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 ANATOMICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE BRAIN AND 
 SEVERAL SENSE-ORGANS OF THE BLIND DEAF- 
 MUTE, LAURA DEWEY BRIDGMAN. 
 HENRY H. DONALDSON, PH. D., 
 
 Assistant Professor of Neurology at Clark University, 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Reprinted from The American "Journal of Psychology, Vol. Ill, 
 No, 3, Sept., 1890, pp. 293-342, Plates I and II; and Vol. IV, 
 No. 2, Dec, iSgi, pp. 248-294, Plates III and IV. 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 DEPART WENT OF PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 
 
 437 WEST FIFTY NINTH STREET 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
-7 <*w &*Cu* 1*UUmaw 
 
 Dll 
 
ANATOMICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
 BRAIN AND SEVERAL SENSE- 
 ORGANS OF THE BLIND 
 DEAF-MUTE, 
 LAURA DEWEY BRIDGMAN. 
 
 Henry H. Donaldson, Ph. D. 
 
 Reprint from the American Journal of Psychology, Vol. Ill, No. 3, 1890. 
 
 I. 
 
 Through the exertions of President G. Stanley Hall, the 
 brain in question was obtained and was put by him in my 
 hands for description. Several gentlemen whose names will 
 duly appear have assisted by describing the sense-organs. I 
 am under obligation to others for facilitating the work in many 
 ways, and especially to Prof. W. F. Whitney and his col- 
 leagues of the Harvard Medical School, Prof. B. G. "Wilder 
 of Cornell University, and Prof. C. K. Mills of the University 
 of Pennsylvania, for the privilege of examining specimens 
 in their possession. For the opportunity to consult the 
 literature I am indebted to the exceptional facilities offered by 
 the Library of the Surgeon General at Washington of which I 
 have made much use. 
 
 In the study of this case it has been my aim to give as full 
 a description as the material in my hands would warrant, 
 and for this purpose I have applied a large number of tests to 
 the brain, to determine, if possible, whether the peculiar 
 mental existence of Laura Bridgman, which was the result of 
 
2 DONALDSON : 
 
 her defective sense-organs, has left any trace on her brain, 
 or whether such anomalies as may be observed are suffici- 
 ently explained when considered as the direct consequences 
 of the initial defect alone. This is, therefore, a special study 
 in the general field of the inter-relation of brain structure 
 and intelligence. What might be expected to come from the 
 various tests will be discussed under the separate headings, 
 and I shall leave such generalizations as are possible until 
 the special points have been set forth. 
 
 Biographical Notes. 
 By way of introduction, I may be permitted to state some 
 biographical facts that will bear on this discussion. Laura 
 Dewey Bridgman( 1 )* was born Dec. 21, 1829, in Hanover, New 
 Hampshire, IT. S. A. She was the child of Daniel and Har- 
 mony Bridgman, who were farming people. The parents (*) 
 are described as of sound health, good habits, average height, 
 slenderly built ; the father with a small head, the mother with 
 ' l not a large head " ; both rather nervous ; the mother active- 
 minded. Their culture was such as might be found in rural 
 districts like their own at that time. Laura inherited the 
 physical peculiarities of her mother, and her health was 
 delicate. During infancy she was subject to convulsions, but 
 at the age of twenty months her health improved, and she is 
 described as active and intelligent. She had learned to 
 speak several words, and knew one or two of the letters of 
 the alphabet, when, being two years( 2 ) f old, she and her two 
 older sisters, forming at that time the family, were attacked with 
 scarlet fever. The two sisters died. Laura was severely ill ; 
 both eyes and both ears suppurated, and taste and smell were 
 impaired. Sight in the left eye was entirely abolished. With 
 the right eye she appeared to get some sensation from 
 extremely large bright objects, up to her eighth year, but after 
 
 * The bracketed figures in the text refer to similar figures iu the 
 bibliography, where the authority is given in full. In some cases 
 reference is made to the page of the publication cited and this is then 
 bracketed in the text with the figures just mentioned. 
 
 fThe date of this illness is a matter of some importance. As there is 
 no agreement among the various authors on this point, I have been 
 forced to choose an authority and have naturally taken the dates given 
 by Dr. Howe in his Reports. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 3 
 
 that time became completely blind. Two years passed before 
 she recovered sufficiently to sit up all day. At the age of 
 five years she had regained her strength. Speech was lost 
 with the loss of hearing, and when her education at home 
 was renewed, it was by means of arbitrary tactual signs of 
 the simplest sort. She was taught to sew, to knit and to braid, 
 and to perform some minor household duties. On Oct. 4th, 
 1837, she was brought to the Perkins Institution and Massachu- 
 setts Asylum for the Blind, and her education was begun by 
 Dr. S. G. Howe, then director of the institution. She was now 
 seven years and ten months of age, and in the defective con- 
 dition above described. Dr. Howe (a-*- 161 ) says of her at this 
 time : ' ' figure well formed ; nervous sanguine temperament ; 
 a large [no measurements have been preserved] and beau- 
 tifully shaped head, and the whole system in healthy action. ' ' 
 The process of education commenced with the pasting of 
 the name of a common object on the object, the name being in 
 raised letters, such as are used for the blind ; then the associ- 
 ation of the name and object ; then forming the name from 
 the individual letters ; and after a long time the letters them- 
 selves were learned. It was when she first recognized that 
 the sign for an object could be constructed from the individual 
 letters, that the meaning of what she was doing dawned upon 
 her. From that time on her education became easier, and, 
 indeed, she had in one sense to be held back in her work, as 
 there was danger that her frail constitution would succumb 
 to the too great interest in her studies. It is important to note 
 that at this time she exhibited the various emotions by 
 gesture and facial expression. She was fond of dress and 
 pleased by attention. The lapse of time within the limits of 
 the day and the occurrence of Sunday were correctly noted by 
 her. In the report for 1839 ( 2 ^ m ) it is said that she 
 can distinguish between a whole and half note of music, and 
 will strike the notes on the piano quite correctly. (How 
 this interesting test was made, is not quite clear. ) A test of 
 her sense of taste at this time showed her capable of 
 distinguishing better between different degrees of acidity than 
 between this and sweetness or bitterness. She appeared at 
 the same time to care rather less for eating than most children 
 of her age. 
 
4 DONALDSON : 
 
 The sense of smell seems to have been subject to some vari- 
 ations. During the first years of her residence at the institu- 
 tion it was apparently completely wanting, and there was 
 never at any time the slightest tendency to test objects by 
 holding them to the nose. Later (1843) she seemed able to 
 locate the kitchen by the odors coming from it, but this sense 
 does not appear to have ever been of any importance to her. 
 The sense of touch was very acute even for a blind person, 
 and she was sensitive to jar. 
 
 Dirt or a rent in her clothing caused her shame. She was 
 familiar with those of her own sex, but distant to men, and 
 was remarkable for her sense of order, neatness and propriety. 
 She seemed capable of discovering the intellectual capacity 
 of those with whom she was thrown, and quickly chose 
 the more intelligent for her companions. Occasionally, too 
 much attention to other scholars, in her presence, aroused 
 jealousy on her part. 
 
 She cried only from grief, and the pain from a bodily injury 
 she sought to annul by jumping and excessive muscular 
 motions. So far as could be learned, she did not dream in 
 the terms of her lost senses, and this is what might be 
 expected, since they were lost at so early an age( 3 ). 
 
 She made a number of noises. Francis Lieber studied these 
 with some care, with a view to their bearing on the origin of 
 language( 4 ). It appears that Laura had some fifty or more 
 sounds by which she was accustomed to designate people whom 
 she knew. They were all monosyllabic. Besides this she laughed 
 much and loud, was noisy at play, and occasionally made 
 other emotional noises which were suppressed by her teachers. 
 In this respect she was similar to most mutes, so-called, 
 who appear to have a variety of sounds at their command. 
 
 In a recent article, Mrs. Lamson( 5 ) states that Laura once 
 uttered the word doctor by accident, and her attention being 
 called to this, she subsequently always spoke the word instead 
 of spelling it with her fingers. The same thing happened 
 with the words pie, ship and several others. These facts are 
 taken to indicate that though so defective, she might possibly 
 have been taught to vocalize, as has been done in some 
 more recent cases. She appeared to keep constantly her 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 5 
 
 relations in space, and became confused if she lost what might 
 be called " the points of the compass." She was much afraid 
 of animals, and when more than fifteen years of age could 
 hardly be induced to touch a docile house-dog. 
 
 When about sixteen she is described as more thought- 
 ful and sedate, though cheerful — a condition which Dr. 
 Howe regards as showing that her age was to be measured 
 by the degree of her mental development rather than by the 
 number of years she had lived. When she was twenty years 
 of age her regular education ceased, and the special reports 
 by Dr. Howe stop at this time. 
 
 In 1878, President G. Stanley Hall( 6 ) made a valuable series 
 of tests upon her. At this time she was found completely 
 blind and deaf, though the sense of jar was well enough 
 developed to enable her to recognize the footsteps and some- 
 times even the voices of her acquaintances, her common 
 statement being that she heard { ' through her feet. ' ' At this 
 time her sense of smell was such that she could distinguish 
 the odors of some more fragrant flowers, but eau-de-Cologne, 
 ammonia and onions were thus recognized only when quite 
 strong. Contrary to what was stated for an earlier period, 
 she was found least sensitive to bitter and acid tastes, and 
 most sensitive to sweet and salt. It was concluded that out 
 of the four defective senses, taste alone was well enough 
 preserved to materially aid in developing her notion of the 
 external world. A study of discriminative sensibility for 
 two compass points showed a discrimination in her case, 
 from two to three times as acute as that of a seeing 
 person. To temperature, her sensitiveness was not remark- 
 able, and hence the "facial sense," as it is sometimes called 
 in the blind, was not well- developed in her, though she was 
 said to recognize the approach of persons by the undulations 
 of the air. She was found sensitive to rotation, which made 
 her dizzy and gave her a feeling of nausea. 
 
 In the course of her life Laura was the author of " a 
 Journal, three Autobiographical Sketches, several so-called 
 poems and numerous letters." The Journal covers a period 
 of about ten years. Dr. E. C. Sanford( 7 ), who has made a 
 
6 DONALDSON : 
 
 study of her writings, sums up her mental development as thus 
 indicated, by the statement that "she was eccentric, not 
 defective ; she lacked certain data of thought, but not, in a 
 very marked way, the power to use what data she had." 
 
 She died at the Perkins Institution, where she had spent 
 almost her entire life, on the 24th of May, 1889, being in 
 her sixtieth year. 
 
 Laura excited wide interest because, for the first time in 
 her case, several experiments were tried and questions 
 tested, with unprecedented results. Her case was used for 
 research in matters pedagogical, psychological and theological. 
 But these are passed over, as they lie outside our present 
 scope. 
 
 Her defect is often regarded as almost unique. As a mat- 
 ter of fact, if the deficiency of smell and taste is counted with 
 that of sight and hearing, there appear to be few cases like 
 hers ; but so small is the educational value of the first two 
 named, that she may be fairly classed with the blind deaf- 
 mutes, in which, for the most part, the state of smell and taste 
 is not recorded. As Prof. Edwards A. Park says in the 
 introduction to Mrs. Lamson's book( 1 ), there are some fifteen 
 cases recorded of persons who have lived as blind deaf-mutes. 
 Dr. Howe formed his plan for the instruction of Laura from the 
 study of Julia Brace, who was a blind deaf-mute. There were 
 several similar cases at the Perkins Institution during Laura's 
 lifetime, and there are two young girls in that institution 
 now who are defective in the same way. Special descriptions 
 of one or more cases have been given by Mareschal( 8 ), 
 Fowler( 9 ), Burdach( 10 ), Alessi( u ), Sichel( 12 ), Fuller( 13 ) and 
 Borg( 14 ) ; and Mrs. Lamson, in the current number of the 
 11 American Annals of the Deaf,"( 5 ) mentions a Norwegian 
 girl, Eagnhild Kaata, who is blind and deaf, but having been 
 taught to articulate, can no longer be described as mute. In 
 the same article is mentioned a school in Sweden where five 
 blind deaf-mutes are being instructed. Finally, I may call 
 attention to the fact that in the Census of 1871 for Great 
 Britain there are 111 returns for blind deaf-mutes( 1B ), while in 
 the 10th Census of the United States, in the analysis of 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRLDGMAN. 7 
 
 statistics relating to the defective, dependent and delinquent 
 classes by Wines( 16 ), there are returned: 
 
 Blind deaf-mutes, 256. 
 
 Blind deaf-mutes, also idiotic, 217. 
 
 Blind deaf-mutes, also insane, 30. 
 The literature on this subject would probably be found to be 
 extensive if carefully gathered, and the statistics, if taken 
 from all sources, would show a very considerable number of 
 individuals in this class. It is my purpose, however, only to 
 call attention in a general way to this point, as bearing on 
 our subject. Taking the Census of 1880 for the United States, 
 Laura's case could only be compared with the simply blind 
 deaf-mutes — 256 in number — and it would need a careful 
 analysis of this group in turn, to show how many cases were 
 strictly comparable with hers. There is good reason to 
 think, however, that a number of such would be found. 
 
 I do not know that we are in a position to say from sound 
 data what the effect of loss of the senses — as in Laura's case 
 — is on the mental integrity of the individual, but certainly 
 the proportion of blind deaf-mutes who are also mentally 
 defective is very large. At the same time there is rea- 
 son to think that the large number of those who are 
 idiotic were either congenitally defective (the idiocy and the 
 other defects having a cause in common), or that they became 
 defective shortly after birth, and were neglected by those in 
 charge of them. Two points came out in a striking manner 
 in looking over these cases as presented in the liter- 
 ature just cited. The first is, the small amount of men- 
 tal pabulum which serves to keep the action of the mind 
 normal ; and second, the late stage (measured in years) 
 at which instruction may be begun with fair hope of success, 
 the nervous mechanism apparently retaining for an unusually 
 long time the impressionability which in the normal person 
 belongs to early childhood. 
 
 Physical Data and Report of Autopsy. 
 
 On her entrance into the Perkins Institution, some physical 
 
 measurements were taken, which were unfortunately lost. At 
 
 eleven years of age her height was 4 ft. 1.7 in. (1.33 M.). 
 
 Her head measured 20.8 in. (52.8 cm.) in circumference, 
 
8 DONALDSON : 
 
 along a line passing over the prominences of the frontal and 
 parietal bones. Above this line the head rose 1.1 in. (2.8 
 cm.), and was broad and full. From the orifice of one ear to 
 the other, the (shortest) distance was 4 in. (10.1 cm.), and from 
 the occipital spine ( protuberance ?) to the root of the nose, it 
 was (shortest distance) 7 in. (17.7 cm.). The forehead was said 
 to have grown perceptibly larger during the two years pre- 
 ceding ( 2-p - 181 ) . These are the only data that I have been able to 
 find. As nearly as I can learn from those best acquainted with 
 her at the Perkins Institution, her height at maturity was 5 
 ft. 3 in. (1.596 M.), and her weight, with clothing — 98 lbs. 
 avoirdupois (44.45 kilos). 
 
 During her residence at the institution, she appears to have 
 had no. serious illness up to the time of the one which proved 
 fatal, although often in poor health as the result of over-exer- 
 tion in her study or from emotional excitement, as for example 
 that caused by the death of Dr. Howe, to whom she was 
 deeply attached. Her final illness lasted about three weeks, 
 and she sank gradually to a painless death — before, it is said, 
 advancing years had perceptibly impaired those faculties 
 which she exercised. The autopsy was performed eight 
 hours after death, by Dr. E. S. Boland, of South Boston, in 
 the presence of several gentlemen. The cause of death is 
 stated as lobar pneumonia. Aside from the lungs, the other 
 viscera appeared healthy save the left kidney, which was 
 slightly atrophied. The encephalon was removed in the 
 dura with the eyes attached, and the petrous portions of the 
 temporal bones and part of the ethmoid were also taken out. 
 The cranium is described as symmetrical and of good shape 
 and size ; bones thin ; diploe slightly marked ; but little sub- 
 dural fluid ; the encephalon fitting the cranial cavity closely ; 
 dura normal in appearance. For the above facts I am directly 
 indebted to Dr. E. S. Boland. The encephalon was not weighed 
 at this time, nor was any further examination permitted. For 
 the next seventeen hours it was kept in a moderately cool place, 
 but not in any fluid. At the end of this time it came into the 
 hands of Prof. W. F. "Whitney, who very kindly took charge 
 of it. The specimen was now in such a condition that it was 
 deemed best to cut it in various directions, in order to permit 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 9 
 
 the hardening fluid to penetrate. Four transverse incisions 
 were made, the first being about 3.5 cm. from the frontal end, 
 and the other three at equal intervals behind it. The depth 
 was such as to open the lateral ventricles in either hem- 
 isphere without injuring the callosum or basal ganglia. 
 Along the mesal surface of each hemisphere a longitudinal 
 cut was made, extending about the length of the callosum and 
 laying open the lateral ventricle on each side. The entire 
 material was then put into several litres of Muller's fluid plus 
 one- sixth its volume of 95% alcohol. This fluid was changed 
 some four or five times in the period between May 25th and 
 July 10th, at which time the specimen came into my posses- 
 sion. The eyes were then separated from the encephalon, and 
 they with the portions of the bones, were treated by themselves- 
 The encephalon was hardened for some three months more in 
 2i % potassium bichromate ; kept for a long time in a dilute 
 solution of the same; finally washed out, hardened in 95% 
 alcohol, and preserved in 80% alcohol. The majority of the 
 measurements were made while it was in the 2j% or dilute 
 potassium bichromate. 
 
 Photographs and Models. 
 In studying the encephalon, it was necessary to make those 
 observations which required least dissection first, and so pro- 
 ceed that the different portions should retain their normal 
 connections as long as possible. The results, however, under 
 any head, will be given without reference to the order in 
 which they were obtained. As the complete examination 
 required ultimately a dissection of the encephalon, with con- 
 sequent loss of form, I first had it carefully photographed, 
 the encephalon being taken from six points of view, and then 
 the mesal surface of each hemisphere taken alone. The 
 entire exposed surface, with the exception of that covered by 
 the cerebellum, is thus represented, and this latter surface 
 was sketched. It would be extremely desirable to have these 
 various views adequately represented, but since the means 
 for so doing are not at present at my command, I have 
 preferred to await some future opportunity rather than to 
 represent them now by some method of doubtful value. 
 
10 DONALDSON : 
 
 It was further extremely desirable to have an accurate 
 model of the encephalon. The character of the specimen, the 
 cuts in it and the method of preservation were all against any 
 device for taking a direct cast of it. I was, therefore most 
 fortunate in securing the co-operation of Mr. J. H. Emerton, of 
 Boston, whose skill in modelling such objects is well known. 
 He made an accurate clay model of the specimen ; from this a 
 glue mould was taken, and a number of plaster casts were at 
 once made from this mould, before it had time to undergo 
 any distortion, the original clay model being preserved for 
 comparison. The results are entirely satisfactory, and we 
 have now what is equivalent to a good cast of this specimen. 
 In making the model, the cuts in the hemispheres were not 
 represented, and thus the general appearance was improved 
 without any material loss in accuracy. 
 
 Envelopes and Vessels. 
 
 Within the limits of this paper I shall have to deal exclu- 
 sively with questions relating to the gross anatomy of the 
 specimen. 
 
 Dura : Sinuses filled with blood. Normal in appearance. 
 It was incomplete at several points on the ventral aspect of 
 the hemispheres and the cerebellum was completely exposed, 
 the tentorium and falx being both present. This somewhat 
 defective membrane, including tentorium and falx, weighed, 
 after hardening by the method above described, washing out 
 in water, and being pressed between filter papers, 54.4 grms. 
 No data for comparison have thus far been found. 
 
 Pia : The vessels were filled with blood. To all appear- 
 ance it was normal. The adherence to the occipital regions 
 appeared uncommonly strong, even making allowance for 
 the close adherence which is normal for this region. The pia 
 from the entire encephalon with the choroid plexuses, but 
 without the basal blood-vessels, was treated like the dura and 
 found to weigh 25.1 grms. The quantity of the pia obtained 
 was estimated at about .8 of the total. That supposition being 
 correct, the total pia would weigh 31.4 grms. 
 
 What the influence of the hardening process is on the 
 weights of the membranes, dura and pia, is not known, but 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LAUEA BEIDGMAN. 11 
 
 it is presumptively slight. Giacomini( 17 ) has made observa- 
 tions on the weight of thep/a and cerebro- spinal fluid, which 
 I give. It is to be remembered that we have no means of 
 knowing the quantity of the fluid in our case, though the 
 autopsy report states that there was apparently little at that 
 time. Confining himself to the cerebral hemispheres, which 
 were weighed separately, Giacomini found in 30 normal brains 
 the weight of pia an( i residual cerebro -spinal fluid (the bulk 
 of the fluid having escaped on the hemisection of the cere- 
 brum, and having been then collected) to be from 5 to 5.5% of 
 the weight of the hemispheres. Where the vessels of the pi a 
 were congested, the percentage might rise to 6 or 6.5%. 
 According to Calori, quoted by Giacomini, the weight of the 
 pia, blood and cerebro- spinal fluid for the whole encephalon is 
 14% of the entire weight. This figure seems to Giacomini too 
 high. Huschke( 18 ) calculates that removal of the pia and 
 choroidal plexuses from the cerebral hemispheres alone dimin- 
 ishes their weight by 50 — 60 grms. (This diminution is 
 plainly in part due to loss of fluid consequent on removal of 
 the pia). Bischoff( 19 ) gives 25 — 40 grms. for the pia of the 
 cerebral hemispheres alone. Bastian( 20 ) gives 21 — 28 grms. 
 for the pia of the entire encephalon. Where the brain is sliced 
 and allowed to drain for 1 — 2 hours, according to the method 
 of Thurnam( 21 ), there is, according to Bastian, an additional 
 loss of 28 — 56 grms. Bischoff ( 19 ) gives further figures from 
 Weisbach, Hagen and Marshall, which I have not been able 
 to verify, and therefore omit. 
 
 There is here hardly sufficient data on either hand for the 
 purposes of comparison, but the assertion may be fairly made 
 that the pia in our case shows no marked peculiarity. Unfor- 
 tunately, the conditions do not permit us to follow Giacomini' s 
 ( 17 ) suggestion, and infer from the weight of the pia its rela- 
 tive thickness. 
 
 Volume of Encephalon. 
 
 On Aug. 13, 1889, while the specimen was still in 2£>% 
 potassium bichromate, an effort was made to obtain the 
 volume. The encephalon (deprived of pia) was put in a 
 large jar filled with water. On the water floated a cork, in 
 the centre of which a long pin was stuck vertically. A ruler 
 
12 DONALDSON : 
 
 laid across the top of the jar formed a line to the level of 
 which the top of the pin rose when water was poured into the 
 jar. The encephalon being in the jar, water was then added 
 until the head of the pin was level with the edge of the ruler. 
 The encephalon was next removed, with all precaution as to 
 drainage, etc. , and the quantity of water was measured which 
 had to be added to that in the jar in order to bring the pin- 
 head to the same level. Two determinations were thus made : 
 
 Determination 1 gave volume = 1385 c.c. 
 " 2 a " = 1381 c.c. 
 
 Mean, = 1383 c.c. 
 
 This figure, 1383 c.c, I have taken to represent the volume 
 under the conditions stated. 
 
 The cuts in the specimen were such that there is good 
 reason to think that the lateral ventricles were filled by the 
 fluid in which it was immersed. The method, I am aware, 
 was rough, but was the best at my command at that time. 
 The most important correction to be made is that for the 
 change of volume of the specimen due to the process of 
 hardening to which it had been subjected. On this point 
 some experiments have been made, which are not yet ready 
 for publication. I shall, however, use the facts obtained 
 without further proof, trusting that I may soon be able to 
 give evidence of their correctness. To save any repetition, 
 it may be here stated that the experiments just mentioned 
 relate to the volume, weight and specific gravity of the 
 encephalon, and will be introduced under their proper 
 headings without further remark. 
 
