DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
 ALBERT B . FAT I . , SE CRETARY 
 
 UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 
 
 PART II 
 
 WATER POWER OF THE WORLD 
 
 MAS HINGT ON, D . C . 
 
 1921 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 Introduction 3-6 
 
 North America 6-15 
 
 South America 15-18 
 
 Europe 18-27 
 
 Asia 28-31 
 
 Africa 31-36 
 
 Oceanica 36-38 
 
 General summary 38-39 
 
 Maps of the world showing heights above sea level and distribution of rainfall are given on pages 
 
 4 and 5. Plates 1 to 8 follow the text. 
 
WORLD ATLAS OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGT. 
 
 Part II. Water Power oe the World. 
 
 By Herman Stabler, B. E. Jones, O. C. Merrill, and N. C. Grover. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The development of the mineral resources of the 
 world depends on the local availability of cheap mechan- 
 ical or electrical energy. In many regions such energy 
 must be obtained from water flowing in surface streams ; 
 in others it must be generated from fuels. The value of 
 a mineral in the ground is intimately related to the 
 source of the energy needed to recover it for commercial 
 use. A knowledge of the water-power resources of the 
 world is therefore essential to a proper study and 
 utilization of the mineral resources. Furthermore, 
 water power and mineral fuels will compete with each 
 other in determining the selection of sites for manu- 
 facturing industries and in their development. 
 
 Part II of the World Atlas of Commercial Geology 
 sets forth in general terms the water-power resources of 
 the world and the extent of their present development. 
 When used in conjunction with the other parts of the 
 atlas it will throw considerable light on the possible 
 interrelations of water power and the mineral deposits 
 
 and industries throughout the world. The tedious 
 
 * 
 
 search of literature in several languages, the correlation 
 of the data (some of them meager), and the estimation 
 of resources for Part II have been the work of a score of 
 men, most of them engineers. In addition to the engi- 
 neers whose names appear above, on whom the brunt of 
 the work fell, R. W. Davenport, J. F. Deeds, D. J. Guy, 
 A. H. Horton, B. H. Lane, B. J. Peterson, C. H. Pierce, 
 R. R. Randall, Philip Seabury Smith, F. J. Sopp, 
 Y. Y. Tchikoff, N. W. Tubbs, and G. M. Wood ren- 
 dered material aid in preparing the volume. 
 
 Developed water power , — All available information has 
 been used in preparing the accompanying estimates of 
 developed water power and of the capacity of the water 
 wheels now installed in water-power plants. These 
 estimates are presented in terms of horsepower and 
 should be reduced one-fourth for expression in kilo- 
 watts. As water-power development is always in prog- 
 ress reliable statistical information concerning it is 
 never strictly up to date, so that the recent development 
 
 must be estimated. On the whole, however, the figures 
 show comparatively the progress of the utilization of 
 water power throughout the world. 
 
 North America, although it contains less than 15 per 
 cent of the water-power resources of the globe, has 
 developed more water power than all the rest of the 
 world. About 41 per cent of the developed water 
 power of the world is in the United States. European 
 countries, particularly Germany, the territory com- 
 prised in the former empire of Austria-Hungary, Nor- 
 way, Sweden, France, Italy, and Switzerland, have 
 developed a relatively large percentage of their water 
 power, and the percentage is greater in Germany than 
 in any other country in Europe. 
 
 Potential water power, — Few countries have made 
 systematic studies of their potential water power. The 
 estimates made for the United States and Canada are 
 unsatisfactory, for they express orders of magnitude of 
 the potential water power rather than known amounts, 
 and those for most of the other countries discussed in 
 this atlas are even less reliable, though detailed data 
 have been compiled in a few countries. For Asia, 
 Africa, South America, and Central America, where 
 great expanses of territory are practically unexplored 
 and water power is a subject of little interest, it is 
 necessary to rely on studies of rainfall and topography 
 and to check the results of these studies, wherever pos- 
 sible, by such meager detailed information as can be 
 gathered. The maps on pages 4 and 5 show heights above 
 sea level and distribution of rainfall in these regions. 
 
 The estimates of power here given represent continu- 
 ous horsepower available at the ordinary low stages of 
 streams. Obviously no estimates could be made of the 
 cost of development, but factors have been introduced to 
 correct the estimates in so far as the theoretical power 
 may lie beyond the limits of engineering feasibility. 
 
 Nearly half the potential water power in the world 
 is in Africa, for that continent is essentially a great 
 plateau on which the streams become large before they 
 fall to the sea, and they fall rather abruptly. Northern 
 and southern Africa, because their rainfall is low and 
 
 poorly distributed, have only small water-power re- 
 sources, but tropical Africa, particularly the Kongo 
 basin, has a heavy rainfall, which, in connection with 
 the characteristic topography of the continent, produces 
 great potential water power. 
 
 Because of its vast area and the high altitude of its 
 central part, Asia would have enormous water-power 
 resources if the rainfall were greater, but throughout 
 northern, western, and central Asia the precipitation 
 is low. Furthermore, the seasonal distribution of the 
 rainfall in southern and eastern Asia is so irregular that 
 the stage of the rivers fluctuates greatly and the con- 
 tinuous horsepower represented by the estimates is only 
 a small part of the power that would be available if all 
 slope and all discharge could be utilized. Asia there- 
 fore, though 50 per cent greater in area than Africa, 
 ranks second in water-power resources. 
 
 North America, South America, and Europe have 
 water-power resources that rank in the order in which 
 they are named, which is also the order of their areas. 
 The water-power resources of Europe are perhaps better 
 known as a whole than those of other continents, though 
 the information relating to them is incomplete, espe- 
 cially that relating to Russia and the Balkan States. 
 
 So small a part of the world’s water-power resources 
 has been developed that different scales are used for 
 the resources and for the developed power on the accom- 
 panying numbered maps (Pis. 1-8). Furthermore, as 
 the practice of installing water-power wheels to utilize 
 a flow that is materially greater than the ordinary 
 low flow is well established, the estimates of the 
 resources should be at least doubled to represent pos- 
 sible future installed capacity for comparison with the 
 estimates of developed water power. Thus, though the 
 potential water power of the world is estimated at nearly 
 440 million horsepower when the streams are at ordi- 
 nary low-water stage and the present installed capacity 
 at a little more than 23 million horsepower, or more 
 than 5 per cent of the estimated potential power, prob- 
 ably only 2 or 3 per cent of the total potential power 
 has been developed. The extreme ultimate develop - 
 
 3 
 
ENGRAVED AND PRINTED BYTHE U.S.GEOLCSlCAL SURVEY 
 
 ALTITUDE OF LAND. 
 
 Tropic of 
 
 Cancer 
 
 Equator 
 
 Tropic of 
 
 Capricorn 
 
 ALTITUDE 
 
 Less than 1,000 feet 
 
 1.000 to 2, 000 feet 
 
 2.000 to 5,000 feet 
 
 5.000 to 1 0,000 feet 
 More than 10,000 feet 
 
 ICS 
 
 120 
 
 Adapted from “ Physical maps of the continents," by J. Paul Goode, Chicago, 1913-1915. The Mercator projection used for this map greatly exaggerates the areas toward the poles. Reprinted from “ Geography of the world’s agriculture," published 
 
 by Office of Farm Management, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
PRINTED BVTHE U.S.GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION. 
 
 Adapted from "Oxford wall maps of the continents," by A. J. Herbertson, 1908-1911, except the United States, which is based on data supplied by U. S. Weather Bureau. The Mercator projection used for this map greatly exaggerates the areas 
 
 toward the poles. Reprinted from “Geography of the world’s agriculture," published by Office of Farm Management, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 6 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 ment with the greatest possible conservation of stream 
 flow by storage may reach even as high as 5 to 10 
 billion horsepower, but such a figure is purely specula- 
 tive. The reasonable estimate of the potential water 
 power here given amounts to nearly four times the 
 wx>rld 7 s present total used power from all sources. 
 
 The maps (Pis. 1-8) show graphically the distribution 
 of power in the several continents and are in most of 
 their features self-explanatory. For convenience of 
 description numbers corresponding to those used in the 
 Survey 7 s records have here been assigned to the drainage 
 areas shown on the maps and described in the text. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The western part of North America is a high plateau 
 bordered on the west by the ranges of the Pacific 
 Mountain system and on the east by those of the Pocky 
 Mountain system, which extends from Alaska to 
 Panama. In general the eastern part of the continent 
 is low and slopes uniformly down to sea level, except 
 the Appalachian Highlands, a narrow mountainous 
 strip near the Atlantic coast that pnrtorids from Rt 
 Lawrence River nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. This 
 strip and a low plateau in southeastern Canada afford 
 most of the potential power in the eastern part of the 
 continent. The central part is an area of plains, and 
 although the rivers are large the slopes are in general 
 flat and uniform and afford few power sites. 
 
 The rainfall of the western part of the continent 
 varies with both altitude and latitude. The rainfall 
 of the coast region north of San Francisco is heavy, 
 reaching 90 inches annually in northern Washington 
 and 150 to 200 inches at places in British Columbia and 
 Alaska. From San Francisco southward to the end of 
 the Lower California peninsula the rainfall is extremely 
 light. Still farther south it increases again until it 
 reaches 60 inches in southern Mexico and Central 
 America. The annual rainfall is 10 to 20 inches in the 
 region east of the Rocky Mountains as far as Manitoba, 
 South Dakota, and western Kansas, but it is 40 to 60 
 inches over most of the area east of the Mississippi in 
 the United States and 20 to 30 inches over the corre- 
 sponding area in Canada. 
 
 The potential water power in these regions is closely 
 related to altitude and rainfall. On the western slope 
 of the mountains along the north Pacific coast heavy 
 rainfall and steep gradients create great potential 
 power, but on the eastern slope of the same mountains 
 the rainfall and consequently the potential power are less. 
 In the great central part of the continent the potential 
 power is small, but in the mountain range along the 
 
 Atlantic coast another concentration of potential power 
 is made possible by the uniform and comparatively 
 heavy rainfall. In Mexico and Central America the 
 high mountains and large fall of the rivers afford great 
 potential power, though in northern Mexico the power 
 in limited by the scanty rainfall. In outlining the 
 general conditions the continent has here been divided 
 into 19 drainage areas, described below. 
 
 1. Middle Atlantic . — The middle Atlantic area in- 
 cludes the basins of all the streams that flow into the 
 Atlantic Ocean between the St. Lawrence River basin 
 on the north and the James River basin on the south. 
 Abundant precipitation and many small falls afford 
 opportunities for a large number of good power sites. 
 The area contains the most densely populated parts of 
 the Western Hemisphere, and the large demand for 
 power has resulted in the utilization of many sites 
 where it can be easily developed. 
 
 The principal rivers in this area are the St. John, in 
 Maine and New Brunswick ; the Penobscot, Kennebec, 
 Androscoggin, Merrimack, and Connecticut, in the New 
 
 L)n rvl our] ftLn Lao • <vnrl a XL n /I n rv-^v TXrvlr»TTrr»-n/\ -v 
 
 — — — — rN_/ v v/ ^ Ji * U * B ^ B B iB. VLKJ B B ^ ~B S T T ^ C| IT 
 
 hanna, and Potomac, in the Middle Atlantic States. 
 In New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward 
 Island the potential power is estimated at 400,000 
 horsepower, of which 54,000 horsepower, or 13 per cent, 
 has been developed. The largest plant, one having a 
 capacity of 4,000 horsepower, is on Aroostook River. 
 Most of the other plants develop 1,000 horsepower or 
 less. The Province of Nova Scotia is constructing a 
 12,000-horsepower plant, which when completed will 
 supply power to the city of Halifax. The largest 
 potential power site in this area in Canada is at Grand 
 Falls, on St. John River, where it is proposed to 
 develop 80,000 horsepower. At another site on this 
 river 30,000 horsepower may be developed. 
 
 In New England water power has been extensively 
 used since colonial days, and the installed capacity is 
 greater than the estimated potential power at low 
 water. The power can be greatly increased by storage, 
 however, and some sites that have not yet been utilized 
 because of their unfavorable location or because of the 
 high cost of developing them may become available 
 when the demand for power increases sufficiently. The 
 total potential power 95 per cent of the time on eight 
 of the principal rivers in Maine is estimated at 370,000 
 horsepower, which might be increased by storage to 
 
 550.000 horsepower. The power available on these 
 streams 60 per cent of the time at existing plants is 
 
 390.000 horsepower, or more than the total potential 
 power 95 per cent of the time. 
 
 Three water-power plants on West Branch of Penob- 
 scot River, in Maine, have a total capacity of 50,000 
 horsepower, which is used in pulp and paper mills. 
 The plants installed in the Androscoggin River basin, in 
 Maine, have a capacity of 121,000 horsepower, of which 
 
 51.000 horsepower is developed at Rumford Falls and 
 
 22.000 horsepower at Lewiston. On Androscoggin 
 River, in New Hampshire, the developed water power 
 available 60 per cent of the time amounts to 47,000 
 horsepower. Most of this power is developed at plants 
 near Berlin. On Merrimack River in New Hampshire 
 
 22.000 horsepower is developed at Manchester for use 
 in cotton mills. On Merrimack River in Massachusetts 
 
 26.000 horsepower is developed at Lawrence and 24,000 
 horsepower at Lowell, mostly in comparatively small 
 plants, and the power is used for manufacturing. 
 Four plants on Deerfield River have an installed capac- 
 ity of 58,000 horsepower, and 66,000 horsepower is 
 developed on Connecticut River at Turners Falls, near 
 Montague City. On Connecticut River at Holyoke a 
 large number of small plants supply power for manu- 
 iuv;uuniig, unveil lu uu btipdiui ij ctmounting to 48,000 
 horsepower. On Connecticut River in New Hampshire, 
 near Vernon, Vt., there is a public-utility plant having 
 a capacity of 30,000 horsepower. In Connecticut there 
 is a plant of 15,000 horsepower on Housatonic River 
 at Falls Village. Other power streams in New England 
 are Presumpscot River, in Maine ; Pemigewasset and 
 Winnepesaukee rivers, in New Hampshire; Winooski 
 River, in Vermont; Chicopee River, in Massachusetts; 
 and Shetucket River, in Connecticut. The principal 
 users of power in New England, besides public utilities, 
 are pulp, paper, cotton, and woolen mills. 
 
 In the Atlantic drainage area of the Middle Atlantic 
 States the principal power plants are on Hudson, Dela- 
 ware, and Susquehanna rivers. There are large unutil- 
 ized sites on Potomac River just above Washington, 
 D. C., and on Susquehanna River near Conowingo, Md. 
 The rainfall in most parts of this region is 40 to 50 
 inches a year. Parallel to the coast, from 25 to 50 miles 
 inland, in the zone where the Coastal Plain borders 
 the Piedmont Plateau, there is what is called the “fall 
 line, 77 where there are moderate falls on all the rivers 
 that enter the Atlantic south of New York. This fall 
 line also extends into the drainage area of the Gulf of 
 Mexico, but it is there farther from the coast and not 
 so pronounced. The fall line touches the heads of 
 tidal estuaries as far south as James River, and in this 
 stretch the falls occur nearly at tide level. 
 
 In the Middle Atlantic States there are many large 
 manufacturing and public- utility plants, and much of 
 
WOKLD ATLAS 
 
 7 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 the potential power at low water has been developed. 
 This power may be greatly increased, however, by con- 
 structing reservoirs for storing flood waters, although 
 the conditions for storage are not so good here as in 
 New England. The principal plants installed develop 
 
 38.000 horsepower on Hudson River at Spier Falls, 
 N. Y. ; 30,000 horsepower on Mohawk River at Cohoes, 
 N. Y. ; 28,000 horsepower on West Canada Creek, a 
 tributary of Mohawk River, at Trenton Falls, N. Y. ; 
 
 118.000 horsepower on Susquehanna River at McCalls 
 Ferry, near Holtwood, Pa. ; and 20,000 horsepower on 
 Susquehanna River at Yorkhaven, Pa. ; and there are 
 many smaller plants in New York and Pennsylvania. 
 The plants specifically mentioned are all public- utility 
 plants, but they supply power also to manufacturing 
 industries. Most of the power developed at McCalls 
 Ferry, Pa., is transmitted to Baltimore, Md. On 
 Hudson River near Glens Falls, N. Y. , more than 
 
 40.000 horsepower is developed at four plants for use in 
 the manufacture of paper, and a total of about 200,000 
 horsepower is devoted to this use in the State, but not 
 all of it is in this drainage area. There are fairly large 
 plants on Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers in Pennsylvania 
 and on Shenandoah River in Virginia. 
 
 2. South Atlantic and eastern Gulf of Mexico . — The 
 south Atlantic and eastern Gulf area includes the 
 basins of all streams that flow into the Atlantic Ocean 
 or the Gulf of Mexico between the middle Atlantic area 
 and Mississippi River. The principal rivers are the 
 James, in Virginia ; the Roanoke, in Virginia and North 
 Carolina; the Cape Fear, Peedee, and Santee, in North 
 Carolina and South Carolina; the Savannah, between 
 South Carolina and Georgia ; the Altamaha, in Georgia ; 
 the Chattahoochee, between Georgia and Alabama ; the 
 Alabama and Tombigbee, in Alabama ; and the Pearl, 
 in Mississippi. In this area the fall line occurs at alti- 
 tudes of 100 to 200 feet above sea level. 
 
 The annual rainfall in this area is 50 to 60 inches 
 along the coast, 40 to 50 inches between the coast and 
 the mountains, and 60 or in places even 70 inches in 
 the mountains and in a narrow strip that extends along 
 the Gulf of Mexico from Tallahassee, Fla. , to the mouth 
 of the Mississippi. This heavy precipitation, combined 
 with a fall of more than 1,000 feet between the moun- 
 tains and the ocean, produces many potential power 
 sites, some of the largest of which have been utilized. 
 The potential power on James River, in Virginia, has 
 been developed at many places down as far as Rich- 
 mond, where 16,000 horsepower is utilized. There is a 
 plant of 3,350 horsepower on Roanoke River at Roanoke, 
 Va. ; two plants having a total capacity of 13,000 horse- 
 
 power on Dan River, a tributary of the Roanoke ; and 
 several plants, the largest of which has a capacity of 
 4,500 horsepower, on Rappahannock River. Most of 
 these plants supply public utilities, but the power from 
 Dan River is used in cotton mills. 
 
 In North Carolina there are plants at Badin (81,000 
 horsepower) and Blewitt (44,000 horsepower), on 
 Yadkin River, and at Bridgewater (36,000 horsepower) 
 and Lookout Shoals (30,000 horsepower), on Catawba 
 River, and other large plants on Cape Fear and Neuse 
 rivers. The plant at Badin is used in the production 
 of aluminum, and the others in North Carolina and 
 South Carolina furnish power to cotton mills and pub- 
 lic utilities. 
 
 In South Carolina, on Catawba River, there are 
 plants at Fishing Creek, Great Falls, and Rock Creek 
 that have a total capacity of 130,000 horsepower. On 
 Wateree River (the continuation of the Catawba below 
 the mouth of Wateree Creek) there is the largest water- 
 power plant in South Carolina, one having a rated 
 capacity of 90,000 horsepower. Wateree River is in 
 turn a tributary of the Santee. On Broad River there 
 is a plant at Ninety Nine Island which has a capacity of 
 
 31,000 horsepower and two others farther down which 
 have a total capacity of 26, 000 horsepower. Other power 
 streams in this area are Tugaloo River, a tributary 
 of the Savannah, and Saluda River, which unites with 
 the Broad to form the Congaree, a tributary of the 
 Santee. 
 
 In Georgia, at Tallulah Falls, on Tallulah River, a 
 headwater tributary of the Savannah, a plant of 90,000 
 horsepower has been built. On Savannah River near 
 Augusta there is a plant of about 18,000 horsepower. 
 At Lloyd Shoals, on the Ocmulgee, a tributary of the 
 Altamaha, there is a plant of 25,000 horsepower, and at 
 Goat Rock, on the Chattahoochee, there is one of 19,000 
 horsepower. There are other smaller plants on Oconee, 
 Chestatee, and Towaliga rivers and Muckalee Creek. 
 Among the proposed plants in the Savannah River basin 
 are one of 75,000 horsepower on Tugaloo River and 
 one of 55,000 horsepower on the Savannah at Calhoun 
 Falls. 
 
 In Florida is there a plant of 5,600 horsepower on 
 Withlacoochee River at Camp Station and a smaller 
 plant on Hillsboro River. 
 
 In Alabama there is a 100,000-horsepower plant on 
 Coosa River at Lock 12, and another plant of about the 
 same capacity is to be constructed on this river near 
 Gadsden. There are other plants which have capacities 
 of 5,000 horsepower or less on Tallapoosa and Chatta- 
 hoochee rivers. 
 
 In general the south Atlantic area is served by 
 twelve large power companies that have plants in this 
 and adjacent drainage areas. The systems are inter- 
 connected and have an installed capacity of more 
 than 1,200,000 horsepower — 800,000 hydroelectric and 
 
 400,000 steam. The power load is 8.2 per cent residen- 
 tial, 7.6 per cent railway, and 84.2 per cent industrial, 
 mainly in cotton mills, although mines, iron and steel 
 mills, and miscellaneous manufacturing plants also use 
 considerable power. The minimum potential water 
 power of the drainage area is about 2,000,000 horse- 
 power, the maximum is twice as much, and the devel- 
 oped water power is nearly 1,500,000 horsepower. 
 
 3. Ohio River . — The Ohio River area includes the 
 entire drainage basin of Ohio River. On the head- 
 waters of the Ohio the annual rainfall is 50 to 60 
 inches, and on the lower courses it is 40 to 50 inches. 
 A small area along the Cumberland Mountains in 
 eastern Tennessee has a mean rainfall of 60 to 70 
 inches. The total fall in the tributary streams is some- 
 what less than that in corresponding streams on the 
 Atlantic side of the Appalachian Highlands, and both 
 the potential and the developed power, although con- 
 siderable, are less. The country is mainly agricultural, 
 but there are manufacturing cities along the Ohio and 
 many large towns and cities within the area, so that a 
 market is available for cheap power. 
 
 The Ohio is formed by the junction of the Allegheny 
 and the Monongahela, which drain mountainous regions 
 of Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Below their 
 junction at Pittsburgh, Pa., the main tributaries are 
 the Kanawha, Big Sandy, Kentucky, Cumberland, 
 and Tennessee from the south and the Beaver, Mus- 
 kingum, Scioto, Miami, and Wabash from the north. 
 Kanawha and Tennessee rivers combine a moderate 
 amount of fall with a large and well- sustained flow, so 
 that most of the potential power sites in the basin are 
 on these rivers and their tributaries. The streams 
 entering from the north rise in the low divide between 
 Ohio River and the Great Lakes, and although their 
 mean annual run-off is high they have flat slopes and 
 are of relatively little value for power. 
 
 On Allegheny and Monongahela rivers a number of 
 small plants, each having a capacity of less than 1,000 
 horsepower, have been constructed. On New River, 
 a tributary of the Kanawha in Virginia, there are 
 two plants having a combined capacity of 35,000 horse- 
 power. On Kanawha River there are plants at Glen 
 Ferris and Kanawha Falls, in West Virginia, which 
 have a combined capacity of 12,000 horsepower and 
 supply power for a carbide company. In Kentucky 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 8 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 the power plants are few and small. At Eock Island, 
 75 miles southeast of Nashville, Tenn., on Caney Fork, a 
 tributary of Cumberland Eiver, there is a plant of 12, 000 
 horsepower, and on the headwaters of the Cumberland 
 in Kentucky there are a few potential power sites. 
 
 Tennessee Eiver and its tributaries form the greatest 
 sources of power in the basin of Ohio Eiver. The 
 headwaters of the Tennessee are in Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Georgia, and eastern Tennessee, and from 
 eastern Tennessee the river flows south westward, mak- 
 ing a loop through northern Alabama, and then turns 
 northward to flow across Tennessee and Kentucky to the 
 Ohio. Practically all the potential power sites in Ten- 
 nessee are in this drainage basin. The largest power 
 plants are at Parksville and Caney Creek, on Ocoee 
 Eiver, and at Hales Bar, on Tennessee Eiver below 
 Chattanooga. The plants on Ocoee Eiver have a capac- 
 ity of 45,000 horsepower, and the one at Hales Bar has 
 a capacity of 54, 000 horsepower. At Muscle Shoals, on 
 Tennessee Eiver, in Alabama, the United States Govern- 
 ment started to construct a power plant designed to 
 have an initial capacity of 120,000 horsepower. The 
 continuous output to be made available here is about 
 
 72.000 horsepower, and except in very dry years it will 
 amount to 100,000 horsepower. Work on this plant 
 was started during the war to develop power for pro- 
 ducing nitrogen from the air. A series of plants to 
 be built on Little Tennessee Eiver by the Aluminum 
 Company of America will have an aggregate capacity of 
 
 400. 000 horsepower and will utilize a large part of the 
 potential power of that stream. Work has been begun 
 on two of these plants, one of which will have an ulti- 
 mate capacity of 96,000 horsepower and the other prob- 
 ably nearly as much. At 22 undeveloped power sites 
 on Tennessee Eiver and its tributaries in Tennessee the 
 estimated potential power is more than 700,000 horse- 
 power without storage and nearly 900,000 horsepower 
 with storage. This does not include the 400,000 horse- 
 power to be developed on Little Tennessee Eiver. 
 
 Although there is little water power in the drainage 
 basin of Ohio Eiver except that on Tennessee Eiver 
 there is a large market for power in that basin, so that 
 most of the potential sites, even those that are small, 
 will doubtless utimately be utilized. The potential 
 power of this basin is about 1,500,000 horsepower at 
 low water, of which probably not more than 400,000 
 horsepower has been developed. A large part of the 
 power developed is employed for municipal uses, but 
 these uses are not increasing rapidly, so that practically 
 ail the new power developed is employed for industrial 
 use, largely for making cotton goods and aluminum. 
 
 4. St Lawrence Eiver . — The St. Lawrence area includes 
 the drainage basin of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence 
 Eiver to its mouth at Pointe des Monts. Although the 
 average elevation of the basin is not great the regulated 
 flow and concentrated falls at Niagara and at points on 
 the St. Lawrence furnish ideal conditions for the devel- 
 opment of water power, and the cities of Canada and 
 the United States furnish a market for the power. The 
 plants near Niagara Falls together form the largest 
 water-power development in the world. The rainfall 
 in the basin ranges from 30 to 40 inches a year over 
 most of the area, but at the head of Lake Superior 
 the mean rainfall is between 20 and 30 inches. The 
 precipitation is fairly well distributed through the 
 year, but during the winter its accumulation on the 
 ground in the form of snow results in a low stage of 
 the rivers. Besides the Great Lakes and their connect- 
 ing rivers and the St. Lawrence the principal sources 
 of water power are Muskegon and Grand rivers, in 
 Michigan, and Ottawa, St. Maurice, Saguenay, Outardes, 
 and Manicuagan rivers, all of which enter the St. 
 Lawrence in Quebec. 
 
 Water-power sites are fairly well distributed through 
 this area, and the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario are 
 especially favored, but in the region around Lake Erie 
 there is relatively little potential power. Of the tribu- 
 taries of Lake Superior, St. Louis Eiver furnishes 
 
 57,000 horsepower at a plant near Duluth, Minn., and 
 Kaministiquia Eiver furnishes 34,000 horsepower at a 
 plant near Fort William, Ontario. Many smaller 
 plants are scattered through Minnesota, Wisconsin, and 
 Michigan, but little additional power has been devel- 
 oped in this part of Ontario. Around Lake Michigan, 
 in Wisconsin and Michigan, there are many small power 
 plants, the largest of them on Menominee and St. 
 Joseph rivers, in Michigan. On St. Marys Eiver, which 
 connects Lakes Superior and Huron, 34,000 horsepower 
 is developed in the United States and 17,000 horsepower 
 in Canada. The total potential power on St. Marys 
 Eiver is about 90,000 horsepower. The tributaries of 
 Lake Huron in Ontario can furnish 160,000 horsepower, 
 of which 56,000 horsepower is developed. The largest 
 plants are two on French Eiver, which have a combined 
 capacity of 22,500 horsepower, used in mining and 
 smelting and in making paper. In Michigan, on Au 
 Sable Eiver, there are plants that supply 64,000 horse- 
 power for municipal uses, and there are many smaller 
 plants on tributaries of Lake Huron. 
 
 At Niagara Falls, on Niagara Eiver, which connects 
 Lakes Erie and Ontario, there is the finest power site in 
 North America. Here are combined a high head that 
 
 is easily developed, a large uniform flow, and a market 
 for the power. The unique scenic beauty of the Falls 
 has prevented the complete utilization of the site, but 
 the plants in operation have a capacity of 870,000 horse- 
 power, of which 385,500 horsepower is on the United 
 States side. The power actually developed amounts to 
 about 700,000 horsepower. To this total should be 
 added 12,000 horsepower developed on the Welland 
 Canal and 42,000 horsepower developed at Decew Falls, 
 2 miles from St. Catharines, Ont., from water diverted 
 from the Welland Canal over the Niagara escarpment. 
 A license has been granted by the Federal Power 
 Commission that will increase to 500,000 horsepower 
 the installed capacity on the United States side of 
 
 Niagara Eiver. The Hydroelectric Power Commission 
 
 * 
 
 of Ontario is now constructing an additional plant at 
 Niagara Falls which will have an initial capacity of 
 
 300.000 horsepower and an ultimate capacity of 540,000 
 horsepower. The water is to be carried 12 miles through 
 a canal and used with an effective head of 305 feet. A 
 large part of the power at Niagara Falls is obtained 
 from plants operating at heads of less than 200 feet, 
 though the difference in level between Lakes Erie and 
 Ontario is 327 feet. If the total flow of the river were 
 used the Falls would furnish, under favorable condi- 
 tions, about 6,000,000 horsepower. A plan whereby 60 
 per cent of the total flow of the river can be diverted 
 for developing power is being considered. 
 
 Of the northern tributaries of Lake Ontario Trent 
 Eiver, the most valuable power stream, furnishes 
 
 45.000 horsepower out of 75,000 that is capable of 
 development. Of the southern tributaries Genesee 
 Eiver furnishes 51,000 horsepower near Eochester, 
 N. Y. The total capacity of the plants now in opera- 
 tion on Black Eiver and tributaries is 104,000 horse- 
 power and on Oswegatchie Eiver 25,000 horsepower. 
 
 The potential power of St. Lawrence Eiver at normal 
 low water between the outlet of Lake Ontario and Lake 
 St. Francis, at the eastern boundary of the Province of 
 Ontario, has been estimated by the Dominion Water 
 Power Branch at 1,000,000 horsepower, of which half 
 would belong to the United States. Near Massena, 
 N. Y. , above Lake St. Francis, a plant having a capac- 
 ity of 76,000 horsepower is used in the production of 
 aluminum. Between Lake St. Francis and tidewater 
 at Montreal there is a fall of 129 feet, which is concen- 
 trated in two stretches of 14 and 8 miles. The first 
 stretch includes Coteau, Cedar, and Cascade rapids, in 
 which the total fall is 84 feet, and the second includes 
 Lachine Eapids, in which the fall is 45 feet. The 
 potential power at low water in these two stretches of 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 the river is about 2,000,000 horsepower, all in Canada. 
 Of this amount 192,000 horsepower has already been 
 developed by four plants, at Cedar Rapids, St. Timothee, 
 Soulanges canal, and Lachine Rapids. Most of the 
 power from these plants is used in Montreal and adjoin- 
 ing towns for lighting, electric railways, and general 
 manufacturing. 
 
 Of the tributaries of the St. Lawrence from the 
 north, Ottawa River has 690,000 potential horsepower, 
 of which 71,000 horsepower has been developed. St. 
 Maurice River has 650,000 potential horsepower. One 
 plant at Shawenegan Falls has a capacity of 148,500 
 horsepower, and another, which is 12 miles above, at 
 Grand Mere Falls, has a capacity of 120,000 horsepower. 
 Transmission lines carry this powder to Montreal, 
 Quebec, and more than 40 other towns and cities. 
 Several large industrial plants that are engaged in the 
 manufacture of paper, aluminum, and various electro- 
 chemical products are in operation at Shawenegan Falls. 
 Saguenay River, another tributary of the St. Lawrence, 
 could supply 300,000 horsepower, and with a small 
 amount of storage in Lake St. John this amount could 
 be doubled. Between the Saguenay and the Atlantic 
 Ocean there are nine large northern tributaries of the 
 St. Lawrence that could furnish a total of more than 
 1,000,000 horsepower. The tributaries from the south 
 could furnish much less power. 
 
 The developed power of the St. Lawrence drainage 
 area aggregates more than 2,500,000 horsepower, and the 
 potential power is estimated at 10,000,000 horsepower 
 on the assumption that 60 per cent of the available 
 flow at Niagara Falls may be diverted for this use. 
 Most of the power developed in this area is applied 
 to municipal uses. Buffalo, Toronto, Hamilton, and 
 Niagara Falls are largely supplied with power from 
 plants near Niagara Falls, and Montreal and Quebec are 
 similarly supplied from plants on St. Lawrence and St. 
 Maurice rivers. Power is used also in electrochemical 
 industries, pulp and paper mills, mining, and general 
 industrial plants. 
 
 5. Upper Mississippi River . — The upper Mississippi 
 area includes the part of the drainage basin of Missis- 
 sippi River that lies north of the Ohio on the east and 
 the Missouri on the west. The rainfall in this area 
 averages 30 to 40 inches a year except in Minnesota, 
 where it is about 10 inches less, but as the fall in the 
 river is slight the potential power at most of the sites 
 is small. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi 
 in this part of its course are Wisconsin and Illinois 
 rivers from the east and Minnesota and Hes Moines 
 rivers from the west. 
 
 9 
 
 In Minnesota the plants on Mississippi River near 
 Minneapolis and St. Paul have a total capacity of 
 60,000 horsepower, most of which is used in flour mills. 
 There are a large number of smaller plants on the Mis- 
 sissippi and its tributaries. 
 
