. 
 
 VENTENAT (Stephen Peter) a cele- 
 brated French botanist, born at Limoges, 
 IMarch 1, 1757. At the age of fifteen he en- 
 tered into the order of the canons regular of 
 St Genevieve, and having distinguished him- j 
 self by his progress in philosophical and theo- 
 logical studies, his superiors wished him to be- 
 come a preacher; but he preferred the culti- 
 vation of science, and with that view he pro- 
 cured a situation in the library of his convent. 
 In 17B8 being sent to England to procure 
 books, his notice was attracted by many 
 beautiful works on plants, and his subsequent 
 visits to some of the finest gardens in fJng- 
 land gave him a decided predilection for 
 botany, to the study of which he determined 
 to devote himself on his return to France. In 
 1792 he combated the theory of Hedwig, on 
 the fructification of mosses, in his " Disserta- 
 tion sir les Parties des Mousses qui ont 6te 
 regard^es comme Fleurs males et Fleurs fe- 
 nielles," 8vo ; and three year;? after appeared 
 a " Alemuire sur les meilleurs Moyens de dif- 
 
 \' EN 
 
 tinguer le Calice de la Corolla," In 1796 he 
 gave a course of lectures on botany at the 
 Lyceum, which he afterwards published. He 
 was appointed subsequently chief librarian of 
 tlie Pantheon, and a member of the Institute ; 
 and in 1799 he published " Tableau du Re^^ne 
 Vegetal," 4 vols. Bvo, which is a translation 
 of the " Procmium " of the " Genera Plan- 
 tarum" of Jussieu, with additions. The chief 
 merit of Ventenat lay in descriptive botany, 
 and he belonged to the class of botanists 
 termed by Linnaeus Iconographers. Among 
 his works of this kind are " Description des 
 Plantes nouvelles, ou peu connues, du Jardin 
 de J. M. Gels," Paris, 1800, folio ; " Le Jar- 
 din de la IMalmaison," 2 vols, folio; " Le 
 Clioix de Plantes," folio ; and " Decas Gene- 
 rum Novorum," folio. During the prevalence 
 of revolutionary principles, Ventenat followed 
 the example of many of his brother canons in 
 taking a wife. His death took place at Paris, 
 August 13, 1808. He was the author of many 
 interesting memoirs in the Transactions of the 
 Institute, the Botanical Annals of Usteri, and 
 the iMagasin Encyclopedique. — Joiiru. de Bo- 
 t unique. Biog. Lhiiv. 
 
 VENTURI (PoMPETo) an Italian critic, 
 who was a native of Sienna, and entered into 
 the society of the Jesuits in 1711. He taught 
 philosophy at Florence, and afterwards • rhe- 
 toric successively at Sienna, Prato, Florence, 
 and at Rome, till 1746. In consequence of 
 ill health he then retired to Ancona, where he 
 died in 1752. His commentary on Dante, first 
 printed at Lucca in 1732, 3 vols. 8vo, and de- 
 dicated to Clement XII, has been repeatedly 
 republished ; but the only complete editions 
 are said to be those of Verona, 1749, 8voj 
 and Venice, 1751, 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VENTURI (John Baptist) a writer on 
 natural philosophy, was born at Bibiano, in the 
 duchy of Reggio, in 1746, and he studied in 
 the seminary of that city, under the celebrated 
 Spallanzani. At the age of twenty-three he 
 became professor of metaphysics and geome- 
 try in the same seminary, whence in 1773 he 
 removed to occupy the chair of philosophy at 
 Modena. In 1796, being sent to Paris on a 
 political mission, he remained in France, em- 
 ploying himself in the cultivation of physical 
 science. Returning to his native country he 
 was nominated a member of the legislative 
 body at Milan. But after the overthrow of 
 the republican government in 1799, the duke 
 of Modena had him imprisoned, and lie did 
 not recover his liberty till after the battle of 
 Marengo. He was then chosen prof^sor of 
 jdiysics at Pavia, and afterwards decorated 
 with the cross of the legion of honour, and 
 the order of the iron crown. He subsequently 
 occupied for twelve years the post of charg6 
 d'afl'aires of the kingdom of Italy at Berne. 
 He retired with a pension in 1813, and his 
 death took place September 10, 1822, at Reg- 
 tjio. Among liis principal works are •' Com- 
 mentari sopra la Storia e la leorie dell' Ot- 
 tica," t. i. Bologna, 1814, 4to ; " Dell' Ori 
 gine e de* Progressi delle odierne Artiglierie,' 
 Reggio, 1815, 4to ; and " Memorie e Lettere 
 
V E II 
 
 ineilite e disperse di Galileo Galilei," JMoJena, 
 181R. 'i vols. 4to. — liio};- Univ. 
 
 VERBIKS r (Feudinand) a celebrated Je- 
 suit missionary, a native of Flanders, who 
 much distinguished himself in Chinu in the 
 beginning of the seventeeutli century. JJeing 
 drawn from prison, into which all the mission- 
 aries had been cast, to correct some errors in 
 the Chinese calendar, he so convinced the em- 
 peror Cam- Hi of the ignorance of his chief 
 astrologer, tliat he was ai)pomted in his place. 
 Heals.) obtained leave to preach the Christian 
 religion in China, and the emperor was so 
 much attached to liim, that he himself com- 
 posed an eulogy on him wlien lie died, and 
 caused him to be buried with Christian ho- 
 nours. His principal work is entitled " As- 
 tronomia Europaia, sub lmj)eratore Tartaro- 
 Sinico Cam- Hi. &c." Ddrng*. 1687, 4lo. 
 This celebrated missionary, at the request of 
 the emperor, caused to be made under his own 
 insjtection, various astronomical instruments, 
 and wrote sixteen volumes in the Chinese lan- 
 guage, on their use and construction. He 
 died in 1688. — Montucla Histoire ties Mathe- 
 tnatiqites. 
 
 \ LRDIER. There were several ingenious 
 French writers of this name. — Antoine dv 
 Verdieu, lord of Vauprivas, was a native of 
 INIontbrisson in F'orez, born of a noble family 
 about the year 154-4, and held a situation in 
 the household of the French king. He was 
 the author of a variety of miscellaneous works, 
 of wliich the principal are his " Bibliotheque 
 des Auteurs Fran9ais," folio ; " Prosopogra- 
 phy,'' or memoirs of illustrious personages, 
 in 3 vols, folio ; " Les Diverses Lemons," &c. 
 8vo ; and a humorous work entitled " Le 
 Compteseutique." He obtained the post of 
 historiographer royal, and died about the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century. — Claude 
 Du A'erdier, son of the above, was born in 
 1566, and distinguished himself by the seve- 
 rity of his liypercriticisms in an essay, in 
 which he deals out censure on almost all the 
 principal authors of antiquity, especially on 
 the poet Virgil. His deatli took place in 1649. 
 — C^SAR Verdier, an eminent surgeon and 
 professor of anatomy, was a native of Molieres, 
 a village in the vicinity of Avignon. He was 
 the author of a great variety of tracts on pro- 
 fessional subjects, which he treated in an able 
 manner. Of these tiie best known are his 
 " Abridgment of Anatomy," 12mo, 2 vols, to 
 which Sabatier added a commentary ; " JMe- 
 dical Observations ;" " On the Diseases of 
 the I^ladder," &c. &c. He died at Paris in 
 the spring of 1759.— Nohu. l>ict. Hist. 
 
 VERE(EDWAnu) earl of Oxford, one of 
 the literary courtiers of queen Elizabeth. He 
 was descended from one of the most ancient 
 families of the English nobility, his father 
 being the sixteenth peer who had held the 
 title, which became extinct in the reign of 
 queen Anne. He was born about 1540, and 
 received an education suitable to his rank. He 
 held the office of lord high chamberlain, and 
 gat as such at the trials of the queen of Scots. 
 i.nd subsequently at those of the earls of 
 
 V E R 
 
 Arundel, Essex, and Southampton. Speci- 
 mens of his laleiits /iH a poet aie pr'^served in 
 the " Parailise of DaiMty Oevices." His per- 
 sonal character seems to have hten by no 
 means favourable. He bad a quarrel with sir 
 I'hilip Sidney, which did him no credit ; and 
 he is said to have ill-treated his wife, who 
 was the daughter of lord liurleigh. His death 
 took place in 1601. — Heikenhout's liii'f^. Lit. 
 
 V'l-IU'^ (FiiANns) a celebrated Englisli 
 captain, was the grandson of John Vere, ear! 
 of Oxfor<i.and was born in 1551. He served 
 first in the Netherlands, umler the earl of 
 Leicester, and next under lord ^\ illoughby, 
 who conferred on him the honour of knight- 
 hood for his gallantry at the siege of Rergen- op- 
 Zoom. After this he was intrusted to throw 
 supplies into the town of Berg on the Rhine, 
 in which arduous service he received several 
 wounds. He also took a fort near Zutjihen in 
 1591, and was chiefly instrumental in the cap- 
 ture of Deventer. In 1596 he was recalled 
 from the Netherlands, and enqjloyed in the 
 expedition against Cadiz, with the title of lord 
 marshal. He returned to Holland the follow- 
 ing year, and was appointed governor of the 
 Brill, one of the customary honours in the Low 
 Countries. In 1600 he served under prince 
 Maurice, who was principally indebted for his 
 victory at Nieuport to sir Francis A'ere, who 
 was severely wounded. His last great action 
 was the defence of Ostend, which he main- 
 tained with a garrison of twelve hundred men 
 against a besieging army of ten thousand. 
 His death took place in 1608, in his fifty- 
 fourth year, and he was magnificently interred 
 in Westminster abbey. He has recorded his 
 own exploits in a work entitled •' The Com- 
 mentaries of Sir Francis Vere, being diverse 
 Pieces of Service, wherein he had Command, 
 written by himself." This piece was published 
 from the original MS. by Dr Dillingham, 
 Camb. 1657, folio. — Binor. Brit. 
 
 VERE (Horace) baron A^ere of Tilbury, 
 younger brother of sir Francis Vere, was born 
 at Kirby-hall in Essex, in 1565. He adopted 
 the military profession, and served under his 
 brother in the Netherlands, where he distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Nieuport, and 
 in the defence of Osteml against the Spaniards. 
 He was sent to Germany in the reign of James 
 I, with a body of troops to assist the elector 
 palatine, the king's son-in-law, when he was 
 opposed by the celebrated Spinola ; and he 
 strikingly displayed his talents in effecting a 
 retreat before the superior forces of that gene- 
 ral. He was raised to the peerage by Charles I, 
 and he died in 1635. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 VERELU'S (Olof) a celebrated Swedish 
 antiquary and librarian in the academy of I'p- 
 sal,was born in 1618 in East Gothland, where 
 bis father was a clergyra:»n. Afcer receiving 
 a learned and collegiate education, he made 
 the lour of Europe, as tutor to some Swedish 
 gentleman ; and on his return was appointed 
 professor of eloquence at Dorpt, by queen 
 Christina. In 1653 he was made treasurer to 
 the academy at I'psal. and in 1666 constituted 
 antiquary of the kingdom. He died at Ipsal 
 
V E R 
 
 in Cfii. Pie was a most entlmsiastic stu- 
 dent of Swedish antiquities. His principal 
 works are "' ivunograpljia Scandica Autiqua," 
 folio, Upsa!, 1675; " Historia Gothrici et 
 Kolfonis, VVestrogoilii^ Regum," 4to, 1680 ; 
 " Historia Horvurae," folio, 1671, with a sup- 
 plement thereto, &ic. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 \'K1\G KNNES (CiiARLts Ghavier, count 
 de) a French statesman, born at Dijon in 1717, 
 who was the son of a president a mortier of 
 the parliament of that city. His relative, 
 ]M. de Chavigny, took him in 1740 to Lisbon, 
 where he occupied a diplomatic situation ; and 
 in 1760 he was himself appointed French mi- 
 nister at the court of the elector of Treves. In 
 1755 he succeeded the count Uesalleurs as 
 ambassador in Turkey ; and in both these 
 jiosts his conduct gave great satisfaction. He 
 was however recalled in 1768, in conse(|uence 
 of a difference of opinion with the duke de 
 Clioiseul, relative to the propriety of exciting 
 liostilities between the Turks and Russians ; 
 and returning home he retired to his estate at 
 Toulongeon in Burgundy. After the fall of 
 Choiseul, he was summoned from his retreat, 
 and sent to Sweden in 1771 ; and he had no 
 small share in the revolution which took place 
 in that country under Gustavus III. When 
 Louis XVI came to the crown he recalled M. 
 de Vergenues and made him minister of fo- 
 reign affairs in July 1774. Among the princi- 
 pal acts of his ministry were the treaty of So- 
 leure with the Swiss in 1777 ; that with the 
 I'nited States of America in 1778 ; the treaty 
 of Tesciien with the emperor Joseph 11 in 
 1779 ; and that which concluded the American 
 war in 1783. To which may be added the 
 treaty of commerce negociated with England 
 in J 7 85 and 1786, which was one of the last 
 labours of the count de Vergeunes, whose death 
 iiappened February 13, 1787. Louis XYl had 
 so iiigh an opinion of the talents of this minis- 
 ter, that he used to say the Revolution would 
 not have taken place if he had lived. — Diet, 
 llht. Biog. Uiiiv. 
 
 VERGER DE HAURANE (John du) 
 abbot of St Cyran, by which title he is best 
 known, was born of a noble family at Bayonne 
 in 1581. He was educated for the church at 
 J'aris and J^ouvaine, where he contracted a 
 frif-ndsliip with the celebrated Jansenius. He 
 was made a canon by the bis^hop of Bayonne, 
 but afterwards repaired to Paris ; and in 1620 
 he was presented to the abbacy of St Cyran. 
 He continued his intimacy with Jansenius, 
 whose o{)inions he zealously projiagated, and 
 by his soft and insinuating address made many 
 proselytes, jiarticularly among tlie females. At 
 length he was denounced as a dangerous ])cr- 
 fion to cardinal Richelieu, who was otherwise 
 piipu'd at his refusal to declare in favour of the 
 nullity of tlie marriage of Gaston duke of Or- 
 leans with Margaret of Lorraine. That des- 
 potic minister in consequence imprisoned him 
 in the castle of Vincennes, from which con- 
 finement he was not released until the death 
 of the cardinal. Tlie abbot St Cyran did not 
 ^>ng survive bis liberation, dying at Paris in 
 1643. lli.>» j-rini ijial works are ' l.ettres Sjij- 
 
 V E U 
 
 rituelles," 2 vols. 4to ; "Question Royal;" 
 ** L'Aumone Chretienne ;" " Petrus Aure- 
 lius," a controversial work, ia which he fiercely 
 attacked the Jesuits. He was regarded is a 
 champion and martyr of the Jansenists, and 
 ' must have possessed some ability to gain such 
 disciples as the MM. Arnauld, De Sacy, 
 j D'Andilli, and others of the Port Royal ; bu 
 i his writings by no means support his reputa- 
 tion in other respects. — None. Dirt. Hist. 
 
 VERGERIUS (Peter Paul). There were 
 two eminent ecclesiastics of this name, both 
 natives of Capo d' Istria, and descended of the 
 ! same family. The first, in point of time, was 
 ' born about the middle of tiie fourteenth cen- 
 I tury, and was the pupil of Chrysoloras and 
 I Zabarella. 1 le was considered one of the most 
 ; able ecclesiastical lawyers of his day, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in the general council held 
 at Constance. Besides a translation of the 
 works of Arrian, he was the author of a " His- 
 tory of the princely House of Carrara," a fa- 
 mily in which he had acted for many years as 
 instructor to some of its junior branches. His 
 other writings are an " Essay on the Republic 
 of Venice ;" the Lives of St Jerome and of the 
 celebrated Petrarch, and a treatise " De Mo- 
 ribus ingenuis." His death took place in 1431. 
 — The younger Vergerius, who eventually 
 succeeded to the see of Capo d' Istria, was a 
 prelate of considerable leaniing and ability, 
 and was emj)loyed as legate on various mis- 
 sions, both by Clement VII and his immediate 
 successor in the papal chair. While assisting 
 in that capacity at the council of Augsburg in 
 1530, his zeal against the reformers was un- 
 questioned ; but at the expiration of 'twelve 
 years appears to have so much dimini>hed iiv 
 its fp'-vour, that at the diet of Worms he ex- 
 cited the suspicions of his court, as feeling an 
 inclination in their favour. His sincere at- 
 tachment to the Romish church, however, at 
 this period of his life is not to be doubted, if 
 we are to believe the generally accredited tra- 
 dition, that being excited by the manifest dis- 
 trust of the reigning pontiff to do something 
 which might evince his orthodoxy, he set about 
 a treatise levelled directly against the " Ger- 
 man Apostates," but was himself in reality 
 converted to their opinions, while engaged in 
 reading their books for the purpose of oppugn- 
 ing their arguments. His falling off from Ca- 
 tholicism drew on him the indignation of the 
 in(]uisition, whose power he narrowly escaped 
 by a precipitate fliglit. The sudilen death of 
 his brother, the bisho]) of Pola, universally at- 
 tributed to the effects of poison, would seem 
 to intimate that he was less successful, as his 
 opinions also had notoriously undergone a simi- 
 lar change. Vergerius in his timely retreat 
 took refuge at Tubingen, where be siqierin- 
 tended a complete edition of his own writings, 
 in one volume, quarto, 1563. and survived its 
 publication something less than three years. — 
 rirahoxchi. Alelcliior Adam. 
 
 VI'^llGIL (Polydore) an liistorical and 
 philological writer of eminence in the sixteenth 
 century. He was a native of IJrbino in Italy, 
 aiid became a nienibei of the eccle^iastica. 
 
V E II 
 
 ])rofcssion. Oufi of liis first iiioductiona was a 
 collection of Latin }>ot'ni:), which was followed 
 in !}'.''.> hy his work " l)e ilcruni lnvontori- 
 bus," which has been often rcpuhlished. I'ope 
 iliexandcr VI sent him to l'!iii;Iaii(l, as collec- 
 tor of the tribute called I'eli r'.s pence ; and 
 he was the last person who held that ollice in 
 this country previously to the Reformation un- 
 der Henry V 1 11. That j)riiice bestowed on 
 Lim the archdeaconry of \\ ells and several 
 other benefices in the church ; and at the re- 
 quest of Henry he composed a {general History 
 of England, from the earliest a^es to his own 
 time. This work, which is written in Latin, 
 considered as the production of a foreigner, is 
 highly creditable to his talents; but his repu- 
 tation lias suffered in some degree from the 
 charge of having destroyed memoirs and re- 
 cords which he made use of in his undertaking. 
 The History of Polydore has passed lluougli 
 several editions. He quitted England in the 
 reign of Edward VI, and going to Italy, he died 
 at Urbinoin loo5. Besides the works noticed 
 he was the author of a treatise on Prodigies. 
 — Aik'ni. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VERHEYEN (Piter) a physician and 
 anatomist of considerable reputation, was born 
 at Vesbronck in Holland, in 1648. He was 
 brought up to husbandry, but the curate of the 
 parisli perceiving his capacity, gave him in- 
 struction, and procured him admission into 
 the college of Louvain, where he became pro- 
 fessor of medicine. His " Corporis Humani 
 Anatomia," published in 1693, is a work 
 which still maintains a considerable portion of 
 reputation as containing the opinions of tlie 
 ancients, and more accurate descrijilions of 
 modern discoveries than had previously ap- 
 peared. He died in 1710. — Eloy Did. Hist, de 
 
 Med. 
 
 VERNES (Jacob) a Genevese divine, born 
 in 1728. After he had completed his studies, 
 he was admitted to the evangelical ministry, 
 but not obtaining any immediate preferment, 
 he devoted his time to the cultivation of lite- 
 rature, and commenced a periodical work en- 
 titled " Choix Litteraire," which is not so much 
 a journal as a collection of pieces in prose and 
 verse. It was continued from 17o.^ to 1760, 
 foiming '2-1 vols. Bvo. Vernes was at one 
 time intimate with J. J. Rousseau ; but that 
 irritaide genius having quarrelled with him, 
 he published " Lettres sur le Christianisme de 
 J.J. Rousseau," 176:>, 8vo, and other tracts 
 relatino- to the " Profession de Foi du Vicaire 
 Savoyard," to which the philosopher refused 
 to make any reply. Vernes after a time be- 
 came pastor ai Seligny, and in 1771 he was 
 called to Geneva. In 1782 he was, with 
 other distinguished citizens, exiled for opposi- 
 tion to the changes made in the Genevese con- 
 sdtution. Having obtained permission to re- 
 turn home in 1789, he died at Geneva in Octo- 
 ber 1791. Besides the works already noticed, 
 lie was the author of " Conference Philoso- 
 plmiue," 1771, 8vo, fourth edition, 1783, 2 
 vols. 8vo -, and " Sermons," 1792, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 p.jblished by his son, with a biographical me- 
 iKL-ir. — Bii^g. Univ. 
 
 \iiQQ. 33icT. — Vol. III. 
 
 V E K 
 
 VERNFTI' (Jacth) professor of thcoiou'v hi 
 Geneva, where he was born in 1698. He tirst 
 Ktuilie.l under hi.i uncle, Daniel Le( lerc, the 
 learned author of the History of Medicine ; 
 but he afterwartls ddof>ted the occleHiastical 
 profession, lit- visited Paris in his youth, and 
 then travelled in Italy, Germany, and Kny- 
 land. Jn 17;>9 he became profesf^or of ancient 
 literature at Geneva, and he hchl that office 
 till 17 J6, when he parsed to the chair of theo- 
 logy. He was connected with RousKoau and 
 Voltaire ; but when the latter settled at F.-r- 
 ney, the Genevan professor thought it his duty 
 to warn the public against the danirerous prin- 
 ciples of the author of the Kssai bur I'llis- 
 toire, in a letter printed in the Nouvelle liib- 
 liotlie(|ue Germanupie ; and this [iroduced a 
 rupture of their acquaintance, ^'ernet after- 
 wards combated the 0[)inion3 of Voltaire and 
 his friends, in a work published under the title 
 of " Lettres critiques d'unt Voyageur Anglais 
 sur I'Article Geneve de rF^ncycIopcdie." Ik- 
 was also the auchor of " Traite de la Verite de 
 la Religion Chretienne, tire en Partie du Lniin 
 de J. A.Turretini," 10 vols. 8vo ; " Dialogues 
 Socratiques, ou ICntretiens sur divers Siijets de 
 IMorale ;" " Reflexions sur les .MoMirs, la P»e- 
 ligion, et le Culte ;" " Instruction Chretienne," 
 4 vols. 8vo ; and " Opuscula Selecta," 1784, 
 8vo. His death took place March 26. 1789. — 
 Hist. Lilt, de Genece. BioZ' Univ. 
 
 VERNET (Jostpu) a celebrated marine 
 painter of the last century , whose skill in his pro- 
 fession appears to have been almost intuitive, 
 and procured him from some of his contempora- 
 ries, the compliment that ' ' his talents had never 
 known infancy or old age." He was a native 
 of Avignon, born there of humble parents in 
 1712, and during the earlier years of his life 
 subsisted by })ainting houses, waggons, and 
 implements of agriculture, till an accidental 
 visit to a seajjort, which lie delineated at once, 
 developed his genius. He subsequently visited 
 Italy for improvement, and on his return 
 painted many of the seaports of his nativf> 
 country. Louis W'l conferred a pension on 
 him, and the title of marine painter to the 
 king, both of which he enjoyed till his death 
 in the winter of 1789. — i\i)»i;. Did. Unt. 
 
