COLUMBIA LIBRARIES OFFSITE HEALTH SCIENCES STANDARD HX64078094 RA773 Ed4 9th 1 889 Health lectures for RECAP ,-.s ,. , Ns;-". > SS;««NCS«N»' ^ ^W'' c \^\r 3505 i \'\ ./ V V v^ ■Sfi'ri 1 ^ iKiiliifiiiii "" IMWiiMIMMMMMi lllliNMWI iiiiiii TEA AND THE TEA TRADE. MUCH has been said, written, and read within the last few months in regard to this important product and much prized daily household beverage. As the trader has not now, as he had thirty or forty years ago, to depend almost exclusively on the Celestial Empire of China and Japan for that cheering stimulant and valuable essential of healthy nutrition, which still, In the opinion of the Subscribers, deserves priority for excellence in the Lapsang, S uchong, Finer Monings Kaisows, and Pekoes as the most sustaining and beneficial of all Teas, China has the first place. India does produce, from various districts, valuable and choice selections to an enormous extent, without which the demand or consumption could not be supplied ; and more recently Ceylon, which bulks so largely in our prestnt imports, is not to be readily put aside — and which, when judiciou ^ly blended with China Tea, enhances the value of both ; but to eveiy person of experience, —when Teaj call — there i. on the leaves Indian and C fashioned gl stomach and it might be c merely fashi of Fine Teas, properly usei The advan the T?a, whi cup. _ 2nd—] they begin t( the system, ( vessel (after keeping the compressed i ordinary met more than oi SEVE In the Se In the Se In the Se In the Se In the Se Sugars, ( Tea,^ 'RA773 Edtf C|tK 1 888/® Colnmbm (MnitJer^ttp ' College of ^tipsiictans: anb burgeons; Hxhxwcv ion calls ids that 50 long jgree in ;he old- on the idencies jtly and I blends [i, when gth of he tea- making •ious to rforated ii), thus 1, being •x by the ig little ter lb. tor lb. x% Old BLE .. .._.,... ,.NDS. 'WHICH ARE STILL UNEQUALLED, 2 SOUTH CHARLOTTE STREET, EDINBURGH. SOLE AGENTS IN SCOTLAND FOR THE ROYAL AMARANTH BITTERS, The Most Perfect NON-ALCOHOLIC Restorative Digestive TONIC yet discovered. IMPROVED CONVERTIBLE CLOSE AND OPEN FIRE RANGES. 'The Eagle/'The Simplex/'TheHecla.' With Latest Improvements. Prices from £3, 10s. to £18, 10s. COPPER OR BEST STEEL PLATE PRESSURE BOILERS. Prices from £2, 10s. to £8, 10s. Drawings, Catalogues, and Estimates Furnished on Application. Liberal Discount for Ready Money. Experienced Workmen for Fitting- up at Lowest Rates. JAMES GRAY & SON, MANUFACTURING IRONMONGERS, 85GEORGESTREET,EDIHBiiEGE. Special IDalue in ©in (Bn^\i%% SPOONS, FORKS, AND TABLE CUTLERY. Price Lists and Catalogues Free on Application. James Gray & Son offer every advantage wMch can possibly be obtained to Pur- chasers of Table Cutlery, Electro-Plated Silver Spoons and Forks. The quality of their Stock cannot be surpassed. The Best Patterns only are kept in Stock, and the Goods are sold at the smallest possible profit. DESSERT KNIVES, Ivory Handles, from 12s. 6d. to 35s. per dozen. DESSERT SPOONS and FORKS, ,, 17s. 6d. to 35s. per dozen. TAB^_ n.jNlvES, Ivory Handles, „ 18s. 6d. to 48s. per dozen. TABLE SPOONS and FORKS, „ 22s. 6d. to 483. per dozen. Discount for Ready -Money . AMES GRAY & SON, /iDanutacturtng 'ixoxv(\\om^'^^i 85 GEORGE STREET, EDINBURGH. BRANC>C— 42 J^EWINGTON J o § O O O p r-H 2 ^ Eh c6 o ^ ^ O Q O ft O o S r-H m 4^ o E3 O d O 2 O O •pH o o o 5m c8 U O ;h ^ ^ .2 ft ^ o M id M 4-3 5m 2 o d •M -^^ M a ^ 5m O © 43 a s O +3 •M o d o d ;-( d •M o 5m o Til SI d 4^ (P 4^ a Q d ^ "^ d M JO ^ 5 T o 4-3 O CS 4J ^ m O o pd 4^ 5m o o rd 4^ •M 0) 5m O ^ o -^ •pH 5m .2 Z o D Z o J E- E- co Z o Q O z < O CO FISH I GAME!! POULTRY!!! A. BLACKHALL, Junr., 28 ELM ROW (Opposite Annandale Street), Keeps always on hand the Freshest, Best, and most Varied Stock of Above in the City, during the Various SeaJ^ons. Orders from Country and any part of Town carefully attended to. SPECIALTIES:- G. DICKSON MOFFAT'S COD LIVER OIL. GIBSON'S OYSTERS. HARRISON'S BACON; and PALE THORPE'S CAMBRIDGE SAUSAGES. JUST PUBLISHED— PRICE SIXPENCE. T IE3I Tn EDUCATION OF GIRLS A PUBLIC LECTURE DELIVERED BY JAMES OLIPHANT, M.A., F.R.S.E., AT THE CHARLOTTE SQUARE INSTITUTION. RE-ISSUE OF HEALTH LECTURES IN SHILLING VOLUMES. Edinburgh: MACNIVEN & WALLACE, Princes Street. — BO -A-'S - NUTRITIVE EMULSION OF COD LIVER OIL With CARRAGEEN. A Delicious, Digestible Cream of very great Restorative Yalue. THE MANUPACTtTEEE Tespectf ully invites tlie attention of the Medical Profession and the Public to this preparation. He has for several years been experimenting with Carrageen or Irish Moss for combination with Cod Liver Oil, and he has now'overcome certain diflBcalties which have hitherto prevented the successful use of Carrageen for this purpose. This nutritious seaweed is admirably adapted for combination with Cod .Liver OiL It is rich in Albuminoid matter, which, in conjunction with the Carbon of the OU, renders the " Nutritive Emulsion " both FLESH-FORMING and HEAT-PRODUCING. The " Nutritive Emulsion " was first prepared in November 1887. Since then it has been freely prescribed by many Physicians to whom it was introduced, and the results have been eminently satisfactoiy. The increase in weight and the improvement in colour of those who have taken it have been unusually marked. It contains Half its bulk of the finest Cod Liver Oil, which the presence of the Can-ageen renders easily absorbed into the system — the seaweed supplying those elements which might be lost in the extraction of the OU from the livers. As neither Gums nor Sugar is employed in its manufacture, the Emulsion may be truly described as A GENUINE PRODUCT OF THE SEA. For any of the complaints for which Cod Liver OU is beneficial, the " Nutritive Emulsion " is superior to the plain OU. It may be regarded as an ideal food in a concentrated form, which is unequalled for use in Consumptive or Wasting Diseases, or whenever thei*e is defective nutrition. It is not more expensive than the finest Cod Liver OU. Sold in Bottles at Is. and 2s. ; by Post, Is. 3d. and 2s. 6d. PPvEPARED ONLY BY PETER BOA, ManuMuring and Dispensing Cliemist, 119 GEORGE STREET, EDINBURGH. {Successor to, and for some years Manager for, John Mackay ; and preuioiisly with Messrs Frazer & Green, Chemists to the Queen, Glasgoiu ; and Messrs Jas. Robertson & Co., George Street, Edinburgh.) Glasgow Agents-Messrs FRAZER & GREEN, 127 Buchanan St. HEALTH LECTURES for the PEOPLE. FIRST SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. Care of the Body. By Professor Fleeming Jenkin. Food and Drink. By Dr J. A. Eussell. Lungs and Air. By Dr Andrew Wilson. The Blood and its Circulation. By Dr Foulis. Accidents, &C. By Professor Annandale. Hints to Women. By Dr A. Macdonald. Rearing of Children. By Dr Underhill. Water in Houses. By Dr Stevenson Macadam. Stimulants and Tobacco. By Professor T. R. Fraser. Preventable Diseases. By Dr Andrew Smart. " The book will be one of the most valuable of its kind that has yet been published. No one can doubt the ability of each and all of the medical men who delivered the Lectures to deal with the subjects which they took in hand. They have dis- cussed them with much care, and with a desire to make their information as complete as possible. Thus, the volume is a fairly complete handbook of plain directions, by which men and women may avoid many of the ills flesh is heir to ; and it cannot be too widely circulated. There ought to be no house- hold without it." — jScotsman. EDINBURGH: MACNIVEN i^ WALLACE. HEALTH LECTURES for the PEOPLE, SECOND SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. Modern Medicine. By Dr J. A. Kussell. The Human Body. By Dr D. J. Cunningham. Parasites. By Dr Andrew Wilson. The Brain and its Functions. By Dr Batty Tuke. The Skin. By Dr Allan Jamieson. How we Digest our Food. By Dr Foulis. Small-Pox and Vaccination. By Dr Rutherford Haldane. A Cold; What it Means. By Dr James Affleck. " It is satisfactory to learn from the preface to this admirable set of eight Lectures, that each of them was listened to, with appreciative attention, by two thousand persons, largely re- cruited from the artisan class. The objects of the Edinburgh Health Society, under the auspices of which these Lectures were delivered, are of a most praiseworthy kind — namely, to promote, by all means in its power, attention to personal and domestic cleanliness, to comfort, self-denial, temperance, and the laws of health generally. It is greatly to be wished that the lessons which these pages teach were widely learnt and carried out in general practice." — Spectator. EDINBURGH: MACNIVEN & WALLACE. HEALTH LECTDRES for the PEOPLE, THIRD SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. Ventilation. By Professor Douglas Maclagan. Physical Exercises: Their Place and Function. By Dr Charles W. Cathcart. Brain Health : Its Establishment and Maintenance. By Dr J. Batty Tuke. Domestic Economy, as Regards Food and Cookery. By Miss PhcEBB Blyth. Domestic Economy, as Regards Clothing and House- hold Arrangements, &c. By Dr W. Allan Jamieson. The Ear, in Health and in Disease. By Dr E. J. Blair CUNYNGHAME, The Eye. By Dr Argyll Robertson. Minor Ailments and their Treatment. By Dr Claude MuiRHEAD, M.D. Nursing the Sick. By Dr J. Halliday Groom, M.D. Sanitary Law and Administration. By William C. Smith, LL.B., Advocate. " These Lectures, like the two preceding courses, cannot fail to do good, were it only b}'- awakening public attention to impor- tant subjects of social well-being, and planting seeds which may, sooner or later, germinate and bring forth fruit." — Ediiiburcjli Medical Journal. "They have won success in the city; they have been imitated all over the country ; and there is every reason to believe that they have done good work in teaching people to look more after the means of securing and maintaining good health than they have been in the habit of doing. It is well to have the Lectures in this form. They are all plainly written, and they are full of valuable information." — Scotsman. EDINBURGH: MACNIVEIST & WALLACE. POPULAR ERROES IN REGARD TO MEDICINE. By EGBERT W. FELKIN, M.D., RR.S.E. Mr Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, — I had no idea when I consented to give a lecture to the Health Society this year, that it would be my fate to have to give the first or introductory lecture. I wish that this duty had been in other hands than mine, for it is a great responsibility to strike the key-note of a course of lectures like this, and had I had the slightest idea that the task would fall to me, I should have chosen a very different theme from the one to which I have to call your atten- tion this evening. However, I will try to do my best, and will hope that your estimate of this course of lectures will not depend upon my humble efforts. The subject to which I am about to direct your thoughts is that of popular errors in regard to medicine, and I propose to treat it from two points of view. I shall first refer to the historical aspect of the subject, and shall then endeavour to deal with some of those very common errors with which we meet in the present day. The idea of this lecture was suggested to me by Sir Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidernica^ published in 1646. He says that the cause of error is complicated, that it is due to the com- mon infirmity of human nature, and the erroneous disposition of the people, and that the more immediate causes of common error are misapprehension and fallacy and false deduction, credulity and supinity, and obstinate adherence unto antiquity ; and pro- bably the greatest cause is adherence unto authority. " What fool almost could believe, at least, what wise man would rely upon, that antidote delivered by Pierius in his hieroglyphics against the sting of a scorpion, — that is, to sit upon an ass with one's face 4 POPULAR ERRORS IN REGARD TO MEDICINE. minated an anathema specially directed against surgery, by ordain- ing that as the church abhorred all cruel or sanguinary practices, no priest should be permitted to follow surgery or to perform any operations in which either instruments of steel or fire were em- ployed ; and that they should refuse their benediction to all those who professed and pursued it." " In many catholic countries the saints have proved sad enemies to the doctors. Miraculous cures are attested by monks, abbots, bishops, popes, and consecrated saints. St Martin's shrine alone is said to have restored fifty blind people to the blessing of sight ; stories related no less at variance with the sentiments and charac- ters of the men than contradicted by the laws of nature." Difie- rent saints were prayed to to protect from particular diseases — St Anthony, for instance, against inflammations ; St ApoUonia, against toothache ; St Christopher and St Mark, against sudden death ; St Clara, against sore eyes ; St Germanus, against the diseases of children ; and St John against epilepsy and poison. " The kingdom of Ireland affords numerous examples of super- stitions entertained with regard to the miraculous power of certain fountains, holy wells, lOs. Od. J ? 30s. Od. 55 12s. Od. J5 . to 21s. >) 46 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HKALTH AND WEALTH. rise from among themselves — I refer to combination, or as it is more popularly known, Trade Union. It is greatly to the credit of British working men that their efforts to obtain the right to combine — though the fight had to be maintained for long years against a tyrannical and distrustful op- position— were conducted in the main by constitutional means, con- trasting favourably with the revolutionary and socialistic methods of workmen in other European countries to attain the same end. Those who know the dependent position in which labour for- merly was, the low rate of wages in many trades, and the terrible state of distress and helplessness to which workmen were reduced when thrown out of employment in times of depression, will un- derstand the blessing which these organisations have been to them. In studying the history of labour combination, one is appalled at the state of wretchedness into which workmen were plunged in consequence of unfair laws which abandoned them to. the dis- cretionary power of the employers. For instance, a number of workmen who signed a petition to Parliament were discharged. Even a peaceful meeting to discuss the rate of wages rendered workmen liable to a penalty of three months' imprisonment. The masters could combine to reduce wages without the law touching them, while the workmen frequently suffered imprison- ment for their combinations to raise wages. A law so severe and one-sided had its natural effect in promoting secret combinations and provoking acts of violence. Strikes were of frequent occur- rence and led to acts of an atrocious description. There are two black pages in the history of labour combination. The one is the unreasonable distrust of the working classes on the part of the legislature, and the other is the unwise manner in which the workmen in some instances used their liberty shortly after they had obtained it. Happily these conditions have passed away. The composition of the legislature has greatly improved, and its attitude towards the working classes has become much more favourable ; while, on the other hand, the Unions have out- lived the prejudice which their conduct at first excited against them. To evade the Act against trade combinations these Trades Unions, before they became legalised, called themselves benefit societies, though their real object was to fight for better THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 47 wages and conditions. Now that they arc legah'scd, though they take the name; of Trade Unions, the figures in their annual reports would lead one to infer that the main reason of their existence is for Friendly Society purposes, and that trade polemics now form a subsidiary object. For the most part tlie men who have been honoured with the confidence of their fellow-workmen in carrying out the work of the Unions have been well-informed and judicious men, and have conducted the business entrusted to them with consideration, honesty, arid singular capacity. Instead of constant recourse to strikes as for- merly, there is now reference made to boards of arbitration and conciliation, to the mutual advantage of both employers and em- ployed. Strikes are regarded as necessary evils, alike injurious to the interests of capital and labour, to be resorted to only when every other means have been tried and have failed to effect a satisfactory agreement. An indirect benefit of combination has been to teach the mem- bers what self-help and self-reliance may do. It has also pro- tected them against many of the ills and misfortunes incident to industrial life, and has without doubt thus tended to avert social and industrial disorder. Trade Unions in their Friendly Society Aepects. It is surprising that these Trade Unions are not supported to a greater extent by the working classes, if not out of gi-atitude for the past successes they have won for their order, at any rate for the singularly favourable benefit returns they give to their members for a moderate contribution. Although the subject of the benefits granted by Friendly Societies will be afterwards discussed, it may not be inappro- priate, while we ai-e treating of the subject of Trade Unions, to say a few words regarding them in their Friendly Society aspects. The chief benefits which the leading Unions grant are — Acci- dent and Sick Pay, Out-of-Work Pay, Old Age Pay, Benevolent Grants, and Funeral Allowances. In the larger Unions the Sick Benefit and Out-of-Work Allowance averages from 9s. to 10s. weekly. When a member is permanently disabled by accident from following his ordinaiy occupation, a grant of .