 In Wisconsin the plants on Wisconsin River have a 
 total capacity of 90,000 horsepower. The largest plant, 
 one at Prairie du Sac, develops 25,000 horsepower. 
 There is a plant of 45,000 horsepower on Chippewa 
 River near Chippewa Falls and a large number of small 
 plants on Fox and Apple rivers. The largest users of 
 hydroelectric power in Wisconsin except the public 
 utilities are the paper and lumber industries. 
 
 In Illinois 45,000 horsepower is developed at Loek- 
 port, on the Sanitary Canal, which diverts water from 
 Lake Michigan. A plant of 5,600 horsepower on 
 Illinois River at Marseilles also uses the water of the 
 Sanitary Canal. 
 
 A large plant on the Mississippi at Keokuk, Iowa, has 
 a rated capacity of 170,000 horsepower, and most of the 
 power is transmitted to St. Louis. 
 
 The potential power of this area is estimated at 
 about 1,000,000 horsepower, and 600,000 horsepower has 
 been developed. The power is used mainly for munici- 
 pal purposes, but mills manufacturing paper, flour, wood 
 products, and other articles also use large amounts. 
 
 6. Missouri River . — The Missouri River area includes 
 the entire drainage basin of Missouri River. The 
 annual rainfall is 10 to 30 inches in most of this area 
 but increases to 40 inches in a few isolated mountain 
 regions and along the lower course of the river, in 
 Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. The streams have 
 considerable fall at their headwaters, but farther down 
 they flow more gently, for the country slopes gradually 
 eastward from the foot of the mountains to the Missis- 
 sippi. Because of this gradual slope and the low rain- 
 fall the potential powder in the lower part of this area is 
 small. The Missouri is navigable from a point a few 
 miles below Great Falls, Mont., to its mouth. Jeffer- 
 son, Madison, and Gallatin rivers unite near Three 
 Forks, Mont., to form the main stream. The other 
 principal tributaries are Yellowstone, Platte, and Kan- 
 sas rivers, all coming from the south and west. 
 
 Six plants having a combined capacity of 220,000 
 horsepower have been constructed at Great Falls, Mont. , 
 and in the stretch of about 150 miles between Great 
 Falls and Canyon Ferry, near Helena. In this stretch 
 there remains about 90,000 potential horsepower. 
 The power is sold to mines and smelters at Butte, 
 Anaconda, and Great Falls and is also used for 
 traction by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Rail- 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 way on 440 miles of its line from Harlow ton, Mont., to 
 Avery, Idaho. There are smaller plants on Madison, 
 Big Hole, and Yellowstone rivers. A plant of 165,000 
 horsepower on Big Horn River near Hardin, Mont., is 
 proposed. The total potential power in this basin in 
 Montana is about 700,000 horsepower. 
 
 The power plants in Wyoming are few and small. 
 Yellowstone River in Yellowstone Park has a fall of 
 2,300 feet between Yellowstone Lake and the northern 
 boundary of the park, a distance of about 50 miles, and 
 two falls, one of 109 and the other of 308 feet, occur in 
 this stretch. If 70 per cent of the fall could be used 
 and the flow equalized duriog dry years by using Yel- 
 lowstone Lake for storage about 450,000 horsepower 
 would be available. Without storage only about one- 
 third of this amount could be supplied continuously. 
 Big Horn River, a tributary of the Yellowstone, fur- 
 nishes power for a plant having a capacity of 1,500 
 horsepower. At a dam of the United States Reclama- 
 tion Service on Shoshone River, a tributary of the Big 
 Horn, about 25,000 horsepower could be developed and 
 a plant with an initial capacity of 2,700 horsepower is 
 now being installed. 
 
 In Colorado there is a plant of 21,000 horsepower on 
 Middle Boulder Creek near Boulder. This creek is a- 
 tributary of South Platte River, on whose headwater 
 tributaries in Colorado are some small plants and con 
 siderable potential power. 
 
 There is also some undeveloped power on the Mis- 
 souri in South Dakota. The power developed in this 
 drainage basin is utilized principally for mining, smelt- 
 ing, railway, and municipal uses. 
 
 7. Lower Mississippi River . — The lower Mississippi 
 area includes the parts of the Mississippi drainage 
 basin that lie south of the Missouri and of the Ohio. 
 The annual rainfall is 10 to 20 inches along the western 
 edge of the area except at a few places in the moun- 
 tains, but it gradually increases toward the east and 
 south until it reaches 40 to 60 inches. The slope of 
 the surface, however, is slight and uniform, except 
 in the mountains in the extreme w estern part of the 
 area, and the potential power is small. The principal 
 tributaries of the Mississippi in this stretch, Arkansas 
 and Red rivers, enter from the west. There are only 
 a few water power plants in this area, all small. 
 
 8. Western Gulf of Mexico. — The western Gulf area 
 includes the drainage basins of all streams that flow 
 into the Gulf of Mexico between Mississippi River and 
 Cape Catoche in Yucatan. In the northern part of the 
 area the rainfall is scant, except in Louisiana and east- 
 ern Texas, and the potential water power is relatively 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 small. In the southern part of the area, in a tract in 
 Mexico that stands 5,000 feet or more above sea level, 
 the rainfall is greater and considerable water power may 
 be developed. The principal river of the area is the 
 Ilio Grande, which has little value for power because of 
 the low rainfall in its basin and the extensive use of its 
 water for irrigation. 
 
 In Mexico a power plant on Conchos River near Santa 
 Rosalia has a capacity of 37,000 horsepower. A plant 
 on Necaxa and Tenango rivers, from which power is 
 transmitted 160 miles to Mexico City, operates under a 
 static head of 1,452 feet and has a capacity of 40,000 
 horsepower. The total capacity of the plants that 
 supply Mexico City is about 100,000 horsepower. A 
 17,000-horsepower plant on Rio Blanco near Orizaba 
 and other plants in the vicinity that develop a total of 
 
 10,000 horsepower supply the cities of Puebla and Yera 
 Cruz. 
 
 The undeveloped power in Mexico is considerable. 
 On the Necaxa, for instance, there is about 50,000 
 additional potential horsepower, which may be made 
 available under heads of 700 and 2,100 feet, and on Rio 
 Blanco there is 200,000 horsepower. Mines and muni- 
 cipal uses offer a market for a large amount of power in 
 this country. 
 
 9. Gulf of California . — The Gulf of California area 
 includes the Colorado River drainage basin in the 
 United States and extends to Capes San Lucas and 
 Corrientes, in Mexico. The rainfall on some of the 
 upper headwater tributaries of the Colorado reaches 
 30 to 40 inches a year, but over most of this area, 
 including the portion in Mexico, the rainfall is much 
 less. The rivers have a large fall, however, and there 
 is much potential power on the Colorado and its princi- 
 pal tributaries. 
 
 Colorado River is formed by the union of Grand and 
 Green rivers in southeastern Utah. 1 Its other principal 
 tributaries are San Juan, Little Colorado, and Gila 
 rivers, all entering from the east. Most of the potential 
 power sites in the basin require high, expensive dams, 
 yet they may prove to be economically feasible in con- 
 nection with flood control and irrigation. 
 
 The potential power at eighteen of the largest sites 
 in the Colorado River basin has been estimated at 
 2,000,000 to 6,000,000 horsepower, the amount depend- 
 ing on the method of development. The developed 
 power in 1915 amounted to 78,000 horsepower, of 
 which 35,000 horsepower was on Grand River and its 
 
 x The name of Grand River, in Colorado and Utah, has 
 recently been changed to Colorado River by act of Congress. 
 
 10 
 
 tributaries and 26,000 horsepower on the Salt River 
 irrigation system of the United States Reclamation 
 Service. 
 
 In Mexico this area includes Yaqui, Mayo, Fuerte, 
 and Santiago rivers. Santiago River, the largest of these 
 streams, rises in the mountains and flows through Lake 
 Chapala, which affords a means of cheap storage. 
 Below the lake are the Juanacatlan Falls, near Guada- 
 lajara. Only a small amount of power has been devel- 
 oped at these falls for use in Guadalajara, and no 
 estimate of their potential power is available, but it 
 must be considerable. The aggregate potential power 
 of Mayo, Humayo, and Santiago rivers has been esti- 
 mated at 225,000 horsepower. The Guanajuato Power 
 & Electric Co. has developed 26,000 horsepower in the 
 State of Michoacdn, south of the city of Guadalajara. 
 
 Probably less than 200,000 horsepower is developed 
 in this drainage area, including territory both in the 
 United States and in Mexico. 
 
 10. Great Basin . — The Great Basin area includes the 
 inland basin between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Sierra Nevada. On most of this area the annual rainfall 
 is less than 10 inches, although on some scattered tracts 
 it is greater. Practically all the power sites are in the 
 Sierra Nevada, on the western boundary of the basin, 
 and in the Wasatch Mountains near Great Salt Lake, on 
 the eastern boundary. More than 100,000 horsepower 
 has been developed in this basin in Utah, most of it in 
 small plants. The largest plants are three of 10,000, 
 10,000, and 12,000 horsepower on Ogden, Bear, and 
 Provo rivers. There are three plants on Bear River in 
 Idaho which, with the one on that river in Utah, have a 
 combined capacity of 119,000 horsepower, and provision 
 for 15,000 horsepower additional capacity has been made 
 at one of these plants. There is also an application on 
 file with the Federal Power Commission for a permit to 
 develop 21,500 horsepower at four sites. In Nevada 
 
 12,000 horsepower is developed on Truckee River at 
 four plants, aud in California 38,000 horsepower is 
 developed on Bishop Creek, a tributary of Owens River. 
 The total potential power of this basin at low- water 
 stages of the streams without storage would be com- 
 paratively small, but if the known storage sites were 
 used the potential power might amount to 500,000 
 horsepower. The plants now constructed have a capac- 
 ity of 250,000 horsepower. 
 
 11. Upper south Pacific. — The upper south Pacific 
 area includes the drainage basins of all streams that 
 flow into the Pacific Ocean between the northern boun- 
 dary of the Klamath River basin and the south end of 
 Lower California, at Cape San Lucas. 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 In Lower California the rainfall is scant, the drainage 
 areas are small, and little water power can be made 
 available. 
 
 In California there are many large plants, and prob- 
 ably more plants are now being constructed in this State 
 than in any other area of the same size on the continent. 
 The rainfall of California is heavy in the northern part 
 of the State but decreases toward the south. Most of the 
 drainage basins are small, but the mountains are high 
 and the fall is so great that nearly all the plants utilize 
 high head and small flow. The principal rivers are the 
 Klamath and the Eel, on the north coast of California ; 
 the Sacramento, which drains the north-central part 
 of the State; and the San Joaquin, which drains the 
 south central part and unites with the Sacramento a 
 short distance above Suisun Bay. Kings and Kern 
 rivers are physiographically tributary to the San Joa- 
 quin, but no water from Kern River has reached the 
 San Joaquin in recent years, as much of the water is 
 used for irrigation and the rest is evaporated from the 
 Tulare Lake depression. Most of the water of Kings 
 River is also lost either by irrigation or in Tulare Lake, 
 but some of it flows to the San Joaquin. 
 
 The largest power plants in this area are on Klamath, 
 Feather, Bear, Yuba, Kings, Kern, and San Joaquin 
 rivers. On upper Klamath River and Falls Creek 
 three plants together develop about 20,000 horsepower 
 and much power is undeveloped. Pit River has a fall 
 of 2,000 feet in 30 miles and a normal minimum flow of 
 2,500 second-feet, and it will yield about 450,000 horse- 
 power at low water. The first plant on this stream, 
 installed with a capacity of 36,000 horsepower, will prob- 
 ably be completed in 1921. On Feather River one 
 company has plants in operation or under construc- 
 tion to supply 145,000 horsepower, and others now 
 planned will develop a total of 700,000 horsepower. 
 The capacity of one of these plants can be increased 
 
 115.000 horsepower by enlarging the power house and 
 its equipment. The total potential power of Feather 
 River will be developed by the use of a storage reservoir 
 that has been completed to a capacity of 300,000 acre- 
 feet and will have an ultimate capacity of 1,250,000 
 acre-feet. Other plants on tributaries of Feather River 
 have an aggregate capacity of 60,000 horsepower. Large 
 plants on other tributaries of Sacramento River include 
 six plants on Cow and Battle creeks (total capacity 
 
 54.000 horsepower), two on Butte Creek (29,000 horse- 
 power), and seven on Bear and Yuba rivers (105,000 
 horsepower). 
 
 Six plants which it is planned to build on the North 
 Fork of Kings River and one on Kings River itself will 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 11 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 have a combined capacity of 272,000 horsepower. All 
 the preliminary engineering work has been completed 
 and a road has been built, but other construction has 
 not yet been begun. Two of these plants will have 
 heads of 2,500 feet, the highest in the United States. 
 The capacity of the present plants on Kings Kiver and 
 its tributaries amounts to 15,000 horsepower. On Kern 
 Kiver and its tributaries there are now plants that 
 aggregate 45,000 horsepower, a 40,000-horsepower plant 
 is being constructed, and two plants of 40,000 horse- 
 power each are planned. 
 
 On the North Fork of San Joaquin Kiver there is a 
 plant that develops 24,000 horsepower, and plans have 
 been made for a series of plants on Middle and South 
 forks, Big Creek, Pitman Creek, Stevenson Creek, and 
 San Joaquin Kiver, which together will have a capacity 
 of 868,000 horsepower. The present installed capacity 
 at two of the proposed sites is 94,000 horsepower, and 
 plants having a capacity of 57,000 horsepower are being 
 constructed. On Stanislaus Kiver, which is tributary 
 to the San Joaquin above Stockton, there are plants 
 that develop 68,000 horsepower, and on Mokelumne 
 Kiver, another tributary of the San Joaquin, one plant 
 develops 29,000 horsepower. From still another tribu- 
 tary, Tuolumne Kiver, water is to be diverted to supply 
 the municipal needs of San Francisco, and the fall 
 available in the aqueduct will generate 157,000 con- 
 tinuous horsepower, with a peak capacity of possibly 
 200,000 horsepower. Plants already built along the 
 Los Angeles Aqueduct, which carries water diverted 
 from Owens Kiver, in the Great Basin drainage area, 
 have a total capacity of nearly 100,000 horsepower. The 
 total potential power of the sites on the aqueduct and 
 tributary streams is 110,000 continuous horsepower, 
 which by storage, already available, could be used to 
 carry a peak load that would be much greater. 
 
 The total developed power in this area in California 
 is more than 800,000 horsepower and at the present 
 rate of increase will soon exceed 1,000,000. The poten- 
 tial power at low w^ater is estimated at a little more 
 than 3,000,000 horsepower, but this amount can prob- 
 ably be doubled by storage. Hydroelectric power in 
 California is used in pumping for irrigation, in iron and 
 cement mills, machine shops, mines, lumber and wood- 
 working establishments, and pulp and paper mills, on 
 docks and wharves, in electrochemical industries, and 
 in public utilities. 
 
 12. Lower north Pacific. — The lower north Pacific 
 area includes the drainage basins of all streams that 
 flow into the Pacific Ocean between the Klamath Kiver 
 basin and the United States and Canadian boundary. 
 
 Most of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, parts of 
 Montana and Wyoming, and the Columbia Kiver drain- 
 age basin in British Columbia and Alberta are within 
 the area. A large part of the area receives abundant 
 rainfall, which, combined with a steep, rugged country, 
 makes this area the richest in potential power in North 
 America. The principal river, the Columbia, rises in 
 British Columbia and, flowing south, is joined by 
 Clark Fork from the east and by the Kootenai from 
 the north. Other main tributaries are the Snake from 
 the east, the Deschutes and Willamette from the south, 
 and the Yakima from the north. 
 
 In Montana there is a plant of 40,000 horsepower 
 capacity on Clark Fork at Thompson Falls. Flathead 
 Kiver, a tributary of Clark Fork trom the north, can 
 produce 300,000 continuous horsepower at six sites 
 below Flathead Lake. The practicable storage in the 
 lake could adapt the flow to any load factor, so that 
 the capacity when plants are installed at these sites 
 may reach 500,000 horsepower. In Washington a 
 200, 000- horsepower plant on Clark Fork is projected. 
 
 In Idaho several of the many medium-sized plants 
 are on Snake Kiver, among them the 10,000-horsepower 
 plant of the United States Keclamation Service on the 
 
 v 
 
 Minidoka irrigation system. The main object of this 
 plant was to supply power for pumping for irrigation, 
 but it also furnishes light and power for domestic use. 
 
 In eastern Washington 189,000 horsepower is devel- 
 oped, mainly for electric lighting and street railways, 
 although a large share is taken by cement works, min 
 ing, irrigation, and paper mills. The principal plants 
 are near Spokane. In western Washington there are 
 two plants of 29,000 horsepower total capacity on Sno- 
 qualmie Kiver, one of 60,000 horsepower on White 
 Kiver, and one of 18,000 horsepower on Salmon Kiver. 
 Tacoma has a plant of 32,000 horsepower on Nisqually 
 Kiver, and Seattle has one of 21,000 horsepower on 
 Cedar Kiver. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 
 Kailway is electrified for 210 miles from Othello to 
 Tacoma and Seattle, the power being obtained from 
 Snoqualmie and Spokane rivers. 
 
 In Oregon a 25, 000 horsepower plant on Willamette 
 Kiver at Oregon City supplies power to a large paper 
 company, and a 15,000-horsepower plant supplies power 
 to a public- utility company. On Clackamas Kiver two 
 plants have a combined capacity of 46,000 horsepower. 
 Sandy and Little Sandy rivers furnish 19,000 horse- 
 power, mostly for use in Portland. 
 
 In British Columbia two plants on Kootenai Kiver at 
 Bonnington Falls have a total capacity of 42,000 horse- 
 power, and there are several smaller plants. 
 
 Of the undeveloped sites in the lower north Pacific 
 area the one at which the most power can be developed 
 is The Dalles, on Columbia Kiver in Oregon- Washington, 
 where about 300,000 continuous horsepower can be 
 developed and an equal additional amount can be 
 made available for eight months of the year. The 
 potential power of Deschutes Kiver has been estimated 
 at 457,000 horsepower, and its development, probably 
 in 14 plants, is economically feasible whenever a market 
 is available. On Snake Kiver between Huntington, 
 Oreg., and Lewiston, Idaho, there are 17 possible 
 sites where 919,000 horsepower could be developed 90 
 per cent of the time from the present flow, or 800,000 
 horsepower could be developed after the river has been 
 regulated for irrigation. By diverting the flow of 
 Salmon Kiver through a tunnel into the channel of the 
 Snake and erecting a dam 540 feet high on Snake Kiver 
 a total of 345,000 horsepower could be otained 90 per 
 cent of the time by using the present flow, or 298,000 
 horsepower after the river has been regulated for 
 irrigation. On Salmon Kiver above the tunnel site and 
 below Stanley, Idaho, 250,000 horsepower can be 
 developed at 26 sites by using the flow available 90 per 
 cent of the time. In British Columbia there is a large 
 amount of undeveloped power on Clark Fork in its 
 short course in Canada, and on Kootenai Kiver between 
 Kootenai Lake and Columbia Kiver. 
 
 The power developed in this area is used mainly by 
 public utilities, but it is also used largely in connection 
 with mines, smelters, irrigation, railroads, cement and 
 paper mills, iron and steel works, shipyards, machine 
 shops, and warehouses. The total developed power in 
 this area is 750,000 horsepower, and the potential power 
 is about 11,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 13. Middle north Pacific. — The middle north Pacific 
 area includes the drainage basins of all streams that 
 flow into the Pacific Ocean from the United States- 
 Canada boundary to and including Yakutat Bay, 
 Alaska. Most of it is in British Columbia, but it 
 includes a narrow strip of southeastern Alaska. The 
 rainfall is heavy, the country is generally high and 
 mountainous, and water power is both plentiful and 
 well distributed. The principal river is the Fraser, 
 which drains an area paralleling the coast from Alaska 
 to the Washington boundary. Its largest tributary is 
 Thompson Kiver, which enters from the east. 
 
 The developed water powers in this area are mainly 
 in its southwestern part, near Vancouver and Victoria. 
 On Burrard Inlet, 16 miles from Vancouver, at Lakes 
 Coquitlam and Buntzen, 84,000 horsepower is devel- 
 oped. The drainage area that supplies water to this 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 12 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 plant contains only 105 square miles, but the average 
 annual rainfall for 11 years has been 153 inches. On 
 Stave Eiver 6 miles north of its junction with the 
 Fraser there is a plant of 40,000 horsepower from which 
 power is transmitted 36 miles to Vancouver, and at the 
 mouth of Jordan Eiver, on Vancouver Island, 36 miles 
 west of Victoria, there is a plant of 25,000 horsepower. 
 
 The total developed power in this area is a little more 
 than 250,000 horsepower. The undeveloped power at 
 known sites is between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 horse- 
 power, and probably many large sites are still unknown. 
 
 14. Upper north Pacific . — The upper north Pacific 
 area includes the drainage basins of all streams that 
 flow into the Pacific Ocean between Yakutat Bay and 
 Cape Prince of Wales. It comprises the southern half 
 of Alaska and most of Yukon Territory in Canada. 
 The area in Canada is drained by the headwater tribu- 
 taries of Yukon Eiver, which flows southwestward 
 across central Alaska. The largest water-power plants 
 are one of 15,000 horsepower near Port Snettisham, 35 
 miles southeast of Juneau, which supplies that city, 
 and one of 10,000 horsepower on North Fork of Klon- 
 dike Eiver 26 miles from Dawson, Yukon Territory, 
 which furnishes power to Dawson for lighting the city 
 and operating the mines. The total developed power in 
 this drainage area is about 65,000 horsepower, which 
 is used mostly in mining. The undeveloped power is 
 unknown but may amount to 2,500,000 horsepower. 
 
 15. Arctic Ocean. — The area on the Arctic Ocean 
 includes the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, and 
 Greenland, the limiting points being Capes Prince of 
 Wales and Wilson, Dorchester and Dyer, and Holsten- 
 borg and Jensen. It includes those parts of Alaska and 
 Yukon Territory that lie north of the basin of Yukon 
 Eiver, most of the Northwest Territories in Canada, and 
 about three-fourths of Greenland. The largest river is 
 the Mackenzie, whose principal tributaries are Atha- 
 baska, Slave, and Peace rivers. There is a small power 
 site on Athabaska Eiver within transmission distance 
 of Edmonton, but the power available, about 9,000 
 horsepower, does not now justify the cost of develop- 
 ment. Little is known of the undeveloped power 
 resources of this area, but there seem to be no great 
 concentrations of potential power. 
 
 16. Hudson Bay. — The area here considered includes 
 the drainage basins of all streams tributary to Hudson 
 Bay, to Fox Channel south of Capes Wilson and Dor- 
 chester, and to Hudson Strait west of Cape Wiggs and 
 Olga Eiver. It lies mostly in Canada, although Eed 
 Eiver is largely in Minnesota and North Dakota and 
 St. Mary Eiver rises and flows for a short distance in 
 
 Montana before crossing into Canada, where it joins 
 Belly Eiver, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan. 
 The principal rivers, the Saskatchewan and Winnipeg, 
 drain into Lake Winnipeg and thence through Nelson 
 Eiver to Hudson Bay. Many fairly large rivers also flow 
 into Hudson Bay from northern Ontario and Quebec. 
 
 Bow Eiver, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan, is 
 one of the principal power streams in this area. Three 
 plants on Bow Eiver together develop 32,000 horse- 
 power, which is used in Calgary for municipal purposes 
 and manufacturing. A total of 48,000 continuous 
 horsepower may be developed on this river with 
 storage but only 20,000 horsepower without storage. 
 On Winnipeg Eiver 250,000 continuous horsepower, 
 including that of the present plants, may be developed 
 without storage, and 420,000 horsepower can be made 
 available by storage. Much greater peak loads could 
 be carried by increasing the capacity of the plants. 
 Two plants on this river, which have a combined capac- 
 ity of 82,000 horsepower, supply the city of Winnipeg. 
 Another plant having an initial capacity of 84,000 
 horsepower and an ultimate capacity of 169,000 horse- 
 power is being constructed. Nelson Eiver, the outlet 
 of Lake Winnipeg, has an ordinary minimum flow of 
 
 50.000 second -feet and a fall of 700 feet in 430 miles. 
 This minimum flow, without any regulation of Winni- 
 peg Eiver, would develop 2,500,000 continuous horse- 
 power at 19 power sites. On Abitibi Eiver at Iroquois 
 Falls, Ontario, there is a 53,000-horsepower plant, the 
 power from which is used in the manufacture of paper. 
 
 In the part of Ontario that lies in this area 22,000 
 horsepower has been developed and about 250,000 
 horsepower is undeveloped. In Quebec there are no 
 water-power plants in the Hudson Bay area, but there 
 is considerable undeveloped power. On Eainy Eiver, a 
 tributary of Lake of the Woods that forms part of the 
 boundary between Minnesota and Ontario, there are two 
 plants — one in Ontario and the other in Minnesota — 
 which have a combined capacity of 24,000 horsepower. 
 About 5,000 horsepower is developed in the Eed Eiver 
 drainage basin in the United States. 
 
 The total developed power in this area is about 
 
 225.000 horsepower, and the potential power is esti- 
 mated at 5,500,000 horsepower. The developed power 
 is used for municipal purposes, in pulp and paper mills, 
 and in milling and general manufacturing. 
 
 17. North Atlantic . — The north Atlantic area includes 
 the drainage basins of all streams that flow into the 
 Atlantic Ocean east of Hudson Bay and north of St. 
 Lawrence Eiver and Cabot Strait. It includes the part 
 of the Province of Quebec that drains into the Atlantic 
 
 Ocean and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, all of Labrador 
 and Newfoundland, and the southern part of Green- 
 land. The area in Canada and Newfoundland is low, 
 but Greenland is a high plateau. The precipitation, 
 however, is small except in southern Greenland. 
 
 Little is known of the potential powers of Greenland. 
 A 75,000-horsepower plant is said to be feasible on 
 Bay d’Est Eiver, in Newfoundland. Hamilton Eiver 
 below Lake Lobstick, in eastern Quebec, has a fall of 
 760 feet in 12 miles, of which 302 feet is concentrated 
 at Grand Falls. The only large power plants in this 
 area are in Newfoundland, where 60,000 horsepower is 
 developed and used mainly in pulp and paper mills. 
 
 18. Lower south Pacific . — The lower south Pacific area 
 is a narrow belt of high land between Cape Corrientes 
 and the eastern boundary of Panama, in southern 
 Mexico and Central America. The rainfall is plentiful, 
 and the rivers, though small, have steep gradients and 
 afford many potential power sites. In Mexico a number 
 of small plants supply power, mainly for municipal use. 
 
 Guatemala has only eight water-power plants, most 
 of them in this area. The largest plant has a capacity 
 of 2,400 horsepower and supplies the city of Guatemala. 
 
 In Salvador only 2,700 horsepower is developed, and 
 it is used for municipal purposes in San Miguel, Chal- 
 chuapa, Ahuachapam, Quezaltepeque, and the Santa 
 Ana Department. The undeveloped power in Salvador 
 is estimated at 200,000 horsepower. 
 
 Nicaragua has considerable potential power, but most 
 of it is so situated that it can not easily be made avail- 
 able, and very little has been developed. 
 
 In Costa Eica there are a number of power plants, 
 the largest of which are on tributaries of Virilla Eiver. 
 The total developed power for the country is estimated 
 at 15,000 horsepower, and it is all in this area. 
 
 In the part of Honduras that lies in this area there is 
 a small plant on Choluteca Eiver at Tegucigalpa. 
 
 The rivers in Panama are short, but because of the 
 heavy rainfall their discharge is relatively large, and if 
 reservoirs were constructed to control the floods a large 
 amount of power could be developed. 
 
 Although power sites are plentiful and well distribu- 
 ted in most of this area little power has been developed, 
 because there is little manufacturing and no demand for 
 power except for municipal use in the larger cities. 
 
 19. Caribbean Sea and West Indies. — The area whose 
 waters are tributary to the Caribbean Sea includes a part 
 of Yucatan and the northern and eastern slopes of Cen- 
 tral America. With this area are grouped all the West 
 Indies. On the mainland the rainfall is plentiful and 
 the rivers have considerable fall, so that much power 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 could be developed. On the islands most of the rivers 
 do not attain sufficient size to create any large amount 
 of potential power. In the part of Hunduras that lies 
 in this area there is a plant of 300 horsepower on 
 Chamelicon Eiver near San Pedro, and the Pena Blanca 
 mines have two plants on San Juancito River with a 
 total capacity of 1,800 horsepower. In Nicaragua there 
 is a plant on the Rio Pis Pis 150 miles inland from the 
 Atlantic coast, but the capacity is not known. Power 
 is transmitted from this plant to the Eden mine. Lakes 
 Nicaragua and Managua, in Nicaragua, are the largest 
 fresh water lakes between the Great Lakes and Lake 
 Titicaca. Lake Nicaragua, which is 140 feet above 
 sea level, drains into the Atlantic Ocean through San 
 Juan River, on winch there are five rapids that might 
 be utilized for power. In Panama the only developed 
 power is the Gatun plant, on the Panama Canal. This 
 plant has a capacity of about 13,000 horsepower. 
 
 Of the West Indies, Cuba contains many streams, but 
 they are short and have little value for power. Cauto 
 River is the largest. The Moa and Guama cascades and 
 Hanabanilla Falls are more than 300 feet high, but the 
 amount of water passing over them is small. A plant 
 of 3,000 horsepower on Matagua River 15 miles from 
 Cienfuegos was reported to be under construction in 
 1913, but no record of its completion is available. In 
 Haiti a small plant supplies Port au Prince. The island 
 is high and the rainfall is plentiful, but the power 
 resources are scattered among many small sites. In the 
 Dominican Republic no water power has been developed, 
 but it is proposed to build a 4, 000 -horsepower plant on 
 a tributary of Rio Yaque del Norte 7 miles from San- 
 tiago. This river is 240 miles long and is navigable for 
 canoes throughout. Porto Rico has developed 8,150 
 horsepower out of a total potential power of about 
 
 25.000 horsepower. .Jamaica has one power plant hav- 
 ing a capacity of 1,300 horsepower. 
 
 Statistics for North America . — The figures for the water- 
 power resources of the United States in the following 
 table (see also PI. 8) are based on estimates made by the 
 United States Geological Survey in 1908 for the National 
 Conservation Commission and revised by the Commis- 
 sioner of Corporations for his report on u Water power 
 developed in the United States, 77 1912, and by the 
 United States Forest Service in 1916. They include 
 
 518.000 horsepower as the share of the United States 
 in the power at Niagara Falls under present treaties. 
 
 In comparing the figures in the tables here given with 
 others for the same areas the basis of the estimates should 
 be kept clearly in mind. The head was determined by 
 dividing the river into sections of different lengths, 
 
 the lengths chosen depending on channel slope, and the 
 fall and flow of each section were determined from the 
 best available source of information. The flatter por- 
 tions of the river channels, which can never be profit- 
 ably developed for power, were excluded. The total 
 fall in each section and an assumed efficiency of 75 per 
 cent were then used in calculating the potential horse- 
 power. The use of storage was not considered ; the mini- 
 mum horsepower is that obtainable at minimum flow, 
 and the maximum horsepower is that obtainable with 
 the flow available for 50 per cent of the time. The 
 mean flow for each of the lowest two seven-day periods 
 
 in each year was determined, and the mean of these two 
 means for the period of record was taken as the mini- 
 mum flow. The estimates for both the minimum and 
 the maximum horsepower are conservative. In some 
 of the New England States complete development would 
 probably require the installation of plants having a 
 capacity of four times the estimated potential power at 
 low water. If all the water power in the United States 
 were similarly developed the total capacity of the plants 
 would be 112 million horsepower, and if this estimate is 
 correct the water-power resources of the United States 
 are now only about 8 per cent developed. 
 
 Water-power resources and installed capacity of water wheels in the United States, by States and by geographic divisions. 
 
 State and division. 
 
 Total potential water power. 
 
 Installed capacity of 
 water wheels. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 New England : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maine— - _ - _ _ 
 
 443,000 
 
 1.59 
 
 809,000 
 
 1.50 
 
 412,000 
 
 4.46 
 
 New Hampshire _ _ _ _ _ 
 
 135,000 
 
 .48 
 
 246,000 
 
 .46 
 
 217,000 
 
 2.35 
 
 Vermont _ - 
 
 94,000 
 
 .33 
 
 172,000 
 
 .32 
 
 223,000 
 
 2.41 
 
 Massachusetts - __ _ ___ 
 
 118,000 
 
 .43 
 
 228,000 
 
 .42 
 
 330,000 
 
 3.57 
 
 Rhode Island _ - - _ ___ 
 
 6,000 
 
 .02 
 
 13,000 
 
 .02 
 
 43,000 
 
 .46 
 
 Connecticut- - _ _ __ _ _ 
 
 72,000 
 
 .26 
 
 137,000 
 
 .26 
 
 156,000 
 
 1.69 
 
 Middle Atlantic division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York- __ _ .. __ __ _ - 
 
 1,037,000 
 
 8.71 
 
 1,698,000 
 
 3.15 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 14.06 
 
 New Jersey _ _ - - 
 
 44,000 
 
 .16 
 
 106,000 
 
 .20 
 
 38,000 
 
 .41 
 
 Pennsylvania _ . 
 