 VERNll'.R (Pkikr) a French mathema- 
 tician, who was the inventor of an astrono- 
 mical instrument, which bears his name. Ih 
 was born about LS80, at Ornans, iii the county 
 of Burguiuly, and he studii'd mathematics un- 
 der his father. After being employed in 
 Flanders, he was appointed captain-com- 
 mandaiit of the castle of Ornans, counsellor 
 to the king of Spain, and director-general of 
 the mint in the county of Burgundy. He died 
 in 16o7. He was the author of a work de- 
 scribing his invention, entitled " La Construc- 
 tion, F Usage, et les Proprietes du Quadrant 
 nouvenu de Mathemaliques," lool, 8vo. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VERXON (Edwauo) a distinguished Eng- 
 lish admiral, descended from a Staffordshire 
 family, but born in \Vestminster in 168 1. He 
 adopted the naval profession in opposition to 
 tlie v.ishes of his f.ither, who held the post of 
 
 1C 
 
V E It 
 
 Kfcrt'tary of state to William III. He first 
 went to sea with admiral Hopson, and in 1704 
 he served under sir George Kooke at the 
 battle of Malaga. He was also employed on 
 many other occasions, and gradually arrived at 
 the rank of vice-admiral. In 1739, when the 
 treatment of the Englisli traders hy the Spa- 
 niards in America had excited great indigna- 
 tion in this country, admiral Vernon, who was ! 
 a member of the house of Commons, spoke 
 warmly against the inditlerence of the ministry 
 to the complaints of the merchants, and 
 pointed out the means of redressing or aveng- 
 ing the injuries which they had suffered. In 
 consequence of these representations he was 
 sent with a squadron to the West Indies, 
 where he took the town of Porto Bello, and 
 destroyed the fortitications. In 1741 he was 
 sent out agam to attack Carthagena ; but the 
 expedition proved unsuccessful. During the 
 rebellion in 1745 he was employed in defend- 
 
 V E R 
 
 the particular branch of painting to wliich he 
 principally devoted himself, that he actually 
 made a campaign in 1672 at some personal 
 risk, in order that he might be able to repre- 
 sent his battle pieces with the greater accu- 
 racy, by taking his designs from real life. His 
 style is original, and his pictures in general 
 are remarkably well finished. His death took 
 place in 1690, off Dort, the vessel in which 
 he was sailing being suddenly capsized in a 
 gale of wind. — D'Argeuville Vies des Pemt. 
 
 VERSTEGAN (Richard) an ingenious 
 writer, well versed in antiquarian research, 
 especially with respect to the earlier periods 
 of Ecglish history. He was born in London, 
 of Dut:h parents, and liavmg gone through 
 the usual course of classical education at Ox- 
 ford, took up his abode at Antwerp. While 
 resident in this city, his zeal in the cause of 
 the Romish chcrch, of which he was a mem- 
 ber, broke forth on the occasion of certain 
 
 ing the coasts of Kent and Sussex; but on Jesuits, who were executed in this country in 
 account of his opposition to the ministry, he , the latter part of the sixteenth century. The 
 %vas subsequently superseded, and even struck ^ work which he produced however on this sub- 
 off the list of admirals. His death took place ject in 1592, under the title of " Theatrum 
 
 Octol)er 29, 1757. — Charnock's Naval Biog. 
 Smollett's Hist, of England. 
 
 VERNON (William) an antiquary and 
 topographer of the seventeenth century. He 
 
 Crude'itatum Hfereticorum nostri Temporis," 
 met with but indifferent success among those 
 of his own communion, while it occasioned 
 his being thrown into prison at Paris, through 
 
 was descended from tlie Vernonsof Shipbrook, the influence of the English embassy, during 
 and was probably born about 1588. He mar- j a visit which he paid to that capital. His an- 
 ried Margaret, the daughter of Philip Oldfield, tiquarian writings were much more favourably 
 of J5radwall, and widow of Peter Shakerley, received, and on them it is that his reputation 
 of Shakerley and Hulme, esq. in whose right j now rests. Of these the principal is his " Resti- 
 tution of decayed Intelligence concerning the 
 AntRjuities of the noble and renowned English 
 Nation," first printed in 4to at Antwerp, 1605, 
 of wliich curious and valuable treatise there are 
 also two later editions, both of London, tlie 
 first in 1634, the second in 1674. His other 
 productions are " Antiquitates Belgicaj," in 
 one vol. 12mo, and an essay •' On the regal 
 Government of England," with a few metrical 
 and other miscellanies. His death took place 
 at Antwerp in 1635. — Athen. Oxnn. 
 
 VERTOT D'AUBGEUF (Rene Aunrnr 
 de) a pleasing French historian, whose works 
 have been translated into English, was born 
 at the castle of Bennetot, in Normandy, of a 
 good family, November 25, 1655. His appli- 
 cation to study was early and persevering ; but 
 much against his father's will he entered 
 among tiie Capuchins, and took the name of 
 brother Zachary. The austerities of his order 
 not agreeing with his health, he was induced 
 to change it for that of the Premonstratenses, 
 when he became successively secretary to the 
 general of the order, rector, and at length 
 prior of the monastery. All this however did 
 not suflice, and after other changes of situation 
 he became a secular ecclesiastic, and in 1701 
 came to Paris in that character. His talents 
 soon procured him patronage. In 1705 he 
 was made associate of the academy of belles 
 lettres, and after a while secretary of languages 
 
 he resided at Shakerley in Lancashire. The 
 antiquarian collections of his father-in-law re- 
 lative to Cheshire, and his own descent from 
 one of the barons of the Palatinate, led him to 
 undertake a history of the county of Chester. 
 He corresponded, between 1647 and 1652, 
 with the celebrated Dugdale, from whom he 
 derived considerable assistance in the prose- 
 'cution of his work. jNIuch was expected from 
 the skill, zeal, and systematic industry of Ver- 
 non, with the aid of Dugdale's learning and 
 ability ; but from some unknown cause the 
 History of Cheshire was never completed, and 
 the undertaker died at Shakerley in 1667, 
 leaving numerous MS. volumes of Collectanea, 
 preserved in a private library ; and transcripts 
 of some portions of them may be found among 
 the Harleian MSS. in the British IMuseum. — 
 Ormerod's Hist, of Cheshire, vol. i. 
 
 VERONESE (Paul). See CAOLiAni. 
 
 VERONESE. See Guarino. 
 
 VERSCHUURING (Henuy) a celebrated 
 Dutch artist, whose principal excellence lay in 
 the lively delineation of battles, camps, skir- 
 mishes, and other warlike sul>jccts. He was 
 a native of the province of Holland, born in 
 1627, at Gorcum, of which jdace he rose to be 
 the chief public functionary, but without 
 abandoning his profession. Verschuuring was 
 a pupil first of Govertz and then of John Both 
 of Utrecht, with whom he studied six years, 
 
 and afterwards proceeded to Rome in order I to the duke of Orleans, In 1715 the grand 
 to perfect liimself in his art by the careful ex- { master of Malta appointed him his histnrio- 
 amination of the numerous antiquities in that | grapher, and but for some reasons not speci- 
 capi'.al. So great indeed was his partiality for ; fied, he would have been entrusted with the 
 
VE 11 
 
 educatini" of f-ouis XV. His last yearH were 
 paSfSi'ii 111 much bodily iiifinnity, fn»iu wliicli 
 iie WHS rt-lievfd by dculli, Juiu- 1.), 17;>."}. ilis 
 literary career is remarktible ; he was bordiT- 
 ing on bis forty- fifth year when lie wrote bis 
 first history, and liad past his seventieth when 
 he finished liis last, that of IShdia. 'J'he 
 French regard him as tlieir Quintus Curtius; 
 bis style is lively, j)leasing, and eb-gant ; his 
 reflections alwavs just, and often profound. 
 He liowever wanted tlie industry and research 
 which are justly considered among the leading 
 requisites of the historian in these days ; and 
 he yielded too inucli to imagination, and de- 
 pended too much ujioii memory, to be eitlier 
 accurate or trustworthy. His principal works, 
 which have been long both before the French 
 and English public, are " Histoire des Revo- 
 lutions de Portugal," Paris, 1689, 12mo ; 
 " Histoire des Revolutions de Suede," 1696, 
 '■2 vols. I'Jmo ; '* Histoire des Revolutions 
 Romaines," 3 vols. l'2mo ; " Histoire de 
 Malthe," 1727, 4 vols. 4to ; " Traite de la 
 Mouvance de Bretagne ;" " Histoire Critique 
 de I'F^tablissement des Jketous dans les 
 Gaules," 2 vols. 12mo. He wrote also some 
 dissertations in the Memoirs of the Academy 
 of Belles Lettres, and had much intercourse 
 ■with the literati of bis day. His corres- 
 pondence with lord Stanhope on the senate of 
 ancient Rome has been published by the Ro- 
 man historian Hooke. — Nouv. Vict. Hist. 
 Biog. GuUica. 
 
 VERTUE (George) an eminent engraver 
 and antiquary, was born at St INlartin's-in-the- 
 Fields, in London, in 1684. His parents, who 
 were in bumble circumstances, placed him 
 with au artist who engraved arms on plate, 
 t>ut who failed from imprudence at the end of 
 three years. He then studied drawing for two 
 years, and afterwards engaged himself for 
 three more to the engraver Vandergucht, which 
 term he protracted to seven. In 17(/9, having 
 received instruction and advice from several 
 painters, he commenced business on his own 
 ( (;unt, being principally engaged in draw- 
 ings and engravings for books. He soon after 
 acquired the patronage of sir Godfrey Knel- 
 ler, and was employed by lord Somers to en- 
 grave the portrait of archbishop Tillotson, 
 which was followed by -hat of George I, 
 from a picture by Kneller, from both of which 
 he acquired considerable reputation. He also 
 employed himself in biographical and anti- 
 quarian Researches, and was noticed and em- 
 ployed by Harley, earl of Oxford, whom he 
 accompanied in several tours, and who, as well 
 as lord Burlington and most of the nobility 
 and gentry who favoured the arts, very much 
 emidoyed him. In 1730 appeared bis twelve 
 heads of distinguished poets, which work he 
 was to have followed with those of other emi- 
 nent men, but the scheme was taken out of 
 his hands by the Knaptons. He then under- 
 took the portraits of Charles I, and the suf- 
 ferers in his cause, with illustrations from 
 Clarendon ; which labour be followed up with 
 engravings of the effigies of the kings, and 
 otlKT pictorial embellishments for Rapiu's 
 
 V ES 
 
 History of Enjjlaud. In 1719 he acquired a 
 still more exaiteii protector in Frederick j)nnc«s 
 of \\ ales, from whose encouragement he ex- 
 pected considerable benefit, iuhomuch iha: 
 when the prince died, his health was per- 
 manently allecled by the diHa|)pointment, and 
 ht^ died in 17.')6, aged seventy two. J.<nd 
 Oifoid has given a catalogue of the engravings 
 of Vertue, which amount to five hundred, and 
 are more valualde for their authenticity than 
 style of execution. The public however owe 
 another obligation to this iiniustrioutt artist, 
 whose manuscript notes and oboervations biinjj 
 purchased from his widow by lord Urford. 
 formed the principal materials of bis useful 
 and interesting Anecdotes of Painting in Eng- 
 land. His collections amounted to nearly forty 
 volumes, having carried them on with extra- 
 ordinary industry from 17i;j till his death, 
 i be private character of Vertue appears to 
 have been in the highest degree amiable, mo- 
 dest, and exemplary. — Walpole's Aitec. Ni- 
 chols's Lit. Anec. 
 
 VESALIUS (Andreas) a celebrated sur- 
 geon and anatomist, who was bom at Brus- 
 sels in 1514. His grandfather, Everard Vesa- 
 lius, wrote commentaries on the works of 
 Rhazes, and on the aphorisms of Hippocrates; 
 and his father held the office of a[)othecary to 
 the emperor Charles \'. He studied the lan- 
 guages and philosophy at Louvain, and at an 
 early age he displayed his predominant taste 
 for anatomical inquiries, by dissecting the 
 bodies of dogs, cats, and other animal?. He 
 then went to Paris, and studied the medical 
 sciences under James Sylvius. ^Vhen only 
 eighteen he composed his treatise *' J^e Cor- 
 poris Humani F'abrica;" and returning to Lou- 
 vain, he delivered lectures on anatomy. He 
 afterwards visited Italy, where science had 
 made a greater progress than in the Nether- 
 lands, and by his lectures and demonstrations 
 at Pisa, Bologna, and other Italian cities, he 
 ac([uired great iej)utaliou. In lr)3T the go- 
 vernment of Venice appointed liim professor 
 of anatomy in the university of Padua, where 
 he remained seven years. He was subse- 
 quently physician to Charles V. as he also was 
 to Pbilij) IL of Spain. At length when in the 
 lieight of his fame, he suddenly engaged in a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The motive to this 
 undertaking is thus related in a letter of Hu- 
 bert Languet to Caspar Peucer : *' Wsalms 
 believing a young Spanish nobleman whom he 
 bad attended to be dead, obtained leave of hid 
 parents to open him for the sake of in()uiring 
 into the real cause of bis illness, wliich he 
 had not rightly comprehended. This was 
 granted ; but he bad no sooner made an inci- 
 sion into the body, than he perceived the 
 symptoms of life, and opening the breast, be 
 saw the heart beat. The parents coming 
 afterwards to the knowledge of this, were not 
 .-atisfied for prosecuting him for murder, but 
 accused him of impiety to the Inquisition, in 
 Iiopes he would be punished with greater ri- 
 gour by the judges of that tribunal than by 
 chose of the common law. But the king of 
 ■^pain interposed and saved him, on condition 
 2 C 2 
 
V ES 
 
 liowcver, that bj^ way of atoning for the 
 niiiie. lie should undertake a j»il|^rimage to 
 the Holy l.and." The credit of this story 
 seems to be rather dubious, and different mo- 
 tives for the journey of Vesalius have been 
 assigned by other writers. But liowever the 
 undertaking might have originated, its result 
 was unfortunate. He went with Nicholas de 
 Kimini, general of the Venetian army, to Cy- 
 prus, whence he passed to Jerusalem. He 
 was returning to occupy the chair of medicine 
 at Padua, left vacant by the death of Fallopius 
 in 1.563, when he was shipwrecked on the 
 island of Zante, and he died there, from the 
 eftects of hunger and hardship, in October 
 loo4. The great work of Vesalius on the 
 structure of the human body was first pub- 
 fished at Basil, In-i.i, folio ; and the second 
 edition, augmented and corrected by the au- 
 thor, appeared in 1555. Many subsequent 
 editions and translations have been printed ; 
 but of all the editions of the writings of this 
 ereat anatomist, the most accurate and com- 
 plete is that pubhshed at Leyden, lu iTiiJS, 2 
 vols, folio, by Boerhaave and Albinus. This 
 collection includes the letter printed at Ba- 
 tisbon in 1546, under the title of " Epistola 
 nd Joachimum Bcielants, &c. Rationem Mo- 
 dumque propinandi Badicis Chynaj Decocli, 
 quo uuper invictissimus Carolus V Imp. usus 
 est ;" the answer to Fallopius, written in 1561, 
 entitled " Anatomicarum G. Fallopii Obser- 
 vationum Examen ;" and " Chirurgia Magna,"' 
 a compilation probably from the lectures of 
 Vesalius, published four years after his 
 d''ath, by Prosper Bogarucci. — Hutchinson & 
 filoo; Med. Aikins Gen. Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VKSLING (John) an eminent writer on 
 natural history and anatomy, born at Minden 
 in Germany, in 1598. He studied at Vienna, 
 and afterwards took a journey to Palestine, 
 where he employed himself in botanical re- 
 searches. Returning to Europe he obtained 
 the professorship of anatomy at Padua ; but 
 lie quitted that office to become keeper of the 
 botanic garden, of the plants cultivated in 
 which he published a catalogue. He then vi- 
 sited Egypt, where he made observations on 
 the mode of hatching fowls by means of arti- 
 ficial heat, piactised in that country. His 
 death took place in 1649. Among his works 
 are " Svntagma Anatomicuni ;" " De PuUi- 
 .ione ^•jryi>tiorum, et alia; Observationes Ana- 
 tomicae ;" and " Observationes et Notae ad 
 Propp. Alpini Librum de Plantis ^gypti." — 
 Aikiii's Cieii. Biog. 
 
 VESPASIAN US (Titus Fi.avius) em- 
 peror of Rome was born near Rieti, in the 
 country of the Sabines, towards the close of 
 the reign of Augustus. His fHtlur, T. Fla- 
 vian Subiuus, was a receiver of taxes in Asia ; 
 and in that generally disreputable office he 
 w;is <lis»inguished for moderation and inte- 
 f^rity. \'espasian displayed but little ambition 
 in his youth ; and it was not till the reign of 
 ClauJius that he exhibited his military tab nts. 
 Being il)(u apj)ointed commander of a legion, 
 he aciMiired great reputation in Germany and 
 in Britain ; and on his refr.rn to Rome he was 
 
 VES 
 
 made consul. In tbe beginning of Nero'i 
 reign he lived in retirement, but was at lengll 
 ajipointed proconsul of Africa ; and on the re- 
 bellion of the Jews Ite was sent with an army 
 into Judea, AD. 66. After taking some im- 
 portant fortresses, and reducing almost the 
 whole of Galilee to subjection, he was pre- 
 paring to attack Jerusalem, when he received 
 the news of the death of Nero, AD. 68. After 
 the transient reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitel- 
 lius, he was himself elevated to imperial 
 power; and such was his good forUuie, tiiat 
 he found himself seated on the throne without 
 having recourse to those hostilities which he 
 had anticipated as necessary to support his 
 claims. Reaching Pvome about the middle of 
 the year 70, he was received with general and 
 sincere rejoicing, the reputation he had ac- 
 quired promising relief from the miseries of 
 misgovernment under which the people had 
 long sulTered. He did not disappoint the ex- 
 pectations which his character had excited. 
 He reformed the discipline of the army, pu- 
 rified the senatorial and equestrian orders, by 
 degrading the unworthy, and filling their 
 places with respectable citizens ; and he ap- 
 pointed a commission to settle the vast mul- 
 titude of suits which had accumulated during 
 the late troubles ; besides presiding on the 
 bench frequently himself that justice might be 
 administered with impartiality. He was an ene- 
 my to luxury, and devoid of personal or family 
 pride, being by no means desirous to conceal the 
 obscurity of his origin. On the other hand he is 
 charged with displaying a degree of meanness 
 and rapacity in the accumulation of wealth, in- 
 consistent with his character and station. 
 Thougli this reproach is not destitute of foun- 
 ilation, it appears however to be exaggerated ; 
 and necessity probably obliged him to have re- 
 course to the means he employed for the exi- 
 gences of government, after the treasury had 
 been exhausted by the luxury and profusion of 
 his predecessors. Among the principal public 
 events of the reign of Vespasian are the ter- 
 mination of the dangerous rebellion of the 
 Gauls under Civilis, and the capture of Jeru- 
 salem by Titus, whom the emperor had made 
 his lieutenant in Judea. After reigning ten 
 years he died, in June, AD. 79, greatly re- 
 gretted by the Romans, who under his domi- 
 nion enjoyed a degree of national prosperity to 
 which they had hmg been strangers. — 'Taatus. 
 ^uetoimis. Crevier Hist. Rom. 
 
 VESPUCIUS (A.Mrincus) or AIMERIGO 
 \ I'^SPUCCI, an able Italian mariner, who 
 has very unjustly attained the honour of giv- 
 ing a name to the largest quarter of the globe, 
 was born of a distinguished family of Florence, 
 .March 9, 1451. He received an excellent 
 education under a paternal uncle, who was a 
 I'-arned nominican, but of his subsequent life 
 nothing certain is known until 1490, when he 
 was sent by his father to carry on a commer- 
 cial concern in Spain. \Vh le at Seville he 
 was informed of the discoveries of Columbus, 
 and became inflamed with a desire of jtartici- 
 pating in his glory, which ambition implies a 
 previous life of nautical experience, agreeably 
 
VES 
 
 to the suf^gestions of bis biocjraplior Bandini. 
 Ilis story uow becoint'S a matter of contruveisy, 
 but liis own account is, that having; been en- 
 gaged by Ferdinand, king of Spain, to con- 
 tinue the discoveries in the New \\'(^rld, bo 
 sailed from Cadiz in May 1 J*i7, and after 
 touching at the Canaries, in thirty-seven days 
 arrived at a land \\hicl»\v;is judgeil to be Terra 
 Firma. Had tliis aceoiint bet n true, be would 
 have certaiidy anticipated the discovery of 
 tlie coast of Paria by Cohnnbus, by an entire 
 year. It is liowever remarked that no other 
 writer takes tlu' least notice of such an ex]»e- 
 dition, and that in 1 197 Columbus himself was 
 in S|)ain, and highly lionouved at the court of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella. It is therefore gene- 
 rally concluded that Vespucius's account of 
 this voyage is either a mere fiction, or ante- 
 dated as the account of a voyage which really 
 took j)lace subsequently. He for some time 
 quitted the service of S|)ain for tliat of Por- 
 tugal, and conducted an expedition of three 
 sliips, in which lie assumes to have coasted 
 along the whole American coast, from 15razil to 
 Patagonia. In l.^dj he undertook another 
 expedition for the same power with a fleet of 
 six ships, in order to discover a way to Ma- 
 lacca by the west, in which endeavour lie en- 
 countered the greatest dangers, and. lost one 
 of his vessels. On the death of Columbus, 
 Vespucius was again invited into the service 
 of Spain, and in lo07 placed at Seville with 
 the title of pilot major. It being j)art of his 
 office to mark out the tracks to be followed by 
 navigators, be always distinguished the new 
 countries by the word America, or " Amerigo's 
 Land." Hence, notwithstanding the com- 
 plaints of the Spaniards, the honour was stolen 
 from the rightful possessor, although the re- 
 nown has not gone with the name, Vespucius 
 being deemed a very inconsiderable person in 
 comparison with Columbus. He left a journal 
 of his four voyages, which was printed in La- 
 tin at Paris in 1532, and at Basle in 1537, and 
 afterwards in Pamusio's collections. Bandini 
 having at length discovered the Italian origi- 
 nals, also gave them to the public. Some of 
 his letters were printed at Florence in 1516, 
 in a thin quarto of twenty-two pages. They 
 are addressed to Soderini and Lorenzo de' Me- 
 dici, and are said to discover a very superior 
 knowledge of navigation. The date of his 
 death is not recorded. — lirabosclii. ^ -^'"o- 
 Uitiv. 
 
 Vn:STPIS (Gaetano Apomnf. Bai.tha- 
 ZAn) a celebrated professor of the art of danc- 
 ing, born at Florence in 1729. He received 
 lessons when very young from I) u pre at Paris, 
 and in 1748 he made his debut at the opera. 
 In 1753 he became a member of the Academy 
 of Dancing, which had been founded by Louis 
 XIV. On the retirement of Diipre from the 
 stage Vestris succeeded him ; and he was in 
 his turn surnamed Dieu de la Danse. Ilis 
 vanity appears to have been at least equal to 
 bis merit. It is reported that in answer to 
 the question, who were the tb.ree greatest men 
 of the age, he said, '• iMyself. \'oltaire. and 
 Frederick the Great j" and many other Hmus- 
 
 VI li 
 
 ing traits of his extraordinary flelf-rstimation 
 are recorded, ||t3 had the oHic e of ballet -inHH- 
 ter, but his choregraphical cornpo^ilions were, 
 not of much imjiortance. He retired with a 
 pension in 17H1 ; and his death took place at 
 I'ans Sejitemb.r 27, HiOO.— His wife, Anna 
 Fill r)i.iii(A Hkinii., who was his pupil, be- 
 came highly distin^iii.shcd as an opera-danc<r. 
 Slie was b(jrn at Bareuth in 1752, ami died in 
 U5()H, a few montha before her husband. — 
 lUdir. Univ. 
 