£100 is made to (!nable the injured nKjmber to earn a livelihood in some other 48 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. way. The Funeral Allowances payable on tlie death of a mem- ber vary from £7 to <£12, and on the death of a member's wife, from £5 to £6. Superannuation Allowance is a benefit which many of the Unions have only lately undertaken to give. The weekly allowance under this head paid by the Engineer's Society is 7s. to lis.; the Carpenters and Joiners give 7s. to 8s.; the Steam-Engine Makers, 5s. to 9s. ; the Iron Moulders, 5s. Gd. to 7s. ; the Boilermakers, 6s. ; the Ironfounders, 5s. 6d. ; and the Tailors, 2s. 6d. to 5 s. In the following table I have shown the disbursements under various heads by the seven Trade Unions above-mentioned, which may be taken as fairly representative of the better class of these organisations : — Table showing the Amounts Expended on their various Benefits by Seven OF THE PRINCIPAL TkADE UnIONS DURING THE YeAR 1887. . -u S q3 00 p'S« M «a 1^ a 4^ 1 <».2 C m m Names of Society. S ■= fl • Unei ploy Bene -3 OJ Supei nuati Bene Loss Too Bene Is go w £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Amalgamated Society of Engineers, . 51,869 80,458 31,138 9,021 1,850 36,163 129 4,858 2,989 Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners, 25,497 32,814 17,228 2,951 1,370 3,797 1,510 4,487 786 Steam - Engine Makers' Society, .... 5,080 5,989 2,729 745 100 1,714 ] ,051 49 Friendly Society of Iron- Founders, 11,718 21,801 6,192 2,307 613 7,692 100 13 Societv of Boiler-Makers and Iron Shipbuilders, . 25,100 22,165 20,539 3,452 1,815 4,657 1,131 Associated Iron Moulders of Scotland, . 5,455 8,908 1.843 3,073 Amalgamated Society of Tailors, .... 14,305 1,280 9,688 2,836 511 804 35 139,024 173,415 87,514 23,155 5,748 57,607 1,639 12,431 3,872 It will be observed from this table that there are 139,024 members in these seven Unions. Tlie contributions are at pre- sent — in the Tailors' Society, 7d. per week ; in the Iron Moulders' Society, owing to special circumstances, so liigh as 2s. })er week ; THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 49 in the other societies, from 9d. to Is, a week. The sum paid out for Friendlj Society objects was £352,950 ; while the amount paid for Trade Protection or strike pay was only £12,431, being a little over 3 per cent, of the total amount expended. In his recent address to the International Trade Union Con- gress, the chairman submitted statistics of twenty-six of the leading Unions of this country, and showed that during their existence — the mean time being twenty-three years — they had expended, from funds accumulated from hard-earned wages, the following large sums : — For Unemployed benefit, . . . £3,559,059 For Sick benefit, .... 2,006,539 For Superannuation, when incapable of work, 753,149 For Funerals of members and their wives, . 663,783 For upholding and increasing wages, and reducing hours of labour, . . . . 603,531 For Benevolent Grants in cases of special distress, and assistance to other tradesmen in difficulty, 168,888 For replacing tools lost or destroyed, . 84,333 For members travelling in search of work, . 17,144 Making a grand total of about eight millions sterling. In his address he made out a good claim on the working men of this country to support the Unions. His concluding passage was as follows : — " When we can obtain wages from which it is possible — as it ought to be — to make efiective savings, the sceptre of Industry will pass from the hand of the capitalist to that of the labourer, and not till then will industrial strife cease. Our higher life and truer enjoyment must be preceded by wider organisation of labour, sustained by regular contributions, directed by broad sympathies and enlightened confidence in each other, regardless of race, creed, or nationality ; then this feeling, acting in sound economic medium, will make a vast and bene- ficial change in our industrial system, and give the material conditions of peace, happiness, and prosperity to the multitudes who earn their bread by their daily toil." Let us now turn our attention to the second division of the subject, namely, the 50 THRIFT, IN K1:GAIID TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. Spandings of the Wage-Earning Classes. It will be possible to make out a case that there should be some money to save and invest, if, in addition to proving, that workmen now earn more money than they formerly did, we can show that the purchasing power of that money on the necessaries of life is now greater than it was in a former generation. The prices of commodities, which are in daily use in a workman's family, such as clothing, bread, sugar, tea, furniture, &c., are now less than was the case fifty years ago ; while, on the other hand, the two items of house rent and butcher meat, have increased in price. The standard of living has, of course, risen considerably, and there is now more food, and that of a better quality, consumed in the houses of our working population. There falls naturally under the head of spendings, the consideration of a subject which cannot but call forth our thankfulness for what it has already accom- plished, and at the same time inspire us with a great hope for wliat it may yet do for the working classes. I refer to Co-operation- This system of thrift has already been of immense benefit to working men, and it has potentialities of extending tliat benefit to tens of thousands of our countrymen who are still in ignorance of its beneficent usefulness and application to their circumstances. The aim and determination of co-operators is to associate labour v/ith capital, and while displacing competition to substitute there- for a great brotherhood, working for each other's good and the benefit of all. The form of co-operation which has been most successful in this country, is distributive co-operation. The system had flourished in England for many years before it took root in Scotland, but there are now very few villages or towns in this country which cannot boast of their co-operative society, conducted on the Rochdale principle, and doing a flourishing business. The history of co-operation is one of intense struggle. The men who first originated the system in Lancashire — the Roclulalc Pioneers — started their Society in 1844 witli 40 members and a capital of £28, and it was in the face of many difficulties and THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 51 many a sneer tliat they began their \voi"k. After three years they had 110 members and a capital of £397, while their weekly turnover averaged £36. Their membership has now reached 11,084, their capital is £345,653, and their weekly receipts are £4920. The Society has enabled many men in that district to save and become possessed of considerable sums of money. By means of it, also, many thousands of men have become owners of cottage homes. I speak of co-operative societies only as they exist among the working portion of the population, and such as are conducted on the Rochdale system. Their establishment struck against business usages and social arrangements that were productive of misery and poverty. Where adopted, they abolished the almost universal habit of buying on credit, and thus thrift has been promoted, and the impositions belonging to a credit system, with its bad debts and adulterations, have been avoided. All honour to the men who pioneered the system ! They had tunnel work to do before they issued forth into the light and sunshine of prosperity, but now co-operation, in so far as distribution is concerned, is an admitted success, while its possibilities in other directions to help and bless its votaries wait but for a larger measure of the spirit of goodwill and brotherhood, and the education and enlighten- ment of the up -striving masses, in its power to raise and ameliorate their lot. The membership of distributive co-operative societies has made rapid progress in recent years in Edinburgh, We may, from the facts and figures relating to one Society, learn something of the practice of all. The Society in Fountainbridge, which was insti- tuted in August 1859, has now a membership of 5351, who possess a capital of £38,727. It appears that every member must sub- scribe for a £5 share^ and pay for it in cash, or have the half- yearly bonus on his purchases, to the extent of 13s., applied to paying up his share till it amounts to £5. This is a lesson in thrift to commence with. Once paid, the share yields 5s. per annum of interest to the member. The system is to sell goods at the prices current in the neighbouring shops. The Society pays cash for its purchases, which are very large in amount, and thus it gets the best quality at the lowest price. Last half-year its sales amounted to £76,800, upon which it made 52 THRIFT, TN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. a profit exceeding £13,250, which sum it distributed as a dividend to its members on their purchases at the rate of 3s. 6d. jier £1. It thus enabled its members to make 16s. 6d. go as far as 20s. would have gone without its aid. The dividend or bonus each half-year cannot Vjut prove a great boon and a healthy lesson in thrift to its members. The Society is beginning to accumulate more money than is required for the dis- tributive business. One method in wliich it utilises its surplus funds is to grant to its members loans, repayable by instal- ments, for tlie purpose of acquiring dwelling-houses. It has already granted thirty-seven of these loans to members, and enabled that number of families to become possessors of their own houses by payment of an annual sum for twelve or fifteen years (in redemption of principal and interest) very slightly exceeding the rent they formerly paid. The Society also takes deposits from its members, allowing interest on the money deposited. There are other three flourishing co-operative societies in Edin- burgh : the Bread Society, the Edinburgh Northern, and the Norton Park Societies. The total membership of the four societies in Edinburgh is 8559. The Edinburgh and almost all the other societies throughout Scotland purchase their goods from the Scottish Wholesale Society, in Glasgow — the net sales of which last year were £1,932,134. The Wholesale Co-operative Society in Manchester — which supplies most of the societies in the North of England — last year turned over the immense sum of £3,396,000. The share capital now invested in co-operative societies in this country is a little over £10,000,000. There are close upon 1,000,000 members. The sale of goods amounted last year to £24,723,285, yielding a profit of £2,357,635. These figures will give you some idea of the hold the system has taken on the working-men of Great Britain. In 1865 John Stuart Mill wrote : — " Eventually, and in per- haps a less remote future than may be supposed, we may, through the co-operative principle, see our way to a change in society, which would combine the freedom and independence of the indi- vidual with the moral, intellectual, and economical advantages of aggregate production ; and which, without violence or spoliation, or even any sudden disturbance of existing habits and expecta- THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 53 tions, would realise, at least in the industrial department, the best aspirations of the democratic spirit, by putting an end to the division of society into the industrious and the idle, and effacing all social distinctions but those fairly earned by personal services and exertions." Co-operation at Home. If I might say a word to wives, it would be that a man may have the power to save and the will to save, but he cannot suc- ceed unless there is co-oper£ition at home. The infiuience of the woman in the home is very powerful — 'it is ever at work ; and if a house is a true home, it is because there is a loving, self-denying woman making it so. The quality of gentleness is as frequently found in the cottage as in the mansion ; and there are as many true gentlemen and gentlewomen in the homes of those who live by daily toil as in the castles of the rich and great. When a man has a good wife he goes forth to his work in the morning, and all through the day his work is a perfect joy to him. He realises what Burns says — " To mak' a happy fireside clime For weans and wife. That's the true pathos and sublime Of human life." Many a man who has fallen under the baneful influences of evil habit and been " bird-limed at a tapster's bough," might have been saved, had the wife known the influence of a clean and bright fireside and a cheerful smile. It is said that " when Poverty comes in at tho door, Love flies out of the window." It would be more correct to make Debt the culprit that chases Love away. The beginning of debt should be avoided like a plague. Whatever the inconae is, there should be a brave fight to make the expenditure somewhat less. Wilkins Micawber, though his practice differed sorely from his precept, was not far from the truth when he said: "Annual income, twenty pounds; annual expenditure, nineteen nineteen six — ^result, happiness. Annual income, twenty pounds ; annual expenditure, twenty pounds ought and six — result, misery. The blossom is blighted, the leaf is withered, the God of day goes down upon the dreary scene, and — and in short you are for ever floored." 54 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. If you keep a note of your expenditure in a book, it will iielp you to keep debt outside the door. It will do more, it will help you to form a surplus fund for investment. The greatest diffi- culty about saving is getting a beginning made. In however small a way, whatever method you adopt, make a beginning. I am not here to advocate total abstinence, though I believe in the principle, and practise it ; but I shall be falling short of my duty if I do not declare that the greatest foe to thrift in every form is intoxicating drink. The sum spent in drink is worse than lost. If instead of being taken to the public-house it was taken to the Savings Bank, the Friendly, or the Building Society, in- stead of the woeful results that too often flow from selfish indul- gence, there would be comfort and satisfaction. I think it is the bounden duty of wives of working men, and those who look forward to that happy state, to inform themselves of the various methods of thrift which exist — of what they cost, and what they give — that they may help their husbands by wise counsel in the choice of that form best suited to their circum- stances. With these words, I now proceed to bring before you a few of the most frequently adopted Methods of Saving in Small Sums.— Savings Banks. One method that stands deservedly high in this country, and is daily being adopted by increasing numbers, is the Savings Bank. Both the Trustees' Savings Banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have proved great boons to the wage-earning population of this country. They are near at hand. You can open an account with the small sum of Is., and, thanks to the facility introduced by the late Mr Eawcett, who proved himself a true friend to thrifty working men, even the Is. can be saved in pennies by the use of the stamp deposit slips issued at all the Post Offices. Some people still prefer to place the few shillings they can save in a stocking, where it is ever in danger of being withdrawn, and where it yields no interest. In the Savings Bank it is well out of the way of petty temptations, it is quite safe, and interest is added at the end of each year at the rate of 6d. a pound. The small sum of Is. a week deposited in a Savings Bank will in twenty years amount to over £66. In the Edinburgh Savings Bank there are 62,153 depositors, who own deposits amounting THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 55 to £1,531,182. The average amount belonging to each depositor is about £25. In the Glasgow Savings Bank there are 140,000 depositors, and their deposits amount to four and a half millions sterling. The Post Office Savings Banks now hold deposits amounting to £48,000,000. The Trustees' Savings Banks (which are the most popular in Scotland) have £47,200,000. These banks offer also facilities for investing small sums in Consols, and through them large numbers of small investors have become interested in Government Stock. Building Societies. In Sir Arthur Mitchell's interesting work, " The Past in the Present," there are a few statements in regard to the housing of the people, which cannot but lead one to the re- flection that there is much to be done in this direction. He says that nearly a third of the population of Scotland live in houses of one room. In Edinburgh we have, in round numbers, 33 per cent, of the population living in houses of one room, and 30 per cent, in houses of two rooms. The corresponding figures for Glasgow are 41 per cent, in houses of one room, and 37 per cent, in houses of two rooms. These figures are in the face of the fact that an enormous improvement has been going on for thirty or forty years in house building. There are 7,000,000 dwelling-houses in this country, the average value of each house being £320 — this sum being fully 50 per cent, higher than was the average value in 1860. This improvement is greatly owing to the operations of the building societies. Since 1861 one com- pany in Edinburgh has provided 1000 houses and shops for the working classes and others at prices varying from £130 to £400. This