 276,000 
 
 .99 
 
 684,000 
 
 1.27 
 
 397,000 
 
 4.30 
 
 East North Central division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio ------- _ 
 
 59,000 
 
 .21 
 
 178,000 
 
 .33 
 
 54,000 
 
 .58 
 
 Indiana _ _ - — _ 
 
 43,000 
 
 .16 
 
 118,000 
 
 .22 
 
 29,000 
 
 .31 
 
 Illinois - - 
 
 192,000 
 
 .69 
 
 345,000 
 
 .64 
 
 84,000 
 
 .91 
 
 Michigan - _ ■ __ _ 
 
 180,000 
 
 .64 
 
 293,000 
 
 .54 
 
 327,000 
 
 3.54 
 
 Wisconsin - 
 
 358,000 
 
 1.28 
 
 670,000 
 
 1.24 
 
 318,000 
 
 3.44 
 
 West North Central division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minnesota __ 
 
 232,000 
 
 .83 
 
 494,000 
 
 .92 
 
 224,000 
 
 2.42 
 
 Iowa _ _ — „ 
 
 160,000 
 
 .57 
 
 382,000 
 
 .71 
 
 192,000 
 
 2.08 
 
 Missouri _ - _ _ _ 
 
 72,000 
 
 .26 
 
 163,000 
 
 .30 
 
 27,000 
 
 .29 
 
 North Dakota _ - - _ 
 
 88,000 
 
 .31 
 
 207,000 
 
 .38 
 
 400 
 
 .00 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 43,000 
 
 .16 
 
 75,000 
 
 .14 
 
 18,000 
 
 .19 
 
 Nebraska _ _ _ ___ _ ___ - 
 
 196,000 
 
 .70 
 
 366,000 
 
 .68 
 
 18,000 
 
 .19 
 
 Kansas _ 
 
 111,000 
 
 .40 
 
 269,000 
 
 .50 
 
 24,000 
 
 .26 
 
 South Atlantic division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Delaware _ __ 
 
 5,000 
 
 .02 
 
 11,000 
 
 .02 
 
 8,000 
 
 .09 
 
 Maryland and District of Columbia __ 
 
 48,000 
 
 .17 
 
 133,000 
 
 .25 
 
 20,000 
 
 .22 
 
 Virginia - - _ 
 
 492,000 
 
 1.76 
 
 870,000 
 
 1.62 
 
 157,000 
 
 1.70 
 
 West Virginia - _ 
 
 381,000 
 
 1.36 
 
 1,051,000 
 
 1.95 
 
 20,500 
 
 .22 
 
 North Carolina _ __ _ - 
 
 578,000 
 
 2.07 
 
 875,000 
 
 1.62 
 
 370,000 
 
 3.94 
 
 South Carolina- ___ - 
 
 460,000 
 
 1.64 
 
 677,000 
 
 1.26 
 
 453,000 
 
 4.90 
 
 Georgia __ _ _ - _ _ _ 
 
 374,000 
 
 1.34 
 
 627,000 
 
 1.16 
 
 342,000 
 
 3.70 
 
 Florida - - _ _ _ ___ ____ 
 
 8,000 
 
 .03 
 
 13,000 
 
 .02 
 
 11,000 
 
 .12 
 
 East South Central division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky - ___ - - _ _ 
 
 83,000 
 
 .30 
 
 197,000 
 
 .37 
 
 14,000 
 
 .15 
 
 Tennessee- _ - _ _ _ .. 
 
 463,000 
 
 1.66 
 
 761,000 
 
 1.41 
 
 222,000 
 
 2.40 
 
 Alabama __ _ - _ _ _ _ 
 
 509,000 
 
 1.82 
 
 943,000 
 
 1.74 
 
 260,000 
 
 2.81 
 
 Mississippi __ -- — 
 
 82,000 
 
 .11 
 
 63,000 
 
 .12 
 
 8,500 
 
 .09 
 
 West South Central division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arkansas — _ _ - _ ___ 
 
 22,000 
 
 .08 
 
 61,000 
 
 .11 
 
 6,100 
 
 .07 
 
 Louisiana __ ___ _ _ - _ _ 
 
 1,000 
 
 .00 
 
 2,000 
 
 .00 
 
 4,000 
 
 .04 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 14 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 Water-power resources and installed capacity of water wheels in the United States, by States and by geographic 
 
 divisions — Continued. 
 
 
 Total potential water power. 
 
 
 Installed capacity of 
 
 State and division. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 water wheels. 
 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 West South Central division— Continued : 
 Oklahoma 
 
 75,000 
 
 0.27 
 
 208,000 
 
 0.39 
 
 4,600 
 
 0.05 
 
 Texas 
 
 255,000 
 
 .91 
 
 551,000 
 
 1.02 
 
 11,000 
 
 .12 
 
 Mountain division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana 
 
 2,749,000 
 
 9.84 
 
 4,331,000 
 
 8.03 
 
 420,000 
 
 4.54 
 
 Idaho 
 
 2,362,000 
 
 8.45 
 
 5,067,000 
 
 9.40 
 
 243,000 
 
 2.63 
 
 Wyoming _ ■ - 
 
 773,000 
 
 2.76 
 
 1,305,000 
 
 2.42 
 
 6,600 
 
 .07 
 
 Colorado 
 
 842,000 
 
 3.01 
 
 1,697,000 
 
 3.15 
 
 133,000 
 
 1.54 
 
 New Mexico . _ ■ - - 
 
 160,000 
 
 .57 
 
 439,000 
 
 .81 
 
 3,000 
 
 .03 
 
 Arizona 
 
 893,000 
 
 3.20 
 
 1,698,000 
 
 3.15 
 
 52,000 
 
 .56 
 
 Utah 
 
 743,000 
 
 2.66 
 
 1,318,000 
 
 2.45 
 
 122,000 
 
 1.32 
 
 Nevada 
 
 172,000 
 
 .62 
 
 276,000 
 
 .51 
 
 27,000 
 
 .29 
 
 Pacific division : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Washington - - - 
 
 4,932,000 
 
 17.65 
 
 8,647,000 
 
 16.04 
 
 487,000 
 
 5.27 
 
 Oregon 
 
 8,148,000 
 
 11.27 
 
 6,613,000 
 
 12.27 
 
 295,000 
 
 3.19 
 
 California _ - - - 
 
 3,424,000 
 
 12.25 
 
 7,818,000 
 
 14.50 
 
 1,111,000 
 
 12.02 
 
 Summary : 
 
 New England - - - 
 
 868,000 
 
 3.11 
 
 1,605,000 
 
 2.98 
 
 1,381,000 
 
 14.94 
 
 Middle Atlantic division 
 
 1,357,000 
 
 4.86 
 
 2 T 488, 000 
 
 4.62 
 
 1,735,000 
 
 18.77 
 
 East North Central division _ - - 
 
 832,000 
 
 2.98 
 
 1,604,000 
 
 2.98 
 
 812,000 
 
 8.78 
 
 West North Central division 
 
 902,000 
 
 3.23 
 
 1,956,000 
 
 3.63 
 
 503,400 
 
 5.43 
 
 South Atlantic division 
 
 2,346,000 
 
 8.39 
 
 4,257,000 
 
 7.90 
 
 1,381,500 
 
 14.89 
 
 East South Central division _ - - 
 
 1,087,000 
 
 3.89 
 
 1,964,000 
 
 3.64 
 
 504,500 
 
 5.45 
 
 West South Central division 
 
 353,000 
 
 1.26 
 
 822,000 
 
 1.52 
 
 25,700 
 
 .28 
 
 Mountain division 
 
 8,694,000 
 
 31.11 
 
 16,131,000 
 
 29.92 
 
 1,006,600 
 
 10.98 
 
 Pacific division 
 
 11,504,000 
 
 41.17 
 
 23,078,000 
 
 42.81 
 
 1,893,000 
 
 20.48 
 
 United States _ 
 
 27,943,000 
 
 100.00 
 
 53,905,000 
 
 100.00 
 
 9,242,700 
 
 100.00 
 
 The figures in the above table showing the installed 
 capacity of water wheels in the United States are based 
 on the capacity of the water wheels used in public- 
 utility plants, as shown by the records of the United 
 States Geological Survey ; on the capacity of the water 
 wheels used in manufacturing industries, as shown by 
 the records of the Bureau of the Census ; and on the 
 capacity of water wheels that are not included in 
 public-utility plants and in manufacturing plants, as 
 deduced from figures showing developed water power 
 compiled by the Bureau of the Census in 1908 for 
 the report of the National Conservation Commission 
 (Senate Document 676, 60th Cong., 2d sess.) and 
 also published in Water-Supply Paper 234 of the 
 United States Geological Survey. For a few States 
 the reports of installed capacity of water wheels given 
 by State commissions were accepted, and for some 
 States it was assumed that there had been no change 
 since 1908. The figures show installed capacity and 
 include water wheels in plants of all sizes. 
 
 The estimated capacity of all stationary prime movers 
 in the United States is shown in the following table : 
 
 Capacity of stationary prime movers in the United States. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 water 
 power. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Water power. 
 
 1900 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 18.8 
 
 1902 
 
 19,500,000 
 
 3,700,000 
 
 19.0 
 
 1904 
 
 22,500,000 
 
 4,100,000 
 
 18.2 
 
 1906 
 
 25,500,000 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 18.4 
 
 1908 __ 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 5,360,000 
 
 18.5 
 
 1910 - _ _ 
 
 32,500,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 18.4 
 
 1912 _ 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 6,700,000 
 
 18.6 
 
 1914 
 
 38,500,000 
 
 7,400,000 
 
 19.2 
 
 1916 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 19.5 
 
 1918 — 
 
 45,000,000 
 
 8,800,000 
 
 19.5 
 
 1920— _ __ 
 
 49,000,000 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 19.4 
 
 Note.— The above estimates are based on the Conservation Commission’s 
 report of 1908 ; census reports of 1904, 1909, and 1914 on manufactures ; and 
 census reports of 1902, 1907, 1912, and 1917 on central electric stations and 
 electric railways. 
 
 In 1917 electric railways had installed water wheels 
 and turbines amounting to 627,983 horsepower. As 
 many lines purchase their power probably over 1,000,000 
 horsepower of water power is used by electric railways. 
 In 1914 manufacturing establishments had water-power 
 plants installed as follows, but this does not represent all 
 the water power so used, for much is purchased from 
 central stations. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Textile manufacturing _ 
 
 390, 478 
 
 21.4 
 
 Flour and grist mills _ 
 
 229, 328 
 
 12.5 
 
 Lumber and timber products 
 
 94, 103 
 
 5.2 
 
 Paper and wood pulp 
 
 876, 741 
 
 48.0 
 
 All others _ _ . . 
 
 235, 793 
 
 12.9 
 
 
 1, 826, 443 
 
 100. 00 
 
 The developed water power in Canada is estimated by 
 the Dominion Water Power Branch as follows : 
 
 Developed water power in Canada , January 1, 1920. 
 
 Total water-wheel and turbine horsepower 
 installed for use in— 
 
 Province. 
 
 Central elec- 
 tric stations. 
 
 i 
 
 Pulp and 
 paper in- 
 dustry. 
 
 Other manu- 
 facturing 
 industries. 
 
 Ynkrm 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 211,043 
 
 46,962 
 
 46,094 
 
 A lb^rtfl. 
 
 32,580 
 
 
 17 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 71,790 
 
 
 
 Ontario 
 
 794,621 
 
 158,095 
 
 99,230 
 
 Quebec 
 
 623,088 
 
 249,332 
 
 270,961 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 9,378 
 
 2,693 
 
 6,009 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 4,064 
 
 16,183 
 
 12,276 
 
 Prince Edward TslantJ 
 
 227 
 
 
 1,789 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,756,791 
 
 473,265 
 
 436,376 
 
 Province. 
 
 Total water- 
 wheel and 
 turbine 
 horsepower 
 installed. 
 
 Total horse- 
 power actual- 
 ly employed. 
 
 Ultimate de- 
 signed capac- 
 ity, in 
 
 horsepower, 
 of plants now 
 operating or 
 under 
 
 construction. 
 
 Yukon _ _ 
 
 13,199 
 
 11,349 
 
 13,199 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 308,167 
 
 276,795 
 
 350,832 
 
 l 
 
 Alberta - - 
 
 32,992 
 
 31,754 
 
 33,070 
 
 Manitoba- 
 
 88,447 
 
 75,100 
 
 297,047 
 
 Ontario 
 
 1,015,726 
 
 934,015 
 
 1,460,920 
 
 Quebec - — 
 
 910,029 
 
 838,071 
 
 1,146,465 
 
 New Brunswick- 
 
 18,080 
 
 16,657 
 
 29,115 
 
 Nova Scotia - _ _ _ 
 
 34,323 
 
 29,359 
 
 52,202 
 
 Prince Edward Island _ 
 
 1,933 
 
 1,621 
 
 1,958 
 
 
 2,417,896 
 
 2,214,721 
 
 3,384,808 
 
 Note -The central-station power is developed for sale. Part of it is sold 
 
 to pulp and paper and other industries, and in the table such part is included 
 with the power that is directly installed in these industries. From plants 
 included in this tabulation an average of 175,000 horsepower was exported in 
 the year ending March 81, 1919. 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 15 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 The plants under construction in 1920 not included 
 in the table will supply the following amounts of power, 
 in horsepower: Ontario, 500,000; Quebec, 137,000; 
 Manitoba, 77,000; Nova Scotia, 15,000; New Bruns- 
 wick, 18,000. The undeveloped water power is esti- 
 mated by the same authority as follows : 
 
 Undeveloped water power in Canada , by Provinces. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Yukon 100, 000 
 
 British Columbia 3, 000, 000 
 
 Alberta 466, 000 
 
 Saskatchewan 567,000 
 
 Manitoba 3, 218, 000 
 
 Ontario 5, 800, 000 
 
 Quebec 6, 000, 000 
 
 New Brunswick 300, 000 
 
 Nova Scotia 100, 000 
 
 Prince Edward Island 3, 000 
 
 19, 554, 000 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 A general idea of the location of the water powers of 
 South America can be obtained by considering its topog- 
 raphy. (See map on p. 4. ) The great mountain system 
 of the Andes, which has a mean altitude of 14,000 feet 
 and includes peaks that reach 23,000 feet, extends along 
 the entire western coast. This system so divides the 
 drainage of the continent that 6,382,000 square miles is 
 tributary to the Atlantic and only 407,000 square miles 
 to the Pacific. Lakes Titicaca and Poopo and other 
 inland basins receive the drainage of 106,000 square 
 miles. The precipitation on the peaks of the Andes 
 is heavy, and perpetual snow furnishes a reservoir 
 that regulates to some extent the flow of rivers that rise 
 in that region. As a result there are along the entire 
 length and on both slopes of the Andes numerous 
 streams that descend thousands of feet in a few hun- 
 dred miles and furnish a series of potential water powers 
 having high heads and moderate quantities of water 
 that lend themselves to economical development. 
 
 The eastern part of South America slopes gently and 
 comprises a narrow belt of high land along the Caribbean 
 Sea, a comparatively low plateau across the center, 
 which forms the divide between the tributaries of the 
 Amazon and the Rio de la Plata, and a mountainous 
 area along the eastern coast of Brazil. Several of the 
 drainage basins extend almost to the Pacific, and their 
 run-off is so great as to produce the largest concentra- 
 tions of potential power on the continent. 
 
 In only two parts of South America is the rainfall 
 meager. One, a narrow strip on the western slope of 
 
 the Andes, extends from the northern boundary of 
 Peru to the center of Chile ; the other, a belt 50 to 300 
 miles wide on the eastern slope of the Andes, extends 
 along the entire western boundary of Argentina, and in 
 this belt the rainfall increases gradually toward the 
 east. In the remainder of South America the annual 
 rainfall is sufficient for the growth of ordinary crops, 
 and over a large part of the continent it reaches 80 
 inches or even more. 
 
 For convenience in reference the continent has been 
 divided into 14 drainage areas, which are numbered on 
 the map in order down the west coast, up the east 
 coast, and along Caribbean Sea, with the inland drain- 
 age last. This order will be followed in the text. 
 
 101. North Pacific Ocean . — A narrow strip that in- 
 cludes parts of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru drains 
 into the Pacific Ocean. Although the rivers in this 
 strip are short they have a great fall and a fairly 
 
 regular flow, as they are fed by the rains on the peaks 
 
 % 
 
 of the Andes. In Colombia and Ecuador the rainfall is 
 heavy along the coast as well as in the mountains, but 
 in Peru rain falls only on the high plateaus and moun- 
 tains. San Juan River, in Colombia, is the largest 
 river on the Pacific slope of South America ; its dis- 
 charge reaches 50,000 second-feet. On its upper 
 stretches and on its tributaries there is considerable 
 potential power, but its lower reaches and those of 
 some of its tributaries are navigable. 
 
 In Ecuador the Guayas and Esmeraldas are the only 
 large rivers that enter the Pacific. 
 
 In Peru there are many streams on the Pacific slope. 
 Most of these streams have small drainage basins, and 
 those in the dry southern half of the country have little 
 run-off. The only inter- Andean river that drains into 
 the Pacific, the Huaylas, rises in Lake Conoeoeha, 
 
 13,000 feet above sea level, flows northward parallel to 
 the coast for 100 miles to join the Chuquicara, coming 
 from the north, thus forming Rio de Santa, which turns 
 to the west through the maritime Cordillera and empties 
 into the Pacific. 
 
 The only water power plants in this area furnish 
 power for municipal use and for mining. The principal 
 plants supply Quito in Ecuador and Lima and Arequipa 
 in Peru. The total potential power in the north 
 Pacific drainage area is estimated at 1,500,000 horse- 
 power. 
 
 102. South Pacific Ocean. — The south Pacific area lies 
 wholly in Chile and includes the belt draining into the 
 Pacific Ocean from the northern boundary of Chile to 
 the Strait of Magellan. Here, as in the northern 
 Pacific slope, the rivers are short but have great fall. 
 
 The rainfall increases from practically nothing in the 
 northern part of Chile to 80 inches or more in the south- 
 ern part. All the larger streams rise in the high peaks 
 of the Andes, but most of those in the dry regions of 
 northern Chile are lost in the sands before they reach 
 the coast. The principal rivers are the Bueno, Biobio, 
 Valdivia, and Maule — all in the southern half of Chile, 
 to which practically all the available power is confined. 
 
 According to a census of the country made in 1916 
 the developed water power in Chile amounts to 39,600 
 horsepower. This does not include power used for 
 mining, for which one plant, that of the Braden Copper 
 Co., develops 16,000 horsepower. Other mining plants 
 would probably increase the total for all purposes to 
 
 60.000 horsepower. In Chile, as in the rest of South 
 America, the power thus developed is used chiefly for 
 mining, municipal lighting, and street railways. The 
 undeveloped water power in the area is estimated at 
 
 1.800.000 horsepower. 
 
 103. Southern islands. — The area here called the south- 
 ern islands includes the islands south of the Strait of 
 Magellan in Chile and Argentina and the Falkland 
 Islands. The rainfall is not great, and the land is 
 comparatively high. No developed water powers are 
 known. The potential power is estimated at 800,000 
 horsepower, and most of it is in Chile. 
 
 104. Lower south Atlantic Ocean. — The lower south 
 Atlantic area extends from the Strait of Magellan to 
 Rio de la Plata and from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
 Andes. Practically all the area is in Argentina, 
 although one river extends into Chile near the Strait of 
 Magellan. The rivers rise in the Andes, and although 
 in their upper courses they run through a country of 
 little rainfall their drainage basins are large and the 
 available fall is sufficient to afford potential power. 
 The principal rivers are the Santa Cruz, Chico, Deseado, 
 Chubut, Negro, and Colorado. 
 
 The largest power plant in this area is at Mendoza, 
 where about 2,700 horsepower has been developed and 
 a plant having an ultimate capacity of 16,000 horse- 
 power is under construction . There are also two small 
 plants near San Juan. The potential power in the area 
 is estimated at 2,100,000 horsepower. 
 
 105. Bio de la Plata. — The chief tributaries of Rio 
 de la Plata are the Paranfi and the Uruguay, which 
 drain all of Paraguay and parts of Uruguay, Argentina, 
 Bolivia, and Brazil. Rio Paranfi, the most important 
 power stream in South America, is formed by the 
 union of the Paranahyba and the Grande. Along both 
 these rivers there are a number of falls, of which the 
 best known is that at Maribondo, on Rio Grande near 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Sao Paulo, Brazil. The power available at this site 
 has been estimated at 600,000 horsepower. The Tiete, 
 another tributary of the Parami, is rich in water power, 
 and about 40,000 horsepower has been developed on it 
 to supply the city of Sao Paulo. The principal falls 
 on the Tiete are the Avanhandava, with 60,000 horse- 
 power, and the Itapura, with 50,000 horsepower. The 
 Paranapanema and the Ivahy, valuable power streams 
 that lie farther south, are tributary to the ParanA 
 The first great falls on the Paran& are those of Uru- 
 hupunga, but they are drowned out at high water, so 
 that their economic value is doubtful. At about the 
 point where the Parami becomes the boundary between 
 Brazil and Paraguay the river plunges over the great 
 cataracts of Sete Quedas (seven falls). The total dif- 
 ference in altitude from the top to the bottom of these 
 falls is 375 feet, and the potential power at this site is 
 undoubtedly immense, having been estimated by dif- 
 ferent authorities at 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 horse- 
 power. The total potential power at the site may 
 equal the smaller of these quantities for a part of the 
 year, but the power that can be commercially developed 
 is probably much less, owing to backwater below the 
 falls and to variations in the flow of the river. For 
 about 400 miles below Sete Quedas the rapids in the 
 Paranfi prevent navigation. In this section the prin- 
 cipal tributary is the Iguassii, which enters from the 
 east. For a short distance above its mouth the Iguassu 
 forms the boundary between Brazil and Argentina, and 
 in this stretch, about 6 miles from the confluence, occur 
 the great Iguassu Falls, 230 feet high. 
 
 The Government of Argentina is investigating the 
 engineering questions involved in developing Iguassii 
 Falls and transmitting the power to Buenos Aires, a 
 distance of about 800 miles. In a preliminary report 
 the flow available 90 per cent of the time is estimated 
 at 17,700 second-feet and the available head at 230 feet, 
 which would yield 325,000 horsepower at 70 per cent 
 efficiency. The report tentatively recommends the con- 
 struction of a plant that will yield 228,000 horsepower, 
 which it is estimated would furnish 168,000 horsepower 
 in Buenos Aires. If half the flow of the river (Argen- 
 tina’s share) is used, it is estimated that this amount of 
 power could be generated nine months of the year. As 
 good coal must be imported and is very expensive this 
 project may be carried out when financial conditions 
 are favorable, as it has been pronounced physically and 
 economically feasible. 
 
 About 100 miles below the mouth of the Iguassu the 
 Parand has cut a gorge 120 to 150 feet deep into its 
 sandstone bed. The stream has considerable slope and 
 
 16 
 
 a large discharge, and the potential power available in 
 this stretch is great. The Parand passes the last rapids 
 at Encarnacion, and thence to its junction with the 
 Paraguay the fall is slight and the river has no value 
 for power. 
 
 Paraguay Biver rises about 1,000 feet above sea level 
 and, after falling 400 feet in its upper courses, has a slug- 
 gish current and a fall of only 600 feet in 2, 500 miles. 
 
 The principal tributaries of the Paraguay and the 
 ParanJ that come from the Andes, named in order from 
 north to south, are the Pilcomayo, Teuco, Bermejo, 
 Salado, and Dulce. Most of the power sites on these 
 streams lie in their upper courses, where the fall is 
 considerable. 
 
 The Uruguay, which with the Parand forms Rio 
 de la Plata, has only one site where a large amount of 
 power can be developed, but some of its tributaries from 
 the east have small amounts of potential power. On 
 the Uruguay near Salto two dams have been proposed 
 for improving navigation and for providing power to be 
 transmitted to Montevideo. About 60,000 horsepower 
 could be developed here at low flow, and the project 
 may later be carried out by the Government of 
 Uruguay. 
 
 The principal developed powers in the Rio de la 
 Plata drainage basin are 40,000 horsepower on the Tiete 
 to supply Sao Paulo, Brazil; 12,500 horsepower near 
 Cordoba and 5,000 horsepower at Tucuimin, Argentina; 
 and 500 horsepower near Potosi, Bolivia. Contracts 
 have been let for the electrification of 28 miles of rail- 
 road from Jundiahy to Campinas, in Brazil, and the 
 power will be furnished by the Sao Paulo Light & 
 Power Co. There are small plants in Paraguay, but 
 there is no record of any in Uruguay. The potential 
 water power of this drainage basin is estimated at about 
 16,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 106. Upper south Atlantic Ocean . — The upper south 
 Atlantic area embraces the Atlantic drainage from 
 Rio de la Plata to the Sao Francisco. Most of the 
 rivers are short coastal streams, but their fall is con- 
 siderable, as a chain of hills and mountains extends 
 along the coast northward from Sao Paulo. The prin- 
 cipal rivers are the Jacuhy, Parahyba, Doce, Jequi- 
 tinhonha, Pardo, and Contas. All are good power 
 streams, as they have numerous falls that can be devel- 
 oped easily. At Bracuhy Falls, near Rio de Janeiro, 
 there is a total drop of 2,887 feet and a mean flow 
 of 105 second -feet, which could be obtained by the use 
 of two reservoirs at sites that have been investigated. 
 At the well-known Herval Falls, near Taquera, north 
 of Porto Alegre, there is a sheer drop of 400 feet, 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 which would afford a capacity of 100,000 horsepower 
 if the mean annual flow could be utilized. Although 
 the capacity would be much less during the low -water 
 period it would still be considerable, and as the fall 
 is not far from a railroad and several towns this site 
 may be developed in the near future. 
 
 The principal power development in this area is that 
 of the Rio de Janeiro Tramway, Light & Power Co. 
 (Ltd.), which has diverted the Pirahy, a tributary of 
 the Parahyba, by means of a tunnel into the Ribeirao 
 das Lages, where about 75,000 horsepower has been 
 developed by utilizing a head of 1,180 feet. On another 
 tributary of the Parahyba 13,500 horsepower has been 
 developed to supply the town of Nictheroy. The city of 
 Bahia is supplied from a plant of 20,000 horsepower 
 capacity on Paraguassu River, and an undeveloped fall 
 on this river has a capacity of 21,000 horsepower. The 
 total potential power in the upper south Atlantic area 
 is estimated at 3,700,000 horsepower. 
 
 107. Bio Sao Francisco . — The Rio Sao Francisco area 
 includes the entire drainage basin of Rio Sao Francisco, 
 nearly 26,000 square miles. At the falls of Paulo 
 Affonso, about 140 miles above the mouth of the river, 
 the effective height is about 260 feet, although at 
 extreme high stages the water below the falls rises 89 
 feet. The total power available at these falls is esti- 
 mated at 2,000,000 horsepower, and that available dur- 
 ing periods of low water at 400,000 horsepower. 
 Several projects for using the falls have been advocated, 
 as they are near the coast and the river is navigable 
 below. Many of the tributaries of the Sao Francisco 
 have a large value for power, especially the Paracatu, 
 on which 20 falls are known. 
 
 The electric installations in the Sao Francisco basin 
 are those of the Sao Joao del Rey Gold Mining Co. and 
 the city of Bello -Horizonte. The total potential power 
 of the basin is estimated at 1,700,000 horsepower. 
 
 108. Lower north Atlantic Ocean . — The lower north 
 Atlantic area includes the basins of the streams that 
 enter the Atlantic Ocean between the Sao Francisco and 
 the Para. The principal streams, named in order from 
 south to north, are the Parahyba do Norte, Salgado, 
 Paranahiba, Mearim, and Gurupy. No power sites of 
 great value are known in this area, but the potential 
 power in the whole area is estimated at 1,700,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 109. Para Biver.— The area here considered includes 
 the entire drainage basin of ParJ River, which with its 
 tributaries drains a long stretch of country that is 
 bordered on the west by the basin of the Amazon. A 
 range of mountains that extends through the center of 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 the Parfi River basin and divides the Araguaya from the 
 Tocantins may offer opportunities for developing small 
 powers. The Tocantins, which drains 350,000 square 
 miles, offers possible power at the Cachoeira Grande 
 (great falls), 130 miles above the estuary into which it 
 empties. The discharge is estimated at 360,000 second- 
 feet. The falls of Fa^ao and Catadupa, on Rio das 
 Almas, a tributary of the Tocantins, are 108 and 216 feet 
 high, respectively 5 but nothing definite is known of the 
 stream flow. The Araguaya has considerable potential 
 power in the stretch just below the great island of 
 Bananal. There are probably many other power sites 
 in this area, and the total potential power is estimated 
 at 600,000 horsepower. 
 
 110 . Amazon River . — The area here considered in- 
 cludes the entire basin of Amazon River. In their 
 lower courses the Amazon and its tributaries have slight 
 slopes and little value for power. Most of the potential 
 water power of the area is in the Andes, in Bolivia, 
 Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, and on tributaries from 
 the south in Brazil which have considerable flow and 
 series of cataracts in regions that are largely unexplored. 
 The Amazon rises in Lake Lauricocha, in the Peruvian 
 Andes, flows northward in a deep gorge between the 
 western and central Cordilleras nearly to the north- 
 ern boundary of Peru, and then turns east at an altitude 
 of 575 feet above sea level, having descended more than 
 
 13.000 feet from its source. The first large tributary is 
 the Huailaga, which flows northward between the cen- 
 tral and eastern Cordilleras. It rises at an altitude of 
 
 14.000 feet and joins the Amazon at an altitude of 540 
 feet. Numerous affluents that descend by numberless 
 falls and rapids and drain regions of heavy rainfall 
 afford power sites throughout their courses. The next 
 large tributary is the Ucayali, also from the south. 
 The headwaters of the Ucayali are the Apurimac, 
 Mantaro, and Quillabamba, and lower down the stream 
 is joined by the Pachitea. Rising at altitudes of about 
 
 14,000 feet, these rivers fall about 13,000 feet before 
 they join the Ucayali. The Urubamba, a tributary of 
 the Quillabamba, has a fall of 12,000 feet in 340 miles. 
 The Ucayali, which flows in general northward, parallel 
 to the Andes, affords but little potential power itself, 
 as most of the fall occurs in its tributaries. Both the 
 Ucayali and the upper Amazon drain sparsely populated 
 regions, in which power is developed only at a few 
 places for mining • the most notable plants supply mines 
 around Cerro de Pasco, Peru. 
 
 Of the northern tributaries below the Ucayali the 
 Napo, Putumayo, and Yapura rise on the eastern slope 
 of the Andes in Ecuador and Colombia and flow east- 
 
 17 
 
 ward and southward to the Amazon. The potential 
 water power on the Napo and Putumayo is confined to 
 their extreme headwaters, where the drainage area is 
 small ; but the Yapura, which rises in the Colombian 
 uplands, flows over a series of rapids to the falls below 
 the Araracoara reefs, where there is a cascade of 100 
 feet. Rio Negro, also entering from the north, is the 
 largest tributary of the Amazon, but as it is navigable 
 for 450 miles there is little opportunity for the devel- 
 opment of power in its course. Borne of its tributaries 
 that rise in the Colombian uplands, where the rainfall 
 is heavy, have large fall and probably considerable 
 potential power. Of the southern tributaries of the 
 Amazon below the Ucayali the Javary, Jurufi, and 
 Purus have some potential power on their headwaters. 
 The Madeira is formed by the confluence of the Beni 
 arid the Mamor£, which drain more than half of Bolivia 
 and which with their numerous tributaries afford many 
 power sites, chiefly on the Madre de Dios, the Beni, the 
 Grande, and the Guapore. All these streams have large 
 fall and considerable drainage areas and probably would 
 yield more than 1,500,000 horsepower. Other tribu- 
 taries of the Madeira are wholly in Brazil and have less 
 fall. The Tapajos and the Xingu, the last tributaries 
 of the Amazon from the south, are obstructed in their 
 middle courses by rapids and falls from which consider- 
 able power could be developed. 
 
 The developed power in the Amazon basin is very 
 small, probably 15,000 to 20,000 horsepower in Peru, 
 used mostly in mining, and 5,000 to 6,000 horsepower 
 in Bolivia, used for municipal purposes. The potential 
 power in the Amazon basin is estimated at about 
 16,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 111 . Upper north Atlantic Ocean . — The upper .north 
 Atlantic area includes the streams draining into the 
 Atlantic Ocean between the Amazon and the Orinoco. 
 It embraces British, Dutch, and French Guiana and 
 small parts of Brazil and Venezuela. The eastern half 
 of this area is drained by the Oyapok, which forms the 
 boundary between Brazil and French Guiana, and the 
 Maroni, which separates French and Dutch Guiana. 
 There is a fall of 246 feet on the Oyapok, but little else 
 is known concerning it. The rivers in this drainage 
 area rise in a rather low range of mountains and are 
 short, but they are valuable for power, as the run-off 
 resulting from the annual rainfall of 100 inches, well 
 distributed through the year, is great. The potential 
 power of British Guiana probably exceeds the total for 
 the remainder of this area. The Essequibo is the larg- 
 est river in British Guiana. The other large rivers 
 are the Berbice and Corentyne. The Potaro, a tribu- 
 
 tary of the Essequibo, is the richest stream in poten- 
 tial power. On it are the famous Kaieteur Falls, which 
 have a total drop of 820 feet and a single vertical fall of 
 740 feet. At high stages the river is 250 to 400 feet 
 wide at the falls, but this width decreases to 50 or 60 
 feet during periods of extreme drought. The potential 
 power at this site is estimated at 125,000 horsepower at 
 low water. The Potaro also has several smaller falls — 
 the Amatuk, Pakatuk, and Tumatumari. There are 
 large deposits of bauxite in British Guiana, and some of 
 the extensive water powers may be developed in con- 
 nection with the production of aluminum. 
 
 Bo far as known there are no water-power plants in 
 the upper north Atlantic drainage area, but the poten- 
 tial power is estimated at nearly 4,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 112 . The Orinoco . — The area here considered includes 
 all streams tributary to Orinoco River, which drains an 
 area of heavy rainfall and ranks third in volume among 
 the rivers of South America, being exceeded only by 
 the Amazon and Rio de la Plata. It is navigable for 
 1,300 miles above its mouth, and the total fall in 
 that distance is 920 feet. At the Atures rapids, about 
 50 miles above the mouth of the Meta, the Orinoco falls 
 30 feet in 6 miles, and its total fall including the Mai- 
 pures rapids, 45 miles farther up, is 70 feet. The 
 tributaries of the Orinoco in both Colombia and Vene- 
 zuela have considerable fall, and as the rainfall and 
 run-off are heavy their potential power is great. The 
 principal tributaries are the Ventuari, Caura, Paragua, 
 and Caroni from the east and south, wholly in Vene- 
 zuela, and the Guaviare, Meta, and Apure from the 
 west. Of these streams both the Caroni and the Caura 
 have great potential power. 
 
