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If a user mal THE JESUITS 1^ ■ • • } I C.OM:P,I,BT.E., HISTORY • •••»• •• • ••» j^ • • • • 4 I J > > J « • <> a « THEIR OPEN AND SECRET PROCEEDINGS FROM THE FO UND A TION OF THE ORDER TO THE PRESENT TIME TOLD TO THE GERMAN PEOPLE BY THEODOR GRIESINGER VOL. I. IgnatMsf Loyvlny . . NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 27 & 29 WEST 23D STREET 1883 I • t PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. • • ' • • • » • • • • • ^ * z ■ ■ • • i t •» • t \. i « • • »•• • « k 4 «• * • » %. • * » • • * % ■• There is a structure iu the world, to 'the completion of which every thinking man is bound to lend his assistance, I mean the fabric of intellectual light and spiritual freedom, without which real and material liberty cannot be attained. Providence has given to some few the power of contributing a corner-stone, or even an entire pillar, to this building, and those few are the " Spiritual Knights " of whom Heine sings. But even when to the remainder this power is wanting, are they on that account to lay their hands on their lap and totally refrain from labour, when, perhaps, they might be in a position to pass on towards this erection the mortar and small stones ? I say " No " ; and upon this '' No "have I completed the " History of the Jesuits." May this book contribute a little, if not to the stripping-off of the fetters of superstition and spiritual thraldrom in which so many hundred thousands are still bound, at all events to the loosening of them and to the preparation for casting them aside. More I do not expect. * PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. CONTENTS. i The new edition of my *' History of the Jesuits " is the best proof that the book has done its work. It has found thousands of readers, and no one has put it aside without having obtained a proper idea of this Society, so worthy of condemnation. And seeing, now, that the Imperial Government has ranged itself on our side, let us hope that the accursed ban by which, through the influence of the Jesuits, the spiritual resurrection of our fatherland has been restrained, will now be removed from Germany. Firstly, the crushing of the Empire's enemies, and now the attack on the foes of light ! When was there ever for Germany a greater epoch? Stuttgart, Jtily, 1872. BOOK I. THE ORIGIN OF THE JESUITS; OR, THE SAINT IGNATIUS LOYOLA. CHAPTER I. Ignatius Loyola becomes Holy PAGE 3 CHAPTER II. The Vicissitudes op the New Saint and the Seven First Jesuits 15 CHAPTER III. Loyola in Rome 29 CHAPTER IV. The Organization and Statute Book op the New Order 46 CHAPTER V. Ignatius Loyola as General op the Order . . 54 BOOK II. THE SHREWDNESS OF THE JESUITS, AND THE GIGANTIC PROGRESS OF THEIR GROWTH. CHAPTER I. The Jesuit Missions in Distant Regions of the World 85 CHAPTER n. The Powerful Influence of the Jesuits in Europe . 145 VIU CONTENTS. N ^ i BOOK III. THE MORALITY OF THE JESUITS ; OR, THE VOW OF CHASTITY. CHAPTER I. The Old Adam under the Mask of Holiness PAGE • 283 Chapter II. is omitted, CHAPTER III. The Spiritual Exercises, or the Refinement of Enjoyment . . 306 BOOK IV. THE DISINTERESTEDNESS OF THE JESUITS, OR THE VOW OF POVERTY. CHAPTER I. The Confessional as the Key to the Money-chest . 333 CHAPTER II. Robbery and Theft among Laity and Ecclesiastics . 358 CHAPTER ni. Jesuit Commerce and Usury, combined with Fraudu- lent Bankruptcy 410 BOOK I. THE ORIGIN OP THE JESUITS; OBi THE SAINT IGNATIUS LOYOLA. MOTTO. Der Tetilel sasa in der HöU* und krümmt sich vor Sohmerta Weil der Mönch Luther sich gefasset das Herz Einzugreifen in der Welten King, Und zu stürzen die Alte Ordnung der Ding'. "Ist nicht genug," so heult er, " dass es weithm schalt Dass die Arge sich wagt an die geistliche Gewalt ? Muss er auch noch mein eigen Beich und Dominium, Sich erkühnen zu stürzen um und um ? ^ _^ ,. Tmiit Bei meiner Grossmutter, er ist im Stand und erohert die HöU Wenn ich ihm nicht eine grossere Macht entgegenstell' I Doch wer hilft mir in dieser schweren Noth, Wo die Welt aus den Fugen zu gehen droht? " So heult der Satan und schlug sich vor's Hirn Dass blutgefärht war bald die schwarze Stirn. Da trat er die Schlang' zu ihm und alt giftig' Thier Welcher von Bosheit, Trug und List der Bauch berstet schier. Und flüstert' ihm leis' ein paar wort' in's Ohr, Der Teufel in seinem Innern nicht eins davon verlor, Aufsprang er und erleichtert schwoll ihm die Brust Und sein Auge leuchtet vor Wonn' und Lust. Neun Monat drauf ein Weib einen Jungen gebar, Dess' Name Don Innigo von Loyola war. Aus der alten Reimschronik des Pater Cyprian, (TBASBLiLTION.) The Devil sat m hell and doubled himself up with pam, because the monk Luther was courageous enough to encroach on the round world, and to upset the old order of things. " Is it not sufficient," he screamed, " that it resounds from afar that the wicked one dares to venture an attack on the spiritual power ; must he also be bold enough to turn everything upside down in my own kingdom and dominion ? By my grandmother, he has taken up a position and will rob hell if I do not oppose him by a greater power And who will help me in this severe exigency, when the world threatens to depart from its course ? " Thus howled Satan, and flogged his brains in such a way as to make his black forehead the colour of blood. At this juncture the Serpent approached him, the old poisonous beast, who nearly burst his belly with malice, deceit, and cunning, and whispered softly a couple of words into his ear. The Devil lost not a syllable in his innermost thoughts. Up he sprang, and his swollen breast was relieved, and his eye shone again with pleasure and lust. Nine months after that a woman gave birth to a youngster whose name was Don Innigo de Xioyola, Fromlthe old Rhymes of Father Cyprian. CHAPTER I. «I IGNATIUS LOYOLA BECOMES HOLY. It is a fact regarding which, accordin.^ to the views of all enlightened people, the Germans have reason to be not a little proud, that almost all orders of monks belong to the Romaic speaking races, i,e. French, Italian, and Spanish, the Germans not having the slightest connection therewith. Thus formerly the widelv extended Order of the Benedictines has to thank for its origin the holy Benedict of Nursia in Umbria, a province of Italy. So also the Carnal dolenses, whose founder was the holy Bomuald, from the family of the Dukes of Ravenna, while they derive their name from the Abbey of Camaldoli near Arezzo in the Appenines. The grey monks of Vallombrosa come from Fiesoli in the territory of Florence. Further, the Carthusians so named from the solitude of La Chartreuse near Grenoble, where the holy Bruno, in the year 1086, built the first hermitage for the companions of his persuasion. Then come the Cölestines, called into existence by the hermit Peter de Murrhone, who in the year 1294 ascended the Papal throne under the name of Cölestine V. ; after them we find the Cistercians created by Robert Abbot of Citeaux, or Cistercium, followed by the Sylves- trians, the Grandimontines, and others. In like manner the Augustines and all those congregations who regulated their cloisters according to the rules of the holy Augustus, viz. the Pr6monstratenses,* the Servites, the Hieronymites, the Jesuaden, • I am well aware that this Order was founded by the Canon Norbert, from Zanthen, in the territory of Cleve, a man of German extraction, who was afterwards, from his zeal for the Ohurch, nominated Archbishop of HI8T0BY OF THE JESUITS. IGNATIUS LOYOLA BECOMES HOLY. and the Cannelites, as well as the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Capuchines, along with iheMinimen, the Minorites, and the whole tribe of Beggar Orders, have all likewise a pure Italian origin. The fact is, that all the cloisters and instituted Orders have, in a word, their homes to find in Italy, France, and Spain. The reason thereof is not difficult to discover. The spirit of the German nation is, indeed, by no means of a very imaginative nature, and does not allow itself to be overruled by fancy, especially in regard to religion. In other words, the German has altogether a too cold-blooded, calculating, deliberate temperament, to allow himself to be easily and thanklessly enthusiastic, and is much more inclined to indulge in subtle inquiries and investigations : on this account expelled from Rome in a most bitter way, the chief heresy, namely, Protestantism, owes its birth to Germany. In reviewing all these many orders more closely, or even merely running over their names superficially, the question naturally suggests itself, which of them might be considered the best, the most excellent and most esteemed ? This question was formerly much discussed, especially among the Orders them- selves, and it gave rise among them to an infinity of strife, jealousy, discord, and mutual depreciation. In short, formal war took place between the individual Orders, and I need only mention Thomists and Scotists (Dominicans and Franciscans, the former followers of Thomas Aquinus, the latter of Duns Scotus) in order to render superfluous all further explanation. If, in this manner, disputes took place among the members of the Orders themselves, how much less could the public, the lay world, be expected to agree as to their value or excellence, especially while the national jealousy of French, Italian, and Spanish was mixed up with the question. In the sixteenth century, two circumstances occurred which at once put a termination to the contention, namely, the Reforma- tion and the institution of the Order of the Jesuits. Magdeburg, and still later translated, indeed, among the saints ; but in the first place the Premonstratensea are only a new edition of the " Canonici regularis Sancti Augustini," who, it was well known, derived their ongin from Italy; secondly, Norbert lived so long in France that he was no longer German, but simply thought and acted as French ; thirdly and lastly, the foundation really took place in France, namely, in Sprenge, m the Bishopric of Laon in the forest of Coney, on a meadow indicated by heaven itself {Pr€ montre, hence the name Premonstratenses), and the immigration of the brethren of the Order into Germany only took place several years after- wards. Before the clearing thunderbolts launched forth by the Reformers, Monachisra, then flourishing, could no longer maintain itself; so it collapsed like a decayed building, and all its former admirers were at once converted into mockers and scorners, if not into haters and persecutors. On the other hand, through this Reformation, that is, by the insight thereby obtained, the Catholic world and the Papacy could no longer possibly, by the means hitherto employed, ward off the frightful attacks with which it was assailed ; so a new Order, I mean that of the Jesuits, was called into existence, which at once not only threw totally into the shade all previous monkish brotherhoods, but which accomplished more in a single century than the whole of them put together had effected during the long period of their existence. All were amazed at the new Order, and all, whether friend or foe, were unanimous in the belief that the Jesuits, in relation to power, influence, exten- sion, empire, and mastery, had made even the impossible pos- sible. All, however, agreed, that never so long as the earth had been inhabited by man had there been a society so steeped in meanness and vileness as were the Jesuits ; indeed, should the tenth part of the crimes and shameful deeds attributed to them be true, they are unworthy to exist among men. Briefly, every- one could not but admire the intellect, the extraordinary activity, and the remarkable organisation of the Order of Jesuits ; on the one hand, there were numbers who actuallv shuddered at the bare mention of their name, whilst, on the other, not a few broke out into excessive and rapturous praises of the fraternity. Thus was it judged of the Jesuitical Order in the last century, and precisely the same opposite opinions may be heard in the present day, when the Order seems about again to raise itself in all its pristine glory. Under these circumstances can it be other- wise than of the highest interest to hear something more in detail of this society ? Is it not the duty of the historian, then, to make people acquainted with all that is true respecting this hate and this admiration, and to penetrate into all the secrets with which the Jesuits are alleged to be surrounded ? I believe the only answer to this question must be an unqua- lified Yes, and thus will I at once forthwith begin to make the reader acquainted with the founder of this Order. His country is also a foreign one, as in the case of the founders of all the iinii 6 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. Other Orders. Spain, indeed, that most Catholic of all Cathoho countries, had the good fortune to hring him into the wor d. In the Basque province of Guipuscoa, between the two small towns of Azcoitia and Azpeitia, rose a proud feudal castle, which belonged from the thirteenth century to a highly aristocratic family bearing the name of Loyola, and in this castle, the ancestral seat, resided towards the end of the 15th century, Bertram, son of Perez, lord of Loyola and Ogne, or, as it is also written, Onate. As spouse he had Donna Marianna Saez of Licona and Balda, so called from her father being the knight Martin Garcia de Licona and her mother the Marchioness de Balda ; but to this high-sounding title her dowry did not at all correspond, consequently Knight Bertram found himself pos- sessed of no very splendid property, besides the two casdes and the land surrounding them. More fruitful, however, was it ordered in the domain of love, seeing that the tender pair were blessed by degrees with eleven children*-seven sons and four daughters ; of the former, the youngest, who came into the world in 14 ^^^J^ ^ doing this ; they further drew the attention of the Tribunal of iTlnquisition U him-so much so that it was to^be J.a. that he would again be shut up m prison, as he had formerly 82 HISTOBT OF THE JESUITS. LOYOLA IN BOMB. 38 been in Alkala and Salamanca. In this critical moinent Ignatius by his intelligence completely secured his safety, kno'mng ^»ell by means of flattery how to procure a powerful patron in John Peter Oarafifa. Archbishop of Theate * who understood how to Rive this unfortunate affair such an advantageous turn, that the ?apal Nuncio. Jerome Veralli, decided in favour of the accused In this way Ignatius escaped from harm this time, but it taught him the lesson that in order to preach with impunity he must get himself consecrated as priest ; and he determined forthwith to use the high patronage of Caraffa and Veralli for the attain- ment of this object. He was not fully qualified in theology, it 18 true ; while several of his associates were in the same position. He had not the right to demand his ordination from the Pope, but on the other hand, might not the latter accord his per- mission thereto through his supreme grace, in order to obtain which he immediately despatched three of the most prominent among the Society-Xavier, Laynez, and Le Fevre-to Home well provided with letters of recommendation frorii Caraffa and Veralli In fact, the deputation met the most favourable recep- tion from the then Pope, Paul III., and having explained to him the design of the brotherhood for the conversion of the Turks in Palestine, they not only obtained permission for the Ordination of all those associates who had not taken holy orders, but were also favoured with the Papal blessing, and a present of sixty ducats as a contribution towards defraying the expenses of the ioumey to Palestine. This was, indeed, almost more than could have been expected, and Ignatius, with redoubled zeal, took upon himself the " patronage " of the Institution ; but above every- thincr he at once availed himself of the accorded permission, and had himself and his associates consecrated as pnests by the Bishop of Arba. ,,.,., In the spring of the year Loyola and his friends were now prepared to carry out their previous arrangement of proceeding • This Archbishop of Theate, afterwards Pope Paul IV., ™ «i« «Xr uÄlught but of the converaion of the heathen, a project of which the Archbishop heartily approved. by sea to Jerusalem, but the war which had just broken out between the Venetian Republic and the Ottoman Porte inter- rupted communication with the Holy Land, and the contemplated journey had to be deferred, at least for the present "• What was now to be done ? was the question. To indulge in idleness and depend on begging for a living ? or to continue to devote themselves to the service of the hospitals of Venice, as thy bad done for several months past? No This would ha e been far too narrow a sphere for men like them ; and had they not obtained the long-desired priesthood, which gave them he right to devote themselves entirely to the cure of mens sou s- the right to preach, and by preaching to convert ? J««' t^^J * would be a sin not to make use of that right, and thus Ignat us resolved with all his associates to proceed to work immediately. Ytnt quite immediately, but after ^/orty days^prepara^n by prayer fasting, and self-castigation. Ignatius then divided his ! r thus:-He himself, along with L« Fevre an Laynez, establLhed his domicile at Vicenzia ; whilst Javier Cordu^ Hosez and the two Eguia, went to Treviso ; Lejay and Eodn «„ez o Bassano; Brouet with Bobadilla, however, proceeded foVerona ; in which several cities they all began preaching on L same dly-and, indeed, at the same hour I -7 " preachmg but whoever fancies that this word preaching is to be taken ^its usual acceptation ;o^M in. a ^- error^^^Loyola rme";™ ; ^ rr. of som^e street where there happened to be much thoroughfare, and mounting upon a stone or ba«el or something of the kind would swing their hats unlt'the air. gesticlting with hands and Jee. -d^^bo^^^^^^ out individual words with a loud scream, «o that the people pling involuntarily stood still. When at length they had rc^dei in gathering together a gaping crowd, tbey P jeded Z harangue the same in a truly stormy manner exhorting them 'i^pTntance and contempt of all -^^ ^ ^^V ^r nl other hand describing the advantages of '^^^'^XT^oZe delineating the charms ot Paradise for the godly, so that no one codd ISsent from the fiery eloquence and glowing enthusiasm rftt;eaker. On the ^^ ^^ ^^Z^^^Z 34 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. LOYOLA IN ROME. 35 forth a strangely variegated mixture of Latin, Spanish, French, and Italian fragments. Notwithstanding all this, however, their appearance was not altogether without effect ; and often the most wicked scoffers, after listening for a time, ended hy heating their hreasts and repenting of their ways. But this effect was more to he attri- huted to their gestures and gesticulations, and to their fantastical appearance, than to the apparent earnestness of the words they uttered. In this manner Ignatius and his associates conducted them- selves for more than a year, and, as I have already mentioned, with results of which they might have indeed heen proud. During the period, however, of this preaching, they had the hitter experience of finding that the poison of heresy was more deeply rooted in the hearts of men than superficially seemed to he the case, and, deeply impressed therehy, Loyola again asked himself the question, as he had done once hefore in Paris, in what way this fundamental evil might he checked. **The Romish Church, the Papacy, and the Pope himself, are all in the greatest danger," he exclaimed, " and the whole religious fahric must collapse, owing to its former supports being now thoroughly worm-eaten, unless some entirely new foundation pillars can be found." Continually did he go on further to investigate this theme, and constantly and often did he converse upon it with the cleverest, most cultivated, and most clear-sighted of his associates, namely with Jacob Laynez, until at last he came to the fixed determination of placing himself completely at the disposal of the Pope for the protection of the Papacy. Consequently, in the autumn of 1537, the whole of the brethren were summoned to assemble at Vicenza for a great consultation, before which assemblage Loyola detailed his new project with uncommonly convincing power. " The journey to Palestine would indeed be a most meri- torious work, find you ought never to lose sight of the aim and object for which you have bound yourselves — the aim, namely, of the conversion of the heathen ; but what would be still more profitable would be to save the Papacy (or, as he termed it, Christianity) out of the clutches of the dominion of Heresy ; and with this end in view it concerns you all, above everything, to follow out what you have already sworn at Montmartre. You ouRht to consider the reason why Providence has just at this time allowed war to break out between the Turks and Veneüans. It is certainly on no other ground than to hinder the journey to Palestine, because yon are destined for a somewhat greater career." And Ignatius closed his animated «P«««*» a« fo"»^« • "Let us. therefore, offer our services to the Holy Father and tell him that we are determined to raise a mighty army of holy knights, whose sole aim a^d thought should be directed to oyer- throw all enemies of Rome, under the banner of the Saviour These words told, and they not only all declared themselves favourable to the proposal of Ignatius, but they became enthusi- astic in the idea o? forming a "Phalanx Jesu (" a society of Jesus warriors"), as the knightly-bom ^g-^^/^^P^f^f 'J; Accordingly, this resolution was at once concluded that Loyola hilelf. filh Laynez and Le Eevre. should o>^J;^-J P- to Rome, and throw themselves at the foot of the PoP«. »^J s^ however, undertook the duty of making tours tbrough Italy with the object of enlisting as many retainers as p ss^le n order that the company to be placed at the disposal of the Pope should be a really «°f ^^^^^ J^^ . j„3 .„j ^3 associates took From this period the affairs of Ignatius ana nis ■ . *„ *v.o nrpspnt time it had been merely a completelv new turn ; up to the preseni um „„^:„tv ,. •■ • v.,,,! ^nt it now became a great society a small missionary band, but it J^ ^„^^ with a distinct programme and fixed statutes, in o it was a question of a new Order, which ««»der the title of " Phalanx Jesu," should flash forth as the light of he worW For the present, at any rate. Loyola, on his -'^'^l'^^^'' in October in speaking about his undertaking avoided m king use of the expression "Order," as it was well ^-^^^J^^^^l Orders were ^ust then looked upon wit^^ no r.en eye^ at^th Vatican, on account of their evident inutility , o he busied himself all the more with the principles he had laid down at Venice, to look about for well-wishers and ^ortne^^oi-U descriptions, in order through them to attain ^'^J '^^'^^^^ even Lugh it should be by bye-ways ^^;2^^lZl mention particularly an old -qum«^ '^«^ ^^^J ^^^^^„, Professor and Doctor of Theology, Pater Ortiz, ^"^' > of Charles V., was now in Rome, plapng '^^^;:::^ Romish Court. It was, indeed, this Urtiz .^ ' Ignatius to Pope Paul III. The latter, too. receivin^g with great I» I 86 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. favour the offer made of forming a " Jesus ** company for the purpose of combating heresy, not only permitted Loyola himself to preach in all the churches of Rome, but also accorded to Le Fevre and Laynez two theological professorial chairs in the College della Sapienza. The spell was thus broken, or, at least, the first step thereto was secured. Through Ortiz, Ignatius was made acquainted with Cardinals Gastpar Contarini and Vincenz Caraffa, two extremely sagacious, though not exactly holy, men, and both, likewise, highly approved of the notion of a ** Jesus " association. They were also of opinion that above all things the idea ought to be more clearly defined, and a formal statute drawn up for the Society about to be founded, for when it is known exactly what is wished one is in a much better position to render effectual service. More especially, they added, the new Society must not in any way be a copy of any of the previously existing Orders, but it must have its foundation on something that had never before been thought of, the advantage of which to the Papacy should be palpable, otherwise it would not be worthy of being placed before the Pope for confirmation. In consequence of this, Loyola immediately called together all his associates, as well as those more recently added, to delibe- rate on the proposed statute for the Society, and the assembly took place in the beginning of the year 1538. However, weeks passed, and, indeed, months, before they came to any conclusion on the subject, in spite of there being now among the members many who need yield to no one in acuteness of understanding. Perhaps, indeed, their invention might have met with no success at all had it not been for the assistance of men of higher stand- ing, such as Dr. Ortiz and the two Cardinals above named, and it cannot be affirmed that the principles of Jesuitism emanated entirely, or even for the most part, from Ignatius Loyola. The idea of the same, the conception to form a " Phalanx Jesu,'' originated, indeed, from him, and from him alone, but with the accomplishment of this idea, the shaping of this conception, and its farther development, many other heads co-operated, and it is a pity that in those days nothing like stenography existed, for then, doubtless, we would have been furnished with a report of the long and earnest consultation, and we might have then known exactly what, and how much, might be ascribed to each of the LOYOLA IN ROME. 37 contributors and participators therein, as -f ^^^J^^^^^^^^^^^^ arrived at. But while the above fact .s undemab le s must be admitted even bv those most ardently favourable to the Jesuits, t tu not be forgotten, on the other hand, tbat Loyola al^^^^^^ mained the very heart and soul of the con-UaU-^^^ and tha the final conquest over all the hindrances which had to be over le in the Lndation of the Order must be attributed a lone^ o his fierv zeal, and indomitable untiring force of will. It may ZlllZ^ne^ that Loyola and his comrades, by their p^^^^^^^^ Istume and still more their extraordinary manner of harangumg rpSc, excited great attention, and obtained ^-^ portion of the inhabitants, a certain degree of celebrity. Already bts^rred up the envy of others, and especially among the low classes of ecclesiastics, and those parties complained w th naore or i ce, that the newly-baptised "Black Cloaks,'' as they we cied in Rome, were encroaching on their preserves. Süll Tore atrilibehaved the monks; and as it became rumoured lout tl L object of Ignatius was to found a new Order, their Srno longer knew any bounds. "What!" cried they, and amongst thffc>remost of the dissentients were the Augustines nd Dominicans, who had hitherto been accustome to PP o- Driate to themselves the fattest morsels among the people Chat r Our table, through this detestable ^fr^^^et the enlightenment extending among the people has al eady lecore much diminished, and now the last remains are to b slatched from us by a parcel of wandering vagabonds ! No I Lfmust not be allowed, if life and death depend upon it ! In bortTte above-named monks immediately set - -^^^^^^^ every endeavour to ruin Ignatius and ^^ jj^^^^^^^^^ through lying, in escaping the hands ot justice n Spam, in S8 HISTOKY OF DHE JESUITS. succeeded in obtaining formal public satisfaction thiough a judicial judgment upon this untiring persecution, which proved to be extremely humiliating for his accusers, but which turned out very honourably for^ himself. From this time forth the credit of Ignatius daily increased considerably, and he naturally hastened to take advantage energetically of the same, to attract and gain over new patrons and retainers. He thus won over, among others, Franciscus Strada, a man distinguished for his learning ; also Pietro Codaci, a superior officer and relation of the Pope, who placed his whole very considerable property at the disposal of the Society ; and, lastly, Quirino Garzoni, who evacuated one of his own houses, near the Sante Trinita, at the foot of the Quirinal Hill, for Ignatius and his associates to live therein. And not only among the rich and noble did Loyola seek to acquire proselytes ; he speculated also especially upon obtaining the friendship of the great mass of the people, and with this purpose it was his first principle to give assistance to the poor and suffering, by aid of contributions obtained by begging from the benevolent rich. He did this especially in the winter of 1538-39, when a dearth spread vast misery in Kome, and on that account one can well imagine how greatly esteemed the " Black Cloaks " were among the common people. When such was the case, when high and low at the same time sang the praises of Ignatius, how could it be otherwise than that the Pope's attention should more and more be directed towards him by whose efforts it was mainly owing that the Order was founded. In this locality, too, Loyola succeeded in obtaining no trifling results and reputation in the conversion of the Jews, of whom there were very many at that time in Bome, some of them being very rich. By what means, however, was this accomplished ? Among others, by an order obtained from the Pope, that no physician could be allowed access to the sick bed of a Jew until the latter had been brought to confession with the view of his embracing Christianity. Ignatius, therefore, so to speak, brought a knife to the Jews* throats in order to convert them, and from this a conclusion may easily be drawn as to the spirit which influenced the Society of Jesus. The founder of the new Order also now became conscious that, with the view of placing himself in the ascendant, he must, above everything, endeavour to gain the favour of the Roman ladies, and especially that class of LOYOLA IN EOME. 59 them whose name is not usually mentioned in polite society. About the time in which our history runs, there reigned in Rome, as was well known, an almost unbounded state of licen- tiousness ; indeed, it appeared as if nearly all the profligate women in the whole of Italy had assembled there. All who had money at their command, whether lay or clerical, married or unmarried, young or old, kept their own mistresses ; and there were not a few who were scarcely even satisfied with two or three. There was no question but that this shamelessness existed concealed behind the walls of the houses ; but these ladies, too, were to be seen flouncing about the streets by day as well as by night, and in all pro- cessions they were present, especially in the churches, where they placed themselves in the most conspicuous places in their half-naked beauty. Moreover there swarmed about the residence of the followers of Christ a still more despicable class of the female creation, who went by the name of common women ; and as a large number of strangers was wont to resort annually to Rome, thousands upon thousands continued to support a miserable existence by the barter of their bodily charms. This, certainly, was a great scandal ; but, whilst in other large cities the state of things in this respect was no better, and as in Rome, previous to its becoming the capital of Christendom, there had been periods in its history of much greater profligacy, this discreditable state of things would have been winked at in high places, had it not been that Luther was then preaching the regeneration of Christendom, and that all his followers were pointing the finger of scorn at the old city of the Csesars. Indeed, this latter generally received in Germany the name which Luther assigned it, " The Whore of Babylon:' Even in those countries in which the Romish faith flourished unim- peached, this appellation was universally accepted by acclamation. Such a scandalous thing must be rectified if the greatest injury to the Pope and his dominion was to be averted, and Paul III. convoked a commission of cardinals, whose task it was to find a remedy for the evil. The commission assembled and held weekly meetings during many months. The means desired however, were not to be found, excepting the sensible proposal to expel by force the disreputable females out of the city ; this plan, however, had to remain in abeyance, for otherwise a revolution among the people would have to be faced. Lioen- 40 HISTOET OF THE JESUITS. tiousness continued, therefore, to rule the roost, and the Princes of the Church found themselves in the most wretched dilemma. Ignatius Loyola now came on the scene, and what the cardinals, invested with the fullest powers, failed to accomplish, he alone, quite unaided, completely effected. What were, then, these means which he proposed to himself to use ? Simple enough ; it was through the influence which he knew how to bring to bear upon the minds of those poor wretched beings. First of all he collected among the Roman ladies of rank sufficient money to found a cloister for converted sinners of the female sex, and as he at the same time named these ladies patronesses of the said cloister, they contributed largely through mere vanity, and collected together considerable sums. A suitable building was thus soon erected, and very ornamentally and invitingly arranged as to its interior economy. It was baptised with the beautiful title " To the holy Martha." A regular nunnery, however, it was not the intention of Loyola to make it ; but the future inmates were to have the right to leave the home again whenever it pleased them to do so, and if they found that it did not suit them to remain in it.. They were, therefore, on that account, not bound by any kind of oath, nor were they obliged to live according to any certain rules. In short, all restraint was from the first pro- hibited, and it was rendered, on the contrary, exceedingly attractive by offering the prospect of an easy existence without the trouble of work. Having now brought the matter so far, he commenced— not so much openly as secretly— to make interest for his new institution, and he soon won over some dozens of the poorest and most forsaken of those lost damsels on whom he forth- with conferred the pompously sounding title of " Congregation of the grace of the Holy Virgin." To enter, in our days, an asylum or refuge for fallen damsels, would have awakened a feeling of natural timidity ; but by the entrance into the " Con- gregation of the Holy Virgin," those miserable beings considered themselves raised instead of lowered, and each of the poor creatures looked upon herself as a penitent Magdalen. But this was the least part of the business. As soon as the Martha cloister became in some degree peopled, Loyola began to organise processions of his repentant beauties, and displayed in them such splendour that all Rome went down upon their knees as soon as he appeared in the streets with Ms remarkable LOYOLA IN BOME. 41 following. Immediately preceding them marched a troop of beautiful children, who swung about smoking censers, exhaling delicious perfumes, or throwing a shower of flowers on all sides over the gaping crowd. Then came three gigantic men, each of whom carried a still more gigantic banner. Upon the first was delineated, richly ornamented with rubies, the three capital letters I. H. S., i.e. Jesus Hominum Salvator ; upon the second sparkled the image of the mother of God, with the inscription, " Congregation of the grace of the Holy Virgin, and lastly, upon the third, shone the representation of a wonderfully beautiful penitent, over whom a martyrs crown was held by three angels. Behind the banner-bearers followed Ignatius, surrounded by his associates, all clad in closely-fitting black cloaks reaching down to the ankles, and broad-brimmed black hats bent down on all the four sides, similar to what the Jesuits wear at the present time. Behind Ignatius marched the penitents, that is to say, the inmates of the cloister of Saint Martha, not, however, in sombre penitential garments, but gaily enveloped in white musUn cloaks finely ornamented, with flowers in their hair, and strings of pearis round their necks. The younger members of the Society of Jesus, brought up the close of the procession, with gariands of roses in their hands, and looks cast humbly on the ground, all singing together the hymn " Veni Creator Spiritus,- " Come God the Holy Ghost, or some other suitable song. In this manner did Ignatius appear in the streets of Rome, with his " Congregation of the grace of the Holy Virgin," and before the palaces of each of the cardinals, and especially before the dwellings of the noble patronesses a short halt was made, at which both the former as well as the latter were not a little flattered. The result was that the inventor of these processions received encouragement from «11 quarters for his undertaking, which prospered more and more, notwithstanding the ridicule thrown upon it by the enhghtened Romans themselves. Indeed, certain of the beautiful sinners became so enthusiastic on behalf of the new order of things that the Cloister of the Holy Martha was soon filled from top to bottom, and the name of Ignatius resounded throughout all countries, as care was taken to noise it abroad that he had succeeded in turning all the abandoned women and mistresses of Rome into pious penitents. 