 If an encephalon is treated like that of Laura (from six 
 to twelve hours after death), the conditions for its preserva- 
 tion in the mean time having been good, it will show an in- 
 crease equal to about 25% of the initial volume. This, 
 however, takes place only when the specimen is fairly fresh. 
 When it is not fresh, but still hardens slowly and incompletely, 
 the increase may be about 2% of the initial volume. In our case 
 it is a fair estimate that one-third of the initial mass of the 
 encephalon is hardened so as to have undergone an increase 
 of but 2% in volume, while the other two-thirds may 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 13 
 
 be considered to have undergone the full enlargement of 25%. 
 Making use of the above percentage for correction, the volume 
 observed would be ff of the initial volume, or 
 
 1383x75 
 
 = 1178 c.c. = initial volume. 
 
 88 
 
 The value of this figure is simply that of the best approxi- 
 mation which I can now make. 
 
 Weight 
 At the same time that the volume was taken the specimen 
 was weighed. The weight thus obtained (on balances weigh- 
 ing to 0.1 grm.) was 1389.5 grins., the pia being completely- 
 removed. The hardening of the specimen had caused it 
 to increase in weight about 22% for those parts which 
 were well hardened. The same conditions determine the 
 amount of this increase in weight that determine the increase 
 in volume, and when the specimen hardens imperfectly the 
 increase in weight is a trifle less than 2%, but may 
 be called 2% for the present purpose. Supposing, as 
 before, that two-thirds of the initial brain-mass have in- 
 creased 22% in weight, and one-third 2%, we have, 1389.5 
 grms. = Hi of the initial weight, or 
 
 1389.5x150 
 
 = 1204 grms. = initial weight. 
 
 173 
 
 Any criticism which can be applied to the volume can also be 
 
 applied to the weight as thus deduced. 
 
 The initial specific gravity of this encephalon or any 
 
 portion of it is not known, but if we deduce it from the 
 
 calculated weight and volume, it is 1.022. This is a smaller 
 
 figure than Bischoff( 19 ) found. For female brains, his figures 
 
 are from 1.0305 to 1.0478. The determination of the weight 
 
 in this case is, in my opinion, less subject to error than the 
 
 determination of the volume. If we consider a brain of this 
 
 weight to have either of the extreme specific gravities given 
 
 by Bischoff or one represented by their mean, we have for a 
 
 brain weighing 1204 grms., 
 
 sp. gr. 1.0305 giving a volume = 1168 c.c. 
 " " 1.0391 " " =1158 c.c. 
 
 " " 1.0478 " " =1149 c.c. 
 
14 DONALDSON : 
 
 Thus furnishing figures for the volume which are 10, 20, and 
 29 c. c. below those first calculated. 
 
 Further manipulation of these figures would be of little 
 value. It is concluded, however, that the probable weight of 
 Laura's brain was somewhat over 1200 grins., and that the 
 probable volume was about 1160 c. c. 
 
 The mean weight for the English and European female 
 encephalon is variously given. Bischoff( 19 ), 1214.5 grins.; 
 Tiedemann, 1275 grms.; and Huschke, 1272 grms. 
 Schwalbe( 22 ) gives 1245 grms., as deduced from a composite 
 table of weights. This table further shows that out of the 339 
 cases which it includes, 283 have a weight between 1100 and 
 1420 grms., and the majority (two-thirds) of these in turn have 
 a weight between 1160 and 1330 grms. Our specimen, there- 
 fore, falls within these last limits, but somewhat below the 
 mean, 1245 grms. The figure which we have obtained 
 will not warrant any discussion of the weight in rela- 
 tion to other conditions of age, body-weight and height. 
 It may nevertheless be pointed out that our specimen 
 had probably not undergone any important loss of weight 
 due to advancing age, and that furthermore it is possible 
 that the figures which have led to the generalization that 
 at about sixty years the encephalon begins to lose in weight, 
 may perhaps, as has been suggested, be as well explained by 
 some relation not yet investigated, between brain weight and 
 longevity. 
 
 Of the subdivisions of the encephalon, the cerebellum alone 
 was weighed separately. It was separated from its connec- 
 tions by cutting through the peduncles as close to the hemi- 
 spheres as was practicable. The portion thus removed 
 weighed 163 grms. The increase in weight due to hardening 
 is about 27% for the cerebellum, which would make 
 the initial weight 128 grms. Taking the weight of the entire 
 encephalon as 1204 grms., then the cerebellum is 10.63% 
 of the entire weight. This percentage is exactly that 
 found by Weisbach and 0.17% lower than that found by 
 Meynert, as quoted by Schwalbe(-). It serves to show that 
 there was nothing very peculiar in the weight relations of the 
 cerebellum to the rest of the encephalon in this case. The 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 15 
 
 other weights which are usually recorded could not be 
 taken, because further dissection of the brain was impracti- 
 cable in view of the other observations to be made on it. 
 
 Linear Measurements. 
 On is ov. 4, 1889, the following measurements were made : 
 
 Greatest length of left hemisphere, 178 mm. 
 
 " " right " 180 mm.* 
 
 The maximum width of cerebrum, 153 mm. 
 
 The maximum height of cerebrum, 129 mm. 
 
 The longest perpendicular distance, taken on the mesal 
 aspect of each hemisphere, from the line measuring 
 the length of the hemispheres to the dorsal surface, 
 is in this case the same for both hemispheres, 73 mm. 
 
 The encephalon being in the normal position, the 
 distance between a perpendicular plane just touching 
 the tips of the temporal lobes and one just touching 
 the tips of the frontal lobes was found to be 57 mm. 
 
 Schwalbe'sC 22 ) figures for similar dimensions in the female 
 brain are, greatest length in the majority of cases, from 150 
 to 160 mm., the limits being 112-189 mm. (Huschke). The 
 mean breadth is given at 140 mm., whereas the height is 
 given at 125 mm. For the longest perpendicular as above 
 described, and the distance from the tip of the temporal to 
 the tip of the frontal lobes, I find no data that are comparable. 
 For comparison on the last measurement, I have used three 
 male brains which were hardened in bichromate and alcohol 
 in the usual manner, and which are nearly the same length 
 as our specimen, (from 2 to 11 mm. longer). In these the 
 temporo- frontal distance, if I may so call it, was respectively 
 47, 41 and 51 mm., as compared with 57 mm. in Laura. 
 
 Of course, the swelling of the encephalon due to hardening 
 has increased all three diameters, and so the figures given for 
 Laura cannot be compared with those from Schwalbe until 
 some correction has been made in them. Such correction I 
 am at present unable to make. Assuming, however, that the 
 enlargement along the several diameters is proportional to 
 their initial length, we can make the calculation for the 
 
 * Where similar measurements for the two halves of the brain are 
 given, the larger figure is in heavier type. It is hoped that this device 
 will render the comparison of the two' sides easier. 
 
16 DONALDSON : 
 
 cerebral index, the mean length being taken as 179 mm., and 
 breadth 153 mm. The so-called cerebral index, obtained by 
 dividing the latter by the former, equals 85+, showing the 
 cerebrum to be markedly brachycephalic. The excessive 
 temporo-frontal distance appears plainly to be due to deficient 
 development of the temporal lobes. 
 
 General Description of the Encephalon. 
 
 In order to give some data for the control of the foregoing 
 measurements, a general description of the specimen will be 
 useful. To the medulla was attached a piece of the cord 
 which extended 17 mm. from the superficial caudal termina- 
 tion of the decussation of the pyramids. This length was 
 about that usually obtained where the cord is cut through 
 the foramen magnum. The shape of the specimen was well 
 preserved, owing to its having been hardened in the dura. 
 The angle between the stem and cerebrum was approxi- 
 mately normal, and the relation of the cerebellum and hemi- 
 spheres therefore but little disturbed. The hemispheres 
 overlapped the cerebellum slightly. The vessels forming the 
 circle of Willis were certainly not large. Of the internal 
 carotids the right was the larger, but only slightly so, and the 
 posterior communicating arteries were small, even in propor- 
 tion to the other vessels. 
 
 In passing now to the several subdivisions, no effort will 
 be made to give a complete description, for the nature of the 
 specimen is not such as to demand that, and all exact 
 measurements will be left until the parts are studied histologi- 
 cally. 
 
 Medulla and Pons. — The nerves from this region were 
 identified, except the spinal accessory, which could not be 
 found, having been probably pulled away in removal of the 
 specimen. Here, of course, it is the glossopharyngeus, the 
 acusticus and the abducens associated respectively with the 
 sense of taste, of hearing, and the external rectus muscle of 
 the eye-bail, that are of special interest. These appeared 
 somewhat reduced in size, though all the cranial nerves were 
 small. On the ventral aspect of this region, neither the 
 olivary bodies nor the pyramids were prominent. The anterior 
 
OX THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAX. 17 
 
 median sulcus between the pyramids was well marked, as 
 was the ventral depression on the pons. On the lateral 
 aspect, the corpora restiformia appear well developed. On the 
 dorsal aspect, the floor of the fourth ventricle was seen to be 
 clearly marked. There was a well developed ligula and obex. 
 The nuclei of the columnce graciles made evident swellings in 
 the course of the dorsal columns of the cord, those of the column 
 of Burdach being less marked. On the floor of the ventricle, 
 the alee cinerece and trigona hypoglossi were very evident. 
 The strive acusticce or medullares were particularly clear. The 
 point is of interest, since the striae are looked upon as part of 
 the auditory path in this region. A more detailed description 
 of them will be given later. 
 
 Cerebellum. — As we have seen, the cerebellum has thus 
 far offered no peculiarity. The peduncular connections were 
 as usual, and a sagittal section shows the arbor vitae with the 
 characteristic sub- divisions. In the general conformation, 
 there was nothing to excite remark. 
 
 Mid-brain. — The oculo-motor nerves were, perhaps, a 
 trifle small. The trochlearis was not found. On the ventro- 
 lateral surface, a search for tractus peduncularis transversus 
 of v. Gudden( 23 ), which appears to have some connection with 
 visual apparatus, was unsuccessful. However, it must be 
 remembered that this tract is not always superficial in normal 
 individuals, and therefore failure to detect it is not proof that 
 it has degenerated. On the dorsal aspect, the frenulum was 
 well marked. The posterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina 
 was rather small, but well rounded and both alike. The 
 median groove, the transverse groove separating them from 
 the anterior pair, and the brachia, were all well marked. The 
 anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina were much flattened 
 towards the middle line. Brachia not evident. 
 
 As the result of the cuts necessarily made to allow the 
 entrance of the hardening fluid, and the failure of this region 
 to harden, subsequent dissection has yielded but small results. 
 Of the condition of the corpora geniculata on the right side, 
 nothing can be said. On the left side the corpus geniculatum 
 internum can alone be described, and this was comparatively 
 large and prominent. 
 
18 DONALDSON : 
 
 Inter-brain. — On the left side of the specimen the pul- 
 vinar had been preserved, and there it was reduced in all 
 dimensions, and but little arched ; on the other side it had 
 broken away and could not be described. The caudal portion of 
 the third ventricle was large. There was a well developed me- 
 dian and posterior commissure. The general lack of develop- 
 ment in thisinter-thalamic region is not shared in by the pineal 
 gland and its connections, the habenulm and trigona habe- 
 n ulaz } which were disproportionately enlarged — an enlargement 
 which is probably due to the removal of pressure from 
 the surrounding structures. Turning now to the ventral 
 surface, the corpora mammittaria and, it may be added, 
 the fornix, were normal. About the pituitary body, there 
 was nothing peculiar, but the infundibulum is prolonged 
 ventrad to an unusual degree, and is bounded on either side 
 by the greatly shrunken optic tracts. The relations of the 
 anterior commissure in view of its connection with the olfac- 
 tory centres would have been interesting, but the specimen 
 did not show this commissure, owing to imperfect preserva- 
 tion. 
 
 Before proceeding to the callosum and the hemispheres, it 
 may be well to consider what we should expect to find in these 
 portions. There is no suggestion in this case that would lead 
 us to anticipate appearances such as are recorded for micro- 
 cephalic, criminal, or low-type brains belonging to the least 
 civilized races. Neither is the case to be associated with 
 those in which the defect or arrest of development was due to 
 causes originating within the central nervous system. There 
 was not the slightest indication of abnormal mental action, and 
 therefore the brain would not be expected to resemble that of 
 the insane, if for the moment we admit that the brains of the 
 insane show gross peculiarities. What we have is the brain of 
 a normal person who lost at about two years of age the 
 senses of sight, hearing, smell and taste, through injury to the 
 peripheral sense-organs, but who remained mentally balanced 
 throughout a long life, though under conditions which would 
 favor mental derangement, had the tendency to it existed. This 
 loss would have but a moderate power to destroy what was al- 
 ready formed in the brain, though it would do so to some extent. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAUEA BEIDGMAN. 19 
 
 The chief effect -would be to retard the further development 
 of those portions which represented the lost senses, but even 
 here the hereditary laws of growth would act to some extent 
 independently of the modifying conditions which existed in 
 such a case. 
 
 As a point of departure, then, it would be interesting to 
 know what was the state of development of an average female 
 brain at the commencement of the third year of life. If we take 
 1245 grms. as the average weight of the female encephalon, 
 we find that at the commencement of the third year or end of 
 the second, the average weight is about 920 grms. for females. 
 [See Boyd's tables quoted by Schwalbe( 22 ), and Bischoff's( 19 ) 
 table of five observations, made up from those of Huschke 
 and Sims. The figures quoted by Vierordt( 24 ) are not available, 
 because no distinction of sex is made, and, as is well known, 
 such a distinction exists at birth and even in the foetus.] If 920 
 grms. is the true figure, then at this age the weight of the 
 encephalon is about three-fourths that of the adult. As the 
 specific gravity is somewhat less, its volume is proportion- 
 ately a trifle greater. 
 
 On the relations of the nerve-cells and fibres, not much can 
 be said that is satisfactory. Whether we have the elements 
 all formed at birth, and they undergo simply an increase in 
 size during the subsequent processes of growth, so-called, 
 or whether we have new elements formed after birth, is a 
 question for the decision of which the evidence is as yet scanty. 
 Schiller( 25 ), at ForePs suggestion, determined with due pre- 
 cautions the number of nerve-fibers in the oculo-motorhts of 
 kittens at birth, and cats at the end of the first year, and found 
 practically the same number in both cases. In this animal and 
 this nerve the number of fibers, then, does not increase after 
 birth. In man, however, the period of helplessness and 
 development after birth is comparatively long, and Below( 2G ) 
 has found in animals that the cortical cells are less developed 
 in those born helpless than in those born in a more mature 
 state. Incompleteness in the development of the central 
 nerve- cells would favor the idea that they might still undergo 
 multiplication after birth. As a matter of fact, the develop- 
 ment of the cortical cells in the human foetus is incomplete 
 
20 DONALDSON : 
 
 at birth (Obersteiner 27-p - m ), and the development of medullated 
 fibers far more incomplete. The medullation of fibers is con- 
 tinually going on during the early years of life, and there is 
 evidence that it is for the most part completed about the 
 eighth year. For those who hold that practically the number 
 of elements is fixed at birth, the increase in the size of exist- 
 ing elements, and especially the medullation of the fibers, are 
 the causes of the enlargement of the encephalon. If such is 
 the case, however, and Galton'sC 28 ) measurements on the 
 heads of Cambridge undergraduates mean what he takes them 
 to mean, i. e., brain growth, then the process of medullation 
 or enlargement, or both, must continue in some cases up to 
 the twenty-fifth year. 
 
 If we turn now to the sulci and gyri, we find all the im- 
 portant ones present at birth [Ecker( 29 ), Eiidinger( 45 )] . 
 At that time, the cerebral surface is marked in a typical man- 
 ner, and according to Ecker the asymmetries which occur in 
 the sulci are caused by the later development of accessory 
 sulci. What the history of these accessory sulci may be, has 
 not, I believe, been studied, and how far they may be 
 developed during the first two years of life, is therefore 
 an open question ; but a priori one would imagine that 
 the earliest years of life would be the time when they 
 would appear. Be that as it may, it seems highly probable 
 that the relations of the primary and secondary sulci 
 are fixed to a large extent at birth, and that subsequent 
 development has but a slight influence in altering these rela- 
 tions. 
 
 In the child at birth, and during the first years of life, the rel- 
 ative development of the several lobes of the brain is not the 
 same as in the adult. Designating the lobes as occipital, tem- 
 poral, insular, parietal and frontal, Bischoff( 19 ) states that it is 
 the last two which develope most in later years, and of these the 
 parietal undergoes the greatest enlargement ; but the observa- 
 tions on this point are few. 
 
 Applying the above conclusions to our case, we may 
 describe Laura's brain at the age of two years as hav- 
 ing about three fourths of its adult weight, the cells of 
 the cortex being fairly developed, whereas the medullation 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 21 
 
 of the fibers was incomplete to a considerable degree. The 
 primary and secondary snlci were all present, and probably 
 some of the accessory sulci also ; and the parietal and frontal 
 lobes were less developed than they should be in the adult. 
 If the eattosum is commissural for the different portions of 
 the cerebral cortex, we might expect it to accompany the 
 cortex in development. In the absence, so far as I am aware, 
 of explicit observations on this point, we may assume the 
 eattosum well developed at this age. 
 
 On such a brain as we have described, what would be the 
 effect of a lesion, like that which occurred in the case of Laura? 
 The nerves and their primary centres would show degeneration, 
 and later some atrophy, then after the lapse of time, arrest of 
 development, in so far as they were incompletely developed at 
 the date of the injury. In the cortical regions, so far as 
 they might be affected, we should probably expect some 
 arrest of development which would show itself on gross 
 examination, and certainly some histological indications of 
 arrest and possibly degeneration. Further, as one result 
 of the limitation in mental activity due to the great 
 defect in the senses, a general appearance of immaturity 
 might be anticipated, while if certain lobes were affected more 
 than others, a disproportion in development as compared 
 with the normal would result. It seemed advisable to make 
 some analysis of the case at this point, in order that no 
 ungrounded expectation of striking anomalies might be 
 cherished, and it will be the chief purpose of the following 
 pages to show in how far actual observations bear out the 
 views above advanced. 
 
 Cattosum. — The eattosum was well developed. On the 
 surface exposed by a sagittal section dividing the two hemi- 
 spheres, the distance of a straight line between the extreme 
 points was 82 mm., while a line following the dorsal curve and 
 joining the same points, is 87 mm. long. The height or thick- 
 ness, as one chooses to call it, always measured vertically (the 
 hemispheres being in the normal position) is 22 mm. at the 
 rostral end, 12 mm. in the middle, and 15 mm. at the splenial 
 end. The area of surface exposed by the section was 1172 sq. 
 mm. The linear measurements exceed somewhat those given by 
 
22 DONALDSON : 
 
 Krause( 30_I5d • 2 • p • 965 ), especially those for the thickness, but I am 
 not sure that mine were taken in the same way as his were ; and 
 furthermore, his apply to the fresh specimen, while this was 
 swollen by hardening. Comparison with other specimens 
 hardened in potassium bichromate, shows these figures never- 
 theless to be large. From gross examination, therefore, the 
 callosum appears to have developed completely. 
 
 Cerebral hemispheres. — On looking at the hemispheres, 
 the general shape appears normal, but they are somewhat 
 flattened at the occipital pole. The temporal lobe is compar- 
 atively small, the tip being thin, and on the orbital surface of 
 each hemisphere at the cephalic end is a marked conical eleva- 
 tion of the general surfaces with the apex directed ventrad. 
 This elevation appears on either side of the median line, 
 just in front of the point where the sulcus olfactorius 
 terminates. As the formation is not usually described, 
 and is only faintly suggested in most brains, it is prob- 
 ably an anomaly due, in this case, to the failure of the 
 orbital plates of the frontal bone to develop in the usual 
 manner, thus leaving more of a depression in the bone at this 
 point than ordinarily occurs. To this depression the brain 
 has accommodated itself, with the result of producing the 
 appearance described. When viewed from above, the general 
 effect was quite similar to the typical female brain, as depicted 
 by Wagner( 31 ), the chief difference being that our specimen was 
 not quite so pointed in the frontal region as Wagner's plate of 
 the female brain, and had the gyri in the occipital region in less 
 relief. The gyri were for the most part widely separated from 
 one another, especially in the frontal and parietal lobes whereas 
 in the occipital they tended to be close together. In general, 
 the gyri were large, but little interrupted and moderately 
 sinuous, and the insula was more exposed on the left than on 
 the right side. The typical arrangement of the gyri was easily 
 followed, and the two hemispheres quite symmetrical in their 
 markings. The symmetry of the hemispheres, the continuity 
 and size of the gyri, may be taken as indicating an average or 
 perhaps less than average development in these respects. Such 
 a statement has, however, so little foundation that is measur- 
 able and exact, that it will be best to leave it in the form of a 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 23 
 
 mere suggestion. There is some departure from symmetry 
 in the two hemispheres, where, on the mesal surface of the 
 occipital region, the ventro- caudal portion is smaller in the 
 right hemisphere. This is shown in an exaggerated way in 
 Plate II, Fig. 4. 
 
 As illustrating the general development of this specimen, I 
 introduce here several measurements which were made while 
 the brain was in potassium bichromate. 
 
 Taking the smaller angle which the Jissura centralis makes 
 
 with the middle line, following the method of Eberstaller( 32 ), 
 
 it was found to be, 
 
 For left hemisphere, 65 c - 
 For right hemisphere, 61°. 
 
 This is smaller than is usually stated. WilderC 88 ) gives 67° 
 as an average, and Eberstaller 70°-75°. 
 
 If we take the entire length of the mesal edge of the hemi- 
 spheres measuring from the trigonum olfactorium to the 
 occipital pole, and then the distance from the trigonum olfac- 
 torium to the point where the Jissura centralis reaches the 
 mesal surface, we obtain the following figures : 
 
 Left hemisphere, entire distance, 334 mm. 
 
 Right " " " 331 mm. 
 
 Left hemisphere, distance to Jissura centralis, 214.5 mm. 
 
 Right " " " " 216 mm. 
 
 This, reckoned in per cent, of the entire distance, gives the 
 last distance or extent of frontal lobe along this line, as 
 
 Left hemisphere, 64+%. 
 Right hemisphere, 65+%- 
 
 Eberstaller( 32 ) gives for the female brain, 66%. Our figures, 
 therefore, approximate closely to his average. Measuring the 
 Jissura Sylvii on each side from the point where it gives off 
 the anterior rami to the point where it gives off the ramus 
 posterior ascendens, it was found, 
 
 For the left hemisphere, 53 mm. 
 For the right " 52 mm. 
 
 This makes it shorter than the average figures for females 
 found by Eberstaller( 32 ), which was 56.5 mm. 
 
 Among these figures, one set (namely that for the 
 position of the mesal end of the Jissura centralis) is in 
 
24 DONALDSON : 
 
 percentage, and that agrees fairly well with the results of 
 other authors. It may be presumed, then, that in hardening 
 the encephalon has not undergone much distortion. If that 
 is true, then the small angle of the Jissura centralis with the 
 middle line is probably a true relation. Despite the enlarge- 
 ment of the specimen, the length of the Jissura Sylvii as meas- 
 ured is under the average, but the relations of the two sides 
 are as Eberstaller found ; that is, the left is the longer. 
 
 The condition of the ventricles was not easily made out, 
 owing to the state of the specimen and the cuts in it, which 
 somewhat disturbed the connections here. The lateral ventri- 
 cles were certainly not large. The descending cornua were well 
 developed, but the right posterior comu terminated 47 mm. 
 in front of the occipital pole. In the left hemisphere it 
 reaches to within 42 mm. of the occipital pole, and there 
 is a well developed calcar which was not observed on the 
 right side. 
 
 Description of the Surface of the Hemispheres. 
 