 \ KSriUS (Ma Id I Bosk GownoAi'D Du- 
 CAZOv) a distinguished French actress, who 
 was the wife of Paco Vestris, brother of the 
 subje; t of the list arti le. She made her fin«t 
 appearance on the sta^e in December l7o8, 
 and having been instructed by the celebrated 
 tragedi:in Lekain, she s])eedily attained great 
 reputation, not only in tragic characters, but 
 also in the higher walks of comedy. Her 
 (luairels with the rival actresses, mademoiselle 
 Sainval and her sister, not only engrossed a 
 great deal of the public attention at Paris, but 
 required the interference of the government, 
 which was exerted in favour of madame \'es- 
 tris. She died at Paris, October 6, 1804, not 
 long after she had retired from the stage. — 
 Idem. 
 
 VETTORL See VicxoRirs. 
 
 VIAL DU CLAIR150IS (Honore Sedas- 
 tien) director of the school of naval engineers, 
 and chief of the maritime artillery at Brest. 
 He was a native of Paris, and after having 
 been a lieutenant in the navy, in 1754 he en- 
 tered the army, and served till 1777, when he 
 resumed his former profession, in the office of 
 marine sub-engineer. The talents which he 
 displayed in the construction of vessels, pro- 
 cured him in 1793 the post of engineer-con- 
 structor-in-chief. He had some other appoint- 
 ments previously to that of director of the school 
 of engineers at Brest, which he held from 1801 
 till 1810, when bis great age and infirm health 
 obliged him to retire from the service of his 
 country. He died in 1816, aged eighty-three. 
 He published " Essai Geometrique et Pratique 
 sur I'Architecture Navale," Brest, 1776, 2 
 tom. 8vo ; " Traite Elementaire de la Con- 
 struction des Vaisseaux," Paris, 1787 — 1805, 
 2 vols. 4to ; and a translation of an English 
 work on Ship-buildinf:. He was also a jirin- 
 cipal contributor to the ** Encyclopedic Me- 
 thodique." — Bio<r. Univ. 
 
 VIBIUS SEQUESrEU. an ancient geo- 
 grapher, who is supposed to have been a llo- 
 man, and according to Oberlin he flourished 
 between the fifth and the seventh centuries. 
 He is only known as the author of a work en- 
 titled " De l"Uiininil)US, Fontibus, Lacubus, 
 Nemoribus, Paludibus, Montibus, Gentibus, 
 quorum apud I'oetas fit mentio." 'Jbis piece 
 has been published with the writings of other 
 ancient geographers ; and it was edited sepa- 
 rately by Hessel, Rotterdam, 1711, 8vo ; and 
 by Oberlin, Sirasburg, 1778. Bvo. — liiog.Unii: 
 
 VIl'OKG (KuKH Nissin) an eminent Te- 
 terinary surgeon, born in the duchy of Sles- 
 wiek in 1759. His father, who was a Protes- 
 tant ministtr, gave him some classical instruc- 
 
VI c 
 
 tion, and in 1777 sent him to the university of 
 Copenhagen, to study theology. Relinquisli- 
 ino- his oriirinal destination to the church, he 
 aj)plied himself to mathem.itics and natural 
 history, under the veterinary professor Abild- 
 gaard, to whose office he succeeded in 1801. 
 He was subsequently made a counsellor of 
 state, and a knight of the order of Dannebrog. 
 He died Septeml>er '25, 18i^2. Besides a con- 
 siderable number of memoirs and treatises on 
 veterinary surgery and medicine, he was the 
 author of tracts on moving sands, and the 
 means of preventing the mischief arising from 
 them ; and in consequence of the importance 
 of his researches on this subject, he was ap- 
 j)ointed inspector-general of flug-sand, or mov- 
 ing sands. — ^/<'^. Ujiiv. 
 
 VICCARS (John) a zealous puritan, con- 
 cuous in the time of the Commonwealth for 
 Lis intemperate and fanatical writings, which 
 drew upon him the sarcastic wit of Butler in 
 his Hudibras. He was born and educated in 
 London, the period of his birth being fixed 
 about the year 1582. From Christ's hospital 
 he removed to Queen's college, Oxford; and 
 having taken his degrees, became one of the 
 under-masters of the seminary in which he had 
 originally imbibed the rudiments of education. 
 His tirades against the monarchy and the 
 episcopal form of church government are 
 scarcely more remarkable for their violence 
 than for the very absurd titles under which 
 some of them were produced, and which are 
 quite in the style of the enthusiasts of that 
 day. They consist of " God's Arke overtop- 
 ])ing the World's Waves;" "The Burning 
 Bush not consumed ;" and " God in the 
 IMount," afterwards published in one volume 
 as " The Parliamentary Chronicle ;" and an 
 attack on Goodwin, called '♦ Coleman Street 
 Conclave visited." He died about the middle 
 of the seventeenth century. — Athen. Oxon, 
 
 VICEjMTE (Gil) the earliest and most ce- 
 lebrated of the Portuguese comic poets. He 
 was bom about 1480, and he received his edu- 
 cation at the university of Lisbon, where he 
 studied jurisprudence. Having composed some 
 I)astoral poems in 1502 for recitation at court 
 on public festivals, they were so much ad- 
 mired that he was induced to relinquish his 
 profession, and devote himself to dramatic 
 composition. He continued to write till 1536, 
 Avhen he produced the last and most spiriti^d 
 of his comedies, " Floresta d'Engauos," " 'Jhe 
 Garden of Deceptions." His death took place 
 at Evora in 1557. ISone of the dramas of Gil 
 Vicente were printed during his life ; but his 
 son, Louis Vicente, collected and published 
 them in a folio volume in 1562. They consist 
 of comedies, tragi-comedies, farces, &c. be- 
 sides works of devotion, or autos. It may be 
 noticed, as a proof of the merit of this drama- 
 tist, that Erasmus learnt Portuguese in order 
 to be able to read his works, which he found 
 to be superior to the idea he had conceived of 
 them. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VICO (yExEAs) better known perhaps as 
 .itneas ^'ighi, was a native of Parma, eminent 
 ibout the middle of the sixteenth century for 
 
 V IC 
 
 his acquaintance with the study of ancicrt 
 niedals. Although following the profession of 
 I an engraver, he yet found time to give to the 
 I world several useful treatises, the result of his 
 . numismatic researches. Of these the principal 
 I are " Cajsarum verissinife Imagines ex anti- 
 (juis Numismatibus desumpta;," a valuable 
 I series ; " Discourses on the Medals of the 
 Ancients," 1555 ; " Augustorum Imagines 
 Formis expresses, Vitse quoque earundarum 
 breviter enarratce," 4to, 1558 ; and " Monu- 
 menta aliquot Antiquorum ex Gemmis et Ca- 
 mels incisa." Of his life little is known far- 
 ther than that he resided chiefly at Rome, and 
 had learned the principles of his art under the 
 famous Raimondi, who did not however con- 
 sider him one of his best scholars. — Giovanni 
 Battista Vico, an Italian rhetorician, born in 
 1670, was professor of eloquence at Naples, of 
 which capital he was a native, and is known 
 as the author of a work entitled " Scienza 
 Nuova." His death took place about the year 
 I740.—Tiraboschi. 
 
 VICQ-D'AZYR (Felix) an eminent French 
 physician and anatomist, born at Valogne in 
 1748. He went to Paris in 1765, and after 
 having devoted several years to the study of 
 medicine and the sciences connected with it, 
 especially anatomy and physiology, he com- 
 menced giving lectures on human and compa- 
 rative anatomy in 1773. Through the influence 
 of Daubenton he was enabled to prosecute 
 with advantage his researches concerning the 
 structure of foreign animals ; and the memoirs 
 in which he gave an account of his discoveries, 
 procured him admission into the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1774. The following year he was 
 sent by the minister Turgot into Languedoc, to 
 investigate the causes of a destructive disease 
 among cattle. Soon after he became one of 
 the principal founders of a medical society at 
 Paris, of which he was appointed perpetual 
 secretary ; and in that capacity he wrote the 
 biographical eulogies of many of the members. 
 The reputation he acquired by this exertion of 
 his talents occasioned his being chosen to suc- 
 ceed Buflfon in 1788, as a member of the 
 French Academy. He was constituted first 
 physician to the queen in 1789, and notwitli- 
 standing his connexions with Condorcct and 
 other philosophers, which injured his credit at 
 court, he had also the reversion of the office of 
 first physician to the king. He died June 
 20, 1794. Vicq-d'Azyr in 1786 commenced 
 the publication of a work entitled •' Traite 
 d'Anatomie et de Physiologie," with coloured 
 plates, folio. This part, which is tall that ap- 
 peared, relates only to the brf.in, with an in- 
 troductory discourse on anatomy in general. 
 He also wrote part of " Systeme Anatomique 
 des Quadrupedes," for the Encyclopcdie Me- 
 thodique ; a treatise entitled " IMedecine des 
 Betes a Comes," 1781 , 2 vols. 8vo ; and many 
 medical and anatomical memoirs. His" Eloges 
 Historiques," were pubhshed in 1797 and in 
 1826 ; and his works appeared in 6 vols. 8vo, 
 with au Atlas iu 4to, Paris, 1805. — Aikin. 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 \ ICTOIl (Sextus Aukelius") a Roman 
 
V I c 
 
 Listorian, who lived in the fourth century. He 
 was the son of humble {lart-nts, i'.nd did not 
 enjoy the benefit of ii harned (■ducalion. i he 
 place of his birth is not recorded ; but liowever 
 ohscure bis oriijin, he poast-ssed tidenls which 
 procured him the liij^hest liouours. In the 
 year S6l tlie eniptror Juhan aijpointid him 
 prefect of Pannonia ; and a long time after- 
 wards he was prefi-cl of Home, and in the year 
 369 consul with XaK'niiuian. lie appears to 
 have lived till towards the end of the fourth 
 century. The following works are extant un- 
 der his name, *' Oiigo Geutis Komanai ;" " i)e 
 A^iris illustnbus Urhis llora^v; ;" " De Caesari- 
 bus Historia ab Augusto Octavio usque ad 
 Consulatum decimum Constantii Augusti et 
 Juliani Civsaris tertium ;" " De Vita et ]Mo- 
 ribus Imperatoruna llomanoruni Exceipta, e 
 Ca?sare Augusto usijue ad Theodosium Impe- 
 ratorem." It is thought that the work " De 
 Cajsaribus Historia," cau alone be ascribed 
 with certainty to Aurelius. The first edition 
 of Aurelius Victor was printed at Antwerp, 
 1579, with notes by Schottus. There are se- 
 veral other good editions, of which the latest 
 is the Bipont of 1789. — Vvssii Hist. hat. Suxii 
 Onom. 
 
 VICTOR AMADEUS II, duke of Savoy 
 and first king of Sardinia, was boru in 1666, 
 and succeeded his father, Charles Emanuel, in 
 1674, under tlie guardianship of his mother. 
 In 1684 he married Anna Maria of Orleans, 
 daughter to the duke of Orleans, by Henrietta 
 Anna of England, sister to Charles II, which 
 might have conveyed the crown of Great Bri- 
 tain to this family, but for the Bevolutiou of 
 1688. The first military transaction of this 
 prince was his expelling with great bloodshed 
 his Protestant subjects of the Vaudois. In 
 1687 he joined the grand alliance against 
 France, but was a severe sufl'erer in tlie con- 
 test, being defeated by marshal Catiuat, who 
 entered Piedmont, and took all his strong 
 places. He still however remained so formi- 
 dable by his activity and resources, that 
 France strained every nerve to detach him 
 from the confederacy, and he at length agreed 
 to a treaty, by which all the places taken from 
 him were to be restored with a sum of money, 
 by way of indemnification, and a contract of 
 marriage was entered into between his eldest 
 daughter and the duke of Burgundy, heir ap- 
 parent to the crown of France. The duke of 
 Savoy then joined his troops to those of his new 
 ally ; and in less than a month, from behig ge- 
 neralissimo of the emperor, became that of 
 Louis XIV. This state of things was termi- 
 nated the following year by the peace of Rys- 
 wick. Soon after a marriage was entered into 
 between the second daughter of Victor Ama- 
 deus and Philip of Anjou, called to the throne 
 of Spain ; and thus he had the rare fortune of 
 seeing the two principal kingdoms of Europe 
 fall to his immediate descendants. This close 
 connexion, however, did not prevent him from 
 entering into negociations with the allied 
 powers in 1702 ; which conduct produced im- 
 mediate hostilities on the part of France, who 
 took from bim a number of towns, and at j 
 
 V I c 
 
 length in 1706 laid siege to Turin, Iuh ca- 
 pital, which waH relieved by the iinp»-riali.«iljj 
 under prince Eugene. The duk<; in c< iiwe- 
 quence recovered all that he had lost, and 
 assisted thi- emjx-ror to expel the French from 
 Lomhardy. His importance in the eyes of th<i 
 contending powers was prcjved by the lerins he 
 obtained at the peace of L'trecht. Hehjde* 
 being restored to all hisown posseh.sionH, France 
 made several cessions to hinj, and the empe- 
 ror conferred on him a part of iMontferrat and 
 several provinces in Italy. The king of Spain 
 also resigned to him the kingdom of Sicily, 
 which gave his house the royal title ; and it 
 was also agreed that in default of heirs to the 
 Spanish monarch, the crown of Spain hhould 
 descend to the bouse of Savoy, in })refereuce 
 to that of Bourbon. Victor Amadeus with 
 his duchess were accordingly crowned at Pa- 
 lermo in the close of the same year ; but great 
 confusion soon after arose, in consequence of 
 the terms of the cession, which teiminated iu 
 the resignation of Sicily by \'ictor, who re- 
 ceived the island of Sardinia in lieu of it, with 
 the royal title appended to it. This event 
 took place in 1718, and ever since the dukes 
 of Savoy rank among the sovereigns of Europe 
 as kings of Sardinia. From that time Victor 
 Amadeus dedicated himself solely to the arts 
 of peace, until in 1730, after a reign of fifty- 
 three years, he was induced to abdicate in fa- 
 vour of his son Charles Emanuel. Instigated 
 by an ambitious mistress, to whom he was 
 privately married, he had soon after the weak- 
 ness to seek to resume his authority, which 
 being opposed by the new king and council, 
 the abdicated monarch was placed under a 
 degree of personal restraint, in which situa- 
 tion he died, at the castle of Rivoli near Tu- 
 rin, in 1732, in his sixty-seventh year. — Mod. 
 Univ. Hist, Xonv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VICTORIUS, or VETTORI rPETi-n) an 
 eminent Italian scholar, was born at Florence, 
 in July 1499. He early began his studies iu 
 the Greek and Latin languages, philosophy, 
 mathematics, and jurisprudence. In lo22 he 
 visited Spain in the train of a relative appointed 
 to accompany the new pope, Adrian \'I, into 
 Italy, and took copies of the Roman antiquities 
 in Catalonia. In the disputes at Florence he 
 sided with the republican party, but would not 
 take part in the deliberations to settle a new 
 form of government, after the assassination of 
 duke Alexander de' IMedici, and retired to 
 Rome. His fame for learning was so great, 
 that, notwithstanding his opposition to the 
 house of IMedici, he was invited by Cosmo II 
 to become Greek and Latin professor in the 
 university of Florence, the duties of which 
 office he exercised with celebrity for upwards 
 of forty years. Literature was as much in- 
 debted to \'ictorius as to any scholar of the age. 
 Hail he done nothing but collate and correct 
 other editions of the Giet k and Latin authors 
 which had appeared from the invention of 
 printing to his own time, his services would 
 liave been eminent ; but he also supplied the 
 learned world with note? and commentaries lo 
 Aristotle, Terence, Varrj, Sallust, Euripides, 
 
V I D 
 
 For] ihyry, Plato, Xenophon, and more especially 
 to Cicero, his edition of which author, printcil 
 in 4 vols. foUo, 1.^3-1 — 37, has always received 
 extraordinary commendation. Besides these, 
 and liis " \'aria2 Lectiones," of which there 
 have been several editions, he was likewise 
 author of some Latin poetry, and orations and 
 letters, both in Latin and Italian. He died in 
 1.^8.5, in his eighty-sixth year, and was interred 
 witii great magnificence at the public expense. 
 — TiraI)oschi. Moreri. 
 
 VIJ)A (I\L\nK Ji-noMF.) a celebrated mo- 
 dern Latin poet, born in 1490 at Oemona, of 
 parents who were poor but of noble descent. 
 He studied with distinction at Padua, Bologna, 
 an>l !\Iantua, and he was admitted while young 
 into the conirreaation of the canons recrular of 
 St IMark. He afterwards went to Rome, and 
 became a canon of St John Lateran. His ta- 
 lent for Latin poetry recommended him to 
 Leo X, wlio gave him the priory of St Silvester 
 near Tivoli. There he wrote his " Christiad," 
 whicl) was finished in the pontificate of Clement 
 \ll, who in recompence of his merit, bestowed 
 on him in 1.532 the bishopric of Alba. Paul 
 nr intended to have translated Vida to the see 
 of Cremona, but the death of the po})e pre- 
 vented his promotion, and he died at Alba, 
 September 27, 1566. His poetical produc- 
 tions, besides the Christiad, are " Scacchia 
 Ludus," the Game of Chess, which has been 
 highly praised by Warton ; " Poeticorum Li- 
 bri iii," translated by the abbe Batteux into ' 
 French, and published with the Poetics of 
 Aristotle, Horace, and Boileau ; " Bombycum 
 Libri ii." on Silk- worms, esteemed the most 
 correct and elegant of the works of Vida ; 
 *' Hymni de Rebus Divinis ;" " Carminum 
 Liber." His prose works consist of " Dialogi 
 de Reipublicai Dignitate Libri ii. ;" " Dis- j 
 corsi contra gli Abitanti di Pavia," Paris, 1 562, ■ 
 8vo, rci)ublished at A^enice in 1764, under the ' 
 title of Cremonensium Orationes tres adversus 
 Papienses in Controversia Principatiis ;" and 
 Synodal Constitutions, Letters, &:c. Most of j 
 these works were published collectively at I 
 Padua, 1731, 2 vols. 4to ; and the Poems of 
 Vida were printed at Cremona, 1550, 2 vols, j 
 8vo; at Oxford, 1722, 4 vols. 8vo; in 1725 i 
 and 1733, 3 vols. Bvo. The Poetics of Vida ! 
 were translated into English by the rev. Christ 
 ]Mtt, and the Poem of Chess by George Jef 
 freys. — Biofr. Univ. 
 
 VIDUS VlDTUS, the Latinized name of' 
 Guido Guidi, a Florentine physician of the 
 sixteenth century. After comjileting his edu- 
 cation he went to Paris, where he was much 
 noticed by Francis I, who made Jiim his first 
 physician, and created for him the ollice of 
 lecturer on medicine at the Royal college, 
 then recently established. After the death of 
 his patron in 1547, he returned to Florence, 
 v.here he became first physician to the grand 
 iltike Cosmo de' Medici, and a member of the 
 Florentine Academy. He was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, and then of metiicine, 
 at Pisa. His death occurred in 1569. His 
 works, which are very numerous, were pub- 
 lished together, in 3 voU. folio, Venice, 1014, 
 
 VIG 
 
 and reprinted at Frankfort in 1626, 1643, and 
 1657. — Portal Hist. d'Anat. Tirahosclu. 
 
 VIEL (Charles Franxis) an architect, 
 who was a native of Paris, and studied at the 
 college of l^eauvais, and afterwards became 
 the pupil of Chalgrin. He erected the Monte 
 ■ de Piete, the Hospital Cochon, the amphi- 
 theatre of the Hotel Dieu, and many other 
 buildings at Paris and elsewhere ; and lie dis- 
 tinguished himself also by his professional 
 writings. He published " Projet, Plan, et 
 Elevation d'un IMonument consacre a I'His- 
 ; toire Naturelle, dedie a I\L le Comte de Buf- 
 i fon," 1780, 4to ; " I\Ioyens pour la Restaura- 
 j tion des Piliers du Dome du Pantheon," 1797, 
 ! 4to ; " Principes de I'Ordonnance et de Ja 
 Construction des Batimens," 1797 — 1814, 
 j 5 vols. He died at Paris, December 1, 1819. 
 I — Bioc;;. Univ. 
 
 1 A'lETA (FuAxcis) an eminent French ma- 
 I thematician, born in the province of Lower 
 ! Poitou in 1540. He has been represented by 
 some writers as the inventor of algebra, but 
 he merely improved that branch of science by 
 introducing letters as symbols of known or un- 
 known quantities. On this subject he wrote a 
 treatise " Denumerosa Potestatum Resolutione 
 ad Exegesin," Paris, 1600, folio. He held 
 the office of master of requests at Paris, and, 
 he died in that city in 1603. Vieta assisted 
 in the correction of the Gregorian Calendar ; 
 and he was distinguished for his skill in the 
 art of decyphering. According to De Thou 
 be pursued his mathematical speculations in 
 such complete abstraction from the common 
 concerns of life, and with so little reo-ard for 
 the exigences of nature, that he would sit in 
 j)rofound meditation at his table for three days 
 together, almost without taking food or rest. 
 His trigonometrical tracts were published in 
 1579, and the rest of his works were edited 
 by Schooten in 1646. — Blount Censura Celehr. 
 Auctnr. Muttons Math. Diet. 
 
 VIEUSSENS (Raymond) an eminent 
 French anatomist, physician to the court. He 
 was born at Rouergue, in 1641, and studied 
 the science of medicine at IMontpellier, where 
 he graduated. His principal writings are, a 
 treatise on " Internal Diseases," published 
 many years after his death by his grandson, in 
 four quarto volumes, and another in folio, en- 
 titled " Neurologia universalis," an able work 
 on the nervous system, printed in his life-time, 
 about the year 1685. His declining health in- 
 duced him to retire from the capital to IMontpel- 
 lier, some short time previously to his decease, 
 which took place in 1716. — Hatleri Bihl. Med, 
 
 VIGILIUS, bishop of Tapsus in Africa, 
 an ecclesiastical writer of the fifth centurv. 
 He was involved in apersecution of the catho- 
 lics by Huimeric the Arian, king of the "\'"an- 
 dals. This is supposed to be the cause of his 
 composing a number of writings under the 
 nan.'s of persons emirient in the church. Thus 
 be composed a supposed discussion between 
 Arius and Athanasius, at Laodicea. He 
 also wrote a dialogue against Arins, in tb.a 
 name of St Augustin ; and to him is also at- 
 tributed a dispute of St Augusiiu and Pascen- 
 
V I G 
 
 tins, and tlie rclcbrated Athanasian creed. Af- 
 ter lie rc'lirod to CoIlStantlno])l(^ he publislicd 
 works in his own name, which, with others 
 attributed to him, were printed at Dijoii in 
 166.'}, -Ito. — Flciiru I Hit. Kcclcs. 
 
 VIGNE (PiKR Dem.a) a celebrated minis- 
 ter of the emperor Frederick 1 1, was born of 
 mean parent.-!, at Capua, towards the latter 
 end of tlie twelfth century. lie was a men- 
 dicant scholar of liolo^jna, but pursued his 
 studies to such i;onil etVect, that lie was ad- 
 vaiued successively by the emjieror to tlie 
 posts of prothonotary of liis court, judge, and 
 chancellor. He was also employed as ane<];o- 
 ciator in various embassies, and took a leading 
 part in that eventful rei^n. Ultimately, how- 
 ever, he was accused of betraying his master's 
 interest to jjopelnnocentlV; and being thrown 
 into prison and deprived of sight, he termi- 
 nated his life with his own hand. Six books 
 of letters are remaining in his name, which 
 Tiraboschi regards as one of the most valuable 
 niOTiuments of the thirteenth century. He also 
 collected and arranged the laws of Sicily, 
 composed a book on consolation, in imitation 
 of Hoethius, and several Italian poems. In 
 common with his master, he lias a share in 
 the imputation of being concerned in the com- 
 position of the famous book " De tribus Impos- 
 toribus;" a work of which it is equally dis- 
 puted who was the author, or whetiier it ever 
 really existed. — Tirahoychi. 
 
