COLUMBIA LIBRARIES OFFSITE HEALTH SCIENCES STANDARD m.i \ Columbia ®nibersjtp in ti)E Citp of ^etD |?orfe COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS Reference Library Given by PREFACE. The outlines and laboratory exercises here pre- sented are the outg-rowth of the work in Physiology in the author's classes, and it is at the request of several fellow teachers that they now appear in print. The work has been with pupils who hav^e not had previous training- in the other science subjects. Logi- cally, Physiology should follow the work in Zoolog}', Physics and Chemistry, in a course of study, but, at present, most schools require that this study be pur- sued early in the course, consequently it is necessary that a little Chemistry and Physics, and Zoology and Anatomy precede the real work in hand, and this ex- plains why the introductory chapter presents what it does. It will be found desirable to do the work in- dicated in this chapter and, if the students cannot be taken into the chemical laboratory to perform the experiments individually, they should be made be- fore the class by the teacher. Whenever possible, each student should do the laboratory work for him- self. It is thought that the outlines are so general that they may be used with almost any text, but the}^ follow more closely the works of Dr. Newell Martin than any other. The outlines are not intended to be exhaustive but rather suggestive, and the student is supposed to elaborate on the various subjects as far as the time will allow. On the other hand, some of IV PREFACE the subjects ma}- be too complex for beg'inning' classes, and in such cases they ma}' be omitted. The dissections and experiments should all be carefully made, so far as the apparatus and other conditions will permit, since the subject is one especi- ally suited to laboratory methods. No effort should be spared to secure the additional apparatus and ma- terial for the work as suggested. Text-book work alone in Physiolog"}' is ver}' unsatisfactor}'. Each student should keep a neat note-book in which drawing's are made and the results of all ex- periments and observations recorded, as well as ex- tracts of articles read in reference books. At the close of the pamphlet will be found a list of standard reference books on the subject, together with a few of the more common text' books now in use. To economiije space, each reference work has been given a number and these numbers occur in bold faced type throughout the text, followed, usually, b}- the page on which the information is to be found. In case the number of the reference alone is given, the student should consult its index. It is not sup- posed that every school will posses all the works of reference included in the list, but every school should have some of them. Nothing can be more unsatis- factory in a subject like Phj^siology than to confine the student to a single text-book. Individual members of the class should be assign- ed subjects for investigation, reports on which ma}' be made either orally or in writing. Such investi- gations should include as much reference work as possible, as well as laboratory observation. PREFACE V If this pamphlet should help some teacher to teach or some student to pursue the subject of Phjsi- olog"y according- to modern scientific methods, it will have served its purpose. The author invites critic- isms and sugg-estions from fellow teachers for the improvement of future editions. A few typographi- cal errors have crept in, but none, so far discovered, are of a serious nature. I wish here to acknowledg-e my obligations to Mr. Carl J. Ulrich, mj assistant, who has aided in the preparation of some of the outlines and laboratory exercises, and to my wife who has assisted in reading the proof. U. O. C. Mankato, Minn., December 16, 1899. CONTENTS, INTRODUCTION, - - - 1 Syllabus, _ . . i Introducton' outline, - - 1 The cell, ... 5 Laboratory exercisls, - - - 7 Chemistry, - - - 7 The microscope, - - 14 Use of the microscope, - - 15 The cell, ... 18 SUPPORTING TISSUES, - - 23 Syllabus, - - - 23 Laboratory exercises, - - 31 Connective tissues, - - - 31 Cartilage, - - - 33 Bones, _ . . . 34 Joints, - - - 38 MOTOR TISSUES, - . . 40 Syllabus, - - - 40 Laboratory exercises, - - 43 Amoeboid cells, - - - 43 Ciliated cells, - - - 44 Striated muscle, - - - 46 Unstriated muscle, - - 49 Cardiac muscle, - - 49 Physiology of muscle, - - 50 CONTENTS VII DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGES- TION, - - - 55 SyllabUvS, - - - - 55 Alimentary canal, - - 55 P^ods, . - _ 60 Digestion, - - - 62 Labokatoky exercises, - - 64 Dissection of a mammal, - - 64 The human alimentary canal, - 69 Oesopliag"Us, stomach and intestine, 70 Foods, - - -70 Dig-estion, - - 74 CIRCULATORY TISSUES, - - 78 SyllabUvS, - - - 78 Labokatoky ExERCivSEvS, - - 83 The blood, - , - 83 The heart and blood vessels, - 86 Arteries, veins and capillaries, - 91 The circulation, - - . 94 RESPIRATORY TISSUES AND RESPIRA- TION, - - - 102 Syi,i,abus, . - - 102 Laboratory exercises, - - 104 The air passag-es and the lungs, 104 Respiration, - - 106 EXCRETORY TISSUES, - - 109 Syi^eabus, - - - 109 Laboratory exercises, - 112 The kidneys, - - 112 The skin, - - 115 VIII CONTENTS NERVOUS TISSUES, - - 117 Syllabus, - - 117 Laboratory exercises, - - 125 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE, 132 Syllabus, - - - 132 Special senses, - - 132 The voice, - - 139 Laboratory exercises, - - 140 The eye, - - - 140 The ear, - - - 147 Taste and smell, - - 148 Touch and temperature, - 149 The voice, - - 150 REFERENCE BOOKS, - - 152 Appendix, - - 155 Dissecting, • ^- - 155 Hardening and preserving fluids, - 155 Stains, - - - 158 Staining, - - - 159 Other Solutions, - - 160 Imbedding, - - 160 Sectioning, - - - 163 Mounting, - - 164 Injecting blood vessels, - 165 Preparation of bones, - - 166 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE. Matter. la. Inorg"atiic. lb. Definition. 2b. Some studies treating- of. Ic. Inorg-anic chemistry. Id. Some elements common in animal bodies. 4, 9, 20; 16, 1-5; 2, 14. le. Ox3^g-en. 4, 23-33. If. Oxidation. 2, 78-82. 2e. Hjdrog-en. 4, 34. 3e. Nitrog-en. 4, 50. 4e. Carbon. 4, 125. 5e. Sulphur. 4, 157. 6e. Phosphorus. 4, 193. 7e. Chlorine. 4, 92. Be. Sodium. 4, 326. 9e. Potassium. 4, 321. lOe. Calcium. 4, 313. lie. Mag-nesium. 4, 316. 12e. Iron. 4, 275. 13e. Others which are rare. If. Fluorine. 4, 122. 2f. Silicon. 4, 184. 3f. Lithium. 4, 335. 4f. Mang-anese. 4, 295. 5f. Iodine. 4, 115. INTRODUCTION 2d. Some of the common inorganic com- pounds found in animal bodies, le. Air (air is a mixture, however, and not a compound). If. Composition. 4, 82-84. 2e. Water. If. Composition. 4, 40-43. 3e. Carbon dioxide. 4, 138. If. Composition. 4e. Ammonia. 4, 52. If. Composition. 2f. What is an alkali? 1. 5e. Acids. If. What? 1, 4, 75. 2f. Hydrochloric. 4, 117. Ig-. It is the only inorganic acid found free in the body. 6e. Salts. 1; 4, 77. If. Common salt. 2f. Calcium carbonate. 3f. Sodium carbonate. 4f. Sodium phosphate. 2c. Physics. Id. Physical terms used in speaking of animal ph3'siolog3\ 1 . le. Force. 2e. Resistance. 3e. Gravitation. 4e. Pressure. 5e. Tension. 6e. Friction. 7e. Weight. 8e. Work. INTRODUCTION 3 9e. Heat. lOe. Conduction. lie. Radiation. 12e. Dissipation (referring- to heat). 3c. Astronomy. 4c. Geolog-y. 2a. Organic. lb. Definition. . 2b. Study of. Ic. Biology. Id. Definition. 1. 2d. Some common studies treating- of. le. Botan}-. 2e. Zoolog}'. If. Definition. 2f. Animals studied as to chemical compo- sition. Ig. Organic chemistry. Ih. Albumens or proteids. *^, 15-16. li. Serum albumen. 1 1 , V, 14. 2i. Fibrin. 1.1, V, 32. 3i. Myosin. 11, V, 30. 4i. Casein. 11, V, 20. 2h. Hydrocarbons or fats. 2, 16; 1 1, V, 121-122. li. Palmatin. 2i. Stearin. 3i. Olein. 3h. Carbohydrates or starches and sugars. 2, 16. li. Glycogen. 11,V, 95. 2i. Glucose or ' grape sugar. 1 1 , V, 102. INTRODUCTION 3i. Lactose or milk sugar. 11,V,113. 3f. Animals studied as to structure. Ig. Anatomy. 2, 1-2; 5, 5; 7, 9; O, 4. Ih. Gross. 21i. Minute (histology). :^, 2. 31i. Comparative. 4f . Animals studied as to function of organs. Ig. Physiology. 2, 1; 5, 5; 7, 9; G, 4. Ih. Comparative. 5f. Animals studied as to healthy condi- tions surrounding them. Ig. Hygiene. 6f. Animals studied as to mental traits. Ig. Psychology. 1. 7f. Animals studied as to development. Ig. Embryology. 1. 8f. Animals studied as to classification. Ig. Main groups. Ih. Invertebrates. 1. li. Definition. 2h. Vertebrates. 1. li. Definition. 2i. Difference between vertebrates and invertebrates (zoologies). 3i. Main divisions of. Ij. Fishes. 2j. Batrachians or Amphibians. 3j. Reptiles. 4j. Birds. 5j. Mammals. Ik. Groups of. J^*^; 1; *^(). ■ 11. Monotremata (Duckmole). 21. Marsupials. INTRODUCTION 5 31. Eutheria. Itn. Edentates (Armadillo). 2m. Sirenia (Sea cows). 3m. Ung-Lilates. 4m. Cetaceans. 5m. Rodents. 6m. Carnivora. 7m. Insectivora. Sm. Chiroptera. 9m. Lemuroidea ) 10m. Anthropoidea j Primates. In. Marmosets. ) 2n. Cebidec f New world, monkeys. 3n. Cercopithecida^ (Bab- oons). 4n. Simiidze (Anthropoid apes). 5n. Hominidec or men. 4i. Reasons why man is classed as a vertebrate. 3, 5; 3, 2-5. Ij. Arrang^ement of body cavities and organs. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7; 8,2-7. 2j. Spinal column. 5i. Why classed as an Anthropoid? 3, 2. THE CELL. la. Definition. 1. 2a. History. ^O, under cell; 25, 22. G INTRODUCTION 3a. Structure, 11,1,3-9; 12, 35-39; 15, 5-8; 17, 33-40; (), 9; 7, 10-14; 25, 22-28, lb. The cell wall, 2b. The cell contents. Ic. The chief cell substance (protoplasm), 22,26. 2c. Nucleus. 4a. Sixe. 0, 11. 5a. Shapes. 6a. Metabolism (assimilation). 6, 13. 7a. Catabolism (dissimilation). 8a. Reproduction. 1 7, 98. lb. Direct division. 3, 18. 2b. Indirect division. 3, 19-22. Ic. Karjokinesis or mitosis. 17,100-104. 9a. Physiolog-ical properties. 3, 22-28. lb. Irritability. 2b. Conductivity. 3b. Contractilit3\ 4b. Coordination. 5b. Spontaneity. 10a. Development of in the human body, lb. Early stages of in the embryo. 2b. Differentiation of into tissues and organs, 17, 40; 3, 29. Ic. Definition of tissue. 2c. Definition of org-an. 3c. Undifferentiated. 3, 22. 4c. Physiolog"ical division of labor. 2, 12; 3, 30. *)5c. Chief g^roups of tissues and organs. ") In some respects this grouping is an arbitrary one made for convenience only. All of the topics, except number gd, will be con- sidered later. Some teachers believe that the order in which the topics are discussed is of great importance, but since any one of the INTRODUCTION 7 Id. Supporting-. 2d. Motor. 3d. Those concerned in nutrition (assimilative), le. Secretor}' (g-lands). 2e. Reception (alimentary canal). 4d. Circulatory (heart and bloodvessels). 5d. Respiratory (lung-s, air tubes and capil- laries). 6d. Eliminative (kidneys, skin, etc.). 7d. Irritable and conductive (nervous system). 8d. Special sense (sight, hearing-, smell, taste, touch and temperature). 9d. Reproductive. 10a. Bacteria. 17, lOS; 5, 144; 27; 28; 31; 34; 37. lb. beneficial. 2b. Disease producing-. LABORATORY EXERCISES. CHEMISTRY. Matkrials. Small quantities of each : potassi- um chlorate; mang-anese dioxide; common salt; hj^drochloric acid; sulphuric acid; mag-nesium ribbon; phosphorus; sulphur; metal sodium; met- al potassium; pieces of zinc; yeast, sugar; com- mercial ammonia and common salt. An alcohol lamp or gas burner. A number of test tubes; two or three widemouthed bottles; some fine iron wire, a pan or dish for water; pieces of charcoal, coal, lignite and graphite; some lime groups will depend more or less on the others there can be no great objection to following the usual order. INTRODUCTION water; several corks; glass tubing-; red and blue litmus paper. 1. Experiments. Fill a test-tube one-fourth full with equal parts of potassium chlorate and man- ganese dioxide which have previously been mix- ed. Heat the tube gently over a flame and look for bubbles of gas, oxygen, which will be given off by the decomposition of the chemicals. In- sert a splinter or match which has a spark on its end into the mouth of the tube. What is the effect? Has oxygen any color, taste or odor? 2. Make some more oxygen, or if the laboratory has an oxygen tank take it from that, and fill a bottle. Since ox3^gen is heavier than air the bottle may be filled by holding it mouth up- wards and then allowing the oxygen to run in through a tube connected with the test-tube or gas holder. After the oxygen has been running into the bottle for a moment, remove the supply tube and prepare a fine iron wire by rolling up one end and dipping it into powdered sulphur. Ignite the sulphur. What is the color of the flame? Insert the wire with the burning sul- phur into the bottle of oxygen. Vigorous com- bustion should follow and a part of the wire should be consumed. Would iron burn under ordinary circumstances in open air? The experi- ment just made illustrates rapid combustion. The same kind of combustion is illustrated by the burning of wood in the stove and oil in the lamp. INTRODUCTION 9 What happens to a piece of polished iron if put in a damp place? Iron rust is commonly formed b}^ slow combustion. What happens to damp straw when left in a pile? Is any heat g-iven off? Notice that two things always happen where oxidation goes on, viz., new compounds are formed and heat is given off. How do these facts help us to understand the human body? 3. Put a few pieces of common metallic zinc into a bottle or test-tube and pour on the same a small quantit}^ of hvdrochloric acid. Notice the bubbles of hyclrog'en that are generated. Hold a test-tube, inverted, over the mouth of the bottle until some of the hydrogen has been col- lected in the inverted tube. Still holding the tube inverted apply a lighted match to its mouth. What follows? Hydrogen explodes when mixed with air (oxygen.) It is rarely found free, in nature and then only in very small quantities. Determine from the above experiment whether hydrogen is heavier or lighter than air. 4. Fill a pan or dish with water and float on this a slice of cork in which is fastened a piece of crayon. Hollow out the top of the crayon and in the hollow place a lump of phosphorus the size of a pea. Have ready a six ounce bottle with a mouth wide enough to easily pass over the floating cork. With a hot wire ignite the phosphorus and immediately invert the bottle over the same. What did the bottle con- tain before the experiment was performed? What 10 INTRODUCTION element is necessary before combustion can take place? What proportion of the air seems to be ' oxyg-en? Allow the bottle to remain in posi- tion after the experiment until the white fumes have been absorbed. The g"as that now remains in the bottle above the water is nitrogen, a very inactive gas when free. Insert a lighted match into the bottle of nitrogen. Effect? 5. Examine pieces of hard and soft coal, char- coal, lignite, graphite (the lead in your pencil), burned bread, in fact any charred substance. These substances are carbon. Nearly all organic substances contain this element. (). Examine some powdered and stick snlplmr. Has it any odor? Burn a little sulphur and notice the odor. 7. Examine phospliorns as it is kept in a bottle. Why must it be kept under water? Never under an}- circumstance touch phos- phorus with the hands. It will ignite at the temperature of the body and its burn is serious. With forceps put a small piece of phosphorus on a hard surface then rub it with a hard object. Why does it take fire? What is the chief source of commercial phosphorus? 4, 193. Where do animals get their phosphorus? S. Fill a test-tube one-sixth full of manganese dioxide then add a little hydrochloric acid. Warm the tul)e gently and look for the appear- ance of a yellowish green gas, chlorine. Notice the odor, 1)ut do not take too much of it into the nose. INTRODUCTION 11 9. Examine some metal sodium as it is kept under kerosene in the bottle, cut off a piece the size of a g-rain of wheat and drop it into a g-lass of water. What follows? Sodium combines readily with the oxyg-en of the water and ox- idizes. Save the water in the glass for experi- ment 17. 10. Treat a small piece of metallic potassium in the same way that you did the sodium in experiment 9. Do they act exactly alike? Did either burn and explode and if so why? Save the water for experiment 17. 11. Examine lime stone, bone, clam or snail shells, marble and "Plaster of Paris." These all con- tain calcium. If the laboratory contains any metallic calcium it should be examined. 12. Hold a short piece of magnesium (ribbon) in a pair of forceps then ignite the magnesium by holding it in the flame. What is the color of the flame? What kind of a substance is left after oxidation has taken place? This experi- ment furnishes another illustration of rapid oxidation. 13. Heat a piece of charcoal red hot and then hold it in a bottle filled with air. After a few minutes, remove the charcoal and insert a lighted match. Why does it not burn? The bottle contains carbon dioxide gas. Pour a little lime water into the bottle containing the carbon dioxide. Shake. Result? This is a common test for carbon dioxide. 14. Put some lime water into a clean bottle and breathe into it through a glass tube. Effect? 12 INTRODUCTION What is present in your breath? 15. Put some small lumps of marble or limestone into a flask. Add some diluted hydrochloric acid, and close the flask with a cork fitted with a bent glass tube. When the action seems vigorous, let the gas escape into an empt}^ bottle until 3'ou think it is full. Insert a light- ed match into the bottle. Effect? Pour in a little lime water. Effect? What gas was given off from the limestone? 16. (This experiment may be made by one pupil for the class, or by the teacher). Into a bottle fitted with a cork and a delivery tube put a strong solution of sugar, and then add a little yeast. Let the deliver}- tube connect with a bottle filled with water inverted in a pan of water, then set the whole in a warm place. After a day or two examine the gas that has collected. Test with a lighted match, also with lime water. What gas was produced? The process that pro- duced it is called fermentation. 17. Half fill a small test tube with commercial aininoiiia and heat gently. Observe the escaping gas, its color and odor. Moisten a strip of red litmus paper and hold it in the escaping gas. Effect? This is the test for alkalis, and is called an alkaline reaction. The gas that was produced was aiiiiiioiiia, which is an alkali. Test with red litmus paper the water left from experiments 9 and 10. Result? 18. Put a small amount of common salt into a test tube and add some sulphuric acid. Observe the color and odor of the escaping gas, hydro- INTRODUCTION 13 chloric acid. Hold some moistened blue lit- mus paper in the g-as. Effect? This is an acid reaction. A COMPOUND MICROSCOPK. 14 INTRODUCTION THE MICROSCOPE. A good compound microscope is indispensable for thoroug-h work in practical physiology. The stu- dent should have access to one equall}" as good as that shown in the cut. It should be fitted with two ob- jectives, a one inch and a one-fourth or one-sixth inch, and one or two e3^e pieces. A simple instrument is to be preferred for beginners and the extra high powers are not desirable, although it is well to have one instrument fitted with high power objectives for the use of the teacher in demonstrations. The chief parts of the microscope are the draw tube, A, the eye piece, B, the objective, C, the stage, I), the mirror, E, the line adjustment screw, 7^ and the diapliragm, G. The mirror is used to catch the light from some window and to throw it through the object, the objective and eye piece to the e^^e. Before trying to focus the instrument the first thing to do, alwa3'S, is to adjust the mirror. Objects to be examined with the compound micro- scope b}^ the ordinary methods must be ver}- thin so that light can be transmitted through them. They are generally placed on a clear glass slip, 1x3 inches in si7.e, and then covered by a very- thin piece of glass known as the cover glass. Nearly all objects need to be mounted in water or some other transparent me- dium to be seen to the best advantage. The liigli and low power objectives can easily be distinguished from the fact that the former has a very much smaller lens than the latter. The high power objective focuses much nearer the object INTRODUCTION 15 than the low, is much more difficult to focus, it requires more lig"ht and the object does not appear so distinct as when under the low power. The diaphrai^m, as usually arrang-ed, is a cir- cular brass plate containing- holes of various sizes, which may be revolved under the circular hole in the stag"e and thus reg^ulate the amount of lig"ht that is reflected throug-h the object. The more opaque the object, g-enerally, the greater the amount of light required. The hig-h power objective will require more lig^ht than the low and on dark and brig^ht days the lig-ht must be reg"ulated to suit the object. In the instrument shown in the figure the draw tube is made to slide with the hand. To focus upon an object the tube should be pushed down until the lower end of the objective nearly touches the g^lass, then, with the eye looking- into the eyepiece, the tube should be withdrawn, slowly, until the object appears in view. Now with the fine adjustment screw move the tube until the object is clearly in focus. THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. MatkriaLvS. a slide with the letter F or some other letter mounted on it, or if this is not at hand, cut from a paper some letters that can easily be distinguished when inverted; a slide with some wool fibers mounted; a slide with cotton fibers; a slide with two colors of silk mounted so that they cross each other; a slide with mounted cats hairs; and a box with plain g-lass slips and cover g-lasses. (See pag-e 14.) 