1 ^ 42 HlSl'OBr OF THE JESUITS. LOYOLA IN ROME» 43 When, however, this work of Loyola was more closely looked into, the nimbus pretty well vanished, and, properly speaking, no real moral worth could be attributed to it. In the first place, only a very small number- of ladies who had made themselves notorious entered into the Congregation of the grace of the Holy Virgin, since it appeared that the whole number comprised in the Cloister of the Holy Martha did not exceed 300 penitents, and the conversion of the Boman world of profligacy, if not quite inconsiderable, became reduced to very small proportions. Secondly, there was really no question of any true conversion, that is as to a change and amendment of the moral perception in any single one of the penitents, whose repentance appeared to consist in nothing else than mere pompous show, and in the outward confession of past sins, upon which absolution imme- diately followed. Nevertheless, Loyola thereby gained two uncommon advantages ; first of all he put the holy Father under great obligation to him, it being trumpeted forth to the world that the whole profligacy of Rome had gone over into the cloister ; while in the next place, in consequence thereof, the severe reproaches of the adherents of the Reformation regarding the licentiousness of the high ecclesiastics of the Papal Court were capable of refutation; added to this, hearing the confessions of so many profligates and mistresses, put him in possession of such a mass of secrets that the information he thus obtained was of extraordinary value to him. As for example, it could not be easy for a cardinal or any other high personage to dare to oppose him in his projects relating to his Order, when such persons were conscious that in all probability Loyola was initiated into the story of their amours and former misdoings with this or that Donna, Olympia, or Julia ! Moreover, what influence had not these beautiful sinners over their lovers when the former, as not unfrequently happened, at a future time returned again to the world from the cloister of Saint Martha ? What power did it not put in the hands of a father confessor ? Loyola, therefore, was never in his life engaged in such a cunning business as in adopting the profligate women of Rome, and from that time forward all his scholars and associates have taken trouble, above everything, to win for themselves the fair sex, whether married or otherwise. In this manner Loyola obtained for himself a firm footing in Rome, and as he now thought that he had sufficiently won over to his views such as had influence with the Pope, in August 1539, he had the statutes of his Order, so far as then prepared, laid before His Holiness at the time residing on the Tiber. This was done by Cardinal Con- tarini, who was very favourably aff'ected towards Ignatius. The Pontiff charged Father Thomas Badia, who at that time held the office of High Chamberlain {Magistrum Sacri Palatii), and who afterwards became Cardinal, to read through the document ; but as the latter extolled it so much, he took it into his own hand, and after carefully examining it, full of astonishment and admiration, exclaimed, '* Digitus Dei est hie ! "— " The finger of God is here." He forthwith summoned Ignatius before him m September 1539, and, after loading him with praise, informed him that there was nothing whatever to hinder the ratification of the new Society. Who could now be more joyful than Ignatius ? Still this delight was soon again disturbed on his urging His Holiness to confirm in writing, that is to say, by a Bull, his verbal approval. After further consideration the ruler of Christendom began to entertain some scruples. The Pontifex was of opinion that the matter was far too weighty that he should dare to trust entirely to his own opinion and judgment; it must rather, as usual with all vital Church questions, be referred first of all to a Commission of Cardinals, and only after a favourable opinion being pronounced upon it by them could the Pope give his final approval. In short, he at once nominated such a Commission, consisting of three of the most distinguished Cardinals. It was thought, however, to be a bad omen that one of the number was the learned, upright, and sagacious Cardinal Bartholomew Guidiccioni, who was well known to be thoroughly unfavourable to the ecclesiastical Orders. From this quarter Ignatius was seized with great alarm as to the fate of his Order ; and that he had good cause for this anxiety the immediate future disclosed. Guidiccioni at once declared the proposed Society to be completely inadmissible, inasmuch as, according to the 4th Synod of Lateran of the year 1215 and the 2nd of Lyons of the year 1274, it was distinctly decided that no new Order could in future be founded. And even were this prohibiUon of the Church to be set aside, the ratification of this proposed society of Loyola must be reünquished, as envy and jealousy would be aroused thereby among the Orders already exisUng; 44 HISTORY Ot' THE JESUITS« LOYOLA IN ROME. 46 while, as so much hatred and disputation already reigned ram- pant in the Church, it was most desirable that all occasion for new conflicts should most carefully be avoided. " Bather abolish the Orders entirely," said the Cardinal at the close of his judgment, " or reduce their overwhelming number, than create an accession of monks who, we all know, bring at present more injury than advantage to the Papal throne." Thus judged Cardinal Guidiccioni, and his two colleagues agreed with him completely — at least, at first — so that the ambitious Loyola was almost driven to despair. At last, however, after an opposition which had continued for almost half a year, the ejfforts of Ignatius and his friends succeeded in bringing about a change of opinion, and finally even Cardinal Guidiccioni came to be, instead of an enemy, one of his most zealous supporters. And wherein lay the grounds for this change of opinion ? Simply and solely because the cardinals now came to the conviction that the new Society might be made a lever by which Roman Catholicism, so greatly shaken by the Reformation, might be raised up again— a lever and point of support for the Pope and the Papacy such as had never yet existed.* This conviction found favour for itself, partly in that the statutes of the Order and its inherent prin- ciples and rules had survived a long-continued and very searching trial, and partly also on account of several explanatory additions proposed to be made, to which Loyola and his friends gave their consent. It was after this that, as the college charged with the exa- mination of the statutes had declared itself favourable thereto, * All authors unanimously a^ee that the Pope ratified the Order of Jesuits solely on grounds of utüity, that is, because he beheved that through it the degraded Papal power might again be resuscitated. The learned Schröck, for instance, declares his views:— '♦The acceptance of, and favour shown to, the Order of the Jesuits by the Pope is not to be wondered at from the state of the Catholic Church at that time ; on the C5ontrary, it must have been heartily welcome to the Koman Court. The latter had ahready lost an immense deal of groimd through the Reformation of Luther and Calvin, and stood in danger of being always still more a loser, as the former means of the Popes for securing the obedience of Christians ^^^'^u ^°°6®^ sufficient; the other orders and ecclesiastical societies ^ich had hitherto rendered good service had become powerless and effete, and enjoyed but little consideration in their own proper church. More powerful mstitutiona and more active defenders than the Roman Cathohc Church hitherto had, were required against such formidable and fortunate opponents. Now a society offered itself which promised to devote itself to all the requirements of the Church, and render • f^i^f« implicit obedience to the Popes. Why should it, then, bo the Pope himself naturally took no further exception to the solemn formal ratification of the new Society under the name of " Societas Jesu," * and this, in fact, took place on the 27th September 1540, through a special Bull commencing with the words, " Regimini militantis ecclesicE.'^ In this manner was the Order of the Jesuits called into existence. * Most of the remaining orders were named after their founders. Loyola, however, did not seek for LoyoHtes or Ignatianites, but for Jesuits, as not m3 butJesus he wished to be considered the head of the Societj he had founded On that account he had from the first the intention of g^^n^ h?s SoSety the expressive title of "Phalanx Jesu," and also ''Compa^ia di Gfesu''" Societas Jesu " in Latin, and it was not, therefore, Paul IIL who Svented this name, which originated entirely -itV^ftrLovX's'delth Lsimiation " Jesuit " came, moreover, into use only after Loyola s deatn, According to general belief originated in Paris from the celebrated Etienne Pasquier,the advocate of the Parisian University m its tra^actions Ähe JesS O^der during the latter half of the ^^^1^-^^;^^^^^^^^ to this time the Jesuits were called, as has been already related, " Companions of Jesus," 4& HISTORY OF THE JESUITS, CHAPTEE IV. THE OBGANISATION AND STATUTE BOOK OF THE NEW OBDEB. The reader will now be curious to become acquainted with the statute which Loyola submitted to the Pope, and I therefore place it before him in a verbal translation. Thus begins this very memorable document : — " Whoever will, as a member of our Society, upon which we have bestowed the name of Jesus, fight under the banner of the Cross, and serve God alone and His representative on earth, the Pope of Rome, after having in the most solemn manner taken the vow of chastity, must always recollect that he now belongs to a Society which has been instituted simply and solely in order to perfect in the souls of men the teaching and dissemina- tion of Christianity, as also to promulgate the true faith by means of the public preaching of God's word, by holy exercises and macerations, by works of love, and especially by the educa- tion of the young, and the instruction of those who have hitherto had no correct knowledge of Christianity, and lastly by hearing the confessions of believers, and giving them holy consolation. He should always have God before his eyes, or, more correctly, the aim of our Society and our Order, which is the sole way to God, and strive with his best exertions to bring about the accomplishment of this aim. On the other hand, each one should be satisfied with the measure of grace dispensed to him by the Holy Ghost, and not contend in judgment with others THE OBGANISATION OF THE NEW OBDEB. 47 who are, perhaps, more discreet. In order to effect this more easily, and with the view of upholding that order rightly which is necessary in all well-regulated societies, it shall be for the General alone, the Chief selected from among us, to have the right of deciding how each should be employed, and of determining who would be most suitable for this or that office or business. "Further, this Chief or General shall have the power, with the approval of his associates, to frame the fixed rules and constitu- tion of the Society, and judge whatever will be most fitted for the attainment of the chief aim of the Society, not, however, without having previously asked the associates and consulted with them. On all important occasions, and where it concerns permanent regulations, the General has on that account to con- voke the whole members of the Society, or, at least, the greater number of them, and then the point will be decided by a simple majority. In the case of less important matters, however, especially where dispatch is needed, it shall be quite sufficient to call together in council such of the associates as may happen to be present on the spot where the General resides. The carrying out of the laws, moreover, no less than the proper right of command, and supreme power, belongs solely to the Chief, and to no third person. "Be it known to all men further, that it must be engraven, not only on the doors of their Profess-houses, but also on their hearts in capital letters as long as they live, that the entire Society and all and sundry who enter into the same are bound to render implicit obedience to our holy lord the Pope, as also to all his successors, and in this obedience to fight only for God. However learned and thereby orthodox they may have become in the Bible, all Christian believers owe obedience and allegiance to the Pope of Bome as visible head of the Church and representative of Jesus Christ ; so, also, do we hold our- selves bound by a special vow of general obedience for the submission of this Order in general, as also for the formal spiritual mortification of each individual among us in particular, and for the public renunciation of our own proper will. This vow requires that whatever the present Pope or his successors may order, provided it redound to the advantage of souls and the propagation of the faith, that for whatever mission it is '■ *i 48 HISTOBT OF THE JESUITS. desired we may be employed in, whether it be to the Turks or other unbelievers, even if it be as far as India, or to heretics, Lutherans, or schismatics, or, lastly, even should it be wished to send us among the orthodox, we shall immediately obey without any delay, and without offering any excuse whatever. On this account it behoves all who are minded to join our Society, before they take this burden upon their shoulders, well and maturely to consider whether they have the command of such spiritual means as would enable them to climb, with God's assistance, those steep heights ; that is, whether the Holy Ghost, who impels them, has poured upon them such a measure of spiritual grace, that they may dare to hope, with His assistance, they may not succumb under the burden of their vocation. Are you quite prepared to range yourselves for war service under the banner of Jesus Christ ? So must you gird up your loins day and night, and be ready at any hour of the day or night to bear the burden you have undertaken. " No one belonging to the Society shall, impelled by ambi- tion, carry out, of his own accord, this or that mission or function, and still less shall any member have the right to enter inde- pendently into communication, directly or indirectly, with the Roman chair, or other ecclesiastical authorities ; it is only God alone, or rather, that is to say. His representative, the Pope, as also the General of the Order, who can do this. All such orders must proceed from them ; but when a member has a commission given to him to execute, he shall not under any circumstances whatever hesitate to undertake the same ; on the other hand, he may not engage to concert or come to an arrangement with the Pope regarding any great mission work without the approval of the Society. All and every one must vow to render implicit obedience to the decision of the Chief on all points relative to the rules of the Order ; he himself, however, on the other hand, must engage to issue only such commands as he considers conformable to the attainment of the object the Society has in view. Also must he in the administration of his office always have before his eyes the example of the good- ness, gentleness, and love given by Christ and His Apostles, Peter and Paul, and so shall he also instruct all his councillors and higher officials. Especially must he take care that the education of the young, and the instruction of ignorant adults in THE ORGANISATION OF THE NEW ORDER. 49 the principles of Christian teaching, in the Ten Commandments and the other elements, both as to time and place, as also with regard to the person himself, shall never be neglected, and, indeed, this is the more necessary, as without a well-founded faith no true edifice can be erected. Moreover, it is clear that if the General should not take the business strictly in hand, one or other of the brethren, erroneously thinking himself more accom- plished, and believing this or that land, or this or that district, to be much too small and inconsiderable for the extent of his knowledge, might abandon the instruction, whilst in fact nothing could be more serviceable than this instruction, as well for the edification of his neighbour as for exercise in works of humility and love, and, lastly, for the attainment of our chief object. In a word, the members of the Society shall, according to the rules of the Order, implicitly obey the Chief, or General, in every particular, and on all occasions, to the infinite benefit of the Society, and the continual exercise of humility never to be sufficiently commended, considering him with becoming rever- ence as the representative of Christ, the commander-in-chief of the heavenly hosts. Now, whilst experience teaches that there are no men who have a purer, more edifying, or more agreeable life as regards their neighbours, than those who are furthest removed from the poison of avarice, and stand closest to evan- gelical poverty ; and while we further know that the Lord Jesus Christ provides all his servants, when engaged in the service of the kingdom of heaven, with all necessaries of food, drink, and clothing ; so shall each and every member of our Order make a vow of perpetual poverty, and at the same time declare that neither for themselves, that is, for their own proper persons, nor also for the maintenance and use of the Order itself in common, shall they take or obtain possession of any lands or property, wherever situated, or merely the income derived therefrom, but rather be satisfied with what they can voluntarily spend in administering to the wants and necessities of others. "It will be still free to them to establish one or more colleges at the universities, for the maintenance of which the acceptance of lands and estates, with the income derived therefrom, need not be declined, on the understanding that they are to be used for the good of the students. The superintendence, however, over the before-mentioned colleges, the students attached to them. 60 HISTOBT OP THE JESUITS. THE OBOANISATION OP THE NEW OBDEB. 51 as well as the administration of the same, and of the incomes appertaining to them, rests entirely with the General and with those brethren of the Order entrusted by him with such power, as also, indeed, the appointment, dismissal, recall, and expulsion of the teachers, superiors, and students, besides whatever con- cerns the introduction of statutes, regulations, and laws, the instruction of the pupils, their indoctrination, their punishments, their clothing, and, above all things, their education, guidance, and management. It will, in this way, be best made certain that the students can never misuse the said estates and incomes, nor can it even be a question of the Society employing the same for their own benefit and advantage. On the contrary, the entire interest of the college properties shall be appropriated to their maintenance, and to defraying the expenses of the education of the pupils ; the latter, however, may be admitted into our Society as soon as they have obtained sufficient proficiency in science and learning, and can even themselves work as teachers. All members of the Order who are consecrated to the priesthood, though they enjoy neither any church benefices, nor any other revenues, still have the duty of discharging all church functions, and are also bound to rehearse the office after church usage privately, that is, each individually for himself, but not in common as monks in cloister. " This is the statute of our Order, which we have sketched by the suggestion of the Holy Father Paul, and now submit for the approval of the Apostolic Chair. It is only a summary outline, but it will sufficiently enlighten those who are interested in our doings and proceedings, and it will serve as a criterion for those who subsequently join this Order. Since we now, moreover, know exactly, by long personal experience, with how many and great difficulties a life such as ours is surrounded, we have likewise found how advantageous it is that no one should be allowed to join our Society as a member who has not pre- viously undergone an exact and searching examination. First, then, he can only be admitted to the war service of Christ if he has been found efficiently skilled in the service of Christ, and clean and pure in his teaching and mode of life ; may he, how- ever, to our small beginning add his grace and favour, to the honour of God the Father, to whom be glory and praise in ptemity, Amen." Thus run the rules of the new Order, which Paul III. con- firmed, on the 27th September 1540, under the title of the Society of Jesus, but, it must be added, with the addition that the number of members should be limited to sixty. Still, these rules formed only the first principle, the mere beginning of the subsequent organisation of the Order of the Jesuits, and we shall be informed, in the next chapter, that the more precise and weighty of the laws and constitutions were only added afterwards. Still, in this initiatory sketch, or rather, by this small commencement, indications are not wanting of something eotirely difibrent from what at first existed. First and foremost, in addition to the three customary vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience to superiors, comes a fourth, the vow of absolute and unlimited submission to the Pope (obedientia illimitatCB erga Pontiflcem), and from this it follows that the members of the Society of Jesus are nothing else than an army of spiritual warriors who devote themselves entirely to the service of the Romish Chair. The second not less important point is that the new Order should not by any means be a monkish order, in spite of the obligation of the above-named vows. Up to this time the monks went by the name of whatever Order to which they belonged ; they lived together in cloisters, and led therein a life apparently devoted to God ; the Jesuits, on the contrary, were to live in the world, and not in seclusion. They were to possess, it is true, profess-houses, that is to say, houses of accom- modation for the members who had bound themselves by all the four vows ('* profess " is equivalent to " vow "), but none of them could remain stationary anywhere for any length of time, and each must always hold himself in readiness to be sent about here and there on any particular duty for which he might be required. Their task was not that of following a life of contemplation, but that of working among men for the benefit of the Pope, and of labouring in far away missions among the heathen, as well as in their native Europe fighting against heretics and schismatics. The third cardinal point is that they acknowledge education, secular as well as spiritual, to be the chief object of their lives. By the former must be understood the education of adults back- ward in knowledge, as well as that of the young, in the true, or Roman Catholic religion, for only in this way could a lasting and effectual stop be put to the extension of heresy. Spiritual 4 * 62 mSTORT OF THE JESUITS. THE OEGANISATIOS OF THE NEW OEDEB. 63 education, on the other hand, would be prosecuted among the so-called novices, such youths merely as had the desire of pre- paring themselves for admittance into the Jesuit Order, as it may be supposed that the novices or pupils in question ought to be thoroughly perfected for the objects of the Order. With the view, moreover, that this essential principle of the Order, education^ should be eflFectual, and, indeed, might be looked upon as a fourth cardinal point, it was required that the vow of poverty should be modified in some degree, or, rather, raised, as it wore, by an artificial lever, and so transformed into the reverse. The professed brethren themselves should, properly speaking, be poor and possess nothing of their own; but the educational institutions and colleges, on the other hand, which were entirely under the protection and control of the members and General of the Order, had the right to take whatever might be given them, and the more that was given the better pleased were the rectors and directors appointed by the General. As the fifth and last car- dinal point, which, indeed, gave to the Order from the commence- ment its firm internal cohesion, I have to state that the General or Chief was elected for life, and was endowed with completely absolute sovereign authority. He might not, indeed, alter or remodel the constitution without the advice and approval of his associates, but in all other matters implicit and unconditional obedience must be rendered to him, without any one having the right even of asking questions as to his reasons, and he might not only bestow oflBces and commissions according to his judg- ment, but he had to be looked upon as Christ's representative, the embodied Jesus. Under such circumstances was it that the Order must neces- sarily obtain such a unified power as no society or institution in the whole world had ever before acquired, seeing that each member of the Society of Jesus, on his admission, gave up his own will and became, indeed, henceforth an instrument merely for the use of the Order. These are the five cardinal points by which the statutes of the Jesuit Society were pre-eminently distinguished from any pre- ceding Order, and when we contemplate these points the more closely we cannot but be astonished at the extraordinary wisdom which they reflect. Not the less are we struck, at first sight, with the reason why the Roman Court promised for itself great advantages from the new Order, especially in opposing the increasing progress of the Reformation, and on that account we need not wonder that Paul III. solemnly confirmed the institution. On the other hand, there is not to be found in the statutes the slightest thing that detracts from the prosperity and advancement of the human race, and even the object of self- perfectibility, which among religious bodies had hitherto been the principal one, must give way thoroughly before that of the •* defence of Papal things.'* Leaving all this aside, the new Order presented but a glaring contradiction, with its laws of reason and morality, because it required of its members, as an indispensable condition of their admittance, a complete surrender of all personal wishes and inclinations, of all personal dealings and striving after advancement ; in like manner must all thought of domestic life and friendship, all love of parents and sisters, all thought of country and home, all desire after or taste for beauty and art, be abandoned completely. In a word, all sources of the inner life of soul and body must be extinguished, in order to obtain the knighthood of Faith, with its concomitants of uninterrupted zeal and obedience. ■ u HtSTOBY OF THE JESUltS. CHAPTER V. lONATmS LOTOLA AB GENERAL OF THE ORDER. The first business which the new Order had to take in hand was to elect a Chief or General, and the choice fell unanimously on Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Society. It is true, certainly, that there happened to be at that time only five members of the Order present in Rome, namely Lejay, Pasquet-Brouet, Laynez, Cordur, and Salmeron, but the election, nevertheless, may still be termed unanimous, because the remaining members trans- mitted their votes in writing. Ignatius, in fact, entered on his contemplated oflBce on holy Easter Day of the year 1541, and it must have been uncommonly flattering to his fiery ambition that he had, through immense perseverance, at length brought the matter so far. On the other hand, he frequently asked him* self whether he would be able to carry out even a small part only of what he had with his people promised to perform, as the situation in which at that time the Papacy found it- self was a superlatively difficult one. Throughout the whole Christian world purity of the faith was completely obli- terated ; and, instead of Christian fervency and love, complete indifference had crept in. The ecclesiastics and priests had shown themselves to be unworthy of their office through their almost general shameless mode of life, and they possessed so small a knowledge of God's Word as to be unable to determine whether Melchisedec had been a butler or a dancing-master. As to the cloisters I will not at present speak^ and still less of the chastity IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OF THE ORDER. 65 to be found therein. It could not be denied that even in Rome itself more heathenism than Christianity prevailed, and so little awe was there for the Almighty among men, that, as a proof thereof, in lonely churches a dog even might be seen chained to the high altar to protect the deeply venerated property, and prevent the Pyx being stolen out of the tabernacle. If this were the case in Rome, it seemed even worse throughout the rest of the world. Spain and Italy were smothered in ignorance and sloth ; Germany through Luther, France through Calvin, Switzerland through Zwingle, and England through its own king showed a great falling away from the Catholic faith ; every day added to the number of heretics as well as heresies. In those regions still remaining Catholic the most shameless and wicked abominations were perpetrated with laughter and derision ; as, for instance, wicked grooms were not ashamed to mix the consecrated Host with the oats they gave to their horses, or to solemnise their carousals with the holy cup. And who now espoused the cause of the miserably down-fallen Romish Church ? Scarcely anyone in the whole wide world ; and if any did do so, it was without earnest good -will. With the initiation of the Order of Jesuits, however, all this was changed ; things soon assumed a very different appear- ance, and the world saw with astonishment what immeasurably great things a small society could accomplish as soon as it was conducted by one of iron will, who never lost sight of the aim and object he had in view. This same iron will Ignatius— now, indeed, in his fiftieth year — possessed even in a still greater degree than when, formerly, he insisted upon his half-healed leg being broken again in order that he might not appear in the world a mutilated cripple. Had he not day and night before his eyes the victory of Christ's Kingdom, as he designated the supremacy of the Papacy ? As he now considered himself con- secrated to the service of Jesus, he at once severed all bonds that still tied him to the world, especially that of blood-relation- ship ; as, for instance, he threw into the fire, without reading them, letters which after a long interval arrived for him from his home, and which had been joyously handed to him by the porter of the profess-house. He claimed also from his associates the absolute renunciation of all personal relations, and especially required of them, as warriors of Christ, the same unconditional 66 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. blind obedience wbicb a soldier owes to his officer. In this respect he was quile inexorable, without the slightest considera- tion for the birth, knowledge, understanding, or attainments of the individual. It might so happen, for instance, that he would suddenly call upon the most learned among the associates to perform the duties of cook, merely with the object of exercising him in humility ; or he would require another, who from his noble birth might consider himself capable of some important service, to clean out the kitchen or sweep the street. He was especially severe on idleness, and two younger brethren who were standing gaping idly about them, at the door of the Roman College, were compelled to carry up a heap of stones to the upper storey piece by piece, and to bring them down again on the following day. But, above all things, he exhibited the greatest severity upon those who did not immediately and on the instant attend to his orders, or who in the least seemed to allow it to be seen that they were inclined to submit those orders to their own judgment. Even Laynez himself, who might, so to speak, be looked upon as the chief in the Order, was obliged to apologise most humbly, as he on one occasion disapproved of an order of Ignatius, and permitted himself to raise expostulations against it. He, Ignatius, the Master of the Order, he took care to say, was ready day and night to comply with the orders of the Pope, and exactly, in like manner, must the members of the Society of Jesus be ready to comply with his (Ignatius's) orders. A brother, even while engaged in listening to a confession or in performing mass, dare not delay an instant if wanted by the Master, as the summons of the General was to be looked upon as equivalent to the call of Christ Himself. In short, Ignatius went upon the principle that if something substantial was to be effected, it could only be when one mind and one will pervaded the whole Society, and that it was only by carrying out this principle to the utmost that the end in view could really be accomplished. As soon as the new General was elected, on the 22nd of April 1541, he organised a great procession to all the most remarkable churches and stations in the city of Rome, and marched along with it to the Church of St. Paul, outside the walls, and after reading mass he took before the high altar first the third and then the fourth vow, and finally demanded the same four vows IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OF THE ORDER. 67 from his associates. After the conclusion of this ceremony began the proper work of the Society. Ignatius allotted to each of his associates his own particular sphere of action, and urged upon every individual the task of being, before everything, most active in the extension and augmentation of the Society. Araoz and Villanouva, two newly-acquired members, he sent to Spain, Rodriguez to Portugal, Xavier to India, Brouet with some others to England, Lejay, Bobadilla, and Le Fevre to Germany, Cordur with fifteen others to France, Laynez and Salmeron as Papal legates to the assembly of the Church at Trient. In short, he apportioned off the world among his asso- ciates, while he himself remained in Rome in order thence to conduct the whole affair. The results completely answered the expectations of Ignatius and of the Pope, and even, indeed, sur- passed them, for, after the lapse of some years, there arose in the great majority of the university towns Jesuit colleges, in which there was no lack of novices. Wherever there was con- tention in religious matters, in whatever countries the princes and people were at variance on this account, and, in short, wherever the old faith strove with the new, there now also appeared the ambassadors of Loyola, and the Black Cloaks with their sagacity, their eloquence, their zeal and energy, caused the side which they defended to triumph almost universally, the result being that they obtained for themselves a firm footing * While the Pope now derived so much benefit from the new Society, he naturally enough could not prove himself ungrateful, and Ignatius, therefore, easily acquired from him one advantage after another. It was thus that the Jesuit General obtained the two churches, " De la Strata " and " To the Holy Andrew " ; as also sufficient space at the foot of Engelsburg for the erection of a splendid " Profess-house " for the members of the Four Vows. He thus succeeded in bringing into existence a number of costly institutions, as, for instance, the " Rosenstift," designed for the protection of young girlsi and as a refuge for fallen women. Also schools, where catechising took place, for Jews who had embraced Christianity, as well as orphanages for parentless boys and girls who were destitute. The chief thing, however, which occasioned Ignatius to rejoice, was the amplification of the privileges for his * The particulars regarding all this are to be found in detail in the second book of this work. ! 68 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. Order under Paul III., for without such proofs of favour the Society of Jesus could never have been able to raise itself to that height of splendour which, as history teaches us, it succeeded in attaining. Already, in 1543, two years only after the foundation of the Order, it became apparent that the number of sixty members, which was at first determined on by the Pope, had been found to be far too limited, as in such an uncommonly large field of labour which the Jesuits occupied, what could be accomplished by sixty members only ! On that account Paul III. issued a new BuD on the 14th of March 1543, which, by the words with which it commences, Injunctum nobis, gives to Ignatius the power to take as many members as he wishes, a privilege of which advantage was, naturally enough, at once taken. What was even a still more valuable addition for the Order, contained in the same Bull, was an authorisation the effect of which was in fact immeasurable, and such as no order could hitherto boast. It was no less than that Loyola, as well as all future Generals of the Order, could, with the sanction of the most distinguished members in council, alter, expunge, or make additions to the laws of the Society, or create entirely new regulations, according as it appeared under the circumstances to be most advantageous; and it was decreed that these altered and newly-framed statutes, even in the case when the Boman Chair had no knowledge of them, should have the same validity as if the Pope himself had confirmed them. Although it seems almost madness that a Pope should impart a privilege of this description to any General of any Order, it thus stands verbally written in the Bull Injufictum nobis. It, in fact, made the individual in question thereby almost independent of the Papal chair, and at the same time a despot of such extraordinary power that it was calculated to render all States distrustful of him. For instance, does not every Government, solicitous for the welfare of its subjects and for its own stability, require that the rules and constitution of all such societies as that of the Jesuits should be submitted for its acceptance and toleration? Would it not carefully examine beforehand the contents of the same to ascertain exactly whether they were in accordance with the laws of the country, or whether there might be any possibility that the weal of the State might be undermined thereby ? Certainly every wise Government IGI^ATIUS LOYOLA AS ÖENEBAL OF THE OEDÜB. 