 VIGNIKR, the name of two ingenious 
 French writers, who stood to each other in the 
 relation of grandfather and grandson. — Nicho- 
 las VioMKH, the elder of the two, was a na- 
 tive of Troyes, born in 1530, and distinguished 
 himself as a sound scholar and a learned anti- 
 quarian. He was the author of a variety of 
 able works, principally connected with the 
 early history of his native country. These con- 
 sist of " An Essay on the Origin and Condi- 
 tion of the ancient Franks," folio; "On the 
 ancient State of Armorica or Brittany ;" " A 
 Summary of the History of France," folio ; 
 " Annals of the ancient Jews, Greeks, and 
 Romans," 4to ; and an " Historical Diction- 
 ary," in four volumes, folio. He died historio- 
 grapher royal in 1396. — Jerome Vignieu 
 was bom in 160(3 at Blois. He was educated 
 in the reformed religion, but reconciled him- 
 self to the Romish church, took the vows, and 
 became a priest of the Oratory. .Terome in- 
 herited the antiquarian propensities of his 
 grandfather, and especially distinguished him- 
 self by his acquaintance with the pedigrees of 
 the principal continental families. In the 
 course of this pursuit he collected and pub- 
 lished genealogies of the house of Hapsburg, 
 of the counts of Champagne, and of the feudal 
 seigneurs of Alsace. He was also the author 
 of a theological treatise " On the Harmony of 
 the four Evangelists," and died in 1661.— 
 Moreri. Kour. Dirt. Hist. 
 
 VIGNOLA, or GIACOMO BAIIO/ZIO. 
 a celebrated Italian architect, who derived the 
 former appellation, by which he is best known, 
 from the small town of Vignola, m the duch\ 
 of Modena, where he was born in 1J07. IL- 
 
 V I G 
 
 aj. plied himself first to painting, but hih inclina- 
 tion leading him to prefer architecture, ho 
 stuthed tin* works of Vitruviua and other an- 
 cient writers, and then went to Hume, where 
 he carefully surveyed and measured the re- 
 mains of ancient art. He vii*ited France ia 
 the reign of Franc is I, and he furnished the 
 tlesigns for several edifices in that country. 
 Returning to Italy, he designed the church of 
 St Fetronius at liologna, and built a magnifi- 
 cent palace for count Isohuii He executed 
 many other works of importance in various 
 parts of Italy, but none of ilmu to be com- 
 pared with the palace of Caprarola, which he 
 erected for cardinal Alexander Farnege. ihe 
 immense reputation which he ac(juired, in- 
 duced Philip II to invite him to Spam;' but 
 he declined going thitlier on account of his 
 great age, and his engagements as architect of 
 St Peter's, where he had succeeded Michael 
 Angelo. However be sent designs for the Kscu- 
 rial, which were preferred before those of the 
 other celebrated architects who were his com- 
 petitors on that occasion. Vignola died in 
 I' 73, and was interred with great pomjt in 
 the Pantheon at Rome. He was the author 
 of a treatise on Perspective, commented ou 
 by Tgnazio Dante ; and of a work on the Five 
 Orders of Architecture, translated into French, 
 with a Commentary by Daviler. A new edi- 
 tion of the works of \'iguoia was commenced 
 at Paris, in 1813, folio. Aikin's Gen. liiog. 
 Biof^. Univ. 
 
 VIGNOLES (Alpiionso de) a French Pro- 
 testant clergyman, who was the son of a Cal- 
 vinist officer, and was born at Aubais iu Lau- 
 guedoc, in 1649. After having been iu the 
 army, he studied theology at the university of 
 Saumur ; and he was minister tirst at Aubais 
 and then at Cailar, where he continued till the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. He 
 found an asylum in tlie territories of the elector 
 of Brandenburg, and became successively mi- 
 nister of Schwedt, of Halle, and of Branden- 
 burg near Berlin. He was one of the first 
 members of the Academy of Sciences at Ber- 
 lin, on its establishment in 1701 ; and he was 
 chosen director of that institution in 1727. He 
 published many learned works, of which the 
 most important is his " Chronologie del'llis- 
 toire Sainte et des Histoires Etrangeres qui la 
 concernent, depuis la Sortie d' Egypt juscju'a la 
 Captivite de Babylone," 1738, 'J vols. 4to. Ik- 
 died at Berlin, July 24, 1744.— Dicf. Jli.l. 
 Aikin's Gen. Biof^. 
 
 VIGNOEI (John) a learned writer ou ar- 
 chaeology and numismatics, born in Tusianv, 
 about 1680. After having stuilied philoso|div 
 and theology, he took the ecclesiastical habit, 
 consecrating his leisure to the investigation of 
 medals and other ancient monuments. In 
 1700 he succeeded, on the death of Zaccagni, 
 to the olHce of librarian of the Vatican ; and 
 his death took jdace in 173:5. Besides an 
 edition of the Lives of the Popes, by .Anasta- 
 sius Bibliothecarius. 17'J4, 1733. 1733. 3 vols 
 4to ; he published " Antiquiores Pontihcwm 
 Denarii," 1709. 4to; " Dissertatiode Columna 
 lui].'. Anloniui Pii, una cum Antiquis Inscrip- 
 
VIL 
 
 tionibus," 1705, 4to, and other works.- Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 VILLA (Ghiron Francis, marquis de) one 
 of the most distinguished militar)' officers of 
 the seventeenth centurj'. Jle was the son of 
 Guido, marquis de Villa, a general in the 
 French service, who was killed at the siege of 
 Cremona, in l6-i8. The son, who inherited the 
 talents and courage of his ancestors, after hav- 
 ing been employed in the wars of Italj', en- 
 tered into the service of the Venetians, and was 
 Bent in 1665 with a body of troops to Candia, 
 then attacked by the Turks. lie defended that 
 place, notwithstanding the inferiority of his 
 forces, and the repeated wounds which he re- 
 ceived, against the assaults of the enemy, in a 
 manner highly creditable to his talents and 
 bravery. In 1668 he quitted Candia, in obe- 
 dience to the commands of his sovereign, the 
 duke of Savoy ; and he died not long after, in 
 consequence of the injuries he had suffered. 
 An account of the Travels of the Marquis de 
 Villa in Dalmatia and the Levant, and of the 
 Siege of Candia, by J.B. Rostagno, counsellor 
 and secretary of state to the Duke of Savoy, 
 was published at Turin, 1668, 4lo ; and there 
 are two abridged translations of the work into 
 French. — B'wg. Univ. 
 
 VILLALPANDI (John Baptist) a learned 
 Spanish Jesuit, was born at Cordova, in 1552 ; 
 and he entered the society of Jesuits in the 
 twenty- sixth year of his age. lie was distin- 
 guished for extensive theological and mathe- 
 matical knowledge, and was associated with 
 Jerome Prado, in a commentary on Ezekiel. 
 He particularly distinguished himself in a dis- 
 sertation upon the structure of Solomon's 
 Temple, in respect to which, having adopted 
 a theory that it was perfect, as the model had 
 been given by God himself, he exhausted 
 much fancy and ingenuity to describe an edi- 
 fice which should answer that character. Cal- 
 met's Dictionary contains some account of this 
 curious inquiry, as also several engravings in 
 illustration of it. Villalpandi likewise edited 
 a theological tract by St Remi. He died at 
 Rome, 1608. — Calinct. Antonio Bibl. Hiit. 
 
 VILLA N I, the name of three historians of 
 the same family, natives of Florence, of which 
 rcjjublic they wrote the annals in conjunction. 
 — Giovanni, the elder, was a traveller over 
 great part of the European continent, butditd 
 in his native city, where he enjoyed a post 
 under the government, in 1348, before the 
 completion of the work. — Matteo Villani 
 went on with it; but he, too, dying in 1363, 
 it was reserved for Filippo, son of tlie latter, 
 and nephew to Giovanni, to put a finishing 
 hand to it. — Filippo afterwards published the 
 " INIemoirs of illustrious Florentines," and 
 died soon after the commencement of the fif- 
 teenth century. Their History, which was not 
 printed dll above a century after their decease, 
 lias yone through several editions. J he first 
 is that of Florence, 1537 ; another, that of 
 Milan, in two folio volumes, 1729, and several 
 «tili later. — Tiraboschi. 
 
 VILLARET (Claude) a French historian 
 born ;>.t Vpxis about 1715. He was intended 
 
 for the legal profession, but lie jjrefeired the 
 study of the belles lettres ; and after assisting 
 with Bret and Daucour in the composition of 
 a comedy in one act, he published in 1743 a 
 novel called " Histoire du Ca^ur Humain." 
 and in 1745 another, " La Belle AllemaDde." 
 The derangement of his affairs obliging him to 
 leave Paris, he went in 1748 to Rouen, where 
 he appeared on the stage ; and he continued 
 that mode of life till 1756. He then returned 
 to I^aris, and having obtained a financial situa- 
 tion, he relinquished his lighter studies, and 
 applied himself to the investigation of the his- 
 tory of his native country. On the death of 
 the abbe Velly in 1759, he was selected to 
 continue the History of France, commenced 
 by that writer, and he was at the same time 
 made secretary to the peerage. His jiortion 
 of the work, which is reckoned superior to 
 that of his predecessor, extends from 1329 to 
 1469, or from the reign of Philip de Valois to 
 that of Louis XI. lie also assisted in the 
 " Cours d'Hiatoire Uuiverselle," undertaken by 
 Luneau de Boisgermain. His death took place 
 in February 1766. — Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VILLAllS (Dominic) a French botanist, 
 born in 1745. His father was a farmer in the 
 south of France, on whose death he was 
 obliged to undertake the care of the farm for 
 the support of his family. Resolved however 
 to study medicine and botany he quitted his 
 home, and in 1771 went to Grenoble, where 
 he fortunately obtained the patronage of M. 
 de Marcheval, intendant of Dauphiny, who 
 procured for him a pension, and admission as 
 a pupil at an hospital. In 1773 he commenced 
 a course of lectures on botany, and in 1778 he 
 took his degrees in the faculty of medicine at 
 Valence. In 1781 his friend M. de Marche- 
 val obtained for him the office of chief physi- 
 cian to the military hospital at Grenoble, and 
 a botanic garden being founded there in 1783, 
 he lectured on botany. The suppression of 
 the hospital in 1803, and that of the central 
 school soon after, left him without employ- 
 ment ; but in 1805 he was nominated professor 
 of botany and medicine at Strasburg, and in 
 1807 he became dean of the faculty in that city. 
 He died June 27, 1814. His principal works 
 are " Histoire Naturelle des Plantes 4a Dau- 
 phin^," Grenoble, 1786, 4 vols. 8vo ; " M^- 
 inoires sur la Topograjjliie et ITIistoire Natu- 
 relle," 1804, 8vo ; and " Precis d'un Voyage 
 Botanique fait en Suisse, dans les Grisoiis, ike. 
 en 1811," Paris, 1812, 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VILLARS (Louis Hrxion, duke de) mar- 
 ^hal of France, was the son of Peter, marcjuis 
 of X'iilars, and was born at Moulius in 1653. 
 He bore arms at an early age, as aide-de-camp 
 to his cousin, the marshal de Bellefons ; and 
 he served in Holland in 1672, and the follow- 
 ing year signalized his courage at the siege of 
 Maestricht. In 1674 he obtained tiie com- 
 mand of a regiment of cavalry, and in 1678 he 
 distinguished himself in Germany under the 
 marshal de Crequi. He was made a lieute- 
 nant-general in 1693; and after the peace of 
 Ryswick he went as envoy extraonliuary to 
 Vienna. War being renewed, he was em- 
 
V IL 
 
 ployed in Germany, where in 1702 he gained 
 the victory of FriccUin^en, and ohli^'cil the im- 
 perialists to abandon tlicir hries at Ihij^Ufiiau. 
 He was rewarded with tlie start" of a iiiarslial 
 of France. In 1701 he was sent to l-an^uedoc 
 against the insurgent fanatics of tlie ('evennes, 
 with whom he niaiie a treaty of pacification ; 
 and on his return to I'aris he was made a duke, 
 and received tlie coHar of the royal onh-rs. 
 After serving against the iiuperiahsts in 170.), 
 and airainst the duke of Savov in l^auphiiiv in 
 1708, he was sent the following year to the 
 Isletherlauds, where he was wounded and de- 
 feated at IMalplmiuet. Aftt r liaving gained 
 the victory of Denain, he negociated with his 
 antagonist prince F^ugene at Uastadt in 1714. 
 lie i)reserved his credit at court after the death 
 of Louis XIV. In 17 13 he was appointed pre- 
 eident of the council of war, and was admitted 
 into the council of regency in 1717. \\ hen 
 the duke of Bourbon succeeded to power on 
 the death of the duke of Orleans, during the 
 minority of Louis XV, marshal \'illars was 
 consulted on all important affairs of state, and 
 he was then at the height of his fortunes. War 
 taking place in 1733, he was sent to command 
 in the Milanese, where he took Pizighitone ; 
 but age and debility prevented him from making 
 more than one campaign. He was taken ill as 
 he was returning to F'rance, and died at Turin 
 June 17, 1734., There are extant " INI^moires 
 du iMar^chal de Villars," 3 vols. 12mo, printed 
 in Holland, of which the first part only was 
 written by himself. In 1784 M. Anquetil 
 published " La Vie du Mar^chal de Villara," 
 4 vols. 12mo, containing letters, recollections, 
 and a journal of the marshal, arranged by the 
 editor. — Marie Gigaui.t de Beli-ejons, 
 marquise de Villars, mother of the marshal, 
 was a correspondent of mad. de Coulanges, 
 and her letters are printed with iliose of mad. 
 de Sevigne. — Aikin's Gen, Biog. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VILLARS (IMoNTFAucoN de) a French 
 abbe, related to the celebrated antiquary Mont- 
 faiicon. He was either a native of Toulouse, 
 or educated there ; but came early to Paris, 
 wliere he attracted much attention by his ta- 
 lents as a preacher, and his lively and inge- 
 nious conversation. He also published various 
 works of imagination and criticism, written in 
 ft peculiar style of humour, the most cele- 
 brated of which is " Le Comte de Gal)alis, 
 ou Entretiens snr les Sciences secrettes," witli 
 an addition entitled " Les Genies assistans et 
 les Gnomes irreconciliables." When the 
 book first appeared, it was universally read as 
 a mere sport of the imagination, at once inno- 
 cent and amusing ; but ultimately, certain 
 theologians professed to discover a secret and 
 irreligious aim in it, and the abb^ was forbid- 
 den tiie pulpit, and his book prohil)ited. The 
 second volume which he promised would have 
 set this silly matter at rest, but the unfortunate 
 abbe was soon afterwards assassinated by ruf- 
 fians in his way to Lyons, the direct perpe- 
 trator of the deed being a member of his own 
 family. Tliis catastrophe took place in 167.). 
 Ii was avowedly from the " Comte de Ga- 
 balis" Uiat Pope derived the hint of his 
 
 VI L 
 
 macliinery fcr tlie Rape of the Ix-cl.. It i« 
 nurely the general notion however that hhi 
 been so felicitously adopted, the bpirits in the 
 original work being niucii more imp(.irtant j>er- 
 sonages than in the poem. — AWv. Diet, llitt, 
 W'arion's I s.ut>i i>it I'npe. 
 
 Vn.LAVlL'UJSA (Josn'H de) a Spanibh 
 inquisitor, dir^tingiiished hh one of (iiu best he- 
 roicomic poi-is of his nation. He was born in 
 1. ')!)'.), antl htudifd at Cuenya, wlure lie ap- 
 jilicd himself to poetital toinposiiion. Aft<-r 
 rome essa\s of lei^a importance, he wrote 
 " La Musipua, Poetica Inventua en octava 
 rima," l6l.->, livo. '1 his piece, tonsibting of 
 twelve cantos, is conceived in tlie same spirit 
 with the Latrachomyomacliia, ascribed to 
 Homer, and the Gatoniaquia of Lope de \'e<'aj 
 and it is deserving of ptrusal, not only on ac- 
 count of the grace and fa( ility of llie author's 
 style, but also for the bold originality of in- 
 vention which it exhibits. Villaviciosa seems 
 to have rclintiuished poetry after tliis efl'ort; 
 and continuing his studies as a lawyer and an 
 ecclesiastic, he gradually rose to be archdea- 
 con of iMoya, and inquisitor of Cuenya, where 
 he died in 1638. — Biog. Unic. 
 
 V1LLE1jKUNE(John Baptist LEFEnvnn 
 de) a learned Hellenist and Orientalist, bom 
 at Senlis, about 1732. He studied medicine, 
 and having taken the degree of doctor in that 
 faculty, he appears to have practised for some 
 years as a physician. At length he aban- 
 doned his profession, and ap|ilied himself to 
 the study of various languages. Having an 
 excellent memory he acquired a knowledge of 
 almost all the principal dialects of lCuroj»e and 
 Asia. He became Oriental professor at the 
 College of France, and in 1796 he succeeded 
 Chamfort as keeper of the national library. 
 In 1797 he was proscribed by the Directory, 
 for having, in a printed letter, proclaimed the 
 necessity of a single governor for France. 
 After residing in various departments, he 
 settled at Angouleme, where he was for a time 
 professor of natural history at the central 
 school and then of classical literature and ma- 
 thematics. He died October 7, 11309. His 
 works, both original and translated, are very 
 numerous. Among the most important are 
 his versions of Silicus Italicus on the Punic 
 ^\'ar; the IVIanual of lC])icletus, and the 1 able 
 of Cebes ; the Aphorisms and Coac Pre no- 
 tions of Ilijipocrates ; and the Deipnosophisfs 
 of Athena-US. He also assisted in the mag- 
 nificent editions of Herodotus and Strabo, 
 published in folio, at Utrecht and Oxford. — 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 VILLICFEU (Josrpu Francis Bouroois 
 de) a French biographer, was bom at Paris 
 Deceniber 24, 1632, being the son of a king's 
 counsellor, and hereditary judge and warden 
 of the mint. He was eingulaily attached to 
 study and retirement, and al'.hou'jh chosen a 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, volun- 
 tarily withdiew from it in order to retire to a 
 small apartment in the cloisters of the metro- 
 politeui church, to pursue his avocations uun)o« 
 iested. In this retreat he composed a great 
 number of works, residing there a layman 
 
V IL 
 
 and unmarried, to December 1737, when he 
 died at the age of eighty- five. His biogra- 
 phical productions are " The Life of St 15er- 
 nard," 4to ; " Tiie Lives of the holy Fathers 
 of the Desert," 5 vols. l2mo; " The Life of 
 St Theresa," with the " Select Letters" of 
 the same saint, 4to and 12mo ; " Anecdotes 
 and secret INIemoirs of the Constitution of tlie 
 Bull Unigenitus," 3 vols. 12mo, subsequently 
 prohibited ; " Life of the Duchess of Longue- 
 ville," t vols. 8vo. He also translated several 
 of the works of Cicero, St Augustin, and St 
 Bernard. — Kouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VILLLHAIIDOUIN (Geoffry de) an 
 ancient French chronicler, was marshal of 
 Champagne, an office held by his father and 
 dei^cendants. lie acted a considerable ])art 
 in the fourth crusade of 1198, which led to 
 the capture of Constantinople by the French 
 and Venetians in I'JOl-. Of this expedition he 
 wrote, or dictated a narrative which is extant 
 in the rude idiom of his age and country. It 
 is an interesting narrative from its simplicity 
 and apparent fidelity, and is much referred to 
 by Gibbon in his account of the events which 
 it describes. The best edition is that of Da 
 Cange, folio, 1657. — Moreri. Gibbon. 
 
 VILLENA (Henry d'Araoon, marquis 
 de) one of the most distinguished persons in 
 the history of Spanish literature during the 
 fifteenth century. He was descended of a fa- 
 mily connected by blood with the royal houses 
 of Castile and Aragon ; and he was born in 
 13u4:. He manifested an early propensity for 
 study, and attached himself to the service of 
 John II, king- of Castile, an eminent patron of 
 literature. Having obtained the earldoms of 
 Cangas andTineo,in the province of Asturias, 
 he was induced to resign them in order to be- 
 come grand master of the military order of 
 St Mary of Calatrava ; but his election being 
 contested, tlie pope deprived hina of the title, 
 and he retained only the post of commandant 
 of the small town of Iniesta, which lie held 
 in Twht of his wife. He consoled himself for 
 his ill-fortune by employing liimself in the 
 study of literature and philosophy, and wrote 
 much both in prose and verse, though nothing 
 more than the titles of some of his works have 
 been preserved. None of his productions ap- 
 pear to have been printed, and the destruction 
 of his papers after his death, in consequence 
 of the imputation of cultivatini; tlie cabalistic 
 sciences, occasioned a loss which the Spanish 
 critics represent as a circumstance deeply to be 
 regretted. The manjuis de \'illena died at 
 Madrid, December Ih, 1434. — Antonio Bibl. 
 llispan. Biog, Univ. 
 
 VILLENEUVE (GARniKi.i.r Susannk 
 Barbot, dame de) a French novelist, who was 
 the daughter of a gentleman of Uochclle, and 
 was married to I\L GaaUm de Villeneuve, lieu- 
 tenant colonel of infantry. Becoming a widow, 
 and being destitute of fortune, she settled at 
 Paris, and found resources for her support in 
 the exercise of her talents. Her first essays 
 in literature attracted the favourable notice of 
 the elder Crebilloii, who examined them in 
 the course of his official duty as censor. Si- 
 
 VI L 
 
 mllarlty of taste and disposition having pro- 
 duced a close intimacy between madame de 
 Villeneuve and ('rebillon, they resided to- 
 gether, lodging in tlie same house, till the 
 death of the former, which happened Dec. 2'.>, 
 17o5, when she was about sixty years of age. 
 Her works are " Les Contes Marin s, ou la 
 jeune Americaine," 4 vols. It^mo ; " Les 
 Belies Solitaires," 3 vols. I'Jmo; " La Jardi- 
 niere de Vincennes, ou les Caprices de 1' Amour 
 et de la Fortune," 4 parties, 12mo, reckoned 
 the best and most interesting of her produc- 
 tions ; " Le 13eau-frere suppose," 4 vols. 
 I'Jnio; and " Le Juge prevenu," 5 parties, 
 12mo. Several other novels have also been 
 erroneously attributed to this writer. — De la 
 Porte Hist. Lilt, des Femines Fran. Bii^g, 
 Univ. 
 
 VJLLERS (Charles Francois Domi- 
 nique de) a French writer of modern times, 
 a native of Belchen in Lorraine, where he was 
 born in 1761. In the earlier part of his life 
 he served in the French army as a lieutenant 
 of artillery, but on the breaking out of the 
 Revolution emigrated, and joined the Royalist 
 force under the prince de Conde. On the 
 failure cf the hopes of the party to which he 
 had attached himself, he went to Lubec, and 
 devoted himself to literary pursuits. Villers^ 
 who was a man of considerable talent, and 
 some reading, soon obtained a rising reputa- 
 tion in the republic of letters, which was much 
 increased by his obtaining the prize given by 
 the Institute, for an " Essay on the Influence 
 of the Reformation ;" and was at length in- 
 vited to fill the professor's chair in ])hilosophy 
 at the university of Gottingen. This situation, 
 when the French influence predominated, he 
 was compelled to resign, but received a j)en- 
 sion in lieu of it. During the occupation of 
 Hanover by the troops of that nation, under 
 DavouEt, the excesses committed by the sol- 
 diery indiiced him to address a letter to Fanny 
 Ijeauharnois, with the hope of procuring, 
 through her interest, some mitigation of the 
 evils under which the unhappv country of his 
 adoption then laboured. 'The work was 
 printed, but the only effect it produced was to 
 draw on its author the ])ersonal hatred of the 
 French commander. He also addressed to the 
 Institute two reports on the state of ancient 
 literature, and on the history of Germany, 
 i'he honours which his own country denied 
 him were accorded by the Swedish govern- 
 ment, which made him a chevalier of the 
 order of the polar star. M. de Villers died 
 in the spring of 1815. — Bing. Univ. 
 