 On the Caroni there is a fall of 60 feet at the town of 
 Caroni, near the mouth of the river, above which the 
 drainage area is about 38,500 square miles and the 
 annual rainfall more than 70 inches. A conservative 
 estimate of the potential power at this site, even at 
 ordinary low water, is 125,000 horsepower, and the 
 mean flow would yield 600,000 horsepower. A contract 
 has recently been let by the Government of Venezuela 
 for an electric railway from Ban Felix, on Orinoco River, 
 to the Guasipati gold fields, to be run by hydroelectric 
 power from Caroni Falls. 
 
 On the Caura, at the rapids of Para, 130 miles above 
 the mouth, there is a fall of 200 feet. The potential 
 power at this site is estimated at 135,000 horsepower 
 at ordinary low water, and the mean flow would yield 
 
 675,000 horsepower. The tributaries of the Orinoco 
 that enter from the west are navigable in their lower 
 courses but have power sites on their headwaters. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 18 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 The developed water power in this drainage area is 
 small, if there is any. The total potential power is 
 estimated at 2,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 113. Caribbean Sea . — The area here considered extends 
 from the mouth of the Orinoco to Panama. In Y ene- 
 zuela it includes a narrow strip along the coast where 
 the basins are small but the fall is considerable, and as 
 the rainfall is abundant the area would evidently afford 
 considerable power. In Colombia three large rivers, 
 the Magdalena, Sinu, and Atrato, flow in parallel 
 courses from south to north. The Atrato flows between 
 the western and central Cordilleras, the Magdalena 
 flows between the central and eastern Cordilleras, and 
 the Sinu drains a small area near the Caribbean coast. 
 The Magdalena, except for a break of 20 miles near 
 Honda, is navigable for 830 miles. It rises at an eleva- 
 tion of 14,000 feet, and its upper courses and tributaries 
 are of great value for power. On one tributary, the 
 Funza, at a point 28 miles from Bogota, are the mag- 
 nificent Tequendama Falls, 475 feet high, over which 
 there is a discharge estimated at 4,000 second-feet. The 
 Saravita, a tributary of the Sogamosa, falls 2,400 feet 
 in 3 miles. The Cauca, the principal tributary of the 
 Magdalena, is characterized by rapids and many power 
 sites. The Sinu is a sluggish stream. The tributaries 
 and headwaters of the Atrato offer many good power 
 sites. 
 
 About 4,500 horsepower has been developed near 
 Caracas, in Venezuela, and perhaps 25,000 horsepower in 
 Colombia. Most of this power is used for municipal 
 purposes, but some of it is used for mining. Bogota has 
 a 5,500-horsepower plant. The potential power of the 
 area is estimated at 1,800,000 horsepower. 
 
 114. Interior basins . — Lakes Titicaca and Poopo re- 
 ceive the drainage from more than 40,000 square miles 
 in Bolivia, Peru, and Chile. Lake Titicaca, which is 
 on a plateau 12,500 feet above sea level, has an area of 
 nearly 5,000 square miles and is the largest lake in 
 South America. Its principal tributary, the Bamis, 
 forms the outlet of Lake Arapa. Lake Titicaca has an 
 extreme depth of more than 700 feet, but discharges 
 through Bio Desaguadero into Lake Poopo, which is only 
 4 to 13 feet deep. The evaporation and seepage in the 
 lakes and rivers balance the run-off of the entire area. 
 The Desaguadero is navigable throughout its length. 
 Lake Titicaca could be drained into the Pacific by a 
 long tunnel, but this project is not considered financially 
 feasible. So far as known there is no developed water 
 power in this area, and the potential power is small. 
 There are many other small inland basins in South 
 America, especially in Argentina, 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 A large part of Europe is less than 1,000 feet above 
 sea level. The mountainous areas are in the Scandi- 
 navian peninsula, along the eastern edge of European 
 Russia, and in a broken strip along the southern part 
 of the continent from the Caucasus Mountains to Spain. 
 The rainfall on the whole is plentiful ; the only con- 
 siderable areas on which it is less than 20 inches are 
 in eastern and northern Russia and in parts of Finland, 
 Sweden, and Spain. Europe has one -third of the total 
 developed hydroelectric power in the world, ranking 
 next to North America, which has about one- half. 
 
 The water powers of Europe are discussed in this 
 atlas by countries rather than by drainage areas. The 
 information can be presented more clearly and concisely 
 in this way because the statistical information available 
 is arranged by countries and not by drainage areas. 
 
 Norway . — Norway occupies the western part of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula, and the main watershed of the 
 peninsula forms most of its eastern boundary. Nearly 
 two-thirds of its total area of 124,000 square miles lies 
 south of Trondhjem Fiord, has a general oval outline, and 
 has a maximum width of about 250 miles. The country 
 north of Trondhjem Fiord is a belt scarcely exceeding 
 50 miles in width, which borders the Arctic Ocean and 
 extends around the north end of SAveden and Finland. 
 
 Although the highest land is along the eastern boun- 
 dary, the greater part of southern Norway is a moun- 
 tainous plateau with a watershed line that practically 
 coincides with its longitudinal axis. The streams in the 
 southeastern part drain southward to the Skagerrack, 
 and those in the Avestern part drain in a general westerly 
 direction into the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. To this 
 plateau, Avhich rises abruptly from the coast to altitudes 
 of 3,000 to 5,000 feet, are due most of the water-power 
 resources of the Kingdom. The country has a mean 
 altitude of about 1,600 feet, which is nearly 1,000 feet 
 greater than that of the remainder of the peninsula. 
 
 In northern Norway and on the Atlantic coast of 
 southern Norway the watershed line is near the heads 
 of the deeply indented fiords. The rivers flow perpen- 
 dicularly to the coast line, are comparatively short, and 
 have steep slopes and many falls (Yalur Fos, 1,150 feet ; 
 Yettis Fos, 853 feet ; Yring Fos and many others, in 
 excess of 400 feet). The principal rivers, however, 
 head between the coastal range and the range on the 
 eastern boundary, flow in a southerly direction betAveen 
 these ranges, and empty into the Skagerrack. The 
 largest of these, the Glonimen, drains an area of 16,000 
 square miles. 
 
 Many lakes, which lie in the long, narrow \ 7 alleys 
 along the edge of the central plateau and at the heads 
 of the fiords, offer opportunities for storage and add 
 materially to the value of the streams for the develop- 
 ment of power. 
 
 Although Norway extends for nearly half its length 
 north of the Arctic Circle its climate, particularly along 
 the coast, is so greatly influenced by the warm ocean 
 currents that the fiords, even those in the extreme 
 north, do not freeze over. The lowest Avinter temper- 
 atures are in the interior of southern Norway and in 
 Finmarken, in northern Norway. 
 
 The precipitation is greatest along the western slope 
 of the plateau of southern Norway, where it reaches an 
 annual average in excess of 80 inches. Along the north- 
 Avestern coast the average precipitation is 50 to 60 
 inches, and along the southern coast it is 40 to 50 
 inches. On the eastern slope of the plateau the rain- 
 fall is still less, but the generally high average precipita- 
 tion, combined with the topographic features already 
 mentioned, produces unusually favorable conditions for 
 the development of cheap and abundant water power. 
 
 No systematic survey of the water-poAver resources of 
 NorAvay has been made, and estimates of the total power 
 available vary widely. Much of the potential power of 
 northern NorAvay may never be practicable of develop- 
 ment. The greater part of the poAver resources, how- 
 ever, is in southern NorAvay, Avhere development is 
 practicable and Avill be limited only by the demand. 
 It is estimated that the amount that may be commer- 
 cially developed is at least 5,500,000 horsepower. 
 
 The following table for southern NorAvay, except the 
 cities of Christiania and Bergen, was published in the 
 Norwegian yearbook for 1919 : 
 
 Water power available in southern Norway in 1919. 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 Undeveloped 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Horsepower 
 
 at 
 
 State-owned 
 
 sites. 
 
 Developed 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Ostfold 
 
 351,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 Akershus 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 33 000 
 
 Hedemarken 
 
 327,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 Opland _ 
 
 782,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 Buskerud 
 
 908,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 Vestfold 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 2 000 
 
 Telemark 
 
 1,069,000 
 
 167,000 
 
 370,000 
 
 Austagder - 
 
 336,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 Vestagder 
 
 688,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 Rogaland 
 
 1,136,000 
 
 182,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 Hordaland 
 
 1,762,000 
 
 52,000 
 
 275,000 
 
 Sogn o g Fjordane 
 
 1,412,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 More _ 
 
 650,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 92,000 
 
 
 9,531,000 
 
 1 955,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 19 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The estimate of undeveloped power undoubtedly con- 
 templates the use of storage. The Industristatistik for 
 1915 gives a table of developed power by districts, 
 from which the following figures for Christiania, Bergen, 
 and northern Norway are taken : 
 
 Developed power in Christiania, , Bergen, and northern 
 
 Norway in 1915. 
 
 Christiania 
 Bergen _ 
 
 Nord-Trondelag _ _ . 
 
 Nordland 
 
 Tromso ' _ .. 
 
 Finmarken _ _ 
 
 State owned 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 8, 661 
 
 18, 462 
 
 19, 286 
 
 11,175 
 
 2, 786 
 
 972 
 
 1,761 
 
 
 58, 058 
 
 The horsepower developed from water in Norway as 
 a whole increased about 40 per cent between 1915 and 
 1919. If this rate of increase is assumed for the dis- 
 tricts included in the above statement a total of 80,000 
 horsepower is obtained for these districts in 1919, and 
 the addition of this to the developed power shown in 
 the first table gives a total for Norway of 1,330,000 
 horsepower. The following table shows the progress of 
 the development of water power in Norway since 1900 : 
 
 Power developed in Norway since 1900. 
 
 Year. 
 
 i 
 
 Water power. 
 
 All other power. 
 
 Total 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1900 ____ 
 
 160,588 
 
 67.4 
 
 78,012 
 
 32.6 
 
 238,600 
 
 1901 
 
 172,000 
 
 66.7 
 
 86,000 
 
 33.3 
 
 258,000 
 
 1902 
 
 180,000 
 
 67.2 
 
 88,000 
 
 32.8 
 
 268,000 
 
 1908 
 
 194,000 
 
 67.9 
 
 92,000 
 
 32.1 
 
 286,000 
 
 1904 
 
 206,000 
 
 67.8 
 
 98,000 
 
 32.2 
 
 304,000 
 
 1905 
 
 225,392 
 
 68.0 
 
 106,408 
 
 32.0 
 
 331,800 
 
 1906 
 
 251,000 
 
 70.1 
 
 107,000 
 
 29.9 
 
 358,000 
 
 1907 ____ 
 
 294,000 
 
 73.1 
 
 108,000 
 
 26.9 
 
 402,000 
 
 1908 
 
 316,000 
 
 74.4 
 
 109,000 
 
 25.6 
 
 425,000 
 
 1909 
 
 347,000 
 
 75.9 
 
 110,000 
 
 24.1 
 
 457,000 
 
 1910 
 
 449,794 
 
 80.3 
 
 110,206 
 
 19.7 
 
 560,000 
 
 1911 
 
 578,000 
 
 77.0 
 
 173,000 
 
 23.0 
 
 751,000 
 
 1912 
 
 710,000 
 
 74.9 
 
 238,000 
 
 25.1 
 
 948,000 
 
 1913 
 
 793,000 
 
 74.0 
 
 279,000 
 
 26.0 
 
 1,072,000 
 
 1914 
 
 859,000 
 
 73.4 
 
 311,000 
 
 26.6 
 
 1,170,000 
 
 1915 
 
 920,000 
 
 73.0 
 
 341,000 
 
 27.0 
 
 1,261,000 
 
 1916 
 
 1,175,000 
 
 76.3 
 
 365,000 
 
 23.7 
 
 1,540,000 
 
 1917 ____ 
 
 1,225,000 
 
 76.0 
 
 388,000 
 
 24.0 
 
 1,613,000 
 
 1918 ____ 
 
 1,275,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1919 ___ 
 
 1,330,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The yearly figures for total horsepower and those for 
 developed water power for 1900, 1905, 1910, and 1915 
 are taken from the Industristatistik. A census of water 
 
 power was apparently taken every five years. For the 
 intervening and later years the amounts have been 
 estimated, mostly from figures showing the total devel- 
 oped power, which are available for each year. The 
 estimate of developed water power for 1919 was obtained 
 as explained in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 The distribution of the total power generated in 1917 
 among the industries is shown below. The State enter- 
 prises are mainly railroads, and practically all the 
 power they used was generated by steam. There was 
 also a 21,000-horsepower steam plant in Finmarken, the 
 power from which was used largely in mining. 
 
 Distribution of power in Norway by industries in 1917. 
 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Chemical industries 
 
 476,675 
 
 32.9 
 
 Manufacture of paper and of leather and rubber 
 goods 
 
 213,154 
 
 14.7 
 
 
 State enterprises (mostly railroads) 
 
 184,493 
 
 12.8 
 
 Lighting 
 
 165,985 
 
 11 7 
 
 
 
 Mining and production of ores, etc 
 
 78,763 
 
 5.4 
 
 Manufacture of articles of wood, bone, horn, etc __ 
 
 69,885 
 
 4.8 
 
 Manufacture of food, drink, etc 
 
 43,811 
 
 3.0 
 
 Transportation a 
 
 43,664 
 
 3.0 
 
 Manufacture of machinery, etc 
 
 41,751 
 
 2.9 
 
 Materials and equipment for heat, light, and 
 power 
 
 27,960 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 Textile industries 
 
 20,043 
 
 1.4 
 
 Agriculture and lumbering 
 
 18,234 
 
 1.2 
 
 Production of stone and other mineral materials __ 
 
 17,914 
 
 1.2 
 
 Municipal enterprises (except lighting) 
 
 14,955 
 
 1.0 
 
 Construction work 
 
 12,826 
 
 .9 
 
 Foundries and metal manufactures 
 
 10,313 
 
 .7 
 
 Printing, lithography, etc 
 
 2,797 
 
 .2 
 
 C loth in g i n d u stry 
 
 2,642 
 
 .2 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 155 
 
 .1 
 
 
 1,446,020 
 
 100.0 
 
 Losses 
 
 112,948 
 
 54,315 
 
 1,613,283 
 
 
 Reserve plants 
 
 
 
 
 a Exclusive of State railroads, which are included under State enterprises. 
 
 On the lower Glommen River, in Ostfold, there are 
 four sites having a total capacity of 300,000 horsepower, 
 of which 188,000 horsepower is developed. On Maane 
 River at Rjukan there are two sites having a capacity 
 of 239,000 horsepower, all of which is developed. On 
 the Tysse i Odda there are two sites having a total 
 capacity of 300,000 horsepower, of which 83,000 horse- 
 power is developed. On Matre River there is a site 
 having a capacity of 96,000 horsepower, of which 
 
 74,000 horsepower is developed. At a site on Lilledals 
 River there is 91,700 horsepower, all developed. The 
 largest State-owned site, one at Norefallene, on Numme- 
 dalslaagen, in Buskerud, has a capacity of 196,000 
 horsepower, none of which is developed. 
 
 The utilization of water power for chemical indus- 
 tries in Norway is particularly noteworthy. Plants of 
 
 100.000 to 200,000 horsepower have been installed for 
 producing nitric acid from atmospheric nitrogen. This 
 industry requires cheap power, and the Norwegian sites, 
 which have concentrated falls and large volumes of 
 water, are particularly well suited for it. Furthermore, 
 many of these plants are close to tidewater at the heads 
 of fiords, and their products can be loaded directly upon 
 ocean-going freighters. 
 
 Water power has been developed in Norway by the 
 State to some extent, though less than in Sweden. 
 Unutilized sites owned by the State have a capacity 
 after regulation of about 1,000,000 horsepower, of which 
 
 200.000 to 300,000 horsepower is reserved for the elec- 
 trification of railroads. 
 
 Sweden . — Sweden occupies the eastern half of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula. Its average width is less than 
 200 miles, and its length is about 1,000 miles. Its west- 
 ern boundary coincides approximately with the water- 
 shed between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, and from this watershed the rivers of northern 
 and central Sweden flow in a general southeasterly direc- 
 tion to the Gulf. A watershed of lower altitude divides 
 southern Sweden into two parts, one of which drains 
 into the Baltic Sea and the other into the Kattegat. 
 
 Of the total area of Sweden, which is about 173,000 
 square miles, less than 60,000 square miles, or about 
 one-third, rises more than 1,000 feet above sea level, 
 and about half lies below 660 feet. The highest moun- 
 tain peak, Kebrekaise, is 7,000 feet high. 
 
 As the streams of Sweden in general flow transversely 
 across the country, none of them are large. Only six 
 rivers have drainage areas exceeding 10,000 square 
 miles. The minimum flow of the Gota, the largest 
 river of Sweden, is about 11,000 second-feet, and the 
 ordinary high flow is about 30,000 second- feet. On 
 most of the other streams the ratio between flow at the 
 high and the low stage is much greater, ranging between 
 25 and 35 to 1. The full utilization of the water for the 
 development of power therefore requires storage, for 
 which Sweden is particularly favored by its numerous 
 lakes. The aggregate area of these lakes is 14,000 
 square miles, or about 8 per cent of the area of the 
 country. Eight lakes have areas of more than 100 
 square miles each, and the largest of these, Lake Yenern, 
 covers 2,150 square miles. This abundance of lakes and 
 the fact that most of the northern drainage areas in 
 particular are covered with forests of conifers will make 
 it possible to regulate the discharge of many of the 
 streams and to increase greatly their potential power. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 Although about 15 per cent of the area of Sweden lies 
 north of the Arctic Circle, the warm ocean currents and 
 winds give the country a comparatively mild climate, 
 the average temperature for January ranging from 
 30° F. in the extreme south to 3° F. in the extreme 
 north. The winter temperature is sufficiently low to 
 require precautions against anchor and frazil ice but not 
 low enough to prevent the utilization of water powers 
 even in the extreme north. The Swedish Government 
 has built and is now operating a power plant on Lule 
 Biver at Porjus, north of the Arctic Circle. 
 
 The precipitation is greatest in the mountainous areas 
 in the north and along the watershed between Sweden 
 and Norway, where it averages about 40 inches a year 
 and reaches 80 to 120 inches on some of the mountain 
 peats. The moisture brought by the warm winds from 
 the Atlantic is nearly all condensed either on the moun- 
 tain range along the western boundary or on the coastal 
 range in Norway, so that the precipitation in the 
 interior of northern Sweden is small. The average 
 annual rainfall for the entire country is about 20 inches. 
 
 The progress of the development of water power in 
 Sweden and its distribution among the industries are 
 shown by the following tables : 
 
 Power developed in Sweden f rom 1896 to 1918. 
 
 Year or 
 period. 
 
 Waterpower. 
 
 All other power. 
 
 Total 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 168,770 
 
 i 
 
 56.8 
 
 128,335 
 
 43.2 
 
 297, 105 
 
 1901-1905— 
 
 253,663 
 
 55.8 
 
 201,294 
 
 44.2 
 
 454,957 
 
 1906-1910- 
 
 373,481 
 
 56.0 
 
 293,663 
 
 44.0 
 
 66 r, 144 
 
 1906 
 
 311,901 
 
 55.2 
 
 252,872 
 
 44.8 
 
 564,773 
 
 1907 
 
 330,756 
 
 54.4 
 
 276,263 
 
 45.6 
 
 607,019 
 
 1908 — 
 
 351,370 
 
 55.0 
 
 288,268 
 
 45.0 
 
 639,638 
 
 1909 
 
 894, 141 
 
 55.3 
 
 318,315 
 
 44.7 
 
 712,456 
 
 1910 
 
 479,237 
 
 59.0 
 
 332,547 
 
 41.0 
 
 811,784 
 
 1911 
 
 505,184 
 
 59.8 
 
 338,391 
 
 40.2 
 
 843,575 
 
 1912 — 
 
 619,772 
 
 62.6 
 
 370,318 
 
 37.4 
 
 990,090 
 
 1913 — 
 
 704,546 
 
 61.9 
 
 434,358 
 
 38.1 
 
 1,138,904 
 
 1914 
 
 774,235 
 
 61.5 
 
 465,629 
 
 38.5 
 
 1,209,864 
 
 1915 _ _ 
 
 844,168 
 
 63.9 
 
 476,875 
 
 36.1 
 
 1,321,043 
 
 1916 
 
 924,780 
 
 65.7 
 
 483,301 
 
 34.3 
 
 1,408,081 
 
 1917 
 
 953,797 
 
 65.0 
 
 513,374 
 
 35.0 
 
 1,467,171 
 
 1918 
 
 1,037,020 
 
 67.7 
 
 494,192 
 
 32.3 
 
 1,531,212 
 
 Distribution of power among industries in Sweden in 1918. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Gas, water, and electric plants 30. 1 
 
 Mining and metals 25. 9 
 
 Printing, paper making, etc 19. 6 
 
 Wood industries 8. 8 
 
 Food products, etc 5. 1 
 
 Quarrying, stone work, cement, etc 8. 8 
 
 Clothing and textiles 3. 5 
 
 Chemical industry _ 2. 9 
 
 Leather, hair, and rubber goods .8 
 
 In the following table the first column shows the 
 potential power based on the flow available nine months 
 of the year. If all this power were developed the 
 
 capacity of the plants would probably equal the figures 
 in the second column. The power worth exploiting is 
 that which it would be financially feasible to develop at 
 the present time if there were a market. The figures 
 
 Power generated in Sweden in 1917. 
 
 District. 
 
 Water power. 
 
 Total power. 
 
 Horse- 
 
 power. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Horse- 
 
 power. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 South Sweden (Gbtarike): 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malmbhus 
 
 1,738 
 
 0.18 
 
 48,155 
 
 3.28 
 
 Kristianstad 
 
 4,117 
 
 .44 
 
 27,897 
 
 1.90 
 
 Blekinge 
 
 16,869 
 
 1.77 
 
 26,768 
 
 1.82 
 
 Kronoberg 
 
 13,669 
 
 1.43 
 
 26,172 
 
 1.78 
 
 Halland- - 
 
 48,473 
 
 5.08 
 
 63,680 
 
 4.34 
 
 JOnkoping 
 
 20,857 
 
 2.18 
 
 38,234 
 
 2.61 
 
 Kalmar . _ 
 
 12,287 
 
 1.29 
 
 28,515 
 
 1.94 
 
 Gotland 
 
 167 
 
 .02 
 
 3,680 
 
 .25 
 
 Ostergotland 
 
 50,739 
 
 5.32 
 
 68,676 
 
 4.68 
 
 Skaraborg 
 
 29,935 
 
 3.14 
 
 38,902 
 
 2.65 
 
 Elfsborg 
 
 136,795 
 
 14.33 
 
 146,693 
 
 10.00 
 
 Goteborg and Bohus 
 
 9,690 
 
 1.02 
 
 36,895 
 
 2.52 
 
 
 345,336 
 
 36.20 
 
 554,267 
 
 37.77 
 
 Central Sweden (Svearike) : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stockholm _ _ 
 
 2,073 
 
 .22 
 
 97,720 
 
 6.66 
 
 Upsala_ 
 
 61,306 
 
 6.43 
 
 67,578 
 
 4.61 
 
 Sodermanland 
 
 11,234 
 
 1.18 
 
 28,427 
 
 1.94 
 
 Vestmanland 
 
 32,065 
 
 3.36 
 
 45,599 
 
 3.11 
 
 Orebro 
 
 56,198 
 
 5.91 
 
 67,718 
 
 4.62 
 
 Vermland — 
 
 101,917 
 
 10.68 
 
 113,987 
 
 7.77 
 
 Kopparberg _ _ - _ 
 
 129,890 
 
 13.62 
 
 167,338 
 
 11.40 
 
 
 394,683 
 
 41.40 
 
 588,367 
 
 40.11 
 
 North Sweden (Norrland): 
 Gefleborg 
 
 ' 38,485 
 
 4.02 
 
 74,423 
 
 5.08 
 
 Jemtland 
 
 17,885 
 
 1.82 
 
 20,648 
 
 1.40 
 
 Vesternorrland 
 
 77,951 
 
 8.17 
 
 120,389 
 
 8.20 
 
 Vesterbotten _ J 
 
 22,596 
 
 2.37 
 
 32,077 
 
 2.19 
 
 Norrbotten 
 
 57,411 
 
 6.02 
 
 77,000 
 
 5.25 
 
 
 213,778 
 
 22.40 
 
 324,537 
 
 22,12 
 
 Grand total 
 
 I 
 
 953,797 
 
 i 
 
 100.00 
 
 1,467,171 
 
 100.00 
 
 for developed power show the turbine capacity of plants 
 built or under construction. The last column compares 
 the probable capacity of plants if all the potential power 
 
 were developed with the capacity of plants built or 
 under construction. 
 
 The Hydrographic Bureau of the Swedish Govern- 
 ment has been working for several years on a detailed 
 survey of the potential water power of the Kingdom 
 and in 1919 issued a report giving the results obtained 
 up to the end of 1918. The statistical yearbook for 
 Sweden and a volume dealing with industrial statistics, 
 both published by the Central Statistical Bureau, give 
 detailed data on the primary power used in Swedish 
 industries. The amount used in 1918 was 1,531,000 
 horsepower, of which 67.7 per cent was generated by 
 water and 32.3 per cent by steam and gas. The plants 
 under coustruction in 1917 would increase the total 
 developed water power to 1,105,000 horsepower. The 
 amount of water-generated power has been constantly 
 increased, and if the rate of increase in previous years 
 has been maintained the total present water-power 
 installation is probably not less than 1,200,000 horse- 
 power. The most extensive plants are on the Dal, 
 where at the end of 1917 there were 49 plants having 
 a capacity of 240,905 horsepower, on the Gota 22 
 plants having a capacity of 149,684 horsepower, and 
 on the Lule 4 plants having a capacity of 76,635 
 horsepower. 
 
 Since 1906} when the Biksdag approved the Govern- 
 ment development of Trollhattan Falls, the State has 
 taken an active part in water-power development. 
 Under the administration of the Boyal Waterfall Board 
 plants have been erected at Trollhattan, on the Gota a 
 short distance below Lake Yenern (155,000 horsepower), 
 at Elfkarleo (75,000 horsepower), and on the Lule at 
 Porjus (75,000 horsepower). The Government has also 
 adopted the policy of electrifying the railroads and is 
 proceeding with the work at a cost of several million 
 dollars yearly. 
 
 Distribution of potential and developed water power in Sweden , in brake horsepoiver , 1917. 
 
 Region. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Probable 
 
 installation. 
 
 Worth exploiting. 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 probable 
 develop- 
 ment. 
 
 State. 
 
 Private. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Upper Northland 
 
 1,722,000 
 
 2,410,000 
 
 310,000 
 
 593,000 
 
 903,000 
 
 105,400 
 
 4.37 
 
 Northland and Lower Dalarne- 
 
 1,829,000 
 
 2,560,000 
 
 89,000 
 
 1,449,000 
 
 1,538,000 
 
 402,474 
 
 15.72 
 
 Central Sweden 
 
 62,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 70,036 
 
 80.50 
 
 Eastern Sweden 
 
 219,000 
 
 307,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 252,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 109,611 
 
 35.70 
 
 Skaim Prnvinpp. 
 
 ' 26,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 
 27,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 6,294 
 
 17.01 
 
 Western Sweden _ _ . 
 
 574,000 
 
 804,000 
 
 258,000 
 
 422,000 
 
 680,000 
 
 411,281 
 
 51.15 
 
 4 
 
 
 4,432,000 
 
 6,205,000 
 
 692,000 
 
 2,820,000 
 
 3,512,000 
 
 1,105,096 
 
 17.83 
 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 21 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Russia . — At the outbreak of the World War the total 
 area of Russia in both Europe and Asia was 8,416,145 
 square miles, or one-seventh of the land area of the globe 
 and about 42 per cent of the combined area of Europe 
 and Asia. European Eussia, which then contained 
 2,123,120 square miles, is separated from Asia on the 
 south by the range of which Mount Ararat is the culmi- 
 nating point and by the Black Sea and on the east by 
 the Ural Mountains, which extend from the Arctic 
 Ocean to the Ust Urt plateau (the watershed between 
 the Caspian and Aral seas) and the Caspian Sea. 
 
 At the present time (in 1921) the exact bound- 
 aries of European Eussia are uncertain. Finland, 
 Esthonia, Courland or Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and 
 Ukraine are new countries that include large areas 
 which were formerly within the western and southwest- 
 ern parts of the Eussian Empire. In addition territory 
 that was formerly Eussian has been added to Eumania. 
 In the Caucasus region Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Arme- 
 nia have been created out of land that was formerly a 
 part of Eussia or Turkey. These new States or coun- 
 tries contain most of the European water-power resources 
 of the former Eussian Empire. 
 
 In the central part of European Eussia there is a 
 plateau which stands only 750 to 850 feet above the 
 level of the Baltic Sea and which forms the watershed 
 between the Baltic Sea and the Black and Caspian seas. 
 This plateau contains many lakes and marshy areas in 
 which the rivers of European Eussia have their head- 
 waters, some of which are very close together. The 
 Volga, Dnieper, and Dvina, for example, rise in the 
 same marshy area. This plateau lies so much nearer to 
 the Baltic Sea than to the Caspian and Black seas that 
 the rivers which flow from it to the Caspian and Black 
 seas are five or six times as long as those which flow to 
 the Baltic, but the Baltic streams have a correspond - 
 ingly greater slope. 
 
 The character and the size of the rivers of European 
 Eussia are determined by the character of the rainfall 
 and the relief. In European Eussia in general there is 
 comparatively little rainfall, and it is only the great 
 size of the drainage basins, due to the even relief, that 
 makes the rivers of Eussia the largest in Europe. 
 
 The rivers in most of northern European Eussia are 
 icebound several months in the year, but those in the 
 far south do not freeze at all. The line connecting 
 points where the water is frozen for about 180 days 
 during the year passes south of Archangel, near the 60th 
 parallel of north latitude. The ice on the northern 
 rivers attains in January a thickness of 10 to 25 
 inches or more, varying according to the temperature. 
 
 The annual precipitation in European Eussia ranges 
 from less than 11.5 inches to about 25 inches. The least 
 rain falls in the southern part, in Samara and Saratof, 
 and a little more falls in the northern part. The max- 
 imum seasonal precipitation in nearly all of European 
 Eussia occurs in summer. In northern Eussia, north of 
 latitude 60° A., the most rain falls during August ; in 
 central Eussia, north of latitude 50°A. in the west and 
 north of 53°A. in the east, during July ; and in southern 
 Eussia, as far south as the Caspian Sea, during June. 
 
 The height of the waterfalls is closely related to the 
 relief. Where the rivers cross the low central plateau 
 their fall is measured in tens of feet. This low fall 
 prevails over most of European Eussia except the Ural 
 region and the region adjoining Finland, where some of 
 the falls are 150 feet high. Most of the highest water- 
 falls in the mountainous regions, such as the Ural 
 Mountains, are on streams that, owing to the small size 
 of their basins and their steep gradients, have rather 
 small and irregular run-off. In the comparatively level 
 regions around the Baltic Sea and in northern Eussia 
 the falls are not high but the discharge is great, because 
 the catchment areas are very large. In the northwest- 
 ern region (Archangel and Olonetz) the run-off is more 
 even, owing to the control exercised by the many lakes, 
 which serve as reservoirs. 
 
 Most of the water power in European Eussia is on its 
 borders. Central Eussia has no large water powers but 
 many small ones, which are estimated to aggregate 
 from 250,000 to 750,000 horsepower. 
 
 The Baltic region includes the lower parts of the 
 basins of the rivers that empty into the Baltic Sea, such 
 as the Velikaia, a tributary of the Aarova, as well as the 
 Msta, a tributary of the Volkhof, which empties into 
 Lake Ladoga. The Aarova now belongs to Esthonia. 
 The source of water power in this * region is the rapids, 
 such as the Volkhofskie rapids, which have a fall of 
 about 30 feet in a distance of 6 miles. Most of these 
 rapids obstruct navigable rivers. They will probably 
 be utilized in the near future, as the coal .used in this 
 region, all of it imported, is very expensive. 
 
 The water power in the Baltic region is estimated at 
 150,000 to 200,000 horsepower, and the principal 
 sources are as follows : 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Velikaia 20,000-25,000 
 
 Msta _ 80,000 
 
 Volkhof 60, 000 
 
 In the Ural region the meager rainfall and the small 
 size of the basins of the rivers are the fundamental 
 features that determine the character of the potential 
 
 water power. There are numerous water-power sites, 
 but they can yield not more than 2,000 to 3,000 horse- 
 power each, and many of them can not be utilized with- 
 out reservoirs. The largest sources of power are the 
 Chusovaya and the Bielaya, tributaries of the Kama, 
 which can yield more than 100,000 horsepower each. 
 The necessity for water power in the Ural region is 
 great, because most of the forest there has been cut and 
 fuel is scarce. The total potential water power in the 
 region is 500,000 to 1,500,000 horsepower. A small 
 part of it is already utilized. 
 
 In northwestern European Eussia, which comprises 
 parts of Archangel and Olonetz, there are many lakes, 
 two of which, Lakes Ladoga and Onega, are large. The 
 boundary between Finland and Eussia now passes 
 through Lake Ladoga. In the development of water 
 power some of these lakes will serve as reservoirs. The 
 discharge of the rivers here is comparatively large. 
 The waterfalls are more or less concentrated, and 
 the general conditions for the development of water 
 power are better than in other parts of Eussia. The 
 lake region has been only slightly investigated, but 
 its general features are similar to those of Finland and 
 Sweden. Some of the rivers that have been more or 
 less thoroughly examined are the Suma (about 70,000 
 horsepower), the Vyga (up to 160,000 horsepower), 
 and the Kem (180,000 to 200,000 horsepower). 
 
 The total quantity of water power in the lake region 
 is estimated at 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 Total potential water power in European Russia. 
 
 Region. 
 