59 would naturally thus act, and the Jesuits, therefore, as well as all other Orders in the different countries into whicb they had penetrated, had to submit their constitution for approval. How would it be, then, if the General, after permission being granted, was pleased to alter its constitution, and incorporate among its rules some resolution, perhaps, highly dangerous to the State ? Truly the above-described authorisation might well startle and be a warning to any State in allowing the Order of Jesuits to become rooted among them, while this Papal Bull made it indeed a chameleon whereby every succeeding General might be able to give a new colour to the rules, so that conse- quently no trust could be placed at all in them. Ignatius then obtained a new privilege, through another decree, published on the 5th of June 1545, which also contri- buted not a little to the power of the new Order. The Pope thereby conferred on the Jesuits the right to ascend any pulpit wherever they went, to teach in all places, and to establish Professorial chairs everywhere ; to hear confessions, and grant absolution for every sin, even for such as the Papal Chair had reserved for itself to consider ; to exempt from all Church penal- ties and curses ; to dispense with vows and pilgrimages, and to order, as well, other good works ; to read mass in all places and at all hours ; to administer the sacraments without necessarily having the acquiescence of the local priesthood, or even the bishop of the place. This was once more an enormous advantage for the Jesuits over rival Orders, none of whom ever possessed such extensive privileges ; and, indeed, it caused them to burst with envy. What embittered the ordinary priesthood still more against the Black Cloaks was that in granting absolution they never imposed any very severe punishment, even for grave sins, thereby snatching from their rivals many penitents, and consequently depriving them of no inconsiderable part of their income and influence. But indignation was of no avail to them, and even the com» plaints of distinguished bishops had no weight with the Pope, who entertained a particular affection for the Jesuits, and, in very truth, on good grounds. Moreover, about a year afterwards, a further extension of the Order occurred. Hitherto there had existed only two classes of the same, novices and professed members ; that is to f 60 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. Mii ; say, sach as had taken upon themselves the four vows, and such as had been received into the holy colleges as pupils, in order that they might be properly brought up as regular Jesuits. The latter were as yet not members, properly speaking, but only aspirants or candidates, who might easily be again dismissed at pleasure, on being found unsuitable. It was now, however, indispensably requisite, if the Order, as Loyola designed it, was to be spread over the whole world, that the number of instru.- ments should be increased, as with the hundred or hundred and twenty which there were in the year 1546 the claims upon them could not be by any means fully satisfied. How, then, was this evil to be remedied ? In the first place it was requisite, some way or other, that a greater number should be made to take the four vows, becoming thereby professed members. Loyola, indeed, had the power of doing this through the Bull Injunctum nobis, but was it advisable ? The professed members formed, so to speok, the privy councillors of the General, and without their consent the constitution of the Order could not be altered. A large conclave, however, would make unanimity difficult, according to the old proverb, " Many heads many minds." Some plan for preventing this must be found, as it would be unwise to trust a large body of men with the innermost thoughts and ideas of the Order, for there must always be a greater number of scabbed sheep in a large flock than in a small one. Thus prudence, certainly, strongly forbade that thousands should be promoted to be professed members, and Loyola, as well as his associates, held the opinion that the number of Jesuits proper, that is to say, of professed members, should be limited as much as practicable.* While, therefore, no assistance could well be gained in this direction, more instru» ments must, in some way or other, be found at any price. It then entered into the mind of Loyola to create a third class of members, who might be of as much use to the Order as the professed members, without, however, having the rights of the same. This class he designated " Coadjutors,*' and he at once divided them into two subdivisions, " the secular and spiritual • In the year 1715, when the Order had attained its highest state of prosperity, when it possessed over 700 colleges and numbered more than 22,000 members, there existed only twenty-four profess-houses, in none of which lived more than ten professed members. Proof sufficient that the principle above stated remained a üzed rule. IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OP THE ORDER, 61 coadjutors." The Pope, also, at once sanctioned this new arrange- ment, in a special Bull, which was signed on the 5th of June 1 546. In this way the Order of Jesuits had the following organisa- tion. The novices formed the lowest grade, out of which the proper stock might be recruited. The most talented and highly educated youths were selected and first brought into the " Trial House " (domus prohationis), where the novice master (maltster novitiorum) kept them under observation and watched over them with an assistant during a period of twenty days. Should they then continue firm in their determination of entering the Order, and should this inspection prove favourable to them, ie, should they be found to be fit and suitable subjects, they were then promoted to be true noviciates, and came into the Noviciate House, where they had to remain during two years. In the first year they had to undergo all the degrees of self-denial, they had to castigate their flesh, and had to nurse in the hospitals the most filthy and disgusting patients; they were also kept at the occupation of begging and other low employments, besides which they were practised by the master in frequent confessions, and compelled to lay open all their most secret thoughts and desires daily, with the most blind obedience. In the second year, when they had proved their humility and submission to authority, they were assigned more intellectual than corporeal employments, and were exercised especially in preaching, cate- chising, and in other things concerning the welfare of the soul. But at the same time, care was taken against fatiguing them too much, in order that the next stage should not be rendered dis- agreeable to them, and several amusements even were not denied them, as, for instance, attending prosecutions of the Inquisition and other similar sights. On their having completed the two years of noviciate successfully, then the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience were administered to them, and they were promoted to be spiritual coadjutors. As such, during the first two years, they were only so-called scholastics, that is to say, proved pupils who might be employed in the colleges, or, also, as assistants in missions. When, however, they had acquired sufficient experience to render them more independently useful, they were advanced, according to their talents and ability, to be professors, rectors, preachers, confessors, &c., and were now designated coadjuiores formati, i.e. true assistants. 62 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. Besides them, there were secular assistants, or coadjutores saculares, who acted, so to speak, as lay brethren, and without having received any higher ordination were charged with the house-keeping duties in colleges, missions, and profess-houses. They had nothing to do with the priesthood, i.e with the cure of souls, or with education, and, as they had to perform menial services, were held in but trifling esteem. The superior lay brethren, however, not infrequently received the title of secular coadjutors, to distinguish them, on account of their true services to the Order, and then such under- took no definite functions, but continued to remain rather in their hitherto worldly position. They were merely confederates, or *' aflBliates " ; they were also called, derisively, short-coated Jesuits, or Jesuits in voto ; and the pupils of Loyola boasted that even crowned heads belonged to this class of the Order, in the persons of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and King Louis XIV. Lastly, the professed members formed the highest grade and proper heart and soul of the Society, i,e, those who had taken the four vows upon them, and consequently gave implicit obedience to the Pope, and such were selected from the class of coadjutors distinguished among their brethren for their worldly wisdom, knowledge, fidelity, and experience. To these only were entrusted by the General the highest oflBces and most important posts, as he could depend upon them in every respect. They seldom, therefore, lived at ease in the profess-houses, only, indeed, when unwell or temporarily unemployed from some other cause ; one would serve as a missionary among the heathen, another as a warrior of God against the heretics, a third as a ruler of some colony in a distant quarter of the globe, a fourth as father con- fessor of some prince or lady of distinction, a fifth as Resident of the Order in some locality where it had not as yet possessed a college, a sixth as legate of the Pope in some special mission, a seventh, eighth, or ninth, as assistant to the General in Bome, or as supreme leader in some particular province, as provincial or as superior of a profess-house, or as rector of a college. Under these circumstances, as none can at the same time serve two masters, they were for the time quite exempt from the obligation as to the instruction of youth, which last duty was left entirely to the coadjutors. On the other hand, the professed members had from time to time to make their appear- IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OF THE ORDER. 63 ance in Rome, at general chapters, or meetings, in order to take a part in consultations regarding any proposed change in the statutes, and it was they also who elected from amongst their number the General when that office happened to become vacant. From the. time Loyola conceived the idea of calling the class of coadjutors into existence, the interior economy of the Order was in this manner henceforth arranged, and one may perceive now that the fixed regulations were much more important than at first sight appeared. In the same year, 1546, in which the new classification of the Order of Jesuits was eflPected, Loyola gained still another important victory. It happened, namely, that King Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor Charles V., came to form so high an opinion of Lejay, who, as we have seen above, laboured for the Order in Germany, that he wished him to be made Bishop of Triest. He wrote on this account to the Pope, who was natu- rally quite ready to confer a favour on the great man. The Society of Jesus also hoped to consolidate its power through the elevation to such rank of a member of their Order, as the remaining Orders, such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, Bene- dictines, or whatever else they may be designated, always courted such dignities, and were in the highest degree proud whenever anyone of their body gained an important Church preferment as Bishop or Archbishop. One might easily, therefore, suppose that this would be the case with Ignatius Loyola, and that he would be readv to clutch with both hands the contemplated honour for one of his associates, more especially as to the Bishopric of Triest a considerable income was attached. To the great astonishment, then, of the Pope and King Ferdinand, Loyola took quite a diff'erent view, and opposed the elevation of Le;ay, through think and thin, as soon as he received news of the same. "We members of the Society of Jesus," said he to the Pope, as he afterwards wrote in quite similar terms to the King, " are warriors of Christ, and must therefore possess all the characteristics of good soldiers. We must be always ready to advance against the enemy, and be always prepared to harass him or to fall upon him, and on that account we must not venture to tie ourselves to any particular place. How could we else, at the first hint from your Holiness, which is certainly our duty above everything, fly from one town or city to another, i; 64 HISTOBY OP THE JESUITS. i i or from one end of the world to another ? Besides, the lowly character of our Order forhids that one of us should accept a high Church preferment, and we must he most careful not to awaken again the jealousy of the other Orders as we have hefore done." It was in this sense that Loyola spoke, and it may he that he was in earnest in giving the arguments he advanced as the cause of his dissent ; but, at any rate, such were not the only reasons, hut besides them he had still others in the background, and, indeed, much more weighty ones. Why, truly, was it not much more probable, as, indeed, it became in the future the rule, that the most ambitious among the Jesuits never would remain quiet until they had secured for themselves places of great honour ? We know now that the Order was almost deprived of its highest glory, and its transcendant powers were taken away, owing to this cause. Independent of this, too, how would it be with the rigorous monarchy in the Order, with the omnipotence of the General, and the subordination of the members, were there a possibility of the power of the Grand Master being in any way diminished ? Could there be any longer a question that the Bishops or Archbishops, and, together with them, the Prince of the kingdom in which they lived, would not remain in such subjection to the General of the Order as had previously been the case ? It would not be possible, even if it were wished, because a prince must necessarily fulfil his required obligations, against which orders from Rome would be of no avail. All this said Loyola to himself; therefore, as the Pope and King Ferdinand did not on the instant assent to his representa- tions, he, without any more ceremony, finally forbad Lejay to accept the proffered appointment. Indeed, this was not enough for him ; but he made it from this time an irrefragable law, that a member of the Society of Jesus should never on any account accept an episcopal chair, and for this reason he himself declined the oflBce of Cardinal which was offered to him. What did the " I " signify to himself, or what did the " I " matter to his associates ? His only pride and pleasure was the success and prosperity of the Society he had founded. Along with the continuously increasing extension of the Order of Jesus their wishes, as may well be imagined, kept pace ; for although individual members were obliged, for themselves, to take the vow of poverty, as has been above explained, they still retained the IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENEKAL OP THE ORDER. 65 right of accepting all they could get for the use of the colleges they had founded, and of this right, indeed, they made the most extensive use. They also showed themselves, from the very first, not at all scrupulous in regard to the means they took to acquire this or that possession, and as a proof of this, I will now give the reader an instance. In the year 1542, Laynez, who was at that time working for the Order in Venice, caused a rich old nobleman, of the name of Andreas Lippomani, to make over the house and property which he possessed in Padua to the Jesuit Order on behoof of a college to be founded ; and as this present was of considerable value, the whole farm being estimated to be worth 40,000 ducats, Loyola rejoiced exceedingly. He felt it, however, to be all the more disagreeable, when on the death of Andreas, the rightful heir disputed the will and brought an action before the Venetian Senate, within whose jurisdiction the matter rested. At the commencement it seemed doubtful which party would gain the cause, and the balance of justice for some time oscillated considerably backwards and forwards undecidedly ; in the end, however, it appeared tolerably clear that the Senate would decide in favour of the legitimate heir, as he proved that his deceased relative, at the time the deed was drawn up, had become imbecile from old age, and had not his clear wits about him. This news drove Loyola into despair, and in his agitation he promised to the Virgin three thousand masses, and if that was not suflScient, two thousand more, provided that she would win over the minds of the senators to his side. At the same time, however, as ho made this appeal to Mary, which might possibly prove ineffec- tual, he did not forget to claim, also, human assistance, and forthwith he secured for himself the powerful aid of a Cardinal who had great influence with the Venetian Senate. He was doubtless very well aware that he had no right to gain the cause, and had nothing to expect from justice; he, therefore, had recourse to influence from another quarter, quite uncon- cerned and indifferent that he was thereby cheating the legiti- mate heir out of his property. But Laynez, his principal aider in founding the Order and its statutes, went a step further; for as soon as he discovered that the Doge, to whose pipe— if I may be allowed to use a popular expression— all the Senate danced, possessed a mistress who exercised great influence over HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. ill hira, ho filled his pockets with gold, and therewith had not much difficulty in gaining over the mercenary woman to his side, the result being that the final decision of the Senate turned out to be in favour of the Jesus Association, and the rightful heir, in spite of his strong claims, was non-suited ; hut the conscience of Loyola on that account did not in the least appear to trouble him. The same diligence that was exercised in the acquisition of riches, was, also, employed wherever the question was to win over substantial, influential, and powerful men of high standing, to be patrons and abettors of the Order, if not, indeed, members of the same ; and in this respect, in fact, several of Loyola's desciples rendered signal service. Among the foremost who distinguished himself in this particular, was Aroz, the delegate to Spain, as he was successful in inducing Francis Borgia, Duke of Gandia, and a grandee of Spain, as, also, formerly Viceroy of Catalonia— a very weak man, however, in mental capacity— to take up the cause of Jesuitism ; so much so, that this nobleman was the first person in Europe who founded a Jesuit College for the education of youth. He shortly afterwards, too. in the year 1546, endowed a University, with all privileges. Overjoyed at this, Loyola commenced a correspondence with the Duke, and the result of these letters was that Borgia became so enamoured with the Society of Jesus, that he at length came to the firm determination of joining it as a true member; in fact, notwith- standing his already being considerably advanced in years, he forthwith put off the purple, and began the study of theology. His progress therein, however, advanced but slowly, and conse- quently Loyola allowed him to take the four vows without being previously well versed in theology, or even having gone through the course of exercises required of noviciates. Thus the Duke of Gandia became Pater Franciscus Borgia, and the newly-made member showed great zeal for the Society. He, however, did not at once enter a profess-house, and still less was he employed in the service of the Order ; Ignatius, indeed, permitted him to live in the world during a period of fully four years, in order that the newly-acquired brother might be able to settle his worldly affairs, and conveniently make arrangements for the maintenance of his children. It was natural enough that such a highly-born man as Pater Borgia should not be treated exactly like an ordinary member. IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GEKEBAL OF THE OBDEB. 67 I have already spoken of the privileges which the Pope granted to the Order, even in the first year of its existence ; but what did these prerogatives signify compared with those which Paul III. conceded to the Society of Jesus on the 18th October 1549. One would, indeed, be perfectly correct in calling the Bull which refers to them the '* Magna Charta " of the Jesuits ; and they themselves admitted as much when they conceived such a designation for this decree as " the great sea of their privileges." If one should inquire what could have been the reasons which actuated the Pope in bestowing such conspicuous favours on the the new Order, they are to be found in the preamble of the Bull, which terms the Society a fruitful acre, which, effecting much for the increase of the kingdom of God and the faith — that is to say, the exaltation of the Papacy and the suppression of heresy — through instruction and example, therefore well deserves to be rewarded with special favours ; and, in fact, favours of quite a peculiar description were given them, as the reader will suffi- ciently understand from the following extracts : — 1. " The General of the Order, as soon as he is nominated, shall have complete power as to the government of the Society, and especially also over the whole members of the same, where- soever these latter may reside, and with whatsoever office or dignity they may be endowed. His power shall indeed be so unlimited, that should he deem it necessary for the honour of God, he shall even be able to send back, or in other directions, those who have come direct from the Popes."* Thus, from this paragraph, his own power is placed over that of the Pope. How does it fare, then, with the four vows ? 2. " No General, without the consent of the General Con- vention, and no member of the Society, without the express consent of the General, shall accept a bishopric, archbishopric, or any similar dignity ; and whoever may have attempted in any way to obtain any such place, shall be considered so unworthy of * In this first paragraph there is also a question regarding the deposition of the General, which could be pronounced by a general chapter of prof essed membert, whenever he coiüd be proved guUty of heresy or of leading a life of vice, or was useless on account of mental derangement, «fee., but as long as the Society existed there never was an instance of a General bemg charged before a general chapter, and still less deposed. He might, in fact, do whatever he chose. I should like to see the person who would dare to bring an aocusation against such a complete despot as was the GeneraL 6 * I 68 HISTOBT OF THE JESUITS. the Society of Jesus, that he shnll never more he employed in any important commission, office, or business."* 3. " In order that discipline may he quite strictly maintained, there shall he no appeal against the rules of the Order to any judge or other official whatever ; much less can any member be released from his vows by any person." Even the keys of Peter, therefore, can have no power over a Jesuit, and it was the Pope himself who pronounced this! 4. " Neither the General nor the high officials of the Society shall be bound to hand over any member of the Order for the service of the Church to any prelate of the Church, be he patriarch, archbishop, or merely bishop, even when the said prelate shall have given strict orders regarding the matter; should, however, such cession be voluntarily desired, then those whose services are lent are still to be considered under the power of their superiors, and can be recalled by the General at any moment." Thus the power of even the highest dignitary of the Church is inferior to that of the General of the Jesuits ! 6. **The General, or those who may be ordered by him, shall have the power to grant absolution for all and every kind of sin, whether committed before or after entrance into the Order, and from all ecclesiastical and secular censures and penalties (those few cases excepted which are set forth in the Bull of Pope Sixtus IV. as appertaining solely to the Roman Chair), to all members of the Order, as well as to all such as may express a wish to enter the Order as novices, or to serve as lay brethren ; should, however, anyone not hitherto a member, who in this manner obtains absolution and dispensation, not immediately thereafter join the Order, the indulgence and dispensation shall become of no effect.' That is an unheard-of privilege, as even • The reader will, no doubt, see that this paragraph has the above- mentioned " Affaire Lejay " to thank for its origin. It was also soon seen that the same rule was quite in its place, and by its strict maintenance protected the Society from much iniury. The Emperor Charles V. saw with displeasure that the Duke of Gandia had laid down his title and entered the Jesmt Order as a simple professed member, as he considered such a position nauch too low and humiliating for a prince. He had on this account wished the Pope to raise Pater Borgia to the dignity of cardinal and his Holiness declared himself prepared to do so. But what a loss would this have been for the Order 1 This proceeding of Borgia's might serve as an example to the most noble and most distinguished ; and. more- over, his opulence would be such an excellent thing for the Society ! No it would never do to allow him to be snatched away ; and it was simply in allusion to the above paragraph that the former Prince Loyola was induced to refuse at once a cardinal's hat. IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OF THE ORDER. 69 the worst criminals may, in this way, escape with impunity as soon as they enter the Jesuit Order , that great advantage should have been taken of this privilege can well be imagined ! 6. " No member of the Order shall confess his sins to any other than the General, or to those whom the General may have nominated, especially to any priest or monk of any other Order. Much less can anyone who has once joined the Order, be he called novice, coadjutor, or profess, quit the Order again except with the express consent of the General ; nor can he go over into any other Order, that of the Carthusians alone excepted. Should anyone infringe this command, the General has the power to prosecute such fugitives, either in person or through authorised agents, to excommunicate them, to seize them, and to put them in prison, and with this object the assistance of the secular authorities may be invoked." By this command the secrets of the Society of Jesus are prevented from ever being betrayed, and the means adopted have proved themselves indeed to be very eflBcacious. I may here remark, with respect to the permission to enter the Carthusian Order, that, as far as is known, no Jesuit ever took advantage thereof, owing to the extreme strictness of that sect. Who can be ignorant of the command of perpetual silence ? This has been generally re- ported to be one of the rules, and no doubt Loyola allowed the exception, as regards the Carthusians, on this ground alone. 7. " The whole members of the Society, as well as the goods, incomes, and possessions of the Order, are exempt from the jurisdiction, supervision, and control of the bishops and arch- bishops, and shall be taken under the special protection of the Papal Chair." The Jesuits might, so to speak, do anything they chose, and no Church prelate could dare, on any account, to say even an unpleasant word to them. 8. ** Those members of the Order consecrated to the priest- hood, consequently all the professed, may, wherever they reside, have their own houses of prayer, or erect an altar in any other suitable locality, and may, even at the time of a Papal interdict, say mass there with closed doors, and administer the sacrament, after having excluded all excommunicants and heretics. Also, in all places bound by interdict or exoom- munication, the young men and servants in the employment of it 70 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. the Jesuits, as, also, all the laity helonging to them, as procurators, labourers, and officers, are exempt from excommunication and interdict." 9. " No bishop or prelate shall have the power of imposing upon any member of the Order, or any layman friendly to the Society, an excommunication or other Church penalty, and if any presume to do so it shall be null and void." 10. ** It shall be quite free to all Christian believers to attend the worship and preaching of the members of the Society of Jesus, as wall as to receive the sacrament and absolution, after confession, from them, without being in any way liable to inter- ference by the ordinary clergy." 11. "Every bishop or archbishop is bound to consecrate members of the Society of Jesus presented to him who are not already priests, without any payment whatever, or promise of any such.*' 12. ** The members of the Society of Jesus, with the permission of their General, have the right to settle, in the countries and cities of the excommunicated and schismastics, as well as of heretics and unbelievers, and to hold intercourse with the same." 13. ** They shall not be bound to allow themselves to be em- ployed in the visitation of cloisters, or in inquisitions and other church functions, as, also, when they desire it, they are to be exempt from the supervision or conscience-keeping of nuns.'* 14. " They shall not be required to pay tithes on their estates or possessions, by whatever names they may be called, not even excepting Papal holdings ; in short, they are not to pay any taxes or dues whatever." Ift. " The donation of houses, churches, and colleges built, founded, or bequeathed by princes, counts, &c., shall be con- sidered from the moment of delivery as confirmed by the Pope, without any special deed of ratification being required to be drawn up." 16. " All their churches and places of interment are to be forthwith consecrated by the bishop of the diocese without any hesitation; should such bishop, however, delay doing so for more than four months, the ceremony may be performed by the fittest prelate at hand. Also, all archbishops, bishops, prelates, and ordinaries, as well especially as all ecclesiastical and secular authorities, are strictly prohibited from hindering the erection IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OP THE OBDER. 71 and occupation of such buildings and possessions by the Society of Jesus." 1 7. ** The General, and, with his approval, the provincials and their vicars, have the right to receive into the Order all and sundry, even should they be the ofispring of adultery or incest, as also all burdened with any description of sin (with the excep- tion of murder and bigamy), and the mutilated, to consecrate them as priests, and to employ them in all duties and offices appertaining to the Society." 18. " Whoever during the year has for once visited any par- ticular church or other holy place, fixed on by the General, for purposes of devotion, on any individual day, also determined by the General, obtains for himself dispensation from all his sins, exactly as at the time of the Jubilee in Rome ; but whoever does so on any other day obtains remission for seven years, or seven quadrayenen, that is to say, seven times forty fast days.*' 19. " The General is empowered to send to any favourite University such as he deems fit, in order to deliver lectures on Theology and other sciences, without having previously obtained the permission of anyone whomsoever." This was a more than unheard-of infringement of the rights of the Universities, as well as of the secular governments, and consequently entangled the Jesuits in the most bitter of strifes. 20. ** Those who sojourn in countries belonging to un- believers have the right, as missionaries, to grant absolution for such sins and crimes as the Papal Chair has reserved for itself, according to the Bull In coena Domini, so called from the words with which it commences ; and, moreover, it rests with them to perform all episcopal duties till such time as the Pope shall have installed there a true bishop." 21. " The General is empowered to admit into the Order as many coadjutors as may seem to him to be desirable. He can also grant permission that the taking of the fourth vow — ^that is, the admission of professed members — may be made outside Rome." 22. " Lastly, all clerical and secular powers, by whatever name they may be called, are admonished to take great care not to hinder, harass, or disturb the Society of Jesus in the exercise of the above privileges and liberties, under the penalty, indeed, 72 HISTOBY OP THE JESUITS. of excomraunicBtion, as also by the aid of secular power bein<» invoked in case of necessity." Such is the great charter of the Jesuits, their " Magna Charta," as I have above termed it ; and, so armed, was it to be wondered that the Society soon attained to enormous power? The whole world lay open before them and all their proceedings ; and even upon the most violent and unjust of them, by order of the Supreme Ruler of the Church, could no restraint whatever be put. Pope Paul III., the great patron of the Society of Jesus, died in the self- same year in which he proclaimed the Magna Charta Bull, but his successor, Julius III., formerly Cardinal John Maria del Monte, who acted as Papal legate at the Council of Trent, and who had there become well acquainted with the utility of the Jesuits, followed exactly in his footsteps, and forthwith confirmed all the prerogatives hitherto accorded to them. He, too, approved of the establishment of a large new college in Rome, as also of a new profess- house, to both of which the former Duke of Gandia, now Pater Borgia, gave 10,000 ducats. His Holiness, too, on the 22nd October 1552, promulgated, although after a considerable amount of pressure exercised by Loyola, a Bull, in which the rights of the Jesuits were still further enlarged. In what, however, did this enlargement con- sist ? In nothing else than the extensive decree that the students of the Jesuit colleges, if the rectors of the universities in which the colleges were situated hesitated to promote them to be doctors of philosophy and theology, might be promoted by the General himself, or by any provincial or rector of a college under his authority, with the assistance of three doctors, and that such graduates should have the same honours, rights, advantages, and privileges as those promoted by the universities themselves. In addition to this, so proceeds the Bull, the same privileges were held to belong to those colleges situated in places where no universities exist ; and in order to obtain the highest degree of distinction in philosophical and theological science, it was decreed unnecessary to enter an university, but all this might be equally well attained in a Jesuit college. In this way these institutions were almost completely put on an equal footing with the universities, and the rectors of the former made to rank with those of the latter. While, too, only universally accomplished teachers taught in the high schools. iGNAtlUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OP THE OBDER. 