company offers peculiar facilities to men to become their own landlords, and pay no rent. A man may purchase a house from it, and receive 95 per cent, of the price on loan, repayable by monthly instalments in a certain number of years. If fourteen years is selected, the monthly instalment to redeem a loan of £150 is £1, 5s. 3d. There are several excellent building societies in Edinburgh, both on the terminating and permanent principles, which offer an excellent method of saving to men who wish a good interest on sums saved by small periodical payments, as well 50 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. as aiding members who may wish an advance to build or purchase a dwelling-house. Societies on the terminating principle start new sections almost every year, and it frequently happens that a member finds himself, in return for a contribution of Is. a fort- night, the happy possessor of £25 at the end of twelve and a half or thirteen years. This happy result is attained by the operation of compound interest, e.g., a contribution of 10s. a month at 5 per cent, gives £6, 3s. 3d. in one year, £35, 2s. 9d. in five years, £50, 7s. 5d. in seven years, and £121, 16s. in fourteen years. I may quote as an illustration the fact that one Society* in Edin- burgh, in return for Is. a fortnight paid in during the last thirteen years, is about to return to a section of its members <£25 per share, being £16, 18s., the cash paid in, and £8, 2s. of interest or profit. When a borrower from one of these societies takes his loan, redeemable by instalments spread over twenty-one years, his pay- ments to the society frequently do not exceed the rent which he formerly paid. This system of thrift has not taken root and spread in Scotland as it has in England. This may be due partly to the high fees charged by lawyers for conveyancing. In Scotland there are 50 incorporated building societies with assets of £1,000,000, and 153 unincorporated societies. In England there are 2044 societies, with a membership of above 600,000, and assets close on fifty millions sterling. In Lancashire and Yorkshire there are many thousands of cottage homes that have been built and acquired by operatives entirely through the facilities afforded them by building societies. Friendly Societies. Friendly societies are the outcome of a natural desire on the part of working men to protect themselves against the enemies of their lives, — or rather, what without such protection would be evil times in their lives, — such as sickness and the feebleness of old age, and to mitigate the blow which death deals when it visits the home. In this system we once more see the benefi- cent working of association. The general public who are well-to- do, and whose income is not affected by sickness, have little idea of all that the well constituted Friendly Society means to those who earn weekly wages, and whose wages cease the moment they * The Permanent Scottish Union Property Investment Building Society. THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 57 are laid aside by sickness. The growth and spread of this system of thrift has been enormous. The subject is so wide, of such great interest and such deep import, that not one lecture only, but a series of lectures, would be required to set the history, the working, and the results of these societies before you in a com- plete form. A few years ago the ex-Premier, Mr Gladstone, said, " Friendly societies have become so important and telling a feature in the constitution of English Society in its broadest and most funda- mental part, that any account of this nation, of this people to whom we rejoice to belong, would deserve no attention as a really comprehensive account if it excluded the element of such societies." The good that these societies are effecting for the nation in a quiet and unobtrusive way is incalculable. By the ameliora- tion they afford to the lot of hundreds of thousands of prudent working men they form the strongest barrier that could be raised against the impracticable proposals of ill - informed socialistic agitators. Far away at the head of all the many varieties of this form of association I would place these splendid institutions which are known under the name of the Affiliated Orders. It will not be possible to give an account of the whole of them, but I should like, while expressing my admiration of societies such as the Ancient Shepherds, the Kechabites, the Gardeners, and the Druids, to refer more particularly to the two great Orders that take the leading place among these organiza- tions — viz., the Oddfellows (Manchester Unity), and the Ancient Order of Foresters. The Oddfellows, — The Manchester Unity of the Independent Order of Oddfellows was formed about the year 1812. It would take too long to trace its history through the time of its early difficulties until the light of actuarial and medical knowledge en- abled it to adjust the scale of contributions to the benefits given. In 1860 the Executive of the Unity wisely determined to obtain returns of sickness and mortality for the previous five years from the various branches. There had existed up till this time several defects in the construction of the tables of contributions, the chief of which was the error of making the contributions payable by 58 THRIFT, m REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. entrants at advanced ages no higher than those payable by the younger members. The result of the investigation was to reveal that the great majority of the lodges were practically insolvent. The way in which the Order, by courageous self-denial, faced this state of matters and overcame its difficulties, is a triumphant page in its history. Since that date the progress of the Society in numbers and wealth has been upward and onward. The following figures are eloquent of the solid and satisfactory position which the Order now enjoys, and of the immense good which is every year being conferred on its membership. There are 4375 lodges, embracing 627,594 members. The funds proper of the Order were, at the end of last year, ^6,297,643, being an average of £10, 2s. ll^d. per member. These funds yielded interest at the rate of £3, 18s. llfd. per cent., or £231,747. The contributions from members amounted to £666,712, and the gross income of this one Society reached the enormous total of £905,666, 6s. The ex- penditure amounted to £666,636, of which £535,990 was ex- ]jended in sick benefits, and £130,646 in funeral benefits. The sickness benefits generally are 10s. per week during the first twelve months, and 5s. per week thereafter. The funeral allowance on the death of a member is £10, and half that amount on the death of a member's wife. The contributions for these benefits are : — At age 20, Is. 6d. per month (lunar), or 19s. 6d. per annum. „ 30, Is. lid. „ or 24s. lid. 40, 2s. 8d. . „ or 34s. 8d. The banner of Oddfellowship has been carried into many lands. In America the Baltimore Unity alone has now a membership of 534,235. The following table, showing for various ages the average amount of sickness and mortality during a period of ten years, will be of interest to members of these societies : — Sict :ne8s. Mortal lity per cent, Age, 20 to 30, 8 1 weeks. 7-4 „ 30 to 40, . 10 ■ , . 9-9 „ 40 to 50, . \!>l >i 14-8 „ 50 to 60, . 27^ »» 25-3 „ 60 to 70. . 64 ,, 48-7 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 59 The error in the original rates of the Order previously referred to is at once apparent, for if a man of fifty is on an average laid lip three times as long as a man of twenty, he should pay a much higher contribution than the latter. The Foresters. — The statistics of the Ancient Order of Foresters are almost as astonishing as those of the Oddfellows, and exhibit a state of progressive prosperity which must be most gratifying and comforting to every member of its widespread brotherhood. The figures in its annual reports reveal a state of matters most creditable to the administrative ability of those who manage its affairs. The funds, amounting to about £4,000,000, are securely invested. The wliole business is managed with ability and economy, and the results to the membership, now numbering "close on 700,000 men, are most satisfactory and valuable. The self-respect, independence, and education in thrift which a society of this kind gives, commend it to the regard and admiration of all who love their country and seek the welfare of their fellow-men. I am glad to find that there are now about 40,000 benefit members in Scotland of this Order, and that the number is increasing year by year. The limit of benefit which these societies are capable of extend- ing to their membership has not yet been reached ; there is still an element of comfort which they are capable of bestowing to a greater extent without any great enlargement of the contribution. I refer to superannuation, or, as it is more frequently tei'med, old age pay. Many a man, if he understood the benefit of a deferred annuity, and for how small a single or annual payment it can be purchased, would be willing, by present self-denial, to make an effort to obtain it. The longevity of annuitants is proverbial. The United Sisters. — A friendly society for women has lately been started in England by the Kev. J. F. Wilkinson, Rector of Kilvington, one of the best informed writers on the subject of friendly societies in this country, and the author of a most inter- esting book called "The Friendly Society Movement." The Society is called the " United Sisters' Friendly Society — Suffolk Unity ; " and its object is to grant to working women for moderate monthly contributions, sickness and funeral benefits and pensions in old age. Professor Leone Levi estimated that there was a total of 4,020,000 women who earned their own living in this country. 60 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. and lie estimated their annual income (exclusive of board and lodgings) at little short of £100,000,000. In view of facts like these; it is well that there should be an affiliated Order specially- applicable to the circumstances of female workers and wage earners. If I might be allowed to suggest a subject for next winter's programme of lectures, it would be, '^ The best methods of thrift for working women ; " and I think we have in our midst at least one lady who has the requisite knowledge and ability to make such a lecture both interesting and instructive. Collecting Societies. The next subject is one which I approach with hesitation. It relates to those societies erroneously classed as friendly, consisting of no end of variety — collecting, industrial, funeral, and so on, — but all existing with the one object, to make money out of the creditable desire of the unthrifty poor to avoid a pauper's funeral. The great extent of the business of these societies, however much to be regretted, cannot be denied. It goes on year after year in ever increasing volume, and in a man- ner meets a want. The pity is that the poor jDatrons of these concerns cannot get better value for their money, and that the spirit of thrift is not strong enough in them to enable them to rise to more profitable methods of attaining the object they have in view. Unsatisfactory though this provision be, we cannot but admire the feelings that give rise to the wish for it. It is natural that the wage-earner who has nothing saved should stand in dread lest when death visits his home it should find him unpre- pared to discharge those duties of decency and aSection which the taking away of a loved one imposes. All well so far as it goes, but we cannot but deplore that working-men and their wives in such vast numbers are satisfied with this wretched apology for thrift. It may be urged that it is better than nothing — that it is a step in the right direction. It is a step — the goose step of thrift — with no progress or hope in it — having the appearance of movement without the reality. The great bulk of the business done by these societies consists of assurances on the lives of young children. A cry has been raised lately that this has led to in- creased infantile mortality, and Parliament is being called upon to put an end by statute to the system. I do not think that there THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 61 has been suflEicient evidence to justify legislation on the ground alleged. There is, however, abundant reason why every effort should be made to educate workmen and their wives in regard to wiser and more profitable methods of investing the pence which they have to spare. There is one company which has deservedly shot ahead of all others of its class in the extent of its business and the immensity of its accumulations. Last year the Prudential had in its in- dustrial department a premium income of £3,658,501, and funds amounting to £5,409,827, while its policy-holders numbered 7,599,554, being more than one-fifth of the whole population of the country. The collecting societies employ a perfect army of men, who go round each week to collect the pence at the members' homes, and this of course involves great expense. For the most part their clients represent the poor who are kept poor by self- indulgence and thriftlessness. It is earnestly to be desired that recruits from this class could be won over from the verge of pauperism to the ranks of the thrifty and well-to-do. One step in this direction will be attained when the legislature re- ceives instructions from the people to enact a law decreasing or altogether suppressing the public-houses which are at present permitted to be so thickly planted in the midst of the homes of our industrial population. Life Insurance. I will now briefly refer to the subject of Life Insurance, a form of thrift which adapts itself to the circumstances of all classes. Edinburgh has attained a world-wide renown for the excellence of its life insurance institutions. It contains the head offices of thirteen life companies, which have a total income from premiums and interest considerably exceeding £5,000,000 per annum. The life funds of these offices amount to nearly £40,000,000. The sums dispensed each year by them in satisfaction of the claims of widows and orphans and others exceeds £3,000,000. These are large figures, but they would be much larger if the provisions granted through their aid were better known and understood. The distinguishing advantage which attends a life policy as com- pared with other methods of saving, is that it creates, for a small 62 THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. payment, a large provision immediately available if death takes place. It takes a long time for 35s. to accumulate to £100; but by paying 35 s. yearly to a company, a man aged 25 can insure £100^ payable to his heirs in the event of his death, even if death takes place the very day he gets his policy. The duty of insuring, to a man who surrounds himself with the blessings of wife and children, who without him would be left in want and poverty, is very clear. Indeed, I might go further and say that anyone with a family dependent upon him, and him alone, for maintenance, who neglects, wittingly or unwittingly, to make pro- vision for them, deserves the unqualified condemnation of his fellow-men. An objection, frequently urged against life insurance, is, that the person who insures cannot obtain any benefit from it himself; but this is a mistaken idea. One form of insurance which is be- coming increasingly popular is called the endowment assurance plan. As an example of its working, I may state that a man of 30 can insure for £100, which will be paid to himself when he attains age sixty, or to his family if he should die previously, by paying a yearly premium of about £2, 7s. It is difficult to over-estimate the benefits of an insurance of this kind. It gives a man the feeling of independence, as he knows that in the event of his dying at an early age, he will leave his family provided for, and if, on the other hand, he should live to a good age, his later years will be free from all anxiety about money matters. Canon Blackley's National Insurance Scheme. The well meant and untiring assiduity of Canon Blackley in advocating a national scheme of insurance (now happily shelved), was of considerable value in calling public attention to weak points in the Friendly Society system, and to the enormous ex- pense at which the industrial companies conducted their business. " I propose," says Mr Blackley, " that every individual in the nation 'shall^ be liable by law, after reaching the age of eighteen years, to contribute, either in one sum or by instalments, £10 to a National Sick and Pension Benefit Society, which would secure to him or her, when prevented by sickness from earning his or her usual wages, a sum of 8s. a week until seventy years of age, and after seventy years of age a cessation of the sick pay, but a THRIFT, IN REGARD TO HEALTH AND WEALTH. 