 VILLIERS (George) first duke of Buck- 
 ingham, the favourite and minister of James I 
 and Charles I, was the third son of sir Gcorf^e 
 Villiers, and was born at Brookesby in Lei- 
 cestershire, August 20, 1582. After receiving 
 an indiff'erent education at home, lie was sent 
 to France at the age of eighteen, and he spent 
 three years there, chiefly in acquiring personal 
 accomplisliments. After his return he was in- 
 troduced to the notice of king James at a ])lay 
 represented for his amusement by the students 
 of Cambridge. His handsome person and 
 
VI L 
 
 nf!;rPCfil)lo maniw^rs gained liim tlic ro^al favour, 
 :ui(l ill \6lo he was promoted to tlie oflice of 
 ciii>-ljc'arer. Tlie disi,'ruce and fall of ilic carl 
 of Somerset mado way for the elevation of 
 this new minion, who became the object of 
 his master'3 gross and doating affection. In 
 1615 he was knighted, and made a gentleman 
 of the bedchamber, with a pension of 1000/. 
 a year. He soon after received the post of mas- 
 ter of the horse, and in 1616 he was honoured 
 with the garter, and created a baron ami vis- 
 count. Xlie earldom of Buckingham and ad- 
 mission into the privy council soon followed ; 
 and after liaving accomjjanied James into 
 Scotland in 1617, he was created a marijtiis, 
 and received the office of lord liigh admiral, 
 and several other posts of importance. He 
 likewise became the grand disjienser of court 
 favour, which advantage he made use of for 
 the promotion of his family and connexions. 
 His travels in Spain and France on a matrimo- 
 nial expedition with prince Charles, afterwards 
 Charles I, and his intrigues in tliose countries, 
 as well as the events to which they gave ori- 
 gin, are matter of history. Though the con- 
 duct of Buckingliam abroad is said to have 
 given oifence to the king, yet his favour ap- 
 pears to have heen but little diminished, since 
 durrng his absence he was raised to the rank 
 of a duke, and after his return was made lord 
 warden of the cinijue ports. On the death of 
 James he retained all the influence he had 
 acquired over the new monarch, who be- 
 stowed on him still greater confidence than 
 his father. But though so highly esteemed 
 by the king, he was the object of national jea- 
 lousy aiid dislike. lie increased his unpopu- 
 larity by advising his master to dissolve the 
 parliament, and raise supplies without the 
 consent of the people. In the midst of the 
 public discontents a war broke out with France, 
 and the duke conducted an expedition to the 
 isle of Rhe. He returned unsuccessful, and 
 wishing to redeem his credit, he was pre- 
 j)aring to lead a new armament to the relief of 
 Rochelle, when he was killed at Portsmouth 
 by a discontented officer named Felton. This 
 catastrophe happened August 23, 1628. He 
 possessed the qualities of generosity and cou- 
 rage, but he owed his station much more to 
 favour and accident than to bis talents or ac- 
 quirements. By his wife, lady Catherine 
 Manners, daughter of the earl of Rutland, he 
 left two sons. — Aikius Gen. Bbg. 
 
 ^'ILL1ERS (GnoncE) second duke of 
 Buckingham, sou of the preceding, was born 
 at VVallingfovd-house, in Westminster, Jan. :>0, 
 16'-27. After studying at Trinity college, Cam- 
 bridge, he travelled abroad, and on his return 
 honre after the commencement of the civil 
 war, he was j)resenteil to the king at Oxford. 
 He served in the royal army under jiriiue Ru- 
 pert and lord Gerard. His estate was seized 
 by tlie })arliament, but having obtained the 
 lestoration of it, he travelled with his brother 
 into France and Italy. In 1648 he returned 
 to Kn^iland, and was with Charles 11 in Scot- 
 land, and at the battle of Worcester. Ho fol- 
 lowed that prince abroad, and served as a ro- 
 
 \' I L 
 
 Innteer in tlic French army in Flanderi'. Ha 
 afterwards returned to liui^land, and in Ki.'j? 
 marrieii the daughter of lord Fairfax, by which 
 means he repaireil the ruin of his Ojrtune in 
 the royal cause. He however preherved the 
 favour of Charles II, and at the ReBtoration 
 he was made master of the horae. He also 
 became one of the king's confidential minis- 
 ters, who were designated by the appellation 
 of the Cabal. His liolitical conduct was, like 
 his general behaviour, cliaracterized by un- 
 principled levity and imi)rudence. In 1666 
 he engaged in a conspira( y to effect a change 
 of the government ; notwithstanding wbu h 
 he recovered the favour of king Charleu, 
 which he repeatedly abused. The profligacy 
 of bis private life was notorious. He seduced 
 the countess of Shrewsbury, and killed her 
 husband in a duel ; and he was more than 
 suspected of having been the instigator of the 
 infamous colonel Blood to his brutal outra"e 
 against the duke of Ormond, whom he at- 
 tempted with the assistance of other ruffian? 
 tocarry to Tyburn, and hang on the common 
 gallows. In 1676 he was, together wiih the 
 earls of Shaftesbury and Salisbury, and lord 
 Wharton, committed to the 'lower for con- 
 tempt, by order of the house of Lords ; but 
 on petitioning the king, these noblemen were 
 released. After plotting against government 
 with the dissenters, and making himself the 
 object of contempt to all parties, he died neg- 
 lected and unregretted, at Kirkby Moorside, in 
 Yorkshire, April 16, 1688. His abilities were 
 far superior to those of his father ; and among 
 his literary compositions the comedy of " 'I'he 
 Rehearsal " may be mentioned as a work 
 which displays no common powers, and which 
 greatly contributed to the correction of the 
 public taste, which had been corrupted by 
 Dryden and other dramatists of the age. — Id, 
 VILLOISON (Jkan Baptiste Gaspaud 
 u'Anse de) a distinguished French scholar and 
 critic of modern times, bom about the middle 
 of the la<t century at Corbeille sur Seine, and 
 educated in the Royal college at Paris under 
 Capperonier. His leariitd labours in illus- 
 trating the Greek poets, in bringing to light 
 valuable but forgotten manuscripts of their 
 works, and in collating them with the gene- 
 rally received editions, wire as successful as 
 they were praiseworthy. In the pursuit of 
 this object he visited several of the [irincipal 
 continental libraries, especiallv those belong- 
 ing to the \enetian republic in the palace of 
 St Mark, and that of the duke of Saxe Weimar, 
 to whose court he went on the expres^s invita- 
 tion of the sovereiiiii. In the fust mentioned 
 of these collections, he was particularly foriu- 
 i.ate in finding a MS. of the Iliad of as early 
 a date as the tenth century, winch he gave to 
 the press in 1788. in one folio volume. He 
 subsecjuently sailed into the Levant, and had 
 got together numerous materials for a new 
 edition of the '* Paheographia Gra;ca" of 
 Montfaucon, which it was his design to have 
 published, had he not been prevented by 
 lieatb. During the Revolution, he suffered, in 
 common with many otlier learned men_ con- 
 
V I N 
 
 Biderably in his property ; b it on the restorfi- 
 tion of order, resumed his literary career, and 
 was appointed by Buonaparte professor of an- 
 cient and modern Greek ; but only filled that 
 situation a few months, dying in the spring of 
 180.5. Villoiaon was a man of great critical 
 acumen and patient research, to which he 
 added a soundness of scholarship and a depth 
 as well as variety of erudition, much beyond 
 the common average of scholastic attainments. 
 He had been admitted a member of the 
 French Institute in his twenty-fourth year, in 
 consequence of his edition of the Homeric 
 Lexicon of Apollonius, the manuscript of 
 which he had found at St Germain des Pres. 
 His other productions are, an edition of the 
 works of Longus, with notes ; " Anecdota 
 Gra.^ca," 4to, '2 vols. Venice, 1782, being a 
 selection from the writings of some unpub- 
 lished Greek authors; " Epistolai Vima- 
 rienses," a collection of letters on literary sub- 
 jects published at Zurich ; and a translation 
 of part of the Hebrew Scriptures, made by a 
 Jew as early as the tenth century. — Eloge by 
 Ducier. 
 
 VINCE, AM. FRS. (Samuel) an emi- 
 nent mathematical scholar, Plumian professor 
 of astronomy and experimental jihilosophy at 
 Cambridge. He was of humble parentage, 
 his friends being settled at Tressingfield, in 
 Suffolk ; but the munificence of Mr. Tilney, 
 of Harleston, enabling him to enter himself of 
 Caius College in 1775, he soon distinguished 
 himself by gaining one of Smith's mathemati- 
 cal prizes, and became the senior wrangler of 
 his year. In 1796, being then a fellow of Sid- 
 ney Sussex college, he was elected to the pro- 
 fessorship, which he afterwards filled in so dis- 
 tinguished a manner, and which he held till his 
 death in 1821. His works are, a treatise on 
 the " Elements of Conic Sections," 8vo. 
 1781; another on " I'ractical Astronomy," 
 Ito, 1790 ; " Plan of a Course of Lectures on 
 Natural Philosophy," 8vo, 1793; " Th.,' 
 Principles of Fluxions," 2 vols. 8vo, 1795 ; 
 " 'i'he Principles of Hydrostatics," 8vo, 1796- 
 1800 ; " A complete System of Astronomy," 2 
 vols.4to, 1797-1799 ; 3vols.4to, with additions, 
 1814. A Vindication of Christianity against the 
 objections of Hume, in two discourses preached 
 before the University, 1798-1809 ; a treatise 
 on Trigonometry, the nature and use of Lo- 
 garithms, &c. 8vo, 1800; " A Confutation of 
 Atheism, from the Laws of the Heavenly 
 Bodies," 8vo, 1806; and "On the Hypo- 
 theses accounting for Gravitation from Me- 
 chanical Principles," 8vo, 1806. He obtained 
 several pieces of preferment in the church, 
 and at the time of his decease was rector of 
 Kirkby Bedon, vicar of South Cre.ik (both in 
 Norfolk), and archdeacon of Bedford. — Ann. 
 
 VINCENT (Thomas) a nonconformist mi- 
 nister, who received his education at Oxford, 
 and obtained a living in London, from which 
 he was ejected in 166'J. He then became a 
 tutor in a dissenting academy at Islington ; 
 and during the great plague in Lomlon in 1665, 
 be diaiiuugished himself by his zeal in attend- 
 
 VI N 
 
 ing persons attacked with that malady. Ho 
 subsequently published a tract, entitled " God's 
 terrible Voice in the City, by Plague and Fire," 
 j which comprises some interesting details re- 
 lative to occurrences which fell under his ob- 
 servation. He died in 1678, aged forty-four.— ' 
 Culamy's Nonconformist's MemoriaL Censura 
 Literaria. 
 
 VINCENT (William) a distinguished 
 critic and divine, who was born in London in 
 1739. He was educated at Westminster school 
 and Trinity college, Cambridge, where he ob- 
 tained a fellowship. In 17(i2 he became an 
 usher at ^Vestminster, and nine years after he 
 succeeded to ihe office of second master. He 
 took the degree of DD. and was appointed 
 chaplain in ordinary to the king. In 1778 he 
 became vicar of Longdon, in Worcestershire ; 
 but he soon after resigned his benefice for the 
 rectory of Allhallows, Thames-street, in Lon- 
 don. In 1788 he arrived at the station of head 
 master at Westminster, where he continued to 
 preside till 1801, when he was made a pre- 
 bend of Westminster ; and two years after he 
 succeeded to the deanery, on the ])romotion of 
 Dr Horsley to the see of St Asaph. As an 
 author dean Vincent is principally known on 
 account of his Commentary on Arrian's Vovaoe 
 of jSearchus ; and his Periplus of the Eryth- 
 rean Sea, republished together under the title 
 of " The Commerce and Navigation of the 
 Ancients in the Indian Ocean," 1807, 2 vols. 
 4to. The Voyage of Nearchus was translated 
 into French by Billecocq, Paris, 1800. Dr 
 Vincent died in December 1815. Besides 
 the works just mentioned, he published " The 
 Conjugation of the Greek Verb, and the Greek 
 Verb analysed;" "A Defence of Public 
 Education ," and a Charity Sermon. A volume 
 of his Discourses, with his life, was published 
 posthumously. — Ge7it. Mag, Biog. Univ. 
 
 VINCENTIUS LIRINENSIS, or ST. 
 VINCENT of LERINS, a monk of the 
 fifth century, who was the author of a tract en- 
 titled " Conimonitorium adversus Hccreti- 
 cos," of which an linglish translation by the 
 rev, William Reeves was published in 1709. 
 Vincentius who after having served as a sol- 
 dier, entered into the monastery of Lerins in 
 I'rovence, died about AD. 440. — Unpin. 
 Moreri. 
 
 VI NCI (Leon Anno da) an illustrious Italian 
 painter. He was the natural son of one Pietro, 
 a notary at Florence, and was called da Vinci, 
 from the ])lace of his birth, a small borough of 
 Valdarno di Sotto. He was born in 1452, 
 and at an early age having given indications of 
 extraordinary genius, he was placed under 
 \ errochio, an eminent artist of that period. 
 He soon surpassed his master, and executed 
 several pictures at Florence ; which gave him 
 so high a reputation that Lodovico Sforza, then 
 regent of Milan, invited him to that capital in 
 1489, and settled upon liim an annual stipend. 
 Here he displayed the universality of his genius, 
 not only by his paintings, but by his skill in 
 music, and skill as an engineer. ItwasinMilau 
 also that he painted liis celebrated Last 
 Supper in the Dominican convent of St Maria ; 
 
VIN 
 
 tvIiliK being executed on a wall not siifTi- 
 
 ciently secured from moisture, lias been much 
 
 defaced long ago, altlioiigh in a certain sense 
 
 preserved by a copy taken by order of Francis 
 
 I. On liis return to Florence in l.")()l{, he exe- 
 cuted many of his best pieces, and in })articu- 
 
 lar, was employed by the senate to paint tJie 
 
 council chamber in conjunction with Michael 
 
 Angelo, then a much younger man ; and Jiis 
 
 admired cartoon of Piccinino's battle of ca- 
 valry was a product of the emulation of these 
 
 great artists. On the elevation of Leo X to 
 
 the pontificate, Leonardo is said to have visited 
 
 Rome, and to have jiainted several jiictures for 
 
 that pope, who was however dissatisfied at 
 
 the slowness of his execution. The rivalship of 
 
 IMichael Angelo seems also to have disgusted 
 
 him, so that he willingly accepted an invitation 
 
 to France from Francis I. He was advanced 
 
 in years when he undertook this journey, which 
 
 was soon followed by a languishing distemper, 
 
 which confijied him to his bed at Fontaiiicbleau. 
 
 During bis illness the king went frequently to 
 
 visit him, and one day as he was raising him- 
 self on his couch to thank that monarch for the 
 honour done him, he was seized with a faint- 
 ing fit, and died in the arms of Francis, who 
 had stepped forward to support him. This 
 event took place in loi^O, in his sixty-seventh 
 year. Leonardo da Yinci is allowed to have 
 been one of the greatestgeniusesof his country, 
 and few men have united more various excel- 
 lencies. As a painter he possessed correctness 
 of design, taste, and great powers of expres- 
 sion. He bad also a perfect knowledge of the 
 theory of his art, and was the first who made 
 anatomical drawings. His ideas of perfection, 
 and solicitude to finish with nicety, made him 
 slow, and his colouring was defective, which 
 has been attributed to his fondness for chemi- 
 cal experiment. The strength of his concep- 
 tion lay principally in the delineation of male 
 heads, in respect to v/hich and to his other ex- 
 cellencies, it is with apparent justice asserted, 
 that to him Rai)hael and IMichael Angelo owe a 
 part of their subsequent celebrity. Leonardo da translated some ancient authors into French, 
 Vinci was the author of a " Treatise on Paint- i and published some original works, including 
 ing," which is still in esteem. Fie also left j treatises on the " Art of making Dials," and 
 a number of drawuigs and manuscript books, ; on JMensuration, and the " Anti(]uitie3 of 
 
 VIN 
 
 first of wliidi is deemed bin master- piece, and 
 among the firHt productions of the Italian 
 theatre. 'Jhis al)le composer was poisoned in 
 a cup of chocolate, adminibtered to him by the 
 relation of a Roman lady of rank, of whoce 
 favours he had boaHtfd. Da \'itici was iho 
 first composer who effected any great improve- 
 ment in the musical drama, aftei the invention 
 of ncitative by IVri, in 16(K). The accompa- 
 nied recitations in " Didone," are peculiarly 
 celebrated. He composed several other ojieras 
 besides those mentioned in this article, in- 
 cluding several of a comic kind. — liiog. Diet. 
 of iMus. liees's CycUiji. 
 
 A'L\KR (CiiAiti.is) an eminent Englisli 
 lawyer, born about the year MAM), at Akier- 
 shot, Hants. He is celebrated as the founder 
 of the \ inerian prwfessorshi]) in the university 
 of Oxford, aud the industrious compiler of a 
 " General Abridgment of the Law of Kng- 
 land," which laborious work occuj)ied him 
 more than twenty-four years. It was originally 
 printed under his own immediate superin- 
 tendance, and in his own house, in twenty- 
 tour folio volumes. The last edition is in 
 octavo. He was a great benefactor to Oxford, 
 where he endowed several scholarships ; and 
 to the professorship already mentioned we 
 are perhaps indebted for Blackstone's Com- 
 mentaries, the learned author of that work 
 having originally commenced it as a university 
 lecture. Air Viner died in 1756. — Bridgmans 
 Legal Bibliog. 
 
 VINET (Elias) an industrious Frencli 
 scholar of the sixteenth century. He was 
 the son of a labourer at Vinets, a village of 
 Samtonge, but he received a literary education 
 at Barbesceux and Poitiers, which he followed 
 up himself at Paris. He ultimately taught 
 philosophy and mathematics in the university 
 of Bordeaux, an office which he filled with 
 great reputation for a quarter of a century. 
 \ inet was the editor of various classical au- 
 thors, on whom he noted and commented with 
 great erudition and critical skill. He also 
 
 containing 
 
 figures relative to architecture, 
 mechanics, anatomy, and other sciences, some 
 of which are in the possession of his present 
 majesty. Of his poetry a moral sonnet has 
 been preserved, of considerable merit for the 
 time. — Tiruhosclti. Pilkington by Fuseli. 
 
 VINCI (Leonardo da) an eminent mu- 
 sical composer, was born at Naples in 1690. 
 
 Saintes and Barbesceux," 4to, 1371 ; and 
 " Antiquities of Bordeaux and Berry," 4to, 
 1574. He died in 1587. — Thiiaiii Hist. Moreri. 
 VINNIUS, or VINNKN (Arnold) an 
 eminent jurist, was born at Holland in 1588. 
 He studied at Leyden, iti which university lie 
 ultimately became professor of law. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by various very able works 
 
 He early showed great ability, and was a on jurisprudence, which he composed in a 
 
 pupil at the Conservatory when engaged at 
 ilome to compose the opera of " Semiramis." 
 The applause he obtained by this performance 
 on his return to Naples, led to his composition 
 
 style that has rendered them more agreeable in 
 their perusal than most of those on legal topics. 
 Of his publications, tlie principal are, " Com- 
 mentariua Academicus et Forensis. in qtiatuor 
 
 of the opera of " Astyauax," and from wh»':h i Libros Institutionum Imperialium," of which a 
 inomentthemostdisliuguished theatres of Irdy I valuable edition was given by Heineccius, 
 solicited his services. He gave the preference i with a preface and annotations, Lugd. 1726, 
 to that of Venice, where he produced " Se- ' 4to ; Nota- ad Institutiones," printed with the 
 faci," and " Ifigenia." He concluded *iis ^ above ;" Junsprudentia Coniracta ;"" Ques- 
 care'er at Rome,° where it began, with the i tiones Juris Selects ;"" Tractatus de Pactis," 
 operas of " Artaserse," aud "^Didone" the ^:c. He died in 1657. — Moreri, HaiiiOiufn. 
 
V I K 
 
 VIOTTI (G. B.) an eminent musician, 
 justly consiilcred tlje first violinist of his age. 
 lie was a Piedmontese, born at Fontaneto, a 
 villagjB near Crescenliiio, in 17.)5, and was 
 placed early in life under the tuition of Pug- 
 nani, by whose instructions he profited so ra- 
 pidly, that in his twenty-first year he obtained 
 the appointment of first violinist at tlie royal 
 chapel in Turin. Alter retaining this situation 
 rather more tlian two years, he visited Berlin 
 and Paris, in which latter capital his fame for 
 the beauty of his compositions, as well as for 
 the brilliancy of his execution, rone to a great 
 height and attracted the notice of the queen, 
 Marie Antoinette. He was ordered to play 
 before the royal family, and complied ; but 
 being interrupted in the performance of a fa- 
 vourite solo, by the noise made at the entrance 
 of the count d'Artois, he evinced his indepen- 
 dence, as well as his indignation, by breaking 
 off abruptly and quietly leaving the room. 
 From tliat time he persevered in a resolution 
 1)6 then formed, never again to play at a public 
 concert in France. On the breaking out of the 
 Ilevolution, Viotti took refui::e in PLngland, and 
 from the year 179-i till 1798 had a share in 
 the management of the king's theatre, himself 
 leading in the orchestra. At the latter period 
 however he received a peremptory order from 
 the Alien Oflice to quit the country, a circum- 
 stance which has been bv some attributed to 
 the misrepresentations of those wlio envied hira 
 bis skill as a performer. He retired in con- 
 sequence to Holland, and thence to Hamburgh, 
 in the neighbourhood of which city he resided 
 about three years, associating principally with 
 Lis fellow-exile Jarnowick. In 1801, the 
 storm having by that time blown over, he re- 
 turned to London, and engaged in the wine 
 trade, which he carried on for several years, 
 till the speculation failing, he lost the whole 
 of his property. After the restoration of the 
 Bourbons to the throne of France, Louis 
 XVllI invited him to preside over the Aca- 
 demie Royale de Musique at Paris, which si- 
 tuation he accepted, but did not retain it long, 
 owing to his increasing age and bodily infirmi- 
 ties. In 1822, having obtained permission to 
 retire on a moderate pension, he settled finally 
 in London, and there remained till his death 
 in the spring of 1824. Though Viotti had 
 long seceded from his profession, he to the last 
 did all in his power towards its advancement, 
 and assisted occasionally at the Philharmonic 
 Society, of which he was one of the original 
 members. Viotti was a man of superior intel- 
 lect, unquestioned honour, and refined man- 
 ners, though of eccentiic habits. He has also 
 obtained from some of his admirers tiie cha- 
 ritcter of a wit, but such of his repartees as 
 have been recorded do not rank very high in 
 the scale of humour. He was the author of a 
 gieat variety of music for the violin, but his 
 o:,ly two vocal compositions are the polaccas 
 " Che Gioja," and " Consola, amato bene," 
 botlj of them master- pieces in their way. — 
 Bio:;. Diet, of Mus. 
 