16 INTRODUCTION 1. Examine the microscope and review its parts. Make a roug"h sketch of it and name the parts. Keep full notes and make clear and accurate drawing's of everything* observed. 2. Place the slide of the letter F on the stag-e of the microscope and fasten it with the clips. Adjust the mirror with the low power objective in position, slide the draw tube down until the lower end of the objective is about one-fourth of an inch from the object. Place the eye in position and slide the draw tube up slowly until the object is seen. Now with the fine ad- justment screw focus until the letter appears distinct. Whatis wrong with the letter? Have you placed it in the microscope wrong-? Move it a little while looking into the tube. What happens? How is the letter inverted? (In how many ways?) What does the microscope seem to do to objects that are placed under it? 3. Place a slide of wool fibers under the micro- scope and focus carefully on it with the low power. Try with a smaller diaphram. Are the fibers cylindrical? Are they smooth? 4. Place the high power objective in the micro- scope and push it down very near the object but do not touch the cover glass. While looking- into the tube of the instrument run it up with the fine adjustment screw. Work carefully. You will need more light for the high power. Why? After the fibers are in focus note the following": Are they roug-h? Can you now account for the sensation you receive when you touch wool? INTRODUCTION 17 How? Can 3^011 disting-uish cells in the libers? Draw two or three fibers. 5. Examine a slide of cotton fibers, first with the low then the hig-h powder. Shape of the fibers? How alike and how difi'erent from those of wool? Draw\ 6. Examine the colored silk fibers, first with the low then the hig-h power. How alike and dif- ferent from wool and cotton? Examine very carefully and determine the order in which the various colors are placed, (which is above and which below? Do this b}^ focussing, carefuU}', first on one and then the other). Make a draw- ing- and indicate the colors and order. 7. Examine the hairs of the cat or rabbit. Com- pare with the wool and the fibers of silk and cotton. What is the shape of the cat's hair? If there are two colors in the hair, how do they differ? 8. Take a plain glass slip and place on it a few fine fibers from your handkerchief, dress or coat, add a drop of water and then apply, carefully, a cover g-lass and examine. Try to g-et both wool and cotton. Compare with what you have seen before. 9. Mount a piece of hair from your head in the same manner as the fibers described above. With the hig-h power, look for. the three parts: a. An outer roug-hish portion, the cuticle. h. The dark fibrous material. c. In the center, the tube-like part, medulla. If air bubbles are pres-. 18 INTRODUCTION etit in this part of the hair, it ap- pears white. Make drawings of the human hair. 10. Examine hairs from various animals and make notes and drawings. 11. Prepare permanent slides of some of the fibers and hairs by the following method: Place the perfectly dry fibers or hairs in turpentine or clove oil for a few minutes and then put one or two on a glass slip, add a drop of Canada balsam, apply a cover glass, then set aside in a horizon- tal position for the balsam to harden. In ap- plying a cover glass, first touch one edge then let the other down slowly. Note. The preceding exercises are intended mainly for the drill they give in the use of the microscope and not especially for the information gained^ although they may aid the student in distin- guishing some of the more common foreign objects which are likely to appear under the microscope, along with other preparations, in all work with the instrument. The glass slips and cover glasses must be perfectly clean before they are used. The same is true of all parts of the microscope. Remember never to touch the lenses with the fingers and if any dirt accumulates on them, remove it with a soft handkerchief If the object you are examining does not appear clearly defined, look for dirt or water on the objective or eyepiece of your microscope. No satisfactory work can be done until the student can accurately and easily focus the microscope, so the fore- going exercises should be repeated, if necessary, until the manipula- tion becomes easy. THE CELL. Materials. Cork; a razor; a bottle of iodine for staining (see appendix); leaves of the gera- nium and some logwood stain, such as hecma- toxylin or hcomalum. In general it will be found more satisfactory to purchase this stain, as well as others mentioned hereafter, from some reliable dealer. The quantity of the stains INTRODUCTION 19 used, is usually too small to justify the teacher in trying- to make them up. Should the teacher, however, desire to make them, formulae will be found in the appendix. Collect several bottles of pond water, with some of the ooze from the bot- tom and pieces of aquatic plants. About two days before this work is to be taken up in the laboratory, prepare three bottles as follows: Partially fill two of the bottles with water and in one drop a piece of meat. In the other, place some hay. Both bottles should be kept in a warm place. In the third bottle, put some water, a little flour, one-fourth of a teaspoonful of sugar, and then add one-half of a yeast cake. This third bottle may be prepared the nig-ht before it is to be used, but it should be kept warm during- the nig-ht. 1. With a sharp knife or razor, shave off a very thin piece of cork, place it on a g-lass slip with a drop of water and apply a cover g-lass. Ex- amine, first with the low, then the hig-h power and notice: a. The rectang-ular spaces, cells, which compose it. h. That the spaces are empty, or that only the cell v/all portion is present. 2. Tear a geranium leaf crosswise so that a little of the epidermis from the under-side will be removed. Mount this in water with the out- side up, then examine with the low power and notice: a. The numerous cells with irregular walls. 20 INTRODUCTION h. Other smaller cells, somewhat half- moon shaped, which are arrang-ed in pairs to form the breathing- pores of the plant. 3. Remove the cover g"lass from the specimen just examined and apply a drop of hccmatoxjlin. Allow the stain to remain for five or ten minutes then drain off, apply water and ag-ain the cover glass. Examine now with the high power and notice: a. The cell walls, irregular in shape. b. The shape of the cells which form the breathing-pores. c. A purplish dot, the nucleus, may be found in some of the cells. The nuclei are shown exceptionally v/ell in the epidermis of the Wake- robin leaf. 4. With a dull knife or other clean object, scrape a few cells from the cheek on the inside of the mouth. Mount without staining- and observe: '& a. The large flat cells. /;. The rather clear nucleus. Remove the cover glass and allow the mate- rial to dry on the slide. The process may be hurried by gently warming over a flame. When dry, appl}' a few drops of ha'matox3'lin stain, and when it has remained for five minutes, w^ash in water, apply a cover glass and examine. The nucleus should appear distinctly stained. 5. If specimens can be obtained, the aiiKrba should be examined here. This one-celled ani- mal can usually be found in the summer time INTRODUCTION 21 on the stems of aquatic plants, in the ooze at the bottom of ponds, lakes and rivers, and is frequently found on clam shells, and on the walls and other objects of the aquarium where clams are kept. Under the microscope, the amoeba may be disting-uished by the following- characters: a. It is almost transparent. b. It puts out pseudopodia, or false feet. c. Its movements are very slow. d. The granular central portion. e. A more or less clear outer portion. /. A nucleus. g\ A contractile vesicle. Notice that the vesicle gradually enlarg^es and then suddenly collapses. h. The many small particles in the g-ranu- lar portion, food particles. Tap on the cover g-lass to see if the amoeba is sensitive. Make drawing-s of the amoeba showing- all of its parts. See outline of the cell for references on the amoeba. 6. Kxamine drops of water from the first two bottles referred to under materials, using- the hig-h power, and look for very small bodies that are rapidly moving- ajDout, bacteria. Some of these may be spherical in shape, others look like straig-ht rods and still others like curved rods. Some larg-er forms, infusorians, may be found. Study preparations from both bottles care- fully and make drawing-s of what you observe. 22 INTRODUCTION The bacteria are plants, and the infusorians animals. 7. Kxamine a drop of yeast from the third bottle prepared. Notice: a. The numerous roundish bodies, starch grains. h. Between the starch grains, numerous small bodies, often oblong" in shape, yeast plants. Sometimes these yeast plants are budding. c. Apply a drop of iodine, which will stain the starch grains purple, if weak, and black if strong, and the yeast cells yellowish. The yeast cells can now be readily distin- guished. Make drawings of the yeast. The action of yeast on starch and sugar is to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, hence yeast is necessary in brewing for the alcohol it produces, and in the bakery for the carbon dioxide, which causes the dough to expand and become light. SUPPORTING TISSUES. THE SUPPORTING TISSUES. la. The skeleton. 3; 3; 6; 7; 8; 18; 19; 25. lb. Of what consist? Ic. Kxo-skeleton. 3, 63. Id. What it is? Illustrations. 2c. Endo-skeleton. 3, 63. Id. Consists of what? le. Connective tissues. 2, 18; 3, 100; 11:, 14; 17, 53; 25, 104; 6, 15; 18, 45. If. Nature of. 2f. Kinds. Ig-. Areolar. 3, 100; 14, 15. Ih. Where found? 2h. Structure. 3h. Properties. 4h. Physiolog"j. 5h. Adipose. 18, 49; 3, 107; 14, 15. 2g. White fibrous. (See references un- der le.). Ih. Where found? 2h. Structure. 3h. Properties. 4h. Physiology. 3g-. Yellow fibrous or elastic. (See refer- ences under le.). Ih. Where found? 2h. Structure. SUPPORTING TISSUES. 3h. Properties. 4h. Physiology. 4g-. Irregular forms. 3, 103. Ih. Where found and properties? 3f. Chemical composition of connective tis- sues. 3, 102. 4f. Development of connective tissues. 18, 48. 2e. Cartilag-e. 3, 98; 2, 17; 7; 25; (>; 5; 14; 18, 51. If. Nature of. 2f. Structure. Ig-. Cells. 2^. Intercellular substance. 3f. Kinds of.' Ig. Temporar3\ 2g. Hyaline. 3g-. Cellular. 4g-. Fibro-cartilag-e. 3, 104. 3e. Bony skeleton. See under index of Nos. 2, 3, (>, 7, 8, 15, 18, ll)and*^r>. If. Axial skeleton. 2, 20. Ig-. Parts of. Ih. Vertebral column, li. Number of bones. 2i. Anatomy of a typical vertebra. 2, 23; 3, 66; 25, 17. 3i. Divisions of. Ij. Cervical. 3, 68; 18, 147. Ik. Number of bones. 2k. IIov^ disting-uished from other vertebra*. 3k. Atlas and axis. 2^ 25; 18, H8. SUPPORTING TISSUES 25 11. Structure and ph3^siolog-y. 2j. Dorsal. Ik. Number. 2k. Ivocation and how distin- g-uished. 3j. Lumbar. Ik. Number. 2k. Location and how distin- g-uished. 4j. Sacrum. Ik. Divisions of. 2k. Wh}^ are the vertebrae here * united. 5j. Coccyx. Ik. How explained? 2i. Ph3'siolog'y of the spinal column. 2, 34; 3, 71. Ij. Curves in. Ik. Advantages. 2j. Flexibility. Cause. 2h. Ribs, li. Shape. 2i. Total number. 3i. The usual division into groups. 3, 72; 6, 31. Ij. Reasons for each division. 4i, Costal cartilages. 3h. Sternum. li. Structure. 2i. Function. 4h. The skull. li. The cranium. 2B SUPPORTING TISSUES Ij. Number and location of each bone. 2j. Fontanelles. 1. 3j. Sutures. 1. 2i. Face. Ij. Number and location of each bone. 3i. Hyoid bone. Ij. Its use. 2f. Appendicular skeleton. 3, 77. Ig". Pectoral arch. Ih. Scapula. li. Location, shape, articulations. 2h. Clavicle. li. Location, shape, articulations. 2i. Comparative anatomy of. *, 71-73; 29, 107-109. 3h. Humerus. li. Location, shape, articulations. 4h. Ulna and radius. li. Location, shapes, articulations, 2i. Physiology of. 5h. Carpal bones. li. Location, number, names. 18, 273. 2i. Physiology. 6h. Metacarpal bones. li. Location, number. 7h. Phalanges. li. Location number. 2g. Pelvic arch or girdle. Ih. Innominate bones, li. Number, shape, articulations. SUPPORTING TISSUES 37 2i. Acetabulum. 3i. Thyroid foramen. 3, 79. 4i. Development of. 18, 280. 5i. Physiolog'y. 21i. Femur. li. Description; articulations. 3h. Tibia and fibula. li. Shapes, articulations. 4h. Patella. li. Location, description. 2i. Development of. 18,294. 3i. Physiolog'y. 5h. Tarsal bones. li. Number, names. 18, 301. 2i. Development of the astragalus. 3, 81. 3i. Physiolog'y of. 6h. Metatarsal. li. Number, location. 7h. Phalang'es. li. Number. 2i. Physiolog-y. 3i. How illustrate specialization? 26, 84. 8h. Comparative anatomy of bones of the lower limbs. 15. 3g-. Comparison of bones of upper and lower limbs. 2, 29; 3, 80. Ih. Likenesses. li. Compare each set of bones and state likenesses. 2h. Differences. li. The patella. •28 SUPPORTING TISSUES 2i. Movements of the ulna and the radius compared with that of the tibia and fibuhi. 3i. The hand and foot. 4g-. Some peculiarities of the human skeleton. Ih. The balancing- of the skull. 2h. The spinal column. 3h. The pelvis. 4h. Leng-th of the lower limbs. Effect? 5h. Arched instep. Value? 3f. Structure of bone. Ig-. Gross structure. 3,36; 3, 85; 25, 88; 14, 24; 18,54. : Ih. Arrang-ements of bones in g-roups on basis of shape. 2h. Covering- of bones. li. At the ends in long- bones. 2i. Other portions of the bone. 3i. Nature and use of this covering". 3h. Enlarg-ements at the ends in long- bones. Use? 4h. Name of the middle portion of a long- bone. 5h. Internal structure of a long- bone, li. Name of the cavity. Ij. With what filled? Ik. Use of the marrow. 2i. Inside structure of the enlarg-cd ends. Ij. With what filled? 3i. What reason for bones being hol- low? SUPPORTING TISSUES 2^* 2g. Minute structure of bone. 2,40; 3,87; 25, 88; 14, 27; 18, 56; 30, 174. Ih. Haversian canals. li. Location, size, use. 2h. Lamellae. li. Location and arrang^ement. 3h. Lacunae. li. Location, use. 2i. Bone corpuscles. 4h. Canaliculi. li. Location, use. 4f. Chemical composition of bone. 2, 42; 14, 24; 18, 58. Ig*. Org"anic matter. Ih. Nature of. 2g". Inorg-anic matter. Ih. Nature of. 3g". Chemical composition as illustrated, in g-eneral, by the manufacture of g-elatine, bone black, bone ash phosphorus and fertilizers. 20. 5f. Development of bone. 25, 93; 18, 59. 6f. Hygiene of bones. 6, 47-52; 2, 43. Ig". In reference to clothing. 2g-. In reference to the habits of the per- son. 3g-. Fractures. 7f. Articulations. 2, 46; 3, 91; 18, 315. Ig-. Definition. 2g. Classes as to movement.. Ih. No movement vsutures). 2h. Little movement (spinal column). 3h. Free movement. SUPPORTING TISSUES li. Joints. Ij. Need of. 2]. Study of the hip joint. 2, 47; li, 92. Ik. Parts. 11. Lig"aments (two kinds). 21. The ball. 31. The socket (acetabulum^. 41. Articular cartilages. 51. Synovial membrane. 61. Synovial fluid. Im. Physiology of. 2k. Physiology of. 11. Effect of air pressure on the joint. 3, 92. 21. Movements. Im. Flexed, extended, ab- ducted, adducted, cir- cumducted, rotated. 3j. Locate the other ball and soc- ket joints of the body. 4j. Hinge joints. Ik. Describe and compare with ball and socket joints. 2k. Locate several of these. 5j. Pivot joints. Ik. Describe and locate. 6j. Gliding joints. Ik. Describe and locate. 7j. Hygiene of joints. Ik. Dislocation. 2k. Sprain. SUPPORTING TISSUES 31 LABORATORY EXERCISES. CONNECTIVE TISSUES. MATERIAI.S. Get from the butcHer several inelastic tendons, which are usually found near joints; and a yellow elastic lig-ament, which is found in the back of the neck of the cow or sheep. Have ready also a sharp razor; Far- rant's solution; picro-carmine; a one per cent, solution of g^lacial acetic acid; alcohol and hcematoxylin. Place pieces of both kinds of connective tissue in 50 per cent, alcohol for 24 hours then 70 per cent, alcohol and let them remain in the latter until ready for use. The tissues will be hardened by the alcohol so that they can be cut into sections with the razor. 1. White fibrous ok inelastic tissue. Pull a tendon to see whether or not it will stretch. 2. Tear a fine strip from a tendon and cut off a short piece, place it on a glass slip with a drop of water, then with two needles or pins tease the fibers apart as much as possible. Ap- ply a cover g^lass and examine with low and hig-h powers. Notice the fine fibers that make up the tissue. Draw. 3. With a sharp razor cut thin cross sections of a hardened tendon (see appendix for methods of cutting-), place these in picro-carmine until well stained, then mount them directly in Farrant's solution, without washing. Notice: 32 SUPPORTING TISSUES a. The outer covering- or sheath, which sends branches in between the bundles of fibers. b. The spaces between the bundles, some- what star-shaped and dark in ap- pearance if they contain air. c. The cut ends of the fibers. 4. Cut long-itudinal sections of the hardened tendon and stain them in hcematoxylin, mount in water and observe: a. The long-itudinally arrang^ed fibers. b. Between the fibers, rows of elongated tendon cells, or rather the nuclei of tendon cells. 5. In connective tissue, cartilag-e and bone, the chief function of the cells is to build up a secon- dary substance called, in the cartilag-e, the matrix or intercellular substance. After this is done the cell becomes rather insignifi- cant. This fact explains why the cell structure is not more definite in connective tissue. 6. Boil for some time a few bundles of white fibrous connective tissue. What effect? Can you draw any conclusion from this experiment as to wh}^ we cook meat? 1. The YELLOW FIBROUS OR ELASTIC TISSUE. Take a piece of the ligament found in the neck of the cow and pull it with the fingers. Describe its action. Compare with the white fibrous tissue. 2. Tear as small a strip as possible of the tissue then tease it on a glass slip and mount in water. Notice: SUPPORTING TISSUES 33 a. The shape and size of the fibers as com- pared with white fibrous tissue. /;. Look carefully to see if any of the fibers branch. c. Observe the curled ends of some of the fibers. d. Put a drop of acetic acid on the slide and allow it to run under the cover. Notice that the fibers are not affect- ed and no nuclei are made visible as in the white fibrous tissue. 3. Cut cross sections, stain them in picro-car- mine, mount in Farrant's solution and notice: a. The elastic fibers, stained yellow. b. The connective tissue which binds the yellow fibers tog-ether, stained red. c. The ends of the fibers. Shape? 4. Make a longitudinal section, stain with picro- carmine and notice the fibers and connective tissue. Draw. 5. Boil some of the yellow elastic tissue the same length of time you did the white fibrous. Effect? CARTILAGE. Materials. Get a joint from the leg- of a calf and have ready some heematoxylin, and a one per cent, solution of silver nitrate. 1. Hyaline cartilage. With a sharp razor make some thin sections of the cartilag-e found on the -end of the fresh joint. Make the sections in different directions. Mount a section in nor- mal salt solution and observe: B4 SUPPORTING TISSUES a. The cartilage cells, often in pairs. 0. The substance between the cells, the matrix or intercellular sub- stance. c. Are the cells evenly distributed through- out the entire section? If not where are they most numerous? 2. Remove the cover glass from the section just examined and apply a drop of hcematoxylin. Allow the stain to remain for five minutes then wash the section in water and replace the cover glass. Notice the stained cells. 3. Take a fresh section and put it in silver nitrate solution for five minutes, wash in water, then let it stand in water in the sunlight or bright day light until it turns brown. Mount and examine. Notice that the matrix has been stained brown by the silver. 4. Sections described under paragraphs 2 and 3 may be preserved permanently if mounted in glycerine or glycerine jelly. See appendix for methods. BONES. Materials. A dry bone; a fresh long bone; a file; a fine whetstone, or better two such stones; a saw; some hydrochloric acid and some dr}^ Canada balsam. 1. Gross STRUCTURE. Examine any long dry bone, such as the human femur or humerus or a simi- lar bone from some domestic animal, for the following points: a. The enlarged ends, the articular ex- treniities. ^ SUPPORTING TISSUES 35 h. The smaller central portion, the shaft. c. Notice the smooth surfaces on the enlarged ends. What use? d. Notice the rough places on the shaft and enlarged ends. What use are they? e. Look for small circular holes en- tering- the bone. What are they? 2. If a prepared specimen is not at hand, saw a long dry bone in two lengthwise and notice: a. The thickness of the walls of the shaft. Compare with the walls of the articular extremities. h. Notice the cavity in the shaft, medul- lary cavity. How far does it extend into the ends? c. What takes the place of the cavity in the ends of the bones? 