63 pension for life of 4s. a week." The Select Committee which sat upon the scheme dismissed it as impracticable. It was found to be actuarially nnsoiind ; and besides, it met with the strenuous opposition of the working classes, who, knowing what is being accomplished bj voluntary effort, oliject to any further extension of that inquisitorial interference on the part of the State, which is, in this direction, as mischievous as it is unnecessary. Concluding Remarks. I have to-night endeavoured to bring before you something of what has been accomplished by combination in benefiting the condition of the working-classes ; I have also pointed out how their lot has been further ameliorated by the principle of co- operation ; and, finally, I have referred in detail to several of the methods which in this country are most popular among the thrifty, and which have already proved success- ful iu adding to the well-being of the masses of the people. I fear that in doing so I may have indulged in the use of statistics to an extent that must have been somewhat wearisome ; but these dry figures become suffused with a deep interest when we remember the splendid and self-denying principles to which they relate. The knowledge of wise methods of thrift should be widely spread among the people ; for many a man learning of these helpful associations and brotherhoods which I have brought under your notice has, by entering into them^ been delivered from the depths of hopelessness and selfishness, and been raised to a new^ life of hope and service. And now, may I be permitted in closing, to express the hope that none of us will allow ourselves to be so absorbed in the pursuit or possession of worldly good as to neglect the attain- ment of those riches and that home which are of inestimably more value, because they endure for evermore, and which a loving Father has offered free to all through the glorious brotherhood of the man Christ Jesus. " It's no worth the warsle for't A' ye'll get on earth, Gin ye haena wealth aboon Mair than warl's worth. ANIMAL HEAT: HOW IT IS PRODUCED^ LOST, AND PRESERVED. By R. MILNE MURRAY, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.RE. I HAVE here before me two rabbits — the one, as you can all see, obviously alive, active, capable of movement. When I touch it, it shrinks ; when I gently pinch its ear, it pulls it away. Further, if I place my hand on its body, I am conscious of a sensation of agreeable warmth — its body is as warm, or warmer, than my hand. From these two observations — namely, the creature's power of movement and the warmth of its body — we conclude that the rabbit is alive. If, now, I turn to the other rabbit, I find a different state of things. I touch it, it does not move ; I pinch it, it does not shrink. Moreover, if I place my hand on its body, I am conscious of a distinct sensation of cold — its body is colder than my hand. From these two observations — namely, the absence of the power of movement and the absence of warmth — we do not hesitate to conclude that the animal is dead. Here, then, we have established, so far as these observations go, two very definite relationships, namely : — With life we have — 1. The capacity for movement. 2. The presence of heat. With de,ath we have — L The absence of capacity for movement. 2. The absence of heat. Are we, then, to make these observations general, and say that every living animal must possess these two qualities : — 1 . A power of movement. 2. A power of imparting a sensation of warmth to other animals % 66 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. Before deciding this point, let us extend our experiments. Here, as you see, is a specimen of a very interesting animal — a frog. Now, when I touch it, you can have no doubt as to whether it is alive or not. Its power of movement is obvious and vigorous. So far, so good. But when I touch it, do I feel any sensation of warmth 1 No. On the contrary, I aai conscious of a distinct sensation of disagreeable coldness — a sensation more marked and much more unpleasant than in the case of the dead rabbit. Are we, then, to conclude that there are some animals whose vitality is evidenced by movement and heat, and others, such as the frog, whose only evidence of vitality is movement 1 Perhaps we shall arrive at a correct answ^er if we consider a simple experiment. I have here a piece of ordinary sculptor's clay, a substance which is un- doubtedly destitute of life. If I place one piece of this in water at boiling point, and another piece in water at the temperature of melting ice, and insert in each a thermometer, I shall find in the course of a minute or two that the clay will in both cases assume the same temperature as the water in which it lies. In the one case it will be warmed up to boiling point, and in the other it will be cooled down to freezing point. I have here a table showing the result of an experiment which consisted in placing a frog in water of different temperatures, be- ginning with ordinary, and proceeding to colder ones, and at the same time carefully noting the temperature of the animal in the successive conditions. Temperature of Temperature of Water, Frog. 41-0 38 300 29-6 20-6 20-7 5-9 8-0 2-8 5-3 Now you will notice that in the first experiment the water stood at 41'^, while the frog showed 38^, that is, the frog is colder than the water. In the second the water was 30*^, the frog 29*6^, still a little colder. But at the third the water was 20 "6"^, while the frog was 20*7^ — the frog being a little warmer than the water ; and in the last two the frog was 2'1^ and 2*5^ ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 67 respectively warmer than the water. Now it is perfectly obvious that were the frog constituted like a lump of clay, such a state of matters would be impossible. It is perfectly plain that a living frog is really producing a certain amount of heat, otherwise it could not have continued so much warmer than the water in which it was immersed. Unlikely as it may seem at first sight, it is nevertheless true, that the production of heat in the cold, disagreeable, clammy frog is as much an essential condition of its vitality as it is of that of the rabbit. We may then make the general deduction that movement and heat are essential manifestations of living animals. Every living animal is capable of moving, and every living animal is producing heat. So far as our ordinary experience goes, the faculty of movement needs no demonstration. You say an animal is alive because you see it move. That heat-production is also an essential property of living animals is perhaps scarcely so obvious, but it admits of easy proof. In these cold nights when you undress and go to bed, provided you have neither a fire in your bedroom nor a warming- pan, the first sensation on going between the sheets is that of coldness or chilliness. This unpleasant feeling soon passes ofi", you fall asleep, and on awaking in the morning, though the air of the room is chill and cold, your whole body and the bed- clothes are warm — beautifully warm. Where has the warmth come from 1 From your body, undoubtedly. You have warmed the bed - clothes. They, like other clothes, are there, not to keep the cold out, but to keep the heat in. There can be no doubt of this. If you put a marble statue to bed under like conditions, the statue and the bed-clothes would be as cold in the morning as they were at night. Let us then proceed to inquire how this animal heat is pro- duced by living beings. A simple experiment will enable us to feel our way to an answer. I have here a model of a steam- engine. I place in the boiler a little water, and in this lamp, which acts as the furnace, I have placed some spirits of wine. I light the lamp, and I immediately perceive that heat is given off by the lamp, and in course of time the boiler will become warm. In a little while the water will be converted into steam, and the fly-wheel will be driven round by the movement of the piston. Here, then, we have a very good working model, not only of a 68 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. steam-engine, but also of a living animal, for we have here move- ment and HEAT. But, further, if I blow out the lamp, what happens 1 The engine stops, movement ceases, and if I wait a little the machine will become quite cold. Here I have an excellent illustration of death in an animal. The blowing out of the lamp is the extinction of life ; the cessation of the movement and the disappearance of the heat are the indications of this death. The purpose of a steam-engine is to move and to produce movement in other machines. But a cold steam-engine cannot move, it must first be heated ; remove the heat, and the move- ment ceases. Now to all intents and purposes this is exactly the state of matters with a living animal. A certain amount of heat is an essential condition of movement ; remove that heat, and the possibility of movement ceases. The animal becomes a dead thing. Such a machine as this little steam-engine may then be regarded as a working model of the animal body. No doubt the animal is a much more complex mechanism, but for practical pur- poses, and so far as the heat and movement-producing processes are concerned, we may regard the one as a type of the other. Let us then first ask, what is the source of the heat in the engine ] That is obviously the spirits of wine in the lamp, and, in the case of a real engine, the coal in the furnace. But neither spirits of wine nor coal can produce heat in the engine by remain- ing spirits of wine or coal. To produce heat they must undergo a chemical change — in popular language, they must be burned. Now, what is this chemical change, this burning 1 Here is a spirit-lamp. I light the wick, it burns and gives ofi" heat. I \)\\t a glass cap over the flame ; it ceases to burn. Why 1 Because I have by this means cut ofi" from it a supply of a certain other substance — namely, the oxygen of the atmosphere, the presence of which is essential to the combustion of the spirit. This simple experiment shows that two things are necessary to the production of heat by this means : — 1. A substance capable of being burned ; 2. A substance which enables it to burn, or, more accurately, a combustible body and a supporter of com- bustion. The combustible body is here the spirits of wine. The supporter of combustion is the oxygen of the atmosphere. Many of you have frequently performed an experiment which illustrates ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 69 this scientific fact in a very striking fashion. When a newly- lit fire shows signs of going out or dying, the best prescription for its restoration is the administration of an extra dose of air or oxygen by means of a pair of bellows. In blowing up a fire we simply pump in an extra supply of air — the supporter of com- bustion, to the combustible body — the coal in the grate. In this way you hasten the chemical process, cause the fire to burn briskly, and so increase the quantity of heat produced. But atmospheric air does not consist of pure oxygen. The oxygen is mixed with a large proportion of another and totally inert gas, called nitrogen. Were it not so, chemical processes on which our life and comfort depend would take place with tremendous energy, incompatible with convenience, or even with life. The nitrogen is present as a diluent. It dilutes the oxygen, moderates and delays the processes, but in no sense alters their nature. Now, in order to impress upon you the enormous importance of this oxygen in heat-producing chemical change, I wish to show you some experiments. Here is a jar of pure oxygen gas, not mixed with any nitrogen. I have here a little sulphur, which on being lit burns with a sputtering blue flame. I plunge this into the jar of oxygen, and you see it blaze out with a brilliant flame, giving ofl" abundance of light and heat. Here, again, I have a piece of charcoal. I place it for a little in the flame of the lamp, and when I withdraw it, it is glowing with a red spark. But when I place it in the jar of pure oxygen it bursts into a flame of dazzling brilliancy. Once more, here is a bundle of iron wire, the end of which has been dipped in melted sulphur. 1 ignite the sulphur, and then dii-ect a stream of oxygen on the bundle, and you will notice that after the sulphur has been burned away the wire catches fire, and the heat produced by the burning melts part of the rest of the wire, and it falls in drops into the plate below. These experiments clearly illustrate the importance of oxygen in the process of burn- ing and in the production of heat. Now, you will remember that we agreed that a cold engine cannot move ; that in order to move it must be warmed, and that this warmth or heat is obtained by the combustion of spirits of wine or coal ; and further, I have shown that the presence of oxygen is an essential condition of this combustion. 70 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. But further, and this is the point, a cold animal cannot move ; a cold animal is dead. Heat is as essential a condition of a living animal as it is of a moving engine. Whence, then, comes the heat? Now I shall try to show you that the heat of an animal is pro- duced by the combustion of a fuel, and that oxygen supports this combustion in a manner quite similar to what occurs in the engine. The fuel of the animal we term Food. Here, then, is a striking resemblance between an animal and an engine. But before discussing this more minutely, I must point out to you an important difference between an animal and an engine. In a lecture delivered before this Society last year, on the subject of " Tear and Wear," Professor Stirling showed you that the body in doing its work is continually undergoing a process of loss. We cannot think, speak, or move without a certain amount of tear and wear occurring at the same time. Accordingly, it is essential that this loss be continually made up to the living animal, as the particles forming the muscles, nerves, bones, ifec, are being used up by the performance of the animal functions, new particles must be added to take their place. Some of the particles constituting the body now may be gone in an hour, and unless the body is to waste they must be replaced by others. Now this is a very different state of matters from what holds in the steam-engine. No doubt there is a certain amount of tear and wear in the machinery of the engine, but, compared with the work it does, that is comparatively small. Thus, after ten years' work, the same particles of iron, brass, and wood which went to make the engine at the beginning of its existence, are there still. But I am probably correct in saying that in the case of none of you here will a single particle which enters into the composition of your bodies now, be present in them ten years hence, that is to say if you continue living animals all that time. Every thought you think, every word you utter, and every movement you perform, results in the organic dissolution of brain or muscle or bone ; and unless this dissolution were made good by the addition of new material, it would soon be impossible for you to think or speak or move. This, then, is the striking dilSerence between an animal and a machine, a difference which must not be lost sight of. The fuel which an engine consumes is entirely expended in ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 7 1 producing heat and movement directly ; none of it goes to renew the wear of piston, valves, and wheels. If a crank shaft gets broken you cannot mend it by putting a particular kind or an extra supply of coal into the furnace, it must be taken to the shop and repaired. But not so with the animal. The food which he eats not only goes to produce heat and movement, but some of it goes likewise to make up for the wear and tear of the working parts. The loss of brain weight in thinking, and muscle weight in moving, are made good from the food we are eating. If a bone breaks we do not unship it and send it off to a surgeon to be spliced or rivetted ; the surgeon comes, sees that the ends are properly placed, and taking care that suitable food is given, leaves the rest to the patient. Now, with this distinction between the animal and machine before us, let us see in what way the food we eat becomes the fuel which produces our heat. We shall find that the process is tiltimately identical with what occurs in the engine, though the details are vastly more complex. When food is taken into the body, before it can be of use to the body it must first be digested. By means of digestion, which is an extremely complex process, the lood-stufis, such as meat, sugar, starch, fat, and so on, are altered in their chemical and physical properties, and are ultimately conveyed into the blood. These changes occur in the stomach and intestines, and the digested food is taken either directly into the blood-vessels which circulate in the walls of these organs, or indirectly through an intermediate set of vessels termed the lacteals. In any case the important thing to keep in mind is that all the useful material taken into the body as food ultimately reaches the blood. The blood which circulates in all parts of the body, then carries to every tissue, brain, muscle, bone, &c., the various materials which it has derived from the digestion of the food, and, in some way, of the nature of which we know nothing, these tissues select from the complex constituents of the blood that par- ticular kind of material which is necessary to repair them, and to enable them to perform their work. By the constant presence of the nutrient blood, the wear and tear of the tissue in working is continually made up. No sooner does a muscle or a brain cell lose some of its particles in contracting or thinking, than it im- mediately makes good that loss by taking from the blood which 72 ANIMAL HEAT I HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. bathes them, just that kind of material which will make good that loss. In this way every tissue in the body provides itself "with its own appropriate food, or as we shall see, with its own fuel. For the material so brought to the muscle is capable of being burned, just as truly and completely burned as the coal in the fur- nace of the engine. But it cannot