 Minimum 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Maximum 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Central Russia — 
 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Baltic region 
 
 — 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 Ural region 
 
 
 — 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Lake region 
 
 — 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 5,800,000 
 
 The capacity of most of the plants, of which there are 
 not many in all Eussia, hardly exceeds a few hundred 
 or at most a few thousand horsepower. Most of the 
 hydraulic plants in Eussia, which furnish power for 
 small factories, sawmills, etc., are small. An investiga- 
 tion made by the Eussian Technical Society of Petrograd 
 in 1910 showed that the total developed water power 
 of Eussia was about 250,000 horsepower, of which the 
 small stations developed 80 per cent. 
 
 After deducting 123,000 horsepower for Finland and 
 50,000 horsepower for the remaining area lost by 
 Eussia approximately 75,000 horsepower remains as the 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 total developed power in 1910 in the area now included 
 in European Russia. Since 1914 there has been little 
 or no development, so that the total developed power 
 in Russia in 1920 was probably not more than 100,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 Finland . — The greater part of Finland is 1,000 feet or 
 more above sea level, but it contains no continuous 
 chains of hills — only a succession of separate hills that 
 run across its northern part and thence southeastward. 
 The relief is similar to that in Archangel and Olonetz, 
 in Russia, which adjoin Finland. The rivers of Fin- 
 land carry large volumes of water but have slight fall. 
 
 Although it would seem that the streams which drain 
 toward the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea could yield 
 considerable water power they flow in an area where the 
 temperature is so low that they are never likely to be 
 of much economic value. The streams that empty into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia from the east are similar to those 
 that empty into it from the west. As the periods of low 
 temperature in this region are long the development of 
 many of these streams, particularly the northern ones, 
 will be difficult. The upper Bothnia drainage basin 
 (Uleaborg) contains from 600,000 to 1,200,000 horse- 
 power. 
 
 The streams in the southern Bothnia region ( Vasa 
 and Abo-Bjorneborg) drain smaller areas and have less 
 discharge than those in the northern Bothnia region, but 
 they are better adapted to regulation by lake storage. 
 Their potential power is estimated at a minimum of 
 
 100.000 horsepower and a mean of 250,000 horsepower. 
 
 The most favorable water-power sites in Finland 
 
 are in the lake region, including Kuopio, St. Michel, 
 Viborg, and parts of Uleaborg and Tavastehus. The 
 falls are concentrated in rapids between stretches of still 
 water, and though the heads are rather low the large 
 volume of flow and the possibility of nearly complete 
 regulation by storage in hundreds of lakes, many of them 
 large, make this one of the best regions in Finland for 
 the development of water power. It is estimated that 
 this region could produce 800,000 horsepower. 
 
 The statistical yearbooks of Finland for 1916 and 1918 
 contain the figures given in the accompanying tables con- 
 cerning the primary power developed in that country. 
 
 From 1912 to 1916 the developed water power in 
 Finland was increased 26,000 horsepower, and from 
 1915 to 1916, during the war, it was increased 4,500 
 horsepower. If the rate of increase last given is appli- 
 cable to the period 1916-1920 the total developed power 
 in 1920 was about 185,000 horsepower. 
 
 The potential water power of Finland is estimated at 
 
 1.500.000 to 2,500,000 horsepower. 
 
 22 
 
 Primary power developed in Finland , 1909 - 1916 . 
 
 Year. 
 
 Water power. 
 
 Steam and gas. 
 
 Total 
 
 (horsepower) . 
 
 ! 
 
 Horsepower, j 
 
 Per cent 
 of total. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent 
 of total. 
 
 1909 _ 
 
 119,485 
 
 57.4 
 
 89,229 
 
 42.6 j 
 
 208,714 
 
 1910 
 
 123,064 
 
 54.0 
 
 105,085 
 
 46.0 
 
 228,149 
 
 1911 
 
 133,766 
 
 55.0 
 
 109,375 
 
 45.0 
 
 243,141 
 
 1912 
 
 138,465 
 
 53.0 
 
 122,500 
 
 47.0 
 
 260,965 
 
 1913 ____ 
 
 143,657 
 
 50.8 
 
 ! 188,806 
 
 49.2 
 
 282,463 
 
 1914 ____ 
 
 154,560 
 
 51.7 
 
 144,948 
 
 48.3 
 
 299,508 
 
 1915 _ 
 
 160,031 
 
 51.0 
 
 153,851 
 
 49.0 ! 
 
 313,882 
 
 1916 
 
 164,773 
 
 i 
 
 51.9 
 
 152,509 
 
 48.1 
 
 317,282 
 
 Distribution of water power by industries in Finland , 1916 . 
 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent 
 of total. 
 
 Pulp and paper manufacture- _ _ 
 
 92,742 
 
 56.3 
 
 Manufacture of food, drink, etc _ _ 
 
 ! 28,880 
 
 17.5 
 
 Lighting, waterworks, transportation 
 
 22,004 
 
 13.4 
 
 Textile industries _ _ _ __ _ - __ 
 
 7,621 
 
 4.6 
 
 Foundries and metal manufactures 
 
 ! 6,760 
 
 4.1 
 
 Miscellaneous _____ _ __ 
 
 ! 6,766 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 164,773 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fsthonia , Latvia , and Lithuania . — Narova River, in 
 Esthonia, has a fall of 100 feet in a distance of 45 miles, 
 and half of this fall is confined within a distance of 4} 
 miles. Part of this fall has been utilized in a plant near 
 Ivangorod (Narva), which in 1910 was described as the 
 only large plant in Russia, but its exact capacity is not 
 known. The total potential power of Narova River is 
 estimated at 70,000 horsepower. The Dvina in its lower 
 course crosses this area but can afford little power. 
 
 Although the Memel (or Nieman), which flows partly 
 in Lithuania, is a long river, the country it traverses is 
 low and it can probably furnish not more than 50, 000 
 horsepower. The total potential water power of these 
 countries is estimated at 200,000 horsepower, of which 
 probably not more than 20,000 horsepower is developed. 
 
 Poland . — Poland lies north of the Karpathian Moun- 
 tains, in which are the headwaters of the Vistula, the 
 only large river in the country. The Vistula and the 
 other streams that rise in these mountains should fur- 
 nish 75,000 to 100,000 horsepower. The lower reaches of 
 the Vistula have flat gradients and are of no value for 
 power. The parts of West Prussia and Posen that were 
 transferred to Poland should supply 55,000 horsepower, 
 and the area ceded to Poland by Russia should supply 
 an additional 50,000 horsepower. The total undevel- 
 oped power at low water is therefore about 175,000 
 horsepower. From figures available for Prussia and 
 
 Galicia in 1908 and for Russia in 1910 the total devel- 
 oped power in wffiat is now Poland is estimated at 
 
 66,000 horsepower in 1910 and 80,000 horsepower in 
 1920. 
 
 Ukraine . — The boundaries of Ukraine are uncertain, 
 but it is assumed that they include all of southwestern 
 Russia as far east as the Sea of Azof. 
 
 The water-power resources of the region consist of the 
 rapids of the Dniester (about 100,000 horsepower), of 
 the southern Bug (about 40,000 horsepower), and of the 
 Dnieper. All these rapids occur where the rivers pass 
 through the continuation of the Karpathian foothills 
 and are of comparatively small fall. The Dniester 
 rises in Ukraine, but through a large part of its course 
 it forms the boundary between Ukraine and Rumania, 
 and at least a third of its potential water power must 
 be credited to Rumania. 
 
 The site that will afford the largest potential water 
 power is at the Dnieper rapids, between Ekaterinoslaf 
 and Alexandrovsk. These rapids are in the navigable 
 part of the Dnieper and constitute one of the greatest 
 obstacles to navigation between the Black and Baltic 
 seas. A scheme for their utilization has been worked 
 out in detail, but the construction of dams and power 
 plants was prevented by the World War. The total 
 potential water power of this southwestern region of the 
 former Russian Empire, which now embraces Ukraine 
 and several other small republics, is estimated at 425,000 
 to 1,400,000 horsepower. Any estimate of the devel- 
 oped power must be very rough, as there are now avail- 
 able only the general figures for Russia in 1910 and for 
 Galicia in 1908, but these figures indicate that the 
 developed power in this area in 1920 was about 40,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 Caucasus region . — The region of the Caucasus is occu- 
 pied by three new States — Georgia, Azerbaijan, and 
 Armenia — and contains water-power resources amount- 
 ing to several million horsepower. A few rivers that 
 have been studied could yield more than 1,500,000 
 horsepower, which is concentrated chiefly in the more 
 humid parts of the western Caucasus. The falls are 
 high, some of them measuring more than a thousand 
 feet, and the discharge of the rivers is large, so that the 
 power in this region can be developed cheaply. At 
 many sites the cost will be within the limit of the 
 profitable establishment and operation of electrometal- 
 lurgical and electrochemical industries, which require 
 the cheapest power. 
 
 Among the rivers of the Caucasus region that have 
 been more or less thoroughly investigated the following 
 may be mentioned : 
 
EUROPE 
 
 24 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 include only plants of 1,000 horsepower or more. The 
 American commissioner in Austria places the total 
 developed power in July, 1921, at 205,000 horsepower. 
 After the armistice was declared the Austrian Govern- 
 ment adopted a program for electrifying part of the 
 railroads, but construction has not yet been started. 
 An appropriation of 75,000,000 crowns was made by the 
 State in 1919 for the enlargement of hydroelectric plants 
 and for assistance to such associations as will form a 
 part of a new national power system. All water power 
 plants will be built by the State, and it is planned to 
 install machinery capable of a maximum output of 
 
 500.000 kilowatts, this work to be completed in 50 
 years. 
 
 Hungary. — Hungary, like Austria, is wholly in the 
 drainage basin of the Danube. The principal tribu- 
 taries of the Danube within its borders are the Theiss, 
 which drains the southern slopes of the main Karpa- 
 thians, and the Drave, which forms a part of its south 
 ern boundary. The potential water-power resources of 
 Hungary are estimated at 150,000 horsepower, and the 
 developed power in 1920, as estimated from figures 
 available for 1908, is about 30,000 horsepower. 
 
 Czechoslovakia . — With the exception of Bohemia, 
 which is in the drainage basin of the Elbe, and of the 
 part of Silesia that is in the drainage basin of the Oder, 
 all of Czecho slovakia is in the drainage basin of the 
 Danube, and the principal tributary of the Danube in 
 the country is the March, which drains Silesia and 
 Moravia. The Little Karpathian Mountains extend 
 along the eastern edge of Moravia, and the Tatras and 
 the west end of the main Karpathians, which form the 
 northeastern boundary of the country, contain many 
 power sites. The potential water-power resources of 
 Czecho slovakia, including the small plebiscite area in 
 Silesia, are estimated at 420,000 horsepower. The 
 power developed in this area amounted in 1908 to 
 
 30.000 horsepower and in 1920 to about 40,000 horse- 
 power. 
 
 Jugo-Slavia . — The Dinaric Alps, which extend along 
 the coast of the Adriatic, turn most of the drainage of 
 Jugo-Slavia eastward to the Danube, whose principal 
 tributary is the Save, which in turn has two main 
 tributaries, the Drina and the Morava. The Yardar, in 
 southern Serbia, flows southward to the Gulf of 
 Saloniki. Water-power sites are plentiful throughout 
 the country, but little progress has been made in utiliz- 
 ing them. More than 230,000 horsepower may be 
 obtained in the basin of Lim River. An unknown 
 amount of power could be obtained by diverting water 
 from the Tara into the basin of the Moraca, in Monte- 
 
 negro, and many power sites are available on the Ibar. 
 Engineers have estimated that 340,000 horsepower can 
 be developed in the part of the basin of the Yardar 
 that lies in Jugo-Slavia. 
 
 In Dalmatia there are four plants on Kerka River, 
 which have a total capacity of 31,600 horsepower and 
 furnish power to carbide furnaces. Cetina River is 
 capable of furnishing 200,000 horsepower, and a con- 
 tract was let before the World War for a plant of 
 
 40.000 horsepower near Almissa. A plant of 3,500 
 horsepower furnishes power for municipal uses in Bel- 
 grade. Nearly all the minor plants are at flour mills, 
 whose machinery is driven directly by water power. 
 Seventy -nine such mills were in operation in Serbia in 
 1905. In the city of Leskovatz about 350 horsepower 
 is used by textile mills. 
 
 In 1911 the Government of Montenegro, now part of 
 Jugo-Slavia, granted a concession for the construction 
 of two hydroelectric power stations, one of 80,000 horse- 
 power capacity, at Kolashin, on Tara River, and one of 
 
 5.000 horsepower capacity, at Podgoritza, on Moraca 
 River. The Kolashin plant will supply power to the 
 iron mine near Antivari. 
 
 The total potential power in Jugo-Slavia is estimated 
 at 2,300,000 horsepower, of which 1,200,000 horsepower 
 is within the boundaries of the former Kingdom of 
 Serbia, 500,000 horsepower in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
 and 200,000 horsepower in Montenegro. The developed 
 power amounted to about 104,000 horsepower in 1909 
 and is estimated at 125,000 horsepower in 1920. 
 
 Rumania . — Transylvania (formerly part of Hungary), 
 Bukowina, and Bessarabia have been transferred to 
 Rumania, whose water-power resources have been there- 
 by largely increased. The rainfall is plentiful. The 
 whole country except Bessarabia is mountainous, and 
 water-power sites are numerous and well distributed. 
 The principal rivers are the Danube, the Pruth, which 
 flows into the Danube, and the Dniester, which forms 
 the northeastern boundary of the country. The Maros, 
 a tributary of the Theiss, in Hungary, drains the north- 
 ern slope of the Transylvanian Alps. The potential 
 water power of Rumania is estimated at 1,100,000 horse- 
 power, of which 300,000 horsepower is in territory 
 recently acquired. The developed power is estimated 
 at 30,000 horsepower, and most of it is used at small 
 mills where it is not converted into electricity. 
 
 Bulgaria . — The Balkan Mountains extend across Bul- 
 garia, and the Rhodope Mountains form a part of its 
 southern boundary. Although the precipitation is 
 much less in Bulgaria than along the west coast of the 
 Balkan peninsula the mean annual rainfall amounts to 
 
 26 inches and produces sufficient run-off to furnish a 
 large amount of potential power. The north half of the 
 country is drained by tributaries of the Danube, most 
 of the southern part is drained by the Maritza, and the 
 southwest corner lies in the basin of the Struma. It has 
 been estimated that 150,000 horsepower can be devel- 
 oped in the part of the basin of the Struma that lies in 
 Bulgaria. There are a few small hydroelectric plants 
 in Bulgaria, but the power developed by water is used 
 chiefly in flour and woolen mills, whose machinery is 
 driven directly by water power. The undeveloped 
 power, however, represents a natural resource that can 
 be made highly serviceable in the industrial develop- 
 ment of the country. Part of the electric power 
 required by Sofia is supplied by a 1,600 -kilowatt plant 
 at Pantcharevo, where a head of 180 feet is used. 
 
 In 1910 the capacity of water motors and turbines 
 installed in Bulgaria amounted to 5,810 horsepower. 
 In 1920 it was about 8,000 horsepower. The water- 
 power resources of Bulgaria are estimated at 1,200,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 Albania . — The annual precipitation in Albania is 40 
 to 60 inches, so that although the country is small it 
 contains abundant water power. The principal rivers 
 are the Drin, Shkumbi, Semeni, and Yiosa. There are 
 many sites for storage reservoirs, in which variations of 
 3 to 6 feet in water level represent large storage 
 capacity. The Drin and its tributaries can furnish 
 
 410.000 horsepower if available storage sites are util- 
 ized, although the utilization of the large basins of Ohrida 
 and Presba lakes, which border on three States, involves 
 difficult questions of water rights. Albania is probably 
 more backward even than the other Balkan States in 
 the utilization of its water power, which is used only 
 by small flour and spinning mills. No exact figures for 
 the developed power are available, but it is estimated 
 roughly at 1,000 horsepower and the potential power at 
 
 500.000 horsepower. 
 
 Greece . — In most parts of Greece the conditions are 
 unfavorable for the development of water power. In 
 the Province of Thessaly torrential streams can produce 
 considerable power during the rainy season, but they 
 become dry ravines during the rainless season. The 
 construction of hydroelectric plants is therefore not 
 practicable unless storage reservoirs can be provided. 
 A Swiss engineer, in a report made to the Greek 
 Government in 1920, estimates that the waterfalls of 
 Macedonia can produce 350,000 horsepower, qf which 
 
 286.000 horsepower would be obtained from Yistritza 
 River. This estimate probably contemplates the use , 
 of storage. The developed power is contributed mainly 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 Northern Caucasia: Horsepower. 
 
 Terek 100, 000 
 
 Malaia (Little) Laba^ 95,000 
 
 Belaia 20, 000-30, 000 
 
 Kuban 60, 000-70, 000 
 
 Trans -Caucasia : 
 
 Rion 180,000-200,000 
 
 Ingur 50,000 
 
 Belaia Aragva 60, 000 
 
 Coast of Black Sea: 
 
 Kodov, with tributaries 210, 000-220, 000 
 
 Bzib 100, 000 
 
 Mzinto 60, 000 
 
 The total potential water power in the Caucasus 
 region may be estimated at 5,000,000 to 12,500,000 
 horsepower. Probably not more than 5,000 horsepower 
 is developed, all of it in small units. 
 
 Germany . — The water-power resources of Germany are 
 found mainly along its southern and western boun- 
 daries, in the Alpine regions of southern Baden and 
 Bavaria, and along the upper reaches and tributaries of 
 the Rhine and the Danube. The lower reaches of the 
 principal rivers of Germany, such as the Rhine, the 
 Weser, the Elbe, and the Oder, have gradients so flat 
 that their large volumes of water do not afford power 
 sites that can be profitably utilized. Some potential 
 water power is found on the headwaters of the Weser 
 in Westphalia and Thuringia, on the tributaries of the 
 Elbe in Prussian Saxony, and on the upper Oder. The 
 chief water powers of the Elbe, however, are on its 
 headwaters and upper tributaries in Bohemia, now a 
 part of Czecho slovakia. 
 
 The estimated potential water powers of Prussia are 
 distributed as follows : 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 East Prussia (including plebiscite area) _ 47, 000 
 
 Silesia 65, 000 
 
 Saxony 63, 000 
 
 W estphalia 50, 000 
 
 Other provinces 25, 000 
 
 250, 000 
 
 Most of the water power of Baden is in the stretch of 
 the Rhine between Neuhausen, at the falls of the Rhine, 
 and the city of Breisach. In this stretch there is about 
 
 400.000 horsepower, half of which is assigned to Baden 
 and half to Alsace-Lorraine and Switzerland, which 
 here border the Rhine. In Baden there is also consider- 
 able water power in the Black Forest, particularly in 
 the valleys of the Murg, Kinzig, Wutach, Alb, and 
 Wehra. The total power for Baden is estimated at 
 
 280.000 horsepower. 
 
 23 
 
 The estimated water power of Wiirttemberg is about 
 
 58.000 horsepower, two-thirds of which is on the 
 Danube, Neckar, Enz, and Nagold, and one- third on 
 the Kocher and the Jagst, in the north, and on the 
 Schussen and the Argen, which empty into Lake Con- 
 stance, in the south. 
 
 The largest water-power resources of Germany are in 
 Bavaria. The southern tributaries of the Danube, 
 which rise in the Alpine areas of Swabia and Upper 
 Bavaria, can furnish a total estimated water power of 
 
 1.900.000 horsepower, 37 per cent of which, or 703,000 
 horsepower, is capable of development. The reduction 
 of the figure last given by an efficiency factor of 75 per 
 cent gives an effective horsepower of 527,000. The 
 remaining part of Bavaria, in which the surface is 
 flatter, is estimated to have only 138,000 horsepower, 
 making a total of 665,000 horsepower for the whole of 
 Bavaria. 
 
 For the remaining subdivisions of Germany no reli- 
 able estimates of potential water power are available, 
 but the aggregate amount is small. The items and 
 the total for the subdivisions described above are as 
 follows : 
 
 Prussia . 
 Baden 
 
 Wiirttemberg 
 Bavaria _ _ 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 250, 000 
 
 280, 000 
 
 58, 000 
 
 665, 000 
 
 
 1, 250, 000 
 
 No recent data are available concerning the amount 
 of water power that has been developed. Figures pub- 
 lished in 1912, presumably representing conditions in 
 1907, give the amount and distribution of primary 
 power listed below, except that the figures for Prussia 
 have been corrected to allow for the loss of parts of 
 West Prussia and Posen. 
 
 Primary power installed in Germany in 1907. 
 
 Subdivision. 
 
 Water power. 
 
 All other power. 
 
 Total 
 
 (horse- 
 
 power). 
 
 Horse- 
 
 power. 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 primary 
 power. 
 
 Horse- 
 
 power. 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 primary 
 power. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 250,000 
 
 4.9 
 
 4,901,000 
 
 95.1 
 
 5,151,000 
 
 Baden 
 
 65,000 
 
 26.7 
 
 179,000 
 
 73.3 
 
 244,000 
 
 Wiirttemberg 
 
 69,000 
 
 30.1 
 
 160,000 
 
 69.9 
 
 229,000 
 
 Bavaria _ 
 
 213,000 
 
 33.2 
 
 429,000 
 
 66.8 
 
 642,000 
 
 Saxony 
 
 122,000 
 
 15.0 
 
 688,000 
 
 85.0 
 
 810,000 
 
 All others 
 
 70,000 
 
 5.5 
 
 1,208,000 
 
 94.5 
 
 1,278,000 
 
 
 789,000 
 
 9.4 
 
 7,565,000 
 
 90.6 
 
 8,354,000 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The figures for water power presumably represent the 
 capacity of the water wheels installed rather than the 
 effective power actually developed. Without doubt a 
 much larger total is developed to-day. The most signifi- 
 cant fact, however, is the minor part that water power 
 plays or could play in German industry, for the total 
 water-power resources of the country, even in 1907, were 
 less than one-sixth of the industrial power required. 
 
 From 1895 to 1907 the capacity of the water-power 
 plants installed in Germany increased at an average rate 
 of 20,000 horsepower annually. The total capacity of 
 the installed plants in 1920 is estimated at 1,000,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 Austria . — Austria lies wholly in the drainage basin of 
 the Danube. Some of the principal tributaries are the 
 Inn, which drains the northern slopes of the Tyrolean 
 Alps ; the Enns, which drains the northern slope of the 
 Styrian Alps ; and the Drave, which, through its tribu- 
 tary the Mur, drains the southern slope of the Styrian 
 Alps and the Carinthian Alps. Most of the potential 
 water power of Austria is in the Alpine region, on the 
 headwaters of the Drave, the Mur, the Enns, and the Inn. 
 
 The four provinces of Yorarlberg, Tyrol, Styria, and 
 Carinthia contained less than 10 per cent of the area of 
 the Empire of Austria-Hungary but were credited with 
 44 per cent of its water power. Practically all the former 
 area of these provinces is now included in Austria, the 
 only considerable loss being the southern part of Tyrol, 
 drained by tributaries of the Adige, which has been 
 added to Italy. The total potential water power of 
 Austria is estimated at 3,000,000 horsepower, of which 
 2,000,000 horsepower is at 283 surveyed sites. Plants 
 at 16 of these sites are under construction. 
 
 Potential water power at surveyed sites in Austria. 
 
 Subdivisions. 
 
 Number of 
 sites. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Styria 
 
 85 
 
 446, 000 
 434, 000 
 
 Upper Austria _ . 
 
 28 
 
 Carinthia 
 
 42 
 
 344, 000 
 
 Lower Austria 
 
 32 
 
 308, 000 
 
 Tyrol 
 
 48 
 
 278, 000 
 130, 000 
 
 Yorarlberg w 
 
 i 
 
 26 
 
 Salzburg 
 
 22 
 
 112, 000 
 
 
 283 
 
 2, 052, 000 
 
 The editors of u Elektrotechnik und Maschinenbau,’ 7 
 a publication of the Electro-Technical Society of Vienna, 
 estimate the developed water power in Austria in 1920 
 at 150,000 horsepower. This estimate is understood to 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 by the cataracts of Verris, Mausta, Yodena, and 
 Vladova. The waterfalls of Yerris, above and below 
 the town of Yeria, can produce 2,000 horsepower, of 
 which about 600 horsepower is now used by flour and 
 spinning mills. The waterfalls of Mausta, in Aripitza 
 River, could yield 4,000 horsepower if modern hydrau- 
 lic machinery were installed. In 1914 about 1,480 
 horsepower was used by spinning mills. In addition to 
 the power available at Mausta 1,000 horsepower may 
 be developed at a waterfall not far from the village of 
 Mouskoni, near Mausta. In order to obtain this power 
 it would be necessary to augment the flow at the cata- 
 ract by diverting water from Aripitza River. The 
 waterfalls at Yladova are formed by the outflow from 
 Msson Lake and other waters near Yladova. The falls 
 are 490 feet high and can produce 6,000 horsepower, 
 none of which has been developed. The waterfalls of 
 Yodena, which are fed by springs and by water flowing 
 from Yladova Falls, are capable of yielding 7,000 horse- 
 power. Of this amount spinning mills were using 1,060 
 horsepower and flour mills 1,000 horsepower in 1914. 
 The potential power in Greece is estimated at 250,000 
 horsepower, of which 6, 300 horsepower was used in 1920. 
 
 Turkey . — Turkey in Europe is now a small area with 
 meager water-power resources. 
 
 Italy . — The total water-power resources of Italy are 
 estimated at 5,500,000 horsepower at ordinary river 
 stage, 3,800,000 horsepower at ordinary low flow, and 
 
 2.700.000 horsepower at extreme low flow. Of these 
 quantities 500,000 horsepower at ordinary river stage, 
 
 300.000 horsepower at ordinary low flow, and 200,000 
 horsepower at extreme low flow represent a rough esti- 
 mate of the power resources of the part of Tyrol that 
 has recently been acquired by Italy. 
 
 Most of the potential power is in the Alps and 
 Apennines, in northern Italy, on streams that flow from 
 these mountains to the Po. The combination of great 
 slope in the mountain streams with well -sustained dis- 
 charge from melting glaciers at the sources and from 
 artificial storage in mountain lakes that have been 
 converted into reservoirs has made the Alpine region of 
 Italy one of the richest in all Europe in potential water 
 power. The provinces of Piedmont, Lombardy, and 
 Yenetia are best supplied not only with water-power 
 plants but with valuable sites that are not yet utilized. 
 The part of the Austrian province of Tyrol drained by 
 the Adige was ceded to Italy and has much potential 
 power as well as some utilized power sites. The minor 
 part of the power of Italy is well distributed through 
 the central and southern parts of the country, generally 
 in power plants or at unutilized sites of small capacity. 
 
 25 
 
 A total of about 1,100,000 horsepower has already 
 been developed and used for the ordinary public 
 utilities — tramways, lighting, heating, and small power 
 markets ; for the operation of railroads ; and for textile, 
 paper, electrochemical, and metallurgical industries. 
 
 Sicily had 10,000 horsepower of developed water 
 power in 1918, and this was being increased to 25,000 
 horsepower. Its potential power at low flow has been 
 estimated at 145,000 horsepower, and that of Sardinia 
 at 18,000 horsepower. 
 
 Switzerland . — Switzerland is at the headwaters of the 
 Rhine and the Rhone and of tributaries of the Danube 
 and the Po. The rainfall is plentiful, and the flow of 
 the. streams is to some extent equalized by numerous 
 lakes, aided by glaciers, so that the potential water 
 power is great, even during periods of low flow. * Lakes 
 that can be cheaply adapted to storage may be used to 
 increase the potential power. 
 
 In a paper published in the Annales de geographic in 
 November, 1918, Leon W. Collet, former director of the 
 Swiss Bureau of Waters, gives the available data on 
 the developed and undeveloped power of Switzerland. 
 Most of the figures given here are taken from Collet’s 
 paper. 
 
 The potential water power has been estimated at 
 
 750,000 horsepower at low water and 2,500,000 horse- 
 power for flow available six months of the year, and one 
 engineer states that 3,000,000 horsepower may be 
 developed at low water with storage. An estimate 
 made by the Bureau of Waters January 1, 1914, follows : 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 For ordinary low flow 878, 000 
 
 For nine months’ flow 1, 374, 000 
 
 For six months’ flow 2, 504, 000 
 
 For flow equalized by reservoirs 2, 173, 000 
 
 Undeveloped power in Switzerland , in net continuous 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 River basin. 
 
 For 
 
 ordinary 
 low flow. 
 
 For nine 
 months’ 
 flow. 
 
 For six 
 months’ 
 flow. 
 
 For con- 
 stant flow 
 by means 
 of storage 
 reservoirs. 
 
 Rhine, from its source to the 
 Aar 
 
 212,372 
 
 331,937 
 
 601,269 
 
 597,507 
 
 Aar 
 
 109,398 
 
 199,650 
 
 338,415 
 
 383,491 
 
 Reuss- 
 
 66,622 
 
 107,669 
 
 246,695 
 
 155,077 
 
 Limmat 
 
 35,540 
 
 65,961 
 
 142,661 
 
 112,128 
 
 Rhine, from the Aar to Huni- 
 gue 
 
 78,170 
 
 117,466 
 
 155,001 
 
 98,270 
 
 1 1 
 
 Rhone 
 
 182,097 
 
 258,130 
 
 294,715 
 
 392,710 
 
 Tessin 
 
 125,940 
 
 200,804 
 
 347,534 
 
 243,030 
 
 Adda 
 
 6,860 
 
 11,605 
 
 24,H25 
 
 58.890 
 
 Inn 
 
 58,585 
 
 77,110 
 
 147,430 
 
 125,125 
 
 Adige- 
 
 2,200 
 
 3,320 
 
 5,510 
 
 7,010 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Water-power plants of more than 20 horsepower in operation 
 
 in Switzerland January 1 , 1914. 
 
 Minimum constant capacity 
 (horsepower). 
 
 Number of 
 plants. 
 
 Total mean 
 capacity at time 
 of development 
 (horsepower). 
 
 20-99 
 
 561 
 
 36,042 
 
 100-999 
 
 217 
 
 92,909 
 
 1,000-4,999 
 
 41 
 
 139,927 
 
 5,000-9,999 _ _ _ _ 
 
 10 
 
 100,940 
 
 10,000 or more 
 
 6 
 
 117,400 
 
 
 835 
 
 487,218 
 
 W ater power used by industries in Switzerland in 19 14 . 
 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 plants. 
 
 Total capacity (horsepower). 
 
 Per- 
 
 centage 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 of mean 
 total. 
 
 Hydroelectric power 
 plants 
 
 258 
 
 563,235 
 
 207,473 
 
 311,816 
 
 63.98 
 
 Textile industries 
 
 222 
 
 41,497 
 
 18,976 
 
 31,016 
 
 6.39 
 
 Food and drink 
 
 88 
 
 6,580 
 
 3,564 
 
 5,162 
 
 1.06 
 
 Chemical and electro- 
 metallurgical indus- 
 tries 
 
 26 
 
 201,148 
 
 tO, ?85 
 
 113,834 
 
 23.36 
 
 Paper making and 
 printing 
 
 44 
 
 11,516 
 
 4,085 
 
 7,471 
 
 1.53 
 
 Wood working 
 
 91 
 
 5,611 
 
 3,172 
 
 4,245 
 
 .87 
 
 Reduction of metals— _ 
 
 32 
 
 5,844 
 
 2,498 
 
 4,331 
 
 .89 
 
 Machinery and appa- 
 ratus 
 
 23 
 
 2,008 
 
 1 , 335 
 
 1,940 
 
 .40 
 
 Jewelry and clock and 
 watch making 
 
 6 
 
 766 
 
 346 
 
 451 
 
 .09 
 
 Construction mate- 
 rials and salt works _ 
 
 45 
 
 9,462 
 
 4,797 
 
 6,952 
 
 1.43 
 
 
 835 
 
 848,017 
 
 306,531 
 
 487,218 
 
 100. 00 
 
 One of the interesting features of the developed 
 power in Switzerland is the large number of small 
 plants. The plants having capacities below 20 horse- 
 power numbered 6,025, and their total capacity was 
 only 38,880 horsepower, or an average of about 6 horse- 
 power each. 
 
 On January 1, 1918, the number of plants of more 
 than 20 horsepower had increased to 840, and their 
 capacity at mean stage had increased to 556,200 horse- 
 power. If to this we add the 38,880 horsepower devel- 
 oped in the smaller plants, we get a total of 595,080 
 horsepower developed at mean stage. The maximum 
 installed power in 1914 amounted to 848,000 horse- 
 power for plants of more than 20 horsepower, and 
 accordingly the maximum installed power on January 
 1, 1918, would be 968,000 horsepower for plants of more 
 than 20 horsepower and 1,007,000 horsepower for all 
 plants. If the rate of increase between 1918 and 1920 
 was the same as that between 1914 and 1918 the maxi- 
 mum installed capacity on January 1, 1920, would be 
 
EUROPE 
 
 1.067.000 horsepower. This is apparently 189,000 
 horsepower more than the total potential power at low 
 water ; but in 1914 the maximum installed capacity of 
 plants of more than 3,000 horsepower at low water was 
 
 716.000 horsepower, and their capacity at low flow was 
 only 258,000 horsepower. At Olten and Gosgen, on the 
 Aar, the installed capacity is 80,000 horsepower and the 
 capacity at minimum flow is only 17,000 horsepower. 
 At Augst-Wyhlen, on the Ehine, the installed capacity 
 is 62,400 horsepower and the capacity at minimum flow 
 is 24,000 horsepower. Considerable progress has been 
 made in combining plants that have large and continu- 
 ous power but no storage with plants that have high 
 head and storage. Such a combination lends itself to 
 an apparent large overdevelopment. A plant at Late 
 Fully, in the Valais district, utilizes the remarkably 
 high head of 5,413 feet. 
 
 Under present conditions of regulation of flow about 
 43 per cent of the total potential water power at low 
 water in Switzerland is developed, but if the potential 
 storage can be made available then only 17 per cent 
 of the potential power at low water is developed. As 
 most of the means of storage will ultimately be utilized 
 the percentage last given is probably more nearly 
 correct. 
 
 Denmark and Netherlands . — At one water-power site 
 in Denmark on Guden Eiver 1,500 horsepower has been 
 developed. Aside from this there is no potential water 
 power in either Denmark or the Netherlands. Den- 
 mark imports hydroelectric power from Sweden over a 
 submarine cable. 
 