 As was stated earlier, it is not my purpose to describe in 
 detail the cerebral surface in this case, — as good plates would 
 give a far better idea than could be obtained from the text, — 
 so that on this occasion I shall be content with some outline 
 figures and a description of those regions which may be 
 regarded as important. The four representations of the 
 specimen were drawn from photographs by means of a pan- 
 tograph. From these drawings the plates were made by one 
 of the photo-engraving processes. In the figures those sulci 
 which are more constant are put in with a heavy line, whereas 
 the others are in light lines. In the case of the fissure of 
 Sylvius an approximate presentation of the amount of separ- 
 ation of the gyri has been attempted. In the description I 
 shall follow Eberstaller( 32 - 34 ) in most points and also adopt 
 his nomenclature. 
 
 Frontal Region. — In Figures I and II, the sulcus frontalis 
 medius, f 3, is clearly marked, thus giving the four frontal 
 gyri, (by sub-division of the gyrus frontalis medius,) 
 which the more recent authors are agreed is the normal 
 condition of the frontal lobe. [Eberstaller ( 32 ), "Wilder^), 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 25 
 
 Giacoraini( 17 ).] To be noticed on the left side is the union of 
 the sulcus frontalis inferior, f 2, with the sulcus fronto- 
 marginalis, fm3, which appears somewhat unusual. Fur- 
 ther, on the same side the ramus anterior horizontalis fissuraz 
 Sylvii, S 3, runs into the sulcus fronto-marginalis, fm 1, 
 but at the junction there is a vadum or shallow, (see 
 Wilder, S3 ) which clearly marks the usual limits of this ramus. 
 Aside from these points the fissuration of both frontal lobes 
 is quite typical. Directing attention to the gyrus fron talis 
 inferior we find it well defined laterally and frontally, but as 
 is usual, poorly defined on the orbital surface. In its entirety 
 that of the left does not differ much from that of the right 
 hemisphere, but there are some differences in detail. Dividing 
 the opercular portions into the pars orbitalis ventrad of S 3 ; 
 pars triangularis between S 3 and S 2 ; pars ascendens be- 
 tween S 2 and d : and the pars basila?'is between d and pci, 
 we find the pars basilaris much less well developed on the 
 left side, being especially deficient in its ventral portions. 
 The pars ascendens is deficient throughout on the left side 
 while the pars triangularis is somewhat better developed on 
 this side than on the right. A comparison of the orbital areas 
 is not practicable in this case. It should be added that, on 
 the left side not only is the exposed surface of the pars 
 basilaris and pars ascendens smaller, but both these are 
 sunken below the surrounding gyri ; the former completely 
 and the latter in its ventral portion, the frontal edge of the 
 gyrus centralis anterior forming a slight operculum over the 
 pars basilaris. 
 
 It is our purpose of course to determine whether these 
 features of the left side can be properly brought into 
 connection with the very limited power of articulate speech 
 possessed by Laura. There is good ground for the view that 
 in right handed persons it is the portion of the gyrus frontalis 
 inferior of the left side between the ramus anterior ascendens 
 Ussurce Sylvii, S2, and the sulcus prcecentralis inferior, pci, 
 that is the centre for articulate speech. So far as known 
 Laura was right handed. According to Eberstaller( 32_p - 104 ), the 
 pars basilaris may often be sunken, but in such cases, where 
 the brain is normal, the pars ascendens overlaps and more or 
 
26 DONALDSON : 
 
 less conceals it. In this case no such overlapping occurs. 
 Several authors have called attention to the value of the com- 
 parison of the two hemispheres of the same brain where a 
 lesion was suspected on one side, and judged by that test we 
 certainly have defective development of this gyrus on the left 
 side. A variation, however, which seems to me of consider- 
 able importance, is the direction of the sulcus diagonalis, d. 
 One characteristic of this sulcus is that in the normal brain 
 its dorsal end lies further caudad than the ventral end. On 
 the left side in Laura this direction of the sulcus is reversed, 
 the ventral end being further caudad and to all appearance it 
 occupies this anomalous position because the ventral portion 
 of the pars basil aris has failed to develop. On the right 
 side it has the normal direction. 
 
 In this connection the exposure of the insula is significant. 
 I estimate this exposure for Laura : 
 
 On the left side, 128 sq. mm. 
 
 On the right side, 46 sq. mm. 
 
 That is, the surface of the insula exposed on the left side is 
 nearly three times that exposed on the right. In looking at 
 the collection of brains in the museum of Cornell University — a 
 collection which has been gathered by Prof. B. G. Wilder, — 
 I found no exposure of the insula which approached even 
 that on the right side in Laura, save in the left hemisphere of a 
 negro (catalogue number, 322), in which the exposure was 
 somewhat less than on the right hemisphere in our case. Of 
 course the absolute relations of the specimens have at present 
 no value since the Cornell brains were hardened in alcohol and 
 therefore had undergone some shrinkage. It may, however, 
 be permissable to conclude that on both sides the exposure of 
 the insula in Laura was large, and that on the left side it 
 was much larger than on the right. 
 
 Exposure of the insula may be considered in gen- 
 eral as characteristic of incomplete development (Riidin- 
 ger 35 ). According to this test, then, there is here a general 
 lack of development which is most marked on the left 
 side. This exposure is due, however, only in part to the 
 small size of the gyrus frontalis inferior which contains the 
 presumptive speech centre, and to which we have hitherto 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LAUEA BEIDGMAX. 27 
 
 specially attended. Kudinger( 35_p - 45 ) describes for mutes 
 that have lost the power of speech as the result of deafness 
 and who are otherwise normal, certain slight abnormalities 
 of the speech- centres — but seems surprised that they are not 
 more marked. Without entering into any detail it is evident 
 that the variations in his cases and in that of Laura are similar, 
 and Zuckerkand^ 36 ) also notes as defects in the development 
 of the speech- centre some that we do not find here, but among 
 those that we do find, he mentions the depression below the 
 general surface of the pars ascendens and basilaris, the 
 hiding of them by surrounding gyri, which thus form an 
 operculum at this point, the exposure of the insula and failure 
 of the tip of the temporal lobe to attain its full size. Zucker- 
 kandl( 36 ) has also something to say with regard to compensa- 
 tory development on the assumption that such compensation 
 may be physiological as well as morphological. Whereas 
 the 2> ars ascendens and basilaris ate less well developed 
 in the left hemisphere in Laura, if the pars triangularis 
 of the left side is compared with that of the right it 
 is found to be somewhat larger. It might be urged that 
 this better development of the pars triangularis indicated 
 that it had taken on some of the functions of the unde- 
 veloped portion. At the moment I am aware of no posi- 
 tive evidence in favor of such a transfer of function and 
 hence do not consider the objection important. Closely asso- 
 ciated with this region is the insula, but the discussion 
 of that will be deferred until we consider the cortical develop- 
 ment of the brain. From what has been said, then, I conclude 
 that the centre for articulate speech in this case shows some 
 defect, which is most naturally exjnained as arrest of devel- 
 opment. The nature of this arrest will be brought up when 
 we come to the histology of the region. 
 
 Occipital Region. — We next turn to the occipital region 
 which is represented in Figs. Ill and IV. The occipital lobe, 
 and specially the cuneus, in man, appears to be the cortical 
 centre for vision, — but just what the limits of the occipital 
 lobe are, and how much of this area is specialized as a visual 
 centre, are not precisely determined. Eckers( 37 ) description 
 of the occipital lobe has not been found satisfactory by later au- 
 
28 DONALDSON : 
 
 thors and several attempts have been made to improve on his 
 account. Here I follow Eberstaller's description( 3 * _No18 ). 
 According to him the occipital lobe is best considered as that 
 portion of the hemisphere enclosed between the fissura calca- 
 rina (ra), the sulcus parieto-occipitalis (p. o.), the sulcus oc- 
 cipitalis anterior (occ. ant.) and the sulcus occipitalis lateralis 
 (occ. lat.). The sulcus occipitalis anterior is the homologue of 
 the "ape fissure" of the authors. The gyrus between the mesal 
 end of the sulcus occipitalis anterior and the sulcus parieto- 
 occipitalis is the gyrus annectans superior, while that between 
 the lateral end of the sulcus occipitalis anterior and the sulcus 
 occipitalis lateralis is the gyrus annectans inferior. The 
 complete enclosure of the area must be to some extent arti- 
 ficial, but I shall make it by joining the several sulci with 
 one another at the points where they come nearest together, 
 using the two ends of the sulcus occipitalis anterior and the 
 caudal end of the fissura calcarina as points from which to 
 start the limiting lines. Of the accessory sulci within this area 
 I have at the moment nothing to say. 
 
 The left hemisphere, Fig. Ill, shows a typical arrangement of 
 the sulci bounding this lobe. On the right side the arrange- 
 ment is similar, but the sulcus parieto-occipitalis does 
 not show on the dorsal surface and hence there is nothing 
 to match that sulcus on the left side. On the right, also, 
 the whole occipital region is smaller as shown by the 
 principle outlines, and just laterad of the most caudal end of 
 the sulcus occipitalis anterior is a small group of very shallow 
 sulci which appear hardly deeper than vascular grooves, but 
 which section of the region shows to be true sulci. 
 
 The smaller size of the region on the right side and the 
 peculiar sulci just mentioned are the principal points which 
 suggest defective development, as the failure of the sulcus 
 parieto-occipitalis to appear on the dorsal surface is not so 
 uncommon in normal individuals. At the same time the fact 
 that this same sulcus is well developed on the left side while 
 it is poorly developed on the right is suggestive when taken 
 in connection with the defects already noted. The gyri of this 
 region are all rather narrow and closely pressed together, thus 
 rendering the intra-lobar sulci inconspicuous. Eberstaller 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 29 
 
 (34->-o. 19 ) notes that the length of the arc from the occipital 
 pole to the point where the sulcus parieto-occipitalis cuts the 
 edge of the mantel is to the entire arc, i. e., to the trigonum 
 olfactorium (see p. 23), as 1 to 6. Measured on the left side in 
 Laura it is 1 to 6.1, and on the right it is 1 to 6. This for our 
 purpose is not so significant as the arc between the caudal end 
 of the fissura calcarina and the point where the sulcus par- 
 ieto-occipitalis cuts the edge of the mantel, which is, 
 
 On the left side, 50 mm. 
 
 Ou the right side, 29 mm. 
 
 Showing the great reduction in that measurement of the cu- 
 neus on the right side. Further, whereas the arc of the pre- 
 cuneus and that of the cuneus are about the same length on 
 the left side — a condition of things which is normal, — on the 
 right side that of the prwcuneus is much longer than that of 
 the cuneus. These relations are shown in Fig. IY, where, as 
 can be seen, one cause of the reduction in size of the cuneus 
 is its apparent displacement dorsad of the fissura calcarina. 
 In the left cuneus I find nothing peculiar to describe. In the 
 right side the sulcus parieto-occipitalis may be considered to 
 branch just below the letter p. The ramus marked p.o. runs 
 dorsad towards the edge of the mantel, but never reaches the 
 dorsal surface, as the bounding gyrus has its concavity ventrad 
 and its convexity dorsad. The other branch, running almost 
 vertically in Fig. IV, appears to unite with the sulcus which, 
 lying cephalad to the sulcus parieto-occipitalis, represents 
 that described by Eberstaller( 84_No> 18 ) as a branch of the inter- 
 parietal, and by Wilder( 38 ) as the cephalic stipe of his fissura 
 paroccipitalis. The union is apparent only, and is caused by 
 the extension caudad, in the form of an operculum, of the pre- 
 cuneal wall that bounds these sulci. On removing this oper- 
 culum, the sulcus parieto-occipitalis is seen to be repre- 
 sented by the sulcus marked p. o. alone and to have under- 
 gone something of a bend with the concavity caudad, at the 
 point of apparent branching, but the relations with the fissura 
 calcarina are normal. The appearance here is somewhat 
 further complicated by a considerable development of the 
 accessory sulci on the mesal surface. So far as we have gone, 
 therefore, the right cuneus is less well developed than 
 
30 DONALDSON : 
 
 the left. It will be recalled that we also found the 
 posterior cornu of the left side in better condition than 
 on the right. From these facts it appears that the right 
 occipital lobe shows several anomalies which when all are 
 taken together indicate that the arrest of development has 
 been more marked on this side. It will be remembered that 
 up to her seventh year Laura was somewhat sensitive to 
 light in her right eye while she was completely blind in the 
 left. That sensitiveness meant the preservation of a certain 
 portion of the retina in the right eye for some five years 
 longer than in the left. The conservative value for the nerve 
 centres of even such weak stimuli has long been recognized, 
 and it is but natural therefore that the occipital lobe chiefly 
 connected with the right eye should be better preserved than 
 the other whose development was presumptively arrested ear- 
 lier and during the years most important for growth. 
 
 Temporal Lobe. — This is disproportionately small and 
 alike on both sides. The failure to develop appears to 
 affect most of all the tip. In Laura's case I have not 
 discovered anything that seemed to deserve study as an 
 anomaly, so far as the gross anatomy of this region 
 is concerned, and I can present nothing on the cortical 
 centre for hearing, on the assumption that that centre is 
 in or about the first and second temporal gyri [Horsley and 
 SchaferC 40 ), Starr ( 41 )]. It may be that the defects in the 
 sense of smell and taste have left their mark on the un- 
 cinate gyrus and its neighborhood, if Ferrier's( 39 ) localiza- 
 tion is accepted ; but it must be remembered that neither of 
 these senses was entirely wanting, although the former was 
 very defective. I should hesitate, however, to adduce any 
 direct evidence from our case. 
 
 While searching for defects it is only fair to keep in mind 
 that the centres for those senses and activities which Laura did 
 retain might have undergone an unusual development. 
 Nevertheless, her finger dexterity in talking would not, I 
 should think, call for unusual control from the cortex and the 
 refinement of touch in her case appears to have been limited 
 to the hands and face. The portion corresponding to the 
 finger and thumb area (see Mills 42 ~p- 230 ) is fairly devel- 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAUEA BKIDGMAN. 31 
 
 oped on the left side and not quite so well on the right, but 
 there is nothing in the gross appearance that is remarkable. 
 Since the interesting work of France( 53 ) on the gyrus forni- 
 cat us and the association of this with dermal sensibility in 
 monkeys, I was led to examine this region with such care 
 as the poor condition of this part of the specimen would per- 
 mit, but with negative results. 
 
 Measurements of Cortical Areas. 
 
 Every now and then during the present century various 
 investigators have made the attempt to get at the quan- 
 tity of gray matter in the cerebral cortex, both in man 
 and some of the animals. It has thus far proved impos- 
 sible to obtain a figure for this portion of the brain which 
 would have the accuracy, for example, of those we pos- 
 sess for its weight, but several approximations have been 
 made which are of some value. The questions which 
 such an examination was designed to answer have not always 
 been briefly formulated and it will be as well to state at once 
 what we expect from it in this case. We wish to know 
 whether those portions of the cortex, which in Laura we sus- 
 pect are defective and which belong to one hemisphere, will 
 prove to have a less area, when the two hemispheres are com- 
 pared with one another. We wish to know farther whether the 
 total area of the cortex is, in our case, less than the total area 
 of the cortex in a normal brain with which that of Laura might 
 be compared. In the statements just made the term area has 
 been alone used, but of course if we knew at the same time 
 the average thickness of the cortex, then the masses of 
 the cortex might as easily be compared as the areas. 
 These measurements are for the most part neglected in the 
 usual description of specimens, as it takes some time and 
 trouble to make them, and the results are perhaps not pro- 
 portionate to the expenditure of energy necessary for this. 
 Nevertheless when we get them all together there is quite an 
 array of figures to be found in the literature. 
 
 With a view to rendering these results intelligible I shall 
 briefly present some of the objects and conclusions of investi- 
 gators in this line. R. Wagner( 31 ) made a number of direct 
 
32 DONALDSON : 
 
 measurements of the area of the convex (as distinguished 
 from the mesal) surface of specimens in the famous Gottingen 
 collection, which contained among others the brains of Gauss, 
 Fuchs and Dirichlet. He was followed by his son, H. Wag- 
 ner^), wno measured not only the entire exposed surface but 
 also the length and depth of the sulci, from which the sunken 
 surface, i. e., the portion forming the walls of the sulci, could 
 be calculated, and from these two results the total area of the 
 cortex was obtained. In carrying this task to completion H. 
 Wagner established several relations between portions of the 
 cortex which subsequent investigation has tended to confirm. 
 The main problems which the Wagners had in mind were : 
 first, whether individuals of superior intelligence had the 
 frontal lobes unusually developed ; and second, whether, if the 
 individuals were arranged in series according to intelligence, 
 the figures for the areas of the cortex of the respective brains 
 would follow the same order. To the first question the answer 
 was negative ; to the second, apparently positive. At the same 
 time the brains of the more intelligent individuals in their series 
 were in general heavier i. e. larger than those of the less 
 intelligent and their table might as well be interpreted to 
 mean that in general the larger brains have the larger corti- 
 cal areas. From the data given by H. Wagner( 44 ) I form the 
 following table to illustrate this last point : — 
 
 
 Weight of Cerebral 
 
 After Hardening 
 
 Total Area of 
 
 
 Hemispheres, Fresh. 
 
 in Alcohol. 
 
 Coitex. 
 
 Gauss, 
 
 1492 grm. 
 
 957 grm. 
 
 2195S8. sq. mm. 
 
 Fuchs, 
 
 1499 grin. 
 
 S95 grm. 
 
 221005. sq. mm. 
 
 Frau, 
 
 1185 grm. 
 
 8H4 grm. 
 
 204115. sq. mm. 
 
 Krebs, 
 
 1273 grm. 
 
 771 grm. 
 
 187672. sq. mm. 
 
 It may be noted in passing that Table VIII of H. Wagner 
 ( M ) is the one that appears in the text books where the figures 
 for the area of the cortex are given. The total area in the 
 original table is expressed as the sum of the areas of the 
 frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. As a matter 
 of fact it is the sum of these plus the area of the insula 
 (Stammlappen), but the figures for the insula have been 
 omitted in the printing of the original table. It thus happens 
 that the figures representing the total area are somewhat 
 larger than the sum of those for the separate lobes as given 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 33 
 
 in the table. This omission in the original has been perpetu- 
 ated by the text-books, but so far as I know attention has not 
 previously been directed to it. 
 
 Most directly in the line of Wagner's work is that of Jen- 
 sen ( 45 ) who measured the area of the cortex on six brains of 
 the insane with a view to finding whether they exhibited any 
 peculiarities in this respect. His results were negative. 
 
 There are two points in this connection which I desire to 
 emphasize. First, the authors who have undertaken this 
 sort of work have at the same time realized that the thickness, 
 structure and nutrition of the cortex were factors entirely left 
 out of account, and probably of the greatest importance ; and 
 second, we have thus far complete measurements only on 
 brains hardened in alcohol in which a decrease in weight of 
 27% — 40% has taken place and consequently no results are at 
 hand to determine by this method the area of the cortex in the 
 fresh normal brain. 
 
 Vogt( 46 ) in his study of microcephalics has given the areas 
 of the exposed surface of the brains. These measurements, 
 however, were taken not on the specimens, but on the casts of 
 the cranial cavity. Of the other methods that of Baillarger( 47 ) 
 is the most direct, though not the most satisfactory. He 
 separated the cortical surface in the fresh specimen by dis- 
 secting out the white matter from the hemispheres. This 
 made it possible to unfold the cortex and thus get at the area 
 by direct measurement. His figure for the total cortical area 
 of the hemispheres is 170000 sq. mm. which he thinks 
 may be correct within 1% for his cases. Besides these 
 there are methods which may be designated respectively as 
 the geometrical, physical and chemical. In a certain sense 
 the measurements of the Wagners and Jensen were geomet- 
 rical as the cortical surface sunken in the sulci was calcu- 
 lated from the observed length and depth of the sulci. 
 CaloriC 8 ) reduced the exposed surface of the hemispheres to 
 geometrical forms and measured them in that shape, using the 
 device already described for getting the area of the sunken cor- 
 tex. Giacomini is of the opinion that Calori's method is less 
 exact than that of the Wagners and Jensen. The specimens 
 had been hardened in alcohol. His problem was the varia- 
 
 3 
 
34 DONALDSON : 
 
 tion in the total area according to the shape of the head. 
 The results which Calori has obtained from a very large num- 
 ber, 41, of Italian brains, measured by his method, are indi- 
 cated by the following average figures : 
 
 Male: 
 
 Brachyeephalic, 
 
 243773 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 
 Male: 
 
 Dolicocephalic, 
 
 230212 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 
 Female : 
 
 Brachyeephalic, 
 
 211701 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 
 Female : 
 
 Dolicocephalic, 
 
 198210 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 
 The physical method of getting at similar results is based on 
 
 the weight of the entire brain, its specific gravity and the 
 
 specific gravity of the gray and white matter that compose it. 
 
 This method has been introduced by Danilewsky( 49 ). The 
 
 result is the percentage of gray and white matter in a given 
 
 specimen. If now a certain proportion of the gray matter is 
 
 assumed to belong to the cortex we can obtain the mass of 
 
 the cortex and in turn assuming a certain average thickness 
 
 for the same we can calculate the area. Omitting all detail, 
 
 Danilewsky( 49 ) found : 
 
 For encephalon weighing 1240 grm., total cortical surface, 158800 sq. mm. 
 tt u u 132 4 u u h u 169200 " " 
 
 As will be seen these figures fall below any that have thus 
 far been given. 
 
 In the chemical method, so called, the percentage of water 
 is determined instead of the specific gravity and from data 
 thus obtained the mass or area of the cortex can be determined. 
 More or less complete data for the percentage of water in the 
 gray and white matter of the brain have been furnished by 
 Bourgoin( 50 ), Desprez( 51 ) and Forster( 52 ). Giacomini takes 
 the view that of the last two methods the chemical one is 
 the more exact. At his suggestion DeRegibus( 17_p - 276 ), ex- 
 amined several brains and obtained the following figures for 
 the area of the cortex : 
 
 1. Single hemisphere, 128000 sq. mm. 
 
 2. Both hemispheres, 278940 sq. mm. 
 
 3. " " 245160 sq. mm. 
 
 4. " " 217472 sq. mm. 
 
 The original weights of the brains are not given. 
 
 The figures obtained by Baillarger( 47 ) and by those authors 
 who have used the physical and chemical methods apply to the 
 fresh brain, having its normal size ; whereas all the other 
 figures apply to brains shrunken by alcohol. At the moment 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 35 
 
 we have no means of making the corrections required, but it 
 would be fair to expect that measurement on the fresh brain 
 would show a larger area than those on alcoholic brains. If 
 that is a true inference, then it is not a little curious that of 
 these authors just mentioned only DeRegibus presents fig- 
 ures which are at all comparable with those of the "Wagners, 
 Jensen and Calori, the figures from the other observers being 
 smaller. 
 
 I pass now to the measurements of our own specimen. 
 The questions to be answered have already been stated : 1st. 
 To determine any differences between the areas of special 
 regions in the two hemispheres. 2nd. The total area of the 
 cortex. 
 
 Method of Making Measurements. Investigators have 
 covered the exposed surface of the cortex with squared 
 paper, tin foil, gold-leaf or something of the sort, and then 
 by computing the number of these squares required to cover 
 a given region have calculated the area. In this instance I 
 moistened thin sheets of gelatine until they were flexible ; 
 these were then laid on the surface and the outlines of the 
 exposed portions of the gyri traced on them by means of 
 India ink. The area of a region having thus been trans- 
 ferred to the gelatine it was removed, a copy of it taken 
 on tracing paper and numbered. The same area was enclosed 
 by a line on the plaster cast and given the same number, 
 thus each region was recorded. The gelatine sheet was 
 placed over a piece of standard paper ruled in squares 2 mm. 
 on each side. Under a lens magnifying 6 diameters the num- 
 ber of squares enclosed by the outline was enumerated and 
 reduced to millimeters. The method proved quite practi- 
 cable and accurate. In getting the area from the gelatine 
 sheet measurements were made to square millimeters. 
 