burn, and so cannot give rise to heat and work unless it is provided with a suitable supply of oxygen. Where does the oxygen come from ? You are all aware that sixteen or seventeen times per minute you are filling your lungs with air from the surrounding atmosphere, which as you know contains a large quantity of oxygen. The air passing through the windpipe enters tubes termed bronchi, and these end in innumerable small vesicles of exquisite thinness, on the outside of which a close network of small blood-vessels is arranged. Now these blood-vessels are carrying a steady stream of blood from and -to the heart, and the blood coming from the heart, while it gives oS certain things which escape through the lungs into the •atmosphere, takes back to the heart from the lungs a very large quantity of oxygen. This oxygen then is carried by the blood to every tissue in the body. Thus is provided the oxygen necessary for the process of combustion, which takes place in the tissues, and which enables these tissues to produce heat and do work. The blood, therefore, brings not only fuel to the muscle- engine, but also the oxygen to enable that fuel to burn. Shortly stated, the case stands thus : Through the mouth food of various kinds enter the digestive canal, and there, by complex chemical processes, it is gradually altered until certain i)ortions of it are ready to enter the blood, the rest being rejected as waste material. The food so altered passes into the blood, which is now charged with nutriment for the tissues. These tissues seize upon the particles so brought to them, and so make good their wear and tear, and at the same time they lay in a store of fuel which will provide for heat and work. But the same blood containing and carrying this nutritive material is steadily flowing through the lungs, and bringing from the lungs a supply of oxygen, which, likewise seized by the tissues, enters under certain conditions into chemical union with the food which they have taken up, and this chemical union is the source of the heat and work of the body. It will now be apparent to you how striking is the difference ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PKODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 73 between the steam-engine and the animal body in their modes o£ working. In the engine all the fuel is barned at one part of the machine — the furnace. The heat given out warms the water, converting it into steam, the steam presses on the piston, and the machine moves, but in the animal every organ in the body takes its own supply of fuel. There is no one place where the heat is produced. Every organ is warm, not merely from heat got from a neighbouring organ, but from the heat which it produces in itself. Every muscle has in itself its fuel and furnace, its piston and cylinder, and the chemical process of combustion, or, to speak more scientifically, oxidation takes place in itself. The fuel, the oxygen, and the moving parts are all contained in the muscle itself. The animal body may then be described as being composed of a multitude of machines, each taking in its own fuel and oxygen, and each giving out its own heat and work. I may illustrate this . by an experiment. Here is a muscle taken from a frog. The frog has been dead — i.e., dead to all feeling and power of voluntary movement for some time. But in the case of cold- blooded animals like the frog, the death of individual tissues, such as the muscles, takes place slowly. Now, before the death of the frog, the muscle which I have here had laid in a store of fuel and of oxygen, and in order to enable this muscle to move, all that was necessary was to light the fire, as it were — in other words, to cause the oxygen and fuel to burn. Now, in the uninjured animal this is brought about by the nervous impulses sent from the brain and spinal cord. These reach the muscle by the nerve, and on arriving at it, they cause some of the fuel to combine with the oxygen, and so give rise to work and heat. Now, in the dead animal we can cause this combustion to occur by employing currents of electricity to excite the union of the oxygen and fuel. I fix the muscle in a clamp, and attach its lower end to a lever. The index of the lever has attached to it a piece of white paper to enable you to see its movements. The nerve in connection with this muscle is laid upon two wires which come from this piece of apparatus, from which weak electric shocks are sent. The rate of these shocks is regulated by this spring. Now, when a shock is sent to the nerve, the electric current causes the oxygen and fuel of the muscle to unite, and this union is shown by the shortening of the muscle. As i\, 74 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESLRVED. shortens it raises the lever, and so does work. And now you can see, when I start the spring, that at each beat of the latter the muscle shortens and the lever is lifted. When the current ceases, the muscle relaxes, only to contract when the next current reaches it. But let me carry the experiment a little further. This muscle having been cut out of the body, is away from the blood and oxygen supply. Hence it is obvious that if I prolong the experiment, I shall, sooner or later, use up all the food and oxygen, whereupon the muscle will cease to contract or give out work. This is exactly what liapyjens, as you see. You will notice that if I continue the application of the stimuli to the nerve the contractions get fainter and fainter, and ulti- mately cease. The muscle has used up its stock of fuel and oxygen, and it can no longer produce work enough to lift the lever. Now, if this muscle were attached to the body, and had bloodvessels containing nutrient blood coursing through it, it would soon lay in another stock of fuel and be ready again for work in a short time. But this muscle, while it has been produc- ing work, has also been producing heat. I must ask you to take my statement for it so far, because though it is quite possible to demonstrate the fact that heat is given out even by so small a piece of tissue as this, the demonstration involves the use of com- plex apparatus, and would have occupied too much of your time. But that muscular work is accompanied by the production of heat can be demonstrated otherwise very readily. Thus, if a suitable thermometer be plunged into the muscles of the thigh of a dog when these are in active contraction, the heat causes the mercury to rise several degi'ees. And again, we are all familiar with the influence of muscular exercise in our own bodies on the produc- tion of heat. You have only to recollect the effects of a sharp game at tennis, football, or cricket, or even a smart run or walk to catch a train or car. In running you set whole masses of muscles in active contraction, and these while producing motion are also producing heat. The result is, that when your efforts are over and even before it, you are conscious of a very definite sensation of warmth. If you doubt this now, recall what I have said next time you have to hurry half a mile to the Waverley Station with a heavy portmanteau in one hand and a brown paper parcel in the other. ANIMAL HEAT I HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 75 The muscles, then, are the great heat-producing tissues in the body, just as they are the gTeat work producers. It has been estimated that about four-fifths of the entire heat in the body is produced in the muscles. But though these are tlie most im- portant heat-producing tissues they are not the only ones. For wherever chemical change is going on, wherever oxidation is occur- ring, there heat is being produced. Thus, in the whole length of the digestive canal, while food is undergoing digestion heat is being produced. Then the liver and other gland structures are important sources of heat. The jirocesses connected with the function of the liver are various and complex, and that a large amount of heat is produced there is shown by the fact that the blood leaving the liver is the hottest in the body. Then, again, a very large amount of heat is produced in the brain. You cannot think a thought or will to do an action without producing heat, and thus the blood leaving the brain is warmer than that going to it. And so we see that production of heat is an essential phenomenon of life. A living animal, whether active or in a state of com- parative rest, is producing heat — the more active, the more heat, but never so inactive as to cease producing heat so long as it is alive. But some one may ask me, "Are we to believe that the various food-stuffs which we consume — the beef, potatoes, rice, sugar, fat, and so on, are burned up in our tissues — our muscles and brain, in the same way as the piece of carbon in the jar of oxygen." The answer to this question is " Yes." True there is a difference in the manner and rate of burning, but there is none in the results or products. The chemical substances which go to form most of our foods are — Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Let us take sugar for example. Here I have a table showing the percentage composition of ordinary cane sugar. You see it contains a large quantity of carbon. 100 parts of cane sugar contain 42*2 parts of Carbon. 6*4 „ Hydrogen. 51*4 ,, Oxygen. That it contains this substaiice I can prove by adding to this 7 6 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. solution of sugar a quantity of oil of vitriol, which has the property of taking away from the sugar the hydrogen and oxygen and setting free the carbon. You see now the frothy mass of the charcoal or carbon which has been produced by this means. And now, to show you that the carbon of sugar can be burned and give off heat, I shall show you another experiment. Here is a tray containing some powdered sugar mixed with a substance called chlorate of potash. This substance contains a large quantity of oxygen stored up in it. If I now touch this mixture with a glass rod dipped in oil of vitriol the latter will set free a little of the oxygen, which will combine with the sugar, and in doing so produce an effect which will be obvious to you all. Now, if this quantity of sugar had been eaten by me, and used up in my tissues, it would have given rise to as much heat as if I had burned it in a quantity of pure oxygen. True, the combustion would not have taken place either so quickly nor with so brilliant an effect. That, though interesting to you, would have been dis- tinctly unpleasant for me. But slow or fast the change is identical whether occurring in the body or out of it, and for a given quantity of sugar the heat produced is the same in either case. In the one case the heat is produced quickly and spent quickly, in the other it is produced slowly and spent slowly. But further, when carbon, or a substance like sugar containing carbon, combines with oxygen, it forms a new substance — a gas called carbonic acid gas. This, like oxygen, is colourless and invisible, but its presence can be recognised by means of a delicate test. If the gas be brought into contact with lime water, the latter becomes milky from the formation of chalk ; for chalk is a combination of lime and carbonic acid. Now, here is the vessel in which we burned the carbon and the oxygen. If I pour a little lime water into it you see it at once becomes milky — the carbonic acid seizes on the lime and forms chalk. But now, if I breathe through a solution of lime water, the same change occurs. Chalk again is formed. Why 1 Because my muscles and brain are constantly producing carbonic acid by the combustion of the food stuffs in them. Thus carbonic acid is being swept out of the tissues by the blood. When the latter reaches the lungs in search of oxygen it gives up in exchange for the oxygen the waste car- bonic acid gas. While we breathe in oxygen we breathe out ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 77 carbonic acid, and hence the chalk when 1 breathe into lime water. The heat thus produced in the human body is very great. It is difficult to convey an accurate impression of how much it amounts to. But perhaps you will get some conception of it if I tell you that the amount of heat produced by a man of average weight during a day of average work would be sufficient to raise about 63 lbs. of water from the freezing to the boiling point. Now, 63 lbs. of water is equal to about 6^ gallons, so you can understand that the amount is not an insignificant quantity. And this now brings us to the second point of my lecture. " How is heat lost ? " It is quite plain that if the human body were always producing and never losing heat, it must soon become so hot as to render life impossible. Thus if no heat were lost, in thirty-six hours the whole of the body would reach the temperature of boiling point — a condition by no means desirable. There must be some means by which this very large amount of heat produced in the body is lost or given up. The chief ways by which the body loses heat are four in number. 1 . Radiation. — If a red-hot cannon ball were placed in the middle of this hall, and the hand held a few feet from it, a distinct sensa- tion of warmth would be felt ; showing that heat is being given off by the ball. The ball would all the time be growing cooler, and soon would cease to glow. In this manner the human body gives up much of its heat. The heat passes into the surrounding objects by the process of radiation, and the body becomes cooler thereby. 2. Conduction. — If I place a poker on the fire, not only does the part in contact with the burning coal become hot, but by-and- by the other end of the poker becomes warm. The heat is con- ducted along the particles forming the poker. The heat thus transmitted is lost to the fire, which is so much the colder. Now the human body acts in the same way in warming anything in contact with it. Thus much heat is given up to the clothes. When we remove our clothes at night, we feel that they are quite warm. When we leave our bed in the morning, we leave a large amount of heat behind us in the bedclothes. If you place your hand on a slab of stone you are conscious of a sensation of cold^ 78 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. because you are giving up some of your heat to it. You take hold of a cold shovel or broom -handle, it is warm when you lay it down. You have warmed it by giving up some of your heat to it. In short, whatever you handle, if it is originally colder than your body, takes from the body a certain amount of heat, which is thereby lost to you. Much of the heat we produce must thus be lost in the prosecution of our daily occupations. 3. Warming Expiy^ed Air. — However cold the air may be which we take into the lungs, even where the atmosphere is at a temperature far below freezing-point, we are always conscious of a sensation of warmth if we breathe upon our hands. This simply means that we are warming, in other words losing heat to, the air. The amount of heat lost by this means is very great indeed, especi- ally in dry, cold weather. For every chestful of air we expel, no matter how cold it was when it entered the lungs, leaves the lungs almost at the temperature of the body. 4. Production and Dissi2^ation of the Sweat. — This mode of heat-loss is one of the most interesting and important processes in the body. To understand this process I must ask you to glance at some points in the structure of the skin. The whole body, as you are aware, is invested by this structure. If we ex- amine a section of the skin we find that it consists of two layers — a superficial layer termed the epidermis or cuticle, and a deeper layer, the cutis or true skin. Now if we examine the cuticle with a sufficient magnifying power, we shall find it pierced in all places by numerous openings. These are the mouths of certain glands — the sweat glands, embedded in the true skin. They are coils of a minute tube leading up to the surface of the skin. But further the true skin contains a network of blood- vessels of exquisite fineness and closeness. It is scarcely possible to realise the extraordinary extent of this network of vessels, but it may help you to form some conception of it when you remem- ber that you cannot prick the skin with a needle-point, however fine, without piercing one or more of them and so drawing blood. Everywhere, then, in the true skin do these minute bloodvessels ramify, but especially are they abundant round the coiled tubes of the sweat glands. Now, the function of the sweat gland is to produce and pour out on the surface of the skin that fluid which is familiar to us under the name of perspiration or sweat. ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED, 79 Nearly always in health the skin is more or less moist with this fluid, sometimes the quantity is so small as to be scarcely per- ceptible. Sometimes the skin is wet and soaking with it. How is this brought about 1 Let me try to explain it. These blood- vessels which I have mentioned do not always contain the same quantity of blood. On the contrary the quantity undergoes enor- mous variations. The larger of these bloodvessels are provided with a coat which has the same property as the muscle of the frog which I have shown you, namely, of contracting and relaxing. One of the layers forming the blood-tube is really a muscular coat, and when the muscle contracts the bore of the tube is narrowed, when it relaxes the bore is widened. Consequently, when the bore of the tube is narrowed a smaller quantity, and when it is widened, a larger quantity of blood will pass through it in a given time. Now these muscular tubes are under the influence of a particular set of nerves. These nerves are not like the nerves running to the muscles of the limbs under the control of the will. Thus we cannot narrow or widen our bloodvessels at our pleasure. These nerves are connected to certain parts of the central nervous system, termed the vasomotor centres, and these centres are affected by the varying conditions of the individual from time to time. Accordingly, if any of these vasomotor centres are excited to act, the nerves running to the corresponding blood-vessels carry an impulse to the muscular coat which will cause this coat to contract. The blood-vessel will be narrowed, and less blood will })ass through the part of the body supplied. Conversely, if any circumstance or condition interferes with the activity of these centres, the impulses passing from them will be checked. The muscles will relax, the blood-vessels will be widened, and an increased quantity of blood will pass to the part. Now it is on the working of this beautiful mechanism that the rate of loss of heat largely depends. Let me illustrate this. Suppose an individual performs some active exercise, such as rapid running for some distance, his muscles, in order to pro- duce the necessary movement, " burn up " a large amount of the nutritive material stored up in them, and consume a correspond- ing amount of oxygen. But this, while producing movement, also produces heat. The blood leaving the muscles gets warm, and this hot blood coursing through the vasomotor centres controlling 80 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. the blood-vessels in the skin causes them to diminish their activity, and accordingly the walls of the blood-vessels relax, and a very large amount of the hot blood passes into the skin. But in passing through these superficial blood-vessels, much heat is lost by radiation and conduction, and the blood then cooled passes- into the general circulation. The clothes get warmer, and the surrounding objects get warmer, but the individual himself gets cooler. You have only to think of the appearance of a stout man, who, after having run half a mile to catch a train, drops into a seat just as the train moves off. He does not look pale by any means. He pants and puffs, and is very red in the face. Why 1 Because the heat produced by his muscles has^ warmed his blood. The warm blood has checked the action of the vasomotor nerves. The. blood-vessels of the skin have dilated^ and the redness of his face is a sample of the condition of the skin of his whole body. By and by the blood loses sufficient heat, it cools down, the vasomotor centres begin to contract the blood-vessels, and his face gradually assumes its natural colouiv The same process occurs, moreover, whether the heat comes from inside or outside the body. Recall a crowded evening party — the rooms are hot and stuffy, the bodies of the guests soon become too warm, the blood again acting on the vasomotor centres^ causes dilatation of the blood-vessels, and the people get red in the face, and very uncomfortable. The ladies create currents of air with their fans in order to carry away as much heat as possible. The gentlemen crowd near a door or window for the same purpose. But this is not all. No sooner do the skin- vessels become flushed with blood than the sweat glands begin to act. They secrete from the blood surrounding them a quantity of sweat, which they pour out on the surface of the skin. The skin is bathed in perspiration. And now the sweat so formed begins to evaporate, and in passing into a state of vapour it takes with it a portion — a very large portion — of the heat of the body. This depends upon a well known physical law that when a liquid is converted into vapour, heat is used up in this conversion. Thus when the sweat passes off in the form of vapour, it takes with it, as it were, a large part of the heat of the body. This loss of heat with the evaporation of fluid can be readily demonstrated by allowing a drop of any liquid which evaporates rapidly to fall on ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. 81 the skin of the hand. For example, a drop of sulphuric ether evaporating from the skin produces a sensation of marked cold- ness — rapidly evaporating it takes away the heat with great rapidity, and hence the effect. Use is made of this fact in several ways. In surgery, for example, we sometimes, in oj^ening a boil or abscess, first direct a spray of ether on the diseased part, which removes so much heat that it cools the nerves to such an extent as temporarily to suspend their function, so that the knife may be plunged in with little or no pain. I trust it is now clear to you that the flushing of the skin under the influence of heat, whether it comes from an internal or external source, results in the loss of heat in two ways. 1. The large quantity of blood thus brought to the surface loses heat directly by radiation and conduction. 2. The sweat thrown out, in evaporating, carries away with it a certain amount of heat. This now leads me to consider a very important matter in this connection — what physiologists term heat-balance. This is a term used to express the remarkable fact that in all warm-blooded animals the amount of heat produced above a certain point is invariably balanced by a corresponding amount of loss. Thus it comes that in a healthy animal the temperature of the body as a whole remains absolutely constant. For whenever the amount •of oxidation in the body increases, so that heat tends to accumu- late, the vasomotor mechanism comes into play, and as much heat is lost by skin-cooling and sweat-evaporation as wUl bring the temperature back to the normal. Thus we can perform violent physical exercise, or enter a very hot room, and our bodies do not increase in temperature by any appreciable amount. Those of you who have taken a Turkish bath will understand this. You •enter the warm chamber, the air is many degrees warmer than your body, but your body does not rise to the temperature of the room. If it did you would certainly expire in a very few minutes. On the contrary, no sooner have you lain down than your skin assumes a pink or red colour, and is by and by bathed in a profuse perspiration, and the evaporation of the sweat in the dry air of the room carries away the heat which, if it entered the body, would produce fatal mischief. In health the tempera- ture of the body never rises above 100° F. in its deeper parts, 82 ANIMAL heat: how it is produced, lost, and preserved. and 98^ F. in its superficial parts. The capacity of this heat- regulating function is very great. Experiment has shown that a person may remain for a considerable time in a dry atmosphere at a temperature much above that of boiling water simply in virtue of the process I have described. On the contrary, when the atmosphere is moist, he is placed at a considerable disadvantage, because then the sweat cannot evaporate, and hence the limit of temperature endurable in a moist atmosphere is much less than in a dry one. This, of course, further explains why and how we perspire so readily in warm summer weather, and do so with much less readiness in cold weather. Further, it accounts for the well-known fact that we can exert ourselves so much less comfortably in muggy warm weather when the air is damp than on a bright day with a dry atmosphere. In the one case the clammy sweat remains on the skin, keeping in the heat ; in the other, it passes off as vapour, keeping our temperature cool and comfortable. But, now, what will happen if we are placed in cold surroundings, say in cold frosty air, much colder than our bodies. How do we retain our heat, then ] The cold air has an effect opposite to that of the hot air. Cold causes tho blood-vessels of the skin to contract, the tubes become narrow, the skin becomes bloodless, and the heat is preserved by the blood being imprisoned in the vessels of the deep parts of the body, away from the cooling effects of the cold surroundings. ThuSy while the surface of the exposed parts of the body may on a cold day feel cold and be really cold, still, in the keenest frost, a ther- mometer placed in the mouth will still mark 100° F. It is then the special characteristic of warm - blooded animals that their temperature remains practically always the same. All the heat produced above a certain maximum is given off by a special mechanism, and thus the " heat-balance " is maintained. In cold- blooded animals, on the contrary, the condition is different. Animals like frogs have a far less constant temperature, and they are largely at the mercy of their surroundings. A frog in a Turk- ish bath would be a very unhappy frog indeed. For in a very short space of time his temperature would rise until it reached the temperature of the room. Only before the realisation of this untoward event, the poor animal would have ceased to exist. I must now say a word about what we term Fever. Fever is ANIMAL HEAT 1 HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. ^83 a result of a diseased condition which interferes with the heat- balance. More heat is produced than is got rid of. This may be brought about in either or both of two ways. First, more than the normal heat may be produced in the tissues by the increased oxidation, or second, the heat-losing mechanism fails to act. Us- ually both factors play a part. Those of you who have seen a case of fever will recollect the hot dry skin. It may be red or not, but in any case it is hot and dry. The sweat-glands are inactive, and thus, while the heat-producing mechanism is active, over active, the heat-losing mechanism is disorganised. More- over, the evil tends to increase itself, for the hot blood stimulates the heart to more rapid action, causes it to drive the blood more rapidly through the lungs and body generally, and thus promotes oxidation and heat-production, and this is the gi'eat danger in fever. For the heart becomes fatigued, and may ultimately cease to act from sheer exhaustion. Generally one of the first signs of the abatement of the mischief and commencing recovery is the moistening of the skin by the sweat, which is usually soon fol- lowed by slowing of the heart. I have left myself a very short time to say anything about the third part of my subject — How to 'preserve and regulate the heat of the body. The risks run by an individual in whom the heat- producing or heat-losing mechanism is disordered are very great, and they predispose to many diseases, the onset of which is popularly described as "getting over-heated," "catching a chill," ttc. I must confine myself to referring to a few points of prac- tical importance bearing upon this question. 1. The first essential is its regular and suflicient production. This depends primarily on the consumption of a iwoper amount of suitable food. If the body is scrimped of fuel it can only keep up its temperature by the combustion of part of its own tissue. The muscle and fat will be consumed instead of the food. The most pressing danger of starvation is that the body temperature may fall to a point below that compatible with life. Most of us know how difficult it is during a long railway journey in cold weather to keep warm when unable to obtain a suitable meal at the proper time. The hiuigrier we get the colder we gi'ow. And no sooner have we partaken of a good meal than the 84 ANIMAL HEAT : HOW IT IS PRODUCED, LOST, AND PRESERVED. warmth returns, and the discomfoii; disappears. At one time it was supposed that foods should be divided into heat-producing and work - producing, or flesh-forming foods. And on this assumption it was supposed that certain foods were more suitable than others for those who had to endure excessive cold. This, however, rests on a fallacy, and we are now aware that the best food for heat-production is also the best for work-production. I have no time to discuss the best form of dietary. That will, I understand, form the subject of a subsequent lecture of this course. 2. In order to promote the combustion of our food and the production of heat, we must do work. Consequently we must take a certain amount of exercise. In a condition of rest the body surrounded by a cold atmosphere would give up more heat than is compatible with the preservation of the heat-balance. We all know from experience the chilling effect of enforced idleness in the open air on a cold day, and the feeling of pleasant warmth and comfort which is associated with active exercise. During rest or idleness the furnace-fire flickers and dies down, during exercise it is fanned into activity and- sets the whole organism aglow. 3. We must further take means to prevent the too rapid loss or absorption of heat. This is mainly effected by the use of Rice .... 181 Wheaten Bread 20 Lentils . 26 Peas .... 26i Eggs .... 29 ounces. Rye Bread Cheese . Potatoes . Beef . '. 30 ounces. 64i „ 65i „ 4 J pounds. For instance, this table shows that to obtain 300 grains of nitrogen, a person must eat 12*4 oz. of cheese, nearly 1 lb. of lentils, 2 J oz. more than 1 lb. of peas — I lb. 3 J oz. of beef, or 31 oz. of eggs. To obtain the amount of nitrogen, a man must eat 3 1 oz, of eggs. Now, an egg contains about 1^ oz., so that for repairing the waste he would need to eat 20 eggs per day. Again, 46 oz, of wheaten bread would be required — that is very nearly 3 lbs. of bread. The ordinary small loaf is 2 lbs,, so that he would require to eat a loaf and a half ; while 82 oz. of rice or 20 lbs. of potatoes are necessary in order to yield the amount of nitrogen necessary to repair the tissue waste. Now, if we look at the other side of the question, and ask how much must be eaten in order to obtain the necessary carbon, then we find tliat 18 oz. of rice will yield 4800 grains of carbon ; of wheaten bread, 20 ozs., of lentils, 26 oz., and 4^- ll>s. of beef, arc neces- sary to yield the carbon. So that while a little over 1 lb. of beef TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE PEOPLE. 101 will yield the necessary nitrogen, one would need to eat 4^ lbs. of beef to get the carbon. It is plain, therefore, that not one of these articles of diet would be suitable to live on alone, and that because they do not contain the necessary amount of carbon and nitrogen in due proportion. Our question, then, is. How can we obtain from foods that due proportion of the two elements necessary without :aking an excess, that is economically, so far as the body 's con- cerned 1 I show you a diagram which illustrates to you some of the apparent anomalies of food-stuffs. It is a diagram showing the composition of various foods. Each food-stuff is represented by a band, one part of which is black, another red, another blue, another white. The whole length of the band stands for 100 parts of the food-stuff, the black portion indicates the water it contains, the blue the proteid material, the red the carbohydrates, and the white the saline constituents, and the length of each of these parts represents the proportion of that ingredient in the 100 parts. So that at a glance you can perceive the various in- gredients of each food-stuff and their relative proportions. What we find, for example, in this diagram is that beef consists to the extent of 62 per cent, of water, only 12 parts of pro- tein, and 20 J of fatty substances. Milk contains 86 parts of water, 4 of protein, and 8 of sugar and fat. Now take vegetable foods, and look at peas. There ai-e only 14 parts of water in peas, 23 of proteid substances, 2 J of fats, and over 57 of stai-ch, while oatmeal contains only 7 J parts of water in 100, 15 J of proteids, 8 of fats, and 68 of starch. Wheaten bread contains, it appears, 33 per cent, of water, 9 of proteids, 2 of fats, and 55 of starch, and so on; while every 100 parts of rice consist of 13 of water, .7^ proteids, ^ fats, and 782" of starch. When you thus compare rice, peas, and wheaten bread with their small proportions of water and large proportions of nutritious ma- terial, and pork, fowl, and animal foods with their large quantities of water and their small percentages of nutritious material, you have the reason for the greater nutritive value of one as compared with the other, and the greater economy of the one as compared with the other. But that I will speak of later. You also readily see from the diagram that a substance like rice contains a veiy large quantity of carbonaceous material in the form of starch 102 FOOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION (nearly 80 per cent.), and a very small quantity of the nitro- genous element, and that the relative proportions of these two constituents is very different in the various food-stuffs. You will then perceive the reason for combining two different food- stuffs. Since you cannot get the carbon-containing and the nitrogen-containing substances in due proportion in almost any food-stuff, it becomes necessary to combine two food -stuffs, one rich in the former, the other rich in the latter, in order to secure a proper quantity of each element. Supposing you combine rice with beef. The rice yields carbon in abundance in the form of starch, but little proteid material, while the beef makes up the deficiency of proteid while supplying little carbonaceous substance. Now, I have said the proportion of the two elements necessary are 300 grains of nitrogen and 4800 grains of carbon; but we must now speak, not of the elements themselves, but of their combination in food- stuffs. We shall speak of the foods which contain carbon but no nitrogen as non-nitrogenous food-stuffs, and we shall speak of the foods that contain nitrogen as well as carbon as nitrogenous food-stuffs. And when we compare these food-stuffs together we find that the proportion of 300 grains of nitrogen to 4800 grains of carbon could be obtained only from a food-stuff which contained its proteid ingredients (nitrogenous) in the proportion of 1 to every 3| or 4| of its non-nitrogenous ingredients (fats, sugars, and starches). You will understand better what is meant, and how far short of the due proportion most foodstuffs are, if I refer you to the next table. In it is set forth the proportion of the nitrogenous to the non-nitrogenous constituents in different substances according to Liebig : — Nitrogenous. iNUIl-lMLIU (reckoned as Veal, . 