 \'lRIVr ( Pi:ti n) a Swiss divine of the six- 
 teenth century, who was a n;itive of Orbe in 
 
 VITJ 
 
 the canton of Berne. He was educated at 
 Paris, antl having contracted an intimacy with 
 Wiiliani Farel, who had embraced the doc- 
 trines of tlie Huguenots, he went with him to 
 Geneva, w^here he contributed his aid towards 
 the destruction of popery. He afterwards re- 
 moved to Lausanne, and thence to Lyons, 
 whence he was invited to Bearne by the great 
 patroness of the reformers, Jane d'Albret, 
 queen of IS'avarre. He wrote many works 
 against the doctrines of the Catholic church, 
 one of which, exhibiting a curious commentary 
 on the sacramental service, was translated into 
 English by Thomas Stone, and publislied un- 
 der the title of " The Cauteles of the Masse," 
 1584, 12mo. Viret died in 1J71. — Moreri. 
 Aikins Gen. Biog. 
 
 VIRGIL, or PUBLIUS VIRGILIUS 
 INIARO, the most eminent of the Roman 
 poets, was born BC. 70, at Andes, a village 
 near JMantua. His father was a man of obscure 
 origin, who became bettered in circumstances 
 by marriage, and who appears ultimately to 
 have become the owner of a small estate cul- 
 I tivated by himself. Virgil enjoyed the benefit 
 of a liberal education, and Cremona, Milan, 
 and Naples are said to have successively con- 
 tributed to his instruction. Physics and ma- 
 thematics were in the first instance his fa- 
 vourite studies, and he cultivated the Epicu- 
 rean philosophy under Syro, a master much 
 praised by Cicero. It has been generally sup- 
 posed that he wrote in early life the poems 
 which go by the title of " Catalecta Virgilii ;" 
 but some of these are undoubtedly spurious, 
 and of others the date is uncertain. If, as ge- 
 nerally believed, he relates his own adven- 
 tures in his first eclogue, his earliest visit to 
 Rome was undertaken in his thirtieth vear, 
 with a view to recover his lands, which had 
 been occupied during the first triumvirate 
 by the soldiers of Uctavius, to whom he 
 obtained an introduction by means of Pol- 
 lio, or of some other protector. He also 
 became known to his great patron Mecajnas, 
 and through their influence his farm was re- 
 stored to him. The veteran who had acquired 
 possession, was however so little disposed to 
 give it back to him, that he found his life in 
 danger ; and was obliged to fly back to Rome, 
 wliere a second application proved effective. 
 He subsequently proceeded in the composition 
 of his eclogues, the tenth and last of which, 
 dedicated to G alius, appears to have been 
 written in his thirty-third or thirty-fourth 
 year. He then commenced his " Georgics," 
 at the request of Meca^nas, which production 
 contains many masterly proofs of an exalted 
 genius in its vigour and maturity. He is sup- 
 posed to have been in his fiirty-fifth year when 
 lie began to compose the "yEueid," which 
 occupied many of the latter years of his life. 
 Augustus, with whom he was at this time in 
 the greatest favour, entreated him by letter to 
 ronimunirate it to liim in its progress ; with 
 whicli request he at length complied, and read 
 himself the sixth book to the emperor, in the 
 presence of his sister Octavia, who fainted 
 wiicn she heard his exnuisite tribute to theme- 
 
V I It 
 
 mory of her son, the young iMaRellus, so heau- 
 tifully introduced luto that portion of his poem, 
 and rewarded him with a presen' of ten aes- 
 terces a line, which amounted to upwards of 
 fOOOl. When lie had tinished his Auieid, he 
 visited Greece, in order to correct and polish 
 it at leisure ; but meeting Augustus at Aiht-ns, 
 on liis return from the east, he resolved upon 
 going ba^k in his company. Unfortunately he 
 was attacked at INIegara by an indisposition, 
 which became still more serious during his 
 voyage to Italy, and which terminated his life 
 a few days after his arrival at IJrundusium, 
 BC. 19, in the fifty-second year of his age. 
 According to his request, his bones were con- 
 veyed to Naples, and interred in the Puteolan 
 Way. He died with such steadiness and tran- 
 quillity, as to be able to dictate his own epitaph 
 in the following words : 
 
 " Mantua me geuuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet 
 nunc 
 
 Parthenope: cecini Pascua, Rura, Duces." 
 From the concurrent testimony of various 
 writers, including Pliny the elder and Aulus 
 Gellius, it appears that on his death-bed he 
 wished to commit the ^neid to the flames as 
 an imperfect production ; but it was either 
 saved by the interposition of his friends, Tucca 
 and Varius, or by the injunctions of Augustus 
 to his executors, a convincing proof of the mo- 
 dest self-estimation which was a characteristic 
 of this great poet. His disposition in other 
 respects was so mild and unassuming, that he 
 was singularly beloved, not only by Augustus 
 and Mecaenas, but by all the distinguished per- 
 sons of the period. He also obtained ail the 
 honours which his modesty led him to shun ; 
 and it is said, that on some of his verses being 
 recited in the theatre when he was present, 
 the audience rose up, and paid him the same 
 respect wliich was usually paid to the empe- 
 ror. Virgil was tall, of a swarthy complexion, 
 and sickly constitution, affected with frequent 
 head aches and spitting of blood. Notwith- 
 standing some licentious verses written in early 
 youth, no longer in existence, and certain pas- 
 sages in his Bucolics, his conduct was as tem- 
 perate and regular as his manners were mo- 
 dest and amiable. In respect to genius, 
 scan ely any poet has more occupied the critics, 
 both ancient and modern, and all concur in 
 ranking him in the first class of poetical merit. 
 He is however distinguished less by the faculty 
 of invention than most of the leading poets ; 
 his Bucolics, Georgics, and ^i-^neid, being full 
 of imitation, and even of translation; but in 
 all that can exemplify the art of poetry, he has 
 never been excelled, and his admirers will not 
 allow that the splendour and majesty of his 
 style have ever bren equalled. Hence his se- 
 lect passages are dwelt upon with more plea- 
 sure than those of almost any other classical 
 poet. His Georgics have been the object of 
 imitation to all who have since attempted to 
 n.ingle practical instruction with the beauties 
 of description ; and although inferior to the 
 Iliad in point of genius, his /Eneid is re- 
 garded as presenting t!ie finest example of the 
 tpir after that immortal poem, from the most 
 Hioc. DiCT.— Vol. HI. 
 
 \ I s 
 
 ancient times to the present day. 1 he fariia 
 of \'irgil is testified by almost iununierabio 
 CiiitiunM, commentarii-s, and tranHlationH. Tho 
 best I'diiions are thoh«- of .Maiivutu)*, Leu- 
 warden, 1717, 2 vols. 4to ; of Burmann, Am- 
 sterdam, 17 ki, I vols. Ho ; and of Ileyne, 
 I7t>.), 6 vols. »vo. (Jf his translators the most 
 popular are J^ryden, I'ltt, and War ton, to 
 which is to be added the recent version of John 
 King, Esq. in 2 vols. Hvo. The Bucolics and 
 Georgics have been published M-paratcly by 
 professor Martyn, of Cambridge, with an Eng- 
 lish version in prose and curious notes. — Vita 
 a DoiKtt. Wuitim's Life ]>rtjiied ti> hii I'irgtl. 
 \ ISCONTl (John Bapiist Anthony) an 
 Italian anticjuary, bom at Vernazzn in tlie dio- 
 cese of Sarzano, in 17i!ii. He was educated 
 at Rome by an uncle, who was a painter, and 
 who designed his nephew for the same profes- 
 sion. But the latter jtreferred the study of 
 antiquities to any other pursuit ; and that he 
 might be at liberty to follow his inclination, 
 he purchased the office of apostolic notary. He 
 became connected with the celebrated Winck- 
 elmann, whom he succeeded in 1768, in the 
 station of prefect or commissary of antiqui- 
 ties at Rome ; and Clement Xl\', on his ele- 
 vation to the pontifical throne the following 
 year, having formed the design of founding a 
 new museum in the Vatican, the execution of 
 the plan was entrusted to Visconti, who super- 
 intended the researches for ancient monu- 
 ments earned on at Rome under popes Cle- 
 ment XIV and Pius VI. Among tlie relics of 
 former ages brought to light was the tomb of 
 the Scipios, relative to which Visconti pub- 
 lished Letters and Notices in the Roman An- 
 thology ; and he was the author of some other 
 archaeological memoirs. His death took place 
 September 2, 1784. He was appointed editor 
 of the " Museum Pio-Clementinum," but the 
 text accompanying the engravings of that work 
 was written by his son, the subject of the next 
 article. — Bing Univ. 
 
 VISCONTI (Ennius Quirinh's) eldest 
 son of the preceding, was born at Rome, No- 
 vember 1, 1731. He studied under his father, 
 and showed such a precocity of talent, that at 
 three years and a half old he was able to read 
 Greek and Latin, as appeared from a public 
 examination. His subsequent progress in 
 knowledge was not less remarkable; and in 
 1764 he translated from Greek into Italian 
 verse the Hecuba of Eurijiides, printed at 
 Rome in 1765. His father designed him for 
 the church, hoping through the patronage of 
 po})e Pius VI that he might obtain a cardi- 
 nal's hat. He therefore studied the canon and 
 I Roman law, and in 1771 took the degree of 
 doctor. Soon after he was made a papal 
 chamberlain and sub -librarian of the Vatican. 
 Having however formed an attachment to a 
 ladv, whom he wished to many, he refused to 
 enter into holv orders ; in consequence of 
 which he was deprived of his posts, through 
 the interference of his father. A reconciliation 
 subsequently took place, when J. B. \ isconti 
 being charged with the preparation of the de- 
 9crij)iions to a<companv the plates of the 
 
V IS 
 
 " Mupeum Pio-Clementiaum," found it •leces- 
 eary to call liis son to his assistance ; and the 
 latter publislied tlie first volume of the work 
 in 1782, and tlie second in 1701. lie was 
 then appointed conservator of the museum of 
 the Capitol, and obtained the restoration of 
 those emoluments of which he had been de- 
 prived. The remaining volumes of the " Mu- 
 seum Pio-Cleraentinum " appeared between 
 1788 and 1807, when tlie seventh and last 
 was published at Rome, though after the re- 
 moval of the author to Paris. When the 
 French took possession of Rome, and esta- 
 blished a provisional government in 1797, 
 Visconti was nominated minister of the inte- 
 riijr ; and the following year, when the mode 
 of administration was changed, he became one 
 of the five members of the new government. 
 In 1798 he was obliged to retire from Rome 
 to Perusia, on the approach of a Neapolitan 
 army ; and in 1799 he quitted Rome entirely, 
 and took refuge in France, where he met witl* 
 a most flattering reception. He was appointed 
 surveyor of the Museum of Antiquities at the 
 Louvre and professor of archceology, with a 
 liberal pension ; and in 100-i he was admitted 
 into the class of history and ancient literature 
 at the Institute. Plis death took place Fe- 
 bruary 7, 1818. Among the most important 
 of his very numerous publications may be 
 mentioned the Catalogue of the Antiquities of 
 the Museum at Paris; " Grecian Iconogra- 
 phy," 3 vols. 1808 ; " Roman Iconography," 
 vol. 1st, 1817 ; " IMemoire sur des Ouvrages 
 de Sculpture du Parthenon, et de quelques 
 Edifices de I'Acropole a Athenes, &c." 1818, 
 8vo. He also was a co-operator in the IMu3ee 
 Napoleon, and many other works. A com- 
 plete edition of the works of E. Q. Visconti 
 was commenced at Milan in 1818. — Biog. No- 
 tice by Zaiinoni in Antholog. No. 18, Florence, 
 1822.' Biog. Univ. 
 
 \ ISDELOU (Claude) a French Jesuit 
 and missionary iu China, who was born in 
 Britanny in 1656. After studying among the 
 Jesuits, he became one of the brothers of the 
 order at an early age ; and he was only nine- 
 teen when he was sent to reinforce the mission 
 in China. He arrived at INIacao in 1687, and 
 having studied the Chinese language, he de- 
 voted himself for more than twenty years with 
 great zeal to the duties of his station. At 
 length he became involved in the disputes be- 
 tween the missionaries of different nations ; 
 and when cardinal de Tournon arrived in 
 China, Visdelou, who rendered some services 
 to that j)relate, was exposed to the animosity 
 of his enemies. In vain did he receive the 
 titles of vicar-apostolic and bishop of Claiidio- 
 polis, for his opponents disputed the legitimacy 
 of his appointment ; so that he was obliged to 
 quit China, and in 1709 he embarked for Pon- 
 dicherry. His conduct was approved by pope 
 Clement XI ; but in answer to an apology 
 vvhich he sent to France, the regent duke of 
 Orleans ordered him to remain at Pondicherry, 
 where he continued till his death in 1737. 
 Besides several works relating to China, \'is- 
 delou drew up a History of 'I'artary, published 
 
 V I T 
 
 as a Sui>{)lement to D'Herbelot Bib]iothtf(ju« 
 Orientale. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VISHNOO-SARMA, the name of a Bra- 
 min, to whom is ascribed the composition of 
 the celebrated collection of apologues, known 
 under the title of the Fables of Pilpay orBid- 
 .pai. The original of this work, composed in 
 the Sanscrit language, bears the title of " Pant- 
 cha-tantra," and it has given birth to two 
 other works, one of which, called " Hitop*- 
 desa," has been translated by sir William Jones 
 and by Mr Wilkins. The version of the latter 
 was published at Bath in 1787, 8vo ; that of 
 the former is printed in the collection of his 
 works ; and the Sanscrit text has been pub- 
 lished at Serampore in 1806, and in London 
 in 1810. The abbe Dubois published a French 
 version of the " Pantcha-tantra," Paris, 1826. 
 Nothing certain is known concerning Vishnoo- 
 Sarma, the alleged author of this curious mo- 
 nument of Hindoo literature. — Trans, of the 
 Roi/al Asiatic Societij, vol. i. Biog, Univ. 
 
 VlTELLIO or VITELLO, a Polish ma- 
 thematician, born in the thirteenth ceiitury of 
 the illustrious family of Ciolek, who, according 
 to a common custom of the learned in former 
 times, translated his Polish name into Latin. 
 He resided near Cracow, where be arranged 
 the materials which had been the result of hirt 
 inquiries in his travels, and the numerous opti- 
 cal experiments which he had made. His work, 
 which did not appear till long after his death, 
 was first printed at Nuremberg, 1533, folio, 
 under the title of " Vitellronis Perspectivai 
 Lib. X." It was dedicated by the author to 
 William de Morbeta, who in 1262 was grand- 
 penitentiary at the court of Rome. Vitellio 
 is the earliest writer who gives a philosophicaJ 
 explanation of tlie cause of the rainbow. — Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 VITRINGA (Campegius) an eminentand 
 learned Protestant divine, was born May 16, 
 1659, at Leuwarden in Friesland. He took 
 the degree of DD. at Leyden in 1679, and was 
 successively professor of Oriental languages, 
 divinity, and sacred history at Franeker. He 
 died March 3, 1722, of an apoplexy. He is 
 author of " A Commentary on Isaiah," 2 vols, 
 folio, Lat. ; " Apocalypseos Anachrysis," 
 1719, 4to ; " Typus Theologise Practical," 
 Bvo ; ** Hypotyposis Historiae et Chronologiae 
 Sacrae," 8vo ; " Synagoga vetus," 4to ; " Ar- 
 chi-synagogus," 4to ; " De Decemviris otiosig 
 Synagogae," 4to, &c. — Campegius VirniNGA, 
 one of his sons, born March 23, 1693, was 
 also professor of divinity at Franeker, and 
 died nine months after his father in 1723, 
 aged thirty-one, leaving an able " Abridg- 
 ment of Natural Theology," and " Sacred 
 Dissertations." — Niceron. Saiii Onom. 
 
 VITRUVIUS POLLIO (Mahcus) a cele- 
 brated writer on architecture, who is supposed 
 to have flourished in the times of Julius C<Esar 
 and Augustus ; and of whose parentage and 
 place of nativity no certain knowledge can be 
 attained, 'ihe most probable opinion is that 
 he was born at Formia, a city of Cnrapania, 
 now called Mola di Gaeta. He plainly appears 
 to have been liberally educated ; and tliot it* 
 
V I V 
 
 travelled for 'nforniRtion and improvemeni wo 
 l«&rn from his writings. He acquired by tin- 
 exercise of his profession some property, tliou^h 
 he seems to liave been hss employed tlinn 
 eome of his contemporaries ; and the only 
 public edifice which he mentions asbcinj^ con- 
 structed from his designs is a basilica at Kano. 
 He wrote at an advanced age his work " I)e 
 Architectura Lib. x." which lie dedicated to 
 Augustus, under whose reign he had held the 
 office of inspector of the military machines. 
 This treatise was first printed at Venice, 1497, 
 folio ; and among modern editions the most 
 Talualde is that of Schneider, Ltipsic, 180H, 
 3 vols. 8vo. An English translation of the 
 work of Vitruvius, with a commentary by 
 William Newton, appeared in 1771, folio, 
 repub. 1791, 2 vols, folio ; and a new transla- 
 tion by W. Wilkins, with an Introduction con- 
 taining an historical ^'iew of tlie Rise and 
 Progress of Architecture among the Greeks, 
 was published in 1812, folio. — Rees's Cyclop. 
 Biitg. Univ. 
 
 VIVES (John Lotus) one of the revivers 
 of literature, was born at Valentia in Spain, 
 in 1-19'2. He studied at Paris and Louvain, 
 after which he visited P2ngland, having pre- 
 viously become one of the first fellows of Cor- 
 pus Christi college, Oxford. He was much 
 respected and patronised by Catherine of Ar- 
 ragon ; and in 1,522 dedicated his Commentary 
 upon St Augustine " De Civitate Dei," to king 
 I^enry VIII. He was also ai)poiuted to in- 
 struct the princess Mary in polite literature and 
 the Latin language, for whose use he wrote 
 the tracts " De Ratione Studii Puerilis," and 
 *' De Institutione Foeminse Christianje." 
 During his residence at Oxford he was ad- 
 mitted doctor of laws, and acquired much 
 favour with Henry VHI ; but venturing to 
 argue and write against his divorce from Ca- 
 therine, he was disgraced and imprisoned. 
 On regaining his liberty he repaired to Brus- 
 sels, wlicre he married, and remained for the 
 rest of his life, occupied as a teacher of the 
 belles lettres. He died in 1541. His works 
 were printed at Basil in 1555, in 2 vols, folio, 
 but this collection did not include his Com- 
 mentary on St Augustine, wliich was esteemed 
 too bold and free by the Jjouvain doctors ; 
 it has however been published separately. 
 Among his works are " De prima Philoso- 
 phia ;" " De Explanatione Essentiarum ;" 
 " De Censura Veri ;" " De Initiis Sectis et 
 Laudibus Philosophiae ; and " De corruptis 
 Artibus et tradendis Disciplinis," which writ- 
 ings, in the opinion of Brucker, exhibit great 
 strength of judgment, and a mind capable of 
 things beyond the level of the age in which he 
 lived. — Antonio Bibl. Hispan. Dupin. Brucker. 
 
 VIVIANl(ViNCENTio) acelebrated Italian 
 physician, was born at Florence in 1621 or 
 1622. He was a disciple of the justly cele- 
 brated Galileo, and lived with him from his 
 seventeenth to his twenty-first year. He early 
 distinguished himself by his attempt for the 
 restoration of Aristeus, an ancient geometri- 
 cian, who was contemporary with Euclid, and 
 had composed five books of problems " De 
 
 V o E 
 
 Locis 6olidia, which were lost, wiih the ca 
 ception of the names of the propositions. 
 Ibis labour he however discoiitinufd, in order 
 to restore tlie lost fifth book of tli" Cotuc Sec- 
 tions of Apolloniun. This work h»* puljlisl'fd 
 in 16.")i>, in f<jlio, under the title " l)f Maxi- 
 mis et Minimis Geometric a i^ivitihta in cjuin- 
 turn Conicorum ApoUonii VfT'^n-'i," whi< h wa* 
 esteemed snperior to Apolloniun liimself. In 
 1664 he was honoured with a pension fi(jm 
 Louis XIV, and in 1 uuu the graiiil duke of Tus- 
 cany, who employed him both in public works 
 and in negociation, gave him the titb- of his 
 first maibeinatician. In 1669 he was choj»eu 
 to fill a chair in the Royal Academy of Sci- 
 ences of Paris, which honour induced him to 
 finish three books of his Divinati(.n of .Aris- 
 teus, and address them to the king of France. 
 He died in 1703, in the eighty-first or eighty- 
 second year of his age. Fontenelle speaks 
 warmly of the integrity and simplicity of man- 
 ners of Viviani, who composed several ma- 
 thematical treatises in the Latin and Italian 
 languages, besides those already alluded to, 
 the principal of which is entitled " Enodat o 
 Probleraatum," comprising the solution of 
 three problems which had been submitted to 
 all the mathematicians of Europe. — Fabroni 
 Vita Italorum. Huttons Math. Diet. 
 
 VLITIUS or VAN VLIET (John) a phi- 
 lological writer, whose birth-place is unknown, 
 and who died at Breda in 1666. He received 
 a liberal education, and travelled in England 
 and France, in both which couutries, as well 
 as in Holland, he was connected with many 
 men of eminence in literature. Among his 
 publications are " Jani Vlitii Venatio novau- 
 tiqua," 1645, 12mo ; a treatise in Dutch, on 
 the law of succession according to the custom 
 of Breda, appended to which is the Lord's 
 Prayer, in twenty German or northern dia- 
 lects ; and a new edition of the Gothic Glos- 
 sary of Francis Junius. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VOET (GisBERT)a Dutch theologian, born 
 at Heusden in 1593. After having studied at 
 Leyden, he settled as a minister at bis native 
 place, where he remained till 1634. He was 
 then invited to teach the eastern languages 
 and theology at the Schola lUustris at Ltrecht, 
 which was two years after made a university. 
 He also became co-pastorof oneof the churches 
 of Utrecht ; and being a zealous supporter of 
 the system of orthodoxy promulgated by the 
 synod of Dordrecht, he disiinguisiied himseU 
 by his attacks on the .Arniinians or remon- 
 strants. The Cartesian philosophy engaging 
 the public attention, Voet in 1639 wrote 
 against Descartes, whom he accused of atheism, 
 and treated with great ilhber&lity. He like- 
 wise entered into a controversy with the Ley- 
 den professor, Cocceius ; and he engaged io 
 many other disputes with contemporary di 
 vines. He died at I'trecht in 1677. Hit 
 principal works are " Selectae Disputationet 
 riieologica?," 5 vols. 4to ; and " Puliiica Ec- 
 clesiastica," 4 vols. 4to. — His son, Vavi 
 Voet, was successively professor of logic, meta- 
 physics, the Greek language, and civil law, it' 
 I'trecht, where he died in 1677. He was 'ht 
 2 D8 
 
\' O I 
 
 iiithor of Bovenil learneJ works on jurispru- 
 ifiice and tlieology. — John Voet, the son of 
 Paul, professor of law at Herborn, afterwards 
 at I'trecht, and ultimately at I.eyden, was the 
 author of a valuable " Commentary on the 
 Pandects," Leyden, 1698, 2 vols, folio, often 
 reprinted, lie died in 1714. — Burma nni Tro' 
 ject. Erudit. Mosheitn. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VOISENON (Claude Henry Fusee de) 
 a man of letters, distinguished for his eccen- 
 cricities and his talents. He was born Ja- 
 nuary 8, 1708, at the castle of Voisenon near 
 Melun, and was educated for the ecclesiastical 
 j)rofessiou. He commenced his career as a 
 divine, by the appointment of grand-vicar of 
 iJje see of Boulogne ; and he also obtained 
 the abbacy of Jard, bestowed on him by car- 
 dinal Fleury, after he had declined accepting 
 the bishopric of Boulogne, from a sense of his 
 own unfitness for such a dignified situation in 
 the church. He was of a lively humorous 
 disposition, and he determined to pursue the 
 studies for which nature had qualifi<ird him. 
 In 1763 lie was admitted a member of the 
 French Academy ; and the duke de Choiseul 
 gave him a pension of six thouiand livres, to 
 ■write a French history, in return for which, 
 however, he produced nothing but some " His- 
 torical Fragments " of little interest. His other 
 works consist of " Literary Anecdotes ;" fugi- 
 tive poetry, in the style of Chaulieu ; ro- 
 mances ; and comedies, the most esteemed of 
 which are " Marriages assortis," and '* La 
 Coquette fixee." lioth in his personal and his 
 literary character he seems much to have re- 
 sembled Piron ; and though he belonged to 
 the Academy, he was no favourite with hie co- 
 adjutors, ^\ ho had many of them been the ob- 
 jects of his satirical wit. His private cha- 
 racter was singularly dissolute ; and like many 
 other libertines, in the fits of illness to which 
 he weis subject, he was occasionally a zealous 
 devotee. He died November 22, 1775. His 
 works were publislied in 1781, 5 vols. 8vo, 
 with a life of the author. — Diet. Hist. BIp};. 
 Univ. 
 