73 those who did so in the Jesuit colleges, as may be easily under- stood, were only such as had received their education and spiritual bias entirely in the Jesuit colleges themselves ! It was impossible, therefore, for the latter to accomplish, even approxi- mately, what the former ofiered to do, and Julius III. must naturally have been well aware of this ; but was it to be expected that Popes should consider themselves bound to know anything about science? The chief thing was that the Jesuits should attain their great object — to get, as much as possible, the sole education of the young into their own hands in all Catholic states, and the surest way of doing this was, no doubt, by means of a Bull. Thus the whole educational institutions of the Jesuits, namely the colleges in which philosophy and theology {studia superiora), as well as the seminaries and schools in which Latin, grammar, and rhetoric as preparatory knowledge were taught, now began to increase in numbers in an enormously rapid manner, while all zealous Catholics hastened to gain heaven by giving a small contribution towards their establish- ment, and there was soon no country, or rather no province, throughout the Catholic world, where several members of the Society of Jesus were not established more or less as teachers. What the tendency of those institutions was became most clearly apparent from the Collegium Germanicum, a German college which Loyola himself founded in the city of Rome immediately ou the accession of Julius III. to the government — a very peculiar name will the reader say, a German college in the capital of Italy ! What can that signify ? We shall soon see. Already, before the foundation of the Order of Jesuits, there was no want of educational institutions, for their number was simply legion. This did not prevent, however, the Society of Jesus, as we have already stated, from establishing a college also, and in truth a very magnificent one, as well in regard to its internal arrangements as to its external appearance. It was called Collegium Romanum, and the best educational instructors which Loyola could find were engaged for it ; but so many rooms were available in it, that it could satisfy every claim. And in spite of all, a new college ? Certainly ; and, forsooth, for very cogent reasons. The Collegium Romanum was in the first place established for Romans, in a wider sense for Italians, and as the Italian language was alone employed in it, none m II I u mSTOEY OF THE JESÜIÜS. consequently could join it who were not acquainted with that tongue. Now, however, in Germany heresy acquired the upper hand more and more, and the Romish Church was daily losing ground. Envoys must therefore be despatched there who could combat with this heresy, and such, be it understood, as could discourse in the German language with the Germans. Whence, however, could Loyola take these ? By far the greater part of his scholars belonged to the Spanish, Italian, and French- speaking nationalities, and only a very small portion understood German — merely one or two here and there. Thus the country in which, above all others, the presence of Jesuits was most needed, in which lay the widest sphere of duty, and where action must be taken with as little delay as possible, seeing that the complete loss of the Romish position must otherwise take place, was beyond the reach of Loyola when the necessary forces were wanting. Here, then, help must be obtained at any price, and that help was to come through the Collegium Germanicum. Loyola gave the order, therefore, to those mem- bers who were operating in Germany to send to Rome from among those youths who were desirous of joining the Jesuit Order a couple of dozen of the aptest and most zealous, and at the same time he induced two rich cardinals, Morano and San Cruce. to place at his disposal a large roomy dwelling in which to lodge the youths. He then placed teachers there, who were required to bring them on in the Italian language. As soon, however, as the students were sufficiently advanced in it, they now had to turn their attention to theology, as may be well understood, and, above all, to the Theologia Polemica, along with the art of disputation. The object, then, which he now placed before himself became clearly apparent. The Collegium Germanicum was to become a nursery for such as in future should be placed at the head of the combatants for the Romish faith in Germany. In other words, the pupils of the college, as soon as they were sufficiently accomplished, should be sent back again to their own country, in order there to conduct, as speaking German, the great controversy on religion, and to re-establish there the unlimited authority of the Pope and his officers. This was Loyola's object — he completely attained it. Pope Julius IIL, as soon as he had assured himself of Loyola's ultimate design, assigned a large income to the new IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENEBAL OF THE ORDEB. ?S college, and the latter thereby progressed so quickly that it was enabled to take in twenty-four German pupils during the first year. On the accession to the Papal throne of John Peter Carafa, Cardinal of Theate, who, as Pope, took the name of Paul IV., Loyola was inclined to augur not much good for his Order, as he felt convinced that the same would favour above all the others the Order of Theate ; but this apprehension soon proved to be groundless, at least, as long as Ignatius lived,* for Paul IV. was much too sagacious to injure an institution which had proved so useful to the Romish Chair. Besides, the Order was now already so firmly rooted that it would have been difficult to have overturned it, and if the Pope had ventured to attempt doing so, the Society of Jesus would have been able to have offered such a strenuous resistance that he would soon have been compelled to desist. The General, from his seat in Rome, now ruled with almost unlimited power the whole body of his subjects, who were trained to honour him as the visible Saviour, while all placed their entire services at his disposal, and allowed themselves to be guided by him as willing puppets. Thus writes a far- travelled and distinguished author of a history of the Jesuits not by any means inimical to the same : — ** He ap- pointed and discharged all the higher officials ; he disposed of the rank and efficiency of all belonging to the Order, who must act exactly according to his will. He regulated everything as appeared to him most necessary and useful for the well-being, discipline, and improvement of the Society ; he manipulated the privileges, prerogatives, fundamental principles, and constitution obtained from the Holy Chair, which he took upon himself to accentuate, abate, or disavow without scruple ; he frequented and regulated the general con- vents; he decided, in short, all the principal afiairs of the community.'* This latter, however, possessed, on the other hand, four assessors or assistants, to check any abuse of the • Shortly after his death, in the year 1558, an attack was certainly made by Paul IV., which affected the Jesuits rather closely, in that he required they should perform equally all religious exercises, chorus singing, &c., which duty had hitherto fallen upon the other ecclesiastics and priesthood, and from which, owing to their many other employments, they had up to this time been exempt ; but he soon withdrew again this request, and the sons of Loyola continued as before, and were not in any way obliged to lose their time in lazy stupor, praying and singing. Suoh a monk's life would hay« ill accorded truly with their aim and object. v 76 HISTOBY OF THE JESÜITÖ. patriarchal supreme power.* These were elected hy the great electoral college, a description of deputies or ministers, whose duty it was to support the General in all matters of difficulty with their advice and assistance, and to call his attention to this or that error. Indeed, they might even go so far as re- monstrance and warning, but this last proceeded from the mouth of the admonitor, or spiritual adviser, who was chosen by every General. The provincials, or heads of circles, as they might also be called, acted as leading officials of the Order, while the whole Catholic world was divided by the General into smaller or larger circles — provinces— over each of which he placed a vice- gerent. Again, to each provincial were assigned four assistants and an admonitor, who ruled in a small way as the General did in Bomein a larger way, only in all weighty matters such person was required to make previous reference, and was himself responsible in even the very smallest transactions. He had the right of proposal of the so-called Propositi studiorum^ that is, the super- vision of the stewards of the colleges, and it lay with him to inspect carefully, at least once a year, the condition of the whole circle as regards houses, persons, incomes, &c. He supervised in the colleges and other educational institutions the diligence of teachers as well as pupils, and also the course of instruction and discipline, and he remained the whole year at his post, unless sent elsewhere by the General. Immediately below him came the superiors, that is, the heads of the profess- ho uses, in which resided the brethren sworn to observe all the four vows, and their duties were to supervise discipline, devotions, and other affairs. The rectors coming next under them— that is to say, the heads of colleges — had equally to supervise the individual teachers as well as scholars, and to hold once a week a principal examination. In short, all was well ordered, down to even the lowest menial, and there was no State in the world which could exhibit a more regular or more uniform government. The thing, however, which first put the seal upon it, was the constant correspondence which united all circles and provinces, all lower and higher officials, partly among each other and partly with the General. The rectors, for instance, as well as the superiors, sent in a weekly report to the provincial, and the latter replied thereto every month. To the • The four first Jesuits, on whom devolved the duty of assistant, were Jerom Natalia, John of Polanoo, Goncalez de Camara, and Christofal of Madnd. laNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OP THE ORDER. 77 General himself the whole of the provincials wrote once a month, and the rectors and superiors once in three months. This, how- ever, was still insufficient, for the rectors and superiors had to send in a report every fourteen days to the provincial, as well as every month to the General. Likewise it was incumbent on the assistants of the provincials to transmit sealed letters twice a year respecting their provincials for the time being. In short, it was a regular system of reciprocal supervision, or, rather, it might be regarded as a legal espionage entering into the smallest details, as well from above downwards as from below upwards, and in this way it was made impossible for any member to over- step the prescribed boundary lines of obedience. The General, bv this means, knew from each individual what he thought and did, and while all the wires of the entire machinery ran together into his cabinet in Rome, he could guide to a nicety by leading strings, in the blindest subjection, individuals as well as the whole fabric ! Ignatius Loyola had now brought his matters so far, steeped, forsooth, in nothing else than worldly pleasure and vanity ; but the future warrior, having accomplished this much, found that the time had now arrived when he must pay to nature its usual tribute. The former extravagant punishments he had inflicted on his body, the many cares and vexations he had to encounter in the forma- tion of his Order, and, lastly, the frightful anxiety inseparable from the duties of so gigantic an office as that of a Jesuit General, gradually weakened his naturally very strong constitution, and he found himself at the commencement of the year 1556 obliged to hand over the greater part of the business to Pater Jerom Natalis, who had been elected to be his vicar by those professed members present at that time in Rome He himself withdrew to a country house near Rome, which had been presented to him by a rich patron of the name of Louis Mendoza,* in order to attend to the state of his health, but the weakness increased so much during the summer that he caused himself to be brought back again to Rome, as he hnd a desire to die in the profess-house among his own people. Towards the end of Julv he there dictated his will, took leave of the world and his • The same was situated close to the picturesque ruins of the Villa of Mercena, and was not only beautifully constructed, but also surrounded by a charming park. In this way the good Ignatius, at the end of his life, did not Beem to observe very oloaely the vow of poverty. i \ V, ■i Ü II 78 mSTOBY OP THE JESUITS. IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OP THE ORDER. 79 companions, and departed this life on Friday, Bist July, an hour before sunset, in his sixty-fifth year, consequently, thirty-five years after the date of his being wounded, and of his conversion ; his death happened, notwithstanding the declaration of his surgeon, the celebrated Dr. Alexander Petronius, that there was nothing particularly dangerous in his condition. Only four of his first colleagues were present at the time, Rodriguez, Salmeron, Laynez, and Bobadilla; the remainder were prosecuting their calling in far distant lands, or had already been overtaken by death, as in the case of Lejay and Le Fevre. But from the nine original associates thousands had already sprung up, and the Order had established itself in no less than twelve countries— Italy, Portugal, Sicily. Germany, the Netherlands, France, Arragon, Castile, Andalusia, India, Ethiopia, and Brazil.* Incredible things had been accomplished by Loyola in a com- paratively short space of time, but not so much, assuredly, through his wisdom and understanding. In this respect he had not particularly distinguished himself, at all events not remark- ably. Laynez, however, had made up for his deficiencies more than three or four-fold, and the genius of a Salmeron and a Le Fevre was not to be despised. But his success was due rather to his energy, his perseverance, his ambition, his iron will, his glowing zeal, and, lastly, through his heroic soldierly bold- ness, which infused quite a peculiar spirit into the Order he had founded. Still, whether on that account he was really a great man ; whether, as the Jesuits contend, he deserved to be placed in line with the most distinguished persons which the world has pro- duced, I leave the reader himself to form a judgment. t I myself, * The details respecting this wiU be found in the next book, to which I must refer those curious on the matter. wmün ± t How extremely high the Jesuits placed their founder is proved bv the mscription on the naonument which the Dutch members erected to his memory m the year 1640. Cujus animus Vastissimo coerceri non potuit unius orbis ambitu, Ejus Corpus r^j Humili hoc angustoque tumulo continetur. 11« magnum aut Fompejum, aut Caesarem, aut Alexandrum cogitas, Aperi oculos veritati, Majorem his omnibus leges IGNATIUM. Non coerceri maximo, contineri tamen a minimo, divinum est. IGNATIO Virtute maximo, submissione minimo TotiuB orbis locus angustus est. for my own part, am contented with referring to what happened respecting Ignatius after his death, as I presume the reader Hinc animimi gerens mundo majorem Plus ultra unius orbis et aevi terminos saepe quaesivit, Quo opera suae pietatis extenderet: Inde de se cogitationem habens minimo minorem, Minus citra communis sepulcri latebras semper optavit, Quo inhumati corporis pondus abjiceret. Coelum animo, Roma corpori Uli ad majorem Dei gloriam summa spectanti Aliquid summo majus attribuit: Huic ad majorem sui objectionem ima spectanti, Modum posuit mediumque virtutis. Anno M.CD.xci. in arce LOJOLAE loco apud Cantabros illustri Mortalium plane bona et juvantis hominibus vere natus, Suae primum gloriae cupidus, in aula et campo Catholici regis, Naturae dedit, quod dein divinae tantum gloriae studiosus, Sanctioribus in castris, saluti et gratiae consecraret. Cum hostes adversus innumeros unus prope Pompejopolim tueretur, Idem Sauli instar et Pauli, vi, non virtute, victus Ita cecidit, ut optandus fuisse casus, non fugiendus, Etiam IGNATIO, videretur: arcem perdidit; servavit ecclesiam. Ex eo non jam suus, Sed ejus, qui stantem tormento perculit, Ut prodigio fulciret abjectum Sacramentum, quod mundo dixerat, Christo dedit. Per militiae sanctiori» asperrima rudimenta. Per insidias daemonum, per oppugnationes hominum. Per conjurata in unum omnia Factus Dux e milite, ex tirone veteranus, Jesu nomine, non suo, Legionem in ecclesiam Dei fortissimum conscripsit, Quae vitam pro divini cultus incremento paciscens In Romani Pontificis verba juraret. Hie ille est, in quo ostendit Deus, Quantum ei curae sit ecclesiae securitas, In quo miserantis, Dei bonitatem atque potentiam Ecclesia catholica veneratur. Quem prostratum tamquam Paulum erexit Deus, Ut nomen suum coram gentibus populisque portaret: . Quem praelegit Dominus, ut eorum Dux foret. Qui sui in terris Vicarii authoritatem defenderent. Et Rebelies haereticos ad unitatem fidei revocarent. Quem suo Jesu commendavit Pater aeternus; Cui ipse Jesus se propitium fore promisit, Quem Spiritus sanctus omnium virtutum genere decoravit : Quem praesens toties et propitia virgo Mater dilexit ut filium, Erudivit ut alumnum, defendit ut clientem. Qui Dei amans, non coeli, osor mundi, non hominum, Paratus pro his excludi gloria, pro illo damnari poena ; Mortalis apud homines vitae non prodigus, sed contemtor Vitalis apud inferos mortis non metuens, sed securus, Profuit vivus mortuis, quos revocavit ad vitam ; Mortuus vivis, quos servavit a morte; Utrisque se partem exhibens ; Dignus haberi potuit Jesu nomine. Qui praeter Dei gloriam et salutem hominum nil quaesivit. Anno M.D.Lvi. prid. Kalendas Augustas Nutu summi Imperatoris jussus a statione decedere, Curam mortalium, quam vivus habuerat, Etiam mortuus oon amisit. 80 HISTOBY OF THE JESUITS, M i would have no small interest therein ; and it may be truly said that there are not too many men who have a history after death. Ignatius had frequently expressed a strong wish that on his decease his corpse might be thrown into a flaying place, in order that it might be torn and picked to pieces by birds of prey and wild animals, as the same was no longer anything else than a lump of clay, a mere heap of refuse. In this respect, however, his associates did not obey him. They buried him, on the con- trary, with great pomp, on Saturday, the 1st of August, in the church of Maria da Strada, which belonged to them, and there the coffin remained until the year 1587, when, by order of the General Aquaviva, it was conveyed with still greater pomp into the splendid Jesuit church then newly built by the Cardinal Alexander Farnese. As on the occasion of this latter re- moval of the coffin several wonders took place, and as after it a number of sick men who called upon his name were restored to health, Paul V., in the year 1609, pronounced the deceased to be holy; and in the year 1622, thirteen years afterwards, he was translated among the saints by Gregory XV. Since that time a number of altars have been dedicated to him, on the whole, more than 2,000 ; and, besides, not less than half a hundred churches, of which some, especially that erected, in the year 1626, by the Cardinal Ludovico in Rome, close to the Collegium Romanum, Coelo transscriptus, sed propensus in terras; Animarmn avidus, etiam cum Deo plenus:* Ecclesiae triumphantis socius, pro müitante solicitus, Quod unum potuit Corpus suum pignus animi fideique depositum hie reUquit • Cui ne quid decesset ad gloriam, ' Non semel angelicos inter cantus submissa de Coelo" lumina micuenmt. Age, quisquis haec leges, Beatos immortalis viri et patris communis omnium cinerea venerare Hos tu, cum videris, religiose cole, * Cum habueris, pie complectere; Et latere sub his, etiam nunc, suam ignem. Hoc est, servientem humanae vitae et saluti IGNATIUM deprehendes. Vivit annis quinque et sexaginta inter mortales, A r^ . ^TT öctoginta quatuor inter immortales, A Gregorio XV, Catholicis aris solenniter additus anno hujus Saec XXII A Deo pennni gloria coehtum ultra omne saeculum feliciter cumiüa^dus Hoc sui animi et venerationis perpetuae monumentum Non structum auro vel marmore ; Sed tenaci grataque memoria consecratum Optimo Maximoque, post Deum, Patri Minima Jesu Societas M.D.O.XL. Anno suo SÄeculari primo poauit, dedicavit IGNATIUS LOYOLA AS GENERAL OF THE ORDER. 81 are truly elegant buildings. An object of particularly great veneration, too, was the altar in the church of Aspeitia before which he was baptized ; and still more esteemed was the ancient castle of Loyola, upon which, after they had received it as a present from the Queen of Spain, who purchased it with this object in the year 1695, the Jesuits bestowed the name of Santa Casa, or holy house. The Jesuits, however, were still not satis- fied, but, in addition to their more than foolish religious worship, they declared afresh that their holy Ignatius was equal to the Apostles in worth, and that in heaven he would hold intercourse with no one except with Popes, as the holy Peter, with em- presses, as the Virgin Mary, and with sovereign monarchs, as God the Father and His Son Jesus Christ. Such great honour fell to the lot of Ignatius Loyola after his death, an honour which was truly regarded by many as the offspring of madness ! 6 BOOK II. THE SHREWDNESS OF THE JESUITS ; AND THE GIGANTIC PROGRESS OF THEIR GROWTH. 6 ♦ 86 CHAPTER I. FioLU son d' un soldato, odio la place: Naqui fra 1* armi, ho la pieta sbandita. Mi fu Madre crudel una ferita. Onde la Morte ed il sangue d' altrui mi piaoe. Son barbara, son cruda, e son rapace, E nell' armi avezzai 1' alma in fierita. E 86 in mezzo alle stragi ebbi la Vita Porto Yo unque men vado, e ferro e fooe. Non conosco altro Dio, oh* il proprio orgoglio. L' issesse Monarchie per me son dome, E nel hipocrisia ho quel che voglio. Delude il Monat ognor; Me si sa come Compagnia di Giesu, chiamarmi foglio E non ho di Giesu, oh' il nudo nome. THE JE8UIT MISSIONS IN DISTANT REGIONS OP THE WORLD. I. — The Jesuit Missions in Asia. According to tradition, it was the Apostle Thomas who first spread Christianity in India; others, however, ascribe this honour to a rich merchant of the name of Max Thomas, who, in the 6th century, lived in the time of the great Emperor, Ceram Perumal, the founder of Calicut ; and, through his great mer- cantile transactions, which extended even as far as Constanti- nople, became acquainted with the teaching of Jesus Christ. Let this be as it may, this much is certain, that the Portuguese, as they became possessed of the whole of Malabar, along with Goa, Ceylon, Malacca, and the Sunda Islands, under the cele- brated Alfonso Albuquerque, their great naval hero, and, for a long period, Viceroy of India, had already found their way to Asia round the Cape of Good Hope, under the guidance of Vasco de Gama, about the same time as the discovery of America, and had met with persons of the Christian faith, although not Christians " according to the Roman Catholic views of the loth century." On the contrary, much of what is heathen, both as regards their customs and faith, was so mixed up with it, that the good Catholic ruler of Portugal at that time, being much shocked with such a kind of Christianity, sent Franciscan^monks to Goa — this latter city being at that time the central point, and the capital of their East Indian possessions— in order that the true, that is to say, the Homan Catholic faith, might be irrgj 86 HISTOBr OF THE JESUITS. promulgated in these regions. The Franciscans proved them- selves to be but very ill adapted for this kind of work, and showed that ** conversion," or, as it was more correctly expressed, " the mission to the heathen," was not their forte, although the Governor and Viceroy placed the bayonets of his military force entirely at their disposal. The progress they made was, there- fore, quite insignificant, and, with the exception of Goa itself, where the Bishopric was founded, the Catholic faith took no root to any great extent. The Indians continued to be just the same as before, and to worship their gods according to the fashion of their fathers and ancestors ; and although some few, through military compulsion, nominally became Papists, the great mass of the worshippers of Bramah and Vishnu still showed themselves to be as stiflf-necked as ever. This state of things did not at all give satisfaction to the Kings of Portugal, and John III., who reigned from >ö2i to 1ö57, was particularly shocked at it, as he was not only an extra- ordinarily pious adorer of Rome and the Papacy, but believed that the inhabitants of his newly- acquired possessions, could not become good Portuguese subjects until they had prostrated themselves at the same cross before which the Portuguese knelt. It was now that the said John heard of the new Order, instituted by the conception of Ignatius Loyola at Rome — an order whose great aim and object was said to be " the conversion of un- believers " — and he, therefore, soon proffered a request to Loyola to send out to India a sufficient number of missionaries. Indeed, he would gladly have seen the founder of the Society of Jesus proceed thither himself, propria persona, as he entertained the firm belief that " the warriors of Christ could have no other design than the Christianising of all the idol-worshippers in the world.** Loyola, however, was not at all of this opinion, and not only remained in Bome himself, but explained to the King that he was only in a position to send forth two of his associates, Rodriguez and Francis Xavier, and that "he required the remainder for other purposes/' This took place in the summer of 1540, and the two above- named men made their way to Lisbon, where the monarch received them most kindly. They could not, however, proceed at once to India, as the fleet, destined to proceed there annually, had already weighed anchor; but they would have been very THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASU. 87 wrong not to have blessed most heartily this adverse incident, as they won the favour of John III. to such a high degree, that the latter was quite unwilling again to part with them. He, in truth, carried this out to a certain extent, inasmuch as, with the permission naturally of Loyola, he retained one of them, Rod- riguez, who took up his permanent abode in Lisbon, Francis Xavier, however, in whom the zeal for conversion overcame every other consideration, was not to be diverted from the journey to India. The monarch provided him in the best way with Papal briefs which he obtained from Paul III., as also with letters of full powers made out by himself. By one of these letters Francis Xavier acquired the position of ** Nuntius Jpostolicus" ; that is to say, representative of the Pope for the whole of India ; in a second, in virtue of the right assigned to him for the conversion of the heathen, he had authority to claim all secular influence of the Portuguese officials in the Asiatic colonies ; lastly, in a third writing. King John himself recommended him most earnestly to all the chiefs, princes, and governments, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Ganges. Thus, well provided, Francis Xavier proceeded to India on the 7 th of April 1541, with the royal fleet destined thither from Lisbon, and his heart swelled with gladdening hopes at the prospect of victory which he wished to gain for the banner of Christ over the unbelievers. He had forgotten one thing, however, and that, in my opinion, the chief one indeed ; he had not thought it worth the trouble to make himself acquainted in the least degree with the language of the populations which he had set out to convert. ** God gives his own in sleep," thought he. And might not, then, the Holy Ghost be so favourable to him as to work a miracle ? The voyage to India was a very slow one, and, while they were compelled to make an involuntary halt of six months in Mozam- bique, they only arrived in the harbour of Goa after a lapse of thirteen months, on the 6th of May 1 542. This made Francis Xavier all the more zealous in respect to the task he had to fulfil ; and although a royal equipage and princely residence were placed at his disposal by the governor of the city, his first care was to betake himself at once to the hospital, in order there to nurse the sick himself, and to get his own means of support from the public alms. Little or nothing, however, was in this way done I 88 mSTOBY OP THE JESUITS. for his proper object, the conversion of the heathen, and conse- quently, after a little time, he presented himself to the Bishop of Goa, in order to produce before that prelate the full powers "which he had brought along with him, and humbly at once to crave permission to set about the conversion of the heathen. For him this authority was, indeed, certainly not requisite, since as Pope's nuncio, he superseded the bishop ; but it was of consequence to him to make sure of the favour of the latter, named Don Juan d' Albuquerque, descended from one of the very highest families, and possessing great influence as well in Goa as in Portugal itself. He, in fact, completely succeeded in winning over Don Juan to his views, and consequently the work of conversion might now commence without further delay. But, Lord, what a misfortune ! The stupid natives did not understand one single word of what Xavier chattered to them, and the Holy Ghost did not render him any assistance " with the gift of tongues." He arrived at the conviction, at last, that nothing could be done as long as he had no knowledge of the language of the country, and he consequently at once set about the study of Hindustani with the greatest zeal. Along with this task, however, he by no means forgot to exercise further activity in his calling as a Jesuit, and proved it by the clever way in which he at once set about establishing a college, the first in the heathen world. The pair of Franciscan monks, who were already established in Goa, had a seminary in which they instructed a few of the native youths in the Roman Catholic religion, and it at once struck Xavier that their building, which appeared quite well adapted for the purpose, might be made available for his future plans. He addressed himself, therefore, to the superior of the institution, Brother James Borbona, produced before him his Papal briefs, and urged him so much that he not only gave over the house, with everything appertaining to it, to the Society of Jesus, but also, in his own person, became a member of the same. It is true that he did not act thus from entirely disinterested motives, as he made the condition that he should continue to be the rector of the institution for life. But what did that matter to Xavier? He had now, in this way, got rid of competition, and, at the same time, had the glory of converting the seminary hitherto denominated " Santa F6," into the college of Holy THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 89 Paul. He, moreover, took care to turn the school, hitherto small and poor, into an educational institution of the richest and most brilliant description, not so much, however, by means of voluntary gifts obtained by begging, but rather in this way, that by the aid of the vice-regal troops he pulled down the heathen temples in the neighbourhood of Goa, and appropriated their very considerable property for the use and benefit of the new college. As soon, now, as Xavier had made sufficient progress in the Hindustani and Malay languages to enable him to make him- self in some degree understood, he left Goa in order to preach the gospel in the so-called *' peari coast " of Malabar, the whole of which country had been brought into subjection by the Por- tuguese, and as, besides, they possessed many valuable settlements there, the inhabitants of which were sunk in the grossest kind of heathenism, it would be possible, for that reason, to bring about some considerable result, if the thing were but^ skilfully managed. In what way, then, did Xavier proceed ? In a truly most remarkable manner, which the missionaries of the present day might be inclined not a little to despise. He took along with him a bell, armed with which he ran about the streets ringing it in broad mid-day, unül he succeeded in drawing after him a troop of boys and others, attracted by curiosity, who greeted him with jeers and laughter. When he had thus got together a considerable auditory, placing himself on some large stone, he forthwith began his sermon, which was delivered m the language of the country intedaxded with fragments of Latin, Spanish, Italian, and French, to which he added much gesticu- lation with both hands and feet. He then finally produced a large cross, which he piously kissed, and required the crowd to do likewise, presenting each one who complied with a beautiful rosary, thousands of which he had brought with him from Portugal. This, however, was only the first part of his method of conversion. The second was much more effectual, and con- sisted in pulling down, with the assistance of the Portuguese troops, which he called into requisition, the native temples, and breaking in pieces the idols found therein, not, however, with* out replacing them by Christian chapels, with the image of the crucified Jesus, and erecting in the neighbourhood a handsome building constructed of bamboo canes, for the instxuction of the I It • 90 •HISTOBY OF THE JESUITS. yonug. He already knew, from experience, what an impression a solemn service, with the sacrifice ol the mass, made upon the fanciful imaginations of Orientals, and he also knew that in order to render the work of conversion lasting, it was neces- sary to win over to the new faith the growing youth, the foundation of the population. For this reason, he threw him- self, with great zeal, into the matter of education, and, partly by means of friendly presents, and partly by fear of the Portuguese soldiery, who had destroyed the heathen temples, succeeded in inducing many of the native boys and girls to attend his schools. It was but an easy matter, however, from a missionary point of view, as, far from making them acquainted with the principles of Christianity, he merely contented himself in teaching them to say the Lord's Prayer, along with the Creed, and causing them to understand the same, as also to cross the arms with humility over the breast. After getting them on as far as this, Xavier now accepted them as Christians through the performance of a solemn baptismal service, and he soon managed in this way to acquire a pretty considerable number of souls for the kingdom of Heaven. In spite of all this, the business of conversion went on much too slowly to please him, and, on that account, even in the first year of his residence in India, he wrote to his General, requesting him to send out a number of assistants. Loyola comphed most willingly with this demand, and sent him more than twenty of them, almost all being Portuguese whom Kodri- guez had recently gained over for the Order ; amongst them were the Paters Anton Criminal, Anton Gomez, Casper ßergäus, Paulus Camerti, Alonzo Cyprius, Melchior Gonzales, and Fran- ciBcus Peren, who all, more or less, subsequently distinguished themselves. He was now able to carry on the work of conversion in a wholesale manner, and, during the next six years, in almost every place where the Portuguese flag waved, and especially in Ceylon, Cochin, Negapatam, Meliapur, Malacca, and Ternate, he succeeded in establishing schools, small and large. The prin- cipal seminary, however, which served as a nursery for the educa* tion of native missionaries, was the college in Goa, into which, immediately on the arrival of the assistants from Europe, Xavier at once drove before him 120 sons of the Hindu gentry, by means of a military force, in order that they might be brought up iu future for the purpose of converting their fellow country. 1:HE JESÖIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 9i men ; and there could be no question that the power of the Por- tuguese bayonets, and still more, the fear engendered by the Bame, contributed in no small degree to the great results which Francis Xavier and his associates obtained,* and this circum- stance diminished not a little the glory of the great apostolic hero, who was often so thoroughly tired at night from the exer- tion of baptising, that he was hardly able to move his arms. Still more injury, however, was done to this glory by the circum- stance that the baptised, or converted, were, as a matter of fact, not real Christians, but remained heathens just as much as before. It is certainly true that they could repeat the Creed, and that the water of Christian baptism had been thrown over them, as, also, that they were taught to have some sort of understanding of the matter, that they took part in processions, and could sing some hymns, and join in other external observances. In truth, however, they still retained all their old manners, customs, usages, and notions, and when the Padri, as the Christian missionaries were denominated, withdrew from one con- verted neighbourhood, being of the opinion that it had been completely won over to Christianity, and proceeded elsewhere in order to prosecute the work of conversion, it so happened that the native priests, the Brahmins, had not the least difficulty in bringing the people back again to the religion in which they had been born and bred. I'his was now, indeed, an embarrassing di- lemma, and one of Xavier s companions, Anton Criminal, who had gained proselytes at Cape Comorin, became so furious on that ac- count against the Brahmins that he persecuted them with the most inhuman cruelties. They, however, in their despair, at once appealed for aid against this Criminal and his handful of soldiers obtained from the Governor of Goa, which he had brought along vrith him, to a tribe of people which had not as yet come under subjection to the Portuguese, the latter being, in fact, in point of numbers, in a very small minority. A battle thereupon ensued, in which all the Portuguese, Criminal himself not excepted, were massacred.f ♦ It was thuB» for example, that the King of Condi, in CeyloD, was corn^ tv^ilpalv force of arms to receive the Cross, also was constramed by ^3 /-Lr^^r^o 6e6apfuerf, by whose directions also his lieutenants and 7o:er/o^7v^^^^^ any resistance to the baptismal ceremony tTe threÄ with confiscation of their property. It was easy m this way to gain over thousands daily to Christianity. + Thftre were no less than four lance-wounds through the heart oi Criminarand, when dead, he was so hated by the Brahmms that they cut da HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. Some time now elapsed before any other missionary attempted to show himself. The Brahmins, however, did not by any means improve their position by their strenuous resistance, but, on the contrary, rather made it worse, for Francis Xavier took occasion on this account to institute in Goa a religious tribunal, after the pattern of the Spanish Inquisition, over which he ruled without opposition,* and, being aided by the Portuguese arms, he proceeded, with the most frightful severity, against all those who oflFered any hindrance to the spread of Christianity, or who also dared to beguile the baptised natives back again to their ©Id idol-worship. In this way, then, innumerable Brahmins, and more particularly the richest among them, lost their lives by the executioner's hands, or, at least, were exiled from their country in order that their property might be seized for the benefit of the Society, and thus, by degrees, all opposition to the reception of the Christian religion presently ceased through- out the whole of the countries under subjection to the Portu- guese. As a matter of course, the effeminate Hindus now pressed forward to have themselves baptised, rather than make acquaint- ance with the prisons of the Inquisition, or run the risk of being roasted alive over a slow fire ! After this fashion did Francis Xavier and his associates conduct themselves in India, and the consequence was that Jesuit colleges sprang up in all suitable places, being enriched by the property of the slaughtered and banished heretics. And still more numerous were the churches which were erected, as they no longer hesitated to destroy, with fire and sword, all the heathen temples which they were able to get at, and, indeed, it almost seemed as if the Jesuits had taken for their example the cruel conduct of Charles the Great against the Saxons. Xavier now, after he had carried things to this height, thought it was time to extend still further his Christian conquests, and this he did by an acquaintance he had made, in 1Ö49, with an inhabitant of Japan. The his head off. The Jesuits, on the other hand, made him out to be the fii^t martyr of the Order, and there was but little wanting that he should have been placed m the category of saints* ♦ The Portuguese governors and lieutenants rendered every assistance on nl*^??