10 1 Beef, . 10 17 Peas, 10 23 Fat Mutton, . 10 27 Cows' Milk, 10 30 Human Milk, . 10 37 Wheaten Flour, 10 46 Oatmeal, . 10 50 Potatoes, 10 86 Jlicc, lU 123 TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE PEOPLE. 103 In veal we have 10 of nitrogenous substances to 1 of non- nitrogenous. Peas have 10 nitrogenous for every 23 of non- nitrogenous, that is to say, peas contain too much of nitrogen- containing substances, and too little of carbon. If we come to cows' milk we find the proportion 10 to 30, that is 1 to 3. I have said the due proportion should be 1 to 3J, and therefore cows' milk contains nearly the due proportion of nitrogen and carbon. Wheaten bread contains almost exactly the proper limit of the proportions I have mentioned, and oatmeal contains 1 to 5. Rice contains 1 to 12 J. Of these substances only three have the necessary elements in anything like the proportion required by us, namely, milk, flour, and oatmeal. The former contains too much nitrogen in proportion to carbon, but that, as we shall see, makes it all the more suitable for infants' diet, while the latter is rather rich in carbon, but just on that account affording a diet unexcelled for hard work, because yielding the material for the liberation of energy in great abundance, while also sup- plying material for the repair of waste. These illustrations show that most substances are either specially rich in nitrogen, or specially rich in carbon, and if we take a due admixture of the two, we shall have a healthy diet which vshall yield them in the proper proportions — a mixture of oatmeal and milk forming an exact proportion. The next question comes to be, How are we to get these sub- stances, carbon and nitrogen, worked up in suitable form at least cost 1 And here there comes into the problem as determin- ing the answer to this question, the large percentage of water which some substances contain as compared with others. If beef contains 62 parts of water in every 100, it is plain that when you are buying beef you are buying more than one-half of water, you are paying for a large quantity of water which you do not want, and are getting consequently less of nutritious material which you do want. If, however, you buy a pound of peas you get only 1 4 parts of water. Therefore, suppose peas and beef were the same price per pound, you would be much cheaper to buy a pound of peas than a pound of beef, because when you buy a pound of peas you buy 60 parts less of water than when you buy a pound of beef. Now, to make that still more plain, I have had painted 104 FOOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION a table which puts it in this form — " What a penny will buy." I have constructed this table by taking the chemical com- position of these various substances, and considering the quan- tity of water they contain per pound, or what percentage of water they contain. For instance, I have estimated one pound of beef to contain only 32 1 parts of nutritious material. When I say, as I do at the top of this list, that a penny will buy 12f oz. of nutritious material in the form of Indian corn meal, I mean this, that a penny will buy 1 lb. of Indian corn meal — that is, 16 oz. — but 3^ oz. of that 1 lb. consist of water. The remaining 12f oz. consist of fats, sugar, starches, and proteids available for the nutrition of the human body. Now, I therefore cast aside the water, so to speak — deduct it from the 1 lb. — and that shows that Id. expended on buying 1 lb. of corn meal buys 12| oz. of nutritious food in the form of fat, starch, sugar, and albuminous substance. A penny will buy 8'6 oz. of nutritious material in the form of ryebread ; 7"1 in the form of potatoes; 6 '8 oz. in the form of flour, and so on. It gives 7'1 in the form of oatmeal. You remember oatmeal is 2d. per lb. ; Id. buys J lb. of oatmeal — that is, 8 oz. — but we exclude a certain proportion which is water, and the result is that we have fully 7 oz. in the form of fat, sugar, starch, and proteid subjects. When we come to cod fish, Id. will buy barely 1 oz. of nutritious material in the form of cod fish, although cod fish be selling at 3d. per lb. I have added a cer- tain percentage to the price of the fish, because a considerable portion will be waste in the shape of bones and skin, and I have considered that 1 lb. of fish, excluding bones and skin, would cost 4^d instead of 3d. What a Penny will Buy. Nutritive Material in Ounces. Id. will buy 12' 8 as Indian Corn Meal. Id. ,, 8 '6 as Rye Bread. Id. ,, 7* J as Oatmeal. Id. ,, 7'1 as Potato. TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE PEOPLE. 105 Nutritive Material in Ounces. Id. will buy 6 "8 as Fine Flour. Id. )) 6*4 as Pease Meal. Id. )) 6*3 as White Bread. Id. 5) 6*2 as Sago. Id. )J 5 "9 as Peas (dried). Id. >J 2-9 as Figs (dried). Id. a 1'8 as Buttermilk. Id. » 1'3 as Bacon. Id. j>. 1-3 as Milk. Id. 55 '9 as Cheese (Dunlop), Id. 55 •8 as Cod Fish. Id. J» •4 as Egg. Id. >5 •3 as Lean Beef. Id. 55 •3 as Fowl. Id. >» *3 as Salmon. You see, then, how we answer this question as to getting the necessary quantity of food at least cost ; and we find briefly this, that you will get for the same uioney twenty times the .amount of nutritious material in the shape of oatmeal that you will in the shape of lean beef. One penny expended on oatmeal will buy twenty times the quantity of nourishing material that it will yield if expended on beef. (Applause.) I have shown you, then, what food is. It is material which will yield to the body energy for its work, and material for the repair of its waste tissue ; the energy-yielding material must contain carbon, the tissue-repairing material must contain nitrogen. These two elements must be worked up for us by the plants and the inferior animals before they can be available for our use. We need 300 grains of nitrogen worked up and 4800 grains of carbon. There are very few food-stufis which singly will yield that amount of carbon and nitrogen in that proportion — in fact, one may say only three, milk, flour, and oatmeal ; and then we find, when we come to consider the cost, that the vegetable foods such as oatmeal and so on, will, at less cost, yield far more nutritive material of the right kind for the body than animal food. Supposing, then, in these forms the necessary quantity of carbon 106 POOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION and nitrogen are yielded, is anything else wanted to keep the human machine in a healthy state % There are salts needed — common salt and other salts. These, however, I may dismiss with the remark that they are contained in all food stuffs. Beef con- tains 5 per cent, of saline material, and all the foods have it — rice \ per cent, peas 2 '5, and so on. We may say we get these salts readily in the food itself, or by the universal practice of adding salt to please the palate. What else, then, may be required, provided the carbon, the nitrogen, and the salts are provided % I should, of course, say we need oxygen, but I must not consider that further to-night. We get it to some extent in our food, and what "additional supplies we need we obtain from the atmosphere by the process of respiratioa. What more, then, do we require % We need water, and provided we have obtained the needful quantity of carbon and nitrogen, the necessary quantity of salts, and the needful supply of oxygen, the human body needs absolutely nothing else to keep it in working order than a daily supply of water to meet that which is given off daily by perspiration, ikc. The needful daily quantity is about 60 oz. per day ; but, as we have seen, all the foods we take contain water to some extent, and thereft)re it is not the 60 oz. that we require to introduce as drink, but simply that quantity which will make up the deficiency in the food. These, then, are the physiological facts as to foods, so far as I can lay them before you in the short time at my disposal — that, given these necessary ingredients, carbon, nitrogen, proteid, and oxygen, we need only further water in a certain quantity to supply us with all our daily wants. We are, however, face to face with this fact, that human beings not only require what is necessary but crave for what is pleasant, for what supplies a change, for what gives variety. Some of us, at least I believe a large number of the human kind, object to introduce liquid simply in the form of water. There is a sameness in it which palls upon them, and there has been a universal demand over the whole globe, a demand for some liquid substances, which will meet the physiological requirements of the body by introducing water, but will also meet the essentially human demand for variety. I have only a brief minute or two to consider this question ; and I observe there arc two questions which we must TO THE WELL-BEING OP THE PEOPLE. 107 ask ourselves in considering the subject of drink. Assuming that the drink introduces, the necessary quantity of water that we require, the first question we may ask in regard to it is, Does it besides supply to the body any nourishing material ] besides supplying the water, does it supply us with any food 1 and the second question we may add is. Supposing it supplies to the body water in a palatable form, supposing it may or may not supply also a slight quantity of nourishing material, does it besides supply anything which will act upon the body in a manner bene- ficent or hurtful ? Now, the di^inks that are in common use — excluding, for a moment, milk, as I consider it essentially a food- stufi" — are tea,* coffee, and cocoa belonging to one class, and then we may class all other drinks as alcoholic beverages. Lemonade and soda water are to be considered only as varieties of water. Then we have tea, coffee, and cocoa, and secondly alcoholic drinks. Our first question in regard to them is. Are they food- substances 1 do they introduce anything of use for nourishing the body ? Does tea, besides introducing water, give the body any- thing which will yield energy for its work or material for the repair of tissue ? "Well, we go to a chemist and ask him, what does a cup of tea contain 1 or rather we take a teaspoonful of tea and infuse it in a teapot for three minutes, and pour out the infusion and hand it to a chemist, and ask, what does that contain] — for it is not necessary that the chemist should take the tea leaves, as we only drink the infusion. So we say, what does this infusion contain 1 and the chemist answers practically what I show you in this table. Constituents of One Cup (7 Ounces of Tea) containing average AMOUNTS OP Cream (J Oz.) and Sugar (100 Grains). (Attfield.) Grains. . Cheesy matter from the Cream, . . . .5 Fat and Milk Sugar, 30 Added Sugar, . . . . . . .100 Mineral Matter of the Cream, ..... 1 Extract of Tea Leaf (mineral matter, 4J; organic, 6|), 21 Total, , . • . 157 108 FOOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION We are considering only the tea infusion, and setting aside tlie nutritive material derived from the cream and sugar. We have, briefly, in a cup of tea 21 grains of material. The 21 grains consist of 4f grains of ash (mineral substances), and 16f gi'ains of organic substances. It is with the latter we are concerned. What are they composed of ? In the first place, 1 6| grains are scarcely worth taking into consideration. If a cup of tea yields only 16| grains of organic material, it is not worth considering as a food-stuff at all. But when we examine the organic material we find its chief ingredient is called thein, yielding but one grain of nitrogen. We may say, then, taking it in this strict chemical fashion, that a cup of tea yields to the body in the form of nitrogenous substance 1 grain. It is plain that tea, therefore, has no place as a food-stuff — it yields nothing to the body for giving energy to do work, or repairing waste tissue. What, therefore, does it do, or what is its use ] I need hardly describe what it does. It stimulates, it removes or relieves feelings of fatigue ; it is useful, in various depressed states of the body, be- cause of this stimulating property. It stirs the imagination, it quickens the breathing, and also the action of the heart. It stimulates in .short, and it Is this stimulating property that makes it valuable for us, and makes it desired by us. It is not a food, however ; as a stimulant it enjoys the advantage, under ordinary circumstances, of leaving afterwards no feeling of de- pression. It is therefore useful for us as a stimulant, provided ahvays we supply with it the energy -yielding and tissue-repairing substance. A meal with tea is therefore a suitable enough meal, provided, in our calculations, we put the tea on its proper level as nothing more or less than a stimulant — it may be aiding the digestion of the other food. It may so stimulate us that we may make due use of food which, owing to our depressed state, we might not be able to take the full benefit of. But if we take tea in order to fill out an otherwise deficient diet, we are de- luding ourselves — we are attempting to deceive our human mechanism, and it will not be deceived. If we are taking tea in order to produce satisfaction with a meal which is not a satis- fying meal, then we are simply endeavouring by a false stimula- • tion to mask to ourselves the fact that we are not supplying to our humaii bodies what they need for their work, or for their TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE PEOPLE. 109 waste of tissue. In this respect I compare tea — using again a popular figure — I compare tea, when it is used in this way, to putting a blower on a dying fire. Here are the remains of a fire, nothing but a heap of half-smouldering embers in the grate ; we collect the embers together, and put on a blower. The blower creates a draught, which wakens the dying fire, and the flames blaze up with greater brilliance, and present an appearance of warmth, but they blaze up only to die out more rapidly. The blower quickens the consumption without supplying fuel. If, when we put on the blower, we also carefully put on more coal, then we quicken the chemical action going on ; but we have also supplied the material with which that chemical action may be satisfied. Therefore that is the position in which we are to regard tea — as simply supplying stimulus — as useful enough under certain circumstances for its stimulating property, provided we recog- nise the fact that we must take with the tea the necessaiy quan- tity of nutritive material, and not a fraction less. Coffee I need not further consider, because it is on exactly the same basis — it also contains thein, which confers upon it a stimulating property, but it is not nutritious. Cocoa occupies an entirely dif- ferent position. Cocoa consists one-half of fat, and as such yields material to the body for the liberation of energy for the doing of work. Cocoa we do not drink as an infusion ; it is an emulsion or decoction. We do not usually take cocoa and in- fuse it, and pour ofi" the infusion, having extracted some prin- ciple from it, but we mix the cocoa with hot water, and drink the whole mixture, deiiving from the powder whatever nourish- ment it contains. Therefore cocoa is not only a beverage, but also a food, and therefore we may use cocoa as adding some- thing to our meal as able to fill out a meal otherwise defi- cient. Lastly, we have the alcoholic drinks. Now this question of alcoholic drinks resolves itself, so far as we are at present con- cerned, into a question of the alcohol which gives to the drink its peculiar property. Let me refer you to the next table. 110 FOOD AND DRINK, AND TIIETR llELATION Proportion of Alcohol in various Alcoholic Drinks. Brandy, . Per cent, (by volume). 55-39 Claret and Hock, Per cent, (by volume) 8 to 13 Whisky (Scotch), Whisky (Irish), Rum, 54-32 53-20 53-68 Champagne, Edinburgh Ale, . Porter, 7 to 12 5 to 6 5 to 7 Gin, 51-60 Lager Beer, 5-1 Port Wine, 20-25 Cider (average), . 