 The length of the sulci was taken with compasses where that 
 was permissible, but usually with a strip of tin foil marked in 
 centimeters. The fractions of a centimeter were taken with 
 compasses and read on a millimeter scale. The depth of the 
 sulci was taken with a fine hard rubber probe, a trifle enlarged 
 at the tip so that it had there a diameter of 1.3 mm. On this a 
 button of pith which slipped easily served to mark the dis- 
 
36 DONALDSON : 
 
 tance to which the probe was inserted, and this distance was 
 read off on a millimeter scale. The majority of the sulci were 
 sounded every centimeter, short ones at lesser intervals. 
 The calculations of the sunken surface were made on the 
 assumption that the lines representing the length and depth 
 formed with one another rectangular figures. Jensen' s( 45 ) 
 argument for considering these figures zonal segments, on 
 the convex surface at least, was at the time unknown to me, 
 but I think that the error introduced by the method used 
 has in our case largely balanced out, since the direct meas- 
 urement of the depth of the sulci was constantly too small. 
 The figures were not summed until all the data were col- 
 lected and they have not been manipulated in any way save 
 as I shall in a moment state. The sums thus obtained are as 
 shown in Table I. 
 
 Table I. 
 Total Surface, Sunken and Exposed. (Not corrected.) 
 
 Left. Right. 
 
 Insula, 1760. sq. mm. 2026.5 sq. mm. 
 
 Frontal lobe, 27624.5 sq. mm. 29584. sq. mm. 
 
 Occipital lobe, 3824.5 sq. mm. 3604.8 sq. mm. 
 
 Residual portions, 51056.7 sq. mm. 47452. sq. mm. 
 
 84265.7 sq- mm. 82667.3 sq. mm. 
 
 Absolute difference = 1398.4 sq. mm. 
 In percentage = 1.8 % 
 
 As will be seen the result shows the total cortical surface 
 nearly alike in both hemispheres. 
 
 By ' ' exposed surface ' ' is meant that portion which does not 
 contribute to the walls of the sulci ; by "sunken surface" that 
 which does thus contribute. The portion of the insula and 
 the operculum which would, under this definition, be called 
 exposed is nevertheless counted as part of the sunken sur- 
 face from its position, both in the calculations for the sur- 
 face of the frontal lobe and for the entire hemisphere. In 
 the tables for the insula alone a distinction is made between 
 the sunken surface, as defined, and the other portion, which 
 to avoid ambiguity is there called " convex surface." The 
 total figure for the sunken surface of the frontal lobe or 
 a hemisphere contains, then, the not-sunken or convex sur- 
 face of the insida and also the operculum which, by the way, 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 37 
 
 showed no sulci so far as it was in contact with the insula. 
 As neither of these contribute to form the walls of sulci they 
 are subtracted from the total ' ' sunken surface ' ' before the 
 average depth of the sulci is calculated. Further, in get- 
 ting the average depth of the sulci, proper correction is made 
 for those instances where the sulcus had been considered 
 to have but one wall, as in the case of the callosal and the 
 cephalic portions of the Sylvian fissures. 
 
 The Sylvian fissure is considered to start at the lateral end 
 of the vallecula Sylvii. The limitation of the insula is by the 
 sulcus circularis (Schwalbe). The frontal lobe is limited by 
 the fissura Sylvii, the fissura centralis, and the fissura sub- 
 frontalis (Eberstaller). The limitations of the occipital lobe 
 have been previously described as formed by the sulcus 
 parieto -occipitalis, fissura calcarina, sulcus occipitalis later- 
 alis, and sulcus occipitalis anterior. 
 
 Finally with regard to the corrections in the figures ob- 
 tained by direct measurement. Such correction has been 
 made for the depth of the sulci only. This affects in the 
 results, of course, the average depth of the sulci, the area of 
 the sunken surface and the total area. The correction has 
 been made by adding 25% to the observed depth of the sulci, 
 that is, the observed depths were considered to represent 
 75% of their real value, and were increased so as to represent 
 100#. 
 
 A word of explanation is here needed. The facilities for 
 getting the true depth of the sulci in a brain hardened in 
 potassium bichromate are much less than in the case where 
 the hardening has been effected by alcohol. Sulci in our case 
 could not be opened up without fear of injury to the speci- 
 men and the resistance by which one inferred that the bottom 
 of the sulcus had been reached was often caused by the 
 approximation of the walls at some distance above the bottom. 
 This error was neglected, however, until the measurements were 
 complete, on the assumption that it would be the same for both 
 sides. The figures obtained, Table I, justified this assumption 
 and what we have to say concerning the relative development 
 of the hemispheres and their sub-divisions can be equally as 
 well based on the original as on the corrected figures ; but when 
 
38 DONALDSON : 
 
 we desire to compare the total area in our case with that 
 found by other investigators as well as the relations of the 
 exposed and sunken surface, it is absolutely necessary to use 
 the corrected figures. The correction was obtained by meas- 
 uring sulci in sections of the hemispheres and noting the 
 difference between the true depth and the depth as obtained 
 by the probe. This difference approximated on an average 
 25%, being a trifle over that figure. It is with regret that I 
 introduce this modification of the results, but certain it is that 
 without the correction the absolute figures would have fallen 
 far below the truth. One point more ; we are dealing here 
 with a brain that has swollen in hardening. What the total 
 amount of variation in the area of surface thus produced is, 
 I cannot say, but I see no reason to think that the relations 
 of regions at the surface of the brain have been altered. The 
 portions which did not harden and therefore did not swell 
 were the ental ones, but the cortex throughout was exposed to 
 the action of the fluid in much the same way and does not, 
 I believe, show any distortion that is due to irregularities 
 in the preservation. 
 
 Insula. 
 
 I may be permitted to state here that the descriptions of the 
 various regions were written before the following figures re- 
 lating to them had been tabulated, and that in comparing the 
 figures with the previous description I am comparing inde- 
 pendent observations. 
 
 Defective development of the centre for articulate speech 
 in the left hemisphere has been already described. When 
 defective development occurs here the insula is often 
 reported as sharing in the defect. The following, Table II, 
 shows the relations for the insula. This table, as well as all 
 those that follow, is corrected in the manner above mentioned. 
 
 
 Table II. 
 
 
 
 Insula. 
 
 (Corrected.) 
 
 
 
 
 Left. 
 
 Right. 
 
 Greatest length, 
 Greatest width, 
 Convex surface, 
 Sunken surface, 
 Total length of sulci, 
 Average depth of sulci, 
 
 55. mm. 
 
 30. mm. 
 
 14S8. sq. mm. 
 
 363. sq. mm. 
 
 88. mm. 
 
 2.0mm. 
 
 66. mm. 
 
 33. mm. 
 
 1625.5 sq- mm. 
 
 548. sq. mm 
 
 83. mm. 
 
 3.3 mm. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 39 
 
 It appears from this that the left insula is less well developed 
 than the right in every way except the length of the sulci, in 
 which it is slightly superior. 
 
 Frontal Lobe. 
 
 Next in order we take the frontal lobe as above defined. 
 
 The frontal lobe is bounded by sulci, and these stand in the 
 table as limiting sulci. One half the sunken surface which lines 
 these sulci is designated as the limiting sunken surface ; the 
 other half of course belongs to the lobes bounding the 
 frontal lobe. The area bounded by these limiting sulci is the 
 included area. In this case our interest is in the included 
 area. 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Frontal Lobe. (Corrected.) 
 
 Left. Right. 
 
 Total exposed surface, 11320. sq. mm. 12326. sq. nim. 
 
 Limiting sunken surface, 5920.4 sq- mm. 5020.2 sq. mm. 
 
 Included sunken surface, 15818.4 sq. mm. 17994. sq. mm. 
 
 Length of limiting sulci, 449. nam. 411. mm. 
 
 Length of included sulci, 1051. mm. 1117. mm. 
 
 Average depth of limiting sulci, 13.0 mm. 12.1 mm. 
 
 Average depth of included sulci, 7.4 mm. 8. mm. 
 
 Considering the included area and the figures relating to 
 it, we find the left lobe inferior to the right in every point ; to 
 this inferiority the suspected gyrus frontalis inferior is 
 assumed to contribute largely. It would seem simpler to com- 
 pare measurements of this gyrus on both sides, but the 
 difficulty of bounding it cephalo-ventrally has deterred me 
 from trying to make the comparison. The deficiency in the 
 figures relating to the limiting portions on the right side is 
 in part due to the less elaborate development of the Jissura 
 subfrontalis (Eberstaller) — the sulcus calloso-marginalis of 
 Ecker. 
 
 Occipital Lobe. 
 
 In the earlier description it was brought out that the right 
 occipital lobe and especially the right cuneus were poorly de- 
 veloped. Table IV shows the results of measurements. 
 
Left. 
 
 1660.5 sq. mm. 
 
 6U8. sq. mm. 
 1957.2 sq. mm. 
 
 928. sq. mm. 
 
 Right. 
 
 1302. sq. mm. 
 
 412. sq. mm. 
 
 1847.7 sq. mm. 
 
 1356. sq. mm. 
 
 133. mm. 
 
 108. mm. 
 , 14.6 mm. 
 i, 4.2 mm. 
 
 137. mm. 
 
 116. mm. 
 
 13.4 mm. 
 
 5;7 mm. 
 
 40 DONALDSON : 
 
 Table IV. 
 Occipital Lobe. (Corrected.) 
 
 Total exposed surface, 
 Exposed surface of cuneus, 
 Limiting sunken surface, 
 Included sunken surface, 
 
 Length of limiting sulci, 
 Length of included sulci, 
 Average depth of limiting s 
 Average depth of included sulci, 
 
 Here again the measurements support to some extent the 
 
 previous observations. The total exposed surface, and the 
 
 exposed surface of the cuneus are both less on the right side. 
 
 But when we come to compare the included sunken surfaces 
 
 on the two sides the right is superior, and if we sum the 
 
 total exposed and sunken surface for the two sides we find it : 
 
 On Left Side. On Right Side. 
 
 2588.5 sq. mm. 2658. sq. mm. 
 
 That is, it results to the advantage of the right side. The 
 
 disturbance then which caused the peculiarities of the right 
 
 lobe did not materially alter the cortical development on the 
 
 two sides. This would, for one thing lead us to regard the 
 
 cuneus where the difference between the two sides is striking 
 
 with especial care. As the table shows, the exposed surface 
 
 of the cuneus on the left side is the greater. If we add to 
 
 each exposed surface the sunken surface for this special 
 
 region, i. e., cuneus, we get the following : 
 
 Left. Right. 
 
 Exposed surface, cuneus, 603 sq. mm. 412 sq. mm. 
 
 Sunken surface, cuneus, 376 sq. mm. 428 sq. mm. 
 
 Total surface, cuneus, 984 sq. mm. 840 sq. mm. 
 
 This indicates the total cuneal surface as smaller for the 
 more irregular right side, which is what we might expect if the 
 visual centre is here located. For the rest of the occipital 
 lobe there appears to have been that compensatory growth by 
 which the portions about the cuneus developed more gener- 
 ously as the cuneus, itself somewhat arrested, offered less 
 resistance to their expansion. 
 
 Rtsidual Portion. 
 
 What remains after the insula, frontal and occipital lobes 
 have been considered, I call the ''residual portion." In itself 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 
 
 41 
 
 it has no special interest for us at the moment 
 are given in Table V. 
 
 Table V. 
 
 Residual Portion. (Corrected. ) 
 
 Left. 
 18842. sq. mm, 
 7877.6 sq. mm 
 35074.9 sq. mm 
 
 The figures 
 
 Total exposed surface, 
 Limiting sunken surface, 
 Included sunken surface, 
 
 Right. 
 
 19037.2 sq. 
 
 6867.9 
 31022. 
 
 sq. 
 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 mm. 
 mm. 
 
 Length of limiting sulci, 582. nam. 548. mm. 
 
 Length of included sulci, 1619. mm. 1613. mm. 
 
 Average depth of limiting sulci, 13.3 mm. 12.4 mm. 
 
 Average depth of included sulci, 10.8 mm. 10. mm. 
 
 Having thus presented the data for all portions of the hemi- 
 spheres it remains to cast them in the form of tables so that, 
 as far as possible, they may be compared with the results of 
 others, and we may thus determine something of the relative 
 cortical development in this case. Table VI gives the total 
 exposed surface according to the limitations previously stated. 
 
 Table VI. 
 Total Exposed Surface. 
 
 Left. Right. 
 
 Insula, 
 
 Frontal lobe, 11320. sq. mm. 12326. sq. mm. 
 
 Occipital lobe, 1660.5 sq. mm. 1302. sq. mm. 
 
 Residual portion, 18842. sq. mm. 19037.2 sq. mm. 
 
 Total, 
 
 Absolute difference, 
 
 Percentage difference, 
 
 31822.5 sq. mm. 
 
 32665.2 sq. mm. 
 842.7 sq. mm. 
 2.6 % 
 
 Table VII gives in the same way the total sunken surface. 
 
 Table VII. 
 Total Sunkeii Surface. (Corrected.) 
 
 * Insula, 
 Frontal lobe, 
 Occipital lobe, 
 Residual portion, 
 
 Left. 
 
 1851.0 sq. 
 
 21738.8 sq. 
 
 2885.2 sq. 
 
 42952.5 sq. 
 
 mm. 
 mm. 
 mm. 
 mm. 
 
 Right. 
 
 2173.5 sq. mm. 
 
 23014.2 sq. mm. 
 
 3203.7 sq. mm. 
 
 37889.9 sq. mm. 
 
 69427.5 sq. mm. 
 Absolute difference, 3246.2 sq. mm. 
 Percentage difference, 4.9 % 
 
 66181.3 sq. mm. 
 
 * It will be recalled that for our purpose the insula is not considered to 
 have an exposed surface. 
 
42 DONALDSON : 
 
 Table VIII. 
 Total Surface, Sunken and Exposed. (Corrected.) 
 
 Left. Right. 
 Insula, 1851.0 sq. mm. 2173.5 sq. rum- 
 Frontal lobe, 33058.0 sq. mm. 35340.2 sq. mm. 
 Occipital lobe, 4551.7 sq- mm. 4505.7 sq. mm. 
 Kesidual portion, 61794.5 sq. mm. 56927.1 sq. mm. 
 
 Total, 101256.0 sq. mm. 98946.5 sq. mm. 
 
 Absolute difference, 2309.5 sq. mm. 
 
 Percentage difference, 2.3 % 
 
 This Table VIII gives the total figures which I consider 
 final for this specimen. To prevent any possible misunder- 
 standing I may state again that Table I, which gives the origi- 
 nal figures before they were corrected, is presented to show 
 on what basis the corrections were to be made. And though 
 it is possible that the two tables may be confused, I hope by 
 this explicit statement to prevent such a complication, and 
 make it plain that Table VIII only is the one to be used in 
 comparison with the figures obtained by other authors. 
 
 In connection with Table VIII, I have to call attention to 
 the figures for the total surface of the insula and frontal lobes 
 of the left side which still remain smaller, whereas the occi- 
 pital lobe is slightly larger on the left side. On the whole 
 the area of the left hemisphere is greater, and I associate that 
 with the fuller development of the caudal portions of this 
 hemisphere. (See Fig. III.) 
 
 The length of sulci is shown in Table IX, and as will be 
 seen the left hemisphere is a trifle inferior in this measure- 
 ment. The limiting sulci are of course counted but once, so 
 that if their length is given for the frontal and occipital lobes 
 then the residual portion is to be credited with the included 
 sulci only. 
 
 Table IX. 
 Total Length of Sulci. 
 
 Insula, 
 
 Frontal lobe, limiting sulci, 
 Frontal lobe, included sulci. 
 Occipital lobe, limiting sulci, 
 Occipital lobe, included sulci, 
 Residual portion, included sulci, 
 
 Left. 
 
 Right. 
 
 88 mm. 
 
 S3 mm. 
 
 449 mm. 
 
 411 mm. 
 
 1051 mm. 
 
 1117 mm. 
 
 133 mm. 
 
 137 mm. 
 
 108 mm. 
 
 116 mm. 
 
 1619 mm. 
 
 1613 mm. 
 
 3448 mm. 
 
 3477 mm. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRLDGMAN. 43 
 
 Table X exhibits the average depth of the sulci for each 
 hemisphere. The average depth of the sulci is obtained in 
 the following manner : From the total sunken surface as pre- 
 viously given, the areas of the operculum and convex surface 
 of the insula are subtracted. The areas for the sulcus callosi 
 and the portion of the gyrus frontalis inferior which forms the 
 dorsal wall of the fissura Sylvii, which have not been doubled 
 in estimating the sunken surface, are added to this remainder. 
 The sum is then divided by two, thus giving the area of one 
 side of all the sulci. This divided by the total length of sulci 
 gives the average depth. This process is carried out in 
 Table X. 
 
 Table X. 
 
 Average Depth of Sulci. (Corrected.) 
 
 Left. Rioht. 
 
 Total sunken surface, 69427,5 sq. mm. 66181.3 sq. mm. 
 
 Less sum of opercular and \ _,-« o QfifiQ 
 
 convex insular surfaces, / 2obo. 
 
 67001.5 sq. mm. 63518.3 sq. mm. 
 
 Plus callosal wall 1037.0 sq. mm. 1037.0 sq. mm. 
 
 Plus dorsal wall fiss. Syl. 827.0 sq. mm. 400.0 sq. mm. 
 
 One-half of this total 68865.5 sq. mm. 64955.3 sq. mm. 
 
 equals 34432,7 sq. mm. 32477.6 sq. mm. 
 
 Dividing this last figure by 3448. 3477. 
 
 Gives average depth of Sulci 9.9 mm. 9.3 mm. 
 
 The table explains itself I think without further comment, 
 except the difference between the figures for the dorsal wall of 
 the fissura Sylvii on the two sides, which is due to the fact 
 that the method of measurement was not the same in both 
 cases. 
 
 Before we make comparison of those figures which apply 
 to the entire hemispheres, several other numerical relations 
 may be noted. The surface of the frontal lobe in per cent, of 
 the total surface is found to be : 
 
 Total surface, 
 
 Frontal lobe, total surface,* 
 
 "We may also express the relations of the exposed and sunken 
 surface in the two hemispheres : 
 
 ♦Our limits of the frontal lobe enclose a smaller region than those of 
 the other authors who have given figures. 
 
 Left. 
 
 Right. 
 
 1C0 
 
 100 
 
 32.5 
 
 35.8 
 
44 DONALDSON : 
 
 Left. Right. 
 
 If total exposed surface = 1. 1. 
 
 Then total sunken surface = 2.18 2.02 
 
 This relation of the exposed to the sunken surface is that 
 which has been found by others, namely, the sunken surface 
 is on the average very slightly more than twice the exposed 
 surface. 
 
 Finally H. Wagner(**) devised a formula by which the ex- 
 posed surface of the brain could be calculated from its several 
 diameters. Applying this formula to our specimen we find by 
 calculation a figure which is some 25% larger than that 
 obtained by observation. Evidently the swelling of the brain 
 and the consequent gaping of the sulci renders this formula 
 inapplicable in our case. 
 
 It remains now to determine what peculiarities these fig- 
 ures obtained from our specimen show when compared with 
 the figures from other authors, always keeping in mind that 
 the latter figures used for comparison were obtained from 
 shrunken specimens, whereas ours is swollen. We shall use 
 for comparison the data furnished by H. Wagner( 44 ), Jen- 
 sen( 45 ) and Calori( 48 ). From the first the figures for the 
 "woman" are used. From the second those for "Bockel," 
 female, insane, and from the last those for brachycephalic 
 females, three in number. 
 
 Table XI. 
 Total Surface. 
 
 Weight of Fresh Left. Right. Sum. 
 
 Encephalon. 
 
 1204 grm. Laura, 101256. sq. mm. 98946.5 sq. mm. 200202.5 sq. mm. 
 
 *1304grm. Woman, 102742. sq. mm. 102373. sq. mm. 205115.0 sq. mm. 
 1065 grm. Rockel (female, 
 
 insane), 74615. sq. mm. 74523. sq. mm. 149138.0 sq. mm. 
 
 1236 grm. ) Bhhl . 245260. sq. mm. 
 
 1151 grm. feS s haIlC 195684. sq. mm. 
 
 1056 grm. J remaies. 194160. sq. mm. 
 
 The total figure for Laura, though her brain is swollen, is 
 somewhat under that found by Wagner, and also under the 
 average taken from the two brains of Calori with which 
 it may be fairly compared, but above that of Jensen. The 
 
 * Figures for area corrected from H. Wagner's ( 44 ) table. As 
 1 understand Wagner, the fresh weight of this brain, which he gives 
 as 1185 grm., applies to the hemispheres alone. 1304 is the estimated 
 weight of the entire encephalon to which these hemispheres belonged. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 45 
 
 small brain weight and the mental condition of the patient 
 in Jensen's case must however be considered. I see here 
 no greater variation than occurs in the full tables of these 
 authors. We may conclude therefore that the total area of 
 Laura's brain, if at all peculiar, was small for its weight. 
 Comparison for total length of sulci and their average depth 
 can be made only with the first two, as Calori does not give: 
 his figures on this point. 
 
 Table XII. 
 Total Length of Sulci and Average Depth. 
 
 Name. Left. Right. Sum. 
 
 Length. Av. Depth. Length. Av. Depth. Length. Av. Depth. 
 Laura, 3448. mm. 9.9 mm. 3477. mm. 9.1 mm. 6625. mm. 9.5 mm. 
 Woman, 3349- mm. 9.88 mm. 3189! mm. 10-48 mm. 6538. mm. 10.14 mm. 
 Rockel, 2870- mm. 2834. mm. 5704. mm. 9.08 mm. 
 
 It appears that, whereas the length of the sulci is greater in 
 Laura than in those with whom she is compared, the average 
 depth in less than that of the woman and more than that of 
 Eockel. At the same time both length and depth are well 
 within the limits found by these authors for other brains. 
 
 The relative development of the frontal lobe is something 
 to which a certain historical value, at least, attaches. The 
 frontal lobe as we define it is somewhat smaller than that of 
 Wagner and Jensen as they include that portion of the gyrus 
 fomicatus which extends caudad as far as the prcecuneus. 
 If we include this region so as to make our results compar- 
 able with theirs we have the figures given in the next table. 
 
 Table XIII. 
 
 Relative Development of Frontal Lobe, given in Percentage of 
 
 the Total Surface. 
 
 Left. Eight. Average for Both 
 
 Hemispheres. 
 
 Laura, 36.8 39,9 38.3 
 
 Woman, 40. 41. 41. 
 
 Eockel, 3S.3 40-9 39.6 
 
 When the comparison is made in this way Laura is seen 
 to be slightly inferior to the other two. An examination of 
 the tables shows this to depend mainly on the smaller aver- 
 age depth of the sulci. The inferiority of the left side is 
 manifested here again. In general then we may say that 
 so far as these measurements are concerned, Laura's brain 
 differs from other brains with which it may be compared to 
 
46 DONALDSON : 
 
 no remarkable degree, and the difference can in part at least, 
 be explained by the failure of certain portions of the brain 
 to develop completely. The determination of the mass 
 of the cortex must await the measurement of its thickness, 
 and that together with other observations is reserved for a 
 second article. 
 
ANATOMICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE BRAIN AND 
 
 SEVERAL SENSE-ORGANS OF THE BLIND 
 
 DEAF-MUTE, 
 
 LAURA DEWEY BRIDGMAN. 
 
 Henry H. Donaldson, Ph. D. 
 
 II. 
 
 I. — On the thickness and structure of the cerebral cortex. 
 Plates III and IV. 
 
 In a previous paper (Am. Journ. of Psychology, Vol. 
 Ill, No. 3, Sept., 1890.) I have described some of the macro- 
 scopic features of the brain in question. I there stated the 
 results of the measurements of the extent of the cortex (loc. 
 cit. p. 336) as follows : 
 
 Extent of cortex, right hemisphere = 98946.5 □ mm. 
 
 Extent of cortex, left hemisphere = 101256.0 Q mm. 
 
 Total extent of cortex = 200202.5 n mm. 
 