3. Make a drawing showing the internal struc- ture of the sawed bone. 4. Examine the outside of a fresh bone. How do the articular surfaces differ from those of the dried bone? Look for the rough places mentioned under the gross structure of the dried bone. Saw open the fresh bone in the same manner that you did the dried one. a. Look for the medullary cavity. What does it contain? Of what is the substance composed? What color is it? h. What do you find in the ends? What color? How does it differ from the contents of the shaft? 86 SUPPORTING TISSUES c. Compare the inside of a fresh bone with that of the dried one. 1. Minute structure. In order to examine the minute structure of a bone it is necessary to have a prepared thin section. It is better to have tw^o, one made leng-thwise of the bone and one crosswise. Such sections may be prepared in the following- manner; Saw^ as thin a slice as possible, then rub it on a file until it is quite thin, much thinner than you will at first think it should be, then rub it on a very fine whet- stone with water, or better between two such stones, until it is so thin that light will pass throug-h it. Try f requentl}' under the microscope and con- tinue g-rinding- until all the parts can be made out. After the g-rinding" has g^one far enoug-h, allow the section to dry, then place it on ag-lass slip and cover with a cover glass. Run cement around the cover glass and the section is finished. The section may, however, be moun- ted in water and studied. A better way to mount it permanently is to allow it to dr}^ thoroughly then place on a glass slip a small lump of dry Canada balsam and warm it gently until it melts. While warm place the bone sec- tion in the balsam, apply the cover glass, then cool the slide as quickly as possible. The cool- ing must be rapid in order to prevent the bal- sam from penetrating the section, for in so do- ing the air is driven out and the section becomes too transparant to show the structure. SUPPORTING TISSUES 37 Since the preparation of bone sections is a long-, tedious process, not everyone will care to do it but most schools possessing* a compound microscope will have prepared sections at hand. 2. Under the low power notice: a. If a long-itudinal section, some opening's running- leng-thwise, the Haver- sian canals. If a cross section is examined the ends of these canals will be seen. b. All throug-h the bone and in concentric circles around the cross sectioned Haversian canals, notice the black spots, the lacunae. 2. Under the hig-h power (500 diameters) notice: a. In a cross section the concentric layers of long- platevS surrounding- an Ha- versian canal, the lamellse. h. Where, with reference to the lamellae, are the lacunae located? c. A number of fine lines, tubes, running- out from one lacuna to another, the canalicull. d. Look for canaliculi running- into the Haversian canals. What is the use of the canaliculi? What is the use of the lacunae? 3. Make a careful drawing- of some part of the section showing- all the minute structure of bone. 1. Chemical Composition. Take a small bone such as the tibia of a chicken (drum .stick) or the rib of a sheep, and find a tall wide necked 38 SUPPORTING TISSUES bottle into which the bone can be placed. Fill the bottle with a solution composed of one part hydrochloric acid and five parts water. After cleaning* the bone of all fat or flesh, place it in the solution and allow it to remain over night. If on examination the next morning the bone is not entirely soft, allow it to remain longer. How do you explain the change? 2. Place a piece of limestone or marble half the size of a grain of corn in the solution and notice what takes place. Compare with the action on the bone. 3. Place a bone in the fire and allow it to remain until completely burned. What is left? Try a piece of the ash in the acid solution. What conclusion do you reach concerning the chemi- cal composition of bone? JOINTS. Materials. Get from the butcher a few joints of different kinds from any small animal so that they will be convenient to handle. 1. Take up one of the joints and move its parts. a. In how many directions can it be moved? /;. Do any of the joints move like a hinge? 2. Examine carefully the tissues surrounding one of the joints. a. In what directions do these tissues run? Make a drawing showing the ar- rangement of the ligaments, after the fat has been removed. 3. With a sharp knife carefully trim away this outer covering, capsular lij»aiiieiits, of the joint. SUPPORTING TISSUES 39 a. Ivookfor any fluid, the synovial flviitl, that may escape. How does this fluid feel when rubbed between the fing-ers? Its use? h. Pull the joint apart and notice the articular cartilages. Did the joint contain a round ligament? Such lig-aments are found in some joints, as the hip joint in the human body. MOTOR TISSUES. MOTOR TISSUES. la. Motion in plants and animals. 3, 119. 2a. General characteristics of motor tissue. 3, 119; 17, 469; 6, 57; 5, 9; 25, 112. 3a. Kinds of motor tissues. lb. Amoeboid cells. 2, 151; 3, 110; 9, 170; 25, 62; 12, 157; 11, I, 168. Ic. Undifferentiated nature of. 2b. Ciliated cells. 3, 110; 9, 170; 17, 46; 12, 154; 11,1, 164. 13, II, 559. Ic. Structure. 30, 135-140. 2c. Location. 3c. Physiology of. 3b. Muscles. 2, 52; 3, 112; 0, 57-78; 5, 9-28; 5, 371-381; 8, 33-53; 23, 355-461. Ic. Number in the body. 2, 52. 2c. Variation in size and leng-th. 3c. Uses of muscles. 1(1. Primary. 2, 52. 2d. Secondary. 4c. Classes as to structure and location. Id. Skeletal muscles (striped). 3, 113. le. Parts of a typical one. 2, 52; 3, 112. If. Tendons. 2f. Body or belly. 2e. Orig-in and insertion. 2, 55; 3, 115. 3e. Forms as to shape. 2, 55; 3, 116. If. Biceps. 2f. Triceps. MOTOR TISSUES 41 3f. Penniform. 4f. Bipenniform. 5f. Dig-astric. 6f. Polyg"astric. 4e. Arrang"ement of muscles in pairs. 2, 56. 5e. Gross structure of striped muscles. 2, 57; 3, 117. 11, I, 86. 13, II, 562. If. Coveritig-. 2f- Division of into fasciculi. 3f. Further division of the fasciculi. 3, 117. 6e. Histolog"y of striped muscles. 2, 58; 3, 117; 25, 114; 11, I, 90; 13, II, 562. If. The muscle fiber. 3, 117-122; 25, 119; 30, 193. 2d. Plain muscular tissue. 2, 59; 25, 121; 12, 149. 11, I, 158; 13, II, 571. le. Where found? 2e. Structure. If. Compare with striped muscle. 3d. Cardiac or heart muscle. 2, 61; 3, 123; 25, 123. 13, II, 571. 5c. Chemical composition. 2, 61; 3, 123; 25, 123; 17, 474; 12, 104; 11, I, 97; 13, II, 575. Id. Difficulties in determining-. 2d. Chief constituents. 3d. Beef teas and extracts. 3, 125. 6c. Physiolog*y of muscles. Id. Properties of muscular tissue. 17, 473. le. Contractility. 3, 127; 13, II, 575. If. Effect of differentiation. 2f. Chang^e of form but not quantit3^ 42 MOTOR TISSUES 2e. Irritability. 3, 128; 10, 38; 13, II, 585. If. Stimuli.' 3, 128; 25, US; 17, 481; 12, 111. Ig-. Nervous impulse. 2g. Electric. 10, 68. 3g-. Heat. 10, 66. 4g-. Chemical. 5g. Mechanical. 6g-. How show that these do not simply act on the nerves? 3, 130. 2f. Theory of "vital spirits" of the older physiologists. 3, 130. 2d. A simple muscular contraction. 3, 130; 25, 126; 1-1, 41; 17, 490; \2, 82; 11, I, 69. 3d. Physiological tetanus. 3, 133; 25, 131. le. Effect of continuous shock? 3, 134. 4d. What is rigor mortis? 3, 123-457; 25, 134; 17, 502. 5d. Source of muscular energy. 3, 140; 25,135. 6d. Generalphysiology of muscles. 2,64; 3,144. 7d. Special ph3'siolog'y of muscles. 8d. Levers. 2, 64; 3,' 145; 25, 138; 17, 505. le. First class or order. If. Explain and give illustration from the body. 2e. Second class, with illustration. 3e. Third class, with illustration. 4e. Advantages and disadvantages under which muscles work. If. Muscular work, in general. 3, 148. 9d. Pulleys. 2, 67. lOd. Posture of the body and how kept. 2, 67; MOTOR TISSUES 43 17, 506. lid. Locomotion. le. Walking-. 2, 69; 17, 510. 2e. Running-. 2, 71; 17, 510. 3e. Leaping-, 3, 153. *) 12d. General physiology of muscle and nerve. 10, 32-152; 14, 40; 1*^, 73; 11, I, 57. 7c. Blood vessels of muscles. 14, 39; 25, 131; 13, II, 567. 8c. Hyg-iene of muscles. 2, 72; 25, 141; 6, 78-96. Id. Necessity of. 2d. Varieties of exercise. 3d. The g-ymnasium. LABORATORY EXERCISES. AMOEBOID CELLS. 1. Draw a drop of blood from the little finger near the root of the nail by inserting- the point of a needle under the skin. Place the drop on a g-lass slip which has been warmed to about the temperature of the body, dilute with a little normal salt solution (six parts of salt to one thousand of water), apply a cover g-lass and look for movement in the white corpuscles. 2. Sketch two or three of the corpuscles in dif- ferent positions. 3. What physiolog-ical properties do the white *) A full discussion of this topic can be undertaken only with advanced classes. It may be desirable to omit it until after the study of the nervous system. 44 MOTOR TISSUES corpuscles seem to possess that they may move thus? Note, The success cf these exercises on amoeboid cells depends upon the temperature at which the preparation is kept, and upon the power of the microscope. The blood should be kept at about the temperature of the body, and the microscope should magnify at least 500 diameters. The temperature of the preparation may be easily regulated by having at hand a strip of sheet copper about one inch wide and a foot long. One end of the strip should be placed on the glass slip near the cover glass, after the slide has b«en fixed in the microscope, and the other end should be supported by some object so that it will be level. Place a spirit lamp or other heat under the strip and move it about until you find that the blood is being nicely warmed. Any desired temperature may thus be obtained. CILIATED CELLS. Materials. A frog*; a piece of wire; normal salt solution; some sweet oil; a clam and some one-tenth per cent, osmic acid. 1. Kill the frog- by severing" the spinal cord just back of the head, then probe the brain to de- stroy it. Remove the frog's lower jaw with a pair of scissors, cutting- well back so as to ex- pose the pharynx and oesophagus. Pin the frog- on a board so that the cut surface will face upwards, wash the mucus from the roof of the mouth with water then drop some pieces of powdered cork on the hard palate between the two eyes. Notice that the pieces of cork travel slowly towards the stomach. 2. Scrape a little of the mucous coat from one side of the roof of the mouth of the frog-, tease this in normal salt solution on a g-lass slip, apply a cover g-lass and look for ciliated cells. MOTOR TISSUES 45 a. Can you see the cilia? 'b. What effect have they on the blood cor- puscles and other loose cells? c. What peculiar movement of the cilia causes the floating- matter to move in one direction only? ■ d. Put some oil around the edg-e of the cover g"lass to prevent evaporation, and set the slide aside for a time. Kxamine occasionally to see how long- the cilia will live. A better idea can be had concerning- them after they beg-in to move slow^er. 2. Open the clam and find the broad membran- ous portion, the gills. (If you are not sure of these, place the opened clam in water and the g-ills will be seen to float up). Cut out a small portion of a g-ill and mount it in water and look for cilia. a. How do they compare with those of the frog-? b. Study ag-ain the manner of movement. 3. Take the frog- used in the above experiment and* on the portion of the roof of the mouth not scraped let fall two or three drops of osmic acid. Place the frog- on its back under a tumbler or g-lass jar, where it should remain for half an hour or long-er, then let water run g-ently over the blackened portion to remove the acid. Scrape the blackened portion gently and mount some of the cells in dilute g-lycerine. Be sure that the cells are well separated before appl}- ing- the cover g-lass. This can easily be done 46 MOTOR TISSUES by using" two needles. a. What is the shape of the cells? h. Look for the cilia. Are they in a row around the edge of the cell or are they spread over its entire surface? c. Compare the length of the cilia with the length of the cell. d. Draw cells in various positions. e. Preserve the section permanently by running cement around the edge of the cover glass. STRIATED MUSCLE. Materials. Get from the butcher a com- plete long muscle with the tendons attached; the frog used in the study of ciliated cells, if the muscle study is taken up in a short time after the ciliated cell study, otherwise a fresh frog should be killed. Muscle changes in a short time after death. Have ready some glycerine; borax carmine; a grashopper or beetle, needles and, if possible, a microtome and paraf&n im- bedding outfit. 1. Gross Structure. In the long muscle with attached tendons notice: a. Is there any distinct point where muscle leaves off and tendon begins? b. Try to prove for yourself that the ten- dons really extend tliroiigli the muscle, forming many little cylin- drical tubes in which the real mus- cular tissue lies. c. Look for a covering over the muscle, MOTOR TISSUES 47 perimysium. With forceps strip some of it off. 2. Cut the muscle in two crosswise. a. Look for white connective tissue ex- tending" throug"h the muscle. h. Notice that the muscle is divided into rather larg^e bundles each sur- rounded by connective tissue. c. Find a division of the larg-e bundles into smaller bundles, fasciculi. Have you seen these fasciculi in cooked meats? d. Notice the fat between the bundles. 3. Make a long-itudinal cut through the muscle and notice the points indicated under the cross section. 4. Make drawing's of cross and long^itudinal sec- tions and indicate by colors or shading- the dif- ferent parts. 5. Kxamine boiled and roast beef the first time it appears on the dinner table. 1. Minute Structure. Remove the skin from one of the legs of the frog used above, and with forceps strip off the white connective tis- sue, perimysium. Take hold of a small por- tion of the muscle and strip it down in a simi- lar manner and at once place it on a glass slip with a little normal salt solution. With nee- dles seperate the fibers as much as possible, then apply the cover glass. a. Are the fibers all of the same size? h. Look for the alternate dark and 48 MOTOR TISSUES light stripes across the muscle. This appearance g-ives the name striped muscle. c. Look for the broken places in the fibers. Can YOU distinguish an almost transparent sheath which covers the fiber, the sarcoleiiiiiia? 2. Allow the preparation to stand for twenty or thirty minutes, then examine again. In the mean time, add a little salt solution to keep the muscle from dr3'ing. What change has taken place? 3. Remove the hard shell from the large part of the leg of a grasshopper, or better, a water beetle, tear out a little of the muscle, tease it out in salt solution, as before, and examine for striated muscle. Compare it with that of the frog. Try muscles from other animals. 4. Make accurate drawings showing the minute structure of muscle. 5. If it is desired to make permanent slides of striped muscular fibers, place some muscle that has been hardened in alcohol or formalin in borax carmine for twenty four hours, wash in water, tease in glycerine and mount in gh^- cerine or glycerine jelly. The value of the preparations will depend on how carefully the muscle is teased. 6. If the laboratory is fitted with paraf&n appa- ratus and a microtome both longitudinal and cross sections of muscle should be made and examined. See appendix for methods. Direc- tions for a more detailed study of the minute MOTOR TISSUES 49 structure of striped muscle will be found in 80, 193-199. UNSTRIATED MUSCLE. MATERIAI.S. Get from the butcher a piece of the intestine or gullet three or four da3^s in ad- vance of the lesson and put it in a solution of bichromate of potash (one part to ten of water) . Cut a longitudinal strip from the intestine and remove from both the inner and outer sides as much of the tissue as you can. 1. Fray out with needles a small portion of the remaining muscle, on a glass slip, mount in water and look for unstriated fibers. a. Can you make out the shape of the cells? Look in your text-book for figures of these cells and verify the figures. 2. Stain the preparation b}^ allowing a drop of , hasmatoxylin or ha?malum to run under the cover glass. a. Do you see a nucleus in any of the cells? 3. Make an accurate drawing of an unstriated muscle cell. 4. Cut sections of a piece of hardened intestine that has been imbedded in paraffin, stain in heematoxylin, mount in Canada balsam and observe the unstriated muscular tissue which is found in the walls. These preparations are permanent and can be used when the study of the intestine is reached. CARDIAC MUSCLE. Materials. Farrant's solution; some fresh heart tissue; 20 per cent, nitric acid or 2 per 50 MOTOR TISSUES cent, potassium bichromate; picro-carmine. 1. Place some very small pieces of the fresh heart muscle in the 20 per cent, nitric acid for two days or in the 2 per cent, potassium bichro- mate solution for the same time, then tease on a slide in Farrant's solution and examine. Notice: a. That the cross striations are present but not so marked as in true striated muscle. b. The shape of the fibers, which are short and thick with branching" pro- cesses that meet similar processes from neighboring* cells. 2. Tease in ghxerine a piece of heart muscle that was put fresh into picro-carmine and has been standing in the same for several days. a. Notice the well defined nucleus. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 1. Experiments. Grasp the upper right arm with the left hand then alternatel}^ straighten and draw up the forearm. What change occurs in the biceps muscle? What change in the triceps, which is on the under side of the arm? When does the muscle seem'most firm, in con- tracting or relaxing? What really takes place when a muscle contracts? 2. Grasp the forearm, then close the hand. Where is the muscle that closes the hand? Where is the muscle that* opens the hand? Look on the back of the hand for the tendons that straighten the fingers. MOTOR TISSUES 51 3. Get from the butcher the foot of a chicken. Remove the skin and notice how the tendons are distributed to the various toes. Notice that some of the tendons pass throug-h loops or, as thev are called bj some physiologists, pulleys. By pulling" the various tendons determine which ones close, flex, the toes? Which ones straig-hten, extend, the toes? 4. Stand on the tiptoe and then determine which muscles become rig-id in so doing-. Locate the muscles that extend and flex the foot. 5. Locate the muscles which close the jaws. 6. Can you explain now why we feel so tired across the small of the back after standing- for several hours? 7. Place a frog- under a jar with a little ether, for a few minutes, then cut throiig-h the skin at the base of the skull, insert a wire into the skull cavity and destroy the brain. a. Pinch the frog-'s toe and notice that it moves. h. Touch the toe with a hot wire. What follows? c. Touch the skin on the leg- or foot with some acid. Result? d. Allow the current from an induction coil to pass throug-h the foot. Result? 8. In the experiments under 7, the results mig-ht be attributed entirely to the nervous.connection, but if a little curare be injected under the skin of the frog- the motor nerve endings in the muscles will be paralyzed. Remove the skin 53 MOTOR TISSUES from the leg of the frog* and try the experiments indicated under 7 and it will be found that the muscle is still contractile. A 1 per cent, watery solution of commercial curare should be used for the experiment and two or three drops of it may be injected under the skin with a hypoder- mic S3^ringe or a pipette. 9. If the laboratory possesses a kymograph, in- duction coil and time marker, a nerve-muscle preparation should be made and experimented on. Since this apparatus will be found in but few schools where elementary work is done in Physiology, directions for its use will not be given here. Full directions for such work will be found in an}- of the following: 82, 157; 33; 10; 11; 12; 13; 15; 23; 35. 10. Take a book in the hand and hold it out at right angles from the body until the arm becomes quite tired. Notice that the arm will gradually fall. Continued muscular action soon tires the muscle. 1. Levers. Place a book on the table and under one edge of it insert the end of a ruler. Lay your pencil under the ruler near the book then pull down on the free end of the ruler. The ruler here acts as a lever of the first class. The pencil is the point of support or the fulcrum, the book is the weight and the hand the power. Notice that the fulcrum is between the power and the weight. Allow the head to drop forward then lift it up. Where is the fulcrum, the power, the weight? MOTOR TISSUES 53 The power arm of a lever multiplied by the iiower is equal to the weight arm multiplied by the weight, or written as a formula, PAxP=WAxW. If any three are g-iven the other can easily be found. How much can a man lift with a lever of the first class if he weig-hs 150 pounds and the PA of the lever is 10 feet and the WA 5 feet? Draw a diag-ram of this lever in your note book and show the result. 