6-0 Sherry Wine, . lG-30 Gooseberry Wine, 3-0 Madeira Wine, 16-10 Ginger Wine, 1 to 6 We see from this table that brandy contains rather more than 55 per cent, of absolute alcohol, Scotch whisky 54 per cent., being apparently stronger than Irish ; the stronger wines, port and sherry, contain from 16 to 20 per cent., and the lighter wines, champagne and hock, 7 to 1 3 per cent. ; and Edinburgh ale yields 5 per cent, of absohite alcohol, which would be equal to 10 per cent, of spirit, in the form of whisky, for example. So that 10 ozs. of Edinburgh ale v/ould yield the same quantity of spirit as 1 oz. of whisky. What' is the value of alcohol ? Is it a food ? Well, I cannot go into the details of the question, for it is a large question, and has been a much discussed problem. I can only say briefly that, treating alcoholic beverages — whisky, and so on— on an essentially fair footing, giving them every con- ceivable allowance that can be, the conclusion arrived at is that alcohol may to some extent give to the body something whicli will yield energy for work, but not material for the repair of tissue. I say it is a debated question, but taking it on favourable ground, alcohol yields something for giving energy to the body. That ad- mission is restricted, however, by this fact, that if beyond a certain amount of alcohol is consumed it produces deleterious effects on almost all the organs of the body, not only on the glandular organs, such as the liver and kidneys, but on the nervous organs, such as the brain. So that if, on the one hand, we allow that whisky is capable of being to a slight extent an energy -yielding food-stuff, on the other hand we have to add that if any quantity of that food-stuff is taken it is injurious. What is the value of a food-stuff which, if taken beyond a certain very "TO THE WELL-BEING OP THE PEOPLE. Ill small quantity, becomes injurious, poisonous? Its value is scarcely worth considemio-. There have been experiments made by Dr Parkes, Count "Wollowicz, and others, to determine at what quantity danger may arise. They have been made independently, but they seem to point to this conclusion — that the limit of safety is loz. of absolute alcohol, not at a time, but during tw^enty-four hours. Now, taking the composition of whisky as consisting of 54 per cent, of alcohol, it means this, that 1 oz. of absolute alcohol is represented by 2 oz. of whisky, is represented by 5 oz. of sherry, is represented by 1 oz. of light wines such as hock and claret, and is represented by 20 oz. or a pint of beer. If a man, therefore, in twenty-four hours, goes beyond 2 oz. of whisky, which is less than one glass, two glasses of sherry, — I am speaking of the ordinary glass, — four glasses of hock, of champagne, or claret, or one pint of beer, he passes the limits of safety. I am not speaking at all as a teetotaler, neither am I adopting a temperance platform. I am taking simply scientific exjieriments, and saying that apparently the result of them admits that alcohol may be to a slight extent useful to the body in the way of yielding energy ; that if more than the small quantity I have named is taken, injurious efiects follow, and that, therefore, we are restricted to these limits, we ought to be within those limits of safety. The effects of alcohol are to stimulate, as we know, and they are followed by a period of depression, w^hich does not follow the use of tea. What I have said about the stimulating effects of tea may be said of the stimulating effects of alcohol. We may represent alcohol as quickening changes going on in the body, changes by which carbon is united with ^oxygen for supplying energy to the body. Under certain circumstances, then, alcohol may be useful, but as the use of whisky, save in small quantities, may produce in- jurious effects in many organs of the body, the use of whisky is not to be advised under ordinary circumstances at all. I have left very little time in which to point ont the practical conclusions from these facts which I have tried to lay before you. Let me point out one. The first remark I would like to make is in regard to the feeding of children, a.nd to point out what I dare- say you all know — that children are often fed almost exclusively on such substances as sago, tapioca, cornflour, and arrowroot. 112 FOOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION These are substances which contain carbon bnt not nitrogen. Wliat is the child doing ? Not only expending energy, and wast- ing tissue, but forming new bone, new blood, and new nervous substance. A child, therefore, needs more nitrogenous food than a man does, for a man adds nothing to his stature or his blood — he is full grown, and has only to repair the daily waste. A child has not only to repair his daily small waste of body, but to build up new tissue, and therefore needs a larger proportionate quantity of nitrogen than a man. But many children are fed mainly on such substances as tapioca, sago, cornflour, and arrowroot, which contain no nitrogen. It is on this account we have children run- ning about the streets with legs which bend under them, incapable of supporting their weight. We find them with soft flabby muscles, with pale pinched cheeks and thin skin, because the nitrogen has not been provided from which they may form new blood and tissue, because the diet they are provided with is habitually deficient in the tissue-forming and repairing element. We ought therefore to avoid the dangers to which I have alluded, to exclude entirely from children's diet such substances as corn- flour, sago, tapioca, and arrowroot. If 1 had my way of it, 1 would put these substances in the druggist's shop, and say they are only to be given to children under orders of the doctor, other- wise, as they are easily cooked, parents are apt to give them to their children, and while apparently thriving, these children will starve on them. You may see a fat overgrown baby who is yet being starved. You are feeding it with cornflour and arrowroot, giving it more carbon than it requires, and yet you are starving it of njtrogen — of the material from which it may form new tissue and new blood. It is a fat child, and people wonder why it is so pale and pasty-looking, never thinking it is possible for it to be fat, and yet to be starving. What are you to give it instead of cornflour 1 Oatmeal. I answer in one word, oatmeal porridge. A second practical remark I wish to make is that a diet may be perfectly nutritious, entirely suitable to the body, and yet inexpensive. This I can illustrate to you best and most speedily by two examples. On the board I have placed a table of two breakfasts, wliich states the ingredients of each breakfast, the amount of nourishment each supplies, given as grains of carbon and nitrogen, and the cost of each. TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE PEOPLE. 113 Breakfast A. 6 Ounces Oatmeal made into "^ Porridge, 10 Ounces Sweet Milk, 1 Pint Cocoa, J lb. Bread, J oz. Butter, i^ Yields 120 grains Nitrogen. 2145 „ Carbon. Costs 3d. Breakfast B. 1 } Yields 80 grains Nitrogen. 1792 Carbon. Costs 5fd. 1 Pint Coffee, - 1 Egg, I lb. Bacon, ^ lb. Bread, 1 oz.. Butter, J Breakfast B. yields one-third less tissue-repairing material than Breakfast A. It contains twice as much bread and butter, but it costs nearly double the money. What is the meaning of this 1 The answer is again in a single word — oatmeal porridge. The oatmeal porridge of Breakfast A. gives it a pre-eminence in nutri- tious qualities which ham and eggs cannot hope to rival. Now I would like to say a word or two as to the relation which I think the question of food has to the question of intemperance. I believe with a few people — I think not very many, but still with a few — that intemperance is not a cause but an effect. I believe the tendency to drink, among our working classes at least, is largely the result of insufficient food — that it results largely from the want of food capable of yielding the necessary material for renewal of energy and repairing the waste of tissue. Our people may have a diet — apparently an abundant diet — of bread and butter and bacon, but it does not yield the quantity of carbon which is necessary for work, or it may yield the carbon and not the nitrogen. Our workman has a diet, and his wife has a diet, and his children have a diet, apparently as to quantity sufficient, but as to the essential ingredients absolutely insufficient. When the workman leaves his house to return to his work, after a diet Avhich perhaps he has enjoyed, he feels a strange languor for which he cannot account, a want of energy for work, and so the inevitable tendency is a resort to the whisky shop. He puts 114 FOOD AND DRINK, AND THEIR RELATION TO THE PEOPLE. down a glass of whisky to raise the steam. It does good, or apiDarently good, in that it quickens the combination going on in his body, and for a period he raises the necessary steam for his work. The period is, however, followed by an inevitable period of reaction. He is draining out the capital of his body, instead of liaving a daily income for repairing the waste, and the inevit- able end must be the physical bankruptcy of his body. I say there is a vast relationship between intemperance and insufficient food. In this I take it is one reason of such lectures as this, that we shall do something to extend knowledge among the people as to the proper food both as to quantity and quality ; and I should like to add that if we supplement this information by instruction, easily accessible to the poorest of our people — instruction as to not only what is the right kind of food, but instruction as to how to prepare that kind of food so that it may be set 'before our working-men in forms palatable and tempting, as well as nutri- tious — and one does not need to go to expense to do that — then, I think, we shall have taken the greatest step we can take to combat the ten-ible evil of intemperance.* Dr M'Gregor Robertson, in acknowledging a vote of thanks proposed by I)r Bramwell, said — Let me only remark that I do not say insufficient food is the only cause of excessive drinking, but I believe from experience of the working classes in, at least, Glasgow, that insufficeut food is a very productive cause of in- temperance amongst the working classes. The experience from which I speak is considerable, and I could not imagine an argu- ment which could dislodge me from that point of view. Of course we have intemperance among other classes where there is no question of insufficient food, and we must find other causes ; but among the working classes, I say, insufficient food is a great cause of intemperance. I should have liked to enter into some of the questions which Dr Byrom Bramwell has referred to. Regarding diet and climate it is not necessary to say much in Scotland ; our climate needs one kind of food, that which our national poet describes as " The halesome parritch, chief o' Scotia's food." * The lecture was delivered from a few notes only, and has been printed from a shorthand report. I have carofully revised it, but have not attempted to alter tlic general style it assumed in course of delivery. — J. M'G.-R. HEALTH LECTURES for tie PEOPLE. FOURTH SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. Civic Sanitation, with Remarks on a City Ambulance. By Professor Chiene. Physical Exercises. By Dr C. W. Cathcaet. Chemistry of Healthy Homes ; Two Lectures. By Dr Stevenson Macadam. Hands and Feet. By Professor Turner. Difficulties of Health Reformers ; Two Lectures. By H. H. Aliiond, M.A. Development of a Child in Body and Idind. By Dr T. S. Clouston. '' ' We cry unto you, and ye will not hear,' might be the motto of this little book. If anything would tend to improve the habitations of the poor, and, for the matter of that, of many of the rich too, it would be the perusal of these excellent Lectures which contain words of wisdom from eminent physicians and masters of sanitary science." — Literary World. " An admirable little volume. Every one of the Lectures is worthy of preservation." — Edinburgh Medical Journal. 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Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. Exciting Causes of Disease. By Dr Bykom Bramwell. Light in Relation to Health. By Dr Eitohie. Milk in Relation to Public Health. By Dr A. Young. How to Live Long. By Dr James. Work and Rest. By Dr Sibbald. Sickroom Food Cookery. By Teachers of the Edin- burgh School of Cookery. "As to the vaUie of the addresses themselves, nothing need now be said. They deserve, and it is to be hoped that they will attain, a very wide circulation." — Scotsman. "The style of the Lectures is clear and simple enough for the least scientific to understand." — Inverness Courier. EDI^N'BUEGH: MACNIVEN & WALLACE. HEALTH LECTURES for the PEOPLE. SEVENTH SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d.; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. The Role of Bacteria in Health and Disease. By Professor Cossar Ewart. On Soda, Soap, and other Cleansing" Materials. By Dr Stevenson Macadam. Headaches. By Dr G. A, Gibson. Healthy Lungs and their Care. By Dr Graham Brown. Physiology and Functions of the Teeth. By Dr Smith. The Children of the City. By Dr J. B. Eussell. Fish. By Teachers of the Edinburgh School of Cookery. Tear and Wear. By Dr Stirling. " There can be no question of the wisdom which induces the publication of Health Lectures. If attractiveness of binding, clearness of type, and general excellence of illustration can be supposed to favour the sale of any volume, we may safely hold the opinion that the Lectures before us have had, and will in the future command, a large and steady sale. No more useful discourses could have been projected or delivered." — Health. EDINBURGH: MACNIVEN & \YALLACE. BEALTH LECTURES for tie PEOPLE. EIGHTH SERIES. Cloth, Is. 6d. ; Paper, Is. CONTENTS. How Pleasant Surroundings and Conditions affect the Health and Happiness. By T. S. Clouston, M.D. Indigestion: its Causes and its Consequences. By William Etjssell, M.D. Healthy Clothing. By Alice Ker, M.D. Heredity : its Influence on Man, in Health and Disease. By E. W. Felkix, M.D. The Channels of Infection. By Irtbur W. Hare, M.B. "The dissemination of Literature of this type is one of the healthiest features of this age, and should be encouraged by every lover of his species." — British Weeli^. " Forms a volume admirably adapted to promote the physical and social well-being of our population. The lecturers are men of great eminence in the medical profession, and the subjects chosen of first-rate importance." — Christian. EDIXBUEGH: MACNIVEX c^^ WALLACE. EDINBURGH HEALTH SOCIETY. INSTITUTED 1881. PRESIDENT. The Eight Hon. the EARL OF ROSEBERY. This Society has been formed : — To promote, hy all means in its ^ower, attention to personal and domestic Cleanliness, to Comfort, Self-denial, Temperance, and the Laws of Health generally. The means to be employed for this end may in the opinion of the Committee, be stated in the meantime as follows : — 1. The delivery of Popular Lectures bearing on the subjects in question by Physicians and other qualified persons. 2. The printing and distribution of these Lectures, and of small Leaflets. 3. Providing subjects of Interest for the Mind, and encourag- ing proper Amusements and Physical Exercises. 4. Giving assistance to the Constituted Authorities in the pro- motion of sanitary improvements by drawing their special attention to any particular insanitary condition. 5. Obtaining the assistance, so far as necessary, of any other Society in the City willing to co-operate in the work of this Society. C. Arranging for the rg-delivery of the Society's Lectures in villages in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and for the formation in such places of small local Committees in connection with the Society. Members Enrolled and Subscriptions received by : — The Honorary Secretary— Richard S. Aitchison, Esq., C.A., 42 Castle Street. The Honorary Treasurer— JoHN M. HowDEN, Esq., C.A., 8 York Place. Messrs Macniven & Wallace, Publishers, 132 Princes Street. Annual Subscription, ONE SHILLING, or more. Life Subscription, ONE GUINEA. Just Published^ Third Edition. BRIGHT SABBATHS. H few Morbs to /K^otbers. BY ONE OF THEMSELVES. Square i6ino, is. " It is a thoroughly practical book, full of wise and useful counsel, informed by a sunny and gracious spirit, and will be a very welcome and helpful Christmas gift, especially to young mothers." — British Weekly. " An attractive little book." — British Messenger. "Admirably suggestive and helpful. It is evident, in every line of it, that the author knows exactly the difficulties a mother has to overcome." — Word atid Wo7'k. " Cannot fail to be of service to those who are often at a loss as to the best way of making Sabbath hours pass plea- santly and profitably in the home circle." — Christian Leader. " Mothers may indeed be thankful to the author of ' Bright Sabbaths ' for her small but most suggestive volume." — Messenger for the Children. 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"It would be difficult to present in a more graphic, true, and impressive form the history of the Disruption and all that has succeeded it. . . . He was extremely thankful to Mr Brown for what he had done, and he was sure persons not only in Scotland, but outside of Scotland to the ends of the earth, would, in these volumes, obtain a more definite idea of what the Disruption was, and why it was, than in any other way. He strongly recommended these volumes to all who desired to know what the Disruption was, and what the men connected with the Disruption were." — Dr Begg, Assemhli/ 1883. "We cannot s])eak too warmly of the manner in which the editor has done his part of the work. He has succeeded in preparing a volume which is singularly fresh, interesting, and readable ; and any one with it in his hand can now form a distinct picture in his mind, of that memorable period in our history, when the oppressions of the ci-s^il power disrupted the National Church of Scotland." — Fire Church Record. " The narrative, being derived from those who were witnesses of, and who took part in the exodus, is peculiarly vivid. It brings before the reader the scenes and incidents of a time of severe trial, which was converted into a time of signal triumph to those who proved faithful to the principles and traditions of the Kirk, and to the dictates of their own consciences. Mr Brown has admirably done his part in welding the separate portions together so as to form a connected narrative." — British Quarterly Revieio. 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