^^* ^ the great converter of the heathen, because they knew very well that they would otherwise be denounced to King John in., and that whoever was m this way singled out might rest assured that he would be oertam to lose his appointment and be recalled to Lisbon to render an aoogunt of his actions« THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA, 93 latter, a rather cunning fellow, but springing from a good family, called Anger, who had at least one murder on his conscience, directed the attention of Xavier to the infinite resources of Japan, so much so, indeed, that he at once deter- mined to convert the great Empire, with its millions of in- habitants, and to claim possession of its enormous riches for the benefit of the Order of Jesus. He first began, then, by baptising Anger, the same thereby receiving the name of" Paul de Saint Foi," and at once proceeded to Goa to make sure that things there might not get into disorder during his absence. After he had accomplished this, and had nominated Paul Camerti as his representative, under the title of General Superior, and Anton Gomez as Rector of the now very important college of the "Holy Paul," he embarked in the summer of 1549, and, in company with Anger and the very zealous Pater Come de Torrez, proceeded to Japan, where he landed, on the 15th of August, in the harbour of Canxawa, or Gang Xuma, the capital of the kingdom of Sazuma, or Hsuma ; this happened in the fifteenth year, to the very day, from the taking of the vows at Montmartre. In those days Japan formed, as it does now, nominally one single monarchy, or, indeed, an empire, with its capital, Miako, in which the Emperor, under the name of a Dairi, or Mikado, sat on the throne. At the same time the whole was divided into several provinces or kingdoms, the rulers of which reigned quite independently; amongst the number was the kingdom of Hsnma. It now so happened that the above-mentioned Anger had formerly been on fairly friendly terms with the ruler of Hsuma, in consequence of which Francis Xavier, was not only hospitably received at Court, but at once ob- tained permission, from the very tolerant king, to preach the Christian religion. Xavier, as we may well imagine, immediately took advantage of this privilege, but unfortunately not with the result he had promised himself, as his preaching was almost un- intelligible to his hearers, while the little Japanese that he had picked up from his intercourse with Anger, was mixed up with a variegated jargon of Spanish, Italian, and Latin, to say nothing of his peculiar manners. Bell in hand he collected the people together as he had done before in Goa and its neighbourhood, ^ proceeding which, to the Japanese of a rather higher degree of 94 HISTOBY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA, 96 oaltivation, conveyed the impression of charlatanism and absurdity. This Xavier himself, after the lapse of some little time, felt but too plainly ; and, seeing that it was impossible for him to gain his end in this way, he shortly resolved to alter his mode of opera- tion, and from a Jesuit to become a Bonze. A Bonze ? asks the astonished reader ; but he will cease to be astonished when he calls to remembrance that the Bonzes are nothing more than the higher priests of Buddhism, which is by far the most widely . diffused religion of Japan, and that this Buddhism itself has many points of resemblance to the Roman Catholic faith. In one, as in the other, there are, cloisters with nuns and monks, and even hermits are not wanting. The Buddhists, like the Roman Catholics, have connected with their worship pictures and relics, as well as processions, pilgrimages, and holy proclamations! Both make use of rosaries in saying their prayers, and chastise their bodies with fasting and other similar privations The Bonzes or Lamas, as they are called in Tibet, shave their heads exactly as the Roman priests do, and both are dedicated to celibacy. Further, both are regarded by the people with much reverence, and exercise a decided influence over them. Such is the state of matters which obtains in Japan, and it cannot therefore be wondered at that Xavier determined, under these circumstances, to become a Bonze so far as clothing, habits, manner of life, and customs went. As plain Jesuit he had as yet only rendered himself offensive. As Bonze, however, he hoped to gain influence as much as his heathen colleagues, and then might be able to insinuate Christian doctrine underhand in place of Buddhist polytheism. It was perceived that his design was good, and therefore there was not the least difficulty raised as to the dishonesty of the means adopted, as the Jesuits were never scrupulous in this respect ; but still this artifice did not lead him to the attainment of his aim. The legitimate Bonzes, to wit, began to move heaven and earth in order that the obtrusive new comer should be sent about his business, and represented to the king that the greatest danger would threaten the kingdom were he to allow a miserable stranger to throw ridicule on the old tutelary gods of Japan, and introduce in their stead a new and hitherto quite unknown God, whom no neighbouring deity might endure. They also added a warning to this representaüon, threatening to call upon the other kings of Japan for assistance, if Xavier were not expelled from the kingdom ; and, indeed, little was wanting for the breaking out of a great revolution at their instigation. Under such circumstances the king now resolved to abandon the principle of toleration, which he had hitherto followed and issued a decree in which he forbad the acceptance of Christianity to all his subjects, under the penalty of death, and advised Francis Xavier that, if he put any value upon his life, he must leave his dominions in the shortest space of ,^ ^'There was of course, now nothing else for the great heathen- converter to' do but to obey instantly this order, and he quitted the city of Canxawa, after a residence in it of nearly one year, without having accomplished anything whatever. But where was he now to bend his steps? Was he to return again to Goa ? or at the risk of meeting with the same kind of treatment as he had experienced at Hsuma, to try some other Japanese kingdom^ He did not require to remain long undecided, as there happened to be at that time, as he immediately ascer- tained, several Portuguese ships in the harbour of Ferando the capital of a neighbouring province of the same name and as he naturallv thought it possible that he might meet with a more friendly reception, under the protection of these ships from the King of Ferando than he had done from the ruler of Hsuma he therefore at once made his way to the above- mentioned sea-port. Nor did he deceive himself in this res^^^^^^^ the less so that there happened to subsist a deadly feud at that time between the Kings of Ferando and Hsuma, and conse- nuently permission was at once granted to him to make as many Iselytes as he was able to find. He therefore turned this Jermission to such good use that he effected more baptisms Sn a period of twenty days in Ferando than during the rhole jel that he had been in Hsuma. So, at least, it is Reported by his biographer, and we leave it to be determined Xth r this be the case or not. The fact, however, was that r «till despaired of effecting anything of much consequence ;:til he haTcrverted the Dairi himself, inhis capital of Miako, or had at least got from the latter permission o proselytise; so on that account he himself cleared the way after a residence of some weeks, for the further operations of Come de Torrez, 96 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. wbom he left behind. He did not, however, proceed alone, but took along with him two newly-converted Japanese, called Matthias and Bernhard, as also an interpreter of the name of Fernandez. After meeting with many dangers in trying to make proselytes on the way, he was more than once nearly stoned. It seems to be clear, from the report of his most intimate followers, that he was only allowed to escape owing to his being looked upon as a description of fool, which, in the east, is a better protection than any other weapon. He at last arrived in the great capital of Japan in February Tool, and at once betook himself to the largest public place with the object of proclaiming the Gospel to the people. it what kind of a sermon was it that he preached ? O Lord ! one can hardly believe it possible that any man of the least common sense could think that he could, in such a way, convert anyone to his opinion. He certaitily, indeed, did not allow himself to repeat the hocus pocus of Goa, but he preached by means of his interpreter, as he still was so badly acquainted with the Japanese language that he was unable to put two consecutive sentences together.* It can be readily surmised, then, how laugh- able was the situation ! as one may further easily imagine that Fer- nandez understood Spanish badly, and consequently that all that Xavier said was expounded in complete confusion. It was truly, then, no wonder that the religion which Xavier preached was re- ceived with general misunderstanding, and that he could nowhere make his appearance in public without being followed by the street boys, who looked upon him as a sort of half-witted fool. In spite of all this, he had the audacity to request an audience with the Emperor, which, however, was refused with disdain and derision by the imperial employes; consequently nothing else remained for the zealous missionary to do, but to seek for good fortune elsewhere, and he betook himself to Amanguchi, the capital of the kingdom or province of Mangate. Un- fortunately, however, he met there with no better success, although he was careful enough to make his appearance attired • Xavier thus wrote verbatim to Ignatius Loyola :— " If I but understood their language (Japanese) I have no doubt that many unbelievers would accept the Christian religion. Would to God that I had sooner acquired knowledge of it ! for I might then have hoped to render some service to the Church. At present we are only like statues which cannot talk. They speak much to us, but we cannot reply, as we do not know what they say to us." THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 97 in rich Bonze vestments, and took the precaution of sending beforehand certain presents to the King, as, for instance, a beautiful repeating watch, a musical instrument of good tone, and other such trifles. The Japanese, however, still continued to look upon the foreign Bonze as a fool, and considered their own established religion to be much more sensible than that preached by such a ninny. As Xavier now, however, learned that this said religion originated, property speaking, in China, and as he was of opinion that it would be an easy matter to Christianise the Japanese Em- pire after he had first of all converted the mother country, he forth- with determined to make a descent upon the Celestial Empire. The way thither brought him to the sea-port of Bun go, the residence of another Japanese king, and at that time there happened to lie several Portuguese ships at anchor, commanded by Edward de Gama, a descendant of the renowned Vasca de Gama. This was for him a fortunate circumstance, as Edward de Gama was aware of the favour in which the missionary stood with John TIL, and he was not the less conscious that political wisdom demanded the encouragement of missionary enterprise, as the only way bv which it was possible to open up to European trade this carefully- closed kingdom. On that account it appeared to him necessary that Xavier should be received with marks of the greatest honour, amid the thunder of cannon; the consequence being that the ruler of Bungo wished to know what was the reason of all these salutes. He was duly informed that all this parade was in honour of a holy European Bonze, who had come on board the Admirals ship ; and, in reply to the Prince s question, whether he might not be afforded an opportunity of seeing and becoming acquainted with this distinguished indi- vidual, he was told that the latter had the intention of paying his respects to His Majesty very shortly. This interview, in fact, took place ; not, however, in any ordi- narv manner, but with every degree of pomp that it was pos- sible to observe. The entire line of ships hoisted their pennants, and salutes were fired, the whole of the crews participating on the occasion, and all the officers being decked out in the greatest gala.* In a word, everything was done to impress upon the • The whole train proceeded to the land in three ^jats, decorated as for ft /ete an ornamental awnmg being spread, and the benches being covered 98 BISTORT OP THE JESUITa. THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASU. 99 inhabitants, as well as the King, that Francis Xavier was a man worthy of the hijjhest consideration, and he was consequently not only received by the whole standing army as the great Bonze of Europe, but welcomed with much distinction by the Regent himself. He, moreover, at once obtained leave to proceed with his work of conversion to Christianity, wherever he chose and he. naturally enough, took the fullest advantage of this permission. Matters, however, soon took a different turn, as the native Bonzes, fearing to lose their influence, sought to stir up the people against the «Bonze of Chemachicogin." as they called Portugal, and, moreover, represented to the King, before heaven and hell, how dangerous the new teaching was to the State Now. as the King did not at once yield to their solicitations.' being desirous of not giving offence to the Chinese, he called together a sort of Bonze council in the city of Bungo • at this appeared about three thousand heathen priests, who called upon the stranger to defend his doctrines before the assembled council This religious conference, in fact, which took place, led as may be easily imagined, to no result In other words, each party ascribed the victory to itself, and each had reason for 80 doing, as neither of them in any way understood each other The people, however, sided entirely with the native priests and such a commotion ensued that the Portuguese themselves com- pelled Xavier to withdraw, fearing that a revolution might be the consequence. The upshot of the matter was, that the missionary quitted the city of Bungo, after a residence in it of forty-seven days, on cannon thundered ^ay iJd the whol« nf tl,"""'-! ^^^^*i^"l »^^8, while the On arriving on shore Edward d^Gaml *tVvf'^<>" «touted out hurrahs I marshal's staff in his hand placed him^«?f ^l^ .«^covered brow and hie after him five of the ffiluese J th^ ^^^^^^^ uncovered, bore the preseÄestined t'r fh?*Sn/Äto' r^%"'^" ornamented sceptre of chisled gold a riohlv h!.„«?T»ui ^^°^°'.to wit, an slippers embroidered with pearls a rSnf f.J^t.^^^Tr?'*' ®' * P*"* «^ ^ack . oU flours, and a bea^ifufÄella^ T^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ' attired in a choir shirt of iS muslS^ stuS^'r'^' ^*^^"' ^^'^«*'"' also a stole of gold brocade orr,»^^^^A -^^^-^ ^^*^ precious stones, as thirty richly-clXd ravtuTce« a^^^^^ and surrounded 'by with gold chains and prec ous stoAes Thl ^ °°^^® ^'"^^ *^^ B,domeä saüors and marines, alCf course^ d^^^^^^ procession was closed by the ing along with hat n hand as fn ord^^^^^^^^^ ^ their Sunday clothes, march- Xfvier if was necessary?'; J^erhÄVte^^^* "^^"^ *^ ^'^^^ Novemher 20th, 1551, not, however, without leaving behind him a shepherd for the small flock which he had collected together, and sailed away in a ship placed at his disposal by the Admiral, for the city of Canton, which was the nearest place in the Chinese Empire. A storm, however, compelled him to land on a small island on the way, and here he was informed by certain Portuguese merchants that it was not permitted for any stranger to cross the frontier of China unless he came in the capacity of an am- bassador. He, therefore, caused the ship, thus detained by the storm, to direct its course back again to Goa instead of to Canton, and, on his arriving there, urgently solicited the Viceroy —now Don Alphonso de Norogna— to despatch an embassy to Peking, under whose auspices he might be able to penetrate into this empire, so closed against the outer world. At first the Viceroy was unwilling to entertain this project, but in the end he allowed himself to be persuaded into it by a rich merchant of the name of Jaques Pereira, who was anxious to speculate in Chinese wares ; on him he conferred the patent of an ambassador, and Francis Xavier, along with some other members of the Society of Jesus whom he selected from the College, accompanied him. leaving on the 14th of April 1552. The route lay via Malacca, where a landing was first made, but it would have been better for them had they passed on with- out stopping. It appeared to the Portuguese governor here, a proud noble, called Don Alvarez d'Atayde, that it was a per- fectly preposterous thing that a common bourgeois merchant should be sent as an ambassador to one of the greatest monarchs of Asia, and he, therefore, declared that the Embassy could not be allowed to proceed until he had received further intelligence from the Viceroy of Goa. Francis Xavier protested agaiast this detention, and excommunicated Don Alvarez, as the latter would not in any way acquiesce in his wishes. This, however, did not improve matters in the slightest, but, on the contrary, the proud man felt so provoked, that he forthwith put the whole ambassadorial fleet into arrest until something further was heard about the afl*air. This circumstance drove Francis Xavier almost frantic, and he made his escape in a small barque, leaving behind him most of his companions in Malacca, his destination being the island of Sancian. B-- 100 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS, The said island being situated on the southern coast of China not far from Canton, he hoped to be able to smuggle himself from it with ease into the Celestial Empire; and with the assist- ance of a Chinese merchant whom he had bribed, would no doubt have succeeded, had not the providence of God ordained it otherwise for him. He had hardly landed, after a stormy passage of nearly one month's duration, when he was laid up with a violent fever, and, being treated by an unskilful doctor, he succumbed to the disease twelve days afterwards, on the 2nd of December 1 552, at the comparatively early age of forty-six years.* Such was the end of a man who underwent the greatest dangers in order to spread in distant lands what he called the Christian religion — of a man whose courage and constancy could not be daunted or overcome, even by the greatest of misfortunes, and who, on that account, had the right to range himself side by side with the most valorous of soldiers ; but also of a man who was never in the service of mankind, but merely in that of the Papacy, and who, from his more than unwise zeal, never hesitated in the least to render the teaching of Christianity, in truth, really laughable, and to bring down upon it the ridicule of unbelievers. His Order, however, had much for which to thank him, as he laid the foundation of many establishments in India, China, and Japan, in which only a few decades afterwards it might well rejoice; and, without his animating example, his followers in missionary undertaking could, certainly, never have accomplished what they eventually notoriously brought about to the astonishment of the world. On that account he was most highly honoured and revered by his fellow Jesuits, who, after the lapse of two years, conveyed his corpse, which at the time of his death had been buried with quite sufficient ceremony at Sancian, to Goa, in order that it should be deposited with great pomp and solemnity in the College of the Holy Paul. There, later on, also, they erected a splendid mausoleum for him in the Jesuits* church, and a similar monument was also raised to his memory in the Jesuits' Church in Rome, where, by the command of the General of the Order, Claudius Aquaviva, an arm of Xavier was brought. The principal thing, however, was that the Pope, Paul V., pronounced the apostle of India, as Francis • He was born in the year 1506, at the Castle of Xaviero, in Navarre, at the foot of the Pyrenees. The JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA» 101 li( Xavier was designated after his death, to be holy, and Gregory XV., on the l2th of March J62Ji, translated him into the category of saints, an act which, however, was only announced to Christendom on the 6th of August of the year following by Pope Urban VIII. Still later, in the year 1747, Pope Benedict XIV. bestowed upon him the honourable title of " Protector of India," and kings as well as queens hastened to erect churches to his' honour, which were, of course, named after him. I have dilated, I admit, very considerably on the work ol Francis Xavier in Asia, as he was in fact a much too interest- ing personage to be passed over in a short description. lu regard, however, to his successors in office— I allude to the associates and soldiers of Christ, who after him carried on the missionary work in Japan, China, and the East Indies, and the different fates they met with-I will content myselt with a much shorter description, and rather look to the results upon which they ultimately had to congratulate themselves. In East India, Xavier had completely paved the way for them, as in all places of any consequence which had become subject to the Portuguese, Jesuit establishments-by whatever name they were called, be it colleges, residences, or missions-were founded, and it only remained to increase their number, as also to enlarge those already existing. For the sons of Loyola it was always everywhere an easy matter to succeed in doing so, as, m the first place, the Portuguese governors (Don Alvarez d'Altay de being almost a soütary exception), by order of the king, played into their hands; and as, secondly, they could get the better of any opposition to their projects very easily with the assistance of the tribunals of the Inquisition, established by themselves, lo increase, too, the number of missions was by no means difficult, as in every place, wherever the Portuguese or other Euro- pean despoilers had penetrated, the Jesuit missionaries pressed forward, and, by very simple means, contrived to plant their feet firmly, as well as to form Christian communities. In what, then, did these simple means consist ? The mode was nothing else than this : these missionaries attired themselves as Indian priests or Brahmins (throughout all India the Brahminical religion prevailed), in order that, before the Indians, who enter- tained a strong inborn repugnance to foreigners, they might pass themselves off as natives, while they, at the same time, actually 102 HISTOBT OP THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSIONS Vi AStA. 103 amalgamated the Christianity which they taught with the already 8ubs,sung heathenish views and customs of the inhabitanJ. The good Hindus (or naüve Indians) might thus still continue to be Hindus as long as they merely submitted to be baptised and to bear the name of " Christians ! " It was, indeed, not even necessary to adopt a Christian name in baptism, as the people might retain their own heathenish ones, as St. Paul him- self said " one should be all things to all men! " It would, of course, be very easy for me to form a complete list of all the Jesuits who, as Brahmins, travelled about the country, and who, 11 they did not exactly trample on the Cross of Christ, at aU events denied the same. But I will content myself in noting merely two of them, hoping from these examples to give to the reader a clear notion as to the nature of Jesuit work and pro- ceedings in India. One of them, namely. Pater Constantino Beschi. who had most carefully studied the Hindi language, as well as Sanscrit, imitated the customs and manners, no less than the mode of life of the Brahmins so correctiy that the people of the Dekkan. where he for a long time resided, actually began to honour him as a saint-as a saint, however, be it well under- stood m the heathen heaven ; and, as he published, besides, popular poems in the native language, he thus became celebrated throughout all lands. What was, then, the consequence of this ? The ruler of the Dekkan, in the belief tiiat he was a true Brahmin, raised him to be his first court official and minister, and Constantino Beschi did not trouble himself in the least to explain the mistake. On the contrary, the worthy Pater, hence- forth completely renouncing all European customs and origin, attired m a fine oriental costume, appeared in public riding upon a nchly-caparisoned horse, or carried in a palankeen by slaves, and always accompanied by a numerous escort on horseback, who cleared the way for the great man. proclaiming his going and coming at the same time with a flourish of trumpets No one could have supposed that he was in reality a European, and much less a baptised Christian. A Jesuit, however, he stiU remained to the end of his days, and his companions of the Order were not a little proud of him. A perfectly different character was presented in the very worthy Pater Barthelemi Acosta, the second example which I now brmg to notice, as he did not frequent the society of the great ones of the land, but rather contented himself with mixing among the very lowest dregs of the people ; influenced, of course, by the same aim and object as that of Constantino Beschi, the Prime Minister and Grand Vizier. He sought out, namely, the ill-famed dwellings of the public dancing girls and courtesans, and the huts of those called " Bayaders." being well aware that, always ready, at any day and hour, to sacrifice to the god of love, they thereby possessed great influence over the male sex, and he thus soon found himself on the most intimate terms with them. He was in the habit of playing with them, as well as dancing and drinking with them, by which means he become their dearest friend and confidant. The poor creatures were quite delighted with him, and desired nothing better than to become translated into heaven at the hands of him who made the matter so easy for them. One thing only stood in the way of their embracing the Christian religion, which was that they had been told that Christian priests condemned, as a sinful vice, the trade by which they Uved, and, consequently, they delayed from hour to hour to receive the sacrament of baptism. What, then, did the worthy father do ? He taught them that they might become Christians and still, without com- mitting sin, might continue to devote themselves to the god of love, provided they dedicated a portion of their gains to the Christian church, and, at all events, did their best endeavour to convert those persons to whom they were in the habit of yielding their charms. By these, and other similar ways, the Jesuits contrived to insinuate themselves everywhere throughout the whole extent of India, and, as long as the dominion of the Portuguese lasted, they made themselves absolute masters of the soil; that is to say, they found themselves all alone at Uberty to despoil the whole of the enormous territory, without being interfered with by other Orders, making proselytes, or founding colleges and residences, as they were beloved almost beyond all measure by the King of Portugal, as we shall here- after see. But how was it after the lapse of a century ? When other sea-faring nations also came forward, especially the French, Dutch, and English, to participate in the great hunt after the riches of India, and, as by degrees the power of the first despoiler collapsed on all sides, then came also the downfall of the Jesuit dominion. As 1 shall hereafter, in the fourth, fifth, 104 HISTOET OF THE JESUITS. I and seventh books of this work, come to speak of the way in which the Jesuits conducted themselves during the height of their glory in India it is sufficient for us to know at present that, during the period of a hundred years, the Society of Jesus was the sole ruler in India in matters connected with religion and the Church. They were also quite as fortunate in Japan, although with much greater trouble than in India, and so far back as the year 1573, only twenty years after the death of Xavier, they were able to congratulate themselves on the possession of large establishments in about half of the hundred small kingdoms into which the great Empire was divided. Moreover it was a fact, that already at that time more than two hundred thousand Japanese, exclusive of women and children, had come under their banner, and it may be considered no exaggeration at all to say that the Popes of Rome exulted over this circumstance, declaring that they would never rest satisfied until they had brought the whole of Japan under the dominion of Christen- dom. But what had the Jesuits to thank for this result? Simply and solely their own cunning, and the circumstance that Japan formed no single and entire sovereignty ruled over by one single monarch. It had from the first, become obvious to Xavier that, in order to gain over the Japanese to his opinions, it would be necessary for him to mix himself up with theirs also, and on that account, as we have already seen, he commenced his operations as a Bonze. The associates he had left behind him in Japan, namely Come de Torrez, Juan Fernandez, Cosmos, or whatever might be their names, adopted the same convenient system of morality, and each took good care of himself, as it is said, to get into the house by the door. The place, thought they, cannot be carried by storm, but by quite gently creeping on nil fours; and protected by trenches, the holy fathers made their advances, and placed before the garrison such easy and agreeable conditions that they could hardly fail to yield. After conversion the Jesuit fathers still allowed their followers, although they had received the sacrament of baptism, to frequent the heathen pagodas, and to pray on their knees before their gods Jebischu, Daitotu, Fatziman, Fottei, or by whatever other names they might be called, if they in thought only transferred their worship and adoration to Christ ! Still their THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASU. 105 conquest would not have been so easy, nor would it have certainly been extended within so wide a circle, had it not been assisted in a large measure by the breaking up of the great empire. Each of their diflferent smaller kings merely sought, indeed, his own aggrandizement, and not that of the common fatherland ; a continual jealousy consequently reigned amongst all, and an ever-enduring envy and hatred prevailed among the rivals. To none of them was anything else at heart than the depreciation and disparagement of their neighbour, and every means that tended thereto was hailed with hearty welcome. Especially several of these petty despots believed that great advantages would accrue to them, if they entered into commercial relationship with a seafaring nation such as the Portuguese, or if they succeeded in forming an alliance with those brave men who had, just at that time, despoiled India. By what means could they attain this object more easily than through inter- course with the Jesuits ? I have already apprised the reader of the reception given to Francis Xavier by Edward de Gama in the seaport of Bungo ; and, as the Jesuits were universally met by the Portuguese sailors with servile submission, wherever a Portu- guese ship lay at anchor in a Japanese harbour, the sons of Loyola might indeed be certain that their captain would be sure to place the men at their disposal, as, at the same time, their Order was all powerful at the Court of Lisbon. Not a few, accordingly, of those minor kings made haste to make themselves as friendly as possible with the Loyolites, and, on the principle that " one hand washes the other," gave them as much assistance as they possibly could. Some of them, indeed, even allowed themselves to be baptised, by which example their subjects were naturally led to do the like, and then, conjoined to the act of baptism, for the most part a liberal donation of lands was at the same dme given to the Jesuits, upon which, after becoming settled, they might erect their respective colleges and residences. We learn, for instance, respecting the King of Omura, that, in the year 1562, he assigned to the Jesuits, for their own particular ' use, the town of Vocoziura, with all the villages within a radius of five miles ; and if other princes did not go quite so far as this, they, at least, presented the missionaries with all the cloisters for which they had occasion. The Jesuits then, in short, after a few decades, acquired a most extraordinary influence in Japan, B— 106 HISTOÄT OF THE ;fESüfTS. and even in Miako, the seat of the Dairi, they succeeded in establishing a college along with a noviciate ; and, as they were once before known to do, even made use of their power to threaten therewith the rulers inimical to them. What do I say- to threaten I That is by far too mild an expression, as, from threatening they often came to action ; that is to say, the Black Cloaks beguiled the converted princes into making an attack on the unconverted, and exerted their whole power and influence, in this way, to obtain a victory for the former. Many volumes might be written concerning these everlast- ing machinations, excitations, and houndings on of the Japanese one against the other, the consequence being that the history of Japan at that time consisted iu nothing else than a constant catalogue of insurrections, rebellions, conspiracies, wars, and massacres ; each of these fraternal feuds, however, and each of these rebeUions, &o., ever aided the Jesuits to a new triumph, and at last to such a pitch did matters come that, in the year 1585, three of the converted kings, namely, those of Bungo, Arima, and Omura, organised under their guidance a brilHant embassy to the then reigning Pope, Gregory XIII., in order to render homage to the head of Christendom. This was glory, indeed I Truly such splendid results could hardly have been brought about by all the other Orders put together; but the Pope himself, also, showed himself grateful, and forthwith, through a Special Bull, forbade for the future all monks or other ecclesiasücs from going to Japan, with the object of exercising any ecclesiastical function whatever, without his express permission, under the penalty of being subjected to the greater excommunication. In this manner was Japan given over to the unrestrained spoHation of the Jesuits, and one may easüy imagine that they well knew how to make fuU use of their opportunity. In what respect, however, did Christianity gain by this? Certainly in none whatever, but, on the contrary, it was simply hurtful to it, as the Chrisüanity which was taught by the Jesuits in Japan had nothing whatever of its character but the name/ not even its tenor, as it soon became evident that the Jesuits, in tact, fabricated a life of Christ especially adapted to meet the ideas of the Japanese, in which they represented the son of the wüe Ol the carpenter as coming into the worid arrayed in l!HB JESUIT MISSIONS tN ASU* 107 purple, governing as King of Judah, and dying on his bed of state in all the glory of a monarch. Still less was done for the education of the baptised Japanese ; on the contrary, they were allowed designedly to retain all their old superstitions along with their depraved habits and vices of sensuality.