 Belgium . — There is said to be some potential water 
 power in eastern Belgium, but it can not be great. A 
 project for the prevention of floods on Ourthe Eiver 
 would make a head of 300 feet available at the town of 
 La Eoche. There are 26 small water-power plants in 
 Belgium in which the maximum capacity is 40 horse- 
 power and the total capacity 7 00 horsepower. 
 
 Great Britain . — On the whole the British Isles are 
 low, but a plentiful supply of rain well distributed 
 through the year gives them some potential power. 
 The annual rainfall for the whole area averages 39 
 inches, but at places in the Scottish highlands, in Wales, 
 and in small areas in the English lake district it exceeds 
 100 inches. The largest potential powers also are in 
 the Scottish highlands, where, according to an estimate 
 by Alexander Newlands, 375,000 horsepower can be 
 made available for a 12-hour day. This estimate shows 
 the potential power at individual sites and takes no 
 account of any means of storage or of lack of means of 
 storage, So it may be assumed to represent the total 
 
 26 
 
 potential water power of Scotland without regulation. 
 The continuous power would be half this amount, or 
 perhaps 200,000 horsepower. A later estimate, based 
 on studies of the Water Power Eesources Committee, 
 places the continuous power available at 400,000 horse- 
 power, including the use of storage incidental to the 
 development of the sites. The largest developed power 
 in the British Isles is also in this district, at Kinloch- 
 leven, where there is a 30,000-horsepower plant for the 
 production of aluminum, to be supplemented by the 
 development of 72,000 additional horsepower at Fort 
 William. The flow is controlled, however, and this 
 amount of power is available for only a 12-hour day. 
 The same company has a 7, 000 -horsepower plant at 
 Foyers, on Loch Ness. 
 
 The water powers of Scotland occur at many sites, 
 nearly all of which can be utilized easily and cheaply. 
 Most of the potential power sites in England and Ireland 
 are on rivers that have low heads. Ireland is favored 
 by the fact that it is a low plateau on which the rivers 
 attain their maximum size before they descend rapidly 
 to the sea in the last few miles of their courses. Wales 
 is a rugged country somewhat similar to northern 
 Scotland, and considerable power has been developed 
 there. 
 
 By comparison of the figures showing rainfall and 
 altitude in the different countries of Great Britain and 
 by computation from the estimates of potential power 
 at known sites in Scotland similar estimates have been 
 made for England, Wales, and Ireland. These esti- 
 mates represent the potential power during a 12-hour 
 day, and they have been reduced almost one- half to 
 represent continuous power. 
 
 Estimated potential water power in Great Britain. 
 
 
 12-hour 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Continuous 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 375,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 England 
 
 281,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 Wales- 
 
 109,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 Ireland 
 
 ! 
 
 359,000 
 
 175,000 
 
 
 1,124,000 
 
 585,000 
 
 By the use of storage the above figures could be 
 practically doubled, as the total potential power in 
 Great Britain, with the use of storage incidental to the 
 development of the sites, has been estimated by the 
 Water Power Eesources Committee at 1,000,000 horse- 
 power. 
 
 These estimates do not include possible tidal power. 
 A scheme for the utilization of the tidal power at the 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 mouth of Severn Eiver proposes the development of 
 
 350.000 horsepower during a 10-hour day. 
 
 The total developed water power of Great Britain is 
 estimated by the water-power committee of the Con- 
 joint Board of Scientific Societies at 210,000 horsepower. 
 
 Iceland . — Iceland is mountainous, and the precipita- 
 tion in the southern half is 40 to 60 inches, so that it 
 has a large amount of potential power. The island 
 itself supplies practically no market for power, so that 
 its development must wait the establishment of elec- 
 trochemical or other industries which require large 
 amounts of cheap power and whose products could be 
 shipped to Europe and America. The Thjorsa is the 
 largest river in Iceland, and six possible sites on this 
 river and its tributaries are said by Saetermoen, a 
 Norwegian engineer, to have a potential capacity of 
 
 1.114.000 horsepower. No power has been developed, 
 and the resources of the island are not well known. 
 An estimate based on rainfall and altitude would make 
 the potential power about 500,000 continuous horse- 
 power at ordinary low flow. 
 
 France . — The water powers of France are found along 
 the eastern and southern borders, in the Vosges, Jura, 
 Alps, and Pyrenees. The largest powers are in the 
 northern Alps and on the Avre, Isere, and tributaries 
 of the Ehone. The Bhone itself has potential power 
 estimated at 822,000 horsepower at low water. Con- 
 cessions have been granted for the construction of plants 
 to utilize this power, and it is expected that all the 
 plants will be completed by 1925. In the southern 
 Alps there are many power plants on the Drome and 
 Durance. At Fond-de-France (Buda) a head of 3,440 
 feet is utilized. 
 
 The water powers of Alsace-Lorraine are in the 
 Vosges Mountains and along the Ehine. Those in the 
 Vosges have high heads and numerous sites for storage 
 reservoirs ; those along the Ehine have low heads and 
 no storage sites except such as are provided naturally 
 by the lakes at its headwaters. If half of the water 
 power of the stretch of the Ehine that forms the eastern 
 boundary is credited to Alsace-Lorraine the total for 
 those provinces is about 100,000 horsepower. 
 
 Some idea of the location of the water powers of 
 France and the relative importance of the several 
 regions can be obtained from the following tables, which 
 are taken from official, consular, and commercial re- 
 ports. The first table shows the estimated potential 
 power of the country and the third the distribution of 
 plants completed since 1915 and of those planned for 
 completion before 1921. Though all this power may 
 not have been developed by 1921 the figures indicate 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 27 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 the relative amount of development taking place in 
 different regions. The plants already completed develop 
 
 738,000 horsepower in the Alps and 217,500 in the 
 Pyrenees, and these amounts together constitute two- 
 thirds of the total developed power in France. 
 
 Of the contemplated increase between 1918 and 1921, 
 plants having a capacity of 175,000 horsepower were 
 being constructed in 1919. 
 
 The following estimates were prepared by the Secre- 
 tary of Public Works: 
 
 Potential water power in France. 
 
 Region. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Low water. 
 
 Average flow. 
 
 Northern Alps 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Southern Alps 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 Central Alps, Vosges, Jura Mountains 
 
 900,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 Pyrenees and elsewhere 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 i 
 
 l 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 9,400,000 
 
 Use of developed water power in the Alpine region of France. 
 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Light and power 
 
 291,000 
 
 39.4 
 
 Electrometallurgical industry 
 
 255,000 
 
 34.6 
 
 Electrochemical industry 
 
 147,000 
 
 19.9 
 
 Electric traction 
 
 16,000 
 
 2.2 
 
 Paper mills, sawmills, etc 
 
 23,000 
 
 3.1 
 
 Other industries 
 
 6,000 
 
 .8 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 738,000 
 
 100.0 
 
 Of the above total developed power the drainage basin 
 of the Is&re supplied 427,000 horsepower and that of 
 the Durance 112,000 horsepower. 
 
 Water-power plants planned or completed in France since 
 
 1915. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Alps 428, 000 
 
 Pyrenees 185, 000 
 
 Central France 200, 000 
 
 Jura and Vosges 35, 000 
 
 West 2, 000 
 
 850, 000 
 
 Distribution of water power in France, by industries. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Industrial uses, including light and 
 
 traction service 308, 000 
 
 Electrochemistry 216, 000 
 
 Electrometallurgy 326, 000 
 
 Progress in development of water power in France. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Prior to 1899 150, 000 
 
 1905 450, 000 
 
 1910 650, 000 
 
 1913 750, 000 
 
 1914 800, 000 
 
 1918 1, 250, 000 
 
 1921 (estimated) 1, 600, 000 
 
 Potential water power on navigable streams in France. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Streams flowing into the North Sea. __ 18, 072 
 
 Seine River 26, 736 
 
 Smaller streams flowing into the Eng- 
 lish Channel ___ 1,520 
 
 Loire River 279, 047 
 
 Smaller streams flowing into the 
 
 Atlantic Ocean 19, 933 
 
 Garonne River _ 322, 978 
 
 Adour River 2, 298 
 
 Rhone River 1, 536, 645 
 
 Smaller streams flowing into the Medi- 
 terranean Sea 34, 805 
 
 2, 242, 034 
 
 The total developed power in France in 1920 is esti- 
 mated at 1,400,000 horsepower, and the total potential 
 power at low water at 4,700,000 horsepower. 
 
 Spain . — Spain has a higher average altitude than any 
 other country in Europe and contains many power sites, 
 but the rainfall is small except on the northeastern 
 coast. The principal rivers, all of which afford poten- 
 tial power, are the Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, Guadal- 
 quivir, and Ebro. The largest plants are on Ebro 
 Eiver ; on Segre River, a tributary of the Ebro ; and on 
 Jucar River west of Valencia. The power is trans- 
 mitted to Barcelona, Valencia, and Madrid, where it is 
 used for municipal and industrial purposes. A com- 
 mission has investigated the potential water powers of 
 Spain with a view to their utilization by the Govern- 
 ment, including a transmission system covering the 
 whole country. The following table, from the Electri- 
 cal World of July 19, 1919, gives an estimate, prepared 
 by this commission, of the undeveloped power at sites 
 of 2,000 horsepower or more : 
 
 Waterfalls in Spain having potential power. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Atlantic slope of Leon and Galicia 70, 000 
 
 Asturias 40, 000 
 
 Santander 30, 000 
 
 Ebro before reaching Saragossa 65, 000 
 
 Rivers from slopes of the Pyrenees 490, 000 
 
 Ebro, from Saragossa to the Atlantic 
 
 Ocean 130, 000 
 
 Duero in Spain 90, 000 
 
 Duero on Portuguese frontier 150, 000 
 
 Tributaries of the Duero 50, 000 
 
 Tagus 110, 000 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Tributaries of the Tagus 50, 000 
 
 Guadiana 35, 000 
 
 Guadalquivir and other Andalusian 
 rivers 40, 000 
 
 Jucar and Cabriel 90, 000 
 
 Other rivers on Mediterranean slope __ 60, 000 
 
 Minor falls 500, 000 
 
 2, 000, 000 
 
 The following table has been compiled from the official 
 Anuario estadistico de Espana : 
 
 Hydroelectric power installed in Spain in 1917. 
 
 Company. 
 
 Potential 
 
 horsepower. 
 
 Horsepower 
 in use. 
 
 Large plants : 
 
 
 
 S. A. Fuerzas y riegos del Ebro_ 
 
 301,700 
 
 85,283 
 
 S. A. Energia el6ctrica de Cataluna 
 
 200,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 S. A. Hidroelectrica espanola 
 
 44,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 S. A. Sociedad general de fuerzas hidro- 
 electricas 
 
 42,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 S. A. Hidroelectrica iberica 
 
 30,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 S. A. Uni6n eleetriea madrilena 
 
 21,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 Canal de Isabel II 
 
 18,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 S. A. Eiectricas reunidas de Zaragoza 
 
 12,600 
 
 12,600 
 
 Narciso H. Vaqnero y Ota, 
 
 12,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 S. A. E16ctrica de Viesgo 
 
 11,500 
 
 11,500 
 
 S A Hidrenlma Sa,ntillana 
 
 ( 30,000 
 
 
 
 t 9,750 
 
 9,750 
 
 S. A. Fuerzas motrices del Gandara 
 
 9,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 S. A. Porvenir de Zamora 
 
 8,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 54 other companies ... 
 
 108,794 
 
 100,924 
 
 Medium-sized plants (29 companies) 
 
 14,795 
 
 14,795 
 
 Small plants (74 companies and firms) 
 
 7,945 
 
 7,945 
 
 
 881,084 
 
 384,297 
 
 The potential water power of Spain at ordinary low 
 flow, including the total potential power at sites already 
 utilized, is estimated at 4,000,000 horsepower. Sta- 
 tistics prepared by the Union eleetriea espanola show 
 that the developed water power in 1920 was about 
 
 600.000 horsepower. 
 
 Portugal . — Except along the Spanish border Portugal 
 is a low region, and although the rainfall ranges from 
 20 inches in the south to 40 or even 60 inches in the 
 north, the potential power is not great. Three of the 
 large Spanish rivers, the Duero (Douro), Tagus, and 
 Guadiana, cross Portugal. Of these the Duero is esti- 
 mated to have 217,000 potential horsepower in the part 
 of its course where it forms the boundary between 
 Portugal and Spain. Half of this power would there- 
 fore belong to Spain. Other small powers would prob- 
 ably increase the total for Portugal to 300,000 horse- 
 power. There are no large water-power plants in the 
 country, and the total developed power is estimated at 
 
 10.000 horsepower. 
 
ASIA 
 
 28 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Asia, the largest continent, is about 1,000,000 square 
 miles larger than North America and South America 
 combined. The chief feature of its drainage system is 
 the great plateau between India and China, the highest 
 plateau in the world, which ranges in altitude from 
 10,000 to 27,000 feet. From this plateau the surface 
 slopes northward to the borders of Siberia, but even 
 there it has an altitude of 2,000 feet. The high coun- 
 try continues toward the west, extending south of 
 the Caspian and Black seas almost to Constantinople. 
 This high plateau is the source of all the large rivers of 
 Asia. (See map on p. 4.) 
 
 A second characteristic of Asia is the extent of the 
 inland drainage system, which has an area greater than 
 that of the United States. The drainage basin of the 
 Caspian Sea extends into Europe and includes the 
 Volga and the Ural, whose basins constitute a large 
 part of European Bussia. Another feature of the 
 drainage is the scarcity of fresh water lakes: Lake 
 Baikal and Lake Balkash are the only large ones. 
 The south side of the high plateau is well watered by 
 the moisture carried by warm winds from the Indian 
 Ocean, but the high mountains intercept all the moisture 
 borne by these south winds, and the cold winds from 
 the north bring little rain. (See map on p. 5.) The 
 largest part of the continent therefore receives compar- 
 atively little precipitation ; only India, French Indo- 
 china, and a strip along the coast of China that reaches 
 Sakhalin Island and Japan have a plentiful supply. 
 The rivers flowing northward therefore do not attain 
 large size until they reach their lower levels, and their 
 potential power is correspondingly small. Although 
 there is considerable power in the well- watered sec- 
 tions, which are the most thickly inhabited, little of it 
 has been developed, except in Japan. This lack of 
 development is not due to any lack of need of power, 
 for more than half the inhabitants of the world live 
 in Asia. The richer and better-educated people are 
 beginning to realize the convenience of electric light, and 
 some manufactures are springing up, so here and there 
 over the continent hydroelectric plants are gradually 
 being built. Japan, however, when it turned to manu- 
 facturing, soon learned the advantages of using water 
 power and has developed nearly as large a percentage 
 as the Scandinavian countries. In dividing Asia into 
 drainage basins it was combined with Europe, for these 
 two continents are physically one and their drainage 
 basins overlap. The following descriptions, however, 
 are confined to the parts of the basins in Asia. 
 
 201-205. Arctic Ocean. — The rivers that drain into the 
 Arctic Ocean, the largest of which are the Ob, Yenisei, 
 and Lena, rise along the northern edge of the great 
 plateau of Asia and are navigable practically through- 
 out their courses. The rainfall in the region is on the 
 whole rather scant, being 10 to 20 inches a year in the 
 southern half and less than 10 inches in the northern 
 half, but as the basins are large the rivers carry a great 
 deal of water. Their value as sources of power, how- 
 ever, in comparison with the large area of the basins, is 
 small and is limited to a few of the headwater streams 
 in the middle of the continent. No water power has 
 yet been developed in this area, but as the Trans- 
 Siberian Railroad crosses the high region south of Lake 
 Baikal some power may eventually be developed for the 
 electrical operation of this railroad. 
 
 212. Caspian Sea. — The great inland drainage basin 
 that is tributary to the Caspian and Aral seas is in part 
 in Asia and in part in Europe. The Caspian Sea receives 
 several large rivers from Europe but no large one from 
 Asia. Two rivers reach the Aral Sea, the Syr or Jaxartes 
 and the Amu or Oxus. Many streams rise on the 
 high plateaus of Afghanistan and Turkestan, but only 
 two of them attain sufficient size in their upper courses 
 to survive the loss from seepage and evaporation in their 
 lower courses ; all the others gradually disappear in the 
 sands of the desert. The rainfall even in the upper 
 parts of their drainage basins averages less than 20 
 inches a year, and it is less than 10 inches in the lower 
 parts, so that although the streams have considerable 
 fall in the mountainous areas they are not large, and 
 their potential power is comparatively small. The flow 
 of these streams in their lower courses is diminished by 
 the use of their waters for irrigation. 
 
 213. Central Asiatic basin. — The great Desert of Gobi 
 is in an inland drainage basin whose principal river, the 
 Tarim, rises in the mountains of eastern Turkestan and 
 empties into the marshy tract called Lake Lob. The 
 river has considerable fall, as some of the mountains on 
 its headwaters exceed 20,000 feet in altitude, and 
 accounts by travelers indicate that the discharge in its 
 middle courses at times reaches several thousand second- 
 feet. Besides the Tarim a few other rivers descend from 
 the mountains that surround this basin, but they are all 
 absorbed in the desert. The country as a whole is very 
 sparsely populated, for the rainfall is too scant to sup- 
 port agriculture without irrigation. The power resources 
 are small. 
 
 210-0. Eastern Mediterranean and Dead Sea. — The part 
 of Asia that lies within the eastern Mediterranean drain- 
 age area consists of the basins of a few short streams of 
 
 Asia Minor and Syria that flow into the Mediterranean 
 Sea. The country is comparatively high, but except 
 in a narrow belt along the coasts the annual rainfall is 
 less than 20 inches. The streams that empty into the 
 Aegean Sea are formed by small tributaries from the 
 mountains, which do not assemble into rivers until they 
 are near sea level. The power sites along them are 
 therefore generally of little or no value. The rivers 
 that empty into the Mediterranean are very short and 
 have steep slopes, and as most of the rainfall in this 
 area occurs in the spring they fluctuate greatly in flow. 
 A comparison of the plants that might be constructed 
 on these rivers with the power plant on Cydnus River 
 at Tarsus indicates that units of not more than 75 
 horsepower, and only five or six of these, having a total 
 capacity of 300 horsepower, might be installed in this 
 part of the area. 
 
 Only two water-power plants are known in this area. 
 Tarsus has a lighting system supplied by an 80 -horse- 
 power plant on Cydnus River. Damascus has a hydro- 
 electric plant, which is said to be a small affair, old 
 and out of date. Before the war application had been 
 made for a concession to utilize a waterfall at Lake 
 Yummuneh. The fall is less than 100 feet, and as it is 
 near the headwaters of Orontes River the amount of 
 water is necessarily small, and not more than 100 horse- 
 power can be developed. Orontes Rirer is a small 
 stream, which rises about 50 miles north of Damascus 
 and flows parallel to the coast as far as Antakieh, the 
 ancient Antioch, where it turns to the west and enters 
 the Mediterranean. Jordan River would seem to afford 
 some opportunity for the development of power. After 
 leaving the swamp called Lake Huleh the Jordan falls 
 690 feet to the Sea of Galilee, in a distance of almost 10 
 miles, and from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea it 
 falls 610 feet in about 68 miles. No records of discharge 
 are available, but the river is said to be barely fordable 
 at extreme low water. On the assumption that the dis- 
 charge is 750 second-feet and that 50 per cent of the fall 
 can be utilized about 40,000 horsepower could be devel- 
 oped. Altogether the potential power of these drainage 
 areas in Asia is small, and only a few hundred horse- 
 power has yet been utilized. 
 
 211. Black Sea . — The Asiatic tributaries of the Black 
 Sea, the largest of which is the Kizil, in Asia Minor, 
 comprise many small streams, which rush down the 
 steep slopes and might develop 20 to 50 horsepower 
 each, but their number and potential power are not 
 known. For the electrical supply of Constantinople a 
 plant at the falls on Sakaria River has been proposed. 
 A unit above the falls will have a head of 175 feet and 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 29 
 
 ASIA 
 
 will furnish 14,000 horsepower; another unit below the 
 falls will have a head of 115 feet and will furnish 7,650 
 horsepower. As these estimates assume that half the 
 flow of the river may be diverted above the falls for 
 municipal use the total potential power at this point is 
 about 43,000 horsepower. Storage is possible, and more 
 hydroelectric power might be produced farther up the 
 river, so that although exact data are lacking the esti- 
 mate of a total potential power of 65,000 horsepower for 
 Sakaria River seems reasonable. By comparison of the 
 drainage areas of other rivers flowing into the Black 
 Sea whose rainfall, gradients, and other power character- 
 istics are similar, the following estimates of potential 
 power are obtained : 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Kizil River 100, 000 
 
 Yeshil River 40, 000 
 
 Chorok River 30, 000 
 
 No developed power is known in this region, and the 
 undeveloped power is estimated to be about 300,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 214. West Indian Ocean . — The principal rivers whose 
 waters reach the Indian Ocean between the Red Sea and 
 Cape Comorin are the Tigris and the Euphrates, which 
 drain a large part of Asiatic Turkey, and the Indus, the 
 great river from which India takes it name. 
 
 Arabia has no available power : it is a desert without 
 enough water even for irrigation. 
 
 The Tigris and the Euphrates offer the greatest 
 amount of potential power in southwestern Asia. Both 
 rise in the Taurus Mountains, where the sources of their 
 headwater tributaries are 5,000 to 8,000 feet above sea 
 level, and they flow in roughly parallel courses south- 
 eastward for 600 and 1,000 miles, respectively, to Bag- 
 dad, where they are 115 feet above sea level ; and from 
 Bagdad they flow for 590 miles through a combined 
 delta system to the Persian Gulf. Although they are 
 two distinct streams for the greater parts of their 
 courses, they constitute a single drainage system and 
 have always been used jointly for irrigation. Surveys 
 had been made by a British engineer and the restora- 
 tion of the ancient irrigation systems had been begun 
 when, in 1914, the work was stopped by the outbreak 
 of the World War. This work has been resumed since 
 the Turkish armies were driven from the region, and 
 it will eventually reclaim a large area. In connection 
 with the irrigation system a small amount of power 
 might be developed. 
 
 On the Tigris at the site of the ancient structure 
 known as Nimrod 7 s dam a head of 40 feet can be made 
 available, and as the minimum flow ol the river is 
 
 10.000 second-feet this head should produce about 
 
 30.000 horsepower. On the Euphrates near Bagdad a 
 head of 30 feet is available, which with the minimum 
 flow — 10,000 second-feet — should produce 25,000 horse- 
 power. The flow of the Tigris at flood stage, in March, 
 April, and May, is 180,000 second-feet, and that of 
 the Euphrates is 120,000 second-feet. At that time the 
 head and consequently the power available would be 
 greatly reduced unless large reserve turbine capacity 
 could be provided. In the stretch of 500 miles above 
 the proposed irrigation system near Bagdad the rivers 
 fall 1,000 feet. Most of this fall occurs in the lower 
 part of this stretch, where there may be some natural 
 power sites. The banks are high, in few places as low 
 as 50 feet and in general ranging from 100 to 300 feet. 
 No large storage sites are available, but the fall could 
 be concentrated at some places by dams constructed for 
 the development of power. If 20 per cent of the 1,000- 
 foot fall were utilized as head the combined minimum 
 flow of the two streams, namely, 20,000 second-feet, 
 would afford an aggregate of 325,000 horsepower, gen- 
 erated at many stations. 
 
 Although Persia is high the annual rainfall is less 
 than 10 inches and the rivers are too short to attain 
 large, size. No developed power is known and the 
 potential power is small. 
 
 The Indus rises high on the plateau of Tibet and 
 drains a large intermountain area in Kashmir before it 
 turns southward toward the lower levels. Although 
 the rainfall in the higher parts of its drainage area is 
 small the total area is so large that it becomes a con- 
 siderable river before it leaves the higher altitudes, and 
 the potential power on its upper course must be great. 
 Jhelam River leaves the Kashmir Valley, which it 
 drains, at an altitude of 5,000 feet and drops rapidly to 
 the Chenab, a tributary of the Panjnad, which joins the 
 Indus at an altitude of less than 1,000 feet. On the 
 Jhelam about 11 miles above Srinagar there is a 7,000- 
 horsepover plant, which originally supplied power to a 
 silk factory in Srinagar and lighted that city. The 
 factory has burned, and the plant has a capacity greater 
 than the demand, although it uses only a small part of 
 the available flow aud was designed for an ultimate out- 
 put of 20,000 horsepower. Power was supplied from 
 this plant to dredge Jhelam River at the point where 
 it leaves the Kashmir Valley in order to lower the 
 water level during floods and to reclaim about 90,000 
 acres of land. Five electrically operated dredges were 
 used in this work. It is also proposed to use this power 
 to operate an aerial cableway 75 miles long across the 
 Himalaya Mountains, which separate Kashmir Valley 
 
 from the plains of northern India. Another hydro- 
 electric plant in this region is in Afghanistan 50 miles 
 north of Kabul. This plant, which was built by the 
 same American engineer that installed the plant in 
 Kashmir, has a capacity of a little more than 2,000 
 horsepower and is practically complete, but owing to 
 the assassination of the Amir in February, 1919, and 
 the resulting disturbances it has never been operated. 
 As no fuel is available in Kabul and as wood is brought 
 many miles to that city on the backs of camels, hydro- 
 electric power should be a great benefit to this region. 
 At Simla, a summer resort on the headwaters of Sutlej 
 River in India, there is a plant for municipal lighting 
 and pumping. This plant has a capacity of 1,800 
 horsepower, and a 700-horsepower extension is being 
 added. The State of Patiala has installed a small plant 
 for municipal use. 
 
 The Western Ghats are a range of mountains that 
 extend along the west coast of the peninsula of India 
 from Bombay southward for about 500 miles. The 
 drainage areas of the streams in these mountains are 
 small, but there is a fall of 3,000 feet, and there are 
 sites for storage which might augment the natural flow 
 so as to produce considerable power. About 43 miles 
 from Bombay, to which the power is transmitted for 
 industrial use, there is the largest hydroelectric plant 
 in Asia outside of Japan. The rainfall from the middle 
 of June to the middle of September in this region 
 averages 175 inches, and this water is stored on two 
 small streams to provide power for this plant, which 
 has a capacity of about 60,000 horsepower. The de- 
 mand for power exceeded the supply almost from the 
 start, and as the capacity at the site is estimated at 
 
 110,000 horsepower for 300 days of 12 hours each year, 
 considerable extensions are planned. The stream flow 
 is practically all controlled, and this is a considerable 
 advantage, as the load is entirely industrial. A plant 
 is also under construction in the Andra Valley, w here 
 the potential power is about 100,000 horsepower. The 
 total potential power of the Western Ghats is more 
 than 500,000 horsepower. 
 
 The total powder developed in the west Indian Ocean 
 drainage area is about 75,000 horsepower, most of which 
 is used for industrial purposes. The main undeveloped 
 powers are those of headwaters of the Indus and those 
 in the Western Ghats. As the development of the 
 potential power on the Tigris and Euphrates would 
 require very large plants and as the demand is small 
 the chance for development is slight. The total poten- 
 tial power of the whole drainage area is about 6,500,000 
 horsepower. 
 
ASIA 
 
 30 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 215. East Indian Ocean . — The principal rivers that 
 flow into the Bay of Bengal and drain southern Tibet, 
 more than half of India, and the western part of the 
 Malay Peninsula are the Sal win, Irrawaddy, Brah- 
 maputra, and Ganges, rising on the Tibetan plateau, and 
 the Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna, and Kaveri, in south- 
 ern India. This region is well watered, the rivers in 
 the Himalayas have a large fall, and much of the 
 potential power of Asia is in this drainage area. 
 
 Sal win River rises high on the plateau and attains a 
 considerable size before it begins to drop to the lower v 
 plains. The Brahmaputra drains a large area along the 
 southern Himalaya Mountains. About 200 miles west 
 of Lassa it is more than 12,000 feet above sea level, and 
 it crosses the northern border of India at an altitude of 
 about 500 feet. As the river is large the power avail- 
 able in this stretch must be great, but as the upper 
 basins of both the Salwin and the Brahmaputra are 
 inhabited by half- savage Mongols, few white men have 
 ever entered the country, and the development of power 
 there, except on a small scale, is remote. The Irra- 
 waddy rises at the edge of the mountains and in its 
 upper reaches has potential power, but in its middle 
 and lower courses it is a sluggish stream, navigable for 
 1,200 miles above its mouth. A ridge along the Malay 
 Peninsula furnishes some power sites, but the drainage 
 basins are small and no power can be developed without 
 storage. All the developed powers in the peninsula are 
 in the Federated Malay States, and, with the exception 
 of a lighting plant at Kwala Lumpur, they are used only 
 for mining. Two of the largest plants are in the State 
 of Perak and have capacities of 440 and 1,500 horse- 
 power, respectively. 
 
 In its upper courses the Ganges has considerable fall, 
 the rainfall is heavy, and there is much potential power. 
 Most of the sites, however, are unsurveyed and little 
 known. To supply Delhi a concession was granted for 
 a plant on Jumna River, on which 25,000 horsepower is 
 available in a 12 -mile stretch, but its construction has 
 been delayed. Halfway between Mussoorie and Dehra, 
 in the upper Ganges basin, there is a plant of 2,500 
 horsepower. In the independent State of Nepal, on 
 the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains, there 
 is a plant of 650 horsepower, and at Darjiling, south 
 of Sikhim, there is a plant of 900 horsepower. On 
 Kaveri River, in southern India, in the Mysore Gov- 
 ernment, there is a plant having a capacity of 22,500 
 horsepower, which transmits power to the Kolar gold 
 mines and to Bengalur and Mysore. In this locality 
 there is said to be 100,000 horsepower capable of 
 
 development, and as the demand exceeds the present 
 supply and the plant has been a profitable investment 
 extensions may be expected. 
 
 The island of Ceylon is high, and its minimum annual 
 rainfall exceeds 100 inches, so it has abundant water 
 power. The continuous power that could be made 
 available at known sites is estimated at 264,000 horse- 
 power, provided some water is stored. The potential 
 sites have recently been examined by an engineer, who 
 in his report to the Government recommends what is 
 known as the Aberdeen- Laxapana scheme, named from 
 two towns about 45 miles east of Colombo, near the 
 junction of Kehelgomu and Maskeliya rivers, where the 
 plant would be built. The catchment area is only 125 
 square miles, but by storage 96,000 horsepower can be 
 made available under a gross head of 1,900 feet. An 
 initial capacity of two or three units of 12,000 horse- 
 power each is recommended. The power would be used 
 in Colombo for electric lighting and railways, and a 
 large percentage of it would be used by the tea in- 
 dustry, both in driving machinery and in drying. 
 Most of the power used on the island is developed at 
 small plants that supply tea factories, but no informa- 
 tion is available as to the total quantity of power 
 developed in this way. 
 
 The potential power of the entire east Indian Ocean 
 drainage area is estimated at 23,000,000 horsepower, of 
 which about 75,000 horsepower is developed. 
 
 216. China Sea . — The area draining into the China 
 Sea extends from Singapore to Yangtze River and 
 includes the eastern half of the Malay Peninsula, most 
 of Siam, French Indo-China, and a tract in the south- 
 ern part of the Chinese Republic. The principal river 
 system is that of the Mekong, but West River, in China, 
 and the Menam, in Siam, also drain considerable areas. 
 The country drops down from the high Tibetan plateau 
 to sea level. The rainfall on 90 per cent of the area 
 exceeds 60 inches, and water power is abundant, but the 
 people are poor, and little power has been developed. 
 
 The Mekong rises in the mountains of eastern Tibet 
 and for a thousand miles drains a narrow valley between 
 the Salwin and the Yangtze. Its fall is great, but as its 
 drainage basin is narrow it carries relatively little 
 water. In its middle course there is a series of tran- 
 quil navigable stretches separated by rapids, and most 
 of the power sites are probably in this section. Red 
 River, which empties into the Gulf of Tonkin, has 
 many rapids. Little is known of West River except 
 that it drains a well- watered country and has consider- 
 able fall on its upper courses. The Menam drains a 
 
 large part of Siam, and probably there are many poten- 
 tial sites in the upper half of its basin. In the Malay 
 Peninsula there are many small power sites, and in the 
 Federated Malay States some power has been developed 
 for mining. A plant in the State of Pahang has a 
 capacity of 1,000 horsepower, but the stream flow is 
 irregular, and the power available is often less than the 
 capacity. Although the potential power in this region 
 is estimated at 13,000,000 horsepower the plants re- 
 ported develop only 2,000 horsepower. 
 
 217. Yangtze River . — The Yangtze, one of the two 
 main rivers of China, is a great artery of transporta- 
 tion. It rises on the plateau of Tibet, flows southeast- 
 ward parallel to the Salwin and Mekong for hundreds of 
 miles, and finally turns to the northeast. Power could 
 be developed not only on the upper course of the Yangtze 
 but in its middle course, where it runs through gorges 
 that could probably be dammed to obtain additional 
 power. The tributaries also have much power, but 
 little is known concerning them. The Min, a tributary 
 from the north, falls 9,000 feet in 150 miles north of 
 Chengtu. The Min supplies water for a large irrigation 
 system, which was built about 250 B. C. The potential 
 power of the Yangtze basin is estimated at 10,000,000 
 horsepower, but though the area is densely populated 
 practically no water power has been developed. There 
 are innumerable small power plants in China, almost all 
 current wheels, which operate rice mills. Their efficiency 
 is low, and their total capacity is undoubtedly small. 
 
 218. Middle Pacific Ocean . — The middle Pacific Ocean 
 area includes the continental drainage from Yangtze 
 River to Amur River and the Japanese Islands from 
 Taiwan to Kurile Strait. The principal river on the 
 mainland is the Hwang, the second great river of China. 
 It rises north of the Yangtze, on the same great plateau, 
 but flows northward. The Hwang, like the Yangtze, 
 is valuable mainly for transportation ; its potential 
 power is much less than that of the Yangtze, as the 
 rainfall in its basin is less and its tributaries would 
 afford less power. The Liao drains considerable terri- 
 tory in the northern part of this area. Chosen (Korea) 
 is mountainous and has abundant rainfall and great 
 power resources. An American gold-mining company 
 has a plant of 800 horsepower on a branch of Seisen 
 River and has recently installed a plant of 1,600 horse- 
 power on Kuron River, in northern Chosen. There is 
 a plant of 220 horsepower at Gensan, employed for 
 municipal use. 
 