 It has been recognized by all those who have studied the 
 extent of the the cortex, that unless supplemented by ob- 
 servations on the thickness and character of the same, the 
 figures for extent did not give a good ground for further infer- 
 ence. Jensen( 45 ) is, however, the only investigator who has 
 up to this time made his studies thus complete. 
 
 It is, therefore, my purpose to report the results of the ex- 
 amination of the cortex of Laura Bridgman together with such 
 conclusions as may be drawn from the results. 
 
 I. — The thickness of the cerebral cortex in general. 
 
 By way of preface I made a little excursion into the 
 literature of the cortex to determine what was considered to 
 be the normal thickness of that layer. It is highly probable 
 that some of the work on this subject has escaped my notice, 
 but what was found is tabulated (Table I.) with the purpose 
 of showing how fully the various authors have stated the 
 manner in which they obtained their results and what correc- 
 tions had to be made, in certain cases, in order to have the 
 results fairly comparable. 
 
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ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 49 
 
 The authorities are arranged in chronological order, and in 
 two groups : the first group containing the figures which ap- 
 ply to the cortex of normal persons, and the second the fig- 
 ures that apply to defectives. In this latter group I have 
 only the measurements that apply to individuals with an ac- 
 quired defect, as contrasted with those congenitally defective. 
 The literature bearing on the cortex in these last has been 
 brought together by Marchand( 66 ), and, though the facts are 
 very interesting, they do not bear on our present problem and 
 are therefore excluded. 
 
 The headings of the columns in Table I. will explain them- 
 selves, I trust, and the Table may be examined now without 
 further explanation. 
 
 Omitting my own results, there are but six authors whose 
 figures are of interest to us now. The manner in which the 
 final figures in these cases have been obtained requires some 
 explanation. 
 
 We desire to know the thickness of the cortex in its 
 natural state, but the hardening reagents used for preserving 
 the brain alter the thickness. In another place, I expect to 
 make some general statements with regard to the weight and 
 volume of nervous tissues as influenced by hardening rea- 
 gents. Therefore I may state here only the results obtained, 
 viz., that alcohol of 80% causes a decrease of 2% in the 
 thickness of the cortex, while the bichromate and alcohol 
 treatment (potassium bichromate 2i% plus } its volume of 
 95% alcohol for 6 to 8 weeks ; washing in water for 24 hours ; 
 alcohol 95% for 2 days, and final preservation in 80% 
 alcohol) causes an increase of 2%. As will be seen these 
 corrections have been applied in Table I. Further, the man- 
 ner of making the measurements has a very decided influence 
 on the results. Direct experiment showed that the same 
 localities measured with the compasses gave a thickness 4% 
 less than when measured with a micrometer eye-piece under 
 the microscope. There is no doubt in my mind that the 
 microscopic method is the more accurate, hence I have cor- 
 rected all the measurements made with compasses by the 
 percentage above found. 
 
 There still remains the important question of the handling 
 
50 DONALDSON : 
 
 of the figures for thickness after they are obtained. In gen- 
 eral, the summit of a gyrus has the thickest cortex and the 
 very bottom of the sulcus, the thinnest. In getting the thick- 
 ness for any locality on the hemispheres at least two measure- 
 ments, a maximum and minimum, are taken. Most investi- 
 gators have measured the gyri at the points where 
 the very thickest and very thinnest cortex was to be 
 found, and for an average taken half the sum of these 
 figures. The thinning of the cortex at the bottom of 
 the sulci is, so to speak, sudden and excessive and the 
 thinnest point deviates more from the intermediate cortex than 
 does the thickest. Such being the case the resultant figure is 
 somewhat too small. Conti( s9 ), Franceschi( 61 ) and Cionini( 65 ) 
 give full tables and they have measured in the manner above 
 described so that their averages represent one-half of the sum 
 of the thickest and thinnest points in each gyrus. In the 
 brains which I have examined the thickest portion was meas- 
 ured at the summit of the gyrus. The observations for the 
 thinnest was taken at the side, about two-thirds of the dis- 
 tance from summit to sulcus. In making the average advan- 
 tage was taken of the observation that one-third of the cortex 
 lies at the summits of gyri and two-thirds is sunken in the 
 sulci. The smaller figure was multiplied by 2, added to the 
 larger figure and the sum divided by 3. As a consequence 
 of this treatment I believe that my final average for the cor- 
 tex of any particular gyrus is nearer the truth than it would 
 be if half the sum of the thickest and thinnest points had 
 alone been taken. 
 
 The figures which will be most useful to us can now be 
 taken from Table I and presented in Table II, with the pur- 
 pose of showing whether there is any difference in cortical 
 thickness between males and females, or between the two 
 hemispheres of the same brain ; whether defectives corres- 
 pond with normal persons ; and what may be regarded as the 
 normal thickness of the cortex. 
 
 Since the figures given in the Table II do not occur in their 
 present form in the original tables of the authorities there 
 quoted, I should perhaps add a word of explanation on the 
 method by which they have been obtained. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 51 
 
 Jensen (*) gives a condensed statement for the normal 
 "brains, and in Table II his figures are simply corrected for 
 the effect of alcohol and the use of compasses in measuring. 
 His tables for the defectives are fuller and permit us to deter- 
 mine the averages for the two hemispheres. These are cor- 
 rected in the manner above mentioned. In no case did he 
 measure the cortex of the insula. Among the defectives one 
 case which he gives is not entered in the table because it is 
 that of a microcephalic. 
 
 Bucknill and Tuke( 5T ) give, without detail, the thickness of 
 the normal cortex as .08 in. In a table of 63 pathological 
 cases entered with great care and fullness, one column is 
 devoted to the thickness of the cortex — also given without 
 detail — in hundredths of an inch. This unit, approximately 
 equal to .25 mm., is rather large when employed in so deli- 
 cate a measurement. No statement as to the number, locality 
 or method of their measurements is made. The cases were 
 all adults. 
 
 Conti( 59 ) gives full tables. He claims twenty brains in his 
 series. The measurements on two brains — females — are, 
 however, so incomplete that they are not used here, hence he 
 is credited with but eighteen brains in the table. Both hemi- 
 spheres were not always examined. The total number of 
 hemispheres represented in the table is only twenty-nine, 16 
 right and 13 left. His cases, principally adults, range in age 
 from sixteen months to eighty years, but there is no evidence 
 that the youngest cases should be excluded. Twenty- six lo- 
 calities in each hemisphere were measured but the cortex for 
 the insula, if measured, is not specially recorded. In the pre- 
 rolandic and post-rolandic regions only the summits of the 
 gyri and the depths of the sulci were measured. In the ro- 
 landic region intermediate measurements on each wall of the 
 gyri were taken. The averages were obtained by summing 
 and dividing the figures as they stand in his tables and then 
 correcting the final results for the use of compasses. The 
 original measurements were made in tenths of a millimeter. 
 
 Franceschi( 61 ) gives full and very complete tables. He ex- 
 amined the cortex at 35 localities on both hemispheres of 
 twenty brains, principally from adults of advanced age, 10 
 
52 DONALDSON : 
 
 males and 10 females. The measurements taken in tenths of 
 a millimeter, and were made at the summits of the gyri and 
 the depths of sulci. The cortex of the insula was included. 
 The figures in Table II. are obtained directly from those of his 
 tables, save that they have been corrected for use of compasses. 
 
 Major( M ) tested the thickness of the cortex at thirty locali- 
 ties on both hemispheres of the brains of four adult insane 
 patients, the sex not given. For each locality he gives only 
 the mean depth using one- fifth of an inch as his unit of 
 measure. This unit is, of course, too large. He measured the 
 insular cortex. His figures for the cortical thickness give the 
 mean depth without detail as to the method of obtaining the 
 mean. The instrument used, the tephrylometer, consisted of 
 a thin walled graduated glass tube. This was pressed into 
 the brain substance at any desired point, then, the upper end 
 being closed by the finger, withdrawn, when a plug of brain 
 substance remained within the tube and on this plug the 
 thickness of the cortex is read off by the aid of the scale 
 etched in the tube. The figures in Table. II are the simple 
 averages of those in his tables without any corrections. Con- 
 cerning the accuracy of this method of measuring the cortex 
 there are no observations. 
 
 Cionini( 65 ) presents his results from the examination of fif- 
 teen adult brains, ten males, five females, all cases of general 
 paralysis. The number of localities was 31, but in other re- 
 spects the details are similar to those in the case of Conti. It 
 occurs, however, that in five cases, three males and two fe- 
 males, the tables are so incomplete that they cannot be used 
 for averages, and hence only ten cases are represented. The 
 figures in Table II. are obtained as in the case of Conti. • 
 
 A glance at Table II. shows that in both normals and defec- 
 tives the average thickness is very slightly, — .01 to — .04mm., 
 greater in the males in five out of the six cases (larger number 
 underlined). There is a slightly greater difference between 
 the two hemispheres, which is in favor of the left hemis- 
 phere as the figures stand (eight out of thirteen cases). In 
 discussing the absolute thickness of the cortex as reported we 
 have, of course, to throw out the defectives, who are, ipso 
 facto, expected to have a thinner cortex. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAUEA BRIDGMAN. 
 
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54 DONALDSON : 
 
 At the moment I have no explanation to offer of the various 
 figures given for the absolute thickness in normal persons and 
 will simply point out that my figures agree most closely with 
 those of Jensen. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the average thickness for the 
 two sexes is nearly alike, what difference there is being in 
 favor of the males; that the left hemisphere more often has 
 the thicker cortex ; that in defectives (not congenital) it is 
 thinner than in normal persons, and that the figures given 
 for the absolute thickness in normal persons are at present 
 irreconcilable. With this I conclude the introductory study 
 of the subject. 
 
 II. Comparison of the cortex of Laura Bridgman with 
 that of nine normal brains {six males; three females') . 
 
 The normal brains were obtained in New York about a 
 year ago, and I am indebted to the courtesy of several medi- 
 cal gentlemen of the city for them. There is no reason to 
 think that any of these specimens were from persons of more 
 than average intelligence, hence on that score they are com- 
 parable with the Bridgman brain. They were hardened in 
 the same manner that the latter was {vide p. 9). Samples 
 of cortex were taken in all cases from II localities on each 
 hemisphere, each locality being designated by an arbitrary 
 number. 
 
 Plate III shows the localities with the numbers used, and 
 is intended to take the place of a written description. 
 
 In Table III. I give the cortical areas in which the localities 
 are situated. 
 
 All the samples from the several localities were treated in. 
 the same manner, viz.: imbedded in celloidin, cut in sections 
 about 0.1 mm. thick and measured, unstained, under a low 
 magnifying power. It is hardly necessary to add that all the 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Locality. Cortical Area for. 
 
 Locality. Cortical Area for. 
 
 1. Speech motor ? 
 
 8. Sight, sensory. 
 
 2. Speech, motor. 
 
 9. — ? 
 
 3. Speech? 
 
 10. Taste and smell, sensory- 
 
 4. Head and eyes, motor. 
 
 11. Sight, sensory. 
 
 5. Arm, motor. 
 
 12. Touch, sensory. 
 
 6. Hearing, sensory. 
 
 13. Leg, motor. 
 
 7. — ? 
 
 14. Sight, sensory. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 
 
 55 
 
 measurements were concluded before any calculations were 
 begun and that precaution was taken to keep the results 
 unprejudiced. 
 
 Figures for the average thickness at each locality having 
 been obtained from all the brains in the manner above 
 described, the localities were arranged in order, from the 
 thickest to the thinnest, and the tables thus formed were 
 plotted as curves. Vide Plate IV. 
 
 The principal results are tabulated in Table II (under 
 Donaldson, normals), and in Table IV a further analysis is 
 given. The figures for males and females being separated in 
 Table IV, those for the right and left hemispheres are given 
 in each group and the individuals in each group are ranged 
 according to age. This last arrangement was made to see 
 whether they showed a decrease in cortical thickness with 
 advancing age. ContiC 53 ) reports that the cortex decreases 
 regularly from a maximum at 3 years to a minimum in ex- 
 treme age. I do not pretend to discuss the question here but 
 simply refer to the table to show that these brains when thus 
 arranged do not exhibit a decrease. 
 
 Table IV. 
 Thickness of Cortex in Controls and in Laura Bridgman. 
 
 Males. Females. 
 
 Arranged according to age. Arranged according to age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Weight in 
 grms. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. II. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Weight in 
 grms. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 35 
 35 
 39 
 45 
 57 
 Adult 
 
 1419 
 1443 
 1393 
 1367 
 1464 
 1210 
 
 * 2.81 
 2^7 
 2.77 
 2.90 
 2.96 
 3/14 
 
 2.81 
 3.09 
 2^86 
 2^93 
 2T9T 
 3.07 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 Adult 
 
 1196 
 1173 
 1312 
 
 2.74 
 2.80 
 3.12 
 
 2.74 
 3~T»0 
 3T02 
 
 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.94 
 
 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.92 
 
 General Average, 2.92. 
 
 General Average, 2.9 0. 
 
 Laura Bridgman, 
 
 60 
 
 1204 
 
 2.55 2.62 
 
 
 
 
 
 General Average, 2.59 
 
 * The underlining has the same significance as in Table II. 
 
5(5 DONALDSON : 
 
 The cortex of the left hemisphere is in five cases the thicker, 
 while that of the right is so in four. The maximum differ- 
 ence between the two hemispheres of the same individual is 
 .22 mm. (2.87 to 3.09). The averages for the males and fe- 
 males are nearly alike, the males being a trifle, .02 mm., 
 thicker. 
 
 If the results for each locality are averaged for all the con- 
 trols, these averages arranged in a series from the largest to 
 the smallest and this series plotted as a curve, then the curve 
 has the form indicated by the continuous black ink line on 
 Plate IV. In that curve the insula,as pointed out by Major (<*), 
 has the thickest cortex. Next follows the convex surface 
 of the hemispheres with little variation, and then the thick- 
 ness gradually decreases in the mesal, occipital and orbital 
 cortex, in the order named. Table V gives the figures from 
 which this curve is formed as well as the figures for the two 
 component curves, viz.: that for the males and that for the 
 females. 
 
 Locality. 
 3 . 
 
 Averages 
 Averages 
 Averages 
 Unit of m 
 i. 
 
 ! 
 
 Table 
 
 for each locality, 
 for each locality, 
 for each locality, 
 easure, 1 mm. 
 
 Average for II 
 ill Controls. Coi 
 
 3.38 
 
 V. 
 
 All control?, I. 
 Controls, Male, II 
 Controls, Female, 
 
 . Average for 
 itrols. (6) Male. 
 
 . 3.48 .... 
 . 3.02 .... 
 . 3.05 .... 
 . 3.12 .... 
 . 3.06 .... 
 . 3.10 .... 
 . 3.03 .... 
 2.92 • • . . 
 . 2.82 .... 
 . 2.83 .... 
 . 2.65 .... 
 . 2.67 .... 
 . 2.60 .... 
 
 III. 
 
 in. 
 
 Contn 
 
 Average for 
 als, (3) Female. 
 
 3.33 
 
 7 . 
 
 3.15 
 
 3.43 
 
 6 . 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.18 
 
 4 
 
 3.09 
 
 3.04 
 
 2 . 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.12 
 
 5 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.04 
 
 10 . 
 
 3.04 
 
 3.06 
 
 1 . 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.06 
 
 13 . 
 
 2.86 
 
 2.94 
 
 12 . 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.60 
 
 11 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.66 
 
 8 . 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.50 
 
 9 
 14 . 
 
 2.53 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.38 
 
 Average, 2.92 2.91 
 
 By these figures I aim to show the normal thickness of the 
 cortex at the given localities. 
 
 The figures which form the basis for the curve of the 
 Bridgman brain are given in Table VI. The average thick- 
 ness of this cortex (see Table IV) is 2.59 mm., which is 0.32 
 mm. below the average for all the females and 0.15 mm. below 
 that for the female in whom the cortex was thinnest. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 57 
 
 Table VI. 
 
 I. Averages of the several localities. L. B., right hemisphere. 
 II. Averages of the several localities. L. B., left hemisphere. 
 III. Averages of the several localities. L. B., both hemispheres. 
 
 Laura Bridgman. 
 
 Locality. I. R. H. II. L. H. III. Average. 
 
 3 3.45 2.98 3.22 
 
 7 ...... 2.93 2.72 2.83 
 
 6 2 26 2.56 2.41 
 
 4 2.98 2.77 2.88 
 
 2 2.74 2.89 2.82 
 
 5 2.61 2.75 2.68 
 
 10 2.51 2.41 2.46 
 
 1 2.70 2.54 2.62 
 
 13 2.81 2.69 2.75 
 
 12 2.70 2.56 2.63 
 
 11 1.99 2.72 2.36 
 
 8 2.16 2.48 2.32 
 
 9 1.99 2.27 2.13 
 
 14 1.92 2.35 2.14 
 
 Aver. 2.55 Aver. 2.62 Aver. 2.59 
 
 The curves for the Bridgman figures are plotted on Plate 
 IV. That for the left hemisphere is indicated by a broken 
 line (dashes), and that for the right hemisphere by the line of 
 long and short dashes. Attending for the moment to these 
 we observe a remarkable drop at 6 ; from 4 to 12 both 
 curves are generally low with a special depression at 10, and 
 from 12 to the end they run at different levels. 
 
 It will be seen at a glance that these two curves are fairly 
 accordant until locality 11 is reached. Here they are widely 
 divergent, approach somewhat at 8, again to diverge at 14. 
 
 Taking up the peculiarities of the Bridgman cortex then in 
 the order in which they occur we find the insula (3) thinner 
 on the left side. Both sides very thin at 6, the auditory area. 
 Locality 2, the area for motor speech, is well developed on 
 both sides. From 4 to 13 the development is poor, specially 
 so at 10, area for taste and smell. At 12, the area for dermal 
 sensations, the curve is high again, and from that point on 
 commences the remarkable divergence in the curves of the 
 two hemispheres, that for the left side being much higher at 
 11, 8 and 14, all of which are within the visual area. 
 
 Eeferring now to the description which I have previously 
 given (op. cit.) of the macroscopic features of this brain, I 
 may briefly attempt to collate them with the measurements of 
 the cortex. 
 
58 DONALDSON : 
 
 The insula (3) on the left side was found less well devel- 
 oped. It has the thinner cortex. Vide Waldschmidt( 67 ). 
 
 At the auditory area (6)1 could not decide on any macroscop- 
 ic defect, but have since determmined that the first temporal 
 gyrus at its caudal end, especially on the right side, was abnor- 
 mally slender. The cortex is decidedly thin on both sides, 
 most markedly so on the right. At the area for motor speech, 
 the left side showed a clear lack of development (depression), 
 but the cortex was not particularly thin for this brain. 
 
 At 10, the area for taste and smell, there was a general lack 
 of development, exhibited by the entire temporal lobe. This 
 is easily explained by the slow growth of this portion of the 
 brain, a growth which was quite incomplete at the period 
 when Laura was taken ill (2 years). The glossopharyngeal 
 nerves appeared normal, but the olfactory bulbs and tracts were 
 small, though not so small as in the case of some normal per- 
 sons. The thinness of the cortex at this point (10) appears 
 therefore as a part of the general arrest in growth. 
 
 Passing now to the visual area it was noticed macroscopi- 
 cally that both occipital lobes were blunted, but the right side 
 turned out in every way to be much the more defective and 
 anomalous. Concordantly the cortex of this right side at 11, 
 8, and 14 is much thinner than that of the left. 
 
 It must be recalled here that although at the age of two 
 years, Laura became completely blind in her left eye, yet she 
 retained some remnant of vision with her right eye up to her 
 eighth year. This has left its mark on the entire central ap- 
 paratus for vision. The right optic nerve is larger than the 
 
 left. 
 
 Area of cross-section of R. optic nerve = 5.00 □ mm. 
 u it tt it it l. » u =3.38 " " 
 
 The relation in the tracts is, of course, reversed : 
 
 Area of cross-section of R. optic tract = 3.13 □ mm. 
 t« u n it tt l. « u = 4.69 " « 
 
 On the one hand then we have loss of vision in left eye at 
 2 years of age, associated with the smaller optic nerve and 
 tract — a defectively developed right occipital lobe and a thin 
 cortex in the right visual area. On the other hand we have 
 some vision in the right eye up to the eighth year of age, as- 
 sociated with the larger optic nerve and tract, the more nor- 
 mal occipital lobe and the thicker cortex. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 59 
 
 The general thinning of the motor cortex I would explain in 
 part by the absence of the fibres through which the motor areas 
 are normally associated with the sensory areas — here defective 
 — and in part by the smaller size of some of the cell elements 
 and non- development of others, resulting from lack of stimuli. 
 The defects in the visual and auditory area follow directly 
 from the loss of the corresponding sense organs and conse- 
 quent arrest of growth. When the loss is not at first com- 
 plete a good deal of subsequent development is possible. 
 Why the speech-centre has not a thinner cortex I cannot, at 
 the moment, explain. 
 
 In considering the fact that the sensory centers are much 
 more affected than the motor, it should be remembered that 
 aside from the special loss due to arrest and possibly degen- 
 eration falling less on the motor than on the sensory centres, 
 there is the physiological difference that each motor centres 
 can be excited by way of any sensory centre, and hence, so 
 long as any senses are left, the motor centres must be stimu- 
 lated to some degree, while the destruction of the special sense- 
 organ throws a given sensory centre quite out of function. 
 The physiological conditions in the two cases are therefore 
 quite different and in favor of the development of the motor 
 side. 
 
 For reference. I introduce here several tables containing 
 the details of the figures Just given. 
 
 Table VII. gives the maximum and minimum thickness of 
 the cortex as observed at each locality on Laura Bridgman 
 and the nine controls. The maximum was taken at the sum- 
 mit of the gyrus and the minimum at the side — not at the 
 bottom of the sulcus. The average of the maximum and 
 minimum is obtained by doubling the minimum, adding the 
 result to the maximum and dividing the sum by three. This 
 average figure is given in the third column for each hemi- 
 sphere. The averages at the foot of the first and second 
 columns are obtained by dividing the sum of these columns 
 by fourteen. All the figures in this table are corrected for 
 hardening, so that they represent the natural thickness of the 
 cortex. The observations for the males and females are sepa- 
 rated. 
 
60 
 
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Table VII.— Males. 
 
 Specimen II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 >j 
 
 R.H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 R.H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 Max 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max 
 
 Min 
 
 Aver 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 1 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.30220 
 
 2.57 
 
 
 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.5613.11 3.26 3.24 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.15 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.49 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.17 
 
 3,19 
 
 3 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.88 J3.88 13.88 13.88 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.23 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.36 
 
 3,53 
 
 4 
 
 3.24 
 
 317 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.24 2.98i3.07 3.11 2.72 
 
 2.85 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.81 ! 3.56 13.64 
 
 3.69 
 
 3.24 
 
 2,39 
 
 5 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.40 ;2.73 2.95 13.30 12.75 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.36 2.65 
 
 2.89 3.56|3.30 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.35 
 
 6 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.56 3.11(3.26 3.56 3.24 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.02:3.88 3.17 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.13 
 
 7 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.43 2.39 12.74 '2.91 2.59 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.28 3.88 13.24 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.47 
 
 8 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.59 2.20J2.33 2.59 2.26 
 
 2.37 
 
 2 91 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.7013.17 2.91 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.59 
 
 2,68 
 
 9 
 
 2.91 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.65 2.39 2.48:2.59 ; 2.20 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.72 2.01 
 
 2.25 J3. 24 12.91 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.72 
 
 2,89 
 
 10 3.11 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.56 2.78 3.04 3.88 3.24 3.45 
 
 3.24,3.24 
 
 3.24!3.88j3.56 
 
 3.67 
 
 3.56 
 
 2,91 
 
 3 13 
 
 11 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.30 2.65i2.87 2.391.94 2.09 
 
 2.91 2.65 
 
 2.74 3.24 
 
 2.71 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.58 
 
 2.07 
 
 2 24 
 
 12 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.2612.63 
 
 3 36 3.11 3.19!3.24'2.59i2.81 
 
 2.85 2.39 
 
 2.5413.24 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.24 
 
 3 3-5! 
 