* It was much more difficult, however, for the Jesuits to pene- trate into China than into Japan, as at that time the former empire was completely closed against all foreigners, and the strong door could not be opened either by force or artifice. Francis Xavier, as we have already been made aware, died within sight of its inviting coasts ; nor did it fare any better with others of his Order, more especially with brethren Michael Euggieri, and Pazzio, who, coming one from Goa, the other from Macao, attempted for thirty years to climb the Chinese rocks, as Father Valigno expresses himself. This difficult problem was, however, at last solved by one of them, no other than the celebrated Mathias Ricci. Born in the same year in which Xavier died, to wit, on the 6th of October 1552, his birth-place was the town of Macerata, in the district of Ancona. He, at a very eariy age, showed great capabilities, and, after acquiring to some extent the old lan- guages, he proceeded to Rome in the year 1568, in order there to study law. He then became acquainted with the Jesuit fathers, and more especially with Laynez and Salmeron, and their persevering efforts at length succeeded in winning over the highly-gifted young man to their Order. At the age of nine- teen, he entered as a novice into the Collegium Romanum, and began to go through the ordinary course in it; but Pater Balignano, who at that time was the head of the Novice House, soon discovered that young Mathias possessed an extra- ordinary talent for mathematics and mechanics. Who could have been more rejoiced at this than the Jesuit fathers ? For several years had they endeavoured in vain to get hold of some- one possessed of this talent. • In the years 1633-35 the pious ecclesiastics, Antoninus de St* Malria» Francis Almeda, and Jean Baptist, travelled all over the East by order of the Pope, and from their statements it is apparent, as is allowed by Uie Jesuits, that the Japanese continued still to carry on all their old idol ceremonies, and only practised that of Christianity secretly. The Jesuits themselves do not at aU deny this, but on the contrary adnut it. The Apostles had employed the same means towards the converted Jews and heathens. 108 Bistort of the jesüits. I r i As soon as it had been brought to the knowledge of the General, through the reports current in India and Japan, that the Chinese of distinction had an especially great leaning to the cultivation of the so-called exact sciences, as, for example, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy, as well also of the mechanical arts, and that anyone who distinguished himself in those paths would be highly esteemed by them, it was determined to send into the " Empire of the Centre," in the garb of a Chinese savant, a well-armed Jesuit, deeply instructed in such knowledge, and it was not unnatural therefore that the Chief of the Order should rejoice in having at last found the long-sought-for talent. The pursuit of theology was consequently instantly thrown aside by Ricci, in order, on the other hand, to prosecute his studies in mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy, and with this object the most celebrated teachers and professors of those sciences available at the period in Rome were had in requisi- tion for him. This young man was at the same time instructed in mechanical learning, and more especially in the art of making physical instruments, that of watch-making not being neglected. Ricci acquired a knowledge of all these branches with wonderful acumen, as well in practice as in theory. It nevertheless took him fully eight years before he had entirely perfected himself. He now embarked for the East, not, however, immediately for China, but for Goa, the head and central point of the A'siatic mission. It was here, in the College of the Holy Paul, that the finishing touches were given to his education, and, more parti- cularly, he there acquired a knowledge of the Chinese language so perfectly, that he was quite capable of being taken for a native of the Celestial Empire. He applied himself to it with untiring zeal, and at last, after four years more, he was now considered to be perfect in this respect Nothing further was now wanting to hinder him from pro* ceeding to his destination, and he therefore embarked in September 1583, in the attire of a Lama, or Fo priest, for China, where he presently landed in a small sea-port town called Tschao-tcheu. Fo is only another term for Buddha, and a Lama, or Fo Priest, thus signifies the same in China as Bonze does in Japan. He did not dare, at first, indeed, to approach THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 109 Canton or any of the other large cities, for fear of being recog- nised as a European ; he held it to be more prudent to work quietly from below upwards, and on that account had he, indeed, dressed himself in the modest attire of a Lama. He advanced so far during the first year as to give instruction to the young in mathematics and the other sciences, and thus soon won confidence for himself in the neighbourhood. He also succeeded in interesting in himself several of the superior officials, or mandarins, as they are called in China, by executing a Geographical chart of the Celestial Empire, a thing unheard of before in China. For his main object, however, that is the con- version of the Chinese to the Christian religion, he dared not at first attempt much, at all events in public, but he contented himself in this respect rather by insinuating in the intervals of his teaching some points of Christian doctrines but only such as did not appear to be in contradiction to therehgious views of the Chinese. „ . ^ ix. There existed at that time in this large Empire, and there now, indeed, are to be found, k^o systems of religion,* which maintain themselves side by side without being mimical to each other, both possessing an equal right to flourish, both having equal support from the Emperor and his officials. Regarding the one. the Buddhist religion, or, as it is called in China, the religion of Fo, we already know something in Japan, con- sequentlv T have nothing farther to say of it here than this, that its "followers are. for the most part, to be found among the lower classes of the people; it is polytheism, with its monks and nuns, its cloisters, its miracles, and its superstitions. The other religious system was that established by Confucius, or more correctly Knng-fa-tse, and which, as I have already remarked, and now repeat, consists merely in a pure morality having much resemblance to Christianity. The followers of this latter system, also, to whom belong all the educated classes, along with the whole Court and body of Mandarins from the lowest to the highest grade, bestow upon the founder of it divine honour, although they admit that he was a mere man ; • A third religious system was =?*-!» »rrTs°Ä "^h^^^^^^^^ as it was called the " Religion of the "ght way. """I WStMQ, üoweve . long been almost completely »•»»lg''™**fl7^^„?ÄT * «ocount not necessary to make any particular mention ol »t. 110 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESTJIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. Ill tbey reject all polytheism, along with miracles, and, further, heathenish religious pomp and decoration. Under such circumstances as these it was easy for Ricci to insinuate into his teaching the moral fundamental truths of Christianity, without coming into collision with the Chinese, and he was thus, indeed, enabled, without showing any antagon- ism to them, to proceed so far " as to compose expressly for the Chinese a Christian catechism," as everything in this little book harmonised with the teaching of Confucius. On the other hand, he carefully avoided all mention to any of his scholars of the doctrine of the Trinity, of the birth and ascension of Christ, ofthe Redemption, or of any other Christian mystery, and, in the said catechism all such matters were omitted. One thus sees that he advanced stealthily with double craftiness, in that in the first place he merely here and there insinuated some- thing of Christianity, and, secondly, he adapted such Christianity to Chinese ideas; in other words, he re-modelled it to suit China. After that Ricci had thus carried on his operations for some years in the neighbourhood of Tschao-tcheu, and made himÄlf otherwise thoroughly master of Chinese manners and customs, he went on into the neighbouring kingdom of Kiang-Sy, and, somewhat later on, into Nanking, where he passed himself off as a literary savant of the religion of Confucius, in the rich attire worn by such, whilst he, at the same time, practised as a physician. In the latter capacity he became acquainted with a mandarin of very high rank, who called him in on account of the illness of a sick son, who had been badly treated by the Chinese medical practitioners, and, as he was successful in bringing him round, the mandarin invited him to Peking, the capital of the Chinese empire. This was precisely what Ricci had for a long time striven to accomplish, and he therefore responded to the call in the yenr 1595 with the most joyful feeling of zeal. He soon came also to get acquainted with the higher classes of the community among the Fetisches of his highly-conditioned patron, and everyone was amazed at the wonderful knowledge which he brought to light. He, moreover, strove especially to make friends at Court, in order that he might obtain an introduction to the Emperor himself, and, that he might the more easily attain his object, he approached even the lowest Court oflBcials with the most cringing flattery, wbiJe he tried others, according to their dispositions, with presents and bribes. He finally, in the year 1601, caused himself to be so much talked about among those immediately surrounding the Emperor Van- Lie, that the latter, hearing of the wonders produced by the learned Ricci, especially concerning a self- striking clock, became curious to inspect the apparatus, and ordered the possessor of it to be brought before him. Ricci presented himself before the monarch, and not only brought with him the *' self-striking clock," made by himself, which had a very fine appearance, but also several other mechanical curiosities which had hitherto been unknown in China. Of course, he brought these not alone to exhibit them, but to lay them, as presents, at the feet of the Emperor, who was so delighted with them, and especially with the clock, that, after the dismissal of the disguised Jesuit, he spent several hours in watching the action of the works, the revolution of the indicator, as well as the means for striking. Not contented with this, His Majesty required that his wives, along with the Empress mother, should also be brought to inspect this marvellous production. But, alas ! what with the constant manipulation, making it per- petually strike, and winding it up, it happened that it suddenly got out of order and stopped, whereupon Van-Lie became in- consolable at this *' extinguished life," and with *a complaining expression exclaimed to Ricci, who had been quickly summoned, ** She is dead." The Jesuit, however, comforting him with these words, " She shall soon live again, if the Son of Heaven [the title given to the Emperor] orders it," took the clock home with him, and put it all right again in the course of a few hours without much trouble. From this time forth Ricci had, as may be said, the game in his own hands, as the Emperor could now no longer do without him, or, rather, Ricci contrived to render himself indispensable to His Majesty. He knew at once how so to make use of the monarch's weakness for machin- ery, to obtain a commission from him for a whole quantity of clocks and watches, and, as they were procured from Goa, they were, of course, accompanied by other Fathers, and he naturally was himself appointed to be supervisor of clocks, as who, besides him, was capable of keeping the numerous works in order? Then, again, this Father Mathias, as it appears, engaged in another of the favourite sciences of the Emperor, namely, in that 112 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. i» THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. It of astronomy, and, lastly, the wily Jesuit managed to show his acquaintance as well with chemistry and mathematics. Such uncommon endowments as these certainly deserved recognition, ^nd, consequently, Van-Lie could no longer refrain from hestow- ing upon the Father the distinction of Court Mandarin, con- sisting in the position of a superior Court official. Moreover, he made him the present of a large house in the city, in order to establish a college, and endowed it with an enormous in- come, as in it astronomers, mathematicians, chemists, opticians, and other artists of every description were to be educated. It was, thus, no Christian college, nor in any respect an educational institution for future priests of any particular denomination, but merely a high scientific institution where the chief inhabitants of Peking might send their sons, in order that they might be instructed and made as skilful as Mathias Kicci and his newly-arrived associates. Of course. Christian instruction was not altogether excluded from the place, but it was only of such a nature as not to rouse against it the opposi- tion of the young nobility and their Mandarin parents. On the contrary, Ricci and his associates only taught what Confucius had taught before, and what had won for that religious founder his well-merited place in Heaven. They avoided either attack^ ing Chinese habits and customs, or even making but slight objections to them, but on the other hand, they rather just allowed their pupils to live on quietly in the way they had been accustomed to do. They might continue, for instance, to pray as before to their household gods, if they had any. They might, as before, attend their lantern-feasts, and soul-fJasts, the fete of Phelo, and all similar Chinese religious festivities. They might sacrifice at the graves of deceased relatives, and, when sick, might provide themselves with the "Luin," that is. with the prescribed Passe-par-tout, which the Lama priests require as an entrance into the other world ; they might, on arriving at the age of puberty, observe the custom of the plurality of wives, and take to themselves as many spouses and concubines as they desired; they might even take to wife their own sisters, should they wish it, and, moreover, relationship of any kind formed no impediment to marriage. They might do all this, and still more, if they would only allow themselves to be baptised, and just declare their wish to become Chrisüans; 113 so, with the view of avoiding any opposition,* the Jesuit Fathers carried out to the fullest extent all such customs and ceremonies. It was thus certainly made as easy and convenient for them as it reasonably could be ! and as little as possible was demanded in return. On the other hand, such immense advantagas were promised them, that it would have been indeed a perfect marvel had they not been entrapped. All the science of Europe was freely offered them for the present life, and by means of such knowledge they might thus be enabled to surpass all their fellow-countrymen, so that, for the future, the Emperor would only select from their number his governors, generals, and ministers. As regards the life to come, too, they might thus secure for themselves such an eternally enduring happiness, and a glorious place in Tien, i.e. heaven, that all the rest, and even the souls of those who were burning in hell-fire, must on that account greatly envy them, and all this might be attained for nothing more of a sacrifice than merely a declaration of the desire of being henceforth called Christians. No, indeed, nothing more, I repeat, than this ; but along with this declara- tion, be it well understood, was the obligation conjoined of having no other spiritual advisers than the Jesuit Fathers. Herein lay the point, for when the Fathers became, first of all, the confessors and spiritual advisers of a family, it was as much as if all the members of the family had sworn allegiance to them. In this manner Ricci succeeded in securing an extremely influential position at the Court of Pekin, and the consequence was that he was not only permitted to build a church adjoining the college, but he was enabled also to establish colleges and churches in other towns in the great Empire, by means of his associates, of whom iie constantly obtained an accession in numbers from Goa. It must not be believed, however, that he • This is reported in a letter from the Jesuit Ignatius Lobo, dated 12th September 1635, to the Franciscan Father, Antonio de Saint Marie. I may especially mention, once for all, that what is related here concerning the Christian teaching of the Jesuits in China is but an extract taken from the reports of the Jesuits themselves. As, for instance, from the great work on China by Du Halde, from the memoranda of Fathers Le Conte and Martini, from the report of Father Boym, as also from the posthumous writings of Bioci himself ; allusion is not made to the false imputations emanating from enemies to the Jesuits, but to facts confirmed by the Jesuit missionaries themselves. 8 ' I 114 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. liad no difficulties to contend with in this respect. On the contrary, the priests of the Fo religion, in particular, did everything in their power to throw suspicion on him and his associates, and succeeded so far at Canton, in the year 1608, that the Governor there ordered Franz Martinez to he hastinadoed, to which punishment he succumbed, and yielded up the ghost. Father Longobardi, also, nearly shared the same fate, and even Ricci himself was within an ace of heing overthrown by a cabal got up against him by the great Bonze of Peking. He contrived, however, to make such good use of the friendship which the Emperor entertained towards him, that he came off at last triumphant, and the blow intended for him and his associates fell back upon his enemies * On the whole, therefore, his mission had been so marvellously successful that, in J 610, when death overtook him, it might be correctly boasted concerning him that he had effected, during his twenty-seven years operations in China, as much, if not more than Francis Xavier Jiad done in India and Japan ; not, however, had he effected anything of consequence for Christianity, for what he taught certainly had but little more than just the name of Christianity, and totally deviated from the religious principles of the Roman Catholic faith. But so far as his Order was concerned, he opened up for it the largest empire in the worid, in which was to lie gained an immensity of power, riches and glory ; in this respect things had been properly handled.f Not long after the death of Ricci, his great protector and patron the Emperor Van-Lie also died, and under his successor, Tien-ki, who also did not reign long, the native priests fre- • The Court intrigue to which I have alluded above was occasioned by a master-stroke of ignominy, in that the Emperor was made to suspect the GrandJ3onze by means of a libel, circulated through the Court of Peking, a document probably having Ricci for its author, being not only spread about but also clearly fabricated. The Governor of Canton, too, who had so maltreated Father Martinez, came off badly, as, for his officiousness, he was removed from his government to one of less importance, and must have held himself to have been fortunate in escaping with so mild a punishment. _,, . ,. ., ,. t The best proof of how Ricci troubled himself about Christianity He« in the fact of his literary activity. He wrote for the Chinese and the support of his mission, among others, the following works :—(l) The Practical Mathematics of Clavius, (2) the six first books of Euchd, (3) the Spheres of Euclid, (4) a Treatise on Physics, (5) a Method of Making Sun Dials, (6) the Art of Employing Astrolobiums, (7) on the Use of the Spmet, (8) a Catechism of Moral Philosophy— the same in which he develops his Chinese Christianity. From these posthumous publications I think we can beat form a judgment respecting the *' Apostle of China." THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA« 116 quently renewed their endeavours to obtain a decree prohibiting the proceedings of the intruding foreigners. Intrigue followed intrigue, calumniation calumniation, complaint complaint, while at one time this party, at another that party, appeared likely to get the upper hand. It would naturally be of but little interest to the reader were I to enter more fully into detail regarding these matters, and I will, therefore, only remark that the Jesuits were at one time on the point of being completely foiled. The Governor of the king- dom of Kiang-Nan, for example, who, in the year 1615, resided in Nanking, declared himself to be their particular enemy, and not only published a circumstantial decree against them, which he transmitted to the Court, but also actually commenced to expel them, even without waiting for the approval and sanction of higher authority. The Governor of the neighbouring pro- vince of Quang Tong now followed his example in this respect, and in these portions of the enormous empire the Jesuits suffered the most cruel persecution. Their colleges were closed and their churches pulled down ; they were themselves thrown into the closest prison, bastinadoed, and then packed into a ship like bales of goods, and transported out of the country to Macao. The authorities ought, however, to have waited a little before acting thus, lest the Court of Peking might possibly interfere, seeing that the Jesuits still remained in the highest repute there, as mathematicians, astronomers, chemists, musicians, and mecha- nicians. This interference, however, did not take place, and the Nanking decree of expulsion was, on the contrary, immediately confirmed, probably from the fact of the memorandum of the Governor of Kiang obtaining unanswerable support on the points of complaint. And it may be remarked that the Jesuits themselves observed unbroken silence regarding this circum- stance in their hitherto most detailed reports on China. Political events now, however, occurred, which had the effect of bringing the pious Fathers into higher honour than they had ever before enjoyed. The Tartars, a numerous and brave race of people, whose home lay in the northern frontier of the empire, had for a long time past given rise to frightful trouble to the Emperor of China, who had been only able to repel the inroads of these nomad hordes by mustering his whole forces against them. It was an inroad of this description that took 8* I 116 laiSTOHY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 117 plftce in the year 1618, and the Khan of Tartary, called by the Chinese historians the thief " Thien-Min," penetrated almost to the very walls of Peking. The Emperor was now in great .fitraits, as his cowardly people fought badly, and it was much to be feared that even Peking itself might fall into the hands of •the enemy. Then, agaiti, Mandarin Seu, one of the highest oflBcials of the Empire, whom the Jesuits, through his pious daughter, Kandide, who had been baptised by them, and solemnly proclaimed to be a saint, had got completely into their power, counselled the Emperor to solicit the pious Fathers to obtain the assistance of Portuguese officers and, in par- ticular, artillerists, in order that, from their superior attain- ments in the art of war, the enemy might be driven back. The Emperor with great joy welcomed this counsel. The Jesuits, of course, most readily complied with his wishes, not, however, except under certain conditions, among which were included naturally the solemn abrogation of the Nanking decree of ex- pulsion. The result was that after the successful defeat of the Tartars the Emperor fell completely into the hands of the Jesuits, who at the same time in this way obtained the keys of government. Full power was then again accorded to them to erect colleges in all the cities of the Empire, and also churches as well in connection with the former ; and it cannot be doubted that they made the most unrestrained use of this privilege. The incursions of the Tartars did not by any means cease with the defeat of Thien-Min, but were still renewed more than ever during the reign of the Emperor Hoai-tsong, the successor of Tien-ki. Matters, however, became still worse when Prince Li-tse-tching raised a rebellion, and with the aid of 70,000 Tartar cavalry advanced on Peking. There could not be any question of long resistance, and in despair Hoai-tsong along with all his wives committed suicide in his Palace, where- upon Li-tse-tching took possession of the throne. But if the capital paid him homage, it did not thereupon follow, as a neces- sary consequence, that the whole province should do so likewise, and such infinite confusion ensued throughout the Chinese Empire that shortly no one could distinguish between a cook find a butler. Deep was the misery that reigned among all the friends of the fatherland, and still more dire were the necessities pf the people. The Jesuits, however, on the other hand, rubbed their hands with joy, well knowing how to fish in troubled waters, and to each of the difierent pretenders who were striving with each other for the mastery they promised mountains of gold in return for certain advantages. The two Fathers, Cofler and Schall, made themselves more particularly conspicuous in this respect, and it is really worth while to look a little more closely into their conduct, whilst both of them — not on their own account, it is true, but by the order of their General in Kome, who held all the threads of the machinery — operated in entirely opposite camps. Thus, while Turn-Lie, a grandson of the Emperor Van-Lie, allowed himself to be proclaimed Emperor in the province of Chan Sy, Father Cofler at once attached himself to his side, bringing along with him Doctor Lucca, a good engineer oflBcer, and, still better, Jesuit, besides several other Fathers among whom was Martin Boym. Moreover, besides those mentioned were several lay Portuguese, all of them being officers, who were sent to him by the Governor of Macao, to be attached to his suite, so that, consequently, he could make an appearance with some ostentation. Cofler thus acting. Tum Lie was thereby soon brought to the conviction that it would now be no difficult matter, while the Christians had ranged them- selves on his side, to bring the whole of China under subjection. Here was, then, already an influential party, and Cofler promised their unanimous support as soon as the Prince had been himself baptised, along with his wives and children. The latter con- sidered a little, as he. did not quite know at this time whether he might not, by so acting, give too much offence to the great mass of the Chinese people ; but, in the meantime, as news came of the defeat of his forces by the enemy, he consented to allow his wives and children at least to be publicly baptised, though he himself did not "outwardly" recognise Christianity. In return for this concession, it was agreed that Peter Cofler should create a Christian army, under the command of Lucca. Both of these events took place, that is, the baptism and the commencement of the assembling together by Lucca of a small army. The two spouses of Tum-Lie received the names of Helena and Anna ; these, first of all, were immediately required to send to the Pope Alexander VII , through Pater Michael Boym, autograph letters, dated 4th December 1650, wherein they assured the Holy Father, the representative of Christ upon I I 118 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN ASIA. 119 earth, that the whole of China had subjected itself to him with the most profound devotion.* The heir to the throne, how- ever, Tum-Tym, was christened " Constantine," and Cofler drew up his horoscope in the following words : " The child born at midnight, like the Son of God, shall be fortunate in everything, and resemble a sun which will overspread all China with good fortune." Considering all this, then, one would have naturally been inclined now to come to the conviction that the Jesuits had thoroughly sided with the pretender Turn-Lie, and had col- lectively worked to procure for him the victory over all his opponents for the throne. It wag not so, however, for they played quite the same kind of game, besides, with another of the pre- tenders ; seeing that, without doubt, one or other of these must eventually succeed in carrying off the palm. To wit, then, after that Li-tse-tching had seized upon Peking, Osan-Quei, a brother of the deceased Emperor, collecting in M^ntchuria a large army by means of the treasure which he had brought along with him, placed himself at the head thereof, and, entering China, laid siege at once to Peking, and compelled Li-tse-tching to abdicate the throne. He, however, immediately after this, died, and bequeathed the inheritance to his only son, Schun-tchin, who forthwith armed himself with his whole power in order to subjugate also the remaining provinces of China, and put an end thereby to all other pretenders to the throne. He was known to be a brave commander, and as he could place confidence in his well- exercised army, he did not allow himself to doubt for a moment that the result of the coming struggle would turn out anything else than favourable for him. Nevertheless, while he, like so many brave warriors before and after him, was wedded to belief in the influence of the stars, before commencing operations he determined to consult them and ascertain what was to be his fate. He therefore ordered Adam Schall, the Jesuit who at that time held the position of astronomer to the Peking College, to consult the heavens nightly. Schall, like another Seui, did what was demanded of him, and foretold to the valiant Schun-tchin • This document also, to which the Jesuits attach not a little importance, as it was a proof of the high estimation in which they were held at the Court, can be read in extenso in Du Halde's Description de la Chine, tom. iii. p. 801. that he would not only obtain a most glorious victory, but that he should also secure for himself and his posterity easy pos- session of the whole eelestial empire. Schun-tchin now advanced with his army, conquering one province after another, and ended by overthrowing Turn-Lie. He took him prisoner, indeed, along with his whole family, and caused all the members thereof, including his firstborn, Tam-Tym, to whom Andreas Xavier Cofler had predicted such a glorious future, to be miserably strangled. Nothing, however, happened to the Jesuits who had been hitherto working at the Court of the conquered one, as they came over in a body, by order of Schall, into the camp of the conqueror, he having all this time the patent of Vicar-General of the China Mission in his pocket, given to him by the General of the Order. It turned out, then, that the Jesuits had been working at the same time in each of the two hostile camps, and, no doubt, had the goddess of fortune shown herself favourable to Tum-Lie, they would likewise have come over just the same to him. They now, however, extolled immensely the mighty Schun-tchin, and he proved himself to be so gracious to them that, at the time of his death, in 1661, although not more than eighty years from the advent of Ricci in the country, they possessed no fewer than thirty-eight colleges and residences, along with 15 1 churches. Moreover, Pater Adam Schall carried matters to such an extreme extent that his most gracious monarch actually bestowed upon him the dignity of a mandarin of the first rank, nominating him also, at the same time, supreme head of the European Bonzes and president of the Tribunal of Mathematics of the Celestial Empire. This was one of the highest and most influential positions in China, and Adam Schall was no longer to be seen in public unless attired in the richest stuff's, covered all over with precious stones, sitting in a palankin borne by twelve slaves, and escorted by a squadron of his own body-guard, being protected from the rays of the sun by ah enormous umbrella, under which he was continually fanned by numerous attendants, and regarded with the utmost respect by crowds of people, who made way for him obsequiously in order to escape being driven aside by blows from bamboo staves. Moreover, the great Emperor, besides loading him with riches, presented him with a large palace in the immediate neighbour- hood of his residence, and on more than twenty occasions visited I' 111 K 120 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSION IN AFRICA. 121 Lim personally, whilst it is well known that in China the etiquette is for the sovereign never to cross the threshold of a subject. To put a crown upon the matter, indeed, he gave him permission to address the throne directly on all matters, whereas, in the instance of all other Crown and Court officials, it had to be approached only through the Tribunal of Petitions ; and, lastly, he entrusted to him the education of his firstborn son and successor ! Such was the magnificent position accorded to the Jesuit Adam Schall at the Court of Peking, and no less splendid was the position of the successor to his post, given after his death by the General of the Order to the venerable Pater Verbiest, who was also a grand mandarin and president of the Tribunal of Mathe- matics, and who obtained, moreover, the title of Ma-Fa, stepping along, not as an humble preacher of the Christian faith, but as a grand dignitary of the great Chinese empire. What was, then, in those glorious days, done in respect to the colleges which the Jesuits conducted ? Much, as regards mathematical instruments, pianos, watches, astronomical tables, and all such studies, but, as regards the progress of the Christian religion, nothing at all. They turned out, it is true, a number of architects, painters, geographers, musicians, astronomers, mathematicians, mechanics, physicians, and even diplomatists * But as for Christian theo- logians and preachers, none were produced. Verily, a cannon- foundry was erected by the worthy Fathers, under the super- vision of the venerable Verbiest, close to the Peking college, and the guns made there proved to be much more perfect than those manufactured by the Chinese. Nothing was heard or under- stood, however, about what the Fathers did as regarded the diffusion of the spirit of God among the Chinese people. II. — The Jesuit Mission in Africa. We have above seen how greatly extended had become the Jesuit missions in Asia ; so much & \ indeed, that it was hardly possible to comprehend all within anything like a narrow compass. Entirely different, however, was this the case as to the Jesuit mission in Africa, which was limited to a single locality and to a comparatively very short space of time. * yiie Jesuits were also employed by the Emperor Kang-hi (tue same as had been educated by Schall) especially in the latter capacity, Is it wrthey who m the year 1689, concluded treaties witii Russia, regulating the boundanea between Siberia and Mantchuria. When embarking on the Nile in Egypt, with the view of pro- ceeding to the frontier, as soon as the latter is passed, one reaches Nubia, which has now become a province of Egypt; but on proceeding still further south, there are extensive high- lands, which reach out between the great plain of Kordofan and the Red Sea, whose waters separate them from the peninsula of Arabia. This region figures in geographical works under the names of Abyssinia (or Habesch) and Ethiopia. These fertile lands, in which are the sources of the great neighbouring river Nile, as well as other fine streams, and in which the fniits of the south flourish along with those of more temperate regions, formed, at one time, during the 1st century of our era, a mighty kingdom, called Azumitia, after its great capital Azum, while Byzantine authors inform us, respecting the same, that its rulers had extended their conquests as far as Yemen and Saba in Arabia, and on its frontiers, more especially, had shattered the power of both Romans and Parthians. At the time these events took place, the heathen religion was there naturally prevalent, and we read, for. instance, that the valiant King Aizanes, who reigned at the commencement of the 4th century, after having gained a glorious victory, erected, in the year 333, some statues in honour of Aries and Mars. Immediately after this, however, about the year 340, two wandering missionaries, named Frumentius and Adesius, after- wards designated the Apostles of Ethiopia, coming from the direction of Egypt, began to preach the doctrines of Chris- tianity, and, as King Aizanes himself was one of the first to be baptised, their doctrines found such great favour with high and low, that in less than ten years' time two- thirds of all the heathen temples were converted into Christian churches. In addition to which, numbers of cloisters and hermitages were established, as a matter of course, after the pattern of the Egyptian ones, as Egypt supplied hundreds of secular priests who were required for the performance of divine worship, and, as may well be supposed, the entire ritual was no other than that customary in the mother country. In order, however, to put a seal upon the whole affair, the Patriarch of Alexandria conse- crated the missionary Frumentius to be the first bishop of the newly-converted country, and, from that time forth, it became the privilege of the Patriarch to nominate the " Abuna " as the w 122 HISTOBT OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSION IN APElCA. 