2 Experiment ag-ain with the book and the ruler but this time push the ruler under until the end projects on the other side of the book. Lift up on the long- end of the ruler and you have a lever of the second class. The table under the stationary end of the ruler is the fulcrum, the book, the weight and the hand the power. Draw a diag-ram of the levers and solve the following- problems: In a lever of the second class, how much can a man lifting 150 pounds raise, if the bar is 15 feet long and the weight 5 feet from the fulcrum? Estimate the length of your foot, the distance from the ankle or as- tragulus bone, where the weight rests, to the heel, where the tendon of Achilles fastens, then determine how much power is exerted on the tendon of Achilles in lifting the body on one tiptoe. 3. Lay your ruler on the table and on one end of it place a book. Hold the other end down with one hand and with the other hand lift up on the ruler in the middle. You have now a lever of the third class. Supposing that in 54 MOTOR TISSUES throwing- hay on a wagon a man should hold the upper end of the pitchfork handle station- ary in his rig-ht hand and grasp the fork handle with the left hand two and one-half feet below the upper end, that the length of the fork handle is 8}^ feet and that the man can exert a force of 50 pounds with his left arm. what is the weight of the ha}^ which he can just lift on the wagon? If he loses in power in what may he gain? Estimate the length of your fore arm from the palm of the hand to the elbow and the distance from the elbow to where the tendon of the biceps muscle joins the radius bone. Place the elbow against the body then determine by experiment how many pounds you can lift with your hand. From the above data determine how much work the biceps muscle must do to lift the weight. Locate several third class levers in the body. What are the advantages of a third class lever? What are the disadvantages? DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION^ ALIMENTARY CANAL. 25,264:15,200. 12; 11; 24. la. What it is. 5, 194. 2a. Complexity. 3, 328. 3a. Development of. 36. 4a. Lining- of. lb. Nature of mucous membrane and mucus. 5a. Parts of. lb. Glands, in g-eneral. 2, 106-109; 6, 121; 9, 140; 25, 249. Ic. Forms of. 3, 284. 2c. Secretion. 15, 319; 10, 152. Id. Physical explanation. 3, 286. 2d. Chemical explanation. 3, 287. 2b. Mouth. 6, 122; 13, 237. Ic. Parts. Id. The teeth. 2, 112; 3, 329; 5, 199; 6, 123; 13, 260. le. The g-ums. 2e. Development of. 18, 899; 36; 13, 260. 3e. Sets of teeth. If. Number in each set. 2f. Why is the milk set necessary? 3f. Name and locate the different kinds of permanent teeth. 2,112. 4e. Structure of a tooth. 2, 113; 3, 331. If. Gross. 56 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 2f. Minute. Ig". Enamel. 2g. Cement. 3g-. Dentine. 4g'. Pulp. 5e. Compare the human teeth with those of the cow, rabbit, cat and dog". 15, 304. he. Hyg-iene of teeth. 2, 114. If. What causes teeth to decay? 2f. How does the dentist fill a tooth? 3f. What thing's are injurious to teeth? 4f. What advice should be g-iven to child- ren? 2d. The tong-ue. 2, 115; 3, 332; 13, 264. le. Location and shape of the org"an. 2e. Of w^hat kind of tissue composed? 3e. The papillae. 3, 333. If. Circumvallate. Ig. Location and description. 2f. Fung-iform. Ig-. Location and description. 3f. Filiform. Ig". Location and description. 2g'. Compare with those of the cat. 3, 334. 4f. Physiolog"y of the papillae. 4e. Taste buds. ' 3, 334. 5e. What is a "furred" tongue? 2, 117; 3, 334. If. Indication. 3d. Salivary glands. 2, 117; 3, 334; 5, 203; 13, 241; 14, 317, 324. DIGESTIVE ORGANS. FOODS AND DIGESTION 57 le. Name and location of each. If. Their secretion. 4d. The fauces. 2, 119; 3, 335. le. Bounded by what? 2e. Pillars of fauces. If. Tonsils. Ig-. Diseases of. 2, 119. 5d. Pharynx. 2, 117; 3, 335; 6, 128. le. Location and description. 2e. Openings. 3e. Epiglottis. 3b. Oesophagus. 2, 120; 3, 336; 6, 128. Id. Location. 2d. Structure (coats). le. Describe each carefully. 3d. Length. 4d. Physiology of. 4b. Stomach. 2, 120; 3, 336; 5, 213; 6, 129; 13 273, 284; 12, 319. Id. Location. 2d. Shape. 3d. Size. 4d, Openings. 5d. Great omentum. 3, 336. 6d. Structure (coats). 3, 337. le. Outer serous coat. 2e. Muscular coat of three layers. 2, 122. 3e. Submucous coat. 4e. Mucous coat. If. Folds of. 2f. Gastric glands. 7d. The pylorus. 3, 338. 8d. Blood vessels of the stomach.. 3, 337. 58 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 9d. Nerves of the stomach. 3, 337. 5b. Small intestine. 2, 123; 3, 399; 6, 134. Id. Size at the pylorus. 2d. Leng-th. 3d. Arbitrary divisions, le. Duodenum. 2e. Jejunum. 3e. Ileum. 4d. Structure. le. Coats. 2, 123. If. Compare the serous, muscular and sub- mucous coats with those of the gullet and stomach. 2f. Mucous. 3, 339. Ig-. The valvulEE conniventes. 2, 123. Ih. Where located. 2h. Use. 2g-. The villi. 2, 124; 3, 340. Ih. Where most numerous? 2h. Minute structure. 3h. Function. 5d. Glands of. le. Those in the walls. If. Crypts of Lieberkuehn. 2, 125; 3, 341. Ig-. Locate. 2g'. Function. 2f. Brunner's glands. 3, 341. 2e. Those opening into the duodenum from outside the walls. If. Pancreas. 3, 3+6; C>, 141. Ig". Kind of gland. 2g'. Size and location. 3g". Secretion. DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 59 2f. The liver. 2, 128; 3, 344; G, 137; 13, 309; 14, 217. Ig". Location. 2g. Size. 3g. Structure. 4g. Blood vessels. Sg. Bile sac and duct. 6g. Secretion. 6d. The mesenteries. 14, 189. 6b. Large intestine. 2, 155; 3, 342; 6, 136. Id. Position. 2d. Leng-th. 3d. Diameter. 4d. Divisions, le. Caecum. If. Vermiform appendix. 2, 127. Ig-. Explanation of. 2g". Disease of. 2e. Colon. 3e. Rectum. 5d. Structure (coats). 6d. Ileo-colic valve. 3, 342. le. Function. 7b. Ductless g-lands more or less closely connected with the alimentary canal. Id. The spleen. 5, 356; 2, 163, 299; 10, 260, 272; 14, 225. le. Location. 2e. Structure. 3e. Probable function. 2d. Thyroid g-land. 3, 357; 2, 299-300; 14, 228. le. Location. 60 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 2e. Probable function. 3e. Disease of. 3d. Thymus. 3, 358; 2, 130; 14, 229. le. Location. FOODS. 7, 107-155; 25, 308; 15, 290; 10, 213; 38; 14, 153; 11; 12, 24, I. la. Introduction. lb. Losses g"oing on constantly in the body. 3, 299; 6, 97; 14, 15S. Ic. In food matter. 2c. In energ-y. J^, 301. Id. What is the source of this energ-y? 2, 74; 14, 160. 2d. What is conservation of energ-y? 2, 74; 3, 302. le. Illustrate. 2b. Why we need food. 2, 115; 6, 97. Ic. To furnish energ-}^ 2c. To furnish heat. Id. Temperature of a healthy human body. 3, 76; 3, 477; 9, 13b; 35, 376; 10, 575. 2d. What is meant by warm and cold blooded animals? 3, 477. 3d. What is meant by oxidation in the body? 3, 78; 3, 309. 3b. How can ox3'g-en be considered a food? 3, 81. 4b. What is meant by nutrition, in its broadest sense? 3, 451-476; 35, 365. 2a. What is a food? 3, 88; 3, 317. 3a. What must a food contain? 3,313-314; 3,88. lb. Importance of albumens. 3, 89; 3, 319. DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 61 4a. Relation of plants and animals to each other. 3, 90. lb. Show that plants build up and animals tear down. 5a. What is a non-oxidizable food? 2, 90; 3, 316. 6a. Kinds of foods or "alimentary principles". 5, 167; 6, 99; 9, 144; 14,155. lb. Albumens or proteids. 3, 319. Ic. Composition. 2c. Common forms. 2, 92. 3c. Value as foods. 2, 94; 10, 282. Id. Energ-y producers. 2d. Heat producers. 2, 95. 4c. What are the albuminoids? 3, 319. 2b. Hydrocarbons or fats and oils. 2, 94; 3, 319. Ic. Composition. 2c. Common examples. 3c. Value of as foods. 10, 282. Id. As energ-y producers. 2d. Heat producers. 2, 95. 4c. Source of our supply. 3b. Carbohydrates or starches and sugars. 3, 319; 2, 94. Ic. Composition. 2c. Common forms. . 3c. Value as foods. 10, 292. Id. As energ*y producers. 2d. As heat producers. 2, 95. 4c. Source of our supply. 4b. Inorg-anic foods. 2, 96; 3, 320. Ic. Water. Id. Use. 2c. Salts. 62 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION Id. Kinds. 2d. Value. 7a. Importance of the following- as foods: pork, beef, corn, wheat, beans, peas, egg"S, milk, cheese, butter, fruits. 3, 321-323; G, 103. lb. Some parasites in pork. Ic. Tape worm. 20. 2c. Trichina. 2, 97. Id. Life history. 3c. How should pork always be cooked? 8a. Alcohol, tea and coffee as foods. 2, 98-99; 3, 323; 5, 174; 6, 113, 159. 9a. Why do we need a mixed diet? 3, 325; 2, 101. DIGESTION. 9, 152-168; 25, 327; 15, 290; 17, I29; 12; 11; 24. la. Object of. 2, 131; 3, 361; 6, 119; 9, 143. 2a. In the mouth. 6, 122; 7, 51-65; 17, 151; 1.0, 220; 14, 166. lb. The saliva. 2, 131; 3, 361-362; 14, 169; 12, 302. Ic. Nature of. Id. Chemical composition. 2c. Dig-estive action. 2, 131; 13, 254. 3c. Physical action. 2b. Absorption in the mouth. 0, 145. 3b. Describe the process of swallowing* (deg^luti- tion). 2, 131; (>, 128; 17, 134; 13, 266. 3a. In the stomach. 0, 132; 7, 66-77; 17, 169; 10, 225; 14, 176. lb. Gastric juice. 2, 135; 3, 365; 13, 289; 14, 182; 12, 307. Ic. Chemical composition. DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 63 Id. Pepsin. le. Dig-estive action. 3, 135. 2d. Other compounds. le. Dig-estive action of each. 2b. Condition of the food in the stomach. 2, 136. " 3b. Absorption in the stomach. 2, 144; (5, 145. 4a. In the small intestine. 7, 79-88; 17, 182; 14, 190. lb. Dig-estive fluids. 8, 368. Ic. Pancreatic juice. 2, 137; 6, 142; 13, 303; 14, 184. Id. Chemical composition. 2, 137-138; 3, 369. le. Dig-estiv^e action of each compound. 2c. Bile. 3, 370; 0, 138; 17, 189; 13, 315, 324; lO, 260; 14, 187. Id. Chemical composition. 2d. Dig-estive action of. 2, 139; 3, 370; 13, 334; 15,313. 3c. Other intestinal juices. 2, 140; 3, 371. Id. Effect in dig-estion. 2, 141. 2b. Condition of the food in the small intestine. 3b. Absorption in the small intestine. 2, 144; 3, 540. Ic. Describe the lacteals. 2, 124, 145; G, 145. 2c. The thoracic duct. 2, 161; 6, 146. 5a. The larg-e intestine. 13, 345. lb. Condition of the food matter here. G, 144. 2b. Absorption in. 2, 146. 6a. Movements of the alimentary canal. 3, 378; 15, 331; 10, 307; 14, 203. 7a. What is dialysis or osmosis? lb. Its relation to absorption. 17, 209; 13, 353; 10, 250; 14, 194. 64 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 8a. What is assimilitaon? 7, 89-97. 9a. Hyg-iene of digestion. 5, 230. lb. Dyspepsia. 2, 142. Ic. Causes. 2c. Forms of. Id. Palpitation of the heart. 2b. Cooking". Ic. Object. 2c. Methods. LABORATORY EXERCISES. *)THE DISSECTION OF A MAMMAL. Materials. A cat or rabbit or even a rat; a pair of forceps; a sharp knife and a bottle of chloroform or sulphuric ether. 1. Place the animal in a tight box or under a large battery jar, then insert some cotton which has been saturated with the chloroform or ether. When the animal is dead, which will be in eight or ten minutes, remove it to a board with a nail in each corner, to which the limbs can be tied. Notice the following external features: a. The main parts of the body, as head, trunk and limbs. b. Compare the fore limbs with those of your own body as to bones, joints and movements. Do the same with the hind limbs. *) The student's attention is directed to a number of organs that do not belong to the alimentary canal because it is impracticable to have a different animal tor each set of organs. DIGESTIVE ORGANS. FOODS AND DIGESTION 65 c. The shape of the chest as compared with that of the human body. Why so different? d. The hair which covers the animal. Can 3'ou notice more than one kind of hair? e. The long- stiff hairs or whiskers about the mouth. What is their use? f. Are any parts not covered with hair? g. Shape and texture of the external ears. h. What moverdents have the claws? How is the sole of the foot cov- ered? How well is the foot adapted to the habits of the ani- mal? 2. Open the movith of the animal and notice: a. The teeth. Compare each g-roup with those of your own mouth. h. The gums. c. Draw out the tongue and observe the papillae on the upper surface. In the cat the filiforin papillee are stiff and sharp. Use? Look for the circuiii vallate papillee on the back portion of the tongue. In the rabbit two patches, the papil- lae foliatse, on the sides of the back portion of the tongue, contain numerous taste buds. d. The roof of the mouth, formed b}^ the hard palate in frcmt and the soft palate behind. Find the uvula, 66 DIGESTIVE ORGANS. FOODS AND DIGESTION a small projection hang-ing- down near the back of the mouth cavity. 3. Cut just throug-h the skin along- the middle line of the chest and abdomen, loosen it from the body and pin the cut edg-es back. Notice the muscles of the chest and abdomen and the directions in which they run. Carefully cut throug-h the abdominal wall from the tip of the sternum downwards. Make a transverse cut on each side and pin back the four flaps. Ob- serve: a. The coiled intestine and distinguish both larg-e and small intestines. h. In the upper portion of the cavity, the larg-e dark colored liver, under which lies the stomach. c. Notice the partition which separates the thoracic and abdominal cavi- ties, the diaphragm. Of what kind of tissues is it composed? 4. Lift up the stomach and find the oesopliagvis where it passes throug-h the diaphragm. 5. Tie the oesophagus in two places here and cut it off between the ligatures. Lift up the stomach and notice its shape. Make a drawing of it, showing where the oesophagus enters and where the intestine leaves. 6. On the right side and more or less loosely con- nected with the stomach notice a long brown body, the spleen. 7. Along the first part of the small intestine dis- tinguish a pinkish gland, the pancreas. 8. Examine the liver more carefully and see how DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 67 many lobes it has. Find the gall sac. Can 5"0U trace the "bile duct to where it enters the in- testine? Look for the blood vessels of the liver. 9. The membrane and blood vessels which are fastened all along- the intestine form the mes- entery. Notice how it is fastened. 10. Trace the small intestine to where it enters the larg-e intestine. Notice the side branch, the csecuiii. Does it have an appendix? The caecum is ver}- large in the rabbit, smaller in the cat. 11. Trace the large intestine and notice its posi- tion. 12. Lift up the intestines and observe about the middle of the back and on each side of the mid- dle two dark bodies, more or less buried in fat, the kidneys. Find a tube, the ureter, lead- ing- from each one. Trace the tubes to where they enter the yellowish colored sac, the bladder, which is located in the posterior por- tion of the abdominal cavity. Notice the blood vessels which lead to and from the kidneys. 13. Tie the intestine in two places about six inches from the stomach, cut it off and carefully slit open both stomach and intestine under run- ning water. In the stomach notice: a. The openings, cardiac and pyloric. h. The nature of the mucous membrane lining the stomach. c. The mucous membrane of the intestine arranged in folds and these cov- ered with villi. 14. Notice the lining of the abdominal cavity, the 68 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION peritoiieum. How does it feel to tbe touch? 15. Grasp the diaphrag-m with a pair of forceps and pull down on it. Can yo;i hear air rush in at the mouth? 16. Observe the lung-s throug-h the diaphragm and note their position. With a knife point prick a hole in one side of the diaphragm. Why did the lung collapse? 17. Open up the chest cavity by cutting in a me- dian line from the lower point of the sternum to the upper end of the cavity. Pin back the walls and notice: a. The lining. h. The blood vessels along each rib. c. The general arrangement of the lungs and heart. d. The oesophagus. 18. Insert a tube through the mouth into the windpipe and blow up the lungs. Notice: a. The lobes of the lungs. h. How the lungs fit about the heart. 19. Examine the heart as to position and shape. Slit open the membrane covering it, the peri- cardium. Observe the inner surface of this membrane. Did any liquid escape when the membrane was cut? Does the pericardium fit the heart closely? 20. Cut the skin along the under side of the neck and carefully remove it from one side of the head and neck. Trace the oesophagus and trachea to the pharynx. Notice the rings in the trachea. 21. Look for the salivary glands, the largest just DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 69 under tHe ear. Remove this gland and harden it in Perenyi's fluid (see appendix). THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL. The Mouth. With a mirror before you open the mouth and examine it. 1. Distinguish the fiiiig'iforiii papillae, little red dots scattered over the surface of the tongue. 2. . Distinguish the very numerous filiforiii papillae that cover all the surface between the fungiform papillee. Allow a drop of vin- egar to fall on the tongue. What effect on the papillae? 3. Press down on the back portion of the tongue with a pencil or other object and notice the very large circuiiivallate papillae. 4. Try tasting salt on different portions of the tongue. Where can you taste it best? Try sugar. 5. Count your teeth and distinguish the different kinds. Have you any "wisdom" teeth? 6. Notice the roof of the mouth and the uvula. 7. Imbed in paraffin a piece of the hardened salivary gland referred to under materials, cut sections, mount and examine. Notice the typ- ical gland structure of alveoli and ducts. 8. Examine a longitudinal section of a tooth, if such a section can be had, and notice the fol- lowing: a. The enamel. Has it any structure? h. The dentine. Structure? c. The cement. 70 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION d. The pulp cavity. e. Make a careful drawing- showing the structure of the tooth. THE OESOPHAGUS, STOHACH AND INTESTINE. 1. Make sections by the paraf&n method of the hardened oesophagus and distinguish under the microscope the following coats: a. The outer serous coat. b. Qnder this a muscular coat of two layers, one circular, the other longitudinal. c. Next a submucous coat. d. An inner mucous coat. 2. Make sections of a piece of stomach and ex- amine in the same way that you did the oesophagus. What likenesses and differences do you note? 3. Make sections of the small intestine and note the following: a. The outer serous coat. h. The muscular coat. Compare with that of the stomach and oesopha- gus. c. The inner mucous coat. On this notice the projecting villi. 4. Section a small piece of liver, stain in haematoxylin and note the rather large lobules, and in these the liver cells. If a piece of liver from an injected animal can be had the results will be much better. FOODS. Materials. A piece of beef steak; common vegetables; an ^^^'^ nitric acid; test tubes; am- DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 71 monia; caustic soda; copper sulphate; fresh milk; iodine solution; several common g^rains and seeds; g"lucose; sulphuric acid; Fehling-'s solution (appendix); raisins; flour; sodium carbonate; common sug-ar; sweet oil; benzine. 1. Water in foods. Take a small piece of meat, weigh it, then put it over a flame or in a current of air and keep it there until perfectly dry. How much water evaporated? The piece must be small or the drying* will be very slow and will not be complete. 2. Try pieces of cabbage, potato and other veg'etables in the same way. 1. Ai^BUMENS OR PROTKiDS. Shake up some white of eg'g" thoroug'hly in water, then filter throug"h cloth, add strong- nitric acid to a por- tion of the filtered liquid in a test tube. Heat and notice the yellow color. Allow the pre- paration to cool, then add a little ammonia. Look for an orange color. This is a common test for albumin. 2. To another portion of the eg^g- solution add some strong" caustic soda. To this add two or three drops of a 1 per cent, solution of copper sulphate. Warm the tube g-ently and notice the violet color. This is a second test for albumin. 3. Put some white of eg^g* in a test tube, place in the same a thermometer, then heat g-ently and watch for the coag-ulation point. 4. Test macaroni, a product of flour, by making- a solution and then applying- test number 1. Test a little of the scum from boiled milk in 72 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION the same manner. For further experiments on proteids see 32, 1-14. 1. Carbohydrates or starches And sugars. Scrape a little potato on a glass slip, cover with a cover glass, then examine with the hig-li power microscope. Note the shape of the grains. Let a drop of iodine solution run un- der the edge of the cover, then notice the blue color of each grain. 2. Scrape a little powder from each of the fol- lowing: Beans, peas, corn, rice and oats, and test for starch. Test fruits and vegetables. 3. Scrape some potato in cold water, allow the preparation to stand, then with a pipette take a little of the clear water and test it with iodine for starch. Does starch dissolve in cold water? 