 VOrrURE ( V'incent) a celebrated French 
 wit, was born at Amiens in 1598. His father 
 was a wealthy wine-merchant, who lived 
 freely, but the health of the subject of this 
 article was delicate, and he drank only water. 
 Hi-^ a^^^reeable manners and conversation early 
 introduced him to good company, and he was 
 a distinguished visitor at the Hotel de llam- 
 I'oiiillet. He was also well received at court 
 and by Gaston duke of Orleans, who made 
 him his piaster of the ceremonies. In 163i 
 he was admitted into the French Academy, 
 and was subsequently sent on a mission to 
 Spain, where he was much caressed, and 
 wheie he composed some verses in such pure 
 ii'id natural Spanisli, that every body ascribed 
 ihem to Lope de Vega. He also visited Home 
 and England, and was the person employed to 
 notify the birth of the dauphin, afterwards 
 Louis XIV, to the court of Florence. He en- 
 joyed seveial considerable pensions, but at- 
 tachment to pl.iy and to women prevented him 
 fioin growing rich He died in 1648. Voi- 
 
 A O L 
 
 ture was one of the first in France distin- 
 guished by the title of bel esprit. He wrote 
 verses in French, Spanish and Italian ; the 
 former are occasionally easy and sprightly, with 
 a refined turn of thought, but for the most 
 part fall into strained wit and afFected senti- 
 ment, without being nice in point of delicacy, 
 which, however, was rather the fault of the 
 age than of the man. His letters make up 
 the bulk of his works, and also proved the 
 chief cause of his literary reputation ; they 
 exhibit a perpetual attempt at wit, which is 
 sometimes successful, and places the writer 
 high in the class of epistolary writers ; but on 
 the other hand, they often degenerate into 
 affectation, plays on words, insipid pleasan- 
 tries, and far-fetched allusions. Nothing, as 
 '.veil observed by Voltaire, flows from the 
 heart, paints the manners of the times, or 
 shows the characters of men ; tliey are rather 
 an abuse than an exercise of wit. They were 
 however extremely admired in their day, and 
 a letter from Voiture was a passport into the 
 politest companies. One of the latest editions 
 of his works is that of Paris, 1729, 2 vols. 
 12mo. — Nonv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 VOLKOFF (Theodore) a Russian dra- 
 matist, born at Kostroma in 1729. He was 
 sent when young to Moscow, to study music, 
 and at the age of fifteen he had also acquired 
 a knowledge of geometry, drawing, and the 
 French, Italian, and German langruages. Ke- 
 turning home, he secretly employed his pen 
 in writing plays, and having collected a small 
 company of young actors, he exhibited at Ja- 
 roslaw some pieces composed by St Dimitri 
 de RostoflP. Going to Petersburgh in 1746, he 
 formed an acquaintance with the Italians at- 
 tached to the court theatre ; and on his return 
 to Jaroslaw, he found means to erect a theatre, 
 which would hold a thousand spectators. 
 There he performed the tragedies of Sumo- 
 rokof, and other pieces, with so much success, 
 that the empress Elizabeth sent for him to 
 Petersburgh, where he was appointed first 
 actor of the Russian theatre. In 1759 he was 
 ■ent to establish a national theatre at Moscow ; 
 and Catherine II, on her accession to the 
 throne, bestowed on him an estate, with a 
 patent of nobility. He was engaged by order 
 of the court, iu 1763, in preparing a grand 
 dramatic spectacle, called " The Triumph of 
 Minerva," for which he had just completed 
 the arrangements, when he was taken ill, and 
 his death occurred a few days after, April 4, 
 1763. His funeral obsecjuies were celebrated 
 with a degree of magnificence not inferior to 
 those of Garrick. He possessed considerable 
 talents as a poet, a musician, and a sculptor ; 
 and also a general acquaintance with litera- 
 ture. — Biog. Uuiv. 
 
 \'OLNEY (CoNSTANTIfiL Fn ANCIS Ch ASSE- 
 
 BfzuF, count de) a celebrated French writer, 
 was bom at Craon in Britanny, in 1755.^ In- 
 spired at an early age with a desire to visit fo- 
 reign countries in search of knowledge, he no 
 sooner became master of a small patrimonial 
 estate, than he converteil it into money, and 
 .embarked for the Levant. He travelled 
 
VOL 
 
 throut;Fi several parts of Ki.'y|>t and Syria, ami 
 after a residence for some iinie iti a Alaronite 
 convent on Mount Libanua, for the purjKJse of 
 studying the Oriental langua;,'e«, lie rt-iurned 
 to France, whence he had been absent Uiore 
 than two years. The fruits of his incjuiries 
 appeared in his " \''oyage en Syrie et en 
 Kgypte," 8 vols. 8vo, which was translated 
 into KnglisI), Dutch, and German. 'I'his work 
 procured him much reputation, and takin^^ uj) 
 his residence at Auteuil near I'aris, he be- 
 came intimately connected with some of the 
 most eminent among his literary contempora- 
 ries. On the convocation of the States Gene- 
 ral in 1789, \'olney was elected a deputy from 
 the Tiers Etat of Anjou, when he embraced 
 the cause of liberty, and frequently appeared 
 with advantage as a public speaker. In 1791 
 he published his deistical work, entitled " Les 
 Ruines, ou Meditations sur les Revolutions 
 des Empires," the first idea of which he is said 
 to have conceived in the cabinet of Dr Frank- 
 lin. After the conclusion of the sessions of 
 the National Assembly, he accompanied M. 
 Pozzo di Borgo to Corsica, where he had pro- 
 jected some agricultural improvements. He 
 made attempts to establish in that island the 
 cultivation of the sugar-cane, indigo, and other 
 tropical plants, but he was unsuccessful. Re- 
 turning^ to Paris, he suffered persecution under 
 the reign of terror ; and after ten months' im- 
 prisonment, the fall of Robespierre restored 
 him to liberty. In November 1794 he was 
 appointed professor of history at the Normal 
 School, and the course of lectures on the phi- 
 losophy of history which he delivered (and 
 which was published and translated into Eng- 
 lish) added considerably to his reputation. In 
 1795 he made a voyage to the United States 
 of America, where, as the friend of Franklin, 
 he experienced a flattering reception from 
 Washington, who invited him to visit him in 
 his retirement from the toils of warfare and 
 politics. Volney would probably have settled 
 in America, had not the prospect of a war with 
 France induced him to return home in the 
 spring of 1798. After the revolution which 
 elevated Buonaparte to the consulship, he was 
 nominated a senator ; and it is said the office 
 of second consul was designed for him, but 
 his political opinions prevented the appoint- 
 ment from taking place. In the senate he co- 
 operated with Lanjuinais, Cabanis, Destutt de 
 Tracy, Collaud, Garat, and others, whose in- 
 fluence was constantly exerted in the cause of 
 freedom. After the return of the king, Vol- 
 ney, by a decree of the 4ih of June 181 4, was 
 designated a member of the Chamber of 
 Peers, where he remained faithful to his 
 principles, always appearing among the ardent 
 defenders of the rights of the nation. His 
 death took place, after a short illness, at Paris, 
 April 24, 1820. Besides the works already 
 mentioned, he published " Simplification des 
 Langues Orientales, ou Methode nouvelle et 
 facile d'apprendre les Langues Arabe, Persane 
 et Turque, avec les Caracteres Europtens," 
 1795, 8vo ; " Tableau du Climat et du Sol de 
 rAraeriquc," 1803, 2 vols. 8vo, with a Voca- 
 
 N () 1. 
 
 )iiil;irv of 
 " Kappori 
 I'Ouvrat;*' Ruhse de 
 
 the Eanpuage <(f the Mmrnm . 
 
 fait ii I'Academie Cfliique »ur 
 
 M. le Prof. Pallas. \ o- 
 
 cabulaiieri compares den I,angu»-» de tout*- la 
 'I'erre," 1805, Ito ; Suj)plement « I'Hcrodoto 
 de Larcher, ou Chronolo»<ie d'Herodoie con- 
 f(>rnie a Hon 'IVxte," 1808. t voU. Hro , 
 " QiUHtionsde Statistique k I'lBage d-» \ oy- 
 ageurs." 1813. 8vo ; " Ilecherchea nouveliea 
 sur rHi>toirfc Atitienne," ihm— i.s, 3 voli. 
 8vo. \ oliiey was a nuniber of the liiBlhute 
 from its foundation ; and he belonged to tli»» 
 Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and to several 
 Euroueau literary aesociatious. — Bioj^. Souv 
 des Coittcmp. liiof;. L'ntv. 
 
 \ OEPATO (John) an eminent engraver, 
 born at Hassano, in Italy, in 17;)3. He was 
 a self-taught artist, and his first essays were 
 so successful as to attract the admiration ol 
 the most skilful professors. The celebrated 
 Hartolozzi, then employed at \'enice, in- 
 structed \'oIpato in the secrets of his art. He 
 afterwards went to Rome, where he was en- 
 gaged to make engravings from the painting* 
 of Raphael at the Vatican. His death took 
 place at Rome, August 21, 1802. He pub- 
 lished a work, entitled "The Principles of 
 Design, deduced from the best ancient Sta- 
 tues," Rome, 1786, folio, with thirty six 
 plates. The famous Raphael IMorghen was 
 the pupil and son-in-law of this artist. — Biocr, 
 Unit: 
 
 VOLPl (John Anthony) an elegant mo- 
 dern Latin poet, descended of a noble family, 
 end born at Como in 1514. He studied juris- 
 prudence at Pavia, and afterwards went to 
 Rome in search of preferment. Being dis- 
 appointed in his expectations, he returned to 
 his native place, and eventually succeeded 
 Bemardine della Croce, bishop of the church, 
 in 1559. His death took place in 1588. His 
 poems, which were published at Padua, in 
 1725, have been highly praised ; two of his 
 satires in particular are said to be the finest 
 modern compositions of the kind, happily 
 imitating the style of Horace. — Rees's Cuclop. 
 VOLTA (Alexander) an Italian philoso- 
 pher, distinguished for his discoveries relative 
 to Galvanic electricity. He was descended of 
 a noble and ancient family, and was bom at 
 Como in 1745. He apphed himself particu- 
 larly to the study of the natural sciences, and 
 especially electricity ; and in 1769 he ad 
 dressed to father Beccaria a dissertation " De 
 \'i attractiva Ignis Electrici." In 1774 he 
 was appointed professor of natural philosophy 
 at Pavia ; and he was in that situation when 
 the discoveries of Galvani were published in 
 1789. Volta immediately turned hi> attention 
 to the subject of Galvanism, or animal elec- 
 tricity ; and to his researches is due the dis- 
 covery of what has been termed the principle 
 of electro-motion, or the excitement of elec- 
 tricity by the contact of heterogeneous sub- 
 stames, as exhibited in the phenomena o. 
 the \'oltaic pile, or electric column. Volta 
 addrt'sseil to the Royal Society of London, in 
 1792, an account of his observatiotis, and in 
 1794 he was presented with the Copleian 
 
V O L 
 
 medal. In 1801, Buonaparte invited profes- 
 sor VoVta to Parie, where be exhibited his 
 discoveries to the members of tlie Institute. 
 He was subsequently deputy from the univer- 
 sity of Pavia to the consulta of J>yon8, and 
 then a member of the college of the Dotti, a 
 senator, and at length a count. He died 
 March 6, 1826. A complete edition of his 
 works appeared at Florence in 1816, 5 vols. 
 8vo. — Biog. Univ. 
 
 VOLTAIRE (Mauie Francis Aroukt 
 lie) indisputably the most celebrated literary 
 character of his own age, was born at Chate- 
 nay near Paris, in 1694. His father, Francis 
 Arouet, had been a notary, and was a treasurer 
 of the chamber of accounts. The subject of 
 this article showed a singular fondness for 
 verse fronj his cradle, which was fostered by 
 his godfather, the abbe de Chateauneuf. He 
 received his classical education at the Jesuits' 
 college of Louis le Grand, under father Por6e, 
 an eminent preceptor, and was presented 
 when very young to the celebrated Ninon de 
 L'Enclos, who left him two thousand livres for 
 a juvenile library. On quilting college his 
 father destined him for the bar ; and he was 
 pent to the schools of law, which he com- 
 pletely neglected, and obtained admission to 
 a society of wits and Epicureans, including 
 Chaulieu, the marquis de la Fare, the grand 
 prior of Vendome, the marshal de Villars, and 
 others. His father, fearful of liis becoming a 
 poet merely, induced the marquis de Chateau- 
 neuf, ambassador from France to Holland, to 
 take him in his suite in quality of page j but 
 falling in love with the daughter of madarae 
 Du Noyer, a refugee, he was sent back again. 
 Returning to Paris, he was excluded from his 
 father's house, and refused re-admission, ex- 
 cept on the condition of entering an attorney's 
 office, which however he would not fulfil. 
 Having early imbibed a turn for satire, he was 
 imprisoned by the regent duke of Orleans al- 
 most a year in the Bastille for some philippics 
 against the government. He had some time be- 
 fore composed his tragedy of " CEdipe," which 
 produced him two advantages besides consi- 
 derable reputation, the regent releasing him 
 from the Bastille, while his father, moved to 
 tears at its representation , was reconciled to him 
 upon the spot, and never more pressed him to 
 become a lawyer. In 1722 he made an ex- 
 cursion to Brussels, where he became ac- 
 quainted with Jean Baptiste Rousseau ; but the 
 poets quickly became disgusted with each 
 other ; Rousseau was jealous of a rival, and 
 the bon mots of Voltaire (for so was he from 
 about this time called) were not of a nature to 
 conciliate his good-will. On his return to 
 I'aris in 1722, he produced his tragedy of 
 " Mariamne," which escaped success, owing 
 to an exclamatory witticism from an individual 
 among the audience, a similar fate having pre- 
 viously attended another tragedy called " Ar- 
 temire." His reckless vivacity, his imprudence, 
 nnd sentiments in regard to religion, also con- 
 tributed to subject him to many mortifications ; 
 and he was soon after again imprisoned in the 
 Bastille, in consequence of a broil with the 
 
 VOL 
 
 chevalier ( a Rohan. After an imprisonment 
 of six months, he was released on condition of 
 quitting the kingdom, on which he chose 
 England for his retreat ; and took with him 
 the " Henriade." He was favourably received 
 by George I, and still more so by the princess 
 of Wales, afterwards queen Caroline, who ob- 
 tained for him a great number of subscriptions ; 
 and this liberality laid the foundation of his 
 fortune. In England he was introduced to 
 many persons eminent for rank and literature, 
 but whom, according to tradition, he disgusted 
 by the levity and indelicacy of his conversation. 
 In 1728 he obtained permission to return to 
 France, where he put the money he had ac- 
 quired into a lottery, established by the comp- 
 troller-general of the finances, by which, and 
 other fortunate speculations he realised much 
 property, which he still farther improved by 
 economy and good management. In 1730 he 
 produced his tragedy of " Brutus," which did 
 not become popular ; and it has been said that 
 La RIotte and Foutenelle recommended him to 
 renounce the drama, instead of which he pro- 
 duced his celebrated " Zaire," deemed the 
 most pathetic tragedy on the French stage, 
 after the " Phedre " of Racine. The freedoms 
 which he took with revealed religion in hif 
 " Lettres Philosophiques," which were burnt 
 by order of the parliament of Paris, obliged 
 hire once more to quit the capital, to avoid an 
 arrest of his person, which had been directed 
 by the same authority. He retired to the 
 castle of Circy in Champagne, the seat of the 
 marchioness de Chatelet, with whom he was 
 intimately associated. Here he occupied him- 
 self in wTiting his " Elements of the New- 
 tonian Philosophy," then scarcely known in 
 France, where the Cartesian still predomi- 
 nated. It was but a slight work, but answered 
 the intended purpose, by opening the avenue 
 to more profound expositions, which ulti- 
 mately renaered it as triumphant in France as 
 in England. He continued to write tragedies, 
 of which his " Alzire" appeared in 1736, his 
 "Mahomet" in 1741, and his " Merope " in 
 1743. The latter tragedy, celebrated for its 
 pathos, without the intermixture of love, a 
 thing almost unprecedented on the French 
 stage, first gave origin to the custom of calling 
 for the author of an approved play. Before 
 this period he had made his peace with the 
 court, by the able manner in which he exe- 
 cuted a political mission to Frederick II, who 
 had just then ascended the throne of Prussia, 
 with whom he had previously held a literary 
 correspondence when prince royal. This fa- 
 vourable opening he improved by securing the 
 good graces of madame d'Etioles, afterwards 
 marchioness de Pompadour, the well-known 
 mistress of Louis XV. He was in consequence 
 employed to write a dramatic piece for per- 
 formance at the festivities which took place 
 on the marriage of the dauphin, and was re- 
 warded by the posts of gentUman of the king's 
 chamber in ordinary and of historiographer of 
 France. In 1716 he ;»lso overcame the nu- 
 merous obstacles which had opposed his ad- 
 mission into the French Academy, and was the 
 
V () L 
 
 fiT»t who broke the hackiiicJ custom of rupent- 
 icg liie praises o( cardinal Uichelieu on dd- 
 mission. He was however »o much annoy eil 
 by literary and ecclesiastical enmity, tli;it la- 
 retiied with madame de Chatelet to tlie court 
 of king Stanislaus at Luneville. On the death 
 of that lady in 174'.) he returned to I'aris, and 
 iu the June of the following year paid iiin lon<;- 
 solicited visit to the king of Prussia at I'otd- 
 dam, where he was assured of an annual pen- 
 sion of i^2,00() livres and other important be- 
 nefits. All that was expected of him was to 
 spend two hours a day with the king, correct- 
 ing his works, being left in other respects 
 at his own disposal. Tranquillity seldom 
 lasts long in courts, and against Frederick's 
 express wishes, Voltaire took part in a 
 literary e(|uabble between the mathematicians 
 Maupertuis and Koenig, and made the former 
 the butt of his powerful raillery. 'I'he result 
 was his dismissal, on which he returned to 
 the king his chamberlain's key ami the cross 
 of his order, with some lines implying that he 
 parted with them as a lover resigns the por- 
 trait of his mistress. The king however sent 
 him back his key and ribbon, and he paid a 
 visit to the duchess of Saxe Gotha, and might 
 possibly have been recalled to Berlin, but for 
 a bon mot wherein he compared Frederick's 
 writings to dirty linen that he had to wash, 
 which piece of wit reacliing the king's ears, 
 rendered his return impossible. He was even 
 arrested at Frankfort by order of the Prussian 
 resident, who roughly obliged him to restore 
 some poems by the king, which he had in his 
 jiQssessiou. He now wished to obtain per- 
 mission to reside at Paris, but his witty and 
 licentious poem, " La Pucelle d'Orleans " hav- 
 ing caused a great outcry against him, he pur- 
 chaied a country house near Geneva. His 
 restless and petulant disposition soon in- 
 volved him in the party squabbles of that 
 ciisputatious place, on which he heaped ridi- 
 cule upon both parties, until he was again 
 obliged to remove j on which he purchased an 
 estate at Ferney in the Pays de Gex, an al- 
 most savage desert belonging to France, but 
 within a league of Geneva, which place he 
 had the satisfaction of fertilizing. The village 
 of Ferney, which contained but lifty inhabi- 
 tants, became by his means the residence of 
 1200 persons, among which were a great num- 
 ber of artists, principally watchmakers, whoes- 
 tablished their manufacture under his auspices, 
 •and exported their labours throughout thv' 
 continent. He also invited to his house and 
 atlordi'd protection to the great niece of the 
 celebrated Corneille, and nobly distinguished 
 himself by his services to the persecuted Ser- 
 vin and those victims to fanaticism and super- 
 stition, the unhappy members of the family of 
 the judicially murdere<l Calas. lie may be 
 said to have erected in this retreat a sort of 
 universal and independent tribunal, in which 
 he freely passed judgment on all human af- 
 fai'-s. 'J'he most powerful dreaded the force 
 of his pen, and endeavoured to st-cure his re- 
 g'lrd, as was the case with Aretin in the siv- 
 'eeuth century ; but .-Vr«»un often received in- 
 
 V () K 
 
 sulii as well uH reward*, wlitrcun ihc far f»if 
 , peiiur wit mid addreau of Voltaire uecun-d uni- 
 versal homage. With an apparently juex- 
 liaustilile vein, he wan continually pouring out 
 a great variety of works, which were ea'^fily 
 read by all Kurope. 'I'hey were generally di- 
 rected to the Bubverwion of civil and eccle»ia!»- 
 ' tical tyranny, and indeed, every sort of abuw 
 of power, and inculcated a horror of ambiliou^ 
 war, and the most unfettered toleration, lu 
 his alta.:ks on the usurpati(;ns of the priest- 
 hood, however, his hosliliiies reached to 
 I revealed religion generally, and although he 
 [ admitted natural religion, it is to be lamented 
 that he did little to establish its moral ethcacy. 
 Some of the greatest sovereigns of the age 
 might at this time be esteemed his pui)il», and 
 more especially the king of Prussia, who re- 
 newed his correspondence with him, and Ca- 
 therine II of Kussia, who sent him magnifi- 
 cent presents, and most obliging letters. In 
 the mean time his jirinciples had made such a 
 progress in Pans, that that capital was filled 
 with his admirers, which rendered him once 
 more anxious to visit it. He accordingly ar- 
 rived there very unexpectedly in February, 
 1778, much to the dissatisfaction of a power- 
 ful party, who regarded him with aversion and 
 alarm. He felt his situation, and when his 
 carriage was stopped at the barriers by the 
 officers of the customs, and he was asked if he 
 had any thing for which duty should be paid, 
 he replied with his usual constitutional vivacity, 
 " No, gentlemen, here is nothing contra- 
 band but myself." In fact, the decree of the 
 parliament of Paris was still in force agaiiiFt 
 him, but the government allowed public feel- 
 ing to take its course, and the scenes which il 
 produced were highly and nationally charac- 
 teristic. The French Academy deputed three 
 of their members instead of one to congratu- 
 late him, and placed his bust by that of Cor- 
 neille ; while the actors paid him their homage 
 in a body. His bust was also crowned in full 
 theatre, on the sixth representation of his new 
 tragedy of " Irene ;" and dramatic glory could 
 scarcely be carried to a greater height. This 
 excess of stimulus, joined to literary la- 
 bour and a great change in his manner of 
 living, was too much for the feeble frame of a 
 man of eighty -four ; and it became apparent 
 that he had not long to live. " 1 am come to 
 Paris," he exclaimed, "to find glory and a 
 tomb." He was unable to sleep, and it is 
 supposed that a large dose of opium, which 
 he took to produce it, without consulting his 
 physician, hastened his death. VVhen near 
 Lis end, the marquis of N'lllette, with whom 
 he resided, sent for the rector of St Sulpice, 
 and of this interview various very contrailictory 
 accounts have been published ; but it is cer- 
 tnin that he did not receive the last ceremo- 
 nies of the Catholic church. His death toot 
 place I\Iay 30, 1778, in the eighty-fifth year 
 of his age ; and iu consequence, it is said, of 
 the refusal of the archbishop of i*arij to allow 
 him Christian burial, he was interred secretly 
 at.Selli( es, a Benedictine abbey, between No- 
 gent and I'royes, whence he wai brought itt 
 