 13 
 
 3.36 2.59 J2.85 
 
 3.36 2.59|2.85 
 
 2.91|2.26 
 
 2.48 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.52 
 
 2.56 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.98 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.39 2.46 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.46 2.52 
 
 2 52 2.07 
 
 2.22 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.46 
 
 iver. 
 
 3.22 
 
 2.742.90 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.09 2.61 
 
 2.77 
 
 3.09 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.45 
 
 2.99 
 
 3.14 
 
 3.32 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.07 
 
 Table VII.— Males. 
 
 Specimen 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 X. 
 
 XII. 
 
 £. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 R. H. 
 
 L. H. 
 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 Max. 'Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 1 
 
 3.56 2.80 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.98 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.85 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.91 
 
 3,06 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3.69 3.36 3.47 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.56 
 
 3 11 
 
 3 W 
 
 3 
 
 4.013 88'3.92 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.88 3.56 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.67 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.66 
 
 3 56 
 
 3 36 
 
 3 43 
 
 4 
 
 3.17 2.91 3.00 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.49 &.17 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.56 
 
 2 78 
 
 3 04 
 
 o 
 
 3.23 2 9S3.06 
 
 3.49 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.242.91 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.58 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.24 
 
 2,39 
 
 3 67 
 
 b 
 
 3.56 2.33 2.74 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.17 
 
 3.19 3.11 2.72 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.17 
 
 2,26 
 
 9 56 
 
 V 
 
 3.88 2.913 23 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.93 3.56 !2.65 2.95 
 
 3.69 
 
 2.52 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.36 
 
 2,98 
 
 311 
 
 8 
 
 3.24 2.6.*> 2.85 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.69 2.98i2.52|2.67 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.85 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.48 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.46 
 
 ?, 61 
 
 9 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.59 2.70 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.72 2.5912.63 
 
 2.85 
 
 3.34 
 
 3.18 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.20 
 
 2 33 
 
 10 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.65 2.85 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.59 2.39 2.46 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.59 12.81 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.47 
 
 9, 73 
 
 11 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.39 2.41 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.36 J2.59 2.85 
 
 3.43 12.59 
 
 2.87'3.11 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.59 
 
 3.33 
 
 9,41 
 
 12 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.59 2.83 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.52 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.65,2.4<; 2.52 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.97 3.36 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.59 
 
 2 87 
 
 13 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.72 2.91 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.11 2.98 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.49 
 
 2.24 
 
 2.66,3.88 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.55 
 
 14 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.83 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.72 
 
 3.00 
 
 i.ver. 
 
 3.32 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.96 
 
 3.28 
 
 2.73 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.40 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.09 
 
 3.21 
 
 2.62 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.20 
 
 2.62 
 
 2.81 
 
62 
 
 DONALDSON : 
 
 Table VIII. is derived from Table VII. by arranging the 
 Ifigures for the average thickness of each locality in each 
 hemisphere in vertical columns, and getting the averages of 
 these for the females alone, for the males alone, and for 
 both together. 
 
 Table VIII. Controls Only. 
 
 Locality. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 
 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.97 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.95 
 
 2.42 
 
 3.22 
 
 2.16 
 
 IR-1 
 
 
 
 3.22 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.75 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.69 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.50 
 
 IL. 
 
 DD 
 
 
 3.04 
 
 3.23 
 
 3.49 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.67 
 
 3.23 
 
 2.82 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.07 
 
 2.74 
 
 VIE. 
 
 03 
 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.54 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.23 
 
 2.83 
 
 3.35 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.31 
 
 3.32 
 
 2.75 
 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.46 
 
 VI L. 
 
 a 
 
 
 3.02 
 
 2.94 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.72 
 
 2.31 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.43 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.16 
 
 3.67 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.31 
 
 XI R. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.26 
 
 2.74 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.67 
 
 3.38 
 
 2.30 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.37 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.43 
 
 2.11 
 
 XI L.J 
 
 
 Average : 
 Females. 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.04 
 
 3.04 
 
 3.18 
 
 3.43 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.41 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.66 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.94 
 
 2.38 
 
 
 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.26 
 
 2.98 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.26 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.46 
 
 II R.l 
 
 
 
 2.57 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.07 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.262.74 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.48 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.19 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.52 
 
 II L. 
 
 
 
 
 3.15 
 
 3.23 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.35|2.70 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.33 
 
 3.45 
 
 2.09 
 
 2.81 
 
 2.48 
 
 2.22 
 
 IIIR. 
 
 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.13 
 
 2.81 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.28 
 
 2.70 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.78 
 
 IIIL. 
 
 
 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.64 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.67 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.81 
 
 2.98 
 
 2.61 
 
 IV R. 
 
 
 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.53 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.47 
 
 2 68 
 
 2.89 
 
 313 
 
 2.24 
 
 3.32 
 
 
 2.46 
 
 IV L. 
 
 00 
 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.47 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.74 
 
 3.23 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.70 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.83 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.40 
 
 IX R. 
 
 r *c3 
 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.11 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.19 2.93 
 
 2.69 
 
 2.59 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.35 
 
 2.46 
 
 IX L. 
 
 a 
 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.02 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.95 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.52 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.02 
 
 XR. 
 
 
 
 3.36 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.67 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.58 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.18 
 
 3.4912.87 
 
 2.97 
 
 2.66 
 
 2.83 
 
 XL. 
 
 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.66 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.24 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.48 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.81 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.37 
 
 XII R. 
 
 
 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.56 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.33 
 
 2.73 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.00 
 
 XII L. 
 
 
 Average : 
 Males. 
 
 2.92 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.02 
 
 2.67 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.03 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.83 
 
 2.82 
 
 2.59 
 
 
 
 Average : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Males and 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.38 
 
 3.oy 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.15 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.04 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.8fc 
 
 2.52 
 
 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table IX. gives the difference in the thickness of the cortex 
 in the two hemispheres of those controls in which the 
 difference is greatest. The figures on which this table is 
 based are found in the "average" columns of Table VII. 
 The controls are grouped into males and females and the in- 
 stance of greatest difference found for each group. To be 
 compared with this is the difference in the same localities in 
 the Bridgman brain. The figures for fhe latter show that 
 the differences are much within the extremes of the controls 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 63 
 
 except at those localities where the largest difference is to be 
 expected i. e., 3, 8, 11, 14 — where they may exceed those of 
 the controls. The roman numeral indicates the number of the 
 specimen and the side which is larger is first designated, so 
 that VI L.-VI E. means that the left hemisphere has the 
 thicker cortex in control VI. It is not without interest in 
 this case that among the females, 9, and among the males, 
 11 out of the 14 cases have the left cortex the thicker. 
 
 
 
 
 Table IX. 
 
 
 
 
 Greatest Differences 
 
 in Cortical Thickness, 
 
 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 
 L. B. 
 
 Loc. 
 
 Gr. Diff. 
 
 Specimen. 
 
 Gr. Din 
 
 '. Specimen. 
 
 Gr. Diff. 
 
 1. 
 
 .58 
 
 VI L.— VI R. 
 
 .51 
 
 X L.— X E. 
 
 .16 
 
 E. L. 
 
 2. 
 
 .42 
 
 IE.— IL. 
 
 .43 
 
 X L.— X E. 
 
 .15 
 
 l. e. 
 
 3. 
 
 .18 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .75 
 
 II L.— II E. 
 
 .47 
 
 E. L. 
 
 4. 
 
 .80 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .28 
 
 XII L.— XII E. 
 
 .21 
 
 E. L. 
 
 5. 
 
 .75 
 
 XI L.— XI E. 
 
 .56 
 
 X L.— X E. 
 
 .14 
 
 L. e. 
 
 6. 
 
 .79 
 
 VI E.— VI L' 
 
 .68 
 
 XII E.— XII L. 
 
 .30 
 
 l. e. 
 
 7. 
 
 .45 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .65 
 
 XII L.— XII E. 
 
 .21 
 
 E. L. 
 
 8. 
 
 .37 
 
 VI E.— VI L. 
 
 .33 
 
 f XL.— XE. | 
 
 1 in l.— hie. / 
 
 .32 
 
 L. e. 
 
 9. 
 
 .49 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .55 
 
 X L.— X E. 
 
 .28 
 
 L. E. 
 
 10. 
 
 .30 
 
 XI E.— XI L. 
 
 .54 
 
 IV E.— IV L. 
 
 .10 
 
 E. L. 
 
 11. 
 
 .17 
 
 XI L.— XI E. 
 
 .65 
 
 / III L.— Ill E, \ 
 \ IV E.— IV L. / 
 
 .73 
 
 L. e. 
 
 12. 
 
 .32 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .56 
 
 II L.— II E. 
 
 .14 
 
 E. L. 
 
 13. 
 
 .48 
 
 XI E.— XI L. 
 
 .44 
 
 IX L.— IX E. 
 
 .12 
 
 E. L. 
 
 14. 
 
 .34 
 
 I L.— I E. 
 
 .63 
 
 XII L.— XII E. 
 
 .43 
 
 L. e. 
 
 III. — Histological Examination. 
 
 The Bridgman brain was not well enough preserved to ad- 
 mit of a very fine microscopical examination. Some points 
 can be made out, however, on sections .02 mm. thick, stained 
 with hematoxylin and eosin, or hematoxylin and carminic 
 acid, or with Weigert-Pal hematoxylin. Whatever general 
 statements are made are always in comparison with the nine 
 controls, from which sections were also cut and similarly 
 stained. 
 
 The cells generally in the Bridgman cortex have abundant 
 pigment — the nuclei often somewhat irregular and the nucleoli 
 sometimes single and clear, often multiple and unclear, and, at 
 times, wanting. Where the cortical granules form layers they 
 appear abundant, as a rule, and immature (i. e., without 
 
64 
 
 DONALDSON 
 
 angles), as though they had been arrested in their growth. 
 The general impression one gets is, that the large nerve cells 
 are neither so large nor so numerous as in the normal brains. 
 Of cell processes and abundance of fibres one can only say, that 
 there appear less of both in all localities, and hasten to add, 
 that the poor condition of the material makes itself painfully 
 felt at this point. 
 
 It seemed worth while, however, to select sections from 
 several localities, especially those in which the cortex of the 
 Bridgman brain appeared thin, and attempt to get some no- 
 tion of the development of the cell elements at these points. 
 
 To arrive at this result I counted the number of cells above 
 a given diameter in a strip of the cortex, comparing the num- 
 ber found in the Bridgman cortex with that in two controls. 
 For results see Table X. 
 
 Table X. 
 
 To show the average number of cells 12 /j, in transverse diameter which 
 occur in 0.01 □ mm. of cerebral cortex at the localities named. Sec- 
 tions .02 mm. thick. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Control III. 
 
 Control XI. 
 
 Laura Bridgman. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 *R. 
 
 tL. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 K. 
 
 L. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 R. 
 
 L. 
 
 Aver. 
 
 Speech, 2 
 
 .85 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.975 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.11 
 
 .93 
 
 .80 
 
 0.865 
 
 Insula, 3 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.03 
 
 L09 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.035 
 
 Head and 
 Eyes, 4 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.15 
 
 Hearing, 6 
 
 1.23 
 
 .99 
 
 lTTi 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.225 
 
 .81 c 
 
 .92 
 
 0.865 
 
 Taste and 
 Smell, 10 
 
 .82 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.34 
 
 .97 
 
 1.155 
 
 .86 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.955 
 
 Sight, 11 
 
 1.03 
 
 .99 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.08 
 
 .95 
 
 1.015 
 
 .47 c 
 
 1.01 
 
 0.74 
 
 Sight, 14 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.08 
 
 1.105 
 
 .99 
 
 1.08 
 
 L03~ 
 
 .40 c 
 
 .92 
 
 0.66 
 
 Average, 
 
 1.075 
 
 1.125 
 
 0.895 
 
 * B. = Bight hemisphere, 
 t L. = Left hemisphere. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 65 
 
 To obtain these figures the following method was employed. 
 The specimen was fixed upon a mechanical stage in such a 
 way that the direction of motion was vertical to the cortex. 
 It was examined with a Zeiss apochromatic objective, 4 mm. 
 focus, combined with the compensating eye- piece 6, tube 
 160 mm., thus giving an enlargement of 375 diameters. 
 
 The eye-piece carried the micrometer with 50 divisions. 
 With the objective used, each division had a value of 4 p. 
 The whole scale covered therefore 50 times .004 mm. = .2 mm. 
 
 Placing the micrometer scale so that it was at right angles 
 to the direction of motion for the specimen, and passing the 
 specimen in review by means of the mechanical stage, a strip 
 of cortex .2 mm. wide could be brought, throughout its entire 
 extent, under the scale. In this manner the nerve cells were 
 sifted, so to speak, through the micrometer scale, and each 
 one that was 12 « or more in diameter was picked out 
 and counted. 
 
 In selecting the point on the section at which to make this 
 test I always took the spot where the cells were apparently — 
 to a low power — most abundant, and in all cases everything 
 in the field that could be counted was counted. 
 
 The depth of the cortex where the count was made was 
 multiplied by the constant width, .2 mm., and the total num- 
 ber of cells divided by this product, using .01 sq. mm. as the 
 unit. The thickness of the section was always .02 mm., 
 which being a constant factor may be neglected. By this 
 treatment it comes out that about one cell, 12 y. or more in 
 basal diameter, normally occurs in each .01 sq. mm. of a sec- 
 tion .02 mm. thick. 
 
 For comparison with the Bridgman sections I took those 
 from Control III. (Brain weight 1,393 gr., male, average thick- 
 ness of cortex R. H. 2.77 m., L. H. 2.86 m.), and Control XI. 
 (Brain weight 1,196 gr., female, average thickness of cortex 
 E. H. 2.74 m., L. H. 2.74 m.), (see Table IV.), thus happen- 
 ing to get both the male and female with the thinnest cortex. 
 
 Table X. shows that, taking the average of both sides, at no 
 locality in the Bridgman brain are the large nerve cells, as abun- 
 dant as in the controls. The number in both the controls is 
 nearly the same. 
 
66 DONALDSON : 
 
 Taking the matter more in detail the motor areas in Laura 
 do not show as great a poverty of large cells as the sensory 
 areas. 
 
 In three instances (marked c in Table X.), the abundance 
 of cells accords with the thickness of the cortex — i. e., the 
 thicker cortex has the larger number of cells. These in- 
 stances include the ones in which the Bridgman cortex most 
 clearly deviates from the normals. 
 
 As in the measurements of cortical thickness, so in the 
 abundance of cells, the Bridgman brain is clearly deficient at 
 6, the auditory area and in the right hemisphere at 11 and 14, 
 visual area, while in the left hemisphere some deficiency is to 
 be noted only at 14, thus again bringing out the contrast be- 
 tween the occipital regions on the two sides. Locality 10 has 
 fewer cells than the controls, but the difference is not so 
 marked as in the thickness of the cortex. 
 
 In general it may be added that where the number of cells 
 above 12 /". in basal diameter was small, that there the abso- 
 lute number of large cells appeared smaller, and the very 
 largest cells not so large, as in the controls. In other words, 
 small number and small size of large cells appeared to be 
 associated, though I have no figures to present on the point. 
 If, however, my impression is correct, then Table X. only in 
 part represents the difference in the development of the cor- 
 tical cells of Laura as compared with the controls. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 /. — General. 
 
 1. No figures can be given for the average thickness of the 
 fresh normal cortex. The various investigators differ widely 
 in their results. My own results agree most closely with 
 those of Jensen. 
 
 2. Persons with an acquired defect of the central nervous 
 system have a thinner cortex than normal persons. 
 
 3. Females have a slightly thinner cortex than males. 
 Difference less than 1 % . 
 
 4. The right hemisphere (normally) has a cortex a few per- 
 cent less thick than the left. Maximum difference 1%. 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LAUEA BEIDGMAN. 67 
 
 II. — Special. 
 
 1. The cortex of Laura Bridgman was abnormally thin, 
 having but 89% of the thickness of the controls. If we sup- 
 pose that in its other dimensions the cortex was similarly 
 reduced in development, i. e. by 11% in each linear meas- 
 urement, then its normal extent would have been 246,808 sq. 
 mm. instead of 200,202.5 sq. mm. as found. This estimate 
 is similar to some of those by the Italian observers, Calori 
 («») and De Eegibus ( 17 " p - 276 ). 
 
 2. The right hemisphere had on the average the thinner 
 cortex — specially to be associated with the defective visual 
 area. 
 
 3. The thinning in the motor areas was not so well marked 
 as in the areas for the defective senses. 
 
 4. Cortex of motor speech centre was not thin. 
 
 5. Cortex of area for dermal sensations was well developed. 
 
 6. Auditory areas (6) on both sides and visual area on 
 right side (11, 8, 14) remarkably thin. 
 
 7. Area for taste and smell (10) thin — associated with the 
 generally undeveloped state of the temporal lobe. 
 
 III. — Histological. 
 
 1. The cortex of Laura Bridgman contained an abnormally 
 small number of large nerve cells — i. e., cells 12 /". or more in 
 transverse basal diameter. 
 
 2. There were fewer nerve cells in the samples from the 
 right, than in those from the left hemisphere. 
 
 3. The deficiency of nerve cells was not so well marked in 
 the motor as in the sensory areas. 
 
 4. In the centre for motor speech (2) the number of nerve 
 cells was abnormally small. 
 
 5. Number of nerve cells very small in the auditory areas 
 (6), both sides, and in the visual area (11, 8, 14) on the right 
 side. 
 
 6. Some diminution in the number of cells at (10), area 
 for taste and smell. Region generally undeveloped. 
 
 7. The small number of cells was associated with small 
 size of the largest cells. 
 
68 GETCHELL : 
 
 The persistence of vision, though in a very defective form, 
 is still of great importance to the full development of the 
 visual cortex — e. g.. right eye and left visual area in Laura. 
 
 Observations on the Olfactory Begion. 
 
 Albert C. Getchell, M. D., Worcester. 
 
 Description of the Specimen. 
 
 The specimen submitted for examination was a portion of 
 the ethmoid bone, extending from the anterior base of the 
 crista galli to the sphenoid bone, a small part of the sphenoid 
 being included in it. It contained nearly all the perpendicular 
 plate of the ethmoid. At the sphenoidal end the lateral sur- 
 faces were devoid of mucous membrane ; towards the frontal 
 end the surfaces were quite covered with the remains of mem- 
 brane in a ragged condition. The right superior turbinated 
 bone presented a smooth surface marked with grooves. Be- 
 tween it and the perpendicular plate was mucous membrane. 
 Little of the left superior turbinated bone remained, and that 
 which did was rough and without grooves. The entire speci- 
 men measured from the extreme frontal to the sphenoidal 
 end, 3 cm.; from the apex of the crista to the farthest point 
 on the perpendicular plate, 2.2 cm.; laterally its greatest 
 measurement was through the horizontal plate of the ethmoid, 
 .5 cm. This line represented the base of two triangles ; the 
 apex of one being the tip of the crista, that of the other the 
 farthest point on the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. 
 
 The specimen had been hardened in Miiller's fluid, and de- 
 calcified in a saturated solution of picric acid, the process being 
 completed in a 1% solution of hydrochloric acid. It was im- 
 bedded in celloidin, and most of the sections were stained with 
 Delafield's hsematoxylin and eosine. Four additional stains 
 were used for nerves, viz.: Upson's carminic acid, Schaefer's 
 nigrosine, hsematoxylin und carminic acid, and Pal's 
 hsematoxylin. 
 
 Results of the Microscopic Examination. 
 
 For the purpose of comparison, I obtained a specimen 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 69 
 
 similar to the one under consideration. This was a portion of 
 the ethmoid bone taken from an elderly man who had been a 
 patient at the Worcester Insane Asylum, and had died there. 
 The presumption would be that this specimen could not be 
 taken as a type of the normal, for it is difficult to suppose 
 that one could pass the greater part of a long life in this 
 climate without having had more or less nasal catarrh. The 
 specimen was, however, healthy in its gross appearance : that 
 is, it was symmetrical, both superior turbinated bones were 
 present ; their surfaces were shiny and grooved ; the mucous 
 membrane was generally and uniformly distributed between 
 the perpendicular plate and the superior turbinated bones. 
 The next point to consider was its microscopic appearance, 
 and here arose the question, What is our standard for the 
 normal? The work in this region has been done mainly upon 
 the lower animals, and while the results obtained are in the 
 main applicable to the olfactory region of the higher animals, 
 including man, obviously it would be of great assistance to 
 have well-conducted studies upon the olfactory region of man. 
 In an investigation upon the olfactory region of a case of 
 leukaemia Hermann Suchannek( 84 ) has touched upon this 
 topic. He has figured a microscopic section of the olfactory 
 region of a man 40 years old, with a normal sense of smell. 
 The picture agrees with the usual description of this region. 
 It represents a section consisting of a regular row of epithelial 
 cells, resting upon a basement membrane, beneath which are 
 many Bowman's glands, a few blood vessels and nerves, with 
 little intertubular connective tissue. Unfortunately no meas- 
 urements are given, either of the entire mucous membrane or 
 the epithelium. My specimen presented a different appear- 
 ance. The epithelial layer preserved for the most part its 
 normal characteristics of a regular row of columnar cells rest- 
 ing upon a row of round cells, the epithelial cells being well 
 formed and distinct. In many places, however, the surface 
 was not so well defined, but was breaking into crowded 
 irregular masses of granular matter, while the subjacent layer 
 of round cells had disappeared, and its place was taken by a 
 mass of round cells, which penetrated deeply the underlying 
 tissue. In these localities the surface layer of cells was thrown 
 
70 GETCHELL : 
 
 into folds which projected above the surface, and also rami- 
 fied into the mucous membrane, like glands. There was a gen- 
 eral increase of connective tissue. The thickness of the entire 
 mucous membrane varied from .16 mm. to .88 mm. Those 
 localities that measured .16 mm., taking as a standard the 
 usual description and the figure of Suchannek, were fairly 
 normal. The epithelium of these regions was particularly 
 healthy. The epithelial layer varied from 30/' to 98," in thick- 
 ness (Kolliker quoted by Schwalbe( 86 ) gives 40/* to 98," as the 
 normal thickness). It was thinnest at the extreme vault of the 
 olfactory fissure. 
 
 In the Bridgman sections the thickness of the mucous mem- 
 brane entire varied from .16 mm. to .64 mm., and the thickness 
 of the epithelial layer from 48," to 90/^. Taking .16 mm. as the 
 thickness of the normal mucous membrane, I found those areas 
 of the mucous membrane that were of this thickness, far from 
 normal. The surface of the epithelial layer was covered with 
 thin granular matter, and the surface line was very irregular. 
 The cells took the stain poorly, showing that they were 
 degenerating into mucus. In many places the cell bodies 
 had entirely disappeared, leaving a mere outline of their 
 former structures. The row of round cells had disappeared 
 and its place was taken by a mass of cells, now pushing up 
 into the epithelial layer, now invading the membranalimitans. 
 In the sub- epithelial tissue there was a dense deposit of con- 
 nective tissue. In no part of the specimen was the epithelium 
 healthy. At some points the mucous membrane was en- 
 tirely devoid of epithelial cells ; at others, there was the row 
 of round cells, now single, now two or three deep. In some 
 places these cells were becoming polygonal in shape ; again 
 over them was a crowded confused mass of irregular cells 
 breaking away. In some places there were breaks of continuity 
 in the line of epithelial cells, otherwise fairly regular in their 
 size and distribution. There were also places where the sur- 
 face of the mucous membrane was thrown into elevations. 
 There was generally a large increase of connective tissue, 
 which, in some areas, had replaced everything else. In 
 other areas was abundant infiltration of small, round cells. 
 Bowman's glands were very irregularly distributed and varied 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 71 
 
 much in their character. They presented all gradations from 
 a ring of fairly healthy polygonal cells to a confused mass 
 of granular matter. 
 