123 primate bishop was designated. It was thus that Ethiopia became the most remote bulwark of Christiaüity in Africa, and many attempts were then made to gain a footing for this faith even in Arabia; but, the religion of Mahomet starting into existence in the 7th century, a completely different com- plexion was given to the whole matter. Mahomedanism, which, as is well known, made proselytes sword in hand, seized not only upon Arabia, along with all the coasts bordering upon the Red Sea, comprehending therein the territory of the Kings of Azum, but also subjected £gypt up to the frontiers of Nubia, thereby rendering Abyssinia, as it were, a Christian oasis in the midst of countries now become Mahomedan. Not contented, indeed, with this, the Khalifs (Mahomet's successors) sought to penetrate into Abyssinia itself, and not merely weakened it much by successive aggressive raids, but continued their efforts until they had gained over to Islam a portion of the population. What was still worse, they gradually excluded the country, both by sea and land, from all intercourse with other nations in such a way as to draw a cordon round it; so isolated, indeed, did it thus become that for centuries nothing was heard of it in Europe. It was not till the Middle Ages that a tradition sprang up regarding the lost Christian monarchy, when much was talked of respecting a certain ** Priester John " who governed this kingdom, and who was said to be the lineal descendant of King Solomon Still no one could give any very distinct information about the matter, and many thought it to be a myth and an idle dream, until the end of the year 1483, when an Abyssinian made his appearance at the Council of Florence giving himself out to be an ambassador from the ruler of that country, Za Yacub by name. He disappeared again, however, immediately after it was brought to a close, and then no more was again heard of the kingdom than previously. As the Portuguese, in one of their expeditions to the east coast of Africa, in the year 1484, learned, through an embassy to the negro State of Benin, that, twenty months* journey beyond the latter, a powerful king of the name of Za-Ogano reigned, and as they, with reason, thought that this Christian kingdom could be no other than that of the mythical "Preste Jono," they fitted out an expedition at once, under the supreme command of Pero de Covilha, which should proceed through Egypt and the Bed Sea to the east coast of Africa. Covilha accomplished his commission in the most brilliant manner, and after a three years' search, found that for which he was instructed to look, namely, the Christian State of Habesch, in the midst of a surrounding partly heathenish and partly Mahomedan. The great problem was at last solved, and the reward of the Portuguese was that they obtained permission from the ruler of the State mentioaed, the Negus Za-Densal (" Negus " is in Abyssinia the equivalent of " King ") to trade at their pleasure, and to found therein commercial establishments; for which privilege they were, however, required to give effectual assistance against the Mahomedans, who made their incursions even as far as from Aden, as also, later on, against the Gallas, a wild tribe of people who had their home south of Abvssinia. So far, all was right between them, and the two nation- alities agreed very well together, especially after becoming known to each other, partly through the aid of interpreters, and partly by conversing through the medium of their respective languages. The Pope of Kome now made a discovery which might sud- denly have the effect of interrupting at once the continuance of a lasting good understanding. And in what did this discovery, indeed, consist ? Simply in this, that the Abyssinians proved themselves to be no true Roman Catholic Christians, but, on the other hand, heretics of the class of so-called Monophysites. so they must at once be converted to the only true Catholic Church. The Pope was right to a certain extent from his own stand-point, that is, that the Abyssinians adhered to the same faith as the Christians in Egypt (the so-called Kopts), contend- ing that in Christ were united two natures in one person, the human and divine without admixture, transmutation, or separa- tion. Besides which, they deviated also in some other respects from the practice of the Latin or Roman Catholic ritual, as for instance in that of baptism, which was always preceded with them by circumcision ; as also in the observance of the Sabbath, and in that of fasting, which they extended always to sunset, while the Romish Christians abstained from food only up to mid-day. But the principal difficulty did not consist, by any means, merely in these two externals, which signified next M 1 II 124 msTOBY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSION IN AFRICA. 125 to nothing as regards the Oriental Christian ritual, but in this, that the Abyssinian clergy did not look upon the Pope of Borne as their supreme Church authority, preferring rather the Patriarch of Alexandria, and they could not be prevailed upon to yield on this point, in spite of all Roman argument. This was clearly nothing but open heresy, and must be opposed with the greatest energy. But whom should the Popes nominate as executors of their will and pleasure? No other, of course, than. the Order of the Jesuits, which had already taken upon itself the task of contend- ing with heresy all over the world, and in re-establishing the Papal supremacy everywhere. And had not the sons of Loyola already given proof of their zeal and energy in Japan and China ? What were they not capable of doing, and if they could not bring about the Romanising of the Abyssinians, no one else, assuredly, would be likely to succeed in so doing. What now took place can well be imagined, and I will just allude to it in a very few words. The Jesuits first of all, as usual, sought to establish them- selves in the country by means of founding colleges, in which thev succeeded with the assistance of their friends the Portu- « guese, in whose ships they reached Abyssinia. They then directed their attention to the great men of the kingdom, in order to bring them over to their views, and with this object left untried no means, including flattery and even bribery, to mould them to their wishes. At length, after ten years of under- mining and agitation, it fell to the lot of Father Paez, who gave promise of becoming another Ricci, to succeed in bringing over to his side, at the end of the 1 (ith century, Socinius, successor to the throne, and the same made a vow, in his spiritual weakness, as soon as he should succeed to power, to do his utmost that the ** unity of the Church ** might be re-established ; this was the bait of which the Jesuits made use In fact, he kept his word ; and, in the year 1 603, as soon as he became King, he immediately, along with his whole family, abjured the previous heresy of Monophysism, at the same time making a solemn declaration that he would henceforth recognise the Pope alone as Spiritual Lord of the Kingdom. As may be easily imagined, his example was at once followed by a number of the courtiers ; and, as the favour of the ruler must, as a matter of course, have been renounced by all those who adhered to the old faith, most of the provincial governors also, after a short time, espoused the side of the Jesuits. It seemed, in fact, to be a settled aflfair that the latter had gained the victory, and thus it was represented to Pope Gregory XV., who was induced thereby to nominate one of their number, Alfonso Mendez, under the title of Patriarch of Abyssinia, to be supreme bishop of the country, with all proper dictatorial power in matters of faith ; while, at the same time, the weak-minded Negus Socinius was induced to declare himself ready to carry out, with his wordly weapons and despotic power, all that was required by the Latin Patriarch. There now commenced, as may be well imagined, a cruel time for the hitherto happy land of Abyssinia — a period of such frightful strife, persecution, and affliction, that the pen almost refuses to describe the inhuman cruelties which were enforced by the Jesuits against the refractory believers in the old faith ; but it was just this very blood-thirsty barbarity and torture for conscience' sake, this inexorable passion with which the cause of Rome was prosecuted, that snatched the victory from the sons of Loyola. Abyssinia, for example, contained a very numerous body of clergy, consisting of "kasis," or parsons, " debteraten," or deacons, " komosaten," or prelates, besides, lastly, an " Abuna," or metropolitan bishop, of whom I have already made mention ; there were, moreover, of monks and nuns almost more than enough in number; all of these priests and cowl-wearers, however, clung with invincible tenacity to their rites and customs which they had for centuries observed, and would especially have nothing whatever to do with the Pope of Rome, who wished to be dominant over all bishops and patriarchs in the world. The Jesuits could not thus conceal from themselves that the innovations which thev desired to introduce would raise up against them many adversaries, the number of such being all the greater in that the Abyssinian priests exercised great influence over the minds of the people, and especially held unlimited power over the wills of their confessants belonging to the lower orders : they could not well help seeing that it could only be by a slow process of undermining religious convictions, patiently continued for many years, that anything of consequence could be eflFected ; the alternative was that a whole race of people could be coerced by force. They determined, then, in their impetuosity and i If I* ^ ♦#' 126 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSION IN AFBICA. 127 arrogance, to adopt the latter course, and thought that they would be able to attain their end with the rabble as readily as they had already done with the Indians and Japanese. They, therefore, incited the King to issue orders to his governors to proceed against the refractory priests with the greatest severity. But, behold ! now it soon became apparent that the Abyssinians were not going to show themselves so effeminate as tamely to submit, with humble submission, to an order from superior authority, like mindless slaves and degraded creatures. Such was not the case ; on the contrary, led by their priests, they declared in thousands, by vigorous petitions to the throne, that they would not yield, and that they were, moreover, prepared to live or die for their faith. What did it now signify, if the King s officials, at the desire of the Jesuits, sought to overcome this opposition of the people by means of cudgelling and sword-cuts ? , What did it matter now that some of the governors, and among them one especially, called Zela, and bearing the nickname of Christ, distinguished himself by consigning to the gallows all those priests who pre- ferred that alternative to conversion ? The people rose in rebellion, the storm broke loose, and the agitation became so universal, that, in order that all might not be lost, King Socinius was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son Facilidas, who, at once turning completely round, reverted to the old religion, and drove the Portuguese, along with the Jesuits, entirely out of the country. He caused, indeed, some of the Fathers, who endea- voured to raise a counter revolution, to be publicly executed, and promulgated a decree, by which all the Black Cloaks were pro- hibited for the future from crossing the frontiers, under pain of death. Thus terminated the short domination of the Jesuits in Habesch, and by the energetic action of Negus Facilidas these were so completely cured of their rage .'*^r conversion in this part of the world, that they never again made any further attempt ; neither did they even so much as think of trying to settle in any other places in Africa, but, on the contrary, at once renounced all idea of attempting to form any other permanent settlements, as well in Egypt, among the headstrong and obstinate Kopts, as on the Congo among the half-savage blacks, probably because in their opinion the field did not give promise of any productive harvest. Thus vanished in the African sands every trace of the Jesuits, and if, later on, agents of the Society did from time to time occasionally make their appearance in the Portuguese settlements on the west coast of Africa, they did not come there to preach the Christian doctrine, or to make any permanent settlement, but merely to purchase cargoes of blacks, and to ship them off as slaves to their colonies in America. III.— The Jesuit Missions in America. With the Portuguese the Jesuits came into Asia, with the same people they also came into Africa, and still again the Jesuits came with them into America. In the last-mentioned quarter of the globe that nation already possessed an enormous extent of territory, which is now known under the name of Brazil, and in the year 1549 King John III. of Portugal sent a fleet of ships containing a number of emigrants, who founded the city of San Salvador, in the Gulf of Bahia, on the east coast of Central America. As the missionary work of Francis Xavier had been so extraordinarily successful among the populations of Asia, who had thus been converted into good subjects of the King, he requested Loyola, the Jesuit General in Kome, to supply him with some missionaries for America also, in the hope that the long-cloaked Fathers might get on as well with the inhabitants of the West Indies as they had done with those of the East Indies ; and Loyola at first sight recognising the importance of this mission, at once consigned to him six members of his Order. Those six, among whom was Emanuel Rodrega, who, by his untiring energy, as well as by his superior sagacity, was highly esteemed by Jesuit historians, and not without reason, at once built a house for themselves at San Salvador — that is to say, a residence — and thence commenced their efforts, in order to see what could be effected with the natives in the interior of the country. It soon was apparent, however, that the latter manifested a verv different disposition from the degraded and enervated Hindoos, and under the oppressions and tortures inflicted on them by the Europeans they, if possible, became still more savage and cruel than they had previously been. The Jesuit Fathers, therefore, were not received with anything like a good 128 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 129 welcome, and could not in consequence do much with them — at all events at first, as they were not yet at all acquainted with the language of the Indians, as the natives of America were commonly called. They lived, moreover, in constant fear of being murdered by the savages, who, being cannibals, entertained an irresistible longing for the taste of human flesh. They had so much to endure, besides, from oppression during their wanderings, that it was indeed surprising that any of them escaped, under the circumstances, in their zealous efforts. Nevertheless they soon found their exertions crowned with a certain amount of success, as the Indians allowed all the unfortunates who were condemned to be eaten, and who were, for the most part, prisoners taken during their constant feuds with other tribes, to be baptised previous to their being slaughtered.* Besides this, they met with some success among the Indian females — at least, with those tribes who had pitched their camp in the neighbourhood of European settlements — and induced the same to accept of rosaries and Agnus Dei. Through the women they obtained some influence, too, over the men, and the result was that the conversion always terminated with the rite of baptism, although those baptised had not, indeed, the slightest conception of Christianity. The Jesuits at length brought the matter so far, that most of the whites in the Portuguese settlements, as well as the half- castes, or progeny of whites and Indian women, accepted them as father confessors — the great thing, however, being that they obtained large tracts of extensive territory in the way of presents, in order to build thereon residences and colleges. This took place all over the country wherever it was at all possible, and there soon flourished in San Salvador, Pernambuco, and Eio Janeiro three magnificent and very numerously attended educa- tional institutions. Not long after this — less than twenty years subsequent to their first landing — the Jesuits had already overstepped the boundaries of Brazil and penetrated Peru, where in Lima, La Paz, and Cusco they also established colleges. Later on— after another * Not infrequently, moreover, the Indians recalled the permission for the baptism of the human victims, because they entertained the prejudice that flesh lost its good flavour by the act in question. They looked upon baptism then as a description of magic, and the Jesuits were careful to avoid removing the superstition which they entertained. ' twenty years— however, they possessed settlements in every part of South and Central America, wherever the banners of Portugal or Spain waved, as, for instance, in Chili, Mexico, Tukuman, and Maranham, and their agents and missionaries permeated throughout the whole of that enormous continent, which extend from the Isthmus of Panama to the Straits of Magellan, as on the other hand from Panama upwards to the Rio del Norde. They, indeed, penetrated even into Canada, and the banners of Ignatius proudly waved wherever the white flag with the three lilies protected it. When, however, that country came to be given over from the French to the English, the Jesuits had to take their departure, and fly precipitately to the south, as neither the English nor Dutch, and not even the Danes, tolerated Jesuit settlements in their American colonies. Great, however, as was the power and possessions which the Jesuits obtained in the individual countries of America, this splendour was almost entirely eclipsed by another grand acqui- sition which they encompassed in this same land, where they got possession of a complete empire, over which they ruled as absolute monarchs— a dominion, indeed, even twice as large as Italy. This country was called Paraguay, and, since it has never before come to pass that a purely ecclesiastical Order has elevated itself to the position of a sovereign king, on that account it is well worth the trouble of going into the matter a little more in detail. The Paraguay of the present day, one of the smallest free states of South America, is bounded on the west by the river Paraguay, on the east and north by Brazil, and on the south by the territory of Parana, having an extent of only 4,176 square miles. The Paraguay, however, of the 16th and 1 7th centuries was, on the contrary, of infinitely larger proportions, and embraced neariy all the land now included in the states of La Plata and the Banda- oriental. The same comprehends almost uninterruptedly a large continuous plain, with but a few ranges of hills of not more than a few thousand feet in height, and is watered by a number of delightful streams, especially the i nvers called Paraguay and Uruguay, which discharge themselves ^ntirely into the Parana, which, after its union with the ^niRuay, assTimes the name of Rio de la Plata. Its climate is ?mi-tropical, and on that account its soil surpasses in fertihty 130 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. that of almost any other country in the world ; consequently, not only do all the ordinary descriptions of fruit which are made use of for food hy man thrive and prosper, hut also such plants as tohacco, cotton, and sugar can he grown there with advantage. Of not less importance, hut perhaps, indeed, much more so, is the condition of the animal creation therein. On the one hand, there are to he found enormous troops of all descriptions of wild animals, such as swine, stags, and diflferent kinds of deer ; while, on the other, domesticated animals, more especially horses and other cattle, ahound in herds. Nothing, however, surpasses the magnificence of the forests, and the so-called Barrigudos, of no less than three fathoms in cir- cumference, as also palm-trees of 180 feet in height, are hy no means uncommonly to he met with. In short, it is indeed a wonderfully delightful country, heing the only region, perhaps, which can he made available for such opposite uses, as it happens that enormous tracts, during the rainy season, disappear under water. The first discoverer of this superh territory was the Spaniard, Juan Diaz de Solis, Grand Pilot of Castile, who, in the year 1516, entered into the Rio de la Plata, and was killed hy the natives. He was afterwards eaten hy them within sight of his ships' crews. Three years after this, Don Martin de Sosa, Captain-General of Brazil, sent Alexis Garcia, along with four other Portuguese, all brave and powerful men, to the Rio de la Plata, in order that they might endeavour to penetrate thence into the gold and silver coasts of Peru, which, at that time, belonged to the Spaniards, and this adventurous journey was indeed efiected. On the return journey, Garcia and two of his companions were massacred by the savages, and the two remain- ing ones alone succeeded in reaching alive the town of Bahia, or San Salvador. The expedition of George Sedano terminated in a result quite as unfortunate. He, with sixty other Portuguese, set out like- wise from Bahia for the Parana, and they also, through the treacherous cunning of the Indians, all found their graves in the same river. At last, the Emperor Charles V., in the year 1525, sent his grand pilot, Cabot, with five ships, to the river Plate, and this distinguished mariner succeeded in ascending it until he arrived at Paraguay, and, consequently, no one but him can be thanked for the first correct information concerning that THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 131 country. He took possession, also, of the whole territory of Parana, or Paraguay, for the Spanish crown, and erected, at the confluence of the Rio Ticero with the Parana, a tower known afterwards by the name of Cabot's tower. The first settlement, however, properly so called, namely, the city of Buenos Ayres, was only founded ten years later by Don Pedro de Mendoza, who, in 1530, by order of Charles V., set sail from Seville, also for the Rio de la Plata, with fourteen ships and a crew of nearly 30,000 men; and two years after this, at the confluence of the Pilco Mayo with the Parana, the city of Assumption, which is situated equi-distant from the boundaries of Peru and Brazil, was established. From this time forth began the actual appro- priation of the country, as well as its gradual colonisation, by the Spaniards, and thence arose the vice-royalty of La Plata, over which, in the name of the King, ruled one of those so-called Adelantade, or Captains-General. Still, after the lapse of some time, other cities were again founded, as, for instance, in the year 1557, Ciudad Real, at the junction of the Piquiry with the Parana; and in 1570,. Santa F6, on the Rio de Salado ; thus one must not keep out of sight that all these settlements lay on the great rivers of the country, while, on the contrary, not a single colony was established on the mainland ; consequently, they were considerably apart from the several commercial arteries which served instead of roads. On the other hand, the said mainland continued to be quite uncolonised, completely un- conquered, and thus thoroughly unknown to the Spaniards, who, in the provinces subdued by them, only troubled themselves about the search for gold and silver, and had no desire to know anything concerning agriculture and the breeding of cattle, or, indeed, industry and trade, proving themselves here, as throughout the whole of America, to have but a bad talent for colonisation. Everyone of them who embarked for America desired only to live like a nobleman, regarding it as derogatory to engage himself in labour of the very slightest kind ! Under such circumstances, the Captains- General must, very shortly, have come to the conclusion that the provinces entrusted to them could never attain to any degree of development, or arrive at any prosperity or order, unless the natives of the country, the in- dijBfenous Indians, could be induced to become efficient citizens. These, indeed, formed by far the greater raajoritv of the popu- 9 * 182 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. lation, and from them could alone be obtained the labour which was wanted most imperatively. How, then, was this desirable object to be accomplished? The answer to this was simply by making Christians of them, as along with the Christian religion they would involuntarily also acquire, at the same time. Christian manners, Christian culture, and a Christian mode of living. Charles V. had not at the time sufficiently im- pressed upon the Captains- General whom he had sent out to La Plata, that the ecclesiastics and monks taken with them were intended for the conversion of the native Indians ; neither did Philip II. see to this. The Captains-General, too, were in this respect very remiss in their duty as to the orders they gave. They brought out to Paraguay, it is true, several Franciscan monks, among whom Francis Solano and Ludwig de Bolanjos were notably distinguished. Moreover, to the province of Para- guay was given a bishop, in the person of John de Barras, also a Franciscan monk, and the city of Assumption was raised to be his See, into which he himself made a solemn entry in the year 15Ö4. He had, however, no great desire to prosecute with vigour the introduction of Christianity, for two equally weighty reasons. In the first place, on account of the behaviour of the Spaniards, which displayed the strongest contrast to the teaching of mildness and benevolence indoctrinated by the gospel, as it is notorious with what unmerciful severity and cruelty the proud and insatiable conquerors treated the poor oppressed natives ; and, in the second place, there was no desire on the part of the latter to embrace the religion acknowledged by their tormentors, as, on the contrary, they disliked this religion as much as the Spaniards hated them, and if, here and there, in order to escape oppression, they allowed themselves to be baptised, they imme- diately, as soon as a favourable opportunity presented itself, reverted to their original faith. Then, again, there was a com- plete dearth of priests, and there existed whole districts where there was not a single member of the fraternity to be seen, no one to baptise and marry, no one to instruct the young, no one to tender extreme unction to the dying on their way to eternity ; should, however, an isolated spot happen to be so fortunate as to possess one or, at most, two ecclesiastics, they were prac- tically of no avail among this vast extent of territory ; and on acoount of this want of power, but much more even from the THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMEBIOA. 138 circumstance that few were acquainted with the language of the Indians, it became evident that ail attempts to convert the un- believers must be abandoned. And whence arose this great want ? Simply from this, that Paraguay was still completely devoid of civilisation, and, lying as it did beyond the sphere of traffic in the commercial world, it could offer no powers of attraction to the Catholic priesthood, accustomed to enjoyment of every description ; and on this account it was that even the begging monks of the lowest grade looked upon this distant land as a kind of penal exile, having as yet but the attributes of a wilderness, with which no one could have any desire to become acquainted. During seventy years, therefore, the conversion and civilisa- tion of the Indians made but little progress in Paraguay, that is to say, up to the year 1586. It then occurred to Don Franciscus de Victoria, the newly-appointed bishop of the Province Tukuman, adjoining Chili, in the whole of whose extensive diocese there did not exist even a couple of dozen priests, whether it would not be well to crave assistance for them from the Society of Jesus. The want, indeed, must have been very urgent, otherwise Don Franciscus, who belonged himself to the Order of the Dominicans, would not certainly have entertained any such idea. Be this as it may, it pleased the first bishop of Tukuman to call in the aid of the Jesuits, for the reason that, by this time, good service had been done by them in the neighbouring states of Brazil and Peru, in the way of conversion; he at once, then, in the year 1586, wrote to the Provincials of both of the above-named states, the Fathers Anchieta and Atiensa, who, indeed, at once complied with his wishes and immediately sent him, to begin with, eight members of the Order ; promising, at the same time, that more would follow if they were needed.* This was, indeed, hardly required, as they were no ordinary Fathers, skilled merely in the dispensing of the sacraments and the singing of masses, but persons who likewise understood something of what • Ab a matter of curiosity I will here give the names of these eight Jesuits. They were called Franciscus Angulo, Alphonso Barsana, Juan Villegas, Emanuel de Ortega, Stephan Grao (properly Grau, who was a German), Juan Salonio, Thomas Field (a Scotchman), and Paulo Arminio. All of these were Fathers, and, consequently, for this reason were authorised to conduct all kinds of divine service. Father Arminio, however, acted as the superior or head of them all« 134 HISTOKY OF THE JESUITS. monks, intended to act as missionaries, had not hitherto studied, namely, the language of the natives, concerning which much zealous attention had been bestowed in all of the Jesuit col- leges of Brazil and Peru ; and, consequently, they could come to a good understanding with the natives from the commence- ment. This was the foundation of the Jesuit settlement in this part of America, a very modest and innocent beginning, as one sees ; but after a few years both modesty and innocence were lost, and an entirely different condition of affairs came into play. From the town of Tukuman and its provinces, the Fathers visited • the remaining cities of the country one after the other, especially Cordua and Assumption, along with the extensive province of Guayra, which latter was selected as the sphere of duty for Fathers Ortega and Fields, who were more especially versed in the Guayraian language, and who the longer they regarded the territory the more they were pleased with it. They tried, above everything, to make themselves at home in their settlement, exactly the same as they had done in India, Japan, and China; it still required, however, fully three years before they obtained their first possession, then, indeed; but a very modest one, so much so, that it might almost be called mean, as it consisted merely of a small dwelling-house, with an equally small chapel, in the small town of Villarica. From this time forward progress, as may be said, went on at a galloping pace, and, in accordance with the idea originally entertained, a large number of new members were sent to their assistance from Peru and Brazil, and among them several Fathers of distinction ; as for instance, Romero, Caspar de Monroy, Juan Viana, and Marcel Lorenzana ; 80 that, after the lapse of two years, as may be supposed, they were able to found a college. This took place in the year 1593, in the city of Assumption, the capital of Paraguay; and the Spanish inhabitants of it, including the Governor and principal nobility, taxed themselves to such a considerable extent, that they were enabled to erect quite a beautiful building adjoining the church. In the year 1599, this building was followed by the erection of a mission-house in Cordua, with a magnificent cathedral; and there was every appearance that very shortly similar establishments might also be founded in Santa Fe, as well as in other towns. This, however, did not prove to be the case, as in the year 1602 the whole tenure of the Jesuits in THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 135 Paraguay assumed a totally new aspect. Up to this time they had worked as true missionaries ; and, indeed, as we have seen, they had, acquired here and there landed property, and even built a college, or a mission-house, whilst they were at the same time occupied in travelling about from one district to another, and from one tribe to another, in order to proclaim everywhere the cross of Christ. This constant journeying backwards and forwards, however, owing to the great distances at which the settlements lay from one another, gave rise to great difficulties. Moreover, they could not reckon that the Indians, as soon as the missionaries had turned their backs, would not revert to their heathenish practices ; consequently, it appeared evident to them that, if any permanent impression was to be made among the natives, it would be necessary to give up this system of travelling about, and take up a permanent abode among them. This was one discovery which, up to this date, had been made. A second consisted in this, that the Jesuits by this time had become aware exactly how the enormous territory that went under the name of Paraguay was situated, while this still remained a secret to the Spaniards in general, beyond the couple of towns and their immediate neighbourhood lying on the great rivers. The latter, for instance, had not gone further into the country than up to the first waterfall, and they continued to be in great ignorance respecting the vast territory which lay between the Uruguay and the Parana, as well as between the latter and the Paraguay river; they had not taken the least trouble to become acquainted with. the different tribes inhabiting these reigons, or to gain their friendship ; but their whole plans had consisted in laying the severest possible yoke upon all such nations as they had been able to subjugate, and to keep them on their plantations, or " commands," as these were designated in Paraguay, at the most slavish work. All this, and indeed much more, was known to the Jesuits operating in Paraguay, only too well, and they, of course, made an accurate report of the true state of matters to their General in Rome. And who was he but the same Claudius Aquaviva ? a man endowed with extra- ordin?j:y mental capacity, and, at the same time, most actively energetic ; who at once devised a mode by which the greatest portion of Paraguay should fall completely into the hands of the Society of Jesus, beyond ail interference from any secular 136 HISTORY OF THB JESUITS. power. This plan was arranged with the most infinite skill and cunning, and the carrying out of it was entrusted to a no less skilful individual than the Father Stephan Paez, whom Aqua- yiva had despatched to Paraguay as visitor of all the houses of the Order in the new world. This same Father arrived, in the year 1602, in the town of Salta, and at once ordered all the professed Jesuits to appear before him. He then took each one of them separately to task, and questioned him in regard to all details most particularly, in order that everything essential appertaining to the future organisation of the Order in Para- guay might be extracted ; lastly, assembling all those present, he made a long speech to them, communicating to them the orders of their General. These were to the effect, as already indicated, that a proper and distinct Christian State must be constituted in Paraguay, over which the Jesuit General in Rome should rule as absolute monarch, and, in order to carry out this comprehensive idea, the work each one had to do was assigned to him. From this time forth each step taken by the Jesuits in Paraguay was most carefully considered, and when progress was but slow, and often effected by very roundabout ways, the great aim and object to be attained was never lost sight of. Above everything it was of consequence to conciliate the natives, and the Jesuit missionaries began unanimously and most zealously by severely censuring the frightful oppression under which the Indians groaned. *' The commands, upon which the poor redskins work as slaves, are an abomination in the sight of God,*' cried they, '* and a complete extermination of the popu- lation must follow if the present system continue." Such and similar expressions aroused the hatred of the Spaniards not a little, and the Jesuit Fathers had, in consequence, during the next two years, to undergo much injustice. They were, indeed, regularly driven out of several of the towns, such as Cordova and San lago, but they won over all the more retainers among the redskins, and they thus succeeded in con- verting and making friends of a not inconsiderable portion of the great nation of Guayranas, that is, of the inhabitants of Guayra. Previous to the Spanish conquest, the tribe of Tubinambas Indians was by far the most powerful in Paraguay, being dis- tinguished at the same time for its peculiar ferocity ; to them, indeed, may be ascribed the cruelties to which the intruding THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMEBIOA. 