4. Shake the vessel used in the last experiment, pour some of the contents into a test tube and boil. Does the starch dissolve in hot water? 5. Taste glucose. How does it compare with good S3^rup in sweetness? a. Put some glucose in a test tube, add a little strong sulphuric acid and heat. The contents of the tube should darken slowly. b. Add a little Fehling's solution to some glucose and boil. Notice the yel- lowish-red precipitate. Note. If Fehling's solution is not at hand the test may be made by using the caustic soda and copper sulphate solutions men- tioned under experiment number 2 for albumin. More of the cop- per solution should be added and the preparation should be boiled until a yellowish or red precipitate is formed. DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 73 c. Chop Up some raisins, soak in water and test the water for g-rape sugar. 6. Make a thin starch solution, add to some of it a few drops of a 20 per cent, solution of sul- phuric acid and boil until clear. Add a solu- tion of sodium carbonate until the acid has been neutralized, then test for g-lucose. The starch has been chang^ed to sugar (g-lucose). 7. Make a syrup of common sugar, add some strong sulphuric acid and heat, if necessary. Result? 8. Test a number of foods for sugar, using Fehling's test. Add the solution to the sub- stance to be tested, then boil. Try milk and flour. 1. Fats and oiIvS. Put a few drops of sweet oil in a test tube, add some benzine and shake. What result? Put a drop of the solution on some writing paper and allow it to dry. Is a greasy stain left on the paper? Try to shake up some oil with water. Result? 2. To some sweet oil in a test tube add some caustic soda solution, boil until a soap is formed. 3. Shake some sweet oil with some white of ^^^ solution and notice that an emulsion is formed. 4. Test several foods fbr oils by using the ben- zine and greasy spot test. Milk and flour should be so tested. 1. MiNKRAL SUBSTANCES. Kvaporate some milk to dryness, then burn what is left to ashes on a clean piece of metal. Try other things in the 74 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION same manner. The ash is the mineral sub- stance. DIGESTION. Materials. Litmus paper, red and blue; starch paste; Fehling-'s solution; fibrin obtained by whipping- freshly drawn blood; pepsin; .2 per cent, hydrochloric acid; water bath; sweet milk; commercial rennet; pancreatin solution; sodium carbonate; olive oil; bile; filter paper; some parchment or bladder; salt; silver nitrate; an eg"g"; sealing- wax; glass tube. 1 With pieces of litmus paper test the saliva to determine whether or not it is alkaline or acid. 2. To some starch paste solution in a test tube add a little saliva, allow the preparation to stand for half an hour, then test for grape sugar with Fehling's solution. 3. Prepare three test tubes as follows: In one tube place a little boiled fibrin over which has been poured some pepsin solution made from the commercial pepsin that can be obtained at any drug store. In a second tube put some of the boiled fibrin and the .2 percent, solution of hj'drochloric acid. In the third tube put some boiled fibrin and add some pepsin solution and some of the .2 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid. Place all three tubes in a water bath or other warm place. The tubes should stand for several hours, even over night if the tempera- ture can be kept uniform. What effect has the pepsin on the material in the first tube? Has the hydrochloric acid any digestive effect? DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 75 What has happened to the material in the third tube? *) Pepsin and hydrochloric acid are always present in a healthy stomach. If fibrin cannot be had for the above experiment, use finely chopped white of a hard boiled egg". 4. Put some sweet milk in a test tube, then add a few drops of commercial rennet. Keep the preparation at a temperature of 98 deg-rees for a few minutes and notice that the milk becomes solid. Rennin is one of the contituents of gastric juice. 5. Add to a little starch paste in a test tube a few drops of a pancreatin solution. Keep in a warm place for a short time, then test with Fehling's solution. 6. Prepare two test tubes as follows: In the first, place a little fibrin, a small quantity of pancreatin solution and a larger quantity of a 1 per cent solution of sodium carbonate. Pre- pare the second tube in the same way except instead of the sodium carbonate solution use a .2 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid. Place the tubes in a water bath, w4iere thev *) Those who prefer to do so may prepare artificial gastric juice in the following manner: Procure a pig's stomach, wash it out, then remove the mucous membrane from the cardiac end, dry it between sheets of paper, then pulverize it and cover well with strong glycerine. Shake the preparation occasionally and after several days filter through cloth. The glycerine will have dissolved the pepsin. Before using, add several volumes of .2 per cent, hydro- chloric acid. A pancreatin solution may be prepared by soaking the pancreas of a pig in water for several hours and then chopping it up and treating with glycerine as was indicated for pepsin. 76 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION should remain for several hours at a tempera- ture of 98 deg-rees Fahrenheit. Result? 7. Shake some pancreatin solution in a tube with a small quantity of olive oil, to which has been added a little 1 per cent, sodium carbonate solution. Is an emulsion formed? 8. Get some fresh bile from the butcher and test it with litmus paper to determine whether it is alkaline or acid. 9. Take two funnels of the same size and place in each a piece of filter paper. Moisten the paper in one funnel with bile and the other with water. Pour into each funnel a few spoonfuls of olive oil and set aside for several hours. Through which paper does the oil pass • most readily? What seems to be the effect of bile on filtration? 1. *) Osmosis or dialysis. Tie a piece of bladder or parchment tig^htly over the end of a lamp chimney and in the lamp chimney put some water to which a little salt has been added. Place the lamp chimney with the salt water in- to a vessel of pure water, and, after a few minutes, test the pure water b}^ adding- a few drops of silver nitrate to a small quantit}^ of it. A white precipitate is formed, showing- that some of the salt has passed throug^h the animal membrane. The solutions should be tested before the experiment to insure that they are pure. *) Since there is more or less absorption along the alimintary canal, it is well to make the experiments on dialysis here. DIGESTIVE ORGANS, FOODS AND DIGESTION 77 2. Chip off the shell from a spot at the larger end of an eg-g* but do not break the membrane beneath the shell. At the other end of the eg'g' make a small hole throug^h both shell and membrane and over this fasten with 'sealing" wax the end of a g"lass tube, four or five inches long". Place the egg" with its larger end down in a glass or bottle of water, whose mouth is just large enough to prevent the egg from passing in. Notice that after a few hours the contents of the shell begin to rise in the tube. Why? Does any of the egg pass out into the water? Undigested albumen will not dialyze to any extent. CIRCULATORY TISSUES. CIRCULATORY TISSUES. la. External medium. 3, 40; lb. What? 2a. Internal medium. 3, 40. lb. Necessity of in our bodies. 3, 147. Ic. Carrying- food. 2c. Removing" wastes, 2, 1^8. 2b. The blood. 3. 41; 5, 48; 6, 170; 25, 49; 13, 1-57; 10, 331; 14; 17; 11; 12. Ic. Quantity and g-eneral distribution of. 2, 148; 3, 61, 211; 25, 50. Id. Where not found? 2c. Composition. 2, 148; 3, 44; 5, 94. Id. Plasma. 2d. Corpuscles. 2, 149; 3, 44; 6, l7l. le. Red. 25, 51. If. Shape. 2f. Size. 3f. Abundance of. 4f. Color. 5f. Structure. Ig. Ha^maglobin. 2, 150. Ih. Blood crystals. 3, 47; 25, 56. 2g. Stroma. 6f. Consistency. 7f. Arterial and venous blood. 8f. Orig-in of. 3, 61; 25, 59. CIRCULATORY TISSUES 79 2e. Colorless. 2, 150; 3, 47; 25, 62. If. Size as compared with the red. 2f. Number as compared with the red. 3f- Structure. Ig". Nucleus. 2g. No cell wall. 4f. Movements. 5f. Phjsiolog-y. 3e. Blood plaques. 3, 49; 25, 65. If. Compare with the other corpuscles. 4e. Blood of other animals. 3, 49. 3c. Coagulation. 2, 152; 3, 51; 6,173; 25, 67. Id. Stages of. le. Gelatinization. 2e. Concave surface. 3e. Shrinking of the clot. 4e. Buffy coat. 2d. Cause of. 2, 152; 3, 51; le. Fibrin. If. Why form? 3, 53; 2f. From whence come? 3, 54-56. Ig. Composition. Ih. Fibrinogen. 2h. Fibrin ferment. 3h. Salts. 3d. Coagulation in other animals. 3b. The lymph. 2, 157; 3, 42; 5, 98; 10, 362, 437; 14; 11; 11; 12. Ic. Composition. 2, 162; 3, 49. Id. Watery liquid. 2d. Corpuscles. le. How like white blood corpuscles? 2e. Physiolog}' of. 80 CIRCULATORY TISSUES 2c. Where found? 3c. How renewed? 2, 158. 4c. Lymph vessels. Id. Ordinary form. 2d. Lacteals. 2, 161. 3d. Thoracic duct, 4b. Heart and blood vessels. 2, 163; 5, 59. Ic. General flow of the blood in life. 3, 211. 2c. The heart. 2, 165-169; 6, 176; 25, 150; 13, 57-89; 15, 217. Id. Position. 3, 213. 2d. Membranes. 3, 213. le. Outside. If. Lining-. Ig-. Liquid bathing". 2g. Disease of. 3, 213. 2e. Inside. 3d. Main divisions of. 3, 214. le. Nature of the walls of each cavit}^ 4d. Auriculo-ventricular valves. 3, 217. le. Chordae tendineae. 2e. Papillary muscles. If. Physiolog-y of. 2, 182; 3, 230. 5d. Sernilunar valves. 3, 217. le. Location. 2e. Use. 6d. Nourishment of the heart. le. Blood vessels concerned in. 5, 86. 5b. Arterial system. 3, 218; 0, 180; 13, 106. Ic. Structure of the arteries. 2, 172; 3, 225; 5, 77; 25, 159. Id. Physiology of this structure. 2, 190. 2c. Trace the main arteries of the body. 2, 169. CIRCULATORY TISSUES 81 6b. The venous system. 2, 173, 6, 182, 13, 158, Ic. Structure of the veins. 3, 226, Id. The valves. 2, 174, 2c. Difference in structure of veins and arteries. 3c. How disting-uish the two in butchered animals? 4c. Trace the chief veins of the body. 7b. The capillaries. 3, 220; 0, 183; 15, 281. Ic. Structure. 2c. Location. 3c. Phj^siolo^y of. Id. Osmosis. 4c. Rate of blood flow in. 2, 187; 5, 78, 84. 8b. What is the pulmonary circulation? 3, 223; 10, 395. 9b. What is the systemic circulation? 10b. What is the portal circulation? 2, 176, 3, 223; 6, 186. lib. Beats of the heart. 2, 180; 3, 227; 5, 75; 0, 186; 25, 161. Ic. Systole. 2c. Diastole. 3c. Pause. 4c. What chang-e in the heart's shape when it beats? 3, 227. 5c. Cardiac impulse or heart beat. 2, 180; 3, 228. Id. Full explanation. 6c. Events occuring- during- a cardiac cycle. 2, 181; 3, 228. 7c. Sounds of the heart. 2, 183; 10, 410. Id. Cause of each. 12b. Use of the auricles. 2, 183; 3, 231; 10, 426. 83 CIRCULATORY TISSUES 13b. Work of the heart. 2, 148; 3, 233; 10, 396. 14b. Nerves of the heart and blood vessels. 2; 185; 3, 253-273; 5, 90; 25, 173; 13, 89; 15, 261; 10, 440; 11; 13. 15b. Flow of the blood outside the heart. 3, 234, Ic Axial current. 3, 235. 2c. Inert layer. 3c. Internal friction. 3, 236. 4c. Arterial pressure. 3, 240-246; 10, 377, 383. Id. Thing's that may influence, le. Rate of heart beat. 2e. Force of the heart beat. 3e. Peripheral resistance, 2, 187. 5c. Rate of blood flow. 3, 248; 10, 390. 6c. The pulse. 2, 186; 3, 246; 13, 112; 10, 385, 431. Id. Cause. 2d. Rate of travel. 3d. May indicate what? 2, 186. 4d. Why not found in the veins? 2, 189. 16b. Secoudar}^ causes of circulation. Ic. Gravity. 2c. Transient pressure on the veins. 3c. Breathing-. 17b. Proofs of the circulation. 3, 251. 18b. Hyg-iene. Ic. Taking- cold. 2, 191. 2c. Lack of coloring- matter. 3, 60. CIRCULATORY TISSUES 83 LABORATORY EXERCISES. THE BLODD. .Materials. A needle; normal salt solution; 1 per cent, acetic acid; a solution of mag^enta; a frog"; iodine; Fehling-'s solution. 1. Structure of the HuxMAn Blood. Draw a drop of blood from the little fing-er by insert- insf a needle under the skin at the base of the nail. Place the blood on a g-lass slip, add a little normal salt solution and apply a cover g-lass. With the low power observe the many small apparently spherical bodies, the cor- I)uscles. What is their color? , 2. With the high power observe the red cor- puscles. a. What is their shape? b. Look for their arrang^ement in coin-like rows. c. Can you distinguish any outward coat or wall? 3. In the preparation just used, with the high power, look for the white corpuscles. They are slightly larg-er than the red and not so numerous. If not seen at first press on the cover g^lass with a needle while looking- into the instrument. The white corpuscles remain stationary while the red ones move about. a. Are the white corpuscles all of the same shape? b. Number of white as compared with the red corpuscles. c. Do the white corpuscles seem to change 84 CIRCULATORY TISSUES their shapes? Repeat the "exercises outlined under motor tissues on pag^e 43. d. Can 3^ou observe any cell wall in these corpuscles? 4. Run a drop of 1 per cent, acetic acid un- der the cover glass of the preparation just used and notice: a. That the protoplasm becomes trans- parent. b. That the nucleus comes into view. 5. Run a drop of a weak solution of mag-enta under the cover of a fresh preparation. Notice that it stains the nucleus of the white corpuscles deep red and the protoplasm not so red. 6. Prepare another slide by mixing- a little nor- mal salt solution with a drop of blood before applying the cover g^lass. Let the preparation stand for fifteen or twenty minutes and then allow water to run under the cover until the corpuscles are nearly colorless. Examine with the high power for fine fibers of fibrin. 1. Frog's Blood. Prepare a slide of Frog's blood and notice the red corpuscles. a. What is their shape when seen flatwise? b. Shape when seen edgewise? c. The rather large nucleus. 2. Observe the white corpuscles, which are smaller than the-red. What is their shape? 3. How^ do the corpuscles of the frog compare with those of man? 4. Stain the preparation with [a little magenta and observe the effect. CIRCULATORY TISSUES 85 1. Coagulation. Take two bottles or jars to the slaughter house and fill them with fresh blood as it runs from some animal. Set one bottle aside where it can remain perfectly quiet until the blood has clotted. Mark this bottle number 1. With a doubled wire begin immediately to stir the blood in the second bottle, number 2, and continue to do so until the blood in bottle number 1 has coagu- lated. The bottles may now be carried to the laboratory but great' care should be taken not to shake number 1. Observe bottle number 1. a. How did the blood appear just after it had clotted? What was its color? Was its surface concave? If so why? b. After the bottle has stood for some time notice that the clot grows smaller and that there is a layer of serum all around it. How can this be ex- plained? c. Can you observe any difference in the serum at the top of the bottle and that at the bottom, or the so called biilTy coal? 2. Pour some of the serum into a test tube and heat it. Does it coagulate? In this respect how does it compare with the white of egg when boiled. 3. Test the serum for starch by adding a few drops of iodine solution. Result? 4. Test for sugar by using Fehling's solution (page 72). Result? 5. Test for oils by the benzine and greasy 86 CIRCULATORY TISSUES Spot method (pag-e 73). 6. Test serum for mineral substances in the same manner that you did milk (pag-e 73). Re- sult? 7. What is your conclusion as to the different kinds of food stuffs found in blood serum? 8. Examine bottle number 2. Has the blood coasfulated? Lift the wire from the bottle and wash the corpuscles from the adhering- fibrin. a. What is the color of the fibrin? Pull it to see what properties it possesses. b. Test the fibrin for albumin by the nitric acid and ammonia method (pag-e 71). Result? c. Does the blood appear more red at the surface in bottle number 2 than be- low? Why? Shake some of the blood vig-orously in a test tube. Does the shaking chang-e the color? Why? THE HE4RT AND BLOOD VESSELS, Materials. Pieces of hardened artery and vein; picro carmine solution; g-lass and rubber tubing-. Get from the butcher the heart and lungs of some mammal, such as a pig- or lamb, that have been removed from the animal in tact, care having- been taken to cut neither the heart nor the lung-s. These parts from larger animals, such as the cow, will answer but they are unwieldy and do not show the parts much better than those from smaller mammals. 1. Place the heart and lungs on a table before CIRCULATORY TISSUES 87 you, dorsal side down, with the trachea to- wards you. Notice the position of the heart. Where is it located with reference to the lobes of the lung-s? Inflate the lungs and notice how they fold around the heart. The lungs may be inflated by placing a tube in the trachea and then blowing into it w^ith the mouth, or, better, if a hand or foot bellows be accessible, with that. How many lobes has each lung? 2. With the heart and lungs in the same posi- tion, look for the membrane which surrounds the heart, the pericardium. a. Slit open the pericardium. Is there any liquid inside it? What i^s this liquid? b. Notice the inside surface of the peri- cardium. c. Where is the pericardium largest? Why? b. Carefully trim aw^ay the pericardium and notice the base and apex of the heart. 3. Distinguish the right and left sides of the heart. Make out the auricles and ventri- cles. The left ventricle may easily be dis- tinguished by feeling of the two and selecting the one which has the thickest walls. 4. Find the following blood vessels: a. The aorta whose cut end is plainly visible. b. The piilinoiiary artery which passes from the lung to the heart and is very short. c. The two vena cavsp. Notice their cut ends and verifv the fact that one 88 CIRCULATORY TISSUES is ascending and the other de- scending. d. The pnlnionary veins. They are short and must be looked for care- fully. 5. Make a drawing- of the heart in position and show all the parts that are visible. 6. Remove the heart from the lung-s by cutting- the blood vessels off as far awa}^ from the lungs as possible. Notice the two grooves running- obliquely from the base to the apex of the heart. These lines mark the division be- tween the two halves. Notice the blood vessels running- in the grooves. Make a cut across the middle of the right ventricle half way between the grooves, which divide the heart into right and left halves, and in a line parallel with the grooves. Cut lightly, just enough to sever the walls, being sure that you do not injure the valves and muscles inside the heart. Open the right ventricle from one end to the other but do not injure in any way the left ventricle. Observe: a. The cone-like muscular projections in- side the ventricle, the papillary ninscles. How many are there? b. The tendon-like cords, chorda* ten- diiieie, which lead away from the papillary muscles to the flaps above. How many groups of these chorda? tendinea? are there? c. The thin flaps, valves, which hang down from the roof of the ventricle. CIRCULATORY TISSUES 89 How many are there in the right ventricle? ^h^i^ name? What kind of edges have these valves? d. The distribution of the chordaj tendineac. Do those from one papillary muscle all connect with the same valve? Is there any advantage in the way they are arranged? e. Push the edges of the valves together and see if they close the opening be- tween the auricle and the ventricle, the auriculo veutricuUir aper- ture. 7. Cut upwards between the edges of two of the valves and open the right auricle. a. Compare the wall of the auricle with that of the ventricle. b. Find the openings of the two Yfina^ caVcP. In what part of the auricle are they located? c. Find the opening of the coronary vein in the back of the auricle. Run a broom straw into this vein and de- termine where it leads. What is its function? 8. Find the opening of the pulmonary artery in the upper portion of the right ventricle. Ob- serve the three flaps, semilunar valves, which close it. 9. By cutting between two of the S3milunar valves slit open the pulmonary artery length- wise and observe: a. The shape of each of the semilunar valves. 90 CIRCULATORY TISSUES b. The small knot-like projection on the edg-e of each valve. What is its function? Try to close the valve and you will see. 10. Find the cut end of the aorta. If it is not short enoug-h so that you can see the semilunar valves from above, cut off pieces until vou can see these valves. a. Pour water into the aorta and observe how the semilunar valves close. b. Look for two openings, the coronary arteries, just above the semilunar valves. Insert a broom straw into one of these arteries and trace it. "What is its function? 11. Remove the upper portion of the left auricle. How does its inner surface compare w4th that of the right auricle? Notice: a. The pulmonar}- veins. How many are there? Do thej- open near each other? b. The mitral valves from above. Th, 246. 3c. Protective function of. 15, 413; 13, I, 551. 4c. Respiration through the skin. 12, 461; 15, 415; 13, I, 551; 24, 392. 5c. Hygiene of the skin, 2, 228; 3, 448; 6, 247. Id. Bathing. le. Kinds of baths and the purpose of each. 2d. Clothing. 6, 223. 3d. Effect of sunshine. 