 The Japanese Islands are mountainous and have a 
 heavy rainfall, which is fairly well distributed through 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 the year, although there is some variation with the 
 seasons, and the melting snows cause large fluctuations. 
 As the largest rivers drain areas of only 6,000 to 8,000 
 square miles there can be no great concentrations of 
 power, but small sites are fairly well distributed 
 through the islands, and the growth of manufacturing 
 has led to the utilization of many of them. The prin- 
 cipal islands of the main group, named in order from 
 south to north, are Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu, 
 Hokushu, and Sakhalin. The best power area extends 
 along the western half of Honshu, from the region of 
 Toyama Bay to the mouth of Shinano River and thence 
 directly across the island to the eastern coast. This 
 area contains half the undeveloped power of the island. 
 The largest streams of the region are Shinano, Jintsu, 
 Sho, Kurobe, Hime, and Agano rivers on the west and 
 Abukuma River on the east. The principal cities of 
 Honshu are on the east coast, south of the area of large 
 power resources, but Tokyo and Yokohama are within 
 easy transmission distance of the power sites, Tokyo 
 now receives a large amount of power from the upper 
 Fuji and Kinu rivers. Power from a 60, 000 -horsepower 
 plant on Nippashi River at the outlet of Lake Inawashiro 
 is also transmitted 145 miles to Tokyo. Other large 
 plants have been built near Nagoya and Gifu, on Nagara, 
 Hida, and Kiso rivers. On the west side of Honshu 
 there are large plants on Kudzuryu, Sho, Jintsu, Joganji, 
 and Kurobe rivers. 
 
 The following table, taken from an official report, 
 shows the growth of hydroelectric development in 
 Japan : 
 
 Hydroelectric power developed in Japan , 1903-1916. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Plant 
 
 capacity 
 
 (kilowatts). 
 
 Year. 
 
 Plant 
 
 capacity 
 
 (kilowatts). 
 
 1903 
 
 13,124 
 
 1910 
 
 112.932 
 
 1904 
 
 16,409 
 
 1911 _ _ _ _ 
 
 143,831 
 
 1905 
 
 18,547 
 
 1912 
 
 233 339 
 
 1900 
 
 25,195 
 
 1013 
 
 321 596 
 
 1007 
 
 38,622 
 
 1014 
 
 416 586 
 
 1008 
 
 60,121 
 
 1015 
 
 449 220 
 
 1000 
 
 73,507 
 
 1016 
 
 469,634 
 
 
 
 These figures indicate a turbine capacity of about 
 700,000 horsepower in 1916. In 1920 the capacity was 
 about 1,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 The principal uses of electric power in Japan, as 
 shown by a report issued in 1918 but apparently giving 
 results for 1916, were as follows : 
 
 Electric power used in Japan , 1916. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Miscellaneous appliances 104,244 
 
 Electric lamps 267, 200 
 
 Textile factories 94, 970 
 
 Machine shops 176, 746 
 
 Chemical works 90, 376 
 
 Food and drink factories 53,613 
 
 Mines and metal refineries 152, 951 
 
 Miscellaneous factories 56, 630 
 
 996, 730 
 
 In addition 4,077 motor cars, with 415 trailers, were 
 operated over 891 miles of line by power obtained from 
 steam and gas as well as from water. Out of a total 
 capacity of primary power of 805,000 kilowatts the 
 hydroelectric power amounted to 470,000 kilowatts. 
 
 The following figures are in part abstracted from a 
 publication of the Japanese Government and in part 
 from newspaper articles, but the totals given in the 
 newspaper estimates agree fairly well with those given 
 by the Government : 
 
 Water-power resources of Japan, in horsepower. 
 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Under lease. 
 
 1 
 
 Unexploited. 
 
 Low water. 
 
 Mean flow. 
 
 Kyushu 
 
 138,297 
 
 236,377 
 
 137,000 
 
 263,000 
 
 Honshu _ 
 
 763,376 
 
 2,090,051 
 
 2,141,000 
 
 4,377,000 
 
 Hokushu 
 
 57,140 
 
 79,667 
 
 202,000 
 
 401,000 
 
 Shikoku 
 
 32,693 
 
 36,774 
 
 78,000 
 
 179,000 
 
 
 991,506 
 
 2,442,869 
 
 2,558,000 
 
 5,220,000 
 
 At mean flow, according to these figures, the total 
 potential power amounts to about 8,000,000 horsepower. 
 At low water it would be little more than half as much, 
 for undoubtedly some of the power developed and under 
 lease depends on storage. 
 
 Nothing is known of the potential power on Sakhalin, 
 but it probably equals that of Hokushu. 
 
 The island of Taiwan (Formosa) is mountainous and 
 well watered. The annual rainfall ranges from 70 to 
 more than 100 inches, and a steep mountain range, 
 which in places rises to altitudes exceeding 10,000 feet, 
 extends for the length of the island from north to south. 
 The Government of Taiwan, in association with private 
 interests, is building a plant of 130,000 horsepower at 
 the outlet of Lake Candidius on the Dakusuikei (muddy 
 water). The capacity can be increased to 185,000 
 horsepower when required. This power will be used to 
 supply the whole island. Four plants having a com- 
 
 bined capacity of 8,150 horsepower are already in oper- 
 ation, and another with a capacity of 8,000 horsepower 
 is near completion. 
 
 The developed power in the middle Pacific Ocean 
 drainage area amounts to more than 1,000,000 horse- 
 power, all of it except a few thousand in Japan. The 
 potential power at low water is estimated at 8,600,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 219. Amur River . — The basin of Amur River is about 
 equally divided between China and Siberia. The Amur 
 rises in the lower northeastern part of the plateau 
 region, and its upper course lies in a country of low 
 rainfall. Both the main river and the tributaries have 
 considerable fall, and the potential power amounts to 
 1,500,000 horsepower. No developments are known. 
 
 220. North Pacific Ocean . — The area along the north 
 Pacific from Amur River to Bering Strait is one of little 
 rainfall and few power sites. The peninsula of Kam- 
 chatka, however, is mountainous and has an annual 
 precipitation ranging from 10 inches at the north to 40 
 inches at the extreme south. There are probably some 
 power sites in this region, but none of them seem to 
 have been utilized. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Africa is a great elevated plateau which drops 
 abruptly to the sea near the coast. (See map on p. 4.) 
 This configuration produces great concentrations of 
 power, due to the large size that the rivers attain in 
 their lower courses, where the falls occur. In northern 
 Africa, however, the rainfall is less than 10 inches a 
 year, and the potential water power is therefore small. 
 In southern Africa also, especially its western half, the 
 rainfall is small, but in tropical Africa, comprising a 
 strip along the Gulf of Guinea, the entire basin of the 
 Kongo, and the headwaters of the Nile, the rainfall is 
 abundant. (See map on p. 5. ) Throughout this region 
 power sites are numerous, and on the lower Kongo 
 there are the greatest concentrations of potential water 
 power in the world. The water-power resources of 
 Africa are described below by drainage basins, the 
 description beginning at the mouth of the Nile and pro- 
 ceeding westward and around the continent. 
 
 302. Mediterranean Sea west of the Nile . — The streams 
 that enter the Mediterranean from Africa west of the 
 Nile are subject to great fluctuations and can furnish 
 little continuous power without extensive storage. The 
 rainfall in this region is moderate to low and occurs dur- 
 ing the short winter season. Between the Nile and 
 
AFRICA 
 
 32 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 Tunis there are no permanent streams that have poten- 
 tial power. In Tunis and Algeria a little power can be 
 developed on streams that rise in the mountains and 
 flow northward to the Mediterranean. 
 
 What can be done to develop water power in Algeria 
 without storage is well shown by a water-power plant of 
 130-horsepower capacity, with steam reserve, con- 
 structed in 1911 on the Bou Sellam for use at a zinc- 
 concentrating plant of the Societe des mines de zinc. 
 At this place, though floods of 10,000 second-feet occur, 
 the summer flow is insufficient to supply the water 
 wheel, which uses less than 50 second-feet. All but 
 about ten of the principal streams of the region go dry 
 during the summer. 
 
 303. North Atlantic . — Thfc streams that flow into the 
 Atlantic Ocean and the , Gulf of Guinea between the 
 Strait of Gibraltar and Niger River vary widely in 
 their characteristics. The Sebu, Um-er-Rebia, Tensift, 
 and Dra, all south of the Strait of Gibraltar, rise in the 
 high Atlas Range and flow westward to the Atlantic. 
 These streams drain a region of winter precipitation 
 amounting to 30 inches or less. Neither the total 
 rainfall nor its seasonal distribution is favorable to the 
 development of water power, and although the streams 
 have steep slopes in their upper reaches the power 
 resources are meager. 
 
 Between the Dra and the Senegal the rainfall is less 
 than 10 inches a year and no power can be developed. 
 
 The Senegal is navigable for many miles from the 
 coast. It is fed by summer rains only, and more than 
 half the annual rainfall of 50 to 60 inches in the head- 
 water region occurs in July and August. Very little of 
 the drainage area stands more than 1,500 feet above sea 
 level, and in general the slopes are flat and the distri- 
 bution of rainfall is unfavorable to the development of 
 power without storage, except in small units. 
 
 The conditions on the Senegal are repeated on the 
 Gambia, which is navigable for more than 400 miles 
 from its mouth. This river discharges a great quan- 
 tity of water, but its prevailing flat slope and the poor 
 seasonal distribution of the rainfall in its basin make it 
 unavailable for water power except in its upper reaches, 
 and even there power can be developed only with 
 storage. Similar conditions prevail on the Koli (Rio 
 Grande). The main upper tributaries of the Senegal, 
 Gambia, and Koli all rise close together in the moun- 
 tains of the west coast. 
 
 In the region along the coast from the Koli to the 
 Niger the rainfall is greater and more continuous, and 
 although a large proportion of it occurs in summer and 
 the fluctuations of stream flow are great, the rainfall in 
 
 winter is sufficient to assure a well-sustained low flow in 
 the streams. The surface in this region rises steeply 
 from a narrow belt of low coastal plains to a plateau or 
 hill country that stands 3,000 to 6,000 feet above the 
 sea. The streams rise in the mountains and in their 
 middle courses fall rather abruptly from the plateau 
 in cascades and rapids and at many places are confined 
 in narrow gorges. The lower reaches of most of the 
 rivers are navigable. The principal streams are Great 
 Skarcies, Little Skarcies, Rokelle, Bum, and Sulima 
 rivers, in Sierra Leone; Loffa, St. Pauls, and St. Johns 
 rivers, in Liberia; Cavally River, forming a part of the 
 boundary between Liberia and the Ivory Coast; Sas- 
 sandra, Bandama, Komoe, and Bia rivers, on the Ivory 
 Coast; Ankobra and Pra rivers, on the Gold Coast; 
 Yolta River, a stream nearly 1,000 miles long, on the 
 Gold Coast and in the British mandate in Togo; Sio, 
 
 . Haho, Mono, and Weme rivers, in Dahomey and the 
 French mandate in Togo ; and Ogun, Oshun, and Benin 
 rivers, in Nigeria. 
 
 The entire coast region of Guinea abounds in good 
 water-power sites, but there is now little market for 
 power in this region. A scheme for electrifying the 
 railroad that runs inland from Freetown, Sierra Leone, 
 by means of water power is one of the few power pro- 
 jects that have been suggested. 
 
 304. Niger Hirer . — The Niger, like many other Afri- 
 can rivers, comprises a series of navigable stretches in 
 which there is little fall and a series of rapids in which 
 the river descends from one plateau to another. These 
 features, which are in general favorable to the develop- 
 ment of water power, are possessed also by its tribu- 
 taries. The concentrations of fall either in rapids or in 
 abrupt falls delimit the stretches of river in which the 
 development of water power may be practicable. 
 
 In two respects, however, the Niger is unlike most 
 other African rivers : there are no rapids in its lower 
 course, for it descends nearly to sea level several hun- 
 dred miles from its mouth ; and it loses a great quan- 
 tity of water in its middle coarse, largely by evaporation 
 in the Sahara and perhaps also in part by seepage. 
 This loss of water is so great that the stream bed for a 
 stretch of several hundred miles is practically dry 
 except during and immediately after the rainy season, 
 though both above and below this stretch the river con- 
 tains sufficient water to permit navigation throughout 
 the year. Because of this condition the upper part of 
 the river basin, which had been entered by way of 
 Gambia and Senegal rivers and is relatively populous, 
 healthful, and attractive, was well known for a long 
 time before the mouth and the lower basin had been 
 
 discovered. Even to-day information in regard to the 
 middle course is extremely meager because of the 
 difficulties of transportation through it. 
 
 The Niger basin extends from a region of high rain- 
 fall in the mountains, where its headwaters rise, into a 
 region where the rainfall decreases downstream, and 
 through a zone of extreme aridity, in the Sahara, into 
 the region of tropical rains, in which its lower course 
 and lower tributaries are situated. No records of 
 measurements or estimates of its discharge are available, 
 although records of stage extending over at least four or 
 five years have been made by the French Navigation 
 Service in the stretch of the river between Kulikoro 
 and Timbuktu. 
 
 The information available in regard to the amount of 
 potential power in this basin and the cost and practi- 
 cability of its development is indefinite and does not 
 warrant more than a mention of areas in which power 
 sites on tributary streams may be found, of stretches of 
 the main river in which power sites probably exist, and 
 of a few special sites, without an attempt to estimate 
 the potential power at any particular site or even in 
 any particular area. 
 
 The southern and western tributaries of the Niger 
 above Kurussa (800 miles or more above Timbuktu) 
 probably afford power sites. From Kurussa to Bamaku, 
 a distance of perhaps 200 miles, the river is understood 
 to be navigable. From Bamaku to Kulikoro, about 40 
 miles, there are rapids, of which two (So tuba and 
 Kenie) are especially notable. Sotuba is said to have 
 a fall of about 20 feet in a distance of half a mile. 
 From Kulikoro to Ansongo, a distance of more than 
 1,000 miles (about 625 miles above Timbuktu and 425 
 miles below), the river is navigable at all seasons, except 
 between Timbuktu and Ansongo, where navigation 
 becomes increasingly difficult at low water as Ansongo 
 is approached, because of the loss of water already 
 mentioned. Between Ansongo and Bussa most of the 
 river is little known, but there are many narrows and 
 rapids. Just below Bussa are the rapids of Garafiri, 
 which extend over a stretch of about 3 miles, and the 
 great rapids at Wuru, where the fall is said to be 40 
 feet in about three-fourths of a mile. From Wuru to 
 the sea the river is navigable at all seasons. 
 
 The Benue, the principal tributary of the Niger, 
 enters it from the east within the lower navigable 
 stretch. It is itself navigable from its mouth through- 
 out most of its course, for a distance of more than 500 
 miles. Its eastern and northern tributaries doubtless 
 contain power sites, and special mention is made of a 
 fall of 165 feet on the Kibbi, a northern tributary. 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 33 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 305- A. Middle Atlantic . — The streams that flow into 
 the Gnlf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean between the 
 basins of the Niger and the Kongo drain mountainous 
 territory that receives a very heavy rainfall, and though 
 they are subject to material variation in stage they 
 have a well -sustained low flow. Rapids and sheer falls 
 are numerous. The principal streams are Cross River, 
 in Nigeria; Sanaga, Nyong, and Campo rivers, in the 
 French mandate of Kamerun ; and Ogowe and Kwilu 
 rivers, in French Kongo. The falls of the Sanaga near 
 Edia are estimated to be capable of yielding 450,000 
 horsepower, and the total potential power in the region 
 is several million horsepower. 
 
 306. Kongo River . — The drainage basin of the Kongo 
 and its tributaries covers about 1,500,000 square miles, 
 nearly all of which is well watered. The tributary 
 streams, themselves large rivers, in general flow from 
 their sources to the central basin of the Kongo in a 
 succession of rapids, falls, or gorges, where the condi- 
 tions are favorable for the development of power. The 
 Chambezi, the headwater stream, rises at an elevation of 
 
 6,000 feet and within a short distance becomes a large 
 river, but the power sites on it are confined to its 
 upper reaches and tributaries. The outlet of Lake 
 Bangweolo, which receives the Chambezi, is called 
 Luapula River. This stream, before it reaches Lake 
 Moero, passes successively over a thundering cataract 
 known as Mumbutata or Mamcirima Falls, a series 
 of several rapids, and finally over Johnston Falls, all of 
 which appear to afford potential power of great but 
 unknown magnitude. After leaving Lake Moero the 
 Luapula crosses the Kebara and Mugila mountains in 
 a series of rapids having a total fall of 1,000 feet 
 and joins the Lualaba to form the Kongo. The two 
 main headwater streams of the Lualaba flow through 
 the Mitumba Range in deep gorges in a succession of 
 rapids for 40 or 50 miles. Here also there are great 
 opportunities for the development of water power. 
 Kongo River below the junction of the Lualaba and 
 Luapula falls only 180 feet in 500 miles above Stanley 
 Falls. The slope is concentrated, however, at such 
 places as Dia Rapids, the narrow gorge known as Porte 
 d’Enfer, and the rapids near Nyangwe and Nendwe, all 
 in a stretch of 125 to 150 miles. Several tributaries of 
 the Kongo afford potential power. The Lukugu is a 
 swift stream that drains mountainous territory and 
 receives the overflow of Lake Tanganyika, which has 
 been continuous since 1879. The evaporation from this 
 magnificent lake appears to be too great in proportion 
 to the inflow for the development of much water power 
 from its outlet, but a lowering and control of the level 
 
 of the lake by suitable outlet works may eventually 
 afford a large amount of power on the Lukuga. A float 
 measurement made at the outlet of the lake in March, 
 1920, during the rainy season, showed a discharge of 
 about 7,000 second-feet. The larger tributaries of Lake 
 Tanganyika are Russisi River, which drains Lake Kivu 
 and falls 2,200 feet between the two lakes ; Kalambo 
 River, which has a sheer fall of 600 feet just before 
 entering the lake ; and Momba River, which is reported 
 to be capable of yielding 100,000 horsepower. 
 
 The main tributary of the Kongo from the north, 
 Ubangi River, is navigable for 350 miles from its mouth 
 to Zongo Rapids and thence for another 350 miles to the 
 confluence of the Welle and the Mbomu, which form 
 the Ubangi. Although the main stream affords little 
 opportunity for the development of power, the Welle 
 and the Mbomu, both large rivers, have many falls and 
 rapids on their lower reaches and on their headwater 
 tributaries. Lindi Falls, on Lindi River; Yambuya 
 Rapids and several falls on the upper reaches of 
 Aruwimi River ; and Lubi Falls, on Itimbiri River, are 
 other notable power sites on northern tributaries of the 
 Kongo. 
 
 The main tributary of the Kongo from the south is 
 Kassai River, which has a flow of more than 300,000 
 second-feet. Wissman Falls, on the Kassai, and the 
 many rapids and falls on its northward-flowing tribu- 
 taries afford immense power resources. Other southern 
 tributaries of the Kongo, though many of them are 
 large streams, are of relatively minor value for water 
 power, though the Lomami has good power sites in its 
 upper reaches. 
 
 Stanley Falls, on the middle Kongo, consist of seven 
 cataracts having a total fall of about 200 feet in 60 
 miles. From 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 horsepower may 
 possibly be developed in this locality, though the 
 engineering problems involved are difficult. On the 
 lower Kongo, below Stanley Pool, there are eighteen 
 falls and rapids that have a total drop of 500 feet in less 
 than 90 miles, and just above tidewater there are ten 
 falls and rapids that have a total drop of 300 feet in less 
 than 60 miles. More than 100,000,000 horsepower 
 could be developed in these two stretches. The engi- 
 neering problems of development would be exceedingly 
 difficult, and the construction of power plants on these 
 stretches might be impracticable even if a market were 
 available for this enormous quantity of power. 
 
 The Kongo affords greater water-power resources than 
 any other river system in the world and more than all 
 the other rivers in Africa. In fact, more than one- 
 fourth of the potential water power of the world is in 
 
 this one river basin. This great resource is undevel- 
 oped. Schemes for the construction of a plant of 
 
 113.000 horsepower on the lower river, to be used for 
 electric operation of a railway, and of another plant of 
 
 20.000 horsepower at Koni Falls, on the Lufira, a tribu- 
 tary of the upper Lualaba, have been proposed. 
 
 305-B. Upper south Atlantic . — The streams that flow 
 into the Atlantic Ocean between Kongo and Orange 
 rivers drain a narrow belt of low land, which is flanked 
 by mountains that form the western rim of the great 
 central plateau of southern Africa. The rainfall de- 
 creases rapidly toward the south, and most of the 
 southern streams are dry for a great part of the year. 
 
 The principal river of the region is the Kuanza or 
 Coanza, which lies wholly within Angola. It rises at 
 an altitude of 5,000 feet and < within a short distance 
 becomes a large stream. Its potential water power is 
 confined to the headwater streams and to a stretch of 
 the main river where it crosses the escarpment of the 
 plateau and drops to the sea. This lower stretch is 
 broken by many rapids and falls that offer favorable 
 opportunities for the development of water power in 
 plants of large capacity. The westernmost of these 
 falls, Cambamba or Livingstone Falls, is 70 feet high, 
 and from its foot to the sea, a distance of 100 miles, the 
 stream is navigable and of no value for power. Many 
 of the smaller coast streams of Angola have power sites 
 of material value. One site on the Katumbela has been 
 partly developed and is capable of yielding 4,000 to 
 
 20,000 horsepower, according to the stage of the river. 
 In this area fluctuation of stage, which becomes greater 
 toward the south, limits the development of power 
 without storage. 
 
 Kunene River forms a part of the boundary between 
 Angola and Southwest Africa, a mandate of the Union 
 of South Africa. The Kunene flows generally south- 
 ward through the uplands of Angola, accumulating a 
 large volume of water ; it then turns westward, breaks 
 through the plateau escarpment, and finally reaches 
 the Atlantic Ocean. Its gradient in the upland region 
 is flat, but beginning with the Kavala Rapids, at an 
 elevation a little more than 3,200 feet above the sea, 
 it passes over a series of rapids and falls where power 
 could be cheaply developed. At Kavala Rapids the 
 fall is 38.4 feet in a little over a mile; at Chimbombe 
 Rapids it is 68 feet in a few miles ; from Chimbombe 
 Rapids to Rua Cana Falls it is 246 feet in 16 miles ; and 
 at Rua Cana Falls it is 406 feet in li miles. Below 
 Rua Cana Falls the river is little known, but its total 
 fall is more than 2,300 feet in the 200 miles between 
 Rua Cana and its mouth. Monte Negro Falls, 110 miles 
 
AFRICA 
 
 34 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 below Rua Cana, are said to be higher than Rua Cana. 
 At its minimum flow the Kunene would furnish about 
 
 80,000 horsepower, but with the flow available 50 per 
 cent of the time it should furnish over 1,500,000 horse- 
 power. The conditions are favorable for storage. 
 
 There are no perennial rivers between the Kunene 
 and the Orange, though some of the streams flow for 
 the greater part of the year and might be of some value 
 for power if they were regulated by storage. 
 
 307. Orange Eiver . — The drainage basin of Orange 
 River is one of the largest in Africa, comprising more 
 than 400,000 square miles, half of which, however, is 
 unproductive of run-off. The extreme headwaters are 
 in Mont aux Sources, in southeastern Africa, at alti- 
 tudes of more than 10,000 feet. In the region from 
 which the Orange receives most of its water there is a 
 short season of heavy rainfall, but little rain falls there 
 during the remainder of the year. Most of the streams 
 are dry or nearly dry for three or four months, and 
 though they have ample slope and a number of high 
 falls the development of power on them without storage 
 is impracticable, except in small units. A few small 
 towns are lighted by electricity generated in part from 
 water power, but no considerable development has been 
 attempted. The Yaal, a large tributary 750 miles long, 
 has a perennial flow, but in the dry year of 1905-6 its 
 total discharge was only 184,000 acre-feet, nearly 90 
 per cent of which was flood flow. Below the Yaal no 
 perennial tributaries enter the Orange. A stretch of 
 the river that may contain valuable power sites, in 
 spite of the small and irregular flow, lies between ihe 
 mouths of Molopo and Hartebeeste rivers, where the 
 Orange falls more than 400 feet in 16 miles and then 
 flows through a rocky gorge for many miles. In gen- 
 eral, however, there are only a few power sites in the 
 basin of Orange River, and storage must be used at all 
 of them in order to develop power. 
 
 305-C and 308. Lower south Atlantic and south Indian 
 Ocean . — The lower south Atlantic drainage area includes 
 the basins of the streams that flow into the Atlantic 
 Ocean between Orange River and Cape Agulhas. The 
 south Indian Ocean drainage area includes the streams 
 that flow into the Indian Ocean between Cape Agulhas 
 and Zambezi River, an area containing a narrow belt of 
 flat coastal plain flanked by mountain ranges, which 
 rise steeply from altitudes of 5,000 to more than 10,000 
 feet. The streams, except the Limpopo and Save, in 
 the northeast corner of the region, are not more than 
 200 or 300 miles long. Their slopes are steep, and 
 many of them have magnificent waterfalls. The average 
 annual rainfall increases in general from less than 10 
 
 inches near the mouth of Orange River to about 50 
 inches at the mouth of the Zambezi, and in nearly all 
 of the region it is more than 20 inches. The variation 
 from year to year is considerable, and the distribution 
 throughout the year is unfavorable to continuous stream- 
 flow, so that any large development of power must 
 depend on storage. There are not many storage sites in 
 the region, but on all the larger streams there are some 
 sites where power can be developed without regulation, 
 and at a few such sites it has been developed for local 
 electric lighting and for other uses. The aggregate 
 potential power of the region is considerable, though it 
 is scattered over many sites. The principal rivers, 
 named in order from west to east, all but the first three 
 of which are tributary to the Indian Ocean, are the 
 Buffels, Olifants, Berg, Breede, Gouritz, Gamtoos, Sun- 
 day, Great Fish, Great Kei, Umzimvubu, Umzimkulu, 
 Umkomanzi, Umgeni, Tugela, Maputa, Komati, Lim- 
 popo, Save, Busi, and Pungue. 
 
 Features worthy of special note are a 20 -mile bend on 
 the Great Fish, with ends only 2 miles apart and differ- 
 ing in altitude by 200 feet; a fall of 375 feet on the 
 Tsitza, a tributary of the Umzimvubu ; a fall of 350 
 feet just above a series of cascades on the Umgeni ; the 
 large drainage area (8,000 square miles) and consider- 
 able flow of the Tugela, which rises at an altitude of 
 
 11.000 feet, drops precipitately 1,800 feet, and has falls 
 also in its lower course; a series of cascades which 
 occur in a narrow gorge on the Komati where it breaks 
 through the hills to the coastal plain at a point from 
 which it is navigable 200 miles to the sea; and the 
 cataracts of the Save. The Limpopo, which is more 
 than 1, 000 miles long, is by far the largest stream of the 
 region. It is navigable for about 100 miles from its 
 mouth all the year and for a greater distance in the 
 rainy season. It rises in the central plateau of Africa 
 and descends the plateau escarpment through rocky 
 ravines. The Toli Azime Falls form one of its note- 
 worthy features. A scheme for the development of 
 
 40.000 horsepower on the Limpopo in eastern Transvaal 
 has been proposed, but on account of the availability of 
 cheap coal it has not been carried out. The great 
 market for power in this region is in the Rand mining 
 district, where more than 400,000 horsepower developed 
 with coal as fuel is used by a few mining companies. 
 
 309. Zambezi Eiver . — Although the drainage basin of 
 Zambezi River is three times as large as France, its water- 
 power resources are believed to be limited to two or 
 at most three stretches of the main river (Karoabassa 
 Rapids, Yictoria Falls and the canyon below, and prob- 
 ably a series of rapids about 100 miles above Yictoria 
 
 Falls), to Shire River and its tributaries, and to the 
 headwater tributaries of the Zambezi in the eastern part 
 of Angola and the northern part of Rhodesia. In other 
 parts of its course the Zambezi is generally navigable 
 and its fall is too small for the development of water 
 power. The tributaries other than those mentioned 
 probably have in general too great a range in discharge 
 and too little flow at low water to yield reliable power. 
 
 The headwater tributaries drain a plateau which 
 divides this basin from that of the upper Kongo and in 
 which the rainfall is relatively high. The power sites 
 are at falls and rapids where the streams descend to the 
 level of the plateau that includes the fan- shaped cen- 
 tral basin of the Zambezi and its tributaries, in which 
 the streams have so little fall that they are navigable. 
 Explorers make special mention of Supuma Cataract, 
 on upper Zambezi River, in the extreme northwestern 
 part of Rhodesia. 
 
 The information available concerning the rapids about 
 100 miles above Yictoria Falls is extremely meager and 
 general ; it only shows that they form a break in con- 
 tinuous navigation and possibly a source of power. 
 
 At Yictoria Falls the river falls abruptly about 350 
 feet, and in the gorge and rapids below, which extend 
 for a distance of 50 miles, there is an additional fall of 
 about 1,100 feet. The potential power of the falls and 
 rapids has been estimated at 750,000 continuous horse- 
 power and would doubtless be much greater at all stages 
 above low water. 
 
 For 600 miles below Yictoria Falls and rapids the 
 Zambezi is navigable and has no considerable concen- 
 trations of fall, but there are some narrow gorges with 
 rapid current. The range of stage is so great, however, 
 that the development of power does not seem practicable, 
 although it must be recognized as a possibility in con- 
 nection with works for improving navigation. 
 
 The Karoabassa Rapids are about 60 miles long and 
 have a total fall reported to be 150 feet and a range in 
 stage of 80 feet. Ko definite information is available as 
 to concentrations of fall within this stretch. Between 
 the rapids and the ocean, a distance of 360 miles, navi- 
 gation is continuous. 
 
 Shire River, the outlet of Lake Nyasa, is tributary to 
 Zambezi River in the navigable stretch between Karoa- 
 bassa Rapids and the ocean. The Shire is navigable from 
 its mouth for about 125 miles and from the outlet of 
 Lake Kyasa downstream for about 100 miles. Between 
 these two navigable stretches there is a series of cataracts 
 50 miles long, in which the river makes the greater part 
 of its descent of 1,600 feet from Lake Kyasa to sea level. 
 Under ordinary climatic conditions the potential power 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 35 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 in the rapids of the Shire is enormous. The river drains 
 about 50,000 square miles above the outlet of the lake, 
 of which about 10,000 square miles is within the lake 
 itself. The average annual rainfall in the basin of the 
 Shire ranges from perhaps 50 or 60 inches in the high- 
 lands of its upper tributaries to perhaps 30 or 35 inches 
 at the south end of the lake. The precipitation varies 
 widely from year to year, however, and may be low 
 during a period covering several consecutive years. As 
 a consequence of low rainfall during such a period the 
 lake has at times recently been so low that there has 
 been little or no outflow from it, the river above the 
 rapids has thus become too shallow for navigation, and 
 the potential power of the rapids has been greatly de- 
 creased. The information available indicates that a dam 
 might be built at the outlet of the lake to store enough 
 water during years of great rainfall to compensate for 
 the lack of water in years of deficient rainfall, so it may 
 thus be possible to maintain the navigation and the 
 power resources of the river continuously. Power sites 
 may probably be found on the tributaries of Lake Kyasa. 
 
 310. North Indian Ocean . — The streams that flow into 
 Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea between 
 Zambezi Eiver and the Mediterranean end of the Suez 
 Canal have slight potential power except on those in 
 the part of East Africa that is under British and Portu- 
 guese control, which has a narrow coast belt flanked by 
 the escarpment of the central African plateau. The 
 rainfall in the region is small. There is potential water 
 power along streams in a few mountainous regions near 
 the edge of the plateau and along streams that drop from 
 the plateau to the coastal belt. The principal streams 
 are the Lukugu, Lurio, Mtepwesi, Msalo, Eovuma, 
 Eufiji, Pangani, Sabaki, Tana, and Juba. All these 
 have extensive potential power resources. The Chuguli 
 and Pangani falls, on the Eufiji, are noteworthy power 
 sites. Below Pangani Falls the Eufiji is navigable to its 
 mouth. Pangani Eiver is fed by the glaciers of Mount 
 Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa, and is 250 
 miles long. Along the Pangani there are many rapids 
 and falls ; one at Thale is 65 feet high, and another at 
 Euani is 360 feet high. These falls are estimated to be 
 capable of yielding about 70,000 horsepower at extreme 
 low water, and a plant having a capacity of 80,000 horse- 
 power has been planned to utilize the total head of both 
 falls in one project. Along the Sabaki there are valu- 
 able power sites, most of them near its headwaters. 
 One tributary drains the east slope of Mount Kiliman- 
 jaro. Lugard Falls, on the Sabaki 100 miles above 
 its mouth, is the lowest place at which power can be 
 developed. Tana Eiver drains the Kikuyu country, 
 
 and its tributaries flow over many falls and rapids that 
 could furnish power. At a plant on one of these tribu- 
 taries about 900 horsepower has been developed. Other 
 tributaries of the Tana rise on Mount Kenia. The main 
 Stream is navigable for 300 miles from its mouth and 
 is without value for power in this stretch. Juba Eiver 
 has three main tributaries, the Web, Ganale Gudda, 
 and Daua, all swift-flowing streams with many rapids 
 and falls. Juba Eiver below the mouth of the Daua 
 has a flat slope and is without value for power. 
 
 301. Nile Eiver . — The principal power sites on the 
 Kile are in the upper or southern part of its basin, 
 where the rainfall is greatest and the slopes are steepest. 
 Different parts of the Kile are known, in order down- 
 stream, as the Somerset Kile, the Bahr-el-Jebel, and the 
 White Kile. The principal tributaries are the Albertine 
 Kile system (comprising Albert Kyanza and its tribu- 
 taries), the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the Sobat, the Blue Kile, 
 and the Atbara. 
 