137 whites were subjected. They, the Tubinambas, slaughtered their prisoners ; they looked upon human tiesh as the most delicious of food under the sun, and they offered resistance to the death against the God of the Christians. As they came to be aware, from many years of warfare, that the weapons of the white men were too much for them, they arrived at the bold resolution of turning their backs on their fatherland, and, at once carrying this resolution into effect, withdrew far away into the wilds of the primeval forests, up to the broad valley of the Marranon, or Amazon river, to a region so distant that they hoped the pale faces would never venture to penetrate there. The vast plains of Paraguay, Parana, and Uruguay, thus remained abandoned to the other tribes, which had hitherto been in some measure dependent on the Tubinambas, to wit, the Apiatas and Cahivas, the Calchaquis and LuUes, the Frontones and Omacuguakas, as well as, before all of them, the Guayranas, who were more numerous than all the others put together. The latter fact must have directed the attention of the Jesuit missionaries to those in particular, and, further- more, they had the least wild character of the various tribes of redskins in Paraguay. On the one hand, it was found that they were not shut out from some kind of civilisation, as they lived in villages ruled over by hereditary Kaziken, or heads of clans, and existed almost entirely upon .corn and maize, which they planted, while the other tribes led a nomadic life, and shifted about from place to place, regarding the chase as the only employment worthy of man*s consideration. On the other hand, there lay upon them the reproach of want of warlike spirit, as well as deficiency in energy, and they tamely submitted, although filled in their inmost soul with the most intense hatred, as all over the Spanish commands they were made use of by the whites as nothing else than beasts of burden, and treated accordingly. Moreover, the number of the tribe who lived in Spanish territories was but small in comparison with the vast multitude of those who inhabited the interior, and who, as I have already mentioned, remained quite unknown to the Spaniards, and it may be afl&rmed with certainty that fully nine-tenths of the Guayranas had not as yet felt the burden of oppression ; but the anxiety caused by the prospect before them of soon being also subjected to this yoke, induced 138 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS. them to be all the more favourable towards the preaching of the Jesuits against Spanish tyranny. Such was the state of matters at this time in regard to the Guayranas in Paraguay, when the Jesuits came to the determina- tion of creating a government of their own, and it will con- sequently not astonish anyone as to how they succeeded in procuring an entrance for Christianity. Having thus so far proceeded^ they adopted the following plan of operation ; in the districts into which, up to this time, the Spaniards had not penetrated, they induced those who were scattered about in small villages to unite into large communities, which were called Bourgaden or Reductions, that is to say, communities that had been reduced into the Christian faith, and to each of these Reductions were assigned two spiritual shepherds, of whom one, a professed member of long standing in the Order, bore the title of pastor, or spiritual guide ; the other, in most instances a younger associate who had just arrived from Europe, being designated vicar. This was the arrangement, as we shall soon see, as to the foundation of their Christian Republic, or, if one would rather term it, of their theocratic State ; and this had such an innocent appearance that, at the commencement at least, it did not meet with any great opposition, either from the side of the Spaniards or that of the Guayranas. The sons of Loyola represented to the Indians that the several small communities which lay scattered about, many miles apart, were but ill-suited for protecting them- selves against the attacks of the Spaniards ; while if, on the other hand, they were collected together into Bourgaden, or townships, of 8,000 or 10,000 souls, they might readily keep off with ease the marauding white adventurers, and this naturally became clear to the understandings of the redskins. They had, further, no reason to object to the " spiritual shepherds," as they were in this way relieved from the supervision of the Kaziken and saperiurs under the title of Corregidors, or Alcaldes, and handed o?er to that of the spiritual guides. In other words, the Indians were enabled to select for themselves their own secular magistracy, as previously, and the Jesuits merely afhxed the stipulation that ill all the punishments awarded by them, or in ail weighty and important decisions, they must first of all obtain the sanction of iho said spiritual shepherds. And was this too much to require ? THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 139 Ah! truly the good Padres treated them in such a fatherly and remarkably kind manner, that they therefore ought to be allowed the right of a father over his children. In addition to this, the Jesuits with perfect honesty represented the state of affairs to their great patron and friend Philip III., the King of Spain, that is to say, they explained to him and his high council for India, in several communications, that the chief obstacle to the speedy and permanent extension of Christianity in Paraguay and La Plata, arose entirely from the recently- arrived Spaniards being, without hardly a single exception, a set of haughty, arro- gant, cruel, avaricious, blasphemous, and thoroughly dissolute men, whence it happened that the natives could not do otherwise than entertain a disgust to Christianity itself, on account of the conduct of these bad Christians. Moreover, the Indians were maltreated in such a shameful manner by the royal governors and officials that, on that account, a thorough hatred had sprung up among them against everything of Spanish origin. For this reason, if it was desired that these poor creatures should be received into the bosom of the Church, they should be equally protected from the tyranny of the Governor and the bad example of the Spaniards, and these two desiderata could only be accom- plished by the Jesuits being permitted to carry out the long- considered plan for the creation in Paraguay of a Christian Republic. " In this said Christian Republic, no secular Governor may be allowed to have any control; but, on the other hand, the Indians belonging thereto should, among themselves in com- munity, be allowed to lead a quiet harmonious life, under the Jesuits, after the manner of the early Christians, so that a verit- able paradisiacal state of innocency might be established ; but, in order that no injury might thereby be occasioned to the King's power, all members of the Christian Republic were bound to recognise him as their supreme lord and master, and every adult must pay to him the tribute of one dollar." Such was the upright scheme that the Jesuits suggested to the King, Philip III., and as they were at that time almost all-powerful at the Court of Spain, not only was this proposition accepted by that King in the year 1609, but it was also confirmed in all its particulars later on, from the year 1649 to 1663, under the reign of Philip IV., notwithstanding that any sagacious statesman HI8T0B7 OF THE JESUITS. mighl well see how the Spanish King's authority was hy this CteittaaD Republic in Paraguay reduced to a mere sham. But ai that time the Councillors and Minister of the most Calholic court of the world were as if smitten with blindness, ■ad it was onlj after the lapse of a century that the scales fill from their eyes. The first Reduction, which received the liolj name of Loretto, and was situated at the confluence of Pirmpe and the Parana, was founded in 1609, through the of Padres Maceta and Cataldino, who united into one oommonity somewhere about sixty small Guayrana vil- which were in existence thereabouts. Next after Loretto llm Bourgade of St. Ignatius, and subsequently a third and fourth, until at length, after the lapse of a couple of decades, tlieur number amounted to about thirty, with a population of kiiwn nine and ten thousand inhabitants. The internal Ofgankaiion of them all was the same — that is, they were gonerned each by a Jesuit Father, who was also supported by a wmmt as bit assistant, and for the purpose of espionage ; this FaHier, again, was under the orders of a superior, who was flaesd over a diocese of from five to six parishes; the super- VMMMI and management of these latter, however, rested with the ProTincial, residing in Assumption, who again received his üisrs direct from the General in Rome. One aees, then, that the Jesuits did not in any way proceed lo work without a plan, but that they were in possession of a Christian Republic as well if not better regulated than the f«iiinHMnt of any secular monarch. The Indians^ too, were not kaiUy off with this system of administration, as they were care- Mlf edacated as good citizens, and, moreover, were all accus- llMMd to take up some regular employment. " Idleness is the root of all Tioes," thought the Jesuit Fathers, and upon this fuinoiple they ruled the whole of their subjects, be their age or asB wliat it might, and they looked to their bodily constitution almost as much as to their aptitude and talent. Agriculture and ealtle- breeding naturally came first and foremost as a pursuit, and most of the adult men were thus employed in the fields; into their hands also the elder boys were confided ; to the women and girls, on the other hand, a certain quantity of flax and •mion was given out, which they had to spin within a certain prescribed time. Moreover, the difl'erent trades and arts were THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN IMERICA. 141 not neglected, and a Jesuit chronicle upon the state of affairs reports in the following words : — *' In regard to trades, we daily make further progress, and our population becomes always more and more useful. After teach- ing them the arts of making bricks and burning lime, we build the most beautiful churches and houses, and our carpenters and glaziers know very well how to ornament them internally. Others spin the finest yarns, and weave therefrom the most beautiful cloths and quilts. Some, again, manufacture hats, and employ themselves in shoe-making, or any other like occupation. Even in the weaving of lace they are expert, and when we require in particular fine and broad priestly albs, the women manufacture them after a certain pattern with such skill that.no difference could be detected between the copy and the original. One man made an organ after an European pattern, and finished it off in so perfect a manner that I was truly amazed. Another has indited a missal so accurately, after the beautiful Antovfer edition, that the manuscript might pass for a printed copy. They manu- facture trumpets, also, and all descriptions of musical instru- ments. They make the most perfect clocks, and watches for the pocket, and they paint them in a way that leaves nothing to be desired. In a word, they can copy anything that we desire them to do, and show themselves, also, to be equally as teach- able as they are diligent as soon as we set them to any par- ticular kind of work."* There can. therefore, seeing all this, be no question that the Indians, under the rule of the Jesuits, were moulded into thoroughly capable and useful men ; and, in regard to this, one certainly cannot withhold ones admiration from the Society of Jesus. But now comes the dark side, which, to a great extent, counterbalanced the bright side of the matter. The Indians, so far as concerns spiritual affairs, were kept in a degree of the profoundest ignorance, and their religion simply consisted in the grossest superstition, whereby the Jesuits represented themselves to be the oracles of God-this same Deity, however, being for the white Padres alone, who formed a superior class of beings ; and, on that account, the Guayranas • All «lis i8 to be found, word for word, in the History of Paraguay. by Fratz Xaver de Charlevoix, part u. (preface), p. 3, 4. 140 mSTOBY OF THE JESUITS. might well see how the Spanish King's authority was by this Christian Bepablic in Paraguay reduced to a mere sham. Bat at that time the Conncillors and Minister of the most Catholic court of the world were as if smitten with blindness, and it was only after the lapse of a century that the scales fell from their eyes. The first Beduction, which received the holy name of Loretto, and was situated at the confluence of the Pirape and the Parana, was founded in 1609, through the exertions of Padres Maceta and Cataldino, who united into one small community somewhere about sixty small Guayrana vil- lages which were in existence thereabouts. Next after Loretto came the Bourgade of St. Ignatius, and subsequently a third and fourth, until at length, after the lapse of a couple of decades, their number amounted to about thirty, with a population of between nine and ten thousand inhabitants. The internal organisation of them all was the same — that is, they were governed each by a Jesuit Father, who was also supported by a vicar as his assistant, and for the purpose of espionage ; this Father, again, was under the orders of a superior, who was placed over a diocese of from üye to six parishes; the super- vision and management of these latter, however, rested with the Provincial, residing in Assumption, who again received his orders direct from the General in Home. One sees, then, that the Jesuits did not in any way proceed to work without a plan, but that they were in possession of a Christian Bepublic as well if not better regulated than the government of any secular monarch. The Indians^ too, were not badly off with this system of administration, as they were care- fully educated as good citizens, and, moreover, were all accus- tomed to take up some regular employment. '* Idleness is the root of all vices," thought the Jesuit Fathers, and upon this principle they ruled the whole of their subjects, be their age or sex what it might, and they looked to their bodily constitution almost as much as to their aptitude and talent. Agriculture and cattle-breeding naturally came first and foremost as a pursuit, and most of the adult men were thus employed in the fields; into their hands also the elder boys were confided ; to the women and girls, on the other hand, a certain quantity of flax and cotton was given out, which they had to spin within a certain prescribed time. Moreover, the different trades and arts were THE JESUIT mSBIONB IN AMEBICA. 141 not neglected, and a Jesuit chronicle upon the state of affairs reports in the following words : — " In regard to trades, we daily make further pro^rress, and onr population becomes always more and more useful. After teach- ing them the arts of making bricks and burning lime, we build the most beautiful churches and houses, and our carpenters and glaziers know very well how to ornament them internally. Others spin the finest yams, and weave therefrom the most beautiful cloths and quilts. Some, again, manufacture hats, and employ themselves in shoe-making, or any other like occupation. Even in the weaving of lace they are expert, and when we require m particular fine and broad priestly albs, the women manufacture them after a certain pattern with such skill that no difference could be detected between the copy and the original. One man made an organ after an European pattern, and finished it off in so perfect a manner that I was truly amazed. Another has indited a missal so accurately, after the beautiful Antovfer edition, that the manuscript might pass for a printed copy. They manu- facture trumpets, also, and all descriptions of musical instru- ments They make the most perfect clocks, and watches for the pocket, and they paint them in a way that leaves nothing to be desired. In a word, they can copy anything that we desire them to do, and show themselves, also, to be equally as teach- able as they are diligent as soon as we set them to any par- ticular kind of work."* There can. therefore, seeing all this, be no question that the Indians, under the rule of the Jesuits, were moulded into thoroughly capable and useful men ; and, in regard to this, one certainly cannot withhold one's admiration from the Society of Jesus. But now comes the dark side, which, to a ^eat extent, counterbalanced the bright side of the matter. The Indians, so far as concerns spiritual affairs, were kept in a degree of the profoundest ignorance, and their religion simply consisted in the grossest superstition, whereby the Jesuits represented themselves to be the oracles of God-this same Deity, however, being for the white Padres alone, who formed a superior class of beings ; and, on that account, the Guayranas • AU this iB to be found, word for word, ^^^^\^^''^ «/ ^«~^y» by Fraiiz Xaver de Charlevoix, part u. (prefaoe), p. 8, 4. 142 HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. were obliged, under a severe penalty, to regard tbe so-called " superior beings," namely, tbe Jesuits, witb the most profound respect — with such respect, indeed, that they were compelled to receive orders from them in a kneeling posture, and it was held to be a high honour to be allowed to kiss the sleeves or hem of the holy Fathers' garments. From such spiritual child- hood, however, the Guayranas were never to be emancipated, and the chief means of accomplishing their thraldom was by fear and intimidation. For this reason all the churches were orna- mented with holy pictures of the most extraordinary description, and with statues of truly gigantic proportions, of frightful aspect and threatening gesture. These figures, also, were fur- nished with movable limbs and rolling eyes, all of which filled the poor Indians with mortal terror ; and such crazy nonsense as this was called by the Jesuits Christianity ! As in this manner spiritual liberty was suppressed, even so also was political and social freedom kept under subjection. Not any one of the Jesuit subjects might for a moment think of raising himself, by his talent, energy, or industry, to a higher place in the social grade than that of his fellows, but he continued to be a mere machine in the hands of the Fathers, who assigned this or that employment to each according to their will and pleasure. Like- wise, also, there existed in the Guayranian Republic no rights of property whatever, not even of the smallest description ; no true communism was, therefore, by any means actually created. On the contrary, every day all the produce of agriculture and other industries was delivered into the hands of the Jesuits, to be deposited in their store-houses, and in return for this the Indians were merely provided with what was absolutely necessary for their daily sustenance. One might well say, then, that the poor subjects of the Jesuits were nothing better than slaves— and slaves, truly, in the fullest acceptation of the term ; but this bondage was so uncommonly enveloped in sugar, and exercised with such a degree of fatherly benevolence, that the Guayranas, in their simplicity, desired nothing better. Almost every evening there was a lively dance to the music of a well-instructed band, played by the natives, and the severest labour in the field was at once lightened by the sound of trumpets and fifes taken along with them, whilst, on Sundays and festivals, as well in the churches as out of them, the most lively dances and 'plays THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 143 were the order of the day.* There was thus no lack of enjoy* ment, but only such kind of amusement was permitted as was calculated to leave the Indians in a state of childhood and sim- plicity, and none was ever allowed by which they might develop into thinking human beings. On these very grounds great care was taken never to allow any European to set his foot in any of these Jesuit Reductions, as what could more be feared than the pestilential expose which might be made by any such stranger? And more especially the Spaniards were denied an entrance into these Jesuit territories, and on this account the Indians were encouraged to resist by force any attempted intrusion of such visitors, that is to say, all such were turned out of the domain by strength of arms. The Guayranas, with all alacrity, rendered implicit obedience to such appeals as wer» made to them'of this nature, as the Jesuits had instilled the belief into their minds that the Spaniards only came there to take possession of their territories, and to exact the same statute labour from them by which so many thousands of their brethren had been destroyed, owing to over- work. To prevent effectually, however, the approach of any stranger amongst the Guayranas, the • The Jesuit Father Charlevoix verbally states as follows in his report on this subject : — " It ia an old custom in Spain that on fete days dances should be conducted by children. The missionaries adopted this laudable custom, and by means of it introduced a system of inducing the heathen to come into their churches. With this object I therefore selected four and twenty of those best suited to carry it out, and in this manner devoted such days to great enjoyment and general edification. At one time they performed such dances in the most approved way, at another they joined in plays of a knight-errant description, partly on horseback and partly on foot. At one time they danced upon stilts six ells in height, at another upon ropes ; or they would run at a small ring with lances. On another occasion I caused them to perform small comedies, all of which, although after great trouble to myself, were driven into their thick heads and elegantly represented." Another report upon the operations of one of the Keductions runs as follows: — "After this (namely, after the inspection of the school) I go among the musicians and listen to their melodies ; first to the baritones, of whom I have eight ; the altos, next in order, of whom there are six ; tenors, too, without number ; but of basses, however, only six. After these, four trumpeters, eight horns, and four cornets perform their exercises. I then instruct the harpists, of whom there are six, and the organists, of whom four ; and, lastly, the flautists, of whom only one. I now took in hand the dancers, and taught them all such dances as occur in comedies. It is of the greatest consequence to attract unbelievers in this way with things of this nature, and by the splendid ceremonies of the Church to create an internal inclination in favour of the Christian religion, on which account small booths are beautifully decorated on all festival days after vespers, and, before high mass, dances are conducted in the church where all are assembled. We also find great advantage from the official processions, just as it happened in olden days before the Venerabile, in the times when David danced before the Ark of the Covenant." (See Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 7, 8, 21, preface.) i ff 144 HISTORY OP THE JESUITS« only language which was taught in their schools was the Guay- rana, and hy this means the comprehension of all other tongues was nipped in the hud. Indeed, the Jesuits even went so far as to form, in every Reduction or Bourgade (horough), an armed force, consisting of cavalry as well as infantry; and by means of these troops, well armed and drilled as they were, besides being also provided with artillery, they could easily get the better of any foreign attempt at intrusion, even when made by force, without the boundaries of the Christian Republic in Paraguay. They soon, indeed, succeeded in extending even their own original domains far across the borders of the province of Guayra, so that in a short time their possessions comprehended all the countries to the right and left of Paraguay, even as far as Brazil; but no information, or, at least, very uncertain news, respecting their enormous possessions was allowed to reach Europe, as the country was, so to speak, hermetically sealed, and even the Court of Madrid, although the King was recognised by them as nominal Lord Paramount of Paraguay, was kept in ignorance of all details concerning the proceedings of the Jesuits. I say, em- phatically, nominal; as never, from the year 1609 up to the middle of the 18th century, had the King exercised any kind of authority whatsoever in that Republic ; and even the head- money, that the Jesuits had contracted to pay annually to the kings of Spain, came in so sparingly that it might be well supposed to have been derived from only some thirty or forty thousand subjects, instead of from at least ten times that number. Still, notwithstanding the excessive power to which the Order of Jesus attained in Southern America, and even the unbounded dominion that placed the General of the Jesuits in Rome on a par with the mightiest monarchs in the world, the reader will learn in the fourth, fifth, and sixth books of this work the prin- cipal causes which led to the downfall of this much-dreaded Society in these parts of the globe. Thus much for the Jesuit missions in the distant regions of the world, or, rather, concerning the gigantic growth of the Society of Jesus in Asia, Africa, and America. 145 \ CHAPTER n. THE POWEEFDL INFLUENCE OP THE JESUITS IN EUROPE. In the preceding chapter I have described in what way, by what means, and with what results the sons of Loyola contrived to spread themselves throughout Asia, Africa, and America. It was otherwise, however, in regard to their extension in Europe, as in this instance they had to deal with professing Chnstians. and had not to trouble themselves so much with the conversion of unbelievers. Thev were, at least, unable to establish their power under that insignia. On this account they at once blotted out this motto on their banner, and in its place wrote m large capital letters. Extension and Re-establishment of the True Faith that is, of the Roman Catholic religion, with the Papacy at its head. Was not this faith, as I have shown in the first book, in so many places most profoundly shaken, and was there not immediate danger of the great Pontiff himself being soon bodily hurled from the almighty throne upon which he had previously sat, and ousted from his hitherto most faithful pro- vinces ? ■ In what manner, then, and by what means, did the Jesuits now succeed in their object under the motto that they displayed intended for Europe ? It was everywhere, indeed, by the same means and in the same way, namely, by the establishment of educational institutions, by seizure of the confessional stools of kings, by fighting with heresy, by the incorporation of the most powerful forces into their Order, as also by their fanatical influence on the great mass of the people. As regards the 146 / HiSrOBY OP THE JESUITS. founding of educational institutions, their method of procedure was as follows : They entered into a town by twos and threes, not, indeed, on horseback, or in a carriage, richly and ex- pensively attired, but, on the contrary, on foot, and without shoes and stockings, in mean clothing, and with such a miser- able appearance that it was impossible to refuse to give them alms. It was thus that their exampler Ignatius had first made his appearance, and it was thus also that they pre- sented themselves in public. They did not alight at inns, or at the houses of the rich, even when pressingly invited. No ; on the contrary, they made their way to the hospital or the poor- house, considering these, the most miserable quarters, to be but too good, indeed, for them ; they tended the sick, especially those whom no one else would approach on account of the con- tagious character of their diseases, and discharged offices of the most menial kind, as if the humility of servants became them. They, at the same time, did not delay in at once attach- ing to themselves some children of the poor, teaching them to read and write, as well as instructing them in the first principles of the Roman Catholic religion. For this instruction they demanded no return, not even the very slightest, knowing full well that gratuitous teaching formed the great power of attrac- tion for the poor people to induce them to entrust their children to their care. Soon everyone throughout the whole town began to speak of them, and to sing their praises, and the number of their young pupils increased to such an extent that the room where they afforded this instruction became much too small for the purpose. **We would willingly, now," said the good Fathers, ** receive more children, had we only more room," and this equally pious as modest wish stirred up the hearts of the people who were rich, to such a pitch that they purchased a small house for the devout instructors, in order to carry on their school therein. Naturally enough, the number of the scholars DOW went on continually increasing, and thus it became neces- sary for more Jesuit Fathers to come forward in order to satisfy the demands made upon them. They could not well refuse to receive the children of the richer classes of the communitv, and those of higher consideration ; consequently, the subjects for instruction still continued to extend beyond those required merely for the poor and persons of low degree. But apart THE POWEBFUL INFLUENCE OF THE JE3UITS. 147 from this, even what was taught enticed always more and more scholars to come to them, and the small house became presently quite insufficient for their purpose. Those inhabitants of the town who were in good circumstances continued to render assistance to them, and after a year, or, at the most, a couple of years, the pious Fathers were enabled to erect a college which, in regard to its external appearance, had more resemblance to a palace than to an educational institution. This was the usual course of things, and when once the college was founded the Jesuits naturally had the game all in their own hands, as, for the most part, the whole youth of the population flocked to them for education. For, to attain their object, they usually formed in their college three classes, or grades, of in- struction : first of all, the elementary school, then the middle school, and, lastly, the higher school. In the elementary school was taught merely the primary groundwork, reading, writing, and, to a certain extent, accounts, but more especially the Faith, that is to say, strict obedience to the teaching and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, as well as abhorrence of all here- tical innovations. In the middle school were placed those who were destined to be instructed ordinarily during a period of nine years in the Greek and Latin grammar, and then advanced to a two-years' course of rhetoric ; but religious instruction was here, again, the principal topic, and each of the pupils was imbued with a veneration for the Papacy and Catholic priesthood, as well as with hatred against all recreants and heretics,— salient characteristics of the Roman Catholic faith. In the high school the students received a finishing stroke to their studies, during a three-years' course of philosophy, or, more properly speaking, of logic and metaphysics, followed by a four-years' course of theology, regarded by them as the absolute queen of all sciences. As regards medicine and jurisprudence, the sons of Loyola did not usually meddle ; but what they regarded as of transcendent importance when they were destined to the priesthood, was readiness in making use of their tongues, as well as dexterous behaviour on being taken suddenly by surprise. The reader must now, then, readily admit, when things were so far advanced, that the Jesuits must have obtained an enormous influence over the Catholic community in Europe by the esta- blishment of their educational institutions. In religious matters 10 ♦ 148 HISTOEY OP THE JESUITS. they taught, indeed, all who were educated hy them, whether lay or ecclesiastical, just exactly what suited them, and nothiug else; and, afterwards, laymen as well as ecclesiastics worked in their avocations according to their spirit. Not the less effectual for the dominion of the Jesuits in Europe was the acquisition hy them of the confessional stools of kinprs, and none of the other Orders that ever existed, or all the ordinary priesthood put to- gether, effected such great results in this direction as the cele- hrated Society of Jesus. The institution of confession, concerning which Christ himself does not say a single word, was first of all estahlished in the 2nd or 3rd century of the Christian era, hy the puhlic confession of sins heing exacted from those who wished to he allowed readmittance into the Church, from which they had heen expelled on account of the more grievous description of transgressions ; hut it was not till the 5th century, under the reign of Pope Leo the Great, that secret confession to priests was declared to he indispensable for the forgiveness of sins, while private oral confession was legally sanctioned hy In- nocent III. in the year 1215. The Father Confessor, at the commencement, was, as may he readily understood, the parson of the community for the time heing, and the greatest of earthly beings knew no other, hut had to confess to him, as other Christians did, in the public Church. At the end of the 6th century, on the other hand, there existed in the palace of the Emperor of Constantinople a special chapel with a special confessional stool, as it was held by their Majesties not to be respectable for them to acknowledge their sins in one and the same place as that where their subjects repaired, and this invention of the Court of Constantinople was forthwith imitated by all the other monarchs of the world. When once, then, a Court chapel was instituted, it followed, as a matter of course, that a Court chaplain should not be wanting ; and we find, therefore, such-like priests as early as the time of the French kings Childebert and Clothaire. These said priests belonged originally to the secular priesthood : with the introduction, however, of the monkish Orders, many of the cowl-wearers were to be found among the spiritual advisers of ruling princes and great lords. These offices were more especially filled by Benedictine monks. In this way did the holy Bertin come to perform the office of Father Confessor to THE POWEKFUL INFLUENCE OF THE JESUITS. 149 Count Valbert of Flanders ; thus also did Martin, a monk in Cornez, officiate as Coui-t chaplain lu Uliarles Martel ; as also in a similar manner did Benedict of Aniane act as soul-councillor of Louis the Pious. Later on, the barons and nobles of the times proceeded to follow the customs of the Court, and also built for themselves their own particular chapels; while the begging monks, especially the Franciscans, came to be very favourite Father Confessors among them, probably from the circumstance of their being procurable at a cheap rate. In king's courts, however, the Dominicans were all the fashion, and certainly not to the detriment of their Order. Still there always were, at the same time, many of the ordinary priesthood who aspired to be the soul-councillors of princes, and it cannot in any way be affirmed that the monkish Orders laid claim to a monopoly of the business of Father Confessorships to the higher classes of the community. It was a very different matter, however, when the Order of the Jesuits came into existence, for hardly had the sect been fairly established when at once everyone about the Court who had anything to do in regard to such posts was solicited to use his influence for this Order; and the remaining Orders might contend against them as much as they were able, the latter were certain to be outflanked and com- pletely over-ridden. It would be a very great error to suppose that this was effected by individual Jesuits alone, who had succeeded in ingratiating themselves at particular Courts. No, emphatically no ; it was all regularly planned on a peculiar system. Even Loyola himself had vehemently taken to task Jacob Miro, who wished to refuse the proposal of John HI. of Portugal to be his Father Confessor, on the plea that such places were not at ail suited for an Order whose calling it was to frequent hospitals and devote itself to the instruction of youth sunk in the deepest state of poverty. ** The atmosphere of Courts," wrote the General to his sub- ordinate, *' might not prove to be so dangerous, and zeal might weil be shown for tliC welfare of the souls of men in hospitals and in the galleys and prisons, without on that account there being any necessity for shunning the Courts. On the contrary, kings required good priests for their guidance all the more from the circumstance that they had many more allurements to sin than ordinary mortals, and on that account it was his wish that 160 HISTOßT OF TUE JESUITS. it should fall to the lot of a .nembcr of the Society of Jesus to be the Father Coufessor of a kiug." This order of Loyola ^vas now carried out so f ^f """)' ^^ henceforth no Jesuit perpetrated the pious folly ol Jacob Mo and it did not by any n.eans satisfy his successors .« he oU e of Geucral to be conlouled with a solitary post, but, on t e other hand, dueetious .ore in future for.ually g.yen to .ueu.b us of the Order to seize upon the consciences ol kiugs, «ud a dis tinct regulation ^va3 made, to ^vhich those chosen to act as Father Coulessors had to adlicro. •■The chief aim --thus runs the order-" of all our ellort ouRht to be to procure the coulidence and favour of princes and Jn in places of distinction, to the cud that no one ...ight dare to oüer opposition to us, but, on the contrary, that all should be subject to us." . ivui. Is not this, then, expressed sullieienlly distinctly ? \\ «Ui cnual clearness are the Nvays and uicaus also indicated, by following which the favour of rulers «as to be obtained: •< The favourites of princes, high and low, female as well as male, must be put under obligation through presents, Unitery, and favours of all description, so that they may intercede lor us with their masters, and give us correct iuformal.on as to the characters and inclinations of the latter. On the other hand, however, all servants who have shown themselves to Le in any way adverse to the Order, should by all manner of means be removed from the surrounding ol the mouarchs aud their councillors, or be gained over to our side by great promises." Moreover, as a matter of course, it was clearly lor the advan- tage of the Jesuits that they should not ouly gain the ear of the princes, but also, in accordance with the above instructions, be equally' zealous in doing the same in respect to the princesses; the chief aim and object being thus to gain their favour, it was well worth while to bribe the ehamber-women, " as through ihem access may be obtained to the most important family secrets." The document in (juestiou shows not less chaiacterislic- ally how, when favour has once been successluUy gained, it is to be retained. " This may best be elfected iu this way— by laying a cushion under the arms of the sinner, according to the Prophet Ezekiel (chap. xiii. 18) ;" m other words, not to oppear to observe thuir objectionable proceedings, and, when it \ \ \ h t . ■ \ ! 1 / 'f ^ If .IP'- V * THE POWERFUL INFLUENCE OF THE JESUITS. i^)l becomes really uecessury to make any remarks about these, ii