VOL 
 
 :'?'9l by a decree of the National Assembly, 
 aud interred at St Genevieve. The part per- 
 formed by Voltaire in a long and extraordinary 
 life, was of too strong and decided a cast, as 
 regards opinions which agitate and divide 
 mankind of all classes, not to have operated 
 very materially on the numerous portraits 
 which have been drawn of him. His phy- 
 siognomy is said to have partaken of the eagle 
 and the monkey, whence has been inferred his 
 possession of the fire and rapidity of the one 
 animal, and the mischievous restlessness and 
 petulance of the other. With strong peicep- j 
 tions of moral excellence, he was often replete 
 with petty design, disingenuous, and extremely 
 capricious in his personal attachments. He j 
 was also deemed somewhat mean and avari- 
 cious, until the latter part of his life, when he 
 certainly did many generous and benevolent 
 actions. Of a temperament which never al- 
 lowed bim to be at rest, either in mind or 
 body, he was a philosopher rather in his opi- 
 nions than in his actions, which often appeared 
 to be guided more by caprice and impulse, than 
 by settled resolution and firmness of purpose. 
 This censure must be confined to a portion of 
 his conduct in respect to social intercourse, 
 literary enmities, and personal deportment, as 
 no one could display more steadiness and firm- 
 ness of purpose as regarded such party or 
 public principles as he either espoused or op- 
 posed. A youth spent among the dissipated 
 wits of Paris, in the sensual and corrupt pe- 
 riod of tlie regency, was scarcely calculated to 
 form a moralist, and no small portion both of 
 its licence and licentiousness pervaded his 
 manners, conduct, and not unfrequently bis 
 writings. As an author, he was himself pro- 
 bably most anxious for his reputation as a dra- 
 matist and poet. His " Henriade" is the 
 finest, if not possibly the only, epic poem in 
 the French language : it displays correctness 
 and elevation of thought, well drawn cbarac- 
 ters, striking descriptions, and harmonious 
 versification ; but tbe subject, taken from com- 
 paratively recent history, precludes fancy and 
 invention, wbich indeed are not characteristics 
 of Voltaire. As a dramatist, he immediately 
 follows Corueille and Racine in the estimation 
 of tbe French ; and possibly precedes them 
 in that of most of the foreign readers of their [ 
 language. Comedy he has attempted with no 
 great success, like many other men of brilliant ' 
 wit, wbich quality ratber impedes than assists 
 genuine representations of life and manners. 
 As a writer of history, he is celebrated for his 
 ligbt, raj)id, and pervading glance at events, 
 their causes and results, but is often careless, 
 and occasionally also inaccurate as to fact, and 
 sometimes, it is contended, designedly. His 
 " Essai sur I'Histoire Generale," " Siecles de 
 Louis XIV et de Louis XV," and " Histoire 
 de Charles XH," are the most admired per- | 
 formances in this line. His style in prose may ; 
 be regarded as perfect in its kiud, which is 
 the middle species, that aims neither at 
 elegance nor fine 'vriting;but is lively, pointed, 
 in unaffected good taste, and ailmirably adapt- 
 ed for his light and fugitive pieces, which are 
 
 VON 
 
 among the happiest of their class. They are 
 very numerous, assuming the form of tale, 
 romance, dialogue, and every variety of pas- 
 quinade. The general purpose of these, when 
 not stimulated by personal distaste, were to 
 repel what he deemed usurpation upon human 
 reason in every quarter, and confining the re- 
 mark to the evils produced to mankind by su- 
 perstition, intolerance, and fanaticism, it has 
 been the lot of few men to work a more rapid 
 change in the sentiments of mankind than 
 Voltaire. However extraordinary the intel- 
 lectual diversity of this remarkable genius, 
 possibly that quality by which he was most 
 signally distinguished and set apart from other 
 men, was the astonishing talent which he pos- 
 sessed of placing whatever he pleased in a lu- 
 dicrous light, and raising a laugh whenever, 
 and at whatever he thought proper. This faculty 
 rendered his raillery an affliction of the most 
 unbearable kind, and the fear of it operated 
 even upon persons of the most powerful and 
 influential description. The mass of the works 
 of all kinds by this rapid and indefatigable 
 writer amounts to 30 vols. 4to of the Genevan 
 edition, and 71 vols. 8vo in the more complete 
 edition of Basle ; and French editions, in all 
 sizes, and at all prices, are continually multi- 
 plying (altliough probably with some exclu- 
 sion) at Paris. The greater part of these 
 have been translated into English by Smollet 
 and Francklin, or at least under their names ; 
 and the " Dictionnaire Philosophique," which 
 they omitted, received an English version in 
 1825, in 6 vols. l2mo. That the whole of 
 works so voluminous will reach posterity, is 
 to be doubted ; but there can be no doubt that 
 the name of \'oltaire will ever remain the most 
 conspicuous in the literary history of the eigh- 
 teenth century. — Kouv. Diet. Hist. Life bij 
 Condorcet. Aikiji's Gen. Biog. 
 
 yOLTERRA (Daniel de) an Italian 
 paintei and sculptor, whose proper name was 
 Ricciarelli, was born at Volterra in Tuscany 
 in 1509. He was educated at the schools of 
 Peruzzi and Razzi in Sienna, but derived the 
 principles of art chiefly from Rlichael Angelo, 
 to whom he was an assistant. He was slow 
 in execution, and owed his reputation chiefly 
 to two or three great works, of which it is 
 doubtful how much he owed to the advice and 
 assistance of his great patron and adviser. His 
 most noted performance was the fresco in a 
 chapel of the Trinita del Monte in Rome, 
 which engrossed the labour of seven years. 
 He was subsequently nominated superintendant 
 of the paintings at the \'atican by pope Paul 
 III, of which place he was deprived by Julius 
 HI, disgusted, as he said, by his slowness. 
 Under the pontificate of I'aul IV he was em- 
 ployed to cover the nudities of some of the 
 figures in the Last Judgment of Michael An- 
 gelo, which obtained for him the ludicrous 
 title of Bragghettone. He died at Rome in 
 1566, at the age of fifty-seven. — D'Argenville. 
 Pilkingtflu /)«/ Fused. 
 
 VONDKL (JoosT Van den) a distin- 
 guished Dutch poet, bom in 1587. He was 
 originally a hosier at Amsterdam ; but prefer- 
 
V O K 
 
 ring literature to commerce, lie net^lected lii>t 
 bhop, and nt the age of thirty coninieiued 
 learning Latin, and ten years after he studied 
 logic. He wrote tragedit-n, odeH, a treatise on 
 the art of poetry, and various oilier origiual 
 compositions ; and he translated into iJulch 
 the works of Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. On 
 relinquisliing trade, he obtained an office un- 
 der government, and his death took place in 
 1679. His productions have been published 
 together in nine quarto volumes. He be- 
 longed in early life to the sect of the IMenno- 
 nites ; but when religious disputes arose be- 
 tween the Arminians and the Ciomarists, he 
 took part with the former, and joined their 
 communion. Afterwards he became disgusted 
 at the conduct of the Dutch divines belonf;ing 
 to the Orange faction, and forsaking the I'ro- 
 testants altogether, he turned Catholic. Two 
 of his tragedies, " Palamedes, or Innocence 
 oppressed ;" and " Gisbert Van Amstel," re- 
 late to the political transactions of his own 
 age and country. — Moreri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 VORSTIUS (Conrad) an eminent divine 
 of the Armiuian sect, born at Cologne in 
 1569, was tlie son of a dyer with a numerous 
 family, who secretly seceded to the Protestant 
 communion. Conrad, who was destined to a 
 literary life, after passing five years at a village 
 grammar-school, was entered, in 1687, at the 
 college of St Lawrence at Cologne, which he 
 quitted without taking a degree, but was sub- 
 sequently Bent toHaerlem and Heidelburgh, at 
 which unirersity he was created a doctor of 
 divinity. After visiting the academies of 
 Switzerland, and giving lectures on theology 
 at Geneva in 1596, he accepted the professor- 
 ship of the latter faculty at Steinfurt, where 
 lie also officiated as minister until 1610, when 
 he received a call to succeed Armiuius in the 
 professorship of theology at Leyden. Having 
 accepted this offer, he soon became involved in 
 the controversial war which raged in the 
 Netherlands ; and the Gomarists, or rigid Cal- 
 Tinists, taking advantage of a book which he 
 had lately pubhshed, entitled " Tractatus The- 
 ologicus de Deo, sive de Natura et Attributis 
 Dei," they accused him of heresy, and en- 
 gaged several foreign universities in the party. 
 In particular, they obtained the aid of our own 
 James I, who, on receiving the book of Vor- 
 Btius in an hour's time drew up a large ca- 
 talogue of heresies from it, which lie sent to 
 his minister at the Hague, with an order to 
 certify to the States how much he detested 
 those alleged errors. He also caused his book 
 to be burnt in London ; and informed the States, 
 who had sent a doubtful reply, that they would 
 inquire into the case, that if they did not 
 dismiss Vorstius none of his subjects should 
 visit Leyden. James moreover wrote against 
 Vorstius, who respectfully replied ; all which 
 would not have prevailed upon the States to 
 dismiss him, but for the untimely appearance 
 of a book by some of his disciples, entitled 
 •' De Officio Christian! Hominis," which con- 
 tained some anti- trinitarian doctrines; and al- 
 though formally disclaimed by Vorstius. 60 
 much odium was thereby excited against him, 
 Vol. III. 
 
 V o s 
 
 that he [irovi«ionhlly reiigned the profcMorthip, 
 from which, by tlu'hytio.l of Oordretljt, he wiia 
 entirely di«iiiiitsed, and banii»hed by ih^ Stat«-« 
 of Holland from their tfrrilories. fit- lived for 
 more than two years in •ecrecy, frefjueutly 
 changing his abode in fear f<jr hii life, until 
 in 16'..'2 the diiko of Holttein collected tho 
 dispersed followers of AmiinianiMm, and a«- 
 signed them a Bj)ot of ground for building a 
 city. 'Jo this place Vorstiuji retired, but died 
 soon after at Toningen, in September 16'J2, at 
 the age of fifty three. According to iJavIo 
 and Sandius, the opinions of thin theologian 
 probably leaned towardn SocinianiBm, or at 
 least he dogmatized on the doctrineg of (iod 
 in a manner which was quite unusual at the 
 period. — His son, Wimiam Voustivs, aUo 
 an Arminiaii minister, publi>hed some works 
 on rabbinical literature. — There was also a 
 John Vonsrii's, a German divine, who was 
 librarian to the elector of Hrandenburj;h, in 
 whose service he died in 1676. He wrote a 
 work on the Hebraisms of the New 'J'estament. 
 part of which was republished at Leyden in 
 1658, under the title of " Philologia Sacra." — 
 Freheri Theat. Bayle. Moreri. 
 
 VOS (jMartin de) an eminent painter of 
 the Flemish school, was born at Antwerp in 
 1520. He studied under his father, who was 
 an able artist, and having made himself emi- 
 nent in Flanders, he visited Venice, Rome, 
 and Florence, where he made a curious col- 
 lection of drawings from various sorts of 
 vases used by the Greeks and Romans at their 
 entertainments, funerals, and sacrifices. His 
 fame as an artist induced some of the Medici 
 family to sit to him, and on his return to 
 Flanders he executed vaiious altar-pieces, 
 which were much admired, as also stveral 
 festival solemnities of the micients, to which 
 his drawings afforded much lively repre- 
 sentation. He possessed a fertile invention, 
 a ready pencil, and a colouring approaching to 
 that of Tintoret. He died at Antwerj) in 
 1604-, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. — 
 Two other painters of this name, Simon nr. 
 Vos of Antwerp, and Paul de Vos, of 
 Hulst, a painter of battles and hunting, also 
 obtained considerable distinction. — D'Arzen- 
 lille Vies <it Peint. rHkingtnn. 
 
 VOSS (John Henky) a German poet and 
 critic of eminence, bom at Somraersdorf in 
 1751. He was educated at the school of Neii 
 Brandenburg, and having attracted some no- 
 tice by his poems, inserted in the Almanac of 
 the Muses, of Gottingen, in 1770, he pro- 
 cured the means of studying in the university 
 at that place, where he attended the lectures 
 of professor Hevne. A literary- society having 
 been formed, called " The Friends of Gottin- 
 gen," he became one of the members, among 
 whom were count Stolberg, Holty, Burger, 
 Klopstock, and other persons who obtained 
 great literary reputation. In 1775 Voss en- 
 gaged in the publication of the Almanac of 
 the Muses, or Anthology (Blumenlese) of 
 Gottingen, which he conducted till IROO, in- 
 serting iu it annually a number of pieces of 
 , hit own composition. In 1778 he waa noim- 
 *2D 
 
V OS 
 
 nated rector of the college of OttenJurf, in the 
 territory of Hanover, whence he removed to 
 occupy a similar office at Eutin, in the duchy 
 of Oldenburg. He remained there twenty- 
 three years ; and in 1805 the grand duke of 
 Baden invited him to Heidelberg, where he 
 remained till his death, which occurred March 
 29, 1826. Voss translated the works of the 
 following Greek and Roman poets : Homer, 
 1793 ; Virgil, 1799 ; Horace, 1806 ; Hesiod, 
 and the Pseudo-Orpheus, 1806 ; Theocritus, 
 Bion, and IVIoschus, 1808 ; TibuUus and Lyg- 
 damus, 1810 ; Aristophanes, 1821 ; Aratus, 
 1824; and extracts from the Metamorphoses 
 of Ovid, 1798. His original writings com- 
 prise " Letters on Mythology ;" " Idylls ;" 
 and other poems ; besides numerous papers in 
 periodical works. He was also engaged in 
 various literary controversies with Heyne, 
 count Stolberg, Creuzer, and others of his 
 learned contemporaries. — Bing. Univ. 
 
 VOSSIUS (Gerard) a Flemish divine and 
 man of letters in the sixteenth century. He 
 was a native of the bishopric of Liege, and 
 became apostolic prothonotary, and dean of 
 the college of Tongres. He died at Liege in 
 1609. Vossius was the first editor of the 
 works of St Ephrem Syrus ; and he also pub- 
 lished some of the writings of St Chrysostom, 
 Theodoret, and St Bernard ; besides which he 
 was the author of •' Gesta ac Monumenta 
 Gregorii Papte IX, cum Scholiis," 1586. — 
 Biog, Univ, 
 
 VOSSIUS (Gerard John) a celebrated 
 TVTiter on criticism and philology, born near 
 Heidelberg in 1577. He studied at Dor- 
 drecht, and afterwards at Leyden, where he 
 proceeded to the degree of doctor in philo- 
 Bophy. At the age of twenty he commenced 
 bis literary career by the publication of a 
 Latin panegyric on prince Maurice of Nassau ; 
 and two years after he became director of the 
 college of Dordrecht. In 1614 the chair of 
 philosophy was offered him at Steinfurt ; but 
 be preferred the direction of the theological 
 college established at Leyden ; and after hav- 
 ing occupied that post four years, amidst the 
 storms of religious controversy, he procured 
 the more peaceable appointment of professor 
 of rhetoric and chronology. Having declared 
 himself in favour of the Remonstrants, be 
 Decame obnoxious to the prevailing party iu 
 the church ; and at the synod of Tergou, or 
 Gouda, in 1620, be was deprived of his 
 office. Through the influence of archbishop 
 Laud, the great patron of Arminianism in 
 England, Vossius was in some measure in- 
 demnified for his loss by a prebendal stall at 
 Canterbury, wiih permission to continue his 
 residence in the Netherlands. In 1633 be 
 was invited to Amsterdam, to occupy the 
 chair of history at the Schola lllustris ; and 
 be continued there till bis death, March 19, 
 1649. Among his numerous works may be 
 specified the treatises " De Origine Idolola- 
 trise ;" " De Historicis Graecis, et de Historicis 
 Latinis;" " De Poetis Grajcis et Latinis ;" 
 " De Scientiis Mathematicis ;" " De Quatuor 
 Artibus popularibus ;" " Historia Pelagiana;" 
 
 vo u 
 
 " Institutiones Historicaj, Grammatics, Po« • 
 tic£E ;" '* Etymologicon Liug^nce Latina; ," 
 " De Vitiis Sermonis ;" " De Philosopborum 
 Sectis." A collective edition of the works of 
 G. J. Vossius appeared in 6 vols, folio, Am- 
 sterdam, 1695 — 1701. He was twice mar- 
 ried, and had several children. His five sons, 
 Denys, Francis, Gerard, Matthew, and 
 Isaac were all men of letters; and the last 
 and most distinguished is the subject of the 
 ensuing article. — Moreri, Diet. Hist. Biog, 
 Univ. 
 
 VOSSIUS (Isaac) was bom at Leyden in 
 1618, and possessing great natural talents, 
 and the advantage of bis father's tuition, he 
 acquired early reputation among the learned. 
 At the age of twenty-one be published an 
 edition of the Periplus of Scylax, with a Latin 
 version, and notes. Christina, queen of Swe- 
 den, prepossessed by report in bis favour, in- 
 vited him to Stockholm, and chose him for her 
 preceptor in the Greek language. His quar- 
 rels with Saumaise having rendered the court 
 of Sweden disagreeable, be quitted it in 1649, 
 and returned to bis native country, where he 
 employed himself in the production of various 
 learned works. In 1670 be visited England, 
 and was admitted to the degree of LLD. ac 
 Oxford ; and in 1673, having been presented 
 to a canonry at Windsor, by Charles II, he 
 passed the remaining part of his life in this 
 country. He died February 10, 1688, O. S. 
 Besides editing the works of Scylax, Justin 
 the historian. Catullus, Pomponius Mela, St 
 Barnabas, and St Ignatius, be published " Dis- 
 sertatio de vera^Etate Mundi;" " DeSeptua- 
 ginta Interpretibus eorumque Translatione et 
 Cbronologia Dissertationes," in which he de- 
 fended the chronology of the Septuagint ver- 
 sion against the Hebrew text of the Old Tes- 
 tament ; " De Poematum Cantu et Viribus 
 Rhythmi," the most original of all bis pro- 
 ductions ; " De Sibyllinis aliisque quae Chrisii 
 Natalem preecessere Oraculis ;" and " Va- 
 riarum Observationum Liber." Isaac Vossius 
 was, while in England, intimate with St 
 Evremond and the duchess of Mazarin ; but 
 though he lived much in the society of the 
 great, bis behaviour was sometimes rude, and 
 bis language by no means decent. In bis 
 writings be maintained extravagant paradoxes, 
 while he was generally considered as an in- 
 fidel in religion. Hence Charles II said he 
 was a strange divine, for be believed every 
 thing except the Bible. — Rees's Cyclop. Biog. 
 Univ, 
 
 VOUET (Simon) a Frencb painter, very 
 considerable in bis day, was born at Paris in 
 1582, and was bred up under his father, who 
 was also an artist. He accompanied tb« 
 French embassy at Constantinople, and drew 
 the grand signior from memory after an au- 
 dience in the train of the ambassador. He 
 then visited Venice and Rome, at which latter 
 capital lie acquired great distinction. He re- 
 mained in Italy fourteen years, when he was 
 sent for by Louis XIII to work in his palaces, 
 and he furnished some of the apartments of 
 the Louvre, the palace of Luxembuvgh, and 
 
VUL 
 
 VUL 
 
 tlie galleries of cardiiml Richeliou and other I diuturbcJ utate uf public afluirs) he removed 
 public places, with liis works. He waa a ^ood to Cologne, and 8ul)si(jui-ntlj to Hasil and 
 colourisl, but had little genius for grand com- Geneva, He at length fixed liin residence at 
 )n, although France was certainly in- Antwerp, and was fur nonie time rector of tho 
 
 positioi 
 
 debted to him for introducing a better taste 
 Most of the succeeding French painters who 
 gained distinction were bred up under him, 
 including Le Brun, Perrier, Mignard, Le 
 Sueur, Dorigny,Du Fresnoy,and others. He 
 died in 1641, aged fifty-one. — PilkiiKjton. 
 D' Argenville. 
 
 VOYEll. Sec Argenson. 
 
 VROON (He.vry Cornelius) a Dutch 
 painter, was born at Haerlem in lo6(>. Being 
 shipwrecked on the coast of Portugal during 
 a voyage to Spain, he succeeded so well in 
 painting the storm which caused his misfor- 
 tune, that he dedicated himself entirely to 
 sea-pieces on his return home. About this 
 time the earl of Nottingham, lord high ad- 
 miral of England, being desirous of preserving 
 the details of the defeatof the Spanish armada, 
 in which hebore so conspicuous a part, bespoke 
 a suit of tapestry, descriptive of each day's 
 engagement. For this tapestry Yroon was 
 employed to furnish designs, and the tapesti-y 
 has often excited great admiration in the house 
 of Lords, where it was placed. The date of 
 the death of this artist is not recorded. Wal- 
 pole's Aiiec. of Painting. 
 
 VULCANIUS (BoNAVENTURE de Smet, 
 or Smith, known under the Latinized name 
 of) a learned Fleming, born in 1538. Having 
 finished his studies at the university of Lou- 
 vain, he went to Spain, and became secretary 
 and librarian to cardinal F. de Mendoza, bi- 
 shop of Burgos. In 1570 he returned to the 
 Netherlands, whence (in consequence of the 
 
 school in that city. In \^1H he obtained tho 
 chair of Greek literature in the univeruityof 
 Leyden ; and being declared professor eme- 
 ritus in 1C12, he died October y, 1014. Vul- 
 canius translated from Greek into Latin, and 
 publisheil with notes, the works of Arrian, 
 Callimachus, Bion, Moschus, Agathias, and 
 other authors ; and lie edited several Latin 
 works, ancient and modern, among the latter 
 of wliich is a curious anonymous piece, en- 
 titled *' De Litteris et Lingua Getarum, sivc 
 Gothorum; item de Notis Lombardieis (juibut 
 accesserunt Specimina variarum Linguarum," 
 Leyd. 1597, 8vo. — Andraa Bibl. Bdg. Mo 
 reri. Biog. Univ. 
 
 YULSON (Marc de) sieur de la Colora 
 biere, a writer on the heraldic science, and u 
 gentleman oftheking of France'sbedchamber. 
 Living at Grenoble in 1G18, he surprised his 
 wife with a gallant, and, having killed them 
 both on the spot, he rode post to Paris to 
 solicit a pardon, which he obtained. He was 
 the author of a treatise entitled" La Science 
 He'roique.traitantdela Noblesse, de I'Origino 
 des Arrnes," &c. 1G44, reprinted with aug- 
 mentations in 1699, folio. This is accounted 
 the most complete French work on the sub- 
 ject. He also wrote " Le Theatre d'Hon- 
 neuretde Cavalerie; oule Miroir Historique 
 de la Noblesse," 2 vols, folio, 1648, a work 
 useful for the knowledge of the ceremonial be- 
 longing to ancient chivalry ; and '• Rccueil de 
 plusieurs Pieces et Figures d'Armoires." He 
 died in 1658. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 END OP VOL. III. 
 
 liOXDON : PRINTF.U UV WILLIAM CUOWLS ANU ^iO^S, STAMFOUl) STRtlT. 
 
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