 The 240-mile stretch of the river between Victoria 
 Kyanza, the great lake that is regarded as its source, 
 and Albert Kyanza is called the Somerset Kile. The 
 tributary streams of Victoria Kyanza rise far south of 
 the Equator^ in the mountainous region east, south, 
 and west of the lake. The catchment basin of the lake 
 covers about 90,000 square miles. The lake itself has 
 an area of about 24,000 square miles and stands about 
 3,700 feet above sea level. It is in a region of almost 
 continual rain and is fed by many tributaries. Kagera 
 (Tangura), the largest tributary, drains a mountainous 
 region of heavy rainfall which divides this drainage basin 
 from that of Lake Tanganyika. This river is 400 miles 
 long and is navigable for 7 0 miles in its lower course. 
 A partial measurement made in October, 1892, indicated 
 that its discharge then was about 50,000 second-feet. 
 In the dry season of July, 1889, Stanley made a partial 
 measurement that indicated a discharge of 5,000 to 6,000 
 second-feet. Along the tributaries of this river there 
 are doubtless sites where considerable power could be 
 developed. Smaller tributaries of Victoria Kyanza that 
 drain areas south and west of the lake probably also offer 
 sites for the development of power. The eastern tribu- 
 taries drain a region in which the rainfall is much smaller 
 and more variable, and in the dry season most of them 
 contain little or no water. 
 
 The Somerset Kile falls about 1,400 feet in the 240 
 miles of its course, chiefly in two stretches. In the first 
 stretch, about 50 miles long, extending from Victoria 
 Kyanza to Lake Choga, it falls about 225 feet ; in the 
 second, about 50 miles long, extending from Foweira to 
 the foot of Murchison Falls, it makes most of its remain- 
 
 ing fall. Between these two stretches the river (includ- 
 ing Lake Choga) is navigable for 100 miles, and below 
 Murchison Falls it is navigable to Albert Kyanza. 
 
 The discharge of the Somerset Kile is well sustained 
 by the equalizing influence of Victoria Kyanza, and the 
 minimum flow is believed to be about 20,000 second-feet, 
 so that the river could yield more than 2,000,000 con- 
 tinuous horsepower. There are no doubt several sites 
 along its course at which great power could be developed. 
 
 The principal tributaries of the Somerset Kile enter 
 it in Lake Choga from the east, and their headwaters are 
 in the mountainous area that culminates in Mounl Elgon, 
 which stands at an altitude of about 15,000 feet. There 
 are probably power sites along these tributary streams. 
 
 The Albert Kyanza drainage system, or Albertine Kile, 
 after receiving the Somerset Kile near the outlet of the 
 lake, forms the Bahr-el-Jebel. The drainage area, ex- 
 clusive of the Somerset Kile, is apparently about 12,000 
 square miles, including the surfaces of Albert Kyanza 
 and Albert Edward Kyanza. The rainfall in the basin 
 is heavy, especially in the mountain divide between 
 Albert Edward Kyanza and the headwaters of Lake 
 Tanganyika and in the Buwenzori Mountains, north of 
 Albert Edward Kyanza, which may reach an altitude of 
 18,000 feet and which contain large glaciers. Mpanga 
 Eiver, which flows into Albert Kyanza, is the principal 
 stream draining this range and may have power sites at 
 its headwaters. Other tributaries of these lakes may 
 also afford opportunities for the development of power. 
 
 Semliki Eiver, which connects Albert Edward Kyanza 
 and Albert Kyanza, is about 150 miles long and is largely 
 unmapped and unexplored. In 75 miles of its middle 
 course it is said to include a series of rapids in which 
 the aggregate fall is about 800 feet. The minimum 
 flow is about 3,000 second-feet. The lakes are slightly 
 brackish, probably because they receive waters from 
 salt springs and salt deposits on their shores, especially 
 at Katwe, near Albert Edward Kyanza, where there are 
 old crater lakes. The salt deposits are large and are a 
 source of supply for the natives of all central Africa. 
 There is no indication that the brackishness of the lake 
 waters is due to concentration by evaporation. 
 
 The Bahr-el-Jebel, as the Kile is called between Albert 
 Kyanza and Lake Ko, the mouth of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, 
 falls about 1,000 feet in its total length of 600 miles. 
 Of this fall about 600 feet is concentrated in a distance 
 of about 125 miles between Dufileand Gondokoro, includ- 
 ing the Fola, Kerbora, Gugi, Makedo, and Baden rapids. 
 There may be sites where considerable power can be 
 developed in this stretch, but elsewhere the only obstruc- 
 tions to navigation of the river are the u sudd 7 7 dams 
 
AFRICA 
 
 36 
 
 WOKLD ATLAS 
 
 formed by vegetation. The discharge is estimated at 
 20,000 second-feet at low water. 
 
 The Bahr-el-Ghazal, which unites with the Bahr-el- 
 Jebel in Lake No to form the White Nile, is reported 
 to have a small discharge and to act more as a reservoir 
 than as a tributary. It is navigable for 300 miles or 
 more from its mouth. Along its headwater streams, 
 which adjoin those of northern tributaries of the Kongo 
 and extend into a region of heavy rainfall, there are 
 probably sites where some power might be developed. 
 
 The White Nile, as the river is called between Lake 
 No and Khartum, is navigable throughout its length 
 and will afford no water power. In the White Nile and 
 in the lower courses of the Bahr-el-Jebel and Bahr-el- 
 Ghazal there is a gradual loss of water by evaporation. 
 
 Sobat Biver brings to the White Nile the white water 
 from which this part of the river is named. Its dis- 
 charge is said to be as great as that of the White Nile 
 above the junction of the two streams. Its drainage 
 basin, which has an area of 55,000 square miles, is 
 mountainous in part, and the tributary streams descend 
 from the mountains in falls and rapids that represent 
 potential power sites. The Sobat itself is navigable 
 throughout its course from the confluence of its tribu- 
 tary streams to its junction with the White Nile. 
 
 During the flood season the Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek) 
 is even larger than the White Nile, but at low water it 
 is only about half as large. The mean discharge at the 
 mouth of the river in summer is reported to be about 
 5,500 second-feet. The headwater tributaries are on 
 the mountains and plateaus of Abyssinia, in a region 
 where the rainfall in summer is great, but there is a 
 long dry season and therefore a wide range between the 
 high and low stages of the tributaries, so that their 
 power resources are relatively small, yet they probably 
 offer many water-power sites for plants of small capac- 
 ity. The Blue Nile has little fall in its lower course 
 and is navigable from the border of Abyssinia to Khar- 
 tum, a distance of nearly 500 miles. 
 
 Atbara Kiver, which is tributary to the Nile about 
 200 miles below Khartum, is at times of flood a large 
 stream, but in the dry season it carries little or no w ater 
 and it will probably afford no valuable power sites, yet 
 there may be some such sites on its tributaries. 
 
 In a stretch of about 1,800 miles between Khartum 
 and the Mediterranean the Nile has an aggregate fall of 
 about 1,300 feet, including six concentrations sufficiently 
 great to be called u cataracts. 7 7 The Aswan dam was 
 built at the first cataract, primarily to divert water for 
 irrigation, yet incidentally it afforded a site capable of 
 yielding 150,000 horsepower for five months in the year, 
 
 but the power has not yet been developed. At the five 
 other cataracts the fall is so slight that the river is 
 navigable through all of them at high stages of the 
 water. These cataracts will probably not be developed 
 for power except in connection with the improvement 
 of the river for navigation or irrigation. 
 
 312. Kalahari Desert . — The interior drainage basin 
 known as Kalahari Desert, in central South Africa, 
 borders on the drainage basins of the south Atlantic, 
 Orange Kiver, south Indian Ocean, and Zambezi Kiver. 
 Okavango Kiver is the only large main stream in the 
 Kalahari basin. The Okavango and its principal tribu- 
 tary, the Kuito, are both navigable for many miles. 
 Minor power resources may be found at the extreme 
 headwaters, but no valuable power sites are known. 
 Below the mouth of the Kuito the Okavango is a rela- 
 tively rapid stream and within a stretch of 40 miles 
 it includes six low falls, one of which is known as Popa 
 Falls. None of these falls appear to afford favorable 
 opportunities for the development of water power. 
 
 311. Sahara Desert and Lake Chad.— The Sahara, which 
 is a region of scant rainfall and is without water power, 
 lies south of the Mediterranean drainage area and west 
 of the Nile. The larger streams of the basin of Lake 
 Chad, except Shari Kiver, are too small during the dry 
 season to be of value for power. Some tributaries of 
 the Shari that drain a rather well watered mountain- 
 ous region in the French mandate of Kamerun and the 
 French territory to the east and that include many 
 rapids and falls may afford opportunities for a moderate 
 development of power. 
 
 313. Eastern Horn basin . — An interior basin of irreg- 
 ular shape that lies mainly between the north Indian 
 Ocean drainage area and the basin of the Nile contains 
 two rivers, the Omo and Hawsh, which appear to afford 
 considerable potential power. The Omo is a perennial 
 stream that rises in the mountains of Abyssinia at an 
 altitude of 7,600 feet and has many tributaries. It is 
 navigable in a short stretch that extends upstream from 
 its mouth at Lake Kudolf, in the Great Kift Valley, and 
 above this stretch it is a rapid stream broken by Kabobi 
 and other falls. The Hawsh also rises in the mountains 
 of Abyssinia but discharges its waters into Lake Aussa, 
 which lies in a depression several hundred feet below T 
 sea level, near the eastern coast. It fluctuates widely 
 in flow with the wet and dry seasons but apparcmtly 
 affords opportunity for the development of power at 
 several places near its headwaters. A small hydroelec- 
 tric plant has been constructed on it at Addis Abeba 
 for local lighting. There are minor power resources on 
 smaller streams in the basin. 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 Oceanica includes innumerable islands in the Pacific 
 Ocean, which have a wide range in size. The largest is 
 Australia, which is by some considered a continent ; the 
 smallest are the tiny islands of Micronesia, which even 
 on large-scale maps are represented only by dots. The 
 rainfall in Oceanica, except in Australia, is plentiful, 
 and the potential water powers on islands whose area is 
 sufficient to contain large rivers are considerable. The 
 islands have been divided into ten groups. 
 
 401. New Zealand . — North Island and South Island 
 are the two principal areas in the New Zealand group. 
 The rainfall is abundant, and both islands include high 
 mountainous areas that contain many lakes, which are 
 available for storage. 
 
 On North Island the highest mountains are near the 
 southeastern coast and the largest rivers drain toward 
 the north and west, but in its extreme northern part 
 the island is too narrow to contain large rivers. The 
 Waikato, the largest river on the island, rises a little 
 south of its center, flows 40 miles to Lake Taupo, 
 which has an area of 238 square miles and stands 
 1,200 feet above sea level, and after leaving the lake 
 flows by a sinuous course to the west coast south of 
 Auckland. Below the lake 167,000 horsepower can be 
 developed at six sites. There are also possible power 
 sites along other streams on the island. The total 
 potential power on North Island is estimated at 500,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 On South Island there is a high mountain range called 
 the Southern Alps, which extends along the entire west 
 coast. The rainfall is greater than on North Island, the 
 lakes are numerous, and the rivers, although they are 
 short, will yield considerable power. Some of the unu- 
 tilized sites that may afford the largest amount of power 
 are at Lake Tekapo, 400,000 horsepower; Ohau Lake, 
 250,000 horsepower, both about 50 miles from Timaru ; 
 Lake Wakatipu, on Kawarau Kiver 140 miles from 
 Dunedin, 375,000 horsepower; Te Anau Lake, near 
 George Sound, 750,000 horsepower; and Manipori Lake, 
 near Smith Sound, 420,000 horsepower. The last two, 
 if developed, would have power houses on the seaboard. 
 The total undeveloped power on South Island is esti- 
 mated at 3,300,000 horsepower. 
 
 The Government of New Zealand not only controls 
 the unutilized power sites but, together with city and 
 borough councils and other Government agencies, con- 
 trols 90 per cent of the developed power. Since 1918 
 a complete scheme for supplying power to both North 
 and South islands has been adopted. The plans for 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 37 
 
 OCEANICA 
 
 North Island involve an expenditure of $36,000,000, 
 of which $22,000,000 has been appropriated for con- 
 structing plants at Manganao, Waikara Moana, and 
 Arapuni, which will have a total ultimate capacity of 
 
 160,000 horsepower and will be distributed by lines 
 measuring in all 1,420 miles and traversing the whole 
 island. The Government has also taken over the 9,000- 
 horsepower Horahora plant, originally installed by a 
 mining company near Cambridge, and has appropriated 
 $7,800,000 for increasing its capacity and for extending 
 the transmission line to supply power to surrounding 
 towns and to the dairying industry. It is announced 
 that 1,000 milking plants, 6 dried milk factories, and 
 20 cheese and butter factories near Cambridge will take 
 power from this station. 
 
 The largest plant on South Island is at Lake Coleridge, 
 where 12,000 horsepower is developed for use in Christ- 
 church, 70 miles distant. In 1919 an appropriation was 
 made for the purchase and installation of machinery to 
 increase the capacity of this plant to 36,000 horsepower, 
 and in 1921 16,000 horsepower will be available. A 
 loan of $7,300,000 has been authorized for the construc- 
 tion of a hydroelectric plant of 20,000 horsepower capac- 
 ity near Lake Monowai, 60 miles from Invercargill, to 
 supply the south end of the island. 
 
 In 1910 the total capacity of the hydroelectric 
 plants in New Zealand was 19,300 horsepower, and 
 on March 31, 1919, it was 36,000 horsepower, gener- 
 ated at 26 plants. In addition about 9,000 horse- 
 power was utilized directly from water wheels. This 
 mechanical power was used chiefly in mining, refrigera- 
 tion, dairying, milling flax and flour, and making paper 
 and lumber. The electric power was used in mining, 
 smelting, and electrochemical processes and for munici- 
 pal purposes. Although little progress was made from 
 1910 to 1919, the plants now under construction will 
 increase the total capacity by several hundred per cent 
 within the next two or three years. 
 
 The developed water power in New Zealand amounts 
 to 45,000 horsepower, and the potential power obtain- 
 able by the use of storage is estimated at 3,800,000 horse- 
 power. As lakes are numerous and should obviously 
 form a part of any plan of development an estimate that 
 did not involve their use would not fairly represent 
 the power resources. 
 
 402. Tasmania. — Tasmania, the so-called Switzerland 
 of the South, is said to be the most mountainous island 
 on the globe. The rainfall is plentiful, and mountain 
 lakes and water-power sites are abundant. The largest 
 river, the Derwent, heads in numerous lakes on a 
 plateau that stands about 3,000 feet above sea level. 
 
 The largest lake is Great Lake, which covers 28,000 
 acres. Others are St. Clair, Echo, and Arthur lakes, 
 each covering about 10,000 acres. The Government 
 of Tasmania has constructed at Great Lake a plant of 
 
 20.000 horsepower, which transmits power to Hobart, 
 
 the capital. Zinc- reduction plants take 4,250 horse- 
 
 power, and plants that produce calcium carbide take 
 3,500 horsepower. The demand for power is so great 
 that the plant is being enlarged. The capacity of the 
 site is estimated at 70,000 horsepower. Contracts 
 already made amount to 42,000 horsepower, and negoti- 
 ations are being carried on for 50,000 horsepower addi- 
 tional. One contract for metallurgical work calls for 
 
 25.000 horsepower. Launceston, a port on the north 
 coast, has its own plant of 1,600 horsepower, and a min- 
 ing company at Queenston develops 10,500 horsepower, 
 chiefly for use in its mines. A plant at Latrobe has a 
 capacity of 75 horsepower. The Government of Tas- 
 mania also proposes to develop 60,000 horsepower at 
 two sites on King Kiver to supply the mines along the 
 west coast. In Tasmania, as in New Zealand, the 
 development of water power has been retarded in recent 
 years but is now progressing rapidly. The total devel- 
 oped hydroelectric power on the island is 34,500 horse- 
 power, and the total potential power is estimated at 
 
 400.000 horsepower. 
 
 403. Australia . — Although Australia is nearly as large 
 as the United States its water-power resources are 
 small. Half the island has an altitude of less than 
 
 1.000 feet, and only a few peaks and a narrow mountain 
 range in the eastern part exceed 2,000 feet. The rain- 
 fall is meager, and only a narrow belt along the eastern 
 and northern coasts is well watered. The principal 
 rivers are the Darling and the Murray, which unite 
 before reaching the sea, but at low water their com- 
 bined flow is small. The only potential water power is 
 in the mountains that border the east coast, and the 
 cost of its development would be so high that no plants 
 have been built. The chief electrical engineer of New 
 South Wales has investigated schemes for development 
 at eighteen sites and estimates that the total potential 
 power at these sites is 300,000 horsepower. The most 
 valuable sites are on Clarence and Snowy rivers, where 
 
 100.000 and 137,000 horsepower, respectively, can be 
 developed. In Victoria it is proposed to use the water 
 of Kiewa River and other streams between that and the 
 Snowy. The potential power on these streams is esti- 
 mated at 100,000 horsepower. In Queensland the 
 Cairns district has over 150,000 horsepower awaiting 
 development. The Barron Biver Falls, 19 miles from 
 Cairns, are 1,000 feet high, and their potential power is 
 
 estimated at 10,000 horsepower. The following table is 
 taken from the preliminary report of the water-power 
 committee of the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies, 
 published in London in July, 1918 : 
 
 Potential power in Australia. 
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 Australian Alps 300, 000-500, 000 
 
 Blue Mountains 25, 000-50, 000 
 
 New England Range 200, 000-500, 000 
 
 Cairns district ^ 100. 000-250, 000 
 
 625, 000-1, 300, 000 
 
 The estimates are based on a few investigations and 
 a good knowledge of conditions. A study of the water- 
 power resources of New South Wales is being made 
 under the authority of the State, and some of the more 
 promising schemes may be carried out, but so far no 
 development has been reported. 
 
 404. New Guinea . — New Guinea, the second largest 
 island in the world, is mountainous and has a rainfall of 
 more than 80 inches a year and abundant water-power 
 resources. A range of high mountains that includes 
 many peaks exceeding 10,000 feet in altitude extends 
 along its central and northern parts. Most of the island 
 is drained by three rivers — the Ambernoh in the north- 
 west, the Fly in the southeast, and the Kaiserin 
 Augusta in the northeast. The interior of the island 
 has been only in part explored. The discharge of Fly 
 River at its mouth during the rainy season was esti- 
 mated by an explorer at 327,000 second-feet, and the 
 discharge of the Strickland at its junction with the Fly 
 was estimated at 196,000 second-feet. In the second 
 report of the water-power committee of the Conjoint 
 Board of Scientific Societies, published in March, 1919, 
 the potential power of Papua, the old British part of 
 the island, is estimated at 10,000,000 horsepower, and 
 that of former German New Guinea at 7,000,000 horse- 
 power. These estimates probably represent the poten- 
 tial power at mean stream flow by the use of storage. 
 The potential power at ordinary low flow, as indicated 
 by the rainfall and the altitude, is probably about 
 5,000,000 continuous horsepower. No power plants 
 have been reported. 
 
 405. Philippine Islands . — The Philippine group con- 
 sists of several hundred islands, but most of the poten- 
 tial water power is on the two largest, Luzon and 
 Mindanao. Luzon is traversed throughout its length 
 by moderately high mountain ranges, on which the 
 annual rainfall at many places exceeds 100 inches. The 
 streams of the island would no doubt afford a large 
 amount of potential power, but no systematic study of 
 possible power sites has been made, and only general 
 
OCEANICA 
 
 38 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 
 estimates can be given. A concession was granted in 
 1913 for the nse of the water of Caliraya River, in 
 Laguna Province, near Manila, but apparently the plant 
 was not built. The largest river of Luzon is the 
 Cagayan, at the north end. The principal rivers of 
 Mindanao, which is mountainous and receives a heavy 
 rainfall, are Mindanao and Agusan rivers. The Min- 
 danao, in the southwestern part of the island, receives 
 the waters of Liguasan and Buluan lakes. The Agusan, 
 in the northeastern part, drains several small lakes in 
 its middle course. This island is sparsely populated, 
 and little is known of its water powers. There appear 
 to be no large power plants in the Philippines, and the 
 potential power indicated by the altitudes and the rain- 
 fall is about 1,500,000 horsepower. 
 
 406. Celebes . — Although the Dutch have inhabited the 
 island of Celebes for two centuries little is known of its 
 interior. The island is curiously shaped, having four 
 large peninsulas that reach out from a small central 
 nucleus, and along the center of each peninsula there 
 is a mountain chain. The annual rainfall exceeds 
 100 inches. The rivers head in numerous lakes, which 
 could be used for storage. The principal rivers are the 
 Sadang, in the southwest peninsula, and the Bahu Solo, 
 in the southeast. Studies by the Dutch Government 
 cover the eastern half of the central nucleus and a small 
 part of the southeast peninsula. The most promising 
 power sites so far surveyed are between Posso Lake and 
 the sea, where 100,000 horsepower could be developed 
 at two sites, and in the Malili basin, where 15,000 horse- 
 power could be developed at four sites. The potential 
 power of this region is estimated at 150,000 horsepower, 
 and that of the whole island at a minimum of 1,000,000 
 horsepower. The information available indicates that 
 no power plants other than small native affairs have yet 
 been constructed on Celebes. The smaller islands near 
 by probably have some potential power, but little is 
 known concerning it. 
 
 407. Borneo . — The island of Borneo ranks next to 
 New Guinea in size but contains considerably less water 
 power. It is mountainous throughout its central part, 
 and the rainfall is abundant. The principal rivers are 
 the Kapuas, Barito, and Koti in the Dutch territory 
 and the Rejang and Brunei in Sarawak, which is under 
 British protection. Little is known of the potential 
 power on individual streams, but the Brem-Brem Falls, 
 on Kay an River, were explored in 1918 and are esti- 
 mated to be capable of yielding several hundred thou- 
 sand horsepower. The present economic value of these 
 falls is small, however, on account of their great dis- 
 tance from the coast. The potential power of Dutch 
 
 Borneo is placed at 2,000,000 horsepower, and an esti- 
 mate based on comparative drainage areas would add 
 about 500,000 horsepower for territory under British 
 protection. The Dutch have examined sites having a 
 potential capacity of 100,000 horsepower, but no plants 
 are reported as in operation or being constructed. 
 
 408. Sumatra . — The island of Sumatra is more than 
 1,000 miles long and in its widest part is 260 miles 
 broad. A chain of mountains extends along its western 
 coast, so the large rivers all flow eastward. Among 
 them are the Kampar, Indragiri, Hari (tributary to the 
 Jambi), and Musi. The rainfall is heavy throughout 
 the year, averaging 185 inches at Padang and even more 
 at Palembang. Engineers of the Dutch Government 
 have examiued sites having a capacity of 325,000 horse- 
 power on the headwaters of the Musi and in the north 
 of the island, the streams examined including Assahan 
 River. The Assahan drains Lake Toba, which covers 
 500 square miles in the crater of an old volcano high up 
 in the mountains and is the largest lake on the island. 
 At four sites on this river 500,000 horsepower can be 
 developed, of which 200,000 horsepower is included in 
 concessions already granted. The minimum potential 
 power of Sumatra is placed at 2,000,000 horsepower, of 
 which 8,625 horsepower is developed. The developed 
 power is used mainly in mining, but a plant of 1,500 
 horsepower is operated by a Portland cement factory at 
 Indaroeng, which has another plant of 3,000 horsepower 
 under construction. 
 
 409. Java . — The population of Java is 35,000,000, 
 and parts of this island are as densely peopled as the 
 most thickly inhabited parts of Europe. The island 
 is mountainous, having a mean altitude of 1,600 feet 
 and containing several peaks that exceed 10,000 feet. 
 The rainfall is plentiful, averaging 75 inches at Batavia 
 and reaching 185 inches in the mountains. There are 
 no long periods of either rain or drought, but at Batavia 
 the period from December to March is the most rainy 
 and July and August are the least rainy months. Rice 
 irrigation is practiced over a large area. The rivers are 
 numerous but comparatively small ; the largest are the 
 Solo and Brantes in the east and the Taroem and 
 Manuk in the west. At Bandoeng, on Taroem River, 
 there is a plant of 1,750 horsepower, and Samarang and 
 Salatiga are supplied with electricity by a plant having 
 a capacity of 3,000 horsepower. The total developed 
 power on the island amounts to 12,000 horsepower, of 
 which 6,000 horsepower is used in factories. Plants 
 now under construction will develop a total of 44,400 
 horsepower. The largest plant under construction is 
 on Anten River near Buitenzorg, where the Dutch East 
 
 Indies Government is developing 28,000 horsepower. 
 The minimum potential power of Java is estimated at 
 500,000 horsepower, of which 85,000 horsepower has 
 been thoroughly studied. 
 
 410. Hawaii . — The Hawaiian Islands are mountain 
 ous, and the rainfall is high but not evenly distributed. 
 At points along the coast and on the leeward (south- 
 west) side of the islands the annual precipitation is 
 only a few inches, but at altitudes above 2,000 feet on 
 the windward (northeast) side of the islands it has 
 reached 600 inches. The streams are small and are used 
 mainly for irrigation ; the power resources are scant. 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY. 
 
 A summary of the capacity of the world 7 s water- 
 power plants and of the world 7 s potential water power, 
 representing 75 per cent of the theoretical power from 
 flow available at least 75 per cent of the time, is given 
 in the following tables and in graphic form on the maps 
 (Pis. 1-8). 
 
 Summary of potential and developed water power in 1920, 
 
 in horsepower. 
 
 North America. 
 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Potential. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 400,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 United States 
 
 9,243,000 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 Alaska 
 
 40,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 60,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 Canada 
 
 2,418,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 Costa Rica _ - ~ 
 
 15,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Guatemala _ _ 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Honduras 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Nicaragua _ _ .. 
 
 400 
 
 800,000 
 
 Salvador _ 
 
 2,700 
 
 200,000 
 
 Panama . - 
 
 13,300 
 
 500,000 
 
 West Indies 
 
 12,500 
 
 150,000 
 
 Approximate total 
 
 12,210,000 | 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 South America. 
 
 Argentina 
 
 25.000 
 
 12.000 
 250,000 
 
 5.000. 000 
 2,500,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 500.000 
 
 2.500.000 
 
 4.000. 000 
 
 1.000. 000 
 2,000,000 
 
 4.500.000 
 
 300.000 
 3,000,000 
 
 Bolivia _ 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 
 French Guiana _ 
 
 
 Chile _ 
 
 60,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 200 
 
 36,500 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Ecuador _ _ .. . _ 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Peru 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Approximate total 
 
 12,500 
 
 424,000 
 
 54,000,000 
 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 39 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY 
 
 Summary of potential and developed water power in lOriO — 
 
 Continued. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Finland 
 
 Russia 
 
 Esthonia __ \ 
 
 Latvia > 
 
 Lithuania _J 
 
 Poland 
 
 Ukraine 
 
 Region of the Caucasus - 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Czechoslovakia 
 
 Jugo-Slavia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Rumania 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Albania 
 
 Italy 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 British Isles 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Iceland 
 
 Approximate total 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Potential. 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 1,350,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 420,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 205,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 
 Small 
 
 1,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,150,000 
 
 a 3, 800, 000 
 
 1,070,000 
 
 & 1,400,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,350,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 585,000 
 
 700 
 
 Small. 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 8,817,000 
 
 45,000,000 
 
 a Ordinary flow. Ordinary low flow estimated at 2,700,000 horsepower. 
 b Ordinary low water 900, 000. For 9 months, 1 , 374, 000 horsepower, and for 
 6 months, 2,504,000. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Africa— Continued. 
 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Potential. 
 
 Chinese Republic _ 
 
 1,650 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 India _ _ _ 
 
 150,000 
 
 Asia Minor- 
 
 500 
 
 500,000 
 
 Arabia, 
 
 Persia 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 Af ghanistan 
 
 2,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 Siberia 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 
 Siam and Malay States 
 Chosen 
 
 4,500 
 
 2,620 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 Japan 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 a 6, 000, 000 
 
 
 Approximate total 
 
 1,160,000 
 
 71 000,000 
 
 1 
 
 a Total power developed, under lease, and available at low flow. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Tangier 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 i 
 
 Morocco 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 Algeria 
 
 130 
 
 200,000 
 
 Tunis 
 
 30,000 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Eritrea 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 British Somali 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Italian Semali 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Gold Coast and British mandate ir> Togo 
 
 
 1.450.000 
 4,000,000 
 
 1.700.000 
 
 Liberia 
 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 
 Senegal - _ 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 Rio de Oro 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Gambia _ _ 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Portuguese Guinea 
 
 
 Small. 
 
 Union of South Africa 
 
 5.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 Angola- 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Southwest Africa (Union of South Africa 
 mandate) 
 
 150,000 
 
 Belgian Konco and Belgian mandate 
 
 250 
 
 90.000. 000 
 
 35.000. 000 
 
 French Kongo 
 
 French mandate in Kame.run 
 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Nigeria and British mandate in Kamernn 
 
 
 Rhodesia _ - 
 
 
 
 Developed. 
 
 Potential. 
 
 Tanganyika. (British mandated 
 
 800 
 
 2.700.000 
 
 1.200.000 
 
 4.700.000 
 
 3.700.000 
 20,000 
 
 4.000. 000 
 600,000 
 
 2.850.000 
 
 2.000. 000 
 1,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 
 British Central Afriea, 
 
 British East Africa - . _ 
 
 Portuguese East Afriea 
 
 900 
 
 • 
 
 Beehnana.ls.nd 
 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 
 Egypt _ ... - 
 
 
 Ivory Coast, Dahomey, and French mandate in 
 Togo 
 
 
 French Guinea 
 
 
 French Sudan - _ 
 
 
 Madagascar - - 
 
 100 
 
 Approximate tota l 
 
 11,000 
 
 190,000,000 
 
 
 Oceanica. a 
 
 Australia _ _ - - - 
 
 
 620,000 
 
 3.800.000 
 
 1.500.000 
 2,000,000 
 
 500.000 
 
 2.500.000 
 
 5.000. 000 
 
 400.000 
 
 1.000. 000 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 45,000 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Sumatra _ . 
 
 b 11 ,600 
 & 56, 500 
 
 Java * - 
 
 Borneo 
 
 New Guinea 
 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 34,500 
 
 Celebes 
 
 Approximate total 
 
 
 147,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 « All these estimates except those for the Philippines and New Guinea 
 assume the use of storage. 
 
 b Installed or under construction, November, 1920. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 North America 
 
 12,210,000 
 
 424.000 
 
 8.877.000 
 
 1.160.000 
 11,000 
 
 147.000 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 54.000. 000 
 
 45.000. 000 
 
 71.000. 000 
 190,000,000 
 
 17.000. 000 
 
 South America 
 
 Europe - - _ 
 
 Asia - 
 
 Africa, _ _ 
 
 Oceanica 
 
 Approximate total - 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 439,000,000 
 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY 
 PART II PLATE 1 
 
 and each cross ( + ) less than 1,000,000 horse- Each circle (o) represents 1 0,000,000 and each 
 power of installed capacity cross (x) less than 10,000,000 continuous poten- 
 
 tial horsepower at low-water stage 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY 
 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PART II PLATE 3 
 
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 WATER POWER IN AFRICA BY COUNTRIES 
 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY 
 PART II PLATE 5 
 
 Developed water 
 power in 1920 
 
 Each dot (•) represents 100,000 horsepower 
 and each cross ( + ) less than 100,000 horse- 
 power of installed capacity 
 
 Water-power 
 
 resources 
 
 (developed and undeveloped) 
 
 Each circle (o) represents 1,000,000 and each 
 cross (x) less than 1,000,000 continuous poten- 
 tial horsepower at low-water stage 
 
 Green lines bound numbered drainage units described in the text 
 
WORLD ATLAS 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY 
 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PART II PLATE 6 
 
 Water-power EXCLUSIVE OF MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 
 
 resources 
 
 (developed and undeveloped) 
 
 Each circle (o) represents 1,000,000 and each 
 cross (x) less than 1,000,000 continuous poten- 
 tial horsepower at low-water stage 
 
 Green lines bound numbered drainage units described in the text 
 
 Developed water 
 power in 1920 
 
 Each dot (•) represents 100,000 horsepower 
 and each cross ( +) less than 100,000 horse- 
 power of installed capacity 
 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WORLD ATLAS 
 OF COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY 
 PART II PLATE 7 
 
 :: + 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 Mercator's projection 
 
 WATER POWER IN 0CEAN1CA AND MALAY ARCHIPELAGO BY COUNTRIES 
 
 Developed water 
 power in 1920 
 
 Each dot (•) represents 10,000 horsepower 
 and each cross ( + ) less than 10,000 horse- 
 power of installed capacity 
 
 Water-power 
 resources 
 
 (developed and undeveloped) 
 
 Each circle (o) represents 1,000,000 and each 
 cross (x) less than 1,000,000 continuous poten- 
 tial horsepower at low-water stage 
 
 Green lines bound numbered drainage units described in the text 
 
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THE WORLD ATLAS OE COMMERCIAL GEOLOGY. 
 
 ■1 
 
 The study of the world’s resources of its essential minerals was begun during the World 
 War as a part of the task of keeping American industries supplied with raw material. A 
 preliminary world atlas of commercial geology was prepared in manuscript form for the 
 use of the State Department and the Peace Commission and was subsequently revised and 
 issued as Part I of a World Atlas of Commercial Geology, in the belief that it would be help- 
 ful in directing both the mineral industry and the commerce of the United States. 
 
 ■V^^Part II of the World Atlas— this work — which represents the results of a continuation of 
 eofnmercial world study, shows the world’s potential water power and the extent to which 
 it has been utilized at home and in other countries the products of whose mineral and 
 other industries may compete in the world’s markets with those of the United States. 
 
 Part I includes 72 pages of text and 72 plates and is sold for $2. 
 
 Part II includes 39 pages of text and 8 plates and is sold for $1. 
 
 Orders should he sent to the Director of the United States Geological Survey at Wash- 
 . ington. Payment may be made by money order or in cash, sent preferably in a registered 
 letter.