5, 1()1. LABORATORY EXERCISES. THE KIDNEYS. Materials. Get from the butcher some kidne3's from any animal, taking care to have the tissues immediately surrounding these organs preserved with them. Harden slices of a small mammalian kidne}', such as that of a rat, in Perenyi's fluid or alcohol, also pieces EXCRETORY TISSUES 113 of bladder in the same manner but the latter organ should be distended with the hardening- fluid. 1. Gross Structure. Review your drawings made for observation 12, page 67. 2.. Observe the capsule of peritoneum which surrounds the kidney. 3. Notice the shape of the kidney, especially an indentation on one edge, the liiluin. Observe the following tubes which connect with the kidney at the hilum: a. The ureter, the tube which carries the urine from the kidney to the bladder. b. The renal artery which supplies the kidney with blood. c. The renal vein which carries the blood from the kidney. 4. Observe the color of the kidney. 5. Remove the capsule then split the kidney open carefully along the convex edge, cutting deep enough to reach the cavity, the pelvis, where the ureter begins. With a broom straw or other small body probe into the pelvis and trace the ureter. 6. Cut the kidney completely open then observe the following: a. The color of the membrane lining the pelvis. b. The outer or corticle portion of the kidney, c The inner or medullary portion which appears somewhat striated. 114 EXCRETORY TISSUES d. Observe in the mudullary portion the pyramids of Malpigiii which project as papillae into the pelvis. Can you detect a small hole in the end of each pyramid? Press on the kidney while looking- to see if any water oozes out. 7. Make a careful drawing- of one half of the kidney. 8. Make a transverse cut across one of the halves of the kidney and observe the cut end. Draw. 1. Minute Structure. Make long-itudinal sections of the hardened kidney mentioned under materials, stain with ha^matoxylin and observe under low power the cortex, pyramids, Malpighian capsules and tubules. 2. Under liig-h power observe the tubules more closely and try to verify the fact that each Malpighian capsule is the starting point of one of the uriniferous tubules. 3. If sections from a kidney whose blood vessels have been injected with colored g-elatine can be had, examine one for the blood capillaries. The capillary network found in the Malpig-hian capsules is known as the glomerulus. 4. Make cross sections of the wall of the blad- der, stain with hecmatoxylin and observe the following: a. Externally, an outer fibrous coat. b. A muscular coat whose fibers run in many directions. What is the func- tion of the muscles? EXCRETORY TISSUES 115 c. A subniiicous coat on which lies the inner iiiucuous coat, the latter folded and lined with epithelial cells. THE SKIN. 1. Observe the skin which may be rolled off of the body when taking- a bath. What portion of the skin is it? 2. Examine the hardened portion of the skin on the inside of the hands or feet. Do these parts bleed when a thin slice is shaved off? Is there any pain when such cutting- is done? Why? Where on the body is the epidermis thickest? Where thin? Under what conditions will the epidermis become much thicker than usual? 3. Polish a piece of glass then press the tip of a fing-er on it. What kind of a print is made? Try other fing-ers. Examine the palm of the hand for similar ridges, the papillae. 4. Harden a piece of the skin of some animal, preferably human skin if it can be had, by any of the methods mentioned in the appendix, cut sections and observe the following-: a. The epidermis, composed of many layers of flattened cells on the surface and thicker cells beneath. If the section be from the human skin the elevated papillae may be seen, especially if it be from the palm of the hand or the inner surface of the finger. b. The clerniis or cutis beneath the epidermis and composed of connec- tive tissue. 116 EXCRETORY TISSUES c. In the dermis numerous glands which may be either sweat or sebaceous g-lands. 5. Review experiments?, 9 and 10, pages 17 and 18, on hairs. 6. Make sections of a piece of skin which con- tains hairs, stain with heematoxylin and ob- serve the hair follicles and the sectioned hairs. Note the oil glands, the papillce from which the hairs grow, the fibrous sheathes which line the follicle and the epidermis which covers the root and forms the hair when mature. NERVE TISSUES. NERVE TISSUES. la. Why need a nervous system? 2, 230. 2a. How do we differ from a collection of organs? 2, 231. 3a. What is coordination? 2, 231; 13, 790; 11, III, 1082. 4a. Structure of the nervous S3^stem. 13, II, 648; 29, 149; 26, 123; 37; 17, 522; 19; 39; 40; 14. lb. Nerve trunks. 2, 232; 3, 158; 25, 410; 14. Ic. What and where found? 2c. Central portion. 3, 158, 3c. Distal portion, 3, 158. 4c. Structure. Id. Covering-. 2d. Nerve fibers. 3, 176; 6, 265; 14. le. White fibers. 2, 244; 25, 433. If. Primitive sheath, 2f, Medullary sheath. 3f. Axis cylinder. 4f. Nodes. 5f. Nuclei. 2e. Gray fibers. 2, 245; 3, 178. If. How like and different from white fibers? 2f. Where found? 2b. Nerv^e centers. 2, 234; 3, 159, 181; 25, 410; 14. 118 NERVE TISSUES Ic. What are the}'? 2c. Cerebro-spinal center. 3, 160. Id. Brain. 2, 234, 238; 5, 253; 6, 268; 12, 731; 11, III, 1009, 1024; 25, 417; 19; 15, 498; 11. le. Membranes covering-. 6, 273; 25, 412; 18, 704; 19. If. Locate and describe each. 2e. Main divisions. If. Fore-brain. 3, 166. Ig-. Cerebrum. G, 270; 18, 716; 19; 21, 517; 11. Ih. Location. 2h. Size as compared with the other parts of the brain. 3h. Hemispheres. 4h. Convolutions. 25, 418. 5h. Olfactory lobes. 6h. Structure. li. Gross. 2i. Minute. 13, II, 849; 11, III, 1103; 18, 744; 19; 24, 489; 14. 7h. Function, in general. 2g-. Other parts. 2f. Mid-brain. Ig-. Location. 2g. Structures on the dorsal side. 3, 167, 3f. Hind-brain. Ig. Cerebellum. «, 271; 18, 747; 19; 21, 514; 14. Ih. Location. NERVE TISSUES 119 2h. Lobes of. 3h. Size. 4h. Structure, li. Gross. 2i. Minute. 11 , III, 1097; 1 8, 751; 19; 24, 489; 14. 5h. Function, in g-eneral. 2g. Pons Varolii. 18, 714; 11); 24, 508; 14. lb. Ivocation. 3g. Medulla. (>, 273; 12, 736; 11, III, 1009; 18, 708; 19; 24, 503; 14. lb. Location. 3e. Ventricles of tbe brain. 3, 168; 25, 422; 18, 753; 19. If. Locate and describe each. 4e. The brain as seen in section. 3, 170. If. Corpus callosum. 2f. Septum lucidum. 3f. Optic thalami. 4f. Optic commissure. 5f. Pituitary body. Ig-. Theories concerning-. 6f. Pineal body. Ig-. Theories concerning-. 7f. Inner view of the cerebellum. 8f. Other common structures not men- tioned above. 5e. Blood vessels of the brain. 5, 263; 12, 881; 11, III, 1235; 14. 6e. Weig-ht of the brain. 3, 166; 10, 715; 25,417; 24, 541. 120 NERVE TISSUES 7e. Cranial nerves. 2, 240; 3, 172, 207; 5, 258; 6, 275; 13, II, 717; 25, 425; 18, 754; 19; 24, 545; 14, If. Name, locate and state function of each pair. 8e. Growth of the brain, 2, 260; 10, 715, 724; 36. 2d. Spinal cord. 2, 235; 3, 161, 181; 6, 277; 12, 671; 11, III, 915; 25, 414; 18, 695; 19; 37; 24, 495; 15, 480; 14. le. Location. 2e. Diameter and length. 3e. Knlarg-ements. 4e. Weig-ht. 10, 723. 5e. Covering-s. 6e. Gross structure. 3, 162; 12, 675; 14. If. White and g"ray matter. 2f. Fissures. 3f. Central canal. 7e. Minute structure. 3, 181; 24, 486; 14. If. Arrangement of the white fibers. 2f. Arrangement of the gray fibers. 3f. Arrang-ement of the nerve cells. 2, 245; 10, 607. Ig. Minute structure. 3, 179; 6, 264; 25, 431; 14. 2g. Function. 17,541. 3g. Nutrition. lO, 626. 4f. The neuroglia. 3, 180; 25, 439. 3c. Spinal ganglia and nerves. (>, 278; 13, II, 751; 25, 415; 18, 789; 19; 24, 545; 14. Id. Location. NERVE TISSUES 121 2d. Number of pairs of nerves. le. How joined to the cord? 3d. Structure and connections of the gang-lia. 3, 184. le. Sympathetic S3'stem. 2, 243; 3, 175; 6, 286; 13, II, V56; 34, 559; 14. 4c. Sporadic gang-lia. 3, 176. Id. Location. 2d. Probable function. 5a. General ph3'siolog-3^ of. 38; 40. lb. Properties of nervous tissue. 3, 180. 2b. Location of feeling- and pain. 3b. What is a sensation? 5, 267, 269. 4b. Nature of nervous impulse- 2, 247; 3, 203; 25, 443. Ic. Rate of transmission of . 3, 206. 2c. Compare with electricit3\ 5b. Nerve action. 2, 248, 258. Ic. Motor stimuli. Id. Relation to the anterior roots of the spinal nerves. 17, 545. 2c. Sensory stimuli. Id. Relation to the posterior roots of the spinal nerves. 17, 546. 3c. Location in the spinal cord of the motor nerve cells. 4c. Location in the spinal cord of the sensory nerve cells. 5c. Where are the voluntary motor centers? Id. Explain voluntary movements. 12, 808; 11, III, 1119. 6c. Classification of nerve centers. 25, 447. Id. Reflex (see special physiolog*}'). 3, 188. 122 NERVE TISSUES 2d. Conscious centers, o, 189. 3d. Automatic centers. 3, 189. 4d. Relay and junction centers. 3,189. 7c. Inter communication of nerv^e centers, o, 207. 8c. Classification of nerve fibers. 3, 193; "^o, 445. Id. Peripheral. le. Afferent. 2, 252; 17, 524. If. Define. 2f. Sensory, reflex, excito-motor, in- hibitory. 2e. Efferent. 2, 252; 17, 525. If. Define. 2f. Motor, vasomotor, secretory, trophic, inhibitory. 2d. Intercentral. le. Exciting", inhibitory. 3, 190. 9c. Nerve stimuli. 13,11, 658; 25, 440; 17, 527. Id. General. 3, 195. le. Define, illustrate and state kinds. 2d. Special. 3, 196. le. Define, illustrate and state kinds. 10c. Explain "specific nerve energies" and show that all nerves are physiolog^ically alike. 3, 197; '^5, 441. lie. Deg^eneration of nerve fibers. 3, 209; '^5, 438. 6a. Special physiology of. 38; 40; 14. lb. Of nerve centers, in g-eneral. 3, 294. 2b. Of the spinal cord. 2, 254; 13, II, 764. Ic. As a conducting organ. 3, 594; 0,279, 280; 15, 487. NERVE TISSUES 123 2c. As a reflex center. 2, 252; 3, 600; 6, 28; 1'^, 711; 15, 484. Id. Illustrated by experiments on a frog*. 3c. Its connection with the spinal g-ang-lia. 4c. Phjsiolog-ical explanation of reflex action. 10, 657. 5c. Time required for reflex movements. 3, 608. 6c. How acquire reflex movements? 7c. Value of reflex action. 2, 259; 6, 284. 8c. Education of reflex centers. 3, 605. 9c. Does the spinal cord think or feel? 3, 607. Id. Proof of your answer. 3b. The brain. 3, 609; 15, 505; 14. Ic. General function. Id. The seat of consciousness. 2d. Effect of removing- the cerebrum from birds. 1^,784; 13,11, 844; 11, III, 1072; 15, 500. 2c. The medulla oblong-ate. 2, 255; 3, 610; 5, 263; 13, II, 806; 25, 445; 15, 542. Id. Minute structure. 12, 799. 2d. Special function. le. As a connection between the brain and spinal cord. 2e. Seat of relay and junction centers. 3e. Reflex and automatic centers. 4e. Function of the nerves that arise here. '3c, Cerebellum, and pons Varolii. 2, 258; 3, 613; 14. Id. Special function. 5, 263; 25, 457; 15, '541. 134 NERVE TISSUES le. Effect of removing" the cerebellum from birds. 13, II, 897. 2e. Function in maintaining equilibrium. 3, 614. 4c. Mid-brain. 3, 616; 13, II, 885; 25, 459; 14. Id. Function. 5c. Fore-brain (cerebrum). 3, 618. Id. Brain localization. 2, 257; 10, 682, 696; 13, II, 875; 11, III, 1119; 25, 229, 433; 15, 521, 530. le. Function of the cortex. 2, 256; 3, 622; 5, 259. 2e. Nerve connections in the cerebrum. 10, 647, 668; 12, 748; 15, 518. 3e. Locate some of the known motor aries. If. Illustrate by aphasia. 3,628. 6c. The brain as a reflex center. 6, 284. 7c. Mental habits. 2, 260; 3, 631. Id. Explanation. 7a. What is the explanation of old age? 10, 742. 8a. Comparative physiology of the nervous system. 10, 703. 9a. Development of the nervous system. 24, 477; 15, 542. 10a. Hygiene of. 2, 261; 6, 288. lb. Need of rest. (>, 288. 2b. Sleep. 6, 290; 10, 739; 25, 465. Ic. What is it? 2c. Why necessary? 3c. Amount required. 3b. Effect of stimulants on the nervous system. 16, 294; 5, 274. NERVE TISSUES 125 4b. Causes of apoplexy and paralysis. 5b. Hypnotism. 25, 467. LABORATORY EXERCISES. NERVE TISSUES. Materials. A fresh sheep's head, which may be obtained from the butcher; two frogs; a saw; four per cent, formalin solution; pieces of the brain and spinal cord hardened in formalin; carmine stains and acetic acid. 1. The brain. With a fine saw make cuts along- each side of the sheep's head, across the face and across the base of the skull, and with a file or other strong- object pry o& the top of the skull. The cutting must be done with care in order that the brain may not be injured. As the top of the skull is removed observe: a. The tough membrane which lines it, the dura mater. b. That the surface of the dura mater has a glossy appearance on account of being covered with the very thin arachiioid-^menibrane. c. The membrane* covering the brain, the pia mater. This contains blood vessels and its surface is covered with the arachnoid membrane. 2. Place the head for a day in a jar which contains a solution of 4 per cent, formalin. The solution will harden the brain and then it can be more easily removed. After hardening, lift 126 NERVE TISSUES the brain very g-entlj and cut off the nerves as near the skull as possible, taking- care not to tear them off where they join the brain. 3. Observe the following- parts of the brain: a. The larg-e cerebrum which constitutes the main portion of the brain and which is divided into two lieiiii- splieres. b. The cerebellum, back and somewhat beneath the cerebrum. Notice its surface. c. The medulla, below the cerebellum. d. On the under side of the cerebrum, the olfactory lobes. e. Back of the olfactory lobes, the optic commissure, from which the optic nerves pass forwards and the optic tracts backwards. f. The pous Varolii. g-. The stumps of the cranial nerves. 4. Trim away a portion of the pia mater and observe the convolutions on the cerebrum. Pull the two hemispheres apart and observe the white portion which connects them, the corpus callosum. 5. If a hardened brain is not at hand it would be better to put the brain in a fresh 4 per cent, formalin solution for from four to five days until it has hardened more completely, then make a horizontal cut across one hemisphere of the cerebrum and notice: a. The J?ray matter which covers the surface of the brain. NERVE TISSUES 127 b. The depth of the convolutions. 6. If the cut has been made through the middle of the cerebral hemisphere some of the ven- tricles should be seen. 7. Make a vertical cut through the cerebellum and notice the nature of its interior. What is its color? Draw. 8. Stain a small piece of the hardened cortex of the cerebrum for 24 hours or longer in borax carmine, transfer directlj- to 100 cubic centi- meters of 70 per cent, alcohol to which has been added five drops of strong h3^droch]oric acid and allow it to remain in the acid alcohol for 24 hours. The material may now be dehy- drated, imbedded in paraffin and cut. Kxamine for the many small nerve cells. Material hard- ened in formalin may be imbedded and sectioned before staining, and the sections may be stained on the slide for a few moments in a weak solu- tion of iodine green in water. Wash in water and mount in glycerine for temporary obser- vation. With the latter stain, the nerve pro- cesses are fairly well shown. 9. Prepare sections of the cerebellum in the same manner as directed for the cerebrum and observe: a. The outer layer. b. The large nerve cells of Purkiiije *) There are very many excellent methods of demonstrating the minute structure of the nervous system but they are nearly all too complicated for the beginner. It is thought that the few di- rections here given will answer fairly well but those who care to go more into details should consult any of the standard text-books on histology (see 40 of the reference list.) 128 NERVE TISSUES under the outer la3'er and with mail}' nerve processes. c. Beneath the nerve cell layer a granular layer. 10. If there are any preserved brains of other mammals, birds or other animals in the labora- tor}' they should be studied and compared with the one just mentioned. Models of the human brain should be carefully studied. 1. The spinal cord. Make a cross section of the hardened spinal cord from near the neck of some mammal by either the paraffin or the celloidin method, stain in borax carmine and observe the following-: a. The outer coverings of the cord. How man}' coats are shown? b. The anterior and posterior median lissures. Which one dips down to the g"ray matter? c. The H shaped gray matter with its anterior and posterior horns and nerve processes extending to the surface of the cord. d. The multipolar nerve cells in the anterior horns of the gray matter. e. The gray fibers, the fibers which make up the greater portion of the gray matter. f. The central canal in the middle of the cord. g. The ends of the nerve fibers in the white portion of the cord. NERVE TISSUES 129 2. If it is possible to have sections of the lower portion of the cord, compare those with the ones from the upper portion. 3. Cut pieces, about one fourth of an inch in diameter of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, from the neck of a cow, place it in borax carmine and allow it to remain for two or three days. Wash away the stain with water and then add glycerine. Tease the colored mass apart and mount a portion. Examine for nerve cells. Excellent preparations may be obtained by this method. Glycerine jelly is good for making- permanent mounts. 4. Remove a short piece of the sciatic nerve from the leg of a frog, put it on a dry glass slip, press one end down so that it will adhere to the slip and with a needle fray the nerve out as fine as possible, then apply a drop of normal salt solution and observe: a. The size of the nerve fibers. b. The second or inedullary sheath which is apt to be somewhat wrin- kled. c. In places where the medullary sheath is broken, the outer, transparent primitive sheath. 5. If there is some osmic acid in the laboratory take another piece of fresh nerve and place it in a 1 per cent, solution of the acid, where it should remain for several hours. Tease on a slide in water or glycerine and observe: a. That the medullary sheath is stained black. 130 NERVE TISSUES b. The numerous nodes of Raiivitn* at which the axis cylinder may be seen passing- from one internode to another. 1. Nervous system of a frog. Place a frog* in ajar with a little ether and let it remain until dead. Open the animal along the abomen and remove the viscera. Observe along- each side of the spinal column a row of white bodies, the gaiig'lia, also the nerves which go to the hind limbs. 2. With sharp scissors remove the top of the skull, observe the brain and note: a. In front, the rather larg-e olfactory lobes. b. Just back of the olfactory lobes the cerebral lieniisplieres. c. Following- the cerebral hemispheres, two rounded bodies, the mid-brain. d. The small cerebellum just back of the mid-brain. e. The medulla. 1. Reflex action. With a wire destroy the brain of a frog- then close the hole made by the wire with a wooden plug-, so that there will not be a loss of blood. Allow the, frog- to remain quiet for a few minutes until it has recovered from the shock of the operation then perform the following experiments: a. Compare the posture of a live frog- with that of one whose brain is destroyed. b. Pinch a toe of the hind foot. What happens? NERVE TISSUES 131 c. Pinch the skin on the side of the bod}-. Docs the frog attempt to scratch off the irritating- object? d. Touch the frog's side with strong acetic acid or vinegar and observe the re- sult. How explain? e. Trj a hot wire in the same way that you did the acid. f. Touch the toe with the two wires from a weak induction coil. 2. Run a wire down the spinal column and de- stroy the spinal cord then repeat the experi- ments just indicated. How explain the result? 1. General experimekts- Find the sciatic nerves of the frog, which go to its hind legs. Pinch one. Effect? How explain? 2. Why does a person wink when struck at, even if he knows that the person striking will not hit him? 3. Tickle the inside of the nose and what happens? Explain. 4. When we hit the elbow why do we sometimes feel pain in the fingers? SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE. SPECIAL SENSES. la. In g-eneral. J^, 488; 25, 469; 17, 566; 2-4, 562; 15, 548. 2a. Sensations. 2, 263; 3, 488; (>, 307; 5, 284. lb. General or common. 3, 490. 2b. Special. Ic. Sig-ht. Id. The eye. 2, 265; 3, 504; 6, 321; 5, 301; 25, 529; 10, 744; 11, IV, 1-173; 14, 343; 17, 586; 24, 579; 15, 560; 12; 41, 96. le. Accessory parts. If. Eyesocket. 2f. Eyelid. 3, 506; 2, 266; 25, 542; 13, ^11, 974; 24, 598. Ig-. Eyelashes. 2g". Glands on the edge of the lid. 3g-. Muscles. 4g-. Object of winking. 5g. Conjunctiva. 5, 301. 3f. Eyebrows. 25, 541. 4f. Lachr3'mal apparatus. 2, 267; 3, 507; (), 334; 25, 543; 13, II, 974. Ig. Function. 2g. What becomes of the secretion? 3g. Physiology of weeping. 5f. Muscles of the eyeballs. 3, 505; (>, SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 133 332; 25, 544; 10,745; 13, II, 962; 14, 369. 2e. Optical apparatus. 3, 325. If. In g-eneral. Ig-. Nature of Hg-ht. 3,516; 25, 531, 41, 115. Ih. Kinds of rays. 2g. Lenses. Ih. Refraction. 3, 520; 35, 538. 21i. Formation of images. 2f. Kyeball. Ig-. Coats. 3,509; 25, 546; It, IV, 21; 14, 345; 12. Ih. Sclerotic. li. Structure and function of. 21i. Cornea. 13, II, 906. li. Structure and nature of. 3, 509. 