 The mucous membrane on the right of the septum was much 
 healthier than that on the left. Its thickness was uniform, 
 though in some places there was an increased deposit of con- 
 nective tissue. The curve into the vault of the olfactory fis- 
 sure was uninterrupted and regular throughout this side of 
 the specimen. The epithelial cells, though individually under- 
 going degeneration, were fairly regular in outline. Bowman's 
 glands were numerous in the frontal part of the specimen, but 
 toward the sphenoidal end they had disappeared. Through- 
 out this area were nerves and blood-vessels, with greatly 
 thickened walls. The left side of the specimen presented a 
 very different picture. In the frontal fifth of the olfactory fis- 
 sure was crowded a mass of connective tissue, in which were 
 nerves, blood-vessels, glands, covered ventrad with de- 
 generated epithelium. Still ventrad to this, the perpendicular 
 plate was devoid of mucous membrane, as was also that part of 
 the superior turbinated bone which remained ; the greater 
 part of this bone was either in small fragments or had entirely 
 disappeared. The remaining four-fifths of this side of the 
 specimen was occupied by a fibrous tumor, which was, as it 
 were, in a closed cavity, the mucous membrane of the septum 
 having firmly united with that of the superior turbinated 
 bone, giving in the sections the appearance of a ring lined 
 with epithelium, enclosing the tumor. The tumor sprang from 
 the septum and projected into the superior meatus. Its length 
 from its frontal to its sphenoidal end, estimated by the num- 
 ber of sections in which it was found, was upwards of 1.5 cm. 
 It was irregularly polygonal in shape, and measured at its 
 frontal end 1.12 mm. in height (that is, from the septum to 
 the apex of the tumor) and 1.05 mm. in breadth, while at its 
 sphenoidal end the corresponding measurements were 2.50 
 mm. and 1.44 mm. Its character changed from the frontal to 
 the sphenoidal end. In the frontal region it was made up of 
 a central column of dense connective tissue, which supported 
 nerves, blood vessels, Bowman's glands, the whole being cov- 
 ered with a layer of epithelium as healthy as that in any part 
 
72 GETOHELL : 
 
 of the specimen. At the sphenoidal end the central column 
 was divided by a fissure, Bowman's glands had disappeared, 
 and the whole tumor was filled with spaces of irregular shape, 
 many of them full of blood corpuscles. Blood vessels 
 remained, but there were few nerves and the greater part of 
 the tumor was devoid of epithelium. 
 
 The Nerves. 
 
 There were two varieties of nerves in the specimen, a 
 branch of the ophthalmic division of the fifth which passes 
 into the nose through the fissure at the base of the crista 
 galli, and the olfactory nerves. The branch of the fifth, a 
 medullated nerve, was in the main normal. The axis cylin- 
 ders stood out sharply throughout the greater part of the 
 sections. In some areas, however, they had lost this dis- 
 tinctness and showed signs of beginning degeneration. But 
 the change was no greater than might be expected in a woman 
 of Laura's age. 
 
 Before entering upon the description of the olfactory nerves 
 of this specimen, it will be well to discuss briefly the normal 
 and pathological anatomy of the olfactory nerve in general. 
 
 The generally accepted view of the non- medullated nerve, 
 of which the olfactory is a type, is that it is made up of the 
 so-called Remak's fibres. Each of these consists of an axis 
 cylinder, a neurilemma, and between the two a nucleated 
 nerve corpuscle from place to place. This fibre has a striated 
 appearance due, according to Max Schultze, to the fibrillae of 
 the nerve, which are distinguished from the axis cylinders of 
 a medullated nerve in that they individually have no medul- 
 lary sheath. Boveri( 86 ), on the other hand, has made a care- 
 ful study of this subject, and concludes that the fibrillae of 
 Max Schultze are really nerve fibres, each having a medul- 
 lated sheath. This sheath does not, however, belong exclu- 
 sively to each nerve. It sustains the same relation to the 
 contiguous nerve fibres that the cell wall of a honey-comb 
 does to the cells. A number of these nerves are surrounded 
 by an envelope of connective tissue, in which are here and 
 there stellate connective tissue corpuscles. There are also 
 within the investing sheath, among the nerves, connective 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LATJEA BEIDGMAN. 73 
 
 tissue corpuscles, with stellate rays which can be traced very 
 far, even to the enclosing sheath. 
 
 The olfactory nerves are subject to certain definite patho- 
 logical conditions. In the first place, they may be congen- 
 ially absent. Injury to the head may cause rupture to the 
 nerves as they pass through the cribriform plate. Excessive 
 stimulation may temporarily or permanently destroy their 
 excitability. Tumors in the brain or cerebral hemorrhage 
 may by pressure cause disease of the olfactory nerves. There 
 may be atrophy of the bulb or nerves, or they may be affected 
 by the degenerative changes of old age. Simple neuritis is a 
 very rare affection (Althaus) ( 87 ). Chronic neuritis, due to 
 syphilis, however, is not uncommon. The nerve may become 
 involved in local inflammatory changes in connection with 
 meningitis. Bosworth( 88 ) is of the opinion that a very 
 frequent cause of anosmia from diseases of the olfactory 
 nerves is due to the influence of local inflammatory changes. 
 Thus in acute rhinitis, anosmia persists many days after the 
 inflammatory process undergoes resolution. In severer 
 disease of the nose, where the local inflammatory action per- 
 sists longer, or is of a severer type, the anosmia lasts much 
 longer, long after the inflammatory action has subsided. 
 
 To return to our specimen. The nerves were numerous 
 and were easily distinguished by moderate powers of the 
 microscope (320 diameters.) To get some definite idea of the 
 distribution of the nerves in the different parts of the specimen 
 I selected five slides and counted the nerves on them. One of 
 these sections was from the frontal end, one from the sphe- 
 noidal, the other three at regular intervals between them. I 
 also made a count of the nerves of the control specimen under 
 similar conditions, with the following results, (The slide 
 numbered one in each case, was from the frontal end). 
 
 Bridgman. Control. 
 
 I3t slide, 1 
 
 uerve. 
 
 1st slide, 4 nerves 
 
 2nd " 7 
 
 tt 
 
 2nd 
 
 " 20 
 
 3rd " 28 
 
 It 
 
 3)d 
 
 " 10 " 
 
 4th • 32 
 
 tt 
 
 4th 
 
 tt 8 u 
 
 5th » 18 
 
 tt 
 
 5th 
 
 it 15 tt 
 
 Total 86 
 
 
 
 Total 57 
 
74 GETCHBLL : 
 
 This enumeration is of interest in that it shows the dis- 
 tribution of the nerves in the different parts of the specimens, 
 but it gives no reliable information as to the relative number 
 of uerves in the two specimens. It is a difficult matter, even 
 under favorable conditions, to stain the olfactory nerves so 
 as to show the nerve fibres. In neither of these specimens 
 was I able to show the olfactory nerves with the special stains 
 for nerve tissue. The only stain that brought them out at all 
 was the hematoxylin and eosine, which did it by virtue of its 
 differentiating the connective tissue. We shall see that this 
 latter was greatly increased in the Bridgman specimen, and 
 it is evident that because of this many more nerves would 
 be detected than in the healthier specimen. 
 
 In the Bridgman slides, the nerves were surrounded by a 
 ring of connective tissue which was very thick. Within this 
 ring was a uniformly granular field broken up into smaller 
 areas, and more or less studded with deeply stained dots. 
 With a T ^ oil immersion objective, these dots were seen to be 
 stellate connective tissue corpuscles. The areas alluded to 
 above corresponded to the portions of the nerve bounded by 
 the connective tissue envelope in Boveri's sections. Here, as 
 with his sections, the connective tissue corpuscles were upon 
 and within the sheaths. Bather the connective tissue cor- 
 puscles of the sheath were where the sheath should be, that 
 place being represented in our sections by a vacant space. As 
 this apparent shrinking was quite general throughout the 
 specimen, I attributed it to the action of reagents. With 
 this power, the nerve presented a regularly mottled appear- 
 ance, very similar to a section of a frog's olfactory nerve 
 as figured by Boveri, and representing according to his views 
 the cut ends of the nerve fibres. The nerve in its essential 
 elements, therefore, was normal. The connective tissue 
 elements, however, were largely increased. 
 General Consideratioiis. 
 
 It will be interesting now, to gather together the available 
 facts relating to Laura's sense of smell, and the general con- 
 dition of her nasal mucous membrane during life, and to find, 
 if we can, in the condition of this membrane an explanation 
 of her symptoms. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 75 
 
 As an infant she was delicate, being subject to severe con- 
 vulsions. But later her health improved, and when two years 
 old she is described as being more active and intelligent than 
 ordinary children. At two she had scarlet fever with such 
 severity that for seven weeks she was unable to swallow solid 
 food. Both eyes and ears were affected, suppurating freely 
 ( 1-p2 ). When seven years old she was seen by Dr. R. D. 
 Mussey, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at Dartmouth 
 College, and in a letter dated April 14, 1837, he thus alludes 
 to her sense of smell : "Her sense of smell is thought by her 
 mother to be less acute than other children, as she very sel- 
 dom applies any odorous substance to her nose : it is not 
 improbable that this sense may have been impaired by the 
 fever" ( 1_vin ). In this year, 1837, she entered the Perkins 
 Institution and we find in Dr. Howe's report this note (2- 155 ) : 
 "For all purposes of use she is without smell, and takes no 
 notice of the odor of a rose, or the smell of cologne water, 
 when held quite near her, though acrid and pungent odors 
 seem to affect the olfactory nerve." April 6, 1812, Miss 
 Swift, Laura's teacher, made this note( 1_p107 ) : "Dr. Howe 
 came into the room, while she was having a lesson, peeling 
 an orange. She stopped in the midst of a sentence to say, 
 'I smell an orange.' We can see a decided improvement in 
 her sense of smell since last year, but she has never noticed 
 any perfume so quickly or at so great a distance before." 
 June 19, 1844, we find this noteC 1 ^- 257 ): "This is the first 
 season she has ever perceived the smell of a rose or pink, 
 and she now puts all flowers to her nose and is disappointed 
 if they have no perfume. In a letter to Mrs. Howe, dated 
 June 25, 1844, Laura herself says ( 1_p - 258 ), "I can smell roses 
 much better than I did two years ago, and it gives me much 
 pleasure in smelling roses." 
 
 I find but few observations upon the general condition of 
 her nose. Dec. 14, 1843, Miss Swift made this note( 1_p 215 ): 
 "She has always been a sufferer from a severe catarrhal affec- 
 tion, and as this shows signs of improvement, we hope for a 
 corresponding one in both smell and taste." In 1878 Dr. G. 
 Stanley Hall, in the course of a series of observations upon 
 her several faculties, examined her nose with this result( 6 ) : 
 
76 GETCHELL : 
 
 "There is no deformity or scarification observable without or 
 from a cursory examination within the nose, and the yellow 
 pigment of the Schneiderian membrane can be seen by a very 
 simple apparatus." Dr. Hall made further this very inter- 
 esting observation. He described her sleeping with long 
 regular breathing, the teeth slightly apart and the tongue 
 pressed against them and almost between them. 
 
 I have received the following letter from Miss Delia Ben- 
 nett, who has been a teacher in the Perkins Institution since 
 1876: 
 
 "Laura Bridgman lived for several years in the same family 
 with myself, and I have conferred with the matron of the cot- 
 tage, and can answer most of your questions definitely. There 
 was copious discharge from her nose, so much so that she 
 was wont to say, 'My poor nose!' Her handkerchief was in 
 frequent demand, and she used many. Her breath was never 
 offensive. She always breathed through her nose, a habit 
 which she formed when quite young, and her breathing was 
 often accompanied with a gentle whistling sound. I have 
 seen her asleep in the daytime and her mouth was closed, but 
 I cannot tell about the night. She did remove mucus from 
 her throat, and occasionally had a sore throat." 
 
 From these notes one gathers that at the age of two, Laura 
 suffered from a severe inflammation of the nasopharynx, 
 which doubtless extended to her nose : that after her illness 
 she was quite destitute of the sense of smell, entirely so when 
 at the age of eight she entered the Perkins Institution : that at 
 the age of fifteen she could detect with certainty and pleasure 
 moderately pronounced odors : that she had a severe nasal 
 catarrh which lasted her entire life, although it decreased 
 somewhat in severity : furthermore that there was no deform- 
 ity without or within the nose that could be seen by one not 
 accustomed to examine these parts. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of the cause of Laura's 
 anosmia and her partial recovery from it. We have seen 
 that the olfactory nerves were capable of performing their 
 function, and according to Dr. Donaldson (vide ante) there 
 was no central lesion that would cause anosmia. We must 
 therefore seek for the cause in the periphery of the nervous 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 77 
 
 apparatus. The two chief peripheral causes of anosmia are 
 obstruction to the inspired air due to deformity of the nose, 
 hypertrophy of the turbinated bodies, nasal polypi or tumors, 
 and atrophic disease. That there was not atrophic disease 
 is shown by the absence of bad odor, by the partial return of 
 the sense of smell, and by the result of our examination of 
 the specimen. Furthermore, according to Bosworth, catarrhal 
 affections caused by febrile diseases and prominently scarlet 
 fever, are characterized by hypertrophic changes (ss-p 1 "). 
 It is quite improbable that Laura had any deformity of 
 the nose or hypertrophic disease in the respiratory part of the 
 nose, which would interfere very materially with the access 
 of the inspired air to the olfactory region, and it is in this lat- 
 ter region, therefore, that we must look for the cause of her 
 anosmia. We have found in the left superior meatus an 
 adequate cause for a complete absence of the sense of smell 
 for that area, in the extensive disease there which resulted in 
 a thorough disorganization of the mucous membrane in a part 
 of the olfactory fissure, while the rest was excluded from all con- 
 tact with the inspired air by the firm union of the mucous mem- 
 brane of the septum with that of the left superior turbinated 
 body. In the right superior meatus, on the other hand, con- 
 ditions were more favorable for the proper performance of 
 function. It is here that Laura must have smelled, and the 
 questions now to be settled are, how could this area have 
 been rendered incapable of performing its function, and how 
 could this function have been resumed. 
 
 Catarrhal inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane is the 
 usual accompaniment of scarlet fever, except in the mildest 
 cases, and is associated with an irritating discharge from the 
 nose (Smith) ( 89 ) . The inflammatory process in these cases does 
 not involve more than the epithelial layers. But in severe 
 disease the deeper tissues of the mucous membrane are af- 
 fected. There is a copious proliferation of cells in the deeper 
 layers, with fibrinous infiltration even to the extent of com- 
 pressing the vessels and making portions of the tissue gan- 
 grenous (Henoch )( 90 ). There may even result necrosis of 
 the bones (Thomas)( 91 ). There may be recovery even though 
 the disease be severe, or it may result in chronic disease with 
 
 6 
 
78 GETCHELL : 
 
 more or less profuse discharge and extensive inflammatory in- 
 filtration, or there may be an osteitis of all the bones which 
 enter into the composition of the nasal cavities (Allen)( 92 ). 
 That Laura's nasal mucous membrane was prof oundly affect- 
 ed by the fever there seems no doubt, and it is easy to conceive 
 how the active cell proliferation and swelling of the mucous 
 membrane caused by the catarrhal process would have so af- 
 fected the delicate termination of the olfactory nerves that they 
 would be entirely incapable of functioning. But as time went 
 on we know her catarrh grew better and we rightfully infer 
 that the inflammatory processes in the mucous membrane 
 subsided, to an extent, though they never entirely ceased. We 
 have seen that the structures of the nose were a good deal 
 damaged, yet they were not entirely useless. In the right 
 superior meatus especially, there were spots of membrane in a 
 fairly healthy condition. A question of interest here presents 
 itself — would the olfactory nerves after so long a period of 
 inactivity preserve their power of responding to stimuli! The 
 following case reported by Allen ( 92 ) proves that this is pos- 
 sible. The patient was a married woman. She had never 
 breathed through her nose and had never experienced the 
 perception of an odor. There was found to be a complete bony 
 occlusion of the posterior nares. This was broken through 
 and on the sixth day after the operation she began to smell 
 and in a short time became familiar with the common odors 
 and flavors. The odoriferous air was not kept from Laura's 
 olfactory nerves by bony obstruction, but it was kept from 
 them by what acted as efficiently for a long time, namely, 
 masses of rapidly proliferating cells, and the mucus and 
 debris of a diseased mucous membrane. When this process 
 subsided it again became possible, in those areas where the 
 ephithelium still remained sufficiently healthy, as it did in 
 places, for the terminal filaments of the nerves to receive and 
 convey their proper stimuli. There may have been a further 
 cause for the anosmia. When discussing the pathology of 
 the olfactory nerve, we alluded to Bosworth's view that anos- 
 mia was due in some cases to the local action of the surround- 
 ing inflammation upon the nerve itself. As I understand the 
 matter he bases this view solely upon clinical experience, and 
 attempts no explanation of the tardy return of the sense of 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 79 
 
 smell after the subsidence of the inflammation. We have in 
 our sections a possible explanation of this peculiarity. The 
 connective tissue of the nerve was increased in amount, while 
 the nerve tissue proper was apparently normal. Interesting 
 questions suggest themselves in this connection. Does the 
 development of this tissue impair the functioning power of 
 the nerve, and does a nerve so affected resume its normal 
 activity more slowly than the surrounding tissue? At present, 
 so far as I know, there is not sufficient anatomical data upon 
 which one could even discuss these topics. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 I. The ethmoid bone and the mucous membrane covering it 
 had suffered from inflammatory disease, which particularly 
 affected the left side. 2. This disease resulted in an excessive 
 production of connective tissue, and in one area, the left su- 
 perior meatus, there had been formed a fibrous tumor. The 
 epithelium was generally and considerably diseased. The 
 nerves contained an excess of connective tissue, but were 
 otherwise normal. 3. When two years old, Laura had scarlet 
 fever, which left her anosmic and with severe nasal catarrh. 
 She partially recovered from both these conditions. 4. The 
 anosmia was due to the occlusion of the left olfactory area 
 by the union of the mucous membrane of the septum with 
 that of the superior turbinated body, and also to the action of 
 the inflamed mucous membrane upon the nerves of the right 
 olfactory region. Partial recovery resulted from subsidence 
 of this inflammation. 
 
 II. — The Visual Apparatus. 
 
 When Laura recovered from her illness it appeared that 
 she was totally blind in her left eye but could see somewhat 
 with the right. The remnant of vision in her right eye con- 
 tinued up to the eigthth year of her life. 
 
 (From that time on she was absolutely blind in both eyes. 
 
 In 1878 Dr. O. F. Wadsworth, of Boston, tested her for 
 vision and found her totally blind ( ) and at the same time 
 reported on the appearance of the eyes as follows : 
 
 "On both sides the lids are sunken, partly on account of 
 lack of the normal amount of orbital fatty tissue, partly on 
 account of the small size of the eyeballs. They remain con- 
 stantly closed. The right conjunctival sac is much smaller 
 
80 DONALDSON : 
 
 than normal, somewhat irregular, and presents an appearance 
 such as is seen after severe and long-continued inflammation. 
 The right eye appears about one half the normal size. It is 
 wholly enclosed by the sclerotic, except over a space at the 
 centre, some two millimetres in diameter, where a less opaque 
 tissue, on which a few blood-vessels are visible, represents 
 the altered remnant of the cornea. The left conjuctival sac 
 is somewhat larger than the right, and more regular, though 
 still small. The left globe also is a little larger than the 
 right, and its opaque altered cornea is some four millimetres 
 in horizontal and two millimetres in vertical diameter. There 
 was constant irregular oscillation of the globes [nystagmus] 
 whenever they were exposed to view by raising the lids, and 
 the oscillation evidently continued even after the lids were 
 closed." 
 
 At the autopsy the eyes were removed with the surround- 
 ing tissue and put unopened into the Muller ? s fluid and 
 alcohol. The hardening was completed in alcohol. 
 
 Both bulbs were enclosed by orbital fat. All the muscles 
 the of bulbs were present, though small, and the external ap- 
 pearance of the bulbs corresponded with Dr. Wadsworth's 
 description given in 1878. After hardening, the right eye 
 had a transverse diameter of 15 mm. and an antero-posterior 
 diameter of 10.5 mm. Similar measurements of the left eye 
 gave 17.5 and 11. mm. showing the left to be decidedly the 
 larger. The condition of phthisis bulbi existed for both eyes. 
 There was a faint indication of the anterior chamber. The 
 locality of lens and vitreous contained abundant calcareous 
 deposits in small masses and the choroidal pigment was 
 very abundant. Sections through the point of entrance of 
 the optic nerve showed no trace of the retina or normal 
 nervous elements at this point. Both eyes were similar in 
 the appearance just mentioned. As has been stated the 
 optic nerves were small : 
 
 Eight optic nerve, area of cross-section near chiasma, 5.00 sq. mm. 
 Left " " " " " " 3.38 " " 
 
 The connective tissue was vastly increased in both nerves 
 but one also saw the characteristic cross sections of axis- 
 cylinders with their medullary sheaths. The fibres were both 
 
ON THE BEAIN OF LAURA BEIDGMAN. 81 
 
 large and small. ^ It is worth noting that these fibres were 
 abundant in the left nerve but much less so in the right, 
 although the right was the larger nerve. The chiasma was 
 much flattened dorso-ventrally. The optic tracts were small 
 and flattened. Their area was taken about 10. mm. behind 
 the chiasma. The relations of size were of course reversed 
 at this point and the left tract was the larger : 
 
 Right optic tract near chiasma, 3.13 sq. mm. 
 
 Left " " " " 4.69 " « 
 
 From these measurements the only conclusion that can be 
 drawn is that a large part of the fibres decussated. In the 
 tracts, which were not very well hardened, the fibres visible in 
 cross-section of the corresponding optic nerves were also to be 
 found. Throughout the nerves and tracts, but more abundant 
 in the latter, there were numerous droplets or spherical 
 homogeneous masses, as a rule about 12 p in diameter, and 
 staining with fuchsin and carmine. Lying at the periphery 
 of both nerves and tracts these bodies would appear to cor- 
 respond with corpora amylacea, with some of the descriptions 
 of which, however, they do not exactly agree. Further than 
 the tracts it was not practicable to carry the histological 
 examination of the optic pathway. 
 
 The corpora geniculata externa were too imperfect for 
 description. The pulvinar and the anterior pair of the 
 corpora quadrigemina were both slightly less prominent than 
 in the normal brains. The cortex was the next locality 
 studied and the results there obtained have already been 
 given. 
 
 The first point calling for remark is that the eye in which 
 vision was longest retained ultimately had the smaller bulb 
 and at the same time it was associated with the larger optic 
 nerve and tract. The nerve and tract, however, though 
 larger showed fewer nerve fibres that were clearly marked. 
 It should perhaps be noticed in this connection that this 
 smaller bulb had also the smaller (right) oculo-motor nerve 
 in connection with it. 
 
 From these facts it would appear that although in general 
 the right eye was more seriously affected yet some portion of 
 the retina remained undamaged for a long time — up to the 
 
82 DONALDSON : 
 
 eighth year. During this period the optic nerve, the tract 
 and the cortex underwent considerable development so that 
 the subsequent degeneration of the right nerve was accompa- 
 nied by far less atrophy than that of the left side. On the left 
 side the disturbance in the eyeball was in general less severe 
 and though vision was abolished very early, there was left 
 some condition which favored the better preservation of those 
 nerve fibres which did not at an early period undergo degen- 
 eration and absorption. I had expected to find complete 
 degeneration of both optic nerves such as had been described 
 by Purtscher. ( 80 ) 
 
 On the bases of these specimens, I should hardly like to 
 enter into the forms of degeneration possible to the optic 
 nerves but if a double set of fibres in the optic — the two sets 
 developing and conducting in opposite directions — be accepted, 
 then these nerves found intact in this case might be con- 
 sidered as belonging to that set the centre for which was 
 central and which conducted peripherally, v. Monakow ( 81, 82 ) 
 
 In this instance then the disturbance in the cortex is prob- 
 ably to be looked upon much more as due to an arrest of 
 growth following the removal of the normal stimuli, than to a 
 continuation of the degeneration into the hemispheres. 
 III. — The Auditory Apparatus. 
 