3h. Choroid. li. Location and structure. 2h. The iris. 17, 605. Ij. Muscles of. 2j. Color. 3j. Function. 13, II, 936. 3i. The pupil. 13, II, 929; 15, 569;41, 111. Ij. Purpose. 5, 311; 11, IV, 31; 12. 4h. Retina. 2, 270; 5, 305; 10, 773; 13, II, 912; 14, 351; 24, 586. li. Location. 2i. Structure. 25, 550; 11, IV, 55. Ij. Function of the rods and 134 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE cones. 10, 787; 14, 357. 3i. Connection with the optic nerve. 4i. The 3^ellow spot or area of acute vision. J5, 511; 5, 306; 18, II, 947. 5i. Ph3'siolog'y of. 2g-. Refracting media. 2, 274; 3, 515; 6, 328; 14, 358. Ih. Cornea. 2h. Aqueous humor. 3h. Crystalline lens, 24, 593. li. Location. 2i. Structure. 13, II, 916. 3i. Physiolog}' of. Ij. How chang-e shape? o, 516; 25, 548, 560; lO, 752. 4h. Vitreous humor. 3, 516-; 13, II, 917. li. Location and purpose. 3g. Optic nerve. 25, 549; 14, 360; 41, 109. Ih. Where enter the eye? 2h. The blind spot. 3, 532; 2, 272; 5, 210; 41, 149. 3h. Visual center in the brain. 4g. Blood vessels of the eye. 14, 362; 24, 594. Ih. Where enter and how distributed? 3e. Comparative anatomy and embr3'ology. 13, II, 976; 1.5, 597. 4e. Compare the eye with a photographic camera. 3, 521; 13, II, 919. If, How are images formed on the ratina? SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 135 13, II, 923; 24, 608. Ig". Accommodation of the lens. 3, 522; 5, 308; 13, II, 926; 11, IV, 13; 11, 599; 15, 565; 12; 41, 137. 2g. Why inverted? 3g". Why do we not see things inverted? 5e. Defects in the eye. 3, 525; 6, 329; 25, 553; 10, 759; 13, II, 931; 11, IV, 47; 24, 616; 15, 572; 12; 41, 131. If. Near-sightedness. Ig. Cause and remedy. 2f. Far-sightedness. Ig-. Cause and remed3\ 3f. Why must old people wear gflasses? 3, 526. 4f. Irreg-ularity in curvature. 3, 528. Ig-. Astigmatism. 2, 276. Ih. Remedy. 5f. Opaque bodies in the refracting media. 3, 528. 6e. Effect of light on the retina. 3, 530- 534; 10, 776; 13, II, 937; 14, 613; 24, 627. If. Physiology of vision purple. 3, 535; 13, II, 915; 11, IV, 115; 12. 2f. Other theories. 3f. Duration of luminous sensations. 3, 539; 5, 312: ^f. Localizing- power of the retina. Ig". Importance. 5f. Color vision. 5, 311; 25, 568; 10, 781; 13, II. 952; 11 IV S4; 14 136 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 377; 24, 634; 15, 583; 12; 41, 158. Ig-. Young-'s theory. 3,542; 25, 571; 13, II, 955. 2g. Herring-'s theory. 3, 548; 25, 575; 13, II, 936. 3g-. Color blindness. 3, 545; 6, 336; 5, 311; 25, 568; 13, II, 957. 7e. Visual perceptions. 3, 552; 10, 796; 13, II, 972; 11, IV, 155; 24, 644; 12. If. Of distance. 2f. Of size. 3f. Of solids. 4f. Why see objects singly when looking- with both eyes? 3, 553; 25, 580; 10, 801; 14, 375; 24, 640; 41, 170. Se. Hygiene of the eyes. 2, 277; (>, 336; 5, 312- If. Location of the light while reading. 2f. When glasses should be recommended. Ig. Importance of testing the eyes of school children. 3f . Effect of cold on the eyes. 4f. General directions for the use of the eyes. 2c. Hearing. 5, 316; 17, 628; 41, 200. Id. The ear. 2, 279; 3, 557; G, 343; 25, 494, 507; 10, 807; 13, II, 978; 11, IV, 176- 244; 14, 383; 24, 659; 15, 604; 12. le. External ear. If. The concha. 2f. Auditor}' meatus. 2e. Middle ear or tympanum. 13, 557; 14, 387. SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 137 If. The tympanic membrane or drum. 10, 809. 2f. Eustachian tube. Ig". Function. 3f. Bones of the ear. 14, 388. Ig-. Names, shapes and arrang-ement. 2g. Function. 3e. Internal ear. 3, 559; 14, 390; 41, 223. If. Of what consist? Ig". The bonj labyrinth. 3, 560. Ih. Vestibule. li. Location and description. Ij. Otoliths. 2h. Semicircular canals. li. Their ampulae. 3h. Cochlea. li. General anatomy. 10, 819. 2g'. Membranous labyrinth. 3, 561. Ih. In the vestibule. li. Divisions and their description. 2h. In the semicircular canals. li. Knding- of the auditory nerve. 14, 395. 2h. In the cochlea. li. Parts and their arrang-ement. 2i. Org-an of Corti or nerve end- endings. 3, 562. 4e. Nature of sound. 3, 564; 3, 282; 25, 494; 10, 825; 14, 400; 24, 680; 41, 277. If. Meaning of the terms loudness, pitch and timber. 2f. Sympathetic vibrations. 3, 569. 5e. Physiology of the ear. 3, 571; 10, 832. 138 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE If. Of the tympanic membrane. 8, 571. 2f. Of the ear bones. 3f. Of the cochlea. Ig-. Different views. 4f. Of the semicircular canals. 2, 282; 3, 574; 24, 694. 6e. Comparative stud3% 1 5, 617. 7e. How determine direction and distance? 8e. Hyg-iene of the ear. 0, 349; 5, 318. 3c. Touch. 3, 283; 3, 576; 0, 310; 5, 286; 25, 477; 10, 834; i:^, II, 1013; l-A, 327; 17, 569; 2-1, 647; 15, 555; 41, 41. Id. Special nerve ending's for. 3, 576. le. Tactile cells. 3, 576. 2e. End bulbs. 3e. Tactile corpuscles. 41,45. If. Location. 4e. Pacinian corpuscles. If. Location and function. 2d. What is touch? 3, 578; 41, 52. 3d. Localization of skin sensations. 2, 284; 3, 580; 25, 482. If. Illustrations. 4c. Temperature sense. 3, 582; 5, 290; 25, 484; 13, II, 1022; 11, IV, 278; 14, 336; 17, 576; 15, 554; 12. Id. Explanation. 2d. Compare with touch. 3d. Function of this sense. 5c. Smell. 2, 286;3, 587;5, 298; lO, 849; 13, II, 1004, 11, IV, 250; 14, 340, 581; 24, 573, 15, 620; 12; 41,81. Id. Nerve ending-s in the nose. SPKCIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 139 2d. Explain just liow we smell. 3d. Function of this sense. 6c. Taste. 2, 286; ti, 589; 0, 313; 5, 2%; 25, 488; 10, 851; 13, II, 1009; 11, II, 246; 14, 581; 21., 570; 15, 623"; 1*^; 41, 70. Id. Taste buds and their location (p. 56). 2d. What kinds of substances can be tasted? 3d. Function of this sense? 4d. Hygiene of. 7c. Muscular sense. 2, 285; 3, 591; (>, 312; 5, 292; 25, 486; 10, 844, 13, II, 1026; 11, IV, 295; 14, 334; 15, 557; 1*^;41, 68. THE VOICE. la. Organs immediately concerned in. 2, 289; 6, 356; 5, 321; 11, IV, 306. lb. The larynx. 3, 634; 25, 239; 10, 861; 11, IV, 312; 13, II. 633. 24, 705; 14, 260; 17, 512. Ic. Location. 2c. Structure. Id. The cartilages. 2d. Vocal cords. (>, 358. le. Location. 2e. Structure and nature of. 3d. Muscles, le. How act? 2a. Nature of and just how produced. 3, 633; 2, 288; G, 359; VS, II, 640, 647; 24, 711; 14, 264; 17, 517. lb. The vowels. 2b. Consonants. Ic. Classification. 3, 643. 3b. Range of the human voice. 3a. Hygiene of the vocal cords. G, 364. 140 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE LABORATORY EXERCISES. THE EYE. Materials. Get from a butcher either the head of some mammal which still has the eyes uninjured, or some e^-es that have been care- fully removed. Have ready the eyes of a small mammal that have been hardened by soaking- in Perenyi's fluid for 24 hours, then 80 per cent alcohol, with several chang-es of the latter, and finallv preserved in 80 percent, alcohol. Get an assortment of skeins of colored worsted from the store or from a dealer in kindergarten supplies; a test card for eyes from James W. Queen & Co., Philadelphia; a photographic camera; a tube three-fourths of an inch in diameter, 10 inches long and black on the in- side; a prism; a rotating apparatus; and an electric machine. 1. Stkucture. Examine an eye that has been carefully removed from its socket^ preferablj- after its position was noted, and observe the four muscles which pass backward towards the back of the socket, and the two oblique ones which serve to roll the eye. Make a draw- ing to show these muscles. 2. Notice the following on the outside of the eyeball: a. The cut end of the optic nerve. b. The nature of the sclerotic coat. c. The transparent cornea. 3. Look through the cornea and observe: SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 141 a. The iris. What is its color? b. The i)iii)il, formed by the iris, 4. With sharp scissors cut across the cornea and notice that a liquid, the aqueous liuuior, escapes. Note the thickness of the cornea. 5. Trim away the cornea and examine the iris. Slit it with the scissors, lift up one edg-e and see if it is of the same color on the inside as on the out. 6. Remove the iris and observe beneath it the crystalline lens. Notice how it is fastened around its edg^e. Remove the lens without in- jury and put it on a printed pag^e. Examine the letters through the lens. Effect? 7. Cut the lens. Of what consistency? Is it eltistic? 8. Trim away a little more of the front of tlie eye and notice the jelly-like vitreousliuuior. Pour it out carefully and observe: a. The whitish, delicate membrane which lines the back portion of the eye, the retina. b. The brownish or black elioroicl coat, which lines the front of the eyeball and passes back under the retina. Observe the blood vessels in it. c. The place where the optic nerve enters. d. If the retina is in place, the "yellow spot" or area of acute vision. 9. Notice the thickness of the sclerotic coat, also its toug-hness. Does it seem to help preserve the shape of the eyeball as well as to protect it? 10, Imbed in celloidin an eye hardened according- 142 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE to directions g-iven under materials, but before doing- so a hole should be cut in one side of the ball and the vitreous humor carefully removed without injuring the retina (see appendix for celloidin imbedding-.) 11. Cut horizontal sections of the eje, stain in borax carmine or hccmatoxjlin and eosin, mount and observe how the cornea is joined to the sclerotic coat. Observe the following structure of the cornea: a. The outer epithelial layer, just under which is a narrow elastic l.iyer. b. The main body of the cornea which is full of corneal corpuscles, whose edges show. c. The thin inner layer. 12. In the same section examine the part where the iris branches off and notice: a. The ciliary muscles which control the crystalline lens. b. The structure of the iris. c. The structure of the choroid coat. d. The fastening of the crystalline lens and the structure of the lens itself. 13. If a fresh lens be soaked in a solution of 5 drops of sulphuric acid to 5 cubic centimeters of water for 24 hours, then washed in water and stained in borax carmine, it may be teased apart so that the fibers of the lens will show nicel}'. 14. Examine the retina in the section used above and note the rods and cones near the choroid coat. This section will likely be too thick for SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 143 the observation of all the elements of the retina. If it is desired to study the retina more in detail, imbed in paraf&n a portion of an eye which contains the retina then cut thin sections. These sections m.3.y be stained in ha2matox3'lin, and eosin. For other methods see 80, pag-e 365. 1. KxPKRiMKNTs. Focus a photographic camera that has a ground glass back and notice how the image is inverted. Draw a diagram in your note-book to show how this inversion takes place. 2. Take a fresh eye of some animal and, if it is one with a thick coat, trim off a portion of the back of the e^-e and place the trimmed off por- tion over the end of the tube mentioned under materials. With j'our e3'e at the other end of the tube, notice that an inverted image is formed on the retina similar to the one in the camera. 3. If the lens of the camera is fitted with an iris diaphragm or different sized diaphragms, try the largest and then the smallest and notice the eft'ect on the light. Compare with the iris in the eye. 4. Look at the black board or some other black object for a few minutes than quickly into a mirror and observe the size of the pupil. Look out of the window or at a bright light then observe again the size of the pupil. What in- ference? 5. With a prism separate the rays of sunlight into the various colors. If the laboratory is 144 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE supplied with a rotating^ apparatus and discs, an attempt should be made to combine the various colors by rotation, Try the primary colors, dark and light colors. 6. If there is an}' apparatus for producing- an electric spark, a revolving- black and white disc should be observed in a dark room by the aid of the sparks. The black and white spaces should be seen distinctly when viewed b}^ the sparks but the disc appears gray as it revolves in ordinary light. How does the experiment illustrate the duration of luminous sensations? 7. Those who are known not to be color blind should test the other members of the class for color blindness. Have ready a number of skeins of various colors of worsted. Pick out a pale green one and ask the person who is being tested to pick out all the other skeins that are of the same, or nearly the same, color. If he picks out some that are quite different he is likely color blind. Do not mention the names of the colors to the person who is being tested. 8. Take a skein of medium purple and go through the same process. 9. Make the same test, using a light red skein of medium shade. By these three tests it is easy to determine whether or not a person is color blind. 10. Hold your book at the distance from the eye at which the print is read with the least effort. What do you find this distance to be? If it is much less than 12 inches you are near sighted. SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 145 If much more than 15 inches, you are far sighted. Children can see objects nearer the eyes than grown persons. 11. Hold your finger 12 or 15 inches in front of you in a vertical position then look at some object across the room. Wh}^ does the finger appear double? Wh}- is it indistinct? Reverse the operation by looking at the finger and then noticing the effect on the object across the room. 12. Make in your note book, three or four inches apart, two squares whose sides are one inch in length. Across one, draw horizontal lines at equal distances apart. Across the other, make similar vertical lines. How do the two squares now appear? This illustrates imper- fect, visual judgment. s s s s s s A / / B FIG. 5. Observe the letter S in figure 5. How do the upper and lower ends compare in size? Invert the letters and what is the result? Measure the two lines, A and B. Why do they not appear of the same length? 146 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 14. Hold a pencil in a vertical position, about 6 inches in front of the face, then look at it with both eyes. Close the left eye and place a finger in a vertical position so that it seems to cover one end of the pencil. Try to strike the pencil with the fmg-er. You will likely miss. Why? B FIG. 6. 15. Close the left eye and look at the letter A w th the rig^ht. While doing so, move the book back and forth until a point is reached where B is not visible. Rays from it now fall on the blind spot of the eye. 16. Obtain one of Queen's test cards, hang* it where there is good light then make the fol- lowing tests: a. Try to read the letters under number 1 at a distance of 20 feet. Do you have any difficult in recognizing any of them? If you do, walk nearer until they can all be seen. b. Stand 20 feet from the card and look at the black lines in number 2. Do they all appear of the same black- ness and are all distinct? If not, which ones arc indistinct? This test is for astiginatisiii or un- equal curvature of the eye. Eyes that are badly astigmatic cause headaches and other disorders. SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 147 c. Find the distance from the face at which the letters in number 3 can be read. How near can you see them? How far away? If your eyes are found seriously defective by any of the above tests, and you have not done so, you should consult an oculist. Should the test card here recommended not be at hand, any other such card may be used and the teacher can give directions for the experiments. THE EAR. Materials. Head of a fish; model of an ear; a rabbit or cat's head; a large tuning fork; steel bars; a small watch. 1. Examine a good model of the ear and locate all of its chief parts. 2. If a pickerel's head {Esox lucius) can be had, the student should carefully dissect out the semicircular canals of the ear. The head of any fish in which the bones are soft will answer. The portion of a mammal's skull which contains the ear may be softened by soaking in weak acid, and then the essential parts of the ear may be dissected out. 3. Cutout the ear portion from the skull of a rabbit or cat, that has just been killed, place it in Perenyi's fluid until decalcified, transfer it to 80 per cent, alcohol for a day, change the alcohol once or twice, then 70 per cent, alcohol and finally borax carmine. After staining, wash in acid alcohol, dehydrate, imbed in paraffin and cut sections vertical to the coils of 148 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE the cochlea. Mount and notice the turns of the cochlea. If desired, the minute structure of the cochlea ma}' be studied. 4. Set a larg"e tuning- fork in vibration and notice its pitch. If a small bar of steel is at hand, hit it with a mallet and notice its pitch. Try a much smaller piece. You will find one whose pitch is so hig-h that your ear cannot detect its tones. 5. Blindfold a person and test his sense of di- rection by making" sounds in different direc- tions about him. Try with both ears open then with first one and then the other closed. 6. With a watch, the teacher should test a few members of the class to see if their sense of hearing is perfect, then a few such students should test the other members of the class. Test each ear separately and let each student record the distance at which he can hear the ticking distinctl}'. Try a tuning fork instead of a watch. Many persons are partially deaf but have not discovered it. 7. Close the ears then see if you can hear a watch tick. Place the watch between the teeth. What effect? How explain? TASTE AND SMELL. Matekials. Sugar; salt; quinine; potato; apple; roasted coffee; perfumes; onions; oils that give off odors. 1. Wipe the tongue dr}' and then place on its tip a few crystals of sugar. Are they tasted immediately; If not why? Try sugar on differ- SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 149 ent parts of the tong^ue. Where is it best tasted? 2- Make a solution of quinine in water. Touch the tong"ue on the tip with a very small drop of the solution. Is it readily tasted? Try the back portion of the tong"ue in the same manner. Where is the quinine tasted best? 3. Try salt in the same manner as sugar. Where is it best tasted? 4. Blindfold a person, have him hold his nose then put small pieces of potato and apple on his tong-ue, at different times, and see if he can tell which is which. 5. Chew some roasted coffee, first with the nose closed and then open. What difference is noticed? 6. Try different substances that have odor, using- different streng-ths, and determine how far away they can be detected and how much more sensitive some noses are than others. Per- fumes, onions, coffee and various oils will answer for this experiment. TOUCH AND TEMPERATURE. Matp:riai,s. Forceps; test tubes; hot water; pieces of wire; some fur. 1. With a pair of forceps that have blunt points, touch the skin of a blindfolded person in different places and determine for each place how far apart the points may be and still be felt as one. Try the tips of the fing-ers, tip of the tongue, palm of the hand, face, back of the neck and the arm. Both points must be put down at the same time. 150 SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 2 Put one hand in water which is 100 degrees F., the water feels warm. Put the same hand now in water at 85 deg^rees and it feels cold. Why? Put the other hand in water that is 85 detfrees and what is the difference in sensation? 3. Blindfold a person and have ready two test tubes, one with hot and the other with cold water. Touch the skin in various places, first with one tube and then the other, and have the person tell which is the hot and which the cold tube. Try the same experiment with the ends of wires, one quite warm and the other cold. Have the blindfolded person touch wool, fur, metal and wood, and report which seems the cooler. Explain why. THE VOICE. 1. Obtain from the butcher the larynx of a hog- or a calf. Examine the epig^lottis and notice how it closes over the windpipe. Observe the two flaps, the vocal cords, which partially close the upper opening" of the windpipe. Notice the cartilag-es which compose the larynx. Try to dissect them out. 2. Over the end of a tube tie two strips of thin sheet rubber in such a manner that the end of the tube will be all closed except a narrow slit between the two edg-es of the rubber. With the lung's, force air throuji^h the tube and note the sound produced. Try to make the rubber a little tighter and note the difference in sound. 3. Close the nose then speak the word "])link- ing-," after which repeat it with the nose open. SPECIAL SENSES AND THE VOICE 151 What difference? The cavity in the pharynx serves as a resonator. 4. Speak the letters of the alphabet and notice with each the position of the lips, teeth and tong-ue. The latter org-ans help to modify the sounds. REFERENCE BOOKS. No Special order has been observed in mak- ing- up the following- list. 1. Dictionary, an}' unabridg-ed. 2. Martin's the Human Body, briefer course. Henry Holt and Co., N. Y. One of the best briefer texts. 