 From the time of her illness to her death there is good 
 evidence that Laura was entirely deaf. At the same time she 
 had a good sense of direction and of equilibrium and was 
 sensitive to rotation. Hall ( 6 ). The equilibrium and auditory 
 functions of the eighth nerve are therefore to be separated 
 in this case. 
 
 An examination of the ears was made in 1878 by Dr. 
 Clarence J. Blake who reported as follows : ( 6 ) 
 
 " Both external ears normal. The right external auditory 
 canal normal in size and contour, and the skin lining the 
 passage healthy and showing no marks of previous inflam- 
 mation-processes. The right membrana tympani was entirely 
 destroyed with the exception of a narrow rim, the remains of 
 the inferior and posterior portions of the membrane, from 
 which a thin cicatrical tissue extended inward to the promont- 
 orium over the stapes and fenestra rotunda. The malleus 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 83 
 
 and incus had disappeared. The mucous membrane of the 
 tympanic cavity presented a normal appearance, with the 
 exception of one spot on the promontorium covered with a thin 
 crust of dried secretion about two millimetres in diameter. A 
 band of thin cicatrical tissue also extended across the anterior 
 portion of the tympanic cavity. The left external auditory 
 canal was filled with dark brownish cerumen, on removal of 
 which the passage was found to terminate, at a depth of two 
 centimetres, in a diaphragm of secondary granulation-tissue, 
 concave, very firm, and resisting gentle pressure with a 
 probe, except at the central or thinner portions, where it 
 could be slightly depressed. Its outer covering was continuous 
 with the dermoid lining of the canal." 
 
 After death, the petrous bones were put in Dr. Blake's 
 hands and the report on them, made by Dr. W. S. Bryant, of 
 Boston, is the following : 
 
 The Examination of Laura Bridgmarfs Petrous Bones. 
 The Bight Petrous Bone. 
 
 A deep groove for the superior petrosal sinus is seen. The 
 external auditory canal is terminated by a concave curtain of 
 fibrous tissue resting on the promontory. There is no 
 evidence left of the former position of membrana tympani 
 except at the floor of the canal, where there is a slight indica- 
 tion of the sulcus tympanicus. The tympanic cavity is con- 
 siderably constricted by hyperostoses. The oval and round 
 windows are ossified across and the promontory is very rough, 
 leaving only a small space inferiorly and posteriorly. The 
 inferior anterior wall of the tympanum is very thin and there 
 are two pin-hole perforations into the carotid canal. 
 
 The Eustachian tube is impervious ; its tympanic end 
 being closed by bone and just beyond this there is an accu- 
 mulation of cheesy matter also enclosed by bone. There are 
 no air spaces within the tympanum for all the bone cells are 
 filled with tissue, although in the highest part of the petrous 
 bone there is a cell which connects with the tympanum. There 
 is no evidence of mastoid cells or antrum. (I did not see the 
 mastoid process). 
 
 The chorda tympani muscle is very much atrophied and its 
 tendon is attached to cicatricial tissue. The stapedius 
 
84 DONALDSON : 
 
 was very much atrophied and its canal narrowed. The tendon 
 still protrudes from the tubercle. 
 
 Anteriorly and externally the osseous wall of the aqueduct 
 of Fallopius is wanting. No trace of the ossicles could be 
 found. The inner ear appears normal. 
 
 Dr. H. F. Sears kindly examined the terminations of the 
 auditory nerve and organ of Corti and found the terminal 
 ganglion cells intact. 
 
 The Left Petrous Bone. 
 
 The groove for the superior petrosal sinus is undsually 
 deep. A diaphragm of dense fibrous tissue especially thick 
 and firm on the surface and concave outwards forms the end 
 of the conical external auditory meatus 8 mm. external to the 
 base of the styloid process. 
 
 The floor of the osseous meatus is defective externally and 
 is pierced internally and anteriorly by a foramen 1 mm. in 
 diameter, in the fissure of Glacier. 
 
 External to the fibrous diaphragm there is a diaphragm 
 formed by hyperostosis of the walls of the canal which ob- 
 structs the passage except near the centre and slightly ex- 
 ternal to the normal position of the membrana tympani, 
 where there is an opening 2x4 mm. 
 
 The hyperostosis extends into the tympanum filling the 
 greater part of it, but leaving a space external to the fenestrse 
 and below the promontory, also a considerable space in the 
 external anterior and superior part of the petrous bone. 
 
 There are no air spaces between the place of closure of the 
 meatus and the pharyngeal end of the osseous Eustachian 
 tube. All the bone cells are filled with soft tissue and the 
 osseous Eustachian tube is not seen. No remains of the 
 membrana tympani could be found. 
 
 Before I saw the specimen the tympanum had been opened 
 and some of its contents taken out ; all of this was lost except 
 the head and neck of the malleus with the base of the long 
 process, all enclosed in fibrous tissue. 
 
 The relations of the fenestra ovalis and the attachment of 
 the tensor tympani muscle had also been destroyed. The 
 chorda tympani nerve was found intact. The tendon of the 
 stapedius muscle was protruding from its tubercle. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 85 
 
 The aqueduct of Fallopius and its contents are intact. The 
 round window is closed by dense fibrous tissue. Both the 
 round and oval windows are small, less than one-half of 
 normal size. 
 
 Dr. H. F. Sears kindly examined the nerves and muscles 
 and found the tensor tympani considerably and the stapedius 
 slightly atrophied. He also found numerous ganglion cells 
 in the cochlea. 
 
 The original report of Dr. Bryant ends here. In answer to 
 a further question, however, he states that nothing patholog- 
 ical could be definitely made out in either the cochleas or 
 semi- circular canals. As the original preservation of the 
 specimens had been in Miiller's fluid only, they were not in 
 the best condition for a fine histological examination. 
 
 As the case stands the inflammation of the middle ear is 
 the occasion of the deafness. The authorities on the subject 
 state that absolute deafness does not follow disease of the 
 middle ear alone. So that there is something here to be ex- 
 plained. I consider that the cochlea must have been thrown 
 out of function on both sides since the tuning fork placed on 
 the skull gave no auditory sensations — and this, to my mind, 
 outbalances the negative result of the histological examina- 
 tion. 
 
 The auditory nerves were studied only by means of the 
 stumps attached to the medulla ; the right auditory had an area 
 of 4.26 sq. mm. in cross section. The left of 3.17 sq. mm. 
 Both samples were taken within about 3 mm. of their attach- 
 ment to the medulla. (For the method see the article in this 
 same number on " The size of several cranial nerves in man as 
 indicated by their cross-section.") Boughly their area was 
 about two thirds of that of the similar nerves from the brain 
 of a normal male in whom the cranial nerves were all very 
 large. There is no reason then to think that in Laura the 
 nerves were remarkably small. The figure for the area of the 
 larger, right nerve, is somewhat too high owing to the 
 obliquity of section and some distortion, so that they were 
 really more nearly equal than these figures would indicate. 
 
 The connective tissue in the nerve trunks is normal. The 
 
86 DONALDSON : 
 
 nerve fibre show well marked sheaths and axis cylinders. 
 If degeneration has occurred in these nerves the indications of 
 it have long since disappeared. The nerve fibres found would 
 be designated as normal. The bundles of larger fibres, 
 presumptively connected with the semi- circular canals, contain 
 particularly well preserved fibres. 
 
 In the medulla both roots and all three nuclei can be clearly 
 identified on both sides. 
 
 The fibres in the medulla stain by Weigert's method and the 
 cells with carmine, as well as could be expected from the con- 
 dition of the specimen. If there is any abnormality it is that 
 the auditory fibres do not take the Weigert's stain particularly 
 well and that the cells of the accessory nucleus in the medulla 
 are few and poorly developed. The striae acusticae were 
 well developed and on gross examination — when the floor of 
 the fourth ventricle was viewed from above — there were 
 visible two bundles on the right side and three on the left 
 which could be counted as belonging to the striae, while just 
 cephalad to these was a well marked bundle on each side of 
 the middle line, corresponding with the structure described as 
 the conductor sonorus (Klangstab) and supposed to form part 
 of the centripetal pathway for the auditory impulses. 
 
 On comparison with a number of normal specimens the 
 caudal pair of the quadrigemina exhibited no marked pecul- 
 iarity. They were small, but no smaller than in the case of 
 some normals. The corpora geniculata interna did not appear 
 small in Laura upon gross examination but this appearance I 
 am inclined to attribute to the failure of the surrounding 
 regions to fully develop, thus causing the corp. gen. int. to 
 stand out with unusual clearness. 
 
 The next point examined in the auditory pathway was the 
 cerebral cortex and the results there found have already been 
 stated. 
 
 I wish to add in this place that in the description of the 
 surface of the brain previously given Iwas not willing to admit 
 any superficial abnormality in the region of the first temporal 
 gyrus at its caudal end. Since writing that description I have 
 made further comparisons with normal brains and have ob- 
 tained evidence of lack of development in the cortex of this 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 87 
 
 region in the case of Laura. At present then I look on the 
 slenderness of this gyrus, especially on the right side, where 
 the cortex is most affected, as an expression of the in- 
 complete development of the region. Mills C 42,68 ), Starr ( 41 ), 
 Manouvrier ( 8S ). 
 
 At first sight the small disturbance — to the naked eye at 
 least — existing between the middle ear and the cortex is 
 striking. Histological investigation up to the centres in the 
 medulla yields a similar negative result. Between the me- 
 dulla and cortex the condition of the specimen did not warrant 
 a histological study. 
 
 In the scattered literature relating to the examination of the 
 ear and brain in deaf-mutes, a condition where there is little 
 or no apparent abnormality of the inner ear, the auditory 
 nerve or the medulla, associated with disease of the middle 
 ear, deafness and (sometimes) atrophy of the cortical auditory 
 centres, is occasionally described : Bremer ( 69 ), Larsen & 
 Mygind ( 70 ), Moos (J 1 ), Mygind ( w ), Obersteiner ( 73 ), Moos 
 and Steinbriigge ( 74 > 75 - 76 ). I believe that in future cases, like 
 that of Laura, a more detailed examination than it was possible 
 to make in her case will show disease of the membraneous 
 cochlea or the nerves between it and the spiral ganglion of 
 the cochlea. Such a case has been reported by Moos and Stein- 
 briigge ( 79 ). 
 
 As long, of course, as the cells of the spiral ganglion are 
 intact, just so long will the auditory fibres associated with 
 them — and this must represent a very large portion of the 
 cochlear division of the auditory — remain morphologically in- 
 tact. Following the pathway to the cortex we find no point 
 at which marked changes occur until we reach the cortex it- 
 self. The disturbance here is most probably due to the early 
 and long continued lack of normal excitation, for the cortical 
 cells in the sensory areas are peculiarly dependent for their 
 proper development on the special sense with which they are 
 associated. 
 
 The evidence from stimulation of the cortex and from the 
 histology of the medulla goes to show that the association be- 
 tween the auditory nerve and the cortical centre for hearing is 
 to some extent at least, a crossed one. If this were so, then 
 
88 DONALDSON : 
 
 the smaller, left nerve, would associate itself with the thinner,, 
 right cortex. This relation exists in the case of Laura, but it 
 remains for further investigation to show its significance. 
 Strumpell ( 78 ). 
 
 As regards the semicircular canals it may be added that they 
 were not found diseased. Their nerve was in good con- 
 dition, and sensibility to rotation, sense of direction, etc.,. 
 were present. Of course the relation of this part of the inner 
 ear to the middle ear is less intimate than that of the cochlea, 
 and this in part may account for the normal preservation of 
 the canals. That both portions of the labyrinth need not be 
 conjointly affected is shown by James ( 79 ), in his study of 
 the sense of dizziness in deaf-mutes, where this sense was 
 found totally lacking in only 186 out of the 519 cases examined. 
 IV. — The Cranial Nerves. 
 
 It is desirable to bring together the various facts regarding 
 the cranial nerves in Laura's case. After what has been said 
 in the foregoing pages, and the discussion of their area by Mr. 
 Bolton and myself ( ^ p - aM ) , this can be briefly done. Table XL 
 gives the various points in a condensed form. 
 
 Table XL 
 
 II. 
 
 a 
 tt 
 tt 
 
 III. 
 
 it 
 
 VIII. 
 
 tt 
 
 The sixth nerve — abducens — contained only normal fibres 
 and appeared healthy, but the measurements on the two sides 
 were so different that I suspect some strands were lost, and 
 hence do not give the figures for the area. 
 
 The only nerve in the Table which has not been discussed 
 is the olfactory. The bulb was flattened and the glomeruli 
 could not be identified. The ganglion cell layer was there, 
 and contained some well formed cells. The other layers were 
 poorly preserved. The vessel walls were thickened. There 
 was some excess of connective tissue and an abundance of 
 
 
 
 Area in 
 
 
 
 Nerve. 
 
 
 SQ. MM. 
 
 Condition-. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Olfactory, bulb, 
 
 right 
 
 6.34 
 
 Somewhat atrophied 
 
 Small 
 
 " tract, 
 
 i right 
 
 1.46 
 
 a tt 
 
 " 
 
 Optic nerve, 
 
 right 
 
 5.00 
 
 Greatly atrophied 
 
 Very small 
 
 tt tt 
 
 left 
 
 3.38 
 
 tt tt 
 
 tc it 
 
 " tract, 
 
 right 
 
 3.13 
 
 it tt 
 
 u .( 
 
 It tt 
 
 left 
 
 4.69 
 
 tt tt 
 
 it it 
 
 Oculomotor, 
 
 right 
 
 3.17 
 
 Normal 
 
 Large 
 
 tt 
 
 left 
 
 3.51 
 
 u 
 
 tt 
 
 Auditory, 
 
 right 
 
 4.26 
 
 Somewhat atrophied 
 
 Small 
 
 tt 
 
 left 
 
 3.17 
 
 tt tt 
 
 ti 
 
ON THE BRAIN OF LAURA BRIDGMAN. 89 
 
 hyaline bodies — corpora amylacea(?). Distinctly degener- 
 ated fibres could not be made out in the tract, but the vessels, 
 connective tissue, corpora amylacea, were found as in the 
 bulb. Grossly the left tract and bulbs were like the right, 
 but by accident the former was lost before it had been exam- 
 ined histologically. 
 
 Whether there was anything peculiar in the glossopharyngeal 
 fibres, I am unable to say. The portion within the medulla 
 was normal. 
 
 The medulla which was examined from the level of the 
 pyramid to the middle of the pons, by means of sections, 
 .showed no abnormality save in the neighborhood of the acces- 
 sory nucleus of the auditory nerve, where the cells appeared 
 small, reduced in numbers and highly pigmented. 
 
 The pia of the hemispheres had a normal abundance of nu- 
 clei in it, even over the occipital region — and the blood vessels 
 were normal in size and thickness of their walls. The cere- 
 bellum was also normal. 
 
 V. — Conclusion. 
 
 From these fragmentary observations, which leave so many 
 points connected with this special case still undecided, it will 
 be advantageous to construct some sort of general picture. 
 
 The anatomical condition was that of a normal brain in 
 which the olfactory bulbs and nerves, the optic nerves, the 
 auditory nerves, and possibly the glossopharyngeal, had all 
 been more or less destroyed at their peripheral ends. This 
 destruction caused a degeneration — most marked in the optic 
 nerves — which extended towards the centres and involved 
 them indirectly. This condition has left its mark more or 
 less plainly on the whole brain, as indicated by the extent 
 and thickness of the cerebral cortex, and specially by the 
 cortex connected with these deficient sensory nerves. The 
 physiological effect of the peripheral lesions, as I conceive it, 
 was to retard growth in the centres, cortical and subcortical, 
 which were thus involved, and also to interfere with, if not 
 entirely prevent, the formation of the association tracts. 
 
 To be sure, this case represents a maximum loss in these de- 
 fective senses with a minimum amount of central disturbance, 
 thus offering the very best sort of ^opportunity for education 
 by way of the surviving senses. At the same time, we must 
 
90 DONALDSON : 
 
 imagine the hemispheres to have been traversed in every di- 
 rection by partly or completely closed pathways. The brain 
 was simpler than that of a normal person, and Laura was 
 shut off from those cross-references between her several 
 senses, which usually so facilitate the acquisition of informa- 
 tion and the process of thought. Mental association was for 
 her limited to various phases of the dermal sensations and the 
 minor and imperfect senses of taste and smell. Yet from 
 their fundamental and protean character, the dermal senses 
 are perhaps the only ones on which alone the intellect could 
 have lived. We are thus brought back to Sanford's ( 7 ) con- 
 clusion as derived from the study of her writings. "She was 
 eccentric, not defective. She lacked certain data of thought, 
 but not, in a very marked way, the power to use what data 
 she had." 
 
 One word more upon the cortex. The deficiency in the 
 motor speech centre is mainly macroscopic, as far as the third 
 frontal gyrus is concerned. The motor centre there had lost 
 some, but not all its associative connections. Histologically, 
 it was slightly deficient. The lesion there was so different from 
 that of the sensory centres that a histological difference 
 ought not, perhaps, to be surprising. The cortex of the sen- 
 sory centres was not sunken below the surrounding level, 
 though the gyri were slender and flattened. Possibly in this 
 sinking in a motor area and the absence of the same in the 
 sensory areas, we have a suggestive difference in the reactions 
 of the several portions of the cortex. 
 
 Finally, the deficiency was not so very great even in those 
 areas, where it was most marked, and the question arises as 
 to what sort of occupation the cells in those areas had, which 
 would thus justify their prolonged existence. If they were 
 thrown entirely out of function it is not easy to see how they 
 could last so well for nearly sixty years. In some way then 
 they may have taken a slight part in the cerebral activity, but 
 it was so slight that their specific reactions did not rise into 
 consciousness, for though Laura had some light perception 
 up to her eighth year, she apparently had no visual memories, 
 whereas those who have retained full vision up to four and 
 a half or five years of age and then become blind, do usually 
 remember in terms of sight ( 8 ). 
 
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 gauche (Bertillon). Revue Philosophique. T. XIV. 3. 
 p. 330. Paris. 
 
 84. 1890. Suchannek, H. A case of Leukjemia with note- 
 
 worthy changes of the nasal mucous membrane. 
 Archives of Otology, Vol. XIX. 
 
 85. 1887. Schwalbe, G. Anatomie der Sinnes-organe. Er- 
 
 langen. 
 
 86. 1885. Boveri, T. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Nerven 
 
 fasern. Abhandl. d. k. bayer. Ahademie d. Wiss. II. cl. 
 XV. Bd. II. Abthe. Munchen. 
 
 87. 1881. Althatjs, J. A lecture on the physiology and 
 
 pathology of the olfactory nerve. The Lancet, 1881, 
 vol. I. 
 8S. 1889. Bosworth, F. H. A treatise on the diseases of the 
 nose and throat. Vol. I. New York. 
 
 89. 1885. Smith, J. L. Scarlet Fever : in System of Medicine 
 
 by American Authors. Pepper, Philadelphia. 
 
 90. 1889. Henoch, E. Lectures on Children's Diseases. Vol. 
 
 II. New Sydenham Society's Publications. London. 
 
 91. 1879. Thomas, L. Cyclopaedia of the Practice of Medicine. 
 
 von Ziemsen. New York. 
 
 92. 1891. Allen, H. Clinical Signs common to the mouth, 
 
 nose, throat and ear. The cephalic mucous membrane. 
 University Medical Magazine, March, 1891. Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 Corrigenda. I. Article. 
 
 Page 12. The percentage increase in volume is certainly too large. 
 It should be oue or two per cent, less than that for weight. 
 
 Page 14. Line 8. All the specimens mentioned in this paragraph 
 except the Bridgman, are supposed to have been weighed with the pia 
 on. To make this specimen comparable then its weight must be in- 
 creased by the weight of the pia, 31.4 grms. This makes the total 
 weight of the Bridgman encephalon, with pia, 1235.4 grms. 
 
ON THE BRAIN OE LAURA BRIDGMAN. 97 
 
 Page 20. Line 13. Topinard's Table (Elements d'Anthropologie 
 generale, Paris, 18S5) in his Anthropology, p. 518 shows the relations 
 between brain weight and age. It is based on 1913 cases of Boyd, and 
 according to it the maximum encephalic weight for females, falls be- 
 tween the ages of 20-30 years ; that for males between 3040 years ; 
 This indicates brain growth up to the age of maximum weight, there- 
 fore beyond the twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Page 32. Table. The first series of weights stands under the head- 
 ing " Weight of cerebral hemispheres, fresh.'' The question arises 
 whether " cerebral hemisphere " should not be replaced by "encephala." 
 I have not seen any account of how much of the encephalon was used 
 in determining the fresh weights in this series, but, since these brains 
 were directly compared with those of other observers in which the 
 entire encephalon had been weighed, it is only fair to suppose that they 
 had been treated in the same way. This was my opinion until I found 
 a table in R. Wagner's^ 1 ) Vorstudien. 2te Abhandlung, 18G2, P. 91, in 
 which the weights ol the two " hemispheres," of at least three of these 
 brains in the table, are compared with one another. The specimens had 
 been in alcohol the strength of which is not given. Now the sum of the 
 weights of the two ''hemispheres " is nearly equal to or more than the 
 weight of the "brains'' given by II. Wagner (**) 1864. I therefore 
 used the word " hemisphere " in the above heading as equivalent to hemi- 
 cerebrum. It would appear that both the Wagners used it as equal to 
 hemiencephalon. In the above mentioned table then the weights given 
 are those for the entire encephalon and not for the cerebrum only. 
 
 Pajie 36. Table I. 
 
 Page 42. Table VIII. 
 
 For absolute difference, 
 
 1398.4 sq. 
 
 Bead " " 
 
 1598.4 " 
 
 For in percentage, 
 
 1.8% 
 
 Bead ; ' 
 
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 For total (left), 
 
 101256.0 sq. 
 
 Bead " 
 
 101255.2 " 
 
 For absolute difference, 
 
 2309.5 " 
 
 Bead " " . 
 
 2308.7 " 
 
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Plate III, 
 
 Fig. 1. Lateral aspect. 3 is used to designate the insula here not 
 exposed. 
 
 Fig. 2. Ventral aspect. 
 
 Fig. 3. Mesal aspect. 
 
 Explanation of Plato III. This plate shows the localities 
 on the hemispheres from which the samples of cortex were 
 taken. For the physiological value of these localities Table 
 1 1 1 may he consulted. 
 
Plate IV. 
 
 3. 5 b -. 
 
 CONTROLS-^ 
 
 3. m 
 
 8RIDGMAN 
 
 LEFT. 
 
 BRIDGMAN RIGHT 
 
 Z. 5 m 
 
 LOCALITr - 
 
 2. m _ 
 
 M 'AN 
 
 \i * \ \ / 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 V \ 
 
 3 7 6 4 2 5 10 1 1 3 1 2 ' 11 8 9 l|* 
 
 A 
 
 n 
 
 t-> 
 
 f- 
 
 
 re 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 (- 
 
 CO 
 
 C/I 
 
 BRIDGMAN 
 LEPT 
 
 BRIDGMAN 
 RIGHT 
 
 Explanation of Plate IV. The curve was originally plotted 
 so that the thickness of the cortex was magnified 100 times, 
 i. e., .01 mm. of cortex corresponded to 1. mm. on the ordi- 
 nates. The original has been reduced for printing to some- 
 what less than six- tenths of its linear scale. The figures 
 placed by the ordinates indicate the thickness of cortex. The 
 summits of the curves are alone represented, there being 
 1.8 mm. of cortex below what is shown. The figures for the 
 localities cross the plate in a horizontal line, with the important 
 designations below them. 
 
 The curve for all controls is in a solid line, 
 
 The curve for L. B., right hemisphere, is in long and short dashes, — 
 The curve for L B., left hemisphere, is in short dashes, - 
 
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