3. Martin's the Human Body, advanced course. Henry Holt and Co., N. Y. One of the best books published. . 4. Shepard's Chemistry. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. An}' other g-ood Chemistry will answer just as well. Refer to the index. 5. Colton's Practical Physiolog-y. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. Good for laboratory work. Has some excellent diagrams. (J. Blaisdel's Practical Physiolog-y. Ginn and Co., Boston, Excellent for hygiene. 7. Overton's Applied Physiology. American Book Co., Chicago. Not always reliable. 8. Hutchinson's Physiology. Maynard, Merrill and Co., N. Y. Good for hygiene. 9. Huxley's Physiology, MacMillan Co., N. Y. This old book is still excellent in many re- spects. H). American Text-book of Physiology. W. B. Saunders, Phila. The best large American text-book. It is strictly a Physiology. REFERENCE BOOKS 153 11. Foster's Physiolog-y, complete, 5 volumes. Mac- Millan Co., N. Y. One of the best. 12. Foster's Physiolog-y, one volume. Lea Brothers and Co., Phila. An abridg-ed edition of No. 11. 13. Landois and Stirling's Phjsiolog-y. Eng-lish edition, 2 volumes. Charles Griftin and Co., London. Excellent. Finely illustrated. 14. Thornton's Physiology. Longmans, Green and Co., N. Y. An excellent little book. 15. Mills' Animal Physiology. D. Appleton and Co., N. Y. Excellent. Is more or less com- parative. 16. Foster and Shore's Physiology. MacMillan Co., N. Y. A good elementary text. 17. Yeo's Manual of Physiology. P. Blakiston, Sons and Co., Phila. An advanced book that has many good points. 18. Gray's Anatomy. Lea Brothers and Co., Phila., Excellent. 19. Quain's Anatomy. Longmans, Green and Co., "" N. Y. May be had in 9 parts and ranks first as an anatomy. 20. Cyclopedias (Johnson's, American, Brittanica, International). 21. Stewart's Physiology, W. B. Saunders, Phila. An excellent advanced text. 22. Thompson's Zoology. D. Appleton and Co. A good text for reference in comparative work. Any other good Zoology will answer. 23. McKendrick's Text-book of General Physiology. MeicMillan Co., N- Y. One of the best general Physiologies. 24. McKendrick's Text-book of Special Physiology. MacMillan Co., N. Y. An excellent ad- vanced book. 154 REFERENCE BOOKS *4iy. Rettger's Advanced Studies in Physiolog-^'. In- land Publishing- Co., Terre Haute, Ind. Covers about the same ground as No. 3, but the language is simpler. 20. Wiedersheim's Structure of Man. MacMillan Co., N. Y. For comparative anatomy. "41, Prudden's Bacteria. G. Putnam's Sons, N. Y. Excellent for h3'giene. *4S» Morrison's Ventilating and Warming of School Buildings. D. Applcton and Co., N. Y. 29. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy. Mac- Millan Co., N. Y. Excellent. 3(). Stirling's Histolog}'. P. Blakiston, Sons and Co- , Phila. Excellent for methods. 31. Lincoln's Sanitar}- Conditions of School Houses. 32. Stirling's Practical Physiology. P. Blakiston. Sons and Co., Phila. An excellent book for the laboratory. 33. Foster and Eangley's Practical Physiology. MacMillan Co., N. Y. Excellent for direc- tions in dissecting and for histology. 34:. Sternberg's Disinfection and Individual Pro- phylaxis against Infections Diseases. 35. Brodie's Experimental Physiology. Longmans, Green and Co., N. Y. For advanced work. 30. Donaldson's the Growth of the Brain. Scribner, N. Y. Excellent. 37. Horsley's the Brain and Spinal Cord. Charles Griffin, London. 3iS. Ferrier'^i the Functions of the Brain. Smith, Elder and Co., London. Excellent. 3t>. Starr's Brain Surger}'. Wm. Wood andCo,, N. Y. 40. Sach's Nervous Diseases of Children. Wm. Wood and Co. N. Y. 41. McKendrick and Snodgrass' Physiology of the Senses, Scribner. N. Y. APPENDIX. The following apparatus and reagents will be found necessar}^ for successfully carrying- out the di- rections given in the preceding pages. There are many other pieces of apparatus and numerous rea- gents that might be mentioned, but it is thought that tbe beginner will do better work if limited to a few of the standard hardening fluids and stains, and to simple methods of preparation. For further details, reference should be made to the standard works on histology. The reagents and apparatus here mentioned, un- less otherwise indicated, may be purchased of the Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Rochester N. Y., or Chicago, or of any other dealer in microscopical sup- plies. DISSECTING. Good dissecting may be done with a sharp pocket knife, but it is convenient for each student to have a scalpel, a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps and a dis- secting needle- Directions for dissecting are found in the text. One or two good razors are necessary for cutting sections and a small saw will be needed fre- quently. HARDENING AND PRESERVING FLUIDS. Alcohol. Alcohol was formerly used for hard- ening a great m-dnj kinds of tissues, but now many 156 APPENDIX other fluids have taken its place. When used for hardening-^ fresh tissue should first be placed in 50 per cent, alcohol for from 12 to 24 hours, then be transferred to 70 per cent, for the same time, then to 80 per cent., where it may remain until needed, but the last alcohol should be chang-edtwo or three times. Material which is intended for dissection may be placed directly into 70 per cent, alcohol for 24 hours and then transferred to 80 per cent, where it may re- main until used. The best alcohol, as it is sold, is usually about 95 per cent, and from this the other streng-ths may be made by adding* water. For his- tolog"ical purposes, absolute alcohol is sometimes used. It is expensive but only small quantities are needed. Ordinary alcohol may be obtained by Hig-h Schools and other institutions free of revenue, and, in case any quantity is used, it should be obtained in that manner. As small a quantity as 10g"allons may be so purchased but it is better to get it by the half barrel or barrel. Directions for obtaining* alcohol free of revenue nia}^ be had b}' application to the nearest collector of internal revenue. Formalin. This substance has but recently come into use but it is rapidly displacing- alcohol for many purposes, because it is cheaper and material preserved in it is better. As obtained, formalin is a 40 per cent, solution of formaldehyde in water. For preserving- purposes a 4 per cent, solution, calling- the formalin as obtained 100 per cent., is commonly used. If the material is for histological purposes a 5 or even a 10 per cent, solution is recommended by some. Material hardened in formalin will answer for nearly all purposes for which hardened material APPENDIX 157 is needed in the preceding- exercises. Chromic acid. This substance has long- been a standard hardening- reag-ent. It is used in weak aqueous solutions, ranging from .2 to 1 per cent. Material that is being- hardened in chromic acid should be kept in the dark, the liquid should be chang-ed frequently and from 5 to 10 days are re- quired for hardening-. After hardening-, the material must be thoroughly washed in water for several hours until every trace of acid is removed. Chromic acid material does not always stain readily. PkkEnyi's Fluid. This is an excellent harden- ing reagent and it is made as follows: 10 per cent, nitric acid 40 parts, .5 per cent, chromic acid 30 parts, and 95 per cent, alcohol 30 parts. Fresh ma- terial should be used, and small objects will harden in from 3 to 6 hours, larger objects in from 12 to 24 hours, and, if it is desired to decalcify bones, they may be left in the fluid for several days. After harden- ing, the material is transferred directly to 80 per cent, alcohol, which should be changed once a day for two or three days. This solution will be found very convenient and satisfactory. OsMic ACID. Osmic acid comes in one half or one gram sealed glass tubes and is expensive. A 1 per cent, solution is most frequently used and it is prepared by breaking a 1 gram tube in 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water. The tube must be under water when broken. Weaker solutions are easily made from the 1 per cent, solution. It is an excellent hardening fluid and may be used to advant- age where recommended in the preceding exercises. 158 APPENDIX STAINS. The beg-inner will get the best results by limit- ing- himself to a few of the standard stains. Borax cakmine. This stain is usually- made by dissolving 1 gram of carmine in a solution of borax, 2 g-rams to 200 cubic centimeters of water. The whole is heated to boiling- and then a few drops of acetic acid are added. After the stain has stood for 24 hours it may be filtered, w^hen it is ready for use. A drop or two of carbolic acid will keep it from spoil- ing-. Material stained in borax carmine should be transferred from the stain to 70 per cent, alcohol, which contains 5 drops of hydrochloric acid to 100 cubic centimeters, where it may remain from 1 to 24 hours according to the size of the object. PiCRO-CARMiNE. This stain had better be pur- chased ready for use. Directions are found for its use in the text. Sections stained with it must not be washed in water. The}^ are most easih' mounted directly from the stain in Farrant's solution. Haematoxylin and haemalum. Ha^matoxylin must be made several months before it can be used, hence it is better to purchase it from some reliable dealer. Haeraalum is easily made and answers the same purpose. In fact it is much better for some things. Dissolve 1 gram of ha^matein in 50 cubic centimeters of *J0 per cent, alcohol, b}' heating-, and 50 grams of alum in 1000 cubic centimeters of dis- tilled water. Pour the two solutions together. After standing, it ma}' be filtered. These stains are known as the logwood stains and they give excellent re- sults. APPENDIX 150 EosiN. This is an aniline stain and is usually used in a 5 per cent, solution. It acts well as a double stain with hcematoxylin or hei?malum. SrLVP:R NITRATE. A one fourth to one half per cent, solution is frequently used and it stains inter- cellular substance. Material to be stained is placed in the solution for from 5 to 10 minutes then it is transferred to water and placed in the lij^dit until it turns brown. It is now transferred to alcohol. Magenta. 1 g-ram of maj^-enta dissolved in 5 cubic centimeters of 95 per cent, alcohol and 15 cubic centimeters of water, with the addition of 20 cubic centimeters of g'lycerine, makes a g-ood stain for blood corpuscles. STAINING. In most cases it will be found best to stain small pieces of material in bulk. This is done after the material has been hardened. Since the stains are g-enerally of an aqueous solution, the substance to be stained must be first transferred from the alcohol; in which it is preserved, to water. Sections cut in celloidin may be easily stained after they are cut, but paraffin sections to l)e stained must be fastened to the g"lass slip with a fixative, the paraffin then melted by heat and the slide stood in turpentine or xylol until the paraffin is dissolved. The slide is now placed in absolute alcohol for several minutes, passed throug"h 95, 80 and 70 per cent, alcohol and then to the i^tain. "When the section is stained it is washed, passed back throug"h the alcohols and finally into xylol or turpentine, after which a drop of Canada balsam is added and the cover g-lass applied. After 160 APPENDIX staining" in the logwood stains the sections are washed in water, but after borax carmine they should be placed in the alcohol mentioned under that stain. Picro-carmine stained sections should be mounted directly in Farrant's solution. OTHER S0LUTI0N5. Iodine. Dissolve 2 g^rams of iodide of potassium in 100 cubic centimeters of water then add iodine flakes to saturation. This solution is used in testing- for starch. Fehling's solution. Solution A. 103.92 grams of pure crystalline cupric sulphate are dis- solved in 500 cubic centimeters of distilled water. Solution B. Dissolve 320 grams of Rochelle salts in 500 cubic centimeters of warm water and filter. Solution C Dissolve 150 grams of caustic soda in 500 cubic centimeters of water. Equal parts of the three solutions are poured together when needed for use. The solution is used in testing for grape sugar. Normal salt solution. This solution is pre- pared by adding 6 grams of common salt to 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled water. It is used for diluting blood and for washing out bood vessels. Farrant's solution. This is used as a mount- ing medium and only small quantities will be needed. It should be purchased. inBEDDING. It is necessary to imbed nearly all animal tissue before it can be sectioned. Imbedding in paraffin. Hardened material, either stained or unstained, is transferred from 80 to 95 per cent, alcohol for from 12 to 24 hours, then to APPENDIX 161 absolute alcohol for several hours, and from this to xylol or cedar oil until it is clear, which will require from 1 to 24 hours, depending on the nature and size of the object. Xylol will generally give better re- sults than cedar oil. The object is now transferred to a pan, which contains melted paraffin, where it should be kept for 2 to 24 hours, depending on the size and nature of the material. A good but cheap method of keeping the paraffin at the proper temperature is as follows: Have legs about 6 inches long fastened to a piece of sheet copper, which is 4 inches wide at one end, about 12 inches long, and tapering to a point at the other end. A gas or alcohol flame may be kept under the point and a pan containing the paraffin is placed on the table in such a position that the paraffin will just be melted in one half of it and unmelted in the other half. Tin spoons with the handles bent so that they will hang over the sides of the pan, with the spoon level on the bottom, will serve to hold the objects to be imbedded. The paraffin should be neither too soft nor too hard. It is better to have some of different hardnesses, then these can be mixed. When cut, the paraffin should form a perfect ribbon without crumpling or curling. After the object has remained in the melted paraffin the required time, it should be transferred to some small vessel which contains melted paraffin, where it may remain until cooled. A convenient vessel for this purpose may be made by taking two pieces of lead and bending them in the shape of a letter L. They should be from one half to one inch wide and may be placed on a piece of glass so as to form a box. 162 APPENDIX into which the paraffin is to be poured. The object should be placed in the box of melted paraffin in the position in which it is to be sectioned. Imbedding in celloidin. Celloidin usuall}^ comes dry in cakes or shreds. It should be dissolved in a mixture of one half absolute alcohol and one half pure sulphuric ether. Three solutions, thin, medium and thick should be made. Objects to be imbedded are passed from 80 throug^h 95 per cent, and absolute alcohol, the same as for paraffin imbedding-, and then into a one half absolute alcohol and ether solution, before being- placed in the celloidin. Objects, be- ginning- with the thin, should remain in each celloidin FIG. 7. solution for 24 hours, after which the^Muay be placed in the proper position on the end of a cork or block of wood and covered with thick celloidin. The APPENDIX 163 celloidin is allowed to dry on the outside, when the whole is immered in 80 per cent, alcohol. After 24 hours, the celloidin will be ready for sectioning, but it may be kept in the alcohol for any leng"th of time. SECTIONING. In order to cut good sections it is necessary to have some kind of a microtome, and, unfortunately, there are not any very satisfactory ones for sale at a very low price. Figure 7 shows a very convenient, simple, hand microtome, which may be had from the Bausch and Lomb Optical Co,, Rochester, N. Y., for about ^10. It is an all around microtome and, with a sharp razor and some experience, very good sections may be cut. The imbedded object is fastened in the clamp, and, if it is in paraffin, the block should be 164 APPENDIX trimmed square. The razor must be brought for- ward with its edg-e parallel to the surface of the block. The object is fed up b}- the screw from beneath. The razor should be kept flat on the microtome. For celloidin, the razor should be drawn across the block at an angle and both it and the celloidin must be kept wet with 80 per cent, alcohol. Figure 8 shows an excellent automatic microtome which may be had of Joseph Zentmayer, Philadel- phia, for about $20. With it, both paraf&n and cel- loidin material may be sectioned, for the razor can be set at any angle, and the sections can be made as thin as desired. Paraffin sections will come from the razor in a ribbon. For more expensive microtomes, the reader is referred to the catalogues of various dealers in microscopical supplies. MOUNTING. "^Paraffin sections are fixed to the slide b}^ applying a very thin coat of Mayer's albumen fixative. This is made by mixing equal parts of filtered, fresh white of egg and glycerine. Put on a small drop, spread it around then rub off as much as 3''ou can w^th your finger. The section is now pressed down on the slide and then it is heated until the paraffin melts. The slide is then stood in ajar of turpentine or x3iol for 4 or 5 minutes, then removed, a drop of Canada bal- sam added and the cover glass applied. The slide is now ready to be examined, or it maj be set aside in a horizontal position until wanted. The balsam will final I}' dry. Neat wooden boxes for holding 25 slides each may be had of any dealer. ♦Directions for staining paraffin sections will be found on page 159. APPENDIX 165 Celloidin sections may be transferred to water and stained, if the object was not stained before im- bedding-, they are then washed, passed throug-h the alcohol (dehydrated) to 95 per cent, and from this into oil of berg-amot or a mixture of 1 part of pure carbolic acid with 3 parts of xylol, where they should remain until transparent. Xylol is next applied, then Canada balsam and the cover glass. INJECTING BLOOD VESSELS. A g-ood injecting- syringe is desirable for inject- ing- the blood vessels of an animal, but the injecting- mass may be put in some vessel that can be lifted several feet above the animal, and which has a rubber tube leading- from it to the canula that is to be in- serted into the blood vessel to be injected. For dis- secting- purposes, a starch injecting- mass is most con- venient. It is made as follows: 20 parts of powdered starch are thoroughly mixed with 20 parts of water, 5 parts of 95 per cent, alcohol and 10 parts of the color mixture mentioned below, after which the whole is strained through cloth. The color mixture is made by stirring- 1 part of any dry color, that will not stain, such as Vermillion, red lead, Berlin blue or chrcme yellow, with 1 part of 95 per cent, alcohol and 1 part of g-lycerine. The injecting- mass must be thoroug-hly shaken before it is used. For histolog-ical purposes, a gelatine mass should be used. A carmine mass may be made as follows: Soak 20 g-rams of good gelatine in cold water for 5 or 6 hours then pour off the extra water and heat the gelatine in a double vessel until it melts. Rub 8 grams of carmine to a paste in a mortar, with water 166 APPENDIX add 10 cubic centimeters of strong" ammonia, mix thoroug-hl}^, then add 100 cubic centimeters of water. Pour the color mass into the melted gelatine, stirring- briskly. Add acetic acid, a few drops at a time, un- til the odor of ammonia disappears and the color has changed to a lig-ht red. The mass is now filtered through flannel. This mixture must be used warm and the animal should be in warm water. A gela- tine mass, ready prepared, may be had of dealers. An animal to be injected is first etherized, and just as soon as it is dead, the body is opened and a slit is made in the ventricle so that as much blood will escape as possible. It is best to inject warm normal salt solution into the vessels to wash out the remaining blood. When ready for the color mass, the canula, which may be of glass or metal, is in- serted through the heart into the aorta or pulmonary arter}', tied and the pressure applied. Before remov- ing the canula, tie the vessel that has been injected. A different colored mass may be injected into the two vena cavce. PREPARATION OF BONES. It is desirable to have skeletons and skulls for comparison and these may be prepared by first boil- ing the bones in a liquid soap solution then wash- ing, scraping and polishing-. The soap solution is made by adding 12 grams of saltpeter, 75 grams of hard w4iite soap and 150 cubic centimeters of stronger ammonia to 2000 cubic centimeters of soft water. The soap may first be dissolved in a portion of the water b}' heating-. The bones are cleared of as much flesh as possible then boiled for three fourths of an APPENDIX 167 hour in a mixture of 1 part of soap solution to 4 parts of water. The}^ are then boiled for half an hour in a mixture of 1 part of soap solution to 1 part of water, when the)^ are immersed in cold water and washed. All surplus flesh should be removed with scalpel and forceps. Errata. Page 69, line 21, for materials read, 21, page 68. Page 76, foot note, for alimiyitaTy read, alimentary. Page 78, line 22, for Haemaglohin read, Haemoglobin. Page 143, line 27, for than read, then. >■>. 'mm SM